NTID300.6
AN ASSESSMENT OF NOISE CONCERN IN
OTHER NATIONS
VOLUME I
DECEMBER 31, 1971
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
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NTID300.6
AN ASSESSMENT OF NOISE CONCERN IN
OTHER NATIONS
VOLUME I
DECEMBER 31, 1971
Prepared by
INFORMATICS, INC.
under
CONTRACT 68-01-0157
for the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Noise Abatement and Control
Washington, D.C. 20460
This report has been approved for general availability. The contents of this
report reflect the views of the contractor, who is responsible for the facts
and the accuracy of the data presented herein, and do not necessarily
reflect the official views or policy of EPA. This report does not constitute
a standard, specification, or regulation.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION 1
SECTION
1. 1
1.2
1.3
1.4
SECTION 3
3.1
3. 1. 1
INTRODUCTION
Purpose
Methodology
Report Structure
Contractual History
SUMMARY OF IMPRESSIONS
NOISE IN THE COMMUNITY
Community Awareness
Community Noise Surveys
Socio-psychological Aspects of Community
Sound Nuisance
3. 1.2
3. 1. 3 Community Action Programs
3. 2 Individual Cities
3. 2. 1 London
3. 2. 2 Tokyo
3. 2. 3 Moscow
3.2.4 Warsaw
3. 2. 5 Zurich
3.2.6 Johannesburg
3. 3 A Regional Approach to Noise Abatement
and Control: Nordrhein-Westfalen (N-W)
3. 3. 1 The N-W Noise Control Program
3. 3. 2 Economic Problems/Incentives
3. 3. 3 Research, Development and Planning
3. 3. 4 Licensing
Page
1
1
1
2
5
17
17
20
23
25
25
30
38
51
55
65
67
68
72
73
75
iii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION 3. 3. 5 Institutions Implementing the Program
3. 3. 6 Dortmund
3.3.7 Duesseldorf
Page
75
82
83
3.4
SECTION 4
4.1
4.2
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.2.5
4.2.6
4.2.7
4.3
4.3.1
4.3.2
4. 3. 3
4.3.4
4.3.5
4.4
References
AIR TRAFFIC NOISE
Introduction
Assessing Noise Problems at Airports
Schipol Airport
Frankfurt/Main Airport
Zurich Airport
Paris Airport
Osaka Airport
Brussels Airport
Abatement and Control
The Heathrow Case and British Reaction
Osaka Airport
Irkutsk Airport
Specific Means of Abatement
Structural Design and Insulation
Permissible Noise and City Planning
85
87
87
87
89
90
90
92
92
94
97
97
102
103
105
108
111
iv
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION 4. 5 International Control
4. 5. 1 International Civil Aviation Organization
4. 5. 2 Retrofitting
Page
120
120
123
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
SECTION 5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.4.1
Medical and Physiological Studies
Noise from Unconventional Aircraft
Sonic Boom
References
SURFACE TRAFFIC
Assessment of Traffic Noise Nuisance
Road Traffic Noise Measurements
Vehicle Noise Measurements
Noise Regulation and Abatement
Screens, Distance Factors, and
Community Planning
5. 4. 2 Modeling and Prediction
5. 5 Rail Transport
5. 6 OECD Observations
5.7 References
124
131
131
134
139
139
150
165
169
172
178
183
187
188
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION 6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
SECTION 7
7.1
7.1.1
7.1.2
7.2
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3
7.3
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.3.4
7.4
Page
c: INSIDE BUILDINGS
Hospitals 192
Schools 199
Residences 202
Techniques 206
Codes and Standards ' 211
References 216
INDUSTRIAL NOISE -- EFFECTS ON 218
THE COMMUNITY
General Considerations 218
Standardization of Measurement Methodology 219
Limits on Industrial Noise Nuisance 223
Noise from Factories 227
Zoning Techniques 228
Abatement at the Source 241
Evenly Distributed Light Industry:
A Special Problem 247
Construction Projects 249
The Legal Basis for Regulating Construction 250
Noise
Practical Abatement Methods: 260
Quieter Equipment
Practical Abatement Methods: Shielding 265
Practical Abatement Methods: Regulation 265
of Working Hours
References 272
Vi
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
SECTION 8 SIGNIFICANT NOISE-RELATED ORGANIZA- 275
TIONS AND CONFERENCES
8. 1 Centers, Institutions and Personalities 275
Active in Noise Abatement and Control
8. 1. 1 Institute of Sound and Vibration Research 276
of University of Southampton, England
8. 1. 2 Scientific Branch of the Greater London 285
Council (GLC)
8. 1. 3 Building Research Station - Garston, England 288
8. 1.4 Road Research Laboratory of the British 291
Ministry of Transport
8. 1. 5 Research Institute for Heat and Sound Tech- 292
nology, Vienna
8. 1. 6 Austrian Working-Group for Noise Abatement 296
8. 1. 7 German Engineers Association 298
8. 1. 8 The German Working-Group for Noise Control 303
8. 1. 9 Scientific and Technical Center for Construction 304
(CSTB), Paris
8.1.10 Committee on Acoustics - Polish Academy 307
of Sciences
8.1.11 Institute of Building Technique, Warsaw 310
8.1.12 Soviet Organizations: The Erisman Institute 311
and Others.
8.1.13 National Swedish Institute for Building Research 314
8.1.14 ETAN and Other Noise-Related Yugoslav 316
Institutions - Yugoslav Committee for
Electronics and Automation
8.1.15 Acoustics Department of C. I. F. "L Torres 318
Quevedo" Madrid
8.1.16 National Research Council, Canada 319
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION 8. 2
8. 2. 1
8.2.2
8. 2. 3
8.2.4
8. 2. 5
8. 2. 6
8.2.7
International Organizations
International Organization for Standardiza-
tion (I. S. 0. )
International Association Against Noise
Environmental Directorate Organization for
Cooperation and Development (OECD)
Nordforsk- Environmental Secretariat
The European Public Health Committee of
the Council of Europe
European Economic Community
The U. N. Organizations: E. C. E. . W. H. O. ,
Page
321
321
323
326
327
330
331
333
and I. L. O.
8. 3 Conferences Related to Noise Abatement
and Control
335
8.4
References
339
SECTION 9
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
THE LAWS ON NOISE
Australia
Austria
Federal Republic of Germany
(West Germany - FRG)
France
German Democratic Republic
(East Germany)
Great Britain
342
344
346
350
373
382
385
Viii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
SECTION 9.7 Israel 397
9.8 Italy 403
9.9 Japan 410
9.10 Scandinavian Countries 424
9. 11 Switzerland 434
9.12 U. S. S. R. 441
9.13 Yugoslavia 474
9. 14 References 477
iac
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
3-1 Sources of Noise Annoyance in-England 18
3-2 Sources of Noise Annoyance in Norway 19
3-3 Road Traffic Noise Climates in db(A) Classified
According to Type of Road and Period of Day 27
3-4 Tokyo Vehicular Traffic Noise 31
3-5 Tokyo Construction Noise 32
3-6 Noise in Tokyo Areas 33
3-7 Noise in and Around Tokyo Green Belt Areas 35
3-8 Sample Noise Levels Produced by Main-Road
Traffic in the Moscow Area 40
3-9 Noise Levels Inside a Moscow Apartment Complex 43
3-10 Recommended Warsaw Noise Levels 52
3-11 Effects of Green Belts on Noise 54
3-12 Vehicular Noise Standards in Zurich 59
3-13 Permissable Noise Levels in Zurich Construction 62
3-14 Enforcement of City Noise Ordinances in Zurich 64
3-15 Typical Noise Complaints in Johannesburg 65
3-16 Quieter Construction Equipment in Nordrhein-
Westfalen. 73
4vl Aircraft Noise Emissions Near Osaka Airport 93
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
4-2 Aircraft Noise Emissions Near Brussels 94
4-3 Duration of Peak Flyover Noise Near Brussels'
Airport 95
4-4 Use of the Noise Abatement Climb (NAC) (Caravelle
Aircraft at Brussels) 96
4-5 Noise Levels at 300-m Flyover Point, Brussels 96
4-6 Sound Pressure Level (in dB) for Various Aircraft
in Overflights Near Irkutsk, Together with their
Duration (in Minutes) 104
4-7 Maximum Ground Run-up Noise Levels Allowed
at Paris Airport 106
4-8 Noise Reductions Through Treatment of Windows
in Japan 108
4-9 Aircraft Noise Immissions to a Tokyo School 109
4-10 Noise Reduction Achieved at a Tokyo School by
Use of Sound Absorbing Material and Other Construction
Techniques 1lO
5-1 Annoyance from Noise in Sweden '.40
5-2 Annoyance from Traffic Noise in Japan 140
5-3 Annoyance Caused by Noise Immissions into
Buildings 143
5-4 Annoyance Caused by Noises and Odors: A
Comparative Study of Residents of Stockholm, Sweden
and Ferrara, Italy. 145
5-5 Swedish Recommendations for Noise Climates
Inside and Outside Buildings 147
xl
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
5-6 Mean Values of British Traffic Noise Measurements 154
5-7 Results of Traffic Noise Survey in Vienna 158
5-8 Motor Vehicle Noise Emissions as a Function
of Speed 162
5-9 Influence of Trucks and of Speed on Noise Emitted
by Soviet Traffic 163
5-10 Maximum Permissable Motor Vehicle Noise
Emissions in Switzerland 169
5-11 Noise Level Limits Inside Vehicles, Czechoslovakia 171
5-12 Proposed Vehicular Noise Emissions Limits (Sweden) 172
5-13 British Cost Estimates for Road Noise Barriers 174
5-14 Recommended Separation Between Roads and
Housing (Sweden) 177
5-15 Frequency Characteristics of Toronto Subway
Insulation 184
5-16 Average Noise Levels in the Toronto Subway 185
5-17 Noise Levels in the Moscow Subway 185
6-1 Noise Annoyance of Teachers in a Vienna School 200
6-2 Noise Annoyance of Pupils in a Vienna School 200
6-3 Polish Experience on Noise Abatement Through
Window Design 207
7-1 Land Use in Special Industrial Zone, Chiba
Prefecture Project 231
xii
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
7-2 Financing of Chiba Anti-Pollution Projects 232
7-3 Measured Values for Noise Emissions of Refuse
Plant Components 242-3
7-4 Noise Climates Specified by SIA Recommendation
181 for Swiss Land-Use Zones 256
7-5 Incremental Noise Allowed for Construction in
Switzerland 257
7-6 Provisions of the Japanese Law on Construction
Noise (No. 98 of 1968) Dealing with Time of
Operation 271
8-1 The Council of the European Communities
Guidelines 332
9-1 "Evaluation Level11 in German Construction Noise
Law 362
9-2 Noise Levels Permitted for New Vehicles in
Great Britain 391
9-3 Disposition of Civil Suits to Prohibit Noise Nuisance,
Italy 403
9-4 Motor Vehicle Noise Emission Limits in Italy 406
9-5 Fines Issued Against Highway Code Anti-Noise
Articles 408
9-6 Japanese Standards for Noise Control in Areas
Not Adjacent to a Street 411
9-7 Japanese Variable Area Standards for Noise Control 412
xiii
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
9-8 National Standards for Industrial Noise Emissions •; 417
9-9 Japanese Limits for Noise Emissions of New Vehicles 421
9-10 I. S. O. Curve NR 80 442
9-11 Adjustments to SNIP No. 785/69 in Respect to
Noise Exposures Less Than an Eight Hour Shift 444
9-12 Maximum Industrial Noise Emissions to
Neighboring Areas 446
9-13 The 1956 Industrial Norms 447
9-14 Other Work-Related Soviet Norms on Noise 450
9-15 Noise Control on Trains per Sanitary Norms 276-58
(temporary) 451
* ' "
9-16 Maximum Allowable Noise Levels in Cabins of
Locomotives per Branch Norms ON-20 452
9-17 Maximum Allowable Noise Levels on Board Soviet
Ships 452
9-18 Soviet Norms on Noise in Residences and Similar
Buildings 454
9-19 - Basic Norms of SN 535-65 (before adjustment) 458
9-20 SN 535-65: Table of Adjustments for Determining
the Norms for a Particular Residential Situation 459
xiv
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
3-1 Typical Night Recordings in a Residential Area 26
3-2 Noise in a Warsaw Tunnel 53
3-3 The Governmental Apparatus for Environmental
Protection in N-W 77
5-1 The Effect of Volume on Traffic Noise and the
Effect of Distance on Traffic Noise: Probability 154
5-2 Correlation Between Austrian Traffic Measurements
and Values Calculated by Larrmre's Equation 159
6-1 Reduction of Sound Transmission with Carpeting,
a Function of Noise Source 210
6-2 Sound Insulation Specifications and Ebmestic
Equipment Noise Limits for Selected European
Countries 214
7-1 Plan of a Refuse-Treatment Plant Designed in
Accordance with Greater London Council Noise
Abatement Guidelines 240
7-2 Noise Shield for Construction Machine 266
7-3 Noise Shields 267
7-4 L-Shaped Noise Shield 268
7-5 Reduced Effectiveness of Noise Shields Due to
Noise Reflected from Buildings 269
9-1 Basic Provisions of Soviet Law SNiP 785-69
Concerning Maximum Levels of Noise in Occupational
Settings 443
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
1. 1 Purpose
This contractor report is intended to supplement the Report
to Congress by the Office of Noise Abatement and Control. It presents
an overview of noise abatement and control problems and activities
of foreign nations. It is presented on the premises that the issue of
noise and its effect on man has attracted worldwide attention^ that
many nations and their local governments have taken concrete steps
and are supporting extensive research toward noise abatement; and
finally, that such information is useful for U. S. federal, state and
local governments in their formulation of policy and action plans.
1.2 Methodology
This report can, at best, present highlights of worldwide activities.
The data collection, analysis, and synthesis were conducted over a
period of less than three months. The.work is based primarily on
the literature available in the greater Washington, D. C. area in various
government agencies and libraries. In addition, a number of embassies
provided information and in the closing weeks of compilation substantial
inputs were received directly from a large number of foreign governments.
Time constraints prohibited this survey from being exhaustive. Therefore,
important developments and work in many nations may have been omitted,
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either because of oversight or because of the authors' inability
to obtain relevant material in time. It should be noted here that
this report contains a number of direct quotes or translations.
Whenever possible, references are provided which identify the
source and where further, more detailed information can be
found.
1. 3 Report Structure
This report offers an integrated topical approach rather than
a country-by-country account. This format was chosen in the
belief that most readers' interest is focused on one or more topics
rather than on national origin. Certain exceptions, however, were
necessary. Since this report attempts to draw a picture of worldwide
noise abatement and control mostly by case studies or illustrative
examples, urban activities, for example, are given city-by-city.
A more serious departure from the integrated approach is contained
in Section 9, The Laws on Noise. It was necessary to review each
country separately because the legal foundations and cultural backgrounds
of the countries surveyed differ fundamentally.
This report is designed to flow in a natural pattern. First,
Noise in the Community is discussed as a broad-spectrum issue. In
that Section an attempt is made, through illustrative examples, to
demonstrate that noise abatement is, at once, a national as well as
a local issue and that local programs as well as those of national
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governments, are interdependent. This thesis is supported further
in Section 3. 3.
The sections on aviation, surface traffic and industrial
noise deal essentially with the nature of the specific sources and
with the experience gained in various countries in dealing with
these noise sources. Necessarily, the city-by-city survey overlaps
to some extent with the surface traffic and air traffic sections.
The section on Noise in Structures shows abatement measures taken
in specific situations such as schools or hospitals. It also reviews,
supplemental to the Law section, various national building codes and
regulations.
Finally, the section on Organizations, while not a complete
catalog, identifies and discusses the relative relationships of various
organizations, both governmental and private, which are active in
the noise abatement field. Names of key personnel and addresses have
been included, in addition to specific references, as an aid to the
reader who may seek further information.
In conclusion, Section 9 presents the legal foundation upon
which noise abatement and control action by various countries is
based. Again, as in all other sections, the coverage is not complete.
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A total of fifteen countries are reported here in varying degrees of
detail. Supplemental data such as those on building codes, motor
vehicle regulations or industrial regulations ars reported in the
topical sections.
It should be pointed out that two significant elements of noise
abatement and control have been omitted from this report. The
first is the area of occupational noise hazards. Although extensive
information on this topic has been compiled, a decision to delete this
material has been made since there already exist two public laws on
this topic and since the thrust of EPA's efforts is aimed toward new
legislation and programs in other areas.
Secondly, Vol. I of the report does not contain any information
on the physiological and psychological effects of noise on man as
viewed by foreign researchers (except for Section 4. 6--effects of aircraft
noise on man). A compromise was necessary on this matter: the
scientific knowledge of these effects is the very foundation of all further
action. Hence, inclusion appeared to be mandatory. On the other hand,
the purpose of this report is to review noise problems in a sociological
and technical context and highlight various national and local actions
aimed at resolving this issue as an aid in the formulation of domestic
programs.
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Therefore, the review of foreign research on the
physiological and psychological effects of noise on man is submitted
in a supplemental volume. In this manner, the reader who is interested
in applied matter is not asked to work his way through this complex
topic; and conversely, the reader who is specifically interested in
physiological and psychological effects may restrict himself to reading
Volume II (plus Section 4. 6).
1.4 Contractual History
As indicated earlier, the work reported here has been
performed under contract 68-01-0157 with the Environmental
Protection Agency. Due to uncontrollable circumstances this project
was not initiated until July 17, 1971. Considering the necessary time
required in start-up, and considering a final draft due date of
October 25, 1971, a total period of performance of three months, or less,
was available. The success of this effort is in great part due to the
cooperation and guidance obtained from Mr. John S.chettino, Deputy
Director, Office of Noise Abatement and Control, the support from the
National Library of Medicine, the Library of the Department of Housing
and Urban Development, and the National Library of Agriculture. Many
source documents were found also at the Library of Congress and the
Library of the Department of Transportation.
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The team performing the work reported here-- some of
them full time, others part-time—devoted many of their private
hours. The principal contributors were: K. G. Liebhold, Project
Manager; Leonard Beck, Harold Chu, John Jordan, May Laughran,
Philip Leslie, Carl Modig and Irena Traska. Special credit is
due to Mrs. Shirley Wingo and Mrs. Pamela Dolan whose clerical
and typing support extended frequently into the very late night hours.
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SECTION 2
SUMMARY OF IMPRESSIONS
In May 1971, the U.N. Economic Commission for Europe
sponsored a conference on problems relating to the environment. The
papers submitted at this conference indicate that noise is not only a
topic of serious concern in Europe but one which has been the object
of specific attention for the past ten years. Although the invitation
to the conference suggested an outline for the subject matter and
mentioned noise only as a subsidiary topic, eighteen of the twenty-six
countries represented at the conference singled out noise for specific
mention. Twelve of these, or more than half of those who did so,
treated noise as a major environmental topic along with water pollution,
air pollution and the degradation of the soil.
It is undoubtedly valid to conclude that European nations have
become more noise conscious and have been more active in noise abatement
than the United States. There are, of course, a number of obvious reasons.
Most European countries have been engulfed in noise from various
sources. Since World War II the majority of them have been engaged in
reconstruction and subsequent economic expansion. In England, for
example, construction noise alone has been intensive, with 600,000 new
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residences being erected per year from 1966 to 1971. Similarly, aircraft
flights there have increased between 15 and 20 percent each year in
recent history. Also, in European Common Market countries, the
automobile population has been increasing rapidly.
The demography of Europe and its associated social
traditions differ greatly from those of the U. S. Many town dwellers in
Europe own their own houses, and even farmers tend to live in towns
rather than on farms. Very close proximity to one's neighbor, and
narrow crowded streets, are endemic to the history of European cities.
In most European governments there is a trend toward
establishing unified ministries of environment. However, most of these
ministries are so new that nothing can be said about their effectiveness.
This is not to be interpreted, however, as meaning that these governments
have not been active in pollution control prior to the forming of the new
ministries. Rather, the extensive activities of other ministries such as
those of health, transport and housing have led to major programs which
have required ultimate consolidation into single ministries.
The Scandinavian countries have been very active in noise
abatement and control. Recently a technical body under the name of
8
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the Scandinavian Building Council was established by these
countries in order to exchange notes, collect new ideas, find common
approaches and arrive at solutions in all aspects of building and
urban planning problems. Lately this council has been notably
preoccupied with traffic and aviation noise. One result of its work
is that recommendations have been drafted for regulations prescribing
minimum distances between buildings and different types of roads.
The organization has also conducted studies to provide safer and
less noisy road systems in new building developments. Another
organization currently planning noise abatement research is Nordforsk,
the Scandinavian Council of Applied Research.
In England the new Minister of Environment appears to have
autonomy in his position but, like his colleagues, he must fight certain
cases before the full cabinet. France's Ministry of Environment is
barely five months old. Its scope is not yet well defined. However, it
is noteworthy that jurisdiction for industrial and construction noise has been
removed from local governments and assigned to the new Ministry.
West Germany is developing a new environmental policy to be unveiled
in November 1971. It is already known, however, that its "sofort"
priority program includes a new law on noise pollution. It is expected
that it will cover construction noise and emission/immission standards
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as well as a general monitoring program and a central clearinghouse
for air and noise information. Structurally, West Germany's Ministry
of the Environment is an element of the Ministry of the Interior.
Italy's environmental program is complicated by recent reforms which
increase the powers of regional governments. Japan's environmental
ministry is quite new. Most noise control laws have been effected by
prefectural or city governments and jurisdictional responsibility
remains with regional governments; but their regulations must
conform, as a minimum, to national standards.
The Soviet Union and Eastern European countries do not
seem to follow the pattern of a unified environmental ministry.
While noise control and abatement has been an active issue, it has
been pursued by such ministries as those of health and building
technology. In the USSR noise laws have the form of administrative
regulations.
The findings of various noise surveys tend to support each
other and thus to suggest that urban noise phenomena are much the same
from city to city. For example, London, Tokyo, Duesseldorf, Madrid
and other cities all report that the average noise from heavy vehicles
is higher than the noise from ordinary cars, and that traffic noise is
also a function of such variables as traffic speed, volume, road width,
evenness of flow, and road gradient. The London survey shows
10
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that the noise level next to a road increases by 4dB(A), from a bt-se of
68 to 80 dB(A), if the traffic flow increases from 1, 000 to 3, 000
vehicles per hour. Dlisseldorf, though, reporting in different measuring
units, shows results of much the same magnitude. However, the
DUsseldorf investigators carried this one step further to find that a
given increase in traffic density had less effect on the noise level 20 or
40 meters away than it did next to the roadway itself.
One of the most frequently cited results of the London survey
indicates that over 80% of London1 s noise is caused by vehicular traffic.
It should be pointed out, though, that this particular survey covered
36 square miles of the inner city where vehicles were the most numerous
noise sources. In the survey report it was shown that the contributions
of industrial and other noise emission grew as one proceeded toward
some of the outlying areas. More specifically, traffic noise predominated
in 84% of the locations chosen for the survey, while in the remaining 16%
of the locations the predominant noise came from industrial plants,
river boats, docks, railways, building operations, etc. While it is
evidently true the surface traffic makes the largest contribution to
urban noise, the very fact that it is dominated by other noise sources
in certain city locations is significant.
11
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Nearly all countries surveyed have explicit national or local
laws regulating noise emissions from motor vehicles. Of all the irritating
noise sources in both urban and rural settings, traffic noise has been
isolated most frequently as the key culprit. The relative importance of
vehicular noise is supported by the sociological surveys made in several
cities, but the results vary. Brno, Paris and London are typical examples.
In Brno, 90% of the people interrogated ranked traffic noise as the most
annoying, while in Paris only 80% ranked it in first place. In London,
where the responses were classified according to location of the people
surveyed, the result on traffic noise showed 36% for people annoyed by
it while at home, 20% when they were outdoors and 7% when they were at
work. Interestingly enough, 39% of the London respondents at home gave
higher priorities to home-generated noises from appliances, voices,
television, pets, etc., while the rest complained most about aircraft or
industry.
Many countries have introduced strips of grass or trees along
highways. While such measures are aesthetically pleasing, Swiss and
Scandinavian data show typical attenuation of only 5 dB(A) per 100 meters
for dense plantings of trees. The Swiss study comments that such a
measure may be worthwhile from a psychological point of view: when the
source of noise is not visible it is less irritating.
12
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Nevertheless many large urban governments are redesigning entire
sections of their cities to provide more pleasant environments
including reduced traffic noise levels outside and inside residences
and other buildings. For example, an Amsterdam project calls for
wide spaces, planted with grass and trees, between highways and
residences. Only low non-residential buildings are allowed along
the highways.
Virtually every country is concerned in some way with
noise caused by air traffic. The disturbance caused by aircraft noise
in residential areas around the world's major airports is generally
regarded as a serious problem. Protests from aroused citizens have
prompted planning agencies in most countries to move cautiously in
establishing new airports. London has spent several years debating
the location of its third, and Tokyo its second. Not the least of the
impediments is the publicity which has been given to the prospect of
sonic boom carpets to be laid across the world during SST flights.
Much has been said about the effects on residential areas
of noise from aircraft, surface vehicles, industrial plants and other
external sources. However, a close review of foreign literature shows
that other countries devote significant attention to the identification and
control of noise which originates in and around residential buildings.
13
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Some of the annoyances already mentioned in connection with
the London survey have been cited by representatives of other countries
as well. Much of their discussion revolves around the transmission of
sounds through poorly insulated walls and floors. These sounds include
human voices, footsteps, radios, musical instruments and many others
generated either by neighbors or by members of the same household.
Concern over such noises is reflected not only directly in
reports and study results but indirectly in the proliferation of building
specifications. In some countries specifications are presented as
requirements while in others they are merely recommendations. Although
most of the specifications center around ISO recommendations,
particularly with respect to the measurement of airborne and impact
sound transmissions, each country has introduced special features of
its own. For example, in Poland as well as in other Bast European
countries, all apartments must be separated longitudinally by double
walls. Several countries recommend floating floors for control of
impact noises and lead-based foundations for the attenuation of
ground-transmitted vibrations. Most European countries specify insulation
of water pipes from structural members of buildings to avoid trans-
mission of water-hammer vibrations and faucet noise.
14
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Not all domestic approaches to noise control are directly
related to insulation. Elevators, heating or air conditioning equipment,
doorbells, household appliances and other devices have been cited as offenders.
Sweden and the USSR have both conducted studies of such items,
particularly of individual household appliances. An interesting view-
point on household appliances was offered in the Hungarian monograph
submitted for this year's conference sponsored by the Economic Commission
for Europe. The writer expressed the opinion that appliances made in
Hungary might have little value for export purposes because they were
noisier than appliances manufactured in some other countries.
Many countries have also conducted special studies and
surveys of public institutions. Most commonly studied have been schools
and hospitals; but other institutions for which some foreign noise control
efforts can be observed include museums, concert halls, libraries and
public administration buildings.
For measuring purposes, the concept of the perceived noise level,
with various modifications and interpretations, is commonly accepted.
This concept is reflected in the ISO procedure for the measurement and
assessment of noise. Although most countries agree with the principles
behind this procedure, some object to its methodology. Notable among
15
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these is South Africa, where work is being done on the development of
one which involves more factors and fewer measurements. South Africa
has also been among the countries following the recent trend toward the
measurement of noise levels in dB(A) rather than in PNdB units as
originally specified in ISO recommendations.
In gene'ral, the compilers of this report were impressed with
the volume of foreign literature on noise abatement and control. If this
can be regarded as an indicator, it can be concluded that the programs
of most foreign countries not only were started sooner than those of
the United States but have reached higher stages of advancement.
16
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SECTION 3
NOISE IN THE COMMUNITY
3.1 Community Awareness
However concerned they may be about the physiological
and psychological effects of noise, people are usually provoked to
concerted action against noise primarily because they find it annoying
and irritating. Historically such action has beep initiated at the
community level, usually in highly urbanized areas. Most of the foreign
communities began their campaigns in the late fifties or early sixties.
3.1.1 Community Noise Surveys
Some communities began with sociological surveys to assess
the reactions of residents to various noise disturbances. Others began
with technological surveys aimed at determining the actual noise levels
at various times of the day or night in specific locations. Many
communities conducted both sociological and technological surveys,
seeking correlations between them.
17
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Virtually every survey ranked noise from surface traffic
as the most prominent single factor in the urban noise environment.
However, the figures from a 1968 British survey .(Table 3-1) show
that surface traffic is by no means the only source of annoyance:
Description of Noise
Road traffic
Aircraft
Trains
Industry /construction work
Dome stic /Light appliances
Neighbors' impact noise
• (knocking, walking, etc. )
Children
Adult voices
Radio/TV
Bells /alarms
Pets
Number of People
Annoyed Per 100 Questioned
When at Home ( When Outdoors
36
9
5
7
4
6
9
10
7
3
3
20
4
1
3
-
-
3
2
1
1
-
When at Work
7
1
-
10
4
:
-
2
1
1
-
Table 3-1. Sources of Noise Annoyance in England.
3-1
18
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While the absolute percentages vary from community to
community, the foregoing list is fairly typical. The same noise sources
appear repeatedly, augmented from time to time by sources of particular
concern in certain localities: river boat whistles on the Danube,
motor boat exhausts on Swiss lakes, radios in Russian apartment complexes,
etc. On the question of urban vs. rural disturbances, a clue is given
by data from a poll of 1600 people in Norway (Table 3-2).
Type of Noise
A. Noise from motor vehicles
B. Noise from aircraft
C. Noise from railroads
D. Noise from neighbors
Number of People Annoyed
Per 100 Questioned
All Questioned
17
3
4
5
Area
Urban Rural
20 11
4 1
5 1
6 3
Table 3-2. Sources of Noise Annoyance in Norway.
3-2
Differences in reaction to noises may be caused by any of
numerous factors. For example, a Swedish study shows that cultural
differences are significant in assessing the social impact of traffic noise.
This comparative study with a sample population (matched in terms of
19
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age, social, and occupational status) of 200 in Stockholm and 166 in
Ferrara, Italy came up with a statistically significant difference--
92% in Stockholm versus 63% in Ferrara spontaneously mentioned
traffic noise, and 61% in Stockholm versus 43% in Ferrara were
disturbed by traffic noise. The conclusion was drawn that results
concerning annoyance reactions to traffic noise in one country cannot
3 3
be directly extrapolated to another.
3.1.2 Socio-psychological Aspects of Community Sound Nuisance
In addition to the pure cultural differences illustrated by
the foregoing overview of Swedish and Italian reactions to traffic
noise, there are many other characteristics which prompt people to
react to noise in varying ways. A rather comprehensive list of such
factors is offered by a Dutch report " which discusses them as follows:
o The 31-60 age group generally experienced a
somewhat greater measure of sound nuisance.
o Men and women generally experienced sound
nuisance to the same extent.
o Sound nuisance showed a tendency to decrease
with increase of family.
o Sound nuisance showed a tendency to increase
as the children grow older.
20
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It was found that, with rise in grade of
occupation, an increasing measure of
sound nuisance is experienced; brain
workers usually experience more sound
nuisance than manual workers.
In the case of persons following a certain
branch of education, it was found that most
sound nuisance is experienced by those of
the highest educational group.
As in the case of education and occupation,
it was found that sound nuisance is experienced
to a greater extent with increase of income.
(There is, of course, a connection between
occupation, training and income, so that there
is not necessarily any causative connection
between income and sound nuisance.)
Evidence was furnished that the, two most
prosperous classes are more susceptible
to sound nuisance than the two least
prosperous classes.
Higher social standing was usually found to be
associated with higher susceptibility to
sound nuisance.
In households were children engage in study
in "the evenings more sound nuisance is
experienced than in families where this is not
the case.
In households where the head of the family
pursues home activities with a view to self-
education or to studying for a profession, more
sound nuisance is experienced than in households
where the head of the family does not engage in
such home occupations.
The impression obtained from the investigation
preparatory to the survey that the more heterogeneous
the occupants of a block of dwellings are, the more
sound nuisance they experience, was not confirmed
by the available data.
21
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Cultural considerations have emerged in another form
recently with a somewhat surprising twist. It seems that sharpening
the awareness of people to environmental noise has-also encouraged
them to think in terms of certain sounds as noise sources: traffic,
construction, industry, etc. Now an old familiar sound , the sound
of church bells, has become a new noise-abatement target.
In scattered communities throughout the world people
have attempted to curtail church bells, especially bells played
early in the morning. The situation promises to raise controversies
involving legal as well as religious questions.
In Bonn, for example, Article 4 of the Basic Law
explains freedom of religious conviction and beliefs explicitly.
Here all religious practices are guaranteed immunity to disturbance
or interference. Under the concept of religious practice are
understood to be all cult activities whether publicly or privately
practiced. With regard to this regulation, one can conclude that the
right to bells as traditional symbols of Christian churches is also
prptected here.
22
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Yet in Bonn church bells have been labelled as noise
nuisances. In Chicago, where the noise abatement authorities
ruled recently against them, the religious question played only a
small role. In Switzerland it remains controversial. Sttch cases
promise to attract widespread attention in noise abatement circles.
3. 1. 3 Community Action Programs
One fundamental form of community action is the
development of legislation, which is discussed separately in Section
9 of this report. In addition to the creation and enforcement of
laws, however, there are many other things a community can do to
combat noise nuisances. A few examples will serve to illustrate.
In Vienna, for example, there is now a telephone number
which citizens can call to complain about excessive noise. A police
unit is dispatched promptly to investigate such a call. The service
is fast enough that its scope includes some kinds of vehicular noise
disturbances.
A variation on the Vienna telephone technique is offered
in Johannesburg by the Noise Control Officer of the City Health
23
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Department. A great deal of his time, he reports, is taken up with
providing a telephone "safety valve" service for irate citizens who
are troubled by the noises of the city: he lists all complaints and
does what he can about them. In most cases he has no adequate
enforcement legislation to fall back on, so that it is mainly a case
for persuasion. His statistics for current months show that he is
successful in obtaining abatement in 40% of the cases handled.
Like other cities, Johannesburg has tried a publicity
campaign to make the public noise conscious. In 1970 the city
was blanketed with orange-and-black posters exhorting citizens
(in two languages) to keep Johannesburg quiet.
Tokyo's public information campaigns have been more
elaborate. Main intersections in the city have permanent
noise measuring devices to register noise levels, which are reported
by display along with time and temperature. Other information about
Tokyo's campaign against noise is reported in Section 3.2.2.
24
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3.2 Individual Cities
Historically, the first thrusts against noise in most
countries have been made at local rather than at national levels.
This is not surprising, because the sources of noise disturbance
are usually close to the people they annoy and because people
t
tend to turn first to their local authorities for relief. The political
unit large enough to have a significant noise problem and localized
enough to receive many complaints about it is obviously the city.
The following accounts provide a sampling of experiences with
noise problems in representative foreign cities.
3. 2. 1 London
The highly publicized London noise survey, for which
data were gathered in 1961 and 1962, is perhaps the best known of
the city noise surveys. Although the original purpose of this survey
was to examine the possible noise effects of a proposed in-town heliport,
the findings and the methodology of the London investigators have
exerted considerable influence on subsequent work in practical urban
noise research. For example, contributions of this survey included
research showing the value of measurements in dB(A) and the extent
to which easily-measured dB(A) could be substituted for various
loudness units such as Phon and sone. " '
25
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Its contributions also included popularization of the
"noise climate" concept and the notational units L-10 and L-90
which are related to it. L-lO is defined as the noise level which
is exceeded 10% of the time, while L-90 is defined as the noise
level which is exceeded 90% of the time. The "noise climate" is
defined as the range from L-90 to L-10. A typical table of noise -
climate figures appears in Table 3-3.
Assessment of the traffic annoyance in a residential
area must also take into account the effect of peaks in noise levels.
From the point of view of a sleeping resident, a single loud vehicle
passing suddenly through a quiet neighborhood can be more disturbing
than a continuing stream of such vehicles. Figure 3-1 below shows
a pattern of such peaks occurring in a typical residential area
between 11 p.m. and 2 a.m.
dBA:
Z320
.,.2325
-=30 dBA
0130
0135
0140
Figure 3-1. Typical night recordings in
a residential area
26
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Road Class
A
B
C
D
D1
E
All points on
road
Rush hour (7 am to
10 am, 4 pm to 7 pm)
Median
noise level
71
64.5
62
57.5
61
54
61.5
All points shielded
from direct road 55. 5
noise
Noise Climate
76.5-66
72.5-60
68-57.5
63.5-54.5
67-57
58.5-52
67.5-57.5
60-52.5
Day (10 am to 4 pm)
Median
noiae level
70.5
64
63
57
60.5
55
61
56
Moise Climate
76-65.5
71.5-58.5
69-58.5
62.5-53.5
66-57
58-53
66.5-57
60.5-53.5
Evening (7 pm to
midnight)
Median
noise level
65
58.5
55
52.5
56.5
50.5
56
51
Noise Climate
72-61
67-53.5
62-51
57.5-49
62-52.5
54-48. 5
62-52
54.5-48
Night (midnight to
7 am)
Median
noise level
57.5
49
/
47
45.5
50
47.5
49
46.5
Noise Climate
67.5-51.5
57-46.
53.5-44
50.5-43
55-46. 5
50-45.5
55-46
50-43.5
Number of
Measuring
sites
41
23
15
118
94
18
291
34
*Typeofroad. (A), M. o. T. Class 1; (B), M. o. T. Class 2; (C), M. o. T. Class 3 and 4; (D), purely local traffic, no buses;
(D1), as (D) but affected by noise from nearby classified road; (E), open space.
Road Traffic Noise Climates in dB(A) Classified According to Type of Road* and Period of Day
Table 3-3
3-7
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One of the most frequently cited results of the London
survey indicates that over 80% of London's noise is caused by
vehicular traffic. It should be pointed out, however, that this
particular survey covered 36 square miles of the inner city where
vehicles were the most numerous noise sources. In the survey
report it was shown that the contribution of industrial and other
noise emission grew as one proceeded toward the outlying areas.
More specifically, traffic noise predominated in 84% of the
locations chosen for the survey, while in the remaining 16% of the
locations the predominant noise came from industrial plants, river
boats, docks, railways, building operations, etc. While it is
evidently true that surface traffic makes the largest contribution to
urban noise, the very fact that it is dominated by other noise
sources in certain city locations is significant.
The original survey led to further research in later
years and influenced city planning in a variety of ways. Before its
findings were published, preliminary results were made available
to the Committee on the Problem of Noise (Wilson Committee) which
was carrying on its investigations concurrently. The Wilson Committee,
though it became involved inevitably in technical matters, pursued its
analyses primarily along sociological lines. In the introduction to
28
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its report, the Committee expressed the hope that its conclusions
and representations represented fairly "the reaction of the ordinary
citizen to noise, and the degree of trouble and expense he would
approve to mitigate it. "
By late 1965 London had appointed a permanent Noise
Abatement Council to replace the temporary Wilson Committee; and
in February 1966 the Greater London Council established a definite
policy with regard to noise. The decisions reached by the Council
were:
(a) that the Council do approve
1. that all major road and redevelopment
schemes shall pay full regard to the
problem of traffic noise and that the
recommendations in the report of the
Committee on the Problem of Noise
(the Wilson Committee) for internal
noise-levels shall be accepted as
desirable standards for all new
building schemes; and
2. that, as part of general planning policy,
piecemeal development in the vicinity of
major traffic routes should in principle
be resisted;
29
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(b) that the government be urged
1. to adopt initially the standards in the
report of the Committee of the Problems
of Noise (the Wilson Committee) for noise
from the engine and exhaust systems of
motor vehicles, to intensify research into
the substantial reduction of the noise, and
to enforce through legislation the higher
standards that will result; and
2. to recognize, for grant purposes, unavoidable
expenditure in dealing with the noise factor
and with daylighting and amenity problems
when new motorways are introduced into
"quiet" urban areas;
(c) that the London borough councils be invited to
encourage applicants for planning permission
to consider the mitigation of traffic noise in
building design and layout and to discourage
piecemeal development in the vicinity of major
traffic routes.
3.2.2 Tokyo
It has been common for foreign cities to launch anti-noise
campaigns on their own, sometimes without national support and
sometimes with national support which has been forthcoming afterward.
In the case of Tokyo, city action has been supported by city ordinances
and by national legislation. Under a national law, the Basic Law on
Pollution Measures, each level of government is required to take
measurements or conduct surveys each year and to report its findings.
30
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Pollution surveys, including noise surveys, are being
conducted almost constantly in Tokyo. Since 1968 the city has made
eighteen surveys. The Tokyo Metropolitan Research Institute for
Environmental Protection has made surveys of automobile noise
levels, construction noise levels, noise levels at schools, industrial
noise levels, noise levels by zone, noise levels inside and outside
of green belts, etc.
In a survey of traffic noise made in 1968 the Institute
reported the figures for measurements taken 7 meters from the
center of each vehicle that are shown in Table 3-4.
Type of Automobile
Large Truck
Large Bus
Small Truck
Two-wheeled Vehicle
Small car
Passenger car
MEAN NOISE LEVEL
Number of Autos
Measured
174
30
90
44
32
147
Noise
Max.
89
83
88
81
80
80
89
Level Phori
(A)
Min. Mean
71 79
64 75
66 75
63 72
65 73
63 71
63 75
Table 3-4. Tokyo Vehicular Traffic Noise
3-8
31
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Roughly 75% of all public construction work in Tokyo
(streets, water lines, sewer pipes, etc.) has taken place at night
because heavy traffic and manpower shortages make daytime practice
difficult. In the summer months 71% of all construction has been
devoted to buildings, and half of this has taken place at night.
A typical survey of construction noise was one made
in 1967, wherein noise levels were measured at 1300 separate
construction sites. Construction activities at each of these sites
extended over lengthy periods, 77% of them lasting from six months
to a year each. The measuring hours were not given, but the
figures were provided from that survey as shown in Table 3-5.
Categories
Diesel Pile Hammer
Drop Hammer
Rivet Gun
Compressor
Concretebreakers
Concrete Mixers
Truck Shovel
Riveter
Concrete Plant
* (Phon (A))
Measuring
Times
18
3
6
11
12
5
4
2
3
*10 m from Source
Mean Range
105 93-112
101 97-108
91 85-98
88 82-98
85 80-82
79 70-86
81 77-84
76 75-77
87 83-90
*30 m from S ource
Mean Range
91 84-103
91 86-97
80 74-86
78 73-86
76 74-80
71 65-77
72 72-73
65 65
81 74-88
Table 3-5. Tokyo Construction Noise
3-8
32
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According to a 1969 book, Educational Environment in
Tokyo, 387 grade and high schools were affected by noise. The
measured mean noise levels were 65-69 Phon(A) whereas the
required noise level in a classroom in 45-50 Phon(A) or less when
the windows are closed.
The Tokyo Metropolitan Government made surveys in both
1965 and 1968 on noise levels in five representative zones. The
figures reported for the 1968 survey, with readings in Phon (A),
are shown in Table 3-6.
Zone Name
A. Zone
A} Zone
B Zone
C Zone
GI Zone
Type
Exclusively
residential area
Residential area
Commercial Area
Semi - Industrial
Area
Industrial Area
Range
40-63
41-69
52-75
53-73
57-74
Mean
50 (3 areas)
51 (5 areas)
63 (5 areas)
61 (2 areas)
63 (2 areas)
Table 3-6. Noise in Tokyo Areas
3-9
33
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In the city of Tokyo the green belt areas (Imperial Palace,
parks, etc.) total approximately 610 acres. In 1967 the city measured
noise levels both inside and outside these green belt areas. The noise
sources were subways, trains, automobiles, airplanes, helicopters,
3-9
etc. The results show that the average maximum noise levels
outside the green belt areas were in the range of 80-85 Phon (A) and
the minimum in the range of 60-78 Phon (A). The average noise levels
inside green belt areas ranged from 45. 5 to 57 Phon (A). Further
details are given in 'Table 3-7.
Noise prevention measures in Tokyo have been undertaken
in a number of different ways. For example, a hundred school buildings
have been equipped with double steel-reinforced frames at windows,
entrances and exits. The anticipated reduction in noise level of 30 Phon (A)
was achieved and demonstrated by tests in the schools surrounding
the Yokoda Base of the U. S. Air Force in the city.
A Noise Measure Committee for the Tokyo International
Airport was established in I960. In 1963 this committee put into effect
a ban on jet flights between 11:00 pm and 6:00 am. The committee has
34
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u>
Ul
Green Belt
Area Location
** National Park for Minato Ward
Natural Education
#* Imperial Palace Chiyada Ward
Inogashira Park Musashi City
Mitaka City
Keihnkan Minato Ward
Landscape
* Jeno Park Taido Ward
Hamarimiya Park Chuoo Ward
** Hibiya Park Chiyoda Ward
Area-Square
Meter (m^)
200,000
1,023,000
282,062
33,000
530,452
249,550
158,932
Outside Green
Belt Area (Max)
88.0
88.0
83.0
80.0
82.0
86.0
85.0
Inside Green Belt Area
(Max)
60.0
70.0
76.0
63.0
78.0
69.0
65.0
(Min)
40.0
43.0
44.0
49.0
45.0
51.0
50.0
(Mean)
45.5
50.3
52.0
54.0
56.0
57.0
59.4
(Mode)
43.0
48.0
52
54
54
56
59
* A subway surrounding the Jeno Park is scheduled to be abolished during 1971 - 1972
#* Subways surrounding parks and Imperial Palace were already abolished during Dec. 1967 - Sept 1968
Table 3-7
Noise in and Around Tokyo Green Belt Areas ^"^
-------
also installed permanent noise measuring devices at two grade schools
in the vicinity of the airport.
Other measures include a variety of construction standards
and noise ordinances, the earliest of which date back to 1949. Currently
the city is considering standard noise levels for businesses which are
open after midnight (snack bars with loudspeakers, gasoline stations, and
bowling alleys).
As in other cities, special attention is being given to noise
from vehicular traffic. The city government has established four basic
points to be taken into consideration for future noise prevention measures
regarding vehicles:
o Innovations on automobiles through applications
of research
o Noise from tires
o Stiffer noise abatement ordinances
o Future construction of streets and expressways.
In 1970, after a survey showed that 86 % of Tokyo's noise
came from automobiles, the government achieved a partial solution by
36
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banning vehicular traffic in busy streets on Sundays and national
holidays. ~ The program covers the heavy traffic areas of Ginza,
Shinjuku, Asakusa, Ikebukuro and Shibuya, now collectively known
as "Pedestrians' Paradise".
The idea was to emancipate the people at least once a week
from environmental disruption caused by automobiles. At first young
people, driven by curiosity and elated by the high-sounding slogan of
"Human Emancipation," turned the streets into .scenes of boisterous
festivities; even wedding ceremonies and dramatic performances
took place on the automobile-free thoroughfares. This year approximately
44 million people (about four times Tokyo's population) turned out to
enjoy the "Pedestrians' Paradise. " Lines of beach umbrellas and palm
trees were set up along Ginza Street on Sundays and holidays, while
snowmen and big ice pillars as tall as a man were erected in order to
create a cool atmosphere. Citizens enjoy leisurely strolls and a calm
atmosphere pervades the thoroughfare on these car-free holidays. A
young man walking on a street of "paradise" said, "At first, I was
half in doubt when I was told that I could walk in the street. But now I
can say for sure that the street has become our own. "
37
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Meanwhile, an increasing number of cities in Japan have
come to follow the example of Tokyo. By now automobile-free streets
have been designated in such big cities as Kyoto, Kobe, Nagoya and
Yokohama. In Osaka, the second largest city in Japan, preparations
are also under way. The governor of Osaka has announced a plan to
set up a "Pedestrians' Paradise" along Midosuji Street (a trunk
thoroughfare extending for three miles between the city's two busiest
auto-traffic areas in the north and south) some time this fall.
3. 2. 3 Moscow
Life in Moscow goes on in an often noisy environment. A
common sight on the streets is a vendor promoting lottery tickets,
excursions or books with a megaphone or a portable public address
system. Even the police use loudspeakers to provide lectures and public
ridicule to disorderly persons, jaywalkers, etc. The usual level of
sound in a Moscow movie house is so high that a moviegoer may
leave after a show with a headache and a feeling of fatigue. The big
sports stadiums make life difficult for people in nearby housing,
especially when spectators in open bleachers express their enthusiasm
at soccer matches. Vehicular traffic, though perhaps not extremely
heavy by the standards of some other countries, contributes its share
38
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to the scene. Moscow's noise problems, in short, are much like
those of other cities.
Transportation is a major contributor to Moscow's back-
ground noise. Although private automobiles contribute less to the
problem than they do in some other cities, there are other noisy
vehicles in the city: diesel trucks, buses, trolley cars, the Metro,
etc. The very fact that a high percentage of vehicular traffic is
composed of buses and trucks contributes to the problem. Another
contributing factor, because Moscow was not demolished during World
War II and later rebuilt, is that the city still contains older sections
with narrow streets and many intersections. A survey of the volumes
and noise levels was made in 1960-61 by I. A. Shishkin and B. G. Prutkov
of the Moscow Scientific Research Institute for Urban Construction and
G. L. Osipov of the Moscow Scientific Research Institute of Construction
Physics. Somfe of the results from their studv are shown in Table 3-8.
39
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No. of Vehicles /hour
2040
1700
1000
Street
Prospekt Mira
Ryazansk highway
Khimicheskiy "
Avg of 100% of
readings, db(A)
81
84
71
Avg of top 90%
of readings, db(A)
87
88
80
Sample Noise Levels Produced by Main-Road Traffic
in the Moscow Area.
Table 3-8
The Moscow Metro was recognized as a significant noise
source in 1966 when another noise survey was made. The results
indicate that noise levels on the platform typically exceeded 100 dB when
a train was arriving or departing and that this noise contained significant
high frequency components. Noise levels in passenger cars sometimes
reached 90 dB when the train was moving through the tunnel. Typical
noise levels on the escalators connecting the deep stations with the
surface were in the 90 dB range. The methodology involved 500
measurements at deep stations, at shallow stations, in passenger cars,
in engineers' cabins, and on the escalators. The equipment, all of
Soviet manufacture, included the ShA-2 noise meter, the Reporter tape
recorder, and the VNIIZhG-MPS frequency analyzer. Center octave-
band frequencies measured were 100, 200, 400, 800, and 1600 Hertz.
40
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The measurement points were: on the platform, 1.5m high and 1 m
back from the front edge; in the trains, 1.2 m above the floor; on the
excalators, at the ear level of the escalator attendants at the upper
and lower ends.
Reportedly the noise levels in recent years (1970-71)
are still high enough to cause disturbance and annoyance. Another
problem recently observed is that, in the vicinity of the outlying
shallow stations, buildings built directly over the subway are subject
to noise immissions considerable enough to render them unsuitable
for habitation although many of them are still used as residences.
Trolley cars may be on the wane in some countries as
preferred transportation, but there is still a place for them in the
USSR. They apparently remain inexpensive as far as operation is
concerned. Also, the equipment has a long service life. Even though
cars are constantly being renovated or replaced, there are still some
cars 40 to 60 years old on the rails. No full trolley car survey seems
to have been made in Moscow, but one report gives measurement of
88 dB (presumably taken at the standard 7 m. from the side of the
moving vehicle).
41
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One aspect of the noise problem in any location is the
effect noise has on sleep. A Moscow sleep survey involving a 65-
question canvas of 5650 people showed that almost half of them
suffered from poor sleep and that the majority of these blamed this
on external disturbances, primarily noises. Loss of sleep, of course,
can have economic as well as social implications in the lowering of
labor productivity, a higher incidence of breakage on the job, and
other costly malfunctions. The investigators' observation that a
fourth of West Germans and a third of Americans suffer from poor
sleep implies that they consider sleep disturbance in the USSR to
3 11
be equal to or possibly greater than such difficulty elsewhere.
Several surveys have been made in and around housing
complexes. One such survey, made in a complex far removed from
street traffic noise, provides some interesting data on noise from various
neighborhood sources. Table 3-9 shows some results from this survey.
The measurements represent outdoor noise sources measured inside
the buildings.
42
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Source
Trash trucks
Unloading of goods and packages
Play and shouting of children
Outdoor sports in courtyard
Pedestrians' footsteps
Conversations
Car entering courtyard
Truck entering courtyard
Children in sandbox
Noise Level
Min.
dB
78
60
68
62
51
56
68
73
68
dB(A)
66
55
66
--
40
56
53
64
67
Avg.
dB
82
72
78
74
63
66
75
82
72
dB(A)
70
67
76
--
50
62
59
67
71
Max.
dB
88
84
95
92
65
74
88
95
95
dB(A)
77
82
93
--
53
73
72
84
93
Noise Levelslnside a Moscow Apartment Complex 3~12
Table 3-9
Although there is evidence of noise abatement plans since
about I960, the Moscow City Council conducted a major review in 1969.
At that time they outlined progress to date and announced future plans
in a resolution "On Means to Reduce Noise Levels in the city of Moscow"
3-14
(November 1969). The following summary from a Soviet journal
43
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describes the Councils' position at that time:
The resolution defines the main directions in which the
attack on noise in the capital is now unfolding in concrete
and detailed terms. Moscow urban planners have been
asked to work out, in the coming two years, experimental
designs of noise protection devices on the main routes
which have especially intensive transport traffic. Designs
will also be worked out to ensure a reduction in the noise
which is created by various types of equipment installed
in residential buildings, stores, municipal domestic
enterprises, and public catering enterprises. The Moscow
noise map, which will give a clear and precise picture
of the noise background of the city, is being completed.
Planning organizations have been assigned to work out
measures to limit penetration of noise from subway lines
and open substations of the Moscow power system into
residential buildings. The executive committee of the
Moscow Council has asked the State Committee on
Standards, Measures, and Measuring Instruments of the
Council of Ministers USSR to include permissible noise
levels for various types of equipment, means of transport,
and domestic devices in the All Union State Standards.
While planning quiet for tomorrow, we are not isolating
ourselves from today's affairs. Let us look at night
delivery of products to stores. In those places where
stores occupy the first floors of residential buildings,
a dilemma inevitably arises between the desire for quiet
and the necessity of an uninterrupted supply of fresh
bread, milk, and other goods.
Members of the commission reviewed this entire set
of mutually related problems. Unfortunately, at the
present time it is not possible to fully stop night delivery
of products. But trade organizations will deliver an
increasing volume of goods in containers, without noisy
44
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packing. Although this is only half a measure, it
will alleviate the situation somewhat. The executive
committee of the Moscow Council has demanded that
night operation of compressors, excavators, and
bulldozers at construction sites be restricted. Enter-
prises which use loudspeakers for production or other
purposes must ensure that they cannot be heard
beyond the service area. In recent years, a large
number of industrial enterprises, workshops, and motor
pools which created increased noise have been moved
out of the residential areas of the city. Work to reduce
noise which disturbs residents of nearby buildings
is now underway at more than 100 plants and factories.
A check showed that such plants as the repair bearing
plant in Cherzhinskiy Rayon, the plant Imeni
Vladimir Il'yich in Moskvoretskiy Rayon, the iron
foundry Imeni Voykov in Leningrad Rayon, the Moscow
Food Combine, and others can now live at peace with the
citizens of Moscow. There are no more complaints. In
carrying out the decision of the Moscow Council Executive
Committee, the main Moscow Housing Administration
became seriously occupied with the problem of noise within
buildings. Each year, work to provide soundproofing
or to remove pumping installations and other equipment
located there is carried out in more than 300 buildings.
The Liftremont Trust, using a noise measuring apparatus,
repairs and muffles elevators which still, for the most
part, arouse entirely justifiable complaints. In the battle
against noise, the public, employees of housing operations
offices, and organs of the Militia must become more
actively involved. What prohibitions have been introduced
to preserve quiet? After 11 pm, singing or the playing of
musical instruments or loud transistor radios are prohibited
on the streets and in the yards of residential buildings.
Radios, phonographs, and tape recorders cannot be set
on balconies or in open windows. The Moscow Council
Executive Committee has asked the editorial office of
45
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Moscow radio and the central television studio to
remind listeners and viewers after 10 pm that the
level of noise-producing devices must be lowered.
Unfortunately, this request has not yet been fulfilled.
In recreational parks radios should be turned down so
as not to carry to surrounding areas. The struggle
against noise in the city is the common work of all
its residents, public organizations, and administrative
organs. From the editors over the course of several
years, the journal Zdorov'ye has systematically
published materials raising problems of the struggle
against domestic and industrial noise under the title,
"Planned Silence." At the initiative of the editors,
Councils of Ministers of the Union Republics have
created authoritative interdepartmental commissions
which are charged with coordinating all efforts in this
direction.
The editors acquainted themselves with commission
activity in the Azerbaydzhan SSR, Kirgiz SSR, Tadzhik
SSR, Turkmen SSR, and Uzbek SSR, and our readers
have been informed of this in the pages of the magazine.
In the future, we intend to continue to inform our readers
of progress in the attack on noise, to relate the best
experience in this work, and to reveal weaknesses.
Although some noise control results have undoubtedly
been obtained since 1969, it is probable that the city environment as
a whole has been little affected by the present level and type of
abatement effort. We have mentioned the ordinance regulating the
behavior of persons living in housing areas—in particular the use of
radios on balconies. That particular provision had been part of the
46
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earlier sanitary norms for all residential areas in the USSR, and
probably was still in force.
The law concerning disturbing the peace (hooliganism statute)
was adopted by the RSFSR (Russian Federation) in 1966, (See Section 9
on Soviet noise law.) but the Moscow City Council passed its own
stricter version in I960. (Ordinance No. 34/5) A typical public-
nuisance ordinance, it applied to all public places, including communal
apartments and dormitories, on their balconies, in the streets, etc.
It specified that there was to be no loud singing, playing of musical
instrument, radios, etc., if it might disturb other citizens, from 11 pm
to 8 am. Fines were up to 100 rubles if the case went as far as the
"Neighborhood Commission" of the city council or up to 25 rubles if
paid on the spot to the arresting policeman. A similar ordinance
prohibiting loud playing of radios, etc. was passed by the Moscow
3 15
City Council on 11 November, 1969.
Perhaps after the 1969 city ordinance was passed, some
enforcement was again temporarily achieved. But despite the 1969
resolution of the city council, applicable noise nuisance ordinances
47
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have not been vigorously enforced in the streets; the various
sources of street noise such as street vendors and militiamens1
3-11
megaphones still go unregulated.
The new official emphasis on noise control also seems
to be deficient in practice in the area of industrial noise emissions
to the community, as a 1971 report from Moscow illustrates.
According to this report, a certain electric transformer substation
(No. 179) was the constant source of complaints about noise for
years in the Moscow "Semenovskaya" neighborhood. The local
SES (Sanitary-epidemological Station) sent a list of offending
substations, including No. 179, to the Moscow Power Authority
(Mosenergo), and to the national Ministry of Energetics and
Electrification, with the demand that the transformer noise be
abated. The SES also secured a directive from the Moscow City
Council (Dec. 1968) that the transformer substation nuisances be abated
and that several unenclosed substations, including No. 179, be enclosed
in soundproof buildings in the course of the 1969-1971 period. However,
these measures achieved nothing except the promise of the director
of the Moscow Power Authority that action would be taken. No
action was taken.
48
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A further development occurred when an agency of the
same Ministry--Energetics and Electrification--decided to build
a 12-story apartment building with a kindergarten within 30 meters
of substation No. 179. The Moscow SES opposed this building
during its planning stage until the transformer noise was abated on
the grounds that the existing noise environment exceeded the
sanitary norms by a factor of three or four. This time the Moscow
Building Control Board became involved, demanding and receiving
assurances from the Power Authority that the noise would be
abated at the start of construction. The present status is that the
apartment building is almost ready for occupancy, the transformer
substation is noisier than ever, and the SES is fighting to prevent
3-15
occupancy until the noise nuisance is abated.
Results in abating transport noise are mixed. Most of
the measures that have been implemented are those where the mode
of noise abatement is "passive", in the sense that the measure was
really aimed at another goal but incidentally had a positive effect on
the noise environment as well. A good example of this type of
abatement was the writer Chudnov's example of the large increase
49
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in underground pedestrian street underpasses being built in
Moscow (100 already in use and 13 more built in 1970). A side
effect was a somewhat lower level of noise experienced by pedestrians
while in the tunnel, as well as some reduction in traffic noise
because of smoother flow. But the main purpose of the underpasses
was to segregate traffic from people, both for the protection of
people and for the improvement of traffic flow. Yet Chudnov pointed
to pedestrian underpasses purely as a noise abatement measure. "
In the field of rail traffic, no reports have been found
regarding improvements in the Moscow Metro itself; but there is a
program underway to remedy the complaints of some residents by
increasing the separation between them and the source. Residents
of houses standing over or near the subway tracks in areas where
the subway is shallowly buried are slowly being relocated. Their
houses are being converted into warehouses, etc., or being torn down.
Norms are being worked out for just how far this zoning treatment will
extend on either side of the right-of-way. One step already taken to
reduce train noise in Moscow was to reduce the inter-city through
train traffic that was using the Moscow circumferential railroad.
50
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More will certainly have to be done to control noise in
Moscow. In view of the present plans to expand transport facilities
there, noise due to transport will continue to grow unless something
is done to quiet the transport. In only two years (1968 and 1969)
45 miles of trolley-bus lines and 10 miles of trolley car lines were
added to the city system. In 1970 alone there was a net addition of
590 buses and 370 trolley cars. The common observation that the
problem of transport noise exists in cities the whole world over
obviously does not exclude Moscow.
3.2.4 Warsaw
Warsaw has been quite noise conscious since the late
fifties. The first noise-map of the city was drawn up between 1958 •
and 1959. At that time 6850 systematic measurements of streets
and home noises were conducted at 175 points throughout Warsaw.
In addition special inquiries were made comparing the measurement
outcome with public opinion. The results show that the people
were mainly disturbed with respect to sleep interruption by street
and other environmental noise. The street noise in certain areas
reached as high as 105 dB(A) during the day and 96 dB(A) at night.
51
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In the period 1966 through 1968 the Institute for Building
Technique with the cooperation of the Acoustics Department of the
Polish Academy of Sciences, conducted more detailed noise surveys
of Warsaw, this time encompassing also aircraft and railway noise.
Besides Warsaw, the cities of Gdansk and Poznan were included
in this particular survey. In Warsaw 1,500 measuring points were
established and noise levels were observed during the heaviest
traffic time (1:00 pm to 5:00 pm) at various intervals. The results
show that presumably because of special efforts made between 1959
3-16
and 1966, the noise levels decreased by more than 10 dB(A).
Dr. J. Sadowski, head of the Institute made noise-measurements
in various cities and proposed noise norms. Table 3-10 represents
some of his recommendations.
Source
Industrial area, near
railroad
Streets with street cars
and buses
Residential area with bus
transportation
School, hospitals, etc.
Zone
I
II
in
IV
Noise level
inside the
building
45
35
35
15-25
Max. Noise
level of
External noise
100-120
85-90
80
60
Proposed
Noise
Level
60-70
60
50
40
Table 3-10 Recommended Warsaw Noise Levels
3-16
52
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Noise levels within the tunnel of W-2 street in Warsaw
were also studied. (The walls of the tunnels are covered with tiles. )
A graph of the results of the tunnel study appears as Fig. 3-2
where noise levels in decibels are plotted against distances in meters
from the exit and the entrance.
Sound
pressure
level, dB.
M-
* ' •* » ft tt
Distance from
it *• » 0 /»
Distance from
entrance, meters exit, meters
Figure 3-2 Noise in a Warsaw Tunnel
3-16
Dr. Sadowski also conducted a study to measure the
effects of green belts or "living walls" on noise reduction. His results
are shown in Table 3-11.
-------
No.
1
2
3
4
5
1 6
7
8
Types of Plants and Trees
2 rows poplars -7m high (3 m apart)
One row fruit trees
One row bushes (2 m high, 1.5m wide)
altogether 15m wide
One row bushes -2m wide, 1.5m high
One row elder-bushes (1.8 m wide,
1.8m high)
Garden 50 m wide
Two rows young linden trees 8. 4 m wide
lawn .
Same as 5 plus two more rows of
linden trees with lawn
Three rows young acorn trees and lawn
together - 22 m wide
Two rows grape vines <1. 8 m high,
1.5m wide)
Noise Source ;
Bus
Tractor
Truck
Motorcycle
Truck
Truck
Motorcycle
Streetcar
Vehicular nois«
Streetcar
Motorcycle
Streetcar
Motorcycle
Truck
Truck
Motorcycle
A.vg. Noise Reductioi
-
19
16
21
30
11
10 :
13 !
9
20-30
7
6
12
13
10
11
Table 3*11 Effects of Green Belts on Noise
. 3-16
54
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3.2.5 Zurich
Zurich is the largest city in Switzerland with a
population of near half a million people. It has conducted an active
noise abatement campaign for at least the past four years, and in
this connection, has established a special Office of Noise Abatement
(Laermbekaempfungsstelle or LBS) under the city police department.
Legal Basis
As recently as June 1971, the city of Zurich issued
a new ordinance on noise abatement. It has been approved by the
Canton (State) Health Services and by resolution of the City Council
3-24
it has been effective since September 1, 1971.
It establishes the fundamental principle that noise reduction
is the responsibility of the entire population. It specifies that industry
must take all measures conceivable to avoid excessive noise. If
compliance is not achieved operations may be shut down entirely.
Noisy operations are prohibited from 12:00 noon to 2:00 pm and from
7:00 pm to 7:00 am. Certain exceptions may be granted, especially
where continuous operations are critical from a technical point of view.
55
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In the construction industry, compressors, pumps,
etc. must be soundproofed. The police are empowered to prescribe
use of alternate equipment such as use of electric motors in lieu
of internal combustion engines. The Police Department is authorized
to specify maximum noise levels for each construction site.
Lawn mowers and chain saws must be equipped with
mufflers. Their operation is permitted only between 8:00 am and
12:00 noon, and between 2:00 pm and 7:00 pm.
Household appliances may be used only if their noise
does not interfere with neighbors. Trash collection must observe
all noise abatement procedures. Within the next five years all
trash cans used must be made of sound absorbing material.
Surface traffic is regulated primarily by Federal standards.
Similarly, motor boat noise is regulated by canton {state) law, which
imposes the further restriction that motorcycles and scooters may not
be used inside courtyards of residential buildings.
56
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Unless a special permit has been obtained all outdoor
sport events must cease at 10:00 pm. Model airplanes may be
flown only in designated places. In general, motorized toys may
be operated only if third parties are not affected adversely.
Bowling alleys must be designed to contain the noise
within the structure. In all cases, their windows must be shut
after 10:00 pm. Restaurants and nightclub operations are
regulated by canton (state) law. The Police Department is authorized
to specify further noise abatement measures.
Singing, use of musical instruments, tape and record
players are permitted only if third parties are not affected adversely.
During the usual noon and night hours windows must be kept shut. The
same holds for professional musicians'. Without special permit,
singing and the use of musical instruments is not permitted outdoors
between 10:00 pm and 7:00 am.
The use of sirens and similar instruments may be used
only within factories if their use is not a nuisance to the neighborhood.
57
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External alarm signals may sound only for a period of three minutes.
In addition a number of special provisions are made for the
control of campsites, use of window shutters, etc. A special
provision is made which empowers the police department to close
down for one night bars, nightclubs, dance halls, etc. if their noise
emmissions are excessive and not controllable.
Enf or cement
In order to make these comprehensive noise control
measures enforceable the City Police Department (LBS) has issued
3-25
a manual designed for use by police officials. This manual briefly
reviews the principles of acoustics and establishes guidelines for
maximum permissible noise levels. In addition, this manual discusses
various construction techniques and their associated expected noise
level. Other sections are devoted to traffic noise, residential noise
and aviation noise. This manual is far too lengthy to be reported in
detail here. The extracts below, however, may be of interest.
The following table is given as a guide to the enforcement
of noise control for motor vehicles. For type tests zero tolerance
58
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is allowed. For single-vehicle tests of type-tested vehicles as well
as for follow-up tests of used vehicles a tolerance of 2 dB(A) is
allowed.
Vehicle Type
Motor bikes and motorcycles
up to a 50 cc displacement
Motorcycles
a) with displacement above 50 cc
b) with displacement above 200 cc
Light vehicles
a) with diesel engine or over 50
horse power
b) other
Heavy vehicles-trucks, tractors, etc
a) above 240 horespower
b) other
Engine-brake noise
Noise level in dB(A)
70
73
82
82
82
78
87
85
87
Table 3-12. Vehicular Noise Standards in Zurich 3-25
These regulations hold for vehicles which have been in use no earlier
than November 1968.
For older vehicles the Zurich City Police applies the
dB(B) scale. In all cases measurement is specified to be 7. 5 meters
59
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from the vehicle. For older vehicles allowance is made for age,
but even the oldest and noisiest vehicle may not exceed 90dB(B).
Emergency vehicles in Switzerland are equipped with
dual tone horns rather than sirens. In Zurich each tone must
emit a sound between 100 dB(A) and 115 dB(A).
Detailed instructions are provided for the measurement of
noise emmissions by motor vehicles providing for 7. 5 meter
measuring distance, two microphones, absence of reflecting bodies
within 50 meters, wind control, etc. Measurements must be made
statically and dynamically.
The maximum permissible noise from construction activities
is prescribed. In general, no machine may emit more than 85 dB(A)
at seven meters and 1.2 meters high. It appears that this limit
will ultimately be lowered to 80 dB(A) which is the current limit for
equipment with less than 100 Ib weight. Minimum background noise
for monitoring measurements is 10 dB(A). Four microphones must
be used and all equipment to be tested must operate at its peak
performance level.
60
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Provisions are given for increasing the maximum noise
level. These conditions include such case s where construction
is far removed from human habitation or places of work, or where
the cost of construction would be increased excessively or where
use of other construction techniques would cause substantial
increase in the total period of noise load.
It is interesting to note that costs of monitoring noise
measurements by the city police at a construction site must be
borne by the builder if the prescribed maximum noise levels are
exceeded. More serious penalties are based on police authority
to shut down individual machines or to order shutdown of an entire
construction operation in extreme cases. Noise monitoring by the
police is performed in close cooperation with the city Department
of Building and Safety of the Canton of Zurich.
Within the city limits of Zurich a set of norms
specifies maximum permissible noise, in dB(A), as measured in
nearest open window (Table 3-13).
61
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ZONE
Hospitals, nursing homes, etc.
Residential and schools
Mixed residential and business
Industrial and main traffic arteries
Max. dB(A)
1
70
75
85
90
2
65
70
80
85
3
60
65
75
80
Construction operations of different durations: 1 = less than one
month; 2 = 1-6 months; and 3 = more than six months.
Table 3-13. Permissable Noise Levels in Zurich Construction.
3-25
Regarding air traffic noise it is interesting to note that
Duebendorf, a Swiss Air Force Base, lies within the city limits of
Zurich, and hence, together with all other human activity, is regulated
by its noise ordinance. It should be noted parenthetically, that this
air base is shared with Swissair and other commercial operations.
However, it is secondary to Zurich's Kloten airport, which is located
outside the city limits.
Restrictions of course, are lenient. However, use of
62
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certain runways is prescribed, together with noise abatement take- •
off and landing patterns. A surprising restriction is the prohibition
of the use of thrust reversers during night landings except in cases
of emergency. Since 1968, all Viscount VC-10 and VC-15 as well
as Boeing 707 are prohibited from night take-off. Subsequently, all
night flights have been prohibited. With the exception of military
maneuvers, the following flight hours have been established:
Monday through Friday 8:00 am - 12:00 noon
1:30 pm - 4:30 pm
Every third Saturday 8:00 am - 12:00 noon
In its annual report for 1970 the LBS of the Zurich city
police reports that it has become a veritable information center
on urban noise control. Members of the LBS have participated in
international and national colloquia and served as consultants to
domestic and foreign governments. In addition numerous commercial
firms seek counsel with the LBS regarding the design and development
of new devices and machines both for noise monitoring as well as
for construction equipment, motor vehicles, and other machinery.
The LBS has an active training program for its own
personnel as well as for personnel from other Swiss city police
departments.
63
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Statistics indicate some of the activities of the L-RS
during 1969 - 70 as shown in Table 3-14.
Number of recordings:
Surface Traffic
(all motor types of motor vehicles, railroad,
etc. )
Construction
(all types of activities)
Commercial
(incl. restaurants, night clubs)
Other Noise Sources
(household, neighbors, animals, churches,
and inter na.l factory noise)
Other Activities
Motor vehicles violating code
Motor vehicles confiscated
Applications for exemption for building noise
Applications turned down
Suspended building operations (temporary)
1970
1,016
898
502
2,999
981
59
898
86
281
1969
726
727
511
2,658
707
83
727
90
168
1968
1,009
546
365
2,793
999
105
546
97
159
Table 3-14. Enforcement of City Noise Ordinances in Zurich
3-24
64
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3. 2. 6 Johannesburg
Johannesburg is an example of a city trying to do
something about noise not by enforcement of laws but by persuasion.
In most cases there is no adequate legislation to depend upon. A
special noise control complaint service has been established to
provide a "safety valve" for irate citizens who are troubled by the
noises of the city. A noise-control officer, Mr. Winter-Moore,
has been appointed, and most of his time is occupied with action
on the complaints telephoned in. His report for August 1971 indcluded
an analysis of noise sources involved in a sample of 187 cases. The
results are shown in Table 3-15.
Type of Complaint
Dogs and other animals
Building operations
People
Cars
Music from businesses
Buses and trucks
Motorcycles
Music from homes
Plant, home workshops
Milk deliveries
Air conditioning, fowls, domestic equipment,
Refuse collection
Alarms
Traffic (general unspecified)
Number
53
24
23
22
16
12
11
9
6
5
3
2
1
187
%
28.34
12.83
12.3
11.76
8.56
6.42
5.88
4.81
3.21
2.67
1.60
1.07
0.53
Table 3-15. Typical Noise Complaints in Johannesburg
65
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The Johannesburg City Council has also organized
a Noise Abatement Committee, including representatives of such
specialist organizations as the National Building Research Institute
in Pretoria. It ran a publicity campaign in 1970 to make the public
more noise conscious. The campaign featured brightly colored
posters exhorting residents to keep Johannesburg quiet.
Johannesburg's first test station for motor vehicle
emissions was officially opened by the Mayor on September 16, 1971.
The site claims to be the "first in the world where vehicle noise
can be automatically measured," and is located at the municipal
testing grounds at Langlaagte. When the station is operating, suspect
cars will be driven along an asphalt-paved runway at 48. 2 km/hour
(30 mph) in the gear one lower than the top. As they pass between
two microphones, sophisticated Danish equipment will automatically
measure and record how much noise they make. An examiner will
be able to see immediately on a graph the vehicle's decible rating
in the worst possible circumstances. Anything worse than 85 dB(A)
"will be considered unroadworthy. " 3-17
So far, Johannesburgs efforts seem to be at least partially
successful. One factor in the city's ability to organize on this issue
is the whole-hearted support of the Mayor, who has campaigned on an
anti- pollution platform.
66
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3. 3 A Regional Approach to Noise Abatement and Control
Since the early 1960's the Land Nordrhein-Westfalen (N-W),
the most industrialized region in Germany, has been carrying its own
comprehensive noise control program including noise research,
legislation, enforcement, economic incentives, and hardware develop-
ment.
Because the individual "Laender" are not totally under the
Federal Legislation, they issue their own laws; for instance, in 1962
N-W set up its own law for protection against air pollution, noise and
vibration. In 1965 a special regulation against noise emitted by
construction equipment was put into effect, as well as special law dealing
solely with noise passed in 1964.
N-W typifies an outstanding example in the field of noise
control among the Laender, not the rule. In fact its legislation has
served as a model for that of other Laender. However, N-W also has
the largest potential noise problem because of the extraordinarily
In particular, N-W's law concerning the Protection from Immission
(Immissionsschutzgesetz) was adopted by Laender Baden-Wuerttemberg
and Lower Saxony.
67
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great concentration of industry, traffic, and settled areas in the
Rhine/Ruhr region which accounts for:
o
o
o
o
eight million people (of West Germany's 60 million)
most of N-W's 3. 5 million motor vehicles
70% of West Germany's iron and steel industry
50% of West Germany's steam power stations
50% of West Germany's basic chemical industry
35% of West Germany's cement industry.
The large German cities Dortmund, Cologne, Duesseldorf, Essex,
Muenster are all in Nordrhein-Westfalen. (See Section 3. 3. 6 & 7 for informa-
tion on city noise surveys in Dortmund and Duesseldorf.)
3.3.1 The N-W Noise Control Program
Laws
The 1965 law against air pollution, noise and vibration
(Immissionsschustzgesetz) was passed complementary to Federal
enabling legislation. The 1965 law against construction noise was
passed as a special supplementary ordinance to the 1962 law.
The 1965 law (Immissionsschutzgesetz) is basically an
air pollution law, but some noise control law has been enacted under
it; Ordinance Four specifies that construction machinery using internal
combustion engines must:
68
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use efficient exhaust sound absorbers
emit no more than 75 dB(A) when the engine
is idling (if they work in close proximity to
noise sensitive areas).
The noise measurement is to be carried out at a distance of 7 m from
the individual piece of equipment; close proximity is defined as
within 80 m; the "noise sensitive areas" are:
o residential and office areas not located in an
industrial area
o hositals, nursing homes, homes for the aged,
churches and schools
o spas, convalescent homes, or other health-
recovery and recreational areas.
3—18
The 1964 law dealing with noise is as follows:
OFFICIAL MINISTERIAL DIRECTIVE WITH RESPECT TO NOISE CONTROL:
"On the basis of Sect. 29, Para 1 of the Civil Order Law
of 16 October 1956, last amended on 28 November1 1961, the following is
decreed for the State of Nordrhein-Westfalen:
"Sect. 1 - Prohibition Against Avoidable Noise
Each person must so act that the health of others
is not endangered to a greater extent that is unavoidable under the
cir cum s tanc e s.
"Sect. 2 - Use of Record and Tape Players and Musical
Musical Instruments
(1) These must be used only at such loudness
that other parties are not disturbed.
69
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(2) In all public premises, rooms, and means
that serve a general usage, as well as in public bathing places
including beaches, the use of these devices and instruments is
prohibited. Their use in closed vehicles not used for public
conveyance is permissable if the devices and instruments are not
disturbingly audible outside the vehicle.
(3) Local authorities can in individual cases make
li_as to para 1 and sentence 1 of para 2.
"Sect. 3 - Work Signals
(1) Work signals must not be disturbingly audible
outside the work area. This does not apply to warning and alarm
signals.
(2) Local authorities can for individual businesses
make exceptions to sentence 1 of para 1. Sect. 7 para 1 is not affected.
"Sect. 4 - Use or Operation of Motor Vehicles
During the use or operation of motor vehicles every
avoidable noise is to be omitted; in particular, it is forbidden:
(1) To leave motors running unnecessarily,
(2) To use the horn except to warn endangered
persons,
(3) To shut vehicle and garage doors with
excessive noise,
(4) To start motor scooters and motorcycles with
auxiliary engines in entranceways, passageways, and the inner courts
of residential buildings and blocks. Local authorities can grant exceptions
for individual courtyards.
"Sect. 5 - Burning of Fireworks and Firework Displays
(1) Whoever wishes to burn fireworks or conduct
a fireworks display in a settled area or an area visited by people
requires to that end permission of the county police authorities in
whose district the device(s) is (are) to be burned. The permission must
be granted only in conjunction with the local civil authorities.
70
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(2) The fireworks must last at most 30 minutes
and be ended by 10 p.m. (during June and July, 10:30 p.m. ). The
local police authorities can grant exceptions for exhibitions of
special importance. The use of cannon shots or pyrotechnic objects
with a similar sharp report is prohibited.
(3) Persons under the age of 18 are prohibited
from burning or firing of pyrotechnic objects other than firework toys
in the sense of Sect. 2 of the regulation of traffic in pyrotechnic
objects dated 10 November 1956 (GS NW p. 650).
"Sect. 6 - Domestic Animals
Household animals are to be so kept that no one
is disturbed by the noise they make.
"Sect. 7 - Nocturnal Disturbances
(1) From 10 p.m. to 7 a.m. those activities are
prohibited that are likely to disturb nocturnal quiet. Local authorities
can make exceptions in individual cases or for town sections with an
industrial character. Sect. 27 of the Trade Regulations is not affected.
(2) Para. 1 does not apply to premises that are
subject to licensing, permits, or monitoring under Sect. 16 and 24 of the
Trade and Industry Code or that must be operated on the basis of a
plan certified under Sect. 67 of the General Mining Law.
"Sect. 8 - Regulations of Local Authorities
To the degree that local authorities are empowered
by legal statutes to issue regulations respecting noise control that
exceed the scope of this decree, such power is not affected.
"Sect. 9 - Penal Clause
Violations of Sect. 1, Sect. 2 para 1 sentence 1,
Sect. 3 para 1, Sect. 4 sentence 1, Sect. 5 para 1 sentence 1, para 2
sentences 1 and 3, para 3, Sect. 6, and Sect. 7 para 1 sentence 1 of
these regulations can be penalized with a fine of up to DM 1, 000 so
long as they are not threatened with punishment or fine under Federal
or state law.
"Sect. 10 - Effective Date
This decree takes effect on 1 January 1965,
Duesseldorf, 30 November 1964. "
/s/
Minister of the Interior
State of Nordrhine-Westfalen
71
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It can be seen that except for the absence of vehicle
noise control, which in Germany may be economically untouchable
except at the Federal level, this law is extremely comprehensive.
The revised environmental protection act of April 1, 1970 is
principally a gathering, with respect to noise, of the existing Federal
statutes, expressed in more general terms so as to include all
emissions and immissions of a contaminating nature. In addition,
fines up'to DM 10, 000 (about $2, 850) for each infringement are called
for i. e., ten times the amount stipulated in the noise control law
of 1964.
3. 3. 2 Economic P r obi ems/ Incentives
German officials in N-W are extremely conscious of the
cost/benefit aspects of environmental pollution control and have
estimated both damages caused by pollution on the one hand, and
combined state and private expenditures on pollution control on the
other hand. However, such comparisons have not been made in the
narrow field of noise pollution but rather for air pollution in general
or for the entire environment.
72
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Federal tax exemptions for private investment to control
air pollution have been granted on more than 600 million DM (about
$150 million) investment in N-W alone up to 1969. But it is not clear
whether private investments for noise control are also eligible under
this program. In a different program, however, both N-W and the FRG
give long-term loans at favorable interest rates for investments in
pollution control by medium-sized enterprises, including noise and
vibration control. The N-W contribution to the loan fund alone has been
75 million DM (about $19 million).
3. 3. 3 Research, Development and Planning
N-W has stimulated development of quieter construction
equipment as a second and supplementary program in its activities
against construction noise. Significant progress has already been
made, as Table 3-16 indicates.
Type of Equipment
Without noiseproof ing*
With noiseproofing*
Diesel-driven compressor
Hydraulic dredger
Tow-rope dredger
Wheel derrick (Radlader)
Pile driver
83 dB(A)
82 dB(A)
87 dB(A)
86 dB(A)
105 dB(A)
77 dB(A)
76 dB(A)
78 dB(A)
78 dB(A)
86 dB(A)
* average of eight measurements in a circle of radius 7 m from the
piece of equipment.
Table 3-16. Quieter Construction Equipment in Nordrhein-Westfalen. °
73
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The development program was a joint state-private
industry venture, but most of the responsibility rested with the
individual industries concerned.
Further development of less noisy machinery besides
construction equipment such as hydraulic pumps, blowers, and
printing presses are now in the forefront of the N-W's development activities.
Such development of quiet machinery contributes to
part (b) of N-W's present four-phase program:
o location and study of the various noise sources
in a city;
o positive noise control measures in particularly
loud enterprises.
By means of exact near-field measurements the noisiest elements
of the enterprise will be determined and corrective measures formulated
for the Inspection Authority.
noise control shall be a planning factor for new
factories; in particular, buildings/elements shall
be located properly on the industrial site to
minimize noise emission;
passive abatement techniques, such as special
noise-attenuating windows and walls, shall be
used more for noise abatement in existing housing,
especially against traffic noise.
74
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3.3.4 Licensing
Licensing is a control technique used by both distrist and
local levels of the Ministry's administrative apparatus for the
enforcement of all types of environmental and public health standards,
including those concerning noise. The licensing of larger factories
is taken out of the hands of the local level, however, and is the
responsibility of one of the six district-level agencies.
3. 3. 5 Institutions Implementing the Program
The enforcement of both Federal and N-W noise laws
within the territory of N-W is the task of Section III of the N-W
Ministry for Work, Health and Social Affairs. Section III duties
include industrial inspection and occupational health protection;
its director is presently Dr. Boisseree. Section III is the top
level of a three-level administrative pyramid. The intermediate
level is composed of the six district offices of the Work, Health &
Social Affairs Ministry, which function as licensing authorities for
the most important industrial plants. At the local level there are 23
Factory Inspection Offices (Gewerbeaufsichtsaemter) who are directly
responsible for enforcement of the various environmental laws within
their local areas. Their total staff consists of over 500 certified
engineers and technicians.
75
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At the top level, attached to Section III, there is the
"Land Institute for Air Immissions Control and Land Conservation"
at Essen; staffed by 300 engineers and technicians, it serves as
expert consultant to the six districts and 23 Factory Inspection
Offices.
Also attached to Section III is the Land N-W Committee
for Immissions Control, an advisory group of experts. See the
chart in Figure 3.3.
As can be seen on the chart, within each of the organiza-
tions there is a suborganization specializing in noise control. At
the Essen Institute is a special section (Abteilung) dealing with noise
and vibration, manned by four academic specialists and 12 other
engineers and measurements technicians. Thus, the experts in the
noise section of the Essen Institute report directly to the Ministry,
but serve as expert advisors to the lower-level organizations.
When the middle-level offices license larger industrial
plants, noise is one factor in their decisions.
The 23 Factory Inspection Offices at the lower level
carry out the day-to-day enforcement of noise legislation for their
areas under the guidance of the special noise section of the Essen
76
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THE GOVERNMENTAL APPARATUS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IN N-W
3-20
N-W Ministry for Work,
Health and Social Affairs
Advisory Council for
Immissions Control
of all types
Committee of Noise.
Specialists
Section.Ill of the Ministry:
(Or. Boisseree, Head)
Industrial Inspection;
Occupational Health Protection
Aachen
District
Aachen
Dueren
City Factory
Inspection
Offices
Duesseldorf
District
Duesseldorf
Duisburg
Essen
Krefeld
M. -Gladbach
Solingen
Wuppertal
City Factory
Inspection
Offices
Institute for Immissions
Control & Land Conversation
In Essen
(300 specialists)
Noise & Vibration Section
Cologne
District
Cologne
Bonn
City Factory
Inspection
Offices
Detmold
District
Detmold
Bielefeld
Minden
Paderbon
City Factory
Inspection
•Offices
Arnsberg
District
Arnsberg
etc.
City Factory
Inspection
Offices
Muenster
District
Meunster
etc.
City Factory
Inspection
Offices
Figure 3-3
-------
Institute; although they are of course located in one or another of the
six districts, they report directly to the Land Ministry. Thus N-W
enjoys a certain degree of centralized control over enforcement,
superceding the jurisdiction of the cities in these particular areas of
noise legislation.
Some Observations on the N-W Noise Program
In the N-W program there is the advantage of some
centralized control in combination with a degree of decentralization:
regionally applied solutions for the regionally-specific problems of
a highly industrialized area. The N-W program has been in existence
long enough to show some fruits--like the success in developing quieter
construction machinery--but is at the same time still in the process of
evolution, as is reflected in the current four-phase policy. The regional
cooperation institutions for solving water pollution problems, which have
been in existence longer, doubtless set precedents making progress in
the control of other types of pollutants more possible. A second positive
feature of the N-W program is the varied approaches taken to the problem-
from research and development to the enforcement of regulations.
2 "In the Ruhr Valley, more than anywhere else an effort has been
made to internalize the external costs of sewage disposal and treat-
ment .... The Genossenschaften or cooperative water groups in
the Ruhr make Asocial cost__/ estimates and then assess the factories
and municipalities for the approximate damage they cause: " 3-19
78
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On the other hand, some aspects of the program may
be viewed critically. For example, the standard of the 1965 law--
75 dB(A) maximum from construction equipment whose engines
are idling, would seem to give no guarantee that noise levels would
be acceptable when the engines were revved up. Similarly, there
would seem to be a hazy area concerning cost of the newly developed
quiet construction machinery compared to corresponding conventional
types. If the new types were more expensive than the old types, then
their wide-spread use could only be guaranteed by law, and there
presently seems to be no such law. There is also an accompanying
corollary that higher construction costs would be passed on to the
buyer of new construction. A more serious question concerns the
exemption of construction projects from the State from noise regula-
tions if it is deemed that this construction, however noisy, is neverthe-
less in the public interest.
Despite possible weaknesses like those outlined above,
however, one further positive characteristic of the N-W system is
the way that extensive government activity in the field of noise control
fosters expertise and vice versa. Some of the leading West German
experts on noise reside in N-W; many of these men not only are on
the faculties of universities and research institutes, but also may serve
79
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N-W as consultants. Among them are the following: Dr. H. Hillman,
the city director of Dortmund, under whose supervision the renowned
noise map of Dortmund was drawn up between 1961 and 1964, and
in Dusseldorf Dipl. Eng. Edmund Buchta who directed the noise map
of that city with Prof. Dr. Ing. Franz J. Meister, director of the
Physical Department at the Research Laboratory for Medical
Acoustics of the Duesseldorf University. Prof. Meister has also
investigated the effects of traffic noise in schools, as well as the
effect of trees and grass on the propagation of sound and has measured
traffic noise levels in many German towns. Dr. Gunther Lehmann, the
former director of the Max Planck-Institute for Occupational Therapy
in Dortmund (and president of the International Confederation against
Noise /_AICB_/), is one of the leading experts in the field of physiological
effects of noise on man and a prolific contributor to the national and
international noise scene. The Institute's present director is Prof. Dr.
Gerd Jans en, who'is also an international noise authority and whose
numerous monographs on the physiological effects of noise on man were
published by the Nordrhine-Westphalian Ministry of Health. Dr. Jansen
is also the co-author of the 1970 W. H. O. publication entitled The
Environmental Health Aspects of Noise Research and Noise Control-.
(He has also published a catalogue on the various types of factory and
office machinery and its noise level and frequency composition.) Dr.
Hans Wiethaup, the chief justice in Dortmund, is the prominent authority
80
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on noise and the author of the voluminous publication, Noise
Abatement in the Federal Republic of Germany, also of numerous
articles on the physiological and psychological effects and legal
aspects of noise. Another expert in this field is Prof. Dr. W.
Klosterkoetter of the Institute of Hygiene and Occupational
Medicine at the Ruhr University in Essen.
N-W was the only German Land to send delegates of
its own to the 1966 London Conference on Aircraft Noise. The
delegates, part of the official FRG delegation, were Dr. T. Meyer
and Dipl. Ing. F. Wagner.
In conclusion, the N-W program has done more than
operate within the framework of Federal German law; it has in fact
been a leading force in German progress. (For example, N-W
enacted.its construction machine noise control law in 1965, when
only preliminary national legislation existed.) The case of N-W
shows that it is impbssible to get an accurate picture of a total
national noise control effort from national governmental policy
without looking also at local and regional practice, particularly in
Germany. It also shows the mutually-reinforcing effect of the
presence of private expertise and governmental activity when they
3-20
are both located in the same geographic area.
81
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3. 3. 6 Dortmund
Dortmund, one of the major cities in Nordrhein
Westfalen , is also one of the leading cities in noise research.
Between 1961 and 1964 a noise map was drawn under the direction
of Dr. Hillmann, the city-director. Noise levels were measured
at 1,449 different points and maps consist of two sets, one for day
and one for night, to the scale of 1/10,000-two per district. At
each site 2 to 4 measurements were made over varying periods
of time.
In this survey all traffic measurements were recorded
at a distance of 7 m from the curb, and for industrial noise, 50 cm
in front of the wall of the nearest dwelling. The results are presented
in two colors: green, for levels below 60 DIN phons and red/orange
for levels over 60 DIN phons (approximately equal to dB(B)).
The two colors are shown in different shades, each
shade representing a 5-phon band. A fairly large number of streets
showed noise levels of over 70 DIN phons during the day.
The results are aimed for future town planning and for
3-21
the separation of noise-sensitive and noise-producing areas.
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3.3.7 Duesseldorf
This is another one of the cities in N-W which has been
active on the municipal level. In 1966 a noise map of Duesseldorf
(encompassing 700,000 population) was drawn up under the direction
3 — 22
of Dipl. Ing. Edmund Buchta. ~ Measurements were taken at 600
points to determine noise level effects on the city's population.
To estimate the average noise levels of the day, special
emphasis was placed on the morning and afternoon rush hours as
well as the quietest hours of the day. Measurements were made
between 7-8 a. m. , 1-2 p. m. and 5-6 p. m.
Certain months--May, June, July, September and October-
and certain weekdays--Tuesday and Thursday--were selected to be
representative of the typical level of noisiness.
Microphones were placed 0. 5 meters in front of an open
window in order to assess the noise levels at various locations and
times.
After the 5 month survey it was concluded that 50% of the
population was affected most of the time by a noise climate whose
mean peak level was 73 dB(A).
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The noise levels set up according to the VDI-norm 2058
on industrial noises
o pure residential - 50 dB(A),
o predominately residential - 60 dB(A),
o industrial area - 65 dB(A),
were exceeded in the Duesseldorf survey the following percentages
of the time:
o pure residential - 93%,
o predominately residential - 68% ,
o industrial area - 40%.
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3.4 References
3-1. Wilson, A. , ed. , Noise. Final Report of the Committee
on the Problem of Noise. London, Her Majesty's
Stationary Office, 1963.
3-2. Aftenposten, Oslo, July 22, 1968.
3-3. Jonsson, E. , A. Kajland, S. Sorensen (Stockholm);
B. Paccagnella (Ferrara), "Annoyance reactions to traffic
noise in Italy and Sweden"; a comparative study. Archives
of Environmental Health, Vol. 19, No. 11, pp. 692-699, 1969.
3-4. Bitter, C. and Hoch, C. , Geluidhinder en geluidisolatie
in de woningbouw II. The Hague. Research Institute
for Public Health Engineering. Report No. 25, 1958.
3-5. Parkin, P. H. y London Noise Survey. London, Building
Research Station, Ministry of Public Building and Work,s,
Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 1968.
3-6. Purkis, H. J., "Transport Noise and Town Planning",
Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 323-34,
1964.
3-7. Stephenson, R. J. , Vulkan, G. H., "Traffic Noise",
Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 247-262,
1968.
3-8. Tokyo. Metropolitan Research Institute for Environmental
Protection. Koogai to Tookyooto, Tokyo, Daiichi Printing
Co., 1970.
3-9. Sato, A., Nishihara, M.tKoogai Taisaku, Vol. 11, Tokyo,
Yoohigaku, 1969.
3-10. Tokyo. Public Information Bureau. Information Bulletin,
Vol. 18, No. 14, September 1, 1971.
3-11. Chudnov, V., V poiskakh tishiny, Moscow, Moskovskiy
Rabochiy, 1971.
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3-12. Karagodina, I. L., Osilov, T. L. , et al.
"Gorodskiye i zhilishchno kommunal'nyye shumi
i bor'ba s nimi. " Moscow. Meditsina, 1964.
3-13. Matveyev, P. N. "Noise levels at sites in the Moscow
subway" Gigiena truda i professional'nyye zabolovaniya,
No. 6, pp. 58-61, 1966.
3-14. "The noise level will be reduced" (Russian)
Moscow Zdorov'ye, No. 7, pp. 1-2, July 1970.
3-15. "Spa site nas hi us hi" Izvestiya, September 17, 1971.
3-16. Brodniewicz, A. , "Badania halasu na terenie miasta
Warszawy" Consultative'Organization of Economical
Urbanization and Engineering, Warsaw, 1963.
3-17. "Decibel Toll for Drivers" Johannesburg Star, p. 1,
September 17, 1971.
3-18. Nordrhein-Westfalen, "Ordnungsbehoerdliche Verordnung
ueber die Laermbekaempfung" GV NW S 348, Duesseldorf,
1964.
3-19. Kaiser, R.G., '^Soviets order lake cleanup", Washington
Post, Section A, September 25, 1971.
3-20. Private communication from Ministerium fuer Arbeit,
Gesundheit und Soziales des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen,
Duesseldorf, September 14, 1971.
3-21. Hillmann, H., Die Laermkarte von Dortmund, Praxis der
Laermbekaempfung AICB, Verlag fuer Medizin und Technik
Carlheinz W., Baden-Baden, 1966.
3-22. Buchta, E. , "Verteilung und Minderung des Verkehrslaerms
in einer Groszstadt," paper presented at the 6th International
Congress on Acoustics Tokyo, 1968.
3-23. Private communication from South African National Building
Research Institute, September 9, 1971.
3-24. Private Communication from Stadtpolizei, Zurich (September 7, 1971).
3-25. Stadtpolizei Zurich, Grundlagen der Laermbekaempfung
(Manual for noise control), 1970
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SECTION 4
AIR TRAFFIC NOISE
4. 1 Introduction
The growth in air traffic in foreign industrialized countries
has kept pace with that of the United States. According to the European
Airlines Research Bureau, the volume of International traffic in
Europe during the period 1960-1969, exclusive of domestic and inter-
continental flights not originating or terminating in Europe, increased
from 10.4 to 24. 9 million passengers. Although complete figures are
not readily available, it is estimated that an even sharper rise has
occurred in freight and mail cargo.
While New York City has been struggling to find a site for
its fourth airport, London has spent several years debating the location
of its third and Tokyo, its second. It is universally recognized that
airports serving long-haul, jet aircraft are a source of audiological
grief and that airport siting is an acute problem in urban and regional
planning.
4.2 Assessing Noise Problems at Airports
Faced with growing complaints about noise from their
operations, airport authorities have been increasingly active in
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determining just how much noise they are making and how much it
has been affecting their communities. Typical examples will serve
to illustrate.
4. 2. 1 Heathrow Airport
A landmark in European awareness of this problem is the
series of studies made at and around Heathrow Airport in London. In
I960, over 1200 complaints were received by the Heathrow authorities
about noise; a survey in the same year determined that 23% of the
daytime flights and 35% of the nighttime flights were exceeding the
maximum permissible noise level established by the airport itself for
4-1
its operations. Three years later these figures had been reduced
to 1% or less, and complaints had dropped to 500. However, in 1969,
2200 complaints were received, a total that had already been exceeded
4-2
in the first eight months of 1970. This was anticipated in the
Wilson Report because of the increased traffic at the airport and the
greater percentage of jet flights in that traffic. (In I960 there were
135,468 air transport movements at the airport; in 1970, there were
270,302. Of these latter, about 110,000 were accounted for by jet
4-3
aircraft. ) However, in the meantime the percentage of night
4-4
departure infringements had risen to 2. 6.
Almost all international airports designed at the time
when propeller aircraft formed the preponderant traffic now experience
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organized complaint against their operation. This has led in many
cases to the imposition of noise level standards and therefore to the
installation of monitoring systems. A sample of such systems is
described in the following paragraphs.
4. 2. 2 Schipol Airport
This airport, which serves Amsterdam, utilizes a computer-
4-5
ized noise monitoring service. At ten checkpoints around the air-
field, weatherproof microphones convert the noise into electrical
information that forms the input to sound level meters. These measure
the noise spectrum and deliver a decibel-proportional output voltage.
The information is transmitted over telephone lines, and to eliminate
unwanted characteristics, the reading is first converted to a pro-
portional frequency which is reconverted into a voltage at the receiving
end. Once every second a checkpoint selector automatically inter-
rogates each channel. The reading obtained is transmitted to a
computer that calculates the time, level and duration of excess
noise for all events which exceed the level predetermined for each
checkpoint and provides a daily printout of the readings. Very early,
the installation produced the unexpected information that most noise
was produced by arriving aircraft and not, as previously believed
from earlier measurements, by departing aircraft climbing at full
power. This is attributed to the recent adoption of quieter double-flux
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or bypass engines and to the speedier dispersion of planes that has
resulted from increased operational flexibility on flightpaths.
4. 2. 3 Frankfurt/Main Airport
This airport which, like the Schipol, utilizes equipment
manufactured by Rohde u. Schwarz in Munich, employs an automated
system consisting of a central monitoring station and twelve check-
4-6
points whose siting was worked out with the local mayors. For
each checkpoint a level R is established that is not to be exceeded.
A range of 15 dB on either side of R is monitored in 2. 5-dB bands.
The equipment is weatherproof and self-calibrating. As at Schipol,
transmissions are made over regular telephone cables. Readings
at the central station are converted to dB(A) and correlated with each
takeoff and landing. The system is backed up legally by the German
Air Traffic Regulation (Luftverkehrsordnung), which gives local
authorities the opportunity to recover up to DM 5000 (about $1425)
for infringements of the Regulation's clauses, one of which treats
noise levels.
4.2.4 Zurich Airport
Beginning in 1964 the Zurich airport authorities initiated
a total noise-reduction program including operational procedures,
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monitoring, and enforcement. This system was made provisional
4-7
in 1966 and completed in 1968. ~ At present the maximum permissible
daytime and nighttime levels for all locations in the system are 100
and 95 dB(A), respectively. The computerized system employs
measuring equipment manufactured by the firm of Bruel and Kjaer
in Copenhagen. Microphones are installed in the four villages
surrounding the airport, which is located almost due north of Zurich
in the village of Kloten. Readings are converted to dB(A) at a central
station. The results of the noise monitoring system are published in
a bulletin and sent to all airlines each month. The bulletin contains
a list of infringements for each runway, and the infringements are
ranked by airline. Publication of these lists resulted in an immediate
decline in violations after the system went into full operation in 1966.
Pilots guilty of repeated violations are required to report to the
traffic control office before each departure for a detailed briefing
on the regulations; this practice has proved very effective.
In spite of these measures, however, it appeared in mid-
1970 that the Zurich airport would be closed at night. The Grand
A ft
Cantonal Council decided by 113 votes to 41 to take this action.
This decision was contrary to the license granted to Zurich by the
Federal Air Office, the organization responsible at the national level
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for all aviation matters. The agreement stipulates that the airport
must remain open 24 hours a day. The dispute could involve a
national referendum and arbitration by the highest Swiss legal
authority. Should the closing be confirmed, aircraft would be
diverted to the airports of Geneva and Basel.
4.2.5 Paris Airport
The Paris airport has employed an automatic telemetering
system since 1963 to ensure that its "Procedures for Anti-noise
4-9
Takeoffs" are adhered to by the airlines. The system is part of
a program that incorporates operational procedures and enforcement
to ensure a maximum noise level of 85 dB(A). This standard, which
is lower than those proposed by the ISO, is in line with Soviet rec-
ommendations and is perhaps the most stringent in Europe. The
! • • - - -
checkpoints are located at various places around Orly Airport out
to a distance of five miles. The new airport at Roissy has a more
complex system of monitoring and zoning, as will be described later.
4. 2. 6 Osaka Airport
The annual traffic at Osaka International Airport is
175,000 take of fs and landings. In August 1969, following complaints
from eight local municipalities, a monitoring system was Installed
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4-10
at 40 locations around the airport. In its White Paper of that year,
the metropolitan government published a noise-exposure rating derived
from the results of the monitoring (Table 4-1).
Takeoff (all numbers in dB(A))
Aircraft Type
Convair 880
Boeing 707
Boeing 727
Boeing 737
YS II
Friendship
City A
75
71
73
71
--
--
B
87
87
80
80
70
70
C
70
70
68
69
65
--
D
71
68
66
66
63
63
E
76
69
69
69
64
64
F
91
84
84
80
71
71
G
85
80
75
73
62
62
H
93
85
82
80
68
68
Landing (all numbers in dB(A))
Aircraft Type
Convair 880
Boeing 707
Boeing 727
Boeing 737
YSII
Friendship
City A
92
97
88
88
78
77
City B
74
71
70
69
66
--
Table 4-1. Aircraft Noise Emissions Near Osaka Airport
4-10
A peculiar problem of the Osaka airport is that any plane landing or
taking off must make an abrupt turn over the airport, producing readings
93
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of 110 Phon(A) as far as 1. 5 km from the runway. This is the
distance to the closest community.
4. 2. 7 Brussels Airport
Located about six miles northeast of Brussels, the airport
is not yet equipped with a regular monitoring system. The information
in the following paragraphs is taken from measurements made in the
summer of 1967 at four points along the roll and takeoff flight path of
aircraft using the busiest of the airport's runways. The measuring
points were 3. 5, 7, 14, and 28 km distant from the beginning of the
runway. Variations in atmospheric conditions were minor. Measure-
ments were made in dB(A) and PNdB.
It has become common practice in the USSR and a few other
countries to evaluate noise levels using standard deviations. This
practice was followed in the Brussels measurements, the results of
which are shown in Table 4-2.
Aircraft Type
Caravelle VI-N
Boeing 707-320
Boeing 727
Douglas DC 9
Convair 440
Lockheed L 188
Metpoint 1
117(4.5)
124(6. 3)
114(4.4)
110(1.7)
107(4.2)
100(2.9)
Metpoint 2
107(1.9)
106(4.0)
104(2.0)
98(1.8)
95(1.6)
Metpoint 3
95 (4.6)
92 (3.4)
90 (2. 0)
90 (2.6)
Metpoint 4
90 (1.3)
a) Unit of measurement: PNdB.
b) Standard deviation given in parenthesis.
4-11
Table 4-2. Aircraft Noise Emissions Near Brussels.
94
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The altitudes at measuring points 1,2 and 3 in Table 4-2
were (in meters^, 290-360, 540-900, and 750-1400, respectively.
The PNdB-dB(A) difference ranged from 11 to 17. Account
was taken of the period during which the noise level remained within
10 dB(A) of the highest level of flyover (Table 4-3).
Table 4-3 Duration of Peak Flyover Noise Near Brussels Airport
4-11
Aircraft Type
Caravelle VI-N
Boeing 707-320
Boeing 727
Douglas DC 9
Convair 440
Lockheed L 188
Metpoint 1
13 (3.6)
8 (3.2)
11 (3.4)
12 (2.2)
8 (3.2)
11 (2.0)
Metpoint 2
21 (1.3)
21 (3.5)
19 (7.3)
21 (4.0
17 (2.9)
Metpoint 3
25 (6. 5)
25 (5. 5)
30(10.2)
23 (4. 5)
Metpoint 4
35 (5.9)
(all numbers
in seconds)
.(Standard deviations in parentheses.)
The majority of Caravelles followed a noise abatement climb
(NAC), started just before passing over measuring point 1. The noise
level, the differences between PNdB and dB(A) values, and the time in
seconds, are given in Table 4-4 together with the number of
Caravelles that did not follow an NAC before point 1 or point 2.
95
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Table 4-4. Use of the Noise Abatement Climb (NAG) (Caravelle
Aircraft at Brussels) 4-11
Metpoint
1
2
Noise level (PNdB)
NAG
107 (2.4)
99 (1.9)
No NAG
117 (4.5)
107 (1.9)
Difference values
NAG
10 (1.4)
12 (0.5)
No NAG
11 (1.0)
13 (1.8)
Period 1 (sec)
NAG
21 (4.4)
20 (0.5)
No NAG
13 (3.6)
21 (1.3)
Mean noise levels on the ground were also calculated for
a standard 300-meter flyover altitude at point 1 (Table 4-5).
Table 4-5. Noise Levels at 300-m Flyover Point, Brussels.4"11
Aircraft type
Caravelle VI -N
Boeing 707-329
Boeing 727
Boeing 737
Douglas DC 8
Douglas DC 9
Convair 990 A
Trident
Lockheed L 188
Convair 440
Hyushin 18
Perceived Noise Level,
PNL in PNdB
117
124
115
111
118
110
118
117
101
107
108
The standard deviations in mean noise level were not great
and tended to even out with distance. In the case of the Caravelle, only
a 5 dB(A) reduction was noted between 14 and 28 km. Good correlation
was found between altitude and period of flyover. Use of the NAG
resulted in significant abatement: an average of 10 PNdB for point 1
and 8 PNdB for point 2.
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4. 3 Abatement and Control
4. 3. 1 The Heathrow Case and British Reaction
Heathrow is particularly interesting and valuable because it is
almost a "worst case" example. In addition to its volume of traffic and
the density of population in the surrounding areas, Heathrow has wind
conditions that cause about 70% of the flights to take off and land over
the city of London. The measures taken by the airpqrt authorities to
control noise through operating procedures read like a list of advanced
practice" two-stage takeoff; 3° glide angle in landing; preferential
runways; restriction of nighttime operations; and, as of the latter part
of 1970, paired takeoff and landing (i. e. , two aircraft at a time).
However, landing procedures at present offer little relief. At Heathrow,
for example, peak levels of 113 PNdB are not unusual outside houses
4-12
during landing. As at Zurich, pilots with bad records are warned;1
and repeated offenses lead to a request that the airline transfer a pilot
to other routes.
Gatwick, the second London airport, was rarely mentioned
in early concern over aircraft noise around London. But since 1965
it has shared the spotlight increasingly with Heathrow. Meanwhile,
in the middle 1960's the growing public awareness of aircraft noise
encountered a proposal to locate a third London airport at
Sanstead, northeast of the city, at a distance from London center
about four times as great as that of Heathrow. After a prolonged
battle led by the Noise Abatement Society, a commission was appointed
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to study the problem. The commission, headed by Justice Roskill,
proposed a second inland site 50 miles northeast of London instead
of the off-shore location of Foulness Island proposed by the Society.
The matter finally reached Parliament, which voted in favor of the
Society. Land is now being acquired for this island site, located
4-13
about 30 air miles east of London. (The report of the Society
is also interesting because it presents a plan for the use of advanced
high-speed ground transportation as the airport link.)
Since 1965 the British government has had power to
direct the British Airways Authority to limit aircraft noise at airports
under BAA authority (Heathrow, Gatwick, Stanstead, Prestwick and
Turnhouse). Comprehensive powers have been granted in the Civil
Aviation Act of 1971 for government control of noise at any airport
4 14
in the United Kingdom designated for that purpose.
Also, following the Montreal meeting of the ICAO in
November 1969, the Air Navigation (Noise Certification) Order of
1970 stipulated that as of January 1971, all new subsonic jet aircraft
operating in the United Kingdom must be approximately half as noisy
as current jet aircraft of the same weight. However, the Roskill
Commission established that, in spite of this halving, the nuisance
would grow, not diminish, over the next 15 to 20 years. In a letter
98
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to the Financial Times of October 13, 1970, Geoffrey Holmes, Chief
Public Health Inspector for the Royal Borough of New Windsor, in
4-15
addition to citing the Roskill assertion, made the following statement:
"The principal factors in an almost intractable conflict between civil
aviation and the environment are (1) the difficulty for airlines in
competition with each other to operate substantially quieter aircraft;
(2) the preference of passengers to use airports near to or even in
towns; and (3) that each passenger, cargo, and airline is subsidized
financially by the unpaid cost of nuisance. " The writer went on to
suggest a noise tax on airlines. Mr. Holmes' letter followed by
three weeks an article in the New Scientist by E. T. Richards, Vice
Chancellor of Loughborough University of Technology, that attempted
to evaluate airport noise. " Richards introduced evidence that the
annual value to Great Britain of a fully developed airport such as
Heathrow was not less than 300 million pounds (roughly $750 million)
and that the total locality loss borne by the people living in the vicinity
was 66 million pounds ($165 million), with an annual increase in
amenity loss of one million pounds ($2. 5 million).
The assertion of the Roskill Commission was modified at
a meeting of citizens from the London boroughs of Richmond and Kew
in October 1970. Addressing the meeting, D. P. Davis, chief test
pilot of the Air Registration Board, said that over the next 12 to 15
99
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years there would be no deterioration in the noise situation around
4-17
Heathrow, but there would also be no improvement.
A broader and more pessimistic evaluation was made at
the Third International Conference of the Royal Society of Health on
4 18
September 24, 1970. ~ Dr. Bruel, head of the acoustics firm of
Bruel and Kjaer in Copenhagen, voiced the opinion that the noise
from supersonic jets could not be solved unless airports were sited
in deserted areas. There was no possibility of radically reducing
noise from these aircraft, and very little could be done by alteration
of starting procedures.
Part of the problem at Heathrow has been the absence of
stringent planning measures: since publication of the Wilson Report
in 1963 the population around the airport has increased thirty percent.
4-19
A 1968 report ~ prepared by two of the boroughs outside the range
of greatest noise impact suggested yet another reason why Heathrow's
volume of complaints has been growing. A survey of the inhabitants
indicated that they were not learning to live with the jet; on the contrary,
persons who in 1965 or 1966 were able to tolerate the noise resented
it bitterly in 1968. The report contains an estimate that with a popula-
tion density of about 110 persons per acre (70,400 per square mile),
100
-------
each linear mile of overflight by each aircraft subjected some
18, 000 persons on the ground to noise annoyance. Sleep disturbance
was found to have increased since 1965 in spite of precautions taken
by the airport authorities. In a private communication enclosing
Reference 14, the statement was made that there are now 700,000
households significantly affected by noise from Heathrow, i. e., that
4-20
are within the 35 NNI contour. This is the same figure given
4-21
on the floor of the House of Commons in March 1971.
Because of the special features of* Heathrow, a noise
insulation grant provision was adopted by the government in 1966.
The program operates in an area bounded by the 55 NNI contour,
although in the case of wards cut by the contour, the whole ward is
eligible. Only dwellings completed before January 1, 1966 are
included. Householders are entitled to a refund of up to 60% of the
cost—or 150 pounds ($375), whichever is less--of sound insulation
treatment for their homes. The treatment must meet certain
specifications, including the provision of alternative means of
4-12
ventilation.
Heathrow, for all its peculiarities and publicity, is merely
representative of the noise problems of older, major airports whose
planning and design took into account neither jet aircraft nor traffic
101
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increases of such magnitude as those cited at the beginning of this
section. Two other examples, one for an international airport and
the other for a primarily national one, are described below.
4.3 2 Osaka Airport
The Osaka White Paper previously cited discusses various
measures that were taken to control noise and compensate the citizenry.
In October 1967, 305 families living within 1. 5 km of the Osaka run-
ways organized a citizens committee and demanded that the national
government provide them money to purchase homes in less noisy
areas. This complaint led to an investigation which resulted in
the following actions: a noise abatement law was instituted for public
and private airports; the Ministry of Transportation was given
authority to administer a new noise abatement law for both American
and Japanese military airports; the tax on television ownership was
reduced in areas with poor reception caused by aircraft (the difference
being made up by the airline companies and Japanese Broadcasting,
Inc.); greenbelts about 40 meters thick were constructed around the
airport; a line item for aviation noise prevention was introduced into
the national budget for FY 1967-68 (in FY 1968-69 the item was
increased from 30 to 53 million yen, about $20,000 at the then pre-
vailing exchange rate); and measures were taken to enable national
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and municipal governments to finance private and public undertakings
to reduce aviation noise.
4. 3. 3 Irkutsk Airport
Irkutsk (USSR) is a major commercial and industrial center
of Central Asia. Located near Lake Baikal, it has a population of
about 400,000. Its airport problems are interesting because they
bear on the question of runway extension. For example, it was
determined at the end of 1970 that extension of the Gatwick runways
in London would not increase the noise level substantially because the
situation was already so bad. Irkutsk discovered the reverse after
it had already extended its runways.
During 1966 and 1967, 843 noise measurements were made
in streets 500 to 1500 meters from the airport runways, and 576
4-22
measurements were made in homes situated in those streets.
Aircraft emissions were found to be intermittent. All ground operations
other than takeoff caused street readings in excess (85-100 dB) of the
permissible level, the maxima reaching the levels of arterial roads
in large cities. During the summer the average open- and closed-window
readings were 90 and 83 dB, respectively; during the winter the latter
was 69 dB. For takeoff and landing operations the street range
(800-1000 meters) was 97-121 and 89-105 dB, respectively.
103
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Readings in homes during takeoff were higher than the corresponding
.ground-operation readings by 27-30, 19-22 and 17-21 dB, respectively;
i.e., speech interference was very high.
This study resulted in the following recommendations: tow
all aircraft to and from the runway; remove aircraft run-up areas 3-4 km
(in effect) from residential areas by constructing special sound sheds
that screen out the noise of engine testing; limit takeoffs to nonresidential
directions; and, if necessary, move the heavy aircraft (Tu-104, 11-18,
An-10) to an airport constructed in a less densely settled part of the
region. It is not known to what extent these recommendations have been
adopted by national or local authorities.
This study resulted in a noise/distance table much like the
one cited in the Osaka White Paper, with the advantage that the actual
distances are given (Table 4-6).
Table 4-6 Sound Pressure Levels (in dB) for Various Aircraft in
Overflights Near Irkutsk, Together with their Duration Tin Minutes)4"22
Type of
Aircraft
Tu-104
An-10
11-18
Intensity and Duration of Noise at Given Distances along
the Takeoff and Landing Path (in Kilometers)
0.5
125
0.28
110
073o~
108
0.40
1
120
0.35
102
0.50
103
0.48
2
118
0.92
98
1.20
100
1.33
3
109
1746"
92
2.00
94
2.18
4
101
2.15
88
3758"
86
4.00
5
93
3.84
84
4.77
82
4.55
6
. 90
7.15
79
9.80
77
10.00
7
86
12.05
75
15.50
73
16. 10
Note: The numerator gives the SPL; the denominator, duration.
Distances presumed measured from start of take-off roll.
104
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These data suffer from the fact that the SPL is given in dB without
indication of the frequency spectrum. It is also not stated whether
these are peaks or averages.
4.3.4 Specific Means of Abatement
o Aircraft
As described later, takeoff and landing procedures
to reduce noise are a matter of international knowledge and agreement.
The noise of future jet aircraft will probably be substantially reduced.
The possibilities for reduction through retrofitting are covered in the
parts of this report dealing with U.S. activities. However, much
interesting work on run-up suppression seems to have been done in
foreign countries.
Run-up noise (the noise of ground operations that exceed
normal ground operation noise by about 10-15% or more, e.g. , engine
reversal on touchdown, liftoff, engine testing) has not been given much
attention to date because of the concern over in-flight noise, particularly
takeoff and landing. However, increasing attention will be devoted to
it in the future.
It has generally been thought that a reduction of 15 dB
was about the maximum effect that could be achieved with mufflers
105
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for jet engines. However, a report in the West German newspaper
Die Welt on July 24, 1971 stated that trials with a muffler at the Hamburg
airport have recorded decibel readings lower than the normal noise of
4-23
road traffic, i.e., about 60 dB(A). ~ This would represent a damping
effect of about 50 dB, three times higher than supposed possible.
Another, better known method is the use of special run-up
hangars. At the 1969 ICAO meeting in Montreal, the French delegation
described operations at the Paris airport with mobile concrete and metal
suppressors that produced reductions of 12-33 dB, depending on distance
and angle. The Paris airport has stipulated noise levels that may not be
exceeded by run-up operations at various distances from the aircraft
during the day and night-(Table 4-7).
Distance between
location of run-up
point and inhabited
areas (in meters)
300
•J\J\f
500
•J \J\J
750
1000
A \J \t \J
1560
J. ~J v V
2000
Ł*\S W \J
Period
(hours)
0700-1900
1900-0700
0700-1900
1900-0700
0700-1900
1900-0700
0700-1900
1900-0700
0700-1900
1900-0700
0700-1900
1900-0700
Sound
not to be
20
75
Hz
88
82
92
86
96
90
98
92
102
96
105
99
75
150
Hz
82
74
86
78
90
82
93
85
98
90
101
93
pressure
exceeded
150
300
Hz
77
68
82
73
87
78
90
81
95
86
98
89
levels
100 m
300
600
Hz
74
65
80
71
85
76
89
80
95
86
100
91
(dB) in octave
from
600
1200
Hz
73
63
78
68
84
74
88
78
94
84
99
89
bands
the noise source
1200
2400
Hz
73
63
80
70
86
75
91
81
99
89
107
97
2400
4800
Hz
73
63
81
71
90
80
97
87
108
98
122
112
4800
10000
Hz
73
63
83
73
95
85
104
94
122
112
130
130
Table 4*7. Maximum Ground Run-up Noise Levels Allowed at Paris Airport.
106
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In February 1970, a French report discussed in detail the
run-up facility for the Concorde. Constructed by A. Boet & Company,
it is intended both for the prototype and ''or production aircraft. Using
its afterburner, each engine can develop a thrust of a little over 20
tons for an air inflow rate of 209 kg/sec and a temperature of 1267°C.
The acoustic performance characteristics required at 100 meters from
the exhausts are a reduction up to 40 dB in the frequency range 31. 5-
A ") EI
8000 Hz. ~ At the Sixth International Congress on Acoustics in 1968,
a German described a run-up hangar in which a suppression of 40 dB
4-26
was achieved for a cost not exceeding that of an ordinary hangar.
Of course, these measures apply only to stationary aircraft;
the run-up noise associated with taxiing and thrust reversal after
landing is not affected.
Aircraft designers in the Soviet Union are looking for ways
to mount engines above the wings In order to provide partial shielding
of the engine noise from the ground. They are also working on better
mufflers, including some using rib shapes at the exhaust nozzles to
alter the frequency characteristics of the sounds, in part transforming
them to frequencies beyond the range of hearing. However, this type
of muffler reduces the efficiency of the engine. Therefore, work is
also being done on mufflers that work by capturing some of the energy
107
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of the exhaust, returning it to usefulness in the propulsion cycle and,
4-27
at the same time, reducing noise emission.
4. 3. 5 Structural Design and Insulation
Insulation of existing structures has employed chiefly
metal wool and glazing. Because metal wool is more expensive, and
because its properties are not entirely understood, most near-term
emphasis has been placed on glazing. Almost all research and
installation appears to relate to double windows. Around Heathrow,
double windows resulted in noise reductions of 32-42 dB with both
closed and 21-28 dB with one closed. The maximum reduction was
realized in a Japanese airport office building with permanent 10 mm
(about 0.4 inch) glass panes 34 cm (about 13,4 inches) apart, with
highly insulating rebates between the panes. This resulted in a
4-28
reduction of 50 dB.
The dB(A) reductions estimated for various
systems are shown in Table 4-8.
Window system
Double window, 10 mm panes,
34 cm air gap
Double window, 4 mm panes,
20 cm air gap
Single pane
Open window
Noise reduction, dB(A)
55
45
35
22
Note: 110 PNdB noise level outside the building
Table 4-8 Noise Reductions Through Treatment of Windows in Japan4'28
108
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Air conditioning is not in widespread use in most foreign
countries. This means that windows must remain open during the
summer, the time of year when aircraft noise is most bothersome. A
4-28
Japanese investigator dealt with this problem in an extreme
form, a school located 500 meters from the end of a runway of
Tokyo International Airport, at which point jet planes taking off
passed about 500 meters directly overhead with throttles fully open.
For a DC-8 the following noise levels ishown in Table 4-9 were typical.
Noise level, dB.
Noise reduction
required to meet
SO norm of
N-40 (dB).
0.05
100
30
Cenl
0.1
108
50
:er Fre<
0.2
100
50
luencyc
0.4
110
70
>f Octav
0.8
110
70
e Band (
2.0
103
70
kHz)
4.0
85
60
Average
117
Table 4-9. Aircraft Noise "Immissions to a Tokyo School.4"28
The usual architectural practices and materials make a noise
reduction of 70 dB in the middle frequencies very difficult to realize.
The transmission loss of single-layered materials seldom exceeds 50 dB,
and achieving with double-layered materials the sum of attentuation by
each layer is very difficult. However, Itow succeeded by using a
considerable amount of sound-absorbing material in the space between the
two layered sections. The recommendations resulting from his
theoretical analysis were two walls of reinforced concrete each with a
109
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thickness of 20 cm (8 inches) plus two layers of glass fiber walls
each 10 cm thick, a roof consisting of reinforced concrete slab
15 cm thick with a 4-cm asphalt overlay, and a ceiling of 3-cm thick
gypsum plaster on a metal lath. The noise level reductions resulting
from this design are reported in Table 4-10.
Noise
Level
(dBV
Outer Wall
Inner Wall
Total
Noise Reductions at Various Frequencies (Hz)
School Room
125
29.5
47.4
77
500
28.2
41.5
70
2000
31.2
47.8
79
Avg.
33.5
44
77.5
Corridor
125
29.5
28.5
58
500
30
31
61
2000
35
37
72
Avg.
35.7
33.5
71.2
Table 4-10. Noise Reduction Achieved at a Tokyo School by Use of
Sound Absorbing Material and Other Construction Techniques
4-28
110
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4.4 Permissible Noise and City Planning
When the Heathrow authorities decided in 1961 to
investigate the large number of complaints received the preceding
year, it was decided to conduct a survey of residents in the areas
affected by airport noise to determine the degree of their annoyance.
All residential districts within a ten-mile radius of the airport were
covered in two ways. First, the average number of aircraft experienced
daily was determined, and noise levels were measured in homes.
Second, 1,731 persons in whose homes measurements were made were
asked to assess their annoyance on a 5-point scale. (Apart from the
general conclusions, which are described below, it was noted that
reactions to noise are very individual: in the objectively worst
situations some people were untroubled by noise from the airport, while
others reported themselves very disturbed by even a few comparatively
quiet aircraft.)
It was discovered that annoyance varied with the average
peak noise level of the aircraft and with the number of flights per day.
A method was derived for making a trade-off between these two factors,
i.e., predicting the effect on annoyance of increasing peak levels and
decreasing the number of flights, and vice versa. In particular,
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quadrupling the number of flights was equivalent to increasing the
noise level by 9 PNdB, i.e., by an amount at which, on the 5-point
scale, a one-point increase in annoyance rating would be registered.
It was further discovered that a change of less than 5 PNdB was, for
practical purposes, not discernible, i.e., twice the discernible change
equalled a one-point difference in annoyance rating. The level .at
which almost no one complained about aircraft noise was 80 PNdB, or
about 67 dB(A).
A straightforward expression was used for the average peak
noise level (APNL)
APNL = 10 log
10
{ Ł
where L is the peak level in PNdB and N is the number of overflights
per day, omitting night traffic. The APNL was then used in another
formula
NNI = APNL -I- 15 log1Q N - 80
to express the total exposure. The value 80 is subtracted from the
result because of the aero response of the respondents at the 80 PNdB
level.
112
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The value resulting from this formula was called the
/Noise and Number Index (NNI). From the measurements made
around Heathrow concentric bands were drawn, differing by a value
of five in the range 50-70, to show areas of probable degrees of
4-11
annoyance. (NNI 45 was the level at which 50% of the respondents
considered themselves moderately to very much annoyed.)
An important assumption is contained in the multipler
in this formula. The investigators found a linear relationship
between total noise exposure and annoyance rating, which suggests
that log N should be multiplied by 10. However, it is multiplied here
by 15 because a safety factor of 50% is added.
It was immediately apparent that the NNI could be used for
planning purposes: if noise exposures could be forecast, then annoyance
could be forecast, and a cordon sanitaire could be imposed for various
land uses. In fact, the British Government has advised local planning
applications, and consideration is now being given to issuing further
guidance on the NNI levels at which it would be appropriate for such
authorities to resist proposals for developments that would be exposed
to severe noise annoyance.4' The County Council of Surrey has
evolved a land-use zoning system, based on NNI contours, to control
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development around Gatwick Airport. Applications for permission
to develop the Leeds/Bradford airport at Yeadon and a private
airport at Fairoaks have been refused on noise grounds.
In 1965 a team of German experts conducted a survey
of aviation noise around the world and added a correction to the NNI
4-29
formula. By definition, they noted, the NNI accounted for
intensity (noise) and frequency (number), but it omitted a third
important component of annoyance, duration. They urged adoption
of the Annoyance Index (Stoerindex), already then in use at German
airports, to include all three components. They designated two
cases: (1\ a series of noises with peak levels Q , Q , . . .and
durations of tj, t^, . . . and (2) a temporary duration of the level
within a given time T. For the first the annoyance index Q is
where a is a free parameter ( a = 3/40 - 1/10), and for the second
case
r L rT oQw
r / 10 dt
The originators of this formula, Mats chat and Mueller,
also proposed a more complex formula that takes other parameters
into account:
b(x)
J E 10 ^. t« at. d
->(x) * ^
114
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where x, y are the coordinates of the measuring point, b(x>
is half the width of the flight path, L __ is the maximum
md.x
k
noise level in PNdB or dB(A) for an aircraft of class k, t
k
is the effective duration of the noise produced by an aircraft
of class k, n^ is a distribution function, 77 is an integration
variable, T is the reference period, and a is the equivalence
parameter.
At present, six countries and the ICAO have adopted
formulas to express noise exposure from aircraft. In the following
list, ~ L and L , meaning perceived noise level and effective
pn epn
perceived noise level, respectively, are shorthand for longer
calculations:
U.S.A.:
France:
Great Britain:
CNR = 10 log 10
10
NEF = 10 log 10
L
P"
10
L
,-HI5-
+ 10 log N-12
610
+ 10 log N-88
L
P"
R = 10 login 10 + 10 log _ N-30
'10
pn
NNI = 10 log 10
10
10
+ 15 log N-80
115
-------
L
— 13.3
Germany: Q = 13. 3 Iog1() 10 + 13. 3 Iog1() N-52. 3
Lpn-13
South Africa: NI = 10 log1Q 10 10 + 10 log^ N-39.4
Lpn-13
Netherlands: B = 20 log1Q 10 + 20 logjo N-C
L
epn
I. C. A. O.: WECPNL = 10 log ~r° + 10 log N-39.4
As with NNI, the Swedish Aviation Noise Commission sought to
establish an equivalence between peak levels and frequency. This
"equivalent number" (N \ is expressed in the following manner:
+ 3.3 N8() +.10 N85 + 33 N^ + 100 M .
where the subscripts are critical levels. It is interesting to note
that whereas the Heathrow survey determined that 80 PNdB («*68
was the zero annoyance level, the Swedish system uses the equivalent
of 87 PNdB as the zero level. However, it provides only for 72,000
overflights annually.
On the basis of this formula, the Aviation Noise Commission
recommended that no new construction be allowed out to a distance of
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8 km from the airport, i. e. , the distance at which 50% of the
inhabitants could be expected to feel themselves disturbed. Out
to 18 km construction was to be permitted only with concurrence
of the Ministry of Air Traffic. This was the distance at which 20% of
the inhabitants could be expected to report annoyance.
It should be emphasized that all these systems are
guidelines: none has the force of law. Airports are governed in
their activities by national law and international agreement, and the
increase in air traffic sets a definite limit to what communities can
do about existing and future noise. Conflict between planning,
administrative, and health officials and their regulation's on the one hand
and airport authorities on the other must be expected. This appears
to be a fertile ground for legal analysis and accommodation.
For example, it is almost universally recognized by law
that owners of aircraft in flight cannot be sued for trespass or nuisance.
However, at the end of 1970 the British High Court served writ on the
British Airports Authority to stop night flying at Stanstead Airport in
Essex. A successful action would mean that protest lobbies could
determine the development of all British airports. The law firm that
117
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issued the writ noted that when the exclusion clause was written in
4-31
1920, ". . . aircraft engines sounded like sewing machines."
The same source . notes that there is no night flying, or very severe
restriction of it, at a number of international airports, including
Tokyo, Le Bourget, Duesseldorf, and Oslo (Fornebu).
In the case of Le Bourget, the restriction is more apparent
than real. The airport in 1969 handled only 80,000 flights, of which
fully 5%, or 4,000, occurred at night. By comparison, extrapolation
of Heathrow's traffic for the first quarter of 1971 gives an annual rate
of only 4, 500 jet night departures. On the other hand, planning for
the Roissy airport at Paris has taken the R number into account.
Scheduled for. completion in 1985, the airport will have four parallel
runways, grouped 2 x 2 and oriented east-west, with a fifth runway
running north-south. Landings, to include supersonic aircraft, will
be on the inside runways, situated 3 km apart, while takeoffs will occur
on both inside and outside runways. Only heavier planes will use the
N-S runway. On recommendation of the French Sound Commission,
four noise zones, following these indicated in the planning chart of Buerck
4_32
et. al., have been designated for the environs of the Roissy Airport:
118
-------
Zone A ( 96 dB(A)) - New construction for housing not
specially protected will be forbidden.
Zone B (89-96 dB(A)) - Only residences with special
soundproofing will be permitted.
Zone C (84-89 dB(A^) - A certain number of dispersed
buildings will be allowed.
Zone D ( 84 dB(A)) - No restrictions.
In describing this planning effort, the author laments that "Despite
these directives, certain promoters will no doubt exploit the land
near the airport as a convenient place to live, because no legal limit
exists, i.e., the zones are not enforceable by law." The airport
will create 60,000 jobs, and many new enterprises will be established
nearby. Estimates of those seeking housing in the area run as high as
300,000. It is anticipated that Roissy will handle 150 flights per hour,
up to 1,200 per day, compared with the. present 1,800 flights per day
handled by O'Hare Field in Chicago.
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4. 5 International Control
4. 5.1 International Civil Aviation Organization
All the foregoing topics--measurement, monitoring,
abatement, and evaluation--were the subject of a month-long meeting
of the International Civil Aviation Organization at its Montreal headquarters
in November and December 1969. The signatories, including all major
air nations except the USSR, adopted standard procedures for (1) measuring
noise for aircraft design, (2^ monitoring noise on and near airports,
(3\ expressing the total noise exposure level produced by a succession of
aircraft, and (4> reducing noise through a variety of aircraft operating
4-24
procedures. A procedure for noise certification of aircraft in all
4-24
operating modes was also passed over the strong objections of the
Federal Republic of Germany, Ireland, and the Netherlands, who contended
that certain allowances for very heavy aircraft undermined the purpose
of noise certification.4"24
On April 2, 1971, ICAO published a draft norm4"33 for
aircraft certification. This norm, which takes effect on January 6,
1972, specifies standards for lateral, flyover, and approach noise.
For aircraft weighing 300 tons or more at takeoff, the maximum
permissible noise at a lateral distance of 650 meters is 108 EPNdB,
with a 2-EPNdB reduction for each halving of that weight down to 102 EPNdB,
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-------
Flyover noise measured 6500 meters from the start of takeoff roll
must not exceed 108 EPNdB in the 300-ton class, with a 5-EPNdB reduction
for each halving down to 93 EPNdB. The standard for approach noise
is the same as that for lateral noise.
Although accord was reached on a means of expressing the
total exposure to aircraft noise suffered by persons on the ground in
the vicinity of airports, the discussion about development of criteria
and guidance related to the control of land use around airports resulted
4 24
only in a statement that a minimum of three zones should be
established, for areas where development is prohibited, restricted,
and permitted. There are two basic problems to be overcome in this
respect: (1} some countries have recommended that a five-zone land-use
protocol be employed, to give greater flexibility to planners; and (2^
there is disagreement over the maximum permissible levels within
residential areas. With the advent of the Soviet Union into the ICAO, it
can be anticipated that there will be a strong representation for more
s stringent standards than those now in general use. For example,
Heathrow standards are 98 dB(A) in the daytime, 88 at night. At the
Zurich airport, the requirements are 100 and 95; at Duesseldorf, 98 dB(A),
at Paris, 85 dB(A). This last standard is in line with Soviet recommenda-
tions. By contrast, the norm at Kennedy Airport is 100 dB(A).
121
-------
The measures that can be imposed by any national state
are to some extent restricted by the economic effects of a given
action or standard. The ICAO recommendations at the Montreal
meeting were adopted as attainable norms, and individual states were
invited to adopt more stringent ones. However, some traffic diversion
can be anticipated if certain aircraft or certain traffic densities are
forbidden at a given airport or within a given nation.
A central issue is the effectiveness of any of these schemes
in predicting community annoyance and reaction, assuming that reaction
is not necessarily an indication of annoyance. The British NNI system
is in effect a means of predicting the noise level at which a given percentage
of people at a given distance feel themselves annoyed. There has been
very little discussion of whether these predictive formulas are other
than convenient devices for plannemand developers to use.
A final topic on the ICAO agenda, abatement of run-up noise,
was limited to an exchange of views. 4'24 The only recommendation emerging
from this exchange was that the member states submit results of studies
on new or improved methods of reduction.
122
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4.5.2 Retrofitting
The worldwide concern over aircraft noise, particularly
that from jets, comes at a time when the present generation of
aircraft -will probably be in use for at least 8 or 10 more years.
Accordingly, attention has been directed to retrofitting existing jet
engines to make them quieter. The principal impetus has come from
the United States. ICAO will sponsor a retrofit meeting in November 1971,
but little hope is held out for general agreement. The estimated retrofit
cost of $125,000 to $250,000 per engine (a minimum of $500,000 for a
four engine transport) is beyond the capability of most nations.
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4.6 Medical and Physiological Studies
Whereas the prevailing view in the United States is
that airport noise is not a health hazard, research in Europe and
the Soviet Union has led to a more ambivalent view. Much depends
on the interpretation of results, e. g., whether a given effect
indicates increased nervousness or merely annoyance, or whether
changes in blood circulation of the central nervous system are
significant.
The most comprehensive survey anywhere in the world
4-34
was conducted in the Soviet Union in 1967. Measurements of
aircraft noise along takeoff and landing paths at distances up to
44 km (27. 5 miles) from the airport were made in the vicinity-of nine
airports and correlated with morbidity rates in these areas as
determined from more than 145, 000 diagnostic charts. In addition,
annoyance questionnaires were given to over 2,000 persons in 22
localities around the airports. Noise maps were prepared for the
following types of aircraft: Tu-104 and Tu-124 (turbojet);
Tu-114, 11-18, An-10, and An-24 (turboprop); and 11-14 and Li-2
(piston). Measurements were made in dB(A). The Russians, like
the South Africans and several other nations, dislike the PNdB and
124
-------
EPNdB systems and prefer to use the dB(A) scale, usually in octave
thirds rather than whole bands. Apart from the medical findings,
certain conclusions about annoyance were reached:
(1) the percentage of those expressing annoyance
declined from an average of 60%'at 5 km to
13% at distances over 30 km;
(2) annoyance increased markedly with age; and
(3) persons living in the vicinity of the airports
for a long time expressed less complaint than
those living there a short time.
The medical findings were as follows:
(1) In comparison with control populations living 40 km
from the airports, the morbidity of persons over the age of 15 living
within 1 to 6 km of the airports was 2 to 4 times greater, depending
on the type of system examined: otorhinolaryngological (otitis, neuritis
of the auditory nerve); cardiovascular (hyper- and hypotonia, et. al.);
neurological (neuritis, astenic condition); and gastrointestinal (ulcerated
stomach and intestines, gastritis). The increase in morbidity was
125
-------
most evident in the youthful and middle-aged populations.
(2) Tests with children aged 9 to 13 conducted in
1965 and 1967 showed that in comparison with a control group,
those living close to airports exhibited functional changes in the
cardiovascular and nervous system, manifesting themselves as
increased fatigue, deviations from the norm in arterial pressure,
increased pulse lability, cardiac insufficiency, and local and general
vegetative-vascular shift*. The auditory analyzer exhibited functional
changes, with a reduced threshhold in the lower and upper frequencies.
(3) Simulated Tu-104 noise acting on 30 subjects in an
anechoic chamber resulted in changes in the bioelectric activity of the
cerebral cortex. Substantial changes were found in the temporal,
parietal, and occipital regions, particularly in the alpha rhythm. Latent
periods were found to vary with noise level: levels of 60 and 70 dB(A)
had no effect; 80 had an insubstantial effect; and 90 induced CNS inhibition
that was twice as prominant with 20 overflights as with 10. Similar
results were found with cardiovascular reactions.
The authors conclude that since a level of 90 dB(A) produces
marked physiological changes, the recommended airport noise levels of
126
-------
112 PNdB by day and 100 by night (Heathrow and Kennedy^ which
correspond to dB(A) values of 100 and 88, are clearly too high and,
to provide a safety factor of 5 dB(A), should be reduced to 85 and
75 d B(A) for daytime and nighttime operations, respectively.
4-10
The Osaka White Paper also mentioned a medical
survey that indicated populations living near the airport gave
evidence of increased insomnia, neurosis, headaches, tinnitus, hysteria,
decrease in appetite, blood pressure rises, etc. , in comparison with
the general population. Complaints "were also reported as to length
periods of recuperation for patients; relapses; undergrown children;
emotional upsets; and hearing difficulties.
A study of the effects of noise on the fetus was made at
4- 35
Kobe University using residents of Itami City, adjacent to the
Osaka Airport, as subjects. The subjects *rere 144 babies whose
mothers had moved to Itami City from quiet places; they were studied
as 4 groups* (i) and (ii) were composed of 77 and 45 infants whose
mothers came to Itami City before pregnancy or during the first 5
months, respectively; (iii) and (iv) were composed of 22 and 44
infants whose mothers came to Itami during the latter 5 months of
pregnancy or after parturition, respectively.
127
-------
Responses by the mothers to a questionnaire are
analyzed and show that in groups (i) and (ii), over 48% of the
babies sleep soundly, and below 13% awake and cry on exposure
to aircraft noise. In groups (iii) and (iv) less than 15% sleep
soundly on exposure to the noise, while 50% awake at it. That is
to say, babies born to mothers who came to Itami City before or
during the first 5 months of pregnancy showed little or no excitability
at aircraft noise. While the mechanism underlying this phenomenon
is at present unknown, it appears possible that during the first 5
months of pregnancy, acoustically induced changes in the material
endocrine and/or autonomic nervous system can exert some influence
on the development of the fetal endocrine and/or nervous system,
which manifests itself postnatally as reactions that can be interpreted
as adaptation to intense noise.
In England, a retrospective study " of admissions to
a psychiatric hospital for the years 1966 to 1968 showed that there
was a significantly higher rate of admission from areas near Heathrow
subject to noise of about 100 PNdB than from nearby areas subject to
considerably less noise. This difference was particularly marked in
older women not living with their husbands and suffering from neurotic
or organic mental illness.
128
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Airports also have a deleterious effect on the work
performed in hospitals and clinics. One of the most frequently
mentioned disturbances is in the use of stethoscopes where heart
murmurs of predominatly low frequency (below 300 Hz) are of
great importance in the diagnosis of heart disease and are readily
masked by extraneous noise. 4'10
Another effect of airports on hospitals is the cost of
soundproofing. Addressing a meeting of the Hampstead Association
for Aircraft Noise Control in December 1969, Dr. Nevill Coghill,
consultant physician at the West Middlesex Hospital, said that when a
new wing was added to his hospital, which is between Heathrow's
two main approaches, 8% of the total cost, or 110,000 pounds
(about $275,000), went for soundproofing. "This money", he said,
"represents a direct subsidy to the airline, when it could have been
used to build a new laboratory or some other vital medical unit. "4~ 37
One of the factors in the refusal of the local planning authorities to
4-14
extend the runways of the Leeds/Bradford Airport at Yeadon was
the fact that double glazing for nearby Cookridge Hospital to eliminate
jet aircraft noise was estimated to cost 50,000 pounds (about $125,000)
4-38
plus some unknown sum for appropriate changes in the ventilating system.
129
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Of course, the persons most subject to aircraft noise
are the maintenance personnel who work around them. Tests
conducted in West Germany with loading personnel working around
4-39
jet aircraft showed that over half exhibited permanent threshold
shifts (hearing loss) of 30 dB or more. This report has additional
interest because the noise-intensity exposures are evaluated from
the standpoint of the Draft Guidelines for Protection Against Hearing
Damage by Work-Associated Noise, issued in 1968 by the Federal
Ministry for Labor and Social Order. It is noted that noise spectra
of all the jets investigated save one--a Boeing 737-- exhibited noise
intensities at 1-4 kHz that exceeded the ISO N 85 reference level.
130
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4.7 Noise from Unconventional Aircraft
Helicopters, V/STOL, and hovercraft present
additional noise problems. The second and third of these, in
particular, are very noisy. Foreign experience with them has
been no more encouraging than that of U. S. investigators. British
researchers seem to think that the hovercraft noise problem is
closer to solution than that of V/STOL aircraft. British manufacturers
hope to keep VTOL noise to a maximum of 90 PNdB at 500 meters
i ^- 4-12
on landing.
4. 8 Sonic Boom
The Concorde and the TU-144 are concrete embodiments
of Anglo-French and Russian interest in supersonic civil aviation.
The effects of eventual operational use of such aircraft, however,
remains a subject of debate.
The generation and propagation of the sonic boom is
essentially an element of supersonic aerodynamics and is well understood.
The most extensive sonic boom experiments have been conducted in
the United States. Smaller scale tests have been carried out with the
131
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Concorde in a series of flights over the British Islands. The data
obtained in the British tests are, fundamentally, analogous to those
obtained over St. Louis, and Oklahoma City.
Subjective tolerance to sonic booms has been tested in
Great Britain, France, and other countries. For example, the French
conducted a large scale community attitude survey. Twenty three
hundred interviews were conducted in the Strassbourg and Bordeaux
4-40
areas which yielded the following data:
1. Are you disturbed by the boom in your work or in
your daily activities ?
A lot, considerably: 26 %
A little, not at all: 74 %
2. Do you think you could tolerate 10 booms per day?
Never: 35 %
With great difficulty: 27 %
With quite some difficulty: 26 %
Rather easily or very easily: 13 &
3. If the booms occurred at night, do you think they would be:
Absolutely unacceptable: 56 %
Acceptable with great, some, no difficulty: 44%
4. Have you accustomed yourself to the booms? Would
you say:
The booms startle you just as much every time: 63 %
The booms startle you less than before, no more: 37 %
132
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Consequently, while interference with daily living activities was
about the same as in St. Louis and Oklahoma City, a higher proportion
of respondents felt they could not live with 10 sonic booms a day.
In other European countries the potential( structural
damage from sonic booms has been studied. G. Weber, for
example, calculated the ratio of static stresses in buildings to the
dynamic stresses induced by aircraft noise and sonic booms. He
reports that boom-gene rated stress in the primary structure of the
building is less than 1 % of the allowable stresses, less than 10 % in
roofs, but up to 50 % in glass panels. A number of European researchers
agree that while sonic boom damage to modern structures is unlikely,
certain historical monuments, including the stained glass windows of
the great European cathedrals might be in jeopardy.
A review of the European position with respect to the sonic
boom would not be complete without identifying Bo K. Lundberg,
Director of the Swedish Research Institute on Flight Technology, as an
outspoken and prolific opponent to supersonic overflights. Samples
of his writings are identified in references 4-42 through 4-46.
133
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4.9 References
4-1. Wilson, Alan, ed. Noise. Final Report of the
Committee on the Problem of Noise. London,
Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1963.
' 2. Noise and Vibration Bulletin. Vol. 1, No. 44,
p. 589, 1970.
4-3. Ibid, Vol. 2, No. 6, p. 219, June 1971
4-4. Thomas, P., "Analysis of Noise Interference due
to Reflection: Application to Jet Noise Pressure Spectra. "
(French) Revue d'Acoustique., Vol. 12, p. 331-342,
1970.
4-5. "Putting the Finger on Noisy Aircraft"
New Scientist, p. 182, April 23, 1970.
4-6. Friess, G. and Hafkemeyer, E., et al. "Erfahrungen
mit der automatischen Fluglaermueberwachungslage des
Flughafens Frankfurt/Mainl1 Paper presented at tha
Conference on Acoustic Noise and its control, January
23-27, 1967.
4-7. Lauber, A., "Noise Monitoring system at Zurich
Airport]1 Paper presented at the 6th International Congress
on Acoustics, Tokyo, August 21-28, 1968.
4-8. Noise and Vibration. Vol. 1, No. 32, P. 455, 1970.
4-9. Lorin, R. and Cantau, G., "Automatic noise-monitoring
stations for aircraft take offsi1 Paper presented at the
6th International Congress on Acoustics, Tokyo, Aug. 21-28
1968.
4-10. Osaka Metropolitan Government, White Paper, p. 117-122
1969. *-
134
-------
4-11. Lundberg, B. K, , Laermprobleme des Luftverkehrs.
Bundesministerium fuer Gesundheitswesen, Bonn, 1963.
4-12. Vulkan, G. H., "Planning Against Noise in London."
Paper presented at the International Symposium on
Control of Noise, August, 1971.
4-13. Noise Abatement Society, The Third London Airport-
Foulness. Noise Abatement Society, 78pp., 1968.
4-14. The Control of Noise in Great Britain. U.K., Dept.
of Environment, pp. 4-5, 1971.
4-15. Noise and Vibration Bulletin. Vol. 1, No. 46,
pp. 609-610, 1970.
4-16. Richards, E., "The Cost of Airport Noise", New
Scientist, pp 622-623, September 24, 1970.
4-17. Noise and Vibration Bulletin. Vol. 1, No. 46,
p. 611, 1970.
4-18. Ibid, Vol. 1, No. 43, p. 580, 1970.
4-19. Chelsea & Kensington Action Committee on Aircraft
Noise. "A Study of the effects of aircraft noise upon
the Royal borough of Kensington & Chelsea", 40 pp, 1968.
4-20. Private Communication from Secretariat Noise
Advisory Council, Department of the Environment, Great Britain,
August 31, 1971
4-21. Crosland, Anthony, former Secretary of State for Local
Government and Regional Planning, speaking in a debate
on March 4, 1971, cited in: Noise and Vibration
Bulletin, Vol. 2, No. 3, p. 105, 1971.
4-22. Nekipelov, N. I., "Shum na territorii zhiloy zastroyki
vblizi irkutskogo aeroporta. " Gigiena i Sanitariya,
Vol. 34, No. 5, p. 94-96, May 1969.
135
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4-23. "Hamburg Flugzeugbau claim to have the answer to
aircraft noise" The German Tribune, No. 487, p. 13,
August 12, 1971.
4-24. International Civil Aviation Organization, Report of
the Special Meeting on Aircraft Noise in the Vicinity
of Airports, Nov. 25- 17 Dec. 1969.
4-25. Noise and Vibration Bulletin, No. 1, Vol. 2, p. 28
January, 1971.
4-26. Kurtze, G., "Recent Advances in Silencing Ground
Testing of Aircraft", paper presented at the 6th International
Congress on Acoustics, August 21-28, 1968.
4-27. Chudnov, V., V poiskakh tishiny, Moskovskiy Robochiy,
1971.
4-28. Itow, T., "A Procedure for Reducing Noise in School
Rooms near an Airportf1 Paper presented at the
6th International Congress on Acoustics, August 21-28, 1968.
4*29. Buerck, W. and Gruetzmacher, M. et al. Fluglaerm-
Seine Messung und Bewertung, seine Beruecksichtigung
bei der Siedlungsplanung, Massnahmen zu seiner Minderung,
Bundesminister fuer Gesundheitswesen, 210 pp., May 1965.
4-30. Galloway, W. J. Noise Exposure Forecasts as Indicators
of Community Response, SAE 710315, Society of Automotive
Engineers, p. 4, 1971.
4-31. Noise and Vibration Bulletin, Vol. 2, No. 1, p. 38,
January 1971.
4-32. Alexandre, Ariel, Prevision de la gene due au bruit
autour des aeroports et perspectives sur les moyens d'y
remedier, Centre d'Etudes et de Recherches d'Anthropologie
Appliquee, Paris, 1970.
4-33. International Civil Aviation Organization, Annex 16 (revised)
to the Convention of the iCAO, April 2, 1971.
136
-------
4-34. Karagodina, I. L. , and Soldatkina, S.A. , "Vliyaniye
aviatsionnogo shuma na naseleniye, prozhivayushcheye
v rayone raspolozheniya aeroportov. " Gigiyena i
Sanitariya, Vol. 34, No. 5, pp. 25-29, May 1969.
4-35. Ando, Y. , Hattori, H. , "Effects of Intense Noise
during fetal life upon post-natal adaptability", Journal
of the Acoustical Society of America, pp. 1128-30,
April 1970.
4-36. Abey-Wickrama, I. and A1 Brook, M. F. , "Mental
Hospital Admissions and Aircraft Noise", Lancet,
Vol. 2, pp. 1275,-77, December 13, 1969.
4-37. Rice, G. G. and Walker, J. G. , "Criteria for the
Assessment of Aircraft Noise Nuisance in Hospitals",
British Acoustical Society Meeting, July 23, 1970.
4-38. Noise and Vibration Bulletin. Vol. 1, No. 2, p. 20,
1970.
4-39. Pressel, G. and Freudenstein, W. "Hoerschaden durch
den Laerm bei Ladearbeitern eines grossen zivilen
Flughafens" Internationales Archiv fuer Arbeitsmedizin,
Vol. 26, pp. 231-249, 1970.
4-40. deBrisson, Lt. Col., "Etude d1 opinion sur le bang
supersonique. " Centre d1 etude et d1 instruction psychologique
de 1'Armee de I1 Air. Rep. 22, 1966 (Available as Royal
Aircraft Establishment Library Translation no. 1159)
4-41. Weber, G., "Probability of Aircraft Noise and Sonic
Boom Induced Building Damages," paper 41 in the AGARD
Conference Proceedings No. 42.
4-42. Lundberg, B.K.f "Acceptable Sonic Boom Over-pressure
in SST Operation." Proceedings of the conference on
noise as a public health hazard, American Speech and
Hearing Association,Report 4, 1969.
137
-------
4-43. Lundberg, B.K., "Essential Considerations and
Research Required for Governmental Decisions on
Rational Policies with Respect to the SST Sonic Boom" ,
BL Rep. 128, paper presented at OECD Conference on
Sonic Boom Research, February 1970.
4-44 Lundberg, B.K., "The Menace of the Sonic Boom to
Society and Civil Aviation", Flygteknuiska F&rsbksanstalten
Memo PE-19, 1966.
4-45. Lundberg, B.K., "Implications and Justification of
the SST" Symposium on the Sonic Boom, Delft, October 2,
1968.
4-46. Lundberg, B.K., "Laermprobleme des Luftverkehrs, "
Bundesministerium fuer Gesundheitswesen, 1963.
138
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SECTION 5
SURFACE TRAFFIC
Of all the irritant noise sources in both urban and
rural settings, traffic noise has been identified as the key culprit.
It is not surprising, therefore, that traffic noise is second only
to occupational noise in attracting both governmental regulation
and academic research on a worldwide basis. The recent explosive
growth of the European automobile population has undoubtedly been
the foundation for this focus of attention. The Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) established in 1967
a committee of experts on traffic noise under the Consultative Group
on Transportation Research, thus reinforcing further action by all
of its member nations.
5.1 Assessment of Traffic Noise Nuisance
As the foundation of any regulatory action it is critical
that legislative bodies of governments understand the social pressures
due to traffic noise. In this vein many countries have conducted
sociological surveys. Together with the results of physical surveys,
correlations have been made which establish a "nuisance index" (see
subsequent section on the British Traffic Noise Index (TNI) ). One such
base survey was conducted in Sweden by the National Planning Institute
139
-------
in conjunction with the Swedish Social Ministry and the National
Road Organization. When a representative sample of the population
was interviewed to identify the most annoying noise source(s) the
shown in Table 5-1 were obtained.
Type of Noise
Motor vehicle noise
Aviation noise
Impact noise from
doors, pipes, etc
Other noise
Number of People Annoyed
per 100 Questioned
54
23
28
13
Table 5-1. Annoyance From Noise in Sweden.
3-1
In a finer breakdown of the components of annoying traffic
noise sources, a Japanese survey identified vehicle types (Table 5-2).
Type of Vehicle
Passenger cars
Large trucks and buses
Automobile horns
Motorcycles and small cars
Not disturbed by traffic noise
No opinion
Number of People Annoyed
per 1Q9 Questioned
9
48
14
57
14
Table 5-2. Annoyance From Traffic Noise in Japan
5-40
140
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Another Japanese survey was conducted by Messrs. Otoichi
Kitamura, Mindu Sasaki and Masahiro Saito5"2 to determine the
disturbance caused by traffic noise on fast roads.
Traffic noise recorded under real traffic conditions was
played through loudspeakers in a room in which there were eleven
volunteer subjects, the purpose being to study the degree of annoyance
as a function of the noise level and the extent to which the understanding
of speech was affected by the latter.
The N. N. I. (Noise and Number Index) was used in measuring
the noise produced by the vehicles: this index was created for
measuring aircraft noise and lumps into a single value the mean peak
noise amplitudes and the number of such peaks in a given interval,
expressed in logarithmic form. .
The volunteers were asked to rate the degree of annoyance
they experience when subjected to various noise levels by means of
an annoyance scale (1 = not noticeable; 2 = noticeable; 3 = slightly
annoying; 4 = annoying; 5 = very annoying; 6 = intolerable).
The following conclusions were reached:
141
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interference with speech: at NNI = 54 (median
noise level = 48 dB(A)), 60 percent of the words
are still understandable, whereas at NNI = 84
(median level = 78 dB(A)), only 2 percent of the
words are understood;
annoyance: the mean rating varied from 1 for
NNI = 54 to 4 for NNI = 84, which means that
with a median noise level of 78 dB(A) and the
number of noise peaks used in the experiment,
this noise level was rated "annoying".
In Japan the NNI method is used to establish the noise
nuisance along Highway 1, its principal highway. For conversion
purposes the following formulas were used:
For cars PNdB = dB(A) + 15. 3
For trucks * •' PNdB = dB(A) + 17. 1
The noise nuisance index was then established and correlated with
the physical data. When articulation tests ;were conducted at the
same NNI under conditions of air traffic and motor vehicle noise
i
j
the following relationship was established:
NNI. ,,. = NNI . + 6.
traffic air
The results are now being applied to the design of
soundproofing for buildings. It appears that current Japanese
standards are deficient for immissions by sounds in the 125-Hz
octave band.
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Similar to Japan's, Austrian concern rests not only
on the traffic noise, per se, but with its effect on people in
buildings facing main arteries. A 1964 study in Vienna showed
that any given sound level was considered equally annoying in
an office or a dwelling. By day more than half of the respondents
found an indoor level of 50 to 55 dB(A) either annoying or intolerable;
by night, 40 dB(A). A similar survey of schools showed that a slightly
higher level was tolerated in classrooms than dwellings or offices.
A follow-up Viennese survey was also conducted (Table 5-3).
Table 5-3. Annoyance Caused by Noise Immissions into Buildings
5-3
Equivalent noise
leveldB(A),
measured
inside.
25-30
30-35
35-40
40-45
45-50
5Q-55
55-60
60-65
65-70
Percentage of people feeling annoyed
Windows open
Day.
I
100
66
45
28
15
7
5
II
-
20
25
25
25
25
25
III
-
14
30
47
60
68
70
Night
I
75
54
35
18
6
-
II
26
10
9
12
18
24
III
-
36
56
70
76
76
Windows shut
Day
I
100
72
51
47
47
II
•
19
40
38
13
III
_
9
9
15
40
Night
I II
50
31
17
4
26
27
31
43
in
24
42
52
53
I not annoyed or a little annoyed
H annoyed
in strongly annoyed or unbearably annoyed
143
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5-4
In France, two surveys have been conducted in recent
years. The conclusion was reached that a noise climate can be
considered satisfactory when the proportion of persons experiencing
annoyance is not more than 5 to 10%, a figure obtained when the
average overall noise audible indoors during 24 hours does not exceed
38 dB(A). The French researchers consider that a critical point is
reached when the outdoor noise level is between 60 and 65 dB(A) at the front of
the building.
In London, a sociological survey " indicates that 36% of
the population is disturbed by traffic noise. Since the subjects differed
in their opinion about what noise levels were tolerable,
(considering a noise of 80 to 83 dB(A), according to type of vehicle,
not really noisy but not entirely tolerable), the investigators consider
that a line can befdrawn somewhere around the 80 dB(A) level.
Some interesting findings concerning the difference in
response have been reported by Swedish investigators (E. Johnson,
AKajland, et. al.)?"4;
A comparative study in 1967 with sample population (matched
in terms of age, social, and occupational status) of 200 in Stockholm
and 166 in Ferrara and came up with a statistically significant difference -
144
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92% in Stockholm vs. 63% in Ferrara spontaneously mentioned
traffic noise, and 61% in Stockholm vs. 43% in Ferrara were
disturbed by traffic noise.
It should be noted that in Sweden, however, a greater
pc" ion of respondents tried to do something to reduce the disturbance.
T&ey were also aware of their government's concern regarding noise
abatement. By giving the respondents an opportunity to-compare and
rar number of noises and sources of air pollution, it was possible
to st the relative importance of disturbance from noise in the
ureas concerned. It was not possible to demonstrate any difference
between the two areas in respecc to motor traffic noise, which was
tanked as the most disturbing in both cases. Both groups also gave
exhaust gases from motor vehicles as the second most disturbing (See Table 5-4),
..—Frequency of Respondents Who
H«r» Tried to Gel Disturbance. Reduced
Stockholm
Reaction of . •
Respondent* »• %
Tried to get disturbance
reduced 24' 12
Did not try to «et
disturbance reduced
Ferrara
Total
169 88
193 100
156 96
162 100
.—Rank Order of Six Most Disturbing
Sources of Discomfort in Two Area*
Sweden %
1. Motor vehicles (SI)
2. Car exhaust gases (25)
3. Noise from
plumbing (6)
4. Smell from
garbage cans (4)
•5. Smells from
chimneys (3)
6. Noise from streets
end square*
Italy %
Motor vehicles (35)
Car exhaust gases (IS)
Smell from
garbage cans (13)
Smell of food (11)
Smell from
chimneys (7)
Noise from streets
and squares (6)
• No. of ofeMrmtioa*. and square* (3) and squares (6)
The figures j# parentheses indicate the percentage of respondents
giving the source of discomfort in question as the most disturbing,
Table 5r.4. Annoyance Caused by Noises and Odors: A Comparative
Studv^ of Residents of Stockholm, Sweden, and Ferrara,
Italy.
145
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5-7
An extremely comprehensive 1968 analysis by the
National Institute for Building Research in Sweden deals with
traffic noise in residential areas based on a 1966-67 survey. It
was conducted with the main purpose of obtaining empirical data
for stipulating the amount of exposure to traffic noise that can be
permitted in dwellings. The problem discussed is that of whether
the annoyance can be derived exclusively from the noise to which
the individual is subjected in his home and its immediate vicinity
or whether the response is also influenced by the characteristics
of the individual himself. A dose and response curve for exposure
between 50 and 70 dB(A) mean energy value per 24 hours was
constructed. The differences in peoples' sensitivity to noise do not
appear to have any correlation with the characteristics or the road
and the area concerned; thus the curve can be applied to all forms
of housing developments.
In this connection, the Swedish Government has established
Recommendations (rather than codes) which specify the maximum
noise levels inside various types of buildings. The data given in
Table 5.5 are given as measurements to be taken inside the respective
rooms with windows closed.
146
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The same study lists the following recommended highest
level, in dB(A), of traffic noise (the values for noise within buildings
applying when windows are closed).
Buildings
Recommended Noise Level, dB(A)
Day
6 a. m. - 6 p. m.
Night
11 p. m. - 6 a. m.
Inside:
Homes
Living or bedrooms
Other areas
Offices
Offices with limited background noise
Educational Institutions
Schoolrooms, conference halls, etc.
Medical buildings
Hospital rooms
Treatment rooms, etc.
Outside:
Recreational areas
Recreational areas near schools,
hospitals, etc.
25
40
40
35
35
35
25
25
55
Table 5-5. Swedish Recommendations for Noise Climates Inside and Outside
Buildings. ^-1
It appears that these Swedish recommendations follow those under
: consideration by other European nations.
How to assess social nuisance in general has also been the
subject of work in England and has resulted in a method for assessing
social nuisance caused by road traffic noise. The method employs
a unit termed the Traffic Noise Index (TNI), which is derived from
the weighted combination of two characteristics of the noise. These
147
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are the levels exceeded for 10 and 90% of the time, both averaged over
a 24-hour period. Thus, a single value of TNI takes into account a
number of factors governing social nuisance, such as the noise
produced by the general traffic stream, that coming from individual
vehicles, and the distance of the reception point from the road. TNI
is expressed inthe form TNI = 4 x (10% level - 90% level) + 90% level - 30.
Thus the TNI includes the range of the noise climate, over the 24
hours, together with a smaller contribution from the 90% level
representing the average background. The basic combination is multiplied
by 4 in order to eliminate the need for fractional quantities, and 30
units of TNI are subtracted merely to yield a convenient numerical
scale.
The Traffic Noise Index was derived from data representative
of traffic noise levels at the fronts of buildings varying in distance
from the source, is weighted to take account of variations in traffic
flow, and correlated highly with general dissatisfaction. Predictions
made with its aid are therefore independent of short-term, variations,
such as the level of noise at a particular time of day or night. Also,
TNI values can be very simply adjusted to allow for the effects of
attenuation with distance.
148
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In a 1969 British publication, it is pointed out that in
addition to TNI, another way of specifying traffic noise to predict
nuisance, the Mean Energy Level, has been developed in Sweden.
Both units will be tested in a third social survey to be made in France,
the results of which are due to be published in 1971.
149
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5.2 Road Traffic Noise Measurements
In order to establish a quantitative basis of traffic noise
many countries have surveyed the effects of various parameters such
as traffic volume, speed, vehicle type, road surface, and vehicle
components. The world literature abounds with such data. This
section attempts to provide a representative sample of this kind of
information.
Between 1963 and 1965 roadside surveys were made in
England in a wide range of situations to obtain some indication of the
current "climate" of noise levels due to road traffic and to learn how
these levels are related to the simple variables of traffic flow. Most
of the measurements were made on straight and level roadways, but
two sites on bills were included to investigate the influence of road
gradient. At each site the traffic noise was received by condenser
microphones fitted with muslin windshields and held on stands at a
height of 1. 2 m above the level of the roadway. For setting up •
the microphones, a datum line was chosen on each roadway in a
position judged to be the center of the flow of the nearside traffic.
In practice this varied between the true center line of the nearest lane
and the broken line defining its off-side edge. One microphone station
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was always located 25 ft. from this datum line so that a complete
set of records of traffic noise level was obtained at approximately
the same distance as that specified (7. 5 m) in the standard vehicle
testing procedure (B. S. 3425). Additional microphones were placed
at further distances ranging up to 200 ft. in positions determined by
5-10
the nature of the site. Test procedure was given as follows:
"The signals received in the mobile acoustical laboratory
from each microphone station were recorded using an amplifier,
level recorder and statistical distribution analyser. Each measurement
channel conformed to the Standard Vehicle or Traffic Noise Meter
Specification B. S. 3539, in that the amplifier response was weighted
to the "A" scale of sound level so-that all measurements were made
indB(A), and the recorder controls were set to achieve the "fast
response" indicating characteristics. Thus in respect of measuring
equipment, the test procedure met the requirements of B. S. 3425.
"The digital counters of the statistical distribution analyzers
were pulsed at a rate of ten pulses per second and each set
covered a range of 50 dB in steps of 5 dB. The individual counters
indicated the time for which various preset values of noise level
were exceeded and, in this way, a picture of the distribution of noise
level with percentage time could be obtained.
151
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"During each test run the velocities of as large as possible
a sample of passing vehicles were measured with a radar speed
meter. At the same time, all vehicles were counted on a set of
manually operated counters. Each set consisted of three counters
so that vehicles could be placed in one of three classes, namely,
private cars and light commercial vehicles, heavy commercial
and public transport vehicles, or motorcycles.
'Test runs were made over periods of about one-quarter
of an hour, reasonably spaced throughout the day, but no measurements
were taken when the roads were wet. Between each test overall
electrical calibrations of the measurement channels were made and
before and after every series of tests the acoustical response of each
channel was checked with a pistonphone.
"First, far from the roadside, at distances greater than about
a quarter of the vehicle headway, mean sound level decreases basically
at a rate of 3 dB doubling of distance and increases 3 dB per doubling
of flow. The maximum sound level varies with distance and flow in the
same way as the mean level provided that the distance is greater than
half, the headway.
"Second, close to the roadway over distances that are small
compared with vehicle headway, mean sound level is independent of
152
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distance but increases by 6 dB per doubling of flow, while maximum
sound level decreases by 6 dB per doubling of distance but is
independent of flow.
"These results conform with the practical experience that
dose to a roadway, the peaks of noise due to the passage of
individual vehicles can be readily distinguished and noise from the
separate sources propagates according to the normal inverse square
law for spherical spreading of sound, decreasing 6 dB per doubling of
.distance. Further from, the roadside the noise from approaching and
receding traffic merges and creates a blurred impression in which the
noise of single vehicles is less readily discernible, the overall effect
being one of a continuous stream of sound rather than a column of
individual sources. In this case, appropriately enough, the sound
propagates at the lower rate of 3 dB decrease per distance doubling,
given by cylindrical spreading from a line source."
The figures obtained from the digital counters were
•expressed as percentages of total time and plotted against sound
level "A" to give cumulative probability distributions. A selection
of typical curves is shown in Figure 5-1.
153
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90 eo TO so §b
totetadtd3A)t
Effect of traffic volume
no
Effect of distance.
Figure 5-1. The Effect of Volume on Traffic Noise and the Effect
of Distance on Traffic Noise: Probability Distributions,
5-10
The range of median levels given by the curves obtained at
the various sites are summarized in Table 5-6.
Summary of measured noise levels at 25 ft
Site
Motorways
Suburban by-pass
Urban dual carriageway
Urban road • •
Rural trunk road
1 in 11 hill
Urban road 1 in 8 hill
A*
(dBA)
59
83
86
83
88
85
sBc
Range of LSD
(dBA)
7W7
68-71
73-78
66-72
71-74
*7-73
Traffic flow
(vchicies/hr/side)
750-1900
650-1300
1150-2250
400-800
350-900t
400-650f
Mean speed
(mph)
55
41
42
33
34f
18f
t Flow rates and speeds quoted for uphill traffic only rather than as
mean of both directions.
= Noise level exceeded 1% of time; L = level exceeded 50% of time.
Table 5-6. Mean Values of British Traffic Noise Measurements.
5-10
154
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On the basis of the empirical relationships and theoretical
analysis, a prediction method was developed, which, when applied,
showed close correlation between the predicted and measured noise
5-10
levels.
In Canada, sound recordings "11 have been made of more
than 2, 000 motor vehicles of all types at different speeds. Some
cars were found to be especially noisy, with peak levels of 80 dB(A)
at speeds of 40 to 49 mi/hr. Others were very quiet even at high
speeds, with peak levels of 68 dB(A) at speeds over 60 mi/hr. The
Canadians also found that with half of the cars in the medium and
high engine-capacity brackets, tire noise is the biggest factor at
speeds over 30 mi/hr. The noiee from such cars is 5 dB(A) lower
on smooth asphalt than on concrete.
A noise map plotted for Toulouse, France, showed that in
the center of the city the noise level rarely falls below 80 to 90 dB(A)
5-12
and sometimes even exceeds 100 dB(A) at peak periods. Heavy
truck traffic is considered the chief reason for this high noise level.
Recordings made continuously for 24 hours without
interruption inside a number of buildings in Paris showed that inside
a building particularly exposed to urban traffic noise the average total
noise during the day (from 6 a.m. to 11 p.m. ) varies between 50 and
155
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60 dB(A), and during the night (from 11 p.m. to 6 a. m.) between
40 and 50 dB(A), with frequent peaks of 60 dB(A). During the day,
the minimum background noise never falls below 45 dB(A) and only
falls below 30 dB(A) between 1 a.m. and 3 a.m.
5-41
A study done at Oxford, England showed the effect of
street width and the presence of buildings near the street on noise
levels in the street and on the sidewalk. Among other streets investigated,
Broad Street had higher traffic volume (830 vehicles per hour) than
Holywell Street (780 vehicles per hour). Yet noise in Broad Street
was about 5 dB(A) less than in Holywell Street. The explanation was
that Holywell was a narrow street measuring some 35 feet between
building frontages, while Broad Street was over 100 feet wide. Stronger
echo effects between building frontages helped account for Holywell
Street's higher noise level. Since the main point of the study, which was
done jointly by the Oxford City Engineer's and City Architect and Planner's
Departments, was to determine the way noise levels vary with traffic
flow, the higher noise levels for Holywell Street were first noted as an
anomaly in the data.
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A related French statistical analysis of sound pressure
levels in the vicinity of motorways was aimed at determining the
factors that most influence variations in noise levels: traffic,
the number of lanes, the proportion of heavy trucks, types of
surface, and distance from the road. The main conclusions were:
1. Background noises such as those caused by
traffic on a major road show stable features
that are apparent in their Gaussian distribution
with respect to time. This stability should
make it possible to simplify any studies of
the nuisance caused by such noises, since in
any case it is not sufficient to consider only
the average or highest levels of such noises.
2. Measurements taken at the edge of the road
clearly show that for a straight level road
the average level of noise depends only on the
total volume of traffic of which it is a
logarithmic function. The noise level that is
exceeded during 1% of the time seems to be a
constant factor when traffic density exceeds
1, 000 vehicles per hour (68 to 70 dB(A)' at
100 m from the road and 61 to 62 dB(A) at
200 m).
3. The decrease in noise level is small when
measurements are taken at progressively
greater distances from a very open road. At
200 m from the road in calm weather, average
levels are still in the region of 55 dB(A), while
the highest levels reach 62 dB(A) during 1% of the
time. The further decrease recorded at points
slightly above road level gradually disappears
as the height approaches that of blocks of
apartments. If one also takes into account the
effects of wind in the case of places downwind
of the noise source, it becomes clear that
dwellings should not be built at less than 200 m
from an open road with high volume of traffic.
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A survey in Vienna yielded the results shown in Table 5-7.
Type of Street
Residential roads
Side roads off traffic roads
Side roads off traffic roads
in the city
Traffic roads
Main traffic roads, crossing
Courtyards, closed
Equivalent noise level dB(A)
Windows Open
Day
41-44
48-51
54-59
58-59
73
43-44
Night
33-38
41-45
-
53-56
63
25-34
Windows Shut
Day
26-32
30-43
36-41
40-49
-
25-34
Night
24-28
23-31
-
37-40
-
24-26
Table 5-7. Results of Traffic Noise Survey in Vienna.
Between I960 and 1964, a study was made in Munich of the
effects on noise propagation of the number of vehicles, their speeds,
the percentage of heavy trucks and buses, the distance separating
the sound source from the recording point and other factors. The
main findings were that at 50 km/hr, heavy trucks and buses are about
10 DIN phons (dB(B)) noisier than cars traveling at the same speed
(measurements taken 5 m from the sound source); and that depending
on the distance of the observer from the road, the increase in noise
varies in relation to the traffic density (cars traveling at 50 km/hr) as
follows:
Ten meters from the road, the noise recorded is
about 68 DIN phons at 1,000 vehicles per hour
and 74 DIN phons at 3, 000 vehicles per hour.
Twenty meters from the road, the noise recorded
is about 67 DIN phons at 1,000 vehicles per hour
and 71 DIN phons at 3,000 vehicles per hour.
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Forty meters from the road, the noise
recorded is 62 DIN phons at 1,000 vehicles
per hour and 66 DIN phons at 3, 000 vehicles
per hour.
This means that traffic density has a greater impact
evels m
20 or 40 m away.
on noise levels measured near the road than on those measured
5-15
5-18
In an Australian study, 10-minute samples of traffic
noise were recorded together with a calibration signal. Simultaneously,
traffic counts were made and extrapolated to hourly flow rates; trucks
and commercial vehicles formed from 5 to 15% of the total. Sites
were chosen on highways having six traffic lanes (normally with only
the four center lanes in use); average speeds were of the order of
60 km/hr. Total road widths, including medians, were approximately
20 m, and the microphone was usually located 3 m away from and 1 m
above the curbside. The measured level in dB and dB(A) for various
traffic volumes, with levels calculated according to Lamure's equation
for comparison are shown below:
+ mean measured SPL, dB
xmean measured level dBA
ooo—(mean + 2s) dB
• • c (mean + 2s) dGA
san calculated dEA
(Lamure's equation)
o ^
CO C
IK. IK. . 3K. 4K
Traffic volume: vehicles per hour
Figure 5-2. Correlation Between Austrian Traffic Noise Measurements
and Values Calculated by Lamure's Equation. ^" *®
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The study generally confirmed results obtained by the
French investigator Lamure regarding the mean and peak levels
to be expected from freely flowing traffic. It is pointed out
that determination of mean and peak spectrum levels enables a
designer to specify the sound transmission loss required for the
external walls of a building facing a highway.
Traffic noise recordings at different distances and for
varying flows of traffic per hour along a highway in Sweden showed
that noise diminishes as distance increases, but not consistently;
noise peaks are attentuated by distance more than average noise
levels. There seems, however, to be an optimum distance for
noise attenuation past a certain point - which is difficult to determine
with any accuracy and at which there is no longer any correlation
between noise abatement and distance.
5-19
Some recordings in 1966 and 1967 in various Swedish
towns, involving 64 areas, have been used for formulating a mathematical
expression relating traffic density (including heavy vehicles) and the
speed limit to the distance that must be maintained between the edge of
the road and the building line if the 24-hour average of the noise level
at the front of these buildings is not to exceed 60 dB(A). The proportion
of heavy vehicles in the total traffic was reflected by an index combining
the relative numbers of heavy vehicles and cars into a single value,
as calculated from the following formula:
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vehicles per 24 hours - Ł cai>s + K ^heavy vehicles,
where K = 10 for a speed limit 50 km/hr,
K = 5 for a speed limit 60 km/hr,
K = 3 for a speed limit 70 km/hr.
Based on log-log coordinates, this "equivalent number"
of vehicles per 24 hours is plotted as the abscissa with the distance
between the road and the bordering houses as the ordinate, and one
can thus find, for a given speed limit, the minimum distance that
must be maintained between the edge of the road and the building line
for a given traffic density, or, conversely, the maximum permissible
number of vehicles per 24 hours when the distance between the road
and the building line is known and if the noise level at the front of
the buildings is not to exceed 60 dB(A).
A typical calculation shows that for an equivalent number
of 10,000 vehicles per 24 hours the minimum distance between road
and buildings should be 25 m for a speed limit of 50 km/hr, 30 m for
60 km/hr, 45 m for 70 km/hr and at least 60 m for a speed limit in
excess of 70 km/hr.
Regarding the effect of traffic speed the Canadian National
Research Council has made sound recordings of more than 2,000
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motor vehicles of all types at different speeds. The data were
taken about 15 meters from the moving vehicles, and indicate
fixed speed/dB(A) relationshios for the. average car (Table 5-8).
30-39 mph
65 dB(A)
40-49 mph
67 dB(A)
50-59 mph
72 dB(A)
60-69 mph
73 dB(A)
5-38
Table 5-8. Motor Vehicle Noise Emissions as a Function of Speed
Measurements of noise levels along main roads of
several large towns in the Netherlands have been analyzed by
frequency bands. Comparison of the results showed that noise
levels measured 10 m from the road and reached 10% of the time
(i. e., peak levels) did not vary greatly from one town to another.
Traffic conditions in terms of hourly flow, percentage of heavy
trucks, and speed therefore seem to be fairly similar from one
main thoroughfare to another and from one town to another in the
5-4
Netherlands.
5-4
A Soviet investigator determined the noise levels
exceeded during 10% of the time as measured 7 m from the road
center line, with vehicles moving at a speed of 40 km/hr and 60%
of the traffic consisting of heavy trucks (excluding diesel trucks)
and public service vehicles. The noise level exceeded during 10%
of the time, i. e. that which occurs 90% of the time, was 74 dB(A)
*
with 500 vehicles per hour, 76 dB(A) with 1,000 vehicles per hour,
and 78 dB(A) with 4,000 vehicles per hour. These noise levels must
162
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> corrected, however, for the proportion of heavy vehicles and for
traffic speed, as shown in Table 5-9.
Proportion of
Heavy Vehicles
Correction, in dB(A)
7%
-4
20%
-3
35%
-2
47%
-1
60%
0
73%
+ 1
87%
+ 2
100%
+ 3
Traffic Speed, in km/hr
Correction, in dB(A)
33 47 53 60 67 73 80 87 93
-1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8
5-4
According to these Soviet authorities, when heavy diesel
trucks are present, the noise levels should be increased by 1 dB{A)
for each 10% of the total traffic that consists of heavy trucks.
The Bruel & Kjaer sound level meter appear to have received
broad acceptance. For example, it was used in the Soviet Union for
cab and for exterior readings, at 1, 3, 5, and 7 m distance, of several
dozen vehicle types. Diesel engine readings of 113 to 130 dB and
diesel cab readings of up to 102 to 104 dB were recorded; other cabs
ranged from 96 to 113 dB -- all above existing Soviet standards.
Soviet sound pressure meters with frequency analyzers have
been used to measure noise 7 m away from vehicles traveling at
speeds of 19 to 25 mi/hour. The range of readings was 74 to 109 dB.
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The average total for trucks, whose frequency range was predominantly
351 to 800 Hz, was 89 to 107 dB, while for light-weight cars it was
74 to 103 dB, an average of 88 essentially at the same frequencies.
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5.3 Vehicle Noise Measurements
With regard to noise from individual vehicles, many
attempts have been made to determine the proportion of noise made
by vehicle type as well as by the engine compared with the other
sources of noise from, a moving vehicle (transmission, running gear,
c _ o o
tires). In Canada, tests were carried out first with the ISO
method and second with the engine stopped but at the same speed as
with the ISO method. On the average, for cars rolling with their
engines stopped the noise is 11 to 19 dB(A) lower than that emitted
with the engines running; for trucks with the engines stopped, the
noise is 8 to 28 dB(A) lower, and for motorcycles, 6 to 10 dB(A)
lower. A Swedish test also found that the noise of trucks moving
with the engine stopped was identical to the noise of cars moving
with their engines stopped. Two conclusions can therefore be drawn:
1. The noise made by a moving vehicle would be
only partly reduced if the noise of the engine
and the exhaust could be eliminated completely.
Such a reduction would nevertheless be
appreciable, since hardly any vehicle would be
a source of noise higher than 70 dB(A).
2. Trucks are noisier than cars primarily -because
their engines, transmissions and exhaust systems
are noisier than those of cars.5'14
According to the Canadian data, tractor trailers are the
noisiest trucks. The upper 10%, the mode, and the lower 10%
statistical groups for trailer trucks show levels of 89, 86 and 81 dB(A)
respectively, at a distance of 15 meters. The Canadians also found
165
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that for 50% of medium-to-high-engine-capacity cars monitored,
tire noise is the biggest factor at speeds over 30 miles per hour.
Tire noise from these cars was found to be 5 dB(A) lower on dryj
smooth asphalt than on dry concrete.
Another aspect of noise emission is vehicle age. Several
studies have been carried out in Austria, primarily under the direction
of L. Bruckmayer, of noise levels by type of vehicle, year of first
registration, mileage, fuel used, etc. It was found that:
The noise level varies with the age of the
vehicle; for certain types of cars there
is a difference of 2 to 3 dB(A) between
models one to three years old and the
same models four to six years old;
The higher the mileage, the noisier the
vehicle (4 dB(A) difference between trucks
that have run 8, 000 km and those that
have run 25, 000 km);
In the case of different makes of vehicles
with the same engine capacity, the noise
may vary by 5 to 6 dB(A), according to
the make.
Cars with diesel engines, on the average,
produce 6 dB(A) more noise than cars with
conventional engines.
The differences quoted above relate to noise levels
observed during 50 percent of the time. All measurements were
taken in accordance with ISO specifications. 5"3
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From Spain, an in situ means of measuring vehicle
noise is reported that does not employ a tachometer but determines
engine rpm directly from the exhaust sound spectrum by a Helmholtz
resonator attached to a standard sound level meter, the device
called "Vehicle Noise Limit Indicator" (VENLI), can be switched to
different potentiometers to set the reference limits for different
vehicle types (per ISO R362). 5~22
A Madrid scientist has derived an empirical formula
that permits determination of the upper limit of traffic noise for a
given place and density, as measured 1.2 m above the ground
at curbside for fluid traffic patterns and mean speeds of up to
40 km/hr. The formula takes into consideration pavement (asphalt
or stone), steepness (horizontal or positive slope), street width,
and traffic density.
5-21
According to a Soviet study, to reduce automobile and
ttactor noise, dynamic balancing is required for the engine, the gear
box, the Cardan shaft, the fan, the divided axle, the wheels, and
the tires. Elastometallic fittings must be used for the motor suspension,
the Cardan shaft, etc. ; soundproofing coatings made of perforated
materials must be more widely introduced, along with antivibration
coating and soundproofing shields. Damping devices must be improved
167
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and put into wide use; impacting metal shafts, gears, etc., need
to be replaced by plastics; hydraulic and pneumatic suspensions
should phase out springs. Straight-toothed gears should be replaced
with spiral, helical, or worn gears. Manufacturing tolerances must
be cut to a minimum to reduce joint clearances and prevent frictional
noise. The bearing surfaces of joints must be fully*protected by
lubricants, and rocker bearings must be replaced by slide bearings
and noise- and vibration-insulating coverings. Power transmission
can be damped by flexible couplings, and housing openings for passage
of shafts, etc., should be equipped with mufflers in the form of pipes
whose interior is faced with sound-absorbent materials.
There are, of course, numerous other data on noise
emission by vehicle components. However, the purpose and scope
of this report does not permit a more detailed treatment.
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5.4 Noise Regulation and Abatement
For several years the European Conference of Ministers
of Transport and the Economic Commission for Europe has been
working on an international determination of maximum emission
levels for motor vehicles. In most countries maximum levels
exist now.
The Swiss regulations are sometimes viewed as models
for international standards. As of November 1, 1968, all types of
vehicles in Switzerland must undergo a standard noise test. The
test is carried out on straight ground not covered by noise-absorbing
materials as grass or snow. Measurement is made of noise from a
stationary vehicle at full throttle. Microphones are placed at a
distance of 7 m on each side of the vehicle and at a height of 1. 2 m
above ground. No objects that could influence the noise measurement
are allowed within a radius of 20 m from the microphones and no
large objects are allowed within 50 m. The maximum noise emission
levels are as follows:
Type of Vehicle
Motor scooters
Light motorcycles, up to 50 cc
Heavy motorcycles, above 50 cc
Cars with dies el engines or about 50 hp
Other personal cars
Heavy trucks, tractors, others
Maximum Noise
Level. dB(A)
70
73
82
82
78
85
Table 5-10. Maximum Permissable Motor Vehicle Noise Emissions
in Switzerland. 5"24
169
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A vehicle on the road that is suspected of being too
noisy is stopped and measured. If necessary the owner must then
take measures to reduce the noise and return for the standard noise test.
Sometimes the vehicle is confiscated and the owner deprived of his
permit until the test has been passed.
Speed limits in Switzerland range from (1) 30 km/hr for
scooters; to (2) 60 for motorcycles with sidecars, for all motor-
driven vehicles within built-up areas; to (3) 80 for personal cars
with tows and for trucks; and (4) to no limit for personal cars outside
populated areas.
No heavy trucks are allowed on the roads between 2100
and 0500 during the winter and from 2200 to 0400 during the summer.
5-24
Public transportation and heavy cars with sensitive loads are exempt.
Some work has been done on the measurement of noise
inside vehicles by different methods, but no uniform method of
measurement yet exists. The Economic Commission for Europe is
working on this matter. An internationally uniform method of
measuring noise inside vehicles is desirable, so that comparable
measurements could be carried out and maximum values could be
drawn up. Limits for noise levels inside all kinds of vehicles exist,
*
for example, in Czechoslovakia (Table 5-11).
170
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For public
Others:
Type
transport:
All levels +5
Table 5-11.
Urban and suburban
Long distance traffic
Trucks
F^-ssenger vehicles
Ambulances and other
special vehicles
Max. sound
level dB(A)
85
80
85
80
75
dB(A), if vehicle older than 5 years
Noise Level Limits Inside Vehicles, Czechoslovakia.
5-17
II It
For example, the Saab-Scania Company in Sodertalje has
produced a new bus model called the "Scania CR 111", equipped
with a 202 hp (DIN) rear engine. Its noise level is reduced about 10 dB(A),
which brings the noise emission to about 77 dB(A). This i-s
approximately the same level as that of a passenger car. The engine
area is insulated with a thick layer of noise-absorbing glass-wool,
which is covered with a perforated aluminum sheet. Floor-tiles are
placed under the motor. In order to dissipate the engine heat, a special
water-cooled exhaust system is installed which is equipped with a
heat-insulated exhaust pipe. Two special cooling ventilators, functioning
as one unit and on a slower rotation basis, help to reduce the noise level
and provide also the proper ventilation for the engine area. A
similar bus is now in operation in the greater London area.
In general, the noise level for buses in operation in Sweden
is about 85 - 87 dB(A). At this time, no regulation exists for maximum
bus emissions. However, in many European countries this limit is
between 89 and 92 dB(A).
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The Swedish standard SIS 025 131, "Measurement of
Vehicular Noise" has been proposed as a legal standard. It
furnishes the basis for proposed limits for vehicular noise, and
these limits have, with some modification, been accepted as
guidelines within the Common Market countries. These proposed
limits are shown in Table 5-12.
Tvoe of Vehicle
Proposed Maximum Noise
Level. dBfAl
Motorcycles
Personal Cars
Trucks and Buses
Total weight, < 3. 5 tons
Total weight, > 3. 5 tons
82-86
84
85
89-92
5-1
Table 5-12. Proposed Vehicular Noise Emission Limits (Sweden),
5.4.1 Screens, Distance Factors, and Community Planning
In Germany, road cuttings were found to be the most
effective means of limiting the propagation of traffic noise. It is
also pointed out that when buildings are parallel to the road, the
side of the building facing the road is exposed to a relatively
high noise level but if they are perpendicular to the road, they have to
lie a considerable distance away from it for a relatively low level to
be recorded. Cost studies have also been made in Germany of the
erection of 6-m high walls of sound-absorbent material on each side
of a road. Noise levels with such walls are reduced by 25 to 30 dB(A),
which includes attenuation due to distance.
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In France similar studies show sufficiently high and
well-designed screens usually reduce the noise level by 10 to 20
dB(A), but the wall must be faced with an absorbent material on the
side facing the road.
In the Netherlands, a road is so designed that only low
i
buildings (garages) will be located alont it, forming a screen
between the road and nearby dwellings. Wide spaces planted with
trees and shrubs will be left between the road and the adjacent
, ... 5-27
dwellings.
In England it is believed that the best solution is to run the
road through a cutting with vertical retaining walls, provided the top
of the wall bordering the road is inclined toward the road. With
regard to the siting of roads, investigators have suggested that high
buildings should be located a distance from major roads; that garages
be used as screens, that balconies be provided for high buildings as a
protection against noise, and that buildings should be oriented in such
5-4
away that bedrooms are on the unexposed side.
It is interesting to note that the British believe that barriers
may eventually prove to be very effective for preventing the spread
of noise from urban motorways but at present there is insufficient
practical experience of their ability to abate urban noise, or of the
problems associated with their design, construction and maintenance.
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Table 5-13 shows cost estimates of noise barriers
as compiled by the British Road Research Laboratory. The
original estimates were made by the Greater London Council (G. L. C. )
and the Ministry of Home and Local Governments (M. O. H. L. G. ).
Barrier Construction
Brick wall 10 feet high
Brick wall 12 feet high, cranked on plan
Concrete panel wall 10 feet high
Close Boarded timber fence 6 ft. high
Earth bank 12 feet high
Cost per
Running Foot
$24. 00
$16.80
$48. 00
$ 4.80
$36.00
Estimator
G. L. C.
M. 0. H. L. G.
G. L. C.
G. L. C.
M. O. H. L. G.
5-39
rnt-1 C 1 •> ' n Sl_! 1_ /•« J. T* 1-1 _J. t T» ] TVT—I _ T>_ •_ -'-'/
In Switzerland it has been found that although vegetation
has no appreciable noise abatement effect, it has a psychological one:
when the source of the noise is not visible it is less irritating. Evergreens
have the advantag'e'of preventing the spread of noise during both winter
and summer. The effect, however, is relatively small - a forest belt
c _ OQ
100 m wide is believed to'reduce the noise level by only 4 to 6 dB(A).
In an inter-regional seminar on housing, Soviet experts
came to the conclusion that an increase of 20 to 40 m in the width
of a main street reduced the noise level by 4 to 6 dB(A) at the curb
and that belts of grass and trees can reduce the noise level by 6 to 12 dB(A)
5-21
depending on their size and on the time of year.
174
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Rumanian specialists have found that while noise recorded
was 72 dB(A) at the side of a road 20 m wide, it fell to 68 dB(A)
when the road was 40 m wide and to 54 dB(A) when it was 60 m wide.
Noise amplification studies show that where roads were 6 and 12 m wide
between the fronts of buildings, a sound source of 95 dB(A) was increased
to 105 dB(A) in the first case and 100 in the second. Only when the
width exceeded 24 m was there no noise amplification. Other findings
in Rumania were that while noise varies from one floor to another
inside a building, it is not necessarily reduced, and that noise is
amplified if buildings are side by side in a continuous line. It was
farther found that grass and trees, even when leafless, planted along
roads absorbed some of the sound waves.
According to a Swedish investigation ~ particular attention
should be given to community planning, which would obviate the need
for costly protective measures. Specifically, industrial areas have
less;need for protection against traffic noise, but need access to truck
and car transport. Service areas (shops, offices, etc.) require some
protection against noise, which can be done by improved construction
design, but these areas have a great need for access to transport. Residential
areas require much protection against noise but have an equal need for
access to transportation. Schools and playgrounds require noise protection,
but have little need for access to car transport. Thus, by placing
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activities that are least sensitive to noise and most in need of
access to transportation nearer major traffic arteries, a considerable
part of the noise problem can be avoided. A prerequisite for such
an approach is to classify clearly the traffic network in terms of
noise source, i. e., according to speed limits and traffic loads.
Within residential areas, a region should be set aside
for recreational areas that would free from noisy traffic, as well
as for primary and secondary schools. In planning access roads
and parking places, a compromise is called for with regard to
distance on the one hand (to minimize noise), and proximity on
the other, to provide easy access to car transportation. In practice
this means that parking places should not be placed closer to fronts
of residential buildings than 15 m, a distance that is itself a compromise.
The effective noise level near a straight road decreases by
3 to 6 dB(A) with doubling of the distance. The damping effect is
dependent on the following factors:
Noise frequency, which, among other
things, depends on the distribution
between heavy and light vehicles
Height above ground of the noise source
(road) as well as that of the reception
point
Terrain between traffic artery and
buildings
Meteorological conditions.
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Table 5-14 shows calculated distances in meters from
the center of roads to housiner required to achieve mean inside immission
levels of 35 dB(A) without other means of noise abatement. Largely
grass-covered ground and normal double-glazed window insulation
(reduction of 24 dB(A)f.) are assumed.
Type of Road Height of
& Speed Building
Highway
110 km/hr
1 story
3 story
6 story
Primary Road
90 km/hr 1 story
3 story
6 story
Secondary Road
70 km/hr 1 story
3 story
6 story
Side Road
.50 km/hr 1 story
3 story
6 story
Required distance in meters
No. of Vehicles oer 24 hours (yearly average!
2500
80
120
150
60
80
100
60
60
60
15
15
15
5000
120
180
250
90
140
180
60
60
70
30
40
45
10000
190
300
300
130
220
300
70
100
120
50
*7 f\
70
80
20000
290
220
300
300
100
160
220
40000
300
300
80000
300
(Separation needed to
secure mean noise leve'
outside housing of
59 dB(A)
. e .. •
Table 5-14. Recommended Separation Between Roads and Housing (Sweden).
The above table shows that noise abatement through distance
requires large protective areas'. That large superhighways and primary
roads be located at a great distance from built-up areas is desirable,
but in most cases the Swedish investigators are of the opinion that one
must in planning seek other solutions to noise problems. From the
point of view of real estate, economic, and administrative standpoints,
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noise reduction merely through damping by means of distance often
has negative consequences.
5.4.2 Modeling and Prediction
As we have seen, noise measurements taken in real traffic
conditions have yielded a considerable body of knowledge concerning
factors affecting perceived noise levels. However, because the
findings are often difficult to apply in planning, several model
studies have been undertaken. Among them are the following:
5-4 1.
In Germany, traffic noise propagation experiments with
scale models have been conducted over the past few years (scale 1: 100).
The originality of these experiments lies in the construction of a
hermetically sealed test chamber, so designed that sound absorption
by the atmosphere is reproduced to scale. Very small loudspeakers
were specially designed to emit frequencies ranging from 1 to 160 kHz.
The experiments consist in studying the effects of noise
propagation of various road layouts (cuttings with vertical walls or
sloping banks, embankments) and different types of screen. To take
account of absorption due to the type of surface (grass, cement, earth,
etc.) various materials -- and more particuarly certain fabrics -- were
successively tested to select those which matched the noise absorption
capacity of these surfaces on a reduced scale.
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5-4
In France, a model with provision for the simulation of
traffic noise on a reduced scale is used to study the effects of
barriers between roads and houses, and how noise propagation is
affected by the road profile (embankment, road cutting or level ground).
The noise source representing vehicles are bells sized to emit
frequencies corresponding, on a reduced scale, to the actual frequencies
to be studied. The real frequencies are 500 and 1,000 Hz, so that
the frequencies for the scale model are 10, 000 Hz (ZO x 500) and
20,000 Hz (20 x 1, 000). Bells were chosen in preference to loudspeakers
because of the lack of correlation between the sounds emitted, as it
is desirable to avoid any troublesome direction effects.
A boom microphone with an up-and-down movement has
been installed, synchronized with a noise level recorder of the paper-
strip type.
This will enable the acoustic field produced by the bells
to be explored up to a height of 5m. As the models are reduced to
a scale of 1:20, the boom will permit the field to be explored up to
a height corresponding to 100 m, so that the noise reception on all
floors of a high building can be easily investigated.
179
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This technique was first used for recording noise levels
in a scale model of a road tunnel followed by a section of motorway
in a cutting.
In Norway, scale models (scale 1:20) have been used since
1967 for noise measurement, with the aim of studying the influence
of different urban planning patterns on the propagation of noise
under various traffic conditions.
5-29
In England, a method for representing traffic noise
5-29
on a miniature scale has been worked out, as described below.
A table measuring 3 x 2 m is placed in a room lined
throughout with material absorbing high-frequency noise. Different
types of wooden building blocks are arranged on the table to simulate
residential areas, and narrow wooden strips to simulate roads. The
model is on a scale of 1:100.
Noise is emitted on the scaled-down streets and roads from
miniature omnidirectional loudspeakers, at frequencies which may
exceed 40, 000 Hz. Each loudspeaker must be fed with its own random
noise signal, to avoid the phase interaction effects which occur when
the waves are coherent.
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In practice, about four different noise generators each
feed several transducers, but in such a way that two transducers
side by side are never actuated by the same sound signal. The
noise is produced by passing a current directly through a crystal
diode; it contains all frequencies, but only those not simulating
traffic noise are filtered out. The sound emitted by the "vehicles"
is reflected, diffracted and re-reflected by the miniature houses,
as in real life. The noise levels at different points of the model
are measured by means of a microphone connected to an amplifier
and a sound-level meter.
Up to now, only frequencies of under 40, 000 Hz have been
investigated, corresponding to traffic noise of a maximum frequency
of 400 Hz (scale 1:100).
One major problem lies in the choice of materials for the
miniature buildings. It has been found that polished softwood blocks
reflect frequencies of 8, 000 to 40, 000 Hz in a manner very similar to
that in which bricks, concrete or glass reflect frequencies of 80 to
400 Hz, which are those of a large proportion of traffic noise.
However, it has not been possible to investigate other
variables which are hard to simulate, e. g. , trees, type of ground,
and air turbulence and density.
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Despite this, tests were carried out with the help of the
Greater London Council which revealed a very close correlation
between measurements made in real traffic conditions and those
made on a model simulating those conditions; differences of no
more than 2 dB either way were recorded.
It is planned to use the model to (a) improve knowledge
of sound propagation in given environments, and (b) enable town
planners to compare various road and building layouts in relation
to certain noise criteria.
In predicting what the noise level would be at the Krupp
hospital in Essen if a new road were built close by, two German
investigators showed that it is possible to predict the probable
acoustic effects of a projected road in the light of local conditions,
(i.e., position of.buildings\ in built-up areas. " Traffic noise
was simulated by seven loudspeakers (at 60 m intervals) placed along
the axis of the proposed road. Recordings were made in front of the
hospital, at some 150 m from the road and at various points between
the road and the hospital. The results showed that the traffic noise
on the projected road would be well in excess of the level deemed
reasonable (5 to 10 DIN phons too high in summer and 5 to 15 DIN
«phons too high in winter). The conclusion was reached that if the
road is to be built, measures must be taken to give the hospital
sufficient protection against noise either by building a screen along
the road or by routing part of it through a tunnel.
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5.5 Rail Transport
A section on surface traffic noise would not be complete
without at least a brief review of modes of transportation other than
motor vehicle. Subways constitute a critical element in the urban
transportation system while streetcars have nearly vanished from
the American scene.
Foreign subways, such as those in Hamburg, Berlin and
Toronto, are reputed to be quieter than those in the United States.
For this reason, a few examples of subway noise reduction may
be of interest.
In Japan, a noise measurement survey was conducted
through a test run of a subway train over a straight section of the
Ginza line and an acoustical treatment on the side walls and the
ceiling of the tunnel was employed for noise reduction purposes.
The sound absorbing material consisted of flannel, asbestos spray
and mineral wool spray. It was found that the noise level in
the car could be reduced by 5 - 8 dB over the entire frequency
spectrum from 100 - 4000 Hz.
5-34
In the design of the Toronto subway, noise control
was an important consideration. The source of subway noise,
broadly speaking, is the subway car itself. In modern cars with
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properly designed suspensions, couplings and drive mechanisms,
the principal remaining noise is that produced by the rolling contact
of metal wheels on rails. The vibrations thus set up in wheels and
rails are radiated directly as airborne noise within the subway
enclosure and are greatly accentuated by tunnel reverbation.
One of the factors contributing to noise on older subway
lines is the series of impacts produced by open rail joints. The
modern practice of welding rail joints has eliminated this problem.
Experiments were undertaken on the Paris Metro a few years ago
to eliminate the metal-to-metal contact by using rubber tires.
To minimize ground vibration the solution is clearly to provide as
much structural discontinuity as possible between rails and the
floor slab. Airborne noise in the subway enclosure may be controlled
by applying sound-absorbing material as close to the sound source
as possible. In the Toronto subway, a strip 4 ft. .wide of highly
absorbent material was mounted along the tunnel walls at wheel
level. Absorption coefficients of the material used are shown in Table 5-15.
Frequency (Hz)
Coefficient
Sound
125
.30
Absorntion Coefficients
250
.60
500
.95
1000
.95
of Material
2000
.85
(Wall
4000
.70
Strips)
Table 5-15. Frequency Characteristics of Toronto Subway Insulation. 5~-
Average noise levels for typical conditions in the completed subway
are shown in Table 5-16.
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Location
I Noise Level
dB(A)
Inside moving train, windows closed
(a) In open-cut section
(b) In tunnel, normal maximum speed
(c) In tunnel, high speed
Inside moving train, windows open
(a) In open-cut section
(b) Tunnel, low speed
(c) Tunnel, normal maximum speed
(d) Tunnel, high speed
On station platform, trains arriving
57
62
69
66
70
76
70-75
Table 5-16. Average Noise Levels in the Toronto Subway.
5-34
Noise at various stations in the Moscow subway network
was measured over a frequency range of 25 to 1600 Hz. Table 5-17
shows high and low readings for each octave band.
Center Frequency, Hz
100
200
400
800
1600
Sound pressure level, dB
Low: 78
79
88
79
82
High: 94
101
105
102
98
Table 5-17. Noise Levels in the Moscow Subway.
5-35
Typical escalator and train operating compartment readings
were 84 and 90 dB.
185
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After the opening of the New Tokaido Line (NTL) between
Tokyo and Osaka, complaint was brought about the exterior noise
5-36
from fast trains. An experimental noise survey with test barriers
was made at an elevated section.
The length of each barrier was 300 m, equal to that of a
running train. The observation points were on a line through the
midpoint of the barrier and perpendicular to it. The site was a rice
field after harvest. The test barriers were constructed of gypsum
boards bolted on anchored props. The barriers were installed only
on one side of the double track, and observation was made on the same
side. Noise from the running train on the nearer track and that of the
farther track were different; only the former is reported here. Noise
was recorded with portable tape recorders in the field and was
reproduced in the laboratory, where frequency analysis was done with
octave band filters and a high-speed level recorder. The following
results were obtained from the experimental study:
1. The octave frequency bands from 500 to 4000 Hz
are the most important as far as sound level
in dB(A) is concerned.
2. Reduction by more than 10 dB could not be
obtained for a long train even in the high frequency
bands if the barrier is as high as three meters.
3. Reduction of noise by means of a barrier for a
long train is small compared with that for a
point source, and estimation of noise reduction
for a point source cannot be applied.
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5.6 OECD Observations
Nearly all countries surveyed have explicit national or
local legislation regulating noise emissions by motor vehicles or
other modes of transportation. The OECD Urban Traffic Noise
Survey of 1970 observes:
"In order to be realistic these standards
should reflect a compromise between social considera-
tions, what the public is willing to pay, and what
industry can manage to produce in the light of
available technology. Some reductions in noise
emission could be achieved in the fairly short run
simply by adding acoustical absorbers and by detailed
attention to silencers, air intakes and cooler fans.
More significant noise reductions would, in many
cases, require alterations in the design of the engine,
and could therefore become effective only after a
longer period. The important point is that standards
should be set, and set on a sliding scale, so as to
continue to reflect the current state of noise reduction
technology. "
187
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5. References
5-1. Sweden National Board of Urban Planning,
Samh'allsplannering och vKgtrafikbuller, Stockholm,
1971.
5-2. Kitamura, O., Sasaki, M., et al. "On judging
the noise from high speed road", paper presented
at the 6th International Congress on Acoustics,
Tokyo, 1968.
5-3. Bruckmayer, F., Lang, J., "Stoerung der Bevoelkerung
durch Verkehrslaerm. " Oesterreichische Ingenieur
Zeitschrift, Vol. 10, No. 8-10, 1967.
5-4. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) Consultative Group on Transportation Research,
"Urban Traffic Noise, " Paris, 1969.
5-5. Wilson, Alan, ed. Noise. Final Report of the Committee
on the Problem of Noise. London, Her Majesty's Stationery
Office, 1963.
5-6. Jonsson, E. Kajland, A., et al. "Annoyance Reactions
to Traffic Noise in Italy and Sweden" Archives of
Environmental Health. Vol. 19, pp. 692-699, 1969.
5-7. Statens Institut for Byggnadsforskning. Traffic noise
in Residential Areas, study by the National Swedish
Institute for Building Research and the National Swedish
Institute of Public Health. Stockholm, 1968.
5-8. Langdon, F. J., Scholes, W.E., "The Traffic Noise
Index: a method of controlling noise nuisance. "
Great Britain, Ministry of Public Building and Works,
Building Research Station, Current Paper 38/68, 1968.
5-9. Scholes, W.E. "Traffic Noise Criteria" Great Britain
Ministry of Public Building and Works, Building Research
Station, CP 38/69, 1969.
188
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5-10. Johnson, D. R., Saunders, E.G., "The Evaluation of
Noise from Freely Flowing Road Traffic", Journal
of Sound and Vibration. Vol. 7, No. 2, 1968.
5-11. Thiessen, G. J. , Olson, N., "Community Noise. Surface
Transportation", Journal of Sound and Vibration, pp. 10-16,
April, 1968. ~~ •
5-12. Calvet, Coll, et al., paper presented-at the 3rd
International Congress on Noise Abatement, Paris,
May 13-15, 1964.
5-13. Centre d'Etudes et de Recherches d'Ant:hropologie
Appliquee, Document AA 14. 66, 1966.
5-14. de Coster, J. P., paper presented at the International
Symposium on Noise Abatement, Brussels, Feb. 1-2, 1967.
5-15. Glueck, K., "Die Schallentwicklung des ungebundenen
Stadtverkehrs, die Ausbreitung und deren Beeinflussung
durch die Bebauung, " Strassenbau und Strassenverkehrs-
technik, No. 37, 1965.
5-16. Buchta, E. , "Verteilung und Minderung des Verkehrslaerms
in einer Groszstadt" paper presented at the 6th International
Congress on Acoustics, Tokyo, August 21-28, 1968.
5-17. Lang, J. , Jansen, G., The Environmental Health
Aspects of Noise Research and Noise Control
World Health Organization, Annex IV, p. 88, 1970.
5-18. Lawrence, A., Hegvold, L., et al. "Prediction of
Traffic Noise Spectrum Levels for Use in Building
Design", a paper presented at the 6th International
Congress on Acoustics, Tokyo, August 21-28, 1968.
5-19. Benjegard, S. Ingemansson, S., Trafikbuller i
bostadsomraden, Statens Institut for Byggnadsforskning,
Stockholm, 1968.
189
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5-20. Lundquist, B., Bulleranalyser-ma'tningar pa nagra
vanliga bullerkallor. Statens Institut for Byggnadsforskning,
Stockholm, 1969.
5-21. Karagodina, I., Osipov, G., et al. Gorodskiye i
zhilishchno- kommunal'nye shumy i bor'ba s nimi
Meditsina, Moscow, 1964.
5-22. Lara, A., Perez-Lopez, A., et al. "Vehicle Noise
Limit Indicator", paper presented at the 6th International
Congress on Acoustics, Tokyo, 1968.
5-23. Santiago Paez, J.S., "Prediction of Traffic Noise
Climates", paper presented at the 6th International
Congress on Acoustics, Tokyo, 1968.
5-24. Hug, E., Bach, E., Grundlagen der Laermbekaempfung
Stadtpolizei Zuerich Laermbekaempfungsstelle, Zurich,
1970.
5-25. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.
Urban Traffic Noise, Strategy for an Improved
Environment, Paris, 1970.
5-26. "Laermgedaempfter Omnibus fuer Schwedens Stadtverkehr, "
VDI-Nachrichten, No. 26, June 1971.
»
5-27. Report by the Director of Public Works, Amsterdam,
1967.
5-28. Hottinger, R., "Moeglichkeiten der Schalldaemmung
an Autobahnen" Strasse und Verkehr, No. 9, 1966.
5-29. Pinfold, H. C., New Scientist, December 1967.
5-30. Rucker, A., Glueck, K., Strassenbau und Strassenver-
kehrstechnik, Report No. 32, 1964.
5-31. Schweizerischer Ingenieur - und Architekten - Verein,
Empfehlung fuer Schallschutz itn Wohnungsbau,
Zurich, 1969.
190
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5-32. Larris, F., Trommelyd undersogelse over stoj fra
gulve. Statens Byggeforskningsinstitut rapport
No. 10, Copenhagen, 1952.
5-33. Ishii, K. , "Study on Noise Reduction in the Vehicle
of Under Ground Railway by Acoustical Treatment
on the Wall of Tunnel", paper presented at the 6th
International Congress on Acoustics, Tokyo, 1968.
'5-34. Paterson, W. H. , Northwood, T.D. "Noise Control
in Toronto's New Subway", Noise Control, Vol. 2,
No. 5, 1956.
5-35. Matveyev, P. N. , "Noise Levels at Sites in the Moscow
Subway1', Gigiena truda i professionalnyye zabolovaniya,
No. 6, pp. 58-61, 1966.
5-36. Ikawa, K., "Effect of Acoustic Barrier on Noise from
Railed Vehicle", paper presented at the 6th International
Congress on Acoustics, Tokyo, 1968.
5-37. Departement federal de justice et police, La lutte contre
le bruit en Suisse, rapport de la Commission federale
d'experts au conseil federal, Bern, 1963.
5-38. Olson, N., "Statistical Study of Traffic Noise" National
Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, 1968.
5-39. Great Britain, Road Research Laboratory, "A Review
of Road Traffic Noise. " Crowthorne, Berkshire, 1970.
5-40. Metropolitan Research Institute for Environmental Protection.
Koogai to Tokyo (Pollution in Tokyo). Tokyo, Daiichi
Printing Co. , 1970
5-41. Dowell, T. A. R. , "Some studies of pedestrian delay and noise
in relation to traffic flow, " J. Instn Municipal Engrs,
Vol. 94, pp 267-268, August 1967.
191
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SECTION 6
NOISE INS IDE BUILDINGS
Much has been said about the effects on living areas of
noise from aircraft, surface vehicles, industrial plants and other
external sources. However, there exists a distinct body of foreign
literature on the identification and control of disturbances which
originate in and around buildings where people spend much of their lives.
In addition to houses and apartments, the studies reported
in this literature encompass such structures as hospitals, schools,
museums, concert halls, libraries and public administration buildings.
The focus of such a study is the interior of the building itself: its structural
details; the special requi rements of its occupants; means of controlling
noise levels inside. The most commonly studied building types are
hospitals, schools and homes, each of which is treated separately in this
section. (See also Table 5-5, Sect. 5-1 for model inside noise climates.)
6.1 Hospitals
Quiet environment is not only desirable but essential for
recovery to hospital patients. Ouiet conditions are also necessary for the
staff, especially in the use of stethoscopes, as mentioned in the section on
aircraft noise (Section 4.6). Despite measures taken by hospital authorities
and staff, the noise level in hospitals has risen rapidly in recent years.
192
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fhis rise can be attributed to the increasing volume of outdoor
(external) noise, but also to the internal noise which has been
growing through increased use of mechanical and mobile equipment
and the provision of radio and television. The increasing size of
hospitals also complicates uie problem of noise control and in the
large district general hospitals offering a wide range of services,
noise control becomes very complex and necessary. For hospitals
situated in the center of urban areas, near main roads, near
airports, the problem becomes even more acute.
Many countries have undertaken studies and conducted surveys
with respect to hospitals and other noise-sensitive areas. Most
studies mention three common approaches to noise control:
o Planning considerations
o Constructional techniques
o Control of noise at source.
Great Britain, Germany, Austria, Italy, Poland, Sweden,
the USSR and South Africa are among the countries where studies have
been undertaken to determine the noise levels in hospitals and to analyze
the effects of noise on patients. Most of the surveys showed excessive
193
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noise levels ranging from 50 dB(A) to 90 dB(A) peaks within the roo^o as
as compared to typical recommended maximum levels of 55 dB(A)
during the day and 25 dB(A) at night. All investigators agreed that
noise levels considered tolerable for healthy individuals could be
unbearable or damaging to hospital patients.
Under the auspices of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
a research study was carried out on 126 children ranging in age
from 3 to 63 weeks. " The infants were exposed to mixed noise
(100 - 700 Hz) in intensities between 50 and 80 dB under constant
room acoustics conditions during different periods of time between
10:30 p.m. and 1:00 a.m. By repeated studies on different nights the
wake-up threshold (i.e., the noise level necessary to awaken an infant)
could finally be determined.
The study showed that half to two-thirds of the infants
were disturbed in sleep, or partially awake, after three (3) minutes of
mixed noise between 100-1000 Hz at sound levels of 70-75 dB. A noise
exposure of more than 12 minutes at 65 dB disturbed more than one-third
of the children. A noise level of 75 dB consistently caused sleep
disturbance or awaking. The process of waking up was almost invariably
characterized by startle reflexes when noise levels of 75 dB (sometimes
even 70 dB) were applied.
194
-------
Study of the different noise levels in different types of
sickrooms demonstrated a relationship between noise volume and
type of construction. In "infant units" with glass walls in steel
frames and a working passage in front of these, as well as a window
row to a garden away from street noise, at night the basic noise
did not appreciably reach less than 50 dB; during the day it varied
between 60 and 70 dB. The peak noise registered at night was almost
80 dB, and the peak daytime noise about 90 dB.
The recordings of noise levels showed that average noise in
care units of children's hospitals exceed the high tolerance of infants1
sleep.
In essence, the study demonstrated that the noise level in
the care units exceeded in most cases the threshold necessary
to wake infants during most of the day and night hours.
Typical of the general hospital studies is one reported by
Wojtowicz involving 465 medical personnel in 22 hospitals. Like
investigators in other countries, the author concludes that hospitals
are inadequately built, that they require better architectural design
and that they need much better insulation. The measurement figures,
though incomplete, cite gome interesting noise levels for typical
hospital activities:
195
-------
Cleaning 60 - 85 dB(A)
Refuse removal 90 dB(A)
Carts and Wagons 40 - 60 dB(A)
Walking in heavy shoes 50 - 80 dB(A)
Squeaky floors 50 - 60 dB(A).
In France the Ministry of Social Affairs sponsored a
1968 conference in which physicians considered problems related
6-4
to hospital noise. One of the results of this conference was an
agreement on desirable noise levels:
Gravely ill patients (night) 20 - 25 dB(A)
Gravely ill patients (day) 25 - 30 dB(A)
Ordinary hospital rooms (day 25 - 30 dB(A)
Sitting rooms (day) 30-35 dB(A)
Reading and work rooms 35 - 40 dB(A).
The King Edward's Hospital Fund for London conducted surveys
on the problem of noise cpntrol in hospitals in 1957/58 and in I960 made
a follow-up study involving 19 hospitals. Questionnaires were
distributed to 2, 000 patients, and findings showed that only 50% were
unduly bothered by noise. The sources of noise have been divided into
two main categories: (1) noises caused by traffic and people; and (2)
noises caused by equipment. In many cases the locations of the
196
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hospitals are such thatoutside noises are inescapable and disturbing.
Several of the hospitals were built before the advent of cars and
airplanes and in locations that were open and peaceful in those years.
Under such circumstances adequate noise control may
prove extremely expensive and impracticable. (See Section 4. 6 on the
cost of soundproofing against aircraft noise.) In some cases local
authorities and police assist by diverting or controlling traffic to reduce
some of the unnecessary noises. Following are some of the steps and
measures taken by different hospitals to rectify the complaints about
noise expressed by patients:
o Police co-operation in controlling parking
near the hospital and to control undue noise during
the evening.
o Provision of car-parking facilities.
o Two-sided painted notice boards reading
"Hospital-Quiet Please".
o Double glazing of all windows.
o Sound-absorbing ceilings.
o Noise abatement program for ambulance
operations.
This survey also highlighted the problem of the noisy
patient, a problem which was also discussed by the French physicians
at their 1968 conference.6"4 In the King Edward responses it emerged
as a major complaint. Evidently this was a problem of long standing
in the hospitals covered by the survey. Following are some typical
comments made by hospital spokesmen after the tallies were made:
197
-------
"Special sound-proof cubicles have been
constructed in three of the wards, and these
can be used to separate noisy patients from
the rest of the ward or, alternatively, to
provide quiet rooms for very ill patients. "
"Noisy and disturbed patients are placed in
side wards. "
"The design of the ward in the new hospital
allows central access of services to the
ward and employs glazed partitions to divide
the ward into a number of four-bed bays.
Such a design offers the best chance of keeping
noise to a minimum. "
"All wards now have single-bed cubicles for
noisy patients. "
"We are considering putting a paragraph, dealing
generally with the problem of noise, into the
handbook supplied to patients. "
It would appear from all the foregoing that hospitals in
Europe are not the quiet places their administrators would like them
to be. With noisy patients, noisy staff members, noisy visitors,
noisy equipment, and a noisy outside environment, the typical foreign
hospital is pictured in the literature as a significant abatement
challenge.
198
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6.2 Schools
Because schools have been treated elsewhere in this
report in connection with air traffic noise (Sect. 4.3) and community
noise (Sect. 3), they will not be discussed in depth here. However,
because the school is singled out so frequently for special attention in
foreign noise research, it deserves individual mention.
Studies conducted in Austria, Czechoslovakia and
Germany all explore noise as a negative factor in the educational
environment. These studies conclude that excessive noise not
only distracts the attention of students but affects them physically
and psychologically. Observations show that constant, externally.
produced noise levels above 55 dB(A), when combined with noise
produced inside the classroom, can cause fatigue and reduce
concentration span. These observations concur with the
maximum classroom level of 45 dB(A) recommended by Great Britain's
Wilson Committee. A Swedish recommendation placed the maximum
classroom level at 35 dB(A).
In 1964 a study was undertaken to evaluate traffic noise
disturbance in 46 Vienna schools. Questionnaires were passed
out to 160 teachers and measurements were conducted between
8:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m. in 13 empty classrooms, of which seven
faced the street and six the school yard, with open and with closed
windows. Results from this study appear below in Tables 6-1 and
199
-------
6-2 where the categories I, II and III represent, respectively:
not annoyed or slightly annoyed; annoyed; and strongly annoyed.
ground
levels,
dB(A)
as-_3o
*
i" —35
35— jo
4<>-45
^. ^o
50-55
fca-- 05
fcS-7o
Percentage of annoyed Teachers
Windows Open
Own lecture
Annov. level
i
^ ^ -
—
100
100
40
19
10
o
11
_,
—
0
0
22
'7
K
o
III
_
— —
0
o
3»
64
Ss
too
Pupils 'answers .
Annov. le
i
—
-
— —
100
100
40
20
1O
O
11
_
_
~~~
0
o
22
IS
9
o
vel
in
—
_
~~
o
o
38
Oi
Si
too
Windows Closed
Own lecture
Annov. 1<
i
100
too
92
79
50
>7
— -
—
~
II
o
0
4
16
4°
5s
—
—
~
;vel
in
o
0
4
5
10
»5
— —
—
~
Pupils'answers
Annov. level
i
IOO
100
9*
77
4°
25
—
—
~
II
0
o
3
'3
38
33
—
—
"•"
III
o
5
10
22
4»
' —
I: not annoyed or slightly annoyed; II: annoyed; III: strongly annoyed.
Table 6-1. Noise Annoyance of Teachers in a Vienna School.
Back-
ground
levels,
dB(A)
*?-*
1 0 IS
y j '4^
yo t5
H5-5C
yO 55
jTJT'^0
W-"»
Percentage of annoved pupils
Open windows
Anno vane e
i
,
—
—
100
73
co
)O
•5
o
11
m_^
—
—
o
22
4°
50
3'
o
111
r
—
—
o
5
10
20
54
100
Closed windows
levels
i
100
loo
loo
91
o
—
._.
11
0
o
0
3
10
21
—
.^^
III
O
O
o
3
4°
79
—
•—
I: not annoyed or slightly annoyed; II: annoyed; III: strongly annoyed.
Table 6-2. Noise Annoyance of Pupils in a Vienna School.
6-6
200
-------
The noise levels ranged from 44 to 67 dB(A) with open
windows and from 29 to 52 dB(A) with closed windows. It was
observed that disturbances were detected at 45 dB(A) level when the
windows were closed and not until 50 dB(A) with the windows open.
Thus it was recommended that school buildings should only be
constructed in traffic areas where the equivalent background noise
levels do not exceed 50 dB(A).
However, it was also recommended that those classrooms
facing the street be designed with air-tight windows, proper ventilation
ducts or air conditioning, and also sound-absorbing ceilings. It was
pointed out, though, that the most desirable construction site for a
school building is one located quite a distance from heavily travelled
streets.
201
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6. 3 Residences
Most of the foreign studies of residential noise have been
concentrated on apartment buildings rather than on houses. A
common characteristic of these countries is that apartment buildings
predominate in new residential construction. A typical example is
Sweden where, as early as 1961, 73% of all new dwellings were
apartments.
At least fifteen major countries have insulation specifications
for dwellings, particularly for apartment buildings. Much of the
discussion about .noises in and around apartments revolves around the
transmission of sounds through poorly insulated walls and floors.
Typical sounds mentioned include human voices, footsteps, radios,
musical instruments and other sources generated either by neighbors
or by members of the same household.
Not all domestic noise sources cited are directly related to
insulation. Elevators, heating or air conditioning equipment, doorbells,
household appliances and other devices have been cited as offenders.
Sweden and the USSR have conducted studies of such items, particularly
of individual household appliances.
In the Swedish report 68 noise sources were analyzed.
«
Measurements in the form of acoustic power levels,were taken in
202
-------
accordance with ISO Recommendation No. R495. Ranging over traffic
noises, noise from flowing liquids, industrial noises, office noises
and dwelling noises, the report includes a section on home appliances
and radios.
The home appliances studied were vacuum cleaners,
refrigerators, kitchen exhaust fans, freezers, heating fans and
hair dryers. The highest levels among them, 70 - 80 dB (1000 Hz)
were registered by vacuum cleaners.
/ _ o
Chudnov, in a discussion of home appliances, ranked
an electric floor polisher as the noisiest, followed by a vacuum cleaner,
a shaver, and a sewing machine. This study also included some
appliances which have been designed specifically for "quiet" operation.
Notable among these were a vacuum cleaner with the motor insulated
from the housing, a centrifuge-type dryer mounted on a noise-absorbing
rubber pad, some "noiseless" melodic doorbells, and a washing
machine with high-pressure steam and no moving parts.
An interesting viewpoint on household appliances was offered
in the Hungarian monograph submitted for the Prague, 1971 environmental
conference sponsored by the Economic Commission for Europe.
The writer expressed the opinion that appliances made in Hungary had
little value for export purposes because they were noisier than appliances
manufactured in other countries.
203
-------
V. T. Ivanov discusses a special problem in
connection with the stores and repair shops which are located
on the ground floors of Moscow apartment houses. Consisting of
such places as dry cleaning establishments, radio repair services,
shoe repair shops, and they serve residents in micro-regions
of the city in and around the apartment complexes where they are
situated. A single installation may employ from 75 to 250 people.
While the operation of such shops may not create
serious air pollution problems, the same cannot be said of the noise,
which is said to resemble transport and industrial noise generated
elsewhere.
Because loopholes in the regulations have permitted these
shops to disturb neighborhoods, a proposal has been made to
classify them and control them for purposes of town planning. Three
categories have been suggested:
Category 1 Small. May be located in
residential buildings.
Category 2 Large, with no hazardous
gaseous emissions, but with
noise. Serves a micro-region
and must be located in residential
area to serve its purpose, but
should be situated at least 25
meters from the nearest
residence.
204
-------
Category 3 Large, with hazardous gaseous
emissions and with very loud
noise. Should not be located
in residential neighborhood at
all.
The shops in Category 2 are the current targets of the Sanitary
Epidemiological Service authorities, who are trying to prevent
i
further location of such enterprises in apartment houses while
still providing locations for them within reach of apartment
residents.
The attention paid to dwelling noise thus covers a
variety of special topics peculiar to local conditions or the
particular interests of the investigators. One team, for example,
at the Research Institute for Public Health Engineering in Delft has
been studing the effects of radio and television programs since the
late 1950's. Another team in the French Centre Scientifique et
6-12
Technique du Batiment has investigated the effects of balconies and
recesses on sound from the outside transmitted to the inside. Many
of the studies inevitably gravitate toward techniques for either measuring
or alleviating the conditions being investigated. A brief review of
illustrative techniques follows.
205
-------
6. 4 Techniques
The type of measuring equipment and how it is used in
field studies, while usually specified in reports, varies from case
to case. However, the USSR has taken a comprehensive approach
to the "hardware" problem. 6"13
Recognizing the need for laboratories to perform suitable
measurements of noise and vibration, the All-Soviet Research Institute
for Teaching Equipment designed three standard "laboratories" tailored
to three levels of need: Vibronoise I for field use; Vibronoise II for
regional and municipal health laboratories; and Vibronoise III for large
cities and district health laboratories. Between 1967 and 1970 the Soviet
Health Ministry distributed 350 Vibronoise units. The Vibronoise I
is a portable unit which can be taken to the field for measurements
in schools, hospitals, health stations, juvenile institutions, and housing.
Most of the foreign papers on techniques, however, pertain
to methods for reducing noise transmission by one method or another.
Typical of the more general reports is a paper by Wojtowicz on
6-14
building acoustics. Reporting on building acoustics problems and
construction methods in Poland, the author makes numerous recommenda-
tions which cover much of the technology as known elsewhere. He points
out that many apartments inFblandare separated from others by double
206
-------
party walls, and discusses other ways of stopping noise propagation.
Among the things discussed are: interruption of structural
continuity; reduction of vibration from pipes through soft coverings;
cushioning of building foundations; insulation of walls and partitions;
and installation of double windows. On the question of double windows
he offers some figures on the reduction of noise by windows of different
designs. These are shown in Table 6-3.
Window Design
Double glass in single frame
Double windows
Single windows
Noise reduction, dB
Thickness of Glass
2 mm.
23
35
18
3 mm.
25
38
20
4 mm.
28
40
23
Table 6-3. Polish Experience on Noise Abatement Through Window Design.
The more specific studies can be illustrated by two French
reports, both by the C. S. T. B. One of them, which has already been
mentioned, represents a continuation of the experimental facade
arrangements. The methods of measurement were perfected in the
course of the year 1967, which permitted 1968 to be designated for
research on the influence of balconies and "loges" against exterior noise.
(A balcony is defined as any structure jutting out from the facade,
whereas a loge is any balcony-like area which recedes into the outside
wall of the building. )
6-1
207
-------
A machine capable of projecting noise at various angles
was erected on the ground outside the building at various places and
two sets of measurements were recorded, one against conventional
facades (ordinary windows) and the other against facades with special
sealed glass windows. Basic angles used were 0 , 30 , 60 , and
80°. Balconies were divided into two.types: (1) open, i.e. enclosed
by railing only; and (2) closed, i. e. enclosed by a low wall.
It was determined that the increase in acoustic isolation
was small when balcony or loge was added, and only for angles of
sufficient size, at least 60° in the case of open balconies and 30
in the case of closed balconies and loges. For angles less than these
the isolation decreased slightly, the balcony serving only to collect
sound rather than to act as a protective barrier. Other things being
held constant (including the angle of incidence of incoming noise) the
noise insulation qualities of the facade depend mostly on the window
treatment and only secondarily on the presence or absence of balconies
or loges.
Improvements were noted when absorbing material was
added to the balconies and loges. The greatest benefits were derived
for loges, with closed balconies next and open balconies last. The
measurable improvements were 10 dB(A) for loges and 5 dB(A) for
closed balconies.
208
-------
The other French report represents research on
impulse noise in residential buildings. This study was conducted
with the aid of a machine which simulates footsteps of various
persons on a hard surface and on a carpeted surface. Measurements
were taken (1) on the level of acoustical pressure produced
on the floor, (2) on the force exerted on the floor, and (3) on the
extent of floor vibrations.
After having ascertained that the resemblance between
simulated impacts and real impacts was very good, then investigators
proceeded to measure the effectiveness of carpets on various natures,
both with the new machine and with a conventional tapping machine
(ISO method). The effectiveness of carpeting in suppressing noise
of an adult's walk is much less measured on the conventional machine,
and depends largely on the kind of shoes.
The number of carpets tested is still limited, but it seems
that there is a poor correlation between noise produced by normal
walking and that indicated from measurement using the conventional
machine as a standard noise source. Figure 6-1 represents some of
the results of this study.
209
-------
Frequency in Hertz
dB
Reduction of transmitted
impact sound
d. Conventional tapping
machine
c. New machine with
woman's shoes
b. New machine with
man's heavy shoes
a. New machine with
man's light shoes
63 125 2SO SOO 1OOO 2OOO 4OOO
Figure 6-1. Reduction of sound transmission with carpeting,
a. function of noise
source
~~
-------
6. 5 Codes and Standards
The typical study on noise abatement includes comments
on needed specifications, standards or codes. In spite of what
appears to be a plethora of local codes and standards, it appears
that many investigators, see additional needs. Some of their individual
recommendations will be reviewed briefly in this section for
illustrative purposes.
It should be mentioned, perhaps, that the Recommendations
of the International Organization for Standards (ISO) exert a
recognizable influence on both the formulation of local standards
and on the methodology of investigations. The activities of the ISO
are discussed in some detail in Section 8. 2. 1 of this report.
Most of the information on standards for hospitals, schools
and other special buildings seems to exist in the form of recommenda-
tions made by physicians, engineers and other specialists in connection
with studies of noise problems in particular environments. In general,
•where codes and regulations have been promulgated at more official
levels they have tended to apply primarily to dwellings and most
commonly to insulation.
211
-------
In connection with residential sound insulation, speaking
at the 4th International Congress on Acoustics in Copenhagen,
O. Brandt had this to say:
"In some countries specifications for sound
insulation are presented as requirements, in others
as recommendations. There may be little difference
in practice. The recommendations may have more
power than strict requirements which may only apply
on paper and be completely ignored by architects. The
advantage of recommendations is that the real acoustic
requirements may be expressed without too much
compromise with other factors from the very start.
An example is the British Grade I recommendation for
impact noise which is based on floating floors. In
Austria, a 5 dB higher factor of insulation against
airborne noise ( 'Luftschallschutzmass ') (based on the
German curve of ideal values ('Spllkurve')) is recommended.
The Federal Republic of Germany provides a good
example with requirements which work well; and many
stationary and mobile laboratories are available to
control the results in practice. In such a case the
specifications must be somewhat milder and be roughly
intended to cut off the extremely bad cases. The danger
in this system is that the standards must be a compromise
and consequently only partly sufficient in the majority
of cases. Building planners may easily get the impression
that all is well, if they build just well enough to satisfy
the requirements. In fact it might be better to have
a minimum requirement combined with an uncompromising
recommendation, but this leads to complicated
specifications. "
Although most of the specifications center around ISO
recommendations, particularly with respect to the measurement of
airborne and impact sound transmissions, each country has introduced
special features of its own. For example, in Poland as well as in
212
-------
other East European countries, all apartments must be separated
longitudinally by double walls. Several countries recommend
floating floors for control of impact noises and lead-based foundations
for the attenuation of ground-transmitted vibrations. Most European
countries specify insulation of water pipes from the structural
members of buildings to avoid transmission of water hammer
vibrations and faucet noise.
For a World Health Organization report, Dr. Judith Lang
of the National Institute for Research on Heat and Noise Technology
in Vienna compiled a table giving an abbreviated account of the
specifications of eight European countries on sound-insulation for
floors and walls between flats, along with specified limits for
noise produced by domestic equipment. This table is reproduced as
Figure 6-2. In the referenced report, the authors observe that the
current state of building technology allows the generally required
standards of sound insulation to be reached. However, new materials
are frequently misused and the training of persons working in the
building industry on sound insulation is inadequate in many countries
or is just being started.
213
-------
Country, standard
Austria, &NORM B8115
Eastern Germany
TGL 10417
Wnmark Byg ntngareglement
for k«%sU*derne 1
landet, August 1944
aatd Norway
Federal R. public of
Germany, DIN 4109
France
Netherlands NEN 1070
SwllaerleiU
ProvUoriacba JUchttUlea
f*r den SehallechuU In
Woh*UBgSh*«
Swedem. SBN 4T
Souad-infulation of walls
between flats
SchallschuUgruppe I:
ISO reference curve
SchalUchutigruppe 2:
ISO reference curve
+ SdB
ISO reference curve
- 1 dB
Sound- insulation of 1
air-borne
no
ISO reference curve
+ S dB
- 1 dB
between rooms in different fl*U Rm * 49 dB
ISO reference curve - 2 dB
In doublt houses, between kitchen and Uth-
roorn in one house and room in the other
walls separating a flat
Rm * SO dB
ISO reference curve
in double houses, walls
between kiUhen and bath-
room in one house *nd room
in (he other bouse B.^ « « d»1
* 1 dB
minimum:
ISO reference curve
recommended:
ISO reference curve
* 1 dB
100' 3ZO Hi;
400- 12 SO H«.
1*00- 3200 Hs;
floor • separating flat*
Hm • 92 dB
* 2 dB
ISO reference curvr
* 1 dB
DN « 34 dB
DC * •*« dB
DN ' M "
quality moderate 0 dB
Quality good * 3 dB
between two sensitive rooms
quality moderate* 3 dB
quality good 0 dB
Octave band:
250 Hz 3S.S4B
500 Hs 4«.ldB
roOO Hi Si, 3 dB
2000 H* St.ldB
minimum:
ISO reference curve
recommoaded:
ISO reffrevct curvi
* 1 dB
8
between Ilvinj r«ome
ISO reference curve * 3 dB
between etore-roome and
living room*
ISO reference curve
Ot n
between living room*
ISO reference curve
between sUtre^roome and
living rooms
ISO reference curve • 4 dB
minimum:
ISO reference curve
recommended:
t 3 dB
between It
ISO reference curve + 1 dB
between etore-roor
ISO reference curve
er residential bull
between 11
ISO reference curve t I dB
between etore-roor
ISO reference curve - 3 dB
oori between flat*
impact
•e
ISO reference curve
- 3 dB
ISO reference curve
+ 7 dB
100 125 160 Hi
45 oS •& dB
200 250 31 S He
45 63 41 dB
400 SCO 430 Ht
SOO 1000 1250 Hi
53 $1 48 dB
1400 2000 2500 H*
45 42 39 dB
3150 Ha
34 dB
ISO reference curve
ISO reference curve
* 10 dB
sound level in I/J octave
bands
100. 320 Hs: LN • 44 dB
400-1250 Hs: L" • 4Z dB
1400-3200 Hi: Lj] > 51 dB
ing a sensitive room
quality moderate
OdB
quality good
t SdB
other eases none
Octave band:
250 Hx 72 dB
500 Hi 70 dB
1000 HE 47 dB
2000 Hx 51 dB
minimum:
ISO reference curve
recommended:
* 10 dB
ving rooms
ne and living rooms
tsO reference curve + 2 dB
ln| •
vine rooms
ISO reference curve » 2 dB
is end living rooms
ISO reference curve - J dB
Limit for noiie produced
by domestic equipment
dB(A>
qtftrt area 25
urban area 19
industrial area 4S
T-22b
30 dB(A)
22-7 h
25 dB(Aj
in living rooms
30 dB(A)
in kitchens
35 dB(A)
7-20a«35dB(A)
in living rooms S5 dB(A)
in kitchen* 40 dB(A)
running water Ut the bath
S dB more
30 DIN phon
<• 10 dB$6, f-ldhO*
turning on and off
water Up* 11
(turning on and off
water tape in
bathroom 40)
in kitchene 3J
turning M and off
water tape 40
(turning on and off
water tape ia bath-
room 45)
Flanking tranamiialoi
considered
by •pecUicatioBfor
flanking walls and
floors
by specific ado* for
flanking walls and
floor.
by apecUlcatloetfor
flanking walls ud
floors
by specification fo,
flanking walls na4
floors
by specification for
flanking walls Md
Hoore with euafJen
for Bormal. mar* thn*
norm*! and Use tha*
normal Otuddaaj
traaMiniaaioB
by speclfUadoet fer
flashing walls and
floor*
Figure 6-2. Sound insulation specifications and domestic equipment noise
limits for selected European countries (from WHO report:
'The environmental health aspects of noise research and noise
control," by Lang and Jansen)6"16
214
-------
In spite of the impression caused by such conditions, the
history of sound insulation specifications is by no means a short
one. In some countries they date back many years. A random
i
illustration is provided by a South African document issued in 1949.
This document discusses some of the same topics which appeared in
the noise surveys and the building specifications of the sixties. The
subcommittee which generated it provided recommendations for
minimum standards of sound insulation for airborne sound and impact
sound. Though not using the term "green belt" which is currently
in vogue, they discussed them and recommended the planting of trees
and shrubs for insulation. They spoke of zoning and of separating
industry, entertainment and transport from housing. In the matter of
building construction they covered cavity walls, special party walls,
noise in plumbing, floating floors, and other items which are commonly
referred to in the noise-abatement literature of more recent years.
As in South Africa, much of the technology has been present
for a long time in many countries. The two things missing in noise
abatement until recently have been public awareness and social
motivation. As these two new elements grow, standards and performance
inevitably will follow.
215
-------
6. 6 -References
6-1. Legg, R. C., "Noise control as applied in the design of
the air conditioning plant for a hospital ward. " Paper
presented at the Conference on Acoustic Noise and Its
Control, London, Jan. 23-27, 1967.
6-2. Gaedeke, Roland; Doering, Bernhard, et. al. "The
noise level in a children's hospital and the wake-up
threshold in infants. " Acta Paediatria Scandinavia.
Vol. 58, No. 3, pp 164-170, March 1961.
6-3. Wojtowicz, Ryszard, "Zagadnienie halasow impulsowych
niskiej intensywnosci w szpitalu" (The problem of low
intensitv noises in hospitals). Przeglad Lekarski, Vol. 25,
pp 255-58. 1961.
6-4. France. Ministere des affaires Sociales. La lutte contre
le bruit. Paris, Masson et Cie, 1968.
6-5. Noise control in hospitals, King Edward's Hospital Fund
for London. London, I960.
6-6. Bruckmayer, F. and Lang, J., "Stoerung durch Verkehrslaerm
in Unterrichtsraeumen. " Oesterreichische Ingenieur
Zeitschrift. Vol. 113, No. 3, pp. 73-77, March 1968.
ii
6-7. Lundquist, Bjorn. Bulleranalyser; matningar pa nagra vanliga
bullerkallor. Stockholm, Staters Institut for Byggnadsforskning.
Rapport 3: 1969.
6-8. Chudnov, V. , V poiskakh tishiny. Moskovskiy Robochiy, 1971.
6-9. Economic Commission for Europe. Conference on Problems
Relating to the Environment. Country monograph on
problems relating to the environment. Submitted by the
Government of Hungary. ENU/CONF./B. 6, 1971.
6-10. Ivanov, V. T., "O minimal1 nykh zashchitnykh zonakh dlya
spetsializirovannykh predpriyatii bytovogo obsluzhivaniya
naseleniya. " Hygiene and Sanitation (English translation of
Gigiena i Sanitariya) Vol. 33, Nos. 4, 5, 6, pp. 405-406,
1968.
6-11. Van den Eijk, J. and van lerland, J.. My neighbour's radio.
Paper presented at the 5th International Congress on Acoustics.
Liege, Sept. 7-14, 1965.
216
-------
6-12. Gilbert, P., "Une etude sur la protection des habitations
contra les bruits exterieurs penetrant par les facades. "
Centre Scientifique et Technique du Batiment. Cahier
901, Oct. 1969.
6-13. Guseyev, O. E., et al., Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 35, No. 4,
pp. 100-101, 1970
6-14. Wojtowicz, R., Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 31, No. 7-9,
1968.
6-15. Brandt, O., "Sound insulation requirements between dwellings. "
Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Acoustics.
Copenhagen, 1962.
6-16. Lang, J. and Jansen, G., The environmental health aspects
of noise research and noise control. Copenhagen, World
Health Organization, 1970. (EURO 2631)
6-17. South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research.
Interim Report on the Sub-Committee on Noise of the
Research Committee on Minimum Standards of Accommodation.
Pretoria, 1949.
217
-------
SECTION 7
INDUSTRIAL NOISE --
EFFECTS ON THE COMMUNITY
Industrial noise is an all-pervasive element of modern life.
This section will describe foreign experience in dealing with industrial
noise emissions to the community at large, i. e. , to non-industrial
adjacent areas.
7. 1 General Considerations
In discussing noise emissions to the community from construction
projects (Section 7. 3) and from factories (Section 7. 2), we are generally
concerned with noise nuisance, not a noise-caused threat to health, except
insofar as noise disturbs sleep in residential areas. In general, industry
has not been the most annoying source of nuisance in foreign experience--
that honor is reserved for airports (where the annoyance experienced by
victims has been more intense) and vehicular traffic (a far more pervasive
noise source). This ranking is tentative, but has been borne out by the
7-1
incidence of complaints in Germany, Japan, where noise around air-
7-2
craft has been a particular problem, and the U.K. where noise from
factories was fourth-ranked (19% of those surveyed)and construction noise
«ixth-ranked (5%)) in the Wilson Report.
218
-------
Because industrial noise emissions to the community is
basically a problem of nuisance and a quality-of-life issue, a funda-
mental difficulty is the psychological aspects of the problem: what
kind and level of duration of sound from industry should be considered
as undesirable when it intrudes into various kinds of surroundings?
Here national differences in culture and life style become crucial. For
example, it is easy to see the impossibility of determining one measure
of industrial disturbance that would be adequate both for the Scandinavians,
whose buildings are usually fitted with double glazed windows for protection
against the severe climate, and the Israelis, who have an "open windows"
life style. Or, as another example, one might consider the difference
between some parts of Paris, where a certain amount of evening noise
7-3
is said to be considered desirable for the ambiance, and Zurich,
where quiet is highly valued and municipal ordinances against excessive
noise are strictly enforced (see Section 3).
7. 1. 1 Standardization of Measurement Methodology
However, authorities in all foreign countries seem to agree that
standardization of measurement methods is an essential prerequisite
for control of industrial noise emissions, whatever degree of abatement
may be desired. For industrial noise this means first of all the development
219
-------
of standard methods of measuring noise from machinery. Fortunately
a good deal of progress has been made, led by the work of the ISO, which
passed a general Recommendation for measuring machine noise in 1966.
This Recommendation No. 495 specifies, among other things, that the
preferred unit should be dB(A) and that measurements should be of sound
pressure levels made at standard reference distances of 1, 3 or 10 meters.
The use of R 495 can insure the following benefits: (a) that the noise of
a given machine conforms to a certain standard; (b) that comparisons can
be made between the noise emitted by machines built to the same standard;
(c) that comparisons can be made between the noise emitted by different
machines; (d) that the noise received at a given distance can be determined.
Many nations have already passed laws with similar language
(including Austria, OeAL 1963; Germany, DIN-E 45636; and Czechoslovakia,
CSN 011603) or have passed laws incorporating the language of R 495
(including Denmark in 1969, and Germany, DIN 45635, in March 1970).
Another ISO recommendation, building on the fundamentals
laid down by R 495, has been passed specifically pertaining to measurement
of noise from rotating electrical machinery (R-1680, first edition of
which was issued in July 1970). Again, many countries now have or had
all along parallel national standards--for example, C 51-100 of the French
220
-------
Union Technique de 1'Electricite, the German DIN 45632, and the Czech
CSN 350019. Detailed measurement standards for noise from ventilators
and pneumatic equipment, including compressors, are now being
prepared by the ISO. However, there are two problem areas in which more
progress is now being sought: measurement of impulse noise and
universal measurement and declaration of the noise 'emissions from all
machinery; i. e. , labeling of the noise-producing capacity of all machines
at the time and place of their manufacture.
Impulse noise standards are important because the impulsivity
of noise has been shown to be as important a factor in noise annoyance as
is the level of the noise. The ISO is working on standards for impulse
noise measurement now, and impulse noise as a factor has been included
in its draft Recommendation No. 1996 on the measurement of the
annoyance caused by noise (Noise assessment with Respect to Community
Response).
The goal of general noise certification of all machinery is
considered important because it would be useful for planning and design
work to prevent excessive noise emissions and because it is a
preliminary step for national regulations on noise limits for different
types of machines. Some countries have already made noise measurement
221
-------
of certain types of machinery obligatory, including Romania
(machine tools, ventilators, equipment with electric motors); the
USSR (all machine tools; to be introduced gradually branch by
branch; see also Soviet Law, Section 9 of this report); Czechoslovakia
(internal combustion in engines, ventilators, boiler installations);
Switzerland (construction machinery); and West Germany (construction
u- * 7-5
machinery).
It may be expected that there will be a trend toward setting
international standards limiting noise from certain machines like air
compressors, blowers, ventilators. One source of impetus for this
trend is similar to the OECD's motivation for setting standards for
another kind of machinery, motor vehicles: the damage to international
trade that would result if manufacturers were faced with a patchwork
quilt of differing national limits that is likely to grow with time.
The second measurement question -- and again one where
national practice varies --is measurement of noise not from individual
machinery, but from the industrial site as a whole, whether it be a
factory or a construction project. The alternatives are measuring noise
emission at the boundary of the site, or measuring noise from the site
222
-------
at the place where control of the noise becomes important --in front
or nearby houses or in an adjacent park, for example. The Danes are
currently considering a single noise level limit representing the
total noise emission from the construction site (70 dB(A) from 6 a.m.
to 6 p. m.). But the trend is now for the adoption of an approach
that takes into account both the industrial noise emissions and the
noise-control needs of the adjacent land where those emissions become
noise immissions. This is a trend towards what may be called a
"zoning" approach to the problem of industrial noise emissions. Extremely
influential in accelerating this trend was the British Standard 4142, ^~^
which became the basis for the ISO draft Recommendation 1996 of May
1970 (Noise assessment with Respect to Community Response). Together
with the specification of desirable noise climates for different types of
land use, this measurement approach provides a comprehensive system
for noise abatement and control not only for industrial noise emissions,
but those deriving from other sources as well. The approach will be
described in detail later.
7.1.2 Limits on Industrial Noise Nuisance
When it comes to criteria used for determining limits to be
imposed on industrial noise emissions, there is less unanimity
among the various countries. It can be said, however, that the
following factors are considered to be important:
223
-------
(a) Prevention of complaints. The British system
based on BS 4142, for example, uses a standard
measurement to predict complaints, which is
highly useful for design and planning and also as
a standard for determining whether a given
complaint is reasonable.
(b) Existing land use adjacent to the factory or
construction site. The German concept is
(Ortsiiblichkeit)--"suitability to the locale"
(see Section 9). The British consider that noises
10 dB(A) above the local background level are
likely to cause complaints, and if the noise contains
unusual frequency distributions, such as shrill or
pure tones, 5 dB(A) above background level will
suffice (BS 4142). The same concept enters the
Swiss system in the assignment of appropriate
noise climates for various zones of land use,
to which is added maximum additional emissions
desirable from sources like industry or
construction.
(c) Technical feasibility. Of course, what this
really means is the question of how much can be"
done while holding costs to a given level,because
nearly any degree of abatement is possible if one
is ready to pay for it. A typical scheme for dealing
with this problem envisages standards that would be
reviewed periodically that were applicable on all
units. One expert has proposed alternatively a
standard whose language would stipulate that the
noise level emitted by X% of a class of machines
would constitute the standard. As more and more
of the older existing equipment is replaced with new
"noise-treated" equipment, the standard would have
a built-in tendency to become stricter. '
224
-------
All of the foregoing material was meant to give the
reader an idea of the conceptual framework within which foreign
countries -- mostly the Europeans -- operate. When it comes to
actual noise abatement practice, however, common methods are
used everywhere which reduce themselves to two types: distance
from the source at which abatement is applied, and control over the
time when noise is created.
Distances range from inside the equipment itself (quieter
engines and moving parts); outside but still part of the machinery
(sound insulation layers, exhaust mufflers); near the machinery
(complete enclosures or shields); in the case of factories,
an intermediate distance (factory building construction, siting of
installations inside the factory site); finally, specifying the total distance
between industrial noise source and areas to be protected -- the
basis of the zoning concept --is another widespread noise control
approach appropriate for factories.
Varying the time dimension of the noise emission, on the
other hand, is a matter of either regulating operating hours or of
limiting total duration (for example, the total length of time a
construction project may operate before it is considered a permanent
rather than a "temporary" noise source. The case studies described
225
-------
on the following pages offer examples of all of these noise abatement
approaches in practice.
226
-------
7. 2 Noise from Factories
Noise sources within factories are extremely varied. Some
typical problems are blowers in iron and steel plants (frequently
7-1
also emitting penetrating pure tones in addition to operating hum),
7-8 -7-9
cyclone extractors, electric power transformer substations, ~7
and impulse noise from metal-working operations such as drop-forging
and metallic banging when plates or sheets are dropped onto tables
or into bins. However, it should not be thought that only heavy
industry is responsible; light service industries scattered throughout
urban regions contribute their share of noise annoyance, especially
steam laundries, and reports on light industrial noise problems have
been received from countries as varied as the U.K. , Israel, and
the USSR.
One aspect of factory noise repeatedly stressed is the difficulty
presented by the backlog of existing "noisy" factories that are prohibitively
expensive to abate on the one hand, and too closely located to housing
and other noise-sensitive areas on the other. "The most obvious way to
diminish the risk of annoyance to residents by noise, fumes, or dirt
from factories is at the town-planning stage, where residential and
227
-------
industrial zones can be separated. " ~ But even if good noise
planning were done on new industrial sites, the backlog of existing
sites would remain. A basic policy of land-use planning worked out
by the Greater London Council for noise nuisance prevention is
concentration of all noisy sites in one area, on the principle that
adding together two equal noise sources only causes a small increase
in total noise level (3 dB), whereas one noisy site in a generally quiet
7 11
area can set the noise climate for that entire area. ' x The Soviets
are also using this principle in Moscow by systematically moving certain
noisy factories out of mixed residential areas in Moscow (see Section 3
on noise abatement in the community).
7. 2. 1 Zoning Techniques
The subject of industrial noise nuisance prevention by zoning
overlaps the more general subject of town-planning. Two sub-categories
may be distinguished here in foreign practice: the slow improvement
of an existing unsatisfactory pattern, and the easier case where a new
industrial site may be shielded at the outset by requiring it to have a
buffer zone. Working the former situation is expensive, as the following
case study from Japan illustrates.
228
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The Chiba Prefecture Project: Zoning in Existing Problem Areas
The Chiba Prefecture (regional government) is located south-
east of Tokyo and is one of the busiest industrial zoned in Japan.
Known as the Tokyo-Chiba Marine Industrial Area, It is located
along a 50-mile long strip of shoreline of the Tokyo'Bay, within its
radius lie six cities. This area is land which has been reclaimed
from the sea and when completed will total 34, 594 acres. As of
1969, 45% of the work had been completed. In 1969 more than
500 industrial firms were operating in the are,a and one of the six
cities, Ichihara City, is considered to be the industrial center of the
area.
The main industry operating in the area is iron and steel,
electric power (4, ZOO, 000 kw) and oil refining (460, 000 barrels per
day). Pollution (noise, water, air) had been a major problem for
Ichihara City.
To fight the pollution, Ichihara City passed city zoning laws
in 1965 based on Basic Construction Law (National Law, Article 52).
There were three categories of zones: 4,463 acres of industrial area
along the reclaimed land; 5,079 acres of residential area; and 642 acres
of neutral area. To further the zoning goals of Ichihara City, the
Prefecture established in 1966 the "Construction Codes for the Chiba
229
-------
Prefecture Special Industrial Zone. " The feature of the Codes is that
they will prohibit construction of such public or private noise-
sensitive institutions as schools, hospitals, workhouses, day
nurseries, homes for the aged, residences, rooming houses, and
hotels or inns in the area, and will oblige various parties to help in the
financing of the project.
Based on national law, the "Government Work Agency for
Pollution Prevention" (GWA) was set up as an administrative body
designed especially for industrial pollution prevention. Its role is
to achieve liaison between interested government and private
institutions in a particular area to fight pollution. Its staff is composed
almost entirely of government employees temporarily assigned to
work on the local GWA. For example, 16 employees of the Chiba
Prefecture and 5 employees of Ichihara City formed almost the
entire staff of the local GWA. The local GWA was established in October
1965 in order to undertake pollution measures in the public land of the
special industrial zone.
The land utilization designated as "Special Industrial Zone"
(SIZ) comprises an area of about 653 acres. A breakdown of the total area
is given in Table 7-1.
230
-------
Type of Land
I. Public Land
A. Green Belt
a. Athletic Facilities
b. Seedbed
c. No. 1 Green Belt
d. No. 2 Green Belt
e. Green Belt for river
bank and shore
f. Park
g. Green Belt roads
Total
B. Streets
a. Boulevard
b. Zoning streets
Total
II, Private Land
A. Existing Residential
B. Warehouse
C. Driver's school
D. High voltage
E. Light Industry
F. River sites
Total
Total I. 1
Area (Acres)
24.5
8.2
53.9
14.7
6.5
6.5
21.2
135. 5
33.5
56.2
89.7
89.8
20.4
4.0
21.2
277.7
14.5
427. 6
k II. 652. 8
Table 7-1. Land use in Special Industrial Zone,
Chiba Prefecture Project7'12
231
-------
The budget for the Green Belt and Park in June 1966
was estimated at $6, 722, 222 (Ą2, 186, 000, 000). This included
such work as bringing the Green Belt and Park into existence by
relocation of existing residences and factories, and construction
of public facilities. By law, the prefecture and the city each bore one-
third of the total budget and polluting heavy industries, one-third.
It is noteworthy that when polluting industries agreed to
bear one-third of the total costs, they agreed under the condition
that no increase in their burden would occur over a three-year period
(1966-1969). A breakdown of the contributions of industries, Chiba
Prefecture, and Ichihara City is given in Table 7-2.
Source of Financing
A. 1. Electrical power industry
2. Oil refinery
3. Petrochemicals industry
4. Shipbuilding, iron & steel ind.
5. Others
B. Prefectural Government
C. Ichihara City
Table 7-2. Financing of Chiba Anti- Pollution
30%
21%
22%
20%
7%
100%
Amount
•
$2. 240, 744
$2,240, 744
$2, 240, 744
Projects, ''-i^ " • '
The way each company was allocated their share of the total
industrial one-third of total cost was based on (1) the number of employees
in each firm; (2) area of the factory; (3) oil consumption, and (4) value
of annual production.
232
-------
By the time the work started, the total cost had increased
by 1. 7 million dollars. Because of the condition made by polluting
industries, the prefecture and the city each bore a half of the
increased cost, except that a very small amount was borne by new
industries who moved in the area after the work was started.
Land purchase for Light Industrial Zones concerned land
with existing residences in it within the SIZ that had to be cleared
and consolidated to make room for light industry. For 277. 7 acres
of Light Industrial Zones, a ten year plan (1966-1976) for acquisition
and clearing has been in operation. The plan has been carried out
by the Chiba Prefecture Development Foundation,totally financed by
the prefectural government, and as of 1968, one third of the estimated
55.0 acres has already been purchased from private land owners by
the Foundation. Because of national law on Basic Pollution Prevention,
this zone is designated as semi-industrial zone and any potential
polluting industrial firm is prohibited from moving- into this area.
Also by law, incentive tax measures have been carried out by the
prefecture.and Ichihara City to encourage light industries to move
into the area. For its part, the prefecture established in March 1967 the
"Special Promotion Measure Codes for the Chiba Prefecture Special
233
-------
Industrial Zone Consolidation" •which is an incentive tax measure
to give new light industries a three-year tax holiday on enterprise
and real estate taxes, or a subsidy in the amount of a total three-year
tax.
Ichihara City, for its part, established "Ichihara City
Enterprise Inducement Codes", which did the same as the prefecture
measures by giving either a five-year municipal tax holiday or a subsidy
in the amount of a total five-year tax.
Several problems have arisen in the course of the project.
First, the city had a plan to have another 20 m wide green belt between
residential and special industrial areas. This green belt was not the one
that the GWA planned. By law, the national government can only subsidize
one fourth of the total cost and the city must bear more than one fourth
of the cost in order for the city to get a national subsidy. The city has
not enough funds to implement this at the present time.
Second, residences existing in the special industrial zone
before the plan was made still are a problem. At the present time,
it is almost impossible to remove them because of the budget limitations.
234
-------
The governments of all levels and people are making practical
solutions to the problem of existing residences, which are scattered
in an area of about 90 acres.
Third, the heavy industries assumed their role reluctantly,
and only in the end cooperated. During the initial period of negotiation,
the industries complained about the size of their total contribution and
also about the formula by which the contributions of individual firms
would be calculated, i.e., number of employees, area occupied by the
factory, quantity of oil c onsumed, and value of annual production. At
that time the industries failed to come up with an alternative proposal
for a formula, and the final compromise reached between government
and industry was that one mentioned earlier: the industries would pay
their share, but nothing toward any extra unbudgeted costs that might
arise. This proved advantageous to them, as they did not have to
pay any of the $1. 7 million budget increase caused by inflation during
the first three years of the project.
Despite all of the problems, Japanese national, prefectural
and city governments and. Japanese public opinion all praise the Chiba
prefecture plan,which has been the first in Japan to carry out coordinated
235
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pollution prevention measures. 7"12 They are hoping that such an example
will inspire other cities, prefectures, airports, railroads, etc. to carry
out similar plans. In fact, two other cities, Akaho City and Tokuyama
City have already started similar projects for industrial zones with
special green belts surrounding them. Their 1969 annual budgets
together totaled about $590, 000 (Y215, 000, 000).
Efforts for noise abatement in areas where industry
and housing are already mixed, such as the SIZ described in the Chiba
Prefecture projects, are likely to give only partial success at best.
This point can also be illustrated by another case. This case pertains
to the Ruhr/Rhine area of Germany. Some success was achieved, but
the reporter concluded that noise emanating from large-scale plants
such as iron and steel works "does, however, present an overall
problem which in the long run can only be solved if all these measures
are backed up by proper town and country planning. " '"* Further
details of this case may be found below under the discussion of noise
abatement at the source.
Buffer zones for new industrial sites. The latter case
mentioned earlier -- prevention of nuisance by establishing buffer
236
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zones for new industrial sites at the very start -- has been used for
some time in the Soviet Union, but not especially with noise in mind.
The Sanitary Norms of 1956 and 1963 require buffer zones of various
widths, up to 1000 meters in some cases, for 'dirty1 industries whose
emissions include gases and particulates. .Furthermore, in siting
such factories, it is required to take account of prevailing winds and
locate the factory downwind of populated areas. ~ These provisions
almost automatically insure that these particular factories will not
cause noise nuisance, and if the real estate is relatively inexpensive,
the environmental protection costs will be relatively inexpensive.
Furthermore, noise nuisance is being increasingly taken into account
in deciding which factories require such zoning.
A useful tool for planning is a method by which the noise
nuisance of a proposed new industrial installation can be estimated in
terms of probability of complaints. The British have developed such
a tool in British Standard 4142. Two of the men who have been most
active in developing and using this standard, R. J. Stephens on and
G. H. Vulkan, describe the way in which it is used:
237
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"This method calls for the establishment of a
criterion for the area in which the factory is, or will be,
situated, and then determining whether the noise or
estimated noise from the factory will comply with this
criterion, after having been corrected according to the
circumstances.
"The basic criterion of 50 dB(A) is first corrected,
if necessary, by the addition of 5 or 10 dB(A) depending
on the degree to which the particular factory fits into
the character of the surrounding area and whether people
are used to this type of factory. A further correction is
then made for the type of area itself, ranging from minus
5 dB(A) for a rural area, to plus 20 dB(A) for a predominantly
industrial area with few dwellings. If the factory will
operate only on weekdays between 8 a. m. and 6 p. m. , a
further 5 dB(A) is added, and if at night-time, 5 dB(A) are
subtracted. The estimated noise from the factory, as
heard outside the nearest dwelling or building where
complaints are likely to arise, is also corrected for its
tonal character, its impulsive character, if any, and
for the intermittency and duration for which it will occur.
"The two figures, that is, the corrected criterion
and the estimated corrected noise level, are then compared.
If the noise level is greater than the criterion by more
thari!10 dB(A); complaints can be expected. If the two
levels are within 5 dB(A) of each other, the position is
marginal, and if the expected noise is 10 dB(A) less than
the criterion, complaints would definitely not be expected.
The above summary only gives an indication of the procedure
and if this method of assessment is to be used it is, of
course, necessary to refer to the Standard itself for the
details. "
The development of this method dates back to the early 1960's
and from the beginning was aimed at finding criteria that would not
necessarily be the most desirable levels, but the levels which forstall
238
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complaints. Tests were made in over 60 cases including a number
where complaints had previously been made; the method "gave a
good prediction of the actual happenings in about 90% of the cases."
The reader is referred to ISO draft Resolution 1996 for the latest
version of this approach, as the ISO Resolution is closely patterned
on BS 4142. In British practice there are no fixed limits, but if
calculations based on BS 4142 showed that a proposed site would
probably bring noise nuisance complaints, permission to build
would probably not be granted.
"Zoning" within the industrial site. The Greater London Council
will use the method described above in its construction of a series
of government-owned industrial plants, including large scale
incinerators, pulverisers, compactors, transfer stations, and other
similar projects. In the course of its design work on refuse treatment
plant, it has published design guidelines illustrating how a hypothetical
plant might be planned (see Figure 7-1).
A number of abatement techniques are illustrated here. First,
noisy processes are concentrated within a building with walls as
imperforate as possible and with adequate acoustic insulation. Windows
are minimal in area, on the side of the building away from noise-sensitive
areas adjacent to the site only, and sealed. Second, noisy processes are
239
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Retaining
and Earth Ba
n Darn*v^ c_j— -
C\>Vehicles Cr Tipping Apron
-&r 90dB{A)
Bunkers 95dB(A) J
Residuals Building
90dB(A)
Offices and
Workshops
Turbine Hall
88dB(A)
rm
Cooling
Tower
LQJ
Isolation
Hospital
Figure 7-1. Plan of a refuse-treatment plant
designed in accordance with
Greater London Council noise abatement guidelines
-------
located within the site in such a way as to minimize their emissions
in a particular direction, in this case, in the direction of a hospital
to the southeast. Other buildings act as shields, and one retaining
wall and earth bank is provided to shield the noise from .extensive
activity by dump trucks coming and going.
The designers relied on noise survey data from three
existing English refuse plants, one French plant, as well as
information derived from manufacturers (see Table 7-3).
7. 2. 2 Abatement at the Source
The London refuse treatment plan used as an example on
the previous page illustrates noise control through proper internal
siting and design rather than abatement at the source, i. e. near-field
quieting of the machinery itself. This is an entirely viable approach
where a new site is developed. But there are far more cases in the
foregoing literature where abatement efforts must be concentrated on
the machinery in existing buildings.
241
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a External Measurements
Plant
1. Refuse vehicle starting
2. Refuse vehicle on level
ground; steady speed
3. Refuse vehicle on slope,
steady speed
4. Forced draught fan
5. Induced draught fan
6. Cooling tower
7. Cooling tower
8. Cooling tower
9. General plant noise*
(mostly de-duster)
lO.General plant noise *
11. General plant noise *
(mainly fan noise)
12.General plant noise *
13. Residuals
(conveyor and chute)
14.Several vehicles
discharging
15. Magnetic separators
+ clinker & fly
ash conveyor
16.Pulveriser only
17.Vibratory feeder
18. Pulverizer with
Location
at 7.5 metres
at 7.5 metres
at 7.5 metres
at 3 metres
at 3 metres
at 30 metres facing
louvres
at 130 metres facing
louvres
at 270 metres facing
louvres
at 110 metres from
wall
at 300 metres from
plant
at 50 metres from
plant
at 100 metres approx.
at 10 metres
at 15 metres from
entrance (outside
reception hall
at 10 metres
at 10 metres
at 10 metres
at 10 metres
Noise level
84 dB(A)
80 dB(A)
83 dB(A)
76 dB(A)
71 dB(A)
69 dB(A)
60 dB(A)
54 dB(A)
52-53 dB(A)
45-46 dB(A)
(Hum of de-duster
clearly audible)
57 dB(A)
53 dB(A)
75 dB(A)
62 dB(A)
82 dB(A)
70 dB(A)
81-82dB(A)
79-83 dB(A)
Site
C
C
C&D
C
C
M
M
M
C
C
D
P
D :
C
P
F ~~
F
F '
vibratory feeder in
operation
Table 7-3.
Measured values for noise emissions of
refuse plant components '"14
242
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b Internal Plant Noise
1. Metal press
2. Cardboard press
3. Induced draught fan in
reverberant conditions
4. Collection vehicle.
tipping
5. Water pump, reverberant
conditions
c Internal Environmental
Predominant noise source
1. 3 vehicles discharging
2. One conveyor plus
3. Conveyor
4. General plant noise *
5. General plant noise *
6. General plant noise *
7. Refuse feed chute
8. 4 boilers in use
g. Turbines
at 3 metres
at 3 metres
at 3 metres
at 3 metres approx.
at 3 metres
Noise Levels
Location
Reception hall
In elevator room
on 'bridge'
In elevator room
on 'bridge'
Inside separation
and sorting room
Incineration room
Incineration room
(by control desk)
Inside incineration
room
Inside boiler house
Inside turbine hall
84-86 dB (A)
(mostly clangs)
86-88 dB(A)
91 dB(A)
90-92 dB(A)
91 dB(A)
Noise level
88-91 dB(A)
87dB(A)
79dB(A)
89-91 dB(A)
78-82 dB (A)
80dB(A)
100dB(A)
81 dB(A)
88dB(A)
(mainly whine)
C
C&D
D
D
D
Site
C
C
C
c
c
D
0
P
P
Key:
C — Castle Bromwich Refuse Disposal Works.
D - Direct Incineration Plant, Derby.
P — Usine d'lssy-les-Moulineaux, Paris.
M — Manufacturers' Information.
F — Folkstone Road Refuse Pulveriser, London, E.6,
Variable according to plant layout and other noise
sources.
Table 7-3.
Continued
243
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For example, the Commonwealth Acoustics Laboratories
7-8
in Sydney, Austrialia " have been involved for quite a few years
with systematic surveys on machinery noise, while the Division of
Building Research in Melbourne has been preoccupied with the
development of various methods for the reduction of noise nuisances
caused by different industries. Noise from a cyclone extractor annoyed
a residential neighborhood in Highett, Victoria. Cyclone units (used
for collecting wood shavings) are well known as potential sources of
excessive noise characterized by a strong whine with frequency
components related to the speed and number of blades of the fan.
The cyclone unit was finally modified by the Division of
Building Research in the following manner:
o The fan unit was enclosed in a lead-lined wooden
box with part of the inner surface lined with a
mineral wool absorbent
o Rubber seals were applied to those parts of the
fan unit which must protrude through the enclosing
box
° The inner surface of the duct section was lined
with mineral wool 2 inches thick covered by a
perforated metal facing 50% open area along
the entire duct length of 10 ft.
244
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Another example of the noise control problems presented
to the Division of Building Research concerned a large industrial
kiln in the vicinity of Melbourne. The loud hissing noise of the oil-
burners led to complaints from neighbors, especially about noise
during the night. A muffler system was installed which reduced the
average noise intensity outside the kiln by more than 20 dB in three
octave bands from 600 to 4800 Hz . Such a muffler system diminished
irritating noise at greater distances and removed the cause of
complaints.
Similar efforts were made by the German Engineer's
Association (VDI) to reduce noise nuisance from the Ruhr/Rhine
irons and steel plants; they illustrate the case-by-case nature of
problems encountered in abating existing sources, and hence the
difficulty of laying down comprehensive, detailed prescriptions on
how the goal is to be accomplished.
The chief culprit was high-speed blowers that gave off
penetrating pure tones to the neighborhood. On the plant sites
themselves, the combined noise level from all sources sometimes
reached 120 dB(A). However, the exceptionally fast rate of pollution
245
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by particulates made it impossible to place a usual absorbing
silencer on an oxygen-blown converter stack. It was also impossible
to reduce the noise made by an electric arc furnace, except by use
of special sound-proof furnace doors and by building a second bay
around it for shielding purposes. Even when the second bay's gates
were open; it acted as a silencer. A final treatment was the use of
mufflers on ventilating and exhaust systems.
As a final example, it may be possible to improve the
sound insulation of the building if lighter construction techniques
allow the replacement of load-bearing members with components
combining both structural properties and sound-silencing properties
at no additional cost in weight. For some time VDI guidelines in
Germany (Richtlinie 2058 of I960) had set out desirable goals for
sound-insulation properties of industrial buildings. There was
little problem in meeting desired attenuation of 40 dB (average for
all frequencies) in the walls if they were constructed of heavy brickwork.
But the minimum density of 100 kg per square meter required for
silencing presented real problems in roofing construction, particularly
where wide open spans inside the building were essential. German
246
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specialists therefore devised a roof design using plates of wall
asbestos cement that reduced the density required to a more
practical 37 kg per square meter, and even less if the sound
insulation requirements were not so severe. An additional point
of interest in this example is the way the Richtlinie, even though
it was only a guideline, stimulated research toward a standard
that might otherwise not have been achieved.
7. 2. 3 Evenly Distributed Light Industry; A Special Problem
Even though London proper contains little heavy industry,
small timber, local bakeries, small printing works, metal, or
glass factories, and local steam laundries present noise nuisance
problems. Local launderettes are the most widespread of all, and
in most cases are either close to or within buildings used for housing.
Moreover, the launderettes, unlike steam laundries and dry cleaning
establishments, require only an ordinary shop license under London
City ordinances. The control of noise from industry in London
is the responsibility of the 32 Borough governments and upon complaint,
are handled by public health inspectors. In most cases, action takes
the form of "friendly discussions with offending firms and the giving
of advice on methods of reducing noise. "
247
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In the Soviet Union a similar problem exists with the
sanitary norms, which recognize the need for wide distribution
by neighborhood of certain service industries but specify a minimum
'sanitary zone1 to separate those shops with emissions problems of
all kinds -- gases, smoke, noise -- from nearby residential housing.
But obsolete norms continue to classify establishments engaged in
the repair of radios, record players, etc. as harmless, requiring
no sanitary gap. Consequently for many years workshops for radio
repairs have tended to be located in the basement or ground floor
of apartment houses, despite the considerable degree of noise generated
when the radios are being tested and the considerable number of
complaints from residents. It is now recommended that future
establishments of this type not be allowed to escape through this
loophole, and that they must be located at least 25 meters away from
the nearest housing. This problem is being exacerbated by the increase
in scale of some repair facilities, which now employ as many as 75 . 250
7-18
workers. Further details on this Soviet case were given in Section 6-3
of this report.
248
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7. 3 Construction Projects
Construction projects everywhere present special problems
because a zoning approach to reducing their noise is out of the question:
the building or installation must be built where it must be built,
regardless of the nature of adjacent land use, which is often noise-
sensitive. Construction projects are supposedly of a temporary
nature, but in foreign cities everywhere the tempo of expansion is
so great that often as soon as one project in a given area is finished,
another one is started. And many of the "temporary" projects are
of long duration. In Tokyo, for instance, the average duration is
six months to a year, even when minor street projects are included
in the computation. '"2 A related result of the temporary nature of
construction nuisance noise is that near-by residents, not as used to
the noise as long-time residents near a factory might be, are more
consciously annoyed by it.
A survey of laws and guidelines shows that some progress
in reducing construction noise has been made, but results to date
have not been spectacular, particularly in securing a numerical
limit on emissions that is enforced, and particularly when the
controls are in the form of guidelines rather than laws. The only
exception may be areas where the public is by tradition noise-conscious,
such as some cities in Switzerland.
249
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The results of work to date indicate that quieter construction
methods are more expensive than present methods, but not prohibitively
so. In view of the rising number of complaints about construction
noise, it is possible that manufacturers of such equipment will be
forced to produce quieter equipment in order to stay competitive in
7 6
many European countries.
7. 3. 1 The Legal Basis for Regulating Construction Noise
A recent survey as part of an effort to produce new draft
legislation in Denmark involved a team of Danish experts surveying
existing legal instruments and enforcement practices in neighboring
7-6
countries. The following excerpts from their findings is intended
to give the reader a general impression of the present status of the
law on construction noise in parts of Europe.
United Kingdom - Noise Abatement Act, I960
In practice this law has not given satisfactory results;
therefore, many local governments have invoked their own regulations.
Following guidelines from the National Federation of Building Trades
Employers, many localities have rules governing noise from mobile
air compressor equipment used in construction. A circular, "Noise
250
-------
Control on Building Sites" of the Ministry of Public Buildings Works
contains many advisory procedures for limiting construction noise
and also a recommended maximum level of emissions from construction
sites measured at the boundary of 70 dB(A) for rural or suburban
areas without heavy industry. For areas with heavy traffic or
industry, the maximum is relaxed to 75 dB(A).
France - "Insonorisation des engins de chantier" Decret No.
69-380 of April 1969
The law gives authorities the power to require that if a
construction is likely to be a noise nuisance, it must be done in such
a way as to bring noise emissions below the nuisance level. But it
contains no detailed guidelines on noise abatement design and construction
procedures.
Holland - Model Bouwvenordening
The provisions of the Model Building Regulations concerning
noise (par. 382) are given by the national government to local authorities
together with the power to enact local regulations. A different authority,
siting the same regulations, says that any local regulations promulgated
7-A
must conform to the Model Building Regulations in content.
251
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Norway
There are no laws, regulations, guidelines, or similar
standard-setting activities concerning construction noise in Norway.
However, sometimes maximum levels of construction noise are
stipulated in the contract between buyer and builder.
Switzerland - "Verordnung ueber Baulaerm" of November
1969 (Canton Zurich)
This is a strict law (see also Section 3 of this report) that has
been used to shut down many construction sites until they can meet
the noise norms. The basic provision of the law is a limit of 85 dB(A)
(measured at 7m from the source) for any piece of construction equip-
ment, with a tighter limit of 80 dB(A) for certain lighter equipment of
lesser capacity. The city of Bern has an ordinance quite similar to
that of Canton Zurich (Reglement zur Bekaempfung des Baulaerms of
1968).
Sweden
In Sweden there are both laws and regulations aimed at
reducing construction noise. The National Swedish Building Research
Council is working on a report "Building noise: a Social Problem"
that will be issued before the end of 1971 with recommendations for
252
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strengthening the laws. The city of Stockholm has a guideline
"Ang. foerslag till riktvaerden foer Ijuedniva gaellande kompressorer,
som anvaends vld byggnadsarbeten, vaegarbeten, och dyl. i Stockhom"
of October 1969 which sets a maximum of 70 dB(A) for air compressors at
a distance of 7 meters (free field). However, this guideline is not
strictly enforced. The Swedish Engineers Association (IVA) standardized
measurement methodology for Sweden with its Maskinbuller, IVA
meddelande nr. 35 of 1963.
West Germany
The reader is referred to the section of this report dealing
with German law (Section 9) and also to the section about a typical German
regional program (Section 3. 3), and is reminded of the national law
against construction noise emissions of 1970 (Schutz gegen Baulaerm--
Geraeuschimmissio'nen). This law is phrased in terms of the maximum
immissions into different types of adjacent neighborhoods rather than
setting a limit on emissions at the boundary of the construction site.
The limit can be as high as 70 dB(A) if adjacent land is industrial and
a,8 tight as 35 dB(A) at night in a hospital zone.
German guidelines published by the VDI (German Association
of Engineers) include No 2550 of 1966, Protection from Noise in the
Construction Industry (Laermabwehr in Baubetrieb und bei Baumaschinen),
253
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and No. 2058 of 1968, which dealt with the evaluation of industrial
noise emissions to the neighborhood and was similar to the British
Standard No. 4142.
Austria
There is no national law aimed at limiting construction noise
emissions, but municipalities often require the use of noise-treated
equipment, particularly air compressors. There is also a trend for
the use of noise-abatement techniques to be specified in the contract
between buyer and builder.
Denmark
Although there are presently no national laws specifically
limiting construction noise, local authorities can and do regulate it.
Draft legislation is presently under consideration.
It is very important to realize that the effect of the German
guidelines has been very limited according to a report issued in
1969 ("Die Situation in der Immissionsschutz-gesetzgebung (laerm)
7 6
in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Mitte, 1969'). It is too
early to evaluate the effect of the 1970 law. Likewise, the air
compressor guideline was not followed in Stockholm. Thus, although
254
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some effective noise control through voluntary observance of standards
has been reported in Denmark and the rest of Scandinavia, (especially
7-20
in the field of town planning and architecture), guidelines alone
are evidently usually not enough, even in Northern Europe, where
close cooperation between industry and government is more of a
tradition than it is in other countries. On the other hand, it must be
remembered that the work to date -- standardization of measurement
methodology and development of guidelines and abatement techniques --
has paved the way for the passage of law that is more enforceable and
therefore, more effective.
Swiss limits on construction noise relative to neighborhood
The Swiss limits allow construction noise to push noise
levels in a neighborhood up above background levels by a fixed amount
but with allowance for peaks of greater noise emissions for smaller
percentages of the time. As mentioned earUer, the Swiss have
developed a six-number system specifying nominal noise c.imates for
each of the six kinds of land-use zones i^ee Table 7-4).
Having thus specified the normal noise climate for any given
area, the Swiss allow construction noise to exceed the usual levels by
255
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Zone
Spas /convalescent
Quiet residential
Mixed
Commercial
Industrial
Main traffic
arteries
Nominal
Noise Level
Night
dB(A)
35
45
45
50
55
6.
Day
dB(A)
45
55
60
60
65
70
Frequent
Peaks
Night
dB(A)
45
55
55
60
60
70
Day
dB(A)
50
65
70
70
75
80
Infrequent
Peaks
Night
dB(A)
55
65
65
65
70
80
Day
dB(A)
55
70
75
75
80
90
Definitions:
Notes:
(1) Nominal noise level: average level, without peaks
(2) Frequent Peaks: 7-60 sound peaks per hour
(3) Infrequent Peaks: 1-6 sound peaks per hour
(4) "Day and "Night" may be defined by local authorities,
but typical values (Zurich) are:
day: 7 a. m. - 10 p.m.
night: 10 p.m. - 7 a.m.
(1) These limits are for levels measured in the open
window of the building.
(2) These levels are what is allowable, not what is
desirable. Desirable noise levels should be
10 dB(A) lower; however, not below a level
of 30 dB(A).
Table 7-4. Noise climates specified by SIA
Recommendation 181 for Swiss land-use zones^-28
-------
an amount determined by the relative duration of the noise, expressed
as a percentage of the working day (see Table 7-5).
Portion of the working day
when construction noise
occurs
Amount by which the
noise limits in Table 7-4
may be exceeded
20%
5%
1%
5 dB(A)
10 dB(A)
15 dB(A)
Note: Typical working hours (Zurich) are 8 a. m. - 12 p. m. ,
2 p. m. - 7 p. m. , but construction work may be
obliged to terminate earlier.
Table 7-5. Incremental noise allowed for construction
in Switzerland^~2&
Recommendations for a Danish law on construction noise
Teams of Danish scientists and technical specialists have been
working since 1970 to develop comprehensive proposals for environmental
protection. A sub-group formed May 28, 1970 to study constructio^noise
257
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as an annoyance to the community has proposed that the Ministry
of Housing be given the authority to issue regulations to limit noise
emissions from construction sites to 70 dB(A) during the day
(6 a.m. to 6 p.m. ) as a minimum program to control construction
noise. The law should cover the following points, according to the sub-group:
As at present, local authorities shall have the
power to issue and enforce regulations regarding
building, but the new Ministry of Housing limit
must be enforced.
Local authorities can exempt construction sites
from the noise abatement regulations only after
the constructor furnishes complete documentation
showing the technical and economic reasons why
the limit can not be upheld.
Local authorities shall have the power to monitor
construction activities and shut down projects
not obeying noise abatement regulations.
In special cases of noise-sensitive areas, local
authorities concerned with building, in coopera-
tion with local authorities concerned with public
health, shall be empowered to prescribe more
stringent noise limits.
In the case of unusual civil engineering works
that do not fall within the framework of construction
regulations, the local authorities shall still be
required to apply noise abatement regulations.
258
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In addition, this team of experts on construction noise -- all
of them civil engineers, some from government and some from private
practice -- emphasized the need for further action on the part of the
Ministry of Housing to ensure the success of the program, because it
•was unrealistic to expect local authorities immediately to implement
the new regulations, or to expect construction firms to know how to
meet them. Therefore, according to the recommendations, the
Ministry of Housing must issue a circular to local authorities giving
them the detailed information they will need for enforcing noise
regulations, as well as a circular giving guidelines for abatement
techniques to private construction enterprises. Regional centers
offering technical assistance might also be set up.
The team of experts had to resolve two controversial problems:
the form of the ideal construction noise regulation and the economic
feasibility of strong regulation. Concerning the kind of regulation needed,
they concluded from a survey of existing laws in neighboring European
countries (see above) that one reason existing regulations were not being
enf°rced was that many of the regulations were complex, with differentiated
noise level limits and adjustment for duration of noise, tonal aspects of
noise, etc. Therefore, the simplest regulation possible is the best
regulation.
259
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Second, construction noise regulation was economically-
feasible because:
o Some possible noise abatement methods did
not cost anything;
o Much existing equipment -- compressed air
equipment for example -- could be procured
in a noise-treated form that added less than
five percent to construction costs; and
o The economic obstacle was not as large as
might be thought, because within the forseeable
future the only type of equipment likely to be
sold in Europe would be 'quiet' equipment. ?-6
7. 3. 2 Practical Abatement Methods; Quieter Equipment
A review of foreign literature shows that much effort has
already been applied to the development of quieter equipment in the
past decade, and that it may be technically possible to achieve a
new level of quiet in many if not all construction processes. Not
only has the equipment been developed, but attention has been paid
to popularizing its adoption by giving public demonstrations of the
new 'noise-treated' equipment in action. For example, the quiet
piledriver described below has been demonstrated near Eustace station
260
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in London and quiet road breakers (jack hammers) have been publicly
tested in competition with conventional road breakers in Gloustershire,
England. Further, all kinds of quiet machines, lawnmowers and
vehicles as well as construction equipment, have been demonstrated
at congresses of the International Association against Noise (AlCB)
7-7
in Zurich, Salzburg, Paris, Baden-Baden, and London. The
following examples are intended to give an impression of the current
activity and does not necessarily reflect the state of the art.
A Quiet Piledriver
A piledriver working on a hydraulic principle was developed
in the U.K. from I960 to 1963. Called the "Taywood Pilemaster", it
successfully drove steel sheet piles 43 feet into London blue clay,
with maximum noise of 69 dB(A) five feet from the piles being driven--
"roughly equivalent to the noise level of the average car ticking over. "
The "Pilemaster" drives a panel of seven or eight piles by pushing
one into the ground at a time while the friction of the others in the
ground is used to increase the driving force; there is one hydraulic
jack centered over the top end of each pile.
The data suggest that the Pilemaster system may be more
expensive than the conventional pile driving system based on normal
261
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working hours, because little incentive is given under present
legislation for noiseless piledriving. However, the Pilemaster
can work around the clock because it will not precipitate night
noise complaints. Also, it easily extracts piles that were put in
temporarily; in many cases piles would stay in the ground otherwise
because of the extremely high cost of extracting them by other means.
Limitations of the "Pilemaster" system to date have been:
o only steel sheet piles can be driven with the
limit of driving forces available;
o only a limited selection of cross-sectional shapes
can be driven;
o a crane capable of lifting 11 tons at a radius of 20-25
feet is needed;
o the Pilemaster works better in some types of soils
than others (clay better than sand).
It is noteworthy that the impetus for developing this system
entirely from the private sector, suggesting that development of
this type of hydraulic equipment may progress naturally without need of
governmental financial support, especially as noise regulations gradually
become stricter.
came
262
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Quiet Road Breakers
Road breakers (also called jack hammers) can be either
pneumatically or electrically powered, with the former type
presently more widespread.
T. H. Marshall, Chief Public Health Inspector of Shoreditch,
England, carried out research work on both kinds of machine. In the
pneumatic equipment there are two sources of noise: the air compressor
and the hammer action itself. Using muffle covers on the hammer
significantly reduced noise annoyance but unfortunately also reduced
the output of the equipment. Tests had showed that hammer mufflers
producing a 50% reduction in noise (sic) also caused a decrease in
7-22
efficiency of 10%. Therefore, a second approach, a noise converter,
was used on the hammer. According to Marshall, the "Clarke Noise
Converter" is basically a miniature acoustical shield that has the
effect of changing the frequency composition of the noise toward the lower
frequencies that cause less irritation and also have less potential to
cause hearing loss in the operator. Since it is a shield instead of a
muffler, the converter produces no back pressure, and hence there was
no loss in the efficiency of the road breakers so equipped. ^"^ Another
method is the use of converted steel in the hammer to eliminate the
ring emitted by the steel as it is breaking concrete. ?~24
263
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Electric road breakers supplied by the manufacturer were
tested for efficiency and quiet performance against pneumatic road
breakers of the same weight. In a forty-minute test under field
conditions the electric model, which may be operated from a 13 amp
plug (sic) performed three or four times more work than a muffled
pneumatic road breaker; yet the electric road breaker was quieter.
When the same tests were repeated using a pneumatic road breaker
without a muffle cover, the electric road breaker still did more work
than the pneumatic one, but by a smaller margin.
In the process of developing quieter mobile diesel generators
for the British Army, the Signals Research Development Establishment
in England has found a noise abatement treatment for engine covers that
7-26
"cuts the roar of a generator to a mere rumble. " The design consists
of a type of urethane foam sandwiched between special aluminum panels.
The developers believe their muffled engine cover could easily be modified
for a variety of commercial uses, including the reduction of noise from
air compressors on construction sites.
According to a recent Danish survey, air compressors are on
the market that emit less than 75 dB(A), measured at a distance of
264
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seven meters. Corresponding compressors without noise damping
features emit 85 to 90 dB(A). Conventional air hammers (road breakers
or jack hammers) emit 85 to 95 dB(A), and sometimes even over 100 dB(A)
measured at seven meters. Use of hammers with noise reduction devices
7 6
can reduce noise levels by 6 to 15 dB(A).
7.3.3 Practical Abatement Methods; Shielding
The use of shielding as an abatement method seems most
highly developed in Germany, where advisory guidelines to private
contractors on shielding techniques accompanied the 1970 German Law
on Construction Noise (Schutz gegen Baulaerm). Figure 7-3, 7-4,
7-5 and 7-6, taken directly from Appendix 5 of the law, illustrate
basic shielding principles; the noise attenuation capacity of the various
configurations is a function of the parameters indicated in the figures
and can readily be calculated.
7.3.4 Practical Abatement Methods; Regulation of Working Hours
In most European countries the hours construction equipment
may operate are already regulated, but the exact hours to be observed
are often a matter that is left for determination by local authorities.
265
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Vertical Section
noise absorbing layer,
5 mm thick
place to be
protected
////////
Plan View
place to be
protected
Figure 7-2. Noise shield for construction machine
-------
Noise shield in uneven terrain
place to be
protected
Building serving as noise shield
place to be
protected
Figure 7- 3. Noise shields 7"19
-------
L-shaped noise shield
noise absorbing
material
^
Figure 7-4. L-Shaped noise shield
7-19
-------
The problem:
Shield '
reflecting
building
place to be protected
Recommendation No. 1: lengthen the shield
•Recommendation No. 2: sound-absorbing material on the side of building(s).
Figure 7-5. Reduced effectiveness of noiae.s.hields due to
noise reflected from buildings
-------
In Japan, on the other hand, much construction had been
done at night time. A 1967 survey of about 1, 300 construction sites
by the city of Tokyo showed that about 75% of the public construction
projects (streets, water works, sewer pipelines) occurred at night,
and of these projects, three-fourths were in residential areas where
disturbance was likely. The reason for night construction was given
as the heavy vehicular traffic volume in the day time, and also labor
considerations (manpower shortage). In the summer time, when many
windows are usually open, construction work on buildings was done at
night in half of the sites surveyed. A recent comprehensive
environmental protection ordinance for Tokyo (1969) provides that quiet
at night is to be observed on public roads and in public environments
from 8 p.m. to 6 a.m. Furthermore, the national government
passed a law in 1968 that included construction noise ("Noise Abatement
Law" No. 98). The provisions dealing with times of operation, affecting
certain types of equipment only, are indicated in Table 7- 6. The reader
is referred to the section on Japanese law (9.9) for other details of the law
to Figure 3-4 (Section 3.2.2) for typical levels of noise emissions from
Japanese construction equipment, and to the provisions of the law in Zuri h
(Section 3.2. 5) that make maximum allowable construction noise dependent
on the duration of the project. Other legal sections dealing with construct!
noise law include the sections for Austria (9.2), West Germany (9.4)
the U. S.S.R. (9.12).
270
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Type of Equipment
Pile driver and
extractor
Riveter
Rock Drill
Compressed air
equipment
Concrete and
asphalt plants
Maximum
Total Hours
of Operation
Per Day
10
Same
Same
Same
Same
Hours of Day
When Operation
Prohibited
7 p. m. - 7 a. m.
Same
9 p. m. - 6 a. m.
9 p. m. - 6 a. m.
9 p. m. - 6 a. m.
Days of
Week When
Operation
Prohibited
Sundays &
Holidays
Same
Same
Same
Same
Maximum
Consecutive
Days of
Operation
6
6
6
30
30
Table 7-6. Provisions of the Japanese Law on
Construction Noise (No. 98 of 1968)
Dealing With Time of Operation?'^
-------
7.4 References
7-1. Gorgen, R., "A Study of Conditions and Problems in the
Metal Industry". Paper presented at the ECE Conference
on problems relating to the environment, Prague, 1971.
7-2. Metropolitan Research Institute for Environmental
Protection, "Kogai to Tokyo" (Pollution in Tokyo)
Daiichi Printing Co., Tokyo, 1970.
7-3. Private communication of 8 October 1971 from U. S.
Embassy, Paris.
7-4. International Standards Organization (ISO), Recommendation
No. R 495: General Requirements for the Preparation of
Test Codes for Measuring the Noise Emitted by Machines,
Geneva, 1966.
7-5. Lang, Judith and Jansen, Gerd., The Environmental Health
Aspects of Noise Research and Noise Control. EURO 2631.
World Health Organization, Copenhagen, 1970.
7-6. Denmark, Forureningsradet-Sekretariat. Bygge- oe^
anlaegsvirksomhed; Stoj. (Building and construction noise).
Report No. 9, Copenhagen, July, 1971.
7-7. British Standards Institution, Standard No. 4142: Method
of Rating Industrial Noise Affecting Mixed Residential and
Industrial Areas, London, 1967.
7-8. Lippert, W. K. R., "The Problem of Noise from a Mechanical
Plant". Paper presented at the Fourth International Congress
on Acoustics, Copenhagen, 1962. Proceedings edited by
A. K. Nielsen.
7-9. Anonymous. "Spasite nashi ushi" (Save our ears), Izvestiya.
Moscow, September 17, 1971.
7-10. Israeli National Committee on Biosphere and Environment,
The Environment in Israel, (U. Marvino and J. Gale, eds.)
National Council for Research and Development (of the
Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Jerusalem,
March, 1971.
272
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7-11. Stephenson, R. J. and Vulkan, G. H., "Noise from Industry",
Official Architecture and Planning, London, July, 1971.
7-12. Sato, A. and Nishihara, M., "Koogai to taisaka" (Pollution
and Abatement Measures), Vol. 1, Tokyo, 1969.
7-13. Simons, D. Ya., "Tekhnika besopastnosti i proizvodctvennaya
Sanitariya" (Safety techniques and industrial hygiene), Moscow,
1964.
7-14. Greater London Council, Industrial Noise: refuse treatment
plant. Urban Design Bulletin No. 2, London, September, 1970.
7-15. Purkis, H. J.f "The practical assessment and control of
industrial noise", Sanitarian, Vol. 71, No. 3, pp. 211-217,
December, 1962.
7-16. Losch, W. "Schalldammung von leichten Industriedachern"
(Noise insulation of light industrial roofs), Larmbekampf ung,
No. 5-6, pp 81-83, Oct.-Dec. 1963.
7-17. Vulka-n,. G. H., "Planning Against Noise in London". Paper
presented at the Seventh International Conference on Acoustics,
Budapest, 1971.
7-18. Ivanov, V. T., "The Minimum Requirement for Protective
Zones Around Establishments Providing Service". Gigiena i
Sanitariya, Vol. 33, April, 1968.
7-19. Ministerialblatt fuer das, Land Nor.drhein-WestfalenT
vol. 24, no. 56, 19 April 1971.
7-20. Hanson, Edmund., "Noise, Air Pollution and Town Planning
in Denmark", Paper presented at the Conference on Air and
Noise Pollution, Jonkoping, Sweden, Sept. 1971.
7-21. Page, E. W. H. "Silent and vibration-free street pile
driving" in Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Vol. 48, pp 475.492, November 1968.
273
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7-22. Sanitarian, "Silencing pneumatic road drills", p. 397,
June 1962.
7-23. Sanitarian, "The reduction of unnecessary noise from
road breakers", p. 344, May 1964.
7-^24. Sanitarian, "The abolition of unnecessary noise from
pneumatic road breaking equipment", p. 494,
September 1964.
7-25. Sanitarian, "Electric road breaker vs. pneumatic road
breaker", p. 502, September 1962.
7-26. London Times, 22 June 1971.
7-27. Tokyo Municipal News, Vol. 19, No. 8, Nov. -Dec. 1969.
7-28. Swiss Association of Engineers and Architects "Empfehlung
fuer Schallschutz im Wohnungsbau" (Recommendations for
noise protection in residential structures), Zurich, 1970.
7-29. Sato, A., Nishihara, M., Koogai taisaku (Pollution Control
Measures), Tokyo, Yoohigaku, 1969.
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SECTION 8
SIGNIFICANT NOISE RELATED ORGANIZATIONS
AND CONFERENCES
8. 1 Centers, Institutions and Personalities Active in Noise
Abatement and Control
The following material describes some of the most commonly
known foreign research centers and organizations active in the field
of noise abatement and control. Some are directly supported and
controlled by a government ministry; others are attached to a
university or are wholly independent. Our descriptions cover their
location, activities, affiliations, key personalities, and if available,
financing.
Because key (internationally-known) personalities usually
are strongly affiliated with a particular institution which serves as
their operational base, it is appropriate to describe these men together
with their institutions.
This list of institutions is not comprehensive; some
organizations provided us with more timely and comprehensive information
275
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about themselves than did others. It would be misleading to call
these institutions "typical" institutions because the list is rather
selective. But it also •would be misleading to call them "the leading"
institutions as there are undoubtedly many strong organizations
who, for lack of information, were omitted.
8.1.1 Institute of Sound and Vibration Research of University
of Southampton, England
Prof. B. L. Clarkson,
Director
Southampton S09 5NH
Affiliations
ISVR is the largest or one of the largest noise research
centers in England, with close ties to government ministries and to
industry in both the U.K. and U.S. Two of its strongest areas of
expertise are internal combustion engine noise and aircraft noise.
An independent noise consulting department, the Wolf son Unit for
Noise Vibration and Control, was recently created. Nevertheless,
despite ISVR's activities as a consultant, graduate and undergraduate
teaching remain at the center of the program, and strong ties are
maintained with the University.
276
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ISVR was founded in 1963 with the help of a British
Science Research Council grant. It was the outgrowth of a
group organized by Dr. E. J; Richards to study aircraft noise and
vibration, and both budget and personnel have grown over 400%
8-1
since then.
Influence and Effectiveness
Numerous staff members have gone abroad for temporary
appointments in other countries. The Director, Professor B. L.
Clarkson, spent a year on an N. S. F. post-doctoral at N. A. S. A. 's
Langley Research Center in 1970-71, also lecturing at the 1970
Second Sonic Boom conference in Houston, at M. I. T. , and other
U.S. universities. At the same time two other staff members, R. Cohen
and D. R. Tree, were at the Raymond W. Herrick Laboratories at
Purdue, and S. E. Wright was at the George Washington University,
Washington, D. C. in charge of the joint G. W. -ISVR Postgraduate
Acoustics Training Programme at N.A.S. A. /Langley.
Professor P. E. Doak spent a year with the Aerospace
Sciences Laboratory of the Lockheed-Georgia Company working on
277
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theoretical aspects of fan-jet engine noise problems.
The Automotive Engineering Group of ISVR actively
contributed to the Ministry of Transport's report "A Review of
Road Traffic Noise. "
There has been close research cooperation with the
motor industry, including most of the big English firms as well as
the U.K. branches of Chrysler, Ford, and General Motors.
Two films, "Aircraft Noise" and "The Scope of Clinical
Audiology" were made last year (1970) in conjunction with the
University's Media Center.
The foremost British author and editor concerned with
deafness and otolaryngology, John C. Ballantyne, is on ISVR's
Scientific Advisory Council.
J. Lange is a specialist in sonic boom propagation and
presented an overview of U.K. sonic boom research at the 1971 DOT/SAE
Conference on Aircraft and the Environment in New York. (With D. N. May. \
278
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Research Interests
Noise-related activities are carried on by the following
working groups: Acoustics, Automotive Engineering, Operational
Acoustics and Audiology, Structural Dynamics, and the Wolfson
8-1
Unit for Noise and Vibration Control.
The Acoustics Group is working on reduction of noise in
aircraft engine flow ducts under a large grant from the U.K. Science
Research Council, supervised by J. B. Large. Other current
projects are:
--turbomachinery noise generation
--helicopter rotor noise
--acoustics of ducts and jets
--building acoustics
A large research capability exists because of the Chilworth Fan Noise
Laboratory and a large anechoic low-speed wind tunnel.
The Automotive Engineering Group, in addition to
private contracts, has a large three-year Department of the Environment
grant to develop quiet diesel engines, both in-line six cylinder and
V8 350 HP types. The Group is directed by T. Priede. P. E. Waters
279
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is one of the leading specialists in this group. The results of
his work on noise of commercial vehicles has been published as
follows:
1) Control of Road Noise by Vehicle Operation,
Journal of Sound Vibration (1970_13 (4) 445-453
2) The Diesel Engine as a Source of Commercial
Vehicle Noise, Paper 8 of Critical Factors in
the Application of Diesel Engines, Proc. Inst.
Mech. Engrs 1969-70 184 (Pt 3P)
3) Chapter 3 of A Review of Road Traffic Noise.
Road Res. Lab. Report LR 357, 1970
4) Some Aspects of Commercial Vehicle Noise
Reduction, Paper of Noise and Vibration
in Motor Vehicles, Inst. Mech. Engrs. 1971
The Operational Acoustics and Audiology Group has a grant
from the U.K. Medical Research Council for the 1971-77 period
that will support a staff of four professionals and six staff. The
research program includes studies on impulse noise hazards. Another
program investigates measurement methodology for attenuation of
individual ear protectors. A Human Factors Unit is studying the effects
of noise and vibration on the performance of helicopter pilots.
280
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Another very interesting project of this Group is
development of a mathematical model to assess economic impact
of lowering aircraft noise levels in the U.K.
The Structural Dynamics Group is per serially headed by
the Director of ISVR, B. L. Clarkson. Much of its recent work has
been on the effect of sonic booms on structures.
The Wolfson Unit, the largest acoustics consultancy in
Europe, covers a range of topics including noise control in factories,
transportation, research in physiological and psychological noise-
8-1
related problems, and building acoustics.
Funding and Staffing Data
The total 1970 - 71 budget of about $962,700 (^401, 111)
was about one-third supplied by the University. The Institute's
activities were supported by the contributions from the University and
8-2
outside sources as follows:
281
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$
University Contributions 357,600
Industrial Chairs. Lectureships and Fellowships 86,400
Research grants and contracts
British Aircraft Corporation -
Economic effects of achieving reduced
community noise levels from aircraft 23,700
British Leyland Motor Corporation -
Engine design related to emitted noise 11,700
British Steel Corporation -
Vibration damping in sheet steel plastic laminates 8, 100
CEGB - Vibration problems in nuclear reactor gas circuits 6,960
Cummins Engine Co. (USA) -
Attenuation of structure borne noise in Vee
Form diesel engines 10, 800
Dunlop Rubber Co. -
Acoustic behavior of porous systems 2,400
General Motors (USA) -
Two stroke diesel engine noise 15,000
Medical Research Council -
Subjective study of inhibitory mechanisms 1, 900
Clinical and acoustical studies 72,000
Ministry of Aviation Supply -
Deterministic nature of jet flows 8, 300
Ministry of Defense -
Study of methods analyzing random load
histories 9,000
Human factors in helicopter flying 14, 400
Frequency response characteristics of a built
up structure 19,300
Ministry of Technology -
Research into startle caused by sonic bang 6,400
Reduction of noise from automotive diesel engines 13, 700
Evaluation of indoor and outdoor sonic booms 13,900
Design of silencer elements 9,200
Propagation of fatigue cracks in a stressed
plate under acoustic loading 11,800
Acoustic vibration of curved plates 6,300
Broad band noise in axial flow fans 17, JQQ
Study of transient helicopter rotor noise 8, 500
Rolls-Royce -
Turbulence measurement transferred to rotating
co-ordinates 9,200
282
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$
Society of Automotive Engineers (USA) -
Development of an aircraft fly over 12, 400
Science Research Council -
Unsteady wind loads on cylinders 7,000
Structural vibration analysis using finite
element technique 4» 700
Noise inside buildings due to external air flow 9, 300
Methodology of acoustic attenuation methods 16, 000
Jet noise studies 19,400
Unsteady heat transfer 7,100
Reduction of car noise by structure design 5, 600
Effects of bearing design on noise 8, 900
Loudness of impulsive sounds 1,300
Control routine for random data analysis unit 8, 400
Acoustic radiation into simple and stiffened
cylinders 8,400
Human response to impulse vibration 3, 400
Embeddability of solid particles in journal bearings 6, 850
Investigation into optimisation of design parameters
for a quieter diesel engine 20, 000
Random data analysis center 10,600
Sound absorption and noise suppression 25,100
Study of thermal barriers 7, 200
U.K. A. E. A. -
Vibration of a cluster of slender rods in parallel
flow with an acoustic field 5, 040
The effect of channel flow on the stability of
a gas flow in an annulus 4, 800
Wessex Regional Hospital Board -
Audiology 25,900
(Note 1: The figures above were converted to dollars at the
rate ofrfLl = $2.40)
(Note 2: Over half of S. R. C. 's total noise budget goes to ISVR)
962,700
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These totals cover the Wolfson Unit also, but the Unit
is treated as something of a separate entity. It has ten full-time
consultants, and other ISVR staff members act as part-time
consultants. An initial grant and continuing support of the Wolfson
foundation made the creation of the Wolfson Unit possible. At present
it is almost self-supporting, earning enough to pay salaries and
fees for services provided to it by I. S. V. R. and th«» University.
8-1
The staff as of 1970 was as follows:
Director, Professors, Reader, Senior Lecturer,
Lecturers 21
Research Fellows, Visiting Professor and
Junior Research Fellows 46
Technical Manager, Consulting Engineers 14
Experimental Officers, Computer Assistant,
Programmers and Operator 7
Research Assistants 9
Research Students and Part-time Students 32
M. Sc. Students 18
Engineering Science 40
Technicians 51
Administrative & Clerical 20
Associates
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8.1.2 Scientific Branch of the Greater London Council (GLC)
B.R. Brown, Scientific Advisor
The County Hall
London SE 1
Affiliations
G. L. C. --the parent organization--is concerned with the
provision of infrastructure services to and environmental protection
of the Greater London area, which consists of the 32 London Boroughs
and the City of London. Close working relationships are maintained
by Scientific Branch with the three U.K. government laboratories
most active in noise abatement research—the Building Research Station
at Garston, the Road Research Laboratory (RRL), and the National
Physical Laboratory. One member of the Scientific Branch is a
member of an RRL working group on road traffic noise, and several
members of the other organizations (E. g., W. E. Scholes from Garston)
have contributed to Scientific Branch projects.
The Scientific Branch of the G.L . C. has been active in
noise work since I960. Their London Noise Survey of 1961 was
followed with studies on traffic noise leading to a definite G. L. C.
policy decision in 1966.
285
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Influence and Effectiveness
The primary function of the acoustics and noise
groups within the Scientific Branch is to provide the expertise
needed by the G. L. C. to make policy decisions in its well-publicized
and highly-developed fight against noise in London. But the influence
of these groups, based on their past work, goes further, and they
have received considerable international recognition leading to
correspondence and cooperation with scientists in other countries.
One staff member, G. H. Vulkan, has delivered papers at several
international conferences recently. Frequent requests for information
about noise abatement methods also come from British towns and
regions outside London, and the Branch renders as much assistance
8-3
by telephone and letter as time permits. In response to such
requests, design notes on traffic noise and industrial noise abatement
have been included in the G. L. C. series, "Urban Design Bulletin. "
Key Personalities and Research Interests
According to Dr. B. R. Brown, head of the Scientific
Branch, the current noise-related activities of the Branch are as
follows:
286
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The section carried out surveys of traffic and aircraft
noise, gives advice on planning matters and on insulation of dwellings
and schools, and also provides assistance where required to the
London Boroughs. In addition research work is in progress on noise
propagation under urban conditions, on the effectiveness of noise
barriers alongside motorways, an effective and economic means of
providing insulation against external noise, and on the establishment
of acceptable noise levels for different school activities. Methods of
predicting traffic noise levels by the use of models are also being
8-4
studied.
Judging from published articles, two of the most active members of
the noise group are Dr. R. J. Stephenson and G. H. Vulkan.
Funding and S taffing Eata
Dr. R. J. Stephenson, in addition to being active in
the noise group of the Branch, is Assistant Scientific Advisor of the
Branch. The noise group consists of seven professionals occupied
full-time in noise control work; their equipment includes two fully
equipped mobile noise measurement trucks.
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8.1.3 Building Research Station - Garston, England
Garston,
Watford, WD2 7JR
Hertfordshire
Affiliations
This long-established government institute is the most
influential one in the U.K. in the field of noise abatement and control
in construction; its superior organization is the Ministry of
Public Building and Works. It is one of three government institutes
most closely advising the new U.K. Ministry of the Environment on
various aspects of noise (the others being the National Physical
Laboratory and the Road Research Laboratory).
The Building Research Station Digest has been superceded
by five series of Current Papers: Construction, Design, Engineering,
Research, and Miscellaneous. Besides the Stations primary influence
as a source of expertise for government there is also its important
role of providing practical design schemes for the building trades,
e.g., W. E. Stacey's current project outlined below.
Key Personalities and Research Interests
Over 20 noise-related projects were in progress in 1970,
288
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ranging from sound insulation of several schools near Heathrow
Airport, to sound transmission and insulation within buildings
(especially across party walls), to research on the efficacy of
fence-like sound barriers erected along the side of busy motorways.
Earlier projects have touched on practically every aspect of noise
control in buildings, including minute design details like the invention
8-5
of the "Garston" ball valve--a quieter component of flush toilets.
Under the circumstances, only a few of the current research projects
can be mentioned here; a quarterly list of publications may be obtained
from the Librarian, Building Research Station, Garston, Watford,
Hertsh.
Aircraft noise, its effect on schools. Conducted by P. Parkin
and F. J. Langdon. This study arose from recommendations of the
Gibson Committee, an interdepartmental committee of the Government.
It aims to determine the maximum noise levels for which speech
can continue in schools and investigate the effects of aircraft noise on
schoolwork. A related current study is the measurement of the sound
insulation capabilities of several schools near Heathrow Airport as
a function of angle of incidence of the aircraft noise and type of window
opening. P. Parkin was one of the co-authors of the final version of
289
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the "London Noise Survey" (H. M. S. O. , 1968).
Barriers against noise. W. E. Scholes is investigating
the effect that small gaps in the barrier, either deliberate for
aesthetic reasons or accidental in construction, would have on
performance. He is using both 1:3 models and a full-scale barrier
61 meters long by five meters high.- He is also conducting field
experiments using a barrier set up by the Ministry of Transport's
Road Research Laboratory on highway Ml south of Luton. Scholes
is a specialist in traffic noise measurements, both physical and
86 fi — 7
subjective. ' Over 13 man-years of field testing of such
8-8
barriers is being carried out in the 1970-72 period.
Sound insulation. E.G. Sewall, W. A. Utley, R. F.
Higginson and others are investigating all aspects of sound insulation.
materials, configurations, etc.--in a program of measurements that
has been going on for some years now.
Design guidance for abating traffic noise. E. F. Stacy
is transforming the Station's research findings into a form usable by
8-9
architects and planners with no particular acoustic knowledge.
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8.1.4 Road Research Laboratory of the British Ministry of
Transport
D. G. Harland, Head of
Noise Group,
Crowthorne, Berkshire
Affiliations
RRL's parent organization is the U.K. Department of
the Environment (and formerly was the Ministry of Transport) but
close working ties are maintained with the Building Research
Station at Garston, the Institute of Sound and Vibration (I.S. V. R. )
at Southampton, and the National Physical Laboratory.
Activities
A major research effort was the "Review of Road Traffic
Noise" produced by a working group in 1970 (RRL Report LR 357).
Other interests development of instrumentation for noise logging and
mapping, measurement of vehicle noise under non-ISO test conditions,
tire noise, effects of surfacing (pavement design), and development
of noise barriers for motorways, the latter in collaboration with the
Building Research Station and the Greater London Council.
Key Personalities and Research Interests
The deputy director of RRL, Dr. R.S. Millard, chaired
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the working group that produced RRL Report LR 357. Mr.
D. G. Harland is the leader of the Noise Group. The staff working
on noise problems consists of one senior scientific officer, one
scientific officer, one experimental officer, and an assistant
experimental officer. The budget for noise for the period of
8-8
the past several years has been:
Equipment (1969-71) $ 76,800
Full scale experiments
(1969-71) $ 156,000
External contract, 1969 $ 3,500
$ 235,200
Note: Above figures were converted to dollars at
the rate of Ł 1 = $2.40
8.1.5 Research Institute for Heat and Sound Technology
(Physikalisch-Technische Versuchsanstalt fuer
Waerme-und Schalitechnik)
Dr. F. Bruckmayer, Director
1090 Vienna, Austria
Waehringerstrasse 59
Affiliations
This government institute is a branch of the Technical
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Industrial Institute (Technologisches Gewerbemuseum). Included
in the staff are two internationally-known authorities on noise,
Dr. Bruckmayer and Dr. Judith Lang. The Institute offers
noise measurement services available to both the government and
private industry, and also does some public information work.
It has a close working tie with the Austrian Working-Group for Noise
Control, of which Dr. Bruckmayer is also head. Close ties are
also maintained with the I.S. O. because of Lang's and Bruckmayer's
considerable work on the I.S. O. TK-43 committees.
Influence and Effectiveness
The influence and effectiveness of this institute would
seem to be largely the result of the presence of Drs. Bruckmayer and
Lang.
An Institute program of special interest is the annual
free seminar for industrial executives on evaluation of and protection
from industrial noise and construction noises.
There is a Noise Control Information Center at the
Institute that handles queries from all sources: officials, the general
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public, architects.
Key personalities and Research Interests
The Institute's activities fall into two categories:
noise survey measurements and design recommendations. For
the past several years the Institute has been involved in a major
way in the construction of a quiet subway in Vienna. In 1968
measurements in and around the trains were made; in 1969-70
research and measurements were done for forecasting noise
levels in near-by housing that must be protected from subway
noise. Another research problem dealt with land-use zoning for
prevention of noise problems.
Dr. Bruckmayer has worked in several ISO TK-43 sub-
committees, including the meetings of SC 1 (Noise) and SC 2 (Building
acoustics) in Stresa, Italy. In 1969-70 he also participated in the
"Construction Noise Symposium" (Zurich) of the Swiss League against
Noise, was chairman of the German Standards Committee for Noise
ii
Protection in City Construction (FN Bau-Schallshutz in Stadtebau),
and helped formulate the German industrial regulation DIN 18005.
He also has been a consultant to the OECD in its research on urban
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traffic noise, and spoke at a Colloquium of the International
Building Council in Paris.
Dr. Lang also has worked for the I. S. O. committees.
She and Gerd Jansen were co-authors of the recent World Health
Organization's 1970 publication on noise (The Environmental Health
Aspects of Noise Research and Noise Control). She participated
in 1969-70 in the DAL meeting on aircraft noise and in the work
of German Standards Sub-Committees on aircraft noise and building
noise measurements.
Funding and S taffing Data
The staff of the Institute consists of five professionals,
three assistants, five technicians, two administrators who handle
research contracts, and two representatives to the OAL (Austrian
Working Group for Noise Control).
In addition to direct financing from the government,
considerable income is brought in by research contract work. There
were 89 contracts in 1968 and 68 in 1969. The Austrian Research
Council (Oesterreichischer Forschungsrat) has provided support
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for such projects as "Reduction of Equipment Noise" and "Bases
for Noise-protective Zoning".
8.1.6 Austrian Working-Group for Noise Abatement
(Oesterreicher Arbeitsring fuer Laermbekaempfung)
Dr. F. Bruckmayer, Chairman
1012 Vienna, Austria
Stubenring 1
Affiliations
The OAL is the Austrian national member of the international
A. I. C. B. , and with the national associations of Germany, France,
and Switzerland, was a founding member. The primary function of
the OAL is public information work with the goal of increasing awareness
for better noise control, but the OAL since April 1963 has been given
a semi-official role by the Austrian Parliament.
The OAL was formed in 1958 as a section of the Austrian
Labor Community for National Health (Oesterreichische Arbeitsgemeinschaft
fuer Volksgesundheit) with the goal of working as a noise-abatement
commission on a scientific basis. In 1962 the OAL was the sponsor
for the Second International A. I. C. B. Congress.
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Influence and Effectiveness
The influence of the OAL rests primarily on its reputation
as a source of factual and authoritative information. The Ministries
of the Austrian government are expected to consult with the OAL when
formulating draft legislation related to noise control, or in areas
where noise may be a problem. One method for creating public
interest in noise control has been special conferences dealing with
one topic, (e.g., "Noise Control in Residential Areas, Vienna, 1965,"
•where thirteen papers were read.) There is also a yearly exhibition
in which many Austrian noise abatement professions participate, as
well as many from abroad. Finally, a "noise^free week" (laermfreie
Woche) is proclaimed annually, usually in May.
Key Personalities and Activities
The official goals of the OAL are:
o To unite all forces toward abatement of noise on
the street, in industry and in residences with all
administrations, corporations, associations, that
are interested in noise-reduction.
o Furthering information about modern noise-abatement
in medical, technical and judicial circles and spreading this
knowledge through establishment of guidelines (which
are quite numerous to date), lectures, congresses,
publications, and public press. As of June 1971,
there are 20 published guidelines (OAL-Richtlinien),
and six industrial guidelines (OAL-Industrie-Richtlinien)
that are in effect.
o Encouraging the machine industry toward production
of quieter vehicles, machinery and equipment, and
the construction industry to increase its sound-
protection in buildings.
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In addition to the activities mentioned earlier under
"Influence and Effectiveness, " the OAL has also been making attempts
to improve the enforcement of existing ordinances (e. g. , the Lake
Traffic Ordinance of 29 March, 1961.)
A key figure in the OAL is Dr. Bruckmayer, who has long
been vice-president qf the similar international organization, A. I. C. B.
In 1965, Dr. Bruckmayer was one of the honored foreign guests at
the founding of the first Latin American noise abatement society,
"G. A. L. A. , " in Argentina. Bruckmayer is Director of the government
research institute for Hearing and Noise Technology in Vienna.
Staffing Data
The membership of the OAL consists solely of honorary
co-workers from the Ministries, regional governmental offices,
corporations, universities, hospitals, etc.
8.1. 7 German Engineers Association
(Verein Deutscher Ingenieure)
Dr. Ing. Paul Hansen, Chairman
VDI-Commission on Noise
Abatement
Postfach 1139, 4 Duesseldorf 1
Affiliationa
The VDI-Commission on Noise Abatement does the research
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and makes the proposals leading to the issuance of VDI-Richtlinien,
official guidelines of the VDI which have great authority in Germany
and often form the technical basis for new laws. It was founded
in 1965 in response to a request by the Federal Ministry of Work
and Social Order (Arbeit und Sozialordnung) and is supported by
German industry as well as scientific circles. Definitely concerned
with the technical aspect, it is especially concerned with noise control
at the source, i.e. , the development of quieter machinery. However,
it does also have very close connections with the German Working
Group for Noise Control (Deutscher Arbeitsring fuer Laermbekaempfung),
a public information organization, and in fact shares a common address
with the DAL.
The VDI Commission on Noise Abatement publishes no
periodical journal, but there is an annual report and a documentation
center is maintained.
Influence and Effectiveness
The VDI-Richtlinien often form the technical basis for
new legislation. Their influence extends beyond the borders of West
Germany. For example, the Yugoslavs have adopted some VDI-Richtlinien
(as well as ASA guidelines) for use in Yugoslavia.
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Organization and Activities^
VDI's organization-plan falls into the following
commissions:
1. Industrial noise - director: Dr. Schmidt in Ladenburg.
It is subdivided into 11 committees dealing with various
industrial fields.
2. Traffic noise - director: Dr. Bobbert in Salzgitter.
With four committees.
3. Residential noise - director: Dr. Eisenberg in Dortmund.
With five committees.
4. Effects of noise - Prof. Klosterkoetter in Essen, an
internationally-known .expert. . Dr. Gerd Jansen in Easen heads the
committee on assessment of noise in industry. Dr. Jansen co-authored
the W. H. O. publication on noise of 1970 (The Environmental Health
Aspects of Noise Research and Noise Control, with Judith Lang.)
5. Measurements - director: Dr. R. Martin - Braunschweig.
6. Special Problems - director: Dr. Krieger - Wiesbaden.
7. "Noise-poor" quiet construction.
The whole organization is headed by Dr. Hans en from Essen, with
Dr. Stueber of Munich, and Dr. Krieger of Wiesbaden as representatives.
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Each of the commissions with the various sub-committees
sponsor conferences, lectures and publish guidelines. The "Richtlinien"
are too numerous to mention all of them in detail; however some
examples are:
1. Industrial noise: commission met in Duesseldorf on
Nov. 10, 1970 and proposed guide lines (Richtlinien) VDI-2564, 1-3;
VDI - 2567, VDI - 2572 and VDI-2712-1 which were published in Spring,
1971.
2. Construction noise: sub-committees met in Duesseldorf
on April 16, 1970, in Frankfurt on June 24-25, and also on October
7-8, 1970 and worked on the proposal for guideline VDI-2550 with
the title "General administrative control of rules: Construction Noise"
("Allgemeine Verwaltungsvorschrift zum Schutz gegen Baulaerm").
These guidelines may be converted at a later date to a DIN-norm.
3. Noise reduction in vehicles: This subcommittee met
in Duesseldorf October 16, 1970, preparing guideline VDI-2563. Work
has also been done on VDI-2574, "Assessment of internal noises from
vehicles and means for its reduction" (Beurteilung der Innengeraeusche
von Kraftf ahrzeugen - Hinweise fuer ihre Minderung").
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4. Residential Noise - The committee met on September
8, 1970 in Duesseldorf and worked on two guidelines: VDI-2565
and VDI-2566, both of which appeared in 1971,
VDI plans to publish a directory (author and subject
matter) for all its past publications and a supplementary volume to
the already-published VDI Aircraft Noise Documentation, (VDI -
Dokumentation Fluglaerm). For the DAL - Conference on April 19-20,
1971 in Bad Godesberg it undertook the task of publishing VDI - Street
Traffic Noise Documentation (VDI - Dokumentation Str assenverkehrlaerm.)
Funding and Staffing Data
The Noise Abatement Commission of the VDI presently
has about 240 consultant-advisors from the fields of science, engineering
practice, and government agencies. These are divided among the
subcommittees mentioned on the previous pages. The VDI is subsidized
by the German Government.
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8.1.8 The German Working-Group for Noise Control
(Deutscher Arbeitsring fuer Laermbekaempfung)
Dr. W. Klosterkoetter, Pres.
4 Duesseldorf 1
Postfach 1139
Affiliations
The DAL is the oldest and one of the most powerful
national noise abatement societies and it is a member of the
international confederation, International Association Against
Noise (A. I. C.B. ) Although it is a private organization, like all
of the European societies, it has a semi-official standing in its
country. Several organizations that collectively are members of DAL
are:
Federal Association against Aviation Noise, Inc.
(Bundesyereiniguag gegen den Fluglaerm e.V.)
President--Rev. K. Oeser
6082 Moerfelden
Langstrasse 35
Society for Noise Abatement
(Gesellschaft fuer Laermbekaempfung e.V.)
VDI-Commission for Noise Reduction of the Association
of German Engineers
(VDI-Kommission Laermminderung im Verein Deutscher
Ingenieure) Duesseldorf
The German Research Society
(Die Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft)
5320 Bad Godesberg
Kennedy-Alice 40
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DAL was founded in 1952. Its first President, Dr. G.
Lehmann, was also a long-time officer of the A. I. C. B. and Director
of the Max Plank Institute for Industrial Physiology in Dortmund.
Influence and Effectiveness
The primary role of the DAL is public information. It
publishes a journal Fighting Noise (Kampf dem Laerm) six times
per year, sent free of charge to its members and supporters.
Funding and Staffing Data
The budget is covered two-thirds by membership dues
and one-third by a subsidy from the Federal Ministry of Interior
of the German Government. DAL has about 500 members. The
present President, Dr. Klosterkoetter, is also Director of the
Institute for Hygiene and Occupational Medicine (Institut fuer
Hygiene und Arbeitsmedizin) at the Ruhr University in Bochum.
8.1.9 Scientific and Technical Center for Construction
(Centre Scientifique et Technique du Batiment)
4 Avenue du Recteur-Poincare
Paris XVI
Affiliations
The C.S. T. B. is a government-supported research
institute covering all phases of construction technique. The work
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carried out by the Acoustics Department of the C.S. T. B.
represents but a small part of its total interests. One part of the
C.S. T. B. dealing with noise is located in Grenoble (CEDEX 85-38
Grenoble Gare).
Influence and Effectiveness
The main channel of the C. S. T. B. 's influence lies
in the effect of its research reports, which we re. done for the various
French government agencies who are its clients. However, C.S. T. B.
also organizes meetings and publishes monthly and yearlv reports
of its activities.
Research Interests
Projects for a typical year, 1968, included:
(1) continuation of a study begun in 1966 on isolation
of facades from exterior noise, (2) a study of the ability of various
types of carpeting to reduce noise, (3) a study financed by the
General Delegation for Scientific and Technical Research, the District
of Paris, and the Ministry of Equipment and Housing on noise
produced by urban traffic and the effectiveness of noise barriers, and
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(4) answer to a request by the Bridge and Embankment Services
to research noise levels along autoroutes as an aid to future auto-
8-11
route construction.
As an example of guidelines issued by the C. S. T. B., the
following standards have been recommended in regard to impact
sound:
For a floor weighing 770 Ibs per square meter, a floor
covering should be used with an impact sound insulation rating of
at least 21 dB; a standard that many floor coverings cannot meet,
notably vinyl.
For a lighter floor, weighing 550 Ibs per square meter,
the floor covering should have an impact sound rating of 25 dB.
With the exception of velvet-pile rugs, such attenuation is only
8-12
attained by certain very resiliant coverings.
The latest C.S. T. B. research report concerning noise is
entitled "Acoustical protection on the urban rapid transit system"
(Protection Phonique aux Abords des Voies Rapides Urbaines).
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Funding and Staffing Data
Agencies helping fund the C.S.T. B. include the General
Delegation for Scientific and Technical Research, the Ministry
of Equipment and Housing, as well as the others mentioned on the
previous page. (The General Delegation for Scientific and Technical
Research is a very significant State organization, set up in 1969,
•which coordinates and subsidizes research programs at university
and private laboratories all over France.)
8. 1. 10 Committee on Acoustics - Polish Academy of Sciences
(Komitet Akustyki - Polskiej Akademii Nauk)
Prof. Dr. I. Malecki, Pres.
Prof. Dr. S. Czarnecki, Sec.
Pol ska Akademia Nauk
Warsaw, Poland
Affiliations
The Committee on Acoustics of the Polish Academy of
Sciences is the main organization devoting itself to research in the
field of acoustics in Poland.
Working closely with the Committee is the Polish Acoustical
Association (Polskie Towarzystwo Akustyczne) headed by Prof. Dr. H.
Ryffert, President and Prof. Dr. S. Czarnecki, Vice-President;
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membership is about 200.
A newly formed organization for public information
is the League for Noise Abatement (Liga Zwalczania Halasu) under
the direction of Prof. Dr. H. Ryffert and Prof. Dr. S. Czarnecki;
its main purpose is to foster quiet conditions at work and at leisure.
It is also associated with the Committee.
The Committee cooperates also with the International
Commission on Acoustics and with other acoustical committees in
Eastern Europe.
Organization and Activities
The Committee on Acoustics together with the Polith
Acoustical Association organizes each year 10-day acoustical seminars,
The XVIIIth Seminar on acoustics was held in September, 1971, in
Warsaw.
The Committee on Acoustics also organizes special
sessions on selected topics. In 1970 a conference on noise control was
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held ancLin 1971 a conference on ultrasonic diagnostics. The next
conference on noise control -will take place in Warsaw in 1973.
The Committee on Acoustics also publishes since 1966
an acoustics quarterly "Archiwum Akustyki". The nlain direction
of the work of The Polish Acoustical Association is in the
popularization of acoustics. The Association organizes popular seminars
8-13
and other courses for industry people.
Another aspect of the Committee's work is represented
by the Institute of Automatic Control - Polish Academy of Sciences,
Department of Simulation Methods (Instytut Automatyki Polskiej Akademii
Nauk, Zaklad Metod Modelowania) headed by: Prof. Dr. Stefan Czarnecki,
Institut Automatyki, P. A. N. Swiet Okrzyska 21, Warsaw, Poland.
The Institute studies industrial and traffic noise control, acoustics
of resonant systems and technical and medical diagnostics by means
of sound analysis.
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8.1.11 Institute of Building Technique
(Instytut Techniki Budowlanej)
Dr. habil inz. Jerzy Sadowski
Ul. Filtrowa 1
Warsaw 22
General Description
The Institute does research in the fields of building acoustics,
urban acoustics and sound insulation materials.
In Poland applied technical work is paid for by industry.
In recent years the need for technical work in acoustics, especially
dealing with the problems of noise was very great.
Existing facilities can perform only 20% of industrial
noise control work. Therefore, further development of industrial
laboratories to solve noise control problems is planned.
Key Personalities
Dr. Sadowski, the Institute's director, has devoted
himself to noise abatement research for many years and has been
active both nationally and internationally.
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Since 1955 Dr. Sadowski has conducted measurements
of traffic noise. He compiled noise maps of Warsaw, Krakow,
Poznan and Gdansk, and proposed abatement recommendations for
those cities. He has also studied residential-, industrial- and
construction noise and various acoustical problems. A prolific
author and co-author of over 70 publications, he most recently
published a voluminous book entitled Acoustics in Urban Architecture
and Construction, (Akustyka w urbanistyce architekturze i budownictwie),
1970, 8-U
8. 1. 12 Soviet organizations; The Erisman Institute and others.
The Erisman Scientific Research Institute
(Nauchno-issledovatel'skiy institut gigieny im. Erisman)
Moscow
General description
The Erisman Institute's primary interest is environmental
matters of all types. It has been active in noise-related problems
since at least the early 1960's. It published a book on industrial
noise hazards in 1964, and in the same year one of its leading members,
8-15
I. L. Karagodina published a book on noise in cities and housing.
A series of studies by the Institute led to a revision of the Sanitary Norms
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No. 337 of I960 setting the standards for noise levels in housing;
the new Norms (SN 535-65) were much more comprehensive in
coverage and adaptable to specific housing situations. The Institute
is currently working on abatement techniques for urban environments,
particularly zoning-type measures.
However, there is no single research organization in
the USSR where, noise-control research is centered. Other important
Soviet organizations in this field include the following:
(1) All of the local Sanitary-epidemiological Stations
(SES) of the SES system under the Ministry of Health perform research
and report their findings regularly in publications of the Ministry.
(2) The Institute of Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases
of the Academy of Medical Sciences in Moscow. (Institut gigieny
truda i professional'riyye zabolovaniya.) The Institute has a laboratory
of noise and vibration (I. K. Razumov, director) that worked out the
8- lf\
1969 Sanitary Norms for noise standards in all types of work places.
These are the most important noise norms currently in force in the
Soviet Union.
(3) The Leningrad Institute of Safety Engineering (Lengradskiy
. * ...
Institut Okhrana Truda-.LIOT). The head of the noise control laboratory
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is Ya. Il'yashuk, who has also written a book on industrial noise
norms. In the USSR a weighting method for converting a set of
one-third octave band readings in dB into a single-number reading
is called the Il'yashuk method. Il'yashuk has been something of a
spokesman to foreign visitors on Soviet noise control; a lengthy
interview, in which he stated that over 12,000 engineers in the
Soviet Union were working on noise abatement and control, appeared
in the English press recently. LIOT does work in the development
of measuring equipment for industrial and field use, and on the
effect of noise on the human organism.
(4) The Leningrad Sanitary Hygiene Medical Institute
(Leningradskiy Sanitarno-Gigienicheskiy Meditsinskiy Institut--LSGMI).
The most prominent member of LSGMI is Ye. Ts. Andreyeva-Galanina, who
has headed many projects on the effects of noise on the human
organism and participated in the drafting of sanitary norms.
(5) The Scientific Research Institute of Construction
Physics (NNI stroitel'noy fiziki), Moscow. A leading member of this
building research-type institute is G. Osipov, whose work has included
8-17
traffic noise and hospital soundproofing. E. A. Leskov has
worked on air conditioning noise.
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(6) The V. V. Kuibyshev Engineering-Construction
Institute in Moscow (Moscovskiy inzherno-stroitel'nyy institut im.
V. V. Kuybysheva.) Like the Moscow Construction Physics Institute,
a more practice-oriented institution, it has done noise abatement
work and studies showing the economic benefits (productivity
increases) of noise (S. D. Kovrigin and A. P. Mikheyev). This team
of Kov.rigin and Mikheyev also participated in developing a complete
8-18
noise-abatement program for Soviet post offices.
8. 1. 13 National Swedish Institute for Building Research
(Statens Institut for Byggnadsforskning)
102 52 Stockholm 27
Box 27 163
General Description
This institution not only deals with sound insulation
problems in housing and other construction, but also has done
research in the field of proper siting of various kinds of buildings to
prevent noise problems, particularly the siting of housing with
respect to roads. This means that it must have liaison with the Noise
Section (Bullersektion) of the Air Quality Division (Luftv8rdsbyr9)
of the National Nature Conservacy Office (Statens NaturvSrdsverk).
(Goeram Persson, Byra*chef, Statens NaturvSrdsverk
Fack
S-171 20 Solna 1, Sweden)
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In addition, the Statens Institut has been very active in contributing
to the work of the Inter-Scandinavian Building Committee, whose
aim is the development of a common set of standards for all
Scandinavian countries.
One of the most prolific writers of the Statens Institut
has been civil engineer Stig Ingemansson, who has his own private
practice as well (Ingemanssons Ingenjoersbyra AB, Gbteborg).
Recent research (1970) has included work on the
development of noise exposure standards and desirable noise climate
8-19
criteria. S. Benjegard has been using a "noise-dose meter"
that he considers a more simple device for measuring exposure than
8-20
the conventional equipment.
This work on traffic noise in housing areas has been
done in collaboration with the National Swedish Institute of Public
Health. The principal investigators were E. Jonsson, A. Kajland,
A. Weilsson, and S. Sorenson; total funding was about $ 100,000.
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8.1.14 ETAN and Other Noise-Related Yugoslav Institutions!
Yugoslav Committee for Electronics and Automation (ETAN)
Prof. Dr. Ing. Tihomil Jelakovic
President, Dept. of Noise Control
P.O. Box 356
Beograd
Affiliations
The Department of Noise Control of ETAN is included
in the Section on Acoustics. Dr. Jelakovic has been recently trying
to coordinate other Yugoslav institutions dealing with noise control
or noise research. His list of these organizations is included here,
but without information on what activities are conducted by the various
institutions.
Noise measurements have been systematically carried
out in industrial workplaces for over ten years, and also in schools,
offices, and on the streets of many of the main cities and towns
(Beograd, Zagreb, Novi Sad, Subotica). Construction materials are
also tested for sound insulation qualities. Some research on noise
pollution prevention through proper zoning has also been conducted.
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Institutions in Yugoslavia working on noise abatement
and noise research (numbers in parentheses indicate number of
people working full-time on noise):
Beograd
Zagreb
Ljubljana
• Gradski zavod za zdravstvenu zastitu (Town Institute for
Health Protection) (5)
• Institut za ispitivanje materijala (Institute for Material
Testing) (3)
• Institut za medicinu rada (Institute of Occupational Medicine)
(3)
• Elektrotechnicki fakultet, Laboratorija za elektroakustiku
(Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Laboratory of
Elect roacoustics) (2).
Institut za sigurnost (Security Institute) (1)
Zavod za zastitu zdravlja grada Zagreba (Institute of
Health Protection of the Town of Zagreb) (3)
Institut gradjevinarstva Hrvatske (Civil Engineering
Institute of Croatia) (2)
Institut za aerodinamicka i termodinamicka ispitivanja
(Aerodynamic and Thermodynamic Testing Institute) (1)
Brodarski institut (Marine Institute) (1)
Jadranbrod (1)
Elektrotehnicki fakultet, Katedra.za elektroakustiku
(Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Electroacoustics
Chair) (2).
Zavod za zdravstveno varstvo (Health Protection Institute) (4)
Zavod za raziskavo materijala (Materials Testing
Institute) (3)
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Nis
-Zavod za zastitu na radu (Institute for Protection at
Work) (2)
Apart from the above mentioned institutions, there are a number of
others dealing with Noise Abatement and Control problems as a secondary
8-21
activity.
8.1.15 Acoustics Department of C. I. F. "L Torres Quevedo"
Madrid
Dr. A. Lara Saenz, Head
Affiliations
This University institute is affiliated with the Spanish
Acoustics society, which in turn has one committee on noise abatement
and control. The Acoustics Society recently became a member of the
International Association against Noise (A. I. C. B. ), details of which
are covered in another part of this section.
Dr. Saenz is active internationally. At the second annual
meeting of SCOPE, in January of this year in London, he proposed
the establishment of a special working group on noise within the
SCOPE framework. (SCOPE--Special Committee on Problems of the
Environment-- is an organization composed of those organizations
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belonging to ICSU that have an environmental interest. ICSU
is the International Council of Scientific Unions.)
The activities of Dr. Lara Saenz's group in Madrid
have included some measurements of urban traffic noise in the Madrid
area.
The Spanish Acoustical Society sponsored the "First
Anglo-Spanish Symposium on Environmental Acoustics" in Madrid
early in 1971.
8. 1.16 National Research Council
Ottawa 2
Ontario, Canada
Affiliations
The NRC is directly sponsored and funded by the
Canadian Government. According to the Deputy Minister of the Canadian
National pepartment of Health and Welfare,
"The Acoustics Section of the National Research Council
is particularly well-known for both its auditory and non-
auditory noise effects studies. Their scientists are
carrying out a range of physiological and psycho-acoustic
studies to increase knowledge of man's sensitivity to noise.
They are also engaged in the development and improvement
319
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of noise abatement methods and have worked on hearing
conservation programs. The ear-muffs used by the
Canadian Forces and available to industrial workers for
protection from noise were designed and developed
at the National Research Council. Their staff have
also provided advice and technical assistance to the ft-22
City of Ottawa in connection with its anti-noise by-law.
Key Personalities
One well-known noise expert of the NRC is G. J. Thiessen
of the Division of Applied Physics. He is on the editorial board of the
influential Journal of Sound and Vibration (London), and with
N. Olson, has led a study of all motorized road vehicles and their
noise production under normal operating circumstances. The study
is part of a program to develop an integrated legislative approach to
noise control including land development, zoning, road planning,
and noise by-laws. N. Olsen has done a statistical study of traffic
noise along the same lines, the results of which formed the basis for
the recommendations to Ottawa (mentioned above) for setting up noise
control legislation.
Dr. E. A. G. Shaw was one of the team of four experts
who did most of the actual work of preparing the OECD's important
Urban Traffic Noise Report.
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8. 2 International Organizations
8.2.1 International Organization for Standardization (I. S. O. )
1 rue de Varembe
1211 Geneva 20
Affiliations
The I. S. O. is the single most important international
organization doing work related to noise abatement and control.
Through its technical committee TC-43 and that committee's two
sub committees, I. S. O. Recommendations are issued concerning
standards for definition of terms, damage-risk criteria, and measurement
of traffic noise, aircraft noise, noise from electrical machines, sound
insulation in housing, etc. A related organization of the same
address, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), issues
standards concerning design and capabilities of electronic and
electrical apparatus for measuring noise.
The I. S. O. has been concerned with noise since the 1950's.
Since 1968 there have been two sub-committees:
ISO/TC 43/SC1 Noise. Secretariat in Denmark Standardization
Institution
ISO/TC 43/SC2 Building acoustics. Secretariat iniWest
Germany (for a period of three years ).
ISO/TC 43 resides with the British Standards Institution,
2 Park Street, London Wl
321
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Influence and Effectiveness
The I. S. O. has been instrumental in determining the
form, if not the content of many national laws and regulations concerning
noise. For example in the field of building codes, most of the
national regulations of Austria (OeNORM B8115), Denmark (from
August 1966), West Germany (DIN 4109), Switzerland, and Sweden
(SEN 67) are all expressed in terms of the ISO reference curve plus
or minus x dB for the various standards for sound insulation in party
walls, airborne and impact noise insulation of floors, etc. (From
I. S. O. R-140 of i960: Field and laboratory measurements of air-
borne and impact sound transmissions.)
The ISO and IEC support themselves by selling copies
of their various references and guidelines. Since 1966 the price of
these documents has gone up sharply because of the need of the organizations
g_23
to expand their range of activities rapidly.
Most countries of the world, including the USSR and
several European countries, are members of the ISO and as such are
entitled to vote for or against accepting the proposal of a technical
committee as an official ISO Recommendation.
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includes:
A partial list of ISO Recommendations concerning noise
R 1761 June 1970 Monitoring aircraft noise around
an airport.
R 1680 July 1970 Test code for the measurement of
the airborne noise emitted by
rotating electrical machinery.
R 507 June 1970 Procedure for describing aircraft
noise around an airport. (First
issued in October 1966 this revision
takes account of noise exposure
produced by a succession of aircraft,
correction for audible discrete tones,
and a duration allowance)
R 717 May 1968 Rating of sound insulation for dwellings.
R 532 Dec. 1966 Method for calculating loudness level.
R 495 Aug. 1966 General requirements for the preparation
of test codes for measuring the noise
emitted by machines.
International Association against Noise
(Association Internationale Contre le Bruit)
Dr. O. Schenker-Spruengli,
Sec. Gen.
17 Sihlstrasse
8006 Zurich
Affiliations
The A. I. C. B. is the international confederation of
approximately ten national noise abatement societies. It serves as a
8.2.2
323
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forum for exchange of experience between members of different
countries, and has held conferences at two-year intervals, each
one hosted by a different national member.
The A. I. C. B. was founded in 1959 in Dortmund. Among
the first countries represented in the membership were Germany,
France, Austria, and Switzerland. The President, Dr . G. Lehmann
(Germany) served in that capacity since the founding, but is now
reportedly retired. Dr. Bruckmayer, (Austria) as one of the three
Vice-Presidents, and Dr. Schenker-S pruengli, as the Secretary-
General have also held these offices since the founding of the organization.
The first Latin-American member, Argentina, was added in 1965.
Influence and Effectiveness
The chief influence of the organization has been through
the various national societies, which in some countries have been
recognized as respected authorities on the problem of noise. As
opposed to the national societies, the international AICB has issued
few resolutions, one such resolution being an open letter requesting
all governments to declare that they would ban the SST from their
airspace. The French Government and several other governments
subsidize their respective societies as being in the public interest.
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The Swiss society, (Schweizerische Liga gegen den Laerm) was
instrumental in convening a Swiss Committee of Experts in 1963
whose report helped determine Swiss national policy toward noise
abatement from then on.
The British Noise Abatement Society (John Connell,
founder and chairman) led a successful fight to have the location of
the Third London Airport changed to Foulness, a region equally
favorable to the originally-intended site in most other respects,
8-24
and considerably better in respect to noise nuisance.
(The airport at Foulness will be built mostly on new land reclaimed
from the sea, and many of its flight patterns will be over water.) The
British Noise Abatement Society has also published a compendium of
8-25
the British Law on Noise.
V-
An "official" view of the utility of national noise abatement
societies from the point of view of European national governments
was given by Dr. L. Moliter, Director of Public Health for Luxembourg
and noise expert for the Council of Europe as follows:
325
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"It would be wrong to rest content with the co-operation
of a small group of people interested in the study of noise and noise
abatement. On the contrary, it is necessary to interest the widest
possible sections of the population in the problem of noise. It
is for this purpose that national anti-noise associations or leagues
affiliated to the International Association Against Noise have been
set up in all our countries. These bodies should be supported by
public authorities with which they are asked to co-operate. They
can be of great assistance in informing the public, intervening
directly in certain specific cases and, as is already the case in some
8
countries, they can participate in statistical and scientific research.
8.2.3 Environmental Directorate, Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (QECD)
Dr. Milliard Roderick, Director
2 Rue Andre-Pascal
Paris XVI6
General Description
The OECD's Consultative Group on Transportation has
worked for several years on the problem of urban traffic noise and in
January, 1971 the OECD Council approved its report containing a set
326
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of recommendations for OECD member governments. The Consultative
Group's report, "Urban Traffic Noise--Strategy for an Improved
Environment" was published late in 1971. The Environmental
Directorate is continuing to study means of accelerating progress in
abating traffic noise.
Mr. C. Kenneth Orski of the Environmental Directorate
was deeply involved in the preparation of the report. The Consultative
Group on Transportation's team of experts consisted of:
M. Dumesnil, Delegation generale a la recherche
scientifique (France)
Dr. Peter Franken, Bolt Beranek & Newman Inc. (U.S.)
Mr. Rolf H. Jensen, Norwegian Institute of Urban and
Regional Research (Norway)
Dr. E.A. G. Shaw, National Research Council (Canada)
M. Robert Thiebaut, Prefecture de Police, Paris (France)
8. 2. 4 Nordforsk-Environmental Secretariat
(The Scandinavian Council for Applied Research)
(MiljoevSrdssekretariatet)
Dr. Nils Mustelin, Head
Leennrotsgatan 37
SF 00180 Helsingfors 18
Finland
327
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Affiliations
Nordforsk--the parent organization-- is a joint body
of the central government-sponsored research organizations of
Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden; its 1971 budget
of about $360,000 comes from the governments of these countries.
Nordforsk's sub-organization for environmental matters is located
in Helsinki. Until 1971 it had done research and research
coordination work only on air and water pollution, working mostly
through expert committees and working parties. In 1972 the
Environmental Secretariat will be starting a similar program for noise
abatement and control problems, details of which are not presently
available. However it is clear the program will make use of existing
centers of expertise in the various Scandinavian countries. The
following list--provided by Nordforsk to the writers of this report-
contains the names of persons knowledgeable about noise abatement
and control programs in their respective countries; it is probable
that some of these persons will be involved in the Nordforsk noise
program as well.
Hr. sekretariatschef Johs. Qvist
Det Tekniske Forureningsudvalg (Sec. for Technical Res.)
Sekretariatet
Holbergsgade 14,3
DK-1057 K0BENHAVN K, Denmark
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Paasihteeri Ilppo Kangas
Ymparistonsuo jelun neuvottelukunta (Government
Commission of Environmental Protection)
Aleksanterinkatu 3 1
SF-00170 HELSINKI 17, Finland
Dipl. ins. Lehtinen
Ilmansuo jelun ja meluntorjunnan neuvottelukunta
(Air Emissions & Noise Abatement Commission)
Haartmaninkatu 1 SF-11290
HELSINKI 19, Finland
Kontorsjef Tor Holmtfy
Ro'ykskadeifcdet
Oslo-Dep.
OSLO 1, Norway
Overingenitfr Jahr
Yrkeshygienisk Institutt
Postboks 8149 Oslo-dep.
OSLO 1, Norway
Professor Gerhardsson
Svenska Arbetsgivareforeningen
(Industrial Safety Institute)
S. Blasieh. hamnen 4 A
Box 16120
S-103 23 STOCKHOLM 16, Sweden
ByrSchef Persson
Statens NaturvSrdsverk
(Swedish National Nature Conservacy Office)
Fack
S-171 20 SOLNA 1, Sweden
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8.2.5 The European Public Health Committee of the
Council of Europe
Place Lenotre
F-67 Strasbourg
France
General Description
This Committee commissioned a consultant's report
on the effects of noise on health (1968) that led to the Council of
Europe's adoption of a Resolution containing recommendations
to member states (passed 25 January 1969 by the Council of Ministers
of the Council of Europe).
The European Public Health Committee's report was
prepared under the direction of Dr. L. Moliter, Director of Public
Health of Luxembourg. The report was based on the work of three
fellowship holders in 1964, working parties of the Committee in 1965
and 1966, research by Dr. Moliter in 1967, and discussions held
by the Committee at its Third Session (November 1967). Another
Committee of the Council of Europe (for conservation of nature and
natural resources) has an item on noise abatement on its medium-term
8-27
(five-year) work program.
330
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Influence and Effectiveness
It is hoped by the Committee that the publication of
policy recommendations by an international health authority such
as itself will give them greater weight than if they were produced
as scattered and isolated publications. A second reason for the
Resolution is to open up a new area of possible common policy
for the member states of the Council of Europe.
8.2.6 European Economic Community
Q oft
In I960 the Council of the European Communities
issued a directive aimed at uniformity among ECE member states
in matters of sound and exhaust emissions from motor vehicles.
The directive requires each member state to bring into force
the required national regulations within 18 months of notification.
Applying to any road vehicle having at least four wheels and designed
for a maximum speed above 25 km/hr, the directive makes the
stipulations represented by Table 8-1 on the following page.
331
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Class of Vehicle
Acceptable Noise Levels
Passenger vehicles with seating capacity
for not more than nine persons including
the driver
Passenger vehicles with seating capacity for
more than nine persons including the driver
and a maximum permissible weight less
than 3. 5 tons.
82 dB(A)
84 dB(A)
Goods vehicles with a maximum permissible
weight less than 3. 5 tons.
84 dB(A)
Passenger vehicles with seating capacity for
more than nine persons including the driver,
and a maximum permissible weight greater
than 3. 5 tons.
89 dB(A)
Goods vehicles with a maximum permissible
weight greater than 3. 5 tons.
89 dB(A)
Passenger vehicles with seating capacity
for more than nine persons including the
driver and powered by an engine of 200 h. p.
DIN or over.
91 dB(A)
Goods vehicle powered by an engine of 200 h. p.
DIN or over and having a maximum permissible
weight of over 12 tons.
91 dB(A)
These figures are subject to a tolerance of 1 dB(A).
The Council of the European Communities Guidelines
Table 8-1
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8.2.7 The U.N. Organizations; E. C. E. , W. H. O. , and
I. L. O.
European Economic Commission (E. C. E. )
United Nations
The E. C. E. adapted uniform provisions regarding
motor vehicle emissions noise in March, 1958 in Geneva. These
were in the form of recommended maximum limits of sound level
from new vehicles.
The World Health Organization (W. H. O. )
United Nations
The European regional office of W. H. O. , Copenhagen
has commissioned several reports published on the harmful effects
of noise, one in 1966 by Alan Bell and one in 1970 by Lang and
Jan s en.
International Labor Organization (I. L. O. )
United Nations
The I. L. O. set up an "International Occupational Safety
and Health Information Center", 154 route de Lausanne, Geneva in
1959. Feeding information to the Center were 37 National Centers,
the center for the U. S. being located in the Department of Labor.
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The main center in Geneva issued a number of
monographs in serial form in the mid-1960's, some dealing with
topics related to noise but none directly on target. According
to the Department of Labor library in Washington, the noise-related
activity of this center seems to have tapered off after the mid-l960ls,
A collection of abstracts on health problems, including noise,
8 — ?Q
covering the 1956-1962 period was also published by the center.
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8.3
Conferences Related to Noise Abatement and Control
Many of the key personalities mentioned in the descriptions
of the organizations listed above are the most frequently encountered
individuals at international conferences on the problems of noise. Most
of the conferences that have occurred in the last decade together with
several scheduled for 1972, are listed below.
When
Where
Title / (Spons oring Organization)
1972 Stuttgart
(Jun 30-Jul 9)
1971 Jbnkbping
(Sep 1-Sep 7) Sweden
1971 Budapest
(Aug 18-26)
1971
(April 29)
1971
1970
(Sep 9-12)
Toronto
Madrid
1970 Montreal
(Sep 21-23)
Warsaw
Environment 72 (July 6: "Fighting Noise")
(FRG, Land Wuerttemberg-Baden, Stuttgart)
Air Pollution Control and Noise Abatement
Exhibition
(Private Firm ELMIA AB and National Swedish
Environment Protection Board)
7th International Congress on Acoustics
(Acoustic Society of Hungary)
"Noise in the Environment"
First Anglo-Spanish Symposium on "Environ-
mental Acoustics"
(Spanish Acoustical Society)
Symposium on Air and Noise Pollution
Noise Control Conference
(Pol. Academy of Sciences and Pol. Acoust. Soc. )
335
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When
Where
Title/(Sponsoring Organization)
1970
(Sep 2)
1970
(May 11-15)
1970
(Apr 14-15)
1970
March
1970
(Jan)
1969
(Dec)
1968
(Sep 4-6)
1968
(Aug 21-28)
1968
(May 13-15)
1968
(Feb 28-29)
1968
London "Effects of Ambient Noise on Pure-Tone
Screening Tests of Hearing in Schools"
(British Society of Audiology)
Groningen "Noise-2000"(Laerm-2000) A. I. C. B. Congress
(International Association Against Noise)
Southampton "Aircraft Noise and the Community"
(Institute of Sound and Vibration Research)
Tokyo
Madrid
Boston
Mass.
Linz
Tokyo
London
Adelaide
S.Australia
Washington
B.C.
International Environmental Problems
(U.N. Standing Committee on Environmental
Disruption of U.N. s International Social
Science Council)
"Social Aspects of Urban Noise"
(Colloquium Spanish Acoustical Society)
Symposium: Physiological Effects of Audible
Sound
(American Association for the Advancement of
Science)
10th Anniversary Meeting
(OAL--Austrian Working Group for Noise Control)
6th International Congress on Acoustics
(Acoustical Society of Japan)
5th A. I. C. B. Congress
(British Noise Abatement Society)
Conference on Noise in Industry
(State Dept. of Public Health & Dept. of Labor
& Industry)
Noise as a Public Hazard
(The American Speech and Hearing Association)
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When Where Title/(Spon8oring Organization)
1967 Budapest 4th Budapest Acoustical Conference
(Oct 17-21) (Acoustical Sec., Hungarian Society for
Optics, Acoustics & Filmtechnics)
1967 Madrid International Colloquium on Noise Control
(Sep 28-30) (Spanish Acoustical Society)
1967 New York Symposium on Noise Pollution-78th Meeting
(Apr 18) (Acoustical Society of America)
1967 Southampton Environment and Human Factors in Engineering-
(Apr 10-14) Tech. Meeting
(Institute of Sound & Vibration Research)
1967 London Conference on Acoustic Noise and its Control
(Jan 23-27) (Electronics Div. of Inst. of Elec. Engr. &
Inst. of Physics & Phys. Science & Br.
Acoustic Society)
1967 Wales 2nd Symposium on the Psychological Effects
of Noise
(University of Wales)
1966 Baden-Baden 4th A. I. C. B. Congress
(May 11-14) (Deutscher Arbeitsring fuer Laermbekaempfung)
1966 Chelyabinsk Noise & Vibration Symposium
USSR
1965 Dresden Conference "Protection against Noise"
(Nov 23-26) E. Germany (E. German Chamber of Engineering)
1965 Southampton Symposium "Noise of Helicopters and V/STOL
(Sep) Aircraft"
(ISVR— Institute of Sound and Vibration
Research--of the University of Southampton)
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When
Where
Title/(Sponsoring Organization)
1965
(Sep 7-14)
1965
(May 12-13)
1965
1964
1962
1961
I960
(Dec 5-10)
1960
(Mar 1-3)
Liege
Vienna
Corduba
Argentina
Paris
Salzburg
Teddington
England
Rome
Zurich
5th International Congress on Acoustics
"Noise Control in Residential Areas"
(O. A. L. --Austrian Working Group for Noise
Abatement)
First Latin American Meeting on Acoustics
(University of Cordoba)
3rd A. I. CtB. Congress
Against Noise--A. I. C. B.
(Ligue Francaise contre le Bruit)
Second A. I.C. B. Congress
(A. I. C. B. --International Association against
Noise)
The Control of Noise
(National Physical Lab. , Dept. of Scientific -
Industrial Research)
"Congress of Nations for Fight Against Noise
Dangerous to Health and Productivity of Workers"
(NANS--Union of Nations for the Fight Against
Noise and Smog)
First Congress of International Association
Against Noise-A. I. C. B.
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8'4 References
8-1. Lange, J. B., "The t raining of acoustical engineers-
is there a need?" Paper presented at the Conference
on Aircraft and the Environment, Feb. 8-10, 1971.
8-2. Institute of Sound and Vibration Research, Annual
Report. University of Southampton, England,
March, 1971.
8-3. Vulkan, G. H., "Planning against noise in London. "
Paper presented at the 7th International Conference
on Acoustics, Budapest, 1971.
8-4. Private communication from the Scientific Branch
of the Greater London Council, September 15, 1971.
8-5. "Noise in the Home", Building Research Station Digest,
No. 7, pp. 1-7, 1961.
8-6. Scholes, W. E., "Traffic noise criteria". Building
Research Station Digest, 1969.
8-?. Scholes, W. E. and Vulkan, G. H. , "A note on the
objective measurement of road traffic noise", Applied
Acoustics. No. 2, pp. 185-197, 1969.
8~8. Working group on research into road traffic noise,
A review of road traffic noise. Report No. LR-357,
Road Research Laboratory (of U.K. Ministry of
Transport), 1970.
9. Delany, M. E., Index of current noise research in the
United Kingdom. National Physical Laboratory, England, 1970.
339
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8-10. Hansen, P. , ed. & director, Fuenfter Sachbericht der
ypI-Kommission Laermminderung Duesseldorf,
1971.
8-11. "Compte rendu de 1'activite du C.S. T..B. pour
1'exercice 1968" Centre Scientifique et Technique du
Batiment, Paris, September 1969.
8-12. Swetchine, M. J. /'Isolation phonique et confort accoustique"
Nuisances et Environnement, pp. 45-49, April 1971.
8-13. Czarnecki, Stefan, "Engineering Acoustics in Poland
and Eastern Europe, " Paper presented at the American
Society for Engineering Education Annual Meeting,
June 21-24, 1971.
8-14. Sadowski, J., Akustyka w urbanistyce architekturze
i budownictwie. Warsaw, Arkady, 1971.
8-15. Karagodina, I. L. , Osilov, T. L. , Shishkin, I. A.,
Gorodskiye i zhilishchno Kommunal'nyye shumi
i bor'ba s nimi. Meditsina, Moscow, 1964.
8-16. Denisov, E. I. ,"Novyye sanitarnyye normy po shumu1,1
Gigiena truda i professional'nyye zabolovaniya. Vol. 14,
No. 5, p. 48, May 1970.
8-17. Soldatkina, S. A. and Osipov, G. L. , "Evaluation of
Soundproofing in Hospitals and Sanitoria", Gigiena i
Sanitariya, Vol. 35, No. 10, pp. 91-93, October 1970.
8-18. Kovrigin, S. D., Mikheyev, A. P., et al. Ulucheniye
usloviy truda na predpriyatiyakh svyazi (shum i osveshch*-
niye), Svyaz, Moscow, 1968.
8-19. Information provided by the Scientific Information
Exchange, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.
September, 1971.
340
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8-20. Benjegard, S. , The noise dose meter. Stockholm,
National Swedish Institute for Building Research, 1969.
8-21. Private communication from Acoustics Section of ETAN,
Belgrade, October 15, 1971.
8-22. LeClair, J. Maurice, M. D., "The Federal Government's
Activities in Noise Prevention and Control. " Paper
presented at the Symposium on Air and'Noise Pollution,
Montreal, September 21-23, 1970.
8-23. "ISO Council Meeting, " BSI News, pp. 12-14, August 1966.
8-24. The Noise Abatement Society, The Third London Airport
with Particular Reference to Foulness. London, 1969.
8-25. Noise Abatement Society, The law on noise. Solicitor's
Law Stationery Society Ltd, London, 1969.
8-26. Molitor, L. (Director of Public Health, Luxembourg),
"The Effects of Noise on Health." Report of the Committee
of Experts on Public Health of the Council of Europe,
1968.
8-27. Private communication from the European Committee
for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
of the Council of Europe, September 3, 1971.
8-28. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development,
"Urban Traffic Noise-Strategy for an Improved Environment, "
Report of the Consultative Group on Transportation Research,
Annex II, p. 141, August, 1970.
8-29. International Occupational Safety and Health Information
Center of I. L. O. , "Health and safety aspects of automation
and technological change", U.S. Dept. of Labor, Office
of Manpower, Administration and Training, 1963.
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SECTION 9
THE LAWS ON NOISE
This report would not be complete without reporting the
noise laws of at least some of the countries surveyed. The coverage
and selection of countries hopefully are representative. However,
in the interest of editorial honesty, it must be stated that the
selection process was mechanical and not deliberate, i. e. the laws
of those countries are reported for which data could be obtained and
analyzed prior to the draft completion deadline.
This section contains reviews of special national laws
on noise abatement and control intended as the prime vehicle for
enforcement. Some countries also have special enabling acts
which empower, most frequently, a central agency to conduct a
noise abatement and control program. Whenever available, these
acts are reported here. Administrative regulations and guidelines
which, essentially, have legal power are also included.
The laws reported here are, of course, not given in a
verbatim translation. Rather, they are synthesized and direct
quotes, are used only to reflect critical information.
342
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From the point of view of effectiveness, some caution is
suggested in interpreting the laws contained in this section. Obviously,
for example, the effectiveness of a central agency depends on direction
and management and not necessarily on the act which delegates
powers. Similarly, it is important to differentiate between existing
laws and those being enforced. Such a differentiation, however, falls
beyond the scope of this report.
The arrangement of countries is purely alphabetical and the
sequence of enumeration is not intended to be meaningful.
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9. 1 Australia
In Australia the control of noise and legislation for noise
control are the responsibility of the State Governments, except in the
Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory where the
responsibility rests with the Commonwealth Departments of Health,
the Interior, and Labour and National Serivce.
Australia's Laboratories, a section of the Commonwealth
Department of Health, are empowered to carry out investigations of
the effects of noise on man. Among other things, they are engaged
in the setting up of hearing conservation programs mainly for the
Armed Services, Commonwealth Government Departments and
instrumentalities.
The National Health and Medical Research Council provides
advice on various matters, based on recommendations made by its
committees. One of these is the Occupational Health Committee which
was set up to advise the Council through.the Public Health
Advisory Committee on all matters relating to industrial hygiene and
occupational health.
Several Australia-wide committees are also concerned
directly or indirectly with noise abatement. One of these, the Australian
Motor Vehicles Standards Committee, which has representatives from
344
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all States, is working for the introduction of common policies in the
different states for regulations for motor vehicles including the
control of traffic noise.
Various committees of the Standards Association of
Australia are developing specifications for instrumentation and
techniques for the measurement of noise, assessing noise in
residential areas and hearing conservation in industry.
Within New South Wales, an Inter-Departmental Committee
•was recently appointed by the N. S. W. State Government to investigate
means of obtaining increased control over noise by amendment of the
Local Government Act. This Committee is composed of representatives
from the Department of Local Government (the Chairman), Chief
Secretary's Department, Justice Department, Transport Department,
9-1
Police Department and Department of Public Health.
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9.2 Austria
In Austria regulations for environmental improvement have
been embodied in a number of federal and state laws. The following
regulations are of considerable importance:
1. Gewerbeordnung (Trade and Industrial Code)
According to paragraph 25, a license is required
for all commercial enterprises which use open
fires, steam engines, other engines or hydraulic
power; also, all installations which might disturb
or endanger the neighborhood by excessive noise
causing detriment to public safety or public health.
According to paragraph 26, the authority shall
investigate inconveniences and prescribe effective
means and restrictions.
2. Motor Traffic Code. 1967 (Federal Gazette No. 267,
1967)
This law contains also regulations pertaining to
measures of preventing noise and the control of
vehicles producing a level of noise higher than the
level unavoidable in ordinary circumstances and with
good use. The code also contains regulations on the
prevention of excessive noise produced by general
motor vehicles.
3. Kraftfahrgesetzdurchflihrungs-Verordnung, 1967
(The Ordinance on the Implementation of the Motor
Traffic Code, 1967)
This ordinance fixes the maximum level of operational
noise.
4. Strassenverkehrsordnung. I960 (BGB1. No. 159, I960)
(Road Traffic Code, I960)
Under paragraph 60, vehicles may be used only if so
constructed and equipped as not to endanger or disturb
other persons through excessive noise.
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5. Zivilflugplatzverordnung, Federal Gazette No. 71,
1962 (Ordinance on Civil Airports)
According to this ordinance airports may be
established only in regions where landings
and take-offs are possible without flying over
densely populated areas and without causing
inadmissible noise disturbance.
The air traffic regulations 1967, Federal
Gazette No. 56, 1967, contains rules governing
the altitude of flights and noise disturbances.
6. Seenverkehrsordnung, Federal Gazette No. 103,
1961 (Lake Traffic Regulation)
This regulation fixed 70 phon as the highest
permissible level of noise disturbance (measured
at a lateral distance of 25 m) caused by engines
of motor boats. This regulation also contains
rules concerning water sport events. Similar
regulations are envisaged for traffic on the
Danube. In compliance with a.recommendation
of the Danube Commission, Austria also applies
regulations on noise disturbance caused by water
traffic on the Danube.
7. Gesetz fuer Heilstaetten-und Kurortbetrieb,
December 1958 (Law concerning convalescent homes
and spa areas) BGB1. No. 272
This law deals with special noise abatement regulations
in these noise-sensitive areas.
8. Das Luftfahrtgesetz, December 1957, 1961 (Air traffic
law) BGB1. No. 253, 1957, BGB1. No. 303, 1961
These regulations encompass all noise abatement
measures and incorporate an additional ordinance of
December 15, I960 (BGB1. No. 252/60) which deals
with the flight restrictions in the Vienna area.
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In August 1971 Vienna drew up its own new law on
construction noise which will be enforced on January 1, 1972,
as follows:
1. The noise-level of construction equipment
shall not exceed 100 dB(A) at one meter
distance (leniency period up to December 31,
1974, the noise level may exceed 100 dB(A)).
2. Noise-level in designated areas are as follows:
(a) Residential
Day* Night
50 dB(A) 40 dB(A)
(b) Mixed (residential and industrial)
(c)
Day
60 dB(A)
Industrial
Day
65 dB(A)
Night
40 dB(A)
Night
55 dB(A)
* Day — period designated from 7 a.m. to 8 p.m.
Higher protective requirements may be enforced in areas
encompassing such structures as schools, nurseries, churches,
hospitals, nursing homes, etc.
These areas are also permitted to exclude certain types
of heavy construction machinery and restrict night work (in technical
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respects). Violators of this law may be fined up to 30, 000 shillings
9-2
(approximately $1, 200) and may face up to three (3) months in jail.
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9. 3 Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany-FRG)
Of the continental European countries, the FRG has by
far the largest program for the control and abatement of noise. It
also has the greatest noise problem: as the •wealthiest, most industrialized,
and most centrally located European country, this is entirely under-
standable. On top of the existing regulations and programs, Chancellor
Brandt has now proposed a comprehensive environmental control
program, the so-called "Sofortprogram" ("Immediate Program"),
which resembles the efforts of the United States and France to bring
environmental matters under a single administrative jurisdiction.
The Brandt program provides for research and development, standardization,
training, and enforcement. Section III of this program deals with
noise abatement and embraces the following tasks: analyses of types and
magnitude of traffic noise emissions and immissions in cities and
their effects on the population, research and development on construction
and transportation techniques to lower traffic noise, establishment
of maximum noise emission levels for civil aircraft, noise reduction
through improved protection in industrial establishments and work
shops, establishment of standard emission units for construction
machinery, noise reduction in urban planning, and development of noise-
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absorbing construction materials.
The approach in this section will be to trace the growth of
Federal German law affecting noise, but also with some reference to state
(Land) law. Nordrhein—Westfalen (North. Rhine--Westphalia! is preeminent
among the German states in a number of respects; it contains the
national organization for noise abatement, the German Working Group
for Noise Control (Deutscher Arbeitsring fuer Laermbekaempfung);
the German equivalent of the American National Standards Institute, the
Association of German Engineers (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure-VDI);
and a leading periodical in the field, Noise Control (Laermbekaempfung).
It also has the most progressive laws and regulations respecting
noise. Dr. Gerd Jansen, one of the foremost authorities on the physiological
effects of noise, is a member of the Max-Planck Institute for Occupational
Therapy in Dortmund, which is also the home of Hans Wiethaup, an
outstanding legal authority on noise.
Basic Concepts
Noise control laws and regulations in the FRG rest on a
few basic concepts. The first of these is avoidable noise (vermeidbarer
Laerm) and is found incorporated in all the laws of the states as well
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many local jurisdictions; it has not yet been incorporated into
Federal statutes. It means that individuals must not create noise
that they can avoid. A second concept, suitability for the locale
(Ortsueblichkeit), is the most widespread in local planning and case
law. It means that noise normally associated with the operation of
a given type of premises or site must also be normal for the locale
in which the noise source is located or on which it impinges. This
concept has been used repeatedly in the courts with great success
and has now been incorporated into Federal regulations. The third
concept is the current state of technology (jeweiliger Stand der Technik).
When written into a statute or regulation, this concept means that a
given noise source must be so designed and fabricated that its noise
emissions are reduced to a level compatible with current knowledge
of how to suppress emissions from that source or kind of source. - This
concept can really be enforced only at the Federal level, as the local
jurisdictions and states cannot, by and large, handicap themselves
economically. Nevertheless, it will be found in some state regulations.
Basic Federal Laws
The principal statutes governing noise in the FRG are the
Trade and Industry Code (Gewerbeordnung) of June 21, 1869 as amended
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and the Law on Protection Against Construction Noise (Gesetz zum
9-48
Schutz gegen Baulaerm) of September 9, 1965 as amended.
Gewerbeordnung
Part II, Section 1 (Premises Requiring Special Permits),
Paragraph 16, which went into effect on June 1, I960, reads as
follows:
"(1) Construction of premises that can, through their siting
or activity, introduce for the owners or residents of neighboring
properties or for the public at large substantial disadvantages, dangers,
or annoyance requires a permit from the competent authorities. For
premises that are parts of premises and for which a permit is required
by Para. 24 of this Section, permission to construct, and to make
essential alterations is granted according to the directives of the licensing
protocol.
"(2) Subparagraph 1 above applies also to mining sites
and sites that do not serve commercial ends insofar as they find use
in economic undertakings.
"(3) The Federal Government determines through legal
regulation, with concurrence of the Parliament (Bundesrat), the premises
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that fall under Subparagraph 1. With concurrence of the Parliament,
the Government promulgates as technical in.structions (Technische
Anleitung) general administrative directives concerning the principles
that licensing officials are to observe in evaluating requests for
permits. The Government shall have at its disposal a counselling
commission whose advice is to be heard before promulgation of legal
regulations and general administrative directives. The commission is
to be composed of representatives of the authorities, of the central
organs of municipalities, of science and technology, of technical
monitoring organizations, of medicine and public health, or mining,
of the business community, of agriculture and forestry, and of home
and property owners. Membership is honorary.
"(4) Premises that have been erected before permission
was required for such premises according to Subparagraphs 1 and 2
are to notify the competent authorities at the latest three months after
this Paragraph takes effect. "
Subparagraph 25 states the circumstances under which
authorities may require recertification because of changes that have
occurred in the emissions of the premises, or may review the license
because of proposed modifications.
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Related Laws
The Air Pollution Control Act (Luftreinhaltegesetz) of the
same date vests in the Federal Ministry for Labor and Social Order
administration of control over air, noise, and other immissions.
9-49
On July 7, 1971 a directive was issued that identified
58 different types of industrial premises for which such permits are
required.
On April 8, 1965 the Federal Zoning Code (Raumordnungsgesetz)
was passed, establishing certain distances between residential and industrial
areas. (At this time, planning groups were employing three zones
instead of the present six.) Nondisturbing handwork is permitted in
residential areas, while industry is forbidden. When noise becomes a
problem in mixed areas, one or the other must leave. In cases of more
complex intermingling, according to one opinion entire city sections
tnay have to be torn down.
"Technische Anleitung Laerm"
On July 16, 1968 the Government issued a general administrative
9 51
directive -11 that provides guidance to licensing authorities with respect to
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techniques of measurement, determination of the current state of
technology, permissible levels of noise in various zoning categories,
evaluation of applications for licenses, and the definition of noise
and noise intrusion. Some of the most important sections are quoted
below:
"2. 1 Concepts in the Sense of This Directive
"2. 1. 1 Noise - Noise is sound that disturbs (endangers,
greatly inconveniences, or greatly annoys) or can disturb neighbors and
third parties.
"2. 1.2 Immission - An immission is an effect of a noise
issuing from premises upon neighbors or third parties.
"2. 1.3 Sound Level L. - The sound level LA is the sound
level in dB(A) evaluated by the frequency evaluation curve A according
to Germany Industrial Norm 45 633.
"2.2 Basic Principles
"2.2.1 Evaluation of Applications for Licenses to Construct
New Premises
"2. 2. 1. 1 Permission to erect new premises must in
principle be granted only when
(a) noise protection measures corresponding to the
current state of noise- control technology are planned for and
(b) the immission standards according to Section 2. 3. i
will not be exceeded over the entire area affected by the premises outside the
boundaries of the premises, without consideration of other impinging noises.
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"2.3.2 Immission Standards
"2.3.2.1 Immission standards are established, as follows:
(a) purely industrial areas 70 dB(A)
(b) primarily commercial daytime 65
night 50
(c) areas with commercial
and residential buildings with
neither preponderant daytime 60
night 45
(d) primarily residential daytime 55
night 40
(e) exclusively residential daytime 50
night 35
(f) rest homes, hospitals,
and health resorts daytime 45
night 35
(g) residences attached to
an establishment daytime 40
night 30
"The night is understood here to be 8 hours long; it begins
at 10 pm and ends at 6 am. The night hours can be extended or compressed
by one hour if this is made necessary by special local or urgent
operating circumstances and if neighbors are assured an 8-hour period
of rest during the night. "
These standards for various zones closely parallel those
of the ISO, East Germany, Switzerland, Austria, and Czechoslavakia.
This directive, usually abbreviated as TALaerm, controls
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the level of immissions from industrial premises. A month after
its promulgation, in August 1968, a set of guidelines, having normative
9-52
rather than legal effect, was issued by the VDI to control emissions
at the place of work as well as around the premises and in areas affected
by the premises. Both these guidelines and, to a lesser extent, TALaerm,
were roundly criticized by Oswald Lassally, author of the I960 version
of the guidelines as well as a. book on German noise law. Lassally
o 53
noted7' that both the VDI guidelines and TALaerm contained escape
clauses for nighttime levels by defining as "substantial disturbance"
a lasting level 10 dB(A) higher than the standard (in the case of the
VDI guidelines, an allowance of 20 dB(A) for occasional noise was
recommended as well). Lassally, maintained that the specification
bf measuring procedures, as given in both the VDI guidelines and
TALaerm, actually led to a worsening of immission protection in
comparison with previous guidelines and regulations.
"In the meantime, the VDI prepared a new draft, dated
November 1969, that undertook to meet some of the objections raised
to previous editions. As of August 1970 the provisions of the new
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guidelines were still being debated, and at the time the present
report was prepared no further information about the status of
VDI-2058 had been received. "
Construction Noise Law
The other basic law regulating noise in West Germany is
the Law for Protection Against Construction Noise (Gesetz zum
Schutz gegen Baulaerm - GSB) of September 9, 1965, in the amended
version of May 28, 1968, whose range and definition were greatly
extended by the General Administrative Directive for Protection
Against Construction Noise - Sound Immissions (Allgemeine
Verwaltungsvorschrift zum Schutz gegen Baulaerm - Geraeuschimmissionen
GI) of August 19, 1970.
The major clauses of the GSB are Sections 1 and 2:
"1. Area of Applicability
(1) This law is valid for construction machinery
that serves industrial ends or that finds use
in economic undertakings.
(2) Construction machinery in the sense of this
law is mechanical equipment used as a
technical means of producing work in the
accomplishment of construction activities
at construction sites, especially:
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Belt conveyors, spiral c onveyors
Compressors
Disk saws
Excavation equipment
Mixing equipment
Pile drivers
Pneumatic hammers
Surface-working equipment
Vibratory rollers and compactors
(3) Directives respecting work safety are not
affected.
"2. Obligations of the Operator
Whoever operates construction machinery must provide that
(1) Noise from the construction machinery is
prevented to the extent that is avoidable
with the current state of technology, and
(2) Precautions are taken that reduce the
propagation of unavoidable noise outside
the construction site to a minimum level,
insofar as this is required in order to
protect the public against danger, substantial
inconvenience, or substantial annoyance. "
In many respects the administrative directive (GI) to the GSB
follows the precedent of TALaerm, e. g., with respect to the definition
of noise and immission and the immission standards for various zones.
It extends the duration of the nighttime period by three hours: 8p.m.
to 7a.m. Some of the more important clauses of the GI are summarized
below.
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The law applies to the emissions and immissions of
construction machinery used at a construction site. The term
"construction site" is limited to erection, alteration, maintenance
and demolition of structures; groundworking, including quarrying
materials to be used in construction, is exempt. Trucks and other
equipment (e. g., cement mixers) travelling to and from the
construction site are exempt in transit; at the site, they are included.
If the machinery causes the evaluational level for a given zone to be
exceeded by more than 5 dB(A), then corrective measures must be
taken, particularly in the areas of (1) layout of the construction site,
(2) damping devices on the machinery, (3) use of low-noise machinery,
(4) use of low-noise construction procedures, and (5) reduction of the
operating time for noisy machinery.
The "evaluational level" referred to in the previous paragraph
is found as follows:
"Determination of the evaluational level is to be made from
the actual (measured) level, with consideration of the average daily
operational duration of the machinery, which is given in the last column
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of the following table " (Table 9-1):
Average Daily Operational Duration
In the Period From
7 a. m. - 8 p. m.
up to 2. 5 hours
2. 5 - 8 hours
over 8 hours
8 p. m. - 7 a. m,
up to 2 hours
2-6 hours
over 6 hours
Time Correction
10 dB(A)
5 dB(A)
0
Table 9-1. "Evaluational Level" in German Construction Noise Law.
The 10 dB(A) allowance is probably based on the intensity--
duration trade-off observed in scientific studies of noise annoyance. On
the other hand, it is also twice the level at which changes in noise level
become apparent to the normal ear. A British study in 1961 found that
10 dB(A) was the level at which most people indicated a one-level shift
in annoyance on a five-level scale ranging from no annoyance to
intolerable.
Of the 34 pages in the official German edition of this law,
all but nine are accounted for by Appendix 5, entitled "Measures for
Reducing Construction Noise. " Suggestions and specifications are
given regarding the layout of the site, location and operation of machinery,
characteristics of noise propagation, noise screens and skirts, damping
devices, means of replacing internal combustion engines with electric
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or suction motors, and specific recommended measures for 11 major
types of construction machinery. Many of the suggested measures are
accompanied by diagrams and charts, many of which reflect the
degree of technical expertise that went into formulation of the Construction
Noise Law.
An early clause in this law discusses the coordination of
the construction plan with the zones defined by TALaerm and with
the use to which the structure is to be put. This latter refers to the
Q 54.
Regulation Concerning Structural Use of Property7 (Verordnung
ueber die bauliche Nutzung der Grundstuecke), first promulgaged
in 1962 and revised on November 26, 1968. Usually referred to as
BauNVO, this regulation breaks down construction into four major
zonal types (residential, mixed, commercial and special) and 10 smaller
categories and then prescribes the kinds of activities that may be
conducted in each. In other words, the Construction Noise Law at once
reinforces and is supported by the Federal BauNVO.
The present Noise Construction Law is a major advance
over the 1965 version in that it specifies not only the emissions that are
permissible from machinery, but also the immissions that are permissible
in various zones; the earlier law omitted immissions.
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Neighboring Property
Support for all these laws is provided by Section 906 of the
German Legal Code (Bundesgesetzbuch), entitled "Intrusions from
9-50
Neighboring Property", which .states:
"(1) The owner of a piece of property cannot
forbid access of gas, steam, . . . , noise, . . . from
another property so long as the intrusion does not
prejudice, or only not seriously prejudices, the use
of his property.
"(2) The same is true insofar as a serious
encroachment is caused by a use of the property that
is suitable for the locale and cannot be prevented by
measures that are economically feasible for the user.
If the owner is hereby obliged to endure the intrusion,
he can demand appropriate monetary compensation
from the owner of the other property if the intrusion
prejudices either the locale-suitable use of his own
property or the revenue derived from it. "
Here we meet a mixture of zoning regulations, noise level
standards, and two potentially hostile concepts, "suitability for the
locale" and "obligation to endure. " Wiethaup, after citing a number
of cases dealing with this problem, concludes that "In forming a
judgment about Section 906 of the Bundesgesetzbuch, Paragraph 2,
the matter does not depend on whether in an area zoned for small
industry laundries can, in general, be operated--i. e. , whether in the
case cited a laundry is in fact a form of small industry--but rather
much more, on the type and scope of the property use in the concrete
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case.""" There appears to be considerable case law to support
Wiethaup (not to mention the clear direction taken in recent years
by Federal and State laws and regulations). One case is of particular
interest because an appeal court upheld a restaurant owner against
a construction company operating on the basis of an international
9-55
treaty with Luxemburg.
Street Traffic
While there are many regulations concerning horns, sirens,
driving practice, location of garages, etc: in the various states, there
is as yet no law respecting the emissions of individual vehicles or the
immissions permissible in the various zones defined by TALaerm.
Wiethaup sums up the manner in a single sentence: "Normal street
traffic is to be regarded as locale-suitable in the sense of Section 906
of the Bundesgesetzbuch, so that ordinarily no claim for control can
9-50
be brought under this statute. " The Street Traffic Code
(Strassenverkehrsordnung) of December 6,1960 governs everything
except the essentials. (Traffic density and operations can be regulated
in rest and recuperation centers.) On the other hand, this Code does
permit local authorities to measure vehicle noise and, if they determine
that it exceeds what is possible with the current state of technology, can
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take punitive action. However, the wording of this clause suggests
less intent than is obvious in the laws considered earlier: "If there
is reason to believe that the noise emission of a vehicle exceeds
this level the driver is required, upon instruction from a competent
authority, to have the emission measured. If the measuring place
is off the vehicle's normal route a detour of more than 6 km may not
be required. After the measurement the driver is to report the
results. The costs of measurement are to be borne by the owner
should the measurement determine an objectionable excess over the
emission level."
Airport Noise
"On March 30, 1971 the L,aw for Protection Against Aviation
Noise was issued by the Chancellor and the Ministers of the
Interior, Transportation, Finance, Defense, and City Planning and
Housing. It takes its origin from the Air Traffic Law of August 1, 1923,
in the version of November 4, 1968 according to which use of air space
is free to the extent that it is not constrained by the law of the Federal
Office for Air Safety of March 23, 1953 and by legal regulations deriving
9-57
from this law. "
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On April 20, 1967, the Government sent to Parliament
the draft of a law dealing with aircraft noise around civil airports.
The draft sought to establish a "noise protection zone" in which the
equivalent perceived noise level was greater than 65 dB(A) and in which
no hospitals, orphanages, homes for the incurable, homes for the
aged, recuperation homes, or schools might be built. This zone was
to be further divided into two subdivisions, where the noise levels
were 65 - 70 and over 70 dB(A); in the latter zone no residences could
be built, while in the former they were permissible only with certification
of adequate protective measures by the state authorities.
The law passed four years later retreats from the 1967
values while retaining the same zonal concept and adding provisions
for compensation. The most important clauses are paraphrased below
(paragraphs 1 and 2 of the law are translated, rather than paraphrased).
"Para. 1 - To protect the public from dangers,
substantial inconvenience, and substantial annoyance
through aviation noise in the vicinity of airports, noise
protection zones are established for (1) civil airports
associated with airline traffic and (2) military airfields
designated to serve jet aircraft. When the public
safety demands, noise protection zones are also to be
established for other airports designated to serve
jet aircraft. Noise protection zones will also be
established for planned civil airports associated with
airlines if the license for location of the airport is
granted in accordance with Para. 6 of the Air Traffic
Law.
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"Para. Z - (1) The noise protection zone
embraces the area outside the airport boundaries in
which the Q-level (Aequivalente Dauerschallpegel)
produced by aviation noise exceeds 67 dB(A). (2) The
noise protection zone is subdivided according to
degree of noise annoyance into Zone 1, in which the
Q-level exceeds 75 dB(A), and Zone 2, comprising
the remainder of the noise protection zone.
"Para. 4 - The noise protection zone is to be
redrawn whenever the Q-value at the furthermost
boundary of the existing zone increases by more than
4 dB(A). If special circumstances do not require a
remeasurement at an earlier date, the noise around
the airport is to be measured every five years.
"Para. 5 - Hospitals, homes for the aged,
rest homes, schools, and similar structures are
not to be built in the noise protection zone, unless the
state authorities determine that such a structure serves
an urgent public need. Dwelling places must not be
built in Zone 1, with certain exceptions specified in the law.
"Para. 7 - The Federal Government is empowered
to specify measures commensurate with the state of
technology in sound insulation of buildings, that builders
must take to protect residents against aviation noise.
Buildings are not permitted in the noise protection zone
unless their construction complies with measures so
specified.
"Para. 8 - Should Para. 5 have the effect of
forbidding a previously permissible usage, and should
the value of the property be not inconsiderably reduced, the
owner may demand an appropriate compensation in money.
"Para. 9 - Expenditures for structural, noise
insulation may be compensated provided they are made
in accordance with Para. 7 of this law, do not fall under
certain other legal provisions cited in the law, and are
claimed within five years of promulgation of the given
noise protection zone. Expenditures that exceed DM 100
(about $30) per square meter of residential area cannot
be compensated.
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"Para. 11 & 12 - The airport operator is
responsible for making the Q-value survey, reporting
the results, and compensating the expenditures named
in Para. 8.
"Para. 15 - The Air Traffic Law is amended in
7 of its clauses, mainly to require airport operators
to take all necessary measures to reduce noise and to
establish a commission to prepare regulations and
directives under this law.
"Appendix to Para 3 (reporting procedures) -
The Q-value is to be reported from (1) the highest
noise level for each overflight and (2) the duration of
that level. The reference time comprises the six months
of the year in which air traffic is heaviest. Daytime
flights (6 a.m. - 10 p.m.) are to be reported separately
from nighttime flights (10 p.m. - 6 a. m.). The duration
of noise at the imrnission point is defined as the time
during which the noise level is 10 dB(A) less than the
peak noise level. The day and night Q-values are to be
determined according to the formula
L.
i
Leq=13'31S ?«i ^--10 13'3 dB(A)
where g = takes on various values for day or
night flights. In the formula i is the running index of a
single overflight, g. are the evaluation coefficients for
day and night flights, t. is duration as defined earlier,
T is the reference time as defined earlier, and L. is
the numerical value of the highest noise level, taking into
account distance to the flight path and sound propagation
characteristics. "
"In the meantime, the West German courts had
extended to aircraft the concept of noise as a compensable
taking. On May 8, 1967 the Superior Court of North Rhine--
Westphalia ruled that the owner of an aircraft whose noise
caused an 'accident1 --i.e., 'the sudden effect of an external
source on an object such that injury followed'--must
compensate the owner of animals frightened into a stampede
that caused their death. This action was successfully brought
under Article 53 of the Air Traffic Law. It was noted that
the unintentional nature of the noise effect was irrelevant. "
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Other Legal Instruments
In addition to the laws and regulations already discussed,
there is a body of local ordinances, common practices, and case law
that acts as precedent for control of a great number of other noise
sources, such as model planes, toys, original and reproduced music,
electronic advertising, ships of all descriptions (not yet including
hovercraft), various branches of industry, bathing places, hotels
and restaurants, health resorts, schools, and places of residence.
In the journal Laermbekaempfung Hans Wiethaup has
instituted an annual review of the case law respecting noise, usually
citing about 35 court decisions in West Germany, Switzerland, and
Austria. ' ° Two examples are the following. In 1968 the Federal
Court of Justice (Bundesgerichtshof) ruled that, respecting noise
immlssions from a restaurant, proof that the use of property only
insubstantially encroaches on the use of adjacent property must be
shown not by the plaintiff but by the accused. In 1970 the same court
upheld the claim of the seller of a property to DM 20, 000 ($6, 600)
compensation from the owner of a nearby transformer whose noise
caused his property value to decline from DM 110, 000 ($36, 000) to
DM 80, 000 ($26, 000). The court based its decision on the Section 906
discussed previously.
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Respecting the last of these, West Germany finds itself
in a unique situation. The post-war resettlement brought to the
West a vast number of refugees requiring housing. Between 1946
and 1954 a great many residential buildings were erected under the
provisions of the low-cost public housing (Soziale Neubauwohnung)
program, and most of them did not meet the existing specifications
for acoustic damping. This hasty building construction dropped off
sharply after about 1954, but the buildings remained. The prevailing
judicial opinion is that tenants in such housing have no claim, or very
small claim, against owners on account of noise, since they knew in
advance that low cost goes with inferior construction. Wiethaup
has gone so far as to advocate making architects culpable for failure
, 9-60
to provide suitable acoustic damping in all structures.
State Laws - The North Rhine-Westphalia Example
To the extent that they do not contravene Federal statutes,
the individual West German states are free to draw up their own laws.
Many states and city-states have environmental protection laws in
effect. Among the more prominent are those of North Rhine-Westphalia,
Bavaria, Lower Saxony, the Palatinate, Berlin and Baden Wuerttemberg
(for more details, see Section 3. 3). In addition, North Rhine-Westphalia
has passed a law dealing exclusively with noise and a revision of the
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environmental protection act, known as the Law for Protection
Against Air Pollution, Noise, and Vibration (Gesetz zum Schutze
vor Luftverunreinigungen, Geraeuschen und Erschuetterungen).
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9.4 France
As of early 1971, there was still no comprehensive, national
French law on noise. There had been many attempts at one however;
three propositions failed of passage between 1953 and 1956. From then
until 1971, legal enforcement of noise control has remained where it
always was—with local authorities and with commissions within the
specialized national agencies. Now there is a new Ministry of the Environment
(created in April 1971), with some powers that were formerly in the
hands of local authorities. It remains to be seen what changes this will
make in the French legal enforcement process.
The French Law
Law enforced by local authorities.--Until 1971, the local
authorities had in their hands the single most important tool for the
control of industrial establishments making noise nuisance: regulation
of the "classed establishments." The Law of December 19, 1917
relates to establishments or enterprises classified as "dangerous,
insalubrious, and inconvenient;" it has been modified by the decree
of April 1, 1964. These establishments are permitted zonings depending
on their inherent degree of nuisance. Those in the first group cannot
373
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locate near residential areas; those in the second can do so by satisfying
certain conditions. The prefects' decision that these conditions have
been met is made with the advice of the departmental hygiene council
(Article 4 of the law, Article 2 of the decree). (The prefect--prefet--
is the chief administrator of one of the regional Departments of France. )
Installations classed in category 2 are subject to prefectorial sanctions
when the interests of the neighborhood are not being observed (Article 19)
and even to suspensions of their authorizations. The penalties fixed
in the Decree of 1964 (Article 6) are fines of 400 to 2000 francs and 2000 to
4000 francs (approximately $75 - $370) fines and/or imprisonment for
two to six months, with fines of 100,000 to 200,000 francs (approximately
$18,500 - $37,000) for the most serious offenses. The prefect can
move against unclassified establishments or installations by virtue of
the law of August 2, 1961. His action may take the form of suspending
the offending establishment with the approval of the Ministry of Industry,
or of adding.it to the category of dangerous establishments.
Prefects and mayors, by virtue of the police powers over
health and tranquillity given them by the Code de 1'administration communale.
are obliged to issue a reglement-sanitaire for their areas in accordance
*
with reglement-type 34 given by the November 17, 1966 circular of
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the Ministry of Public Health (Ministrie de la sante. publique) confirming
and expanding the reglement of May 23, 1963. One article of the
model regulation is a long enumeration of the noises which are proper
subjects for police action, in and out of the residence, caused by one or
more persons. The list is not limiting since the principle is expressly
stated that any noise caused needlessly or by lack of care is forbidden
("tout bruit cause sans necessite ou du a un defaut de precaution sera
interdit.") R34 of the penal code places noise among the third-class
violations punishable by a 40-60 franc fine (about $ 7 - $10). The intent
of the November 17, 1966 ordinance was anticipated by Prefect of Police
Dubois1 order of July 1954 forbidding use of the automobile horn in
Paris and the Department of the Seine. An additional 1959 Prefect of
Police ordinance was recommended to the prefects in March 18, 1961 by
the ministries of the interior and public health, and on April 10, 1965,
•was applied in the Department of the Seine.
National administrative law. --On the national scale there
are ministerial departments responsible for the implementation and
execution of the rules in force. The Technical Commission for the Study
of Noise (Commission technique d'etude du bruit) in the Ministry of Health
375
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in effect provides the expertise for the governmental agencies
concerned with noise.
Noise within the factoryis regulated by a decree of April 12, 1969,
•which calls for observance of the noise curve levels set by the
Commission technique early in 1961. The 80 dB(A) level is not to
be surpassed, although 95 dB(A) is accepted from existing equipment.
The fine is 100 to 200 francs (about $19 to $37) and 1,000 francs (about $185),
if offense is repeated. Managements are required to maintain a tolerable
noise level by reduction of noise intensity at the source, insulation,
segregation of noisy processes and by all other appropriate means. If
these means are not efficacious, they are required to provide individual
protection. A curve specifying maximum safe noise levels for various
frequency components has been widely disseminated throughout France
by the National Institute of Security of the Organizations of Social Security.
Building noise is regulated by Decree 69-596 of June 14, 1969.
Article 4 of this decree requires compliance with sound-proofing standards
set by the Ministry of Logistics and Housing (Ministere de I'equipment^
et du Logement) and the Ministry of Social Affairs, (Ministere d'etat charge
des affaires sociales). The limits are 30 to 50 dB(A). Houses under
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construction if receiving government aid, must apply the sound-
proofing recommendations of December 17, 1963.
The Highway Regulations (Code de la Route) requires
mufflers and observance of the noise levels fixed by Ministries of
Public Works, Transportation, and Public Health fixed since January 1, 1964.
Infractions are punishable by R 239 of the code: a fine of 40 to 60 francs
(about $7 - $10), and if the offense is repeated, up to eight days imprisonment.
R 277 and R 278 take vehicles off the road for noisiness. Tests of
suspected vehicles are held in the local enforcement unit at least once
a month. The violator who does not appear for the test is fined 50 to
300 francs (about $10 to $50) and may be given 10 to 90 days (arrest).
Sporadic police drives occur. Automobile horn blowing is banned in
cities, except in situations of immediate danger, by a decree of February 5,
1969. Ship and boat noise has been regulated since May 20, 1966, the
limit is 75 decibels measured at 25 meters distance.
The code of Civil Aviation and decrees relative to its creation,
implementation, and utilization contain no disposition permitting
neighbors of the projected airport to demand protection against noise.
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Article L 141-2 of the French Code of Civil Aviation places the
responsibility of damages to a third party caused by airplanes on the
operators, but does not make it clear whether noise constitutes a
damage. No other possibility for consideration of demands exists.
9-25
Consequently, the fight against aircraft noise is sporadic and localized.
For construction noise nuisance, the decree "Insonorisation
des en gins de chantier" (no. 69-380 of April 1969) gives local authorities
the power to require that if construction is likely to be a noise nuisance,
it must be done in such a way as to bring noise emissions below the
nuisance level. However this decree contains no detailed guidelines
on noise abatement design and construction procedures.
The decree of April 10, 1963, on occupational hearing loss
applies only to workers in certain processes and plants recognized as
acoustically dangerous. Apparently passage of the legislation at the
time was possible only because of this restriction. The text of the law
requires that in occupational deafness the auditory deficit be bilateral,
of the cochlear lesions type, irreversible, and not progressive after
removal from exposure. This diagnosis must be confirmed by a new
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audiometry effected 6 to 12 months after removal from exposure.
This audiometry is tonal and vocal and must indicate on the better
ear a deficit of 35 dB on the 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz bands. Deficiencies
on the 1000 Hz band are given double value. It is urged that preventive
measure be taken: an otolaryngolical examination annually, audiometry
2 or 3 months after entrance on work, followed by continued audiometry
surveillance.
Enforcement and Effectiveness
Clearly there is a trend toward a more active policy for
noise abatement and control. P. Chavasse, Chief Engineer for Tele-
communications told the Madrid 1967 International Noise Congress:
"In France the campaign has clearly begun and is being resolutely
9-22
conducted in areas where its effects are already noticeable... "
He pointed to the commissions created within the health, transport,
building and aviation ministries as "from a certain point of view
insufficient, but they are a testimony to the new force of a trend which
twenty years ago it would have appeared premature, presumtious, and
even Utopian to forecast. " The German expert on the law of noise, Hans
Wiethaup , observed at about the same time that France actually had all
379
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9-23
the legal tools needed for noise control. It is true that some
fruits of better enforcement are already apparent. The automobile
horn is coming under control: in 1966, there 14,505 cases, in 1967, 9,597,
and in 1968, only 5,831. Nevertheless, in general what seems to
have been absent in France is effective enforcement of existing law.
This proposition is partially confirmed by Dr. B. Metz, of the Centre^
d'Etudes Bioclimatique of the national Ministry of Education, who ascribes
the lark of success of French noise abatement efforts to "insufficient
regulations, lack of implementation, unawareness of public opinion,
and a feeling of disproportion between cost and effectiveness of noise
9-47
abatement procedures." The secretary general of the French Noise
Abatement Society (Ligue francaise contre le bruitji L. Bouvier, adds
that in practice it is impossible to get prefectural interest in enforcing
the anti-noise regulations. However, by going to the courts, "nine
times out of ten, it is possible to introduce an action for damages, be
required to present only reasonable proofs, and finally obtain damages
9-28
sufficient to pay your costs and to warn the noise makers." Such
noise abatement by suit instead of by enforcement of existing law is a
cumbersome process.
380
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Recent administrative changes may improve enforcement
significantly. The new Ministry of the Environment has been given
control of the so-called "classed establishments" (by Article 2 of the
Decree 71-94 of February 2, 1971, and Decree 7J-245 of April 2, 1971).
It has also been made responsible for the "campaign against pollutions
for the prevention, reduction or suppression of nuisances of all kinds. "
Furthermore, there are prospects of new legislation, and
more vigorous enforcement. A Council of Ministers resolution enacted
on June 10, 1970 called for the preparation of a draft of a model law
against noise to be applicable to residences, foundries and other industrial
9-24
installations, and vehicles. The directive from the Prime Minister
to the prefects of June 12, 1970 a'aked for rigorous application of the
laws in effect against noise, air, and water pollutants. What the net
results of these recent developments will be, however, remains to be
seen.
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9. 5 German Democratic Republic (East Germany)
In the mid-19601 s the discovery that many industrial workers
in the German Democratic Republic. (GDR) were suffering from
permanent hearing loss led to a widespread and urgent effort to
establish noise level standards, particularly in industrial establishments,
in line with the strict requirements of the Soviet codes and of the ISO
recommendations, and also to effect measures that would result in
less noise.
A standard limit curve (ISO/TC-43) has been accepted in
Eastern Germany as the threshold above which prolonged exposure to
noise may cause hearing loss. Tests are reported which were carried
out in order to determine the need for pre-employment and subsequent
periodical examinations of people exposed to noise close to the statutory
threshold. Noise-level measurements and audiometric tests carried
out in the grinding shop of a large ceramics plant are reported, and
results show that impairment to hearing was possible despite the noise
limit being observed. It is concluded that where workers are exposed
to noise between N75 and N85, pre-employment and periodical auditory
. .. 9-61
examinations are necessary.
382
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A fundamental document is Standard TGL 10 687,
"Measures for Preserving Health", issued on 1 January 1965. Based
on the recommendations of the Soviet-bloc Council for Mutual
Economic Assistance (COMECON), it is a comprehensive guideline
whose separate sections encompass basic concepts, minimum require-
ments for permissible noise within and outside buildings in various
zones of a city, noise evaluation, soundproofing, city planning, design
of structural members, and engineering methods.
In addition, the following East German regulations, directives,
and laws pertain to noise control and abatement: The Occupation
Safety Ordinance of September 22, 1962 requires that noise be reduced at
work stations and shops in accordance with the state of technical and
economic development. The Instruction Relating to Issuance of Licenses
of February 20, 1963, requires that builders describe the manner in which
they will protect the environs against noise. The Ordinance Pertaining to
Health Resorts, Recuperation Resorts, and Sanatoria of November 28, 1957
requires town councils to assure prevention or reduction of noise. The
Guidelines for the Hygienic Requirements of Windowless Industrial
premises and Buildings of Compact Design specifies maximum protection
consistent with the state of technology for noise control. Two traffic
383
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regulations of January 30, 1964, give the local police authority to
9-62
enforce national engine and exhaust noise limits. A decision of
September 15, 1967, by the GDR State Council authorizes city and
local councils to issue orders and sanctions against establishments
that hinder the improvement of the living and dwelling conditions
of the populace because they emit excessive industrial noise.
It is not known with what success these measures are
being enforced. However, a very considerable research and
administrative apparatus has been created to establish and enforce
noise standards in every phase of East German life.
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9.6 Great Britain
The only Act of Parliament specifically designed for the
control of noise is the "Act to make new provisions in respect of the
control of noise and vibration with a view to their abatement" of
November 28, I960 which can be considered an extension of public
health legislation. The first subsection of Section 1 of the Noise Abatement
Act states: "noise or vibration which is a nuisance shall be a statutory
nuisance for the purposes of Part III of the Public Health Act, 1936,
and the provisions of that Act shall have effect accordingly as if
sub-sections (1) to (4) of this section were provisions of the said
Part III. " "This part of the Public Health Act specifically rules that
action against "noise or vibration alleged to be a statutory nui'sance
can be instituted either by the local authority in which the nuisance is
being committed or by any three or more persons, each of whom is an
occupier of land or premises, who are affected by the nuisance. " The
stipulation limiting institution of proceedings to at least three aggrieved
persons is intended to discourage unnecessary complaints within the
statutory systems, and does not restrict right of individuals to take
civil action.
Before the passage of this act, noise control was vested in
385
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local authorities under the provisions set out in local acts and in
by-laws made under the Local Government Act of 1933. It is estimated
that before I960 there were 400 authorities with noise control powers,
although prosecutions taken in implementation may have numbered
as little as 20. Section 313(3) ol the Middlesex Country Councile Act
of 1944 illustrates the prime reason for this inactivity by limiting action
to instances where the noise is demonstrably "injurious or dangerous
to health."
Substantial protection is given the commercial or industrial
enterprise in subsection 3 of Section 1: "In proceedings brought... in
respect of noise or vibration caused by the course of a trade or business,
it shall be a defense for the defendent to prove that the best practicable
means have been used for preventing, and for counteracting the effect
of, the noise or vibration." Similarly, this subsection in effect
exempts from the law's purview statutory undertakings like British
Railroads by stating: "Without prejudice in Part XII of the said act of
1936 (the Public Health Act) no notice shall be served or proceedings
brought by virtue of subsection (1) of this section in respect of noise
or vibration caused by statutory undertakings in the exercise of powers
conferred on them by any enactment or statutory order. "
386
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The meaaing of the phrase "statutory nuisance" is not given
in the Noise Abatement Act of i960 or the Public Health Act of 1936.
However, the Ministry of Housing and Local Government circular 58/60
issued in connection with the I960 act describes statutory nuisance as
constituting a nuisance under common law. The impact of the Noise
Abatement Act then is, that action can be taken in respect to noise
which would be a nuisance under common law. Therefore, it follows,
as the circular asserts, that the essential question is whether or not
there has been material interference with property or personal comfort.
A public nuisance is a crime and the Attorney General on his own account
or on that of an individual or authority may take action. Under
Section 276 of the Local Government Act of 1933 a local authority can
undertake proceedings in respect of a common law nuisance as distinguished
from a statutory nuisance. Under Section 100 of the same act the local
authority can proceed to a High Court, if convinced of the inadequacy
of summary proceedings in a Magistrates' Court.
In practice, a public health inspector reports to the local
Health Committee, which has delegated authority to serve statutory notices
under section 93, Public Health Act of 1936. This statutory notice need
not specify what is required by the local authority to abate the nuisance.
387
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(McGillivray v. Stephenson 1950). If the case is taken to Magistrates'
Court, the defense usually resorts to the "best practical means" of
defense, as given in section 1(3) of the Noise Abatement Act of i960.
Section 110(2) of the Public Health Act of 1936 states that the court shall
have regard to the cost and local conditions and circumstances. (This
defense is not available in common law. ) When the Magistrates' Court
is satisfied that a nuisance exists and the best practical means have not
been taken, the Court will make a nuisance order. The usual procedure
is to impose a fine and daily penalty, leaving it to the local authority
to check the continuance of the nuisance.
The latest advance in the control of noise from the standpoint
of public health is the Public Health (Recurring Nuisances) Act of 1969,
an extension of Part III of the Public Health Act 1936. Local authorities
are authorized to issue prohibition and abatement notices if satisfied
that a statutory notice has occurred and is likely to recur on the same
premises. The local authority may "if they think fit" specify the means
to prevent recurrence of the nuisance and require their execution.
While a number of statutes authorize the making of laws,
the general power most used is that conferred by section 249 of the
388
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Local Governments Act 1933. This section authorizes country and
borough councils to make by-laws for the "good rule and government of
their areas and for the suppression of nuisance. " This section is not
rigidly drawn, and leaves no obvious limit to the number of offenses
that could be created. In practice, however, the by-laws must be confirmed
by the Home Secretary who -indeed drafts "model by-laws", and the
courts consider their reasonableness. Penalties under the by-laws
are set out in the enacting statute as 40 shillings (if no sum is fixed).
It can be expected that local by-laws will tend to cover
specific, limited problems, for which presumably it has been found
necessary to exert local control. The model by-law on noise suggested
9—38
by the Wilson committee is influential in guiding local unit action.
By-laws made under the provisions of Section 249 of the Local Government
Act of 1933 pertain to: 1) music near churches; 2) music near houses;
3) music near hospitals; 4) organs; 5) radios, -record players; 6) noisy
street trading; 7) animals; 8) night noise; 9) seaside pleasure boats;
JO) noisy instruments on the seashore; 11) dogs at seashore; 12) bird-
scaring devices; 13) model airplanes. Three persons within hearing
of the offense are required to make a complaint for statutory resort
to the by-laws or to the Noise Abatement Act; this is preferred to reliance on
common law, since it removes the action from the civil courts.
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Section 60 of the Road Traffic Act i960 gave the Ministry
of Transport power to make regulations as the "construction, equipment
and use of motor vehicles" and authorized regulations on particular
subjects which include "excessive noise owing to the design or conduction
of a vehicle or the loading thereof. "
Draft regulations for the control of motor vehicle noise
were issued in June 1970 by the Ministry of Transport for consideration
by the various organizations concerned. Modified regulations are
incorporated into the Motor Vehicles (Construction and Use) Regulations
of 1969. Regulation 21 requiring audible warning instruments bans
gongs, bells, sirens, two-tone horns and Section 27 requires a silencer
"for reducing (exhaust noise) as far as maybe reasonable." Regulation
23 prescribes the use in testing of a BS 3539 noise meter alone with the
method of BS 3425 of 1967 and sets the dB(A) level for cars first used
before April 1, 1970. Regulation 88 forbids "excessive (motor vehicle)
noise which could have been avoided by the exercise of reasonable
care on the part of the driver. " Table 9-2 shows limits for.new vehicles
as of April, 1970 and the 1970 draft proposal for limits for vehicles
first used after October 1973. The same draft proposal published by
390
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Class of Vehicle
April 1970
limits dB(A)
Limits proposed
for October 1973
dB(A)
Motorcycles
a) not more than 50 cc
b) more than 50 cc but not more
than 125 cc
c) more than 125 cc but not more
than 500 cc
d^ more than 500 cc
Passenger cars
Light goods vehicle not less than 3. 5 tons
gross weight
Motor tractor not more than 1. 5 tons
Heavy vehicles
a) of not more than 200 h. p.
b) of more than 200 h. p.
77
82
86
86
84
85
89
89
89
77
82
84
86
80
82
82
86
89
Table 9-2. Noise Levels Permitted for New Vehicles in Great Britain.
9-66
391
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the Secretary of State in December, 1970, temporarily increase
the level allowed for large trucks (over 200 h. p. ) to 92 dB(A).
The public health structure of Great Britain does not offer
workmen's compensation for the loss of hearing acuity resulting from
exposure to noise in an industrial environment or for the less specific
noise-induced effects, as for example, damage to mental health. Section
56(7) of the Industrial Injuries Act provides "a disease can be prescribed
only if the Secretary of State of the day is satisfied that it ought to
be treated having regard to its cause and incidence, as a risk of occupation
and not as a risk common to all persons. "
The Wilson Committee on Noise explicitly emphasized the
difficulty in any individual case of establishing the attribution to employment
of noise-induced damages, calling deafness a common condition instigated
by many factors, more than one of which may be involved in any particular
case.
In the present status of employer-employee relationships
vis-a-vis the noise problem in industry, the dominant legal role is played
392
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by the doctrine of negligence, which states in effect that something
has been done which might have been better done with reason and some
one has suffered as a result. Negligence is a tort, a civil wrong, so
a person suffering damage through acts of another person has a right
(
of action provided that the negligent persons owe him "duty of care. "
The Limitations Act of 1963 removes a procedural difficulty by giving
the plaintiff 12 months in which to bring his action, starting from the date
when he knew or ought to have known that he was suffering from
noise-induced disability. It has been pointed'out that deafness is not
a prescribed disease, but a first tentative step toward specific statutory
regulation appears in section 21 of the Offices, Shops, and Railway
Premises Act of 1963 which specifically mentions noise.
Noise prevention, rather than noise abatement or control,
is stressed as an obligation of planning authorities, who must consider the
volume of noise a plant will make when deciding whether to permit its
introduction in a specific locale. Paragraph 11 of Circular 22/57,
(April 8, 1967) of the Ministry of Housing and Local Government and
the Welsh Office comments that planning has done and will do much to
prevent the establishment of new industry in places where it could create
393
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nuisance of noise. Circular 5/68 of the same agencies describes
the use of "conditions" in the planning process, suggests tests for
imposing conditions, and includes nois.e among the factors for which
'tonditions" must be imposed in appropriate areas. The earlier
circular left responsibility for taking action against industrial noise
nuisance to the local authority, while suggesting the desirability of
9-39 9-40
consultation with the factory inspectors. " '
The noise levels acceptable at the time of the Wilson report
are now unacceptable, since the citizens realize that noise levels
can be reduced at the source. The Chief Air Pollution and Noise
Abatement Inspector of Birmingham participated in the Midlands Noise
Survey (1969) which recommenced moving from the Victorian conception
of noise as a nuisance to the requirement that noise be reduced by good
engineering design, correct installation, and adequate acoustic
absorption and sound insulation. Most industrial noise problems are
resolved, because industry is conscious of its moral obligation, but
the lack of adequate legal power is sometimes embarrassing. A new
Noise Abatement Act would be desirable.
394
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Inauguration of the Royal Committee on Environmental
Pollution in February 1970, which unlike most royal commissions is
a standing body, was accompanied by formation of a Noise Advisory
Council and followed a few months later by a cabinet committee on
environmental policy (GOER). The Department of the Environment
•was promulgated on October 15, 1970.
The status of British governmental effort in the noise area
as of mid-1970 is summarized here from the talk given at the first
meeting of the Noise Advisory Council by the Secretary of State for
Local Government and Regional Planning. He began by calling attention
to the new motor vehicle noise regulations and the Ministry of Transport
conversations on their progressive lowering. The Ministry says it
is now feasible to include an instrumental noise check as part of the
annual test of heavy trucks. He also mentioned that a government draft
order in council proposes an aircraft noise certification scheme that
will be submitted to ICAO for international adoption. The new subsonic
airlines will be half as noisy as current types. The Roskill Committee
is pioneering -in the study of problems of noise and other amenities
around airports. Noise barriers are being tested, and it is hoped that
395
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a 600-foot sound barrier will soon be ready. A working group has
been organized to coordinate research on vehicular -and traffic
noise, its economic effects, and measures for its prevention or
mitigations. The White Paper on Pollution sets goals in noise control
9-41
which are now clearly within the realm of practicability.
396
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9.7 Israel
"As a result of the mild climate, the Israeli spends
a relatively large part of his time outdoors. Buildings
are made of light materials and windows of public and
private buildings are kept open almost all year long. The
average Israeli sleeps with open windows most of the
year. As a result, the environmental noise in residential
areas and offices has become a source of annoyance to the
population. "9-3
Israel's one specific noise law, a regulation of the Ministries
of Health and of the Interior passed in 1966, addresses itself to the
problem described above. It was promulgated in accordance with the
Abatement of Nuisances Law of 1961. The regulation of 1966 deals
with noise in residential quarters and bears the name of the person
who proposed it, Dr. S. Kanowitz. "It is a very unspecific law, merely
prohibiting any harmful or annoying noise. A committee is now engaged
9-3
in working out amendments to and standards of this law. " The Ministries
of Health and of the Interior are charged with the law's implementation
and are empowered to make standard-defining regulations. Local
authorities may with Ministerial approval enact special by-laws
"deviating from the 'national' standards" in order to take account of
local conditions. The Abatement of Nuisances Law of 1961 was designed
to buttress the existing civil and criminal codes' coverage of pollution;
therefore, both civil and criminal sanctions are available under the
parent law of 1961 and the daughter regulation of 1966.
397
-------
There is more general coverage in the older civil and
criminal codes. These were patterned after British law; for
example, there is the distinction between a public nuisance, in which
case a right of action lies with the Attorney General to sue for an
injunction (private injured parties may also sue), and a private
nuisance, in which case the use or enjoyment of a person's private
land is hindered, and the remedy is private action in tort (Civil Wrongs
Ordinance, 1944-47, as amended through 1968). The criminal code
itself specifically cites only "trades so offensive by reason of noise
or smell as to annoy a considerable number of persons in the exercise
of their common rights" as liable to criminal prosecution (ss 198-220
Criminal Code Ordinance, 1936).
One other law mentioning noise is the Traffic Regulations
Law of 1961, prohibiting among other types of excessive vehicular
emissions, excessive noise emission from a motor vehicle due to
faulty muffler or maintenance.
By-laws dealing with industrial (occupational) noise have
been issued by the Ministry of Labor. Noise-induced hearing loss
is an occupational disease in Israel, and directives concerning
compensation for it have been issued by the Israeli National
Insurance Institute.
398
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The legal basis for further regulation of noise. The
obvious line for further anti-noise legislation is expansion of the
Abatement of Nuisances Law of 1961 to cover noise from other
sources and in other areas than "noise in residential quarters11.
Three other existing laws might also be used as noise abatement
and control regulation:
1. The Planning and Building Law of 1965 directs
that "schemes to be made at different levels
should include provisions for insuring appropriate
conditions in respect to health, sanitation,
cleanliness, and for abating nuisances".
2. The Licensing of Businesses Law of 1968 provides
that "certain businesses may be designated as
requiring licenses in order to ensure inter alia
appropriate sanitary conditions and the prevention
of nuisances and annoyances".
3. The Public Health Ordinance of 1941, gives wide
powers of subordinate legislation to health
authorities.
Enforcement of and effectiveness of the law. As has been
mentioned, the Ministers of Health and of the Interior have principle
responsibility for enforcement of the Regulation of 1966 (noise in
residential quarters). The Unit for the Prevention of Air Pollution
and Radiation Hazards of the Ministry of Health is actually in charge
of noise control and surveys of noise pollution in residential areas.
However, enforcement of the Abatement of Nuisances Law has not
been successful because the law was evidently not well drafted; both
399
-------
the form and the standards of the law have encountered difficulties
in the courts. Amendments to improve the enforceability of the
law are now being developed by a special governmental committee.
The Minister of Labor has the responsibility for enforce-
ment of industrial noise laws. At present it is felt that more research
should be done in the development of standards taking into account noise-
induced physiological damage other than hearing loss caused to industrial
workers. The noisiest work places in Israel are textiles, cement and
metal industries. Although noise levels there usually exceed permissible
norms, protection is insured by wearing of ear protectors, which is
compulsory. The rapid growth of mechanized agriculture may have
produced a noise threat that has outpaced regulation.
The Planning and Building Law of 1965 is considered to be
effectively administered, and recent urban planning separates industrial
from residential zones. However, there is an unsolved problem in the
existing wide distribution of light industry and workshops in basements
or first floors in residential quarters, causing serious annoyance to
the population.
Another gap in noise legislation is in the area of transport,
both motor vehicles and aircraft. A special feature of Israeli surface
400
-------
transportation is the mix: although little noise problem comes
from the railways because of their relative lack of development,
a high percentage of vehicular transport consists of buses,
motorcycles and trucks, all of which are noisy. Present airports
are mostly located near populated areas, many air lanes pass over
populated areas, and the rapid growth of air transport compounds
the problem. Of course, the light construction practices and
"open-windows" Israeli life style alluded to earlier compound the
annoyance caused by all forms of transport noise in Israel. It is
felt that more research is needed to adapt international standards
and foreign practice to Israeli conditions.
Finally, the special state of military preparedness of
Israel has caused both direct and indirect problems. "Almost
every male and many females are exposed to shooting or explosions"
both during regular military service and then later in the reserves;
a fully-effective .program for hearing protection has evidently not
yet been implemented. The indirect problem is that national defense
needs have precluded adequate financing of environmental research
and control programs, including those dealing with noise pollution.
In general the picture in Israel is one of partial enforcement
of non-comprehensive laws, and subordination of all kinds of environmental
401
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programs to others (national security) having higher priority. A
good start has been made on the necessary legal basis and
institutional framework, but comprehensive programs for environmental
protection in Israel are still in the process of development. However,
the Israelis are at least aware of noise as a problem and within the
limits imposed by their resources and priorities, seem determined to
do something about it.
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9.8
Itah
The Italian law on noise seems relatively scant and,
in general, ineffective. National laws include Art. 659 ("Codice della
Strada") of the Penal Code, which provides penalties of. up to three
months imprisonment for making noise which disturbs sleep. This
law falls into the category of those laws concerning the disturbance of
peace, and has been used relatively little with respect to noise.
A second national law - Art. 844 CC of the Civil Code
states: "No owner of land can prevent emissions of smoke, heat,
fuel, noise, or any similar nuisances from neighboring properties
unless they exceed a certain tolerable level determined as relative
to the local conditions..." It provides scope for civil suit to prohibit
a neighbor's noise nuisance, but procedures in the courts have been
so slow that the law affords little opportunity for redress (Table 9-3).
Tribunal
Torino
Pescare
Milano
Suit brought
1954
1952
I960
Suit decided
1957
1966
1964
Disposition
(In favor of complaintant,
whereupon defendent
prolonged by appealing)
(Noise from a marble
factory; complaintant
won. )
(Noise from a bakery,
complaintant won)
Tablp 9-3. Disposition of Civil Suits to Prohibit Noise "Nuisance, TEaTy
30
403
-------
However, the national law (Articles 46, 47, 55, 112, 113,
214, and 215 of the Highway Code) concerning motor vehicle noise is
enforced. Article 112, 113 H. C. prescribes that in traffic, nuisance
noise must be avoided in the operation of the motor vehicle, that
mufflers are compulsory and must be kept in good unaltered working
condition (also Art. 47\ that acoustic signals (horns, bells, etc.) are
forbidden in populated areas except in case of emergency, and at
night dim-light signals should be substituted for such acoustic signals.
Fines for violating the regulation concerning the manner of operation and
mufflers may be from 5,000 to 20,000 lire (approximately $10 to $40)
and for the excessive use of acoustic signals from 4,000 to 10,000 lire
($8 to $20).
Article 46 specifies that all vehicles should be equipped with
an acoustic signalling device but that it must conform to sound characteristics
prescribed by the Rules of Application of the Highway Code.
Article 55 covers vehicle inspection. The Ministry of
Transport may decide by a decree in the Official Bulletin on a general
or partial inspection of private motor vehicles, side-cars and motor
cycles to ensue that they comply with safety and noise standards. General
404
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or partial inspection may take place only once every five years. All
other motor vehicles,notably public transport vehicles, vehicles for
hire and trailers, are inspected every year.
Private motor vehicles, motor cycles and mopeds may be
subjected to a special inspection when such vehicles are believed not
to comply with the regulations.
The Vehicle inspection authorities are empowered to inspect
a vehicle at any time. Police authorities are also empowered to
inspect vehicles on the road. Anyone found driving a vehicle which has
not been inspected may be fined from 4, 000 to 10, 000 lire.
Offences against this article may lead to the immediate
withdrawal of the vehicle license; in such cases the owner is obliged
to present his vehicle to the Inspection authorities before the license
is given back.
Article 214 sets out maximum vehicle noise emission levels,
but has been superceded by Italy's adoption of the EEC directives in
August, 1971. The Article 214 limits are shown in Table 9-4.
405
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Vehicle Category Noise Level
Mopeds 83 dB(B)
Motorcycles with a two stroke engine and with
an engine capacity not exceeding 200 cc. 87 dB
Motorcycles with a 4 stroke engine and with
an engine capacity not exceeding 200 cc. 90 dB
All other motorcycles 92 dB
Motor vehicles with an internal combustion
engine of a capacity not exceeding 1000 cc. 88 dB
Motor vehicles with an internal combustion
engine of a capacity from 1000 cc - 1500cc. 90 dB
All other motor vehicles. 93 dB
Agricultural vehicles on wheels with a
multi-cylinder 4-stroke engine. 94 dB
Agricultural vehicles on wheels with a two
stroke engine or a 4-stroke cylinder. 98 dB
Agricultural vehicles with crawler tracks. 90 dB
Table 9-4. Motor Vehicle Noise Emission Limits in Italy (Article 214, H. C.
Article 215 specifies the method of measuring noise in the
enforcement of Article 214, and quite probably has also been subject
to modification caused by adoption of the EEC Directives. Under the
provisions of Article 215, using a standard sound level meter, measurements
are made until five consecutive readings are identical within 3 dB; the
final result is calculated on the basis of the average of the five readings.
Two types of measurements are made: one on a stationary
406
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vehicle and one on a moving vehicle.
a) S tationary vehicle. The readings are taken by means
of a microphone placed at a distance of 7 meters directly to the rear
of the exhaust pipe at a height of between one meter and 1. 25 meters
above the ground. There should be no obstacle between the vehicle
and the microphone. The test is conducted with no load on the engine
and at peak power r. p. m.
b) Test on moving vehicle. The vehicle moves along a
straight line which coincides with a line seven meters away from the
microphone of the eound meter placed on the same side of the vehicle
as its exhaust pipe at a height of between ' to 1. 25 meters. The vehicle
is driven in its lowest gear ratio in such a way that when it is at a
right angle to the microphone it is at its peak power r. p.m. and is
developing maximum power. The reading to be applied during each
test is the maximum noise level indicated by the instrument for a
duration of a second.
In the case of agricultural vehicles with crawler tracks, only the stationary
test is used.
There is some evidence that anti-noise provisions of the
Highway Code are being enforced.
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The number of fines issued for offenses against four of
the above articles were as follows in 1966 and 1967 (Table 9-5h
Article
46
47
112
113
1966
16,037
51,517
56,099
31,890
1967
14,743
45,368
41,116
24,274
Table 9-5. Fines Issued Against Highway Code Anti-Noise Articles.
One underlying reason for this concern has perhaps been national
9-31
consciousness of a "noise problem" caused by motor vehicles, particularly
motorcycles. A significant proportion of Italian private transport has
been by bicycle and motorcycle, and with the rapid post-war economic
9-30
expansion, the number of motorcycles has risen quite rapidly.
On the other hand, Article 659 C. P. and Article 844 C. C.
have been little-used and ineffective instruments for noise control. The
present procedures (Code "of Civil Procedure) governing the application
of the Civil Code are ve ry s-low.
The national legislation pertaining to noise being limited
to the foregoing, the right of any other regulation is reserved to the
municipalities (commune). The communes, under Italian legal principles,
have the power of regulation within the framework of State laws, but
this power is to be exercised in a flexible manner, with respect to particular,
408
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concrete local situations. There is little evidence that communes have
taken advantage of their opportunities to control noise, if regulations
of a general, normative, (and unenforceable) nature are excluded. An
exception has been certain Italian resort centers--Montecatini Terme,
9 32
near Florence, for example. Local regulations in resort centers
have limited the hours of operation of industries (including noise from
construction sites), music from loudspeakers and juke boxes, re-routed
traffic, and in some towns imposed special speed limits on motorcycles.
A second exception has been Rome, where some special
efforts have been made (including a special organization in the city
government) because the problem had reached such large proportions. ^~
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9.9 Japan
Until 1968 25 metropolitan, prefectual or municipal
governments had some noise-related laws or regulations, but
the number of court cases arising from 1922 to 1970 numbered
only 27. Of these the most notable were concerned with industrial
construction, sonic boom, wild-life, and psychological and
physiological effects of noise.
In June, 1971, a new department directly under the
Prime Minister was created as a comprehensive environmental
protection agency. The government budgeted $222 million for
pollution control. Noise abatement and control is one of the
responsibilities of the Special Pollution Section and the Automobile
9-64
Pollution Section.
The New Environmental Standards of 1971
Based on Article 9 of the Law on the Basic Pollution
Measure (Law 132, August 3, 1967), power was given to the
National Government to take necessary measures for pollution
control. The regulations on noise abatement and control were
made by the Japanese Cabinet Decision of May 25, 1971. The
standards included in this regulation are as follows.
410
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Zoning Categories
One class of areas treated separately in the law are
areas not facing a street (i.e. , areas where traffic noise is minimal),
The standards for these areas are shown in Table 9-6.
Zones
Daytime
Morning &
Evening
Night
AA Quiet area with hospitals or
recuperational facilities.
A Residential area.
Commercial areas and
industrial areas with
numerous residential
sections.
45 phons (A)
or less
50 phons (A)
or less
60 phons (A)
or less
40 phons (A)
or less
45 phons (A)
or less
55 phons (A)
or less
35 phons (A)
or less
40 phons (A)
or less
50 phons (A)
or less
Note 1;
Note 2:
Definition of daytime, morning, evening, and night are left
to local authorities, within certain limits set by the national law.
Because the exact technical definition of the Japanese phon
is not available, no attempt has been made to give approximate
equivalents in dB(A).
Table 9-6. Japanese Standards for Noise Control in Areas Not Adjacent
to a Street.
411
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The effect of vehicular noise on the feasibility of the noise
standards listed in Table 9-6 is taken into account by different standards
created for four types of areas, as follows (Table 9-7):
Area
1. A-zone above with two
lane (local street)
2. A-zone with more than two
lanes
3. B-zone with a two lane
street
4. B-zone with more than
a two lane street
Daytime
55 phons (A)
or less
60 phons (A)
or less
65 phons (A)
or less
65 phons (A)
or less
Morning &
Evening
50 phons (A)
or less
55 phons (A)
or less
60 phons (A)
or less
65 phons (A)
or less
Night
45 phons (A)
or less
50 phons (A)
or less
55 phons (A)
or less
60 phons (A\
or less
Table 9-7. Japanese Variable Area Standards for Noise Control.
Measurement
The JIS (Japanese Industrial Standard) machines or tools are to
be used. The unit phon (A) is to be used. A JIS noise meter or a
precision noise meter conforming to IEC No. 179 is to be used.
412
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Measuring Place
The basic measuring place is one meter from the building
(residential building, hospital, school) facing the noise source. If
there are no buildings near a street, the measuring place is at
the curb.
Measuring Time
Measuring time is to be chosen when a possible noise
level is likely to be high: for example, for a street, more than
once in the morning or evening, in the daytime, and more than
twice at night.
Accomplishment of the Environmental Standards
Enforcement of regulations is to be accomplished
immediately for areas where traffic is minimal (Table 9-6).
For other areas (areas adjacent to streets -- Table 9-7), the
Environmental Standard is to be enforced within five years.
Policy to achieve the Environmental Standards
In order to accomplish enforcement of noise abatement
and control, the government is to increase aid to those enterprises
who take noise abatement measures. This aid may be in the form
of loans or tax incentives, particularly for small industrialists.
413
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The government is also to
restudy factory noise standards in
conjunction with the achievement
of the Environmental Standards
restudy vehicular noise levels and
establish new regulations
The basic policy for zoning shall be the segregation of
industrial zones from the residential areas by controlling expansion
of existing factories and construction of new factories producing
noise pollution. National laws on urban planning and on construction
standards must facilitate the achievement of the noise abatement
standards listed in the above tables.
The use of green belts where feasible is to be encouraged.
Overall policy for reducing traffic noise shall include
provisions for improving the noise qualities of automobiles, street
construction planning, urban planning, changing of traffic regulations,
and improving enforcement of existing regulations.
Initial research for the development of a Noise Measuring
(Monitoring) System shall be completed.
414
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Improvement of technology for noise prevention shall
include:
o lower noise levels in machinery}
o lower noise levels for automobiles;
o research on the noise abatement effects
of structures;
o research on the effects of noise on the
human body.
A public information campaign shall include the
following points:
o the problem of businesses open after
midnight;
o noise instruments or appliances in the
home;
o automobile drivers.
The Environmental Standards on noise abatement and
control shall be amended through:
development of knowledge on noise,
change in social appraisal, and advance
of measurement technology;
change in zoning designations.
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Laws on Construction and Industrial Noise Emissions
In August, 1968, the National Government finally
established an independent law called the "Noise Abatement Law
(No. 98)" which was separate from the Basic Pollution Law (No. 132)
(air, water, noise) passed in 1967. This law No. 98 concerns
construction, industrial and business noise emissions only.
Noise Emissions from Construction
o Areas to be protected under this category include
residential areas, schools, libraries, research institutes and
hospital areas.
o (For limits on operation times, see Table 7-5,
p. 7-54, of this report. )
o The constructor's duty is to give notification prior
to operating certain types of machines about the methods of
noise prevention to be used. The constructor who gives false
notification or no notification at all will be fined up to 50, 000 yen
(about $139).
o When the constructors violate the law, the local
government has the right to give advice. If the constructor ignores
the advance then the local government has the authority to order
416
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improvements to be accomplished within a deadline. If the
constructor still disobeys the order, then he will be fined
100, 000 yen (about $278) or less, or the manager of the project
(person who gave notification) is liable to up to a year's imprisonment.
Industrial Noise Emission
Four zones with maximum noise levels as environmental
standards are as follows:
A Zone:
B Zone:
C Zone:
D Zone:
Residential zone where quiet is especially essential
Residential zone where quiet is necessary
Residential commercial and industrial zone
Industrial zone
Zone
A
B
C
D
Daytime
45-50 phons (A)
50-60 phons (A)
60-65 phons (A)
65-70 phons (A)
Morning & Evening
40-45 phon-s (A)
45-50 phons (A)
55-65. phons (A)'
60-70 phons (A)
Night
40-45 phons (A)
40-50 phons (A)
50-55 phons (A)
55-65 phons (A)
Note: Daytime 7 a. m. - 8 a.m. to 6 p. m. - 8 p.m.
Morning 5 a.m. - 6 a.m. to 7 a.m. - 8 a.m.
Evening 9 p. m. - 1 1 p, m.
Night 9 p.m. - 11 p.m. to 5 a. m. - 6 a.m.
Exact hours are to be decided locally in each prefectural or municipal law.
Table 9-8. National Standards for Industrial Noise Emissions.
417
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Duties and penalties are the same as for the law concerning
noise emissions from construction projects.
Emissions from Business Enterprises
Noise abatement control on business firms such as
garages, pinball houses, bowling alleys, dance halls, restaurants
and loudspeakers of stores shall not be enforced by the national
government. The national government delegates authority in this
area to local authorities. Local authorities shall make noise
regulations according to the local conditions within the scope allowed
by national law.
9-65
Aircraft Noise
The basic noise abatement law on aviation is known as
the Noise Abatement Law on Public or Private Airports and Vicinities
(Law No. 110, August 1966). This law also applies to the U.S.
Air Force bases in Japan.
One of the features of Law No. 110 is that the maximum
noise exposures are established by the Ministry of Transportation
418
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in terms of physiological effects on children in schools and
patients in hospitals; facilities shall fall into three categories:
o facilities for feeble-minded children
o nursery schools and kindergarden
o hospitals and clinics
Maximum allowable noise exposures are determined bv
formulas taking into account peak noise levels caused by aircraft,
frequency of flyovers, and total duration of flyovers.
By law, the national government pays local authorities
either part or all of the costs of any noise prevention measures
in or around airports. In the case of new airports, the national
government also transfers or lends real property (land or facilities)
to local authorities as well as giving financial aid.
Two laws including provisions on abatement of noise caused
by military aircraft.are: the Law on Indemnity for Special Loss by
Activities of the U.S. Forces including United Nations Forces (known
419
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as the Special Loss and Indemnity Law, Law No. 246, 1953) and the
Law on Japanese Self Defense Forces Facilities (Law No. 135, 1967).
The Law on Noise Emissions from Motor Vehicles
The Law No. 185 of 1951 specifies that no motor vehicle
shall be operated if it produces noise emissions exceeding:
85 phons as measured 7 meters to the left of
the longitudinal axis of the vehicle when a
motor vehicle is running on a level road at a
speed of 35 km/h (or in the case of a motor
vehicle for which the maximum speed in less
than 35 km/h, at 60% of its maximum power)
85 phons as measured at a point 20 meters to the
rear of the exhaust pipe when a motor vehicle
is running unloaded at 60% of its maximum
power.
All motor vehicles shall be equipped with a muffler in
good working order.
New vehicles shall be expected to pass more stringent new
standards, and shall be type-tested by the Research Institute of
the Ministry of Transportation.
420
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The new standards are shown in Table 9-9.
Category of Vehicle
Truck and bus
Gross weight of vehicle exceeding 3. 5 tons
Engine power: over 200 h. p.
Gross weight of vehicle exceeding 3. 5 tons
Engine power: 200 h. p. or less
Gross weight: 3. 5 tons or less
Passenger car
Motorcycle
Engine capacity over 250 cc
Engine capacity 250 cc or less and over 125 cc
Constant
speed
35 km/h
(phon)
80
78
74
70
74
74
Acceleration
(ISO
method)
(phon)
92
89
85
84
86
84
Table 9-9. Japanese Limits for Noise Emissions'of New Vehicles.
These standards have been in force for new vehicles since
April 1971, and older vehicles already on the road must conform to
them by the beginning of 1972.
The Ministry of Transport shall be responsible for conducting
safety inspections of all vehicles, once every two years for passenger
cars and once a year for all other types. The inspection shall include
examination of the vehicle for excessive noise. The inspector may
pass the vehicle by ear alone, unless he suspects that it is too loud,
in which case he then makes a measurement with a noise meter.
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Vehicles failing this noise test must be repaired so that they
can pass the test within a given period. If the driver continues
to drive with an unabated vehicle after the deadline, he is then
subject to a fine of up to 30, 000 yen (about $83). Continued
failure to meet the standard may result in forfeiture of driving
papers for both driver and vehicle.
Agencies Responsible for Enforcement
There are seven classifications of laws and nine
individual laws on noise abatement. Enforcement and implementa-
tion of the laws is the responsibility of the following national
government branches:
Classification
1. Environmental
Standards
2. Industrial
Law
Basic Pollution
Measure (Law 132,
1967)
Noise Abatement
Law (Law 98, 1968)
Jurisdiction
Environmental Agency
1. Environment Sanitation
Division, Ministry of
Health and Welfare
2. Enterprise Bureau,
Ministry of International
Trade and Industry
3. Forest Division, Agency
for Forests and Fields
4. Processing Food
Division, Food Agency
5. Minister's Secretariat,
Ministry of Transporta-
tion
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Classification
Law
Jurisdiction
3. Construction
4. Aviation
5. Aviation (military
bases)
6. Automobile
7.
Noise Abatement
Law (Law 98,
1968)
Public or Private
Airports and
Vicinities (Law 110,
1966)
Special Loss and
Indemnity (Law 246,
1953) and Defense
Force (Law 135,
1967)
1. Automobile (Law
185, 1951)
2. Traffic (Law 105
I960)
Broadcasting
1. Environmental
Sanitation Division,
Ministry of Health
and Welfare
2. Planning Bureau,
Ministry of Construction
Aviation Bureau,
Ministry of Transportation
Account Division, Agency
for Defense Equipment
1. Highway Transportation
Division, Ministry of
Transportation
2. Traffic Bureau, National
Police Office
Radio Controller's Bureau.,
Ministry of Postal Service
Judging by the FY 1971 and 1972 budgets, the other ministries
listed above still have responsibility for enforcing the various laws
on noise within their operational jurisdictions, despite the formation
of the Japanese Environmental Protection Agency.
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o 10 Scandinavian Countries
Norway
No national pollution legislation exists in Norway. The Road
Traffic Act empowers authorities to impose restrictions on noise
made by motor vehicles, while up to now rules on maximum noise
levels have been issued for motorcycles. Similar rules are being
drawn up for motor vehicles and it is expected that they will enter into
force as of 1 January 1972. These rules will correspond to the ECE
recommendations. Standards for noise levels are being worked out for
the new Design Manuals for Roads as well as in connection with planning
work for land use and housing. Noise from aircraft as a disturbing
factor in the environment has been a serious problem near large airports.
There are cases where housing developments have been wrongly located.
The worst problems are connected with Fornebu airport near Oslo. An
official committee will present proposals during the spring of 1971 con-
cerning the choice of location for a new major airport within a reasonable
distance from Oslo.
Various restrictions and rules have been imposed on air traffic.
Thus aircraft movements at night is prohibited at Fornebu between the
hours of midnight and 7 A. M. A permanent Commission on Air Noise
functions as an advisory body,to the Government on all questions involv-
ing noise from aircraft. The Commission is responsible for super-
vising noise at all airports and must take the initiative for noise
424
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abatement measures in cases where noise is the cause of environmental
disturbances. At some airports, local noise committees have been
appointed to handle complaints from the local inhabitants. In the press
and other media urgent demands have been made to prohibit the use of
supersonic aircraft over Norwegian territory, but no official decision
q \A
has yet been made. 7
425
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Sweden
During the spring of 1969 the Swedish Riksdag passed a law of •
environment protection that came into force on July 1, 1969, (Mil-
joskyddslagen; Svensk Fortattningssammling 1969:387). This law
incorporates measures against water and air pollution, noise, and other
disturbances. The laws relating to pollution other than water are virtually
without precedent. With regard to noise there are a series of laws
within various spheres, particularly those relating to road traffic and
building, which are designed to restrict noise. As regards the noise
that may be produced by introduction of supersonic civil air traffic, the
government of Sweden as early as 1967 declared that traffic of this kind
would not be permitted over Swedish territory if the noise from such
aircraft provided adverse to health, e. g. , by regularly disturbing sleep
or causing damage to buildings.
Under the law falls, for example, noise from factories, machine
shops, shipyards, and other industrial installations. Included also is
noise from traffic on highways, streets, railroads, and airfields. With
regard to traffic noise, the law holds the traffic installation, i.e. , the
road or the airport, as the noise source, and action can be taken against
Downers of roads or those who run an airport. No action can be taken
against individual vehicles; for such cases reliance is placed upon traffic
laws.
426
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To this law is attached the Environmental Royal Ordinance
(Miljoskyddskungorelsen; Svensk Forfattningssammling 1969:388), which
contains further rules concerning implementation etc.
If dispensation is sought, applications must contain a
complete description of how the particular industrial enterprise plans to
abate noise and what technical means are included in such plans, and
also, if possible, to given information on calculated noise levels in
terms of various distances from the source of the noise.
The central administrative organ for environmental pro-
tection in Sweden is the National Nature Conservation Office (Statens
Nalurvardsverk, Fack S-171 20 Solna 1, Sweden), a body set up in 1967
to incorporate a number of previously existing administrative organs into
a uniform organization. The main tasks of the Office are to further the
interests of nature conservation in connection with social and industrial
expansion and to survey the pollution accompanying such developments,
as well as to direct measures designed to control and combat pollution.
Other important organs are the National Franchise Board of
Environmental Protection (Koncessionsnamnden for Miljoskydd, Gamla
Riskdagshuset, 111 28 Stockholm, Sweden), which grants concessions in
accordance with the new Law of Environmental Protection, and the
State Planning Office, which draws up directions for building policy. At
the regional level, the county councils have special nature conservation
427
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sections working along the same lines as the Nature Conservation Office.
The staff of the Office and the regional sections currently number about
350 persons. At the communal level, matters of environmental impor-
tance are dealt with by the local housing committees and the local public
health boards.
Some individual cases on which decisions have been rendered include:
Mechanical workshop in Smedjebacken: the noise
level within housing (with the window ajar) within 250 meters
from the shop must not exceed 30 dB.
Power plant (gas turbine) in Havero: noise from the
plant at a distance of 200 meters must not exceed 48 dB.
Thermal power plant in Uppsala: at a distance of
800 meters from the plant, the level of noise in residential
buildings must not exceed 45 dB during 90% of the time the
plant is in operation; and within office buildings at 200 meters
distance the level must not exceed 55 dB.
Meat processing plant with slaughterhouses in
Linkoping: the level of noise from cooling fans, refrigera-
tion equipment, etc. , must not exceed 50 dB 25 meters from
the plant, which is to be built in an industrial area at a
relatively long distance from the nearest residential area.
The Royal Ordinance rules added to the general law state that the
duty to take protective measures must be judged on the basis of what is
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technically feasible. The operator must use the most efficient techni-
cal equipment and methods available. Technical advance must con-
tinuously be used to improve environmental planning and protection.
The rules also state that the authorities must give due consideration to,
on the one hand, the characteristics of the affected area and the impor-
tance of the effects of the disturbance; and, on the other, to the advantages
of continuing the disturbing operations and the costs for the protective
measures. This means that if there are particular circumstances,
environmentally detrimental operations may be allowed in spite of their
causing serious disturbance. Such circumstances would exist when there
is a clearly established utilitarian advantage to society or to individuals
in continuing the operations, e. g. , if serious unemployment were the
alternative.
To a certain extent the Environmental Franchise Board has court
status but it should rather be regarded as an impartial tribunal. The
Board consists of a president, who must be learned in the law, a techni-
cal expert member, a member with "experience in matters belonging
to the competence of the Board", and a member with "industrial experi-
ence". When in the president's opinion the matter under consideration
concerns municipal affairs, the last member should instead be one with
municipal experience. The decisions of the Board may be appealed to
the King of Council. Reconsideration of stated rules and conditions is
also possible to a certain extent. 9-35, 9-36
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Denmark
Pollution problems in Denmark come within the competence of
several government departments where they are often dealt with in con-
junction with other problems. The powers which under existing law are
vested in the various government departments are not harmonized and
to a large extent authority is delegated to local authorities that have not
been provided with the necessary expert assistance. In late 1969, a
central organ was set up to catalog the problem of environmental pollu-
tion, to recommend measures, including legislation, to combat pollution,
and to propose an institutional framework for the future control of
pollution. This central organ, the Pollution Control Committee (For-
ureningsudvalget, Holbergsgade 4, 3, DL 1057 Copenhagen K, Denmark)
is expected to conclude the major part of its work by the end of 1971.
No specific legislation exists on noise. Certain general rules are
laid down in public health by-laws and in police regulations. Also, the
Building Act, the Town Planning Act, and the Road Traffic Act authorize
the promulgation of regulations to prevent noise. The Government
Inspector of Motor Vehicles has set tolerance levels for noise from
motor vehicles registered after July 1969. Workers are protected from
noise hazards under the Protection of Workers Act.
At the central level, the noise problems come within the authority
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of the Ministry of the Interior and the National Health Service. Special
problems are dealt with by other government departments: road traffic -
Ministry of Justice; airports - Ministry of Transport and Communications;
noise in work places - Ministry of Labor.
Measurements of sound are made Vy various authorities and
institutions such as health committees, traffic police, the National
Building Research Institute, technological institutes, the National
Institute of Industrial Hygiene, and the Institute of Sound Technology
(under the Academy of Technical Sciences). The latter two are the central
laboratories for the studies of industrial noise at the places of work
and in the environment. 9-37
The first Building Act was enacted in I960 and has been followed
up by national building regulations, which are taken up for revision at
fairly short intervals. These regulations are based as far as possible
on functional requirements to be satified by every building and its
components, such as minimum room size, equipment and kitchens,
reservation of areas for parking, playgrounds, and other common facil-
ities. The regulations also specify requirements for insulation against
noise by stipulating maximum levels for the total transmission of noise
between dwellings, for noise in living rooms and stairwells, and for
the noise emitted by technical installations.
The Building Act provides for promulgation of rules governing
permissible noise levels from sources outside buildings. In view of
431
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the difficulties experienced in the establishment of quantiative standards,
rules governing such permissible outside noise levels have not yet been
included in the national building regulations. The work is of great
importance and is being continued; in some cases, even quite new dwelling
houses have been exposed to unwarrantable levels of traffic noise. Since
such cases hardly be prevented by technical building regulations alone,
the various categories of planning legislation must be better coordinated.
In recent years, research - partly in cooperation with the other
Nordic countries - has been concerned with noise problems in town
planning, notably outdoor noise from traffic and aviation. One result
of this work is that recommendations have been drafted for regulations
prescribing minimum distances between buildings and different types of
roads. These recommendations have not yet been included in binding
regulations. Studies have also been made of the problems raised by
separation of different categories of traffic, including the additional coat,
if any, of providing safer and less noisy road systems in new building
developments. Provisional findings suggest that the additional cost of
a differentiated road system may not be as high as previously estimated.
A Technical Pollution Control Committee, composed of scientists
and other experts, has been set up to assist the Pollution Control Board
to examine current activities in pollution research, to assess in what
fields intensified research will be required and to establish a list of
432
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priorities for research. Under this Committee, there are four sub-
committees, of which one deals with noise problems. These subcommittees,
in turn, direct the activities of working groups. These groups under
the Noise Subcommittee consist of a Road Group, an Airport Group, a
Building and Civil Engineering Group, and a Means of Transport Group.
Summary of Legislation Relating to Noise in Denmark
1. No general law
2. Health regulations for each local government
district (Ministry of the Interior)
3. Building Act (building regulations and by-laws)
(Ministry of Housing).
4. Town Planning Act (Ministry of Housing).
5. Road Traffic Act (Ministry of Justice).
6. Nature Conservation Act (Ministry of Cultural
Affairs).
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9. 11 Switzerland
This country does not have any federal legislation dealing
exclusively with noise. When the Swiss Government deals with
problems concerning noise, the Police Division of the Ministry of
Justice and Police is consulted. The Federal Division of Police is
at present responsible for coordinating all anti-noise measures at
the federal level.
On May 26, 1971 the Federal Council set up a new Federal
Office of Environmental Protection which will carry out the enforcement
of the new Article 25 of the Federal Constitution, accepted by the Swiss
people on June 6-7, 1971.
Article 24 is aimed at the protection of man
and his natural environment against nuisances and other annoyances
that surround man. In particular it is designed to combat air and noise
pollution.
The above-mentioned office will deal with problems of water
protection, air pollution and noise abatement. It will commence its duties
9-44
at the end of 1971.
434
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There are a. number of administrative and legislative
practices regarding noise from aircraft and motor vehicles. They
include mandatory vehicle certification specifying maximum emissions
for five different classes of motor vehicles. Public transportation
is subject to special regulation that is enforced, essentially, by
government/industry cooperation. Motor vehicles are subjected to
inspection at intervals not to exceed three years.
There are a few examples of noise control elements
existing in Federal specialized legislation.
Law on Factories
The manufacturer has the responsibility for taking as
many protective measures as possible to prevent sickness and accident;
this includes ear trouble due to excessive noise (Article 5). It is
forbidden to operate factories at night (Article 43 & 51) or on Sunday
(Article 51).
Law on Route Traffic
The Confederation can make regulations concerning automobiles
435
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and cycles (Article 37). Only necessary warning signals may be
used (Article 29). The Federal Council can issue regulations on
construction and equipment of autos and their trailers (Article 8).
Before delivery, a vehicle must undergo official inspection and then
periodic inspections (Article 13). No permit to drive will be issued
unless the vehicle meets specifications (Article 11). Mass-produced
autos and their trailers are submitted to type-testing to insure
that they meet accepted noise levels (Article 12). Violations of
safety laws may mean revocation of drivers permit (Article 11 & 16) and/or
confiscation of vehicle (Article 54). Loud-speakers on vehicles are
forbidden, except for informing passengers (Article 42). License
rnay be taken on the spot from a driver thought to be dangerous or
causing intentional noise (Article 54). Heavy vehicles may not use
roads at night or on Sunday, exceptions being determined by the Federal
Council (Article 2).
Law on Aviation
Legislation on air navigation is in the domain of the Confederation
not the canton (Article 37). A federal official may, in the case of
violation of the law or regulations set by air officials, independently of
penal action (1) temporarily revoke licenses and certificates, or prevent
436
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their renewal and (2) ground aircraft considered to endanger public
security (Article 92). Any propaganda or advertisement by means
of aircraft is forbidden (Article 115),
The Federal Council has the power to intervene in the
creation and use of airports, halting regional or local plans if necessary
(Article 36). Regulations on air navigation do not apply to military
aircraft except where expressly indicated by the Federal Council (Article 106).
A region in which there is usage of air space cannot be flown over until
the fixed conditions are met (Article 9). The use of aircraft must not
cause unnecessary noise (Article 10).
The Swiss League against Noise "Schweizerische Liga gegen
den Laerm" (which is also the initiator and founding member of the AICB),
with the support of the Swiss Federal Council (Scnweizerische Bundesrat),
on October 21, 1957 called a "Federal Expert-commission for
Noise Abatement" (Eidgenoessische Experten Kommission fuer Laerm-
bekaempfung). This Commission consisted of 52 experts from various
appropriate scientific fields and formed the following sub-commissions
1. Medical, acoustical and technical basis (principles)
2. Motor vehicles, railroads, ships
3. Aviation noise
4. Construction and industrial noise, vibration protection in
residences, etc.
5. Legal aspects
437
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After five years of research the Commission concluded
its work with a General report to the Federal Council. This report
was published in 1962 and consists of 357 pages.
The Commission's work had a positive effect on
the whole noise abatement problem throughout Switzerland.
Four important proposals were realized:
1. Formation of a research and advisory office for noise
abatement called the Acoustics and Noise Abatement Office ("Akustik
und Laermbekaempfung"), joined to the Federal Material Testing
Bureau (EMPA).
2. Sample Ordinance for protection against noise:
a model for general or special police regulations against noise on the
city or town level.
3. Directions for the Federal Justice and Police Departments
in respect to noise abatement in urban traffic.
4. District-circular of the Federal Council
to all departments and divisions of the Federal Administration and also to
the General Office of the Swiss Federal Railroads (Schweizerische
Bundesbahnen) and the Post, Telegraph and Telephone Offices.
438
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In addition, the Federal Health and Accident
Insurance laws were revised to make hearing loss an insured
occupational illness. As a result, the Swiss Insurance Bureau
(Schweizerische Unfall-Versicherungs-Anstalt) can now prescribe protective
measures.
Further noise abatement activity includes the formation
of a police noise •abatement office in numerous cities, for example
in Basel, Bern, Lausanne, Luzern, Lugano and Zurich. - (See detailed
survey on Zurich in Section 3.)
Also, norms were published on "noise protection in
residential construction" by the Swiss Association of Architects and
Engineers (S.I,A.). On May 15, 1970 the "Recommendations for noise
protection in residential construction" published by the S.I. A. became
effective. 9"45 (See Section 7.)
Switzerland has been actively involved in noise abatement
problems that would be brought by the SST. The Swiss Government
439
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has publicly announced that: "The Federal Council has decided not to
permit air traffic with sonic boom speed over our country, if the overflight
areas will be affected with unbearable noise. Herewith a much stronger
9-46
measure must be undertaken. "
440
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9.12 USSR
The USSR has had law controlling noise on the books
since 1956. Most of Soviet law concerning noise is in the form of
administrative law promulgated by the various ministries. There
is no comprehensive agency for noise control and abatement in
the USSR. The strongest area of coverage is industrial protection
of the workers' hearing. Yet existing laws also cover most of the
other areas -- transportation noise sources, residential and city
noise -- and most of the commonly -known legal approaches: zoning,
measurement and labeling of noise-producing machinery, building
codes, disturbance-of-the-peace statutes.
A related field of extensive Soviet regulation is the
problem of vibration, especially in industry. The upper limit of
frequencies covered by Soviet norms on vibration -- 100 Hertz --
is well within the audible range, but whether these norms are "noise
laws" is a matter of definition. They are not included here, but the
reader should know of their existence.
The first part of this section will describe existing Soviet
law. Discussion of enforcement and effectiveness of noise control
in the USSR is reserved for the following section.
441
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Industry
The 1969 Sanitary Norm for industrial noise (SNiP No. 785-69)
was developed by the Academy of Medical Sciences under the Ministry Of
Health, confirmed by that ministry, and approved by the Council of
Ministers in mid-1969. The norms are aimed at noise in industry, the
area of principle Soviet concern, but also cover industrial noise emissions
to adjacent neighborhoods. SNiP No. 785-69 incorporates the concept of
allowable noise spectral curves recommended by the TK-43 "Acoustics"
Committee of the International Standards Organization (I. S. O. ). For
example, under SNiP 785-69 the most permissive norm for the worker
in the factory.corresponds to I. S. O. curve "Index No. 80" and sets the
limits shown in Table 9-10.
Center irequency of
octave bands (hertz)
Maximum noise level
permissible in that
octave band (dB)
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
99 92 86 83 80 78 76 74
(The Index No. is derived from the maximum noise level allowable for the
octave band centered around 1000 hertz.)
Table 9-10. I. S. O. Curve NR 80.
If the noise does not have an unusual frequency composition,
this 80 curve roughly corresponds to a maximum of 85 dB(A). The
"Index No. 80" -- roughly equivalent to 85 dB(A) -- can be seen on
Figure 9-1. This graph and the accompanying key also indicate
allowable maximum Soviet noise levels for workers in various
other occupational settings.
442
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Figure 9-1 Basic provisions of Soviet law SNIP 785-69
concerning maximum levels of noise in
occupational settings.
Maximum
permissable
noise level
in decibles
61 I2i HO 530 1000 !000 tOOO SUM
Geometric Center Frequency I, in'Hertz) of Octave Bands
KEY: Index No.
1. Ordinary work places
in factories, etc. 80
2. Laboratories with noise
sources. 70
3. Remote control and
observation stations in 60
factory automated processes.
4. Offices with office
machinery, 55
5. Offices where thinking
work demanding high levels 45
of concentration occurs.
Approx.
equiv. in db(A)
85
75
65
60
50
443
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Because in other occupational settings there is more
technical possibility for noise control and amount of concentration
demanded by the job, the noise standards are stricter. To be
permissible under these norms, the noise in an occupational setting
must be equal to or less than that prescribed by the corresponding
index number at every frequency.
If the noise being checked has significant impulse noise
characteristics, or if it has in it "the special existence of pure tones",*
the applicable norm is made 5 dB stricter at all frequencies. 9"4
Following I. S. O. recommendations, the basic Soviet
norms described above may be adjusted if the duration of the noise
is less than an entire eight-hour shift, according to the Table 9-11.
Table 9-11. Adjustments to SNiP No. 785/69 in. Respect to Noise
Exposures Less Than an Eight Hour Shift
If the duration of
the noise is
Adjustment to be added to the
ISO curve (= the approximate amount
in dB(A) by which the norm is made
more lenient)
45 min--li hours
30 min--45 min.
15 min--30 min.
less than 15 min.
5
10
15
20
* Legally defined as present if there is in the spectrum at least one 1/3
octave band in which noise is 10 dB or more greater than in the adjacent
•u.,„,}„ 9-7
bands.
444
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Example: A laboratory with noise sources is generally quiet but
has a piece of equipment producing a noise level throughout the lab
of up to 93 dB(A) for less than 15 minutes a day.
Appropriate ISO curve No. 70 + 20 ='ISO curve No. 90,
applicable to this
lab situation.
The noise environment of the lab is probably within per mis sable
9-5
Soviet limits.
The effect of industrial noise emissions to residential and
public buildings in adjacent neighborhoods is also covered by the
industrial noise law. In a 1956 sanitary norm a "design recommendation"
was 50 phon (approximately 60 dB in usual circumstances) at the
9-10
boundary of the industrial property (SN 205-56, B. 14. c).
In 1963 the form of the regulation was changed to a norm with the
specification of a measurement two meters away from the residential
or public buildings to be protected. The limits--again expressed in
terms of spectral curve index numbers--are those shown in Table 9-12.
445
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Table 9-12. Maximum Industrial Noise Emissions to Neighboring Areas.
Location of industry
ISO
Index No.
Approximate
Equiv. in dB(A)
For industries in populated areas;
"Day" (8:00 am to 11:00 pm)
"Night" (11:00 pm to 8:00 am)
For industries with "sanitary-protective"
zones (sanitarno-zashchitnyee zony)*;
"Day"
"Night"
50
40
55'
45
55
45
60
50
*Zones around all Soviet factories with an emissions problem (air, water,
noise); noise-sensitive institutions are not supposed to be located
inside a sanitary-protective zone.
Historical background of the present Soviet industrial norm.
In 1938 G. L. Navyazhskiy proposed an industrial noise limit of 70 dB
for low and middle frequency noises and 65 dB for high-frequency noises.
This norm was not adapted, however, because it was too difficult to meet.
In the early 1950's, when the first industrial noise norms were developed,
norms were selected that were a compromise between what was desirable
and what was technically and economically feasible--a standard that,
if observed, would protect 95-98% of the working population from hearing
loss. The results were the temporary norms SN 205-56, confirmed in
1956.
9-6
Five important principles of the Soviet approach to control
446
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were incorporated into this first norm: 1) Stricter limits for
higher-frequency noises; 2) different standards for different types
of work places; 3) attention to the emission effects of industrial
noise on neighboring areas; 4) the concept that the small percentage
of workers especially vulnerable to hearing loss would be protected
by periodic checkups and timely transfer to less noisy work-places;
5) (an important loophole) industrial enterprises too noisy to meet
the norms could, by agreement with Ministry of Health authorities,
continue to operate provided they took other measures to protect workers,
the most important of which were the use of individual ear protection
and rapid rotation of workers in and out of noisy work-places to
minimize individual exposures to noise. The basic standard of allowable
noises, in simplified terms, is shown in Table 9-13.
Table 9-13. The 1956 Industrial Norms.
Type of noise
Low-frequency noises (noise composed
mostly of frequencies under 350 Hertz)
Middle-frequency noises (noises composed
mostly of frequencies in the 350-800 Hertz range)
High frequency noises (noises composed mostly
of frequencies over 800 Hertz)
Maximum
sound pressure
level (dP)
90-100*
85-90
75-85
*
Exact limit depended on the exact spectral composition of the noise.
447
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At first, single-number noise readings were used to measure noise
in enforcement of the SN 205-56. Later, a special graph was used
to plot the frequency spectrum characteristics of the noise being
checked. In order for a noise environment to be considered within
the norm, its sound pressure level for any given frequency could not
exceed that indicated by the control line on the graph by more than
3 dB.
The 1956 noise norms were replaced by the norms of
1963 (SN-245-63), which were based on the work begun by the ISO
(Technical Committee No. 43--"Acoustics") at Stuttgart in 1959 and
finished at Rapallo in I960. These conferences of international experts
produced the family of index curves referred to above, and recommended
that the "Index No. 85" curve should constitute a safe stan«-i rd. TC-43's
curve No. 85 roughly corresponded to a 90 dB(A) limit for the noisiest
types of work place. The Soviets used this curve as the basis for their
1963 norms.
However, some Soviet scientists immediately protested that,
under the new norms, it was possible for a noise to be up to 6 dB greater
in its lower frequencies and up to 13 dB greater in its higher frequencies
448
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than the maximum allowable under the old SN 205-56. Their concern
was centered on the physiological effects of noise on the human
cardiovascular system, the superior nervous system, and on the central
nervous system (including the process by which the cerebral cortex
interacts with the vegetative nervous system). They based their case
on the following evidence: even under the old norms the noise-produced
physiological shifts observed in workers was considerable; in 30-40%
of these workers investigated the physiological shifts did not disappear
during the normal rest period between work-days and could be observed
before work the next day. At levels of noise allowable under the new
(1963) norm, physiological shifts were observed to occur sooner (after
\\--2 hours on the job) and to become more pronounced. It was within
a few hours, "an unfavorable influence on those functions that insure
9-7
normal functioning of the (human) organism and its capacity to work. "
Not surprisingly, this group of Soviet experts recommended a stricter
standard: the use of curve No. 75 as the basic criterion. In the 1969
norms the maximum was tightened from index curve No. 85 to index
curve No. 80. It may be assumed, therefore, that the present norms
are a compromise between the position of the noise and health experts
and that of other interest groups who were worried about the feasibility
of implementation.
449
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What is interesting is that Soviet research has emphasized
that noise injures man in more ways than simply by inducing hearing
loss, and as a result the USSR has adopted stricter standards than
those recommended by the ISO and adopted by other nations.
Other Soviet norms dealing with industrial noise. The
Ministry of Health has promulgated regulations taking into account the
special characteristics and noise problems of certain branches of the
economy. These include those shown in Table 9-14.
No.
From
Field of application
SN 276-58
(temporary)
ON 20-62
1958
1962
SN 416-62
MAP 6123-50
COST 11870
Reg. 136
1962
1950
1966
1957
Railroad workers.
Railroad workers. A more severe norm
promulgated by the Ministry of Railroad
Transport to augment SN 276-58. The
only known case of a Ministry exersizing
its right to develop stricter norms for
itself than those assigned by the Ministry
of Health.
Sailors on maritime, river and lake vessels.
Flight crews on passenger aircraft
(civil aviation).
Standardization of measuring and labeling
noise emission of machinery.
Determination of noise-induced deafness
nervous disorders as occupational diseases.
Table 9-14. Other Work-Related Soviet Norms on Noise.
The norms for railroad workers (SN 176-58) provided
protection for train crews and passengers as indicated in Table 9 ,-15.
450
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Table 9-15. Noise Control on Trains per Sanitary Norms
276-58 (temporary)
Type of noise
situation
Permissible sound pressure levels (dB)
350-800 Hertz
over 800 Hertz
I. Exposure not longer than
six hours: Examples--engineer's
cabin of locomotives, cars carrying
power plant of diesel locomotive,
personnel-carrying sections of
refrigeraoor trains.
II. Exposure not more than 24 hours:
Examples: in cars of locals and
commuter trains, in the crew-
rest sections of construction (work)
trains.
III. Exposure more than 24 hours:
Examples: passenger cars of
long-distance trains, crew-rest
sections of baggages and postal cars,
railroad office cars.
not more than 85
not more than 80
75
70
65
60
From the maximum allowable sound pressure level given for 800 Hertz,
the limit becomes more strict for higher frequencies by 5 dB per octave.
9-8
The Railroad Ministry itself tightened up this norm with its
Branch Norms ON 20-62 of 1962. ON-20 is concerned exclusively with
noise levels in engineer's cabins in locomotives; its provisions are
about 10 dB(A) stricter than the SN 276-58 (See Table 9-16).
451
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Table 9-16. Maximum Allowable Noise Levels in the Cabins of
Locomotives per Branch Norms ON-20
Frequency of noise
Maximum permissable sound pressure level^
less than 350 Hertz
35C-800
-nore than 800
90 dB
75
70
The noise norms protecting Soviet sailors on board ships
employ the same frequency/level/duration criteria employed in the norms
already discussed. The difference is that the sailors' "home" environment--
i. e., the cabin where he lives when off-duty—may need noise protection
standards just as much as his duty station does. As shown in Table 9-17
9 — 8
the maritime norms take this into account.
Table 9-17. Maximum Allowable Noise Levels On BoarH
Soviet Ships
Noise situation
ISO No.
Approx. equivalent in dB(A) _
Sailors on duty (measured at
duty station)
Exposure to maximum
level is less than two hours
per day.
Exposure to maximum level
is two-seven hours per day.
Exposure for entire watch at
isolated (remote control) duty
station.
90
80
65
95
85
70
452
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Table 9-17 Continued.
Noise situation
ISO No.
Approx. equivalent in dB(A)
Sailors off duty (measured in
his cabin, common rooms,
rest area)
Exposure is greater than
24 hours at a time.
--8 to 24 hours
--less than 8 hours
--less than 8 hours, and no
facilities for sleeping on
board (river hydrofoils)
40
45
50
55
45
50
55
60
A related regulation COST 11870-66, confirmed in 1966 and being
introduced gradually, is aimed at helping Soviet branch industries meet
norms on noise through correct design and lay-out of industrial plants.
COST 11870-66, "Machines: noise characteristics and their measurement,"
makes it compulsory for noise emission characteristics of all new Soviet
machines to be measured in a standard fashion while they are in the
prototype and testing stage, and to be labeled with noise documentation
when they are produced and sent to the plant where they will be used. It
applies to all machinery including vehicles (while they are stationary) and
mechanized instruments, and also to some machine components such
as gears, but does not cover machinery producing impulse noise. At
present the USSR Committee on Standards is developing maximum noise
453
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emission standards on hand tools, metal-cutting machine tools, and
9-9
on electric motors.
Periodic health examinations are compulsory for workers exposed
to more than 95 dB on the job. The local Trade Union representative
is charged--for pension control purposes — equally with the physicians
9-10
in verifying that the disability was in fact work-related.
Residential and noise sensitive areas.
No.
SN 337-60
SN 535-65
SN 41-58
I 104-53
SN 39-58
SNIP II. V. 6
From
I960
1965
1958
1953A
1958 {
1962 ;
Field of application
Noise levels inside apartment houses
and noise- sensitive buildings.
Supercedes SN 337-60.
Location of housing (e. g. , with respect
to city transport) to reduce noise
immission into housing areas.
Directives: noise control through design
and construction.
Table 9-18. Soviet Norms on Noise in Residences and Similar Buildings.
In the USSR a relatively high percentage of the population lives
in housing particularly vulnerable to noise: un airconditioned, multi-
family apartment buildings, often constructed from prefabricated concrete
panels, and arranged in complexes around common courtyards. Soviet
law covers all three approaches to noise control: (1) control of the
454
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setting (limiting emissions from nearby sources into the housing area)
(2) control in design and construction (quieter buildings), (3) regulations
governing behavior of the residents ("do-not-disturb-your-neighbor" rules).
Noise sensitive buildings such as schools and hospitals are considered
as special cases of the housing category that demand stricter control.
(1) Emissions. Norms protecting housing by limiting industrial
noise coming from adjacent areas were discussed earlier; the
determining measurement is made at the outside of nearby non-industrial
buildings, two meters away from the wall facing the noise. The railroads
are also evidently considered responsible for taking into account the
noise transmitted to both sides of rights-of-way, at least where new
9-11
rights-of-way are concerned. The so-called sanitary protective
zones (sanitarnaya zaschitnaya zona) around Soviet industries are
another Soviet statutory institution that controls the transmission of
industrial noise to the environment. The original scheme was promulgated
by Soviet public-health authorities to isolate the public health problems
(smoke, gases, danger of explosions) of "dirty" industries. The
extent of the sanitary-protective zone depends on the type and size of the
industrial plant, and is legally specified in detailed regulations by class
9-12
and category of industry. Noise has always been one consideration
455
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in the determination of sanitary-protective zones, but recently more
emphasis has been put on the noise aspect, and the concept is being
9-13
adapted for use around airports. As can be seen from Table 9^1
the responsibility of industry for its noise emission to buildings
erected inside a sanitary-protective zone is about 5 dB(A) less severe
than for other buildings.
The effect of traffic noise on housing and other buildings, is
controlled by SN 41-58, "Rules and norms of city planning and construction,
(issued by Gosstroy, 1958) and subsequent modifications. No. 41-58
specifies methods of planning of streets, apartments locations, vegetation
plantings, and noise abatement on city transport systems to reduce
noise problems*.
(2) Control of design and construction; noise-level norms. These
norms take over at the boundary of the housing region, using the existing
external noise environment as a "given" and specifying noise abatement
methods to be used in situ. Maximum permissible noise levels are
specified by SN 337-60, as superceeded by the more comprehensive
SN 535-65, and the building insulation and construction design specifications
456
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needed to meet them are specified by SN 39-58 (with I 104-53) and
later modifications thereof.
SN 337-60 specified the maximum noise levels of noise immission
into residential areas of apartment buildings (In the USSR many apartment
ouildings have retail stores and service industries built into the ground
floor. ) These maximum levels were specified by measurements inside
the rooms as follows:
Daytime (8 am to 10 pm) ISO octave band curve index No. 30
Night time (10 pm to 8 am) ISO octave band curve index No. 25
These levels are approximately equal to 35 dB(A) for daytime and 30 dB(A)
at night, and preliminary noise checks by Soviet authorities may be made
•with a noise meter registering in dB(A). However, the standard was
relaxed by 5dB for buildings whose windows faced the principle street
of a neighborhood, and by 10 dB if they faced a main city traffic artery.
Thus, for example, maximum noise allowed in a livingroom facing a
main city artery would be 45 dB(A) during the day and 40 dB(A) at night.
It can be seen how this relaxation "dovetails" with the SN 41-58 norms,
meeting potential objections of the city planner that limits inside housing
should be practicable. Under SN 337-60, measurements were to be
taken in furnished rooms with the windows and doors closed. If the room
was unfurnished then the maximum readings were allowed to be 3 dB higher
457
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across the board to compensate for reverberation effects. If impulse
noise or pure tones of noise were present, they were taken into account
by making standards 5 dB stricter, across the board.
SN 535-65 superceeds SN 337-60; it incorporates the features
of 337-60 but is much more comprehensive. It may be considered
the definitive Soviet norm on noise in housing. It specifies limits
both inside buildings and outside buildings, in the communal land of
the apartnent complex. Moreover, the factors included in determining
the maximum permissible noise level for a particular housing unit
include not only the time of day and whether there are nearby major
roads, but also the time of year, duration of the noise, and whether the
setting is urban or suburban. Table 9-19 gives the basic norms.
Table 9-19. Basic Norms of SN 535-65 (before adjustment).
Location
Inside the rooms of apartments:
Outside apartment buildings
(courtyards, recreation spaces):
ISO curve
no.
25
35
dB(A) equivalent as
given by Soviets
30
40
To these basic norms are added or subtracted the adjustments in Table 9-20.
The maximum permissible noise levels for a particular housing
situation may be calculated from the tables. It is interesting that less
458
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Table 9-20.
SN 535-65: Table of Adjustments for Determining the Norms
for a Particular ^Residential Situation.
Situational factor
Correction to octave-band curves:
Amount by which the index No. is
to be shifted, more restrictive (-)
or less restrictive (+)
Quality of noise;
pure tones present
impulse noise present
Total time of noise duration in daytime
(7 am to 11 pm), in each and every 8-hour
period;
50-100% of time
12-50%
3-12 %
0.8-3%
0.2-0.8%
less than 0.2%
Time of day:
daytime (7 am to 11 pm)
night-time (11 pm to 7 am)
Time of year:
winter (windows closed)
summer (windows open)
Proximity of major city transport lines;
absent
principle neighborhood road
main city artery or inter-city highway
Location of housing area :
in the suburbs
city development
within a sanitary-protective zone
-5
-5
0
+5
+10
+15
+20
+25
+10
0
+5
0
0
-5
+10
-5
0
+10
(Adjustments to be added to basic SN 535-65 norms given in Table 9-19.^
459
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severe norms are in effect for housing sited near freeways (main
city artery or inter-city highway) and in sanitary-protective zones.
Referring to Table 9-20, for example, we see that a
housing area in a city near a busy neighborhood road gets extra
protection, (-5 dB) but if it is near a freeway it is "written off";
the maximum noise level is raised, evidently in deference to the technical
difficulty of coping with heavy, continuous traffic noise (+10 dB).
Control of .design and construction; practice. SN 39-58
(with I 104-53 and modified by SNiP II. V. 6.62) covers noise abatement
practices to be observed "by all design and building organizations" for
the sound insulation of "apartment houses, dormitories, hotels, schools,
children's institutions, hospitals, and public administration buildings. "
No limits in terms of dB numbers are specified. Among other points
covered are the following:
1) Structures containing intense noise sources must be sited
at a distance from buildings in which quiet is needed.
2) Kitchens and sanitary facilities in dormitories and hotels,
and sanitary facilities in apartments should be located in a
separate construction cell insulated with wooden material,
or they should be separated from living rooms and bedrooms
by a hall, corridor, etc. These construction cells should be
sited vertically one above the other on the various floors. If
it is necessary to locate a sanitary facility adjacent to a
living room, installation of the facility on the common partition
is not permitted.
460
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3) Kitchens and sanitary facilities are not to be located
adjacent to classrooms or hospital wards.
4) Dining rooms not to be adjacent or over classrooms,
living quarters, or hospital wards.
5) Boiler rooms, elevators, pumps are not to be located
directly under or adjacent to living quarters, childrens1
rooms, or class rooms.
6) Trash shafts are not to be adjacent to living quarters.
7) Water and sewage pipes should not be set in the walls
adjacent to living quarters.
8) Prohibited is the direct fastening to the construction
elements of the building of electric motors, pumps, transformers,
and other equipment producing noise. Instead they must be
mounted in or on separate structures isolated from the rest
of the building structure.
9) Also included are construction guidelines for making
party walls and doors more soundproof for the same weight
of materials.
More specific construction guidelines are given in SNiP II. V. 6. 62.
In particular, they specify minimum allowable attenuation of airborne
sound through a partition, and minimum of attenuation of impact
sound and airborne sound through floors and ceilings. These limits are
not to be measured by in_s_itu measurements, however, but rather by
specification of certain wall and floor constructions deemed to satisfy
the requirements.
461
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(3) Regulations governing the behavior of residents. The
law of 26 July 1966 makes the creation of a public nuisance or behavior
in a public place 'insulting1 to the social order a minor criminal
offense; noise nuisance is included under this law. The maximum
penalties are: a fine of 10-30 rubles or 10-15 days confinement or one
to two months corrective labor (e. g. street cleaning) with confiscation
of 20% of pay. Many city governing councils have passed similar
9-14
local statutes adapted to their special circumstances.
Enforcement and Effectiveness
Enforcement of the Soviet norms is not strong even though
they have the force of law. Why this should be so is a complex question.
Part of the answer lies in poor organization of the administrative system
responsible for enforcing the norms, but even with better organization
it is doubtful that things would improve. Enforcing any norm in a
centralized system as vast as that in the Soviet Union is difficult and
slippage is likely to occur somewhere between the top and the bottom,
even for priority items such as Communist Party business or--in the
sphere of environmental problems--water usage and water pollution.
Compared to water and air pollution, noise has low priority. A second
462
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problem is economic: factory managers and regional officials have
no incentives to encourage them to protect the environment, but
9-15
rather have many pressures on tnem to ignore it. A third problem
is political in nature: the proponents of noise abatement and control
do not have the 'clout' to get the sustained attention of top Soviet
leadership, nor does their cause have the priority given to national
security or increased industrial production.
Enforcement
Enforcement apparatus. The various sanitary norms and
other norms enumerated above were developed chiefly in the Soviet
Ministry of Health and confirmed, or "enacted", by the Chief Sanitary
Physician of the USSR, the head of the VTsSPS (All-Uhion Central
Council of Trade Unions), and Gosstroy (State Committee on Construction
Affairs), acting either jointly or alone. Thus the norms have the form
of administrative law. Underlying them, however, is the recent version
of the "Bases of law of the USSR and union-republics concerning health,"
confirmed in 19&9 by the Supreme Soviet. This basic code of the USSR
on health specifically covers noise pollution. It assigns primary statutory
responsibility for implementation and enforcement to the Sanitary-Epidemiological
463
-------
Service (SES) and its regional and municipal stations throughout the
USSR. It also obliges all factory managers, administrators, and
officials, (especially members of the city councils) to cooperate fully
with the SES. For factory managers, this means responsibility for
on-the-job medical and health care, and the provision of office and
logistical support to representatives of the SES. Under the Osnovy
violations of sanitary norms are punishable by "disciplinary action,
administrative action, or punishment under the criminal code."
Furthermore, the Osnovy make all citizens responsible for cooperating
with the SES by observing sanitary norms and reporting infractions in
"factories, residences, public buildings, apartment complex courtyards,
9-9
streets, and city squares."
The sanitary norms promulgated by the Ministry of Health
are minimum standards: they do not preclude a Soviet ministry from
making stricter noise limits for its branch of industry. However, the
Ministry of Railroad Transport is the only example we have found of a
Soviet ministry that has done so. Its stricter norm (ON 20-62) has been
previously mentioned.
464
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A legal instrument of even less force than the sanitary norms
are the Declarations (postanovleniye) of the Council of Ministers of the
Supreme Soviet or the Central Committee of the Communist party, which
indicate basic policy concerns of the Government in a general way
without including specific regulations. Ministries are formally obliged
to take the Declarations into account. Recent Declarations concerning
noise include:
(Central Committee of Communist Party) "Concerning
measures for the further improvement of health and the development of
medicine," 1968,
(Council of Ministers) "Concerning measures for limiting
noise in industry," I960.
The i960 measure obligated ministries and institutions to
improve equipment whose noise exceeded the sanitary norms, and
to develop noise control measures. It also obligated scientific research
institutes (NNIs) to develop new quieter machines to replace those
present types whose noise could not be lowered (for example, presses,
9-9
textile equipment).
R&D work to combat noise and vibration in the construction
materials industry, the iron and steel industry, and non-ferrous metals
465
-------
industry is carried on at. a low level. Work to develop quieter machinery
9-9
in the textile industry has been "quiet insignificant".
Such ineffectiveness of the Declarations is not surprising.
Council of Ministers Declarations about a Soviet concern of much
higher priority--water conservation--have also been flouted, especially
when the offending institution is either geographically remote from
Moscow, or invaluable to the economy, or both. Council of Ministers
Declarations of i960, if obeyed, might have prevented the pollution of
Lake Baikal. A follow-up Council of Ministers Declaration of 1969
ordered pollution of the lake to be stopped immediately, and made local
official personally responsible. It, too, was ignored by local industries.
A declaration of September 1971, ordering a speedy clean-up of the lake
within firm deadlines, will probably command more obedience because
it is signed by the Central Committee of the Communist Party as well
as the Council of Ministers, but how many results even this directive
achieves remains to be seen. The offending institutions are mostly
cellulose and paper plants. If water conservation has fared no better
than this, the lower-priority field of noise abatement and control has
surely fared worse. The declarations/directives of the Council of Ministers
466
-------
have little effect unless they are backed up by a systematic promulgation
of rules and regulations by lower-level administrative and industrial
org:anizations.
Examples of non-enforcement. A few samples of non-enforcement
taken from Soviet sources will suffice to give the picture.
An open transformer substation in a Moscow residential
neighborhood has been exceeding the industrial emission standards of
SN 245-63. The Moscow SES detected the violation and took measures
to have the local branch of the Ministry of Electric Power abate the nuisance.
However, despite repeated promises by the Ministry to take action, the
noise from the substation has not been controlled and will probably increase
this year when more electrical equipment is added.
A power plant being built in Tashkent was checked by the
local SES to see if the construction techniques and materials being used
would be sufficient ot protect personnel in the control room from noise
emissions from the generator room. Sound insulation capacity of the
structure failed to meed the provisions of SN 205-56 and 245-63 by
over 20 dB. Some modifications of Phase Two of the construction were
467
-------
proposed by the SES to improve the situation but there has been no
indication that such modifications have actually been performed.
Similarly, there was no mention of correcting the insufficiencies
9-17
already existing at the end of Phase One of construction.
The city of Kiev launched a massive campaign to abate
existing noise problems in factories in and around the city. At that
time (1964) the industrial norms SN 205-56 had been in effect over eight
years. Yet the local SES found violations as flagrant as:
Shop No. 7 of motorcycle factory ' 150-170 dB
'Bol'shevik11 factory, heat-treating shop 115-120 dB
Although many of these violations were corrected, the SES and the local
city authorities combined were unable to get cooperation from factories
belonging to certain national ministries, nor from certain design and
construction agencies.
A survey of noise in housing in Minsk showed that external
noise was causing noise levels inside apartments exceeding allowable
9 18
norms (SN 337-60) by as much as 29 dB.
It may be asked why such cases come to light at all, given
468
-------
the controlled nature of the Soviet press. Most of these cases were
printed either in professional journals which are under the control of
the Ministry of Health and have a small circulation, or in the newspapers
when higher authorities have decided to expose the inefficiency or
ineptness of a local official or the institution with which he is affiliated.
Effectiveness
Limitations on the effectiveness of the SES. As has been
mentioned, the SES has primary statutory responsibility for enforcement
of norms dealing with noise. The SES has the right to prohibit or to
stop temporarily the operation of machines, shops within factories, or
entire industrial enterprises if they are incapable of operating within
the sanitary norms. There are several considerations limiting the
authority of the SES in practice, however. First, there are operational
problems. Each local SES station has multiple statutory duties, of
which noise control is only one. The SES is also responsible, among
other things, for food inspection, water and air pollution control, control
of contagious diseases, supervision of sanitary conditions in rest camps,
schools, and multi-family housing units. In the course of events both
the overall effectiveness of the SES station and the emphasis placed on
noise control may vary from place to place. Second, there are political
469
-------
constraints. The SES must work with the local city or regional
authorities. A proposal to set up separate city noise inspectorates
might be developed by the local SES stations of Leningrad and Moscow
for example, but it would have to be approved by the Chief of the SES
and the city committees involved. Third, a factory manager confronted
with violations of the noise norms in his plant that are technologically
impossible to correct has had the right to request an exemption.
When noise abatement in conformance with limits set by
the sanitary norms is "impossible without considerable changes or
demolishing existing buildings, deviations are permitted in agreement
with the VTsSPS (^Central Council of the Trade Unions] and the SES. "
(SN 205-56, section A. 8) Although the complete SNIP 785-69 is not
presently available it is assumed that some form of this provision
remains in the most recent norms, for otherwise a large portion of
Soviet industrial plant could not legally continue to operate if the norms
were enforced.
Areas of strength and weakness. Under the present system,
observation of the norms on noise by lower-level institutions is almost
optional. The effectiveness of noise control depends on the type of
noise and the Ministry of local jurisdiction involved.
470
-------
The cities of Kiev, Lvov, and to a lesser extent Moscow
have had concerted anti-noise campaigns; other cities have not. In
the case of Moscow, 'starting a concerted effort1 seems to amount to
nothing more than taking steps to implement locally the norms and
9-20
various regulations already existing.
The railway norms are probably fairly well enforced,
because the Ministry promulgated on its own initiative stricter norms
to protect its engineers, and also considered the subject important
enough to issue a full text book describing specific means of noise
9-11
abatement in rolling stock, switches, and repair facilities. Also,
the correspondence courses of the Ministry designed for further technical
training of its personnel include a mandatory section on the noise norms
and their application.
The maritime norms are probably fairly well enforced,
even though they are "stricter than the ISO recommendations. " It is
reported that they are fairly easy to meet except where crew cabins
have been located near engine rooms near the stern, and also in the
hydrofoil-class boats. There have been noise surveys on the smaller
river-class boats (where it is much more difficult to separate crew from
471
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motors), and at least one comprehensive report of succesful abatement
9-21
measures on existing boats has been published.
The noise provisions of the building codes are probably
one of the areas most poorly enforced. Moreover, in trying to meet
the codes, designers often specify certain construction practices that
(like the British code) are deemed to satisfy the code; i. e. the guidelines
accompanying the norms indicate that a certain type of partition will
provide so many decibels of isolation of airborne sound. In fact
recommended design practices, even when followed, do not always provide
the promised performance, as a study of a Kiev hospital showed.
The ministries in charge of textiles and mining have evidently
been slow in taking feasible stops to abate noise in their enterprises.
The whole area of noise-sensitive institutions (schools,
hospitals, etc.) has evidently not been given sufficient attention, although
existing norms do devote some special attention to them. The appearance
of a new Sanitary Norm dealing exclusively with such institutions would
be one indicator of Soviet efforts to do more in this area.
472
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The COST standard program in effect since 1966 that was
mentioned earlier seems a promising approach for the Soviets,
because by designing quiet into machinery and certificating equipment
for certain noise emissions, they can take a least-cost approach to
their industrial noise problem, and one that avoids reliance on individual
factory officials for abating noise problems ex post facto. However,
as was mentioned, the COST program is moving slowly and selectively
from one branch of industry to another.
Another promising approach being pushed by the Soviets is
the very widespread use of ear protectors in industry. This could
become a very strong part of the Soviet noise control program because of
its relative inexpensiveness; however, there is insufficient data at
present to determine how far along the Soviet program now is.
In the non-industrial area of housing and city noise, the
least-cost analogy of the COST program is Soviet attempts to separate
people from noise sources through better city and regional planning. The
new zoning directives reportedly being worked out for the location of new
airports and highways, should give some indication of whether the
Soviets will really give more emphasis to noise criteria in their planning
processes.
473
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9. 13 Yugoslavia
Laws concerning noise in Yugoslavia
The few existing Yugoslav laws on noise were passed within
the last two years, although government agencies have been monitoring
noise levels in all kinds of settings for over ten years. The Yugoslavs
have ingeniously used both their own experience and the best of foreign
practice in constructing their laws, drawing from sources including
ISO recommendations, and Swiss zoning practice. In fact, part of one
law (Zagreb) closely resembles the form of a similar Soviet law.
Laws. There are two national laws and one local law
dealing directly with noise. The "Noise insulation in buildings" law
of August 1970 stipulates the allowed level of noise to be taken into
account in the design of new buildings, and makes the testing of the sound-
insulation qualities of building materials compulsory.
The "General measures and standards for protection from
noise in working premises law" (O opcim mjerama i normativima
zastite na radu od buke u radnim prostorijama) of July 1971 sets a
basic maximum standard of 90 dB(A) (equivalent to ISO curve NR-85)
for occupational exposure to noise (article 8-5), adjusted for pure
474
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tones and impulse noise (article 13), for noise duration and with
a 3 dB tolerance on the limits for frequency components (article 20).
This law was based on (1) Yugoslav research that included over
2000 measurements in working places, the results of which indicated
that noise in the 4000 Hertz octave band most frequently exceeded
the norm set by NR-85, (2) the U.S. Walsh-Healy Law, and (3) the
ISO NR curves.9"42
The local law for the town of Zagreb,"Guidelines for the
limitation of noise in the town of Zagreb" (Smjernice za ogranicavanje
buke na podrucju grada Zagreba\ specifies noise climates for six
land-use zones (from hospital zones to heavy industry) in exactly the
same way as the Swiss guidelines. There is also a complicated series
of adjustments to the basic standard of ISO NR-35 for calculating
specific standards for different zones, times of day, duration
and types of noise. The form of this section is quite similar to that of
Soviet norms SN 535-65, which set limits on noise immissions into
residential areas.
Enforcement. --The "Noise insulation in buildings" law
is observed in the testing of all new construction materials and in the
planning of new industrial and residential buildings. However, since the
475
-------
law does not give detailed regulations for noise control in the design
of such buildings as theatres, radio and television stations,
Yugoslav architects use VOI and ASA guidelines instead.
Preliminary data gathered by the Yugoslavs show that the
provisions of the "Noise in working premises" law are being "broadly
used," confirming the wisdom of the framers1 attempt "to be realistic,
to have prescriptions which are practical and will be accepted by people."""
In the past noise abatement work was hardly ever .undertaken in
industry or schools but more frequently done in offices, computer centers,
and banks. Treatment for noise control has become almost customary
9-43
in new buildings.
476
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9. 14 References
9-1. Private Communication, Commonwealth Acoustics
Laboratories, Sydney, Australia, September 24, 1971.
9-2. "Wien schaft Gesetz gegen Baulaerm", Presse, August 7, 1971.
9-3. Marinov, U. , Gale, J., eds. The Environment in Israel
Israeli National Council for Research and Development
Jerusalem, 1971.
9-4. Denisov, E. I., "Novyye sanitarnyye normy po shumu" Gigiena
truda i professional'nyye zabolovaniya, Vol. 14, No. 5,
pp. 47-48, 1970.
9-5. Karagodina, I. L., Osilov, T. L. ,at al. Gorodskiye i zhilishchno
kommunal'nyye shumi i bor'ba s nimi, Mpscow, Meditsina,
1964.
9-6. Il'yashuk, Yu., M., Izmereniya i normirovaniye pro! zvodstvennogo
shuma, Profizdat, 1964.
9-7. Orlova, T.A.. Problema bor'by s shumom na promyshlennikh
predpriyatiyakh. Moscow, Meditsina, 1965.
9-8. Vozzhova, A. I. , Zakharov, V.K. Zashchita ot shuma i
vibratsiina sovremennykh sredstvakh transporta, Leningrad,
Meditsina, 1968.
9-9. Chudnov, V., V poiskakh tishiny Moscow, Moskovskiy
Rabochiy, 1971
9-10. Yanin, L. V. ed.t Sbornik vazhneyshikh ofitsial'nykh
materialov po voprosam gigieny truda i proizvodstvennoy
sanitarii. Moscow, Meditsinskaya literatura, 1962.
9-11. Bobin, Ye. V., Bor'ba s proizvodstvennym shumom i
vibratsiey na zheleznodorozhnom transporte. Moscow,
"Transport", 1967.
477
-------
9-12. Sidorenko, S. S. ed. Spravochnik po tekhnike bezopostnosti
i proizvodstvennoy sanitarii, Vol. 5, Leningrad,
Sudostroeniye, 1964.
9-13. Kalyuzhnyi, D. N. , et al. '"Gigienicheskaya problema
ozdonovlenia vneshnei sredy v svyazi s razvitiem
promyshlennosti i stroitel'stva naselennykh meat" Gigiena
i Sanitariya, Vol. 32, pp. 315-319, 1967.
9-14. Sbornik Zakonov SSSR 1936-1967, Vol II, Moscow, Izvestiya,
Sov. Deputatov, 1968
9-15. Kaiser, R. G., "Soviets order lake clean-up", Washington
Post, September 25, 1971.
9-16. "Spasite nashi ushi" Izvestiya,September 17, 1971.
9-17. Popov, P. Ye., "Meropriyatiya po snizheniyu shuma na
Tashkentskoi; GRES" Gigiena i sanitariya . Vol. 32,
pp. 107-109, 1967.
9-18. Perotskaya, A.S., "Mery bor'by s bytovymi shumami i
zadacha organov sanitarnogo nadzora" Gigiena i sanitariya.,
Vol. 28, No. 5, pp. 62-66, 1963.
9-19. Shalashov, N. Ya., "A clinical-physiological assessment
of the effectiveness of several kinds of ear protectors"
Gigiena truda i profesaional'nyye zabolovaniya, Vol. 14,
No. 5, pp. 46-47, 1970.
9-20. "The noise level will be reduced" Moscow Zdorov'ye
No. 7, pp. 1-2, July 1970.
9-21. Petrov, V.I., Gutman, R.B. et al. "Sanitarno-gigienicheskaya
kharakteristika shuma na sukhogruznykh teplokhodakh
gruzopod'emnost'iu 1200-l800t u effektivnost1 protivoshumovykh
meropriyatiy" Gigiena truda i professional'nye zabolevaniya
Vol. 12, No. 5, pp. 19-22, 1968.
478
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9-22, Chavasse, P., "La lutte centre le bruit en France:
reglements et organismes" Electronica y fisica aplicada
No. 11, pp. 47-56, Jan/March 1968.
9-23. Wiethaup, H., "Laermbekaempfung in Frankreich"
Laermbekaempfung, pp. 26-27, Feb/March 1964.
9-24. Silence, No. 1, p. 9, 1971
9-25. Alexandre, Ariel Prevision de la gene due au bruit
autour des aeroports et perspectives sur -lea moyens d'y
remedier, Paris, Centre d'Etudes et de Recherches
d'Anthropologie Appliquee, 1970.
9-26. Dreyfus, C., "Le bruit qui rend fou" Nouvel Observatuer
April 20, 1970.
9-27. Gilles, M., "Legislation concernant le bruit" Silence
No. 38, pp. 3-7, 1970.
9-28. Bouvier, L.,"Noise before the courts" Defense de 1'nomine
contre les pollutions; air-bruit-eau Paris, Colloque de Royan
1970.
9-29. Audiotecnica, No. 1,2,3, 1967.
9-30. Cottino, V., "Awaiting the legal reform: considerations
and remedies" Audiotecnica No. 5, Sept-Oct 1957.
9-31. Doit, A. V., "Noise control experience in Italy and in
foreign countries" jNoise and Smog News, Vol. 17,
Nos. 1,4, January & December 1969.
9-32. Noise and Smog News. Vol. 18, pp. 171, 1970.
9-33. "Roms Polizei aktiv gegen Laermsuender" Kampf dem Laerm
No. 2, p. 2, 1966.
9-34. Government of Norway. The United Nations Conference
on the Human Environment, a National Report, 1971.
479
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9-35. Persson, L. ed. Miljoskydd, Stockholm, Allmanna, 1971.
9-36. Svensk Forfattningssamling. Milioskyddslag, No. 387,
June 24, 1969.
9-37. Government of Denmark Country Monograph on Problems
Relating to Environment, 1971.
9-38. Wilson, A., ed., Noise. Final Report of the Committee on
the Problem of Noise., London, Her Majesty's Stationary
Office, 1963.
9-39. Cronin, J. B., "Aspects of the Law Relating to Noise from
Power Plant. Equipment" Proceedings of the Institute
of Mechanical Engineers. Vol. 181, Pt 3c pp. 19-25, 1966-67.
9-40. Dueren, C., Noise Control, London, 1970.
9-41. Environmental Health Report, London, Association of Public
Health Inspectors, 1970.
9-42. Private Communication from Jadranbrod Inc., Zagreb,
Yugoslavia, October 6, 1971.
9-43. Private communication from the Acoustics Section of
ETAN, Belgrade, October 15, 1971.
9-44. Private Communication from the Federal Health
Office ("Eidgenoissisches Gesundheitsamt. "), Bern,
August 18, 1971.
9-45. Schweizerischer Ingenieur und Architekten Verein. Empfehlungen
fuer Schallschutz im Wohnungsbau, S.I. A. 181, Zurich, 1970.
9-46. Schenker-Spruengli, O., "Fortschritte der Laermbekaempfung
in der Schweiz" Laermbekaempfung No. 3, pp. 27-28, June 1969.
480
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9-47. Private communication from the
Centre d'Etudes Bioclimatiques, Strasbourg, France,
October 13, 1971.
9-48. Private communication from the Division of Tmmission and
Environmental Protection in the Ministry of Labor,
Health and Social Affairs, September 14,, 1971.
9-49. "Verordnung ueber genehmigungsbeduerftige Anlagen
nach Paragraph 16 der Gewerbeordnung" July 1971.
9-50. Wiethaup, H., Laermbekaempfung in der Bundesrepablik
Deutschland. Koeln, Carl Heymann, Verlag, 1967.
9-51. "Allgemeine Verwaltungsvorschrift ueber genehmigungsbeduerftige
Anlagen nach Paragraph 16 der Gewerbeordnung"
Laermbekaempfung, No. 5/6, pp, 140-146, 1968.
9-52. Verein Deutscher Ingenieure. Richtlinie 2058; Beurteilung
und Abwehr von Arbeitslaerm. Duesseldorf, August 1968.
9-53. Lassally, O., "Critical remarks on the new VDI guidelines
2058" Laermbekaempfung. Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 97-98, 1969.
9-54. "Verordnung ueber die bauliche Nutzung der Grundstuecke"
(Baunutzungsverordnung-Bau NVO), November 1968.
9-55. "Baulaermurteil des Bundesgerichthofes" Laermbekaempfung.
Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 99-100, 1968.
9-56. "Gesetz zum Schutz gegen Fluglaerm" Bundesgesetzblatt,
I., p. 282, 1971.
9-57. "Luftverkehrsgesetz" Bundesgesetzblatt, I., p. 1113,
November 4, 1968).
9-58. Laermbekaempfung, Vol. 13, No. 5, p. 126, 1969.
481
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9-59. Laermbekaempfung, Vol. 7, Nos. 3/4, 1963; Vol. 11,
Nos. 2/3, 1967; Vol. 13, No. 1, 1969; Vol. 14, No. 1, 1970;
Vol. 15, No. 1, 1971.
9-60. Wiethaup, H., Laermbekaempfung,Vol. 12, Nos. 5/6,
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