PROPOSED
CRITERIA FOR
WATER QUALITY
Volume I
OCTOBER 1973
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Washington, D.C. 20460
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FOREWORD
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments
require ihe Administrator of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency to publish both criteria for vater
quality and information for the restoration and
maintenance of aquatic integrity, and the measurement
and classification of water [Section 30Ua(a)l and 2,
P.L. 92-500].
Volume I of this two volume series contains the
criteria for water quality for the protection of
human health and for the protection and propagation
of desirable species of aquatic biota. Volume II of
the series contains information on the maintenance
and restoration, measurement, and the classification
of waters. Also those pollutants suitable for maximum
daily load calculations are identified.
Both Volumes I and II are published as proposed
documents with a 180 day period provided for public
comment.
Russell E. Train
Administrator
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VOLUMfe I
Proposed
Criteria for Water Quality
Environmental Protection Agency Page No,
I. Legislative Basis 9
I Introduction 11
I Major Uses of the Criteria 16
/. Agricultural Constituents 20
A. General 20
B. Irrigation 21
1. Acidity, Alkalinity, pR 21
2. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 22
3. Inorganics (Ions and Free Elements/Compounds) 23
a. Aluminum 2 3
b. Arsenic 24
c. Beryllium 25
d. Bicarbonates 27
e. Boron 2 7
f. Cadmium 29
g. Chlorides 30
h. Chromium 30
i. Cobalt 31
j. Copper 32
k. Fluoride 33
1. Iron 34
m. Lead 35
n. Lithium 36
o. Manganese 37
p. Molybdenum 38
q. Nickel 39
r. Nitrate^ 39
s. Selenium 40
t. Sodium 41
4. Pathogens 42
a. Human Pathogens 42
b. Plant Pathogens 43
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5. Pesticides 45
a. Herbicides 45
b. Insecticides 46
6. Radioactivity 47
7. solids 48
a. Solids (Dissolved) 48
b. Solids (Suspended) 49
8. Temperature 50
C. Livestock 52
1. Inorganic (Ions and Free Elements/Compounds) 52
a. Alumi num 5 2
b. Arsenic 52
c. Beryllium 54
d. Boron 54
e. Cadmium 55
f. Chromium 56
q. Cobalt 57
h. copper 58
i. Fluorine 59
j. Iron 60
k. Lead 61
1. Manganese 63
m. Mercury 63
n. Molybdenum 65
o. Nitrates and Nitrites 66
p. Selenium 68
q. Vanadium 69
r. Zinc 70
2. Pathogens 71
a. Microorganisms 71
b. Toxic Algae 72
3. Pesticides 73
4. Radioactivity 74
5. Salinity 76
References: Agricultural Constituents 79
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V. Freshwater constituents 93
A. Aquatic Life 93
1. Acidity, Alkalinity, pH 93
a. pH 93
b. Alkalinity 93
c. Acidity 94
2, Dissolved Gases 95
a. Ammonia 95
b. Chlorine and Pelated compounds 96
c. Dissolved Oxygen 98
d. Hydrogen Sulfide 101
e. Nitrogen and Gas Bubble Disease 102
3. Inorganics (Ions and Free Element /compounds) 104
a. Cadmium 104
b. Chromium 105
c. Copper 106
d. Lead 107
e. Mercury (Inorganic) 108
f. Nickel 109
g. Sulfides 11°
h. Zinc HI
U. Organic Compounds H3
a. Cyanides
b. Detergents
c. Oils 116
d. Phthalate Esters 118
e. Organic mercury 119
f. Polychlorinated Biphenyls 121
g. Phenolic Compounds 122
5. Pesticides 123
a. General 123
b. Organochlorines I24
c. Other Pesticides 124
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6. Physical (Except Temperature) 130
a. Color 130
b. Turbidity 132
7. Radioactivity 133
8. Solids 137
a. Total Dissolved Solids and Baroness 137
b. Suspended and Settleable Solids 139
9. Tainting Substances 141
10. Temperature 144
B. Wildlife 171
1. Acidity, Alkalinity, pH 171
a. pH 171
b. Alkalinity and Acidity 172
2. Light Penetration 173
3. Solids 174
a. Salinity 174
b. Settleable Substances 174
4. Specific Harmful Substances 175
a. Direct Acting 175
(1) Toxins (Botulism Poisoning) 175
(2) Oils 177
b. Acting After Food Chain Magnification 178
(1) DDT and Derivatives 178
(2) Mercury 179
(3) Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB's) 180
5. Temperature 180
References: Aquatic life and Wildlife 182
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Public Water Supply Intake 192
1. Alkalinity, pH . 192
a. Alkalinity 192
b. pH 193
2. Dissolved Gases 194
a. Ammonia (N) 194
b. Dissolved Oxygen 195
3. Inorganics (Ions and Free Elements/Compounds) 195
a. Arsenic 196
b. Barium 197
c. Boron 198
d. Cadmium 199
e. Chloride 200
f. Chromium 201
g. Copper 202
h. Iron 203
i. Lead 204
j. Manganese 205
k. Mercury 206
1. Nitrate-Nitrite (N) 208
m. Phosphate 209
n. Selenium 210
o. Silver 211
p. Sodium 212
q. Sulfate 213
r. Zinc 214
4. Microbiological Indicators 215
a. Bacteria 215
b. Viruses 216
5. Organic Compounds 218
a. Carbon Adsorbable 218
b. Cyanides 219
c. Foaming Agents 220
d. Nitrilotriacetate (NTA) 221
e. Oil and Grease 222
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f. Phenols 223
q. Phthalate Esters 224
h. Polychlorinated Biphenyls 224
6. Pesticides 225
a. Insecticides - Chlorinated Hydrocarbons 226
b. Insecticides - Organophosphate and Carbamate 227
• c. Herbicides - Chloronhenoxy 230
7. Physical 231
a. Color 231
b. Odor 232
c. Tennerature 233
d. Turbiditv 234
8. Radioactivitv 235
9. Solids 239
a. Dissolved Solids 239
b. Hardness 240
References: Public T7ater Sunnlv Intake 242
Marine Water Constituents (Aquatic Life) 250
A. Aquatic Life 250
1. Acidit}', Alkalinity, pIT (Buffer Capacity) 250
2. Dissolved Gases 252
a. Ammonia 252
h. Chlorine 253
c. Hydrogen Sulfide 255
d. Dissolved Oxyqen 256
3. Inorganics (Ions and Free Elements/Connounds) 257
a. Aluminum 257
b. Antimony 258
c. Arsenic 259
d. Barium 260
e. Beryllium 261
f. Bisrmth 262
q. Boron 263
h. Bromine 264
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i. Cadmium 265
j. Chromium 267
k. Copper 268
1. Fluorides 271
m. Iron 272
n. Lead 273
o. Manganese 274
p. Mercury 275
q. Molybdenum 277
r. Nickel 278
s. Phosphorus 279
t. Selenium 281
u. Silver 282
v. Thallium 283
w. Uranium 284
x. Vanadium 286
y. Zinc '287
4. Organic Compounds 289
a. Cyanides 289
b. Oils 290
5. Pesticides 295
6. Radioactivity 306
7. Temperature 309
B. Wildlife 315
1. General 315
2. Specific Harmful Substances 316
a. DDT and Derivatives 316
/ b. Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, and Heptacnior 318
c. Other Chlorinated Hydrocarbons 319
/ d, Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB's) 320
References: Marine Water Constituents 323
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VII. Recreational Waters 340
A. Aesthetic Considerations 340
1. Aesthetics - General 340
2. Nutrients (Phosphorus) 342
344
B. Recreational Waters
1. Clarity 344
2. Microorganisms ^45
a. Bacteriological Indicators 345
b. Viruses 347
3. pH 348
4. Shellfish 348
5. Temperature 349
References: Recreational Waters 351
VIII. Appendices
A. Fish Temperature Data Sheets 353
B. Tabular Summary of Numerical Criteria
C. Glossary
D. Conversion Tables
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9
Volume I
Proposed
Criteria for Water Quality
The Environmental Protection Agency
I. LEGISLATIVE BASIS
Section 304(a)(1) of the "Federal Water Pollution
Control Act Amendments of 1972", hereinafter referred to as
the "Act", provides that the Administrator (EPA) shall
within one year of enactment (by Oct. 18, 1973) publish, and
revise from time to time thereafter, water quality criteria.
The criteria shall reflect the latest scientific knowledge
on: A) all identifiable effects of pollutants on human
health, fish and aquatic life, plant life, wildlife,
shorelines, and recreation; B) concentration and dispersal
of pollutants; and C) effects of pollutants on biological
community diversity, productivity and stability, including
factors affecting rates of eutrophication and sedimentation.
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The National Water Quality Standards Program was
initiated with the passage of the water Quality Act of 19b5,
Sec 10 (c). The Water Quality Standards are comprised or use
designations for each water body or portion thereof, water
quality criteria to support the use designations, and
implementation plans for scheduling the construction ot rne
necessary treatment facilities. The designations by water-
uses are protection and propagation of fish and wilulite
(fresh water and marine), makeup water for public water
supplies, recreational, agricultural, and industrial. The
water quality standards prior to the Act were applicaole to
only interstate waters and their tributaries. The Act
provides for this coverage to be extended to intrastate
streams and the State standards have since been, or are in
the process of being revised accordingly.
The objective of the Act is to restore and maintain the
chemical, physical and biological integrity of the Nacion's
waters. The National goal, Sec 101(a)(1), is to eliminate
the discharge of pollutants into navigable waters by 1985,
with an interim goal. Sec 101 (a) (2), being to attain oy July
1983, water quality which provides for the protection and
propagation of fish, shellfish and wildlife and for
recreation in and on the Nation's water.
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In implementing the Act EPA has, as part of the National
Water Quality Standards Program, instituted a stream use
classification policy that provides for the protection of
all waters to sustain recreational uses in and/or on the
water, and for the preservation and propagation of desirable
species of aquatic biota. Such levels of protection then
make all waters suitable for other uses such as public water
supply, agriculture and irrigation.
II. INTRODUCTION
This water quality criteria document is Volume I of a
two-volume publication. The criteria are arranged
alphabetically by water use, with the limits for each
pollutant followed immediately by the supporting scientific
rationale. The numerical criteria are also synopsized in a
tabular summary (Appendix B) for ready comparison. Volume
II, under separate cover, entitled "Water Quality
Information". fulfills the requirements of sec 30U (a) (2) of
the Act. It contains information on factors necessary for
the restoration and maintenance ot the integrity of the
Nation's water; the protection of fish, wildlife and human
health; the identification of pollutants; and the
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measurement and classification of water quality.
Specifically, Volume II provides information on tne sources
of polluting constituents (manmade and natural), mean levels
in major river basins, techniques for biological and
physical measurements, methodology for bioassays, TJhe
overall classification of water quality, and the types of
pollutants suitable for maximum daily load measurements.
Water quality criteria as compiled in this document
(Volume I) are defined as the acceptable limits of
constituents in receiving waters based upon an evaluation of
the latest scientific information by the Environmental
Protection Agency. They are to form the datum for tae
Agency's 1983 interim goal of improving the Nation's waters
to a quality that, provides for the protection and
propagation of fish and wildlife, and for the health of
humans in their pursuit of recreation in and on these
waters. Almost all of the criteria are taken from tne
recommendations of the National Academy of Science's report
on Water Quality Criteria (in press) developed under
contract to the Environmental Protection Agency. For a more
thorough treatment of the broader aspects of water quality
the user is referred to that report.
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The criteria are based upon toxicity studies and other
field and laboratory tests which assess the effects of
pollutants on agricultural crops, domestic livestock,
aquatic life, wildlife and man. The acceptable limits
specified in the criteria for substances which exhibit toxic
effects were derived by the application of scientific
judgement to lethal dose or lethal concentration data in a
manner that provides a margin of safety to test organisms.
For those substances whose effects are more aptly described
as undesirable such as impairing aquatic habitats, causing
taste and odor, problems in water supplies, or reducing the
aesthetic or recreational quality of a water body, limits
which minimize these effects were established on the basis
of field and laboratory investigations. Acceptable levels
of toxic materials for which specific numerical maximum
acceptable concentrations are not prescribed are determined
by applying an application factor to locally derived LCso
data; (i.e., to the concentration of the constituent in the
water in question which causes death within 96 hours to 50
percent of a test group of the most sensitive important
species in the locality under consideration). By basing
criteria on effects on the most sensitive important species,
a desirable degree of regional and local variation is
introduced, allowing water auality standards to depend on local
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conditions. The criteria will be revised from time to time
to reflect new scientific knowledge, as required by the Act,
An "important species" in the criteria is defined as an
organism that is:a) commercially or recreationally valuable;
b) is rare or endangered; c) affects the well-being of
some species within a) and b); or d) is critical to the
structure and function of the ecological system. A "rare or
endangered'1 species is any species so officially designated
by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
The NAS Report recommendations provided several choices
of levels of protection for such constituents as pH,
dissolved oxygen, settleable and suspended solids. In these
cases the recommendations that provided a level of
protection consistent with the objective of the Act, but not
necessarily the highest levels of protection offered were
selected by EPA as the limits or ranges of limits that are
acceptable to this Agency. By so doing the acceptability
datum can be established at a level that should provide the
basis for an improvement in the quality of most waters to
meet the 1983 goal, while not requiring the economic burden
that would result from requiring "nearly maximum levels of
protection." Water quality standards based upon these
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criteria are to be developed en a local basis to minimize
impairment.
While it is recognized that the synergistic effects ot
certain combinations of pollutants portend greater risks
than the simple additive combination of the effects ot each
pollutant, most of the criteria are not based upon
synergistic studies. The EPA Office of Research and
Development is presently engaged in programs to expand our
knowledge of synergistic effects. When such information
becomes available revisions to these criteria will be made.
Users should therefore use judgement and apply additional
safety factors in cases where there is a known potential for
some specific pollutants in a water body to have a
synergistic effect.
In most cases the criteria for a given category ot
/ water, e.g., irrigation water, livestock water, freshwater
aauatic life are based upon studies of the effects on the
types of organisms (plants, livestock, aquatic organisms).
In some instances however, where some constituents such as
molybdenum in irrigation waters, mercury in fish, etc. are
biologically magnified to levels that would be dangerous to
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higher order animals or man, the acceptable limits are
prescribed to provide for the protection of these consumers.
III. MAJOR USES OF THE CRITERIA
Water Quality Standards, Toxic and Pretreatment
Standards, Water Quality Inventory (Monitoring), Toxic and
Pretreatment Effluent Standards, National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System, and Ocean Discharge Criteria
are the key control programs under the legislation tor
improving the quality of the Nation's waters and as such
will probably be the major users of the criteria, hater
quality criteria together with effluent limitations are the
two scientific/technical undergirders of the entire national
water quality improvement program and will provide the basis
for the 1983 interim goal and the 1985 goal of no discharge.
As such they are foundations of all water quality control
programs of the Environmental Protection Agency.
The effluent limitations are based initially upon
control technology in relation to such varying factors as
application costs relative to benefits, equipment age.
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engineering, and non-water quality environmental impact.
They are to be continually assessed to assure their non-
interference with the attainment or maintenance ot water
quality, as specified by the ambient criteria. EPA Water
Quality Criteria will be incorporated into revised State
water quality standards under the direction of EPA Regions
by means of policy guidelines developed by the EPA Office of
Water Planning and Standards. Those guidelines have
provisions for waters to be exempted from specific criteria
on a case-by-case basis for specified periods when naturally
occurring conditions exceed limits of the EPA criteria or
other extenuating conditions prevail to warrant such
exemptions.
Some of the pollutants for which criteria are
established herein may be listed as toxic pollutants under
subsection 307 (a). In such cases the Agency will proceed
under subsection 307(a) to examine the selected pollutants
closely and rigorously, and will consider a broad range of
data and factors which may not have been considered in
developing the criteria set forth herein.
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The criteria are based upon current; knowledge of the
effects on health and welfare ot the presence of various
pollutants in receiving waters. It must be emphasized,
however, that many other factors must be considered in
making decisions relative to establishing particular
standards and control measures. Seme of the more important
considerations are:
The nature of the environmental effect of tne
presence of pollutants in water (e.g., long or snort
term, temporary or permanent, localized or widespread,
etc.).
The economic and social impact of the standards and
control measures and the impact of the environmental
damage to be alleviated.
The practicality and enfcrceability of the
standards and control measures, including the
availability ot techniques and instrumentation for
determining whether particular standards are being met.
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Thus, this document provides availabile scientific
information to the states for the purpose of carrying out
the Federal Water Polluticn Control Act.
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IV. AGRICULTURAL CONSTITUENTS
A. General
Acceptability of water quality for generax tarmt>ucdd
uses, including drinking, other household uses, ana handling
of produce and milk, is the same as that designated by
Federal Drinking Water Standards. Also impurities that are
offensive to sight, smell, and taste are not acceptable.
Rationale (General Agricultural Constituents):
Farmers and ranchers usually do not have access to large
well-controlled water supplies of most municipalities.
Therefore for their protection, water of a quality at least
comparable to that intended for urban users is required.
Water of such quality is necessary for drinking and other
household uses, as well as for the handling of produce and
milk (1) .
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B. Irrigation
i . Ac^itYj^Ai ka^i ni t
Because most of the effects of acidity and
alkalinity in irrigation waters on soils and plant cjrowth
are indirect, no specific pH values can be prescriueu which
are acceptable for irrigation. However, waters with pH
values from 4.5 to 9.0 are acceptable for irrigation
purposes provided that care is taken to detect the
development of harmful indirect effects.
Rationale (Acidity, Alkalinity, pH) :
Since water itself is unbuffered and the soil is a
buffered system (except for extremely sandy soils low in
organic matter) , the pH of the soil will not be
significantly affected by the pH of irrigation water except
in extreme circumstances (1).
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2 • Biochemical Oxygen Demand (,BOp]_
Because there is very little information regarding
the effects of using irrigation waters with high BOD values
on plant growth, it is not possible to prescribe any
specific BOD limits.
Rationale (Biochemical Oxygen Demand):
The need for adequate oxygen in the soil tor optimum
plant growth is well recognized. Soil aeration and oxygen
availability normally present no problem on well structured
soils irrigated with high quality water. However, in poorly
drained soils, oxygen may become limiting and irrigation
with water having high BOD or COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand)
could aggravate this condition by further depleting
available oxygen. Infiltration into well drained soils can
decrease the BOD of the irrigation water, but without
seriously depleting the oxygen available for plant growth in
the soil (1) .
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The maximum acceptable concentration of
aluminum in water for continuous irrigation is 5.0 mg/1,
The maximum acceptable concentration of aluminum in
irrigation waters for fine textured neutral to alkaline
soils for a period of not more than 20 years is 20.0 mg/1.
Rationale (Aluminum):
Aluminum exhibits significant toxicity in acid soils but
at pH values from about 5.5 to 8.0, soils have great
capacities to precipitate soluble aluminum and to eliminate
its toxicity. Most irrigated soils are naturally alkaline
and many are highly buffered vvith calcium carbonate. In
these situations aluminum toxicity is effectively prevented.
In spite of the potential tcxicity of aluminum this is not
the basis for the establishment of maximum concentrations in
irrigation waters, because ground limestone can be added
where needed to control aluminum solubility in soils.
Nevertheless, two disadvantages remain. One is that salts
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that are the sources of soluble aluminum in water acidify
the soil and contribute to the requirements for ground
limestone to*prevent the accumulation or development of
soluble aluminum. This is a disadvantage only in acid
soils. The other disadvantage is a greater fixation of
phosphate fertilizer by freshly precipitated aluminum
hydroxides (1).
b. Arsenic
The maximum acceptable concentration of arsenic in
water for continuous irrigation on all soils is 0.10 mg/1.
The maximum acceptable concentration of arsenic in
irrigation waters for fine-textured neutral to alkaline
soils for a period of not more than 20 years is 2.0 mg/1.
Rationale (Arsenic):
The most definitive work with arsenic toxicity in soils
has been aimed at determining the amounts that can £>e added
to various types of soils without reduction in yields of
sensitive crops. On the basis of several experiments {2-4,
6-11) it has been shown that the amounts of total arsenic
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that will produce toxicity vary with soil texture and otfter
factors that influence the adsorptive capacity. Assuming
that the added arsenic is mixed with the surface 15 cm (6
in.) of soil and that it is in the arsenate form, tne
amounts that produce toxicity in sensitive plants vary from
112 kg/hectare (100 Ibs/acre) for sandy soil to 337
kg/hectare (300 Ibs/acre) for clay soils. For long periods
of time involved, such as would be the case with
accumulations from irrigation water, possible leaching in
the soils (10) and reversion to less soluble and less toxic
forms of arsenic (U) allow extensions of the amounts
required for toxicity. The only effective management
practice known for soils that have accumulated toxic levels
of arsenic is to change to more tolerant crops. Toxicity
studies (13) suggest that rice on flooded soils is extremely
sensitive to small amounts cf arsenic, and that trie maximum
acceptable limits given here are too high for this crop.
The maximum acceptable level of beryllium in
water for continuous irrigation is 0.1 mg/1. The maximum
acceptable concentration of beryllium in irrigation water
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for neutral to alkaline fine-textured soils for a period of
not more than 20 years is 0.5 mg/1.
Rationale (Beryllium) ;
Some varieties of citrus seedlings show toxicities at
2.5 mg/1 of beryllium whereas others show toxicity at 5 mg/1
in nutrient solutions (12). Beryllium at 0.5 mg/1 in
nutrient solutions was reported to have reduced the growth
of bush beans (1U). Also, 2 mg/1 or greater in nutrient
solutions was reported to have reduced the growth of
tomatoes, peas, soybeans, and alfalfa plants (15).
Additions of soluble beryllium salts at levels equivalent to
U percent of the cation-atsorption capacity of two acid
soils reduced the yields cf ladin.o clover. Beryllium at 2
mg/1 concentrations in nutrient solutions was found to be
toxic to mustard whereas 5 mg/1 concentrations were required
for growth reductions with kale (16).
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d- BJcarbonates
Specific acceptable limits for bicarL»onates iu
irrigation water cannot be prescribed without consideration
of other soil and water constituents.
Rationale (Bicarbonates) :
High bicarbonate water may induce iron chlorosis by
making iron unavailable to plants (17). Problems have ueen
noted with apples and pears (18) and with some oraaineiitcils
(19). Although concentrations of 10 to 20 millie^uivaleuts
(meq)/l of bicarbonate can cause chlorosis in some plants,
it is of little concern in the tield where precipitation ot
calcium carbonate minimizes this hazard.
e. Boron
The maximum acceptable concentration ot boron
in irriaation water for sensitive crops is 0.75 mg/I; tne
acceptable concentration for semi-tolerant and tolerant
plants is 1.0 and 2.0 mg/1, respectively; and the acceptable
concentration for sensitive crops grown on neutral and
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alkaline fine-textured soils for a period of not more than
20 years is 2.0 mg/1. However, higher concentrations are
acceptable for tolerant plants for short periods of time.
Rationale (Boron):
Boron is an essential element for the growth of plants;
however, at concentrations of 1 mg/1 it is toxic to a number
of sensitive plants (1). Lists or boron sensitive, semi-
tolerant and tolerant plants are given in USDA Hanabook
No. 60 (20). In general, sensitive crops show toxicities to
boron at 1 mg/1 or less, semi-tolerant crops at 1 to 2 mg/1,
and tolerant crops at 2 to 4 mg/1. At boron concentrations
above U mg/1, irrigation water is generally unsatisfactory
for most crops. Citrus crops, which are one of trie most
sensitive crops to boron, show mild toxicity symptoms to
irrigation waters having 0.5 to 1.0 mg/1 boron (21).
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f . Cadmium
The maximum acceptable concentration of
cadmium in water for continuous irrigation is 0.01 mg/1.
The maximum acceptable concentration in irrigation water for
neutral and alkaline fine-textured soils for a period of not
more than 20 years is 0.05 mg/i.
Rationale (Cadmium):
Unpublished data (see 1) showed that yields ot oeans,
beets and turnips were reduced about 25 percent by 0.1 tng/1
cadmium concentrations in nutrient solutions, whereas,
cabbage and barley yields decreased 20 to 50 percent at 1.0
mg/1. Corn and lettuce were intermediate in response with
less than 25 percent yield reductions at 0.1 mg/1 and
greater than 50 percent at 1.0 mg/1.
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9- Chlorides
No limit of acceptability is prescribed for
chlorides in irrigation waters.
Rationale (Chlorides):
Maximum acceptable limits for chlorides in irrigation
water depend upon the type of crop, environmental
conditions, and management practices. Chlorides in
irrigation waters are not generally toxic to crops; however,
certain fruit crops are sensitive to chlorides (1). It has
been reported that iraximum permissible chloride
concentrations in soil ranged from 10 to 50 milliequivalents
(meq)/l for certain sensitive fruit crops (22).
h. Chromium
The maximum acceptable concentration of
chromium in water for continuous irrigation is 0.1 mg/i.
The maximum acceptable concentration in irrigation water tor
neutral and alkaline fine-textured soils for a period of not
more than 20 years is 1.0 mg/1.
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Rationale (Chromium):
Concentrations of 10 mg/1 of chromium in sand cultures
were found to be toxic to corn and concentrations ot 5 mg/1
and 1.0 mg/1 respectively were found to cause reduced growth
and stem elongation in tobacco (23). Chromium, as chromic
sulfate, was toxic to corn at 5 mg/1 in nutrient solutions
(24) and chromium as chromic or chromate ions produced iron
chlorosis in sugar beets grown in sand cultures (25) .
Hunter and Vergnano (26) found that 5 mg/1 of chromium in
nutrient solutions produced iron deficiencies in plants.
Because little is known about the accumulation of cnromium
in soils relative to its toxicity its concentrations in
irrigation waters should te held to less than 1 mg/1 {see
1)-
i. Cobalt
The maximum acceptable concentration cf cobalt
in water for continuous irrigation is 0.05 mg/1. The
maximum acceptable concentration in irrigation water for
neutral fine-textured soils for a period of not more than 20
years is 5.0 mg/1.
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Rationale (cobalt):
A concentration of 0.1 mg/1 of cobalt in nutrient
solutions in irrigation waters is near the threshold
toxicity level of plants, whereas a concentration of 0.05
mg/1 appears to be satisfactory for continuous application
on all soils (1). Because the reaction of this element with
soils is strong at neutral and alkaline pH values, and since,
it increases with time (27), a concentration of 5.0 mg/1
might be tolerated by fine-textured neutral to alkaline
soils when it is added in small yearly increments (1).
The maximum acceptable concentration of copper
in water for continuous irrigation is 0,2 mg/1. Tae maximum
acceptable concentration in irrigation water for neutral and
alkaline fine-textured soils for a period of not more than
20 years is 5.0 mg/1.
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Rationale (Copper):
Copper concentrations of 0.1 to 1.0 mg/1 in nutrient
solutions have been shown to be toxic to a large number of
plants (28-32). Copper toxicity exhibited an accumulation
in soils of 897 kg/hectare (800 Ibs/acre) from the use of
Bordeaux sprays (33). It is reported that copper toxicity
in soils can be reduced by liming the soil if it is acid,
using ample phosphate fertilizer, and adding iron salts
(34). Toxicity levels in nutrient solutions and limited
data on soils suggest a maximum concentration of 0.2 mg/1
for continuous use on all soils (1).
k. Fluoride
The maximum acceptable concentration o£
fluoride in water for continuous irrigation on all soils is
2.0 mg/1. The maximum acceptable concentration for
continuous irrigation of acid sandy soils is 1.0 mg/1. The
maximum acceptable concentration for neutral and alkaline
fine-textured soils for a period cf not more than 20 years
is 15.0 mg/1.
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34
Rationale (Fluoride):
Application of soluble fluoride salts to acid soils can
produce toxicity to plants (1). It was shown thac 404 kg of
fluoride per hectare (360 Ibs/acre) added as sodium
fluoride, reduced the yields of buckwheat at a pH of 4.5,
but at pH values above 5.5 this rate produced no injuries to
the plants (35) .
1. Iron
The maximum acceptable concentration of iron
in water for continuous irrigation is 5.0 mg/1. The maximum
acceptable concentration in irrigation water for neutral to
alkaline soils for a period cf not more than 20 years is 20
mg/1.
Rationale (Iron):
Iron is so insoluble in aerated soils at all pH values
in which plants grow well that it is not toxic (1).
However, Rhoads (36) found large reductions in the quality
of cigar wrapper tobacco due to the precipitation of iron
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35
oxides on the leaves when the plants were sprinkler
irrigated with water containing 5 or more mg/1 soluble iron.
Also, soluble iron salts in irrigation water contribute to
soil acidification and the precipitated iron increases the
fixation of such essential elements as phosphorus and
molybdenum (1).
m. Lead
The maximum acceptable concentration of lead
in water for continuous irrigation is 5.0 mg/1. The maximum
acceptable concentration in irrigation water for neutral and
alkaline fine-textured soils for a period of not more than
20 years is 10.0 mg/1.
Rationale (Lead):
The phytotoxieity of lead is relatively low (1). Since
soluble lead contents in soils are usually from 0.05 to 5.0
mg/kg (37) little toxicity can be expected (1). Although
it was concluded (38) that lead as it occurs in nature is
toxic to vegetation, studies using some plant roots and nigh
concentrations of lead revealed it to be concentrated in
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36
cell walls and nuclei and to be an inhibitor of cell
proliferation (see 1).
n. Lithium
The maximuir acceptable concentration of
lithium in water for continuous irrigation is 2.5 mg/1
except for citrus where 0.075 mg/1 is the maximum acceptable
concentration.
Rationale (Lithium):
Most crops can tolerate lithium in nutrient solutions at
concentrations up to 5 mg/1 (39, 40); however, citrus crops
are more sensitive to lithium (41, 42, 43). Grapefruit
developed severe syirptcms of toxicity when irrigated with
water containing concentrations of lithium from 0.18 to 0.25
mg/1 (43). A slight toxicity of lithium to citrus was noted
when concentrations of lithium were from 0.06 to 0.1
mg/1 (44).
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37
o. Manganese
The maximum acceptable concentration of
manganese in water for continuous irrigation is 0.2 mg/l«
The maximum acceptable concentration in irrigation water for
neutral and alkaline fine-textured soils for a period of not
more than 20 years is 10.0 mg/1. Concentrations tor
continued application may be increased for alkaline or
calcareous soils and also with crops that have higher
tolerance levels.
Rationale (Manganese):
Manganese concentrations at a few tenths to a few
milligrams per liter in nutrient solutions are toxic to a
number of crops (44, 47, 48). However, toxicity of tnis
element is associated with acid soils and applications ot
proper quantities of ground limestone successfully
eliminates this problem. Increasing the pH of soils from
5.5 to 6.0 usually reduces the active manganese to below
toxic levels (48).
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38
p. Molybdenum
The maximum acceptable concentration of
molybdenum in water for continuous irrigation on all types
of soils is 0.01 mg/1. The maximum acceptable concentration
in irrigation water for short term application on soils that
react with this element is O.C5 mg/1.
Rationale (Molybdenum):
This element presents no problems of toxicity to plants
at concentrations usually found in soils and waters.
However, the problem is one of toxicity to animals ingesting
the forage that has been grown in soils with relatively high
amounts of available molybdenum (1). It was reported that
the molybdenum concentrations in forage o± 5 to 30 mg/kg
produced toxicity to ruminants (49). The accumulation of
molybdenum in plants was fcund to be proportional to the
amount of the element added to the soil. Molybdenum
concentrations of 0.01 mg/1 or greater in soil were
associated with animal toxicity levels of this element in
alsike clover (51).
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39
q. Nickel
The maximum acceptable concentration cf nickel
in water for continuous irrigation on all types of soils is
0.2 mg/1. The maximum acceptable concentration in
irrigation water for neutral fine-textured soils for a
period of not more than 20 years is 2.0 rr»g/l.
Rationale (Nickel):
Many experiments with plants in solution cultures nave
shown that nickel at 0.5 tc 1.0 mg/1 is toxic (52).
Increasing the pH of soils reduces the toxicity of added
nickel (52, 53, 5U). The greatest capacity to adsorb nickel
without development of toxicity to plants was exhibited by
soils with 21 percent organic matter (5U).
r. Nitrates
No maximum limit of acceptability is
prescribed for nitrates in irrigation waters.
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Rationale (Nitrate):
Nitrates in irrigation waters are usually an asset tor
plant qrowth, and there is no apparent evidence tnat ttiey
will accumulate to toxic levels in irrigated plants (1).
s. Selenium_
The maximum acceptable concentration ot
selenium in irrigation water is 0.02 ma/1.
Rationale (Selenium) :
Selenium is toxic at lew concentrations in nutrient
solutions and small amounts added to soils increase the
selenium content in forage to levels which are toxic to
livestock (1). Amounts of selenium in forage required to
prevent selenium deficiencies in cattle range between 0.03
and 0. 10 mg/kg (55); whereas, concentrations above 3 or
« mg/kg are toxic (5b) .
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41
t. Sodium
No limit of acceptability is prescribed tor
sodium in irrigation waters. Acceptable sodium
concentrations should be prescribed individually oased on
its hazard to specific crops and using limits determined by
the U.S. Salinity Laboratory.
Rationale (Sodium) :
The complex interactions of sodium ions with other
common ions upon various crops precludes a consideration as
an individual component for limits in irrigation water
except where fruit crops may be important (1). Soaium is
adsorbed by lemons, avocados and stoned fruits grown in
cultured solutions and causes leaf burns to these plants
(•:
{60, 61). It is difficult to separate the specific toxic
effects of sodium from the effects of adsorbed sodium on
soil structure (1).
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Pathogens
a. Human Pathogens
The maximum acceptable density of fecal
coliforms in irrigation water is 1,000/100 ml.
Rationale (Human Pathogens):
Irrigation waters with fecal coliform densities of
1,000/100 ml are believed to contain sufficiently low
concentrations of pathogenic microorganisms that no hazards
to animals or man result frcm their use or from consumption
of raw crops irrigated with such waters (1). Many
microorganisms pathogenic to animals may be carried in
•
irrigation water, particularly that derived from surface
sources. This includes a large variety of bacteria whicn
find their way into irrigation water from municipal and
industrial wastes including fcod processing plants,
slaughter houses, poultry processing operations and teea
lots. The diseases associated with such bacteria include
bacillary and amoebic dysentery, Salmonella gastroenteritis,
typhoid and paratyphoid fevers, leptospirosis, chlorea,
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<43
vibriosis, and infectious hepatitis. Recent studies nave
emphasized the value of fecal coliform density in assessing
the occurrence of SaIrnone 11 a, the most common bacterial
pathoqen in irriqation water (1). Geldreich and Dordner
(62) reviewed field studies involving irrigation water,
field crops and soils and stated that when the fecal
coliform density in stream waters exceeded 1,000 organisms
per 100 ml, Salmonella occurrence reached a frequency of
96.4 percent. Below 1,000 fecal coliforir>s per 100 ml (range
1 - 1,000) the occurrence of Salmonella was 53.5 percent.
b. gjant^ Pathogens
In order tc protect plants from disease
pathogens in irrigation water, it is necessary to take
preventive measures rather than establish quantitative assay
limits. Disposing of diseased plant material in lakes,
streams, or irrigation systems should be avoided.
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Rationale (Plant Pathogens):
Irrigation water may te assayed for plant pathogens;
however, there are thousands or perhaps millions of harmless
microorganisms for every one that causes a plant disease.
Plant infection is not considered serious unless an
economically important percentage of a crop is affected.
The real danger is that a plant disease can be spread by
water to an unaffected area, where it can then be spread by
other means and become important. It is unlikely that any
method of water examination or any limits in water would be
as effective in preventing this as would be prohibitions
upon the introduction of diseased material into water that
may be used for irrigation (1).
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Pesticides
The maximum acceptable concentrations of
dalapon, TCA and 2,4-D amine salt in irrigation warer are
0.2, 0.2, and 0.1 ug/1 respectively.
Rationale (Herbicides):
It is reported (1) that signiticant levels of heroicides
are likely to be found in irrigation water under the
following circumstances: a) during their purposeful
introduction into the water to control submerged weeds or b)
incidental to herbicide treatment for control of weeus on
banks of irrigation canals, faater use restrictions are
usually applied when herbicides are used in reservoirs ot
irrigation water. Herbicides used in reservoirs are
persistent and inherently phytotoxic to plants at low
levels. Also, the most widely used herbicides on irrigation
ditch banks are 2,4-D, dalapon, TCA, and silvex, whicn are
readily soluble in water and not extensively adsorbed to
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46
soil or other surfaces (1). Reduction in levels or residues
in flowing irrigation waters is due largely to dilution (1).
Insecticides
No limit of acceptability is prescribed for
insecticide concentrations in irrigation waters.
Rationale (Insecticides) :
Concentrations of insecticides normally occurring in
irrigation water are not detrimental to crops. Tnere are no
documented cases of insecticide residues in irrigation
waters being toxic to plants. Because of this ana tiie
marked variability in crop sensitivities, no limits for
insecticides in irrigation waters are necessary (1).
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47
An acceptable concentration of radionuclides in
irrigation water depends on the arr.cunt of radioactivity
transferred to the foodstutts and shall be such that the
total radionuclide ingestion by the most exposed group using
the food will not exceed the daily intake prescribed in
Federal Drinking Water Standards. If the consumption of
these foodstuffs is so widespread that it is likely tnat the
aggregate dose to the exposed population will exceeu 3000
man-rein per year, limitations on the distribution ana sale
should be considered by the relevant public healtn
authorities.
Rationale (Radioactivity) ;
There are no generally acceptable concentration limits
for control of radioactive contamination in irrigation water
since the amount of radioactivity in the tood will vary
depending on the type cf crop, soil, and duration and methoa
of irrigation. However, only in highly unusual
circumstances will irrigation waters meeting Federal
Drinking Water Standards for radioactivity be unsuitable for
any agricultural use.
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7. Solids
a- Solids ^Dissolved)
The maximum acceptable concentrations of total
dissolved solids in irrigation waters are 2,000 - 5,000 mg/1
for tolerant plants in permeable soils or 500 - 1,000 ing/1
for sensitive crops.
Rationale (Dissolved Solids):
In spite of the facts that: a) any total dissolved
solids (TDS) limits used in classifying the salinity hazards
of waters are somewhat arbitrary; b) the hazard is related
not only to the TDS but also to the individual ions
involved; and c) no exact hazard can be assessed unless the
soil crop and accessible yield reductions are known; certain
classifications of limits of certain dissolved solids in
irrigation water are useful. Waters with total dissolved
solids less than about 500 mg/1 are usually used by tanners
without awareness of any salinity problems, unless there is
a high water table (1). Without dilution from precipitation
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or an alternate supply, waters with IDS of about 5,000 my/1
usually have little value for irrigation (64). Within tnese
limits the values of the water appear to decrease as the
salinity increases. Where water is to be used regularly for
the irrigation of relatively impervious soils, its value is
limited if the TDS is in the range of 2,000 mg/1 or
higher (1) .
b• Solids fSugpendedj
No limit of acceptability is prescribed for
suspended solids in irrigation waters.
Rationale (Suspended Solids):
Although they can be detrimental to seedling emergence
and leafy plant development, irrigation waters containing
sediments high in silt may improve the texture, consistency,
and water holding capacity of sar.dy soils (1). Deposition
of colloidal particles on the soil surface can prouuce a
crust that inhibits water infiltration and seedling
emergence, while the same deposition and crusting can reduce
soil aeration and impede plant development (1). High
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50
colloidal content in water used for sprinkler irriyation can
result in deposition of films on leaf surfaces that reduce
photosynthetic activity and thereby deter growth as well as
affecting the marketability ot leafy vegetable crops such as
lettuce (1).
8. Temperature
No limit of acceptability for temperature ib
prescribed for irrigation waters.
Rationale (Temperature):
The temperature of irrigation water has both direct and
indirect effects on plant growth. Each occurs when plant
physiological functions are impaired by excessively hign or
excessively low temperatures. The exact water temperature
at which growth is severely restricted depends upon method
of water application, atmospheric conditions at tae time ot
application, frequency of application, and plant species.
Optimum temperatures for growth vary considerably by
species. Direct effects on plant growth from extreme
temperatures of irrigation water occur when water is first
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51
applied, with plant damage resulting only from direct
contact. Excessively warir water applied through d sprinkler
system has little effect upon the plant. hater as warm as
55 C {130 F) can be safely applied in this manner as warm
water frequently reaches airlient temperatures by tiie time it
reaches the soil (65). Cold water, however, applieu tnrougn
a sprinkler system may be harmful to plant growth as ambient
temperatures are not attained as rapidly with cold water as
they are with warm water (1).
The indirect effects of the temperature of irrigation
water on plant growth occur as a result of the influence of
the water temperature upon the soil. It is well documented
that soil temperatures affect the rate of water ana nutrient
uptake, translocation of metabolites and other physiological
processes (1). The effect of the temperature of irrigation
waters upon the temperature of the soil is not weil known,
but this effect is thought to be small (1).
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52
C. Livestock
1. Inorganics jlpns ang^Free Elements/Compounds],
a. Aluminum
The maximuir acceptable concentration of
aluminum in livestock drinking water is 5.0 mg/1.
Rationale (Aluminum):
The occurrence of aluminum in water should not cause
problems for livestock except under unusual conditions and
with acid waters (1).
b. Arsenic
The maximum acceptable concentration of
arsenic in livestock drinking water is 0.2 mg/1.
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53
Rationale (Arsenic):
The toxicity of arsenic depends on its chemical form.
Its orqanic oxides are considerably more toxic than trie
organic forms which occur in living tissues or are used as
feed additives. Differences in toxicities of the various
forms are clearly related to the rate of their excretion,
the least toxic being the most rapidly eliminated (bb, 67).
Except in unusual cases, arsenic normally occurs in waters
largely as inorganic oxides (1). The acute toxicity of
inorganic arsenic for tariri animals was given (68) as
follows: poultry, 0.05 - 0.10 g per animal; swine, 0.15 -
1.0 g per animal; sheep, goats, ana horses, 10.0 - 15.0 g
per animal; and cattle, 15.0 - 3C.O g per animal. Arsenic
acid at levels up to 1.25 mg/kg of body weight per aay was
fed (68) to lactating cows for eight weeks. This is
equivalent to an intake of 60 liters of water containing 5.5
mg/1 of arsenic daily by a 500 kg animal. Results indicated
that this form of arsenic is absorbed and rapidly excretea
in the urine and that there was no-increase of the arsenic
content of the milk. No toxicity was observed.
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54
c. Beryllium
No limit of acceptability is prescribed ror
beryllium concentrations in livestock drinking water.
Rationale (Beryllium):
The salts of beryllium are not highly toxic. Laboratory
rats survived for two years on a diet that supplied the
element at a level of about 18 ing/kg body weight daily (1)-
It was calculated (70) that a cow could drink almost 1,000
liters of water containing 6,000 mg/1 without harm it the
data from rats are transposable to cattle. Little
additional data exists on the toxicity of beryllium to
livestock (see 1).
d. Boron
The maximum acceptable concentration of boron
in livestock drinking water is 5.0 mg/1.
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55
Rationale (Boron);
Boron has relatively low order of tcxicity to
livestock (1). In the dairy cov, 16-20 g of boric aciu per
day for 40 days produced no ill effects (71). There is no
evidence that boron accuir.ulates to any extent in ooay
tissues (1).
e. Cadmium
The maximum acceptable concentration of
cadmium in livestock drinking water is 50.0 ug/1.
Rationale (Cadmium):
Research to date suggests that cadmium is not an
essential element but, on the other hand, is quite toxic.
Man has been sickened by doses as low as 15 mg/1 in
popsicles (71). It was found (72) that a single dose of «*.5
mg cadmium/kg of body weight produced permanent sterility in
male rats. At a level of 5 mg/1 in the drinking water of
rats (73) or mice (7U) cadmium reduces longevity.
Intravenous injections of cadmium sulfate into pregnant
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56
hamsters at a level of 2 mg/kg body weight on day eight ot
gestation caused malformaticns in the fetus (75). It was
found (76) that only a small part of ingested cadmium in
ruminants was absorbed, with most of that going to the
kidneys and liver. Once absorbed its turnover rate was very
slow. The cow was found to be very efficient in keeping
cadmium out of its milk, and it was concluded that most
major animal products, including beef and milk, seem quite
well protected against cadmium accumulation (76).
f. Chromium
The maximum acceptable concentration of
chromium in livestock drinking water is 1.0 mg/1.
Rationale (Chromium) :
Even in its most soluble forms, chromium is not readily
absorbed by animals, being largely excreted in the
teces (1). Also, it does not appear to concentrate in any
particular mammalian tissues or to increase in these tissues
with age (66, 77). After review of chromium toxicity it was
suggested (71) that up to 5 mg/1 of chromium III or VI in
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57
livestock drinking water should not be harmful. While this
may be reasonable it is suggested that this level may be
unnecessarily high and the prescribed 1.0 mg/1 chromium
level was therefore recommended to provide a suitable margin
of safety (1) .
g. Cobalt
The maximum acceptable concentration of cobalt
in livestock drinking water is 1.0 mg/1.
Rationale (Cobalt) :
Cobalt is part of the vitamin B/z molecule and as such,
it is an essential nutrient. Ruminants synthesize their own
vitamin B/z if they have cobalt in their diet. For cattle
and sheep a diet containing about 0.1 mg/kg of the element
appears to be nutritionally adequate (1). A wide margin of
safety exists between the required and toxic levels for
sheep and cattle, which are levels of a hundred times those
usually found in diets that are well tolerated (1). When
vitamin E,? is administered to non-ruminants in amounts well
beyond those present in food and feeds, cobalt induces
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58
polycythemia (67). This is also true for calves prior to
rumen development where about 1.1 mg of this element per kg
of body weight administered daily causes depression of
appetite and loss of weight. The prescribed 1.0 ing/1 cobalt
level is recommended (1) based upon available toxicity data
as offering a satisfactory margin of safety for livestock.
h.
The maximum acceptable concentration ot copper
in livestock drinking water is 0.5 mg/1.
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59
Rationale (Copper) :
Copper is an essential trace element to animals and some
of it is required in their diet. Swine are apparently very
tolerant of high levels of copper and 250 mg/kg or more in
the diet have been used to improve live weight gains and
feed efficiency (78, 79). It does not appear to accumulate
in muscle tissues and apparently is readily eliminated upon
cessation of intake (1). On the other hand, sheep are very
susceptible to copper poisoning and a diet containing 25
mg/kg is considered toxic (67) . About. 9 mg per animal per
day is considered as a safe level of intake (80). There are
little experimental data on effects of copper in livestock
drinking water, and its toxicity must be judged largely from
the results of test feedings.
i- Fluorine
The maximum acceptable concentration of
fluorine in livestock drinking water is 2.0 mg/1.
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60
Rationale (Fluorine) :
A level of 2.0 mg/1 in livestock drinking water may
result in some tooth mottling; however, it is not excessive
from the standpoint of animal health or the deposition of
this element in meat, milk or eggs (1), Chronic fluoride
poisoning of livestock has been observed where water
contained 10 to 15 mg/1 fluoride (67). Concentrations of 30
- 50 mg/1 of fluoride in the total ration of dairy cows is
considered the upper sate limit (81). Fluoride from waters
apparently does not accumulate in soft tissue to a
significant degree and it is transferred to a very small
extent into the milk and to a somewhat greater degree into
eggs (67). It was concluded (71) that 1.0 mg/1 of fluorine
in drinking water did not harm livestock.
j. Iron
No limit of acceptability is prescribed for
iron in livestock drinking water.
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61
Rationale (Iron):
Iron is essential to animal life and it has a very low
order of toxicity (1). Very high levels oi iron in tne diet
(4,000 and 5,000 mg/kg) were found to cause phosphorus
deficiency and to be toxic to weanling pigs (82)j however,
lower levels (3,000 mg/kg) apparently were not toxic. While
iron occurs in natural water as very soluble ferrous salts,
on contact with air they are oxidized and precipitated as
ferric oxide, rendering them essentially harmless to animal
life. It is therefore net considered necessary to set a
limit for this element (1).
Lead
The maximum acceptable concentration of lead
in livestock drinking water is 0.1 mg/1.
Rationale (Lead):
A nutritional need for lead by animals has not been
demonstrated, but its toxicity is well known (1). A ratner
complete review of the matter of lead poisoning
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62
suggested (71) that for livestock the toxicity of this
element had not been clearly established from a quantitive
standpoint. Although a daily intake of 6 - 7 mg/kg of body
weight has been suggested as a threshold poisoning level in
cattle (89), and even with more recent data (83 - 88) , it is
difficult to clearly establish the intake level at which
lead becomes toxic. There is agreement that 0.5 mg/1 of
lead in the drinking water of livestock is a safe level
(71). other findings (73, 74, 90, 91) based upon studies
with laboratory animals are also in agreement witn this
level. At 5 mg/1 lead in the drinking water of rats ana
mice over their life spans, the same investigators found no
obvious direct toxic effects. They did, however, find an
increase in the death rates of elder animals, especially in
the males. It was observed (91) that the increased
mortality was not caused by overt lead poisoning, but rather
by increase of susceptibility to spontaneous infections. It
was reported (92) that mice treated with subclinical aoses
of lead nitrate were more susceptible to infections froni
t^ghirnurium.
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63
No limit of acceptability is prescribed tor
concentrations of manganese in livestock drinking water.
Rationale (Manganese) :
Manganese is a required trace element, occurring in
natural waters at only low levels as manganous salts, and is
precipitated in the presence of air as manganic oxiae (1).
While it can be toxic when administered in livestock teed at
high levels (67) it is improbable that it would be tound at:
toxic levels in water (1).
m. Mercury
The maximum acceptable concentration ol
mercury in livestock drinking water is 1.0 ug/1.
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64
Rationale (Mercury):
Concentrations of mercury in surface waters have usually
been found to be far less than 5 ug/1 (68), but metnylation
of bottom sediment mercury in areas bordering mercury
deposits results in a continuous presence of the element in
solution (69, 70). The relative stability of methyimercury
together with efficient absorption of it by the qut
contributes to its increased toxicity when orally
administered (70). It is suggested (1) that maintenance
levels of mercury in livestock blood and tissues not exceed
0.1 mq/1 and 0.5 mq/kg respectively to provide a sate level
for human consumption. The safe level for consumption oi
fish as prescribed by the Food and Drug Administration is
also 0.5 mq/kg. However, the maintenance level for risn was
predicated upon the fact that there are no other sources of
mercury in the diet than from fish. In view of tncse facts
the limits prescribed herein are reduced by a factor of ten
to reduce the significance of levels from meat products in
comparison with those of fish.
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65
n. Molybdenum
No limit of acceptability is prescribed for
concentrations of molybdenum in livestock drinkiny water.
Rationale (Molybdenum):
Too many factors influence the toxicity of molybdenum to
permit the establishment of limits on concentrations in
water for livestock drinking. It has been pointed out (fa?)
that many of the previous studies on the toxicities of
molybdenum are of limited value because a number 01 tactors
known to influence its metabolism were not taken into
account in making these studies. These factors inciuue the
chemical form of molybdenum, the ccpper status and intake ot
the animal, the form ard amount of sulfur in the diet, ana
other less well defined entities. In spite of these, there
are considerable data to support real species differences in
terms of tolerance to this element. cattle seemea the least
tolerant, sheep a little more so, and horses and swine
considerably more tolerant (1).
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66
o- Nitrates and Nitrites
The maximum acceptable concentration of
nitrates plus nitrites in livestock drinking water or in
water to be used in feed slurries is 100.0 mg/1. Tne
maximum acceptable concentration of nitrite alone is 10.0
mq/1.
Rationale (Nitrates and Nitrites):
Nitrites are considerably mere toxic to livestock, than
nitrates. Usually nitrite is formed through the biological
reduction of nitrate in the rumen of cattle or sheep, in
freshly chopped forage, in moistened feeds, or in water
contaminated with organic matter to the extent that it is
capable of supporting microbial growth. While natural
waters often contain high levels of nitrate, their nitrite
content is usually very low (1) . It was concluded (93) tnat
nitrate in cattle feed does not appear to constitute a
hazard to human health, and that animals feu nitrate
continuously develop some degree of adaption to it. The
LD-fp of nitrate nitrogen for ruminants was found to be about
75 mg/kg of body weight when administered as a drencn (94)
and about 255 mg/kg of body weight when sprayed on torage
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67
and feed (95) . Assuming a maximum water consumption in
dairy cattle of 3 - a times the dry matter intake, trie
concentration of nitrate to be tolerated in the water should
be about one fourth of that tolerated in the feed (1). This
would amount to about. 300 mq/1 of nitrate. Drinking water
containing 330 mg/1 nitrates fed continuously to growing
pigs and to gilts from weaning through two furrowing seasons
had no advers*3 effects (96). Levels of nitrate up to 300
mg/1 were addad to drinking water without adversely
affecting the growth of chicks or production of laying
hens (97) . Losses in swine due to methoqlobinemia have
occurred only with the consumption of preformed nitrite and
not with nitrate (98 - 100). In special situations
involving the presence of high levels of nitrates in aqueous
slurries of plant or animal tissues, nitrite accumulation
reached a peak of about one fourth to cne half the initial
nitrate concentration (98 - 101). Levels of nitrite up to
200 mg/1 were added to drinking waters without adverse
effect on the growth of chicks or production of laying nens
(97). At 200 mg/1, nitrite decreased growth in turkey
pullets and reduced the liver storage of vitamin A in
chicks, laying hens, and turkeys. At 50 mg/1 nitrite, no
effects were observed on any of the birds. It appears mat
all classes of livestock and poultry which have been studied
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68
under controlled experimental conditions can tolerate the
continued ingestion of waters containing up to 300 mg/1 of
nitrate or 100 mg/1 of nitrite (1).
p. Selenium
The maximum acceptable concentration of
selenium in livestock drinking water is 0.05 mg/1.
Rationale (Selenium) :
No substantiated cases of livestock poisoning by
selenium in waters have been reported, although some spring
and irrigation waters have been found to contain over 1 mg/1
of this element (102 - 10U). As a rule, well, surface, and
ocean waters contain less than 0.05 mg/1, usually
considerably less (1). The low selenium content as has been
explained (105) results trom the precipitation of tiie
selenite ion with ferric hydroxide. Another explanation may
be that microbial activity removes both selenite and
selenate from water (106). A study with rats (107) revealed
that selenite but not selenate in livestock drinking water
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69
caused deaths at a level of 2 mg/1 and was somewhat more
toxic than selenite administered in the diet.
q, VanadiurTi
The maximum acceptable concentration of
vanadium in livestock drinking water is 0.1 mg/1.
Rationale (Vanadium):
Vanadium becomes toxic to chicks when incorporated into
the diet as ammonium metavanadate at concentrations over
about 10 mg/kg (108 - 111). It was found (73) that wnen
mice drank water containing 5 mg/1 ot vanadium as vanadyl
sulfate over a life span, nc toxic effects were ooserved,
but this element did accumulate to some extent in certain
organs.
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The maximum acceptable concentration ot zinc
in livestock drinking water is 25.0 mg/l»
Rationale (Zinc):
Zinc is relatively non-toxic to animals (1). Swine have
tolerated 1,000 mq/kg of dietary zinc (112 - 115), while
2,000 mg/kg or more have been found to be toxic. Similar
findings have been reported for poultry (116 - 11a) wuen
zinc was added to the teed. Adding 2,320 mg/1 of the
element to water for chickens reduced water consumption, egg
production, and body weight (119). In a number ot studies
with ruminants, it was found (120 -123) that zinc adaed to
diets as an oxide tended to be toxic, but at levels over
500 mg/kg of diet. While an increase of zinc intake
reflects an increase of txie levels of this element in the
body tissue, a tendency for its accumulation was not great
(124, 125, 126, 114} and tissue levels fell rapidly after
zinc dosing was stopped (124, 117).
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2 • Eat hocje ns
a. Microorganisms
The maximum acceptable limit for livestocK
drinkinq water is 5,000 ccliforins per 100 ml or water. The
maximum acceptable monthly arithmetic density of recal
coliforms is 1,000 per 100 ml of water. Poth limits are to
be based upon an average of at least two consecutive samples
examined per month. The maximum acceptable limit of any one
sample examined in any one month is a total coliform count
of 20,000 per 100 ml ot water or a fecal colitorm density of
4,000 per 100 ml of water.
Rationale (Microorganisms):
As an index of fecal pollution the total colirorm ana
fecal coliform group of bacteria best serve as an inaicaror
to the degree o.t contamination. Transmitted to livestock by-
water is a variety of microorganisms associated with ooth
feces and urine. However, none of these organisms except
the fecal coliform group are quantifiable or standardized to
such a degree as to permit specific limits for water Duality
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72
criteria. Hence the use of the recal and total coliform
standards.
b. Tgxig^Algae
Heavy growths of toxic blue-green algae are
not acceptable in livestock drinking water supplies.
Rationale (Toxic Algae) :
A number of cases of algae poisoning in farm animals in
Minnesota were reviewed (127) between 1882 and 1933. All
were associated with certain blue-green algae, often
concentrated by the wind at one end of the lake. six
species of blue green algae have been incriminated (128) in
the poisoning of livestock. These are: Nodu_laria
spumigena. Mi crocks tis aerugincsa, Coelosghaeriurn
kuetzinqianum, Gloeotrichia e^cjlniKLata, Anabaena flos-aguae,
and Aphanizomenon flos-aguae. Of the previous, it w^s
reported (128) that Microc^stis and Anabaena have mcsr otten
been blamed for serious poisonings of livestock, ana algae
blooms consisting of one or more of these species vary
considerably in their tcxicity. This variability seems to
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73
depend upon a number of factors, e.q., species or strains of
algae that are predominant; types and number of bacterial
associates; the condition cf growth, collection and
decomposition; the degree of animal starvation and
susceptibility; and the amounts consumed (129). It has been
evinced (130) that sudden decomposition of algae blooms
often preceded mass mortality of fish, and similar
observations have been made with livestock poisoning. This
suggests that the lysis of the algae may be important in the
release of the toxicants. But it also suggests that in some
circumstances botulism may be involved.
The maximum acceptable concentrations of pesticides in
livestock drinking water correspond to those prescribed for
public drinking water supplies.
Rationale (Pesticides):
Field studies indicate no deleterious effects on ttie
health of animals due to pesticide residues in livestock
drinking water (1). However, inherent problems associated
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74
with pesticide use include the accumulation and secretion of
either the parent compound or its degradation product in
edible tissues and milk (131). Nonpolar lipophilic (fat
soluble) pesticides such as the chlorinated hydrocarbon
insecticides tend to accumulate in fatty tissue ana may
result in measurable residues. Polar water soluble
pesticides are generally excreted in the urine soon after
ingestion. Elimination of fat soluble pesticides from
contaminated animals is slew. Urinary excretion is
insignificant and the elimination in feces is slow. Tne
primary route of excretion in lactating animals is tnrough
milk. Levels of pesticides tcund in farm water supplies do
not make a significant contribution to animal body burden
compared to amounts accumulated from feeds (1).
U. Radioactivity
The maximum acceptable concentration of
radionuclides in livestock drinking water shall be such that
the total radionuclide ingestion by the most exposed group
using the livestock as focd does not exceed the daily intake
prescribed in Federal Drinking Water Standards. If tne
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75
consumption of these foodstuffs is so widespread tnat it is
likely that the aggregate dose to the exposed population
will exceed 3000 man-rem per year, limitations on tne
distribution and sale should be considered by the relevant
public health authorities.
Rationale (Radioactivity):
In some, but not all cases, these criteria permit the
utilization of waters unfit for direct human consumption to
be used to water livestock, discrimination and suosequent
elimination of the radionuclides from the animals serving as
a mechanism for radionuclide removal. Where the
radionuclide intake is relatively high or where
radionuclides are present that iray be concentrated in a
particular organ, such as the thyroid, radioassay o± the
foodstuffs may be necessary to determine that acceptable
intake limits are not exceeded.
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76
5.
The maximum acceptable salinity level tot
livestock drinkinq water is 3000 mg/1 of soluble sales.
Rationale (Salinity):
While some minor physiological upsets resulting from
waters with salinity near the prescribed limit may be
.observed, economic losses or serious physiolooical
disturbances should rarely, if ever, result from their use.
It has been found (132) that natural water varying from
4,546 to 7,369 mrj/1 of total salts, with sodium and sullate
ions predominating, caused mild diarrhea but no symptoms of
toxicity in dairy cattle over a two-year period. Also
(133), cattle can thrive on water containing 11, 400 mg/1 of
total salts, can live under some conditions on water
containing 17,120 mg/1, and horses can thrive on water
containing 5,720 my/1 and are sustained when not workeu too
hard on water with 9,140 mg/1. The first expensive stuuies
were made (134, 135, 136) of the effects of saline water on
rats and livestock. With laying hens, 10,000 mq/i ot sodium
chloride in drinking water greatly delayed the onset or e.jg
nroductior, but 15,000 mg/1 or more were required to affect
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77
growth over a ten-week period. In swine, 15,000 my/1 of
sodium chloride in the drinking water caused deatn in the
smaller animals and some leg stiffness in the larger
animals, but 10,000 rng/1 did not appear particularly
injurious once they became accustomed to it. Sheep existed
on water containing 25,000 mg/1 of sodium or calcium
chloride or 30,000 mg/1 of magnesium sulfates, but not
without some deleterious effects. Cattle were somewhat less
resistant, and it was concluded that 10,000 mg/1 cotal salts
should be considered the upper limit under which their
maintenance could be expected. A lower limit was suggested
for lactating animals. It was further observed that animals
would not drink highly saline solutions if water with a low
salt content was available and that animals showing effects
of saline water returned quickly tc normal when allowed
water of a low salt content. Studies (137) of the eifects
of sodium chloride in water on laying hens, turkey pullets,
and ducklings revealed that at U,000 ma/1, the salt caused
some increased water consumption, watery droppings,
decreased feed consumption and growth, and increased
mortality. These effects were more pronounced at a higher
concentration of 10,000 mg/1, causing death in all the
turkey pullets at two weeks, some symptoms of dehydration in
the chicks, and decreased egg production in the hens.
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76
Experiments with laying hens restricted to water containing
10,000 mq/1 of sodium or magnesium sulfates gave results
similar to those of sodium chloride. It has been pointed
out (1): a) that animals drink little, if any, hignly
saline water if waters of lew salt content are available to
them; b) unless they have teen previously deprived of water,
animals can consume moderate amounts of highly saline water
for a few days without being harmed; c) abrupt changes from
water of low salinity to high saline water causes more
problems than a gradual change; and d) the depressed water-
intake is very likely to be accompanied by a depressed teed
intake.
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80
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97, Adams, A. W. , P. J. Emerick, and C. W. Carlson. 1966.
Effects of nitrate and nitrite in the drinking
water on chicks, poults and laying hens. Poultry
Sci. 15(6):1215-1222.
98. Mclntosh, I. G., R. L. Nielson, and W. D. Robinson,
1943. Mangel poisoning in pigs. N. Z. J. Agr. 66:
341-343.
99. Gwatkin, R. and P. J. G. Plummer. 1946. Toxicity of
certain salts of sodium and potassium for swine.
Can. J. Comp. Med. 10:183-190.
100. Winks, W. R., A. K. Sutherland, and R. M. Salisbury.
1950. Nitrite poisoning of pigs. Queensland J.
Agr. Sci. 7:1-14.
101. Barnett, A. J. G. 1952. Decomposition of nitrate
in mixtures of rainced grass and water. Nature
169:459.
102. Byers, H. G. 1935. Selenium occurrence in certain
soils in the United States with a discussion of
related topics. U. S. Dep. Agr. Tech. Bull. No. 482.
103. Williams, K. T. and H. G. Byers. 1935. Occurrence
of selenium in the Colorado River and some of its
tributaries. Indust. Eng. Chem., Anal*. Ed 7:
431-432.
104. Beath, 0. A. 1943. Toxic vegetation growing on the
Salt Wash Sandstone member of the Morrison Formation.
Amer. J. Hot. 30:698-707.
105. Byers, H. G., J. T. Miller, K. T. Williams, and
H. W. Lakin. 1938. Selenium occurrence in certain
soils in the United States with a discussion of
related topics. III. U.S. Dep, Agr. Tech. Bull No. 601.
106, Abu-Erreish, G. M. 1967. On the nature of some
selemiun losses from soils and waters (M.S. thesis)
South Dakota State University, Brookings.
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89
107. Schroeder, H. A. and J. J. Balassa. 1967. Arsenic,
germanium, tin and vanadium in mice: effects on
growth, survival and tissue levels. J. Nutr. 92:
245-252.
108. Romoser, G. L. , W, A. Dudley, L. J. Machlin, and L.
Loveless. 1961. Toxicity of vanadium and chromium
for the growing chick. Poultry Sci, 40:1171-1173.
109. Nelson, T. S., M. B. Gillis, and H. T. Peeler. 1962.
Studies of the effect of vanadium on chick growth.
Poultry Sci. 41 (2):519-522,
110. Berg, L. R. 1963. Evidence of vanadium toxicity
resulting from the use of certain commercial
phosphorus supplements in chick rations. Poultry
Sci, 42(3):766-769.
111. Hathcock, J. N.f C. H. Hill, and G. Matrone. 1964.
Vanadium toxicity and distribution in chicks and
rats. J. Nutr. 82:106-110,
112. Grimmett, R. E.R., T. G. Mclntosh, E. M. Wall, and
C. S. M. Hapkirk. 1937. Chronic zinc poisoning
of pigs; results of experimental feeding of pure zinc
lactate. N. Z. J. Agr. 54:216-223,
113. Sampson, J., R. Granham, and H. R. Hester. 1942.
Feeding zinc to pigs. Cornell Vet. 32:225-236.
114. Lewis, P. K., V,. G. Hoekstra, and R. H. Grummer. 1957.
Restricted calcium feeding versus zinc supplementation
for the ccntrol of parakeratosis in swine.
J. Anim. Sci. 16 (3) : 578-588.
115. Brink, M. F., D. E, Becker, S, W. Terrill, and A. H.
Jensen. 1959. Zinc toxicity in the weanling pig.
J. Anim. Sci. 18:836-842.
116. Klussendorf, R. C. and J. M. Pensack. 1958. Newer
aspects of zinc metabolism. J. Amer. Vet Med.
ASS. 132 (10) :446-450.
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117. Johnson, D. , Jr., A. L. Mehring, Jr., F. X. Savino,
and H. W. Titus. 1962. The tolerance of growing
chickens for dietary zinc. Poultry Sci. 41(1):
311-317.
118, Vohra, P. and F. H. Kratzer. 1968. Zinc, copper and
manganese toxicities in turkey poults and their
alleviation by EDTA. Poultry Sci. 47 (3):699-704.
119. Sturkie, P. D. 1956. The effects of excess zinc on
water consumption in chickens. Poultry Sci. 35:
1123-1124.
120. Ott, E. A., W. H. Smith, R. B. Harrington, and W. M.
Beeson. 1966a. Zinc toxicity in ruminants. I.
Effect of high levels of dietary zinc on gains,
feed consumption and feed efficiency of lambs.
J. Anim. Sci. 25:414-418.
121. Ott, E. A., W. H. Smith, R. B. Harrington, and W. M.
Beeson. 1966b. Zinc toxicity in ruminants.
II. Effect of high levels of dietary zinc on gains,
feed consumption and feed efficiency of beef cattle.
J. Anim. Sci. 25:419-423.
122. Ott, E. A., W. H. Smith, R. B. Harrington, M. Stob,
H. E. Parker, and W. M. Beeson. 1966c. Zinc
toxicity in ruminants. Ill, Physiological changes
in tissues and alterations in rumen metabolism in
lambs. J. Anim. Sci. 25:424-431.
123. Ott, E. A., W. H. Smith, R. B. Harrington, H. E.
Parker and W. M. Beeson, 1966d. Zinc toxicity
in ruminants. IV. Physiological changes in tissues of
beef cattle. J. Anim, Sci. 25:432-438.
124. Drinker, K. R., P. K. Thompson, and M. Marsh. 1927.
Investigation of the effect upon rats of long-
continued ingestion of zinc compounds, with especial
reference to the relation ot zinc excretion to zinc
intake. Amer. J. Physiol. 81:284-306.
125. Thompson, P. K., M. Marsh, and K. R. Drinker. 1927.
The effect of zinc administration upon reproduction
and growth in the albino rat, together with a
demonstration of the constant concentration of zinc
in a given species, regardless of age. Amer. J.
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Physiol. 80:65-74.
126. Sadasivan, V. 1951. The biochemistry of zinc. I.
Effect of feeding zinc on the liver and bones of
rats. Biochem. J. 48:527-530.
127. Fitch, C. P., L. M. Bishop, W. L. Boyd, R, A. Gortner,
C. F, Rogers, and J. E, Tilderu 1934. "Water
bloom" as a cause of poisoning in domestic animals.
Cornell Vet. 24:30-39.
128. Gorham, P. R. 1964. Toxic algae, in Algae and man,
D. F. Jackson, ed. Plenum Press, New York,
pp. 307-336.
129. Gorham, P. R. 1960. Toxic waterblooms of
blue-green algae. Canadian Vet. Journ. 1:
235-245.
130. Shilo, M. 1967. Formation and mode of action of algal
toxins. Eact. Rev. 31:180-193.
131. Kutches, A. J., D. C. Church, and F. L, Duryee. 1970.
Toxicological effects of pesticides on rumen
in vitro. J. Agr. Food Chem. 118:430-433.
132. Larsen, C. and D. E. Bailey. 1913. Effect of alkali
water on dairy cows. S. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull.
No. 147. pp. 300-325.
133. Ramsay, A. A. 1924. Waters suitable for livestock,
Analyses and experiences in New South Wales.
Agr. Gaz. N.S.W. 35:339-342.
134. Heller, V. G. and C. H, Larwood. 1930. Saline drinking
water. Science 71:223-224.
135. Heller, V. G. 1932. Saline and alkaline drinking
waters. J. Nutr. 5:421-429.
136. Heller, V. G. 1933. The effect of saline and alkaline
waters on domestic animals. Okla. Agr. Exp, Sta.
Bull. No. 217:3-23.
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137. Krista, L. M. , C. W. Carlson, and O. E. Olson. 1961.
Some effects of saline waters on chicks, laying hens.
poults, and ducklings. Poultry Sci. 40 (U):938-944.
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93
V, FRESHWATER CONSTITUENTS
A. Aquatic Life
1. Acidity^ ftj.kalinity^and_gH
The acceptable range of pH is 6.0 to 9.0.
Changes of up to 0.5 units from the estimated natural
seasonal minimum and maximum are acceptable. For natural
waters having a pH outside the 6.0 to 9.0 range or having
fluctuations in excess of 0.5 units from the estimated
natural seasonal minimum and maximum, no further variance is
acceptable.
t>» Alkalinity
Decreases in the total alkalinity of water of
more than 25 percent below the natural level are
unacceptable.
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94
Additions of weakly dissociated acias ana
alkalies are generally unacceptable.
Rationale (Acidity, Alkalinity and pH) :
Extremes of pH can exert stress conditions or kill
aquatic life outright. Even moderate changes from
"acceptable" criteria lirrits ct pB are deleterious to some
aquatic species. Non-lethal limits are narrower ror certain
fish food organisms than they are for fish. Daj-ihriia njacjna
and Gammarus for example, do not reproduce at pH levels
below 6.0. Alkaline conditions above pH 8.5 i egia to
decrease fecundity or many fish species. Addition or strong
alkalies can cause an increase in the proportion of un-
ionized ammonia, the toxic component. Metallo-cyaniae
complexes can increase a thousand fold ir. toxicity with a
drop of 1.5 pH units. The availability of mar.y nutrient
substances varies with the alkalinity and acidity, i.e.,
iron becomes unavailable to plants at hich pK values (See
1).
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95
Dissolved Gases
a . Ammon a
The maximum acceptatle concentration or un-
ionized ammonia (NH,) in water is 1/20 (0.05) the 96-hour
LC~6. When appropriate this value will tt determinea using
the receiving water in question and the most sensitive
important species in the locality as the test organisms.
The acceptable maximum concentration of un-ionizect ainmouia
in water is 0.02 mq/1.
Rationale (Ammonia) ;
The toxicity of ammonia solutions is dependent upon the
un- ionized ammonia, the concentrations of which vary with
the pH of the water. In incst. natural water the pH range is
such that ammonium ions (Kh^+) predominate, however, in
alkaline waters hiqh concentrations of un-ionized ammonia in
undissociated ammonium hydroxide increase the toxicity or
ammonia solutions {see 1 and 2). In streams polluted with
sewage, up to one half of the nitrogen ir the sewage may be
in the form of tree ammonia, and sewage may carry up to 35
mg/1 of total nitrogen (3 cited in 4). Acute toxicity data
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96
compiled on several species ot fish yielded mean yo-iiour L<~V
values ranginq from 0,29 tc 0.89 rrg/1 (1). An application
factor of 0.03 applied to these data produced values in the
neighborhood of 0.02 mg/1 which is abcut one-half the values
cited (5) as the no effect level for rainbow trout.
b. Chlorine^and^ Related Compounds
The maximum acceptable residual chlorine
concentrations in water are 0.003 mg/1 for chronic exposure.
Maximum concentrations of residual chlorine of O.Ob 1119/1 for
a period of up to 30 minutes in any 24-hour period are
acceptable.
Rationale (Chlorine):
The toxicity of chlorine in water to aquatic lite
depends upon the concentration ct residual chlorine and the
relative amounts of free chlorine and chloramines (6).
Apparently the toxicity of free chlorine in water is in tne
same order as that of the chloramines, and the toxicity of
chlorine can generally be estimated from a measure of
residual chlorine (7, 8). I.C ^ residual chlorine levels for
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97
fish have been reported at 0.008 mg/1 in seven days (8), and
0.05 - 0.19 mg/1 (9) and 0.23 mg/1 (10) in 96-hcmrs. In
chronic tests, fecundity of fathead minnows was reduced by
exposure to 0.043 mg/1 total chloramines, and survival and
reproduction of Gani-DSJiJJ were reduced by exposure to O.OU -
0.0034 mg/1, respectively (11). It was postulated (8) that
exposure to concentrations of O.OOU mg/1 for one year would
permit survival of one-half of the test fish. Apparently
aquatic organisms can tolerate short term exposure to higher
level residues of chlorine without harmful effects; however,
chronic exposure tc concentrations in excess of 0.003 mg/1
could cause chronic toxic effects.
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98
c.
Pisgolyed^Oxygen
(1). Minimum acceptable limits ot
dissolved oxygen for all water shall be based upon seasonal
temperatures. Minimum acceptable limits are presented in
the table below:
Oxygen Levels fcr
°C complete Saturation
36 7 mg/1
27.5 8 mg/1
21 9 mg/1
16 10 mg/1
7.7 12 mg/1
1.5 1U mg/1
Minimal Levels
fcr Protection of
Salntonid Spawning
6.4 mg/1
7.1 ma/1
7.7 mg/1
6.2 mg/1
8.9 mg/1
9.3 ma/1
Minimal Levels
for Protection of
Aquatic Life
5.3 mg/1
5.8 mg/1
6.2 mg/1
6.5 mg/1
6.8 rng/1
6.8 mg/1
(2). As an exception, under extreme
conditions for short periods of not more than 2U hours, a
minimum limit of u mg/1 is acceptable for waters auove J1 C
(87.8'F) .
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Rationale (Dissolved Oxygen) :
The prescribed limits of acceptability were derived trom
calculations (1) based upcn extensive studies of the ettects
of changes in dissolved oxygen. These dissolved oxygen
limits should provide a high level ct protection fur
freshwater aquatic life and preclude their impairment by
other necessary multiple uses ot water. Oxygen requirements
of aquatic life have be°n the subject of numerous
investigations, and several excellent survey papers on tae
subject have been compiled and are reviewed (1). A^thougn
most investigations have dealt specifically with the oxygen
requirements of fish, it is generally acknowledged that the
requirements of fish and their forage oroanisms are
compatible. That is, aquatic environments with oxygen
levels which are adequate to sustain a fish population will
also support invertebrates if other habitat requirements are
met. In establishing criteria, it is important to Know not
only how long an animal can resist, death by asphyxiation at
low dissolved oxygen concentrations, but also information
must be available on the oxygen requirements for egg
development, for newly hatched larvae, for normal growth and
activity, and tcr completing all stages of the reproductive
cycle. Upon review of the available information, one tact
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100
becomes clear: any reduction of dissolved oxygen can reduce
the efficiency of oxygen uptake by aquatic animals, and
hence reduce their ability to meet demands of their
environment. There is evidently nc concentration level or
percentage of saturation to which the dissolved oxygen
content of natural waters can be reduced without causing or
risking some adverse effects on the reproduction, growth,
and consequently, the production of fishes inhabiting those
waters (1). The selection of the level of protection to be
afforded aquatic life by the establishment of numerical
criteria is influenced by socio-economic as well as
biological consideration. Consequently, the intent of the
criteria is to provide a level of protection for diversified
species rather than single limits in an effort to protect
only specific organisms. Deleterious effects on fish deem
to depend more on '*xtreir;es than en averages (1). The
dissolved oxygen criteria are therefore based upon
temperature and degree of oxygen saturation. For example,
fish occupying a habitat which is v,ell saturated with oxygen
during daylight hours may be subjected to stress conditions
in the early morning hours when the oxyaen demand has
exhausted the photosynthetic reserve. Although there is no
single oxygen concentration which is favorable to ail
species and ecosystems, there are definite minimal
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101
concentrations that are unfavorable to almost all a4uatic
organisms (1). To provide for short duration physical
anomalies and for the case when lower minimum ambient oxygen
concentrations cannot be determined at higher temperature
levels, a floor of U mg/1 is established. Available
information indicates that below this minimal concentration
subacute or chronic damage to -several fish has been
demonstrated.
d.
The maximum acceptable concentrations ot
hydrogen sulf ide in water are 0,002 mg/1.
Rationale (Hydrogen Sulf ide):
See sulfides.
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102
e- Nitrogen_and Gas Bubble Disease
The maximum acceptable total dissolved gas
pressure in water is 110 percent of the existing atmospnenc
pressure, and any prolonged artiticial increase or sudden
decrease in total dissolved gas pressure should be avoided.
Rationale (Nitrogen and Gas Bubble Disease):
Gas bubble disease is caused by excessive total
dissolved gas pressure (supersaturation), but it is not
caused by the dissolved nitrogen gas alone (12 - 17).
Analysis ot gases in bubbles formed in fish suffering from
the disease revealed compositions essentially identical to
air (18, 19). Gas bubble disease is frequently associated
with supersaturated waters and Las been related to iiign
reaeration rates resulting from algal ilooms (16), heated
effluents of steam generating plants (20, 21) and aain
spillways (22, 23). Gas bubble disease results in buoble
formation on and within the tish. Gas enboli eventually
cause hemostasis within the bleed vessels, resulting in
tissue damage and gas formation in the heart leading to
death (1). Sublethal effects of gas bubble disease include
the promotion of other diseases, necrosis, tissue
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103
blindness and reproductive failure (22 - 26). The response
of fish to gas bubble disease varies with life stages and
species, degree of fatness, blood pressure, blood viscosity,
metabolic heat, body size, muscular activity and blood
osmolarity (1). There are few data on the tolerance or
invertebrates to excessive dissolved qas pressure; nowever,
it has been demonstrated that certain invertebrates ueveiop
qas pressure disease (see 1). Due to the paucity ot data on
chronic sublethal effects of gas bubble disease on tisn, and
to the lack of knowledge of the disease in invertebrates,
safe limits must be judged from aata on mortality ot
selected fishes under conditions approximating the water of
a hypothetical littoral zone (1). These data indicate taat
if total gas pressures do not exceed 110 percent ot tae
existing atmospheric pressure, aquatic life should te
adequately protected.
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104
3 . !G2£2sU2i£§ __ {Ions an d_Frgg E
a. Cadmium
Maximum acceptable cadmium concentrations are
0.03 mq/1 in hard water (total hardness greater than 100
mg/1 as CaCO5 ) and O.OOU mg/1 in soft water (total naraness
100 mg/1 CaCOu or less). Maximum acceptable concentrations
in water where Crustacea ana the eggs and larva ot salmonids
develop are 0.003 mg/1 in hard water and O.OOOU in soft
water as defined above.
Rationale. (Cadmium) :
Cadmium is an extremely dangerous cumulative toxicant,
causing insidious, progressive chronic poisoning in mammals
(27), fish, and probably other animals because the itetal is
not excreted (See 1). The eggs and larvae of fish are
apparently more sensitive than adult fish to poisoning by
cadmium, and crustaceans are evidently more sensitive than
fish eggs and larvae (See 1). The safe levels ot cadmium
for fathead mirnows (28) and Muegills in hard water are
between 0.06 and 0.03 mg/1, and sate levels for coho salmon
fry have been reported between 0.004 to 0.001 mg/1 in sott
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105
water (See 1). Concentrations of C.0005 mg/1 were observed
to reduce reproduction of Da^hnia macjna in one generation
exposures lasting three weeks (See 1) .
Maximum acceptable total chromium
concentrations in water are 0.05 mg/1.
Rationale (Chromium) :
The r.oxicity of chromium toward aquatic life varies
widely with the species, temperature, p.H, valence of tne
chromium and synerqistic and antagonistic effects,
particularly that of hardness (29) . Pecent data inuicate
that safe concentrations cf hexavalent chromium in hard
waters are 1.0 mg/1 for fathead minnows, and in soft water
0.6 and 0.3 mg/1 for brook and rainbcw trout. Similar
chronic no-effect levels fcr trivalent chromium were
suggested by these data (see 1). Additional data revealed
that some lower members ot tne food web are more sensitive
to chromium than are fish. The reported lethal limits ot
hexavalent chromium for fish are 17 and 118 mg/1 as compared
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106
to 0.05 mg/1 for macroinvertefcrates, and 0.032 to 6.4 mg/1
for algae (1) .
Maximum acceptable concentrations of copper
(expressed as Cu) in water are 1/10 (0.10) of the 96-hour L
value determined using the receiving water in question and
the most sensitive important species in the locality as the
test organisms.
Rationale (Copper):
The toxicity of copper varies with the chemical
characteristics of the water and with the species ct test
organism (29). Concentrations of 0.006 mg/1 in soft water
are thought to he safe for the reproduction and growtn of
Daghnia magna and fish, and in hard waters levels or 0.033
mg/1 are apparently safe (See 1). Since safe to lethal
ratios of copper in water vary frcir, 0.1 to 0.2, an ap-
plication factor of 0.1 or the 96-hour LC^ value sriould
provide adequate protection tor aquatic species (See 1).
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107
d. Lead
Maximum acceptable concentrations ot lead in
water are 0.03 mq/1.
Rationale (Lead):
The toxicity of lead in water varies with its solubility
which is a function of the hardness of the water. In soft
waters lead has a solubility of 0.5 ing/1, whereas in hard
water the solubility is only 0.003 mq/1 (1). The effect of
hardness upon the toxicity of lead was demonstrated by acute
toxicity tests on several species of fish in waters ot
varying hardness. The 96-hour LC.,-^ values in soft waters
(20-45 mq/1 CaCOj) were 1.0 mq/1 tor rainbow trout (30),
4.0-5.0 mq/1 for brook trout and 5.0-7.0 mq/1 for fathead
minnows (31, also see 1). In hard waters 96-hour LC^-^
values were 442 mq/1 fcr fcrock trout and 482 mq/1 for
fathead minnows (31). Preliminary information on cnronic
toxicity of lead to rainbow and brook trout indicated
detrimental effects at 0.10 mq/1 in soft water (see 1). The
growth of guppies was affected fcy 1.24 ma/1 of lead (32),
and concentrations of 0.1 and 0.3 mq/1 caused chronic or
sublethal effects on sticklebacks (33, 34). The safe level
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108
for Daphnia has been reported as 0.03 mg/1, and it nas been
suggested that this is also the sate level for fish (1),
e . Mercury _ (InorganicI
1) Maximum acceptable total mercury
concentration in unfiltered water at any time or place are
0.2 ug/1.
2) Maximum acceptable average mercury
concentrations in unfiltered water are 0.05 ug/1.
3) Maximum acceptable concentrations of
total mercury in any aquatic organism is a total oody burden
of 0.5 ug/g wet weight.
Rationale {Mercury - Inorganic) :
The main body of available information is on organic
compounds of mercury which are generally more dangerous to
aquatic life and man. Since inorganic mercury is changed by
organisms in nature to the organic forms the same limits are
prescribed for both forms (see 1) .
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109
f. Nickel
Maximum acceptable concentrations or nicKel in
water are 1/50 (0.02) the 96-hour LC^ value determined
using the receiving water in question and the most sensitive
important species in the locality as the test organisms.
Rationale (Nickel) :
Nickel as a pure metal does net constitute a serious
water pollution problem; however, many of the salts of
nickel are highly soluble in water and may present serious
hazards to aquatic life (see 29) . The 96-hour I.C^-^ of
nickel for fathead minnows ranges from 5 mg/1 in scft water
to 43 mg/1 in hard water (see 31). Chronic sate
concentrations for fathead minnows in hard water nave ceen
reported as varying between 0,8 and O.u ing/1, and in soft
water levels of 0.030 mg/1 had no effect on Da^hrua iM3Ii
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110
Maximum acceptable concentrations or total
sulfides in water are 0.002 mg/1.
Rationale (Sulfides) :
Sulfides enter the water as constituents of man>
industrial wastes. The addition cf soluble sultiues ro
water results in a reaction with hydrogen ions to lorifi hiS~
or H^S, the proportion of each depending upon the pH ot tne
water. Sulfides derive their toxicity from undissociatea
TjS, which at a pH of 5 or 6 accounts for about 99 percent
of the sulfides present in water. In neutral waters the
sulfides appear in about equal proportion of HS~ ana H^S,
and at a pH of 9 most of the sulfides are in the term ot H5~
(1). Hydrogen sulfide may fce formed by the microoiai
reduction of sulfates via sulfides (35) or from the
decomposition of organic matter in sediments and siuage
beds. Under lew oxygen tensions or low pH, hydrogen sulrxae
may be present in concentrations which are toxic ro aquatic
life. Because most H^S formation occurs at the mua-water
interface, the invertebrates, fish eggs and fry may oe
seriously affected by H^S production. Tabulated data on the
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111
toxicity of hydrogen sulfide to various fish species in all
stages of development revealed 96-hour LCV0 values ranging
from 0.0018 to 0.071 mg/1 and safe values ranging trom 0.00^
to 0.015 mg/1 (1). The data suggest that fish eggs are the
least sensitive and try the mcst sensitive to H_S exposure.
Safe levels for the scud Cjamn!aru_s ^seudojarnnaeus and the
mayfly, Hexacjenia limbata, have teen reported between 0.002
and 0.003 mg/1 (36). Since sulfides in water readily
combine with hydrogen to form toxic h^S, limiting the total
sulfide concentration in water to a maximum of 0.002 mg/1
should provide adequate protection tor the most sensitive
species of aquatic life even if essentially all the sultiaes
present are in the form cf H S.
h.
Maximum acceptable zinc concentrations in water are
5/1000 (0.005) the 96-hour LC^ value determined using tne
receiving water in question and the most sensitive important
species in the locality as the test organisms.
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112
Rationale (Zinc):
The acute lethal toxicity of zinc varies greatly with
the hardness of the water, with the 96-hour LC^o ror fatnead
minnows ranging from 0.87 mq/1 in soft water to 33 mg/1 in
hard water (31). The lethal threshold also varies
significantly between fish species, with bluegills wore
resistant than fathead minnows (1), and coarse tisn more
resistant than brook trout (37). Differences between acute
and safe chronic concentrations of zinc on fathead minnows
are great. In hard water, levels of 0.03 mg/1 had no efiect
on fathead minnow reproduction, while 0.18 mg/1 causea an 83
percent reduction in fecundity (38) . Using a 96-hour LCj-o
of 9.2 mg/1, and the no-effect concentration of 0.03 mg/1
yields a safe to lethal ratio of about 0.0033 (1). Owing to
the great differences between the acute and safe
concentration of zinc, an application factor of 5/1000
(0.005).of the 96-hour LC50 is required.
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113
4. Organic Compounds
a .
Maximum acceptable concentrations of iree
cyanides in water are 1/20 (0.05) the 96-hour LC^ value
determined using the receivinq water in question ana the
most sensitive important species in the area as test
organisms in both static and flow-through bioassays.
Maximum acceptable concentrations at any time cr place are .
0.005 mq/1.
Rationale (Cyanides) :
Cyanides in water derive their toxicity primarily trom
undissociated hydrogen cyanide (KCN) rather than from the
cyanide ion (CN~) (39 - 42). HCN dissociates in water into
H* and ON- in a pH dependent reaction. At a pH of 7 or
below, lass than 1 percent of the cyanide is present as CN~;
at a pH of 8, 6.7 percent; at a pH of 9, 42 percent; and at
a pH of 10, 87 percent of the cyanide is dissociated (43).
Doudoroff (44) demonstrated more than a thousand fold
increase in toxicity of a nickelocyanide complex associated
with a decrease of pH frcir 8.0 to 6.5, and a pH change from
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page 114
8.9 to 7.5 is said to increase the toxicity tenfold (2).
The toxicity of cyanides is also increased by increases in
temperature and reductions in oxygen tensions. A
temperature rise of 10°C produced a two- to threefold
increase in the rate of the lethal action of cyanide (46,
47). The median period of survival of trout at 17CC exposed
to concentrations of 0. 105 mg/1 CN~ was reduced from 8 hours at
95 percent oxygen saturation to 10 minutes at 45 percent oxygen
saturation f45) . West of the literature on the toxicity of
cyanides and hydrogen cyanide expresses toxicity in terms of
the cyanide ion. It was reported (48) that free cyanide
concentrations from 0.05 to 0.01 mg/1 as CN~ have proved
fatal to many sensitive species. A level as low as 0.01
mg/1 is know to have a pronounced, rapid, lasting effect on
the swimming ability of salmon (1). Because safe HCN
concentrations and acceptable LC^ application factors have
not been positively demonstrated, conservative estimates of
safe levels of cyanide in waters must be made. In
determining acceptable cyanide levels for a given water
body, both flow-through and static' bioassays should be
performed. Static bioassays may reveal much greater
toxicity than the flow-through method because the partial
dissociation of some complex metallocyanide ions may be
slow. On the other hand volatile HCN may escape from
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115
standing cyanide solution exposed to the atmosphere in
static bioassay containers.
k- Detergents
Maximum acceptable concentrations or linear
alkylate sulfonates (LAS) in waters are 1/20 (0.05) cue 96-
hour LCj-0 value determined usinq the receiving water in
question and the most sensitive important species in trie
area as test organisms. Concentrations ot LAS in water in
excess of 0.2 mg/1 are unacceptable.
Rationale (Detergents):
The primary toxic component ef detergents is tne linear
alkylate sulfonates (LAS) which since 1965 have been usea by
the detergent industry as a replacement for alkylbeazene
sulfonates (ABS). LAS is mere readily degradable
biologically than ABS; however, it is also two to four times
more toxic (U9). Lethal concentrations of LAS to selected
fish species have been fcund tc vary from 0.2 to 10.0 my/1
in short term studies (50). Chronic toxicity studies
revealed that 0.63 mg/1 LAS had no measurable effect on the
-------
life cycle of the fathead minnow, v,hil^ 1.2 mg/1 were tatal
to newly hatched fry (51). Investigations of the effects of
LAS on invertebrates (52) indicated the no-effect level on
Garnmarus 2§eudolimnaeus to be 0.2 to 0.4 mg/1. The snails,
£ii2§£ iEi§9£^ an<^ £§Si§i2IES decisuir exposed to LAS for b
week periods were adversely affected by concentrations
ranging from O.U to 4.U mg/1.
c. Oils
If the following conditions are observed
acceptable limits regarding the concentrations of oils in
water will be achieved: a) There is no visible oil on the
water surface; b) Concentrations of emulsified oils ao not
exceed 1/20 (0.05) of the 96-hour LC^ value determined
using the receiving water in question and the most sensitive
important species in the area; c) concentrations or nexane
exrractable substances (exclusive of elemental sulfur) in
air dried sediments do not exceed 1000 mg/kg on a ary weignt
basis.
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117
Rationale (Oils):
Pollution resulting from oil spills or discharges may be
in the form ot floating oils, emulsified cils or solutions
of the water soluble fractions of these oils (1). Floating
oils may interfere with reaeration and photosynthesis ana
prevent respiration of aquatic insects which obtain their
oxygen at the surface. Free and eirulsified oils may act on
the epithelial surface of fish gills interfering with
respiration, or they may ccat and destroy algae ana other
plankton. Sedimented oils may coat the bottom destroying
benthic organisms and altering spawning areas. Tne water
soluble fraction of oils may be very toxic to fisn (53).
Apparently the aromatic hydrocarbons are the riajcr group of
acutely toxic compounds in oil residues (54, 55). Owing to
the wide range of results obtained in toxicity tests for
oily substances, safe concentrations for all compounus
cannot be accurately established. The 96-hour LC^-y
concentrations for various compounds range from 5.6 mg/1 for
nephenic acid to 14,500 irg/1 for no. 2 cutting oil (see 1).
There is eviaence that oils may persist and have subtle
chronic effects (5U). Because of the difficulties in
establishing safe levels, the maximum allowable
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118
concentrations can only be determined on a case-by-case
basis using bioassay procedures.
&• Pijtha3.ate^£sters
Maximum acceptable concentrations of phthaiate
esters in water are 0.3 ug/1.
Rationale (Phthalate Esters):
Phthalate ester residues have been found in various
segments ot the aquatic environment of North America.
Principal occurrences, however, have been reported trom
industrial and heavily peculated areas (56). In acute
toxicity tests the 96-hour LC^ of di-n-butyl phthalate to
four species of fish and Da^hnia rcacjna ranged between 731
and 6U70 uq/1 (see 1). Chronic tcxicity tests have shown
the substance to be highly cumulative, with a concentration
factor of 6,000 reported for Da^hnia magna during a ten-aa>
exposure (see 1). However, after transfer ot the organism
to uncontaminated water, approximately 50 percent of the
residue was excreted in three days (1). Concentrations of 3
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119
ug/1 of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate have been shown to
significantly reduce the growth and reproduction oi Da^huia
inagna (see 1) .
Maximum acceptable total mercury
concentrations in water are 0.2 uq/1 and the maximum average
total mercury concentrations are 0.05 ua/1. The maximum
acceptable concentration cf total irercury in any ctquatic
organism is a total body burden of 0.5 ua/q wet weiynt.
Rationale (Organic Mercury):
Mercury is a dangerous, cumulative toxicant whicn enters
the bodies of aquatic organisms directly from the water ana
through the food chain (57 - 60). Although methylmercury is
the form of mercury of primary concern as regards toxicity,
the ability of certain microbes to synthesize metiiylmercury
from the inorganic form, renders all mercury in waterways
potentially dangerous. The incident at Mir.emata, Japan,
during the 1950's in which several human deaths resulted
from the consumption of mercury contaminated fish aria
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120
shellfish focused attention upon the hazards of mercury
poisoning to humans. Since mercury is biologically
concentrated through the food web, levels of protection in
the aquatic environment must be such that final consumers,
including man, are afforded adequate protection, fresriwater
phytoplankton, macrophytes and fish are capable of
biologically magnifying mercury concentrations from water
1,000 times (61). Concentration factors of 5,000 from water
to pike have been reported (57), and factors of 1U,OJO or
more have been reported from water to brook trout (see 1)
and to some invertebrates (58). The chrcnic effects of
mercury upon reproduction and growth of fish are not well
known. The lowest levels which have resulted in the death
of fish are 0.2 ug/1, which killed fathead minnows exposed
for 6 weeks (see 1). Levels of 0.1 ug/1 decreased
photosynthesis and growth of marine algae and some
freshwater phytoplankton (62). Exposure of fish for a
period of three months to concentrations of 0.05 ug/i of
mercury in water resulted in concentrations of 0.5 ug/g in
the fish (1). This is the maximuir Food and Drug
Administration guideline level for edible portions. in an
effort to maintain mercury concentrations in fish below 0.5
ug/g the limits established above must te observed.
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121
f. Polychiorinated^Biphenyls (PCBjsl
Maximum acceptable concentrations or PCB's in
water are 0.002 ug/1 , and maximum acceptable levels of
residues in qeneral body tissues of any aquatic organism are
0.5 ug/g.
Rationale (Polychlorinated
PCB residue levels ot 0.5 nig /I in whole salmon eggs have
been suggested as the threshold for egg mortality (t>3) .
Such levels in eggs are associated with levels in the body
tissue of 2.5 to 5.0 ug/g (1). FCP's are highly cumulative
with accumulation factors ot up to 200,000 indicated by long
term exposure of fisn to low PCB concentrations in water
(1). Consequently, in order to provide adequate projection
for egg development, and to provide an adequate satiety
factor to protec^ against excessive accumulations in tissue,
the 0.002 ug/1 maximum concentration limit in waters shall
be observed.
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122
q. Phenolic Compounds
Maximum acceptable concentrations ot phenolic
compounds in water are 1/20 of the 96-hour LC3-O determined
using the most sensitive important species as a test
organism. concentrations in excess of 0.1 mq/1 are
unacceptable.
Rationale (Phenolic compounds):
Phenols and phenolic wastes are derived from petroleum,
coke, and chemical industries; wcod distillation; and
domestic and animal wastes. Many phenolic compounds are
more toxic than pure phenol: their toxicity varies witii the
combinations and qeneral nature of total wastes. Acute
toxicity of pure phenol varies between 0.079 mg/1 in 30
minutes to minnows, and 56.0 mq/1 in 96 hours to mosquito
fish (Gambusia a_ff inis) . A 48-hour LCj-o of 7.5 my/1 has
been reported for trout; also exposures to 6.5 mg/1 caused
damage to epithelial cells in 2 hours, and extensive damage
to reproductive systems in 7 days. A level of 1.0 my/I is
safe to trout; and 0.10 mg/1 was found non-lethal to
bluegill (Legonus macrochirus) in 48 hours (see 1) . Tnese
studies illustrated the wide range of phenol toxicity.
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123
There is not yet adequate documentation about chronic
effects and toxicity of mixed wastes on which to base
recommendations of safe levels for fish. Phenolics affect
the taste of fish at levels that do not appear to aJzfect
fish physiology adversely. Mixed wastes often have more
objectionable effects than pure materials. For example,
2.4-dichlorphenol affects taste at 0.001 - 0.005 iiuj/1; p-
chlorophenol at. 0.01 - O.Ob mg/1; and 1-methyl, 6-
chlorophenol at 0.003 mg/1. Pure phenol did not afreet
taste until levels of 1 - 10 mg/1 were reached. The taste
of fish in polluted situations is adversely affected by
phenolics before acute effects are observed (see 1).
5- ££§£,icides
a. General
For pesticides on which toxicity data are not
available, maximum acceptable concentrations in water are
1/100 (0.01) of the 96-hour LCfO value determined usin-j the
receiving water in question and the most sensitive important
species in the area as test organisms.
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124
The maximum acceptable concentrations of
organochlorine pesticides in water are listed in Table 1.
c- Othgr^Pesticideg
The maximuir acceptable concentrations ot
pesticides other than orqanochlorines in fresh water are
listed in Table 2.
Rationale (Pesticides) :
The permissible maximum pesticide concentrations in
water are based upon acute toxicity values for the most.
sensitive species of aquatic life. For permissible
instantaneous maximum concentration, an application factor
of 1/20 (0.05) of the 96-hour LC^ values was applied. Tne
maximum permissible 24-hour average concentrations were
derived by applying an application factor of 1/100 (0.01) to
the 96-hour LCiO value.
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125
Pesticides
TABIE 1*
Recommended Maximum Concentrations of Organochlorine
Pesticides in Whole (Unfiltered) Water Sampled at any
Time and Any Place, a/
Organochlorine Permissible maximum
concertration__(ua/ll
Aldrin 0.01
DDT 0.002
TDE 0.006
Dieldrin 0.005
Chlordane P. 04
Endosulfan 0.003
Endrin 0.002
Heptachlor 0.01
Lindane C.02
Methoxychlor 0.005
Toxaphene 0.01
a/ Concentrations were determined by multiplying the
~ acute toxicity values for the irore sensitive species
by an application factor cf 0.01.
* Source: (1)
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126
TABLE 2*
Recommended Maximum Concentrations of other Pesticides
in Whole (Unfiltered) Water Sampled at any Time and
any Place, a/
Organophosphate Permissible maximum
-insecticides concentration (ug/1)
Abate (b)
Azinphosmethyl 0.001
Azinphosethyl (b)
Garbophenothicn (b)
Chlorothion (b)
Ciodrin 0. 1
Coumaphos 0.001
Demeton (b)
Diazinon 0.009
Dichlorvos 0.001
Dioxathion 0.09
Disulfonton 0.05
Dursban 0.001
Ethion 0.02
EPN 0.06
Fenthion 0.006
Malathion 0.008
Methyl Parathion (b)
Mevinphos 0.002
Naled 0.004
Oxydemeton Methyl O.U
Parathion 0.001
Fhorate (b)
Phosphamidon 0.03
Ronnel (b)
TEPP 0.3
Trichlorophon 0.002
a/ Concentrations were determined by multiplying the
acute toxicity values tor the more sensitive species
by an application factor of 0.01.
b/ Insufficient data to determine safe concentrations.
* Source: (1)
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127
TABLE 2 (Cor.t.)*
Carbamate Permissible maximum
gonc€ntrations_^ug/ll
Aminocarb (b)
Bayer (b)
Baygon (b)
Carbaryl 0.02
Zectran 0.1
a/ Concentrations were determined by multiplying tne
acute toxicity values for the more sensitive species
by an application factor of 0.01.
b/ Insufficient data to determine safe concentrations.
* Source: (1)
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128
TABLE 2 (COnt.)*
Herbicides, Fungicides Permissible maximum
and_Def pliant s
Acrolein (b)
Aminotriazole 300.0
Balan (b)
Bensulfide (b)
Choroxuron (b)
CIPC (b)
Dacthal (b)
Dalapon 110.0
DEF (b)
Dexorv (b)
Dicamba 0.2
Dichlobenil 37.0
Dichlone 0.7
Diquat 0.5
Diuron 1.6
Difolitan (b)
Dinitrobutyl Phenol (b)
Diphenamid (b)
2-4, D (PGBE) (b)
2-4, D (BEE) 4.0
2-4, D (IOE) (b)
2-4, D (Diethylamine salts) (b)
Endothal (Disodium salt) (b)
Endothal (Dipotassium salt) (b)
Eptam (b)
Fenac {Sodium salt) 45.0
Hyamine-1622 (b)
Hyarnine-2389 (b)
Hydrothal-47 (b)
Hydrothal-191 (b)
Hydro thai plus (b)
a/ Concentrations were determined by multiplying tne
acute toxicity values for the irore sensitive species
by an application factor of 0.01.
b/ Insufficient data to determine safe concentrations.
* Source: (1)
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129
TABLE 2 (cont.)*
Herbicides, Fungicides
and_Def gliant.s
I PC
MCPA
Molinate
Monuron
Paraquat
Pebulate
Picloram
Propanil
Silvex (BEE)
Silvex (PGBE)
Silvex (IOE)
Silvex (Potassium salt)
Simazine
Trifluaralin
Vernolate
Permissible maximum
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
2.5
2.0
(b)
(b)
10.0
(b)
(b)
Botanicals
Allethrin
Pyrethrum
Rotenone
Permissible maximum
concentratior}__£u^[/l]_
0.002
0.01
10.0
a/ Concentrations were determined by multiplying the
acute toxicity values for the more sensitive species
by an application factor of 0.01.
b/ Insufficient data to determine sate concentrations.
Source:
(1)
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130
6 . Physiga l_jExcej: t TemperatureL
a. color
Acceptable conditions regarding the combined
effect of color and turbidity in v,ater will be met it the
compensation point is not changed by more than 10 percent
from its seasonally established norm, and if no more than 10
percent of the biomass of photosyr.thetic organisms is placed
below the compensation point ty such changes.
See also turbidity, settleatle and suspended
solids.
Rationale (Color):
True water color is a result of substances in solution
after the suspended materials have been removed. Color may
be derived from mineral or organic sources and may be the
result of natural processes as well as manufacturing
operations. Organic sources such as humic materials, peat,
plankton, aquatic plants and tannins impart color to water.
Inorganic sources include metallic substances, cheiricals and
dyes. The effect of water color upon aquatic life is to
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131
limit light, penetration, thereby restricting the de^tn or
the photosynthet ic zone and impacting upon the bentaos. Trie
light intensity at which photosynthetic oxygen production
equals the amount of oxygen consumed through respiration is
known as the compensation point, arid the depth at which tnis
occurs is the compensation depth (6U). .As commonly used,
the compensation point refers to that intensity ci light
which is such that the plant's oxygen production uuriug the
day will be sufficient to balance the oxygen consumption
during the whole 24-hour period (1).
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132
h. Turbidity
Acceptable ccnditicns regarding the combined
effect of color and turbidity in v*ater will be met if the
compensation point is not changed by more than 10 percent
from its seasonally established norm, and if nc more than 10
percent of the biomass of photosynthetic organisms is placed
below the compensation point by such chancres.
See also color, settleable and suspended solids.
Rationale (Turbidity):
The light intensity at which photosynthetic oxygen
production equals the amount of oxygen consumed througn
respiration is known as the compensation point, ana the
depth at which this occurs is the comper.sation depth (64) .
As commonly used, the compensation point refers to that
intensity of light which is such that photosynthetic oxygen
production during the day will be sufficient to balance the
oxygen consumption during the whole 24-hour period (1).
Turbidity results from the presence of suspended matter such
as sand, clay, silt, finely divided organic matter, planxton
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133
and bacteria (2). Agricultural runoff, construction
activities, industrial operations, storm sewers ana
municipal wastes are man induced sources which contribute to
turbidity. The inhibition of light penetration by suspended
matter not only restricts the zone ct primary production*
but influences the temperature patterns as well. Heat is
absorbed rapidly near the surface in turbid waters, taus
creating density stratification which may interfere with
vertical mixing and heat and oxygen transfer. Finely
divided suspended solids may impact upon the fisheries of a
river or lake by various means. These include killing tne
fish directly, inhibiting growth or egg and larvae develop-
ment, interfering with natural movements, reducing the
availability of food, and reducing the fish's ability to
capture food organisms (65).
7.
The acceptable levels of radionuclides in
fresh water inhabited by plants and animals are those
concentrations which are sufficiently small that any
(bioconcentrating) organisms harvested for human consumption
will not cause total radionuclide ingestion by the most
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13U
exposed group using the feed to exceed those limits
prescribed in Federal Drinking Water Standards. If the
consumption of these foodstuffs is so widespread that it is
likely that the aggregate dose to the exposed population
will exceed 3000 man-rem per year, limitations on the
distribution and sale should be considered by the relevant
public health authorities,
Rationale^Radioactivity) :
These criteria are based on the prudent assumption tnat
radiation levels which are acceptable for human tood
consumption will not injure fresh water aquatic life. When
radioactive materials enter surface waters they are uiluted
and dispersed by the same forces acting on other soluble or
suspended materials (99). When first introduced into
surface waters a substantial part of materials present in
radioactive wastes becomes associated with suspended organic
and inorganic particulates that settle to the bottom, ana
many radioisotopes are eventually bound chemically to the
sediments. Radioisotopes are passed through the various
trophic levels of the food chain and are either
bioconcentrated or released depending upon the prey-predator
organisms, physical and chemical state of the radionuclide,
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135
and the equilibrium conditions (100). The concentration or
a radioisotope by an organism is expressed in terms or tne
ratio of its concentration in the organism to that in trie
surrounding water or preceding link in the food chain.
Possible effects to the individual organism may include
death, inhibition or stimulation of growth, physiological
change, changes in behavioral patterns, developmental
abnormalities, or shortening of life span. At on« time, it
was widely believed that there was a no-damage rauiation
threshold, but the consensus cf mcst radiation biologists
today is that any increase ever background will have some
biological effect, (a linear, non-threshold theory) . Waile
some genetic changes are reported to be the result of
primordial radioisotopes and cosmic rays, these changes
usually constitute less than cne percent cf all
spontaneously occurring mutations (99). A vast amount or
research on dose effect relationships cf warm-blcoaeu
animals has led to recommendations on human radiation
exposure. Compared with these data only a meager amount of
information is available on chronic dose-effect
relationships for aquatic forms. Since wild species
suffering radiation induced genetic damage are often removed
by natural selection or eaten by predators, aquatic
organisms affected by radiation are not readily recognized
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136
in the field. The natural populations of fish that have
probably sustained the greatest exposure tc man-made
radioactive materials are those found near major atomic
energy installations. However, stocks of plaice in the
vicinity of the Windscale outfall have been unaffected (102)
by doses of about 10 rads per year. Columbia River salmon
spawning in the vicinity of Hanford outfalls are reported
(103) to have been unaffected by doses in the ranye ot 5 to
10 rads per year. While these observations on chronic
exposure of aquatic organisms provide a subjective
assessment of radiation sensitivities in natural
populations, they are not sufficiently definitive to form
the basis for additional water quality criteria aimed at tiie
specific protection of aquatic life. However, these
observations do suggest that even under conditions oi
significant radionuclide concentration in the effluent, the
aquatic life is not injured.
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137
Solids
Concentrations of total dissolved materials should
not be changed to the extent that the biological communities
characteristic of particular habitats are significantly
changed. When dissolved irate rials are altered, bioassays
and field studies should te conducted to determine the
limits that may be tolerated without endangering trie
structure and function ot the aquatic ecosystem.
Rationale (Total Dissolved Solids and Hardness) :
Total dissolved solids is the general term descrioiny
the concentrations of dissolved materials in water. The
more conspicuous constituents cf total dissolved solids in
natural surface water include the carbonates, sulrates,
chlorides, phosphates, and nitrates. These anicns occur in
combination with such metallic cations as calcium, sodium,
potassium, magnesium, and iron to form ionizable sales (2) .
The quantity and quality of dissolved solids are major
factors determining the variety and abundance of plant ana
animal life in an aquatic system. They serve as nutrients
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138
in productivity and as agents in csmctic stress ana direct
toxicity. Major changes in quantity or composition of total
dissolved solids have the effect of causing attendant
changes in the structure and function of aquatic ecosystems
(1) . Hardness of surface waters is a component of total
dissolved solids and is chiefly attributable to calcium and
magnesium ions. Other ions such as iron, copper, zinc,
lead, manganese, boron, and strontiurr also contribute to
total hardness, but the effect is usually minimal since
these are ordinarily present in only trace amounts.
Generally, the biological productivity of water is
correlated with the hardness, but the hardness get se has no
biological significance because biological effects are a
function of the specific concentration and combination ot
the elements present. The term "hardness" serves a useful
purpose as a general index of water type, buffering capacity
and productivity, but it should be avoided in determining
water quality requirements for aquatic life. More emphasis
should be olaced on specific ions (1).
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139
b. SuSQQnded_and_Sett1eable_So1ids
Maxiirum acceptable total concentrations of
suspended solids in fresh water are 80 mg/1.
Acceptable conditions regarding the combined
effect of color and turbidity in water will generally be met
if the compensation point is not changed by more than 10
percent from its seasonally established norm, and if no more
than 10 percent cf the biomass of photosynthetic organisms
is placed below the compensation point by such changes.
See also color and turbidity.
Rationale (Suspended and settleable Solids):
Suspended and settleable solids include such materials
as sand, clay, finely divided organic material,
bacteria and plankton (2). Agricultural runoff,
construction activities, industrial operations, storm sewers
and municipal wastes are the principal sources which
contribute suspended and settleable solids. The suspended
and settleable solids and the bed of a water body must be
considered as interrelated, interacting parts.
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mo
Concentrations of suspended matter in water are found to
change rapidly with wind intensity and rainfall. Trie
composition and concentrations of suspended particles in
surface waters are important because of their effect on
light penetration, temperature, solubility produces and
aquatic life. The abrasive action of particulate material
affects fish and other aquatic organisms. SettleaixLe solids
blanket animals, plants and their habitats, either killing
the organism or rendering the habitats unsuitable for
occupation. Suspended particles also serve as a transport
mechanism for pesticides and other toxic substances which
are readily sorbed into or onto clay particles. It is
reported (65) that there is no evidence that concentrations
of suspended solids less than 25 mg/1 have any harmful
effects on fisheries. Waters containing concentrations of
25 to 80 mg/1 should be capable of supporting good to
moderate fisheries, whereas waters with concentrations in
excess of 80 mg/1 are unlikely to support good fresnwater
fisheries (65).
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11*1
9• Tainting Suhstances
Substances which cause tainting of fish and other
aquatic organisms are unacceptable in water in
concentrations which lower the acceptability of such
organisms as determined by bioassay and organoleptic tests.
The values in Tables 3 and 4 serve as guidelines in
determining what concentrations of substances in water may
cause tainting of fish and other aquatic organisms.
Rationale (Tainting Substances):
Discharges from municipal waste water treatment plants,
a variety of industrial wastes and organic compounds, as
well as certain organisms can impart objectionable taste,
odor or color to the flesh of rish and other edible
organisms. Such tainting can occur in waters witn
concentrations of the offending material lower than those
recognized as being harmful tc an animal. See Tauj.es 3 and
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142
Wastewater Source
2,4-D mfg. plant
Coal - coking
Coal - tar
Kraft process (untreated)
Kraft process (treated)
Kraft and neutral sulfite
process
Municipal dump runoff
Municipal untreated sewage
(2 locations)
Municipal wastewater
(4 locations)
Municipal wastewater
treatment plant
(primary)
Municipal wastewater
treatment plant
(secondary)
Oily wastes
Refinery
Sewage containing phenols
Slaughterhouses
(2 locations)
TABLE 3
Wastewaters Found to Have Lowered
the Palatability of Fish Flesh
Concentration in Water
Affecting Palatability of Fish
50 - 100 mg/1
0.02 - 0.1 mg/1
0.1 mg/1
1 - 2% by vol.
9 - 12% by vol.
11 - 13% by vol.
20 - 26% by vol.
0.1 mg/1
Spe c ie s
Trout
Freshwater fish
Freshwater fish
Salmon
Salmon
Trout
Channel catfish
(Ictalurus punctatus)
Channel catfish
Channel catfish
Freshwater fish
Freshwater fish
Trout
Trout
Freshwater fish
Channel catfish
Source: (1)
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143
TABLE 4
Concentrations of Cherrical Compounds in Water That Can
Cause Taintina of the Flesh of Fish and Other Anuatic Oraanisr^s*
Chereical
acetophenone
acrylonitrile
eresol
n-cresol
o-crcsol
p-cresol
cresylic acid (meta para)
!>buty liner capt an
o-sec. butylphenol
p-tert. butylphenol
o-chlorophenol
p-chlorophenol
2,3-dichlorophenol
2,4 -d ich lo roph eno 1
2,5-dichlorophenol
2,6-dichlorophenol
2,methyl, 4-chlorophenol
2,methyl, 6-chlorophenol
o-phenyl phenol
2,4,6-trichlorophenol
phenol
phenols in polluted river
cl iph eny 1 ox ide
, -dichlorodiethyl ether
o-di chl orobenz er.e
ethylbenzene
ethanethiol
ethylacrylate
formaldehyde
kerosene
kerosene plus kaolin
isopropylbenzene
naphtha
naphthalene
naphthol
2-naphthol
dine thy lain in e
-rethylstyrene
oil, enulsifiable
pyridine
pyrocatechol
pyraqallol
quinolino
p-quinone
styrone
tolupne
outboard motor fuel, as exhaust
miaiacol
Estimated threshold level
in water (mg/1)
0.
18
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
1
0.
1
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
95
0.
1
0.
0.
1
0.
0.
7
0.
15
5
0.
20
0.
0.
0.
0.
2.
0.
07
2
4
12
2
06
3
03
0001 to 0.015
01 to 0.05
084
001 to 0.014
023
035
075
003
003 to 0.05
to 10
02 to 0.15
05
09 - 1.0
25
25
24
6
25
1
5
3
25
to 28
8 to 5
to 30
5 to 1
5
25
25
6 aa I/acre- foot
082
* Source: (1)
-------
1U4
10. Temperature
Acceptable temperature limits in fresh water
during any time of the year are:
a. A maximum weekly average temperature
that:
1. In receiving waters during the
warmer months (i-e.r April through October in the North and
March through November in the South) is one third ot trie
range between the optimurr temperature and the ultimate up^er
incipient lethal temperature for the most sensitive
important species (or appropriate life stage) that is
normally found at the location at that time;
2. In the heated plume during tne
cooler months (i.e., mid-Cctober tc mid-April in tne North
and December to February in the South) corresponds to the
appropriate ambient temperature in the nomograph in Figure
1. in the North and December to February in the South) is
that elevated temperature from which important species uie
when that elevated temperature is suddenly dropped to tne
normal ambient temperature, with the limit being the
acclimation temperature (minus a 2*C safety factor), when
-------
1U5
the lower incipient lethal temperature equals the normal
ambient water temperature (in some regions this limit may
also be applicable in summer);
3. During reproduction seasons
(generally April-June and September-October in the North and
March-May and October-November in the South) meets speciiic
site requirements for successful migration, spawning, egg
incubation, fry rearing, and other reproductive functions of
important species as presented in Table 6.
or 4. At a specific site is found
necessary to preserve noriral species diversity or prevent
undesirable growth of nuisance organises.
and b. maximum temperature for short-term
summer and spawning exposures as developed using the
resistance time equation:
log time = a + b(Temp.)
where a and b respectively are intercept and slope,
which are characteristics of each acclimation
temperature for each species.
-------
146
Local requirements for reproduction should supersede all
other requirements when they are applicable. Detailed
ecological analysis of bcth natural and man-modified aquatic
environments is necessary to ascertain when these
requirements should apply. Available data for temperature
requirements for growth and reproduction, lethal limits for
various acclimation temperature levels, and various
temperature-related characteristics of many ot the more
important freshwater fish species are included in Appendix
A.
Rationale (Temperature) :
Living organisms do not respond to the quantity of neat;
instead, to degrees of temperature or to temperature cnanges
caused by transfer ot heat. Organisms have upper and lower
thermal tolerance limits, optimum temperatures for growth,
preferred temperatures in thermal gradients, and temperature
limitations for migration, spawning, and egg incubation;
temperature also affects the physical environment of the
aquatic medium (e.g., viscosity, degree of ice cover, and
oxygen capacity); therefore, the composition ot aquatic
communities depends largely on temperature characteristics
of the environment. Because temperature changes may aftect
-------
147
the composition of an aquatic community, an induceu c/iange
in the thermal characteristics of an ecosystem may be
detrimental. On the other hand, altered thermal
characteristics may be beneficial, as evidenced in some of
the newer fish hatchery practices and at other aquacultural
facilities. The general difficulty in developing suitable
criteria for temperature (which vvould limit the addition of
heat) is to determine the deviation from "natural"
temperature a particular body of water can experience
without adversely affecting its desired biota. wnatever
requirements are suggested, a natural seasonal cycle must be
retained, annual spring ana fall changes in temperature must
be gradual, and large unnatural day-to-day fluctuations
should be avoided. In view of the many variables, it seems
obvious that no single temperature requirement can be
applied uniformly tc continental or large regional areas;
the requirements must be closely related to each Loay of
water and to its particular community cf organisms,
especially the important species found in it. These saould
include invertebrates, plankton, or other plant ana animal
life that may be of importance to food chains or otherwise
interact with species of direct interest to man. Since
thermal requirements of various species differ, tn<= social
choice of the species to te protected allows for uirtererit
-------
148
"levels of protection" among water bodies. Although sucti
decisions clearly transcend the scientific judgments needed
in establishing thermal criteria for protecting selected
species, biologists can aid in making these decisions. Some
measures useful in assigning levels of "importance" to
species are: (1) high yield or desirability to commercial or
sport fisheries, (2) large bicmass in the existing ecosystem
(if desirable), (3) important links in food chains of other
species judged important for other reasons, and (4)
"endangered" or unique status. If it is desirable to
attempt strict preservation of an existing tcosystem, then
the most sensitive species or life stage may dictate tne
criteria selected. Criteria for making recommendations for
water temperature to protect desirable aquatic lite cannot
be simply a maximum allowed change from natural
temperatures. This is principally because a change of even
one degree from an ambient temperature has varying
significance for an organism, depending upon where the
ambient level lies within the tolerance range. In addition,
historic temperature records or, alternatively, the existing
ambient temperature prior to any thermal alterations by man
are not always reliable indicators of desirable conditions
for aquatic populations. Multiple developments of water
resources also change water temperatures both upwaru (e.g..
-------
upstream power plants or shallow reservoirs) and downward.
(e.g., deepwater releases tor large reservoirs) so that
ambient, and natural temperatures at a given point can oest
be defined only en a statistical basis. Criteria for
temperature should consider both the multiple thermal
requirements of aquatic species and requirements for
balanced communities. The number of distinct requirements
and the necessary values for each require periodic re-
examination as knowledge ot thermal effects on aquatic
species and communities increases. Currently definable
requirements include:
. maximum sustained temperatures that, are consistent
with maintaining desirable levels of frcductivity (growth
minus mortality);
. maximum levels of thermal acclimation that will permit
return to ambient winter temperatures should artificial
sources of heat cease;
. temperature limitations for survival of briei
exposures to temperature extremes, both upper and lower;
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150
. restricted temperature ranges for various stages or
reproduction, including (for fish) gonad growth ana gamete
maturation, spawnina migration, release of gametes,
development of the embryo, commencement of independent
feeding (and other activities) by juveniles; and
temperatures required for metamorphosis, emergence, and
other activities of lower forms;
. thermal limits for diverse compositions of species of
aquatic communities, particularly where reduction in
diversity creates nuisance growths of certain organisms, or
where important fooa sources or chains are altered;
. thermal requirements of downstream aquatic lite whare
upstream warming of cold water sources will adversely afreet
downstream temperature requirements.
Thermal criteria must also be formulated with knowledge of
how man alters temperatures, the hydrodynamics of the
changes, and how the biota can reasonably be expected to
interact with the thermal regimes produced. It is not
sufficient, for example, to define only the thermal criteria
for sustained production of a species in open waters,
because large numbers of organisms may also be exposed to
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151
thermal changes by beinq puirped through the condensers and
mixing zone of a power plant. Design engineers need
particularly to know the biological limitations to tueir
design options in such instances. Considerations sucn as
impingement of fish upon intake screens, mechanical or
chemical damage to zooplankton in condensers, or effects of
altered current patterns on bottom fauna in a discharge area
may reveal non-thermal impacts of cooling processes that may
outweigh temperature effects. The environmental situations
of aquatic organisms (e.g., where they are, when tney are
there, in what numbers) must also be understood. Thermal
criteria for migratory species should be applied to a
certain area only when the species is actually there.
Although thermal effects of power stations are currently of
great interest, other less dramatic causes of temperature
change including deforestation, stream channelization, and
impoundment of flowing water must be recognized. Available
data for temperature requirements for growth and
reproduction, lethal limits for various acclimation
temperature levels, and various temperature-related
characteristics of many of the more desirable fresnwater
fish species are included in the Appendix. General
temperature criteria for these species are summarized in
Tables 5 and 6. some basic thermal response of aquatic
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152
organisms will be referred to repeatedly and are denned and
reviewed briefly here. Effects of heat on organisms and
aquatic communities have keen reviewed periodically (e.g.,
66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71). Some effects have been analyzed in
the context of thermal modification by power plants (72, 73,
7
-------
153
mortality. Several studies have indicated that a two degree
(centigrade) reduction of an upper lethal temperature
results in no mortalities within an equivalent exposure
duration (8U, 85). The validity of a two degree safety
factor was strengthened by the results of Coutant (81),
which showed that for median mortality at a given high
temperature, for about 15 to 20 percent of the exposure time
there was induced selective predation on thermally snocked
salmon and trout. This also amounted to reduction or the
effective stress temperature by about two degrees
centigrade. Unpublished data from subsequent predation
experiments showed that this reduction of about two degrees
centigrade also applied to the incipient lethal temperature.
The level at which there is no increased vulnerability to
predation is the best estimate cf no-stress exposure tnat is
currently available. Occupancy of habitats by most aquatic
organisms often is limited within the thermal tolerance
range to temperatures somewhat below the ultimate upper
incipient lethal temperature. This is the result of poor
physiological performance at near lethal temperatures (e.g.,
growth, metabolic scope for activities, appetite, food
conversion efficiency), interspecies competition, disease,
predation, and other subtle ecological factors. This
complex limitation is evidenced by restricted southern and
-------
154
altitudinal distributions of many species. On the other
hand, optimum temperatures (such as those producing fastest
growth rates) are not generally necessary at all times to
maintain thriving populations and are often exceeaed in
nature during sumirer months. Moderate temperature
fluctuations can generally te toleratea as long as a summer
maximum upper limit is not exceeded for long periods. A
true temperature limit for exposures long enough to reflect
metabolic acclimation and optimum ecological performance
must lie somewhere between the physiological optimum and tne
ultimate upper incipient lethal temperature. Examination of
literature on physiological optima (swimming, metaLclic
rate, temperature preference, growth, natural distribution,
and tolerance) of several species has yielded an apparently
sound theoretical basis for estimating an upper temperature
limit for long term exposure. The most sensitive function
for which data are available appears to be growth rate. A
temperature that is one-third of the range between the
optimum temperature for growth and the ultimate incipient
lethal temperature can be calculated by the formula
Optimum * Ultimate incipient lethal temp - optimum temp tor growth
temp 3
for growth
-------
155
This formula ofiers a practical method for obtaining
allowable limits, while retaininq as its scientific basis
the requirements of preserving adequate rates of growth.
This formula was used to calculate the summer growth
criteria in Table 5. The criterion for a specific location
would be determined by the most sensitive life stage of an
important species likely to be present ir. that location at
that «rime. Since many rishes have restricted habitats
(e.g., specific depth zones) at ir.ar.y life staqes, trie
thermal criterion must be applied to the proper zone. Taere
is field evidence tha^ fish avoid localized areas cr
unfavorably warn, water. This has been demonstrated ooth in
lakes where coldwater fish normally evacuate warm snaliows
in summer and at power station heated plumes. In most large
bodies of water there are both vertical and horizontal
thermal gradients that mobile organisms can follow to avoid
unfavorable high (or low) temperatures. The summer maxima
must apply to restricted local habitats sucb as lake
hypolimnia or thermoclines, that provide important summer
sanctuary areas for coldwater species. Any avoidance of a
warm area not part of the normal seasonal habitat of the
species will mean that less area of the water body is
available to support the population and that production may
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156
be reduced. Such reduction should not interfere with
biological communities or populations of important species
to a degree which is damaging to the ecosystem or other
beneficial uses. Non-motile organisms that must remain in
the warm zone will probably be the limiting organisms tor
that location. Any upper limiting temperature criteria must
be applied carefully with understanding of the population
dynamics of the species in question in order to establish
both local and regional requirements. Although artiriciaiiy
produced temperature elevations during winter months may
actually bring the temperature closer to optimum or
preferred temperature for important species, and attract
fish, metabolic acclimation to these higher levels can
preclude safe return of the organism to ambient temperatures
should the artificial heating suddenly cease or tne organism
be driven from the heated area. The lower limit or tne
range of thermal tolerance of important species must,
therefore, be maintained at the normal seasonal ambient
temperatures throughout ccld seasons. This can be
accomplished by limitations on temperature elevations in
such areas as discharge canals and mixing zones wncre
organisms may reside, or ty insuring that iraximum
temperatures occur only in areas net accessible to important
aquatic life for lengths of time sufficient to allow
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157
metabolic acclimation. Such inaccessible areas would
include the high-velocity zcr.es of diffusers or screened
discharge channels. This reduction of maximum ternperatures
would not preclude use of slightly warmed areas as sites tor
intense winter fisheries. This consideration may be
important in some regions at times other than in winter.
The Great Lakes, for example, are susceptible tc rapid
changes in elevation of the thermocline in summer whicn may
induce rapid decreases in shoreline temperatures
(upwelling). Fish acclimated to exceptionally hign
temperatures in discharge canals may be killed or severely
stressed without changes in power plant operations. Some
numerical values for acclimaticn temperatures and lower
limits of tolerance ranges (lower incipient lethal
temperatures) for several species are given in Appendix A.
For some species such as yellow perch and lake whitefish
lower winter temperature is necessary to ensure acceptable
egg maturation prior to spawning. Figure 1 is a nomograph
that demonstrates the relationship between the maximum
weekly average temperature acceptable in heated plumes and
different ambient temperatures. The nomograph was
calculated on the line of lower incipient lethal temperature
data that would, after applying the 2'C safety factor,
ensure protection against partial lethality for most fish
-------
158
species for which there are data (1). At an acclimation
(heated plume) temperature of 10° C (50° F) or less warm water
fishes can tolerate a drop in temperature to any lower
ambient temperature. This means (see Fig. 1) that waenever
the ambient temperature is less than 2.5" C (37"F)f tne
heated plume may be as warm as 1 0° C (50'F). However, trout
and salmon cannot, withstand comparable temperature declines
and the nomograph should te used dcwn to an ambient
temperature of QC C (32CF). At this temperature a maximum
plume temperature of 5 C (41^F) is permissible. The maximum
weekly average temperatures during the winter months are
applicable to the heated plume rather than the receiving
water since the principal concern for most fish at that tune
is to protect against excessive rapid decline in
temperature. At the time that the earliest spawning snould
occur, the appropriate maximum weekly average temperature
for the receiving water must be applied again. It species
similar to yellow perch or lake whitefish are to be
protected a maximum weekly average temperature in the
receiving water during the winters vvould be necessary as
well as the limitation in the plumes. To protect aquatic
life and yet allow other uses of the water, it is essential
to know the lengths of time organisms can survive extreme
temperatures (i.e., temperatures that exceed the 7-day
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159
incipient lethal temperature). The length of time tnat 50
percent of a population will survive temperature above tne
incipient lethal temperature can be calculated from a
regression equation of experimental data as follows;
log time = a + b (Temp.)
(min) (*C)
where a and b are intercept and slope, respectively, whica
are characteristics of each acclimation temperature ror e
species. In some cases the time-temperature relationship is
more complex than the semilcgarithmic model given auove.
This equation, however, is the most applicable, and is
generally accepted by the scientific communit}. (70).
Caution is recommended in extrapolating beyond th^ aata
limits of the original research. Thermal resistance may be
diminished by the simultaneous presence of toxicants or
other debilitatina factors. The mcst accurate
predictability can be derived frcm data collected using
water from the site under evaluation. It is clear taat
adequate data are available for only a sirail percentage or
aquatic species, and additional research is necessary.
Thermal resistance information should be obtained locaxiy
for critical areas to account for simultaneous presence of
toxicants or other debilitating factors, a consideration not
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160
reflected in the Appendix data. The resistance time
equation discussed earlier was used to calculate tolerance
limits for many species of fish for several time intervals
up to 10,000 minutes. The results of these calculations
revealed a uniform relationship between these species that
would permit establishing maximum acceptable temperatures
for spring, summer, and fall that would protect fish against
lethal conditions when subjected to occasional temperature
levels exceeding the maximum weekly average temperature
during these seasons. These limits, applicable to the
receiving water, are summarized in Tables 1 and 2 and are
ft
based on the 24-hour median tolerance limit, minus the 2 C
safety factor discussed earlier with an acclimation
temperature equal to the maximum weekly average temperature.
Since these temperatures exceed those permitting
satisfactory, albeit sub-optimal growth, unnatural
excursions above the maximum weekly average temperature to
the maximum temperature should be permitted only in extreme
instances and then only for short time periods. The
sequence of events relating to gonad development, spawning
migration, release of gametes, development of the egg and
embryo, and commencement of independent feeding represents
one of the most complex phenomena in nature, both for fish
(86) and invertebrates (71). These events are generally the
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161
most thermally sensitive ct all life stages. The erratic
sequence of failures and successes of different year classes
of lake fish attests tc the unreliability of natural
conditions for providing optimum reproduction. Uniform
elevations of temperature by a few degrees during the
spawning period, while maintaining short-term temperature
cycles and seasonal thermal patterns, appear to have little
overall effect on the reproductive cycle of resident aquatic
species, other than to advance the timing for spring
spawners or delay it for fall spanners. Such shifts are
often seen in nature, although no quantitative measurements
of reproductive success have teen made in this connection.
For example, thriving populations of many fishes occur in
diverse streams of the Tennessee Valley in which the aate of
spawning temperature may vary in a given year by 22 to 65
days. Examination of the literature shows that shifts in
spawning dates by nearly one month are common in natural
waters throughout the U.S. Populations of some species at
the southern limits of their distribution are exceptions -
the lake whitefish (Coregonus cru^eajormis) in Lake Erie
that require a prolonged, cold incubation period (87) and
species such as yellow perch (Perca Jiavescens) that require
a long chill period for egg maturation pricr to spawning
(See 1). Highly mobile species that depend upon temperature
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162
synchrony among widely different regions or environments for
various phases of the reproductive or rearing cycle (e.g.,
anadromous salmonids or aquatic insects) could be tacea with
dangers of dis-synchrony if one area is warmed, but another
is not. Poor long-term success of one year class or Fraser
River (British Columbia) sockeye salmon (Oncorhyjricrms nerka)
was attributed to early (and highly successful) fry
production and emigration during an abnormally warn, summer
followed by unsuccessful, premature feeding activity in tne
cold and still unproductive estuary (88). Significant
change in temperature or in thermal patterns over a period
of time may cause some change in the composition cf aquatic
communities (i.e., the species represented and the numbers
of individuals in each species). Allowing temperature
changes to significantly alter the community structure in
natural waters may be detrimental, even though species of
direct importance to man are not eliminated. Alteration of
aquatic communities by the addition cf heat may occasionally
result in growths of nuisance organisms provided that other
environmental conditions essential to such growths (e.g.,
nutrients) exist. Data on temperature limits or thermal
distributions in which nuisance growths will be produced are
not presently available due in part to the complex
interactions with other growth stimulants. There is not
-------
163
sufficient evidence to say that any temperature increase
will necessarily result in increased nuisance organisms.
Careful evaluation of local conditions is requirea tor any
reasonable prediction cf eftect.
-------
164
TABLE 5
Maximum Weekly Average Temperature for Growth and Short-Term
Maxima for Survival During the Summer*
(Centigrade and Fahrenheit)
Species Growth Maxima
Atlantic Salmon 19 (66) 23 (73)
Bigmouth Buffalo
Black Crappie 27 (80) 32 (90)
Bluegill 26 (79) 31 (88)
Brook Trout 18 (64) 23 (73)
Carp - 34 (93)
Channel Catfish 33 (91) 36 (97)
Coho Salmon 18 (64) 24 (75)
Emerald Shiner 28 (82) 31 (87)
Freshwater Drum
Lake Herring (Cisco) 19 (66) 25 (77)
Largemouth Bass 30 (86) 34 (93)
Northern Pike 28 (82) 30 (86)
Rainbow Trout 19 (66) 24 (75)
Sauger
Smallmouth Bass 29 (84)
Smallmouth Buffalo
Sockeye Salmon 18 (64) 23 (73)
Striped Bass - -
Threadfin Shad
White Bass - -
White Crappie 27 (80) 32 (90)
White Sucker 27 (80) 29 (84)
Yellow Perch 22 (72) 29 (84)
* Based on 24-hour median lethal limit minus 2 C
(3.6CF) and acclimation at the maximum weekly average
temperature for summer growth for that month.
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165
TABLE 6
Maximum Weekly Average Temperature for Spawning and Short-Term
Maxima for Survival During the Spawning Season (Centigrade
and Fahrenheit)*
Spe_cies
Atlantic Salmon
Bigmouth Buffalo
Black Crappie
Bluegill
Brook Trout
Carp
Channel Catfish
Coho Salmon
Emerald Shiner
Freshwater Drum
Lake Herring (Cisco)
Largemouth Bass
Northern Pike
Rainbow Trout
Sauger
Smallmouth Bass
Smallmouth Buffalo
Sockeye Salmon
Striped Bass
Threadfin Shad
I-Jhite Bass
White Crappie
White Sucker
Yellow Perch
Optimum Spawning
5
17
16
25
9
20
27
10
23
21
4
21
12
9
10
17
17
10
18
18
19
IB
10
12
(41)
(63)
(61)
(77)
(48)
(6P)
(80)
(50)
(73)
(70)
(39)
(70)
(54)
(48)
(50)
(63)
(63)
(50)
(64)
(64)
(66)
(64)
(50)
(54)
Maximum
18 (64}
31
22
31
34
22
29
18
30
(88)
(72)
(88)
(93)
(72)
(84)
(64)
(86)
22 (72)
24 (75)
22 (72)
These maxima will also apply during the fall.
Based on 24-hour median lethal limit minus 2 C (36"?) and
acclimation at the maximum weekly average temperature for optimum
spawning for that month.
-------
WARMWATER
FISH SPECIES
5(4?)
0(32)
5(4?) ?0(50)
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
•-
?5(59)
FIGURE ?. NOMOGRAPH TO DETERMINE THE MAX?MUM WEEKLY
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OF PLUMES FOR VARIOUS AMB?ENT
TEMPERATURES, °C (°F).
-------
167
EXARPLE
The nuances of developing freshwater aquatic iiie
criteria for temperature can best he understood by an
example (Table 7) . Tables 5 and 6 and Figure 1 are tne
principal sources for the criteria. The. following
additional information abcut the specific environment to
which the criteria ^ill apply is needed.
1. Species to be protected by the criteria. (In tais
example, they are blueqill, iargeircuth bass, and w^iite
crappie) .
2. Local spawning seasons for these species.
(blueqill - May to July; white crappie - April to Jun«=;
largemouth bass - May to July) .
3. Normal seasonal rise in temperature during trie
spawning season. (Since spawnirg may occur over a period or
a few months and only a sinale maximum weekly average
temperature for optimal spawnina is aiver. for a species
(Table 6), one would use that crtirral temperature tor tne
middle month of the spawning season. 1 n a normal season tne
criterion for the first rronth ot a three-month spawning
-------
168
season should be below the maximum weekly average
temperature for spawning for the species to be protected,
and the last month should be above this temperature. Such a
pattern should simulate the natural seasonal rise),
U. Normal ambient winter temperature, (In this case
it is S°C (41^F) in December and January and 10'C (50'F) in
November, February, and March. These will be used to
determine permissible plume temperatures in the winter
(Figure 1).
5. The principal growing season for these species.
(In this example, it is July through September. Criteria in
Table 5 will be used).
6, Any local extenuating circumstances, (If certain
non-fish species or food organisms are especially sensitive
and thermal requirement data are avaialable, these data
should be used as well as the criteria considered for the
fish species) .
In some instances there will be insufficient data to
determine each necessary criterion for each species (Table
7). One must make estimates based on any available data and
-------
169
by extrapolation from data for species for wnich there are
adequate data. For instance, if the above example had
included the white bass for which only the maximum weeKl.y
average temperature for spawning is giver, one woulo or
necessity have to estimate that its summer growth criterion
would approximate that for the white crappie which has a
similar spawning requirement.
The choice of desirable fish species is very critical.
Since in this example the white crappie is the most
temperature sensitive of the three species, the maximum
weekly average temperature tor summer growth and snort-term
maxima are based on the white craj-^ie. consequently, the
criteria would result in lower than optimal conditions for
the bluegill and largemouth bass. An alternate approach
would be to develop criteria for the single most important
species even if the most sensitive is not well protected.
The choice is a socioeconcmic one.
-------
17C
Month
TABLE 7
Criteria Developed for Example
(Centigrade and Fahrenheit).
Maximum Weekly Average
Temperature
Receiving
Water
JAN
FEE
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
19
21
25
27
27
27
21
_a
_a
a
(66)
(70)
(77)
(80)
(80)
(80)
(70)
_a
a
Heated
Plume
15 (59)
25 (77)
25 (77)
25 (77)
15 (59)
Short-Term Maximum
Decision Basis
Protection against temperature drop
Protection against temperature drop
Protection against temperature drop
fchite crappie spawning
Largeirouth bass spawning
Bluegill spawning and white crappie grow
Vvhite crappie growth
Vvhite crappie growtn
White crappie growth
Normal gradual seasonal decline
Protection against temperature drop
Protection against temperature drop
Dec is i on Basis
JAN
FEE
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
26 (79)
29 (84)
32 (90)
32 (90)
32 (90)
32 (90)
29 (8U)
White
White
White
Vshite
White
White
White
crappie
crappie
crappie
crappie
crappie
crappie
crappie
survival
survival
survival
survival
survival
survival
survival
(estimated)
(estimated)
(estimated)
If a species had required a winter chill pericu for gamete
maturation or egg incubation, receiving water criteria would
also be required.
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171
B. Wildlife
A Ikalini ty
a.
The criteria established in the section on
life are considered to be acceptable for wildlife.
Rationale (pH) :
Few data are available on the direct effects ot fH upon
wildlife, but adequate protection would undoubtedly be
provided wildlife species and their food organisms if the yti
Of waters is maintained within the 6.0 - 9.0 range, ana
provided that a change greater than 0.5 units from the
seasonal maximum or minimum does not occur.
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172
b.
In wetlands managed primarily as waterfowl
habitats, the acceptable bicarbonate alkalinity is between
30 and 130 mg/1, with fluctuations from natural conditions
not exceeding 50 mg/1.
Rationale (Alkalinity and Acidity):
The protection extended to aquatic life as established
by the criteria in the aquatic life section provides
adequate protection for most wildlife species with the
possible exception of waterfowl. Productivity of valuable
waterfowl pond plants generally increases with increases in
bicarbonate alkalinity. Few waters with less than 25 mg/i
bicarbonate alkaliniry can be classed among the better
waterfowl habitats, whereas many waters productive of
valuable waterfowl food plants have a bicarbonate alkalinity
range of 35 to 200 mg/1 (see 1).
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173
2- Lig,ht_Penet ration
Acceptable conditions regarding the combined
effects of color and turbidity in water will be met it the
compensation point is not changed by nore than 10
percent from its seasonally _established norm, and it no more
than 10 percent of the bicrrass of photosynthetic organisms
is placed below the compensation point by such a change.
Rationale (Light Penetration) :
See color, turbidity, suspended and settleable solids in
aquatic life section.
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17U
3 , Solids
a.
Acceptable conditions regarding salinity in water
will be met if salinity levels are maintained as close to
natural conditions as possible, and if rapid fluctuations
are minimized.
Rationale (Salinity) :
All saline water communities froir slightly brackish to
marine produce valuable waterfowl foods. The most important
consideration regarding the effect cf salinity upon wiialite
is the degree ot fluctuations in salinity (1).
b« ^g^tleable_substances
Settleable substances should be irinimized in
order to provide acceptable waterfowl habitats.
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175
Rationale (settleable substances):
Accumulations of silt are destructive to aquatic plants
due primarily to the creation of a soft, semi-liquid
substance which is inadequate for the anchoring of rooted
plants (1). In Eackbay, Virginia, and Currituck Sound,
North Carolina, for example, semi-liquid silts up to 13 cm
(5 in.) deep cover approximately one-fifth of the total
area; this area produces only 1 percent of the total aquatic
plant production (1).
**- Specific Harmful Substances
a• Direct Acting
(1). Toxins (Botulism Po isoning^
The factors which affect, or are
associated with, bctulism poisoning should be managed in
such a manner that the risks of outbreaks of the disease are
minimized. The factors are insect die-off, water
temperature above 21 C (70&F), fluctuating water levels and
elevated concentrations of dissolved solids.
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176
Rationale (Botulism Poisoning):
Botulisn is a food poisoning caused by the ingestion of
the toxin of Clostridium botulinum, a widely distributed
anaerobic bacterium. Aquatic birds are highly susceptible
to the disease, with the greatest morbidity and mortality
rates recorded in shallow alkaline lakes or marshes in the
Western United States. Investigation into the causes of
botulism have revealed the following possible relationship
between environmental factors and hiah incidence of the
disease in shallow alkaline marshes (see 1): 1) Saline
waters may support higher invertebrate population levels
than relatively fresh waters. (Comparisons, as they relate
to avian botulism, have not been made). 2) High salinity
may inhibit some of the microorganisms that compete with £._
botulinum for nutrients or those that cause deterioration of
the toxin. 3) Salinity may have no significant effect on
the invertebrates or the bacteria, but it increases the
susceptibility of the birds. Cooch (89) has shown that type
C botulinum toxin decreases the activity of the salt gland
in ducks, reducing its capacity to eliminate salt. Birds so
affected succumb to smaller doses of toxin than do those
provided with fresh water. Outbreaks of botulism poisoning
tend to be associated with or affected by insect die-offs,
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177
water temperatures above 21°C (7C°F), fluctuations in water
levels and elevated concentrations of dissolved solids.
(2). Gils
Visible floating oils on waters innabited
by wildlife are unacceptable.
Rationale (Oils) :
Water birds and aquatic mammals require water tnat is
free from surface oils. Heavy mortalities of water oirds
have resulted from the contaminating of plumages by oil.
*
Exposure of water birds to oil also results in excessive
heat loss which accelerates starvation (90), reduces the
likelihood of the eggs hatching (91), and may contribute to
mortality if the oil is ingested.
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178
k- Acting Atter Food Chain Magnification
{1). DDT_and_Derivatives
Tne maximum acceptable total DDT
concentration in aquatic plants and animals is 1 my/Kg on a
wet weight basis.
Rational (DDT and derivatives):
DDT and itrs derivatives DDE and TDt have high lipia
solubility and low water solubility and thus tend to
concentrate in the living fraction of the aquatic
environment (92). DDE is the most stable of the JDT
compounds and has been especially implicated in prouucing
thinning of ecjq shells, increased breakage of eggs, and
reproductive failure in species occupying the apex of
aquatic food chains in areas with long histories of DDT
usage (1) . Concentrations of DDK compounds in Lax.e Michigan
have been estimated to be 1 to 3 parts per trillion (93).
These levels apparently exceed the concentration which would
permit the assured survival of sensitive predatory bird
species (1). Available data indicate that total ODT
concentrations should not exceed 1 mg/kg in any aquatic
-------
179
plants or animals in order to adequately pxotect most
species of wildlife (1). Present unpublished data indicate
effects ot even lower levels of DDE to some species of
predatory birds (see 1).
(2). Mercury
The maximum acceptable concentrations of
mercury in fish is 0.5 ug/g.
Rationale (Mercury) :
The 0.5 ug/g limit is consistent with that established
for fish in the aquatic life section. Since this level
provides little cr no margin or safety for fish-eating
wildlife, this criterion should be reevaluated as soon as
possible.
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180
(3) . PC Itchier i
The body burdens of PCB's in birds and
mammals should not be increased over present levels in order
to maintain acceptable levels.
Rationale (Polychlorinated biphenyls) :
Althouqh PCB's are -widespread environmental
containments, their biological effects at present
environmental concentrations are not known (1). decaube of
the persistence of PCB's and their susceptibility to
biological magnification, the body burdens of PCB's in tdrds
and mammals should not be permitted to increase ana
monitoring programs should be instituted.
5. Temgerature
Changes in natural freezing patterns and uates
should be avoided as far as possible in order to minimise
abnormal concentrations of wintering waterfowl.
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181
Rationale (Temperature):
The discharge of wartred industrial and domestic
effluents has prompted changes in the normal over-wintering
patterns of some waterfowl species in portions of certain
northern waters. The attraction of waterfowl to
warmed waters near industrial complexes during winter months
sometimes creates overcrcwding problems. Pollution, tooa
shortage and low air temperature often interact to proauce
unusually high waterfowl mortalities in their areas (see 1),
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182
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183
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-------
184
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30. Brown, V. M. 1968. The calculation ot the acute
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185
32. Crandall, C. A. and C. J. Goodnight. 1962. hfrects of
sublethal concentrations of several toxicants on
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33. Jones, J. R. E. 19JS. The relation between the
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36.. Smith, L. L. 1971. Influence of hydrogen sulfiae
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37. Ball, I. R. 1967. The relative susceptibilities of
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38. Brungs, W. A. 1969. chronic toxicity of zinc to the
fathead minnows, Pinje^hales £romelas Ratinesque.
Trans. Amer. Fish? Sec. 987272-279.
39. Lose, C. R. III. 1952. Treatment processes completely
eliminate cyanide contents of waste. Pub. Works, 04.
UO. Herbert, D. W. M. and J. C. Merkons. 1952. The toxicity
of potassium cyanide to trout. Jcur. Exp. Biox. 29:632
U1. Anon. 1960. Aquatic Life Water Quality Criteria, Third
Progress Report. Aquatic Lite Advisory Commitree of
the Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation commission
(ORSANCO) . J.W.P.C.F., 32:65.
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186
42. Doudoroff, P., C!. Leduc and C. R. Schneider. 1966.
Acute toxicity to fish of solutions containing
complex netal cyanides, in relation to concentrations
of molecular hydrocvanic acid. Trans. Amer. Fish.
Soc. 95:6-22.
43. Anon. 1950-51. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics.
32nd ed., Chemical Rubber Publ. Co.
44. Doudoroff, P. 1956. Some experiments on the toxicity
of complex cyanides to fish. Sewaae Ind. Wastes
28:1020-1040.
45. Southgate, R. 1955. TTater pollution. Chem. and Ind. 1194
46. Lovett, M. 1957. River pollution - qeneral and chemical
effects. In: The treatment of trade waste waters and
the prevention of river pollution. Kings College,
Univ. of Durham, Newcastle-upon-Tyre, England.
47. Uuhrman, K. and H. Woker. 1955. Influence of
temperature and oxygen tension on the toxicity and
poisons to fish. Proc. Internat. Assoc. Theoret. Apnl.
Limnol. 12,795.
48. Jones, J. R. E. 1964. Fish and river nollution
(Buttervrorth & Co., London), 200 p.
49. Pickering, o. IT. 1966. Acute toxicity of alkyl
benzene sulfonate and linear alkylate sulfonate to
the eggs of the fathead minnow, Pimephales nromelas.
Air Water Pollut. 10:385-391. '
50. Hokanson, K. E. F. and L. L. Smith. 1971. Pome factors
influencina toxicity of linear alkylate sulfonate (LAS)
to the bluegill. Trans. Aner. Fish. Soc. 100:1-12.
51. Pickering, p. H. and T. O. Thatcher. 1970. The chronic
toxicity of linear alkylate sulfonate (LAS) to
Pimephales pronelas. J.W.P.C.F. 42(2 part l):243-254.
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187
52. Arthur, J. W, 1970. Chronic effects of linear alkylate
sulfonate detergent cr. Gammarus pseudoliinnaeus,
Camjjeloma decisum, and Fh^sa int§_sra. Water Res.
U:251-257.~
53. Wiebe, A. H. 1935. The effect of crude oil on fresh
water fish. Amer. Fish. Soc., Trans. 65:324-350.
54. Blumer, M. 1971, Oil contamination and the living
resources of the sea, no. R-1, In: Report of tne
FAO technical conference on marine pollution ana its
effects on living resources and fishing. (FAO
fisheries report 99) (Food and Agricultural organization
of the United Nations, Rome), p. 101.
55. Shelton, R. G. J. 1971. Effects of oil and oil
dispersants on the marine environment. Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London Biological Sciences
177:411-422.
56. Stalling, D. L. 1972. Analysis of organochlorine
residues in fish: current research of the Fish Pesticide
Research Laboratory. In: Pesticide Chemistry, Vol. 4,
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and Breach Science Publishers, New York. pp 413-436.
57. Johnels, A. G., T. Westermark, W. Berg, P. I. Persson,
and B. Sjostrand. 1967. Pike (Esox lucius L.) and
some other aquatic organisms in Sweden as indicators ot
mercury contamination of the environment. OiKos 1W:323-333.
58. Hannerz, L. 1968. Experimental investigations on tne
accumulation of mercury in water organisms. Rep. Inst.
Freshwater Res. Drcttninghclm. No. 48:120-17o.
59. Hasselrot, T. B. 1968. Report or current field
investigations concerning the mercury content in fish,
bottom sediment, and water. Rep. Inst. Freshwater Res.
Drottninqholm. No. 48:102-111.
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60. Miettinen, V., E. Blankenstein, K. Bissanen, M.
Tillander, J. K. Miettinen, and M. Valtonen. 1970.
Preliminary study on the distribution and effects of
two chemical forms cf methylirercury in pike and rain-
bow trout, paper E-9. In: Marine pollution ana its
effects on living resources and fishing. (Food and
Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome),
pp. 171.
61. Chapman, fc. H. , H. L. Fisher, K. fc. Pratt. 1968,
Concentration Factors of Chemical Elements in Edible
Aquatic Organisms. UCRL-60564. Lawrence Rauiation
Laboratory, University of California; Livermore,
California, 50 pp.
62. Harriss, R. C., D. B. White and R. E. MacFarlane.
1970. Mercury compounds reduce photosynthesis by
plankton. Science 170:736-737.
63. Jensen, S., N. Johansson, and M. Olsson. 1970.
PCB-indications of effects en salmon, PCE conference,
Stockholm, September 29, 1970. (Swedish Salmon
Research Institute), (Report LFI MEDD 7/1970).
61. Welch, P. S. 1952. Limnology. McGraw Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York. 538 p.
65. European Inland Fisheries Advisory commission.
Working Party on Water Quality Criteria for
European Freshwater Fish (1965), Report on tinely
divided solids and inland fisheries. Air Water Pol-
lution, 9:151-168.
66. Bullock, T. H. 1955. Compensation for temperature in
the metabolism and activity of poikilotherms.
fliol. Rev. (Cambridge) 30:311-342.
67. Brett, J. R. 1956. Some principles in the thermal
requirements of fishes. Cuart. Rev. Eiol. 31:75-87.
68. Fry, F. E. J. 1947. Effects of the environment
on animal activity. Univ. of Toronto Stud. Biol.
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1-62.
69. Fry, F. E. J. 1964. Animals in aquatic environments:
fishes temperature effects Chapter 44. Handbook
of Physiology, Section 4: Adaptation to the
Environment. Amer. Physiol. Soc., Washington, D. C.
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70. Fry, F. E. J. 1967. Responses of vertebrate
poikilotherms to temperature (review). In;
Thermobiology, A. H. Rose, ed. (Academic Press, New
York, pp. 375-409.
71. Kinne. O. 1970. Temperature—animals—invertebrates,
in marine ecology, 0. Kinne, ed. (John Wiley & Sons,
New York), vol. 1, pp 406-514.
72. Parker, F. L. and P. A. Krenkel, eds. 1969.
Engineering aspects of thermal pollution.
(Vanderbilt University Press, Nashville,
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73. Krenkel, P. A. and F. L. Parker, eds. 1969
Biological aspects of thermal pollution
(Vanderbilt University Press, Nashville, Tennessee),
407 p.
74. Cairns, J., Jr. 1968. We're in hot water. Scientist
and Citizen 10:187-198.
75. Clark, J. R. 1969. Thermal pollution and aquatic
life. Sci. Amer. 220:18-27.
76. Coutant, C. C. 1970. Biological aspects of thermal
pollution. I. Entrainment and discharge canal
effects. CRC Critical Rev. Environ. Contr. 1:341-381.
77. Kennedy, V. S. and J. A. Mihursky. 1967. Bibliography
on the effects of temperature in the aquatic environment
(Contribution 326) (University of Maryland, Natural
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78. Raney, E. C. and B. W. Menzel. 1969. Heated
effluents and effects on aquatic life with emphasis
on fishes: a bibliography, 38th ed. (U. S.
Department of the Interior, Water Resources Information
Center, Washington, B.C.) 469 p.
79. Coutant, C. C. 1968. Thermal pollution—biological
effects: a review of the literature of 1967.
J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 40:1047-1052.
80. Coutant, C. C. 1969. Thermal pollution—biological
effects: a review of the literature of 1968. J.
Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 41:1036-1053.
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81. Coutant, C. C. 1970. Thernal pollution—
biological effects: a review of the literature
of 1969. J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 42:1025-1057.
82. Coutant, C. C. 1971. Thermal pollution—
biological effects. Literature review. J. Water
Pollut. Contr. Fed. 43:1292-1334.
83. Fry, F. E. J., J. S. Hart, and K. F. Walker. 1946.
Lethal temperature relations for a sample of young
speckled trout, Salvelinus fontinalis. University
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of Toronto Press. Toronto, pp. 9-35.
84. Fry, F. E. J., J. R. Brett, and O. H. Clawson.
1942. Lethal limits of temperature for young
goldfish. Rev. Can. Biol. 1:50-56.
85. Black, E. C. 1953. Upper lethal temperatures of
some British Columbia freshwater fishes.
J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 10:196-210.
86. Brett, J. R. 1970. Temperature—animals—fishes.
In; Marine Ecology. O. Kinne, ed. John Wiley
& Sons. New York. Vol. 1. pp 515-560.
87. Lawler, G. H. 1965. Fluctuations in the success
of year-classes of white-fish populations with
special reference to Lake Erie. J. Fish. Res.
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88. Vernon, E. H. 1958. An examination of factors
affecting the abundance of pink salmon in the
Fraser River. Progress report no. 5. International
Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission. New Westminster,
British Columbia.
89. Cooch, F. G. 1964. Preliminary study of survival
value of a salt gland in prairie Anatidae. Auk.
81:380-393.
90. Hartung, R. 1967. Energy metabolism in oil-
covered ducks. J. Wildlife Manag. 31:797-804.
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91. Hartung, R. 1965. Seme effects of oiling on repro-
duction of ducks. J. Wildlife Manag. 29:872-874.
92. Hartung, R. 1967. An outline for tiologica-i. and
physical concentrating mechanisms for chlorinated
hydrocarbon pesticides. Fap. Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts
Lett. 52:77-83.
93. Reinert, R. E. 1970. Pesticides concentrations ir»
Great Lakes fish. Pest. Monit. J. 3:233-240.
94. National Academy of Sciences—National Researcn Council.
1957. The effects of atomic radiation on oceanography
and fisheries. NAS—NRC Publ. No. 551. Washington,
D.C. 137 p.
95. Friend, A. G., A. H. Story, C. R. Henderson, and
K. A. Busch. 1965. Behavior of certain raaio-
rmclides released into freshwater environments.
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Annual report to the Director or Fishery Research.
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Third National Symposium on Radioecology -
May 10-12, 1971. Cak Ridge, Tennessee.
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192
C. Public Water Supply Intake
1 . Acidity, Alkalin
a.
No limit of acceptability is prescribed for
the alkalinity of raw water used for drinking water
supplies.
Rationale (Alkalinity) :
It is not possible to j.ut a specific limit on alkalinity
in raw water used for drinking water supplies because the
alkalinity of any water is associated with ether
constituents such as pH and hardness (1).
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193
The acceptable pH of raw water used for
drinking water supplies is within the range of 5.0 to 9.0.
Rationale (pH):
It is necessary to limit pH to a range of 5.0 to ^.0 in
raw water used for drinking water supplies because the
treatment process is less expensive and the pH is easier to
adjust (1). Waters with a pK below 7.0 are corrosive to
water wor*s structures, distribution lines, and household
plumbing fixtures and can add such constituents to drinking
water as iron, copper, zinc, cadmium and lead (1). High pH
values favor corrosion control and values above 8.0 will not
dissolve lead (1),
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2• Dissolved Gases
a. Ammonia (Nj_
The acceptatle concentration of ammonia (as N)
in raw water used tor drinking water supplies is 0.5 mg/1.
Rationale (Ammonia) :
It is necessary to limit the concentration of ammonia in
raw water used for drinking water to 0.5 mg/1 because in
higher concentrations it has a significant effect on tne
chlorination process and is indicative of undesirable
pollution. The effect of anrmonia en the chlorinatioa
chlorine is to form chlorairine compounds which have
considerably less disinfecting efficiency than free
chlorine. The cost of chlorine in the treatment pzocess
increases when significant concentrations of ammonia are
present (1).
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195
JD. Dissolved Oxygen
A condition of saturation or near saturation
of dissolved oxygen is preferred for drinking water
supplies, but no limit of acceptability is prescribed.
Rationale (Dissolved Oxygen):
There are both advantages and disadvantages to oxygen in
public water supplies. Dissolved oxygen in a surface water
supply serves as an indicator of the presence of excessive
oxygen demanding waste, although there can be exceptions to
this rule. Further, when ammonia, iron, or manganese are
present in their reduced form, the presence of oxygen
precipitates the iron and manganese in the oxidized torm,
induces the biological oxidation of ammonia to nitrate, ana
prevents the anaerobic reduction of dissolved sultate to
hydrogen sultide. For these accomplishments oxygen levels
in surface waters should be as near saturation as possible.
On the other hand, oxygen does enhance corrosion of
treatment facilities and distribution systems, but the
benefits of the sustained presence of oxygen in dririKing
water supplies probably outweigh these disadvantages (1).
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196
3. Inorganics^/Ions and Free,Elements/Compounds^
a. Arsenic
The maximum acceptable concentration of
arsenic in raw water used for drinking water supplies is 0.1
mg/1.
Rationale (Arsenic):
It is necessary to limit arsenic because of its coxicity
to humans. Severe poisoning can result from 100 mg, and 130
mg has proved fatal (2). Arsenic can accuirulate in the body
faster than it is excreted and can build to toxic
proportions from small amounts taken periodically through
lung and intestinal walls from air, water and food (2). Of
66 major drainage basins and selected water supplies
throughout the country, 44 had concentrations of 0.01 mg/1
or less, 15 over 0.01 mg/1, and 7 over 0.05 mg/1 which
indicates the relatively lew levels in most ot the country's
water supply (3) . Although the concentration cf arsenic ir.
most raw water supplies is naturally below dangerous levels,
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197
hazardous concentrations can occur as a result of man's
activities. In light cf the tact that most of the waters
sampled throughout the United states indicated levels of
0.01 mg/1 or less, it is reasonable to limit arsenic to not
more than 0.1 mg/1 in raw water for drinking water supplies.
b. Barium
The maximum acceptable concentration ot barium
in raw water used for drinking water supplies is 1.0 mg/l.
Rationale (Bariuir) :
Barium should be limited because of its reported serious
toxic effects on the heart, blood vessels and nerves ot
humans. The fatal dose for man is considered to oe from 0.6
to 0.9 grams (g) (550 to 600 mg Ba) as the chloride (1).
Barium is not known to be cumulative (2). There are no
studies available as to how much bariurr is toleraole in
drinking water nor have any studies been made of trie long-
term effects of the consumption of barium (1). The limit of
1.0 mg/1 was derived from the barium in air of 0.5 mg/cubic
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198
meter based upon the estimated atsorption from the
intestines of approximately 2 mg/1 (5).
c. Boron
The maximum acceptable concentration of boron
in raw water used for drinking water supplies is l.u rng/i.
Rationale (Boron):
A sampling of 84 major basins and water supply waters
revealed that only 6 waters sampled contained boron in
excess of 1 mg/1, only 7 in the range of 0.10 mg/i to u.50
mg/lr and 28 had less than 0.09 mg/1. It has been reported
that 30 mg/1 are not harmful to man, which indicates a
relatively low toxicity to man and other inammals. Boron is
very toxic to many terrestrial plants and could be a problem
in watering home gardens, fruit trees, and ornamentals with
tap water containing concentrations cf boron exceeding 1.0
mg/1 (2). Although a much less stringent limit woula be
sufficient to protect man, such a less stringent limit inignt
encourage degradation cf many waters with boron.
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199
d. Cadmium
The maximum acceptable concentration of
cadmium in raw water used for drinkinq water supplies is
0.01 mg/1.
Rationale (Cadmium);
The necessity for limiting the concentration of cadmium
in drinking water supplies results from its extremely higa
toxicity to humans and the fact that conventional treatment,
as practiced in the United States, does not remove caamium
(6). There is no evidence that cadmium is biologically
essential or beneficial, and it is cumulative in trie liver,
kidney, pancreas, and thyroid of humans and other animals
(2, 1). It has been stated (7) that the absolute amount
determines the acute toxicity of cadmium. Symptoms of
violent nausea were reported for 29 school children v»no had
consumed fruit sticks containing 13-15 mg/1 of cauiaium
(8). This would be equivalent to 1.3 to 3.0 mg or cadmium
ingested. A boy was reported to have died within one and
one half hours from a dose of about d.9 grams of cadmium
chloride (9). Itai-itai disease syndrome, a severe endemic
illness, has been associated with the ir.gestion of as little
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200
as 600 ug/day of cadmium (10). The prescribed level ot 10
ug/1 is to protect against the intake by humans ot more than
20 ug assuming a 2 liter daily consumption of water.
e. Chloride
The maximum acceptable concentration of
chloride in raw water used for drinking water supplies is
250 mg/1 except in areas where no ether drinking water
supply source containing less than that concentration is
available.
Rationale (Chloride) :
This level was based on the tact that chlorides are not
removed in conventional treatment and because of taste
preference, not toxic to humans (1). The median chloriae
concentrations detected ty taste ty a panel or 10 persons
were 182, 160, and 372 mg/1 from sodium, calcium, and
magnesium salts respectively (11).
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201
f. Chromium
The maximum acceptable concentration of total
chromium in raw *ater used for drinking water supp^^es is
0.05 mg/1.
Rationale (Chromium) :
The necessity of restricting concentrations of total
chromium to 0.05 mg/1 or less results from its adverse
physical effects on humans and the fact that there are
insufficient data concerning the effectiveness of the
defined treatment process in removing chromium in the
chromate form. Chromium, in its various valence states, is
toxic to man, produces lung tumors when inhaled, and induces
skin sensitizaticns. It occurs in some foods, in air,
including cigarette smoke, and in some water supplies (3).
No-effect levels for chromate ion on man have not been
determined (1). The prescribed limit of 0.05 mg/1 was
established to avoid jeopardizing the public health by the
presence of chrcrrium in drinking water (12).
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202
g. copper
The maxiinuir acceptable concentration of copper
in raw water used for drinking water supplies is 1.0 mg/i.
Rationale (Copper):
Copper should be limited in raw water used tor drinking
water supplies because it causes taste and corrosion
problems and because there is little information on the
effectiveness of the defined treatment process in removing
copper (1). For 1,577 surface water samples collected at
130 sampling points in the United States 1,173 showed con-
centrations of 1 to 280 ug/1 with a rrean concentration of 15
ug/1 (13). This indicates the relatively low levels present
in the natural waters of the United States, all of which
have less than the 1.0 m.g/1 specified criterion. Since
copper is an essential and beneficial element in human
metabolism and because a normal diet barely provides an
adequate amount, it is desirable to have sivall amounts in
drinking water. Although small amounts of copper are
beneficial to humans, large doses rray produce emesis, or if
prolonged, result in liver damage. The prescribed limit is
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203
based on considerations of taste rather than hazard to
health (1) ,
Iron
The maximum acceptable concentration of
soluble iron in raw water used for drinking water is 0.3
mg/1.
Rationale (Iron):
Soluble iron in excess cf the prescribed limit begins to
be detectable by imparting undesirable tastes to dr^nKing
water, to result in rust deposits in distribution systems
and to stain clothes during laundering (1). The iron intake
from food provides 7 to 35 mg per day, with an average of 1b
mg (3) .
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i. Lead
The maximum acceptable concentration of lead
in raw water used for drinking water supplies is 0.05 mg/1.
Rationale (Lead):
Lead is toxic to humans and there is little information
concerning the effectiveness of its removal by conventional
treatment (1). For the 100 largest cities in this country,
finished waters were found (14) to have a maximum lead
concentration of 0.062 mg/1 and a median of 0.0037 mg/1. Tt
has also been found (15) that finished water in 969 water
supplies have lead concentrations ranging from 0 to 0.64
mg/1 with concentrations in fourteen of the supplies sampled
exceeding the prescribed limit of 0.05 mg/1. Another study
(6) of 74 of the major basins found few to contain lead
concentrations in excess of the prescribed limit, but the
excessive concentrations generally resulted from man caused
sources. Acute toxicity is most common in children and is
manifested by anorexia, vomiting and convulsing due to
intracranial pressure. Chronic toxicity symptoms are
anemia, weakness and weight loss in children and vague
gastorintestinal and central nervous system complaints by
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205
adults (16). Daily intake of 0.5 to 0.6 ing of lead by
adults under controlled conditions resulted in a small
retention but no detectable deviation from normal health of
the individuals. Indirect evidence from tests on industrial
workers exposed to known amounts of lead supported these
findings (17). The exception to the above was prevalent in
children where lead intoxication was recorded based upon
both tolerated intake and severity of symptoms (18). It is
reported (1) that with a lead intake of 0.6 mg per day,
development of lead intoxication by humans is unlikely. Tiie
prescribed limits are established to provide protection
based upon the foregoing and the combined likely exposure
from both food and water.
j. Manga nejse
The maximum acceptable concentration of
soluble manganese in raw water used for drinking water
supplies is 0.05 mg/1.
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Rationale (Manganese) :
The concentration of manganese must be limited in raw
water sources for drinking water to prevent aesthetic and
economic damage, to avoid possible physiologic effects due
to excessive intake by humans, and because soluble manganese
is not removed by conventional treatment (3). Manganese has
been reported to affect the taste cf drinking water at
levels as low as 0.05 mg/1 (2), and to stain laundry at
levels as low as 0.1 mg/1 (19).
k. Mercury
The maximum acceptable concentration ci total
mercury in raw water used for drinking water supplies is
0.002 mg/1.
Rationale (Mercury):
The necessity of limiting mercury in raw water used for
drinking water supplies results frcm its extreme toxicity to
humans and other animals and tecause conventional treatment
does not remove it. All of the organic forms of mercury
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207
(alkoxy, alkyl, and aryl) are toxic, but the alkyl form is
the most toxic tc man. The accumulation and retention of
these mercurials in the nervous system, the ease of their
transmittal across the placenta, and their effect on
developing tissue make them particularly dangerous to man
(12). Based upon available epidemiological evidence, the
lowest whole blood concentration of methyl mercury
associated with toxic symptoms is 0.2 ug/g, which
corresponds to prolonged, continuous intake by man of
approximately 0.3 rcg Hg/70 kg/day. To provide a safety
factor of 10, the maximum dietary intake should be 0.03 mg
Hg/person/day (30 ug/70 kg/day). This assumes the
consumption of 420 g/wk of fish containing 0.5 mg Hg/kg and
2 liters of water daily containg 0.002 mg/1 mercury. If all
of the mercury is not in the alkyl form, or if fish
consumption is limited, a greater factor of safety will
exist.
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1- Nitrate-Nitrite
1. Nitrate
The maximum acceptable concentration of
nitrate-nitrogen in raw water used for drinking water
supplies is 10 tng/1.
2. Nitrite
The maximum acceptable concentration of
nitrite-nitrogen in raw water used for drinking water
supplies is 1.0 mg/1.
Rationale (Nitrate-Nitrite):
Nitrates in drinking water at higher levels than tne
prescribed limit have had adverse physiological effects on
infants and treatment does not remcve them. A survey of
reported cases of nitrate poisoning found that there were no
cases of poisoning where drinking water concentrations of
nitrate-nitrogen were less than 10 mg/1. concentrations of
nitrate-nitrogen ranging rrom 15-250 mg/1 have been reported
to cause infantile nitrate poisoning which is callea
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209
methemoglobinemia (3). Methemoglobinemia is largely
confined to infants less than three months old and results
from bacterial conversion of nitrate ion to nitrite which in
turn converts herroglobin to me the mog lob in (1). Nitrite
poses a greater hazard in drinking water than nitrate, but
it seldom occurs in dangerous concentrations (12) except
where it is introduced as an anticorrosion agent (3).
Drinking water supplies having concentrations of nitrite-
nitrogen over 1.0 mg/1 should not be used for infant feeding
(12).
m. Phosphate
No limit of acceptability is prescribed for
phosphate in raw water used for drinking water supplies.
Rationale (Phosphate):
Although two primary benefits of phosphate ( P) limits
would be the avoidance of problems associated with algae and
other aquatic plants as well as coagulation problems due
particularly to complex phosphates, the total complexity of
the problem does not permit the establishment of an
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210
acceptable limit, for phosphates in drinking water supplies.
Critical phosphorus concentrations vary with other water
quality characteristics. Turbidity and other factors at
times negate the algae-producing effects ot high phosphorus
concentrations, and phosphorus concentrations in lakes arid
reservoirs are often reduced to some extent by precipitation
(1). Although most relativly uncontaminated lake districts
are known to have surface waters that contain less than JO
ug/1 total phosphorus (20) , earlier surveillance data, from
stations sampled across the country indicated (21) 4u
percent had phosphorus concentrations in excess ot 50 uy/i.
Some potable surface water supplies are reported to exceed
200 ug/1 (P) without noticeable prchlems due to aquatic
growths (1) .
n. Seleniurr
The maxirr.uir acceptable concentration ot
selenium in raw water used for drinking water supplies is
0.01
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211
Rationale (Selenium) :
This limit is considered necessary because conventional
treatment does not remove selenium and because so little is
known of its potential toxicity to humans when ingested in
water. It has been reported that the intake of selenium in
food in seleniferous areas may range from 600 to 6,340
ug/day, which is close to the estimated levels at. which
symptoms of (chronic) selenium toxicity occur in man (23) .
If data on selenium in focds (23) are applied to the average
consumption of foods (24) , the normal intake of selenium is
about 200 ug/day. The toxicity cf selenium resembles that
of arsenic and can, if exposure is sufficient, cause death
(1).
o. Silver
The maximum acceptable concentration of silver
in raw water used for drinking water supplies is 0.05 ing/1.
Rationale (Silver) :
Conventional public water supply treatment systems* are
not designed to remove silver. The principal effect of
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212
silver in the body is cosmetic. It causes a condition known
as argyria whereby a gray discoloration of skin, eyes ana
mucous membranes occurs (1). It is calculated that the
prescribed amount, could be ingested for a lifetime without
causing argyria (3). Argyria is a condition resulting from
the deposition of silver in the skin of humans which causes
a permanent gray discoloration and any amount over 1 grain of
silver in the human body will result in this condition
(24, 25). It is not known to harm individuals aftected in
any way other than that it is very unsightly (3). For these
reasons and because there is very little information on the
toxicity of silver to humans, it. is considered necessary to
limit silver in raw water used for drinking water supplies.
P- Sgdiurr
No limit of acceptability is prescribeu tor
sodium in raw water used fcr drinking water supplies.
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Rationale (Sodium) :
Because a healthy individual can consume sodium to fit
his food selection and seasoning without ill effect, no
limit was placed on the acceptable concentration ot sodium
in raw water used for drinkinq water supplies(1). It is
reported (26) that the intake ot sodium may average b gr/day
without ill effects on health. However, portions 01 the
population suffering from hypertension and edema associated
with cardiac failure are instructed by their physicians to
limit their sodium intake (1). The cost of removing sodium
from raw water is excessive and the limited concentrations
found in most raw water are generally lower than the limits
recommended for those on a moderately restricted sodium
diet.
q. Suj^f ate
The maximum acceptable concentration ot
sulfate in raw water used tor drinkinq water supplies is 2bQ
rag/1 except in areas where no other drinkinq water supply-
source containing less than that concentration is available.
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Rationale (Sulfate):
Sulfates should be limited because conventional
treatment does not remove them, and because, at levels
greater than 250 mq/1, they cause taste problems. A
threshold laxative effect was reported at concentrations of
630 mg/1 and at lower concentrations in waters having
magnesium concentrations above 200 mg/1 in addition to trie
suit ate (see 1).
Zinc
The maximum acceptable concentration of zinc
in raw water used for drinking water supplies is 5.0 mg/1.
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Rationale (Zinc):
Concentrations of zinc must not exceed 5 mg/1 in raw
water used for drinking water supplies because higher levels
cause an undesirable taste which survives through
conventional treatment and regains in substantial amounts in
finished drinking water. Zinc is not a health problem, but
is essential in human metabolism as well as being a required
constituent of a number of body enzymes. Humans taice in
from all sources a daily average cf frcrc 10 to 15 mg of
zinc (1). One taste threshold test reported that 5 percent
of the observers were able to detect the presence of 4.3
mg/1 as zinc sulfate in distilled water (27).
Bacteria
Th-3 maximum acceptable coliform concentration
in raw water used for drinking water supplies is 10,000/100
ml for total coliforms and 2,000/100 ml for fecal coliforms.
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216
Rationale (Microbiological Indicators):
Presence of coliforms, and mere significantly fecal
coliforms, in water is indicative of fecal pollution. In
general, the presence of fecal coliform organisms indicates
more recent and possibly dangerous fecal contamination.
When the count of fecal colifcrms exceeds 2,000 tnere is a
high correlation with increased numbers of both human
pathogenic viruses and huiran pathogenic bacteria (2b, 29,
30). A conventional water treatment plant is capable ot
removing most pathogenic bacteria at the level of 2,000
fecal coliforms per 100 ml; however, when this number of
fecal coliforms is exceeded the probability of transmitting
pathogenic organisms in finished drinking water increases.
b. Viruses
No limit of acceptability is prescribed for
viruses in raw drinking waters.
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Rationale (Viruses):
There is presently a lack of data indicating which viral
group provides a consistent indication of potential fecal
contamination and threat to human health. Also, risk
factors are not yet available. Virological techniques have
as yet not been perfected so as to allow monitoring of
water. For these reasons no criterion or criteria are given
for viruses in raw drinking waters.
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218
Organic^Compounds
a- Carbon Adsortable
The maximuir acceptable concentration of
organics - carbon adsorbable is 0.3 mg/1 CCE and 1.5 CAE,
both measured by the "low-flow carbon adsorption method
(CAM)" technique, in raw water used for drinking water
supplies.
Rationale (Carbon Adsorbable) :
Limiting the concentration of crganics-carbon aasoroable
in raw water used for drinking water supplies is necessary
because they are aesthetically undesirable, may have adverse
physiological effects, and are not removed by conventional
treatment. Organics - carbon adsorbable, as used Here,
contains two parts, carbon-chlorofcrm extract (CC£) and
carbon alcohol extract (CAE) both of which have an
operational definition (32) . Thee presence of insecticides,
acrylonitrile phenylether, polycyclic hydrocarbons,
kerosene, and substitute- benzene compounds have oeen
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219
demonstrated in CCF materials, while AR£ and organic fatty
acids have been identified in CAE materials.
The toxicity of CAM. sampler extract? from rav; and
finished surface water was tested in 1963 (33). They found
that the mixture of organics in the CCE from both the rav;
and finished water was carcinogenic to rats upon
subcutaneous injection. Similar testing with CAF's did not
produce tumors, but their rat life-tine data was reanalyzed
to demonstrate life-shortening caused by subcutaneous
injection of CAT from both rav and finished water. Water
having concentrations exceeding the prescribed limits may
contain undesirable and unwarranted matprials and represent
a generally unacceptable level for unidentified organic
substances (1).
b. Cyanides
The* maximum acceptable concentration of
cyanides in raw water used for drinking water supplies is
0.2 mg/1.
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Rationale (Cyanides):
It is necessary to linnit cyanides in raw water tor
drinking water supplies mainly because of its toxicity to
man. The human body has an innate capacity to convert
cyanide to the less toxic cyanate. Toxicity effects occur
when the intake of cyanides overwhelms this detoxiiying
mechanism. The safe threshold toxicity liirit for human
ingest ion of water at 2 liters per day is concentrations of
19 mq/1. A single dose of from 50 to 60 mg is reported to
be fatal to man (16).
c.
The maximuir acceptable concentrations of
foamina agents determined as methylene blue active
substances is 0.5 mg/1 in raw water used for drinking wat^r
supplies.
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Rationale (Foaming Agents):
The most common foaming agents are synthetic anionic
surfactants, the most important being linear alkylate
sulfonate (LAS). Foaming agents can produce unsightly
masses of foam in a stream or in tap waters. Conventional
waste treatment reduces concentrations in waters^ however,
measurable levels are present in the nation's surface and
ground waters. Although methyl blue active substances
(MBAS) is a more specific measure of anionic surfactants and
does not respond to cationic or nonionic surfactants, the
MBAS values are the best available measure of surfactants in
water.
d* Nit.rilotriacetate (NTA1
No limit of acceptability is prescribed for
NTA at this time.
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Rationale (NTA) :
It is not possible to establish limits for NTA at tnis
time because the necessary information and data to do so are
unavailable. The affinity of NTA for toxic metals is not
known and its toxicity to man is also unknown.
e- oil_and_Grease
Oil and qrease shculd be essentially absent from
raw water used for drinking water supplies.
Rationale (Oil and Grease):
Oil and grease, as defined in Standard Methods (3d), in
public water supplies in any amount will cause taste, odor,
and appearance problems (3H, 35, 36, 37, 38) and may be
hazardous to man (39, 2) and are detrimental to conventional
treatment processes. It is virtually impossible to express
the limits in numerical units (U). The smallest amounts of
these substances can be the cause of raw water rejection for
drinking water supplies because conventional treatment aoes
not remove them all (1).
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f. Phenols
The maximum acceptable concentration of
phenolic compounds in raw water used for drinking water
supplies is 1,0 ug/1.
Rationale (Phenols):
It is necessary to limit phenolic compounds in raw water
used for drinking water suf^lies because they are not
generally removed by conventional treatment. The^ cause
odor problems at low concentrations, and the chlorination
process may form chlorophenois which) are odor detecraijie at
lower concentrations than ether phenols. It is reported (1)
that trace concentrations of phenolic compounds less titan
1.0 mg/1 affect the organoleptic properties of drinking
water. The p-cresol threshold odor concentration aas been
determined to be 0.055 mg/1, the m-cresol 0.25 mg/1 and
cresol 0.26 mg/1. Phenol has been shown to have a tnresaoid
odor concentration of U. 2 mg/1 (40) whereas the values ror
the chlorinated phenols are 2-chlorop-hencl, 2.0 uy/i and 4-
chlorophenol, 250 ug/1 (41).
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22U
g. Phthalate _Esters
No limit of acceptability is prescribeo for
phthalate esters in raw water for drinking water supplies ac
this time.
Rationale (Phthalate Esters);
Phthalates in water represent, a potential but unknown
health problem and have been implicated in growth
retardation, accumulation and toxicity. Insufticient
information on their effects on man is available (1).
h. Polychlorinated
No limit of acceptability is prescribed for
acceptable concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls in
raw water used for drinking water supplies.
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225
Rationale (PCE's):
Too little is known about the levels in Water, the
retention and the accumulation in humans and the effects of
very low rates of inqesticn to permit the establishment of
acceptable PCB limits.
6. Pesticides
Pesticides are coir.prised cf numerous organic
compounds that are used for specific and general
Included are the chlorinated hydrocarbons and
organophosphorus compounds, as well as the chloropftcnoxy and
other herbicides. They have been reported as generally
useful in improving agricultural yields, reducing the mass
growth of nuisance causing aquatic plants, and controlling
disease vectors. Pesticides differ widely in chemical and
toxicological characteristics, and their biochemistry is
only partially known. Their toxicity to man and
biodegradability vary considerably between compounds, and
because of this they will be considered separately as
follows (1) :
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a- Insecticides - Chlorinated Hydroca
The maximuir acceptable concentrations or
chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in raw water used for
drinking water supplies are listed in Table 8.
Rationale (Insecticides - Chlorinated Hydrocarbons):
The chlorinated hydrocarbons are one ot the most
important qroups of synthetic organic insecticides because
of their sizeable number, wide use, stability in tne
environment, toxicity to some wildlife and non-target
organisms, and their adverse physiological effects on
humans. Also, there is insufficient information on tne
effects of treatment in removing these compounds (1). The
chlorinated hydrocarbons are stored in fatty tissues rather
than being rapidly metabolized. Pegardless of how
chlorinated hydrocarbons enter organisms, they inauce
poisoning having similar symptoms but which differ in
severity. The severity is related to the extent and
concentration of the compound in the rervous system,
primarily the brain («2). Mild cases cause headacnes,
dizziness, gastrointestinal disturbances, numbness and
weakness of the extremities, apprehension and
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227
hyperirritability. In severe cases, there are muscular
fasciculations spreading from the head to the extremities
followed eventually by muscular spasms, leading in some
cases to convulsions and death. The maximum allowable
concentrations for chlorinated hydrocarbons in raw water
used for drinking water supplies in Table 8 were calculated
from levels considered safe tc man and other animals anu
from the known total intake by man of these substances from
all sources (1) .
b. Insectic_ides_-_Cr2ano£hos£hate_ana
Carbarnate
The maximum acceptable concentration o£
organophosphorus insecticides is 0.1 mg/1 in raw water used
for drinking water supplies.
Rationale (Insecticides - Crganophosphcrus and Carbamate):
It is necessary to place a limit on the concentrations
of these substances in rav. water used for drinking water
supplies because of their high mammalian toxicity and
because their fate/ during conventional treatment, is
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228
unknown. The use of these pesticides in the agriculture
industry to control insects has shown a steady increase.
The majority of these pesticides are somewhat similar in
chemical structure as well as in physical and biological
properties (1). Although different from each other to some
extent they all act by the same physiological mechanism (1).
Ingestion of these pesticides results in a dysfunction of
the cholinesterase of the nervous system when ingested in
small quantities over a long period of time (43). studies
using organophosphorus compounds on human volunteers
provided indications of harmful levels. One study estimated
that 100 mg of parathion would be lethal and that 25 mg
would be moderately toxic (UU). On the basis of various
studies it was concluded that 5 ing/day (0.07 mg/kg/day) or
parathion, the most toxic substance in this group, should be
a safe level for man (1). After application of a factor of
safety of 25 for parathion a safe limit of 0.1 mg/1 was
derived.
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229
WBLE 3
Reconmended Linits for Chlorinated livr'rocarbor. Insecticides
Long-Term. Levels With Calculate;
Minimal or No Effects Fror. All
ppn mo /kg/body a/ Safetv
Compound
Aldrin
Chlordane
DDT
Dieldrin
Endrin
Heptachlor
Beptachlor
Epoxide
Lindane
Kethoxychlor
Toxaphene
Legend : a/
b/
Species in die
Rat
Dot}
Man
Rat
Don
Man
Rat
Doq
Man
Rat
Dog
Man
Rat
Dog
Man
Rat
Dog
Man
Rat
Doa
Man
Rat
Dog
Man
Rat
Don
ran
Rat
Dog
.Man
A ss ur.e
assurie
rat -
0
1
2
N
N
5
400
0
1
5
3
N
0
4
. 5
.0
-
.5
.A
.A
.0
.0
-
.5
.0
-
.0
.0
.A
.5
.0
N.A
0
0
.5
.5
K.A
50
IS
li.
100
4000
-
10
400
N.
weight
.0
.0
A.
.0
.0
.0
.0
A.
o
average
0.05 ka
i weioht/ day Factor (X:
0
0
0
0
N
N
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
0
N
0
0
N
0
0
11
8
0
N
17
80
2
1
8
j;
f rat
daily
and of
e weioht
.083
.02
.003
.42
.A.
.A.
.83
.0
.5
.083
.02
.003
.83
.06
.A.
.083
.OK
.A.
.083
.01
.A.
.3
.3
.A.
.0
.0
.0
.7
.0
.A.
- 0.
food
dog
of
1/100
1/100
1/10
1/500
-
1/100
1/100
1/10
1/100
1/100
1/10
1/500
1/500
-
1/500
1/500
-
1/500
1/500
-
1/500
1/500
-
1/100
1/100
1/10
1/500
1/500
-
3 kg and of doa
consumption of
-0.2 kc.
hur.an adult - 70
^ May.irun Sa*e Levels
Sources of Exposure Intake From Diet ' Water
% of % of Recommended —
nn
^ :~1
0
0
„
0
Q
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
- 10
ka.
A o/3 ay
.COOE3
.0002
;0003
.00084
-
-
, 003
.08
.05
.00083
.0002
.0003
.00166
.00012
-
.000166
.00016
-
.000166
.00002
-
.0166
.0006
-
.17
.8
.2
.0034
.016
-
kg;
mo/pan/dav ^/ ma/man/day Safe Level Safe Level limit (pg/1)
0
0
0
0
o
5
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
11
56
14
0
1
.0531
,014<3/ 0.0007 5.0 20
.021
,0588-V
T T 5
-
.5627
'.(• 0.021 3.4 20
.5
.0581
.01427 0.0049 35.0 20
.021
.1162
.00841/ 0.00035 4.1 20
-
.01162
.011227 0.00007 0.6 2
-
.01162
.0014d/ 0.0021 150.0 5
-
.162
.042!i/ 0.0035 8.3 20
-
.9£V
.0 T T 20
.0
.233d/
.12 T T 2
-
0.001
0.003£/
r.05
0.001
0.0005
O.C031JL/
0.0001
o.oos
1.0S/
o.oos*/
c/ Assune averaoe daily intake of water for ran - 2 liters.
d/ Chosen as basis on which to derive recorji-encec1 lirit.
e_/ Adjusted for organoleptic effects.
f/ Adjusted for interconversion to K. epoxide.
N.A. No data available
T Infrequent occurrence in trace quantities
Source (1)
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230
c. Herbicides^-_ChlorQphenQxy
The maximum acceptable concentrations ot 2,4-
D, 2,4,5-T, and Silvex in raw water used for drinking water
supplies are 0.02, 0.002, and 0.03 respectively.
Rationale (Pesticides - Chlorophenoxy):
It is necessary to limit the concentrations o± tnese
substances in raw water used for drinking water supplies
because of their possible adverse physiological etfects on
man and insufficient information on the effectiveness 01 the
conventional treatment in removing these substances.
Studies of the acute oral toxicity of chlcrphenox>
herbicides upon various animal species indicate as much as a
threefold variation and toxicities (all compounds) of aoout
the same magnitude within each species (45, 46). Trie LDpf>£
one species, the rat, was 500 mg/kg during a 21-day perioa
(58). One case of 2,4-D poisoning in man has recently been
reported (47). A study of 2,U-D on rats and dogs indicated
no-effect levels of 0.5 mg/kg/day and 8.0 mg/kg/day
respectively (48). A 2-year study found the no-etrect
levels of Silvex to be 2.6 mg/kg/day in rats and 0.9
mg/kg/day in dogs (49). Experiments on mice and rats give
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231
evidence of teratoqenic effects and embryo toxicity effects from
2,4,5-T with the rat being more sensitive. A dosage of 21.5 mg/kg
produced no harmtul eftects in mice but 4,6 mg/kq caused
minimal but statistically significant effects in rats (SO).
7.
a. color
Maximum acceptable limits tor color in raw
water used for drinking water supplies are 75 platinum-
cobalt units.
Rationale (Color) :
Colored substances can cnelate metal ions thereby
interfering with coagulation (51), and can reduce the
capacity of ion exchange resins (52). The prescribed limit
for color in raw water us^d for drinking water supplies is
necessary to permit the production of water meeting urinicing
water standards by using only moderate dosages of coagulant
chemicals. Also at optimum pH the required coagulant dosage
is reported to be linearly related to the color ci trie raw
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232
water (U). Color in finished water supplies is
aesthetically undesirable to the consumer and economically
undesirable to some industries, but can he removed by
treatment processes (53, 51).
b. Odor
To be acceptable for drinking water supplies,
raw water should be essentially free of any substance
causing odor problems.
Rationale (Odor) :
The primary means of determining the acceptability of
drinking water are odor and taste. Above a certain
threshold level drinking water becomes objectionable and
will most likely be rejected by the users v»ho will then turn
to other sources that rray fce less safe (1). The
effectiveness of conventional treatment in removing odor
causing substances is highly variable, depending on the
nature of the material causing the odor, and cannot be
depended upon. This is tne reason that it was not feasible
to prescribe odor limits in terms of a threshold Oder number
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233
(it). It is indicated (3) that an odor in polishea drinking
water becomes objectionable above a threshold number of
three.
c. Temperature
Temperature changes that detract from the
potability of public water supplies or that otherwise
interfere with the treatment process are unacceptable.
Rationale (Temperature) :
Although no limit of acceptable temperature is
prescribed, temperature changes in raw water used tor
drinking water supplies should be held to a minimum.
Changes in temperature can adversely affect the quality of
raw water and interfere with conventional treatment
processes used to produce drinking water. Temperatures
above certain levels intensify taste and odor through
increased volatility of the source compound and thus affect
the water(s palatability (55). The growth of taste anu oaor
producing organisms may be stimulated by artificially
increasing temperatures (56, 57, 58) . Increase of
-------
234
temperature or temperature changes during the standard
treatment process can adversely affect coagulation,
sedimentation, filtration, and chlorination (59, 60, 61, o2)
though it would be desirable, the establishment or numerical
limits on temperature and temperature change is not
feasible.
d- Turbidity
No limits ot acceptability are prescribed tor
turbidity in raw water to be used for drinking water
supplies.
Rationale (Turbidity):
No limits are placed on turbidity of raw watei used for
water supplies because the customary methods for measuring
and reporting turbidity are inadequate tcr quantifying those
characteristics harmful to public water supplies ana water
treatment processing. For instance, water may coagulate
more rapidly with 30 Jackscn turbidity units than water with
5 or 10 units, or wa^er with 30 Jackson turbidity units may
sometimes be more difficult tc coagulate than water with 100
-------
235
units. It can be seen, therefore, that a valid turbidity
criteria in Jackson turbidity units cannot be established.
It is also not possible, in light of present knowleuge, to
establish limits in mg/1 cf nonfilterable and undissoived
solids because the type of plankton, clay, or earth
particles, their size and electrical charge are more
determining factors. It is stated that the amount of
turbidity in water must relate to the ability of a treatment
plant to economically remove it. Most treatment plants are
designed to remove the turbidity existing at the time the
plant is constructed. Any increase of turbidity over tnat
for which the plant is designed should not be alloweu (4) ,
Standards for radioactivity in drinking water
usually apply to finished drinking water. Depending on tne
physical and chemical properties of the radioactive
material, such commonly used water treatment processes as
filtration, settling, softening, etc., may reduce tne
radioactivity present in the raw water used for input to
drinking water supplies, so that the radiological Duality of
-------
236
the raw drinking water is not necessarily indicative of trie
quality of rhe finished waters.
When raw water is consumed directly, the maximum
acceptable concentration of naturally occurrina
radionucliies having alpha ray emitting daughters, e.g.,
radium-226, -228, etc. is 5 pCi/1; and the maximum
acceptable aggregate dose tc the population served by the
water supply is 3000 man-rem/year, unless the radium-226
activity is less than 0.5 pCi/1.
Concentrations ot iran-made radionuclides that
result in an average dose rate to the whole body or any
specific organ exceeding 25 man-rem per year and/or and
aggregate dose to the population served by the water supply
exceeding 3000 man-rem/year are unacceptable. This
aggregate dose limit shall not aptly tc strontium-90
exposures from atomic taonnb fallout.
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237
Rationale (Radioactivity^:
Criteria for drinking water cannot be based on an
assumed harmless level of radiation dose. Rather, controls
for both individual and population exposures shoulu be .oased
on the prudent assumption that there is no threshold aose
for ionizing radiation and that any health effects would be
proportional to the dose delivered by the ingested activity
(67) . Since the absence of health effects cannot be
assumed, the radiological quality of water must meet two
criteria. Not only must the risk to a prudent, individual
using the water supply be so small as not be a cause of
undue concern but the health impact on the total population
using the water supply also must te limited, a criterion
best met by considering the sum total of all the individual
doses received by those persons using the supply. Tnis
aggregate dose, in units cf man-rerr, should be so small that
regardless of the number of persons using the supply tnere
is a reasonable expectation of minimal health effects in any
given year. It is recognized that a limit on aggregate aose
allows the dose to individuals tc vary within the limit set
for individual risk depending on the size of the water
supply systems. However, it also requires dose reduction to
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238
be instituted as the population served by a supply
increases.
An acceptable risk to individuals is usually not
considered in the development of criteria for drinKing
water, since it is expected that all health effects can be
averted. Because this cannot be reasonably assumed in ttie
case of radioactive contamination, selection of an
acceptable risk depends on societal values. The
conservative assumption maae here is that water supply users
will not accept any level of radioactivity that would cause
a meaningful increase in the probability that an individual
will develop cancer. Estimates of the increased cancer risk.
from small doses of ionizing radiation are available, but it
must be recognized that such estimates, though rerlectiny a
mature analysis of the best available data, are stili
subject to a certain degree of uncertainty. Nevertheless, a
study of the information given in reference 1 indicates a 25
mrem per year limit on the risk frcm drinking water, is
small enough to insure that any attendant cancer risk is not
likely to involve mere than one in a hundred thousand
persons per year of exposure.
In case of radium contamination, dose reductions may be
realized by water treatment, such as softening, dilution
with less radioactive water (usually surface waters) or by
-------
239
switching entirely to a raw water supply containing a lower
concentration of radioactivity. In all cases sucn
alternatives should consider bo-th t.he effect of such changes
on the overall quality of the finished drinking wattr and
the most economical means of realizing the required aose
reduction. Because the daily intake of radium-22b trom food
usually equals or exceeds 1 pCi, the amount of radium in the
skeleton is relatively insensitive to the quantity of
radium-226 in drinking water at concentrations less than 0,5
pCi/1. Considering the high costs of removing radium at
such low concentrations, it is usually more effective to
control other routes of radionuclide ingestion.
9, Solids
a. Dissolved Solids
No limits of acceptability are prescribed tor
total dissolved solids in raw water for drinking water
supplies.
-------
Rationale (Dissolved Sclids):
It is not considered necessary to prescribe limits on
total dissolved solids in raw water used for drinkiny water
supplies because the two ircst troublesome salts in total
dissolved solids are limited elsewhere in the criteria.
These salts are chloride and sulfate.
b. Hardness
No limit of acceptability for hardness in raw water
used tor drinking water supplies is prescribed.
Rationale (Hardness):
It is not possible tc place a specific limit on haraness
in raw water used for drinking water supplies (1, U). It is
reported (77, 78, 79) that the metal ions which attect tne
hardness of water are o± no concern to human health,
although there are indications that they may influence trie
effect of other metal ions en scir.e organisms. Hardness in
water is largely a function of the composition of yeologicai
-------
241
formations of the area in which the water is located. The
acceptability of a qiven water supply is determined by
consumer preference and is orten related to the haruness to
which the public has become accustomed (1).
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242
References: Public Water Supply Intake
1. Water Ouality Criteria of 1972. NAS Report - In press.
2. McKee, J. E. and H. W. Wolf. 1963. Water quality
criteria. California State Water Quality Control
Beard, Sacramento, Publ. No. 3-A.
3. Arthur D. Little, Inc. 1971. Inorganic chemical
pollution of freshwater. Water Quality Data Book
Vol. 2. Environmental Protection Agency.
4. U. S. Department of Health Education and Welfare,
Public Health Service. 1962. Public Health Service
Drinking Water Standards. PHS Publ. 956, U. S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 61 p.
5. Stokinger, H. E. and R. L. Woodward. 1958. Toxicologic
methods for establishing drinking water standards.
J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 50(4): 515-529.
6. National Technical Advisory Committee Report to the
Secretary of the Interior. 1968. Water quality
criteria. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
7. Potts, A. M., F. P. Simon, J. M. Tobias, S. Postel,
M. N. Swift, J. M. Patt, and R. W. Gerlad. 1950.
Distribution and fate of cadmium in the animal body.
Arch. Indust. Hyg. 2:175-188.
8. Frant, S. and I. Kleeman. 1941. Cadnium "food
poisoning." J. Amer. Med. Ass. 117:86-89.
9. Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission
Subcommittee on Toxicities. 1950. Subcommittee
report no. 3, Metal Finishing Industries Action
Committee.
10. Yamagata, N. 1970. Cadmium pollution in perspective.
Koshu Eiseiin Kenkyu Hododu, Institute of Public
Health, Tokyo, Japan 19(1):1-27.
-------
243
11. Whipple, G. C. 1907. The value of pure water.
John Wiley and Sons, N.Y.
12. Environmental Protection Agency. In Press.
Drinking Water Standards.
13. Kopp, J. F. 1969. The occurrence of trace elements
in water. Proceedings of the Third Annual Conference
on Trace Substances in Environmental Health edited by
D. D. Hemphill, University of Missouri, Columbia.
pp. 59-73.
1U. Durfor, C. N. and E. Becker. 1964. Public water supplies
of the 100 largest cities in the United States, 1962.
Geological Survey water supply paper 1812. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
15. McCabe, L. J., J. M. Symons, R. D. Lee and G. G. Robeck.
1970. Survey of community water supply systems.
J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 62 (1) : 670-687.
16. The Merck index of chemicals and drugs, 8th ed. 1968.
Merck 6 Co. , Inc. , Rahway, New Jersey.
17. Kehoe, R. A. 1947. Exposure to lead. Occup. Med.
3:156-171.
18. Chisholm, J. J., Jr. 1964. Disturbances in the
bio-synthesis heme in lead intoxication.
J. Pediat, 64:174-187.
19. Kehoe, R. A., J. Cholak and E. J. Largent. 1944.
The concentration of certain trace metals in drinking
water. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 36: 637.
20. Gunnerson, C. B. 1966. An atlas of water pollution
surveillance in the U.S. October 1, 1957 to
September 30, 1965. Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration, Cincinnati, Ohio. p. 78.
22. Smith, M. I. 1941. Chronic endemic selenium poisoning.
J. Amer. Medical Ass. 116:562-567.
23. Morris, V, C. and O. A. Levander. 1970. selenium
content of foods. J. Nutr. 100 (12) : 1385-1388.
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244
24. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research
Science, consumer and Food Economics Research Division,
Food consumption of households in the United States.
Spring 1965, Preliminary report. Agricultural Research
Service, Washington, D. C.
25. Hill, W. R, and D. M. Pillsbury. 1957. Argyria
investigation - toxicologic properties of silver.
American silver Producers Research Project Report
Appendix II.
26. Dahl, L. K. 1960. Der mogliche einslub der salzzufuhr
auf die entiwicklung der essentiellen hypertonie in
Essential hypertension; an international symposium.
P. T. Cottier and K. D, Bock, eds., Berlin-Wilmersdorf.
pp. 61-75.
27. Cohen, J. M., I. J. Kampshake, E. K. Harris and
R. L. Woodward. 1960. Taste threshold concentrations
of metals in drinking water. J. Amer. Water Works Ass.
52:660-670.
28. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water
Quality, Region VII. 1971. Report on Missouri
River Water Quality Studies. Environmental
Protection Agency, Kansas City, Missouri.
29. Geldreich, E. E. 1970. Applying bacteriological
parameters to recreational water quality. J. Amer.
Water Works Ass. 62(2):113-120.
30. Geldreich, E. E. and R. H. Bordner. 1971. Fecal
contamination of fruits and vegetables during
cultivation and processing for market. A review.
J. Milk Food Technol. 34 (4):184-195.
31. Middleton, F. M. 1961. Nomenclature for referring
to organic extracts obtained from carbon with chloroform
or other solvents. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 53:749.
32. Booth, R. L., J. N. English and G. N. McDermott, 1965.
Evaluation of sampling conditions in the carbon
adsorption method CAM. J. Amer. Water Works Ass.
57(2):215-220.
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245
33. Hueper, W. C. and W. W. Payne. 1963. Carcinogenic effects
of adsorbates of raw and finished water supplies.
Atner. J. Clin. Path. 39 (5) : 475-481.
34. American Public Health Association, American water
Works Association, and Water Pollution Control
Federation. 1971. Standard methods for the
examination of water arid waste water, 13th Ed.
Amer. Public Health Ass., Washington, D. C.
35. Braus, H., F. M. Middleton and G. Walton. 1951.
Organic chemical compounds in raw and filtered
surface waters. Anal. chem, 23:1160-1164.
36. Middleton, F. M. and J. J. Lichtenberg. 1960.
Measurements of organic contaminants in the nation1s
rivers. Ind. Eng. Chem. 52 (6):99A-102A.
37. Middleton, F. M. 1961a. Detection and measurement
of organic chemicals in water and waste. Robert
A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center Technical
Report W61-2, Cincinnati, Ohio.
38. American Water Works Association. Task Group 2500R
1966. Oil pollution of water supplies - Task
Group Report. J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 58:813-821.
39. The Johns Hopkins University. Department of Sanitary
Engineering and Water Resources. Institute for
Cooperative Research. 195b. Final report to tae
Water Quality Subcommittee of the American petroleum
Institute. Project FG 49.41. The University,
Baltimore. mimecgraph.
40. Rosen, A. A., J. B. Peter, and F. M. Middleton.
1962. Odor thresnolds ct mixed organic chemicals.
J. Water Pollut. Ccntr. Fed. 34(i):7-14.
41. Burtcschell, R. H. , A. A. Rosen, F. F,. Middlemen ana
M. B. Ettinger. 1959. Chlorine derivatives of
phenol causing taste and odor. J. Amer. Water Works
Ass. 51 (2) :205-214.
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246
42. Dale, W. E., T. B. Gaines, W. J. Hayes, and G. W.
Pearce. 1963. Poisoning by DDT: Relation between
clinical signs and concentration in rat brain.
Science 142:1474-1476.
43. Durham, W. F. and W. J. Hayes. 1962. Organic phosphorus
poisoning and its therapy. Arch. Environ. Health
5:21-47.
44. Grob, L. 1950. Uses and hazards of the organic
phosphate antichlorinesterase compounds. Ann. Int.
Med. 32:1229-1234.
45. Lehman, A. J. 1951. Chemicals in foods: A report
to the Association of Focd and Drug Officials on
currant developments. Part II. Association of the
Food Drug office U. S. Quarterly Bulletin 15:122-133.
46. Drill, V. A. and T. Hiratzka. 1953. Toxicity of
2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and 2,4,5-trichloro-
phenoxyacetic acid; A report on their acute and chronic
toxicity in dogs. A.M.A. Arch. Indust. Hyg. 7:t>l-b7.
47. Berwick, P. 1970. 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
poisoning in man. J. of the Amer. Med. Ass. 214 (6) :
1114-1117.
48. Lehman, A. J. 1965. Summaries of pesticide toxicity.
Association of Food and Drug Officials of txie U. S. ,
Topeka, Kansas, pp. 1-40.
49. Mullison, W. R, 1966. Some toxicological aspects of
silvex. Paper presented at Scurthern Weed
Conference, Jacksonville, Florida.
50. Courtney, X. D. , D. Vi. Gaylor, M. D. Hog an, II. L. Faik,
P. R. Bates, and I. Mitchell. 1970. Teratogenic
evaluation of 2,4,5-1. Science 168:864-866.
51. Hall, E. S. and R. F. Packham. 1965. Coagulation of
organic color with hydrolyzing coagulants. J. Amer.
Water Works Ass. 57 (9):1149-1166.
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247
52. Frisch, N. W. and R. Kunin. 1960. Organic foulin-j of
anion-exchange resins. J. Amer. Water Works Ass.
52 (7) :875-887.
53. Black, A. P., J. E. Singley, G. F. Whittle, and J. S.
Maulding. 1963. Stcichioiretry of the coagulation
of color-causing compounds with ferric sulfate.
J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 55 (10) :1347-1366.
54. American Water Works Association. Research Committee
on Color Problems. 1967. Committee report for 196b.
J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 59 (8):1023-1035.
55. Burnson, B. 1938. Seasonal temperature variations in
relation to water treatmert. J. Amer. Water works
Ass. 30 (5) : 793-811.
56. Kofoid, C. A. 1923. Microscopic organisms in
reservoirs in relation to the esthetic qualities
of potable waters. J. Amer. Water Works Ass.
10:183-191.
57. Thompson, R. E. 1944. Factors influencing the growtn
of algae in water. Canad. Engr. 82 (10):24.
58. Silvey, J. K.G., J. C. Russel, D. R. Redden, and
W. C. McCormick. 1950. Actinomycetes and common
tastes and odors. J. Amer. Water Works Ass.
42(11):1018-1026.
59. Velz, C. J. 1934. Influence of temperature on
coagulation. Civil Engr. 4 (7) : 345-349.
60. American Water Works Association. 1971, Water quality
and -treatment. 3rd Edition. McGraw-Hill Book, Co. ,
New York.
61. Hannah, S. A., J. M. Cohen and G. G. Robeck. 19t>7.
Control techniques for coagulation-filtration.
J. Amer. Water Works Ass. 59 (9):1149-1163.
62. Ames, A. M. and W. W. Smith. 1944. The temperature
coefficient of the bactericidal action of chlorine.
J. Bact. 47(5) : 445.
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248
63. Cairns, J., Jr. and A. Scheier. 1958. The effects
of temperature and hardness of water upon tne
toxicity of zinc to the pond snail, Physa
heterostrapha (Say). Notulae Naturae 308:1-11.
64. Mount, D. I. 1966. The effect of total hardness and
pH on acute toxicity of zinc to fish. Air Wat«jr
Pollut. 10 (1) : 49-56.
65. U. S. Federal Radiation Council. 1961a. Radiation
protection guidance for federal agencies:
memorandum for the President, September 13, 1961.
Fed. Reg, 26 (185):9057-9058.
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249
66. U. S. Federal Radiation Council. 1961b. Background
material for the development of radiation protection
standards, staff report. September, 1961. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
67. National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council.
1972. The effects on polulation of exposure to low
levels of ionizing radiation. Report of the Advisory
Committee on the biological effects of ionizing radiation.
U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 217 pp,
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250
VI Marine Water Constituents (Aquatic Life)
A. Aquatic Life
1« Acidity, Alkalinity, pH (Buffer Capacity).
The acceptable range of pH is 6.5 to 8.5. Within
this range fluctuation of 0.2 units in either direction trom
normal are acceptable.
Rationale (pH):
Despite the great emphasis on the importance of pH in
the existing literature, very little is known of its airect
physiological effects on marine organisms. It is known,
however, that pH changes in the marine environment can be
extremely significant. Even a slight change in pH indicates
that the buffering capacity of sea water has been
drastically altered and that a potential or actual carbon
dioxide imbalance exists. In addition, when the ph ot
receiving sea water changes, the duration of the variation
can be extremely important to the survival of organisms.
The normal pH range in sea water is considerably narrower
-------
251
than that found in fresh waters. At the surface of tue sea,
pH normally varies from 8.0 to 8.3, depending on the partial
pressure of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and the
salinity and temperature of the water. In shallow,
biologically-active waters, however, particularly in warm
tropical areas, there is a large diurnal variation in pH,
with values as high as 9.5 in the daytime and as lew as 7.3
at night or in the early morning. Plankton and benthic
invertebrates are probably more sensitive than fish to
changes in pH. Oysters appear to survive best in brackisn
waters when the pH is about 7.0. At a pH of 6.5 ana lower,
however, the rate of pumping decreases notably and the time
the shells remain open is reduced by 90 percent (1, 2).
Oyster larvae are damaged at a pH of 9.0 and killed at 9.1
in a few hours, and the upper pH limit for crabs nas been
reported as 10.2 (3).
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252
2. Dissolved Gases
a. Ammonia
The maximum acceptable concentration of
ammonia in marine or estuarine waters is 1/10 (0.1) or tne
96-hour LCj"O value determined using the receivinq water in
question and the most important sensitive species in the
locality as the test organism. Concentrations of un-ionized
ammonia in marine or estuarine waters in excess ot 0.4 mg/i
are unacceptable.
Rationale (Ammonia) :
Most of the information available on the toxicity ot
ammonia is for freshwater organisms. However, because or
the slightly higher alkalinity of sea water and the larger
proportion of un-ionized ammonium hydroxide, ammonia may be
more toxic in sea water than in fresh water (U).
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253
b. cniorine
The maximum acceptable concentration of free
residual chlorine in marine and estuarine waters is 1/10
(0.1) of the 96-hour LC^p value determined using the
receiving water in question and the most important sensitive
species in the locality as the test organism.
Concentrations of free residual chlorine in marine or
estuarine waters in excess of 0.01 mg/1 are unacceptaole.
Rationale (Chlorine) :
Chlorine is generally present in the stable chloride
form which constitutes about 1.9 percent of sea water.
Elemental chlorine, which is a poisonous gas at normal
temperature and pressure, is generally produced by
electrolysis of a brine solution. When dissolved in water,
chlorine gas completely hydrolizes to form hypochlorous acid
(HOCl) or its dissociated ions; at concentrations below 1000
mg/1 no chlorine exists in solution as Cl~ . The
dissociation of HOCl to H* and OCl- depends on the pH: 4
percent is dissociated at pH 6, 25 percent at pH 7, and 97
percent at pH 9; the undissociated form is the most toxic
(5). Although free chlorine is toxic in itself to aquatic
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organisms, combinations of chlorine with ammonia, cyanide,
and organic compounds such as phenols and amines, may be
even more toxic and can impart undesirable flavors to
seafood. Chlorine is one of the few elements for whicn
experimentation has demonstrated the specific toxicity ot
the chemical to marine organisms. Studies of irritant
responses of marine fishes to chlorine showed a slignt
irritant activity at 1 mg/1 and violent irritant activity at
10 mg/1 (6). Oysters are sensitive to chlorine
concentrations of 0.01 to 0.05 mg/1 and react by reuuciny
pumping activity. At higher Cl concentrations 01 1.0 mg/1,
effective pumping could not be maintained (7). Adult
mussels (Mvtilus edulis) were killed by exposure to ^.5 mg/1
of chlorine within 5 days (8). Two species of copepods
(Acartia tonsa and Eurvtemona affinis) showed extremely
rapid mortality to low doses of chlorine (9). The LD^-o for
Acartia at 10 mg/1 of chlorine was 36 seconds; the LD^ for
Eurvtemona at a similar dose was 120 seconds.
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c- Hydrogen Sulfide
The maximum acceptable hydrogen sulfide
concentration in marine or estuarine waters is 0.1 oi the
96-hour LC^o value determined using the receiving water in
question and the most important sensitive species in the
locality as the test organism. Concentrations of hydrogen
sulfide in excess 0.01 mg/1 in marine or estuarine waters
are unacceptable.
Rationale (Hydrogen Sulfide):
Sulfides are quite toxic to marine organisms, clue in
part to their fairly high solubility in water. At 20
degrees C. hydrogen sulfide is soluble in water to the
extent of 4,000 mg/1 (3). Further, the tcxicity of sultxaes
to fish increases as the pH decreases (10). Small amounts
of hydrogen sulfide are fatal to sensitive species such as
trout at concentrations of 0.05 mg/1, even in neutral and
somewhat alkaline solutions (11). Bioassays with
salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) and sea trout (Salmo
demonstrated toxic effects from hydrogen sulfide at 1.0 mg/1
(12, 13, 14). Hydrogen sulfide in bottom sediments can
affect benthic invertebrate populations (15).
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d. pjssolved Oxygen
Minimum acceptable dissolved oxygen Levels in
marine or estuarine waters are 6.0 mg/1, except when
temporary natural phenomena cause this value to be
decreased. Dissolved oxygen concentrations below U.O mg/1
in marine or estuarine waters are unacceptable.
Rationale (Dissolved oxygen):
Although information is available on the dissolved
oxygen requirements of freshwater aquatic organisms, tne
requirements of marine organisms have not been studied as
extensively, and specific information is quite sparse. The
larvae of the clam IMercenaria mercenaria) cannot tolerate
oxygen levels below 4.0 mg/1, and additional experimentation
indicates that it is essential to consider responses of
developing eggs and larvae of marine species, as well as the
juvenile and adult individuals (16, 17). However,
information extrapolated from freshwater experimentation
indicates that it is essential to consider responses of
developing eggs and larvae of marine species, as well as the
juvenile and adult individuals. Further, consideration must
be given to the distribution of dissolved oxygen with
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increasing depth, since even under natural conditions low
oxyqen concentrations may be found in estuaries, where there
are a reduction in salinity and increases in temperature
over deeper open ocean waters.
3- Inorganics, jIons and Free Elements/CgiMJOundgj
a. Aluminum
The maximum acceptable aluminum concentrations
in marine or estuarine waters and 1/100 (0.01) of the 96-
hour LC56-; value determined using the receiving water in
question and the most important sensitive species in tne
locality as the test organism. Concentrations of aluminum
in excess of 1.5 mg/1 in marine or estuarine waters are
unacceptable.
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Rationale (Aluminum):
Aluminum was reported (18) to be concentrated 15,000
times in benthic algae, 10,000 times in phytoplanktori and
zooplankton, 9,000 times in the soft parts of molluscs,
12,000 times in crustacean muscle, and 10,000 times in tish
muscle. Because it tends to be concentrated by marine
organisms, an application factor should be applied to marine
96-hour LCgo data. Except for some nonconclusive research
(19, 20), specific work on the toxicity of aluminum
compounds to marine organisms is sparse. However, aluminum
hydroxide is known to have an adverse effect on boctom
communities.
b. Antimony
The maximuir acceptable concentration of
antimony in marine or estuarine waters is 1/50 (0.02) of the
96-hour LCj^j value determined using the receiving water xn
question and the most important sensitive species in the
locality as the test organism. Concentrations of antimony
in excess of 0,2 mg/1 in marine or estuarine waters are
unacceptable.
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Rationale (Antimony):
Few of the salts of antimony have been tested in
bioassays, particularly on marine organisms. However, it is
known that antimony can be concentrated by various marine
organisms to more than 300 times the amount present in sea
water (21). The average values of antimony from the world's
oceans were reported to be 0.33 mg/1 (22). Certain marine
animals have revealed a tissue concentration of 0.2 mg/k.g
antimony (23).
c. Arsenic
The maximum acceptable concentration of
arsenic in marine or estuarine waters is 1/100 (0.01) of the
96-hour l*Cco value determined using the receiving water in
question and the most important sensitive species in tne
locality as the test organism. Concentrations of arsenic in
excess of 0.05 mg/1 in marine or estuarine waters are
unacceptable.
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Rationale (Arsenic):
Arsenic is normally present in sea water at
concentrations of 2 to 3 ug/1 and tends to be accumulated by
oysters and other molluscan shellfish (18, 2
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Rationale (Barium) :
All water or acid-soluble barium ccumpounds are
poisonous. However, in sea water the suifate and
present tend to precipitate barium. The concentration of
barium in sea water is generally accepted at about 20 ug/1
(27).
Concentration factors for barium have been reported as
17,000 for phytoplankton, 900 for zooplankton, ana d tor
fish muscle (18). Further, Russian marine radioactivity
studies showed accumulation of radioactive barium in organs,
bones, scales, and gills of fish trom the Northeast Pacific
(28).
e. Beryllium
The maximum acceptable concentration 01
beryllium in marine or estuarine waters shall not exceed
1/100 (0.01) of the 96-hour LQ^. value determined usiny the
receiving water in question and the most important sensitive
species in the locality as the test organism.
Concentrations of beryllium in marine or estuarine waters in
excess of 1.5 mg/1 are unacceptable.
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Rationale (Beryllium):
An application factor is required because of the
accumulation of beryllium by marine organisms, its apparent
toxicity to humans. The concentration of beryllium in sea
water is 0.6 ug/1 (3). It has been reported to be
concentrated 1000 times in marine plants and animals (27).
In addition, beryllium has been shown to inhibit
photosynthesis in terrestrial plants (29); however, it is
unknown if the same effect occurs in marine flora.
f. Bismuth
No level of acceptability tor concentration ox
bismuth in marine or estuarine waters is prescribed.
Rationale (Bismuth):
There are no bioassay data on which to base criteria for
bismuth. The concentration of bismuth in sea water is low,
about 0.02 uq/1, probably because of the insolubility of its
salts (3). It is unknown how much bismuth actually gets
into the sea from man-made sources, but the quantity is
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probably small. Concentrations of 0.0« to 0,3 mg/1 have
been reported for marine animals, indicatinq concentration
factors up to 10,000 (23).
q. Boron
The maximum acceptable concentration ct boron
in marine and estuarine waters is 1/10 (0.1) of trie 9o-hour
LCg£> value determined using the receiving water in cjuestioa
and the most important sensitive species in the locality as
the test organism.
Rational (Boron) :
Boron normally occurs in mineral deposits as sodium
borate (borax) or calcium borate (colemarite). The
concentration of boron in sea water is U.5 mq/1 (3).
Available data on toxicity of boron to aquatic oryanisms are
from fresh water; however, since the toxicity is sligntly
lower in hard water than in distilled water, it is
anticipated that boric acid and borates would be less toxic
to marine aquatic life than to freshwater orqanisms (->) . An
uncertainty exists concerning the effect of boron on marine
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vegetation. In view of the harm that can be caused to
terrestrial plants by boron in excess of 1 mg/1 (25),
special precautions should be taken to maintain boron at
ambient marine levels near kelp, eel grass, and other
seaweed beds to minimize damage to these plants.
h.
The maximum acceptable concentration ot tree
(molecular) bromine in marine and estuarine waters is 0.1
mg/1; further the maximum acceptable concentration ot ionic
bromine in the form of bromate in those waters is 100 mg/I,
Rationale (Bromine) :
Ionic bromine is one of the major constituents in sea
water, being present in concentrations of about 67 mg/1 (3) .
Bromination of certain organic substances, such as phenols
and amines, may impart offensive tastes and make waters more
toxic to aquatic organisms. In one of the few experiments
with bromine on marine organisms, a violent irritant
response in marine fish was observed with a dose ot 10 mg/1
bromine, but no such activity was perceived at 1 mg/1 (6) .
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i. Cadmium
The maximum acceptable concentration of
cadmium in marine or estuarine waters is 1/100 (0.01) of the
96-hour 1>Cf value determined using the receiving water in
question and the most important sensitive species in the
locality as the test organism. In waters known to have
concentrations of copper and/or zinc in excess of 1 mg/1,
the maximum application factor for cadmium is 1/1000 (0.001)
of the 96-hour LC^ value. Concentrations of cadmium in
oarine or estuarine waters in excess of 0.01 mg/1 are
unacceptable.
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Rationale (Cadmium) :
Concern exists that cadmium may enter the diet, .tike
mercury, through seafood. Cadmium, also like mercury, couid
form organic compounds which might be highly toxic or lead
to mutagenic or teratogenic effects. Cadmium is known to
have marked acute and chronic effects on aquatic organisms.
American oysters (Crassostrea virginica) had an LD^ of 0,2
mg/1 after 8 weeks exposure, but 0.1 mg/1 after 15 weeks
exposure (30).
Cadmium also acts synergistically with other metals. It.
inhibits shell growth in oysters (31), and low doses ot
cadmium (0.03 mg/1) in combination with zinc (0.15 mg/1)
will kill Chinook salmon fry (32). Killifish (Fundulus
heteroclitus) exposed to 50 mg/1 cadmium showed pathological
changes in the intestinal tract after 1-hour exposure, ana
in the kidney after 12 hours (33). copper and zinc, when
present at 1 mg/1 more, substantially increase the toxicit>
of cadmium (34). Cadmium is concentrated by marine
organisms, particularly molluscs, which accumulate caamium
in calcareous tissues and in the viscera (35). A
concentration factor of 1000 for cadmium in fish muscle has
been reported (18), as have concentration factors ot 3000 in
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marine plants, and up to 29,600 in certain marine animals
(30).
j. ChromJLum
The maximum acceptable chromium concentrations
in marine or estuarine waters is 1/100 (0.01) of the 96-hour
LC^c? value determined using the receiving water in question
and the most important sensitive species in the locality as
the test organism, concentrations of chromium in marine or
estuarine waters in excess of 0.1 mg/1 are unacceptable.
Rationale (Chromium) :
Although most of the available information on toxicity
of chromium is for freshwater organisms, a few experiments
have been reported specifically for marine organisms.
Because of the sensitivity of lower forms of aquatic lite to
chromium and its accumulation at all trophic levels, an
application factor is required. Chromium concentrations in
sea water generally have been reported between 0.04 and 0.4
mg/1 (3, 36), but concentration factors of 1,600 in bentaic
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algae, 2,300 in phytoplanktcn, 1,900 in zooplankton, 440 in
soft parts of molluscs, 100 in crustacean muscle, and 70 in
fish muscle have been reported (18). Chromium threshold
toxicity levels of 1 mg/1 tor the polychaete Nereis virens,
5 mg/1 for the prawn Leander squilla, and 20 mg/1 for the
crab Carcinus maenus have been reported (37). Chromium
concentrations of 31.8 mg/1 caused 100 percent mortality to
coho salmon (Oncgrhynchus kjsutch) in sea water, with the
time unspecified (38), A chromium concentration o± 1 mg/1
reduced photosynthesis by 10 to 20 percent in the giant kelp
(Macrocystis pyrifera) after 5 days exposure (39).
k. Copper
The maximum acceptable concentration of copper
(expressed as Cu) in marine and estuarine waters is 1/100
(0.01) of the 96-hour LCjQ value determined by using the
receiving water in question and the most important sensitive
species in the locality as the test organism.
Concentrations of copper in marine or estuarine waters in
excess of 0.05 mg/1 are unacceptable.
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Rationale (Copper) :
Copper is present in sea water in concentrations ranging
from 1 to 25 ug/1; however, the values are generally less
than 3 ug/1 (82). In small amounts, copper is nonlethal to
aquatic organisms; in fact, it is essential for some
respiratory pigments (25); however, it is accumulated by
marine organisms, with concentration factors of 30,000
reported in phytoplankton, 5,000 in the soft tissues of
molluscs, and 1,000 in fish muscle (18, 40). Copper is
toxic to invertebrates, and because of this property it is
used extensively in marine anti-fouling paints. Molluscs,
particlarly, show great sensitivity to copper compounds.
Tv?o species of West Coast molluscs, Acmaea scabra and
Haliotis fulgens, when exposed to 0.1 mg/1 copper show 100
percent mortality within 72 hours (41). Another mollusc,
the mussel Mytilus edulis, showed 100 percent mortality at
0.14 mg/1 copper within 24 hours (42). Work has also been
done on the sensitivity of other molluscs to copper. Copper
is toxic to oysters at low concentrations (25, 43, 44),
although the toxicity apparently varies between species
(45). Additionally, oysters exposed to concentrations of
copper as low as 0.13 mg/1 turn green in about 21 days (43),
and although such concentrations of copper are neither
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lethal to the oysters nor harmful to man, green oysters are
unmarketable because of their appearance. Thus, in the
vicinity of oyster grounds, copper should not be introduced
into areas where shellfish may become contaminated. Other
marine invertebrates and plants have shown a sensitivity to
copper compounds. The copepod Arcartia clausi when exposed
to a dose of 0.5 mg/1 copper, showed an Lfyc, within 13 hours
(11). The tubeworm Sjoirobis lamellosa, also exposed to a
dose of 0.5 mg/1 copper, had an LDj
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1, Fluorides
The maximum acceptable concentration ot
fluorides in marine and estuarine waters is 1/10 (0.1) ot
the 96-hour LC^p value determined using the receiving water
In question and the most important sensitive species in the
locality as the test organism. Concentrations of fluoride
in excess of 1.5 mg/1 in marine or estuarine waters are
unacceptable.
Rationale (Fluorides):
There is virtually no information available on the
effect of fluorides on marine organisms. The only data are
from a study which indicates that the concentration ot
fluoride in the ocean occurs in two forms: approximately
half as the unbound fluoride ion, F-, with a range between
0.4 to 0.7 mg/1; the other fluoride component is oound as
the double ion MgF*-, which has a similar concentration
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The maximum acceptable concentration of iron
in marine and estuarine waters is 0.3 rnq/1.
Rationale (Iron) :
In the marine environment, iron is most otten present
either in organic complexes or in the ferric form adsorbed
on particulate matter. However, because of the sligntly
alkaline condition of sea water much of the ferric term
precipitates out (3). Thus, ferric hydroxide floes may
contaminate marine sediments, where commercially important
invertebrate species, such as oysters, clams, scallops,
lobsters, crabs or shrimp would be affected. Although
damage to aquatic organisms is known from the smothering ana
coating action of these floes, the evidence is availaole
only from fresh water experimentation (10, 51-56). It. is
known, however, that iron is a necessary element in th«
formation of porphyrins, whose uptake ir.ay be either by
ingestion of food or directly from the aquatic environment:.
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n. Lead
The maximum acceptable concentration of lead
in marine or estuarine waters is 1/50 (0.02) of the ^o-hour
LCj-£> value determined using the receivinq water in question
and the most important sensitive species in the locality as
the test orqanism. Further, the maximum acceptable 24-hour
average concentration is 1/100 (0.01) of the 96-hour LCSf'
Concentrations of lead in marine or estuarine waters in
excess of 0.05 mg/1 are unacceptable.
Rationale (Lead):
Certain marine plants have the ability to concentrate
lead up to 40,000 times and certain marine animals up to
2,000 times (57). Very few experiments have been performed
on the biological effects of lead on marine organisms. It
has been found that lobsters died within 20 days when ntid
in lead-lined tanks (20); the TLm for oysters (Crassostrea
yirginica) , was found to be 0.5 mg/1 lead wher. exposed for
12 weeks (30) ; and the 48-hour LC^t;> for Crassostrea
yirginica eggs was found to be 2.45 mg/1 (57).
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o. Manganese
The maximum acceptable concentration OL
manganese in marine or estuarine waters is 1/50 (0.02) of
the 96-hour LCso value determined using the receiving water
in question and the most important sensitive species in tae
locality as the test organism, concentrations of manganese
in excess of 0.1 mg/1 in marine or estuarine waters are
unacceptable.
Rationale (Manganese):
Manganese apparently has varying effects on lower
trophic levels of aquatic organisms. Manganese
concentrations of 5 ug/1 have a toxic effect on certain
freshwater algae (58), whereas 0.5 ug/1 manganese (a
decrease of only one order of magnitude) when added to
marine diatom and flagellate cultures stimulated ootn tneir
growth and reproduction rate (59). Further, in studies on
the uptake of radionuclides in the area of the Pacitic
testing grounds at Bikini and Eniwetok, it was found that
the radionuclide Mn 5U was concentrated as much as 4,uOO
times in phytoplankton and 12,000 times in the soft tissues
of molluscs (18, 60).
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p. Mercury
The maximum acceptable concentration of
mercury in marine or estuarine waters is 1/100 (0.01) of the
96-hour LCr,o value determined using th<= receiving water in
question and the most important sensitive species in the
locality as the test organism. Concentrations of mercury in
excess of 1.0 ug/1 in marine or estuarine waters are
unacceptable. Further, intentionally adding mercury to
marine or estuarine waters is unacceptable.
Rationale (Mercury) :
The behavior of mercury in the marine environment is not
completely understood. Organo-mercurials are more nigaly
concentrated by organisms than are inorganic mercury (b1).
It was found (62) that 82 percent of the mercury in Swedish
marine fish was methylmercuric chloride. In addition to
being biologically concentrated to a greater degree than
inorganic mercury compounds, organo-mercurials are mucn more
toxic than inorganic mercury to marine organisms (63). Nine
mercuric salts and 23 organo-mercury compounds were tested
(6U) on the snail Australorb.is
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hours at 1 ma/1. Twelve organo-mercury compounds, on the
other hand, produced significant nortalities at the 0.3 ng/1
level. In many species of marine phytoplankton
photosynthetic activity has been shovm to he inhibited bv a
variety of nercury compounds (65). Vertebrate marine
organisns have also experienced marked detrimental effects
from mercury compounds. It was reported (6f) that mercuric
chloride drastically alters the cytological structure of the
epithelium of the skin and gills in fish, and studies
conducted on developing salmon eggs (Pncorhynchus nerka and
Hi. gorb.vischa) showed that concentrations of mercury at
levels e:rceedinn 3 ug/1 mercury (derived from mercuric
sulfate) led to severe deformities (67). Concentration
factors have been reported to range from 200 for marine
diatoms (68) to 10,000 for marine teleosts (69). Further,
the acute toxicity of mercury to invertebrate marine
organisms is high. Bivalve larvae were killed by 20 ucr/1 of
mercuric chloride (70); copepods (Acartia clausi) were
killed in 2.5 hours by 50 ug/1 (71); 1.0 mg/1 of mercuric
chloride was lethal to adult barnacles (Balanus balanoides)
within 43 hours (42); and the I-J>5o for tubeworn larvae
(Spirorbis lamellosa) was found to be 0.14 mg/1 in 2 hours
(46).
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q . Mol. y.*2£!£!liiSl
The maximum acceptable concentration of
molybdenum in marine or estuarine waters is 1/20 (0.05) of
the 96-hour LD^c value determined using the receiving water
in question and the most important sensitive species in the
locality as the test organism.
Rationale (Molybdenum):
Molybdenum has been found to be a needed micronutxient
for the normal growth of phytoplankton (72); thus, it may
play a vital role in the balance of ecosystems because ot
its requirement in algal physiology. Molybdenum
concentrations for coastal marine waters range between 6 and
16 ug/1 (973, 7U, 75). It can be concentrated from 8 to 60
times by a variety of marine crganisms including benthic
algae, zooplankton, molluscs, crustaceans, and teleosts
(18).
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r. Nickel
The maximum acceptable nickel concentrdcion in
marine or estuarine waters is 1/50 (0.02) of the 96-hour IC
value determined using the receiving water in question and
the most important sensitive species in the locality as the
test organism, concentrations of nickel in excess of 0.1
mg/1 in marine or estiuarine waters are unacceptable.
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Rationale (Nickel) :
Marine toxicity dat.a for nickel are limited. It is
known, however, that nickel ions are toxic, particularly to
plant life, and may have increased toxicity when in cue
presence of other metallic ions. Nickel is present in
coastal and open ocean concentrations in the ranqe u. 1 - t>.G
uq/1, although the most common values are 2-3 ug/1.
Marine animals contain up to 400 -ug/1, and marine plants
contain up to 3,000 uq/1 (22). The lethal limit of nickel
to sticklebacks has been reported a-s 0.8 n.g/l (12);
concentrations of 13.1 mg/1 were reported to cause a 50
percent photosynthesis reduction in giant kelp (^.crocy_st.is
E£rifera) in 96 hours (39); and a concentration of 1.54 mg/1
was found to be the LC^^j value for eqqs of the oyster
(Crassostrea yirginica) $57).
s- Phosphorus
The maximum acceptable elemental phosphorus
concentration in marine or estuarine waters is 1/10U (0.01)
of the 96-hour LC/p value determined using the receiving
water in question and the most important sensitive species
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in the locality as the test organism. Concentrations ot tne
elemental phosphorus in excess of 0.1 ug/1 in marine or
estuarine waters are unacceptable.
Rationale (Phosphorus):
Phosphorus in the elemental form is particularly toxic
and subject to bioaccumulation in much the same way as
mercury (76, 77), Colloidal elemental phosphorus will
poison marine fish causing surface discoloration resulting
from hemolysis. Also, phosphorus is capable of being
concentrated and will accumulate in organs and soft tissues.
Experiments have shown that marine fish will concentrate
phosphorus from water containing as little as 1 ug/1 (78).
In a series of experiments, the tissues of cod swimming in
water containing 1 ug/1 elemental phosphorus for 18 hours
were analyzed. White muscle contained about 50 ug/kg, tat
tissue about 150 ug/kg, and the liver 25,000 ug/1 (78, 79).
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t. Selenium
The maximum acceptable selenium concentration
in marine or estuarine waters is 1/100 (0.01) of the 96-hour
LCi(2 value determined using the receiving water in question
and the most important sensitive species in the locality as
the test organism, concentrations of selenium in excess or
0.01 mg/1 in marine or estuarine waters are unacceptable.
Rationale (Selenium) :
The concentration of selenium in open oceans has
generally been reported as about 0.1 ug/1, with a range of
0,05 to 0.12 being the nominal values from the literature
(22). In coastal waters, selenium values are generally
higher; values of 0.25 ug/1 for Puget Sound (80) ana 4-6
ug/1 (81) for the coastal areas of the Sea of Japan have
been reported. There is no selenium bioassay information
for marine species in the literature; however, selenium is
known to be concentrated by some seaweeds (82).
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u. Silver
The maximum acceptable silver concentration in
marine or estuarine waters is 1/20 (0,05) of the 96-hour L
value determined using the receiving water in question and
the most important sensitive species in the locality as the
test organism, concentrations of silver in excess of 0.5
ug/1 in marine or estuarine waters are unacceptable.
Rationale (Silver):
Silver is toxic to marine organisms and has been round
to be concentrated by marine organisms by factors ranging
from 80 for marine algae up to 1,000 for marine mammals
(82). At UOO ug/1 silver sulfate killed 90 percent or the
barnacles (Balanus balonoides) tested in <48 hours (U2) . At
concentrations of 100 ug/1, silver nitrate caused aonormal
or inhibited development of eggs of the sea urchin
Paracentrotus (83) ; concentrations of 2 ug/1 delayed
development an 1 caused defcrmation of the resulting t/
Adverse effects occurred at concentrations below 0.2t>
and several days were required for recovery after placing
the organisms in clean water. Detrimental effects en
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development of the sea urchin Arbacia due to silver nitrate
have been reported at approximately 0.5 ug/1 (25, 83).
In a study of the effects of silver salts on marine
teleosts, it was reported (84) and generally supported (85)
that the lethal concentration limit of silver nitrate tor
sticklebacks (Gasterostgus sp.) was 0.003 mg/1, with 0.0048
mg/1 being the toxic threshold level. Also reported (66)
were adverse effects on the liver enzymes of the killitish
Fundulus heteroclitus resulting from 0.04 mg/1 of silver.
On a comparative basis, in studies on ochinoderm eggs,
silver has been found to be about 80 times as toxic as zinc,
20 times as toxic as copper and 10 times as toxic as mercury
(83).
v. Thallium
The maximum acceptable thallium concentration
in marine or estuarine waters is 1/20 (0.05) of tne 20-day
LCi,-0 value determined using the receiving water in question
and the most important sensitive species in the locality as
the test organism. Concentrations of thallium in excess of
0.1 mg/1 in marine or estuarine waters are unacceptaDle.
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Rationale (Thallium):
On the basis of very few observations, the concentration
of thallium in open ocean waters is regarded as less trian
0.01 ug/1. It is concentrated to some extent in giant Kelp
(Macrocv.stis pyrifera) (87), and there is one report of
concentration factors of approximately 100 in marine
invertebrates (88). There is no information on trie effects
of thallium compounds on marine organisms. It is Known from
freshwater experimentation, however, that thallium salts are
cumulative and long-term poisons, and that the mode of
action in fish and invertebrates appears to be as a neural
poison (15). One response of fish to thallium poisoning is
reported to be a rise in blood pressure (3).
w. Uranium
The maximum acceptable uranium concentration
in marine or estuarine waters is 1/100 (0.01) of the 96-hr.
LC$o value determined using the receiving water in question
and the most important sensitive species in the locality as
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285
the test organism. Concentrations of uranium in excess of
0,5 mg/1 in marine or estuarine waters are unacceptable,
Rationale (Uranium) :
Uranium is present at a concentration of approximately 3
ug/1 in open ocean waters (3). Uranium salts, such as the
sulfate, nitrate, and acetate, are soluble in water, and a
significant proportion of these salts are in the form of
stable complexes. It has been estimated that uranium
compounds have residence times on the order of 3 million
years in the oceans (27). This extremely slow turnover time
is due to a hydrolytic stabilization which prevents pnysico-
chemical interactions, and thus the removal of the compounds
from sea water. There are no data on concentration of
uranium compounds by marine organisms; further, tne data on
uranium toxicity to marine lite are quite sparse. Tne data
that are available suggest that uranyl salts are somewhat
less toxic -to marine than to freshwater organisms.
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x. Vanadium
The maximum acceptable vanadium concentration
in marine or estuarine waters is 1/20 (0.05) of the 96-hr.
LC/7) value determined using the receiving water in question
and the most important sensitive species in the locality as
the test organise.
Rationale (Vanadium) :
The observed distribution of vanadium in offshore ocean
waters has ranged between 1.8 and 7.0 ug/1 (81, 89, 90).
Vanadium is known to have been concentrated by certain
marine forms during the formation of oil-bearing strata in
the geologic past, and is one of the more common elements in
organic sediments. Consequently, vanadium enters the
atmosphere through the combustion of petroleum derivatives,
and then settles out on the oceans' surfaces (3). Certain
marine invertebrate forms, such as tunicates, ascidians and
several seaweeds, concentrate vanadium to a marked degree
(89, 91). Whether any concentrations of vanadium are
actually harmful tc these marine invertebrates has not been
demonstrated. There are no reports in the literature on the
toxicity of vanadium to marine organisms. There is even a
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287
suggestion, however, that vanadium may be an essential
micromitrient for all green plants (72) .
y. Zinc
The maximum acceptable zinc concentration in
marine or estuarine waters is 1/100 (0.01) of the 96-hr. L
value determined using the receiving water in question ana
the most important sensitive species in the- locality as the
test organism. concentrations of zinc in excess of O.i mg/1
in marine or estuarine waters are unacceptable.
Rationale (zinc) :
Observed values for the distribution of zinc in ocean
waters vary widely. Values as high as 50 ug/1 ana as low as
3 ug/1 have been reported for offshore ocean waters (92,
93). The major concern with zinc compounds in marine waters
is not one of acute toxicity, but rather of the lon«.j- term
sub-lethal effects of the metallic compounds and complexes.
There is some information on -the former, but solid data on
the latter are sparse. From an acute toxicity point ot
view, invertebrate marine animals seem to be the most
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sensitive organisms tested. The growth of the sea urchin
Paracentrotus llvidus was retarded by as little as 30 ug/1
of zinc (94); it was reported (46) that «4.9 mg/1 of zinc
citrate caused an LD^o in 2 hours for tuLeworm larvae
(Spirorbis laroellosa) , and that 5.2 mg/1 caused an LD$& in
the same amount of time for bryozoan larvae (Bugula
neritina). It was noted (42) that 32 mg/1 of zinc nitrate
was lethal to adult barnacles (Balanus balanQides) in 2
days, and that 8 mq/1 was lethal in 5 days. Finally, 10
mq/1 of zinc sulfate caused a 50 percent inactivation of
photosynthesis in giant kelp (Macrpcystis pyrifera) in «*
days (39). Concentrations ot zinc have teen reported as
high as 1.5 g/1 in marine animals (UO), and concentration
factors for zinc have been noted as high as 100,000 times in
certain shellfish (95) .
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Qr'ganic Compounds
a. Cyanides
The maximum acceptable concentration of cyanides in
marine or estuarine waters is 1/10 (0,1) of the 9t>-tiOur LC^p
value determined using the receiving water in question ana
the most important sensitive species in the locality as tne
test organism. Concentrations of cyanides in marine or
estuarine waters in excess cf 0.01 mg/1 are unacceptable.
Rationale (Cyanides):
The majority of the available information on tne
toxicity of cyanides to aquatic organisms is for .treshwater
species; accordingly, discussion of these compounds is
covered in the freshwater aquatic life criteria.
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290
b. Oils
Concentrations of oil or petroleum prouucts in
marine or estuarine waters that exceed the limits described
below are unacceptable.
a. Detectable as a visible film, sheen,
discoloration of the surface, or by odor;
b. Causes tainting of fish or invertebrates
or damage to the biota;
c. Forms an oil deposit on the shores or
bottom of the receiving body of water.
Rationale (Oils):
Oil is one of the most widespread and serious
contaminants of the world's oceans. Crude oils contain
thousands of compounds, and differ markedly in their
composition and in such physical properties as specific
gravity, viscosity, and boiling-point distribution. The
hydrocarbons in oil cover a wide range of molecular w-eignts
from 16 for methane to over 20,000 for the more complex
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compounds. Structurally, they include aliphatic compounds
with straight and branched chains, olefir.s, and trie aromatic
ring compounds. In spite of their many differences, crude
oils and their refined products all contain compounds that
are toxic to marine organisms. It has been estimated that
approximately 90 million tons of oil are entering tne oceans
from all sources every year (96). Most of this influx takes
place in coastal regions, but oil slicks and tar ualls have
also been observed far out in open oceans (97). Altnouyn
accidental oil spills are often spectacular events and
attract the most attention, they constitute less than one
percent of the oil entering the marine environment as a
result of human activities (96). But when an oil spill
occurs near shore, or is washed onto the intertidal zone
beaches, extensive damage to marine organisms often occurs.
An excellent example is a relatively small oil spill
resulting from the grounding, in September 1969, or an oil
barge off the woods Hole Oceanographic Institution at West
Falmouth, Massachusetts. Between 650 and 7CO tons cr No. I
fuel oil were released into the coastal waters. stuuies of
the biological and chemical effects of this spill are
continuing, more than two years after the event (98-101).
Massive destruction of a wide range of fish, shelltisn,
worms, crabs, and other crustaceans and invertebrates
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occurred in the region immediately after the accident.
Dredge samples taken in 10 feet of water soon after trie
spill showed that 95 percent of the animals recovered were
dead and the others moribund. Much of the evidence ot the
immediate toxicity disappeared within a few days, either
because of the breaking up of the soft parts of the
organisms, burial in the sediments, or dispersal Jay -water
currents. Careful chemical and biological analyses reveal,
however, that not only has the damaged area been slow to
recover but the extent of the damage has been expanding with
time. A year and a half after the spill, identifiable
fractions of the source oil were found in organisms that
still survived on the perimeter of the spill area, Although
it is known that petroleum fractions can be degraded by
marine microorganisms, very little is known about the
mechanism of this degradation. However, it is known that no
single microbial species can completely degrade any whole
crude oil. Bacteria are highly specific, and several
species are necessary to decompose the many types of
hydrocarbons in a crude cil. Further, some of these
interactions are restricted to aerobic conditions at the sea
surface, while other degradation processes are anaerobic and
occur only on those petroleum fractions that accumulate near
the ocean bottom. In addition, the oxygen requirement of
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microbial oil decomposition is extremely large. The
complete oxidation of only one gallon of crude oil requires
all the dissolved oxygen in 320,000 gallons of air-saturatea
sea water (102). Further, the most readily attacked
fraction of crude oil, the paraffins, is the least toxic;
the more toxic aromatic hydrocarbons, especially the
polynuclear aromatics, are not digested rapidly. There are
only a few reputable observations on the specific toxicity
of oil to marine organisms. Testing of eleven species of
phytoplankton revealed that cell division was delayed or
inhibited by concentrations of crude oil (unspeciriea types)
as low as 0.01 mg/1 (103). Earlier experimental results
have shown 100 percent mortality of flounder fry at oil
concentrations as low as 1 mg/1, and increased abnormal
development in concentrations as low as 0.01 mg/1 (104). It
has been reported (105) that the Pacific ccast sea urcnin
(Stronglycerrtrotus purpuratus) dies after a 1-hour exposure
to 0.1 percent emulsion of diesel oil. In addition, crude
oil adsorbed onto carbonized sand has been shown net to lose
its toxicity (106). Three marine organisms were tested:
toadfish embryos, barnacles, and a hydrozoan. Survival of
the toadfish embryos varied from 13 days for a 0.5 percent
concentration to 4 1/2 days tor a concentration of 5
percent. The barnacles suffered a 90 percent mortality
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within 70 hours in a 2 percent mixture of oil in sea water,
and the hydrozoans suffered a 100 percent mortality within
24 hours after being exposed to 0.5 percent oil-sa.nci
mixture. It should be noted that a sublethal effect, wnxle
not killing the organism directly, may render it less able
to compete with individuals of the same species, ana
therefore may be as lethal in toto as a direct, eftect. it
has also been shown that certain petroleum fractions .block
chemoreceptors in marine crustaceans which use
chemoreception as a means of locating food (107) thereby
placing them at a competitive disadvantage. At anotner
level, specific petroleum fractions have been shown to
interfere with reproduction of certain marine organisms
(107). In the lobster, for exairple, reproductive success
depends upon detection by the male of chemicals produced by
the female known as pheramones, which are necessary to
stimulate proper copulation in the species. Petroxeum
fractions mask the chemical activity of these pheramones,
thereby preventing mating and reducing species fecundity.
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5. Pesticides
The maximum acceptable concentration of pesticides
in marine or estuarine waters is 1/100 (0.01) of the 96-hour
LC^,value determined using the receivina water in question
and the most important sensitive species in the area as the
test organism.
Rationale (Pesticides):
The toxicity of ten chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides
and four organophosphorus insecticides to selected marine
organisms is presented in Table 9, and the concentration of
DDT found in various marine organisms is presented in Table
10. These tables are by no means complete, but they provide
an idea of the great toxicity of the organic pesticides to
marine organisms. For maximum concentrations of pesticides
not in these tables, consult the freshwater criteria. In
general, the substituted urea pesticides have been found to
be the most toxic to marine organisms followed closely by
the organo-mercurials. Although these two toxicants are not
in such common use as some others, their toxicity is
extreme. Following these two compounds in clecreasino order
of toxicity, it has been found that the chlorinated
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hydrocarbons are more toxic than the carbamate pesticides
which are, in turn, generally more toxic than the
organophosphates (108, 109, 110). In addition to the direct
toxic action of pesticides on marine organisms, suLlethai
concentrations increase the physiological stress on
organisms. This may reveal itself in decreased resistance
to disease and parasites or decreased reproductive rates,
longevity or general vigor. It was reported (111) that DDT
interfered with the normal thermal acclimation mechanism of
Atlantic salmon. Although DDT is one ot the most ubiquitous
toxicants in the marine environment, knowledge of its action
is still quite rudimentary. However, it is known that
despite its very low solubility in sea water it. is
concentrated at atmosphere-water and sediment-water
interfaces (112, 113). Further, because of its hign
solubility in lipid-containing biological tissues, larye
concentration factors are encountered as trophic levels
increase (114). Although it was reported (115) tnat
concentrations of DDT occurred in the surface layers of
Pacific coast sediments of at levels of only 0.040 my/kg,
DDT has been found in significant amounts in mesopelagic
teleosts from depths of 9600 feet in the open ocean (116)
and in concentrations of 1 part per thousand in marine
mammals from the coast of California (115).
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TABLE 9
Toxicity of various Pesticides to Selector! Marine Organisms
Test Organism
Sand shrinp
Crangor scptenspinosa
Oyster
Crasnostrca virgir.ica
Spot (Juvenile)
Leiontomus xanthurus
I'ernit crab
Pagurus longicarpus
Grass shrimp
Palaemonetes vulaaris
AI.DP.in
Concentration
of Toxicant
8 ug/1
25 urr/1
5.5 ug/1
33 ug/1
9 ug/1
Effect on
Organisn
LP
LD
50
50
LP
50
LP
'50
LD
50
Duration
of Exnosure Reference
9C hrn. risler, 1969
96 hrn. Butler, 1964
48 hrs. Butler, 1964
96 hrs.. Pinler, 19F9
9P hrs. Fisler, 1969
Test Organisra
Erine shrimp
Artenia salina
Sand shrinp
Crangon septenspinosa
Sheepshead minnov/ (Juvenile)
Cyprinodon variegatus
Spot (Juvenile)
Leiostomus xanthurus
Hermit crab
Pagurus longicarpus
Grass shrimp
Palaemonetes vulgaris
Dinoflagellate
Perirlinium trochoideun
DDT
Concentration
of Toxicant
12 ug/1
0.6 ug/1
5 ug/1
2 ug/1
6 ug/1
2 ug/1
10 ug/1
Effect on
Oraanisn
LD
LD
LD
LP
LP
LD
50
50
50
50
50
50
50% decrease
in photosynthesis
Duration
of Exposure Reference
5 hrs. Tarp.ley, 1958
96 hrs. Eisler, 1969
48 hrs. Butler, 1964
48 hrs. Butler, 1964
96 hrs. risler, 1969
96 hrs. Eisler, 1969
24 hrs. Wurster, 1968
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298
TAB LIT 9 (cont.)
Toxicity of Various Pesticides to Selected M.arino Organisms
DIELDBIIT
Test Organism
Sand shrimp
Crangon septcmspinosa
Spot (Juvenile)
Leiostomus xanthurus
Ilerirdt crab
Pagurus longicarpus
Grass shrimp
Palaemonetcs vulgaris
Test Organism
Sand shrimp
Crangon septemspinosa
Spot (Juvenile)
Leiosotornus xanthurus
Hermit crab
Pagurus longicarpus
Grass shrinp
Palacmonetes vulgaris
Puffer fish
Sr>haeroides maculatus
Concentration
of Toxicant
7 ug/1
5.5 uo/1
18 ug/1
50 ug/1
El-ID PIN
Concentration
of Toxicant
1.7 ug/1
0.6 ug/1
12 ug/1
1.8 ug/1
3.1 ug/1
Effect on
Orcranisr-'
LD50
LD50
LD50
^50
Effect on
Oraanisn
Lr)50
LD50
LD50
LD50
LD ro
Duration
of Exposure
96 hrs.
48 hrs.
96 hrs.
9P hrs.
Peference
Finler, 1969
Butler, 1964
Eisler, 1969
Eislnr, 1969
Duration
of Exposure Reference
96 hrs.
48 hrs.
96 hrs.
96 hrs.
96 hrs.
Eisler, 1969
Butler, 1964
Einler, 1969
Eislor, 1969
Eisler and
Edmunds, 1966
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TABLE 9 (cent.)
Toxicity of Various Pesticides to Selected Marine Oraanisns
HEPTACHLOP
Test Organism
Sand shrinp
Crangon septcnspinosa
Spot (Juvenile)
LGJostomus xanthurus
Hermit crab
Fagurus longicarpus
Grass shrircp
Palaerionetes vulgar is
Concentration
of Toxicant
8
24
55
44
ug/1
ug/1
ug/1
ug/1
Effect on
Oraanism
LP50
1^50
LD50
1^50
Duration
of Exposure Reference
96 hrs. Eisler, 1969
48 hrs. Butler, 1964
96 hrs. Pisler, 1969
96 hrs. Eisler, 1969
Test Organism
Sand shrinp
Crangon septenspinosa
Tpot (Juvenile)
riun xanthurus
II err it crab
ragurus long! carpus
Grass shrinp
Palaeraonetes vulaaris
LIMDANE
Concentration
of Toxicant
5 ug/1
30 un/1
5 ug/1
in ug/1
Effect on Duration
Organise of Exposure Reference
LDso 96 hrs. Fisler, 10po
,r 50
LD
5Q
LD
48 hrs. Butler, 1964
9f hrs. Eisler, 19P9
hrs. Eisler, 1969
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TABLE 9 (cont.)
Toxicity of Various Pesticides to Selected Marine Organises
METHOXYCHLOR
Test Organism
Sand shrimp
Crangon septemspinosa
Spot (Juvenile)
Leioatomus xanthurus
Hermit crab
Pagurus longicarpus
Grass shrimp
Palaempnetes vulgaris
Concentration
of Toxicant
4
30
7
12
ug/1
ug/1
ug/1
ug/1
Effect on Duration
Organism of Exposure Refnrence
IiCso 96 hrs. F.islor,
LD50 48 hrs. Butler,
LD50 48 hrs. Kislor,
LD50 96 hrs. Eisler,
1969
1964
1969
1969
SEVIN
Test Organism
Ghost shrimp
Callianassa californiensis
Dungeness crab (Juvenile)
Cancer nmgister
Cockle clam
Clinocardium nuttallii
Shiner perch (Juvenile)
Cymatogaater aggregata
3-spined stickleback
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Concentration
of Toxicant
Effect on Duration
Organism of Exposure Reference
0.13
0.60
7.3
3.9
6.7
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
LDen 24 nrs- Stewart et al
3U 1967
LDen 24 hrs- Stewart et
50 1967 ~
I,D en 24 hrs. Stewart et
1967 —
LD ,-n 24 hrs. Stewart et
1967
LD en 24 hrs. Stewart et
50 infl
al
al
al
al
1967
Crab
Hemigrapsus oregonensis
0.27 mg/1
LD 50
24 hrs. Stewart et al
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301
19*7
English sole (Juvenile)
Parophrys vetulus
4.1 mg/1
LD50
24 hrs. Ptewart et s_l
19P7
Mud shrimp
Upogebia pugettensis
0,4 n.a/1
48 hrs. Ptewart et al
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TABLE 9 (cont.)
Toxicity of Various Pesticides to Selected Marine? Organisms
Test Organism
Ghost shrimp
Callianassa californiensis
Shiner perch (Juvenile)
Cymetogaster aggregata
3-spined stickleback
Gasterosteus aculeatus
1-NAPHTHOI.
Concentration
of Toxicant
6.6 mg/1
1.3 r,o/l
3.2 rg/1
Effect on
Organism
LD50
Duration
of Exposure Reference
24 hrs. Stewart et al
24 hrs. Stewart et al
IjI50
?A hrs. Stov/art et al
Mud shrimp
Upogebia pugettcrsis
4.4 ncr/1
50
48 hrs. Stewart et al
1967
Test Organism
Spot (Juvenile)
Leiostomus xanthurus
Planktonic flagellate
Monochrysis lutheri
Planktonic diatom
Phaeodactylurn tricornutun
TOXAPITEI'Tr
Concentration
of Toxicant
1 ug/1
Effect on
Organisn
LD50
0.015 UCT/I 22% inhibition
of growth
Duration
of Exposure reference
48 hrs. Butler, 1964
10 days Ukeles, 1962
0.010 ug/1 46% inhibition 10 days Ukeles, 1962
of arowth
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303
TABLE 9 (cont,)
TDxicity of Various Pesticides to Selected Marine Organisms
KALATITIOT7
Test Organism
Sand shrimp
Crangon septemspinosa
Spot (Juvenile)
Leiostorous xanthurus
Hermit crab
Pagurus Iongicarpus
Grass shrimp
Palaemonetes vulgaris
Test Organism
Sand shrimp
Crangon septenspinosa
Hermit crab
Pagurus lortgicarpus
Grass shrimp
Palaenonetes vulgaris
Concentration
of Toxicant
33 ug/1
55 ug/1
83 ug/1
82 ug/1
METHYL PAPATHION
Concentration
of Toxicant
2 ug/1
1 ug/1
3 ug/1
Effect on Duration
Organ is rn of Exposure Reference
LP 96 hrs.
LD 48 hrs.
LD5Q 96 hrs.
LD5Q 96 hrs.
Effect on Duration
Organism of Exposure
LD5Q 96 hrs.
LD50 96 hrs.
LD (.« 96 hrs.
Eisler, 1969
Butler, 1964
Eislor, 1969
Eisler, 1969
Reference
Eisler, 1969
Eisler, 1969
Eisler, 1969
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TABLE 9 (cont.)
Toxicity of Various Pesticides to Selected Marine Organisms
PARATHION
Test Organism
Sheepshead minnow (Juvenile)
Cyprinodon variegatus
Brown shrimp
Penaeus aztecus
Test Organism
Sand shrimp
Crangon septemspinosa
Sheepshead minnow (Juvenile)
Cyprinodon variegatus
Hermit crab
Pagurus longicarpus
Grass shrimp
Palaemonetes vulrjaris
Brovm shrimp
Penaeus aztecus
Concentration
of Toxicant
60 ug/1
1 ug/1
PHOSDRIN
Concentration
of Toxicant
11 ug/1
83 ug/1
28 ug/1
69 ug/1
250 ug/1
Effect on
Organism
LD50
LD50
Effect on
Organism
LD50
LD50
^50
LD50
LD50
Duration
of Exposure
48 hrs.
48 hrs.
Duration
of Exposure
96 hrs.
48 hrs.
96 hrs.
96 hrs.
96 hrs.
Reference
Butler, 1964
Butler, 1964
Reference
Eisler, 1969
Butler, 1964
Eisler, 1969
Eisler, 1969
Butler, 1964
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Ceographic
Region
Open ITorth Atlantic
Open South Atlantic
Pennarl. Straits
Gulf of I'exico
Korthcast Pacific
Ivest Coast of
Scotland
Baltic Sea
TABLE 10
DDT Concentrations in Pish
Material
Tested
Pelagic fish nuscle
Pelagic fish liver
f'idwater fish and Crustacea
ridvater fish and Crustacea
Traurcfish ruscle
Croundf ish liver
Fish muscle
Pinl. shriiir
Flatfish
Fish ruiscle
Fish liver
Herrina miscle
Cod ruscle
Concentration
in r"g/kg
0.6 - 3
95 - 4800
3-12
1-8
3-30
390 - 2GOO
3-30
2.7 (rear,)
2.5 (moar)
in.8 (mean)
30 - 480
70 - 5800
100 - 1500
9 - 340
Source: (3)
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6. Radioactivity
The acceptable levels of radionuclides in sea
water are those concentrations which are sufficiently small
that the concentration in any marine organism harvested for
human consumption will not cause total radionuclide
ingestion by the most exposed group using the food to exceed
that prescribed in Federal Drinking Water Standards. Lt the
consumption of these foodstuffs is so widespread that it is
likely that the aggregate dose to the exposed population
will exceed 3000 man-rem per year, limitations on the
distribution and sale should be considered by the relevant
public health authorities.
Rationale (Radioactivity):
These criteria are based on the prudent assumption that
radiation levels in marine food organisms which are
acceptable for human consumption will not injure the marine
organisms themselves (121). Man-made radioisotopes were nor
released into the environment until 194U, when the first
atomic bomb was tested. Prior to that time, all radiation
in marine waters occurred from natural sources. Of tuis
naturally-occurring radiation in sea water, greater than 90
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307
percent is from the isotope potassium-HO. During the list
30 years, however, the principal source of radionuclides in
the oceans has been nuclear weapons testing. While the
release of radioisotopes was drastically reduced with the
cessation by the major powers of atmospheric weapons
testing, radioactive waste continues to be released to tne
oceans from nuclear powered ships and submarines and trom
nuclear power and fuel reprocessing plants (122). It is
difficult to measure the amount of radiation affecting
marine organisms because they are simultaneously irradiated
by radioisotopes within their body from previously consumed
organisms, by radioisotopes adsorbed on the surface of their
body from the water, and by radioisotopes in sediments.
Nevertheless, it is known that radioisotope concentration
factors can be quite large. Average concentration tactors
for significant radionuclides as cited in a recent NAS
monograph may be as high as 5,000 for benthic algae, 50,000
in phytoplankton, 25,000 in zooplankton, 2,500 in crustacean
muscle, and 1,600 for fish muscle (123). The edible
fraction of shellfish may bioconcentrate manganese and siinc
on the average of 12,000 and 11,000 times respectively. The
biological effects of radioactivity adsorbed and absorbed by
marine organisms may be damaging at both the cellular and
molecular levels. Damage to the organism may include
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developmental abnormalities, physiologic changes, inhibition
of growth, behavioral changes, shortening of life sj^an, or
finally, death. In addition, synergistic biological damage
from radiation may be induced by environmental stresses such
as changes in temperature or salinity. Furthermore,
irradiation can cause gross pathological changes whicn are
easily observed, or it can result in more subtle changes
which are difficult or impossible to detect. In addicion to
somatic changes which affect the individual, genetic changes
also may occur which may affect the offspring for many
generations. Bacteria and algae may tolerate doses of many
thousands of rads. The LD^c» (lethal dose for 50 percent
mortality in 30 days) for marine fish is one thousand to a
few thousand rads. As expected, eggs and early
developmental stages are more sensitive than are adults. By
comparison, the mean lethal whole-body dose from a single
short exposure to humans is about 300 rads (3).
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7. Temperature
Maximum acceptable water temperature increases
are 2.2 C {4.QCF) during the months of September through
May, or 0.8CC (1.5CF) during the months of June through
August.
WHEN SUFFICIENT INFORMATION ON MARINE SPECIES BECOMES
AVAILABLE, TEMPERATURE CRITERIA FOR MARINE WATERS WILL BE
THE SAME AS FRESHWATER.
Rationale (Temperature):
The single most important variable to marine organisms
is temperature, and the literature contains much information
on both direct and indirect effects of temperature increases
on marine organisms, particularly teleosts. Included in the
marine temperature rationale that follows are exemplary
citations from the literature on the direct and indirect
effects of temperature changes and maximum temperature
levels. A temperature increase may affect the marine
organism directly, by changing physiologic or behavioral
processes, or it may affect organisms indirectly, by
changing some aspect of the environment on which the
organism depends. The cause of thermal death in marine
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fishes has been variously attributed to synapse failure at
myoneural junctions (124) , thermal denaturation of body
cells, inactivation of cholinesterase (126) , and to
coagulation in the bronchial capillaries (127). For
example, it was found (128) that tc produce heat deatn in
the killifish (Fundulus heterocljtus) required 63 minutes at
3U*C (93.2°F), 28 minutes at 36 "c (96.8^), 9 minutes at 37°
C (98.6*F), and only 2 minutes at U2°C (107.6*F). It is
recognized that consideration must be given to whether the
organism has been acclimatized to the warmer temperatures
during the experimentation or if it has been suddenly
exposed to them, resulting in heat death by shock. It is
reported (129) that most marine teleosts do not survive
above 33°C (91.1*F). For polar species, the median upper
lethal limit is 26°C (78.8SF) , for species inhabiting
temperate ocean waters, that same limit is 30 °C (66°F); and
while insufficient data are available to project a median,
upper lethal limit fcr tropical marine species, it is known
that these fish are already living so close to their thermal
death points that a rise of even a few degrees may cause
severe mortalities (129). It was demonstrated, for example
(130), that tropical marine fishes have extremely small
thermal tolerances. Experimentation showed that pelagic
larvae of ten species of tropical Indian ocean fish would
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311
survive only between 27"c (80.6°F) and 30 °c (86°F). The
larvae of temperate marine fish are also sensitive to rapid
changes in temperature (131). As would be expected, the
eggs, larvae, and juvenile forms of marine fishes are far
more sensitive than adult forms to temperature changes.
Part of this sensitivity may be the result of a lack of
ability to metabolically compensate for the temperature
changes. It has been found that sea lamprey (Petrom^zon
sp.) eggs will not hatch above 3l"c (87°F) (133) and chinooK
salmon fOncorhynchus sp.) eggs will not hatch above lb.5°C
(61.7eF) (13U). These egg mortalities were attributed to
failures in gastrulation, in melanophore formation, and in
initiation of circulation. Other experiments on the eggs of
a Pacific marine fish (Clinocottus) revealed (135) that as
the temperature was increased from 22° C (71.6°F) to 24°C
(75.2*F), the percentage of gastrulated eggs dropped from
more than 70 percent to less than 5 percent, and the
percentage of hatched embryos dropped from 75 percent to
zero. Although sublethal temperatures may not kill
outright, they may produce, through heat stress, other
physiologic aberrations, A loss of swimming ability in
fish, due in large part to a significant increase in mucous
production over the body was reported (136) . Without such a
vital ability a fish is likely to be unable to capture its
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food, escape its predators, or avoid environmental dangers,
either natural or man-made. Other physiological aberrations
due to heat stress that have been reported are a partial
failure of osmoregulation in Pacific cottid fishes (137),
and increased oxygen consumption; the latter was reported in
the eel (Anouilla) (138), in the killifish (Fundulus) (139),
and in the cunner (Tautogolabrus) (140). Increased oxygen
consumption with increased temperatures is particularly
critical to fishes, since as water temperature increases,
oxygen solubility decreases, thereby increasing the
potential for mortality. Temperature increases also airect
the rate of color change in marine fishes. The ability to
change from tan to black decreased (141) in the plaice
(Pleuronectes) at temperatures above 16*c (60.8°F) ; a loss
of pigment in Pacific killifish fFundulus paryipinnis) at
high temperatures was reported (142); also reported (143)
was the fact that the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) did not
dark-adapt as well at high temperatures (20°C) (68 &F) as
they did at normal temperatures 5°C (4l°F). Though
sublethal in nature, these temperature effects could artect
the survival of the organism, since avoidance of predators
is often dependent upon the ability to color adapt. Hign
sublethal temperatures also exert detrimental effects on
growth rates in marine fish. In experiments where fian were
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313
subjected to high sublethal temperatures for extended
periods of time (136) , the amount of food consumed by the
test organisms was several times that of the controls.
Despite this increased food consumption, the test fish
became emaciated. In addition, increased water temperatures
offer improved media for the growth, reproduction, and rate
of infestation and infection of parasites and disease. A
run of sockeye salmon (Oncgrhvnchus nerka) was nearly
obliterated due to the combined effects of high temperature
and bacterial infection (126). It was reported from
examination of the literature that most fish diseases are
favored by increased water temperatures (144). Using salmon
under experimental conditions, it was found that higher
water temperatures drastically increased the severity of
kidney disease, vibric (a skin lesion disease), furunculosis
(a blood vessel and muscle degenerative disease), and
columnaris (a skin and muscle degenerative disease (144).
In the Delaware River estuary a high incidence of deformed
fins in striped bass (Roccus_sajca^ilus) was reported (145)
which was attributed to heated effluents from a nearby power
generating plant. Finally, heated effluents from an
electric power plant in California were deliberately
directed toward a nearby beach to warm the sea water for
bathers and surfers. However, the plan has had its
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314
drawbacks; the beach must be closed periodically to seine
out the large sharks attracted by the warm waters.
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315
B. Wildlife
1. General
Except for the specific harmful substances
addressed below, the marine aquatic life criteria are
acceptable for application to coastal and marine waters
inhabited by wildlife. The freshwater wildlife criteria are
in general acceptable for application to estuarine wildlife.
Rationale (General):
Marine wildlife refers to those species of mammals,
birds and reptiles which inhabit estuaries or coastal and
marine waters for at least a portion of their life span.
Although fish, invertebrates and plankton are not considered
to be wildlife, they constitute the food web upon which the
wildlife species depend for their subsistence.
Consequently, the criteria for marine wildlife necessarily
include all criteria formulated to protect the fish,
invertebrate and plant communities.
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316
1. Specific Harmful Substances
a. DDT and Derivatives
The maximum acceptable concentrations of JDT
in any sample consisting of a hoirogenate of 25 or more wnole
fish of any species that is consumed by fish-eating oirds
and mammals, within the size range consumed, is 50 my/kg on
a wet weight basis. DDT residues are defined as the sum of
the concentration of p,p -DDT, p,p -ODD, p,p -DDE ana their
ortho-para isomers (3).
Rationale {DDT and Derivatives):
DDT compounds are widespread and locally abundant
pollutants in coastal and marine environments of Nortn
America. The most abundant of these is DDE 2,2-bis (p-
chlorophenyl) dichloroethylenel , a derivative of tne
insecticide DDT compound, p,p -DDT. DDE is more staoie than
other DDT derivatives, and very little information exists on
its. degradation in ecosystems. Except for sediment
deposition, no degradation pathway has been shown to exist
in the sea (3). Experimental studies have shown that DDt,
induces shell thinning of eggs of birds of several families,
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317
including Mallard Ducks (Anas glatyrhynchos) (146) , American
Kestrels (Falco sgarverius) (147) , Japanese Quail (Coturnix)
(148) and Ring Doves (StrejctQEelia risorial (149). Stuaies
of eggshell thinning in wild populations have reported
inverse relationship between shell thickness and
concentrations of DDE in the eggs of Herring Gulls (Larus
argentatug) (150), Double-crested Cormorants (Phalacrocorax
auritus) (151), Great Blue Herons (Ardea herodias) (152),
White Pelicans (Pelecanus crythrorhYnchos) (151), Brown
Pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) (153, 154), and Peregrines
(£alco peregrinus) (155) (See 3). Because of its position
in the food web, the Peregrine accumulates higher residues
than fish-eating birds in the same ecosystem (156), and is
considered to be the species most sensitive to environmental
residues of DDE (3). The most severe cases of shell
thinning documented to date have occurred in the marine
ecosystem of southern California (157) where DDT residues in
fish have been in the order of 1-10 mg/kg of the whole fish
(154). In Connecticut and Long Island, shell thinning of
eggs of the Osprey (Pandjon ha^liaetus) is sufficiently
severe to adversely affect reproductive success; over North
America, shell thinning of Osprey eggs also shows a
significant negative relationship with DDE concentration
(See 3) . DDT residues in collections of eight species of
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318
fish from this area in 1970 ranged from 0,1 to 0.5 mg/ky ot
the wet weight (158). Evidently this level of contamination
is higher than one which would permit the successful
reproduction of several of the fish-eating and raptorial
birds (3).
b- Aldrin, pieldrin, Endrin, and^He^tachlor
The maximum acceptable sum of the
concentrations of aldrin, dieldrin, endrin and heptacnlor
epoxide in any sample consisting of a homogenate of 2b or
more whole fish of any species that is consumed by tisn-
eatir.g birds and mammals, within the size range consumed, is
5.0 mg/kg on a wet weight basis.
Rationale (Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin and Heptachlor):
Aldrin, dieldrin, endrin and heptachlor constitute a
class of closely related, highly tcxic, organochlorine
insecticides. Aldrin is readily converted to dieldrin in
the environment, and heptachlcr to the highly toxic
derivative, heptachlor epoxide. Like the DDT compounas,
dieldrin may be dispersed through the atmosphere (15(J, 156).
The greatest hazard of dieldrin exists to fish-eating birds
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319
such as the Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus .leucoceghalus) (160) ,
Common Egret: (Casing rod jus albus) (161 and to the Peregrine
(fJ-lS0. 2§.££!3J!:-iB.u§) (162) , which may accumulate lethal
amounts from fish or birds which are not themselves harmed
(See 3). These compounds are somewhat more soluble in water
than are other chlorinated hydrocarbons such as the DDT
group (163); partition coefficients between water and fish
tissues can be assumed to be lower than those of the DDT
compounds. Equivalent concentrations in fish would
therefore indicate higher environmental levels of dieldrin,
endrin or heptaclor epoxide than of DDE or any of the other
DDT compounds. Moreover, these compounds are substantially
more toxic to wildlife than are other chlorinated
hydrocarbon pesticides (3).
c, Other_Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
The maximum acceptable concentration of
chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides including lindane,
chlordane, endosulfan, methoxychlor, mirex, toxaphene and
hexchlorobenzene, in any sample consisting of a homogenate
of 25 or more whole fish of any species that is consumed by
fish-eating birds and mammals, within the size range
consumed is 50 mg/kg on a wet weight basis,
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320
Rationale (Other Chlorinated Hydrocarbons):
Other chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides include
lindane, chlordane, endosulfan, methoxychlor, mirex, and
toxaphene. Hexachlorobenzene is likely to have increased
use as a fungicide as mercury compounds are phased out.
This compound is toxic to birds and is persistent (164).
With the possible exception of hexachlorobenzene,
recommendations that protect the invertebrate and fish life
of estuaries from injudicious use of these pesticides will
also protect the wildlife species. In the light of the
experience with DDT and dieldrin, the large scale use of a
compound such as mirex can be expected to have adverse
effects on wildlife populations.
d. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCS*9)
The maximum acceptable concentrations of PCB
in any sample consisting of a homogenate of 25 or more whole
fish of any species that is consumed by fish-eating birds
and mammals, within the size range consumed is 0.5 mg/kg on
a wet weight basis.
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321
Rationale (PCB):
Evidence is accumulating that PCB does not contribute to
the shell thinning that has been a major symptom of the
reproductive failures and population declines of raptorial
and fish-eating birds (3). A PCB effect could not be
associated with the thinning of Brown Pelican (Pelecanus
occidentalis) eggshells (165) nor did dietary PCB produce
any effect on the eggs of Mallard Ducks (Anas platyrhynchos)
(166) or Ring Doves (Streptopelia risoria) (167). PCB may
increase susceptibility to infectious agents such as virus
diseases (168) and like other chlorinated hydrocarbons PCB
increases the activity of liver enzymes that degrade
steroids, including sex hormones (156, 169). Laboratory
studies have indicated that PCB, with its derivatives or
metabolites, causes embryonic death of birds (170, 171, 172,
173). Because exceptionally high concentrations are
occasionally found in fish-eating and raptorial species
(156, 174), it is highly probable that PCB has had an
adverse effect on the reproductive capacity of some species
of birds that have shown population declines (3). Median
PCB concentrations in whole fish of eight species from Long
Island Sound, obtained in 1970, were in the order of one
mg/kg (158), and comparable concentrations have been
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322
reported from southern California (175). On the basis of
the high probability that PCB in the environment has
contributed to the reproductive failures of fish-eating
birds, it is desirable to decrease these levels by at least
a factor of two (3).
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323
Marine Water constituents
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333
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334
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to specific environmental temperature conditions.
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129. de Sylva, D. F. 1969. Theoretical considerations
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335
130. Kuthalingham, M. D. 1959, Temperature tolerance
of the larvae of ten species of marine fishes.
Current Science 28:75-76.
131. Colton, J. E. 1959. A field observation of mortality
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fish CaJ.otomuj3_ja£Oj2icus.) J. Imp. Fish Inst,,
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wastes 1 (5) : 130-183.
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175-179.
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vergl. Physiol. 44: 451-462.
139. Kropp, B. N. 1947. The effect of temperature on
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140. Haugaard, N. and L. Irving. 1943. The influence
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336
of temperature on the oxygen consumption of the
cunner (Tautogolabrus adspersus) in summer and
winter. J. Cell. Comp. PhysiolT 21(1):19-26.
141, Kruppert, H. H. and M. P. Meijering. 1963. The
relationship between temperature and light-dark
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zool. Auz. 170:55-61. ~
1*2. Wells, N. A. 1935. Variations in the respiratory
metabolisir of the Pacific killifish, Fundulus
parvjpinuis. due to size, season and "~
continued constant temperature. Physiol.
Zool. 8:318-336.
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51:471.
144. Ordal. E. J. and Pacha, R. E. 1967. The effects
of temperature on disease in fish. In: Water
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shore zone and other areas of the Delaware
River estuary. Inf. Ser. Univ. Delaware
5: 1-164.
146. Heath, P. C,, J. W. Spann, and J. R. Kreitzer (1969),
Marked DDE inipariment of mallard reproduction in
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pesticides in^the environment, J. W. Gillett, ed.
(Environmental health sciences series no. 1) Oregon
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148. Peakall, D. E. (1970), p,p«-DDT: effect on calcium
metabolism and concentration of estradiol in the
blood. Science, 168:592-594.
149. Hickey, J. J. and D. W. Anderson (1968), Chlorinated
hydrocarbons and eggshell changes in raptorial and
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337
fish-eating birds. Science 162:271-273.
150. Anderson, D. W. , J. J. Hickey, R. W. Risebrough, D. E.
Hughes, and R. E. Christensen (1969) , Significance
of chlorinated hydrocarbon residues to breeding
pelicans and cormorants. £§£.,_ Fiel.d_Natur, 83(2):
91-112
151. Mermeer, K. and L. M. Reynolds (1970) , Organochlorine
residues in aquatic birds in the Canadian prairie
provinces. Canadian Field-Naturalist 8U: 117-130.
152. Blus, L. J., C. D. Gish, A. A. Eelisle and R. M, Prouty
(1972), Logarithmic relationship of DDE residues to
eggshell thinning. Nature 235:376-377.
153. Risebrough, R. W. in press (1972), Effects of
environmental pollutants upon animals other
than man. Proceedings sixth Berkeley Symposium
Mathematical Statistics and Probability.
15U. Cade, T. J., J. E. Lincer, C. M. White D. C. Roseneau,
and L. C. Swartz (1970), DDE residues and eggshell
changes in Alaskan falcons and havks. Science 172:
955-957.
155. Risebrough, R. W. , R. J. Huggett, J. Griffin and
E. D. Goldberg (1968), Pesticides: transatlantic
movements in the northeast trades. Science 159;
1233-1236.
156. Risebrough, R. W, , J. Davis, and D. W. Anderson (1970)
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The biological impact of gesticides in the environ-
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157. Hays, H. and R. W. Risebrough (1972), Pollutant
concentrations in abnormal young terns from Long
Island Sound. Auk 89(1): 19-35.
158. Tarrant, K. R. and J. O«B. Tatton (1968b) , Organochlorine
pesticides in rainwater in the British Isles.
Nature 219:725-727.
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338
Lament, A. Belisle, E. Cromartie, G. E. Bagley, arid
R. M. Prouty (1070), Orqanochlorine residues arid
autopsy data from bald eagles. Pesti. Monit.J.
14 (3) : 14 1-144.
160. Faber, R. A., R. W. Risebrough, and H. M. Pratt
(1972) , Organochlorines and mercury in
Common Egrets and Great Blue Herons. Environ-
mental Pollution 3:111-122-
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pesticides in egg treackage frequency and egg-
shell thickness in some British birds. J. Ai.pl.
Ecol. 7{1):67:115.
162. Gunther, F. A., W. E. Westlake, and P. S. Jaglan
(1968) , Reported solubilities of 738 pesticide
chemicals in water. Residue Reviews 20:1-148.
163. Vos, J. C., H. A. Breeman and E. Eenschop (19t>tt) , Tne
occurrence of the fungicide hexachlorobenzene in
wild birds and its toxicological importance. A
preliminary communication. Mededlinqen Pijkstakuteit
Landbouw-wetenschappen Gent 33(3):126J-126b.
164. Risebrough, F. cW., D. B. Menzel, D. J. Martin, and
H. S. Olcott in press (1972), DDT residues
in Pacific marine fish. Pesticides Monitorirw J.
165. Heath, R. G., J. W. Spann, J. F. Kreitzer, and
C. Vance in gress (1972), Effects of poly-
chlorinated biphenyls on birds. Proceedings
XV International Crnitholocjical Congress.
166. Peakall, D. B. (1971), Effect of polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCB's) en the eggshells of ring doves.
Bull, Environ^ contain. Toxicol. 6 (2) : 10C-101.
167. Friend, M. and D. O. Trainer (1970)b, Polychlorinated
biphenyl: interaction with duck hepatitis virus.
Science 170:1314-1316.
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biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in induction
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339
169. Vos, J. G. , J. H. Koeman , H. L. van der Maas, K. C.
ten Noever de Braiiw, and H, J. de Vos (1970),
Identification and toxicological evaluation or
chlorinated dibenzofuran and chlorinated na£.thalene
in two commercial polychlorinated biphenyls.
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170. Vos, J. G. , and J. H. Keoman (1970), Comparative
toxicologic study with polychlorinated bipnenyls
in chickens with special reference to porphyria,
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17:656-668.
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non-human mammals and birds. Environmental
Health in Perspective 1.
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on Ring Doves and Kestrels. Environment a l^Healtn
Perspective 1 .
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(1969), DDT and PCB in marine animals from Swedish
waters. Nature 224:247-250.
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marine ecosystems in Chemical Fallout, M. W. Miller
and G. C. Berg, edsc. (C. C. Thomas, Springrieid) ,
pp. 5-23.
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340
VII. RECREATIONAL WATEBS
A. Aesthetic considerations
1. Aesthetics„-_Geneza1
a. All surface waters should be capable or
supporting life forms of aesthetic value,
b. surface waters should be "free" of
substances attributable to discharge or wastes as follows:
(1). Materials that will settle to form
objectionable deposits;
(2). Floating debris, oil, scum, ana
other matter;
(3) . Substances producing objectionable
color, odor, taste, or turbidity;
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Materials, including radionuclides,
in concentrations or combinations (which are toxic or) which
produce undesirable physiological res[>onses in humans, fish
and other animal and plant life; and
(5). Substances and conditions or
combinations thereof in concentrations which produce
undesirable aquatic life.
Rationale (Aesthetic considerations):
Aesthetic criteria are to be applied in the context of
local conditions and are intended in general terms to
provide for the protection of surface waters from substances
which tend or miqht tend to degrade the aesthetic quality ot
water. The use of the term "free" recognizes the practical
impossibility of complete absence and inevitability of tne
presence of potential pollutants tc some degree.
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2. Nutrient_.(Phosphorus)
No limit of acceptability is prescribed tor
phosphorus (P) in recreational waters.
Rationale (Phosphorus):
Acceptable limits for phosphorus in receiving
waters where it is a limiting constituent for nuisance
aquatic plant growths are believed to be:
Water Body Majcimum Phosphor us ^JJP) Concentration
Within lakes and reservoirs 25 ug/1
At a point where a river
enters a lake or reservoir 50 ug/1
Flowing streams 100 ug/1
Reducing phosphorus in lakes and reservoirs is the
single most important step that can be taken in the control
of eutrophication at this time (1, 2, 3, 4). It is
recognized that the phenomenon of eutrophication is complex
and that there may be waterways wherein higher
concentrations of total phosphorus do not produce eutro^hy,
as well as those waterways wherein lower concentrations of
total phosphorus may be associated with populations ot
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343
nuisance organisms. Waters now containing less than the
specified amount of phosphorus should not be degraded by the
introduction of additional phosphates. Exceptions to the
above stated limits need to be recognized in any water
management program. Because of naturally occurring poor
quality or because of technological limitations in the
control of introduced pollutants, some waters may not meet
the desired levels. This determination must be made on a
case-by-case basis following an analysis of available data
and conditions associated with each such area. There are
situations where higher levels of phosphorus than those
above can be tolerated by the waterway without developing
biological nuisances or increasing the threat of
eutrophication. Often naturally-occurring phenomena limit
the development of such nuisances. Examples include those
waters highly laden with natural silts or colors which
reduce the penetration of sunlight needed for plant
photosynthesis, these waters whose morphemetrie features of
steep banks, great depth, and substantial flows contribute
to a history of no plant problems, or those waters that are
managed primarily for waterfowl or other wildlife.
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B. Recreational Waters
1. Clarity
For bathing and swimming waters, clarity should be
such that a Secchi disc is visible at a minimum depth of 4
feet and visible on the bottom in areas designated as "learn
to swim". Acceptable clarity in diving areas the clarity is equal
to the minimum required by safety standards depending upon the
height of the diving board or platform.
Rationale (Clarity):
Clarity is important for recreational waters for a
variety of reasons among which are safety, visual appeal and
recreational enjoyment. Absolute criteria are impossible
since local conditions vary. However, turbidity due to
human activities should be controlled in recreational areas.
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2. Micreorganises
a. Bacteriological Indicators
1). The indicator organises for
contamination of surface waters by potential human pathogens
are the fecal coliform group of bacteria.
2). Without reference to official
designation of recreation as a water use, surface waters
are, as a minimum, to be suitable for human recreation where
there is little significant risk of ingestion. In the
absence of local epidemological experience an average of
2000 fecal coliforms per 100 ml and a maximum of 4000 per
100 ml, except in specified mixing zones adjacent to
outfalls, shall not be exceeded for such waters.
3). In waters designated for recreation
where the whole body may be completely submerged or there is
significant probability of ingestion, the maximum acceptable
limit for fecal coliform content is the log mean of 200 per
100 ml, and not more than 10 percent of total samples during
any 30-day period are to exceed 400 per 100 ml. This is to
be determined by multiple-tube fermentation or membrane
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346
filter procedures and based upon a minimum of not less than
five samples for any 30-day period of the recreation season,
Rationale (Bacteriological Indicators):
Fecal coliforms are used as an indicator group since
they have been shown to originate from warn•blooded animals
and their presence in water indicates the potential presence
of human pathogenic bacteria and viruses. The use of fecal
coliforms as the indicator group is supported by the fact
that approximately 95 percent of the total coliform
organisms in the feces of birds and mammals yield positive
fecal coliform tests and a similar portion of the total
coliform organisms in uncontaminated soils and plant
material yield negative fecal coliform tests (5). A fecal
coliform level of 2000 per 100 ml is intended to provide for
the enjoyment of limited contact users in relative safety.
Such use includes boating, fishing and other non-whole-body
imersion activities incident to shoreline usage. KTiole-
body immersion recreation refers to those activities such as
bathing, swimming and water skiing in which there is
prolonged and intimate contact with the water with
considerable risk of ingesting water in quantities
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347
sufficient to pose a significant health hazard. As fecal
coliform levels increase, there is a greater probability
that hunan pathogens, such as Salmonella, also increase.
The fecal coliform level of 200 was chosen since this nuinber
is compatible with data which indicate low probability of
enteric pathogen concentrations (6, 7, 8).
b. Viruses
No limits are prescribed for viruses in
recreational waters.
Rationale (Viruses):
Although considerable progress in the area of
virological methodology has been made in the past years, no
method useful in routine monitoring has been perfected.
Also, data on die-off rates, correlation with existina
indicators and selection of a significant indicator virus
are not available. For these reasons no indicator virus or
limits are prescribed, even though it is clearly recognized
that viruses of fecal or other human origin may present a
health hazard when contaminating recreational waters.
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3U8
3.
In bathing and swimming waters, the acceptable
range of pH is 6,5 to 8.3 except where due to natural causes
and in no case less than 5.0 or more than 9.0.
Rationale (pH) :
Natural waters are usually alkaline or acidic and may
cause eye irritation because the pH is unfavorable. Hence
special requirements for whole-body submersion recreation
waters are more strict than those established for other
areas. In light of its coordinate effect, the buttering
capacity requires considerations in criteria to prevent eye
irritation. The lacrimal fluid of the human eye is
approximately 7.0 (9) and a deviation of 0.1 pH unit from
the norm may result in eye irritation (1C). Appreciable
irritation will cause severe pain (9) .
4. Shellfish
Species available for harvest by recreation users
are to be fit for human consumption. In areas where taking
of mollusks is a recreational activity, the criteria are to
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349
be consistent with the current edition of the U.S. Public
Health Service Manual, "Sanitation of Shellfish Growing
Areas".
Rationale (Shellfish) :
The intent here is to protect persons engaged in
recreational shellfishinq. consideration shall be yiven to
factors affecting shellfish growing such as; microbiological
quality, pesticides, marine biotoxins, trace metals and
radionuclides. The recreation harvester shall be afioruea
the same level of protection as the consumer of commercial
products and therefore the criteria of the U.S. Public
Health Service is governing.
5. Temperature
Except where caused by natural conditions, water
temperatures of bathing and swimming waters in excess or 30
C*(86*F) are not acceptable.
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350
Rationale (Temperature):
Excessively high temperatures are damaging to aquatic
biota and present a risk to the swimmer (6). High
temperatures limit body heat dissipation and may, tarouga
elevation of the deep body temperature, produce
physiological disturbance (5).
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351
References: Recreational Waters
1. vollenweider, R. A. 1968. Scientific Fundamentals
of the eutrophication of lakes and flowing waters
with particular reference to nitrogen and phosphorus
as factors in eutrophication. O.E.C.D., DAS/CSF/68/27,
Paris, 182 pp.
2. Keup, L. E. 1967. Phosphorus in flowing waters.
Water Res. £: 373-386.
3. Hutchinson, G. E. 1973. Eutrophication. American
3cience 61:269-279.
4. Mackenthun, K. M. 1968. The phosphorus problem.
Jour. Amer. Water Works Assoc. 60:1047-1054.
5. water Duality Criteria of 1972. HAS Report - In Press.
6. Geldreich, E. E. 1970. Applying bacteriological
parameters to recreational water quality.
J. Am. Wat. Wks. Ass. 62:113-120.
7. Dutka, B. J. and J. B. Bell. 1973. Isolation of
Salmonella from moderately polluted waters.
J. Wat. Poll. Contr. Fed. 45;316-324.
8. Van Donsel, D. J. and E. E. Geldreich. 1971.
Relationships of Salmonella to fecal coliforms
in the bottom sediments. Wat. Res. 5_; 1079; 1087.
9. Water Quality Criteria, report of the National
Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of
Interior.
10. Hood, E. W. 1968. The role of some physio-chemical
properties of water as causative agents of eye
irritation in swimmers. In; Water Quality
Criteria: report to the Secretary of Interior.
G.P.O., Wash. D.C.
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APPKvDIX A
FISH Ti;!T]:PATl*!;:E rAI'A SHIFTS
Species in Alphabetical Order
352
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Fish Temperature Data Sheet
Species (cordon & scientific name) Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)
Data g/
Lethal threshold: Acclimation embryo larvae juvenile adult source^
temperature
Upper 5 22.2 1
6
10
20
22.0
23.3
23.5 '
1
1
1
*30 days after hatch
Lower
7
Growth :~
optimum
. ?-/
range-
Preferred (final) :
summer
winter
Gonad d cve.uopj.ient :
Spawning : Op tirauni
larvae
larvae
14°* (2)
*when acclimated
Requires (x)
Low winter temp.
Some 'winter decrea
No winter decrease
2'
' : Range^'
Hatch of normal larvae: Optimum
juvenile
15.6-18.3
juvenile
17(5) . 13
-
to 4°C .
X* Tenip.
33 ' Tonip.
Temp.
adult
4
adult . * •-••?-
.6-16.2(6) 2,5,6
Period • 7
Period
Period
*12°C precludes gonad development
U.V5.S (9^ates Oct-Dec -: > 8.9
Range^ 0.5
- 7.2°C. -.".-.-. 3
Migration: adults 23 C or less, smolt 10 C'or less
Habitat:
Spawning Stream riffles
Substrate gravel
Larvae: Planktonic
Pelagic
Demersal
Juvenile ^Freshwater lakes (landlrtr.keH si-rain)
Ocean and tributary streams
Ac'ult Freshwater lakes (landlocked strain)
Ocean and_trj.b,utarY_s t reams
--L/ 1'o.t. r,rov:th - Cro^?t.h in \)t..'mnus vt. o2 mortality
^/ AH r.': nor t^c! 01: to 50" uC opt:i::;^:: If c!:>t • p.-Tr.iit
3/ list sources on Lack OL ya<:n in jv.rjrit-.al ^:q':ence,r_
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Atlantic salmon
References
1. Bishal, H. M. 1960. Upper lethal temperatures for larval salmonids.
Jou. Du Conseil 25(2) :129-133.
2. Fisher, Kenneth C. and P. F. Elson. 1950. The selected temperature of
Atlantic Salmon and Speckled Trout and the effect of temperature on the
response to an electrical stimulus. Physiol. Zoology 23:27-34.
3. Dexter, R. 1967. Atlantic salmon culture. U.S. ESFW (mimeographed) .
In: DeCola, J.N. 1970. Water Quality Requirements for Atlantic
Salmon. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Federal Water Quality Administration
Report COT 10-16.
4. Markus, H. C. 1960. Hatchery reared atlantic salmon smolts in ten
months. Prog. Fish. Cult. 24:3.
5. Javoid, M. Y. and J. M. Anderson. 1967. Thermal acclimation and tempernrure
selection in Atlantic Salmon, S_a]_Do salar and rainbow trout, S. gairOneri.
J. Fish. Res. Hd. Canada 24(7)'."
6. -FpTouRoii j R. n. ]958- T]t(". preferred trrmeratnre of fish and t-.hr> ir
dislribution in temperate, lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada
15:607-624.
7. Meister, A.. 1970. Atlantic Salmon Cor.nn ssion, Univ. of Maine (personal
communication). In: DeCola, J.M. 1970. Water Quality Requirements for
Atlantic Salmon. USD1, Fed. Water Qual . Admin. Report CWT 10-16.
8. Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology. Vol. 1.
Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa.
9. DeCola, J. N. 1970. Water quality requirements for atlantic salmon. U.S. D.I.
Fed. Water Qual. Adr.in. Reucrt CWT 10-1 6.
354
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet-
.Species (common & scientific name)
buffalo lctiqbus cyprinellus)
Data
a r
Lethal threshold: Acclimation embryo larvae juvenile adult source-
ter.perature
Upper _ _
Lower
Growth:—
optinum
range--
Preferred (final):
summer
larvae
JLarvae
juvenile
juvenile
adult
adult
Habitat:
Spawnin^ in shallow calm, mud-bottomed areas with vegetation,
rH
Substrate mud and vegetation
Eggs randomly broadcast, adhesive, 4-14 days to hatch
Larvae: Planktoaic Pelagic Demersal
Juvenile Same as adult
winder
Gonad dev
Spawning:
Hatch of
e.lopment: Requires (x)
Low winter te.mp.
Some winter decrease
No winter decrease
7 /
Optimum 16.7 , . Ranger^ U
normal larvae: Optimum
Terap.
. Terap .
Tenp .
.4-26.7 Dates
Ranged 13
Period
Period
Period
late April
into June-' - '1,2,3,4,
.9-16.7 ."•"---• 2,7,8
Adult Shallow, turbid, overflow ponds , oxbows , lowland lakes ,
— deep— pools-oi— rivets. ~aHd— st&eams - - --
-i /
.y Net. grov/l :li - Grcvih in v.'t. r-iuuj wt. o2 mortality
.?./ A:> reported or to 50~< of optr.r;i::.-. jf da. r.-: pernj t
3/ list so--rcei on b:;ck of pc.rc. in ni;r--ricnl ;;-qi.:cnc2'.r.
5,6,4,8
1,2,4,8
5,1
-------
Bigmouth buffalo
References
1. Johnson, R. P. . 1963. Studies on the life history and ecology of the
bigmouth buffalo, Ictiobus cyprinellus (Valenciennes). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada
20:1397-1429.
2. Eddy, S. and T. Surber. 1947. Northern fishes. Univ. of Minn. Press.
3. Walburg, C. H. and W. R. Nelson. 1966. Carp, river carpsucker, smallinouth
buffalo and bigmouth buffalo in Lewis and Clark Lake,.Missouri
River. Bur. Sport Fish, and Wildl. Research Report 69.
4. Harlan, J. R. and E. B. Speaker. 1956. Ibwa Fish and Fishing, State
Conservation Commission.
5. Trautman, M. B. 1957. The fishes of Ohio. Ohio State Univ. Press.
6. Breeder, C. M., Jr. and D. E. Rosen. 1966. Modes of reproduction in
fishes. Natural History Press.
7. Walker, M. C. and P. T. Frank. 1952.. The propagation of buffalo. Prog.
Fish. Cult. 14:129-130.
8. Swingle, H. S. 1955. Experiments on commercial fish production in ponds.
Proc. S. E. Assoc. Game and Fish Commission for 1954, pp. 69-74.
356
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet
Species (ccnnmon & scientific name) Black crappie (Promoxis nigrpmaculatua)
Lethal threshold: Acclimation embryo
temperature
Upper '
Data 3;
larvae juvenile adult source^
29
32.5*
*upper incipient lethal
Lower
larvae
juvenile
22-25
adult
11-30*
larvae
18-20*(6)
*limits of
juvenile
zer.o growth
adult
median 28
24-34(1)
'
Growth:—
optimum
. 2/
range-
Preferred (final)
summer
winter
*surface water temp, when larvae appeared in limnetic waters
Gonad development: Requires (x) in Wis.
Low winter tejnp.
1.6
jnp.
.ecrease
.rease
;nge— 14.4-17
Temp. Period
Temp. Period
Temp. Period
Mar (4)-
.8(4)fiates July (3) ~:
»
- 3.4
*begin soawnift^
Spawning: Optimum R;
Hatch of normal larvae: Optimum
Habitat:
Spawning Nests in shallow water 1-2' on sand or gravel (3);
sometimes pn muddy bottoms (5^ .
Substrate See spawning^
Larvae: Planktonic
Juvenile -
Pelagic
Demersal
Lakes, reservoirs,-slow streams; in areas containing
vegetation and submerged objects; less tolerant__to___
turbidity Than white crappie
I/ Nat growth - Cro-./th in wt. niniia wt. of mortality
.?./ As reported or to 50% of oj!ti:au:r; if daM permit
3/ list sources on back of pag^ in nur-oricnl sequouce'.?.
-------
Black crappie
References
1. Neill, W. H., J. J. Magnuson and G. G. Chipman. 1972. Behavioral thermo-
regulation by fishes - new experimental approach. Science 176 (4042:1443)
2. Hokanson, K.E.F. and C. F. Kleiner. 1973. Effects of constant and diel
fluctuations in temperature on growth and survival of black crappie;
Unpublished data, National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
3. Breder, C. M. and D. E. Rosen. 1966. Modes of reproduction in fishes.
Nat. History Press.
4. Goodson, L. F. 1966. Crappie. In: Inland Fisheries Management.
A. Calhoun, Ed., Calif. Dept. Fish and Game.
5. Eddy, S. and T. S. Surber. 1947. Northern fishes. Univ. Minn. Press.
6. Faber, D. J. 1967. Limnetic larval fish in northern Wisconsin lakes.
Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 24:927-937.
7. Trautinan, M. B. 1957. The fishes of Ohio. The Ohio State Univ. Press.
358
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet
Species (common & scientific name) Bluegill (j^g£omis_ macrochirus^
Lethal threshold: Acclimation embryo larvae juvenile adult
temperature
Upper 15(2), 12.1(8) 27.5(8) 30.5(2)
20 32
25(2)T 26(8) 36.1(8) 33C2J
30 • 33.8
32.9*8) 37.3(8)
Lower 15(2), 12.1(8) 3.2(8) 2.5(2)
20 • 5.0
2S(2), 2fi(f?) 9.8(8) 7.5(2)
•W 11
r ,v I/ 32.9(8) . .. 15.3(8) ,
Growth:— larvae juvenile adult
optimum 22
ranger^ 15.6-26.7
Preferred (final): larvae juvenile " adult
05 o
summer ~>*.-j
Data £i
source—
2,8
2
2.8
2
8
2, 8
2
2.8
2
8
3,4 .
1
9
winter
Gonad development: Requires (x)
Low winter temp. Temp. Period
Some winter decrease "Temp. Period
No winter decrease pr° a ^emp. Period
. - 19.4(5)- April, June -
Spawning: Optimum 28(7) _: Range^ '32.2(6) Dates late Aug. -
..... . .... , . ... .....
Hatch of normal larvae: Op timum 22.2-23.9(8) Ranger^- 21.9-33.9(8)-- <
Habitat :
Spawning Nest in sand» gravel, dead leaves, sticks or •
mud. in shallow water (2-6* depth common)
Substrate see spawning
several
Larvap: Planktonic Pelagic x Demersal days
Juvenile See adult -
* in
. 1
8
. 1-
11
Adult Ponds, lakes, sluggish streams with vegetation and
sand , gravel or muck bottom
I/ Hat growth - Growth iii v.'t. minus v:t. of mortality
2J As reported or t:o 50% of optii.uim if data permit
~\l H<:<- r:,Tin-r^^ on 1vi,-V n f n.T.'p in nu:?,T i r/> 1 SfTliPnr.P'.r .
1
-------
Bluegill sunfish
References
1. Emig, J. W. 1966. Bluegill sunfish. In: Inland Fisheries Mgt.
A. Calhoun ed. , Calif. Dept. Fish and Game.
2. Hart, J. S. 1952. Geographical variations of some physiological and
morphological characters in certain freshwater fish. Univ. Toronto
biology series No. 60.
3. Anderson, R. 0. 1959. The influence of season and temperature on growth
of the bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus). Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Mich.
4. McComish, T. S. 1971. Laboratory experiments on growth and food conversion
by the bluegill. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Missouri, Columbia.
5. Snow, H., A. Ensign and John Klingbiel. 1966. The bluegill, its life
history, ecology and management. Wis. Cons. Dept. Publ. No. 23*0.
6. Clugston, J. P. 1966. Centrarchid spawning in the Florida Everglades.
Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 29:137-143.
7. Recommended bioassay procedure for bluegili, Leopmis macrochirus (Rafinesque),
partial chronic tests. National Water Quality. Laboratory, Duluth,
Minnesota, 1972.
8> Banner, A. and J. A. Van Annan. 1972. Thermal effects on eggs, larvae and
Juvenile of bluegill sunfish. Report, EPA Contract No. 14-12-913.
9. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their midsummer
distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada.
15:607-624.
10. Hubbs, C. L. and E. R. Allen. 1944. Fishes of Silver Springs, Florida.
Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci., 6:110-130.
11. Toetz, D. W. 1966. The change in endogenous to exogenous sources of energy
in bluegill sunfish larvae. Invest. Indiana Lakes and Streams,
7:115-146.
360
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet-
Species (common & scientific name) Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)
-alevin
Lethal- threshold: Acclimation embryo larvaB juvenile adult
temperature ' .
Upper 3 23.5
Lower
Growth:—
optimua
. 2/
range-
Preferred (final) :
summer
winter
Gonad development:
11
12
15
20
25 -
larvae
12.4-15.4(2)
7-18 (2)
larvae
Requires (x)
Low winter tejno.
24.6
20.1* 24.5**(2)
25.0
25.3
*Newly hatched 25"3
jfc j(f S wilHUD
fljear freezing
juvenile adult
. ' 16 (1)
10-19 (1)
jmrenile ' «4ttl-fc
Age not stated
14-19°C
Teiap. Period
Data 3;
sourcer-
3
3
2
3
3
, .-^ . ...
4
1,2 -
1,2
5
Some winter decrease . Temp. Period
Spawning: Optimum
No winter decrease
o/
<9 - Range-
Hatch of nonaal larvae: Optimum 6
Temp. Period
? - 11.7 Dates Sept-Nov ~
Range^/ -12 .7
%
' i
i
Habitat:
Spawning Rivers and streams; when these are not available springs
have been reported as satisfactory alternatives.
Substrate Gravel in riffles ,and heads or trails
Larvae: Planktonic
ot pools
Pelagic
Demersal
Juvenile Streams with temperatures not exceeding 20 C and lakes
a little warmer, but with cooler water available
Adult
i' Net growth - Growth iu we. ninus wt. of mortaliLy
JJ As reported or v.o 50% of optiv.-.ur.; if data permit
3/ list sources on back of paga in n-r.arical suquor.ce.f_
-------
Brook.trout
References
1. Hokanson, K.E.F., J. H. McCormick, B. R. Jones, and J. II. Tucker. 1973.
Thermal reauirements for maturation, spnvning, and embryo survival of
the brook trout, Sa_lv_elinuis fontinalis (Mitchill). J. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada, 30(7):975-984.
2. McCormick, J. H., K.E.F. Hokanson, and B. R. Jone's. 1972. Effects of
temperature on growth and survival of young brook trout, Salvelinus
fontinalis. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 29:1107-1112."
3. -Fry, F.E.J., J. S. Hart, and K.F. Walker. . 1946. Lethal temperature
relations for a sample of young speckled trout, Salvelinns fontinalis.
Univ. Toronto Studies, Biol. Scr. 54, Publ. Ontario Fish Res. Lab.
66:1-35.
4. I.aRivers, Irr.. 1962. Fishes and fisheries of Nevada. Nev. Fish and Game
Coram.
5. Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of freshwater fishery biology, Vol. 1,
3rd PA. The Iowa State Univ. Press, Anes, Iowa.
6. Fry, F.E.J., 1T3. 1951. Some environmental relations of the speckled
trout (S:j_lvj}_limis font inalis). Proc. N. E. Atlantic Fisheries Conf.
May 1951.
362
-------
Fish Tcr.perature Da La Sheet
Species (common & scientific name) Carp (Cyprinus carpio)
Lethal threshold:
Upper
Acclimation
temperature
20
26
embryo larvae juvenile adult
Data g/
sourcefV
31-34 (24 far. TL,.-)
35.7 (24 hrr~TL5Q)
Lower
Growth:—
optimum
. 2/
range-
Preferred (final):
summer
winter
Gonad development: Requires (x)
larvae
larvae
juvenile
adult
juvenile '. adult
31-32 (Ace. 25-35)
17 (Ace. 10)
Low winter tejap.
Some winter decrease
No winter decrease
Temp.
Temp.
Temp,
Period
Period
Period
l6(5)-26(2)Dates Mar-Aug(6)'
2/
Range-16.7 - 22
Spawning: Optimum 20*
Hatch of normal larv;
Abnormal larvae after 35°C shock of embryos
Habitat:
Spawning Adhesive eggs broadcast in shallow areas usually less
than 1 ft. deep
Substrate
association, with vegetation
Larvae: Planktonic
Pelagic
Demersal
Juvenile
Adult
2,5,6
6.8
2,5
low gradient, warm streams; lakes, reservoirs or
overflow sloughs, oxbows that contain an abundance of organic
matter; shallow water in summer, deeper water in winter.
Same as juveniles '
3,2
I/ Hat. growth - Growth in wt. rcinus vt. of mortality
Zf As reportod or to 50% of optimum if data povm.it
3/ list sources on back of page in nvi.T.arical snqucr.cci'.r.
-------
Carp
References
1. Frank, M. L. 1973. Relative sensitivity of different stages of carp to
thermal shock. Thermal Ecology Symposium, May 3-5, 1973, Augusta, Ga.
2. Swee, U. B. and H. R. McCriranon. 1966. Reproductive biology of the carp,
Cyprinus carpio L., in Lake St. Lawrence, Ontario. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc. 95:372-380.
3. Trautman, M. B. 1957. Fishes of Ohio. Ohio State Univ. Press.
4. Black, E. C. 1953. Upper lethal temperatures of some British Columbia
freshwater fishes. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 10:196-210.
5. Sigler, W. F. 1958. The ecology and use of carp ill Utah. Utah Agric. Exp,
Sta., Bull. 405.
6. Carlander, K. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology, Vol. 1,
Iowa State Univ. Press, p. 105.
7. Pitt, T. K. , E. T. Garside, and R. L. Hepburn. 19-56. Temperature
selection of the carp (Cyprinus carpio Linn.). Can. Jour, Zool.
34:555-557.
8. Burns, J. W. 1966. Carp. In: Inland Fisheries Management. A. Calhoun,
ed., Calif. Div. Game and Fish.
364
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet
Species (common & scientific name) Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus)
Data
Lethal threshold:
Upper
Lower
Growth:—
optimum
range-1
Preferred (final) :
. summer
.winter
Gonad development:
Spawning: Optimum
Hatch of normal lar
Acclimation embryo larvae juvenile adult source^
temperature
15°C 31.0(3)* 30.4(2) 2,3
25 35.
30 ^37.
' 35 • 38.
* temperature
temperature
15
20
25
larvae juvenile
29-30 (3) 30(4)
27-31 (3) = 22-34 (4)
larvae juvenile
-
Requires (x)
Low winter temp. Temp.
Some winter decrease - Temp.
No winter decreastProbable Tem>. 22
26.7 (5) : Range^ 29. 4 (5) Dates
2/
vae: Optimum 21.7 (9) Range— 18
5 (1) 33.5(2)
0 (1)
0 (1)
o f max . survival
not given
0.0
0.0
0.0
adult
adult
Period
Period
.8 Period in Fla
Mid April -
late July-; (7)
.3(ifS-U29.-.4"(-5-).-
1,2
1
1
; acclimation
2
2
2
3,4 .
3,4
. 'Constant
10
temp . springs
- 5,7
5,8,9
Habitat:
Spawning Usually semi-dark nests under logs, rocks
overhanging banks and other protected areas
Substrate _j -
Planktonic Pelagic Demersal
Larvae:
Juvenile Bottom waters, riffles
Adult
bottom waters, deep holes and riffles for feeding
i' 'Ie,t p.rowdi - Growth in wt. minus v:t. of mortality
27 As reported or to 507. of optimum, if dr-.'.a permit
3/ list sources on back of pa^c. in rui.T.erical s-jqunnc
11
11
-------
Channel catfish
References
1. Allen, K. 0. and K. Strawn. 19b8. Heat tolerance of channel catfish,
Ictalurus punctatus. Proc. Conf. of S. E. Assoc. of Game and Fish
Comm. 1967.
2. Hart, J. S. 1952. Geographical variations of some physiological and
morphological characters in certain freshvjater fish. Univ. Toronto
Biological Series No. 60.
3. West, B. W. 1966. Growth, food conversion, food consumption and survival
at various temperatures of the channel" catfish, Ictalurus punctatus
(Rafinesque) . Master's Thesis, Univ. Ark..
4. Andrew, J. W. and R. R. Stickney. 1972. Interaction of feeding rate and
environmental temperature of growth, food conversions and body
composition of channel catfish. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.. 101:94-97.
5. Clemens, H. P. and K. F. Sneed. 1957. The spawning behavior of the channel
catfish, Ictalurus punctatus.. USFWS, Special Sci. Rept, Fish No. 219.
6. Miller, E. E. 1966. Channel catfish. In: Inland Fisheries Mgrat.
A. Calhoun (ed.), Calif. Dept. Fish and Game.
7. Brovm, L. 1942. Propagation of the spotted channel catfish, Ictalurus
lacustris punctatus. Kan. Acad. Sci. Trans., 45:311-314.
8. MeClellan, W. G. 1954. A study of southern spotted channel catfish,
Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque). M.S. Thesis, N. Texas St. College.
Cited in: Carlander, K. D., 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery
Biology. Vol. 1, Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa.
9. Hubbs, C. L. and E. R. Allen. 1944. Fishes of Silver Springs, Florida.
Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci., Vol. 6, 1943-44.
10. Wojtalik, T. A. 1968 (approx.). Summary of temperature literature on
largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, carp, channel catfish and bluegill.
Unpublished Ms., TVA, Chattanooga.
366
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet
Species (common & scientific name) Cisco (lake herring) (Coregonus artedii)
Lethal threshold:
Upper
early
Acclimation embryo.
~ 1 r>° r
temperature - J.u L,
3
2 ni
5(3} <10(5)
>12.5*
20
larvae juvenile adult
19.8
19.8(3) 20(4, 6)*
21.8(3) <24(5)
. 26.0 *no
26.3 acclim.
Data 3;
source—
. 1
2
3,4,6
3,5
3
3
25 *ultimate upper lethal 25.8 temp, given 3
Lover
Growth:—
optimum
range-1
Preferred (final) :
summer
winter
. avoidance
Gon'ad development:
Spawning: Optimum
Hatch of normal lai
Hatching period Apt
2
5
10
20
25
<0.3
<0.5
- 3.0
4.8
9.8
larvae juvenile adult
16
13-18
larvae juvenile ' adult
Requires (x)
Movement onto spawnin
Low winter temp.
Some winter decrease
No winter decrease
2/
-35- •' Range— 1-
rvae: Optimum -10
r-May, Lake Ontario (9)
>15.5 - >17
g grounds =5 C
Temp. Period
' Temp. Period
Temp. Period
Mid Nov.-
1-5.0 Dates Mid Dec. ~
Range^ 2-8 . -.•' •<
, -Early May Lake Superior (10)
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
6
6,7
7
»
• 7,8,9
1
9,10
Habitat:
Over shoals and along shore, from 1 to 160 m of water
8
Usual1y.Oil mgome say substrate not important; others
Substrate say over flat stones, fine rubble 7.,8,9
Larvae:
Juvenile
Adult
to boulders, free of vegetation
Planktonic X Pelagic Demersal
In protected bays
Below the 20°C isotherm and above the 2.5-3.0 ppm
9'1:L
P.O. isoplettu-
!/ Net. growLh - Growth in vt. minus wt. of mortality
2J A.«j reported or t:o r)02 of optiv.aini If data pi»r;v.it
_3/ list source on l>;ick o!' paj;fi in nuincirical su(ju.>!r,cqi.r_
-------
Cisco
References
1. Colby, P. J. and L. T. Brooks. 1970. Survival and development of the
herring (Coregbnus artedii) eggs at various incubation temperatures.
In: Biology of Coregonids, C. C. Lindsay and C. S. Woods, ed.,
Univ. Manitoba, pp. 417-428.
2. >fcCormick, 3. H., B. R. Jones and R. F. Syrett. 1971. Temperature requirements
for growth and survival of larval ciscos (Corogonus artedii). J. Fish.
Res. Bd. Canada 28:924-927
3. Edsall, T. A. and P. J. Colby. 1970-. Temperature tolerance of young-of-
the-year Cisco, Coregonus artedii. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99:526-531.
4. Frey, D. G. 1955. Distributional ecology of the Cisco (Coregonus artedii).
Investigations of Indiana Lakes and Streams. 4:177-228.
5. Colby, P. J. and L. T. Brooke. 1969. Cisco (Coregonus artedii) mortalities
in a Southern Michigan lake, July 1968. Limnology & Oceanog. 14:958-960.
6. Dryer, W. R. and J. Beil. 1964. Life history of lake herring in Lake
Superior. U. S. Fish. Bull. 63:493-530.
7. Cahn, A. R. 1927. An ecological study of southern Wisconsin fishes, the
brook silversides (Labidesthes sicculus) and the cisco (Leucichthys
artedii, LeSueur). 111. Biol. Monogr. 11:1-151.
8. Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology. Vol. 1,
Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa.
9. Pritchard, A. L. 1930. Spawning habits and fry of the cisco (Leucichthys artedii)
in Lake Ontario. Contr. Canad. Bioi. Fish. N.S., 6:227-40.
10. McCormick, J. H. 1973. Personal observations.
11. Van Oosten, J. 1929. Life history of the lake herring (Leucichthys nrtedii
LeSueur) of Lake Huron as revealed by its scales, with critique of
the scale method. U. S. Bur. Fish. Bull. 44:265-428.
368
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet
Species (common & scientific name) Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)
Data
Lethal threshold': Acclimation embryo larvae juvenile adult source^
temperature
5 22.9 1
in ' _21^2_ 21*(3)
Lower
Growth:—
optimum
range—
Preferred (final):
summer
winter
Gonad development:
Spawning: Optimum
Hatch of normal lar
15
20
23
5
10
15
20
23
larvae
larvae
Requires (x)
Low winter te.mp.
Some winter decree:
No winter decrease
- ' Range—
vae: Optimum
24.3
25.0
25.0
*acclim.
0.2
1.7
3.5
4.5
6.4
juvenile adult
20*
10-15
*maximum with excess food
juvenile ' adult
12.8
Temp. Period
se Temp. Period
Temp. Period
7.2-12.8(3)Dates Fall -:
Range— -.".•"<
1
1
1
temp . unknown
1
1
1
1
1
2
5
4
*
• 3
Migration and maturation range 7.Z-l5.fcH.:>.>
Rearing areas: range 10.0 - 15.6(3)
Habitat: .
Migrates up streams, spawns typically near the .head
Spawning —
of riffles —
Substrate gravel
Planktonic Pelagic
Larvae: Planktonic rciagit; Deniersal
Juvenile Rivers, migrating to ocean or lake
Adult
1arp;e lakes-; rivers during migration and spawning
I/ Nat r>-°\oth - Growth in vL. ninu.s wt. of mortality
U As reported or to 50% of optiu-ur, if c.aia pern-it
3/ list sources on back ot pnge in nurr..-rical sequence.?.
-------
Coho salmon
References
1. Brett, J. R. 1952. Temperature tolerance in young pacific salmon, genus
Oncorhynchus. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 9:265-323.
2. Griffiths, J. S. and D. F. Alderdice. 1972. Effects of acclimation and
acute temperature experience, on the swimming speed of juvenile coho
salmon. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 29:251-264.
3. Anonymous. 1971. Columbia River thermal effects study. Vol. 1,
Environmental Protection Agency.
4. Edsall, T. 1970. Personal communication to J. H. McCormick, National
Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
5. Burrows, R. E. 1963. Water temperature requirements for maximum
productivity of salmon. Proceedings of the 12th Pacific N. W. .
Symposium on Water Poll. Res.
6. Breeder, C. M. and D. E. Rosen. 1966. Modes of reproduction in fishes.
Hat. Hist. Press.
370
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet
Species (common & scientific name) Emerald Shiner (Notrop_ls__at.herir>oides')
Data gy
Lethal threshold: Acclimation embryo larvae juvenile adult sourcer-
temperature
Upper
Lower
Growth:- .
optimum
. 2/
range-
Preferred (final) :
summer
winter
Gonad development:
Spawning : Op tiraum
*Estimated
Hatch of normal la
5
10
15
20
25 ' __ .
Ill l-imal-p
= 31 '':
15
?n
larvae
22-23.2
?fi.7-?7
78-9
30.7-31
30.7
_. 30.7
24 hr TL 32.6°C(2)
1.6
juvenile adult
29 (2)
24-31 (2)
larvae -jtwenite- ' ad-ait
(unknown age)
25 (31
Requires (x)
Low winter temp.
Some winter de'crea;
No winter decrease
23* : Range—
ftom Eieid reports
rvae : Optimum
27 m
Temp. ' Period
se Temp. Period
Temp. Period
20 (3) - (
77.5 CT) Dates Mav-Aup ("h (51
' 21
Range—
1
l
1
1
-I
V-
2
1
j
2
2
3
4
K
'1357
Habitat:
Spawning Open water near surface over 2 to 6 meters of water (3)
Substrate
At surface in warm water (5)
Larvae: PirnA-ton-ie- Peiagie
whprp warmar.t w.itor ic prooont
• o
Adult
I/ Nat. f.rowth - Growth in wr.. minuu wt. of mortality
I/ As reported or to SO/I of optir,,am if data permit:
3/ list sourcos on brick oC pngf! in namarica], r.oqucjiicp'.v.
-------
Emerald shiner
References
1. Carlander," R. D. 1969. Handbook of freshwater fishery biology. Vol. 1,
Icwa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa.
2. McCormick, J. H. and C. F. Kleiner. 1970. Effects of temperature on growth
and survival of young-of-the-year emerald shiners (Notropis atherinoides)
Unpublished data, National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
3. Campbell, J. S. and H. R. Mac Crimmon. 1970. Biology of the emerald shiner
Notropis atherinoides Rafinesque in Lake Simcoe, Canada. J. Fish. Biol.
2(377259-273.
4. Wapora, Inc. for the Ohio Electric Utilities Inst. 1971. The effect of
temperature on aquatic life in the Ohio River. Final Report.
5. Flittner, G. A. 1964. Korphometry and life history of the emerald shiner,
Notropis atherinoider.. Rafinesque. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Mich.
6. Commercial Fisheries Review. 1961. Lake Erie fish population survey for
1961 season begins.- Commer. Fish. Rev., 23(6):23-24.
7. Gray, J. W., 1942. Studies on J^oU;op_i_s iiiJ^rjliToidej? athernoides Rafinesque
in the Bass Islands Region of Lake Erie. MasterTs Thesis, "Ohio State
Univ.
372
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet
Species (common & scientific name) Freshwater drum (A.p^Lodinotus_ grunniens)
Data 3i
Lethal threshold: Acclimation embryo larvae juvenile adult source—
temperature
Upper
Lower
Growth:—
optimum
. 2/
range—
Preferred (final):
summer
winter
Gonad development: Requires (x)
larvae
larvae
juvenile
juvenile
Low winter temp. - Temp.
Soir.e winter decrease Temp.
No winter decrease Temp.
adult
adult
Period
Period
Period
, early May-
Spawning: Optimum 21.1 - Range^- 18.9(l)-24.&ates late June~: (1) < 1.2.3.5.8
2/
Hatch of norraal larvae: Optimum Range- 22.2-25.6(1).• "-•• <- 1,4.8
Habitat:
Spawning Probably open water
Substrate
eggs — pelagic, hatch in Aout 24-36 hrs.
Larvae: Planlitonic Pelagic x . . Demersal '
Juvenile On bottom of lakes and deep pools of rivers and
large reservoirs
Adult Same as juveniles
4,3,1.8
4
I/ Kcit growth - Growth in wt. ninur, wt. of mortality
•^' A;j j:yportt;cl or to 50'I ol"
3/ list sources on b-ick ol
L::-u;n if $<>.!;*• porntt:
:i is nurr.o.rical .T.'.cju^nce'.r.
-------
Freshwater drum
References
1. Wrenn, B. B. 1969. Life history aspects of smallmouth buffalo and
freshwater drum in Wheeler Reservoir, Alabama. Proc. 22nd Ann.
Conf. S. E. Assoc. Game and Fish Comm., 1968. p. 479-495.
2. Butler, R. L. and L. L. Smith, Jr. 1950. The age and rate of growth of
the she.epshead, Aplodinotus Rrunniens Rafincsque, in the upper
Mississippi River navigation pools. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
79:43-54.
3. Daiber, F. C. 1953. Notes on the spawning population of the freshwater
drum, Aplodinotus Rrunniens (Rafinesque) in western Lake Erie.
Amer. Mid. Nat. 50:159-171.
4. Davis, C. D. 1959. A planktonic fish egg from freshwater. Limn. Ocean
4:352-355.
5. Edsall, T. A. 1967. Biology of the freshwater drum in Western Lake Erie.
Ohio Jour. Sci. 67:321-340.
6. Eddy, S. and T. Surber. 1947. Northern Fishes. Univ. Minn. Press.
7. Trautman, M. B. 1957. Fishes erf Ohio. Ohio State Univ. Press.
8. Swedberg, D. V. and C. H. Walburg. 1970. Spawning and early life history
of the freshwater drum in Lewis and Clark Lake, Missouri River.
Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 99:560-571.
374
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet
Lethal threshold: Acclimation embryo
temperature
Upper 20°C
25
30
35
Data 3/
larvae juvenile adult sources
32.5 1
34.5 1
36.4 1
36.4 1
Lower
Growth;—
optimum
. 2/
range-
Preferred (final):
summer
winter
Gonad d evelopnent :
SpaxvTiing: Optimum
20
25
30
larvae
27.5
20 - 30
larvae
Requires (x)
Low winter tejnp.
Some winter decrea;
No viinter decrease
2/
21(4) Range— 1
.,».-, ~ • r\r\1~ -i TnilTTl 7O (
5.2 1
7.0 1
10.5 1
juvenile adult
2
2
juvenile ' adult " "* ~
30 - 32.2*. 8
-
* Sea son not given
TV^p. Period •"
l Atrg^— •
se ' X Temp. to 15. 6 Period Nov. 4 (Florida)
" ^ Oct.-
X Te^p- ^1>(^ Period ^px^ " 7
"' Apr-Junei^North) (3)
5 . fi-26 . 7 f 4") Dates Nov-May-fiiorida)(4iLJl*A
2/
s^ Ran^.f— 12.8-73.9 (fi) '" < 5,6
Habitat: -
Spawning Six inches to 6 feet depth, usually 2-2 1/2'
Nests often inconspicuous^ _
Larvae:
Juvenile Non-
Substrate Sand, gravel, detritus, vegeta- .
tion, roots
Planktonic _ Pelagic _JL_ Desaersal lsj:_5_-8 days.
Adult
Inactive below 10°C,_do_jiat^^eed_at_5_C_
I/ Hat. growlh - Growth in wt. tainus wt. of laortality
2/ As reported or to 50% of optimum if data ppnnJt
I/ list Lurccs on back of: png^ in n-.o2ri.c.al ^,^:n,a.r.
10
10
-------
Largemouth bass
References
1. Hart, J. S. 1952. Geographic variations of some physiological and
morphological characters in -certain freshwater fish. Univ. Toronto
Biological 'Series No. 60.
2. Strawn, Kirk. 1961. Growth of largemouth bass fry at various temperatures.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 90:334-335.
3. Kramer, R. H. and L. L. Smith, Jr. 1962. Formation of year class in
largemouth bass. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 91:29-41.
4. Clugston, J. P. 1966. Centrarchid spawning in the Florida Everglades.
Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. of Sci., 29:13.7-143.
5. Badenhuizen. 1969. Effect of incubation temperature on mortality of
embryos of largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides (Lc.'cej>cde) . Master's Thesis,
Cornell University.
6. Kelley, J. W. 1968. Effects- of incubation temperature on survival of
largemouth bass eggs. Prog. Fish. Cult. 30:159-163.
7. Jones, B. R. and R. E. Syrett. 1973.. Unpublished data, National
Quality Lab, Duluth, Minnesota
8. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their
midsummer distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res.
Bd. Canada 15:607-624.
9. Simon, J. R. 1951. Wyoming fishes. Wyoming Game and Fish Department,
Bull. No. 14.
10. Breder, C. M. and D. E. Rosen. 1966. Modes of reproduction in fishes.
Natural History Press.
376
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet
Northern pike (Esox lucius)
species tccm'Um fc £
Lethal threshold :
Upper
Lower
Growth:—
op timum
. 2/
range-
Preferred (final) :
summer
winter
Gonad development '
Spawning : Op tinuia
Hatch of normal la;
icientinc name;
Acclimation embryo larvae juvenile adult
temperature
17.7 25,28.4*
25
27
30
17.7
larvae
20.6
18 - 25.6
larvae
Requires (x)
Low winter temp.
Some winter decrea
No winter decrease
2/
• ' - = • Range—
rvae: Optimum 12
32.2
32.7
33.2**
*At hatch and free swimming,
**Uitit"3iate incipient lethal
3.2*
•
*At hatch and free swimming
juvenile adult
26
juvenile ' adult
24, 26* .
-
Data 3;
source^"
2
1
1
1
respectively
2
2
2
7
*Grass pickrel and musky, respectively
Temp. Period
se • Temp. Period
Temp. Period
(3)
4.4(4)-18.5Dates Feb-June t5)
Range^7 6.9 - 19.2 .-'<
,
' 3r4.5
2
Habitat:
Spawning Marshy areas along lakes and streams or connected
sloughs (6); shallow water, usually <12 inches (4)
Substrate Vegetation
Larvae: Planktonic
Pelagic
Several
Demersal days
Juvenile ^pawning areas (temporarily) and shallow water
Adult Lakes and streams with vegetation
!/ Nat growth - Growth in wt. ninus \;t. of mortality
2/ As reported or to 50% of optiir.-.in if data permit:
_3/ list sources on back of page in nurc-ario.iil
4,6
-------
Northern pike
References
1. Scott, D. P. 1964. Thermal resistance of pike (Esox lucius L^)
muskellunge (E^_ maj;<^njionj>y_, Mitchell) and their F^ hybrid.
J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada" , 21:1043-1049.
2. Hokanson, K.E.F., J. H. McCormick and B. R. Jones. 1973. Temperature
requirements for embryos and larvae of the northern pike, Esox lucius
(Linnaeus). Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 102:89-100.
3. Fabricus, E. and K. J. Gustafson. 1958. Some new observations on the
spawning behavior of the pike, Esox lucius L. Rep. Inst.
Freshwater Res., Drottningholra 39:23-54.
4 Threinen, C. W. , C. - Wistrom, B. Apelgren and H. Show. 1966. The northern
pike, its life history, ecology, and management. Wis. Con. Dept. Publ,
No. 235, Madison.
5. Toner, E. D. and G. H. Lawler. 1969. Synopsis of biological data on
the pike EPO_X J_UCJLUS (Linnaeus 1758). Food and Ag. Org.
Fisheries synopsis No. 30. Rev. 1.
6. Franklin, D. R. and L. L. Smith. 1963. Early life history of the
northern pike, Esox lucius L. , with special reference to the
factors .influencing the numerical strength of year classes.
Trans. Araer. Fish. Soc. 92:91-110.
7. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their
midsummer distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish.
Res. Bd. Canada 15:607-624.
378
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet
Species (common. & scientific name) Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)
Lethal threshold: Acclimation embryo larvae juvenile adult
temperature
Upper _____
18
19
26.5
21
Data */
source—
Lower .
Growth:—
optinura
. 21
range-
Preferred (final):
summer
winter
Gonad development:
Spawning: Optimum
Hatch of normal lar
.
larvae juvenile
17-18.5°
.
larvae juvenile
13.6* .
•
*seaspn not
Requires (x)
Low winter temp. . Temp
Some winter decrease Temp
No winter decrease Temp
-. . RanRe2/ 5. 5-13. 016) D
vae: Optimum Range
adult
5
adult " •--••?-
3
given
Period
Period
Period
Nov. -Feb. (7)
fii-p><; Feb. -June~ (7) '6,7
?/5. 6-13. 3(4) . •• < 4
Habitat:
Spawning _Streams, rarely in lakes
Substrate gravel
Larvae: Planktonic
Pelagic
Demersal in part (7)
Juvenile Streams, lakes
Adult L
2-7 Hat p.rowth - Growth ir. vr. minus v;t. cl r.ortality
2/ As voportocl or fo 30/i of o;.»ti:-.!Lim if d,i:;a pcrnit
3/ list nourcos on b-ick ol' "i;,r in mur.orical noq^-nr-.
-------
Rainbow trout
References
1. Alabaster, J.S. and R. L. Welconrae. 1962. Effect of concentration of
dissolved oxygen on survival of trout and roach in lethal temperatures.
Nature, Lond. 194(4823), 107-.
2. Coutant, C. C. 1970b. Thermal stress of adult coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch)
and jack chinook (C. tshr-v:ytscha) sa]r,on, and the adult steelhead
trout (S aliTiO p.airdnerii) fio;n the Columbia Ri'ver. AEC BNWL 1508.
3. Ferguson, R. G. 195S. The preferred temperature of fish and their raidsumr.er
distribution in ter.perate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada, 15:607-624.
4. McAfee, W. R. 1966. Rainbow trout. In: Inland Fisheries Management,
A. Calhoun_j cd, , Calif. Dept. Fish & Game, pp. 192-215.
5. Hokansou, K.R.F. and C. F. Kleiner. 1973. Unpublished data, National
Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
6. Kayner, H. J. 1942. The spa-..-ninp, migration of rainbov: trout at
Skanonfples l^k»-; N.-wYork. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 71:180-83.
In: Carlancler, K. D. IQo0. Handbook of Frechv.iter Fishery Biology.
Vol. 1.
7. Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology, Vol. 1,
The Iowa State Univ. Press, Ancs, Iowa.
380
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet
Species (common & scientific name) Sauger.( Sfizostedion canadense)
Lethal threshold: Acclimation embryo larvae juvenile adult
temperature
Upper 9-2' ' 75-92**
Data 3/
source^
*survlva|
Lower
Growth:—
optimum
. 2/
range-
Preferred (final):
summer
winter
larvae
larvae
*survivaI
juvenile
juvenile
adult
Gonad development: Requires (x)
Low winter temp. Temp.
Some winter decrease . Temp.
No winter decrease Temp.
adult
18.6-19.2*
*field
_ Period _
Period
- i»» —
Period
. Spawning: Optimum 10(7)*-'"^ Range^'j4 .4(5) Dates Apr-May (3?( 1 )
Hatch of normal larvae: Optimum 12-15* Range-—10-16* ."
I . 3. 7
Habitat:
*Max. egg
surviva I
egg survival
Spawning Shallow grave My'or sandy areas along shore or
in tributary streams
Substrate
Larvae: Planktonic Pelagic
Juvenile
Demersal
Adult
Large clean "lakes-and streams preferred in Mn(5)
iiLinA^lj^^^ 6)
1' K'o.'c r,rov.'th - Growth in wt. minus wt. of mortality
-?V A:: rrnortcd or to 50% of optir.un if dr.ln permit:
'}/ l-i.-.t >-....,--.^ »» i..-:r> nf nnt'p. in minerical iu-.qnenca.v.
-------
Sauger
References
1. Nelson, W. R. 1968. Reproduction and early life history of sauger,
Stizostedion canadcnse, in Lewis and Clark lake. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc~.~~97:167-rM.
2. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their midsummer
distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada.
15:607-624.
3. Hall, G. E. 1972. Personal communication, TVA.
4. Fish, M. P. 1929a and 1929b. In: Breder, C. M. and D. E. Rosen, 1966.
Modes of reproduction in fishes. Natural History Press.
5. Eddy, S. and T. Surber. 1947. Northern fishes. Univ. Minn. Press.
6. Trautman, M. B. 1957. The fishes of Ohio. Ohio State Univ. Press.
7. Hass.ler, W. U. 1956. The influence of certain environmental factors on
the growth of Morris.Reservoir sauger Sj^izostedion £an;jdense canadejise
(Smith). Proceedings of Southeastern Assoc. of Game and Fish
Commissioners Meeting, 1955. p. 111-119.
8-. Smith, L. L. 1973. The effect of temperature on the early life
history stages of the Sauger, Stizostedion canadense (Smith}.
Preliminary data, EPA Grant.
382
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet
Species (common & scientific name) Smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomleui)
Lethal threshold: Acclimation embryo larvae juvenile adult sources
temperature
Upper 38.0(9)*
*acclimation temperature not given
Lower 15 (3) 4.0(9)* 1.6(3) 3,9
3.7
22
26 iQ.i 3
I/ • ^acclimation temperature not given
Growth:— larvae juvenile adult
optimum 28-29 (2) 26.3 (3) 2,3
_
range—
30 = best swimming speed (9) 9
Preferred (final) : larvae juvenile ' , adult • - -^ '
21.1-26.7(6)
summer . highest 28.0(4)* 4.6
winter >7.S** 1
*season & life stage unknown
Gonad development: Requires (x) **life stage unknown
Low winter temp. _ . Temp. _ Period _ '.'..__.
Some winter decrease __; Temp. _ Period _ __ •
No winter decrease _ Temp. _ Period _ -_ ' _
• •>!
Spawning: Qptimua 16-7-17,8(5)Range£/13(8)-21.1(Sktes May-July (Ontario.) 5.7.8
. -
Hatch of normal larvae: Optimum _ : _ Range— _ -.-"-<
Habitat:
Spa\7ning Shallow water; slight current, if any; near shore
Larvae:
Juvenile
Adult
or stream bed^ durins day
Substrate gravel, rock
Deserts nests on sharp drop to below 15 (7)
Planktonic Pelagic Demersal X
Streams with riffles and pools
Lakes with moderate vegetation
Same as juvenile •
-
8
7
7
6
I7 I'o.t growth - Growth in wt. minus x-:t. of mortality
2.' A:J reported or t:o 50/; of optimum if data permit
3/ list sources'on b:ick on page in n:i:.ir:rical sequence',-
-------
Smallmouth bass
References
1. Munther, G. L. 1968. Movement and distribution of smallmouth bass
in the Middle Snake River. Master's Thesis, Univ* Idaho.
2. Peek, F. W. 1965. Growth studies of laboratory and wild population
samples of smallraouth bass. Master's ihesis, Univ. Arkansas.
3. Horning, W. B. and R. E. Pearson. 1973. Temperature requirements for
juvenile smallmouth bass (.Micropterus dolomieui) : growth and lower
lethal temperatures. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada (in press).
4. Ferguson,'R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature, of fish and their
midsummer distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish.
Res. Bd. Canada. 15:607-624.
5. Breder, C. M. and D. E. Rosen. 1966. Modes of reproduction in fishes.
Natural History Press.
6. Emig, J. W. 1966. Smallmouth bass. In: Inland Fisheries Mgt., A. Calhoun,
ed; Calif. Dept. Fish nnd Game.
7. Hubbs, C. L. and R. M. Baily. 1938. The s'raallmouth bass. Cranbrook
Inst. Sci. Bull. 10.
8. Surber, E. W. 1943. Observatio'ns on the natural and artifical propagation
of the smallmouth black bass, Micropterus dolomieui. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc. 72:233-245.
9. Larimore, R. W. avid M. J. Duever. 1968. Effects of temperature
acclimation on the swimming ability of smallmouth bass fry. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc. 97:175-184.
384
-------
Fish Temperacura Data Sheet
Species (common & scientific name) Sroallmouth buffalo^. (Ictiobus bubalus)
Data 3/f
Lethal threshold: Acclimation embryo larvae juvenile adult source-
temperature
Upper '_..,__ .
Lower
Growth:— larvae juvenile adult
optimum '_
. 2/
range—
Preferred (final): larvae juvenile ' adult
summer •
winter
Conad development: Requires (x)
Low winter tejnp. Temp. Period _• ' _ ...
Some winter decrease Terap. Period '
No winter decrease Temp. Period _j
late Mar (1)
Spawning: Optimum 16.7(1)(5) • Range^.3.9Q>23.9Dates thru June": ' 1'4'5
Hatch of normal larvae: Optimum Range- 13.9(1)-21.1 .-• ..,r- .,, 1»5
Habitat:
, in shallow, calm, mud bottomed areas with vegetation,' 1,2,6
ditches, small streams
Substrate mud and vegetation. _
egg: randomly broadcast, adhesive
Larvae: Planktonic Pelagic Demersal ;/ ' _. _
T -i Shallow overflow ponds, oxbows, lowland lakes,
Juvenile .. —. — —
deep pools o£_riyers and streams, less turbid waters than_
that frequented by bigmouth buffalo
Adult Same as j uv_eniles___ ' ; _
I-/ Ucit growth - Grcv/t:h in vt. ninuo wu. of mortality
7J -\u rruorled or to 50% of opr.i:;v.ir:. if data permit.
3/ list r.ourct-s on back oi: page in :,-;.T.arical si-quuncc'.*
-------
Smallmouth buffalo
References
1. Wrenn, W. B. 1969. Life history aspects of smallmouth buffalo and
freshwater drum in Wheeler Reservoir, Alabama. Proc. 22nd Ann.
Conf. S. E. Assoc. Game & Fish Coma., 1968. pp. 479-495.
2. Harlan, J. R. and E. B. Speaker. 1956. Iowa Fish and Fishing. State
Conservation Commission.
3. Trautman, M. B. 1957. The fishes of Ohio. Ohio State Univ. Press.
4. Walburg, C. H. and W. R. Nelson. 1966. Carp, river carpsucker, smallmouth
buffalo and bigmouth buffalo in Lewis and Clark Lake, Missouri River.
Bur. Sport Fish, and Wildl. Res. Rep. 69,
5. Walker, M. C. and P. T. Frank. 1952. The propagation of buffalo. Prog.
Fish. Cult. 14:129-130.
6. Martin, R. E. , S. I. Aucrbach, and D. J. Nelson. 19"64. Growth and
movement of smallmouth buffalo, !£t_iobujs_ ^u_^alu_s_ (Rafinesque), in
Watts Bar Reservoir, Tennesses. ORNL Publ. 3530.
386
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet
a/
Species (co-jnon & scientific name) Sockeye s.alir.ou _(pncorhynchus nerka)
Data
Lethal threshold: Acclimation embryo larvae juvenile adult source
temperature
Upper 5 22.2__ 1
10 23.4 1
15 • . 24.4
. 20 • ' 24.8
Lower
20 4.7
optimum
range?-7 . 10-15
spawns in shallow waters of lakes and in tribj.itary_s±reams
Substrate Gravel -
Larvae: Planktonic _ Pelagic _ Demersal - ; -
_ .; i Start sea-ward migration before temperatures reach
14-15°C
Adult Sea> rivers and lakes[.^during migratiQn_and._sp_awning
a/ Data pertains to sea-run sockeye, notkokanee
~~J Ho.t growth - Growth in wt. v-imn wl:. of iv.^rtality
?-/ As '-i-porto.1 or to 50% of optimum if dr.t'i permit
3/ lisVscureos on bad: of paCo in nur^ri^l s^oacc
10 • 3.1 1.
15 ' 4.1 1
I/ " 23 . -, 6-7 T i. 1
Growth:— larvae juvenxle adult
15(6) 15*C2) 2,6
^maximum with .excess food
Preferred (final): larvae juvenile adult
surfer 14.5 _ 3.
winter . _ . :
Gonad development: Requires (x)
Low winter temp. Temp. Period ^ j
Some winter decrease leap. Period ;
No winter decrease Tenp. Period _j
2/ -in
Spawning: Optimum ''_- ; Range- 7.2-12.8 Dates Fall __.'• /...1Q-
Eatch of normal larvae: Optimum Range-_5.8-12.8 .'"' < |_
Migration and maturation: 7.2 —- 15.6 • . .5
Migration halted: 21 • 9
Habitat: - , .
Migrates only up streams having lakes in the system, 7
Spawning -—. •-
-------
Sockeye- salmon
References
1. Brett, J. R. 1952. Temperature tolerance in young pacific salmon,
genus, Oncorhynchus. J. Fis. Res. Bd. Can. 9:265-323.
2. Griffiths, J. S. and D. F. Alderdice. 1972. Effects of acclimation
and accute temperature experience on the sxvinraing speed of
juvenile coho salmon. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can.' 29:251-264.
3. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish and their
midsummer distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J. Fish.
Res. Bd. Can. 15:607-624.
4. Combs, B. D. and R. E. Burrows. Iy57. ihreshold temperatures for the
normal development of chinook salmon eggs. Prog. Fish. Cult. 19:3-6.
5. Borrows, R. c.. 19t>3. Water temperature requirements for maximum
productivity of salmon. "Proceedings of the iZth Pacific N. W.
Symposium on Water Poll. Res.
6.. -Shelbourn, J. F. . J. K. Brett and S. Shirakata. 1972. Growth rate in
sockc-ye saimoa fry, Oncorhynchus nerkn, in relation to temperature.
Ms. for J. Fish. Kes. lid. Can.
7. Breder, C. >!. and D. E. Rosen. 1966. Modes of reproduction in fishes.
Nat. History Press.
8. Novotny, A. J. 1964. Importance of water temperature in the main stems
of the Columbia and Snake Rivers in relation to the survival of
salmon. Report No. 59. U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries,
Seattle.
9. Major, R. L. 1966. Influence of the Rock Reach dam and the temperature
of the Okanogan River on the upstream migration of sockeye salmon.
Fish. Bull. 66:131-147.
10. Anonymous. 1971. Columbia River thermal effects study. Vol. 1,
Environmental Protection Agency.
388
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet'-
Species (common & scientific name) Striped bass (Morone saxatills)
Lethal threshold: Acclimation embryo larvae juvenile
temperature
Upper
Data 3;
source^
Lower
Growth:—
optimum
. 2/
range-
Preferred (final)
larvae
larvae
juvenile
juvenile
adult
adult
v inter
Goned development: Requires (x)
Low winter temp.
Soiae winter decrease
No winter decrease.
Temp.
• Temp.
Temp.
Period
Period
Period
Spawning: Optimum 16.7 - 19.4- Ranged/12.8-21.7 Dates .Apr-July-:
Hatch of. normal larvae: Optimum Range-15.6-23.9 .
In freshwater rapids in association with rocks and
Swni boulders. Eggs are semi-buoyant_and must be
p ' 6 suspended by currents or other Turbulence fo"r
•W-Sfl d^yg rpqin'-rpfT fnr hafrhing —
Larvae:
Substrate
Planktonic X Pelagic Demersal
Juvenile In rivers and estuaries until 2_j^ears old and then,
migrate to ocean.
. Ana_dromous_
I/ Hat Rrowth - Growth in t:t. ninus wt. of mortality
2/ As rc-portod or to 50Z of o:.tv.::u:n if data^p^nit
3/ list sources on back ot page in nurr.«iic;,j. .,-;u,.n^.
1.2,3,4,5.
2,3,4,5
2,6
-------
Striped bass
References
1. Shannon, E. H. 1970. Effect of temperature changes upon developing
striped bass eggs and fry. Proc. 23rd Conf. S. E. Assoc. Game
and Fish Coirnn. October 19-22, 1969, pp. 265-274.
2. Goodson, L. F., Jr. 1966. Landlocked striped bass. In: Inland
Fisheries Mgmt, A. Calhoun, ed.j Calif. Dept. Fish & Game.
3. Talbot, G. B. 1966. Estuarinc environmental requirements and
limiting factors for striped bass. In: "A Symposium on Estuarine
Fisheries," Amer. Fish. Soc. Special Publ. No. 3>
pp. 37-49.
4. Pearson, J. C. 1938. The life history of the striped bass or rockfish.
Bull, of the Bureau of Fisheries 48 (28):825-851.
5. Raney, E. C. 1952. The life history of the striped bass. Bull.
Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 14:5-97.
6. Orsi, J. J. 1971. The 1965-1967 migrations of the Sacramento-San
Joaquin estuary striped bass population. Calif. Fish and Game
57:257-267.
390
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet
Species (common £ scientific name) Thread fin shad (Dorosoma
Lethal threshold: Acclimation embryo. larvae \^uvenile
temperature
Upper _ • _ _ _
Data 3y
adult source-
Lover
Winter \field)
3.8
Chronic exposure below 9 C detrimental — •
Growth:—
larvae
larvae
optimum
. 2/
range--
Preferred (final):
summer ^
winter ._
Gonsd development: Requires (x)
juvenile
juvenile
adult
(age nut given) •
adult
>19.5
Low winter tcpp.
Some winter decrease
Ko winter decrease
•'-•'•' Range—14-S
Temp.
• Temp.
Temp.
Period
Period
Period
Spawning: Optimum ;___
Hatch of-normal larvae: Optimum
Dates Apr-Aug(6-)(ll) / 5.6.11
y 23-26(8) -.-.••-,<• 8,9
16.7-26.7 (.9)
Habitat:
Spawning
Under brush and floating logs (6); also in open .water.. • • 6 .'
Repeated spawnings throughout the summer with a 2nd pulse in fall
when conditions are right H>7
Planktonic
Age of fish
Pelagic
Derjcrsal
zone
10
Adult
I/ Net nr^vih - G:-o\:t:h in v;t. ninits v;t. of mortality
2/ Afi r.-portod or to 507 of f-pr.iv.».'.v- i: ds.i*ji«rwi.t
3/ list r-ources ou back ov j>n-o in •.v.:r:.--ric..'j. sf.-.:n-^,-,ce.r.
-------
Threadfin shad
References
1. Koss, R. W.j Ed. 1971. Environmental responses to thermal discharges
from Marshall Steam Station, Lake Norman, North Carolina, Cooling
Water Studies for Edison Klectric Institute. Research Project RP-49.
p. 1-58.
2. Strawn, K. 1963. Resistance of threadfin shad to low temperatures.
Proc. 17th Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. of Game and Fish Coram.
pp. 290-293.
3. Miller, R. V. 1961. The food habits and some aspects of the biology
of the threadfin shad,- Dorosoma petencnse (Gunther). Master's Thesis
45 pp.
4. Adair, W. D. and D. J. DeMont. 1970. hffacts of thermal pollution upon
Lake Norimn fishes. N. Carolina Wildlife Res. Comm., Div. Inland
Fisheries. Summary Report, Fed. Aid Fish Restoration Project F-19-2. 14 p.
5. Maxwell, R. and A. R. Essbach. 1971. Eggs of threadfin shad successfully
transported and hatched after spawning on excelsior mats. Prog.
Fish. Cult. 33:140.
6. Coriander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of freshwater fishery biology. The
Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa.
7". Kirasey, J. B. 1958. Possible effects of introducing threadfin shad
(Dorosona petcnense) into the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. Inland
Fisheries Admin. Report No. 58-16, Calif. Dept. of Fish & Game.
8. Shelton, W. L. 1964. The threadfin shad, Dorosoma petenense (Gunther):
Oogenesis, seasonal ovarian changes and observations on life history.
Master's Thesis, Oklahoma State Univ. 49 p.
9. Breder, C. M. and D. E. Rosen. 1969. Modes of reproduction in fishes,
Natural History Press.
10. Burns, J. W. 1966. Threadfin shad. In: Inland Fisheries Management
A. Calhoun, ed., Calif. Dept. Fish and Game.
11. Swingle, H. A. 1969. Production of the threadfin shad, Dorosoma petcnense
(Gunther). 23rd Annual Conf. S.E. Assoc. Game and Fish Comm.
392
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet
Species (common & scientific name) White, bags Qforone. chxysops)
Data ^i
Lethal threshold: Acclimation embryo larvae juvenile adult source--
temperature
Upper ,
Lower 17-2 14.4*
I/ . * %.mortality
Growth:— • larvae juvenile
optimum 22.6-23.6*
. 2/
range— ,_
*good growth in S. Dak. reservoir
Preferred (final): larvae juvenile ' adult
summer ' • —
winter —
Gonad development: Requires (x)
Low winter tenp. Temp. J Period
Some winter decrease Temp. Period
No winter decrease Temp. Period
Spawning: Optimum - • Range- 11. T-Qrenn)
t- ___ -
Hatch of normal larvae: Optimum 15.6 - 16.7 Range—
2/14.4-,23c9 CNorth) April-July (North)
- 11. T-Qrenn) Dates Mar-May tTenn.) 4 —
Habitat: .
Spawning Tributary streams or shoals of lakes; shallow water
(<10 feet) ; eggs adhesive
Substrate gravelly or rocky bottom, usually.
Larvae: Planlctonic Pelagic X Demersal .
Juvenile Shallows near shore
Ad,,-!t Rivers and lakesjj:olerate wide ^ange_of .
physical_-and__chemical condjLt^ons
I./ "e.t nrovuh - Growth iii wt. minus wt. of mortality
As report pel or to 50% oC option?, if data
3/ list scurcos on brick ot pa^
e in m;mencal scqu^ncR...
-------
White bass
References
1. Webb, J. F. and D. D. Moss. 1967. Spawning behavior and age and
growth of white bass in Center Hill reservoir, Tennessee.
Master's Thesis, Tenn. Tech. Univ.
2. Yellayi, R. R. 1972. Ecological life history and population dynamics
of white bass, Morone chrysops (Rafinesque) in Beaver Reservoir.
Part 2, Report to Arkansas Game and Fish Commission.
3. Duncan, T. 0. and K. R. Myers. 1969 (approx.). Artificial rearing of
white bass, Roc.cus chrysops, Rafinesque. Unpublished data,
South Central Reservoir Investigations, BSFW, Fayetteville, Ark.
4. Chadwick, H. K., et al. 1966. White bass. In: Inland Fisheries Mgt,
A. Calhoun, ed., California Dept. Fish & Game.
5. Ruelle, R. 1971. Factors influencing growth of white bass in Lewis
and Clark Lake. In: Reservoir Fisheries and Limnology, G. Hall,
ed. , pp. 411-423.
6. Noble, R. L. 1968. Mortality rates of the pelagic fry of the yellow
perch, ?er ca flavcscens (Mitcisi.ll) in Oneicia Lake, New York, and
an analysis of the sampling problem. Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell Univ.
394
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet
Species (common & scientific name) White crappie (Pomoxis_ annularig)
Data g
Lethal threshold: Acclimation embryo larvae juvenile adult- source-
temperature
Upper
32.6* I
*upper incipient lethal
Lower
Grovth:-
optiiiiura
. 2/
range-
Preferred (final):
summer
winter
Gonad development:
Spawning: Optimum
Hatch of normal la:. .
Hatch in 24-27-1/2 hrs. at 21.1-23.3
Habitat:
larvae juvenile
25
adult
5
larvae juvenile
adult
22-27 1
-
Requires (x)
Low winter temp. Temp.
Some winter decrease • Temp.
No winter decrease Temp.
16-20(6)
- : Ran^/17.8-20(4)*DateS
Period
Period
Period
Mar (4)-
July (3) - / 3,4,6
*begin spawning 2/ ...
rvae: Optimum Range— •. ' ~-V . .
Spawning Nests near brush, stumps, rock, often on plant
material
Substrate
Larvae: Planktonic
Juvenile '
Pelagic
Demersal
Adult _j£J5ef^JLg£g£Y£J:?-ga-l:L-ow streams, in areas containing
vegetation and_subjngrggd_obj^cts; more tole_rant_of
turbTdity than the black crappie
I/ Nat. growth - Grov.n.h in wt. niuus vt. of mortality
2J A;J rr-ooruocl or to 50"; o£ optimum if d^La permit
3/ list fiourcor. on hack ot page in nunarj.cal atiqiuince..
-------
White crappie
References
1. Gammon, J. R. ly71. The response of fish populations in the Wabash River
to heated effluents. Preprint given at 3rd Nat. Symposium on
Radioecology, Oak Ridge, Tenn.
2. Breder, C. M. and D. E. Rosen. 1966. Modes of reproduction in fishes.
Nat. History Tress.
3. Morgan, G. D. 1954. The life history of the white crappie (Pomoxis
avmularis) of Buckeye Lake, Ohio. J. Sci. Lab. Denison Univ.,
Granville, Ohio. 43:113-144.
4. Goodson, Lee F. 1966. Crappic. In: Inland Fisheries Management
A. Calhoun, Ed., Calif. Dept. Fish & Cane.
5. Kleiner, C. F. and K.E.F. Hokanson. 1973. Effects of constant temperature
on growth and mortality rates of juvenile white crappie, Pcv:T_ox2_s_
ann_uliirj_s Rafinesque. Unpublished data, National Water Quality
Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
6. Siefert, R. E. 1968. Reproductive behavior, incubation and mortality
ol eggs and post larval food selection in the White crappie. Trans.
Amor. Fish. Soc. 97:252-259.
7. Trautman, M. B. 1957. The fishes of Ohio. The Ohio I'niv. Press.
396
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet
Species (common & scientific name) White sucker (Catostomus commersoni)
Lethal threshold: Acclimation embryo
tenmerature
Upper 10
15 21(1)
20(2). 21(1}
25
25-26
larvae
28.1(1)*
30.7(1)
juvenile
26(2)
28(2)
29.3(2)
29.3(2)
29.3(2)
31.2
Data 37
adult sourcerr
2
1,2
1,2
1.2
2
3
I/
Lower
15
8.5
*7-day TLj.. for swimup
Growth:—
optimum
range-1-
Preferred (final)
summer
winter
Gonad development: Requires (x)
20
25
21
larvae
27
6.1*
juvenil^
2.5-3.0
6.0
TL50 f°r a^ftuP
24-2 /
larvae
juvenile
adult
19-21
-
Spawning
Hatch of
Low winter tcjnp.
Some winter decrease
No winter decrease
?/
• Optimum ^ 10(5) Range-^ ^4
normal larvae: Optimum 15
Tenip.
Tensp.
Temp.
.5-18(5, 6fcates
Range^-'
Period
Period
Period
Mar -June (2)
8-21 -.'••<
v
- 2,5,6
1
Habitat:
*field estimates,
limits not known
Spawning Along wave swept shores^ or when available, up
tributary streams over gravel riffles.
.Substrate sand and/or gravel
At surface in quiet water until the mouth becomes inferior
whereupon .demersal 1,4-fe begins.
Larvae: Platiiitaiiic- -i-e-Ri-g-nS
Juvenile Over sandy shoals, near shore, on the bottom
Adult
7, 8
Pools of streams and rivers ;off shore above thermocline 9, 10,11
in lakes, bu£jlem£rsj.l,_jnay^g_J^jigre__during the evening and
night.
Ko.t Hi~ov;::a - Ccov/rls in wt. v.iiaua wt . of mortality
2-J A;: re
orted or t:o 50% o
if tla'.:--
list fiourcos on b-ck or p-":^1' in viumeri
-------
White sucker
References
1. McCormick, J. H., B. R. Jones, and K.E.F. Hokanson. 1972. Effects of
temperature on incubation success and early growth and survival of the
white sucker, Ca tos t ojnius coTnuier soni (Lacepede) . Unpublished data,
National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
2, Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of freshwater fishery biology. Vol. 1,
3rd Ed., The Iowa State Univ. Press., Ames, Iowa.
3. Brett, J. R. 1944. Some lethal temperature relations of Algonquin Park
fishes. Pub]. Ont. Fish. Res. Lab., 63:1-49.
A. Horak, D. L. and H. A. Tanner. 1964. The use of vertical gill nets in
studying fish depth distribution, liorsetooth Reservoir, Colorado.
Trans. A-er. Fish. Sue., 93:137-45.
5. Webster, D. A. 1941. The life history of sone Connecticut fishes..
Conn. Gool . and ;\\u . ':'st. Surv.-y Bull. No. 63.' A Connecticut
fishery survey, S<--:' \ a III, pp. 122-227.
6. Ram-y, E. C. 1943. Unusual spawning habitat for the common white sucker,
?Qi.1§JLf:lrtLiL2. T-i ^9JinL9IlponIl}-.i' Copeia. 4:256.
7. Huntsman, A. G. 1935. The sucker (Cn tost OTTO us cqTRmersoniJ ) in relation to
salnon and trout. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 65:152-156.
8. Rerghard, J; 1913. An ecological reconnaissance of the fishes of Douglas
Lake, Cheboygan County, Michigan, in midsummer. Bull., U. S. Bur. of
Fish., 33:215-249.
9. Lariiuore, R. VI. and P. W. Smith. 1963. The fishes of Champaign County, Illinois
as affected by 60 years of stream changes. 111. Nat. Hist. Survey
Bull 28(2):299-376.
10. Adams, C. C. and T. L. Hankinson. 1928. The ecology and economics of
Oneida Lake fish. Roosevelt Wildlife Annals 1 (4a) :241-542.
11. Spoor, W. A. and C. L. Schloeracr. 1938. Diurnal activity of the common
sucker Cal_os_i:oinus cc'.Tii.ir-rsor.i i (Lacepede), and the rock bass
AjglvloplTtJs Vupcptris (Ratintsque) in Huskellunge Lake. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc". :v'.7il-226.
398
-------
Fish Temperature Data Sheet
Species (common & scientific name) Yellow perch (Pgrgaflavescens)
Data g/
Lethal threshold: Acclimation embryo larvae juvenile adult source-
temperature
Upper 5
11(1),
15(1),
25
25
9.8(6)
18.8(6)
9.8(6)*
18.8(6)*
21.3
25(1)
27.7(1)
29.7*
32.3**
1
1,6
1,6
1
1
Lower
Growth:
*swim-up *winter incipient
**sunirtier incipient
<~> y /
optimum
. 2/
range-
Preferred (final):
summer
winter
larvae
larvae
Gonsd development: Requires (x)
juvenile
juvenile
24.2
22.2* (11)
*spring
adult
=13(9) - *
adult
21.0(2)
9,10
2,11
Low winter tejap. X Temp. 4-0 Period 6 mo. -5
Some winter decrease Temp.
No winter decrease
Tecp.
Period
Period
Spawning: Optimum 11.9 (5) Range^7 7.2-12.8(7)Dates Mar-June "(5) ^ 5,7
Hatch of normal larvae: Optimum 10.0 rising Range- 6.8-19.9*(6)
« n" I i '. *~i r\ f\ / S \ JLmT _ A- — n ,-1 *-
Habitat:
P7day to-20.0(6) *TL5Q at constant temp.
S "W-'in" Shallow water usually <6 feet on vegetation, sand,
gravel t rnr^s nr — _
Substrate nearly any substrate available
~~it
Larvae: Planlctonic Pelagic hatch Deaersai AtjT length_
T . -, Shallow water near shore •
Juvenile • ——
Adult
Lakes ajid_sluggish__strgams with open water and
moderate vegetation
U Ne,t Rrowth - Growth in wt. ninus wf. of mortality
2/ A;; rcportc'd or to 50" of optimum if dr.ta pernif.
3/ list sources on back of pn}jo in luirr.arical saqu^nr.c..-.
-------
Yellow perch-
References
1. Hart, J. S. 1947. Lethal temperature relations of certain fish in
the Toronto region. Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., Sec. 5 41:57-71.
2. Ferguson, R. G. 1958. The preferred temperature of fish, and tlieir
Eiidsuruiaer distribution in temperate lakes and streams. J, Fish.
Res. Bd. Canada 15:607-624.
3. >faloney, J. E. and F. H. Johnson. 1955. Life histories and interrelation-
ships of walleye and yellow parch, especially during their first summer
of life, in two Minnesota lakes. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 85:191-202.
4. Mackay, H. H. 1959. Yellow perch. Sylva 15:25-30.
5. Jones, B. R., K.E.F. Hokanson and J. H. McCormick. 1973. Winter
temperature recjuirer.iants of yellow perch. Unpublished data.
National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota
6. Hokanson, K.E.F. and C. F. Kleiner. 1973. The effect of constant and rising
temperature on survival and development rates of embryonic
and larval yellow perch, Perca flavescons (Matchill). Submitted
for publication at International Symposium on the early life
history of fish, Oban, Scotland, 1973.
7. Breder, C. M. and D. E. Rosen. 1966. Modes of reproduction in fishes.
Natural' History Press.
8. Noble, R. L. 1968. Mortality rates of the pelagic fry of the yellow
perch, Perca flavescens (Mitchill) in Oneida Lake, New York and
an analysis of the sampling problem. Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell
University.
9. Coble, D. W. 1966. Dependence of total annual growth in yellow perch
on temperature. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 23:15-20.
10. Weatherley. 1963. Thermal stress and interrcnal tissue in the perch,
££.?"-£? fluviatilus (Linnaeus). Proc. Zool. Soc., London,
Vol. 141:527-555.
11. Mildrim, J. W. and J. J. Gift. 1971. Temperature preference, avoidance
and shock cxpeiiments with esuuarine fishes. Ichthological Associates,
Bulletin 7, 301 Forest Drive, Ithaca, N.Y.
400
-------
Appendix B
Tabular Summary of Numerical Criteria
Agriculture Agriculture
Constituent (Irrigation) (Livestock)
Freshwater
(Aquatic Life)
Freshwater
(Wildlife)
Freshwater
(Public Supply)
Marine V7ater
Life)
Recreational
Waters
4.5-9.0
6.0-9.0
6.0-9.0
Alkalinity
Acidity
BOD
Al
Sb
As
Ba
Be
Bi
B
Br
Ho linit
5.0 mg/1
20.0 mg/1
(20 yrs.)
0.10 mg/1
2.0 mg/1
(20 vrs.)
0.1 ng/1
0.5 mg/1
(20 yrn.)
0.75mg/l Sen.
l.Omg/1 Snmi-
Vol.
2.0ing/l Tol.
5.0 mg/1
0.2 ng/1
No limit
5.0 mg/1
75% natural level 30-130 mq/1
Addition of acids
unacceptable
5.0-9.0
No limit*
Uo limit
6.5-8.5
1/20 (0.05)
LC50
0.02 mg/1
0.5 mq/1
0.1 mg/1
1.0 mg/1
1.0 mg/1
Acceptable
6.5-8.3
Must be -
5.0-9.0
1/100 (0.01)
96-hr.
1.5 mg/1
1/10 LP50
0.4 mg/1
1/50 (0.02)
96-hr. LCso
0.2 mg/1
1/100 (0.01)
96-hr. LCso
0.05 mg/l
1/20 (0.05)
™50
1.0 mg/1
1/100 (0.01)
96-hr. Lr50
1.5 mq/1
Uo limit
1/10 (0.1)
96-hr. LC50
0.1 mg/1(free)
100 mg/1(ionic)
"No limit", where it appears in this table, refers to constituents that were addressed but for which it was indicated
that insufficient data existed for prescribing limits.
401
-------
Constituent
MCO3
Cd
Cl
(free)
Cl,
(Chloride
Cr
Co
cu
(CN)
F
H2S
Fe
Pb
Li
Agriculture?
(Irrigation)
I Jo limit
0.01 mg/1
0.0% nq/1
(20 yrn.)
No Unit
tto limit
0.1 mg/1
1.0 mg/1
(20 yrs.)
0.05 mg/1
5.0 mg/1
(20 yrs.)
0.20 mg/1
5.0 mg/1
2.0 mg/1
1.0 mg/1
(Sandy soil)
15.0 mg/1
(20 yrs.)
~
5.0 mg/1
20.0 mg/1
(20 yrs.)
5.0 mg/1
10.0 mg/1
2.5 mg/1
0.075 mg/1
Agriculture
(J.ivostoc) )
—
50 uq/1
***•
—
1.0 mg/1
1.0 mg/1
0.5 mg/1
2.0 mg/1
~ —
No limit
0.1 mg/1
—
rror.hwatr«r
(Aquatic I.ifo)
—
0.03 tnq/1
hard H2O
0.004 mq/l
soft 1120
0.003 mo/1
0.05 mq/l
(30 min.)
—
0.03 mg/1
""*•
1/10 (0.1)
06-hr. I£50
1/20 (0.05)
96-hr. I,C50
SOB sulfidfts
— —
0.03 mg/1
—
Trnnhv/ator rr«>shwat<»r 'iarino Water
(t-Uldlifo) (Public Supply) (Aquatic r,ifo)
~
o.oi mg/1 vino (o.oi)*
96-hr, LCtjo
0.01 mq/l
1/10 (0.1)
96-hr. LCgo
0.01 mg/1
250 mo/1
0.05 rnn/1 1/100 (0.01)
96-hr. LC5Q
0 . 1 mq/l
-- -- __
1 mg/1 1/100 (0.01)
96-hr. ljC$Q
0.05 mg/1
0.2 mq/l 1/10 (0.1)
96-hr. Lr50
0.01 mg/1
1/10 (0.1)
96-hr. LC50
1.5 mg/1
1/10 (0.1)
96-hr. IjCtjQ
0.01 mg/1
".3 mg/1 0.3 mg/1
0.05 mg/1 1/50 (0.02)
96-hr. LC50
o.oi Lr>50
0.01 LDSO
24-hr, ha::.
0.05 mg/1
ftncreational
Waters
--
—
--
—
—
—
~
—
__
—
—
* If copper or zinc is present >1 mg/1, then AF = 0.003 LCr,
402
-------
Organic
Mo
Hi
(N03)
Se
lia
Ag
Agriculture
(Irrigation)
0.20 mq/1
10.0 mq/1
(20 yrs.)
__
—
0.01 mg/1
0.05 mg/1
0.2 mg/1
2.0 mg/1
(20 yrs.)
No limit
--
0.02 mg/1
No limit
—
Agriculture Fronhwator Freshwater
(Livostoc)-) (Anuatic I.ifo) (Wildlife)
No limit
1.0 ug/1 0.2 ug/1 0.5 ug/g
Tot. cone. in fir.h
0.05 ug/1
Avg. cone.
0.5 ug/g
Kody burden
Cone. Tot. Hg
0.2 ug/1
Tot. cone.
0.05 ug/1
Avg. cone.
0.5 ug/g
Body burden
Cone. Tot. Hg
Ho limit
1/50 (0.02)
96-hr. LC50
100 mg/1
Combined
(r;o3)&(i'o2)
10 mg/1
0.05 mg/1
—
—
Freshwat
(Public ?u
0.05 mg/1
0.002 ma/1
Tota 1
—
__
_..
10 mg/1
1 ma/1
To lirit
0.0 3 na/1
I'o limit
0.05 mg/1
1/20 (0.05)
96-hr. LCso
1/50 (0.02)
96-)ir.
0.1 mq/1
1/100 (0.01)
96-hr. LC50
0.1 ug/1
l/loo (n.oi)
96-hr. LC5Q
0.01 ng/1
1/20 (0.05)
96-lir. I.C50
5.0 un/1
25 ug/1
Lakes & res.
50 ug/1
At confluence
100 ug/1
Streams
403
-------
Agriculture Agriculture
Constituent (Irrigation) (T.ivestocl.)
FroBhvmtnr
(Aquatic J.ifp)
Freshwater
Freshwater
(Public F'
Marino V'ator
(Amiat.ic T.ife)
Recreational
Waters
Tl
Zn
Viruoos
^icro-
Organisms
Fecal
Coliforms
1000/100 nl
Dissolved 2000-5000 mg/1
Solids (tot) (Tolerant)
500-1000 ng/1
(Sonsitivn)
Hardness
Suspended & No limit
Settleable
Solids
Temperature Mo limit
0.1 mg/1
25 rg/1
5000 coli-
forns/100 ml*
20,000/lOflnl**
1000/100 ml*
4000/100 nl**
3/1100 (0.003)
9C-hr. T/C'
Bioassays
(Sno T.D.S.)
80 mg/1
Poc Text
2nno/l"0 ml
2000/100 n]
(m.ininizncl)
maintain nat-
ural oattrrn
5 mc/1
I'o lirit
10,000/100 nl
2000/100 nl
I'o limit
I'o linit
not to detract
from potability
1/20 (0.05)
9f-hr. r,C5Q
0.1 nn/1
1/100 (0.01)
96-hr. LC
0.5 mg/1
50
1/20 (0.05)
9*-hr. T,C5Q
1/100 (0.01)
ip-hr. r
0.1 mg/1
2.0(3.fiF)9-5
1.0 (1.8F)6-8
2000/100 ml avg.
<1000/100 ml may.
log moan 2n
200/100 nl
samples in
30-days to
nxceod
400/100 ml
86 P
* Average of a minimum of 2 samples per month
** Individual sample
404
-------
Agriculture Agriculture
Constituent (Irrigation) (LivontocV)
(Aquatic Lifp)
(Public f.upply)
'larJnr Water
(Aquatic Life)
Recreational
Waters
Toxic
Algae
Botulism
Pesticides
Dalapon
0.2 ug/1
Heavy growth of
1'luo-groen not
acceptable
Hoe Pul>] ic
Wat or fitndr,.
1/100 (0.01)
96-hr. UV
0
Tliono for wliich
no toxicity data
availahlo. See
also Tables 1&2
linit
f'jninjzer, fac-
torr, v;hicb
promote disease
Pilvc:: 0.03
1/100 (0.01)
9(5-hr. LCr;o
TCA
0.2 ug/1
2,4,5-T 0.002
2,4-D 0.1 ug/1
Insecticides No limit
Turbidity
Carbon
Adsorbable
Foaming
Agents
NTA
Phenols
Color
chanae in
C.r.
("omp. pt. not
changed by
"
mg/l:g
v;et
0.02 no/1
'"able 5
Organophos-
pliates 0.1 mg/1
'io limit
0 . 3 ng/1 CD'
1.5 CAE
0.5 mg/1
(APR)
IIo lirit
1 ug/1
71 platinum-
cobalt units
Clarity -
4 ft. Seccchi
405
-------
Constituent
Agriculture
(Irrigation)
Agriculture
(Livestock)
Freshwater
(Aquatic I.ifo)
Freshwater
(Viildlife)
Freshwater
(Public Supply)
Harinr; Water
(Aquatic T.ifo)
Recreational
Waters
Radio-
activity
Salinity
D.O.
Sulfatc
Sulfidcs
Detergents
Oils
Phthalate
Esters
rCB'o
Tainting
Substances
Odor
Light
Sac Federal
Drinking Uater
Standards
See Federal
Drinking Water
Standards
3000 mg
soluble
Balts/1
See Federal
Drinking V'ater
Standards
llo rapid
fluctuation
See Table
Section v
0.002 mg/1
1/20 (O.OS)aAS)
96-hr. I,C50
0.2 mg/1 max.
flo visible oil tlo visible
1/20 (0.05) floating oils
96-hr. LP 0
Ilexano oxtractable
sedimentn
1000 mg/kg
0.3 ug/1
0.002 ug/1
(in water)
0.5 ug/g
(in tissue)
Tables 3S4
llo increase
flee Federal
Drinking Water
Standards
llo limit
saturation pre-
ferred
2SO mq/l
Ito limit
Tlo limit
Free
See Federal
Drinking Water
Standards
6.0 mg/1
Mo filn or odor
llo tainting of fish
Ho onohore oil deposit
change
in r.P.
406
-------
Appendix C
absorption penetration of one substance into the body of
another.
acclimation the process of adjusting to change, e.g.,
temperature, in an environment.
acute involving a stimulus severe enough to briny auout a
response speedily, usually within four days.
adsorption the taking uf of one substance at the surface
of another.
advanced_j[tert_iaryj _ treatment any wastewater treatment
process other than conventional physical settling (primary)
and biological treatment (secondary) .
the condition associated with the presence of
oxygen in an environment.
an organism that can live and grow only in tne
presence of free ocygen.
transported and deposited by running water.
anadrotnous _ fish fish that typically inhabit seas or lakes
but ascend streams at. more or less regular intervals to
spawn; e.g., salmon, steelhead, or American shad.
anaerobic the condition associated with the lack of free
oxygen in an environment.
an organism for whose life processes a complete
or nearly complete absence of oxygen is essential.
SH22Si£ depleted of free oxygen; anaerobic.
causing reduction of toxicity of another
chemical, interactions of organisms growing in close
association, to the detriment of at least one of them.
agplica t ion^f actor a factor applied to a short-term or
acute toxicity test to estimate a concentration of waste
that would be safe in a receiving water.
407
-------
assimilation the transformation and incorporation of
substances (e.g., nutrients) by organism or ecosystem.
benthos aquatic hot torn- dwell ing organisms including; (1)
sessile animals, such as the sponges, barnacles, mussels,
oysters, some worms, and many attached algae; (2) creeping
forms, such as insects, snails, and certain clams; ana (3)
burrowing forms which include most clams and worms.
b ioa cum mu 1 a t i on uptake and retention of environmental
substances by an organism from its environment, as opposed
to uptake from its food.
bioassay a determination of the concentration cr aose or
given material necessary to affect a test organism under
stated conditions.
treatment) wastewater treatment oy
^
controlled biological processes, such as trickling tilters
or activated sludge.
b^omass the living weight of a plant or animal population,
usually expressed on a unit area basis.
bj.o^j,c^i,Q<|gx a numerical index using various aquatic
organisms to determine their degree of tolerance to
differing water conditions.
biotoxin toxin produced by a living organism (e.g.,
biotoxin which causes paralytic shellfish poisoning is
produced by certain species of dinof lagellate algae.
bloom an unusually large number of organisms per unit or
water, usually algae, made up of ore or a few species.
body burden the total amount of a substance present in the
body tissues and fluids of an organism.
buffer ^capacity the ability of a solution to maintain its
pH when stressed chemically.
carrying capacj.'ty the maximum Liomass that a system is
capable of supporting continuously; the number of user-use
periods that a recreation resource can provide in a jiven
time span without appreciable biological or physical
deterioration of that resource, or without appreciable
408
-------
impairment of the recreation experience tor the majority of
the users.
catadromgus^fish fishes that teed and grow in fresn water
but return to the sea to spawn, e.g., the American eel.
chelate to combine with a metal ion and hold it. in
solution preventing it from forming an insoluble salt.
chemotaxis orientation or movement of a living organism in
response to a chemical gradient.
chronic involving a stimulus that lingers or continues tor
a long period of time, cften one-tenth of the life span or
more.
climax^community the stage of ecological development at
which a community becomes stable, self-perpetuating, aua at
equilibrium with the environment.
coagulation a water treatment process ir. which cnemicais
are added to combine with cr trap suspended and colloxuai
particles to form rapidly settling aggregates.
coliform^bacteria a genera of gram-negative peritrichously
flagellated or immotile, rod-shaped bacteria with trie
physiological ability to use either aerobic respiration or
the fermentation of sugars as a source of energy; in a
restricted sense the group includes Escherichia and
Aerobacter, but in the broader coverage this Report also
includes the genera, Erwinia, Salmonella, Shicjela, Serratia,
Proteus, and Paseurella, usually of fecal origin.
colloid very small particles (10 angstroms to 1 micron)
which tend to remain suspended and dispersed in liquids.
conservative pollutant a pollutant that is relatively
persistant and resistant to degradation, such as PCB ana
most chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides.
cumvilative brought about or increased in strengtn o>
successive additions.
demersal living or hatching on the bottom, as fish
that sink to the bottom.
409
-------
detritus unconsolidated sediments comprised of both
inorganic and dead and decaying organic material.
diurnal occurring once a day, i.e., with a variation
period of 1 day; occurring in the daytime or during a day.
diversity the abundance in numbers of species in a
specified location.
dredge spoils the material removed from the bottom during
dredging operations.
dystrophj dystrophic brcwnwater lakes and streams usually
with a low lime content and hiah organic content^ oftiwn
lacking in nutrients.
enteric of or originating in the intestinal tract.
epilimnion the surface waters in a thermally stratified
body of water; these waters are characteristically well
mixed.
epiphytic living on the surface of other plants.
euphotic^zone the lighted region that extends vertically
from the water surface to the level at which photosynthesis
fails to occur because of ineffective light penetration.
eutrophication the addition of nutrients to bodies of
water and the effects of such nutrients on aquatic
ecosystems.
evapotranspiration the combined loss of water from a given
area during a specified period of time by evaporation from
the soil or water surface and by transpiration from plants.
exchange^capacity the total ionic charge of the adsorption
complex active in the adsorption of ions.
external treatment passage of water through equipment sucn
as a filter or water softener to meet desired quality
requirements prior to point of use.
finfish that portion of the aquatic community made up of
the true fishes as opposed to invertebrate shellfish.
410
-------
flQcculatign the process by which suspended colloidal or
very fins particles are assembeld into larger masses or
floccules which eventually settle out of suspension; tne
stirring of water after coagulant chemicals have been adaed
to promote the formation of particles that will settle
(Section II) .
tne transfer of food energy from plants or
organic detritus through a series of organisms, usually four
or five, consuming and being consumed.
food_web the interlocking pattern formed by a series of
interconnecting food chains.
free^residual chlor ination chlorination that maintains the
presence of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) or hypochlorite ion
(OCl~) in water.
tne stage in the life ot a fish between the hatching
of the egg and the absorption of the yolk sac.
grqundwood the raw material produced from both logs ana
chips, used mainly in the maufacture of newsprint, toweling,
tissue, wallpaper, and coated specialty papers.
half-life the period of time in which a substance loses
half of its active characteristics (used especially in
radiological work); the time required to reduce 'tne
concentration of material by half.
£Y.§r.9£tlY£l£ growing in or in close proximity to water;
e.g., aquatic algae and emergent aquatic vascular plants.
in ternal_ treatment treating water by addition ot chemicals
to meet desired quality reguirements at point of use or
within a process.
kraft process producing pulp from wood chips in the
manufacture of paper products; involves cooling the chips in
a strong solution of caustic soda and sodium sulfide.
unstable and likely to change under certain
influences.
LC5() see median lethal concentration.
LD50 see median lethal dose.
411
-------
lentic^Qr^lenitic_enyironjnent standing water ana its
various intergrades; e.g., lakes, ponds, and swamps.
lethal involving a stimulus or effect causing deatn
directly.
life cycle the series of life stages in the form ana mode
of life of an organism, i.e., between successive recurrences
of a certain primary stage such as the spore, fertilized
egg, seed, or resting cell.
limnetic zone the open-water region of a lake, supporting
plankton and fish as the principal plants and animals.
lipophilic having an affinity tor fats or other lip-ids.
littoral^zone tne shoreward or ccastal region 01 a oody or
water.
iQtic^enyxronment running waters, such as streams or
rivers.
macronutrient a chemical element necessary in large
amounts, usually greater than 1 mg/1, tor the growth and
development of plants.
macrophyte the larger aquatic plants, as distinct trom the
microscopic plants, including aquatic mosses, liverworts ana
larger algae as well as vascular plants; no precise
toxonomic meaning; generally usea synonymously with aquatic
vascular plants in this Report.
make-up water water added to boiler, cooling tower, or
other system to maintain the volume of water required.
marl an earthy, unconsolidated deposit formed in
freshwater lakes, consisting chiefly of calcium carbonate
mixed with clay or other impurities in varying proportions.
med_ian_lethal concentration (LC5Q) the concentration or a
test material that causes death to 50 percent of a
population within a given time period.
median tolerance limit (TL5QI the concentration of a test
material in a'suitable diluent (experimental water) at WHICH
just 50 percent of the test animals are able tc survive tor
a specified period of exposure.
412
-------
mesotrophic having a moderate nutrient load resulting in
moderate productivity.
products of metabolic processes.
2££hy_latign combination with the methyl radical (CH ).
mho a unit of conductance reciprocal to the ohm.
micelle an aggregation or cluster of molecules, ions, or
minute submicroscopic particles.
micronutrient chemical element necessary in only small
amounts for growth and development; also known as trace
elements.
mouse^unit the amount of paralytic shellfish poison that
will produce a mean death time of 15 minutes when
administered intraperitoneally to irale mice of a specific
strain weighing between 18 and 20 grams.
necrosis the death of cellular material within tne boay of
an organism.
ngphro sclerotic a hardening of the tissues of tae Kianey.
nit rilotri acetate __ (NTA^ the salt of nitrilotriacetic acid;
Ras'the ability to complex metal ions, and has been proposed
as a builder for detergents.
nonconseryatiye_pollutant a pollutant that is quickly
degraded and lacks persistence, such as most, organophospuate
insecticides.
non foul ing a property of cooling water that allows it to
flow over steam condenser surfaces without accumulation or
impediments.
nonpglar a chemical terir for any molecule or liquid that
has a reasonable degree of electrical symmetry sucn tnat
there is little or no separation of charge; e.g., beuz<=n=,
carbon tetrachloride, and the lower paraffin hydrocarbons.
nutrients any of a group of organic or inorganic chemicals
that tend to increase the productivity of the primary food
chain organisms.
413
-------
oligotrophic lakes having a small supply of nutrients and
thus supporting little organic production.
organgleptic pertaining to or perceived by a sensory
organ.
parr a young fish, usually a salmonid, between tne larval
stage and time it begins migration to the sea.
partition_coefficient the ratio of the molecular
concentration 01 substance in two solvents.
pCi - picocurie a measure of radioactivity equivalent to
3.70 x 10~2 atoms disintegrating per minute.
pelagic occuring or living in the open ocean.
perighyton associated aquatic plants attached or clinging
to stems and leaves of rooted plants or other surfaces
projecting above the bottoir of a water body.
pesticides any substance used to kill plants, insects,
algae, fungi, and other organisms; includes herbicides,
insecticides, algalcides, fungicides, and other suostances.
plankton plants (phytoplankton) and animals (zooplankton)
floating in aquatic systems such as rivers, ponds, lakes,
and seas.
pgint^of^supply the location at which water is ODtdiaad
from a specific source.
point of^use the location at which water is actually used
in a process or incorporated into a product.
process^water water that comes in contact with an end
product or with materials incorporated in an end proauct.
productivity the rate of storage of organic matter in
tissue by~organisms including that used by organisms in
maintaining themselves.
pynocline a layer of water that exhibits rapid changes in
density, analogous to thermocline.
psychrophilic thriving at relatively low temperatures,
usually at or below 15°C.
414
-------
recharge to add water to the zone of saturation, as in
recharge of an aquifer; the term may also be applied to the
water added.
refractory resisting ordinary treatment and difiicult to
degrade.
rip- rapping covering stream hanks and dam faces witn rock
or other material to prevent erosion from water contact.
i— £^£t2£ a numerical value applied to short -term aata
from other organisms in order to approximate the
concentration of a substance that will not harm cr impair
the organism being considered.
secchi disc a device to measure visibility deptns in
water.
secondary (biological) _ treatment see biological treatment
§£ssj.le__orc[anism motionless organisms that resiue in a
fixed state, attached or unattached to a substrata.
sestio particles between 0.0002 and 1 mm including
suspended inorganic and organic particles as well as
plankton and bacteria.
shellfish a group of mollusks usually enclosed in a
secreted shell; includes oysters and clams.
shoal water shallow water.
a solid waste fraction precipitated by a water
treatment process.
snjolt a young fish, usually a salmonid, as it begins and
during the time it makes its seaward migration.
sorption a general term tor the processes of absorption or
adsorption.
spec ieg_diver sit y a number which relates the density o£
organisms of each type present in habitat.
standing crop_biomass the total weight cf organisms
present at any one time.
-------
sf-.rat ifi.cati.on the phenomenon occurring when a body of
water becomes divided into distinguishable layers.
subacute involving a stimulus not severe enough to
about a response speedily.
sublethal involving a stimulus below the level that causes
death.
sublittoral^zone the part of the shore from the lowest
water level to the lower boundary of aquatic plant growth.
succession the orderly process of community change in
which a sequence of communities replaces one another in a
given area until a climax community is reached.
sullage waste materials or refuse; sewage.
supeschiQrination chlorination wherein the doses are large
enough to complete all chlorination reactions and tc prouuce
a free chlorine residual sc large as to require
dechlorination.
surfactant surface active agent, usually refers to
components of detergents.
SYnerqistic interactions of two or more substances or
organisms producing a result that neither was capable of
independently.
tailwater water, in a river, or canal, immediately
downstream from a structure; in irrigation, the water that
reaches the lower end of a field.
teart a disease of cattle caused by excessive molyDdenum
intake characterized by profuse scouring, loss of
pigmentation of the hair, and bone defects.
teratogen a substance causing birth defects.
teritiarv (advanced)_treatment see advanced treatment.
thermocline a layer in a thermally stratified bouy of
water in which the temperature changes rapidly relative to
the remainder of the body.
TLm see median tolerance limit.
416
-------
trophic^accumulation passing of a substance through a food
chain such that each organism retains all or a portion of
the amount in its food and eventually acquires a higher
concentration in its flesh than in the food.
trophic level organisms whose food is obtained trom
primary producers or organic detritus by the same number ot
intermediate steps.
true_color the color of water resulting from suostances
which are totally in sclution. Not to be mistaken tor
apparent, color which may result frcm colloidal or suspended
matter.
417
-------
APPENDIX D
CONVERSION TABLES
Units
ACRES
ANGSTROM UNITS
BARRELS (Oil)
BRITISH THERMAL UNITS
CENTIMETERS
DEGREES CENTIGRADE
DEGREES FAHRENHEIT
Multiplied By
4.
4.
4.
1.
4.
3.
42
1.
7.
3.
0.
2.
3.
(°
047
356
047
562
840
1
937
390
776
927
252
929
937
C x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
9)
10
10
10
10
10
-I
4
3
-3
3
10-*
lo-^
10
10
10
10
10
+
(°P - 32)
2
2
-4
-4
-1
32
5/9
Faual
HECTARES
SQUARE FEET
SQUARE METERS
SQUARE MILES
SQUARE YARDS
CENTIMETERS
INCHES
GALLONS (Oil)
LITERS
FOOT POUNDS
HORSE-POWER FOURS
KILOGRAM CALORIES
KILOWATT HOURS
INCHES
FAHRENHEIT DEGREES
CENTIGRADE DEGREES
418
-------
Units
Multiplied By
Equal
FEET
GALLONS
GALLONS
(Imperial)
(U.S.)
(Water)
GALLONS/DAY
G A LLONS / MIN UT E
12
1.646 x 10-*
1.89** x 10-*
0.305
1/3
3.069
3.785 x 103
0.134
2.31 x 102
3.785 x lO-3
4.951 x 10-3
3.785
3
4
1.201
0.833
8. 345
5.570 x 10-3
3.785
8. 021
2.228 x lO-3
6.308 x 1C-2
INCHES
MILEb (Nautical)
MILES (Statute)
METERS
YARDS
ACREi FEET
CUoIC CENTIMETERS
CUiilC irEET
CUblC INCHES
CUblC METERS
CUBIC YARDS
LITERS
PINTS (Liquid)
QUARTS (Liquia)
U.S. GALLONS
IMPERIAL GALLONS
POUNDS (water: 39.2°F)
CUblC r'EET/HOUR
CUBIC F£ET/HGU*\
CUBIC FE El /SECOND
LITERS/SECOND
419
-------
Units
(Water)
GALLONS/SQUARE FOOT/MINUTE
GALLONS/SQUARE WILE
GALLONS/TON (Short)
GRAMS
GRAMS/LITER
Multiplied By
6.009
40.74
1.461
4.173
3.527 x 10-2
2.205 x 10-3
58.41
103
TONS (Water:39.2 F)/DAY
LITERS/SgUAkE METER/
MI NUTr.
LITERS/SvUaRE KILOMETER
LITERS/TON (Metric)
OUNCES
POUNDS
GRAINS/GALLON
PAKTS
MILLION
(assumes density of 1 gram/milliliter)
GRAMS/CUBIC METER
INCHES
KILOGRAMS
KILOMETERS
LITERS
8.345 x 10-3
6.243 x 10-z
0.437
2.54
2.205
1.102 x 10-3
9.842 x 10-*
3.281 x 103
3.937 x 10*
0.621
0.540
1.094 x 103
1.000028 x 103
POUNDS/G/u,L,ON
POUNDS/CUBIC FOOT
GKAINS/CUcJlC FOOT
CENTIMETERS
POUNDS
TONS (Short)
TONS (Lonij)
FEET
INCHES
MILES (Statute)
MILES (Nautical)
YARDS
CUBIC CENTIKETERS
420
-------
Units
LITERS/SQUARE KILOMETER
METERS
MICRONS
MILES (Nautical)
Multiplied By
3.532 x 10-2
6.103
1.000028 x 10-3
1.308 x 10-3
0.277
0.588
3.281
39.37
5.400 x 10-*
6.214 x 10-*
1.09U
10*
10-*
3.281 x 10-*
3.937 x 10-s
10-*
10-3
6.076 x 103
1.852
1.852 x 103
1.151
2.027 x 103
Equal
CUBIC FEET
CUBIC INCHES
CU^IC METERS
CUBIC YARDS
GALLONS
GALLONS/SQUARE MILE
FEET
INCHES
MILES (Nctutical)
MILES (Statute)
YAK US
ANGSTROM UNITS
CENTIMEi'ERS
FEET
INCHES
METERS
MILLIMETERS
FEET
KILOMETERS
METERS
MILES (Statute)
YARDS
421
-------
Units
Multiplied Ey
MILES (Statute)
MILIGRAMS
MILLILITSRS
MILLIMETERS
MILLION GALLONS/DAY
POUNDS
5.280 x 103
6.336 x 10*
1.609
1.609 x 103
0.869
1.760 x 103
3.527 x 10-*
2.205 x 10-*
1.000028
6.102 x 10-2
3.381 x 10-2
3.281 x 10-3
3.937 x 10-2
10-3
103
1.094 x 10-3
1.547
0.028
28.32
0.454
16
4.464 x 10~*
FEET
INCHES
KILOMETERS
ME'l ERS
MIL.ES (Nautical)
YARDS
OUNCES
POUNDS
CUBIC CENTIMETERS
CUBIC INCHES
OUNCES (U.S.)
FEET
INCHES
METERS
MICKOwS
YARDS
CUBIC FEET/SECOND
CUoIC METERS/SECOND
LITERS/SECOND
KILOGRAMS
OUNCES
TONS (Lony)
422
-------
Units
POUNDS/ACRE
POUNDS/GALLON
POUNDS/SQUARE INCH
SQUARE FEET
Multiplied By
4.536 x 10-*
5.0 x 10-*
1.122
0.120
7.480
6.805 x 10-3
5.171
70.31
6.895 x 10*
70.31
27.68
2.036
7.031 x 102
x 102
2.296 x 10-s
1.44 x 102
9.290 x 1C-2
3.587 x 1C-8
1/9
TONS (Metric)
TONS (Short)
KI LOGRAi-lS/ ri EC'i'AR E
GRMMb/CUBIC CENTIMETER
POUNDS/CUbiC fOOT
ATOMOSPHEKES
CENTIMETERS Of
MECURY (0°C)
CFNTIi-iETERS OF
WATER (4'vJ)
DYNES/SQUARE
CFNTiMETER
INCHES OF WATER
(39.2T)
INCHES Or MERCURY
MiiTEK
POUNDS/SQUARE FOOT
ACRES
SQUARa INCHES
SgUARii METc-RS
SQUARE MILES
SQUARE YARDS
423
-------
Units
Multiplied By
Equal
SQUARE METERS
SQUARE METERS
SQUARE MILES
TONS (Metric)
TONS (Short)
2.471 x 10-*
10-*
10*
10.76
1.550 x 103
3.861 x 1C-'
1.196
6.aO x 102
2.590 x 10*
2.788 x 10'
2.590
3.098 x 10*
103
3.527 x 10*
2.205 x 103
0.984
1.102
8.897 x 10«
9.072 x 102
3.2 x 10*
2 x 103
0.893
ACRES
HECTARES
SQUARE CENTIMETERS
SQUARE FEET
SQUARE INCHES
SQUARE MILES
SQUARE YARDS
ACRES
HECTARES
SQUARE FEET
SQUARE KILOMETERS
SQUARE IARDS
KILOGRAMS
OUNCES
POUNDS
TONS (Long)
TONS (Short)
DYNES
KILOGRAMS
OUNCES
POUNDS
TONS (Long)
424
-------
Units
Multiplied By
WATTS
YARDS
0.907
3.414
1*4.25
1.341 x 10-3
1.434 x 10-2
91. 44
3
36
0.914
4.934 x 10-*
5.682 x 10-*
TONS (i-ietric)
FOCI - POUNDS/HI NOTE
K II, UG A AM-C ALOK I Eii/
MINUTE
CEiMTlMr/fLKS
FSliT
INCHES
E^ (Nautical)
MILiS (Statute)
«OA GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1973 546-312/148 1-3
425
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