ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
^^ \ WASHINGTON, D C. 20460
UBW
\
ADMINISTRATOR
October 1, 1971
MEMORANDUM
TO : Monitoring Conference Participants
SUBJECT: Environmental Monitoring Conference at the
Western Environmental Research Laboratory,
October 13, 14, and 15, 1971
The attachment to this memorandum consists of:
1. Conference Agenda (including assignments)
2. Assignment of Participants to Workshops
3. Workshop Discussion Guide for Development
of an Environmental Monitoring Program
Within EPA
To in sum the success of this Conference, you are urged bo
familiarize yourself with the entire content* of the Woikshop
Discussion Guide. ] look forward to a productive conference
and the attainment of our objective to provide substantive
inputs to the development of an overall environmental moni-
toring program for the Environmental Protection Agency.
Willis B. Foster
Deputy Assistant Adnn.inistrr.tor
for Monitoring
Attachment
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MEMORANDUM CHANGE
The second item in the attachment, "Assignment of
Participants to Workshops," is not included in this transmittal.
Instructions will be given at the conference.
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AGENDA FOR THE
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY MONITORING CONFERENCE
Western Environmental Research Laboratory
Laboratory 1, Training Classroom
Las Vegas, Nevada
October 13. 14. and 15. 1971
Wednesday. October 13, 1971
9:00 a.m. - Welcome - Dr. Melvin Carter, Director, Western Environmental
Research Laboratory
Opening Comments - Dr. Stanley M. Greenfield, Assistant
Administrator for Research and Monitoring, and
Mr. Willis B. Foster, Deputy Assistant Administrator
for Monitoring
9:45 a.m. - Organization and Functions of the Office of Monitoring ~
Mr. H. Matthew Bills, Director, Analysis Division,
Office of Monitoring (30 minutes)
Office of Monitoring's Interaction With Other EPA Offices -
Mr. Donald C. Holmes, Director, Techniques Division,
Office of Monitoring (30 minutes)
Office of Monitoring's Interaction With Other Federal
Government Agencies, i.e., NOAA, Interior, etc. -
Mr. George B. Morgan, Director, Coordination and
Support Division, Office of Monitoring (30 minutes)
11:15 a.m. - Discussion
12:00 noon - Lunch
1:30 p.m. - Current Monitoring Capabilities For:
Air - Mr. Raymond Smith, Office of Air Programs (20 minutes)
Water - Mr. George F. Wirth, Office of Water Programs
(20 minutes)
Solid Waste - Mr. Lanier Hickman, Office of Solid
Waste Management Programs (20 minutes)
2:30 p.m. - Discussion
3:00 p.m. - Radiation - Mr. Charles Weaver, Office of Radiation
Programs (20 minutes)
Pesticides - Mr. E.L.J. Graiidpierre, Office of
Pesticides Programs (20 minutes)
Noise - Mr. Rudy Narrazzo, Office of Noise Abatement
(20 minutes)
4:00 p.m. - Discussion
4:30 p.m. - Adjournment
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6:30 p.m. - Cocktails and Dinner - Copper Cart, Las Vegas Blvd.
South (across the street from the Westward Ho Motel)
8:30 p.m. - Dinner Speech -"Regional Monitoring Needs" - Mr. Paul
DeFalco, Regional Administrator, Region IX (tentative)
Thursday. October 14. 1971
9:00 a.m. - Monitoring Needs For:
Enforcement - Mr. Robert Schaffer, Office of General
Counsel and Enforcement (20 minutes)
Research - Dr. Herbert Wiser, Office of Research
(20 minutes)
9:40 a.m. - Discussion
10:00 a.m. - Air - Mr. Raymond Smith (15 minutes)
Water - Mr. George F. Wirth (15 minutes)
Solid Waste - Mr. Lanier Hiclcman (15 minutes)
10:45 a.m. - Discussion
11:00 a.m. - Radiation - Mr. Charles Weaver (15 minutes)
Pesticides - Mr. E.L.J. Grandpierre (15 minutes)
Noise - Mr. Rudy Marrazzo (15 minutes)
11:45 a.m. - Discussion
12:00 noon - Lunch
1:00 p.m. - Seven White Paper Reports
1. An Integrated, Nationwide Environmental Monitoring
Program for Short -Term Implementation - Mr. Keith
Schwab, Region VIII, Denver
2. Future Monitoring Program and Methods - Mr. Gary
Gardner, Region III, Philadelphia
3. Standardization of Methods and Equipment -
Mr. Richard Duty, Region VI, Dallas
4. Early Warning Monitoring Network - Mr. Gary O'Neal,
Region X, Seattle
5. Requirements for Acquisition of Monitoring Data
Especially Dealing With Compatibility and Quality -
Mr. Edward Fitzpatrick, Region 1, Boston
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6. Development of a Quality Control Program - Mr. Robert
Bowden, Region V, Chicago
7. Monitoring Techniques (Remote and In-Situ) - Mr. Gary
Fisk, Region VII, Kansas City
20 minutes each - 10 minute presentation and highlights
10 minute discussion
3:20 p.m. - Break Up Into Six Working Panels
1. An Integrated, Nationwide Environmental Monitoring
Program for Short-Term Implementation - Mr. Willis B.
Foster, Chairman
2. Future Monitoring Program and Methods - Mr. Terry
Davies, Chairman
3. Standardization of Methods and Equipment - Mr. Dwight
G. Ballinger, Chairman
4. Early Warning Monitoring Network - Mr. H. Matthew
Bills, Chairman
5. Standardized Monitoring Data Acquisition: Compati-
bility Aspects and Standardized Monitoring Data
Acquisitions: Quality Aspects - Mr. George B.
Morgan, Chairman
6. Monitoring Techniques: Remote Sensing and In-Situ
Techniques - Mr. Donald B..Holmes, Chairman
Friday, October 15, 1971
9:00 a.m. - Six Panels Meet
12:00 noon - Lunch
1:00 p.m. - Presentations - Three Panels Present Their Conclusions
(30 minutes each)
2:30 p.m. - Discussion
3:00 p.m. - Presentations - Three Panels Present Their Conclusions
(30 minutes each)
4:30 p.m. - Discussion
5:00 p.m. - "Program Profile" Wrap Up - Mr. Foster
5:30 p.m. - Adjournment
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WORKSHOP DISCUSSION GUIDE FOR DEVELOPMENT
OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING PROGRAM
WITHIN EPA
FOREWORD
Seven papers have been prepared to provide a frame of reference
for workshop discussion during this meeting. The topics of these
papers are:
Paper No. 1 - An Integrated, Nationwide Environmental
Monitoring Program for Short-Term Implementation
Paper No. 2 - Future Monitoring Program and Methods
Paper No. 3 - Standardization of Methods and Equipment
Paper No. 4 - Early Warning Monitoring Network
Paper No. 5 - Standardized Monitoring Data Acquisition -
Compatibility Aspects
Paper No. 6 - Standardized Monitoring Data Acquisition -
Quality Control Aspects
Paper No. 7 - Monitoring Techniques - Remote Sensing
and In Situ
Each of these papers presents a section which addresses the overall
perspective of the problem in terms of scope and technical and organiza-
tional aspects. The intent of this section is to stimulate meaningful
and constructive exchange during the workshop sessions. Each paper also
piresents selected topics for discussion. These should not be considered
ap constraints but should serve as a point of departure for deve.lopment
of Agency monitoring policies and programs. The objective of each work-
shop is to prepare inputs along programmatic lines which can be integrated
into an overall Environmental Monitoring Program of the Environmental
Protection Agency.
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PAPER NO. 1
1.0 AN INTEGRATED NATION-WIDE MONITORING PROGRAM
FOR SHORT TERM IMPLEMENTATION
1.1.1 The Scope of a Short-Term Monitoring Program
The short-term monitoring program is primarily an immediate
restructuring of the many, existing ongoing monitoring programs within
the Environmental Protection Agency. The purpose is to merge and
coalesce these monitoring activities into a single program without
undesirable duplicities of effort, using the presently available
resources. More effective use of available resources will allow
expanded coverage in some areas where serious gaps exist.
Planning for a longer term program will continue in parallel with
the implementation of the short term program.
1.1.1.1 Definition of Monitoring
The report of the Study of Critical Environmental
Problems (SCEP) resulting from a summer study in Williamstown, Massa-
chusetts, sponsored by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology*
describes monitoring as "systematic observations of parameters related
to a specific problem, designed to provide information on the charac-
teristics of the problem and their changes with time." The report
continues that monitoring must provide warning of critical changes as
well as measurement of the present state of the environment ("baseline")
*Man's Impact on the Global Environment, Report of the Study of
Environmental Problems (SCEP), The HIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.,
1970, p. 168.
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The SCEP report describes three monitoring techniques*. The
first is economic and statistical monitoring. The authors state:
"If we are concerned with predicting the accumulation
of a pollutant in the environment, its rate of input
must be known ... If we are concerned with evaluating
the effects of alternative control technologies on
pollutant levels, we need quantitative information about
the flow of materials which will be altered by control
technology to include inputs, wastes, and end products
at each stage of the process."
Measurement of resources as well as effluent levels are included in
this technique.
The second technique relates to physical and chemical monitoring.
These methods are used:
"to determine the amount of a contaminant in a sample
of soil, water, air, or organism. Physical methods are
also used to determine a property of an environmental
system as a whole, such as the refractive index or the
albedo of the atmosphere. . . The essence of good
monitoring of this type is to measure what is needed,
and no more, with the precision that is needed, and no
more, and to maintain standards indefinitely. Tradi-
tionally, monitoring of this type is carried out in net-
works of fixed stations. The entire operation may be
completed at these stations or a sample may be taken to
a central laboratory for examination or analysis. In
either case, central coordination of methods and central
standardization is necessary. Monitoring is now extended
to measurements on ships, aircraft, and satellites."
The third technique described by the SCEP group is biological
monitoring.
*Ibid., pp. 168-172.
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"Even though our interest in environmental pollution
stems from our concern about its effects on living organisms,
the concept of using such organisms either individually
or as a population or species as tools to monitor the
state of the environment is still a relatively untested one.
Moreover, although the study of natural ecosystems has
long been an important scientific activity in observation
and evaluation, changes in these finely tuned systems have
not yet been systematized to yield warnings about harmful
contaminants. Yet living organisms can serve as excellent
quantitative as well as qualitative indices of the pollution
of the environment. Plants and animals are continually
exposed and can act as long-term monitors that integrate
all environmental effects to reflect the total state of their
environmental milieu. They can show the pathways and points
of accumulation of pollutants and toxicants in ecological
systems."
A fourth technique is necessary to meet the requirements of
environmental monitoring, namely, social-aesthetic monitoring. The
National Environmental Policy Act indicates that environmental quality
cannot be obtained through consideration of only the economic, physical
and biological parameters. The home, work, leisure, and general
surroundings including housing conditions, urban sprawl, transportation
congestion, odors, noise, availability of mineral and fuel resources
as well as recreation areas and open space, all form a very real part
of the environment under consideration.
For its purposes the Office of Monitoring has defined environmental
monitoring as: "the systematic collection and evaluation of physical,
chemical, biological and related environmental data pertaining to
environmental quality, and waste discharges into all media. It may be
performed through the operation of regional, nationwide and global
networks and special studies of individual areas and sites."
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There are three basic types of monitoring systems which can be
established, depending on their intended use. These are:
• a scientific system to support research programs —
these are usually established on a specific problem
basis to aid in the study of particular problem areas
(e.g., establish cause/effect relationships, or support
equipment development);
• a legal system to support surveillance, and enforcement
programs — monitoring of noise in the vicinity of airports
is a typical example;
o an operational system to support control and abatement and
also aid in decision and policy making and dissemination of
information to the public — the National Aerometric Data
Bank (NADB) is an example of a system which supports control
and abatement operations. Properly extended and used in
conjunction with the National Air Surveillance Network it
could provide the basis for computing indices to support
policy making, and disseminating information to the public.
Except for the differences in the measurement grid and geographical
coverage there is no sharp distinction among these uses; to some degree,
all three types of systems may utilize elements from a common data base.
1.1.1.2 Short Term and Long Term Needs
The mobilization of present monitoring activities
into a coordinated, operating environmental monitoring system is the
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immediate goal of the Office of Monitoring. The objective is to meet
the short term high priority needs of EPA to fulfill its mission through
the use of existing resources, and supplemental resources to fill serious
gaps in such a program. The time scale is to start implementation
immediately and have an operating system in the initial phases within
twelve months and full scale operation within twenty-four months. A
key tenet of this sytem is to have data collected by the immediate users
of -the data (EPA Regional Offices, state and local environmental agencies,
industrial firms, environmental organizations, etc.), using standardized
methods of collection, and to transmit processed data upward through the
local, state, regional, federal heirarchy as coordinated information for
other uses.
The planning to meet the long term needs for environmental monitoring
must proceed in parallel with the implementation of the short term system.
The long terra system will not only fill gaps in the short term system and
expand the capability to monitor the environment, but will provide the
basis for analyzing long term changes and trends in the environment in
both urban and rural background situations.
1.1.2 Monitoring Needs
a. General Needs
While the general requirements for monitoring can be
identified as providing information for:
(a) the assessment of pollution effects on man and his
environment,
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(c) the establishment of ambient environmental quality and
emission standards,
(d) the development of control strategies and regulations
(e) the evaluation of the effectiveness of adopted control
procedures and preventative measures,
(f) the guidance of future development to minimize
pollution impact on the environment by the use of modeling and
planning.
b. Specific Needs
The specific needs are categorized by the three types of
systems mentioned previously, i.e., scientific and research programs,
surveillance for enforcement, and operational programs. The detailed
requirements for each are shown in Appendix A.
1.1.2.1 Research and Scientific Information
Systems for obtaining information for better under-
standing the environment and the manner in which man interacts with it
are usually systems tailored to run specific experiments under controlled
environments. A dense measurement grid around a bound geographical area
is typical for assessment of specific environmental problems. Controlled
experiments with measurement of changes from a baseline during the course
of the experiment requires specific sensor arrangements. Examination of
large numbers of biological and human specimens in controlled or uncon-
trolled conditions often requires examination of existing data in new
ways. (See Appendix A).
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1.1.2.2 Surveillance for Enforcement
Surveillance to provide information to expose violators
of environmental laws and regulations is necessary for both voluntary and
compulsory enforcement. Systems for surveillance of this type must be
well calibrated and maintained to assure that they will have legal in-
tegrity. Often these systems will be portable or mobile and will be
used on a strategic basis. The systems must be as good or better than
the- adversaries in enforcement action. (See Appendix A.)
1.1.2.3 Operational Programs
Operational programs use widely dispersed grids of
measurement for determining the condition of the environment for control
and abatement and for obtaining information for administrative decision
making and planning. (See Appendix A)
1.1.2.A Classification of Present Programs
Table 1, shows a classification of existing EPA programs by the
classifications noted above. The table is illustrative and is probably
not exhaustive.
1.1.3 The Flow and Use of Monitoring Information
The functional components associated with collection and
proper use of environmental data are:
1. Sampling System
2. Sensors and Measurement
3. Data Acquisition
A. Information Transmittal
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TABLE I
Present EPA Monitoring Programs
1. Research and Scientific Information
A. Air
o Federal Facilities Air Quality Control Regional Studies
o Ecological and Surveillance Studies
9 Agricultural and Material Effect Studies
e Economic and cost control studies
9 Biological effects research studies
o Photochemical studies
e CAMP
B. Water
o Environmental Criteria and Standards
o Hydrologic Processes
o Chemical - Physical Identification of Pollutants
o Research - Ultimate Disposal Systems
e Mine Drainage
o Eutrophication Research
o Effects of Ocean Disposal with Corps of Engineers
e Gulf Breeze Estuaries Study
C. Solid Waste
e Recycling Process
o Composition Studies
o Heat Recovery - Incinerator System
e Hydrolysis and Pyrolysis Research
a Separation/Classification System
o Biodegradable Materials
D. Radiation
e Radiation Protection Standards Research
0 Precipitation Netv/orks
o Human and Biological tissue
e Technical Support Programs in Office of Water Programs (OWP)
E. Pesticides
o Chemical vs Bioenvironmental Methods
e Persistence Research
o Ecosystem Stability
o Bird monitoring
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E. Pesticides (cont.)
o Pesticide Transport Mechanisms
o Technical Support Programs in OWP
F. Noise
o EPA/NBS Noise Characteristics Study for various devices.
2. Surveillance and Enforcement
A. Air
o Technical Assistance to state and local programs
B. Water
o Regional Office short and long-term stream monitoring
o Cooperating Federal, State, and local short and long-term
monitoring
C. Solid Waste
o Not applicable
D. Radiation
o Technical Support Programs in OWP
E. Pesticides
o Technical Support Programs in OWP
F. Noise
o NSPI
3. Operational Programs
A. Control and abatement
1. Air
o Air Quality Data Bank
NASN
Total Suspended Particulate Network
Membrane Filter Sampling Network
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Gas sampling network
Precipitation network
Mercury sampling network
Radiation alert network
Anderson impactor network
e Emission Data bank
2. Water Quality Control Information System (STORET)
• Fish Kill Information
e Beach and Shellfish Bed Closings Information
o Water Quality Standards
o Water Quality Measurements
e Municipal Waste Inventory
» Municipal Waste Implementation Plans
o Municipal Waste Treatment Plant Operation and Maintenance
Information
e Municipal Waste Treatment Construction Grants Needs Assessment
o Municipal Waste Treatment Works Contract Awards
« Voluntary Industrial Waste Inventory
o Refuse Act Permit Program Industrial Waste Information
o Industrial Waste Implementation Plans
& Federal Power Commission Therma Pollution Information
9 Manpower and Training Information
3. Solid Waste
9 Survey of Community Solid Waste Products
4. Radiation
o Pasteurized Milk Network
a Institutional Diet Network
e Surface Water Network (OWP)
o Radiation Alert Network (OAF)
5. Pesticides
o Pesticides in water
o Pesticides in air
• Human tissue levels
9 Fish kills (OWP)
10
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6. Noise
e NSPI
B. Administrative
1. Air
o Air Quality Indices
o State Emission Inventory Surveys
2. Water
o Pollution-Duration-Intensity Index (PDI)
o Priority Action Index
3. Solid Waste
o National Solid Waste Practices Data Network
4. Pesticides
o Interagency Data Exchange
5. Radiation
o NSPI
6. Noise
o NSPI
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5. Storage and Processing
6. Interpretation and Analysis
7. Retrieval and Presentation
Relevant elements associated with these components
are outlined in the following subsections. A more detailed discussion
is contained in'Papers 3, 5, 6, and 7 of this series.
1.1.3.1 Sampling
The selection of a sampling grid, sampling frequency
and accuracy, and overaging times are critical in setting up a monitoring
strategy. This selection must precede the hardware and software selection
process, and must be responsive to the monitoring needs.
1.1.3.2 Sensors and Measurement
For virtually every monitoring application it is
necessary to determine standard equipment specifications and methods of
measurement and analysis. A balance should be achieved between initial
equipment costs and degree of automation and 9n-site data reduction which
will affect operating and maintenance costs.
Quality control guidelines should be developed and implemented in a
uniform manner to insure that private, local and Federal authorities
maintain the same standards and standard methods. Standard methods
and quality control are discussed in detail in papers No. 3 and No. 5.
1.1.3.3 Data Acquisition
This element is concerned with preparation of data,
acquired from sensors or survey forms, for subsequent transmission and
12
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storage. Standard methods and formats should be utilized to the
maximum extent to enter data for subsequent distribution. Procedures for
validation and requirements for local processing must be developed.
1.1.3.4 Information Transmittal
The transmission of environmental information is a
system function which has a significant interface with the acquisition
element. Standard transmission formats indicating time, location of
observation, parameter being measured and other relevant identifiers
should be utilized for all measurements. Consideration must be given
to utilizing common facilities for data entry and transmissions at
regional sites. Procedures should be developed for transmitting a
variety of data over common communication facilities. This will require
development of collection and transmission schedules for sending data
from local sites and regions to central storage facilities.
1.1.3.5 Storage and Processing
Data banks should be organized to allow use of
common data entry and maintenance software. Some information will be
stored locally and pre-processed and aggregated for utilization at
higher organizational levels. The nature of the aggregation must be
specified for each type of environmental data so that a proper balance
of fixed distribution of summary data to higher levels vs special
requests for detailed data is achieved. The organization of data
files must allow for appropriate cross-referencing to permit effective
utilization and correlation of information about a specific pollutant
(e.g. trace substance, pesticides) with respect to its presence in
all environmental media (air, water, and land).
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1.1.3.6 Retrieval and Presentation
File maintenance systems provide not only for entry
and maintenance of data files but for processing, retrieval and display
of output information. Here again, maximum use should be made of
standard software packages such as MARK IV, Generalized Information
System (CIS), DM-1 and COGENT III.
'Format and the manner of output must be geared to the specific
application. In many research applications, computer printout in a
legible format showing statistical summaries, by time, location or
parameter is adequate. For these purposes, rapid update of the data
bank (posting) is not as critical as rapid retrieval of the information
and minimum turnaround from request to receipt of output reports. In
cases of episode monitoring, both rapid posting and rapid retrieval
and display are required. In this case, integrated displays should be
developed for an Environmental Situation Room (see Paper No. 4).
1.1.3.7 Interpretation and Analysis of Environmental Data
One of the most critical needs within the Environ-
mental Protection Agency is the capability to examine environmental
degredation in an integrated comprehensive manner across all media.
This involves the ability to develop pollution chain analyses, tracing the
movement of hazardous substances, trace metals, and other chemical
materials through environmental media, including their physical and
chemical transformations brought about by interaction with plants and
animals. Sophisticated material balance models, transport and diffusion •
models and other research tools are required to be developed and applied
14
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to gain an understanding of these related phenomena. The needs of these
multi-media programs will provide specifications for integrated source
monitoring and correlations with concentration of substances in various
media and their related effects on many biota and materials.
1.2 An Integrated Approach
1.2.1- The Underlying Philosophy
The basic tenets of an integrated approach to
environmental monitoring are:
a. Data is to be collected and analyzed by the primary user
of the data. As an example, air and water quality data
for a locality are primarily collected by the local
government involved. Validation systems such as the
Water Qiidlity Surveillance System and the National Air
Surveillance Network are primarily the responsibility of
the Office of Air Programs.
b. Data is to be obtained by standardized methods and
formated in a manner prescribed by EPA. The SAROAD
and STORET format are examples.
c. The data collected by immediate users will be processed
and transmitted to EPA operated data banks. The trans-
mission of data will move from localities to states,
states to EPA regions, regions to EPA headquarters, etc,
using common facilitating and formats where feasible.
This is now done in the STORET system through use of
104 terminals.
15
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d. EPA Headquarters will receive transmitted data.
store these data In identified data files which
will have compatible formats. The data files may
or may not be on shared facilities.
e. Information obtained from analysis and processing
will be transmitted back to data sources as well
as to other interested parties.
1.2.2 Use of Existing Structures
Two major monitoring systems presently exist in
EPA. They are the National Aerometric Data Information System (NADIS)
operated by the Office of Air Programs and the Water Quality Control
Information System (STORET), operated by the Office of Water Programs.
Each of these systems have desirable attributes which should be
preserved to form the basis of an integrated system.
1.2.2.1 The NADIS Concept
NADIS already has over.250 communities and all
states and territories providing air quality data in standardized
formats (SAROAD) to EPA on a quarterly basis. The flow and means of
verification of this data has been established and the cooperation of
all the states and nearly all localities has been obtained. .The National
Aerometric Data Bank (NADB) is operational and is returning processed
information back to all contributors on a quarterly basis. The NADIS
concept which is illustrated in Figure 1, is not yet totally implemented
In terms of the state processing centers and transmission facilities, but
general agreement with states on setting up this system has been reached.
16
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"50
FEDERAL
REGIONAL
AGENCIES
50
SAQiS
APCO OPERATIONS
1
COMPUTER
{MADB)
CENTER
*^
„ LOCAL
I AGENCY,
i=: *
FEDERAL
USERS
i=5
STATIONARY
SOURCE
INVENTORY
DATA
OTHER
EPA
DATA
FIGURE 1 - KADIS OVERVIEW
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It is felt that this represents considerable headway in obtaining
EPA/state/local coordination and should be preserved.
1.2.2.2 Water Quality Control Information System (Figure 2)
The file structure and formats for this system
have provided means of storage and retrieval of water quality control
information. The development of a river mile index specification
represent major efforts that must be preserved. The file structure
and software for retrieval and use of information is now used by 104
terminal locations (24 are located in State Pollution Control Agencies) .
1.2.2.3 Other Systems
As indicated in Table 1 other operational programs
in radiation and pesticide monitoring exist, but are aimed at monitoring
specific pollutants under particular conditions. They do not exhibit
the general approaches inherent in the NADIS and STORET systems.
Research and scientific information programs and enforcement
surveillance programs exist, but indicate an absence of coordination.
1.2.3 Coordination with Other Information Systems
The various existing monitoring systems require
coordination with other systems both within and outside of EPA.
Intra-EPA
It may be argued that transfer of data between air and water quality
data bases may be minimal since they have different statutory bases, but
it is now necessary to assure utilization of data in both data bases
in a compatible manner. Many aspects of pesticides and radiation
monitoring interact with both air and water data and this coordination
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bSE
WATER QUALITY CONTROL INFORMATION SYSTEM
(STORET)
/
/
s
/
X
X
/
PARAMETERS
X
^•'
x'
/
/
f
RETRIEVAL
AKD
ANALYTICAL
PROGRAMS
OFFICE OF WATER PROCRA.'-S
WATER Ql.Ai.ir/ STA;OA.'U!S
OIL & KAZA-UXlLS KATERIALE
BASIN PLA.T.:I:;G
KANPOWE 4 TRAINING
CONSTRUCTION' GRANTS
STATE i LOCAL PROGRAMS
TECHNICAL SUPPORT
OTHER EPA PROCRA."^
STATES
WATER POLLUTIO:; COSTPCL
OTHER FEDERAL USERS
CITIES
UNIVERSITIES
MANUFACTURING ASSOCIATIONS
INDUSTRIAL FI?«S
PRIVATE CITIZENS
FIGURE 2
WATER QUALITY CONTROL INFORMATION SYSTEM
(STORET)
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is necessary. Solid waste data can impact both air and water
problems as well as land usage. Noise data may possibly be related
to air quality in the meteorological sense.
Analysis and interpretations of data across all data bases must
be possible then, through standardization of format and, perhaps, file
structures.
Surveillance for enforcement may require close coordination since
correction of one type of violation may cause another type, (e.g.
effluents used to clean stack gases must also be disposed of elsewhere).
International and Global
International transfer of information is presently being coordinated
by the Office of Monitoring. Support of the upcoming Stockholm Conference
on the Global Environment is in progress.
1.3 The Structure of a Monitoring System
An overall EPA monitoring system is viewed as a meta-systera
consisting of many subsystems operating to serve their basic functions,
but coordinated through proper planning and design to provide sufficient-
standardization of methods, formats, and quality control to assure the
compatibility and validity of collected information to meet all major
needs for this information throughout EPA, local, state, and federal
governments and to serve the needs of the public at large.
1.3.1 System Components
The major categorized components of the system are
indicated along with the various responsibilities associated with the
components.
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1.3.1.1 Research and Scientific Information Operation
The coordination of the wide variety of programs
already existing and the planning for new programs is the responsibility
of the Office of Monitoring. The operation of those programs will be
undertaken by Offices of Research and Monitoring, Media Programs, or
Categorical Programs if the programs are laboratory oriented. Where
possible, Regional offices shall be responsible for field collection
of data, especially when the resources of local governments, states,
and private industry are involved.
1.3.1.2 Surveillance for Enforcement Operation
The Office of Monitoring is responsible for
standardization and coordination of surveillance activities for
enforcement. The deployment and operation of these activities will be
the responsiblity of the Regional Offices in coordination with the
Office of the Assistance Administrator for Envorcement and the General
Counsel.
1.3.1.3 Operational Networks
a. Early Warning Networks
The Office of Monitoring will plan and coordinate
this network, but operation will be the responsibility of the Regional
Offices using the states, localities, and private sector where feasible.
The maintenance of centralized data files and the processing of these
files will rest with the Office of Monitoring.
b. Abatement and Control Networks
The Office of Monitoring will coordinate the
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planning and operation of the various abatement and control networks
to assure common use of available facilities and compatibility.
The Categorical and Media Program Offices will have the responsibility
for integrating and analyzing data collected. The regional offices will
be responsible for collecting the data and transmitting them upward in the
hierarchy. Local, state, and private resources will be coordinated by
the Regional offices.
c. Administrative Information System
Planning information, development of indices, and
reports on the state of the environment will be the responsibility of
the Office of Monitoring. Regional offices will supply inputs and be
responsible for implementation of reporting systems at the Regional
level.
1.3.2 Basic Structure
A proposed structure for operational networks envisions
the use of a NADlS-like concept for the acquisition, preprocessing, and
transmission of basic monitoring data with the possibility of upgrading
the capability of the Regional offices. The STORET concept also provides
a complementary capability in the water area.
The NADIS-like system would allow all types of environmental data
to be processed and transmitted upward in the hierarchy of users. The
use of shared facilities and communication media is desired, but not
required when circumstances warrant departures.
Data files such as NADB and STORET are prototypes of the files
envisioned with additional capability to obtain compatibility of files
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where desirable. Separate files are to be maintained for different net-
works although the facilities for maintaining the files may or may not be
shared as determined by needs and expense.
The storage and retrieval capabilities of the STORET system will
also prove to be of value in setting the new structure of an integrated
system. Use of remote terminals for data entry is also a desirable feature.
The Clean Air Act as ammended allows EPA to aid states and localities
in establishing air quality monitoring systems and reporting and trans-
mission facilities. This enabling legislation makes the implementation
of the NADIS concept highly feasible as has already been demonstrated.
1.3.3 Responsibilities
Since monitoring has to be carried out where the
responsibility for control rests, monitoring networks will, for the
most part, be operated by State and local agencies for pollutants where
standards have been promulgated and, where necessary, augmented by
networks operated by the regional offices. In certain situations the
enforcement, media and categorical programs may be required to conduct
monitoring activities. In addition, it is the responsibility of the
regional offices to collect and analyze the data from the monitoring
netiworks within the regions and to carry out field studies to show com-
pliance with standards. It is envisioned that most of the monitoring
will be carried out under the direct guidance of the regional admin-
istrators. Specific responsibilities for EPA organizational entities
are indicated in Appendix B.
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1.4 The Short Term Monitoring Program Development
The development of a short term monitoring program requires the
means to establish programs with the optimum use of resources for:
1.4.1 Research and Scientific Information
1. Coordination of Experiments
2. Identification of Gaps
3. Common Use of Facilities and Sites
4. Compatible Data Storage and Analysis
5. Standardized Dissemination of Results
6. Correlation Among Experiments
7. Supervision and Standardization of Quality Control
1.4.2 Surveillance for Enforcement
1. Operation of the Permit Program Under 18 99 Act
2. Regional Quick Response Teams
a
3. Headquarters Standardization of Equipment and
Methods and Quality Control
4. Regional Technical Assistance to States and
Localities
5. National Quick Response Teams for Special Problems
(e.g., Episodes, Spills, Environmental Impact
Assessment)
1.4.3 Operational Programs
1. Establishment of Data Acquisition Programs and
Coordination with Immediate Users of Data
a. Local
b. State
c. Region
d. Categorical and Air and Water Programs
e. Coordination with Other Agencies
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2. Office of Monitoring Operation of Special
Verification Networks for Assurance of Quality Control
3. Common Communication System
4. Shared Facilities when Feasible
5. Separate, but Compatible Data Files (may or may not
be on same equipment)
6. Standardized Reporting and Analysis Procedure - Designed
to assure that Federal, State, and local officials can
meet their statuatory requirements and operation
effectively
7. Systems
a. Air
Air Quality and Emissions Data (NADB)
Effects Information
Coordination with Meteorology Data (NOAA)
b. Water
Water Quality Control Information System (STORE!)
c. Radiation
Coordination of Present Programs
d. Pesticides
Coordination of Present Programs
e. Noise
Planning for Noise Network
f. Gaps
Identification and Planned Inclusion
8. Adminstration Programs
a. Indices
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Air, Water, Pesticides, Radiation, Noise,
Solid Waste Practices, etc.
b. Inclusion of Solid Waste Practices Network
c. Management Information and Reporting System
Control Rooms - Manual
Headquarters
Regions
9. Coordinated Planning for System Expansion
The System must be responsive and flexible to meet
the changing needs of all programs.
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1.5 Suggested Discussion Topics
1. Is the definition of monitoring, including the categorization
of monitoring programs, suitable?
2. The proposed structure is a skeletal strawman. Is it in the
right direction, and is it feasible?
3. What are the specific monitoring needs for each type of program
and what are the associated priorities?
4. Are the assignments of responsibilities for the program proper
and workable?
.5. Is the basic philosophy of the environmental meta-system
tenable?
6. What are proper organizational relationships (private, local
region, central) consistent with legal jurisdiction and resource constraints
to promote effective coordination and standardization of data collection,
transfer, and use? What are the most critical problems in this area, and
what existing and new programs are required to resolve them?
7. What are the most critical limitations in promoting effective
utilization of current data resources within the agency? What are the
best alternatives to deal with these limitations?
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APPENDIX A
DETAILED MONITORING NEEDS BY MAJOR CATEGORIES
1. Research and Scientific Information
Information gained by scientific research is used for:
a. Setting standards - determination of health, biological,
economic, and other environmental effects for specific
pollutants and ecological systems.
b. Environmental Impact Assessment - investigating the
alternatives available for solving existing or potential
environmental problems on a specific problem basis.
c. Source - Receptor Relationships - determining the emission
or effluent source relationship of specific pollutants to
resultant environmental concentrations. Includes modelling
of the processes involved. The interaction of pollutants,
their decay and dispersion and dilution are included.
d. New Threats - Early identification and quantification of
new or newly recognized pollutants.
e. Coordination of Scientific Information - A compatible system
is required to assure effective dissemination, exchange,
and utilization of available research information. The substance
of the information, not the program description is intended
here. The description of programs can be better handled by
technical information centers or a clearing house such as
recommended by the SEQUIP study.
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2. Surveillance for Enforcement
a. Legal Evidence of Violations
Monitoring of emission, effluents and pollutant concentration
to provide evidence of violations and the extent of the
violation.
b. Detection of Violations
Initial detection of potential violations for subsequent
investigation as above.
c. Expert Testimony
Providing information from expert witnesses, using the
monitoring system capabilities and scientific information, for
legal testimony.
d. Utilization of Voluntary Information
Effective use of information received on a voluntary
basis froip industry such as provided by the permit program
of the 1899 Refuse Act.
3. Operational Programs
1) Control and Abatement
a- Background, Ambient and Episode Monitoring Programs
Measurement of environmental parameters and pollutants
to determine background mode, ambient conditions in a
dynamic environment, and emergency reporting during
episodic environmental conditions.
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b. Early Warning Program
A program to determine incipient adverse environmental
conditions prior to their becoming major problems.
This is a network that overlays the background, ambient
and episode network although there may be some
interaction.
2) Administration and Planning
a. Environmental Trends
Determination of long term trends in the environment
such as changes in the albedo, and upper atmosphere.
The long term impact of identified changes will have
major impact in program decisions that will affect
the environment.
b. Environmental Indices
Aggregated measurements for measuring general
changes to the environment, for providing
measures of program goal attainment, and for
dissemination to the public sector.
c. Decision Making Information
Measures of conditions of the environment that
provide inputs to selection of program alternatives
for control and abatement.
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APPENDIX B
EPA Organizational Responsibilities
for Monitoring Activities
A. Regional Administrators
To fulfill this monitoring function, the Regional administrators
should:
1. Identify regional monitoring needs required to satisfy
program objectives;
2. Determine the most effective way to satisfy these needs,
i.e., via state support or direct operations;
3. Direct the regional monitoring in accordance with guidance
by office of monitoring and using standardized methods
and procedures, providing guidance and supervision to State
and local monitoring efforts performed through EPA support,
and performing direct operations, such as sampling and laboratory
analyses, necessary to augment the State and local efforts;
4. Perform special monitoring as assigned by Headquarters;
5. Perform specific short-term field studies to support enforcement
actions;
6. Assist State and local officials in their monitoring activities;
7. Collect, review and evaluate regional environmental data needed
for regional management and/or prescribed by Headquarters and
transmit data to EPA data bank in accordance with prescribed
procedure;
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8. Identify to AARM monitoring needs that cannot be satisfied at
the regional level (methods development, demonstration systems,
national network)
9. Assist Monitoring Techniques Division in field testing methods
and instruments designed for routine monitoring.
B. Functional Offices
With respect to monitoring, the Enforcement, Media and
Categorical offices should:
1. Conduct source sampling activities related to their
special requirements;
2. Conduct field studies to support policy planning and
decision making;
3. Identify to DAAM national monitoring needs to support
program objectives;
4. Operate environmental data storage, translation,
and information presentation systems as requested by
their programs and to be compatible with other EPA
information systems;
5. Coordinate and assist, through the regional administrators,
States and local users in the use of EPA information
systems;
6. Perform analyses as part of the information system
where required.
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C. Office of Monitoring
The Deputy Assistant Administrator for Monitoring should:
1. Develop and operate special monitoring programs for
long-term trends, new or newly recognized pollutants
and pollutants under consideration for future control;
2. Plan and develop appropriate guidelines for all monitoring
systems;
3. Develop and standardize methodology for the collection
and analysis of environmental samples and data handling
and presentation;
4. Ensure validity and uniformity of environmental quality
data so that it can be fully utilized within EPA's
information systems;
5. Direct the operation of the U.S. portion of global and
international monitoring networks;
6. Provide for technical training and special assistance to
regional, State, and local personnel;
7. Provide a public education and information Program;
8. Provide support when requested to the enforcement
elements of EPA;
9. Document the overall environmental quality including
trends;
10. Provide an overview assessment of the agency's
monitoring activities.
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PAPER NO. 2
2.0 FUTURE MONITORING PROGRAM AND METHODS
2.1 Problem Perspective
The first of this series of papers has described present
monitoring programs as those for which implementation actions could
be taken immediately with a resulting operational system available
any time from the present through the next two or three years. This
paper considers future programs and methods to be those for which
operational needs will be satisfied five years into the future, and
beyond. Plans for these programs must be prepared now and supporting
studies must be initiated immediately and revised on a continuing
basis to account for the dynamic nature of the environment and to
insure that available operational systems will meet requirements in
five years.
The continuing effectiveness of overall EPA activities rests
largely on the ability to anticipate and resolve future potential
environmental problems before they reach the crisis stage. This
places emphasis on the need for effective planning to provide
guidelines and specifications for industry cooperation in technology
development. It will promote orderly and economic implementation of
control measures to improve environmental quality. It can minimize
adverse consequences to the environment and economy (as well as to
the Agency's image) from such incidents as the recommended shift
from phosphates to NTA to phosphates in laundry detergents.
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Some broad objectives which EPA's future monitoring program
should attain are discussed below.
Detection and Effects of New Pollutants
This objective relates to identification of new pollutants
which are being emitted into all environmental media and the deter-
mination of acceptable levels based upon economic and health and
welfare effects. This requires a concept of search sampling and
monitoring of media samples and correlation with epidemiological and
other effects. New and improved analytical and pathological techniques
including variation in thresholds of human tolerances should be
employed for detection along with increased and systematic monitoring
of geological effects. The same concept applies to changing acceptable
levels of known pollutants for which standards have been defined.
Integration of Monitoring Across
Environmental Media
Data are required for development and application of ecological
models which test transport and effects of pollutants across
environmental media. This is a difficult technical problem which
must be attacked by the Agency and poses a challenge to the proper
organization and implementation of an effective research and monitoring
effort. Data monitoring requirements must be preceded by research
specifications of cross media models (e.g. EQUIPS, Materials Balance,
Transport and Diffusion).
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Support of Future Operational Needs
Future monitoring requirements must be responsive to legislative
and anticipated technological developments. For example, legislation
requiring permits for proper application of pesticides suggests
monitoring to determine the effectiveness of the control and application
procedures. Similar requirements currently exist for discharging
effluents in streams; it is conceivable that in five or ten years
permits may be required for weather modification and advanced planning
should consider the potential impact on new monitoring needs. The
development of environmental impact statements may dictate special
monitoring to assist in conducting proper technology assessments.
The Agency should continually review all statements with the intent of
identifying common data gaps and synthesizing new monitoring requirements.
Three projects dealing with establishing requirements, performing
feasibility analyses of advanced techniques and performing advanced
development to further prove the merits of new monitoring techniques
and systems are discussed in the following paragraphs.
2.1.1 Definition and Analysis of Advanced Monitoring Requirements
Three primary objectives of this project are:
1) determination of long term environmental monitoring
needs and objectives,
2) provision of the basis for defining and investigating
new and advanced monitoring techniques,
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3) definition of research requirements for proving
new environmental monitoring techniques through
conducting and supporting analytical studies and
advanced development.
The approach to realizing these objectives must begin with a
thorough review and appraisal of present monitoring activities and
developments. This appraisal should categorize the types of monitoring
needs being served according to:
1) research and scientific - standards development,
environmental impact assessment, physical biological and
chemical interactions
2) enforcement surveillance - legal action, testimony,
violations
3) operational and administrative support - description
of status and trends, policy guidance, program evaluation
Gaps in these programs, along with a separation into present
and future needs should be made to provide a starting point for
projecting future requirements. Other factors and information
sources requiring analysis to support these projections include:
1) implications of current and pending legislation
2) impact of population and industrial growth patterns
3) new developments in industrial processes
4) new developments in conventional and remote sensing
technology
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5) reports of special governmental monitoring committees
6) economic and social projections
Characteristic problem areas should be identified with each of
the projected needs. These would relate to considerations such as:
a) identification of new pollutants; b) changes in acceptable levels
of pollutant amounts and concentrations; c) siting of sensors;
d) measurement sensitivity and lower limits of threshold detectability
required for scientific, enforcement, or operational purposes; e)
need for standardized techniques of measurement and analysis; and
f) need for specialized sensing (e.g. biological organisms).
In all media and categorical areas there will be a need for
increased emphasis on source and effluent monitoring. An important
consideration of this project is development of a means to insure
that proper communication of information to meet new monitoring
requirements occur between state/local and Regional groups on one hand
and between Regional and EPA central headquarters on the other.
Inputs to this program should also come from discoveries through
the early warning network (see the fourth paper in this series).
Some perspective for future monitoring needs based upon specific
details of the current situation is presented in Appendix A at the
ead of the paper.
2.1.2 Feasibility and Evaluation of Advanced Monitoring Techniques
Based upon requirements and objectives of future monitoring
needs, proper systems management and planning requires that
feasibility of alternative monitoring" systems to satisfy the needs
be thoroughJy examined.
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The first phase of this project is-to develop a comprehensive
survey of new concepts and techniques for environmental monitoring by
EPA, other federal agencies, academic institutions, and industry.
This survey will be updated on a continual basis and will provide
an inventory of new techniques and concepts. State of the art studies
must be conducted and awareness of developments must be maintained
(see the fourth paper in this series).
The second phase will match the potential of these concepts
with the advanced monitoring requirements which will be developed
in parallel. A set of priorities and potential payoffs for
innovative concepts and techniques will be documented and reviewed
by the operational programs of EPA on a periodic basis. This document
will be the basic development strategy for advanced monitoring
concepts.
Specific concepts and techniques for innovative approaches to
monitoring will be evaluated against the strategy and seed funds
will be provided to carry through these selected projects to
determine feasibility of the concept. Parallel approaches to meet
specific requirements will be pursued through the conceptual phase
when this is warranted. Criteria for establishing feasibility will
include the economic impact and costs and technological considerations
such as compatibility with existing equipment and adaptability to a
wide range of utilization. Approaches for establishing feasibility
will include paper studies, laboratory models and testing, and pilot
experiments. Projects for which feasibility of the conceptual phase
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is demonstrated will be forwarded to other research and monitoring
programs for further development. Wide dissemination of the results
of these studies will be made as required.
2.1.3 Advanced Development
In order to meet a given future monitoring requirement, it
may be necessary to proceed initially along several avenues of approach.
At some point the choices will have to be narrowed down to that
concept (or two) which seems most feasible in terms of economics,
coverage, flexibility, adaptability, etc. The development phase then
deals with the initial testing and data validation of the prototype
equipment for the advanced technique(s) finally selected.
Whereas many groups within and without EPA may be involved with
a particular advanced approach during the early stages (feasibility
and evaluation) of its progress, only those groups specifically
affected will continue to be involved when the development phase
begins. Depending upon available expertise and facilities, the
decision will have to be made whether development will be carried
out by EPA personnel or by outside contractors.
The development stage serves, in a sense, as the proving ground
for radically new concepts or some unique combination of existing
ideas and the transition should be made clear where advanced develop-
ment ends and engineering development begins. The results of pre-
liminary field testing and development should provide detailed, hard
specifications as input for the implementation of engineering
development and full production by other appropriate branches of EPA.
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2.2 Suggested Ddscussion Topics
a) Develop a list of potential monitoring requirements which
may be considered long-term based upon lack of current
ability to satisfy them (e.g. low detection threshold
requirements for specific pollutants related to health
effects and other needs, such as enforcement).
b) What methods currently under development can satisfy these
requirements?
c) What priorities can be assigned to the known long term
requirements identified in a)? What is the rationale?
Do we need to investigate a rationale for priority
assignment?
d) What approach can be taken to develop a manageable network
of standard sites (parameters measured, frequency, method,
etc.) for consistent monitoring and reporting of status
and trends. Consider proper gepgraphical distribution,
and all media and categories.
(Note: Specific problems of selection of sites, criteria
for location etc. should be considered in paper #3,
Standardization of Methods and Equipment. The .proposed
discussion item here should concentrate on requirements
for standardizations based upon end use e.g. enforcement
and surveillance, scientific, administration and
operation).
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e) Three projects (requirements, feasibility of advanced
techniques and advanced development) have been described.
Are these adequate for implementation of a continuing
long term monitoring program? Do you feel they are
adequate as described?
f) What is the best way to insure that future monitoring
requirements which are sent from the field to a central
focal point at headquarters are properly disseminated
to the appropriate EPA research and monitoring organi-
zation on a continuing and timely basis?
g) VThat program and organizational approaches can be taken
to insure that the Office of Monitoring develop an
integrated system for source, concentration and effects
monitoring across all environmental media?
h) VThat inputs are required to determine the appropriate
changes in the number of monitoring sites to meet
future needs?
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APPENDIX A
PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATION OF MEDIA AND CATEGORICAL
MONITORING NEEDS
This appendix discusses some examples of the current situation
and potential monitoring needs for media and categorical program areas.
A.I Air and Water
There are over 3,000 state and local air pollution measuring
sites in the United States in addition to the various Federal air
pollution networks shown in Table I. Of six air pollutants for which
ambient standards have been issued by EPA, only two - S0? (sometimes
sulfation) and particulates - are monitored on an extended geographical
basis.
The Continuous Air Monitoring Program (CAMP) operates at six
stations. These sites monitor particulates, total oxidants, total
hydrocarbons, CO, S02, N02 and NO. If the focus of this paper changes
from research to actual air quality determinations, then wider
geographic coverage is necessary.
Air pollution of the upper atmosphere is an area of great concern,
especially with regard to the recent SST issue. The collection of
accurate data and the formulation of reliable models are obviously
necessary steps in resolving this problem. Except for essentially
ground level readings, very few data exist for regions above the order
of tens of meters. (The AEG collects radioactivity data in the upper
atmosphere). This lack points out the need for pollution vs. height
profiles. The Smithsonian Institution has suggested the use of
10
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TABLE I
PRESENT CHARACTERISTICS AND POSSIBLE EXTENSIONS
OF FEDERAL AIR SAMPLING NETWORKS
In addition to state and local stations EPA obtains air
pollution data from its own National Air Surveillance Networks (NASN)
Tills system comprises several different kinds of networks, and their
present features are summarized below:
o Hi-Vol Network: suspended particulates, 247 sites,
26 samples/site/year;
e Membrane Filter Network: suspended particulates
(no glass filter interference), 50 sites
o Particle Size Network: particle size distribution,
11 sites;
o Gas Sampling Network: several gaseous pollutants,
197 sites, 26 samples/site/year;
o Precipitation Network: dissolved air pollutants
in rainwater, 16 sites;
o Mercury Network: airborne mercury, 53 sites,
o Condensation Nuclei Network: one site;
o Radiation Alert Network (RAN): airborne radioactive
particles and radioactive contamination of
rainwater, 73 sites, continuous daily sampling;
this network may be phased out due to decreased
atmospheric nuclear testing.
« Pesticide Network: airborne pesticides, 12 sites
collecting but method for analysis has not
yet been developed; Future, 40-60 sites.
11
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astronomical observatory data (telluric -lines and extinction
wavelengths) as a possible means for obtaining long-term (30-50
years) atmospheric pollution amounts.
In order to determine relative contributions (e.g., power
plants and/or autos) toward air pollution, more emissions data need
to be collected from representative sources. This will enable the
appropriate agencies to ascertain the effectiveness of various
con'trol programs. Motor vehicle certification and recurring maintenance
may provide a challenge for development of more effective and lower
cost monitoring methods.
Sometimes monitoring is performed too close to sources of
pollution which results in deceptively high, nonrepresentative
readings for computing an index for a locality. More careful thought
needs to be applied in the selection of sites for this purpose. The
comments of this and the previous paragraph apply equally well to
water pollution monitoring.
With regard to the surface waters of the nation, there are
approximately 24,000 water quantity (hydrological data) stations and
10,000 water quality (chemical composition) stations which are
operated by local, state, or Federal (principally the Water Quality
Office, EPA, and the Geological Survey) agencies. Quantity and quality
data are sometimes taken at the same site. The Water Quality Office
intends to increase the stream miles covered by water quality monitors
from approximately 44,000 stream miles, 5,000 miles of Great Lakes
12
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shoreline, and 4,000 miles of coastline .and estuaries to 100,000
stream miles, 60,000 miles of Great Lakes shoreline, and 12,000 miles
of coastline and estuaries by 1976. These latter figures i~epresent
essentially total United States coverage. There is, however, a large
disparity in the levels of effort at the various sites in terms of
the sampling frequency and the number of parameters measured.
Water pollutants may be classified into physical (undissolved
solids, temperature, odor, sediment, oil, etc.) and chemical categories
(heavy metals, acids, bases, nutrients, pesticides, etc.). Not only
are some of these substances toxic to human, fish, and plant life,
but various industries cannot tolerate them in their process water.
A more extensive mobile lab network is needed to provide annual or
biennial detailed chemical analysis of all major rivers and bodies
of water. Aerial surveys and eventually satellite monitoring should
be utilized to augment the ground stations, particularly with regard
to the physical pollutants.
For water as well as for air monitoring, serious consideration
should be given to careful selection of a subset of these sites to
serve as standard reference monitoring stations for adequate
geographical, urban, remote and pollutant coverage on a systematic
basis.
Epidemics of gastrointestinal disease from public drinking
supplies are rare now, but the potential for such outbreaks is great,
and utilities cannot afford to become complacent and careless in
disinfection practices. Untreated ground water, along with
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distribution system difficulties, has been the most frequent cause of
recent outbreaks. The waterborne epidemic of Salmonella typhiirmrium
involving 18,000 persons at Riverside, California, in May and June
of 1965 is such an example.
The detection and identification of viruses is a much more
complicated procedure than that for bacteria, even if clams, oysters,
or other filter feeders are used to concentrate the virus particles.
There is no standard simple laboratory procedure for routine examin-
ation of water supplies for important pathogenic viruses. Routine
virological examination of water would require an enormous drain on
resources as compared to bacteriological examination.
It is therefore recommended, pending development of standard
routine methods for the detection and identification of pathogenic
viruses in water, that drinking water supplies be examined for
viral content during viral disease outbreaks. Careful collecting of
detailed epidemiological information is required for proper analyses.
This is not by any means a routine monitoring task.
A. 2 Pesticides and Hazardous Substances
The dangerous effects of pesticides are a problem in all
three media. The current minimal monitoring of pesticides in air is
conducted by EPA and by the FDA in eight northeastern states. This
capability should be extended with the density of monitoring sites
being based upon proximity to areas of application (large agricultural
areas) and population density. The Working Group on Pesticides
proposed in May 1970 that a program be initiated for monitoring airborne
pesticides at a minimum of 40 different locations in the country.
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Pesticide monitoring in water and on' land is performed much more
widely and more frequently than in air. A number of governmental
agencies are involved in the National Pesticides Monitoring Program.
In general, the present networks seem adequate in terms of the number
of sites. However, in view of the tremendous numbers of pesticides
on the market and the complex analysis procedures, a better knowledge
of regional sales statistics would enable technicians to know what
pesticides are most likely to occur, thus eliminating costly, un-
necessary testing.
Monitoring of heavy toxic metals chlorinated hydrocarbons, organo-
phosphates, herbicides, halides, and dithiocarbonates which may
contaminate food supplies is essential; it is also necessary to
determine amounts acquired by other means, such as breathing and skin
contamination. Low cost, rapid and accurate monitoring techniques are
required in these areas.
A.3 Radiation
Figure 1 shows that radioactivity in the atmosphere has
declined significantly since the cessation of significant atmospheric
nuclear bomb testing in the earth 1960's. One should examine whether
the monitoring programs designed for measuring radioactive fallout
should be re-oriented in some way, consistent with national security.
Recent court decisions relating to the necessity of AEC to file
complete environmental impact statements regarding power plant con-
struction suggests greater requirements for monitoring radioactivity
and water temperatures in the vicinity of power plants. Since
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140
CURVE UNITS
AIR: GROSS BETA pCi/m3
WATER: TRITIUM nCi/liter
MILK: Sr-90 pCi/liter
MILK: Cs-137 pCi/liter
SCALE
120
100
80
60
40
20
61
62
63
05
65
YEAR
67
es
70
FIGURE 1
SELECTED RADIOACTIVITY TRENDS
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indications are that the genetically significant dose (GSD) of
radiation from diagnostic x-rays and other non-therapeutic medical
sources has increased from 55 millirems currently, to approximately
65-90 millirems currently, a better means should be found for
monitoring and computing radiation dosage received by the population.
Also, the need for monitoring non-ionizing radiation should be
investigated.
A.4 Solid Waste
Information on solid wastes is most concerned with volume,
amounts, composition and source. For planning purposes, the Office
of Solid Waste would like to know the composition of domestic and
industrial refuse in specific locations for large urban areas as vail
as for rural locations. Often, monitoring consists of physical
sorting of garbage which is costly and time consuming and subsequent
recording of volume, composition, weight, etc. Scales are sometimes
used in measuring loads at incinerator and landfills. In cases of
industrial refuse, the data are likely to be obtained from sampling
surveys utilizing interviews or written questionnaires. Future
monitoring programs in this area should concentrate on developing
effective standard techniques for cases where survey and questionnaire
are the main monitoring methods available. Are there other
methods, more mechanized, more reliable or less costly, of acquiring
these data? Certainly these alternatives should be considered in
planning new monitoring programs.
Recycling data are important for economic and environmental
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policy development and legislative studies. A future monitoring
program should be concerned with more effective acquisition of
materials input and output data from recycling centers and national
trade associations (e.g. National Association of Secondary Materials
Industries, Institute of Scrap Iron and Steel, National Solid Waste
Management Association).
While it may be technically possible to apply IR photography
for determination of landfill composition,requirements are needed
for use of this kind of data by the Solid Waste Office in order to
develop effective plans along these lines.
A,5 Noise
Recently the problem of noise pollution has received a great
deal of attention, but an organized, carefully conceived monitoring
program does not exist. The Bureau of Community Environmental Manage-
ment has undertaken a few urban surveys, but these are mostly subjective
and it would be difficult to make comparisons among cities on a year-
to-year basis. The FAA is conducting monitoring in the vicinity of
airports to support noise abatement programs. Also the Department
of Transportation has several studies underway to determine the amount
and effects of higlway noise. Since general noise monitoring is
relatively new, a modest survey program in a few geographical locations
(e.g., selected SMSA's) with an extensive deployment of sensing sit.es
should be sufficient until the problem is better understood.
The EPA has recently contracted for studies to describe noise
sources (construction equipment, home appliances, etc.) according
18
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to characteristics such as intensity, frequency, pitch and other
suitable factors. Also, the National Bureau of Standards is providing
assistance to EPA to help prepare a report to Congress on the noise
control program. The needs of this program should be sharply focused
on determination of monitoring research needs. Low cost reliable devices
are required for monitoring, recording and analyzing noise signals
from various sources (urban streets, construction sites, office
buildings, home environment).
A.6 Bipgeochemical Cycles
There is much talk about ecocycles and many pictures are
drawn in ecology textbooks. The processes are described as energy
transformations among physical, chemical and biological processes.
Relatively little is known about their measurements. Biogeochemical
cycles, (such as nitrogen, water, oxygen, carbon, phosphorus) are
recognized to be fundamental to the support of life on earth. These
cycles are complex and are not yet fully understood. The amount of
material transported and the vastness of the geographic scope (i.e.,
the surface of the earth) render any monitoring attempts currently
impractical. However, research into their functioning needs to be
continued, and monitoring of some limited portion of the cycles may
become possible in the future.
19
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PAPER NO. 3
3.0 STANDARDIZATION OF METHODS AND EQUIPMENT
3.1 Problem Perspective
In general, the widespread use of an analytical method
usually indicates that the method is a reliable means of analysis
and this feeling of consensus tends to support the validity of the
test results reported. This feeling of consensus is not always valid
however, for the method may not have received sufficient screening
to uncover possible imperfections. A second but different pitfall
of "standard methods" in that when a method has been so designated
it tends to inhibit inquiries into the validity of the method. There
is always room for improvement. Conversely, the use of a little-
known technique forces the data user to place undue faith in the
judgment of the analyst. Mien the analyst uses a "private" method
or one not commonly accepted in the field, he stands alone in
defining both his choice of the method and the result obtained.
The need for standardization of methods .within a single lab-
oratory is readily apparent. Uniform methods between cooperating
laboratories are also important in order to remove the methodology as
a variable in comparison or joint use of data between laboratories.
Uniformity of methods is particularly important when laboratories
are providing data to a common data bank, such as STORET, SAROAD,
SWIRS, etc., or when several laboratories are cooperating in joint
field surveys. The lack of standardization of methods within a
single agency raises doubts outside the agency as to the validity of
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the result reported. If the same constituent is measured by different
analytical procedures within a single laboratory or within several
laboratories in the same agency, the question is raised as to which
procedure is superior, and why the superior method is not used
throughout.
The physical and chemical methods used by the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) should be selected using the following
criteria:
1. The method should measure the desired constituent with
precision and accuracy sufficient to meet the data needs
of EPA in the presence of the interferences normally
encountered in the media.
2. The procedure should utilize the equipment and skills
normally available in the average pollution control
laboratory.
3. The selected methods to be used are in many laboratories
or have been sufficiently tested to establish their
validi ty.
4. The method should be sufficiently rapid to permit routine
use for the examination of a large number of samples.
The use of EPA methods in Agency laboratories provides a common
base for combined data between program elements. Uniformity
throughout EPA lends considerable support to the validity of the
results reported by the Agency.
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Regardless of the analytical method used in the laboratory the
specific methodology should be carefully documented. In some
pollution reports it is customary to state that Standard Methods
have been used throughout. Close examination in many cases indicates,
however, that this is not strictly true. In many laboratories the
standard method has been modified because of recent research or
personal preferences of the laboratory staff. In other cases the
standard method has been replaced with a better one. Statements con-
cerning the methods used in arriving at laboratory data should be
clearly and honestly stated. The methods used should be adequately
referenced and the procedures applied exactly as directed. When the
phrase "EPA Methods were used" is to be reported, the exact pro-
cedures as detailed in the methods manual should be followed.
Knowing the specific method which has been used, the reviewer
can apply the associated precision and accuracy of the method when
interpreting the laboratory results. If the analytical methodology
is in doubt, the data user may honestly inquire as to the reliability
of the result he is to interpret.
As mentioned earlier, the advantages of strict adherence to
accepted methods should not stifle investigations leading to
improvements in analytical procedures. In spite of the value of
accepted and documented methods, occasions do arise when a procedure
must be modified to eliminate unusual interference or to yield
increased sensitivity. When modification is necessary, the revision
should be carefully worked out to accompUsh the desired result.
3
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It is advisable to assemble data using both the regular and the modified
procedure to show the superiority of the latter. This useful information
can be brought to the attention of the individuals and groups responsible
for methods' standardization. For maximum benefit the modified procedure
should be rewritten in the standard format so that the substituted procedure
may be used throughout the laboratory for routine examination of samples.
Responsibility for the use of a non-standard procedure rests with the
analyst and his supervisor since such use represents a departure from
accepted practice.
In field operations the problem of transport of samples to the
laboratory or the need to examine a large number of samples to arrive
at gross values will sometimes require the use of rapid field methods
yielding approximate answers. Such methods should be used with caution
and with a clear understanding that the results obtained do not compare
in reliability with those obtained using standard laboratory methods.
When deviations from standard methods have been used, they should be
noted and the results flagged when included in STORET, SAROAD, etc.,
along with the more reliable laboratory-derived analytical information.
The data user is entitled to know that approximate values have been
obtained (for screening purposes only) and that the results do not
represent the customary precision and accuracy obtained in the laboratory.
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3.1.1 General Procedure for Developing Standard Methods
We recognize the importance of using the best
available scientific methods throughout. The use of legally valid,
uniform, precise, and accurate methods will yield important benefits
in reliability, improved comparability of data from different sources,
and in the consistency of relationships of the EPA with other Govern-
mental Agencies and the private sector.
The Division of Monitoring Techniques is responsible for
coordination and/or direction of all standardization activities
within EPA to establish reference and standard methods. This
actJvity will insure the development of measurement techniques
which will accurately access the control of pollutants which have
been determined to exhibit adverse effects on human health and
welfare.
The pollution of our environment cannot be adequately measured
•or controlled without the use of methods which have been collab-
oratively tested by qualified analysts to statistically determine
their reliability and bias. Such a method is defined as a
Standard Method.
To insure comparability of all data while allowing some freedom
of choice, it is also necessary to establish some methods as Standard
Reference Mechods. Standard Reference Methods (SRM) insure a basis
upon which less precise but more agile techniques may be tested.
-------
EPA will develop such SRM with the advise and assistance from other
agencies as required.
Standard Methods should meet the following criteria:
a. Demonstrated utility in the laboratory and in the field.
b. Demonstrated freedom from known interferences.
c. Easily measured chemical and/or physical parameters.
d. Relatively inexpensive and available to all people who are
required to use the method.
e. Demonstrated reliability through collaborative testing by a
representative (but qualified) sampling of the user population.
f. Demonstrated reliable sensitivity for required pollutant
concentration ranges.
g. Acceptable (based on the above criteria) to the Administration
and to the general user.
When neither standard methods or standard reference methods are
available, measurement techniques which represent the best judgment of
an expert user-group should be established - Tentative Method or
Approved Method (EPA).
The validity of all pollution measurements depend on strict
adherence to all aspects of standard or approved procedures^ the
proper use of primary/secondary, gaseous, liquid and solid standards
to calibrate the analytical methods and equipment, and the proper
handling of the data obtained. EPA's standardization activities should
provide: (a) primary and/or secondary gaseous, liquid and solid
standards; (b) provide procedures for use in calibrating methods and
-------
equipment and establish equivalency between the Standard Reference
Method and other methods of choice; (c) provide minimum performance
specification required for instruments to measure a specific pollutant
or class of pollutants in ambient and sources; (d) provide guidelines
for certification of analysts; (e) provide assistance to groups
responsible for data handling guidelines, and (f) establish control
charts to determine the validity of data generated using standard or
approved methods.
3.1.2 Detailed Procedure for Development of Standards
Candidate methods for standardization are usually
obtained from operating divisions within the Environmental Protection
Agency and/or from the private sector. These candidates methods are
received by the Division of Monitoring Techniques (MTD), for their
evaluation, collaborative test direction and promulgation.
Methods recommended for standardization are subjected to the
following procedures:
a. Preparation Methods are first cast into a concise format
using the decimal system and then extensively reviewed and
revised by small groups of scientists who are expert in
the area of interest. MTD will be assisted in this effort
by the Standardization Advisory Committee (SAC) (The SAC
formerly represented all division within EPA), and by the
Intersociety Committee (Air Pollution Control Association,
American Conference of Governmental and Industrial Hygienists,
American Industrial Hygiene Association, American Public Health
-------
Association, American Society for Testing and Materials,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Association of
Official Analytical Chemists, and the American Chemical
Society) as required.
b. Preparation of Standard Reference Materials. Before any
analytical procedure can be properly evaluated, materials
(pollutant species) must be developed. The feasibility
of using these materials for calibration and testing must
be determined. (This work is being done with EPA support
by the National Bureau of Standards).
c. Evaluation. It can be assumed that the originator of a
method can obtain usable results with "his" method even if
on the spot changes are required. Therefore, one of the most
important steps in the Standardization process is an
impartial evaluation in the laboratory and in the field by
qualified and experienced scientists.
d. Collaborative Testing. Participants in a collaborative test
series should be representative of the ultimate users of the
method. Since pollution measurements are a matter of con-
cern to many people, the users of the method will Include
laboratories of the Federal government, state and local
pollution control agencies, private industrial plants of
many different types, universities, and basic research
organizations as required. To date, approximately 150
8
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laboratories have indicated a willingness to participate in
the collaborative testing of air pollution methods. A majority
of these are state and local air pollution control agencies,
although the other types of laboratories listed above are also
represented. The various laboratories also vary in size from
one- or two-man laboratories up to large organizations with a
laboratory staff of several dozen people. A co]laborative
study is usually done by distributing samples to a group of
laboratories for analysis, followed by statistical analysis
of the data to provide the desired evaluation of the method.
This procedure has been used by many organizations in the
standardization of various methods of measurement. The
American Association of Analytical Chemists (AOAC) and the
American Society for Testing and Ilaterials (ASTM) have been
especially active in this field and have published guides to
establishing the proper procedure for conducting collaborative
or round-robin tests of a proposed method. A test program of
this nature has not been conducted in the past to evaluate
methods for measuring air contaminants, largely because of
difficulty in providing standard samples to a group of
laboratories for analysis.
In collaboratively testing for air pollution measurements, it
is desirable to develop a system for generating a test
atmosphere of known concentration. Where this cannot be done,
-------
a group of collaborators come together at a single location
and sample a real atmosphere or source. The primary
disadvantage here is one of statistical validity. Ideally, a
collaborative test should indicate what each participant is
capable of doing in his own laboratory, and not at some central
location. This method inevitably suffers from the fact that the
results more nearly indicate an intralaboratory evaluation than
an interlaboratory evaluation.
e. Adoption. Based on the statistical evaluation of the data
from the collaborative tests, the Environmental Protection
Agency will determine if these methods should be adopted as
standard methods. The Intersociety and other groups are free
to use these data to decide which methods they choose to
endorse.
f. Promulgation. Methods adopted as Standards by EPA will be
promulgated to all state and local agencies to be used in
implementing National Air Quality and Emission Standards, in
the case of air, and like standard methods in the other media
and categories.
g. Quality Control. Continuing subsequently to the adoption of
each standard method, a quality control procedure will be
established to insure the attainment of accurate data. State
and local laboratories, on a voluntary basis will be served.
This is closely related to standardization of methods in that
10
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it is the inverse of collaborative testing. While collab-
orative testing evaluates the reliability of methods, quality
control evaluates the reliability of data from laboratories
using the methods.
3.1.3 Need for Standard Data Handling Practices
Associated with these monitoring activities is a
massive accumulation of data which must be formatted and reduced for
quick assimilation. Fortunately, there are a number of institutions
throughout the United States which have experience in data reduction
and analysis. It would be advantageous for each region to avail
themselves of this already existing capability. However, before
these channels of data processing are utilized, it is most important
that unified standards for formatting and data reduction be established.
The alternative to standardization in the realm of data management
would be utter chaos. However, standardization of data management
practices will be a complex project since no standard guidelines exist
now. To delay implementing this objective would only complicate an
already difficult task. For this reason and also because data manage-
ment is so basic to remote and in-situ sensing operations, the
standardization of data management practices should receive the very
highest priority.
Close coordination between the standards for data coding, storing,
retrieving, analyzing and summarizing and the monitoring techniques
standard for sensing equipment and method must be developed and
maintained.
11
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3.1.4 Specific Factors Relating to Standard Methods and Equipment
The procedures described in the preceding paragraphs for
implementing measurement standards must consider the following factors:
1. Siting of sensors - develop criteria for each specific
application
2. Measurement precision and accuracy
3. Calibration and maintenance
4. Averaging times and averaging methods
5. Measurement errors - bias and random
6. Data entry and reporting - editing and validation
7. Impact on data processing
The definition and initiation of procedures, techniques and
equipment characteristics is a function of standard setting. The
maintanance procedures relating to these factors is a function of
quality control.
3.2 Suggested Discussion Topics
3.2.1 Following the performance of the requirements analyses
suggested in Section 7.0 for monitoring techniques for all media and
categorical programs, a standardization program for such techniques
could be developed. A standardization plan can be started in air
pollution based on the output of the contracted effort, "EPA Plan
for Air Pollution Measurement Techniques Development, Fiscal Year
1972-1977."
12
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3.2.2 Derive a master standardization plan for use of
standard methods. Pro's and Con's were addressed in the opening
remarks of this paper.
3.2.3 Accelerate an international reference method exchange
agreement.
3.2.4 Restructure the Standardization Advisory Committee,
the Intersociety Committee to aid in the across the board look at
standard methods.
3.2.5 Bring in societies dedicated to remote monitoring
such as:
° Instrument Society of America
0 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation
° American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics
o Institutes of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers
to start the standard method review.
3.2.6 What defines a "correct" sampling site? Develop a
framework for developing such a site standard.
3.2.7 Should the standardization assignment for monitoring
and methods be combined with data management organizationally?
13
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PAPER NO. 4
4.0 EARLY WARNING MONITORING NETWORK
4.1 Problem Perspective
An early warning system should serve two fundamental needs.
The first is concerned with providing rapid and timely data for
phenomena which occur and cause immediate hazardous effects to man,
vegetation, animal species, and natural resources. Examples of
these phenomena are episodes, oil spills and industrial or transportation
accidents (e.g. train wreck involving lethal gases). The second need
relates to early detection, warning and awareness of events or dis-
coveries which could have potentially disastrous long-term effects on
the environment. These phenomena are concerned with known facts such
as the build-up of C0« in the atmosphere, decline of solar radiation
as measured on earth and the discovery of high concentration of organic
mercury, lead, cadmium and other substances through awareness of rheir
effects on plants and animals at various locations; also, this second
need should somehow address the problem of receiving early awareness
of environmental hazards which may not yet be known at some specific
point in time. A means for responding to these distinct needs is
discussed briefly in the following two subsections.
4.1.1 Early Warning For Short-Term Episodes
An early warning network to meet short-term episode needs
is characterized by rapid detection, reporting, communication, remedial
action and control response. Elements of such a system must provide
for centralized display to support management for operational planning
-------
and control as well as for rapid dissemination of data and operational
instructions for effective and prompt local action. This will allow
the managers to be aware of tactical developments and quickly draw
upon resources under their control (or request additional resources)
to exercise initiatives, capitalize on auspicious developments or take
actions to thwart unfavorable developments. One solution to this
problem calls for operation of an Environmental Situation Room (ESR),
supported by the necessary sensors, communications links, information
processors and displays. A functional depiction of an early warning
subsystem in support of abatement actions is shown in Figure 1. The
input measures and forecasts which are routinely collected and processed
by local agencies, private sources and Federal agencies normally would
be stored in various central and regional processing centers to
support routine operations* Special techniques should also be employed
specifically for rapid alert purposes. For example, the Radiation
Alert Network provides gross measures of radioactivity so that changes
would provide alerts for more detailed monitoring. Also, the National
Weather Service issues forecasts relating to alerts of prospective
episode conditions and are distributed through the Weather Service
channels. More use should be made of utilizing biological techniques
foij early warning indication. Water samples should be taken routinely
to determine the number and types of organisms present. Frequently,
a reduction in the number of species indicates presence of toxic
substances.
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DM'A INPUT
MEASUREMENTS
AND FORECASTS
WATER QUALITY
AND QUANTITY
AIR QUALITY
AIR POLLUTION
EMISSIONS
METEOROLOGICAL
MEASUREMENTS
AND FORECASTS
RADIATION
HAZARDOUS
SUBSTANCES AND
SPILLS
GEOPHYSICAL
AND UPPER
ATMOSPHERE
BIOLOGICAL
MEASUREMENTS
OTHER ESV.
MEASUREi-lEHTS
A
J
TECHNICAL
SPECIALISTS
INPUT DATA
FROM OTHER
AGENCIES
ON-SITE
REPORTS
-5-1
^L
ENVIRONMENTAL
SITUATION
ROOM
(ESR)
ACTION
VJECH. SUPPORT J
(ACTIONS TAKEN \
TECH. SUPPORT^/
LOCAL CONSTRAINTS
SELECTED
ENVIRONMENTAL DAT
CONTINGENCY PLANS
OTHER
DATA
FOR LOCAL
AUTHORITIES!
^ ^
l\( \
LOCAL
AUTHORITIES
ENVIRONM1
DATA DA
.. J
^~- ' FIGURE 1
FUNCTIONAL DL1 .ci'JON OF EARLY WARNING SUB-SYSTEM
SUPP011TING ABATEMENT ACI10NS
-------
Data obtained from these special techniques would be selected
routinely for analysis required to support the operation of the ESR.
Additionally, during critical episodes such as an oil spill, an accident
involving transportation of hazardous materials, an air pollution
episode or contamination of drinking water in a community, the
selection function would be enacted to tap relevant data during its
flow for normal operational use. Also, special actions would be taken
to increase the surveillance of the affected area. In the case of air
pollution incidents, for example, mobile monitoring stations might be
dispatched to measure emissions, ambient concentrations and pertinent
meterological parameters on a micro-level basis. In the case of
accidents, mobile monitoring would also be enacted. In all such instances,
on-site reports would be available to local authorities and to the ESR.
Information would be sent via teletype, data-phone and by normal telephone
communica tion.
Situation managers in the ESR would have access to all incoming
relevant data as well as to technical specialists. A data bank must
be maintained to contain the selected environmental data, contingency
plans and other technical support information.
Contingency plans for a variety of possible scenarios should have
been prepared to allow maximum utilization of standard guidelines,
action alternatives and standard operating procedures which could be
responsive to a given situation. This would assist in making prompt
decisions and avoiding issuance of conflicting instructions and other
inconsistencies likely to accompany an environmental crisis situation.
-------
The advantages of having available plans for a variety of situations
would increase the effectiveness of federal support, expedite
coordination among EPA, other federal agencies and local authorities and
promote implementation of proper abatement actions. Direct actions
may be taken on a centralized basis; action options, advice and
coordinated instructions in any case would be issued in accordance with
administrative, legal and other jurisdictional constraints.
Technical support data should be accessible to the ESR manager
as required. This could include processed information in the form
of population data for major areas, location of key resources
and services and transportation facilities. A file of such data should
be available in the ESR. Any required data not in the file could be
obtained through coordination with other agencies and the local
jurisdiction involved.
The ESR should be equipped with specially designed displays for
use during emergency situations. A map of the area involved should
be available to the scale required by the situation. A status board
indicating such items as actions taken (e.g. shutdown orders issued,
shutdown accomplished, population evacuated from area A), and
numerical parameters of interest should be provided, with capability
for interrogation of the ESR data bank. The specifications for such
displays should be developed from a detailed requirements analysis.
4.1.2 Early Detection of Long Term and New Environmental
Hazards.
The central feature of the operational concept presented for
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this subsystem (Figure 2) is an Environmental Intelligence
Analysis Center (ENVIAC). The functions of this center would
consist of gathering and sifting through environmental intelligence
data, developing environmental models (taking into account activities
of other environmental research groups), applying these models and
conducting long-term environmental assessment studies. The output of
this Center would:
1) Provide warning reports of newly discovered potential
environmental hazards
2) Prepare plans for rapid implementation of detailed
surveillance of specific pollutants in particular
locations as a result of detection of a potential
environmental hazard
3) Perform special impact analyses
4) Provide evidence for specific environmental policy
recommendations.
Results of items 1) and 3) would be disseminated to research and
analysis groups within EPA as well as to other agencies and research
establishments. Item 2) would be directed to the operational group
within EPA having responsibility for operating special surveillance
systems supporting ENVIAC (discussed below). Technical back-up for
policy recommendations would be made available to EPA decision makers
and other policy groups (e.g. CEQ, OST).
In addition to relying on its own analysts, the Center would be
supported by three major elements:
1) Other Research and Analysis Groups
2) Data from Special Surveillance Networks
3) Bibliographic Dissemination Service.
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SPECIAL
SURVEILLANCE
NETWORKS:
BIOLOGICAL
GEOPHYSICAL
OTHERS
RESEARCH AND
ANALYSIS
GROUPS
A
ENVIRON-
MENTAL
DATA BANKS
DISCOVERIES
PUBLICATIONS,
REPORTS
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
DISSEMINATION
SERVICE
ENVIRONMENTAL
INTELLIGENCE
ANALYSIS
CENTER
ENVIRONMENTAL
INPUTS
(SEE FIG. 1)
INPUTS
FROM
GLOBAL
.MONT TORT MP,
FIGURE 2
FUNCTIONAL DEPICTION OF EARLY DETECTION SUBSYSTEM FOR
ACTIONS PERTAINING TO LONG-TERM ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
WARNING
REPORTS
PLANS FOR
DETAILED
SURVEILLANCE
SPECIAL
IMPACT
ANALYSES
ENVIRONMENTAL
POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
DECISION
GROUPS
-------
ENVIAC would also have access to other Federal environmental
data banks and would receive inputs from global monitoring sites.
Research and analysis groups will provide two types of output.
Discoveries of potential hazards, either through field experimentation
or data analysis, should be immediately sent to ENVIAC. Other publi-
cations and reports prepared by the environmental research community
pertaining to new environmentally oriented scientific discoveries
should be classified and disseminated to the Center through a
Bibliographic and Dissemination SERVICE. This service should also
provide inputs regarding pertinent research in - progress. The recently
completed Study of Environmental Quality Information Programs (SEQUIP)
for the Office of Science and Technology made some specific recommendations
to this effect. These are described in Appendix A to this paper.
The SEQUIP Committee recommended that the Science Information
Exchange of the Smithsonian Institution and the National Technical
Information Service be combined for this purpose. The Center for Short
Lived Phenomena, also of the Smithsonian Institution, currently collects
and selectively disseminates information relating to new discoveries
and field observations for a variety of subject categories. The MITRE
Corporation, in its monitoring system study for the CEQ suggested a
Scientific Environmental Research Volunteer in Cooperative Effort
(SERVICE) Group to report on new and potentially significant environ-
mental developments. The SEQUIP Committee also recommended that
various centers of environmental research allow scientists some time
8
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to classify and report on new findings. Better coverage of
environmental material in secondary journals is also suggested.
There appears to be wide interest in establishing and accomplishing
such a system to meet these needs. All that appears to be required
is strong leadership and competent management to launch and conclude
the design and implementation effort.
Special surveillance networks (including necessary laboratory
resources) should be established to provide direct environmental data
specifically tailored to support ENVIAC's mission. Data from these
networks, which could also be made available to other research groups,
would measure parameters such as CO., atmospheric turbidity and solar
radiation and other geophysical and upper atmospheric pollution data.
In addition, elements of this network would consist of biological
monitoring organisms (indicators, sentinels, bio-assay, detection
and accumulation) for detection of quantities of key pollutants. Since
there are 2.5 million known chemical compounds and 500 new chemical
compounds introduced annually into the environment by industrial
countries, there is certainly a problem in selecting the specific
substances to be monitored. One possibility is to classify substances
on ithe basis of similar chemical properties and monitor specific
representatives in each class. In this way, if subsequent research
indicates that another (unmonitored) substance in the class has
hazardous environmental characteristics it may be that the representative
of the class which was being monitored would have transport character-
istics and other properties which were similar to the substance being
-------
monitored. In this case, some further clues may be available
about the possible intermedia properties of the newly detected
hazardous substance.
Any substance chosen for monitoring should be measured in air,
water and land, as well as in possible species in which it might
concentrate. Correlations should be performed by ENVIAC to attempt
to relate concentrations to effluent amounts. Requirements for the
surveillance networks include standard methods of analysis and
provision of timely dissemination of results to interested specialists.
Immediate reporting capability is generally not required. There should
be sufficient flexibility in the surveillance networks to receive
instructions from ENVIAC for increased surveillance for areas of
specialized interest, as dictated by results of intelligence
evaluation and other pertinent findings.
A.2 Suggested Discussion Topics
a) What are possibilities for early detection and measurements
of environmental hazards (e.g. mercury)? The previous
section indicated the problem of millions of candidates
for monitoring. Do the specific suggestions offered
treat the problem adequately? How can they be improved?
b) What relationships must be established among local,
private and Federal (Regional and Central) groups?
What role will each one play?
c) Develop an overall concept of collection, transmission
and dissemination of earJy warning environmental data.
Show input types and sources, functions, outputs and the
10
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needs which are satisfied. Show how new industrial
processes would be integrated into such a system.
d) What is the proper role for EPA in the development of
the bibliographic component of an early warning system?
e) What specific changes, and extensions would you offer
with respect to the proposed Early Warning System
Operational Concept? For example, what is the
interface between the two subsystems described? What
are the constituents of the special surveillance
networks proposed?
11
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APPENDIX A-
REVIEW OF STUDY OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
INFORMATION PROGRAMS (SEQUIP) IN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
1 - INTRODUCTION
This Appendix presents a review of the subject document which
was prepared under the direction of Dr. Henry Kissman of the National
Library of Medicine, who served as chairman of the SEQUIP committee.
Thirteen members constituted the committee representing HEW, AEC,
Departments of Interior and Agriculture, National Bureau of Standards,
NOAA, Defense Documentation Center, EPA and the Library of Congress.
The report consists of general findings of the committee and special
sections on information technology, water pollution, air pollution,
solid waste management, environmental effects of radiation and
agriculture chemicals. It also consists of a directory of general
information programs and public health information programs as well
as a directory of environmental pollution information and data
programs. While the task of the committee, as specified by OST ,
was to investigate broad environmental quality programs, only
environmental pollution was considered in the report to limit the
scope. The report states, however, that activities associated with
data collection and information systems are generally applicable to
programs outside the environmental area.
The objectives of the committee's study were threefold:
1. Report on studies of scientific and technical information
activities in federal agencies concerned with environmental
projects and improvement.
2. Describe generalized information programs (e.g. national
libraries, clearing house) which serve the environmental
quality field.
3. Assess whether the support activities are sufficient and,
if not, determine how they can be improved.
This Appendix summarizes the major recommendations offered in
the report.
2 - RECOMMENDATIONS
2.1 General
1. OMB promote data and information exchange withJn the
Federal establishment by developing procedures for cost recovery.
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The committee felt that duplication exists in data and services
because operators of information systems are reluctant to offer
services outside of their own organizations, because of lack of
resources.
2. CEQ create in EPA a NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND
INFORMATION DATA SERVICE (MEPIDS).
Inside of EPA this group would pull together the networks absorbed
by EPA., promote standards, coordinate R&D, develop data in the technical
environmental areas and answer queries within the agency. Outside of
EPA this group would initiate network operations to interface with
other environmental data batiks, provide information relating to types
and status of R&D projects, respond to requests, and work with the
National Bureau of Standards and coordinate the information with other
agencies.
3. This group should take into account: requirements of future
economic growth and the global aspects of pollution monitoring.
4. The National Bureau of Standards be assigned responsibility
for developing;
a. standards relating to software development and operation
of data banks.
b. environmental assessment technology including modeling
and simulation.
c. clearing house activities.
d. systems analysis teams to aid agencies in establishing
the necessary interface.
It was proposed that a major part of the fundings for this effort
be provided by EPA and NOAA. Dr. David Freeman, Chief, Separation
and Purification Section, Analytical Chemistry Division, and Dr. David
Wagman, Institute for Materials Research were the National Bureau of
Standards representatives on the Committee.
5. Continue workshop and symposia activities via a formal
mechanism to be established by the Council on Environmental Quality
or COSATI.
This recommendation is offered to stimulate communication among
those concerned with environmental information programs.
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6. The National Referral Center of the Library of Congress
develop tools for improved access to technical information in the environ-
mental quality field.
It was specifically recommended that LC publish a directory of
U.S. Information Resources in the Environmental Quality Area.
7. A single government-wide clearing house be established
to consolidate the activities of such groups as the Science Information
Exchange (SIE) of the Smithsonian Institution and the Technical Infor-
mation Service of the Department of Commerce.
It was further recommended that OMB establish guidelines and
enforce government wide mandatory input requirements for standardization
on an agency wide basis.
8, A national environmental early warning system for monitoring
environmental pollution be incorporated as part of the Center for Short
Lived Phenomena of the Smithsonian Institution.
9. Establish a Hazardous Materials Information Center to be
operated by the Coast Guard and DOT.
The center would collect information on hazardous materials,
cover procedures of handling, and methods of detoxification.
10. A new COSATI panel on environmental quality information
and data systems be established to follow up on these recommendations and
to extend the SEQUIP study into other non-pollution environmental areas
(e.g. wetlands, urban environmental sources).
2.2 Bibliographic Services
Fourteen recommendations of a bibliographic nature dealing with
data dissemination services, clearing house operations, document indexing,
preparation of dictionary and thesaurus and preparation of abstracts were
presented. These are not detailed in this Appendix.
2,3 Water Pollution
The report mentioned that the Office of Water Data Coordination
and the Office of Water Resource Research currently provides a "sinew
for an effective federal wide interagency data and information network
in the water resource aspects of environmental pollution". STORET
was mentioned as a data resource but no comments were made regarding
its current effectiveness.
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2.4 Air Pollution
!• Use existing programs as a basis for satisfying new needs.
Tliis recommendation is generally similar to that offered by the
MITRE Corporation in a study performed for CEQ.
2. Unite pollution monitoring with the meteorological data
collection system.
This recommendation has a significant impact on siting and data
storage. The report pointed out, however, that a technical unification
did not necessarily imply organizational consolidation for operation
and administration of the networks.
3. Expand and optimize air pollution sampling networks.
4. Institute administrative and legislative steps required
to promote Items 2 and 3.
5. Compatibility with and accessibility to existing data banks
be a required consideration in the design of federally built or supported
data banks.
6. Archival problems and uses be a required consideration in
the design of future monitoring programs.
7. High priority be given to the development of data bank
directories and inventories of data sources.
8. Initiate a study to determine how to improve secondary
literature covered in the field of pollution.
The SEQUIP Committee felt that much information about pollution
appeared in secondary journals relating to other disciplines such as
chemistry, physics, oceanography and climatology.
2.5 Solid Waste
1. Expand the resources in the SOLID WASTE INFORMATION
RETRIEVAL SYSTEM of EPA.
2. Greater emphasis be placed on social and behavioral science
aspects of the solid x^aste problem.
3. Establish centers for analysis, evaluation and consolidation
of diverse data in the solid waste field.
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Professionals at these centers would devote part time to these
activities.
2.6 Radiation
The multiplicity of data sources (e.g. AEC, Federal Radiation
Council, Bureau of Radiological Health) is considered to be a healthy
situation by the committee. They recommend strengthening the supported
programs and promote intercommunication among them.
2.7 Agricultural Chemicals
1. A clearing house for pesticide information be formally
established in the TOXICOLOGY information programs of the National
Library of Medicine.
2. Programs on the long term effects of pollutants on man
should adopt the approach of the pesticide committee within EPA which
emphasize epidemiological research.
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PAPER NO. 5
5.0 STANDARDIZED MONITORING DATA ACQUISITION - COMPATIBILITY
ASPECTS
5.1 Problem Perspective
Considering the variety of subjects and the extent of complex
interactions which comprise the environment, it is understandable
why so many governmental agencies representing various disciplines are
concerned with one form or another of environmental monitoring. The first
step in eliminating incompatibilities and duplication in a nationwide
environmental network is to determine who is gathering what kinds of
data. At present the National Referral Center (NRG) in the Library
of Congress has the task of directing inquirers; particularly those
from outside federal agencies, to locations within the government which
might supply various forms of environmental data. In many cases the
NRC has information relating to the published output of a particular
agency but not the types of raw data that may be involved. An effort
should be made to ensure that NRC's referral banks are up-to-date and
as complete as possible.
5.1.1 Siting
The selection of sampling locations (siting) depends on the
specific objectives to be met including a) establishment of existing
or baseline information, b) trends, c) standards compliance, d) docu-
mentation of violations, e) forecasting, f) planning and management
purposes, and g) scientific research. The selection of a monitoring
site is also a function of the parameter of primary concern. For
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instance, when monitoring a particular effluent source in a river,
a station immediately below the mixing zone is best suited for
temperature data. On the other hand, the best location to measure
dissolved oxygen or bacterial levels may be farther away from the
source where more complete mixing has occurred. Ail well and good
if these sites monitor the parameter(s) for which they were designed.
Often, however, practical constraints dictate that a site designed
or located for one purpose (or parameter) also monitor for others.
Incompatibilities arise when trying to compare or aggregate data
from say, a site well located to monitor dissolved oxygen along with
similar data from a site not so designed.
5.1.2 Sensors
With regard to sensing devices an obvious requirement is
that the sensor and its attendant recording equipment be mechanically
and/or electronically compatible. With regard to data requirements
when using sensors of the same design and make, the only problem is
to make certain that they are calibrated to the same reference stan-
dards. Monitoring for a given parameter using sensors based on
different designs or analytical techniques requires intercalibration
to ensure comparability and proper interpretability of the results.
The concept of such calibration measures is covered in paper 3.
5.1.3 Processing
Compatibility in relation to the processing of data will
be understood as those functions necessary to get the raw data
from the sensor into a form suitable for computer input. The
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availability of data in a clearly defined and well documented format
is the basis of an effective processing system. All too often data
are recorded in a format that is complicated, confused, incomplete,
and insufficiently documented. When such data leave the immediate
care of the person responsible for recording them, their utility
is effectively lost. Selection of a format need not constrain an
agency in any way, particularly if data are recorded in machine-
readable form, since the data can then be reproduced with very
little difficulty into a variety of forms and formats. For example,
an agency could use one format for certain internal records and
another format (such as SAROAD*) for interchange of data with other
agencies both within and outside EPA.
Most processing of data will require that data be machine-
readable, either on cards or magnetic tape. If certain monitoring
groups can not afford this, their data can be sent in on forms, and
converted in the most effective manner. The directions for
filling out such forms should be kept as simple as possible and
examples of how to complete the forms are advisable.
Certain types of information are fundamental to most
poUlution monitoring and are typified by the following SAROAD
checklist of data requirements:
* SAROAD Users Manual, Office of Air Programs, EPA, Research Triangle
Park, N.C. (July 1971).
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a) Site identification form
b) Pollutants measured
c) Sampling methods (e.g., Saltzman,
West Gaeke)
d) Instruments
e) Units in which the measurements are
expressed
f) Decimal point location
g) Date of reading
h) Time of reading
i) Sampling frequency
j) Averaging time (duration of sample)
k) Identification of any special codes
1) Special instructions to persons using
data
Although the above list was designed specifically for the monitoring
of ambient air pollution, many of the items apply to other areas of
pollution as well. Certainly for those elements which are common
to several programs EPA should establish agency-wide guidelines
for common reporting practices. These guidelines should also address
the proper form for items which are unique to a monitoring program
in a particular office.
There seems to be a lack of cooperation among computer
manufacturers in terms of data and programs from one machine being
acceptable to another. Even within the same company incompatabilities
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exist depending upon whether a second or third generation machine
is being used. Some of these problems are software related while
others pertain to hardware. The following is a list of items, in
addition to the above listing of data requirements, which will facil-
itate conversions from one system to another:
Punched Cards
a) Identification of any unusual formats, characters,
or punching.
b) Sequence of data cards (e.g., sort sequence, order-
ing , arrangement).
c) Identification of machine on which cards were
generated.
Magnetic Tape
Hardware related
a) Reel identification
b) File number
c) Recording density (556, 800, or 1600)
d) Number of tracks (7 or 9)
e) Parity (odd or even)
f) Recording code (ASCII or EBCDIC)
Software related
g) Record length (in number of characters)
h) Second type (fixed or variable length)
i) Blocking factor (in number of records/block)
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j) Description of file contents
- indicate parameters observed
- number of sites reported
- years spanned
- approximate number of records
k) Description of file format (record layout)
- indicate format identification numbers used
and observation time intervals
1) Description of file sort sequence
- identify individual fields
- indicate major to minor ordering
- for each field indicate whether ascending
or descending
The software problems can often be resolved by programmers
at the data processing center. Even so, correction of such incompati-
bilities is time consuming and should be kept at a minimum. The hard-
ware problems can be solved with clever programming in conjunction
with the necessary conversion hardware. Since not all computer
centers are so equipped, perhaps one computing facility in each
region could be equipped and designated to handle such chores.
5.1.3 Commonality of Language and Unitis
At the present time there exists no dictionary, glossary,
or thesaurus of terms used in the overall environmental field. This
is largely because environmental quality is not a formal scientific
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discipline, but a label given to a variety of activities that cut
across the normal boundaries of science. Moreover, in many areas,
problems require not only technical data but also economic, legal,
political and social data.
The problem of terminology inconsistency is compounded when
exchanging information with foreign institutions. Given the global
nature of environmental pollution, such exchanges will become in-
creasingly important. Already, many countries have made considerable
contributions to our knowledge (e.g. Sweden, Japan). An excellent
service is provided by the Water Pullution Research Board of Great
Britain with its monthly issues of Water Pollution Abstracts.
Even within a single discipline there are differences as
to the use of various terms. A notable example is in the field of
chemistry and the use of several names for the same compound (i.e.,
methanethiol vs. methyl mercaptan). The Chemical Abstract Service
Registry System has identified and coded some 1.5 million compounds
(about 250,000 additions annually) and this program should be promoted
on a widescale basis.
The diversity of units of measurement in use by different
disciplines and organizations can lead to confusion and misinterpre-
tation. Concentrations in water may be expressed in terms of ppm,
milligrams/liter, milliequivalents/liter, molarity normality, or
percent by weight or volume. Another problem concerns the use of the
British vs. metric system of units. To decide to convert to the
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metric system at this relatively early stage in environmental monitor-
ing might make sense in light of a) facility of exchange with most
foreign institutions, and b) the fact that this country itself may
eventually go metric and later more intense confusion would be
averted. A year ago the Office of Air Programs suggested a plan for
adopting the metric system and phasing out British units and espec-
ially mixed units. Judging by the fact that recent legislation on
automobile emissions vas based on grams of pollutant per vehicle
mile, a redoubled effort on an EPA-wide basis is necessary. The
transition should occur gradually to allow personnel to become
accustomed to the new system and for equipment modifications to be
made.
Conversion from one set of units to another is generally
a simple (but time consuming) formality involving multiplying by some
factor. In some cases, however, conversion can be a nuisance. Some
3
conversions require auxilliary information (e.g. ppm to ug/m needs
temperature and pressure data to be done correctly) which may or
may not be available. If it is not available, it might be neglected
or assumed which can lead to the introduction of errors. Often there
is a tendency for, say, state agencies to use their own terminology
even when filling out federal forms. A rather extreme example concerns
a certain state which uses its own state oriented latitude/longitude
system in completing SAROAD forms. A more common incompatibility
occurs when states use their own pollutant and/or site location code
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numbers. In the area of water quality the STORE! system is trying
to unravel the problem of listing of site locations either by "river-
mile" or latitude vs. longitude.
5.2 Suggested Discussion Topics
a) What is the most effective method for promoting program
awareness and reducing duplication of effort in the
various areas of environmental monitoring?
b) How can the selection of computer hardware and software
be optimally coordinated so as to reduce incompatibilities
between systems? Can the cooperation of computer manu-
facturers be enlisted?
c) Whar kind of coordinating group should be established to
ensure the commonality of language and units used in
environmental monitoring? Who should be involved in such
a group and what would be EPA's role?
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PATER NO. 6
6.0 STANDARDIZED MONITORING DATA ACQUISITION - QUALITY CONTROL ASPECTS
6.1 Problem Perspective
Quality control implies the maintenance of certain prescribed
standards of performance or output. Various techniques and models
may be employed to assure that quality is designed into a system
and/or may be regained if the system should deviate unacceptably from
its expected performance. It is sometimes difficult to separate the
functions of standardization and quality control. In these papers
the former will concern itself primarily with the design and setting
of specifications for equipment and procedures (see paper 3) while
the latter involves assuring the quality and reliability of data
produced as a result of these procedures. Quality control, then,
provides for the implementation and continued integrity of
standardization. Even within these guidelines there is some degree
of interplay and feedback which makes overlap inevitable.
With regard to the paragraphs below, it should be borne in
mind that the comments apply not only to monitoring functions "v/ithin"
EPA (including states and regions) but also to contributing groups
outside of EPA such as universities, industries, and other federal
agencies. Within the realm of environmental monitoring there are
several areas where quality control may be applied such as personnel,
equipment, data, and procedures. It should be noted that quality control
applies not only to these component aspects by themselves but also to
their interrelationships and functioning as a whole system. The
following is a proposed outline of functions to be performed by an
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integrated approach to quality control.
6.1.1 Definition of Goals and Objectives of_ a. Monitoring Program
The degree to which quality control is to be applied
throughout a program will depend upon the end uses of the data. Therefore,
the first step is to define the goals and objectives of a program which,
when taken in light of those from other programs, helps establish the
bounds of the quality control effort.
6.1.2 Guidelines for Establishing a_ Monitoring Network
In the setting up of a monitoring network quality control
plays an important part in the implementation of and assuring the adherence
to guidelines in the following areas:
a) Site location - whether a site is chosen on a
random basis, as part of a grid, a combination of these two
ideas, or specifically for a stated purpose depends upon
the use of the data and the parameter(s) measured. Quality
control relates to siting in that it is necessary to
periodically review siting criteria in light of changing
legislation, population and industrial shifts, technological
advances in monitoring equipment, etc. Adjacent construction
projects could require the relocation of a given site.
b) Type of station - data requirements dictate whether
a station should monitor continuously, gather information
integrated over a specific time period, or provide grab
samples to be analysed in the lab. Are che procedural
specifications being adhered to? For instance, in the case
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of grab samples, are the samples taken from the same location
every time, same time of day, etc.?
c) Selection of instrumentation and methods -
instrumentation and methods needs will change as the state-
of-the-art progresses and quality control should see that
these changes are incorporated.
d) Averaging time to be consistent with standards -
if regulations require, say, an 8 hour sampling period,
quality control should see to it that this time period is
not violated beyond certain tolerances.
e) Sampling frequency - in the case of annual averages
of SC>2> adequate coverage may be maintained with intermittent
sampling at frequencies calculated statistically for desired
levels of precision and related to the degree of pollution.
Quality control might suggest a different sampling frequency
if the ambient conditions changed significantly.
f) Instrument maintenance and calibration - with regard
to a particular piece of equipment once the desired accuracy,
precision, sensitivity, and range have been specified, it is
the job of the quality control program to insure that these
attributes be maintained throughout its operation. The
initial calibration and subsequent recalibrations should
be performed according to a schedule deemed necessary for
a particular piece of equipment. Obviously there will be
unscheduled malfunctions and repairs requiring recalibration.
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Quality control should have the responsibility for approving
manuals for maintenance and calibration and updating the
texts of "standard methods."
The dependability of a piece of equipment will be taken
not in terms, necessarily, of its accuracy, but rather with
regard to its amount of operational time vis a vis the time
it is inoperable due to some breakdown. A certain amount of
downtime is to be expected for routine preventive maintenance
and proper scheduling can insure an uninterrupted flow of data;
i.e., nighttime maintenance for pollutants which are most
serious during the day or borrowing standby equipment.
However, unscheduled downtime can result in data gaps
which may impair analysis and interpretation. In order to
better understand and minimize such breakdowns, careful
maintenance logs should be kept indicating such items as type
of failure, probable cause, time, date, frequency of mal-
function, ease of repair, etc.
With regard to the proper functioning of equipment there
are certain external conditions whose quality should be
maintained. These include air conditioning for temperature -
sensitive equipment, constant line voltage, insurance against
power outages or brownouts especially during critical episodes,
special shielding, insulation, or isolation of the housing
for equipment, and the use of high quality laboratory chemicals
and reagents.
g) Questionnaires and surveys - In the case of such areas
as solid waste management and epidemiological studies where
dat'a are derived mainly from questionnaires and surveys rather
4
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than physical measurements or chemical analysis, quality
control implies adherence to reliable polling methods and
survey techniques and proper statistical analyses and
interpretation of results.
6.1.3 Training
The effectiveness of the most carefully designed equipment
and procedures can be seriously reduced in the hands of unqualified
personnel who are not capable nor properly motivated. Providing good
job descriptions is a necessary step for weeding out unqualified
applicants. Educational programs are then promoted to communicate
skills, methods, ideas, objectives, and attitudes. In order to measure
an employee's knowledge and determine what training is needed, a series
of test questions can be designed to be answered by employees in specific
areas.
Such training can take place on two levels:
a) Formal training - in the classroom or at seminars
where theory and lab applications are taught primarily from
the textbook with some supplemental laboratory work.
b) On-the-job-training - in an EPA or accredited state
laboratory with an emphasis on the practical aspects of
monitoring.
It may be desirable to provide a program of requalification.
This may be necessary when a person's performance (competence and attitude)
seem to be waning. Moreoever, changing demands (new equipment, procedures,
regulations) often alter requirements of skill and knowledge and increase
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training needs. Not only does proper training enhance the quality of
the data, but it also helps to cut down on the damage and abuse of
instruments.
6.1.4 Laboratory Certification
To ensure comparability of data, a uniform degree of
excellence should be expected from the various governmental and private
laboratories providing input to EPA monitoring activities. A certification
program with periodic reviews, while not an absolute guarantee of excellence,
is a necessity towards establishing a common denominator of quality
with regard to
a) Compentency of personnel
b) Adequacy of facilities
c) Use of proper analytical methods
d) Uniformity of data handling procedures
6.1.5 Calibration Standards
The quality control program should insure that reference
standards for calibration, developed to EPA's specifications, are cer-
tified by the National Bureau of Standards. For EPA to enforce standards
which it certified itself would present a conflict-of-interest situation.
Calibration techniques and degree may differ for a
particular type of equipment depending upon whether it is designed for
use in the field or in the laboratory. For field instruments calibration
can take place either on-site or at some central laboratory. For the
former there is less downtime involved (if necessary tools are readily
available) and less chance of damage in transit. On the other hand,
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more sophisticated calibration equipment and better trained personnel
are generally available at a central lab where calibration is a major
function. The dc '^ion should be based upon such factors as the
fragility of equi:;nent, availability of on-site redundant monitoring,
and the degree of calibration required.
The question of calibration has special significance
during an episode, or emergency condition. For instance, during an air
pollution episode, there are several stages of increasing severity
where different kinds of pollutant emitters may be required to curtail
or shut down their operations. Since these shutdowns can be very costly
to a company, they should be based on the best of information. A
false alarm could result in a lawsuit being brought against the EPA.
Given the fact that air pollution episodes are somewhat predictable
because certain meteorological conditions must prevail, there is time
for emergency recalibrations to be made on site by special federal
teams or by qualified local personnel.
Calibration standards are necessary in order to make
interlaboratory calibrations using corroborative, or round-robin, testing.
This may be the preferred method for assuring international cooperation
of certain countries where EPA field teams may not be invited due
to diplomatic considerations.
6.1.6 EPA Field Teams
In additon to mailing similar samples to different labs
for corroborative testing, it is desirable to have field teams of
highly trained experts visit the various labs on a periodic and/or
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random basis. Since the number of these teams is small, they may be
limited to providing interregional and interagency calibrations only.
Similar teams could be established by the states, and trained by EPA,
to satisfy their own needs. Since the experience and exchange of
techniques and information would be valuable, the EPA field teams would
be sent to foreign labs on request of the host country.
EPA field teams would be able to perform dynamic calibrations
(DC) on instruments where it is desirable not to shut down the equipment
and this feature (DC) is not inherent to the equipment. This situation
might occur during the air pollution episodes mentioned earlier.
6.1.7 Data Handling and Verification
Although this topic is discussed elsewhere (see paper 5),
a few remarks are in order here.
Proper validation and editing procedures should be
defined and maintained to insure quality contol of data entering the
data banks, regardless of source. This might require establishing
special units to handle data obtained from sources outside EPA.
In the validation and verification of data, one must
be able to discern whether a marked change in data values indicates
a real change in the phenomenon or quantity being measured, an
equipment or human error, or a set of random events. Various statistical
methods are available which should help straighten out such problems.
Another verification technique involves the use of redundant equipment
or a completely different, but equally reliable, method. Spot checks
on data using mobile laboratories is useful in this regard.
8
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An important aspect of quality control related to data
handling concerns the publication of data. Typographical errors
or ambiguous sentences can impair any good results of the previous
efforts. Competent editors with technical training can catch serious
errors which may creep into this last stage of data formulation.
However, in the event that errors from any part of the total
data gathering process get through and are discovered, records of
such discrepancies must be maintained in order that corrective
action and follow-up may be accomplished.
6.1.8 Methodologies. Procedures, and Instrumentation to Meet
Future Needs
Present quality control measures are by and large based
on retrospect. The quality control program should address possible
future needs in terms of new or impending legislation, technical
improvements in monitoring, population growth, pollution forecasts,
and technological shifts (e.g. nuclear vs. fossil-fueled power or
the production of a new class of chemicals).
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The calibre of data from all sources should be of the
same high calibre and mechanisms should be devised to assure compliance.
While coordination of quality control programs may take time and
require compromises among various governmental groups, adequate legis-
lation could provide the impetus to do so. A more difficult problem
arises when trying to enlist the cooperation of groups outside the government,
such as universities and industries. Since much of a university's
monitoring efforts may be supported by Federal funds, financial
pressures can be brought forth. There may also be an incentive for
a university to become a certified lab. Industry participation is
on a more or less voluntary basis and providing for acceptable
compliance could prove difficult. A workable method (e.g. penalties
or incentives, working through trade associations, etc.) must be found -
hopefully short of legislation.
6.2 Suggested Discussion Topics
a) How can the quality of voluntarily supplied data from
private sources be enhanced? What is the most effective and least
costly method to insure that such data are in compliance with
guidelines and standard methods?
b) How can EPA most effectively control the development
and specification of Federal quality control guidelines for data
for which it has enforcement jurisdiction and responsibility? What
are the required procedures for interface with groups such as
private industry, the National Academy of Engineering, and the National
Bureau of Standards?
c) What are the specific areas of environmental data for
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which EPA has primary responsibility? What are the areas of interface
where EPA should exercise a coordinating f-unction?
d) What mechanisms can be established now to anticipate
future quality control requirements?
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Paper No. 7
7.0 MONITORING TECHNIQUES
7.1.0 Problem Perspective
7.1.1 Monitoring Techniques, General
The theme of this paper is the state-of-the-art in moni-
toring techniques for all forms of pollution for which EPA has
responsibility. Such a theme natural]y invites a wide range of
possible discussion topics. In order to bound the problem it has
been assumed that monitoring techniques is synonymous with cwo areas
of concern only. The first area is the monitor in which questions of
detectors, calibration circuits, signal conditioning and on-site
recording are included. The second area of concern is the experimental
method. Data transmission, data processing, storage and retrieval,
data analysis and data reporting are a part of monitoring techniques but
are not discussed in this paper.
Both in-situ and remote monitoring techniques are addressed in this
paper. In-situ monitors is that general class of monitors that sense
only the condition at the point at which the monitor is placed. Ail other
environmental monitoring techniques are defined as remote techniques.
In this paper all discussions of in-situ versus remote monitoring
requirements, have been presented equally in order to engender the
selection of the better method as soon as practicable.
In-situ monitors while generally simpler than remote monitors have
several shortcomings. In-situ monitors generally require separate
sensing elements for each pollutant constituent. Also, since the
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radius of comprehension of such sensors is small, a considerable
number of monitoring sites is required in order to understand the
areal extant of the polluted area.
While most remote monitors are not yet developed sufficiently
for operational use, they do lend themselves to the sensing of areal
coverage questions well. Such monitors are generally more expensive
and complex than in-situ sensors but because of the large areal
coverage capabilities of remote monitors, the investment in these
monitors should prove to be cost effective. Remote monitors thus can
be directed to cover wide areas of interest to EPA and will be of great
value for supporting the Agency's role in surveillance of environmental
quality. Thus a few properly placed remote monitoring systems on
platforms capable of reasonable deployment may logically be looked upon
as a very likely monitoring technique of the near future. The optimum
mix of both in-situ and remote sensors is the kernel of our concern.
7.1.2 Organization Considerations
Inherent in the expeditious development of an effective
monitoring technique is the manner in which the system is designed,
developed and administered. The objectives of overall monitoring
system as a whole are:
a. To produce information on environmental levels, trends and
patterns of components (solid, liquid or gaseous), trace
metals and nonmetals in all urban and non-urban areas of the
U. S.
-------
b. Identification and quantification of new or newly recognized
pollutants.
c. Increase the basic understanding of the source-receptor
relationships, pollutant interactions and decay processes.
d. To develop a bank of environmental data for use by Federal,
State, local agencies and the general public.
Such a monitoring system requires interaction among the ten EPA
regional offices, the Enforcement, Media and Categorical offices of
EPA;- and the Office of Monitoring of EPA. EPA may request the
assistance of other Federal, national and international organizations
in the development of environmental monitors.
The major responsibility in EPA for the development of monitoring
techniques rests with the Office of Monitoring. This organization in
turn directs and/or coordinates the development of all EPA monitoring
techniques.
7.1.3 State-of-the-Art in Monitoring Techniques
The integrated nationwide environmental monitoring pro-
gram - short term and long term (discussed in papers No. 1 and 2) are
constructed on the foundation of realizeable techniques in the time
framework selected. The systems tradeoffs and the optimum system depend
fundamentally and to a large degree on the state-of-the art (SOA)
of monitoring techniques. Data transmission and handling techniques
today generally outstrip the capability in producing reliable, accurate
monitoring techniques.
-------
For ease of discussion of the SOA of monitoring techniques, the
discussion below is structured along the following lines. For each
media or category, the first breakdown is by Use, listed as follows:
a) Ambient
b) Emission sources - stationary
c) Emission sources - mobile
d) Natural processes (meteorology, hydrology)
e) Effects (biological, societal, economic)
Remote techniques are contained within each Use area.
7.1.3.1 Techniques for Air Pollution Monitoring
The development of all monitoring requirements
and the analysis of all techniques to satisfy each requirement is
the first and fundamental step in the design of the monitoring
system. Such a requirements analysis has been performed by the
Office of Air Programs with the support of the Esso Research &
*
Development Company in the time period covering fiscal years 1972
through 1977. Sixth-three tasks for monitor development and ninety-
two tasks for methods development were developed with the requirements
in each of the areas of Use in Table 7-1-1.'
Review of the status in the development of air pollution moni-
toring at any time, depicted in Table 7-1-1, points out clearly that
*EPA Plan for Air Pollution Measurement Technique Development Fiscal
Years 1972-1977, First Draft, July 1971, CPA 22-69-154.
-------
TABLE 7-1-1
AIR POLLUTION MONITORING TECHNIQUES - STATUS OF DEVELOPMENT AS OF JULY 1972
AhUlJiMl
AIR
QUALITY
SOURCE -
STATIONARY
SOURCES -
MOBILE
METEOR-
OLOGY
EFFECTS
S
M
S
M
S
M
S
M
S
M
RESEARCH
3
3
1
2
0
3
0
0
0
1
DEVELOPMENT
10
6
12
7
10
15
4
0
2
1
TEST AND
EVALUATION
5
6
7
20
3
2
0
0
0
0
COLLABORATIVE
TESTS
4
4
1
13
0
0
0
0
0
0
PROMULGATION
1
7
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
TOTAL
23
21
13
4
2
63
26
44
20
0
2
92
S - MONITORS
M - METHODS
Reference: Air Pollution Measurement Technique Development
Fiscal Years 1972-1977, First Draft July 1971,
CPA 22-69-154
-------
the efforts to produce promulgated methods and monitors is an involved
process. The comprehension of the state-of-the-art in over one hundred
and fifty areas covering five different Use areas requires a considerable
effort. Methods and monitors already promulgated are not included in
Table 7-1-1.
7.1.3.1.1 Additional Information on Remote Monitors
for Air Pollution Assessment
It is interesting to note that of the sixty
odd sensor programs approximately fifteen percent arc remote monitors.
Air pollution surveillance has several promising and interesting new
techniques. Included among the instrumentation proposed for detecting
air pollutants are infrared sensors, derivative spectrometry, dis-
persive correlation spectrometry, laser technology and assorted
electro-optical techniques.
7.1.3.1.1.1 Active Remote Techniques - Laser Based
At the present time the Environmental
Protection Agency is monitoring over 10 atmospheric pollutants
throughout the United States. In general, over 90 percent of these
pollutants are in a gaseous state in concentrations that vary between
0.01-10 ppm for molecules and 0.01-10 ppb for metal vapors. Progress
in monitoring air quality has been impeded in the past by a lack of
techniques for detecting pollutants in three dimensions over large
expanses of the atmosphere with sufficient resolution in time and
space to permit qualitative and quantitative sensing in real time.
However, the advent of the pulsed laser coupled with radar techniques
6
-------
(lidar) marked the beginning of major progress in quantitative remote
sensing of the atmosphere. More recently, other techniques previously
enumerated have also taken on a major importance in the field of air
quality surveillance. As a result, a wide range of applications have
been explored with increasingly sophisticated techniques. In many of
these applications, lasers are used as atmospheric illuminators in
preference to other light sources because the monochromaticity of the
laser allows discrimination against background noise through the use
of narrow band filters. In addition, the high peak power and narrow
pulses yield good signal-to-noise ratios and range resolution, even
for low cross-section scatterers. Practical laser systems now range
in peak pulse power to several hundred megawatts. Pulse widths are
—ft
as short as 10~ seconds and pulse repetition rates are as high as
1000 pps. However, not all the desired characteristics of frequency,
power, pulse width, pulse repetition rate, coherence, beam divergence,
efficiency, and compact size are available in the same laser.
Since all molecular air pollutants have characteristic
absorption spectra throughout the electromagnetic spectrum,it should
be possible to detect these pollutants through absorption spectroscopy
techniques. However, these techniques have not been practical in
the past because the small absorptions (caused by the low concentration
of most pollutants) have made it necessary to use very long path length
absorption cells. In addition, data collection was very slow due to the
limited source strength available from conventional light sources. The •
-------
recent introduction of a number of different types of IR lasers has
made remote sensing of air pollutants a practical reality and demon-
strated that these techniques have adequate sensitivity to detect
pollutants at the concentrations found in city air.
In order to utilize these intense sources to measure the very
weak IR absorptions produced by air pollutants, it is necessary to
detect the resonance absorption of the gas rather than the attenuation
of the beam as it passes through the sample since the attenuation
will be very small for reasonable path lengths and will be hard to
detect. Other techniques employed for detecting air pollutants
include Mie and Rayleigh scattering, Raman back scattering, and
angular scattering phenomena involving polarization effects.
Because of specific molecular interaction, absorption and back-
scattering, electro-optic techniques employing lasers have the unique
capability of identification of atmospheric gases. In addition to
studying the properties of the gaseous components of the atmosphere,
the distribution, intensity, and dynamics of precipitation, clouds,
and aerosol particles are also potentially available for study.
7.1.2.1.1.2 Passive Remote Techniques
The techniques cited above using
lasers as atmospheric illuminators are examples of active remote
sensing techniques. In contrast to this approach other investigators
are concentrating on passive methods which require highly sophisticated
correlation techniques for detecting atmospheric pollutants. Until
8
-------
recently the passive approach centered on dispersive elements such as
gratings and prisms for separating the information content of incoming
signals. This method had the disadvantage of requiring long integration
times since incoming signals were usually faint. More recently, tech-
niques have been developed, based on interferometric principles, that
carry out correlation in real-time. These devices correlate against
the fourier transform of the spectrum rather than the spectrum itself.
The correlation interferometer may prove to be particularly suitable
for application in the infrared due to its large light throughout this
region and the fact that almost all gases have complex and characteristic
spectral signatures in this region. Instruments of the correlation
interferometer type have also been constructed for use in the UV and
visible portions of the spectrum and correlation masks have been pre-
pared for many common air pollutants such as S0_, N0_, NO and some of
the halogens.
7.1.3.1.1.3 Derivative Spectrometry
Still another powerful analytical
technique for detection of air pollutants is the derivative spectro-
meter. This instrument offers an alternate approach to the detection
and measurement of substances by measuring the gradient (derivative)
of absorbivity or reflectivity with wavelength. This approach has
proven very effective for the detection of weak spectral features
because the derivative of the proven spectrum exhibits much more
structure than is immediately apparent in the absorption or reflectance'
spectrum itself.
-------
Derivative spectra may be obtained by derivative densitometry
of spectrograms or by computer processing of recorded spectra. An
alternative approach is the electromechanical or electronic differen-
tiation of the output of a scanning monochromator. A fourth technique
is wavelength modulation during spectral scanning employing simultaneous
wavelength modulation at high frequency over narrow spectral regions
with wavelength scanning at a lower rate.
The sensitivity of the derivative spectrometric technique to
faint absorption features makes it valuable for the detection and
identification of trace gases in the atmosphere. Care must be taken,
however, to compensate for the derivative features due to Fraunhofer
lines where detecting atmospheric pollutants using backscattered
sunlight.
7.1.3.1.1.4 STARTAP Approach
Another remote technique for deter-
mining atmospheric pollution on a global scale is the approach given
•if
the acronym of STARTAP. It is based on the extinction of light
from astronomical bodies. Preliminary research has indicated that
analysis of stellar and solar spectrograms shows promise for identifying
various molecular species and atmospheric pollutants. Analysis of
atmospheric -extinction data indicates a very good correlation with
atmospheric aerosol and particulate levels. With use of observations on
*Proposal for Project STARTAP (Standardized Techniques for Atmospheric
Research through Astronomical Procedures), P-321-7-71, Smithsonian
Institution, July 1971.
10
-------
file at observatories, it has become possible, for the first time,
to determine global trends in particulate loading during several
decades. The approach makes use of these data and specifies the
potential exploitation of unique astronomical observing techniques as
a means of providing atmospheric pollution data that may be otherwise
unobtainable.
7.1.3.1.2 Additional Information on In-Situ Monitoring
Techniques for Air Pollutants
Pollutants can generally be referred to as
particulates (either suspended or settled) and gases. Particulate
matter below 20u in diameter is considered suspended particulate
(with special attention being paid to those below O.lu and respirable
fraction). Currently, the prime measurement approach for total
suspended particulates is the high-volume sampler, which merely draws
air past a filter, where the suspended particulate is captured. The
filter is then analyzed gravimetrically. Analyses for metals, soluble
ions, cations, anions, etc. are made by chemically analyzing portions
of the filter paper. For the measurement of the respirable fraction,
inertial devices are used. Various photometric devices, such as the
nephelometer and Volz sunphotometer, are used for aerosol measurement.
For measurements of gaseous pollutants, several general principles
or techniques are used. These include, but are not limited to, the
following:
11
-------
Cheniluminescence relies on the flourescence caused by the
chemical reaction of a pollutant gas on a surface treated with a
suitable dye (rhodamine B in the case of ozone monitors). The light
emitted from the surface is collected in a photomultiplier tube,
the resulting current being proportional to the concentration of the
pollutant gas.
Colorimetry relies on a color change in a liquid reagent,
caused by the absorption of an atmospheric contaminant. In some
cases, this color change is noted by eye; but in most instruments,
the fluid is passed through a flow colorimeter that measures
absorption at a fixed wavelength. The resultant color change is
proportional in intensity to the concentration of the contaminant.
Conductimetry involves the absorption of an atmospheric con-
taminant in a liquid reagent (the contaminant must be an electrolyte
in solution) and subsequent measurement of the electrolyte conductivity,
which is then related to the concentration of contaminant in the
sample gas. In sulfur dioxide sensors, the gas is absorbed in a
deionized water-based reagent. This absorption produces an acid
whose conductance can be measured with a conductivity cell. The
change in conductivity is proportional to the sulfur dioxide
absorbed.
Coulometry involves a reaction between the atmospheric
pollutant being measured and a substance within an electrolytic
cell. This reaction produces a change in the electromotive force,
which is related to the pollutant concentration.
12
-------
Flame ionization is used to measure the concentration of
organic compounds in the atmosphere. The air sample is burned in
a hydrogen-oxygen flame, causing the carbon atoms in the organic
material to become ionized. The ions are collected, and the
measured charge is then proportional to the organic-pollutant
concentration in the air stream.
Flame photometry determines pollutant concentrations by
measuring the intensity of the visible and ultraviolet spectra
emitted by pollutant molecules when the sample gas stream is
burned.
Gas chromatography relies on the difference in mobility of
different molecular species traversing a column of packing material.
If a gas sample is introduced at one end of the column, the
molecular species move through the column at different rates and
appear at the end of the column sequentially, where they can be
identified by a variety of techniques, including flame photometry.
Infrared spectroscopy determines the concentration of gaseous
pollutants by measuring the absorption of electromagnetic energy
by the characteristic vibrational excitations of the pollutant
molecules. This approach can be used by both remote and in-situ
monitoring techniques.
Microwave spectroscopy can determine the concentration of any
gaseous nollutant with a dinole moment bv measuring the absorption
of electromagnetic radiation by the characteristic rotational
13
-------
excitations of the pollutant molecules. This approach can be used by
both remote and in-situ monitoring techniques.
Nondispersive infrared (NDIR) involves the absorption of infrared
radiation by an atmospheric contaminant. An infrared source, usually
Nichrom filaments, generates two parallel beams of infrared radiation.
One beam traverses a sample cell, and the other traverses a comparison
cell containing a nonabsorbing gas. The emergent radiation from both
beams is directed to a detector cell, which consists of two gas-filled
compartments separated by a flexible diaphragm. An interrupter, or
"chopper," located between the radiation source and the cells alternately
blocks radiation to the sample cell and to the comparison cell. When
the infrared beams are equal, then equal amounts of radiation are entering
the detector cell and a "zero" or background reading is recorded. When
the gas to be analyzed is introduced into the sample cell, it absorbs
(and reduces) the radiation reaching the detector via the sample beam.
The beams, therefore, become of unequal strength, thus causing the
detector gases to expand or contract and the diaphragm to move in response.
This movement, when amplified, gives an indication of the concentration of
the sample gas. The NDIR approach can be used by both remote and in-situ
monitoring techniques.
Most of these methods, especially the uet-chemical ones, have
numerous drawbacks. One overall deficiency of prime concern is the
excessive failure rate of almost all air sampling instruments. While much
attention has been given to their accuracy, specificity, and similar
characteristics little progress has been made in improving the reliability-
14
-------
of sensor operation and for the integration of the monitoring techniques
into a regional system.
7.1.3.2 Monitoring Techniques for Water Quality. A requirements
analysis similar to the analysis for air pollution, discussed in Section
7.1.3.1, can be produced for the water quality field. Some of the water
pollution parameters of interest are shown in Table 7-1-2 and require
precision for measurement of some nineteen of these quantities shown in
Table 7-1-3.
The state of the art in in-situ water quality monitoring techniques
has not been assembled for this paper. A digest of remote monitors is
included below.
7.1.3.2.1 Remote Monitors for Water Quality. The remote surveil-
lance of water surfaces has a history almost as old as the camera itself.
Practically speaking, however, it was the scientific developments during
and after World War II which placed remote sensing of land and water
areas on a sound footing with the development of heat sensitive, or IR,
film and radio frequency sounding techniques, .or radar. More recently,
other technological advances have broadened the scope of remote sensing
instrumentation to include spectrometric, radiometric, passive microwave,
multispectral and other selected techniques.
Historically, the primary basic sensor used for remote surveillance
of water and land surfaces has been the camera and it is likely to remain
so for some time because it is still the easiest, cheapest, simplest, and
most versatile of remote sensors. Infrared film can readily distinguish
15
-------
TABLE 7-1-2
WATER POLLUTANTS
OXYGEN DEMANDING WASTES
*BOD
TOC
MBAS
*Nitrates & Nitrites as N
*Phosphorus
INFECTIOUS AGENTS
Microbiological
*Coliform
*Fecal Coliform
PLANT NUTRIENTS
MBAS
*Nitrates & Nitrites as N
-'Phosphorus
SYNTHETIC ORGANIC
Chemical Exotics and Pesticides
*Insecticides
*Herbicides
CCE
Oil and Grease
INORGANIC AND MINERAL SUBSTANCES
INORGANIC AND MINERAL SUBSTANCES (Cont'd)
*Lead
Manganese
*Mercury
Nickel
*Nitrates & Nitrites as N
*Phosphorus
Selenium
Silver
Sulfate
Strontium
Tellurium
Thallium
Uranyl Ion
Vanadium
*Zinc
Cyanide
Tin
SEDIMENTS
*Turbidity
Total Residue
Filtrable Residue
Total Dissolved Solids
Hardness as CaCOo
RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
Aluminum
Ammonia as N
Antimony
Arsenic
Asbestos
Barium
Beryllium
Boron
*Cadmium
Chlorine
*Chroraium (hexavalent)
Cobalt
Copper
Dissolved Oxygen
*Fluoride
Hardness as
Calcium
Magnesium
Molybdenum
Iron
*Gross Beta
*Radium-226
*Strontium-90
Thorium
Uranium
VIII, Thermal
Effluent heat content or
temperature rise of effluent.
Initial set of pollutants
to be monitored
16
-------
TABLE 7-1-3
PARAMETERS OF CURRENT INTEREST FOR WHICH SENSORS DO MOT EXIST*
RANGES OF
CONCENTRATION
DESIRED
mg/1
PARAMETER
Organic nitrogen
Ammonia nitrogen
Nitrate nitrogen
Nitrite nitrogen
Inorganic phosphorus
Organic phosphorus
COD
**•
MBAS
Acidity or alkalinity
Hardness
Sulfate
Phenols
Calcium
Cyanide
Manganese
Zinc
Sodium
Potassium
Copfler
L M
0-1
0-1
0-1
0-0.1
0-2
0-2
0-50
0-1
0-250
0-250
0-100
0-0.5 0-5
0-100
0-0.1 0-1.0
0-0.5
0-2
0-100 0-500
0-10 0-100
0-0.5
H
0-10
0-10
0-10
0-2
0-20
0-20
0-500
1-10
0-1000
0-1000
0-1000
0-50
0-1000
0-10
0.5
0-10
0-5000
0-1000
0-5.0
PRECISION
DBS IRABLE
mg/I
L
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
1
J_
0.01
b
5
2
0.01
2
0.005
0.01
0.01
2
0.5
0.01
M H
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.1
0.5
0.5
10
0.1
50
50
20
0.1
20
0.05 0.5
0.1
0.5
10 100
5 50
0.1
** tfethylene blue active substances.
'Green, R. S., Monitoring Water Quality for Pollution Control, presented at
12th Annual Analytical Instruments Division (AID) Symposium, Instrument
Society of America, on May 11, 1966, at Houston, Texas.
'JJOTE: Since this paper was presented, decelopuents have been made in sensors
for nitrate, sulfate* sodium, potassium, and calcium.
17
-------
between vegetation, bare land surfaces and water as can other conventional
color and black and white films, and in addition it lends itself to evalu-
ating thermal pollution, and to some extent, the biological productivity of
lakes and streams. Photographic techniques have successfully been used in
detecting underwater outfalls, plumes of light-colored effluents resulting
from municipal waste treatment discharges, downstream eutrophication from
waste discharges, and land drainage wastes which may include leaves and
trash washed into streams and whose biological reduction by natural pro-
cesses may induce deoxygenation. In addition, algae and other biological
activity can be imaged very distinctly in IR film.
7.1.3.2.1.1 Multiband Camera. Representative of this class of
instrument is the multiband camera. The synoptic multiband camera system
combines the taking of a photograph of a very large scene along with the
ability to discriminate between objects in that scene. This results from
differences in reflecting the various optical wavelengths from sunlight
illumination. Stereo images complete this capability.
The synoptic multiband camera system has uses in many applications
areas for remotely monitoring water quality and land use conditions.
Functional examples include multispectral photographic studies to identify
coastal water radiance, water color, wave refraction, algal blooms,
sedimentation and water luminance among others.
From identification of these parameters it is expected that several
dynamic processes will be delineated, viz., coastal currents, biological
communities, refraction patterns from shoaling waves and breaking surf,
sea ice, etc. In addition, it should be possible to chart river effluent
18
-------
discharge patterns, shallow water sediment migrations, coastal topography,
beach erosion, and shoreline changes. Exanunation of relationships
between seasonal/climate changes and sea surface state for use in
oceanographic forecasting should also be possible from these experiments.
These analyses are made possible because spectral differences in
reflection have been shown to correlate closely with compositional and
textural properties of material types thus providing a means of
discrimination. Multiband (or multispectral) photographic techniques have
been employed recently with considerable success for such discrimination
from NASA, USDA, and USGS aircraft.
Other instruments operating in different regions of the electro-
magnetic spectrum have more recently been proposed for remote sensing of
water and land surfaces. Most of these are still in development or
being used in field trials by NASA, USDA, USGS, and DOD as well as in-
vestigators in the Private Sector. Some of the more promising of these
techniques are briefly described below and illustrated with specific
examples.
Closely allied to photographic techniques'in that the medium of
record is film (or other heat sensitized surface) are multispectral line
scanners which generally operate in spectral bands between 0.35u and 15u.
This class of instruments is most useful in detecting heated effluents
from power plants, industrial processes, monitoring surface temperatures
of rivers, lakes, and streams and has been highly effective in detecting
oil slicks in coastal waters and lakes. These instruments have the
great advantage of operating during the day or night since the thermal
IR region (>3u) is an emissive region and does not depend on the sun's
19
-------
reflected energy. Generally, these instruments are more costly to
operate and maintain and frequently require a computer to analyze the
raw data.
In contrast to cameras and line scanners, radiometers, both micro-
wave and IR are non-imaging sensors which measure emitted or reflected
electromagnetic energy and display this information on a strip chart or
magnetic tape. They operate in the same spectral domain as multispectral
imagers as well as at microwave frequencies and are useful in recording
spectral signatures of various objects and providing surface temperature
measurements.
.Considerable success has been obtained by NASA's Ames Research Center,
for example, in detecting oil slicks through use of a radiometer and
spectroradiometer they have developed. Based on the fact that ordinary
sea water reflects blue-green (0,45-0.50u) light most effectively and
has almost no reflectance at UV (0.38u) or red (0.6u) wavelengths while
oil, on the other hand, has its highest reflection at 0.38u and 0.60u,
the oil spills stood out dramatically at these wavelengths. In addition,
it was discovered that the polarization of light reflected from the oil
differed by about 25 percent from that reflected from the water.
Microwave radiometers have also been used for detecting oil spills
and have also been employed for detecting sea ice, surface temperature,
and salinity.
The passive microwave imager, in contrast to the radiometer,
constructs a picture of a viewed surface such that the light and dark.
intensities displayed on the image are related to the amounts of micro-
wave energy radiated by the objects in the scene. This is similar to
photography but requires specialized apparatus to receive and record
the longer, invisible wavelengths involved which are emitted by all
objects as a result of their temperatures.
20
-------
The passive microwave imager has the potential for providing EPA
with complete stereoscopic brightness temperature maps of lakes, streams,
oceans, etc. This information helps describe the large surface areas
that can be rapidly covered by aircraft or spacecraft. Surface features
detectable by this technique include surface temperatures and roughness,
temperature gradients, and water-ice interfaces, among others. A lengthy
list of exemplary applications for this instrument is presented in the
March 1966 Prospectus for the Natural Resources Program published by
NASA.
One passive microwave imager commonly used for remote sensing
utilizes state-of-the-art receivers having internal-noise outputs of about
1°K. On this basis temperature differentials of approximately 3°K wJ11 be
detectable with a probability greater than 0.9. Estimates of anticipated
temperature differentials to be encountered based on surface element
differences in roughness and/or dielectric constants point toward expected
differentials of 8°K or more.
One of the newer passive microwave imaging systems was developed by
NASA's Manned Spacecraft Center. This instrument, operating at 10.69 GHZS
uses a two-dimensional phased array antenna to achieve scanning transverse
to the flight path. The instrument converts microwave signals to elec-
trical signals which modulate the control grid of a fluorescent tube.
The varying light signals on the face of the tube are recorded on 35 mm
black and white film. The great advantage of this imager, as with other
microwave devices, is its all weather operational capabilities. A
disadvantage is its poorer spatial resolution compared with conventional
photographic syste;ns. However, this instrument should be useful in
monitoring large scale environmental changes during periods of inclement
weather when other instruments are rendered inoperable.
21
-------
In summary, the passive microwave imager provides an essential
remote sensor component for monitoring environmental factors related to
water surfaces yielding such information-as thermal maps, surface
structure, and inference on sub-surface features down to tens of centimeters
depending on moisture or conductive content.
7.1.3.2.1.2 Altimeter/Scatterometer. Another useful sensor operat-
ing in the microwave region is the radar altimeter/scatterometer. This
radar instrument produces onboard magnetic tape records whose informational
content contains both measurements of the distance of the instrument
platform to the Earth (altimetry), and the radar reflection properties of
the Earth's surface structures at various angles of elevation from the
vertical or nadir direction (scatterometry). This remote sensor operates
at radio wavelengths of about 3 centimeters.
An alternate pulse of 4 microseconds width supplies the information
on the radar reflection properties of ground surfaces; technically, the
scatter cross-section of the ground structure illuminated out to an
angle of 60° from the vertical.
By comparing records of a succession of pulses as the aircraft moves
forward, a given patch of ground is viewed at diffex-ent angles so that
one can also derive how a given ground element changes its scatter
ability with various aspect angles of illumination.
In addition, the altimeter/scatterometer is capable of transmitting
and receiving horizontal and vertical polarizations. These are radio
waves which generate electrical voltages which arc maximum in a direction
horizontal or vertical to the ground respectively. Such capability will
aid considerable in interpreting water surface roughness.
22
-------
7.1.3.2.1.3 Sidelooking Airborne Radar . Still another radar sensor
is the sidelooking radar which in addition to being a day/night sensor,
is capable of functioning in all types of weather as well since it can
operate at microwave frequencies which are located in the atmospheric
windows. Although this sensor was not specifically designed for pollu-
tion detection, it is nevertheless effective in monitoring strip and
pit mining operations as well as other large scale features of land and
water surfaces. For example, sidelooking radar can also be used to
monitor extent and changes in large industrial waste ponds and detecting
oil spills.
7.1.3.3 Monitoring Techniques for Noise. Noise is generally defined
as "unwanted sound," but there is no generally accepted definition of
sound pollution. Among the characteristics of sound that enter into
its becoming noise are intensity, frequency, intermittency, inappropriate-
ness, interference with the task of the hearer, unexpectedness and
masking effect of other sounds. In addition, culturally associated
preferences of the hearer enter into judgments about noise. Thus, while
many people would no doubt agree that life is becoming noisier, few are
able to suggest quantitative methods for characterizing the noisiness
of their environment.
23
-------
The effects of noise can be though of in terms of a physiological-
psychological dichotomy. The major physiological effect of exposure to
loud sound is an impairment of hearing, either permanent or temporary.
The temporary effect, measured as a temporary shift in hearing threshold,
is similar to the phenomenon of not being able to see well in a darkened
room after having entered from a well-lighted area. After long-term
exposure to excessive noise levels, the threshold shift can become
permanent, and the individual becomes "hard of hearing."
Other physiological effects are pain, alternations in respiration
circulation, basal metabolic rate, and muscle tension.^ Many of these
are doubtless coupled to psychological effects such as nervousness,
anxiety, increased irritability and insomnia. Yet other psychological
effects are related to the aesthetic qualities of sound. Indeed, as
sounds are added to a quiet environment, the distinction between noise
and acceptable sound is likely to be made on aesthetic grounds. Thus,
a baby crying in the next apartment or a dog barking across the street
will probably be considered disturbing noise, while the profusion of
bird, cricket and other animal calls at dusk would be welcomed by many
people.
With so many types of attributes, some quantifiable, others so
dependent on cultural and personally variable standards ami responses,
an jail-inclusive index of noise and sound quality of the environment is
indeed an elusive goal. One method for calculating an index on the
basis of average or reasonable life styles is described in the reference
Breyssee, Peter A., "Sound Pollution - Another Urban Problem,"
The Science Teacher, April 1970, pages 29-34.
24
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below . The approach is quite general and adaptable to change in
emphasis. The specific exposure values and limits, while based on informa-
tion from the technical literature, are not rigidly prescribed and can
be adjusted to conform to expert consensus without invalidating the over-
all approach. For further details on a new but within the state-of-
the-art noise monitor see "he reference below.
7.1.3.4 Radiation. Radioactivity can occur for air, land and
water. However, this section deals only with those types of radiation
which are capable of injuring man and/or his environment. These include
alpha and beta particles, protons, neutrons, cosmic radiation, gamma
rays, X-rays, and -microwaves. Man is constantly exposed to radiation,
both natural and man-made. Natural radiation derives from cosmic radia-
tion and naturally radioactive uubstances in the earth and instructural
materials. Man-made sources include weapons fallout, color TV sets,
nuclear power plants, medical uses, kitchen appliances and radar hardware.
The situation regarding radioactive pollution is somewhat unique
in that great foresight was involved at the dawn of the nuclear age in
terms of strict legislation and a sense of moving forward with caution.
Extensive studies, monitoring, and data collection have been performed
by the Atomic Energy Commission and branches of HEW for a number of
years.
With regard to the overall annual radiation dose which the average
man receives, by far the biggest contribution is that of naturally
*
occurring background radiation (reference, next page) for which he is not
responsible and cannot reduce appreciably. Medical treatment, including
"Monitoring the Environment of the Nation," Appendix A-2,
Mitre MTR 1660, April 1971, pages 91-106.
25
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dental, diagnostic, and therapeutic uses, accounts for a somewhat
smaller amount with radioactive pollution also providing a relatively
small portion.
Nevertheless, considering the trend toward installing more nuclear
power plants and the still uncertain long-term and synergistic effects
of radiation, it is necessary to maintain a strong monitoring capa-
bility in this area. The United States has good cooperation with
Mexican and Canadian authorities with regard to their monitoring activi-
ties.
7.1.3.4.1 Monitoring Networks and Quantities/Substances Sampled.
Contained in Table 7-1-4 are the names of a number of radiation monitor-
ing networks. The monitoring techniques are contained in the four
references listed below.
Information on the monitors and methods has not been performed but
it is believed that most networks have been built using AEC approved
hardware and procedures.
A unified requirements analysis similar to the analysis for air
pollution monitoring techniques should be considered.
7.1.3.5 Monitoring Techniques for Pesticides. In order to trace
and assess the movement of pesticides throughout the environment, it
* "Radiation Biology," Allison P. Casarett, Prentice Hall (1968),
** "Radiation Surveillance Networks," WASH-1148, Robert E. Allen
(Nov. 1969).
*** National and International Environmental Monitoring
Activities—A Directory, Smithsonian Institution, (Oct. 1970).
**** "Modifications of Environmental Surveillance Network
Operations," Bureau of Radiological Health (May 18, 1970).
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TABLE 7-1-4
Monitoring Networks & Quantities Sampled
Media
or
Category
AIR
Netv/ork
or
Agency
Sampled Quantities & Substances
Radiation Alert
Network, APCO/EPA
Health & Safety
Network, AEC
International
Atomic Energy
Agency, IAEA
Some IQSY sites
in U.S.
NOAA
TSP, gross a , gross /? , plutonium.pre-
precipitation & tap water
Plutonium, other radionuclides
Hydrogen isotopes (deuterium & tritium
and oxygen -18
Cosmic radiation
Gamma radiation
WATER Tritium
Surveillance
System
Bureau of
Commercial
Fisheries
Geological
Survey & Water
Quality Office/
EPA
Bureau of
Radiological
Health
Surface water, precipitation monitoring,
gross $ , tap water
Radionuclides in estuaries and
marine environment
Radionuclides , gross oc , gross
Drinking water
LAfJD
Soil Conservation
Service
Health & Safety
Lab, AEC
Strontium 90
All radioactive contaminants on land
EFFECTS - Pasteurized Milk
FOOD Network/EPA
Institute of Total
Diet/EPA
Radiochemical analysis of milk,
gamma scan " " "
Monthly food and annual water sampled.
EFFECTS
HUMAN
Human Bone Network
Alaskan Survey
Cesium - 137
27
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is necessary to measure residues in the physical media themselves, as
well as in human and animal tissues. Programs for such measuring in
soil, water, and air are discussed.
7.1.3.5.1 Soil. Soil is the natural receptacle for pesticides
which are applied to crops; residues stored here can be carried into
the atmosphere attached to particulates, and into the hydrosphere by
runoff. It also is a source of pesticides for soil organisms which
can concentrate them and which in turn serve as food for higher organisms
(NPMP) . For example, Hunt found in 1965 that in DDT-sprayed elm
environment, total pesticide residues (dry weight) accumulated from
9.9 ppm in soil to 140.6 ppm in earthworms to 443.9 ppm in adult robin
brains (Hunt) .
The U.S. Department of Agriculture conducts a soil pesticide moni-
toring program which is part of the National Soil Monitoring Program,
sponsored by the Federal Committee on Pest Control. The major objective
of this program, as determined in 1968, has been to derive a reasonably
reliable estimate of pesticide levels in United States soils with
reference to land use. This includes:
1. determination of levels of pesticide residues in soils on
major land-use areas and, through periodic samples,
detection of changes in these levels;
National Pesticide Monitoring Program, Report of the Monitoring
Panel, June, 1970.
2Hunt, Effects of Pesticides on Fish and Wildlife, U.S. Department
of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Circular 226, 1965.
28
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2. determination of pesticide residue levels in crops grown
on treated soils;
3. determination of pesticide residues in runoff water of
certain agricultural lands;
4. determination of the concentration of certain pesticides
at various depths in the soil.
Two major land uses were included—cropland and noncropland. Ten-acre
sites were randomly selected at the rate of one site per 40,000 acres
of cropland and one site per 400,000 acres of noncropland. That rate
of sampling yielded 9,468 cropland sites and 3,822 noncropland sites
(about 13,300 cotal). All soil samples were analyzed for chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticides and arsenic, and analyses for other pesticides
were made on the basis of records of their use. Other determinations
(crop levels, runoff water level, soil profile studies) were made at
selected sites. The sampling schedule was planned to cycle in 4 years;
ie.,one-fourth of the sites (3,325) were to be sampled each year.
When initiated in FY 1968, only 6 states were sampled. In FY 1969.,
cropland was sampled in 43 states and noncropland in 10 states. In
FY 1970, cropland was sampled in 35 states. Because of lack of funds,
the program had to be redirected in FY 1971, and only a small portion
(corn and cotton belts) of the original monitoring efforts were con-
tinued. The Monitoring Panel of the National Pesticides Monitoring
Program does not feel that under the reduced effort the objectives of
the program can be met, and recommends adequate financing and full
initiation of the monitoring program (MPMP). Pesticides pose environ-
mental problems of which we are probably only beginning to feel the
29
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effects and monitoring of these substances in soil, water, air, and
tissue, is an area we cannot afford to neglect. Financing must be pro-
vided to bring the program up to standards the Monitoring Panel considers
adequate, and then data obtained can be used in an index of changing
residue levels. Monitoring of residues in soil organisms, particularly
earthworms and beetles, and correlation of this data with soil residues,
might also be useful.
7.1.3.5.2 Water. A National Monitoring Program for the Assessment
of Pesticide Residues in the Hydrologic Environment has been designed
in accordance with the objectives of the National Pesticides Monitoring
Program of the Federal Committee on Pest Control, subsequently
reorganized under the President's Cabinet Committee on the Environment.
It represents a revision of an earlier program initiated in 1967 by
the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (now Water Quality
Office) and the U.S. Geological Survey, and involves sampling of both
water and bottom sediments. Water samples are to be collected four times
a year, and sediment samples twice a year, from 161 sites chosen at
random from hydrologic units within the 20 major drainage basins defined
by the Water Resources Council. Under the plan, analysis will be made
for the following chlorinated insecticides and herbicides:
ALDRIN HEPTACHLOR 2,4-D
CHLORODANE HEPTACHLOR EPOXIDE 2,4,5-T
DDD LINDANE SILVEX
DDE MALATHION
DDT METHYL PARATH10N
DIELDRIN PARATHION
ENDRIN TOXAPHENE
30
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High, median, and low pesticide levels for the major drainage areas
will be reported in the Pesticides Monitoring Journal. Correlation of
pesticide levels with other hydrologic data should be attempted.
A request has been made for funding of this program as part of the
National Water Data Network implementation in the 1972 fiscal year by
the U.S. Geological Survey under Bureau of the Budget Circular A-67 (NPMP)
Once again, this is an area of crucial importance. As more and more
toxic materials are being released into our environment, we must have
some way of assessing the buildup of these materials, and correlating
such buildup with levels in biota, as well as with geographical regions
and sources. It is recommended that such funding indeed be carried
through, and that data on these insecticides be correlated with data
on residues in fresh-water fish.
7.1.3.5.3 Air. The atmosphere has been recognized as one of the
major routes by which DDT is carried to the oceans and thus becomes
widespread throughout the environment (SCEP) _ xhe Monitoring Panel
of the National Pesticides Monitoring Program has recommended that air
sampling be conducted in a minimum of 40 to 60 separate areas of the
country, with boundaries of these areas determined on an arbitrary
basis, such as longitude-latitude, and with sampling sites within each
area selected and operated according to a random design (NPMP). Moni-
toring of air over coastal regions might be particularly useful. Funding
for such a program must be provided if an adequate picture of the spread
of these substances in the environment is to be obtained. Such data,
1
SCEP, Man's Impact on the Global Environment, Report of the Study
on Critical Environmental Problems, sponsored by the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 1970.
31
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when obtained, could be used in an environmental index, and should also
be correlated with that derived from other programs (soil, water, tissue
residues).
Monitoring techniques for pesticides are more logically concerned
with the methods used in the air and xjater media programs and the programs
of FDA and DOA. Again it is suggested that a uniform review be performed
of all involved agencies and a combined requirements analysis be performed.
Automated techniques will be difficult to develop but should not be down-
graded for that reason.
7.1.3.6 Monitoring Technique for Solid Waste. The days when com-
munities could count on-the ready availability of disposal sites for their
solid wastes have nearly passed for many areas, and the problem will soon
catch up with others. Open dumping is not only unaesthetic and hazardous
to health (harborage and food source for insect and rodent pests,
polluting of runoff water, pollution of air when burned, etc.), but land
suitable for such outright destruction is becoming scarce. Even the more
benign practice of sanitary landfill (area or trench methods) is said
to require about one acre per 10,000 people per year. As cities expand
there is a very real shortage of new acreage available which is within
economic hauling distance of the cities. Deep ravines have greater
capacity, but their supply, too, is limited. While incinerators
generally offer an efficient and hygienic means of disposing of combusti-
ble waste, they produce ash which must be hauled away and disposed of
elsewhere, and if not outfitted with proper emission control devices,
incinerators can contribute significantly to air pollution.
At the other side of the picture are the wastes being disposed of.
Our technology, productive capacity, and inherent system of economic
Benarde, Melvin A., "Our Precarious Habitat," W. W. Norton &
Co. Inc., New York 1970, page 357.
32
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incentive encourage the disposal rather than the re-use of many items.
Few are designed for degradability after their prescribed useful lives,
since so many items are fabricated of relatively inert plastics, metals
and glasses.
Increased per capita consumption of materials also adds to the
rate of growth of the solid waste problem. Degradable solid wastes can
become especially troublesome when they are generated in too great
concentrations for natural decomposition processes to assimilate them.
On the other hand, large quantities of concentrated wastes have the
potential value of permitting economies of scale when they are treated
artificially, especially if there is a market for the end-product of
the treatment.
Yet another dimension of the problem is the rising labor and capital
costs associated with collection and disposal of solid waste. Trash
collection and sanitation personnel demand and receive higher wages re-
flective of their increased status and critical importance in the scheme
of community processes. More demanding treatment requirements and
shortages in disposal sites are driving up the unit costs of solid waste
management. The premium on extracting nonrenewable resources f-rom the
"waste stream" must surely increase. Thus, there are bound to be funda-
mental readjustments in solid waste management practices, just based on
these conventional economic considerations alone.
Simple mass balance considerations suffice to illustrate that the
amount of any type of waste discharged at the end of a waste stream is
equal to the amount input to the system plus amounts generated within
the system by conversion of other types (assumed negligible except for
incinerator ash) less-those amounts reclaimed from the waste stream for
33
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recycling or other re-use. The parameters chosen below to characterize
solid waste issues are generally reflective of these input-output con-
siderations and their associated costs.
7.1.3.6.1 Materials Balance Parameters. In a broad sense, the
materials balance story of solid waste can be told by filling in the
matrix of Table 7-1-5. The source categories are intended to be complete
as well as mutually exclusive, and likewise for the disposal categories.
Each of these sets of categories is amenable to restructuring or other
modification without changing the overall meaning of the parameters.
The various cells of the matrix contain the amounts of solid waste from
a given source (index = ra) disposed in a particular way (index = n).
The interesting measures of amount are weight Wrm, volume Vmn. and,
perhaps, combustion energy content Hmn. Weights expres&ed in tons or
thousands of kilograms per year for municipalities, states, regions and
industrial sectors should be adequate. Similarly, volumes, expressed
in cubic meters per year or hectare-meters per year, are expressive of
the amount of volume that solid wastes take up. Where the average
energy content of the different sources of waste is a meaningful number,
a rough indication of the energy picture can be assembled as well. It
is anticipated that the "industrial" category would have to be subdivided
into several constituent groups of similar materials before energy content
figures would be meaningful. Units of energy content are kilocalories
per kilogram, or, perhaps, kilowatt-hours per 1000 kilograms (metric ton).
-------
TABLE 7-1-5
MATERIALS BALANCE AND COST PARAMETERS
RESIDENTIAL
CO:"IERCIAL &
INSTITUTIONAL:
COLLECTED
UXCOLLECTED
INDUSTRIAL
:!IN IXG
DEMOLITION
WASTES
AGRICULTURAL
SEWAGE TREATMENT
RESIDUE
DEAD AMIMALS
TOTAL
WEIGHT T'Jir.n
Vnn
•j ENERGY CONTENT Ham
' COST OF COLLECTION CCinn
COST OF DISPOSAL
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For further details concerning the mass balance method for monitoring
solid waste procedure, see reference below. Monitors per se for solid
wastes are non-existent other than weight, volume, distance, and heat
content devices or estimation procedures.
Networks for data gathering are discussed in the reference below
along with suggested forms of data aggregation.
7.1.4 Platforms In order to obtain some initial remote sensing
data it would be desirable to station a light aircraft in each of the
ten EPA Regions equipped with a metric camera, 1R Scanner and possibly
other unsophisticated sensors. Such an instrumented platform would
perform many useful functions, including qualitative monitoring of
environmental parameters whenever contingency factors so required.
Where broader and systematic monitoring of environmental quality
is desired, EPA Headquarters will assign larger and more fully instrumented
aircraft which can acquire quantitative data and provide standard data
products to each region. The Western Environmental Research Laboratory
is being considered as a facility which could provide these extended
services in the Western United States. At least one other such facility
with aircraft capability will be necessary East of the Mississippi River.
DOD, with its many aircraft already equipped with sophisticated sensors
such as side-looking radar, multiband cameras and multi-spectral scanners,
could provide EPA with an interim capability for monitoring environmental
degradation provided an agreement with the DOD can be arranged.
The Regional Offices should also be cognizant of the many remote
sensing projects already underway by NASA, USGS, USDA, NOAA, and DOD which
Monitoring the Environment of the Nation." Mitre MTR 1660,
April 1971. Appendix A-3, pages 149-160.
36
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are acquiring remote and in-situ sensor data. These include aircraft
flights such as U--2, P-3, C-130 and RB57, and spacecraft programs such
as ERTS and Skylab (See five references below).
0 ERTS - General Electric Space Division
0 ERTS - Ground Data Handling System,
NASA Preliminary Description
0 Aircraft Remote Sensing Systems,
NASA/HSC - 04165, May 1971.
0 Skylab A-EREP Users Handbook
NASA/MSC, February 1971.
0 Memorandum to ERSPRC from NASA,
ERTS Simulation Tests Areas with U-2 Aircraft.
In addition, NASA's Earth Observations Office will operate a Data
Collection System (DCS) employing in-situ sensors which relay data to
satellites for retransmittal to ground stations once the Earch Resources
Technology Satellite is launched in March 1972.
7.2.0 Suggested Discussion Topics
7.2.1 Make all remote monitoring techniques, vehicles, data
transmission, data processing and data analysis research and development
planning and funding a function to be performed at the Office of Monitoring
level for the present. This should include all satellite, aircraft, ground
and water borne mobile and fixed stations where the information gathered
includes remote and in-situ monitoring networks. Data gathering by remote
monitoring may be delegated to the Federal regional offices at some later
date when such systems are more operational in nature. A logical alter-
native to this suggestion is to establish 2 or 3 sub-national remote
monitoring centers within the Office of Monitoring such centers could be
loaned to tha 10 regional offices as required.
37
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7.2.2 Devise specifications for all monitoring techniques
within the EPA organization but delegate and support monetarily the
monitor and/or method development in outside agencies where possible.
- Satellite and aircraft sensors when feasible (including ground
stations, when practicable) to NASA and/or DOD.
- Radiation sensor development to AEC and HEW, when feasible.
- Noise sensors development to DOT and DOC, when feasible.
- Retain air, water, pesticide and solid waste sensor
development in EPA.
- Hydrologic and meteorologic sensor development
to DOC, when feasible.
7.2.3 Review the delegation for monitoring techniques
development in light of the Ash Federal Government Reorganization
Plan in order to minimize the disturbances which will occur during
the process of this major Federal reorganization.
7.2.4 Devise sociologic and economic monitoring techniques
(monitor and methods) within EPA with committee support from OMB,
HEW, HUD, DOC, DOT.
7.2.5 Develop a plan for the monitoring techniques required'
for 5 to 10 environmental indices. Select indices and techniques on
the basis the ability to produce public displays by July 72. Use the
NOAA network for dissemination of these indices in addition to the
normal channels of communication to the public through the 10 regional
offices. Devise a method for measuring the public acceptance of the
indices release.
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7.2.6 Place special emphasis on the generation of monitoring
techniques which can sense the national and global trends of
pollution. Develop a plan for this service. Should this service be
separate and distinct from the service performed by 10 EPA regional
offices?
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