EPA FIVE-YEAR NOISE EFFECTS
RESEARCH PLAN
DRAFT
EJBD
ARCHIVE
EPA
950-
D-
79-
001
NOVEMBER 19, 1979
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SUMMARY: HEALTH CONSEQUENCES OF CHRONICALLY NOISE-DISTURBED SLEEP
EPA GRANT TO: STANFORD UNIVERSITY
I. Objectives
The objectives of the proposed work are: (1) to determine by a number of
simultaneous physiological and other measures in the field, the effects of
noise on sleep and subsequent daytime functioning, and (2) to test for
recuperation or improvement in these parameters as a result of quiet, un-
disturbed sleep in the laboratory.
Phase 1 will monitor cardiovascular measures, respiration, temperature, and
physical activity, over a 24-hour period, by use of an ambulatory monitor
which will be worn throughout Phase 1.
For the first few days, these parameters will be monitored during regular work
on the job. The last two days, subjects will report to the laboratory, where
daytime measures will include the Multiple Sleep Latency Test (MSLT) (an
objective measure of sleepiness), the Stanford Sleepiness Scale and a Mood
Scale. Performance tests will also be conducted. Nighttime measures, all
taken in the home, will include standard sleep monitoring, and three acoustic
monitors, the data to be transmitted by telephone.
In Phase II, subjects will sleep in a quiet laboratory, where sleep measures
will be the same as those in Phase I. Phase II again monitors subjects around-
the-clock using the ambulatory microprocessor. Subjects will go to work as
usual for several days, and then report to the laboratory for MSLTs and other
tests on succeeding days.
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Subjects will be males between 40 and 50 years old who sleep with bed
partners (who will also be instrumented for limited nighttime monitoring),
and whose jobs expose them to relatively low levels of noise. Ten subjects
will be chosen from a high-impact neighborhood exposed to aircraft noise.
Ten controls will be matched on a number of relevant parameters, but will
live in a quiet neighborhood (the controls may not participate in Phase II).
II. Relationship of this Project to Program's Mission
This study is an integral step in the development of criteria for health
effects due to chronic sleep disturbance by noise, as detailed in the EPA
Five-Year Noise Effects Research Plan (Initiative II: Health Consequences
of Noise-Disturbed Sleep). The study involves cardiovascular and respiratory
measures monitored on a 24-hour basis in the field and laboratory and will
thus also contribute to the nonauditory noise effects program as well.
The following protocol is subject to change in consultation with EPA.
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SUMMARIZED PROTOCOL FOR STUDY OF HEALTH CONSEQUENCES OF NOISE-DISTURBED SLEEP
PHASE I
ONE WEEK BEFORE NIGHT ONE - START SLEEP/WAKE DIARY
TWO DAYS BEFORE NIGHT ONE - START AMBULATORY MONITOR
NIGHT ONE -
TEST SUBJECT - TELEPHONIC SLEEP RECORDING
- ACOUSTIC RECORDING
- PHYSIOLOGICAL RECORDINGS FROM AMBULATORY MONITOR
BED PARTNER - OVERNIGHT AMBULATORY MONITOR
- ACOUSTIC RECORDING
DAYS TWO AND THREE:
- GO TO WORK AS-USUAL WITH AMBULATORY MONITOR.
NIGHTS TWO AND THREE:
- AS FOR NIGHT ONE
DAY FOUR:
- SUBJECT TRAVELS TO SLEEP LABORATORY AND UNDERGOES MULTIPLE SLEEP
LATENCY TESTS (MSLT) AND PERFORMANCE TESTS
NIGHT FOUR:
- AS FOR NIGHT ONE.
DAY FIVE:
- AS FOR DAY FOUR
PHASE II
This phase of the project will involve the test subjects but may not involve the
control subjects. The procedures will be the same as for PHASE ONE except that:
The nocturnal recordings will take place in the sleep recording laboratory
and will occur in a normal (low noise) environment.
The nocturnal recordings will run for five successive nights. Subjects
will work as usual during the first three days, and as before, attend the labora-
tory for multiple sleep latency tests during the last two days of the procedure.
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THE EPA FIVE-YEAR NOISE EFFECTS
RESEARCH PLAN
DRAFT
Repository Material
Permanent Collection
DO NOT QUOTE OR CITE
November 19, 1979
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EPA NOISE EFFECTS RESEARCH PLAN
Table of Contents
Contents Paee
1. Introduction 1~ 1
1.1 Legislative and Programmatic Requirements 1- 1
for Research
1.2 Goals of the EPA Research Program 1- 4
1.3 Reader's Guide to the Research Plan 1- 8
2. Overall Priorities for the EPA Noise Effects Research Plan 2- 1
2.1 Overall Results of Priority Analysis 2- 2
2.2 Level of Emphasis A (Highest Level) 2- 3
2.2.1 Nonauditory Physiologic Effects 2- 3
2.3 Level of Emphasis B 2-6
2.3.1 Sleep Disturbance 2- 6
2.3.2 Individual and Community Response 2- 8
2.4 Level of Emphasis C 2-12
2.4.1 Noise-Induced Hearing Loss 2-12
2.4.2 Behavioral, Social and Performance 2-15
Effects
2.5 Level of Emphasis D 2-18
2.5.1 Communication Interference 2-18
2.6 Level of Emphasis E (Lowest Level) 2-19
2.6.1 Effects of Noise on Wildlife 2-19
3. EPA's Research Plan in Detail (Introduction) 3- 1
3.1 Definition of Long-range Objective 3- 1
3.2 Definition of Short-term Objectives and 3- 1
Base Year
3.3 Definition of Research Initiatives 3- 2
ii
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Table of Contents (Cont'd)
Contents Page
3.4 Concept of Evolution in Research 3-2
(the Research Continuum)
3.5 Contents of the Research Flan for Each Category 3-6
3.6 Establishing Fiscal Year Funding Levels 3-6
3.7 Assumptions 3—3
*4. Research Plan for Nonauditory Physiologic Effects 4-1
*5. Research Plan for Sleep Disturbance 5-1
*6. Research Plan for Individual and Community Response 6-1
*7. Research Plan for Noise-Induced Hearing Loss 7-1
*8. Research Plan for Behavioral, Social and Performance 8-1
Effects
*9. Research Plan for Communication Interference 9-1
*10. Research Plan for Effects of Noise on Wildlife and 10-1
Other Animals
*11. Research Plan for Exposure Characterization 11-1
12. Summary
12.1 Integrated Research Initiatives, by Fiscal Year 12-1
12.2 Integrated Schedule of Expected Results FY 81-85 In progress
12.3 Integrated Schedule of Evaluation/Decision
Points During the Plan Period In progress
12.4 Relationships to EPA Five-Year Noise Plan In progress
12.5 Looking Ahead: After the First Five Years In progress
See the detailed Table of Contents for each of the Research Plans.
These can be found at the beginning of Chapters 4 through 11.
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Title
3-1 Identified Research Initiatives 3-3
3-2 Research Continuum in the Development
and Requirement of Health Effects
Criteria 3-5
3-3 Items Included in the Plan for Each
Research Category 3-7
4-1 Position on the Research Continuum -
Nonauditory Physiologic Effects 4-8
4-2 Estimated Levels of Co-Support
From Other Agencies in the Non-
auditory Physiologic Effects
Research Category $-11
5-1 Position on the Research Continuum -
Sleep Disturbance 5-7
6-1 Position on the Research Continuum -
Individual and Community Response 6-5
7-1 Position on the Research Continuum -
Noise-Induced Hearing Loss 7-8
8-1 Position on the Research Continuum -
Behavioral, Social and Performance
Effects 8-8
9-1 Position on the Research Continuum -
Communication Interference 9-7
10-1 Position on the Research Continuum -
Wildlife Effects 10-5
12-1 Funding of Plan, by Fiscal Year 12-6
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Title
4-1 Timing and EPA Funding for
Nonauditory Physiologic Effects
Research
4-2 Funding for Nonauditory Physiologic
Research, With and Without Co-Support 4-29
5-1 Timing and EPA Funding for 5-13
Sleep Disturbance Research
6-1 Timing and EPA Funding for 6-16
Individual and Community
Response Research
7-1 Timing and EPA Funding for 7-16
Noise-Induced Hearing Loss
Research
8-1 Timing and EPA Funding for 8-12
Behavioral, Social and
Performance Research
12-1 Aggregate Funding for All
Research Categories, by
Fiscal Year 12-3
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Legislative and Programmatic Requirements for Research
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has the respon-
sibility to protect people from excessive noise that may jeopardize
their health and welfare. The Noise Control Act of 1972, as amended
by the Quiet Communities Act of 1978, recognizes that specific infor-
mation concerning the effects of noise on people is critically needed
in order that EPA may efficiently carry out its mission to coordinate
activities in noise control, to authorize the establishment of Federal
noise emission standards for products distributed in commerce, and to
provide information to the public reflecting the hazardous effects of
noise, and noise levels associated with such effects.
To that end, the Act (as amended) requires EPA to:
"Conduct or finance research...including but not
limited to - investigation of the psychological and
physiological effects of noise...and determination
of dose-response relationships suitable for use in
decision making, with special emphasis on the non-
auditory effects of noise." (Sect. 14. (6)).
These requirements represent a substantial expansion of noise-effects
research responsibilities from those originally set forth in the Noise
Control Act of 1972. Subsequently EPA is required to develop a health
effects research strategy delineating (a) EPA's research objectives over a
five-year period (Fiscal Years 1981-1985), (b) the relative priorities
among various categories of research activities, and (c) a schedule or
timetable of research activities to attain these research objectives.
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In addition to the specific legislative requirements cited
above, research with respect to the effects of noise on public health is
required to support the various components of the EPA noise control
program. On that account, a health effects research strategy must be
responsive to the health-related needs inherent in the EPA noise program
strategy. Elements of concern to the health effects research strategy
include: the development and enforcement of noise emission regulations,
the provision of technical assistance to State and local noise control
efforts, the dissemination of information to the public on the health
effects of noise, research and demonstration of advanced noise control
technology, and the coordination of noise control activities and health
effects research among Federal agencies.
The quantification of the health-related effects of noise
is necessary in the development of all noise related legislation
at the Federal, State and local governmental levels, since the purpose of
such legislation is to protect public health. Citizens and public officials
alike need to be adequately informed as to the health consequences of
noise exposure in order to make rational, efficient, and cost-effective
social decisions to secure a healthy environment. Research is fundamental
to: 1) establishing information on the incidence and severity of health-
related effects such as hearing loss, nonauditory physiologic effects, and
sleep disturbance; 2) developing human response criteria to quantify the
effects and health consequences of noise; and 3) ascertaining a cause-
effect relationship due to specific source environments.
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Other Federal agencies such as the Department of
Transportation, the Department of Defense, and the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration presently support their noise control
activities with research programs vhich investigate both the direct and
indirect health effects caused by exposures to different types of noise
sources or noise containing specific acoustical characteristics. In
many instances, the human response criteria developed by one agency are
incorporated into those standards and policies of another agency.
Ultimately there should be one set of health-related criteria used by all
agencies. Agencies would then develop noise-related policy under their
respective authorities using these criteria based upon specific health
implications as well as social, legal, and economic considerations. How-
ever, the foundation of noise-related policy must rest on an understanding
of basic health effects.
EPA has had extensive experience in monitoring and coordina-
ting the noise effects research of all Federal agencies over the past few
years. In 1977, EPA reconvened a panel of representatives from Federal
agencies vfaich conduct noise research to review the status of all Federal
research activities with respect to the health effects of noise, and to
recommend areas where further research was needed. The Panel found that
over 19 agencies, or major organizations within agencies, conducted health
effects research at a total funding level of approximately six million
dollars annually.* EPA conducted relatively little of this research ($190K
* Federal Noise Research in Noise Effects, (EPA Report 550/9-79-102)
February 1978.
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to $349K in Fiscal Years 1975-1977). (Updated research project and funding
sumnaries from all Federal agencies during the Fiscal Years 1978 to 1980
are now being collected.) While each agency's noise-related research
might adequately support its own limited mission and goal, the Panel found
that taken in its totality, the overall pattern of research on noise effects
contained numerous gaps in the health effects data base and limitations
in existing human response criteria. Although some health effects criteria
were already being applied, other potentially severe health consequences
of environmental and occupational noise exposures were not being adequately
addressed. The Panel report recommended that steps be taken to fill these
gaps. To that end, EPA and other Federal agencies have initiated several
research projects (described in Chapters 4-12). The Panel report has also
been instrumental in the design of the present health effects research
strategy* and the specification of numerous research priorities.
1.2 Goals of the EPA Research Program
The overall goal of an EPA research program is stated below.
This goal is based on: 1) the fundamental importance of health effects
information in support of noise control legislation and policies;
2) knowledge of the status of existing health and welfare criteria and
data.
Overall goal: To improve the noise related health and welfare
data base, refine existing criteria, and develop
quantified dose-response criteria where they are
lacking.
* This strategy will be referred to as the Research Plan.
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Only through the development of quantified dose-response criteria
can a thorough understanding of the health implications of noise be obtained
and health benefits be properly ascribed to all noise control actions, whether
taken on Federal, State or local levels.
The overall EPA research program goal has been broken down into
a number of specific objectives for various identified categories of noise-
effects research. The research categories used are similar to those cited in
the previously discussed EPA Panel Report. Further, EPA Research Initiatives
have been proposed in the present strategy to meet these specific objectives.
Each Initiative will be expressed in one or more research projects, evolving
in a time-phased manner, Co answer major research questions in a defined area.
In determining the content of the Research Initiatives, EPA will consider the
specific programmatic applications of any research finding to particular
noise control activities undertaken by either EPA, other Federal agencies,
State and local communities, or the private sector.
EPA has a responsibility to make the latest research results
available to both the general public and to State and local noise control
officials in order to collectively meet our nation's noise control needs.
For example, the public is more likely to make informed decisions regarding
the purchase of quieter consumer products or even the selection of a location
to live when they have more detailed information on the adverse health
effects of noise. Citizens need more information to make decisions regarding
their own personal noise exposures. Public officials need more information
to set into motion the necessary programs to improve the quality of the noise
environment. State and local officials need better health criteria to
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support and justify their noise regulations and policies. They must have
the necessary health-related information to determine what degree of noise
control is needed and should be considered in the many routine administrative
actions that touch each of our lives every day such as: building codes;
comprehensive land use planning; traffic management; municipal purchasing
decisions; zoning variances; enforcement of laws; vehicle inspections.
Accordingly, the following categories of noise effects research
have been specified. There are seven major categories of noise-related health
effects which either presently serve as the foundation for existing criteria
or have the potential for being incorporated into specific noise effects
criteria provided that the necessary research is undertaken and dose-response
relationships established. These categories of research are presented with
their accompanying research objectives. They are not presented in any order
of priority.
1. Wonauditory Physiological Effects — to determine and quantify the
nonauditory effects on bodily systems and on general health, with
special emphasis on hypertension and other cardiovascular effects.
2. Noise-Induced Hearing Loss—to determine the extent of the problem,
causative factors, and associated effects.
3. Individual and Community Response—to determine and quantify subjective
reactions of individuals and communities to different environments and
sources, investigating mediating factors.
4. Sleep Disburbance—to determine and quantify effects of noise on sleep,
and its implications for general health and performance.
5. Communication Interference—to determine and quantify the effects of
noise on communications and its developmental, social and other
implications.
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6. Behavioral, Social and Performance—to determine and quantify the
effects of noise on social behavior, mental health, and human
performance.
7. Wildlife—to determine and quantify the effects of noise on wildlife
and domestic animals.
It should be pointed out that these are long-term objectives.
Some information is available as a first step in meeting a few of these
objectives. Accordingly, the specific Research Initiatives which EPA is
now proposing to meet the identified objectives in each category will focus
on the most important gaps and deficiencies in our understanding.
There are two additional areas of noise related research
that have not been identified: exposure characterization and vibration.
The objective of exposure characterization is to determine patterns of
noise exposure, typical noise doses attributable to different sources
and/or environments, and the health-related consequences of these
exposures. Since this objective is common to all health-related categories
(but not addressed within the five-year time frame), it has not been
listed separately, although it will be discussed briefly in Chapter 11.
Vibration associated with noise is also a significant source
of annoyance and discomfort. As discussed in the Panel report referred
to earlier, the relative contributions of noise and vibration need to be
assessed in order to derive criteria for the combined exposure conditions.
However, vibration effects have not been listed separately within this
Research Plan, but instead are contained as an intrinsic consideration
within each of the seven categories of noise effects research. It should
also be mentioned that there is some ongoing Federally sponsored, health-
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related research concerning Che effects of vibration, most notably by
the U.S. Air Force, the U.S. Army, and the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration.
It should be noted that the EPA Five-Year Research Plan does
not constitute a full Federal program of needed research. While the proposed
Research Initiatives and respective funding levels address most of the highest
priorities, they do not represent a comprehensive research program. Such
an effort would require a combined Federal approach of much greater magnitude.
1.3 Reader's Guide to the Research Plan
The body of this Research Plan consists of a set of plans—
one for each category of noise effects research.
The following chapter explains how priorities were set for the
EPA Noise Effects Research Plan.
Chapter 3 presents an introduction to the specific Research
Plan for each category, and defines concepts such as "Research Initiative"
and "Research Continuum" which are common to all of the Plans.
The specific Research Plans for each category of noise effects
including exposure characterization, are presented in Chapters 4 through 11.
Each chapter contains an overview of the current status of• research and
health effects information, a selected set of proposed Research Initiatives,
and the proposed timing, funding, and coordination of the Initiatives.
Additional Initiatives that will not be undertaken by EPA are also identified.
Chapter 12 provides aggregate and summary data on the entire
Plan and how it relates to the core Five-Year EPA Noise Program Plan.
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2. OVERALL PRIORITIES FOR EPA NOISE EFFECTS RESEARCH PLAN
This Plan outlines a viable operational research program for
EPA to pursue in the noise effects research area for a five-year time
frame, commencing in Fiscal Year 1981. The first requirement of the
Plan is to establish priorities for the eight categories of research
previously identified. Although each category and its respective research
objective is felt to be important in its own right, relative priorities
must be established due to the reality of limitations in resources and
time. Thus, each category was evaluated on a scale from high priority
to low priority, signifying where emphasis needs to be placed. Each
category has been assigned one of five priority levels, from "A" (highest
priority) to "E" (lowest priority). This prioritization was based on a
rating and trade-off among five evaluation factors:
o Severity of the particular health problem, as perceived
by EPA, based on such available data as the number of
Americans affected, and potential severity of the
insult (potential magnitude of health effects)
o Program needs of EPA* s national noise abatement pro-
gram for specific research results within specific
time frames
o Scientific recommendations of experts concerning the
degree to which additional research is urgently
needed
o Scientific feasibility of carrying out the needed
research within reasonable time, with reasonable
resources
o Appropriateness of EPA activity, in the context of
whether an organization outside EPA—usually another
Federal agency—is already performing the needed
research
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In performing the evaluation of overall priorities among
categories, each of these five factors was evaluated (as high, medium or
low) and then weighted. For example, if EPA research in a specific
category was evaluated to be "high" in appropriateness, it meant that
the needed research was not being conducted elsewhere and would not be
accomplished without the commitment of EPA resources. However, not all
factors were considered equally important. The most important considera-
tions were the severity of the health problem and the degree to which
the proposed research would meet EPA program needs. These were weighted
accordingly.
2.1 Overall Results of Priority Analysis
Based on these evaluation factors, the overall priorities of
the noise Research Plan are given below, with short explanations of the
ratings. It should be noted that although a category may be rated as
low or medium in priority, pending EPA or State and local actions may
require that a certain Initiative be investigated. This will be explained
in more depth when the operational Research Plans are presented for each
category in Chapters 4 through 11.
Level of
Emphasis
Importance Rating Category
Highest
/
priority A Nonauditory Physiologic Effects
ik.
B (1) Sleep Disturbance
(2) Individual and Community Response
C (1) Noise- Induced Hearing Loss
(2) Behavioral, Social, and Performance
Effects
D Communication Interference
Lowest priority E Effects of Noise on Wildlife and Other
Animals
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2.2 Level of Emphasis A (Highest Level)
2.2.1 Nonauditory Physiologic Effects*
This research area is the highest priority because it has
the greatest potential health implications and no other Federal agencies
are adequately researching this category.
Severity.—The potential health problem posed by nonauditory
physiologic effects is very great. Noise, like other physical stressors,
is capable of producing a variety of physiologic stress responses in the
body. Stress has been linked to a number of chronic diseases prevalent
in our society. Although there are scattered findings associating noise
with a number of health problems, the best-documented relationship is
the one between noise and elevated blood pressure and related cardiovas-
cular problems. Heart disease ranks as the number one cause of death in
America. Hypertension—the most likely specific effect of noise—is a
demonstrated risk factor in the development of heart disorders, stroke
and kidney disease. It is conservatively estimated that from 23 to 27
million Americans suffer from hypertension. For a very large proportion
of these cases (90 percent), the causes are not known; yet hypertension
contributes to 250,000 deaths annually in the United States. If, as
some evidence suggests, there is a cause-effect relationship between
noise and hypertension, the health implications of such a relationship
would be widespread and serious. In addition to cardiovascular effects,
other nonauditory physiologic effects of noise may be equally serious.
* This category covers physiologic effects other than the physiologic
effects of noise on the ear.
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That is why it is urgent to find out as soon as possible the extent to
which such relationships exist.
Program Needs.—EPA's need for better information in this
category is very great because all of EPA's noise abatement program
activities are based on the need to protect the public health and welfare.
To the extent that EPA's criteria presently in use (annoyance, hearing
loss, activity interference) do not take into consideration some of the
most serious effects such as the potential for cardiovascular disorders,
they are deficient. While it is unlikely that the first five years of
nonauditory physiological research will yield the kind of quantified
criteria which the EPA program requires, it might verify the extent to
which the noise/physiologic health relationship exists, and thus change
both the direction and importance of the EPA noise abatement program.
Scientific Recommendations.—Health scientists from all over
the world have recommended that more attention be given to nonauditory
physiologic effects of noise. These recommendations are based upon the
findings of research to date. The Third International Congress on Noise
as a Public Health Problem (Freiburg, West Germany, 1978) pointed out
the necessity for giving priority to this research. Since the previous
International Congress in 1973, at least 123 reports of related research
studies have been published in the international literature, dealing not
only with the heart and circulatory system, but also with effects on
vision, fetal development, biochemical constituents of the bodily system,
the digestive system, the muscular system, and the nervous system.
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A committee (CHABA Working Group 81) of the National Academy
of Sciences has recently recommended that investigation of the relation-
ship between noise and medically significant physiological responses be
accelerated, with cardiovascular measures as the initial focus.
Moreover, a recent Workshop of Cardiovascular Experts at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology underscored the plausibility of
the linkage between noise and cardiovascular problems, and urged that a
high priority be placed on research in this area, including epidemio-
logical research.
Scientific Feasibility.—There are some definite methodologi-
cal difficulties involved in conducting research on the nonauditory
physiologic effects of noise.
Understanding the ways in which noise can change the body's
dynamic physiologic systems requires a serious and in-depth program of
research. A coordinated program of animal, human clinical, and epidemio-
logical research is essential. Conducting valid research in this area
requires the blending of advanced acoustic measurement with sophisti-
cated and detailed monitoring of physiological indicators in both acute
and chronic exposure situations. For the most part, the techniques are
currently available; the problem is bringing them to bear on the study
of noise effects. The essential development of quantifiable dose-
response criteria depends on the careful and logical accumulation of
causal data. It is optimistic to think that any single study or set of
studies will yield the type of data that EPA needs. Although the prob-
lems standing in the way of good research in this category appear
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formidable, the challenge is not different from that faced in most areas
of biomedical research.
Appropriateness.—It is unlikely that the required research
will be performed without EPA action. Based on a review of research
being conducted or sponsored by Federal agencies, no relevant research
efforts are currently being sponsored by other agencies, except for a
joint EPA study with the National Institute of Environmental Health
Sciences, currently in progress. Therefore, an active EPA initiative in
the nonauditory physiologic effects category, particularly in research
concerning the cardiovascular system, will not be duplicative of other
efforts. It appears that EPA must take the lead in this category of
research, at least in the initial years of study.
2.3 Level of Emphasis B
2.3.1 Sleep Disturbance
Severity.—Millions of Americans live in areas where the
potential for nightly sleep disturbance by noise is high. Such residen-
tial sleep interference is one of the primary contributors to irritation
and annoyance by neighborhood noise.
Some subjective effects of sleep disturbance that have been
reported are fatigue, irritability and poor work performance. Often, a
greater susceptibility to illness has been attributed to a poor night's
sleep. Nevertheless, none of these suspected effects has been fully
explored or measured.
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Chronic sleep disturbance is a potentially severe health
problem, yet little is known about the long-term effects of sleep distur-
bance on health, the national incidence of sleep disturbance by noise,
and its effects on subsequent task performance and safety implications
on the job, in traffic and in other settings.
Program Needs.—EPA currently uses two criteria (awakening,
and sleep disturbance or changes from deeper to lighter sleep) to
quantify the benefits of noise control actions. These benefits are then
weighed against costs. Although adequate for Federal regulatory purposes,
the present criteria have several limitations that affect their
generalizability to different noise sources, to typical sleeping condi-
tions in the home, and to various population subgroups (the elderly, the
ill, and others). Thus, there is a pressing need for an EPA research
effort in light of both the limitations in applicable research findings,
and EPA programmatic needs to relate better the impact of sleep distur-
bance (including health and performance effects) to nightly noise levels
that potentially interfere with sleep.
Scientific Recommendations.—In 1978 the Federal Noise
Effects Research Panel recommended that considerably greater funding be
applied in the sleep category, noting that funding levels had dropped
since the Panel's 1975 report and that certain recommended research had
received no attention. The Panel recommended that attention focus on
chronic sleep interruption by noise, and on the effect of sleep inter-
ruptions on special populations such as the ill and the aged.
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Similarly, experts at the 1978 International Congress on
Noise as a Public Health Problem emphasized the need for noise effects
researchers to determine the effects of acoustic and nonacoustic variables
on sleep quality, while encouraging general sleep researchers to continue
to study the effects of sleep quality on general health.
Scientific Feasibility.—As in the nonauditory physiological
effects category, there are a few methodological difficulties to be
overcome. One of the primary methodological problems confronting scien-
tists is the difficulty of transferring research activity from laboratory
to residential settings. Nevertheless, in-the-home techniques have been
pioneered in this country and similar techniques are currently in use in
Europe.
Appropriateness.— The relative lack of other applicable
research makes EPA action necessary. Over the last five years only
limited sleep research has been performed by other Federal agencies and
these research studies have principally focused on aircraft noise.
2.3.2 Individual and Community Response
Severity.—It is estimated that well over 100 million
Americans are exposed to noise that is perceived to be unwanted,
unnecessary, objectionable, and disturbing. Noise levels that are known
to cause annoyance and interference with everyday activities emanate from
common sources including road traffic, aircraft, construction activity,
and household products to name but a few. Thus noise in our communities
today is pervasive and intrusive.
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Annoyance that occurs as a result of exposure to noise is a
complex psycho-social reaction. Although annoyance has as its basis the
unpleasantness associated with noise and the disruption of ongoing
activities, the response may ultimately lead to complaints or produce
strong group reactions against certain noise sources. This type of
annoyance response has not yet been experimentally identified with
adverse physiologic reactions. Instead it is related to subjective
feelings of irritation, being upset, and a general lack of well being.
Nevertheless, increasing evidence of a possible association
between excessive noise and stress-related health problems, such as
hypertension and digestive changes, may link the annoyance or irritation
that we commonly feel toward noise to the undesirable health effects
that may occur. Although this link has as yet not been scientifically
or experimentally established, it is not unreasonable to view our
annoyance reactions as a biological protective mechanism - a warning or
symptom of unwanted health effects. For instance, recent community
noise surveys are starting to reveal a relationship between those persons
who are highly annoyed by noise, and who feel that noise may be adversely
affecting their health and welfare.
Program Needs.—The category of individual and community
response is most important in that individuals' subjective (annoyance)
reactions to noise have in fact been the primary impetus for the estab-
lishment of Federal, State and local noise control programs throughout
the United States. Moreover, quantitative information that is available
with respect to community response has formed the basis for noise emission
2-9
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regulations, policy, and guidance promulgated at the Federal governmental
level. Community noise criteria, in the form of the percentage of
people expected to be highly annoyed at specific noise levels, are the
primary human response criteria used in noise control policy and
legislation. These criteria have predominately been developed in a
number of studies of traffic and aircraft noise in an attempt to better
ascertain general community or group response to noise. Although adequate
for Federal regulatory purposes, the generalizability of these criteria
to specific sources of noise such as construction activity and railroad
noise has been questioned. As the number of different noise sources
that must be considered by Federal, State and local noise programs
increase, it is anticipated that more specific criteria applicable to
specific sources or noise settings will be needed.
Moreover, studies completed to date have not accounted for
many of the acoustic and nonacoustic factors that shape our response to
noise. Severe programmatic limitations exist in understanding the
influence upon individual and community reactions of certain acoustic
attributes typical of many noise sources found in the community. These
attributes include perceived tonal components, impulsiveness, fluctuation
in level, intrusiveness over background noise, and so forth. Methods do
not exist that properly account for the expected increase in adverse
community reactions that typically result from these factors. Moreover,
the large individual differences that typically occur in annoyance
responses have not been accounted for. The result has been a rather
pragmatic approach to the matter of assessing community and individual
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response to noise. There exists no noise annoyance calculation procedure
that deals satisfactorily with the many acoustic and nonacoustic variables
that influence our subjective responses to sound and, accordingly, our
perspectives on the quality of our life.
Cost effective noise abatement decisions and actions are
highly dependent upon the refinement of existing criteria pertaining to
individual and community response, both in environments dominated by
specific noise sources, and in environments with diverse noise attributes.
Scientific Recommendations.—There exists a general consensus
within the scientific community on the need for further research and the
direction it should take. Scientific recommendations, including those
made at the 1978 International Congress on Noise, as well as those in
the forthcoming World Health Organization document on environmental
noise criteria, point out that while aggregate community response to
noise can be reliably predicted, more work investigating the mediating
factors is needed to help account for the great individual variation in
response. Further, the stress-related components of response also
require more investigation. In addition, as communities experience
changes in their noise environment, longitudinal studies should be
conducted to assess adaptation and societal changes in public reaction
to noise.
Scientific Feasibility.—Research in this category has a
high expectancy of achieving useful results because it is based on very
successful, well-established techniques (attitudinal survey methodologies
and psychoacoustic test procedures) that are commonly used to study
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subjective human reactions to noise. Improved subjective and acoustic
measurement methodologies are now available.
Appropriateness.—Although other Federal agencies are active
to some extent in parts of this research area, the research gaps left
are sufficiently critical to require EPA activity. Recent Federal
efforts, primarily by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
the National Bureau of Standards, and the Air Force, have been significant,
but have focused on relatively narrow study areas, mainly aircraft
noise. Information needs specific to EFA's program requirements have
not been fulfilled by these other research efforts.
2.4 Level of Emphasis C
2.4.1 Noise-Induced Hearing Loss
Although much additional research in noise-induced hearing
loss (NIHL) is needed, feasible, and related to EPA program needs, EPA
is placing only medium emphasis on its role, largely because of the in-
depth research programs already being undertaken by other Federal agencies.
Severity.—Noise-induced hearing loss is the most widespread
occupational health problem in the United States, and there is evidence
that additional noise exposure from environmental sources exacerbates
the problem. Of the estimated 20 to 25 million people in the United
States exposed to levels of noise sufficient to cause irreversible
damage to their hearing, 15 million are estimated to be workers exposed
to noise on the job. Impulse noise is a particularly severe problem
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in the occupational setting which has not been adequately addressed. It
is estimated that over 2.7 million workers are exposed to impulse noise
and are not covered adequately by present damage risk criteria. It is
particularly important to consider the problem of workers whose workplace
exposures are augmented by off-the-job exposures. Other potentially
hazardous exposures occur in transit, in using appliances and power
tools at home, and in common recreational activities. Preliminary
information also suggests that people in comparatively low noise work
environments such as office workers and homemakers are exposed to 24
hour noise exposure levels which may place some of them at higher risk
to hearing damage.
It is estimated that as many as 19 million Americans suffer
from a handicapping hearing loss. Persons suffering from noise-induced
hearing loss often report other health disturbances as well. They are
also frequently the victims of tinnitus (ringing in the ears), lowered
auditory discomfort thresholds and other annoying side effects. Impaired
hearing can be socially debilitating. Persons with NIHL often speak of
difficulty in understanding communication, withdrawal from social contacts,
embarrassment, frustration and isolation. Noise-induced hearing loss
greatly affects the lives of millions of individuals. It is a difficult
problem since the process is gradual and insidious and may not be apparent
until a considerable amount of hearing is lost.
Program Needs.—Although scientifically acceptable damage
risk criteria exist, EPA requires better defined hearing loss criteria
to support its regulatory and Federal coordination programs for
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environmental noise sources. The probability that a person will develop
a noise-induced hearing loss depends on the individual's total exposure
from all noises at work, home, and in the community. A determination of
those sources and each source's contribution to an individual's risk of
hearing loss will provide added direction to governmental regulatory
programs and development of appropriate actions.
Scientific Recommendations.—There is a widespread consensus
on the need for further research on the key segments of the NIHL research
category, as characterized by conclusions reached at the 1978 International
Congress on Noise, a recent NIH workshop on noise research, the Federal
Noise Effects Panel Report, and the forthcoming World Health Organization
(WHO) report. As recommended by these groups, future research should
concentrate on some of the less well defined aspects of the problem such
as the question of hearing loss caused by specific environmental sources,
the effects of intermittent and impulsive noise, and the question of
determining risk to susceptible populations such as children. These
areas have in the past received a low level of funding and need to be
addressed at the present time.
Scientific Feasibility.—The feasibility of ongoing and
planned NIHL research is generally high. It is solidly based on research
performed over the last 30 years. The development of new sophisticated
personal monitoring instrumentation, clinical methodologies and micro-
scopic assessment techniques makes research possible now that could not
have been undertaken several years ago.
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However, in the future, certain avenues of research will be
limited. For one, workers should not be exposed to high noise levels
which may jeopardize their hearing. Effective enforcement and compliance
with Federal workplace noise provisions will make it difficult to identify
workers for hearing loss field studies. If workers exposed to high
levels of noise were found, it would be irresponsible not to take neces-
sary actions to provide them with adequate hearing protection. Secondly,
many research institutions are finding it difficult to obtain approval
for human subject research under high noise exposure conditions.
Appropriateness.—Over the last five years, seven different
Federal agencies have devoted considerable resources to numerous NIHL
studies. Approximately 20 studies related to aspects of NIHL of particu-
lar interest to EPA have been funded at a cost of over $1 million per
year. Due to the continuing interest of other agencies in funding NIHL
research, EPA will assume a very limited but focused research role in
areas not presently being adequately covered.
2.4.2 Behavioral, Social and Performance Effects
The category of behavioral, social, and performance effects
of noise is an extremely broad category, whose effects are often subtle,
complex, and indirect, and usually mediated by nonacoustic factors.
Severity.—Although the scientific literature contains many
potentially important findings, not enough information exists at this
time to allow proper consideration of the severity of noise effects.
Enough is known, however, to identify those areas that are most important
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and most in need of research. There are some definite indications of
anti-social and aggressive behavior resulting at least indirectly from
noise, performance decrements due to noise, learning disabilities
attributed to, or aggravated by noise, and stress-related psychological
responses that may be due in part to noise. Some very important questions
exist concerning the way in which individuals adapt to and cope with
' noise, and how the performance, productivity and social and personal
adjustment of adults as well as children may be impaired by noise.
Information is particularly needed on how noise affects the
development of language and cognitive skills in children. Some of the
most pervasive effects of noise fall within this category. These are
•yVHH q/
important questions because they pertain to how noise ^interferes/with
j\M«^>^**
personal, mental and social functioning and majees the accomplishment of
/I/
important goals more difficult.
Program Needs.—The adverse behavioral, social and performance
effects of noise are clearly relevant to EPA program requirements. At
present, EPA has no criteria for any of the effects that noise may have
on behavior and/or performance. To the extent that further research
enables effects to be quantified in the form of criteria, they can and
must be included in assessments made in support of regulatory programs
and State and local activities. For example, definitive information
concerning how noise affects the acquisition of language and other
cognitive skills may necessitate that special consideration be given to
noise around schools and residential environments, and to the modification
of existing communication interference criteria. Information on behavioral
2-16
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and social problems associated with noise exposure would have a direct
application to regulatory actions and State and local noise program
activities. This category of effects may be especially important where
levels of exposure are only moderately high or where contextual factors
characteristic of the exposure situation appear important.
Scientific Recommendations.—Recent international scientific
congresses on noise have emphasized both the potential significance and
the extreme complexity of these problems. One of the general areas that
has been identified for future research is in the determination of the
sociological effects of noise in relation to the quality of life. Other
gaps in the scientific literature have been identified and a more realis-
tic posture has been taken toward the level of sophistication required
to attack these multivariate research questions.
Scientific Feasibility.—The complexity and subtleness of
noise effects in this category necessitate the use of sophisticated and
elaborate research designs and detailed, multivariate techniques for
data analysis. The fact that noise seldom occurs alone in natural
settings requires that an effort be made to ensure that research outcomes
are attributable to noise. In spite of these difficulties, a number of
behavioral science and sociological methodologies are available for
carrying out a program of research and systematic replication which
could be expected to yield results of use to EPA noise abatement activities.
Appropriateness.—Due to the relative lack of activity
elsewhere, EPA will need to take the lead if this important area is to
be investigated to any significant degree. Even the ongoing task
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performance research is not directly applicable to the environments of
concern to EPA. The relatively small amount of ongoing research on the
effects of noise on children is exploratory in nature and will be used
by EPA in planning more focused research in this important area.
2.5 Level of Emphasis D
2.5.1 Communication Interference
Severity.—In terms of severity of the problem, everyday
experience shows that almost all Americans are exposed to noise at
levels sufficient to interfere severely with their activities at home
(including conversations and listening to TV, radio, or recorded music),
in transit, and at their workplace. Interference with speech communica-
tion is more than an annoyance. It represents a reduction in efficiency,
and in some circumstances a real threat to safety resulting from messages
being missed or not understood.
Program Needs.—Investigation of communication interference
is highly relevant to EPA noise program needs because much of the existing
regulatory program is based on well quantified criteria for speech
interference. While these criteria are adequate for Federal regulatory
purposes, they may need refinement to ensure their suitability in non-
steady state background noise conditions and for listeners other than
normal hearing, native adults.
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Scientific Recommendations.—There is consensus on the
directions for continued research including: extension of the generaliza-
bility of research based on communication systems; increased emphasis on
quality of communication; requirements for communication in fluctuating
noise situations; and the speech communication requirements of special
groups such as the very young and hearing-impaired listeners.
Scientific Feasibility.—As one of the older and better
established disciplines, communication interference is well suited for
further study with the well developed methodologies available.
Appropriateness.—The relatively large amount of Federal
activity already underway may minimize the need for EPA emphasis, with a
few exceptions. EPA's interest in conducting additional work is limited
to rather well-defined topical areas not presently being adequately
covered. These include development of refined criteria for the effects
on special groups such as children, special effects in teaching and
learning activities, and secondary effects of disrupted communication on
safety and task performance.
2.6 Level of Emphasis E
2.6.1 Effects of Noise on Wildlife and Other Animals
Severity.—The severity of noise effects in the animal
kingdom is unknown at this time. It is known that for many species
there is behavioral habituation to the use of noise as a deterrent
(e.g., to keep birds from farm crops). More shy species, however, may
2-19
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respond to noise by retreating from the site of human activities,
reducing territorial coverage and, possibly, population size. It is
doubtful that this can be considered a noise effect, and is more likely
a response to human land use.
There are certain known effects of noise on domestic animals
such as livestock and fowl. These effects include undesirable changes
in color and quality of meat, and effects on hatching of eggs.
The potentially serious effects of noise as a masker on
species which rely on aural communication for safety from predators are
not known. Nor do we know the effects of environmental noise on any
endangered species.
Program Needs.—Many State and local governments look to EPA
for information on wildlife noise effects largely for purposes of
Environmental Impact Statements and proposed highway and airport projects.
A large number of inquiries are received in this area. In EPA's regula-
tory program, knowledge of effects of noise on animals would help to
quantify the benefits of noise control, particularly for recreational
and off-road vehicles.
Scientific Recommendations.—The Ninth International Congress
on Acoustics (in 1977) held a special symposium on questions of noise
effects on animals, stressing the importance of understanding how noise
may affect the ecosystem. This symposium prompted a session at the
Third International Congress on Noise as a Public Health Problem (1978).
At both meetings, results of a few studies were reported, but concern
was expressed that very little is known at present, and no conclusions
could be drawn.
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Scientific Feasibility.—Full study of this problem would
require an enormous research effort. Whereas in studying domestic
animals, experimental controls and measurement techniques are relatively
simple, studying animal responses in the wild is more difficult, particu-
larly because it is desirable to do long-term studies of noise effects.
Telemetric techniques are available and feasible for some species, but
more investigation will be necessary.
Appropriateness.—While EPA has some statutory authority in
this area, other agencies have more clear-cut missions related to environ-
mental effects on wildlife and domestic animals and have sponsored some
research on noise effects. Given their respective missions, it is more
appropriate for this work to be conducted by agencies other than EPA.
EPA's proper role may be seen as promoting and coordinating this research.
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3. EPA'S RESEARCH PLAN IN DETAIL (INTRODUCTION)
3.1 Definition of Long-Range Objectives
Developing a comprehensive Research Plan requires as an
initial step the defining of long-term objectives for each of the
categories of health effects research. These objectives have been
defined as broadly as possible in Chapter 2 in the light of EPA1s
research and program mandate, so that if they were fulfilled, the national
noise abatement program would have an adequate "health and welfare" infor-
mation base. This information base is needed to support future activities
that will effectively and efficiently minimize adverse noise in our
environment at the lowest cost possible and with the least disruption to
our lives. Obviously, as general targets to be aimed at, these long-term
objectives will be used for purposes of reference.
3.2 Definition of Short-Term Objectives and Base Year
The specific Plan presented here covers the time period from
Fiscal Years 1981 to 1985. EPA1s short-term research objectives are those
which have been selected for initial action within this period. The
short-term objectives, therefore, represent a set of limited but important
milestones in pursuit of the identified long-term objectives.
Note also that base year research activities, for the purpose
of this Plan, are those occurring in the pre-Plan year, Fiscal Year 1980.
3-1
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3.3 Definition of Research Initiatives
Corresponding to each short-term objective in the Plan are
one or more Research Initiatives. Each Research Initiative is conceived
as a particular line of inquiry in pursuit of a specific, identified
objective. Research Initiatives will be time-phased, both because of
resource constraints and because of the intent that outputs of some
Initiatives will act as prerequisites necessary to initiate others.
Further, a given Research Initiative should not be thought of as a
"project" or "program." In many cases a given Research Initiative will
consist of a number of components which are frequently supported by one
or more projects in a time-phased manner. A list of identified Research
Initiatives within each research category is contained in Table 3-1.
3.4 Concept of Evolution in Research
Underlying the approach taken by EPA is the fact that the
research categories for which long-term objectives have been set differ from
each other in at least one important respect: the maturity of research
activity in the category. For long-established categories, information is
organized around well-defined and generally accepted concepts and methodologies.
Furthermore, there is a group of recognized specialists pursuing more advanced
questions such as the refinement of criteria or the investigation of the
specific health risk to special populations. Other categories, which only
recently have begun to be recognized, are still developing conceptually,
and frequently need to involve specialists from unrelated fields organized
in a cross-disciplinary, biomedical research effort. In this case the problem
3-2
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TABLE 3-1
IDENTIFIED RESEARCH INITIATIVES
NONAUDITORY I. Animal Experimental Studies on the Relationship
PHYSIOLOGIC Between Noise, Elevated Blood Pressure and Other
EFFECTS Cardiovascular Effects
II. Epidemiologic Studies on the Relationships Between
Long-Term Noise Exposure and Adverse Cardiovascular
Effects
III. Human Clinical Studies of Cardiovascular and Neuro-
endocrine Responses to Noise
IV. Nonauditory Physiologic Effects Other Than Cardio-
vascular Effects
SLEEP
DISTURBANCE
COMMUNITY
AND
INDIVIDUAL
RESPONSE
I. Relationship between field and laboratory data on
sleep disturbance by noise
II. Health consequences of noise-disturbed sleep
III. Acoustic parameters related to sleep disturbance
IV. Susceptibility of sensitive populations to sleep
disturbance by noise
V. Adaptation to sleep disturbance by noise
I. Determination of the magnitude of community and
individual response attributable to specific
sources of noise.
II. Determination of the relationship between specific
acoustic attributes and the magnitude of individual/
group response to noise.
NOISE-
INDUCED
HEARING
LOSS
I. Determination of the incidence of NIHL in the United
States and contribution of sociocusis (nonoccupational
NIHL) presbycusis (aging), and occupational hearing
loss.
II. Establishment of parameters of individual sensitivity
to NIHL.
III. Refine criteria for low-level noise exposure.
BEHAVIORAL,
SOCIAL AND
PERFORMANCE
EFFECTS
I. Effects of Noise on Cognitive and Social Development
II. Behavioral and Social Adjustment to Noise
3-3
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may not be well enough defined, the results are less consistent, the
methodological problems are greater, and the probability of failure is
higher than for research in the more established categories. For any
of the categories of research presented in Chapters 4-11, a logical
and scientifically developmental sequence of research activity can be
suggested. This sequence is typically followed in the development of
quantified dose-response relationships, the determination of health-
effects risk, and ultimately, the development of refined human response
criteria. These are steps in an empirical research process. This
sequence is shown in Table 3-2. Thus, certain types of research are
the building blocks on which progress in the more advanced topics depends.
The kinds of results that can reasonably be expected from new research
depend in part on where the research category falls on this research
developmental continuum.
In some areas of research where the health effect is
critical, research may be undertaken out of sequence. The attempt to
develop criteria in the shortest possible time often results in wasteful
research, large funding expenditures, many unanswered questions, and
continued debate over the implications of the results. In introducing
the Research Plan for each objective, therefore, an attempt will be made
to place the current status of research in that category somewhere
on this developmental continuum. For example, while research in the noise-
induced hearing loss and communication interference categories are relatively
highly developed specialities, research in the nonauditory physiologic
effects category belongs at the other end of the spectrum. That is,
research proposed in the category of noise induced hearing loss will lead
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TABLE 3-2
RESEARCH CONTINUUM IN THE DEVELOPMENT AND REFINEMENT OF
HEALTH EFFECTS CRITERIA
1. Demonstrate the existence of an association
2. Demonstrate a basic cause-effect relationship directly attributable
to noise
3. Investigate underlying mechanisms and physiologic bases of the effect
4. Improve the cause-effect relationship through the investigation of
intervening factors
A. Acoustic factors
B. Nonacoustic factors
5. Establish dose-response relationships, determine risk, and develop
quantified human response criteria
6. Refine criteria based upon susceptible populations and special
considerations
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to the refinement of criteria, whereas research being proposed in the
category of nonauditory physiologic effects will attempt first to
demonstrate a basic cause-effect relationship directly related to noise
exposure.
In the Research Continuum Table included in each chapter
of this Plan, the status of research in each category is evaluated as
either "Adequate", "Marginal" or "Inadequate". These labels denote
adequacy with respect to reaching the ultimate objective of fully
refined criteria for each noise effect category. However, these labels
do not reflect a judgment of adequacy for Federal regulatory purposes.
3.5 Contents of Che Research Plan for Each Category
The total Research Plan consists of a separate Plan for each
of the eight research categories. A number of Research Initiatives are
proposed in each category. Each Plan will consist of the items shown
in Table 3-3.
3.6 Establishing Fiscal Year Funding Levels
Overall EPA extramural funding for the Plan is projected to
increase from $1.2 million in Fiscal Year 1981 to $3.0 million in Fiscal
Year 1985. The total EPA noise effects research budget is projected to
be $10 million over the five-year period. These levels were established
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TABLE 3-3
ITEMS INCLUDED IN THE PLAN FOR EACH RESEARCH CATEGORY
1. Rationale for Selecting Specific Research Initiatives—For funding over
the Five Year Period.
o What is Known.—Status of research in the category.
o What is Not Known.—Research that needs to be conducted
to fill in important deficiencies in data and improve
understanding of specific health effects.
o EPA Priorities.—Research requirements of EPA due to
specific noise control program needs.
o Current Research Activities.—Ongoing research projects
of EPA and other Federal agencies.*
o Position on the Research Continuum.—Status of research
in relation to the development of refined health effects
criteria.
o List of Planned EPA Research Initiatives for the Five Year
Period.—Identification of specific lines of inquiry in
pursuit of category objectives.
2. Detailed Descriptions of the Research Initiatives.—Each description
includes:
o Description and Basic Considerations
o Relation to Ongoing Non-EPA Research.—Federal and private.
o Expected Results.—How the results will be used upon
completion of the Initiative.
3. Timing and Funding of the Research Initiatives.—Chart.
4. Monitoring and Coordination.—For example, advisory groups that will be
established to evaluate progress of research and provide inputs.
5. Research Initiatives That Will Not Be Undertaken by EPA.—Because of
limitations in funding, important Research Initiatives will not be
undertaken by EPA, although other agencies may wish to pursue them.
[* Requests were made in early September to other agencies for this
information. Some responses have not yet been received, and therefore
were not included in the present Plan. When this information is
obtained it will be incorporated into the appropriate discussions.]
3-7
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by using the first year funding of $1.2 million,* which was established
as a base under the Federal Zero Base Budgeting process. Funding levels
for successive years were then established by applying an annual growth
rate factor which would be reasonable when judged by two criteria:
o Slow enough to ensure effective program management
based on present staff Levels
o Fast enough to achieve the results required by the
EPA national noise control program without undue delay.
By trading off these criteria, it was determined that an
optimum annual growth rate was approximately 25 percent. The following
amounts are the proposed EPA extramural funding levels for research per
year.
Fiscal Year EPA funding levels in Plan
(millions of dollars)
1981 1.2
1982 1.5
1983 1.9
1984 2.4
1985 3.0
3.7 Assumptions
3.7.1 Co-Funding by Other Agencies
Co-funding of certain EPA Research Initiatives by other
Federal agencies is a distinct possibility in research categories where the
agencies have mutual interests. Such co-funding is highly desirable
* This figure does not include $200K set aside for general programmatic
support.
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because it would allow more results to be obtained within the Five-Year
Plan period.
However, only in the category of nonauditory physiologic
effects is co-support being assumed in the planning and design of the
specific EPA Research Initiatives. The assistance of other agencies
is needed due to the urgency in which this information is needed, the
high costs of the required biomedical research and the requirement that
the research be pursued in a broad-based, multidisciplinary manner.
Furthermore, co-support is being assumed based upon the relevancy of the
planned cardiovascular research to research presently being supported by
the National Institutes of Health (NIH). EPA foresees a shift in the
lead role to NIH by Fiscal Year 1986, after the initial thrust in cardio-
vascular research is completed and detailed results are available. Only
with co-support during the next five years can EPA conduct the necessary
animal, human clinical and epidemiologic research to determine the extent
to which a basic causal relationship exists.
3.7.2 Nature and Direction of Research Findings
The Research Initiatives suggested for study within this
Plan are proposed with the aim of deriving findings that will lead toward
criteria development within each of the research categories. However,
there exist no guarantees on the results of the specific studies that
will be undertaken. Biomedical research is by nature a continual learning
process. Each step of investigation at times necessitates re-definition
3-9
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of new directions and replication of previous studies. Depending on
research results, it may be necessary to restudy or replicate some areas
of research, and abandon others.
3-10
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4. RESEARCH PLAN FOR
NONAUDITORY PHYSIOLOGIC EFFECTS
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page
4.1 Rationale for Selecting Specific Research 4-1
Initiatives
4.1.1 What is Known 4-1
4.1.2 What is Not Known 4-3
4.1.3 EPA Priorities 4-4
4.1.4 Current Research Activities 4-6
4.1.5 Position on the Research Continuum 4-7
4.1.6 List of Research Initiatives Selected for 4-9
the Five-Year Period
4.2 Detailed Description of the Research Initiatives 4-12
I. Animal Experimental Studies on the 4-12
Relationship Between Noise, Elevated
Blood Pressure and Other Cardiovascular
Effects
II. Epidemiologic Studies on the 4-16
Relationships Between Long-Tenn Noise
Exposure and Adverse Cardiovascular
Effects
III. Human Clinical Studies of 4-20
Cardiovascular and Neuroendocrine
Responses to Noise
IV. Nonauditory Physiologic Effects Other 4-23
Than Cardiovascular Effects
4.3 Timing and Funding of Research Initiatives 4-25
4.4 Monitoring and Coordination 4-25
4.5 Research Initiatives That Will Not Be Undertaken 4-25
By EPA
4-ii
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4. RESEARCH PLAN FOR NONAUDITORY PHYSIOLOGIC EFFECTS
4.1 Rationale for Selecting Specific Research Initiatives Over
the Five-Year Period
The long-term objective of nonauditory physiologic effects
research is to determine the physiologic effects of noise on bodily
systems and on general health, with special emphasis on hypertension and
other cardiovascular effects.
4.1.1 What is Known
Studies have shown that noise acts as a biologic stressor.
Nonauditory physiologic stress reactions, such as transient changes in
blood pressure, heart rate and respiration, alterations in hormonal
levels and gastrointestinal motility, and measurable changes in skin
resistance and muscle potentials have been documented for noise exposures
typical in level to those encountered in the human environment. The
hormonal changes and other effects produced in animals and humans to
noise appear to be similar to those elicited by other stressors.
Laboratory research with rodents has yielded a variety of
both transient and enduring morphologic, hormonal and metabolic responses
to noise. The generalizability of the results of these studies is
severely restricted due to the proclivity for convulsive behavior
("audiogenic seizures") among rodents and to the fact that the auditory
sensitivities of rodents differ considerably from those of humans.
4-1
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There is evidence that the fetus can be affected by noise
stimuli, either directly or through changes induced in the system of
the mother. Only a very small amount of animal and human work has been
done in this area, but there are some preliminary data suggesting
stress-related adverse effects on biochemical activity, birth defects,
and birth weights.
The consequences of long-term noise exposure on general
health status have been examined in several correlational field studies.
Overall, these studies have provided a complex and mixed pattern of
results. There are data indicating that chronic noise exposure is
associated with a number of common health problems and complaints. Not
atypical of field research, many of these studies are subject to criti-
cism on methodological grounds. The major problem in this type of
research is determining whether noise per se is the cause of these
problems.
By far, the most systematic body of research exists on the
relationship between long-term noise exposure and hypertension and other
cardiovascular problems. Approximately 40 cross-sectional, retrospective
epidemiologic studies have been conducted, mostly in Eastern European
countries. Research in ac least 11 different nations and in at least 18
different industries indicate increased cardiovascular morbidity as a
function of long-term noise exposure. Hypertension appears to be the
most prevalent concomitant of noise exposure in these studies. Although
it is difficult, for a number of reasons, to adequately evaluate these
studies, the apparent magnitude and consistency of these findings
cannot be ignored.
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In addition, two recent studies, one in the United States
and one in Germany, have reported elevated blood pressure among children
living and/or attending school in high noise areas. These studies are
particularly noteworthy in determining the significance of environmental
factors in the development of hypertension.
Recent laboratory research in this country, using an appro-
priate animal model, the Rhesus monkey, has shown that as little as
several months exposure to environmental noise levels can produce signi-
ficant and sustained elevations in blood pressure of approximately
30 percent. Furthermore, even a month after the noise was turned off,
the animals' blood pressures did not return to pre-exposure levels,
suggesting that recovery, if it occurs, will take some time. This type
of controlled investigation, where noise is the only stressor present,
parallels past epidemiologic research, and suggests the importance and
the promise of study in this area of noise effects research.
4.1.2 What is Not Known
Although it is known that noise acts as a stressor, it is
not known with certainty whether prolonged exposure results in cumulative
pathology. Whereas the organism is often capable of adapting to noise
at the conscious, behavioral level, there appear to be physiologic costs
attached to this adaptation. What is the overall medical significance
of these costs? Precise cause-effect relationships need to be drawn
between noise and medically significant physiologic responses such as
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blood pressure, and between noise and the so-called stress diseases or
diseases of adaptation.
Information is lacking on the mechanisms underlying noise
related changes and the extent to which noise operates in a similar
fashion to other better understood stressors.
Quantitative data are virtually nonexistent concerning the
role played by the various physical parameters of noise, its level,
frequency spectrum, temporal pattern, and duration. The extent to which
nonacoustic factors, or the context in which the noise occurs, mediate
the stress effects of noise is not known and must also be specified.
This is the type of information necessary to develop quantitative criteria
in support of noise control activities.
Attention must be given to identifying those segments of the
population that might be particularly susceptible to these effects, for
example, children and the elderly. Individual differences must be
investigated. Information pertaining to the extent to which chronic
noise exposures might exacerbate pre-existing health problems such as
hypertension is not available.
4.1.3 EPA Priorities
The most urgent EPA goal is to verify as soon as possible
the extent to which a cause-effect relationship exists between noise and
stress-related diseases such as cardiovascular disease, on the grounds
that the scope of the potential public health problem is great. Noise
is probably the most pervasive pollutant in the occupational and
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non-occupational environment. In recognition of the potential health
problem, the Quiet Communities Act requests that special emphasis be
placed on conducting research on the nonauditory physiologic effects of
noise.
Statistical associations have been demonstrated between
noise and cardiovascular problems, but their ultimate significance
awaits further, more sophisticated research aimed at establishing
causality. A combination of animal, human clinical and epidemiological
research is required. Information must be obtained on the role of
various acoustic and nonacoustic variables, and on the susceptibility of
various sub-populations to noise-related cardiovascular effects. This
type of information is required in order to develop quantitative dose-
response criteria. Only limited attention will be given to in-depth
examination of basic mechanisms. Although a fairly extensive and costly
program of research is required, the costs of ignorance are potentially
very great.
EPA recognizes that little is known about any of the possible
nonauditory physiologic effects of noise, and that the health consequences
are potentially great for all of these effects. EPA has, however,
decided to concentrate primarily on cardiovascular effects research
(since not all areas can be researched in depth simultaneously) for the
following reasons:
(1) It is the best documented;
(2) It is the most feasible scientifically;
(3) It is linked to a serious and widespread health problem.
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4.1.4 Current Research Activities
EPA has already had more than three years experience spon-
soring nonauditory physiologic research. The major EPA effort is an
investigation of the relationship of noise to sustained elevations in
blood pressure. This study is being conducted at the University of
Miami and is funded by EPA with co-support from the National Institute
of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). EPA is also sponsoring an
epidemiologic feasibility study to be completed in Fiscal Year 1980.
This study will help lay the foundation for subsequent research. It
will provide an objective assessment of the foreign epidemiological
literature, the analysis of key sets of foreign epidemiological data,
and an evaluation of various epidemiologic approaches.
Beginning in Fiscal Year 1980, EPA will be obtaining descrip-
tive data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys on
the relationship between health status and indices related to noise
exposure (see Chapter 7 for the corresponding Initiative).
Other Federal agencies appear to have little additional
related research planned or in progress. The only exceptions are the
following studies.
o In the cardiovascular effects category, a study spon-
sored by the Veterans Administration is examining the
effects of stress-producing, unpredictable noise
bursts on groups of "coronary-prone" or "non-coronary-
prone" men. The study will ultimately look at poten-
tial cardiopathology as a result of noise-induced
stress.
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o An ongoing NIH/NIEHS project is looking at several
physiologic effects of noise such as teratogenic,
hormonal and cardiovascular effects.
o A study by the National Institute of Child Health and
Human Development is examining the effects of high
noise levels caused by aircraft noise on the physical
growth and development of children.
o A study supported by the National Science Foundation
and NIEHS includes an investigation of the blood
pressures of children living near a large airport.
4.1.5 Position on the Research Continuum
As can be seen in Table 4-1, the present status of research
in the nonauditory physiologic effects category must be considered
almost wholly inadequate for the development of human risk criteria. It
is only in the cardiovascular effects area that a reasonable amount of
associative data exists.
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TABLE 4-1
POSITION ON THE RESEARCH CONTINUUM - NONAUDITORY PHYSIOLOGIC EFFECTS
Research Continuum Current State of Knowledge
Adequate Marginal Inadequate
1. Demonstrate existence of an association X*
2. Demonstrate basic cause-effect relationship
A. Animals X**
B. Humans X*
3. Investigate physiologic mechanisms X**
4. Investigate intervening factors. Improve
causal effect relationship
A. Acoustic X
B. Nonacoustic X
5. Quantify dose-response relationship X
6. Refinement and special populations X
* Foreign epidemiological research suggests a statistical association
between noise and hypertension and other cardiovascular problems.
Some experimental primate research also shows- adverse effects on the
blood pressure.
** EPA/NIEHS is supporting ongoing research which involves the examination
of physiologic dynamics and causal mechanisms.
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4.1.6 List of Research Initiatives Selected for the Five-Year Period
After reviewing the status of nonauditory physiologic
effects research, EPA program needs and priorities, and the planned
research activities of other Federal agencies, the following Research
Initiatives for EPA funding have been selected for the next five years.
They are not listed in order of priority.
I. Animal Experimental Studies on the Relationship
Between Noise, Elevated Blood Pressure and Other
Cardiovascular Effects
II. Epidemiologic Studies on the Relationships Between
Long-Term Noise Exposure and Adverse Cardiovascular
Effects
III. Human Clinical Studies of Cardiovascular and Neuro-
endocrine Responses to Noise
IV. Nonauditory Physiologic Effects Other Than Cardio-
vascular Effects
The assumption was made in selecting these Initiatives that
there will be co-support from other Federal agencies, increasing from
small scale funding initially to significant amounts at the end of five
years.
The timely execution of these Initiatives with an adequate
level of support will require assistance in the form of co-support from
other Federal agencies. The type of research proposed herein is multi-
disciplinary in nature, requiring expertise in a number of biomedical
and bioacoustical areas. The participation of more than one agency will
insure more effective research design, monitoring and review, and will
provide research outcomes with programmatic relevance to more than one
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agency. Biomedical research is very expensive to conduct, and EPA
recognizes that, where feasible, costs should be shared in order to
avoid duplication and superficiality. As pointed out previously, the
potential costs of ignorance in this area are great. A concerted program
of research is required in order to make significant progress during the
five-year period covered by this Plan.
In the text that follows, Research Initiatives will be
proposed which assume co-support by other agencies at a level of 25 per-
cent in Fiscal Year 1982, climbing steadily to 43 percent in Fiscal Year
1985. Table 4-2 contains the estimated levels of co-support over the
five-year period. Major components of these Initiatives will be described
which contain funding levels and time periods based on this co-funding
scenario. The components which would not be funded, underfunded or
delayed in the absence of co-support are marked by an asterisk (*) in
the text. After each Initiative is discussed, a summary is provided of
the negative impact which would occur if co-support was not forthcoming.
Figure 4-2. at the end of the chapter contains a summary of the total
nonauditory physiologic effects research program both with and without
co-support.
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TABLE 4-2
ESTIMATED LEVELS OF CO-SUPPORT
FROM OTHER AGENCIES IN THE NONAUDITORY
PHYSIOLOGIC EFFECTS RESEARCH CATEGORY
FISCAL YEAR
1981 1982 1983 1984 1984
EPA Funding* 570 795 900 1000 1300
Other Agency Funding* 0 270 500 650 1000
Percent Co-Support - 25% 35% 39% 43%
Funding in thousands of dollars.
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4.2 Detailed Descriptions of the Research Initiatives
I. Animal Experimental Studies on tha Relationship
Between Noise. Elevated Blood Pressure and Other
Cardiovascular System Effects.
Description and Basic Considerations.—The purposes of this
Initiative are to: assess under controlled conditions the causal
relationship between noise exposure and selected medically significant
physiologic responses, particularly blood pressure; investigate the
associated pathophysiology; and begin to develop quantitative dose-
response relationships for selected effects.
The primate is the animal of choice. Animal research with
an appropriate model will permit: detailed specification of acoustic
parameters, sophisticated and continuous monitoring of physiologic
activity, control of extraneous variables, and investigation of under-
lying mechanisms. There will be three components under this Initiative.
Component I. Systematic Replications and Methodologic Refinements.
Through 1980, the purpose of the University of Miami project
has been to assess the feasibility of chronic exposure work using primates,
and to determine whether such exposures to environmental levels produce
sustained alterations in blood pressure and heart rate. Having accom-
plished these goals, this project will be expanded to provide necessary
replications of the rather dramatic findings of the study, and to begin
to examine the cardiovascular dynamics involved, and associated biochemi-
cal changes.
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Other animal research will be initiated in 1981 aimed at:
(a) Providing independent and systematic replications of
the University of Miami findings,
(b) Determining the most suitable experimental paradigms
(e.g., shorter duration designs, nonchair restrained
animals),
(c) Examining the suitability of other primate species.
Funding for Component I.—Fiscal Years 1981 and 1982:
$290K/year.
Expected Results.—By the end of Component I, EPA should
have compiled a substantial body of animal data showing a relationship
between noise exposure and alterations in blood pressure and other
cardiovascular parameters. The physiological and biochemical mechanisms
and processes involved in these effects will be better understood.
Finally, EPA will have developed sophisticated and streamlined experimen-
tal paradigms using the most appropriate, available primate species.
*Component II. Investigations of Acoustic and Nonacoustic Factors.
In the second Component of animal experimental studies, it
will be appropriate to begin to focus on the development of quantitative
dose-response criteria using animal models. Very detailed work will be
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done on the relationship between various acoustic parameters and cardio-
vascular effects. Examples of parameters to be studied include noise
level, frequency content, duration and temporal pattern (e.g.,
intermittency).
This research will also examine the extent to which the
effects are mediated by various nonacoustic factors. Interest here is
with the context in which the noise occurs. Using well established
conditioning and scheduling techniques, it is possible to manipulate
important contextual variables, such as the "aversiveness" and
"controllability" of the noise.
Funding.—Fiscal Years 1983-1987: $200K (1983), $200K
(1984), and $250K (1985).
Expected Results.—These parametric studies will begin to
provide the type of information necessary to derive tentative dose-
response relationships appropriate to the animal models, providing
information on how much noise and what kind of noise is associated with
how much effect. Information will also be obtained on the extent to
which nonacoustic factors influence the relationship.
*Component III. Investigations of Differences in Susceptibility.
In the third Component of animal experimental studies,
attention will be directed to attempting to determine individual dif-
ferences in susceptibility to the cardiovascular effects of noise. Work
will proceed using various kinds of animals: animals bred for
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hypertension; animals whose systems have been compromised through surgi-
cal intervention, the infusion of hormones, or through pharmacological
means; animals displaying other cardiovascular risk factors; animals
preconditioned to be hyperreactive to noise and other stressors; and
older animals, young animals and infants.
Funding.—Fiscal Years 1983-1988: $100K/year.
Expected Results.—This research will attempt to determine
whether there are certain factors which predispose or place the organism
at greater risk for cardiovascular effects, and whether noise exacerbates
pre-existing health conditions.
Without needed co-support, $100K less would be available in
Fiscal Years 1983 through 1985 for supporting animal experimental work.
This represents a significant decrease (approximately 30 percent) in
the funding of this Initiative. This decrease would necessitate pro-
longing the required work beyond the dates specified, or even not sup-
porting any research on individual differences in susceptibility during
the Five-Year Plan period.
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II. Epidemiclogic Studies on the Relationship Between
Long-Term Noise Exposure and Adverse Cardiovascular
Effects
Description and Basic Considerations. — The purposes of
these studies are: to provide valid epidemiologic data on the relation-
ship of long-term noise exposure and adverse cardiovascular effects,
particularly hypertension; to determine the extent to which a causal
relationship exists between noise and cardiovascular effects; and to
obtain data useful in deriving criteria for the cardiovascular effects
of noise. There will be three components within this Initiative.
Component I. Retrospective Analysis.
The logical first step will be to demonstrate the existence
of an association by providing a more systematic and careful replication
of the existing epidemiologic findings. Taking advantage of a target of
opportunity, the attempt will be made to retrospectively analyze the
data from existing cardiovascular data bases.
Funding.—Fiscal Years 1981 and 1982: $100K/year.
Expected Results.—Systematic replication of Eastern European
research will have been done.
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^Component II. Prospective Analysis.
Phase I - Small Scale Prospective Study
A relatively small, well-controlled prospective study
will be initiated in 1982. It is anticipated that the study will be
conducted in a work setting and involve some type of intervention scenario.
An attempt will be made to find groups equivalent with respect to all
the important variables affecting the outcome measures except noise.
Detailed noise measurements will be made of the current environment and
these will have to be repeated on a regular basis throughout the study.
Dosimeters will be used to determine individual noise exposures. As a
minimum, the project will include unbiased multiple measures of blood
pressure, electrocardiograms (perhaps some type of continuous monitoring),
assessment of hormonal responses to noise, standard blood chemistry, and
chest x-rays. Emphasis will be placed on those individuals at high
risk. Detailed medical histories and noise exposure histories will be
obtained as well as symptom checklists and demographic, socioeconomic,
behavioral and physiologic indicators. The data collection will span a
period of approximately 3 years.
Funding.—Fiscal Years 1982-1984: $400K (1982), $500K
(1983), $600K (1984).
Expected Results.—The prospective study will provide a test
of the causal relationship between noise and cardiovascular problems.
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Phase II - Addition of Noise to Ongoing NIH Cardiovascular
Research
The prospective study will be useful in determining
the extent to which a causal relationship exists between noise and
hypertension and other cardiovascular problems. If promising results
are obtained, an attempt will be made to include actual noise exposure
as a factor in ongoing and/or planned large-scale NIH longitudinal
cardiovascular research. It is only through such research that the
contribution of noise relative to other risk factors can be assessed in
a sample large enough for generalization. Such an effort would contri-
bute greatly to the development of valid dose-response criteria.
Funding.—Fiscal Years 1985-?: $500K/year.
Expected Results.—The addition of noise to large-scale NIH
research will provide a sample large enough for generalization.
*Component III. Investigation of Special Sub-Populations.
Phase I - Blood Pressure in Children
Tentative data concerning elevations in blood pressure
and a fairly extensive literature on cognitive development suggest that
children may constitute a population susceptible to the nonauditory
effects of noise. In the biomedical research community there is also
concern about the prevalence of essential hypertension in children and
the predictive value of childhood blood pressure labilities and elevations,
A basic question concerns the relative contributions of genetic and
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environmental factors to the development of blood pressure elevations in
children. In 1*983, an initial investigation will be undertaken to
examine the role of noise in one of several ways: 1) through an expan-
sion of the Fels Research Institute longitudinal hearing loss study,
2) by adding noise to one of the several ongoing childhood blood pressure
studied sponsored by NIH, or 3) by including blood pressure as a compo-1
nent in planned research on the effects of noise on cognitive and language
development and school performance.
Funding.—Fiscal Years 1983-1985: $150K (1983), $150K (1984),
$150K (1985).
Expected Results.—This research will begin to determine
whether young children are particularly susceptible to the cardiovascular
effects of noise.
without co-supportf the completion of the Phase I -
Small Scale Prospective Investigation would be delayed until 1985, thus
preventing the Phase II - NIH Add On from beginning during the five-year
period of the Plan. Absence of co-support would necessitate funding of
the Phase I study through four years instead of three. Without co-
support, the Blood Pressure in Children component will be delayed two
years and would not be completed in 1985.
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III. Human Clinical Studies of Cardiovascular and
Neuroendocrine Responses to Noise
Description and Basic Considerations.—The purposes of this
Initiative are to provide controlled examination of the relationship of
noise exposure to medically significant nonauditory physiologic effects
in humans, and to provide data on individual differences in susceptibi-
lity and the exacerbating effects of noise. Although it is difficult to
do chronic exposure research with human subjects, there are important
questions which can be addressed through human field and laboratory
studies. One of the advantages of this approach is that it permits a
combining of nonauditory physiologic effects research with research in
sleep, behavioral and performance effects.
The program will involve a series of multi-day and/or multi-
session experiments directed at examining cardiovascular and neuroendo-
crine response to noise. The time course of response, recovery, and
adaptation will be examined using both phasic and tonic response measures.
Two components are planned under this Initiative.
^Component I. Investigations of Acoustic and Nonacoustic Factors.
Systematic attention will be given to the role of acoustic
factors like level, frequency spectrum, and temporal pattern.
Investigations will be carried out to assess the role of important
The terms phasic and tonic, respectively, are used here to refer to
measures which are rapidly changing versus those which are relatively
enduring and long-lasting.
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nonacoustic or contextual factors like controllability, aversiveness
(annoyance level), meaning/familiarity, contingencies, and task load.
Funding.—Fiscal Years 1981 to 1985: $100K (1981), $150K (1982),
$150K (1983), $150K (1984) and $200K (1985).
*Component II. Investigations of Differences in Susceptibility.
Experiments will be conducted using several relevant sub-
populations of subjects such as nonnotensives, hypertensives, Type A
coronary prone personalities, and the chronically noise exposed. These
studies will be carried out using either residential or mobile laboratories.
Funding.—Fiscal Years 1981 to 1985: $80K (1981), $125K (1982),
$150K (1983), $150K (1984), $150K (1985).
Relation to Ongoing Non-EPA Studies.—The NIH and VA studies
mentioned in Section 4.1.4 are scheduled to end in the relatively near
future. Thus their results could contribute to the design of the planned
EPA research under this Initiative.
Expected Results.—
1. Provide data on the time course of response, rate of
recovery, and adaptation of physiological responses to
noise.
2. Assess individual differences in these responses.
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3. Assess the role of various acoustic and nonacoustic
factors in influencing these responses.
4. Provide human data to complement and verify the findings
obtained in the primate research.
Lack of co-support would amount to a reduction of over
35 percent in the support for human clinical research during the Fiscal
Years 1983 through 1985. This work, which will provide the necessary
complement to the animal and epidemiologic data, would be delayed well
beyond the projected 1985 completion date.
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IV. * Nonauditory Physiologic Effects Initiatives Other Than
Cardiovascular Effects
Description and Basic Considerations.—The purposes of this
Initiative are: to evaluate the state of knowledge with respect to the
nonauditory physiologic effects of noise other than cardiovascular
effects; to establish research priorities among those areas on the basis
of health impact and feasibility; and to outline research plans in each
of these categories.
Under current funding level estimates, no nonauditory
physiological effects Initiatives other than those pertaining to cardio-
vascular effects will be possible in Fiscal Years 1981 and 1982. With
the needed co-support from other agencies, work will be started in 1983
under this important Initiative.
The program as outlined would begin with a series of litera-
ture reviews, symposia, and research planning activities. Based on the
results of these appraisals, research into these areas will begin in
1984 and expand greatly in 1985. Although it is not possible to discuss
specific research components in detail, the following are possibilities:
o Descriptive and correlational field studies of the
relationship of noise to health symptoms, complaints
and behaviors.
o Determine whether living and/or working in high noise
environments is associated with: (1) difficult
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pregnancies, (2) births with complications, (3) low
birth weights, (4) birth defects, (5) and other
reproductive/sexual dysfunctions.
o Investigations of the effects of noise on the physical
growth, development and general health of children.
(Evidence suggests that children may be a susceptible
population with respect to noise effects).
o Since noise seldom occurs by itself, laboratory and
field studies are needed on the interaction of noise
with other stressors and environmental hazards.
Funding.—Fiscal Years 1983-1985: $100K (1983), $300K (1984),
and $950K (1985).
Expected Results.—
By 1985, EPA will have determined those nonauditory physio-
logic effects other than the cardiovascular chat are considered to be
most important in terms of health consequences. Detailed research plans
will have been developed in these areas and comprehensive research
programs will be underway in the most important areas.
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Without co-support, very little research would be initiated
during the five-year period concerning other ncnauditory physiologic
effects. The appraisal would be delayed and funding levels for research
reduced drastically from almost $1 million in 1985 to $300K.
4.3 Time and Funding of Research Initiatives
See Figure 4-2.
4.4 Monitoring and Coordination
Liaison will be maintained through the Federal Interagency
Health Effects Advisory Group with the other agencies interested in
physiologic research. The foreign literature will be closely monitored.
4.5 Research Initiatives that Will Not Be Undertaken by EPA
EPA is planning to initiate limited work in all of the
Research Initiatives it believes are important in the cardiovascular
area. The extent to which this can be adequately accomplished depends
on co-support by other Federal agencies.
EPA believes that the type of multi-faceted program needed
to study these effects will be underway by 1983. However, all the
information needed for dose-response criteria will not be obtained by
1985, but EFA should be in a good position from which to decide the
direction and extent of additional research. With a sizable effort in
the cardiovascular area, very little attention will be given to the
other nonauditory physiologic effects prior to 1984. Consequently,
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there are many important topics that will not receive adequate attention;
yet they may have severe health consequences.
4-26
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RESEARCH INITIATIVES
I. Animal experimental studies:
o Systematic replications and methodological refinements
o Investigations of acoustic and nonacoustic factors
o Investigations of differences in susceptibility
II. Epldemiologic studies:
o Retrospective analysis
o Prospective analysis
Phase I - Small scale prospective study
Phase II - Mill Add-on
o Investigations of special sub-populations - Blood
pressure in children
Fiscal y
1981
$290K
$290K
$100K
$100K
1981
ear fundir
1982
$290K
$290K
$100K
$100K
$130K
$400K
1982
ig*
1983
$100K
$200K
$100K
$100K
$500K
$550K
$150K
1983
1984
$100K
$200K
$100K
$100K
$500K
$6"OOK
$150K
1984
1985
$150K
$250K
$100K
$100K
$400K
0
$500K
$150K
$150K
1985
FIGURE 4-1. TEMINC AND EPA FUNDING FOR NONAUDITORY PHYSIOLOGIC EFFECTS
-------
RESEARCH INITIATIVES
III. Human clinical studies:
o Investigations of acoustic and nonacoustic factors
o Investigations of differences in susceptibility
IV. Other nonauditory physiologic effects:
o Scientific appraisals
o Selected studies
TOTALS
Fiscal yi
1981
$100K
$100K
$30K
$80K
$ 570K
$ 570K
1981
sar fund in
1982
$150K
$150K
$125K
$125K
$ 795K
$1065K
1982
g
1983
$100K
$150K
$100K
$150K
$100K
$ 900K
$UOOK
1983
1984
$100K
$150K
$100K
$150K
$100K
$300K
$1000K
$1650K
1984
1985
$100K
$200K
$100K
$150K
$300K
$950K
$1300K
$2300K
1985
FIGURE 4-]. TIMING AND EPA FUNDING FOR NONAUDITORY PHYSIOLOGIC EFFECTS (cont.)
-------
to
1931
19! 2
FIGURE 4-2 FUNDING FOR NONAUDITORY PHYSIOLOGIC
RESEARCH, WETH AND WITHOUT CO-SUPPORT
-------
5. RESEARCH PLAN FOR
SLEEP DISTURBANCE
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page
5.1 Rationale for Selecting Specific Research 5- 1
Initiatives
5.1.1 What is Known 5- 1
5.1.2 What is Not Known 5- 3
5.1.3 EPA Priorities 5- 5
5.1.4 Current Research Activities 5- 5
5.1.5 Position on the Research Continuum 5- 6
5.1.6 List of Planned EPA Research Initiatives 5- 6
for the Five-Year Period
5.2 Detailed Descriptions of the Research Initiatives 5- 8
I. Relationship between field and 5- 8
laboratory data on sleep
disturbance by noise
II. Health consequences of noise- 5- 9
disturbed sleep
III. Acoustic parameters related to 5-11
sleep disturbance
IV. Susceptibility of sensitive 5-12
populations to sleep disturbance
by noise
V. Adaptation to sleep disturbance 5-13
by noise
5.3 Timing and Funding of the Research Initiatives 5-13
5.4 Monitoring and Coordination 5-13
5.5 Research Initiatives That Will Not Be Undertaken . 5-15
by EPA
5-ii
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5. RESEARCH PLAN FOR SLEEP DISTURBANCE
The long-term EPA objective for research on sleep disturbance
is to determine and quantify effects of noise on sleep, and its implications
for general health and performance.
5.1 Rationale for Selecting Specific Research Initiatives
5.1.1 What is Known
About the Effects of Noise on Sleep Itself.—Everyone has
experienced disturbances of sleep attributable to noise. The most
obvious forms of disturbance are prolonging of the time initially
needed to fall asleep, awakening once asleep, and interference with
returning to sleep once awakened. Noise may also affect sleep in less
apparent ways, that is by inducing shifts from deeper to lighter sleep
stages, as measured electrophysiologically.* In the aggregate, repeated
noise intrusions during sleep may influence the total time spent in
sleep states of different depths.
People vary greatly from one another in their susceptibility
to sleep disturbance by noise exposure. Individuals also vary in
susceptibility from time to time and from situation to situation. The
degree of familiarity with a noise is clearly a major determinant of
The stages of sleep are measured by electroencephalograms (EEC). The
EEC is a visual picture of brain wave patterns that have meaning and
organization.
5-1
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sleep disturbance, especially awakening. Other factors, such as the
meaningfulness of noise intrusions, their abruptness of onset, and their
expectedness, duration, and intrusiveness seem to influence the
likelihood of sleep disturbance. Also, the subject's age, sex, and
state of health are known to play a role. For example, susceptibility
to sleep disturbance increases with age from childhood through old age.
A general relationship between increasing noise exposure
levels and increasing likelihood of sleep disturbance is nonetheless
well established. Based on empirical evidence, preliminary criteria
have been established for the likelihood of noise disrupting sleep
(causing a change in sleep stage) and for awakening induced by noise.
About the Effects of Sleep Disturbance on Health and
Performance.—As is the case with other forms of physiological response,
interpretation of the health effects of noise exposure on sleep is
difficult; presently there is no unequivocal evidence that common
forms of sleep disturbance are hazardous to health. However there are
indications in the research literature that the quantity of sleep is less
important than its quality as measured by the organization of sleep depth
stages. Sleep quality as so defined has been found in some of the
research to affect certain subjective, physiological and performance
measures. This is important in studying noise effects because awakening
per se seems to habituate while effects on sleep quality do not. While
the results here are tenuous, in clinical practice, the medical community
has long recognized the requirement for sleep and peaceful rest for
recuperation from illness.
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People clearly feel a loss of well-being from sleep deprivation.
The major subjective consequences of noise-induced sleep disturbance that
have been reported are fatigue, irritability, drowsiness, difficulty in work
performance, and a diminishing in overall feeling of well-being. According
to EPA's Urban Noise Survey, of those persons who said they had been
bothered by noise in their neighborhoods, 60 percent cited sleep disturbance
as one of the most common and annoying aspects of the problem. More serious
health consequences may be associated with chronic sleep disturbance.
5.1.1 What is Not Known
About the Effects of Noise on Sleep Itself.—While forming
an adequate basis for Federal regulatory purposes, a major difficulty
with available information about noise-induced sleep interference is that
much of it is derived from laboratory rather than field study. It is
possible that some of the effects of noise on sleep demonstrated under
laboratory conditions may be different in familiar residential settings.
Thus, it is not known how much of present understanding is artifactual
in nature.
Absence of information about the degree to which noise
degrades sleep quality is also a major impediment to assessment of the
effects of noise exposure on sleep. Since it is known that people vary
greatly in sleep patterns from time to time and from individual to
individual, it is not at all clear that sleep disturbance produced by
noise exposure has serious consequences. Whether habituation or
adaptation to noise takes place during sleep is also a controversial
5-3
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matter. Studies suggest that habituation can occur on the behavioral
awakening level without occurring on the physiological level of sleep
depth.
It is not known how noises of different acoustic charac-
teristics affect sleep. Criteria developed on the basis of one noise
source may have limited validity when applied to another. It has been
suggested that response patterns of people exposed to traffic noise are
different from responses found due to noise from other sources. Further,
the degree of influence of nonacoustic factors (such as age and state of
health) is not known<
About the Effects of Sleep Disturbance on Health and
Performance.—There is virtually no information on the seriousness of
chronic deprivation of rather small amounts of sleep per night, nor of
the shift of sleep from one electrophysiologically measured state to
another. Similarly, people awaken for a number of reasons during the
night, not all of which are noise-related. Further, it is not known
whether additional awakenings and/or changes in sleep depth due to noise
are of any consequence from a health standpoint. Research on the health
and performance consequences of sleep disturbance is only just beginning.
A number of potential measures of health and performance have not yet been
systematically explored or applied to sleep questions. Consequently, the
ultimate seriousness of chronic sleep disturbance due to noise has yet to
be determined.
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5.1.3 EPA Priorities
A major research need is the determination of the effects
of acoustic and nonacoustic variables on sleep quality. Also, meaning-
ful response measures of sleep disturbance to aid in conducting research
should be developed. More information is needed about sleep patterns in
residential rather than laboratory settings, and about the incidence
of chronic sleep disturbance in the United States, especially as it is
attributable to different noise sources. EPA also needs to determine
the degree to tfiich habituation and/or sensitization to noise exposure
occurs. If people adapt to noise disturbance of sleep, the biological
costs of the adaptation need to be defined and quantified, both in the
short- and long-term.
It is necessary to define sleep quality both physiologically
and behaviorally. Further, it is important to study physiological
correlates of sleep disturbance, and to examine any implications of
chronic noise-induced sleep disturbance on general health and performance.
It is also necessary to identify any population subgroups that may be
especially susceptible to noise-induced sleep disturbance and to determine
the consequences of such disturbance.
5.1.4 Current Research Activities
There is only limited Federal work to date on these particular
topics. EPA has not sponsored any research to date. Over the last five
years expenditures by other Federal agencies for sleep-related noise studies
have totaled only a little over $350,000, and have covered only some of the
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subtopics of sleep research of interest to EPA.
o NASA presently has a study on the effects of aircraft noise
on sleep, scheduled to end soon.
o The Navy has an on going program of sleep research which
may be of some assistance to EPA in planning the sleep research program.
o The Public Health Service is planning a program of research
related to sleep and sleeping pill usage, but details which may be important
to EPA's mission have not been specified as yet.
o There may be a useful data base available from a set of
studies sponsored by the European Economic Commission (EEC), now in
their third of four years of study. The four "in-home" studies from the UK,
Netherlands, France and West Germany are investigating the effects of
noise disturbance of sleep on general health and performance.
5.1.5 Position on the Research Continuum
As can be seen in Table 5-1, preliminary criteria have
been established based on how noise disturbs sleep itself. However,
health and performance effects of noise-disturbed sleep are among the
least understood effects of noise, owing to the inability to define the
functional value of sleep, among other factors.
5.1.6 List of Planned EPA Research Initiatives for the Five-Year
Period
After reviewing the status of noise-induced sleep disturbance
research, EPA program needs and priorities, and the planned research
5-6
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TABLE 5-1
POSITION ON THE RESEARCH CONTINUUM - SLEEP DISTURBANCE
Research Continuum
1. Demonstrate existence of an
association
2. Demonstrate basic cause-effect
relationship
A. Animals
B. Humans
3. Investigate physiologic mechanisms
4. Investigate intervening factors.
Improve cause-effect relationship
A. Acoustic
B. Nonacoustic
5. Quantify dose-response relationship
6. Refinement and special populations
Current State of Knowledge
Adequate Marginal Inadequate
1 2
y
y
x
X
i
The rating "y" refers to the status of research on the short-term
effects of noise on sleep itself.
2
The rating "x" refers to the status of research on the health and
performance consequence of sleep disturbance.
5-7
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activities of other Federal agencies, the following Research Initiatives
for EPA funding have been selected for the next five years. They are
not listed in order of priority.
I. Relationship between field and laboratory data on sleep disturbance
by noise
II. Health consequences of noise-disturbed sleep
III. Acoustic parameters related to sleep disturbance
IV. Susceptibility of sensitive populations to sleep disturbance by
noise
V. Adaptation to sleep disturbance by noise
Their selection, and the selection of their funding levels,
are based on the assumption that there will be no co-support from
other agencies in the sleep category because of differing agency missions.
The likelihood exists however, that EPA may be able to derive some benefit
from studies planned by other agencies.
5.2 Detailed Descriptions of the Research Initiatives
I. Relationship Between Field and Laboratory Data on Sleep
Disturbance by Noise
Description and Basic Considerations.—Present criteria
proposed to assess sleep quality (sleep disturbance, or shifts in sleep
depth, and awakening) are based on the sleep of subjects measured under
laboratory study conditions; there is a need to relate sleep as measured
in the laboratory to sleep at home. Further, reports of subjective
5-8
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sleep quality as reported by people sleeping at home have never been
fully validated or related to objective sleep measures. This Initiative,
therefore, is designed to meet short-term programmatic objectives by
improving the criteria now used, that is, by comparing the influence of
noise upon sleep in both the laboratory and the home. This information
will also be used in other Research Initiatives dealing with the longer-
term health and performance impact of noise-disturbed sleep. This
research will be conducted during Fiscal Years 1981 and 1982 at a cost
of $LOOK per year.
Expected Results.—Correction factors or new criteria are
expected which, when applied to laboratory data, may be used to predict the
magnitude of noise-related sleep disturbance in the home environment.
Additional information will be needed to relate subjective sleep quality
evaluations to objective sleep measures.
II. Health Consequences of Noise-Disturbed Sleep
Description and Basic Considerations.—This Initiative is
designed to objectively define and quantify the impact of noise-disturbed
sleep on general health and performance. It will consist of two related
components.
Primate Studies;
Under controlled conditions, the first component will use
animals (primates) to study the biochemical and electrophysiological
parameters related to sleep disturbance, health and performance. The
initial years of primate studies (Fiscal Year 1981: $100K; Fiscal Year
5-9
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1982: $150K) will explore physiological parameters and protocols best
suited to related human research.
Human Studies;
The second component, human studies, will be conducted for
the most part in parallel with the animal work and will be based on the
results of the initial primate work. These studies will investigate
parameters such as drug consumption, absenteeism, medical records,
biochemical and performance measures. Research in this component will
begin in Fiscal Year 1983, interrelating through Fiscal Year 1985 with
the primate research.
Funding for the Health Consequences Ini^ative (both human
and animal) is projected at $250K in 1983, $350K in 1984, and $450K in
1985. Approximately $200K of the funding in 1985 will be assigned to
studying how the primate data can be generalized and applied to humans.
Relation to Ongoing Non-EPA Research.—In designing the
Health Consequences Initiative it was assumed that the series of studies
being sponsored by Commission of the European Communities (CEC) will
provide useful information on which to base EPA research. EPA will be
in continuing communication with the CEC investigators.
Expected Results.—
1. An objective preliminary definition and measurement
of the value of sleep for health and performance, and the ability to
measure the deficits due to sleep disturbance by noise.
2. A quantified relationship between noise-disturbed sleep
and consumption of drugs such as tranquilizers, sleeping pills, and
stimulants.
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3. Quantified relationships between noise-disturbed sleep
and other health and performance measures to be specified in the course of
the research (after pilot work) will probably not be forthcoming within
the five-year period because of extreme complexity and large gaps existing
in our understanding of sleep.
4. Validation of laboratory-home correction factor derived
from Initiative I.
III. Acoustic Parameters Related to Sleep Disturbance
Description and Basic Considerations.—The basic thrust of
this Initiative will assess how different types of noise (as from
different noise sources) differentially affect sleep. Existing criteria
are based mainly on responses to aircraft overflights. Their specific
application to sources such as trucks, buses, automobiles, rapid transit
vehicles, railyards, construction equipment, household appliances, garden
and shop tools should be studied. Studies will specifically investigate
the effects of rise time, frequency spectra, duration, vibration concomitant
with noBflje, impulsiveness, intermittency, and intrusiveness over background
levels.
This Initiative is to begin in Fiscal Year 1982, and it
will continue through Fiscal Year 1985 at funding levels of $60K (1982),
$150K (1983) $150K (1984) and $50K (1985).
Relation to Ongoing Son-EPA Research.—NASA is investigating
similar types of questions for aircraft noise.
Expected Results.—A family of sleep disturbance criteria
for different noise characteristics and sources is expected.
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The information will allow quantification of benefits of
noise control action, and also contribute to the Health Consequences
Initiative (II). The correction factor developed from Initiative II,
assessing differences between home and laboratory studies, will be
applied.
IV. Susceptibility of Sensitive Populations to Sleep Disturbance
by Noise
Description and Basic Considerations.—Existing studies and
criteria are based mainly on the sleep of young, healthy male students.
Susceptibility to sleep disturbance is known to vary with age and other
factors (e.g., the elderly are highly susceptible to sleep disturbance).
No special criteria exist for these groups at this time. This Initiative
would quantify sleep disturbance for special populations such as the elderly,
middle-aged people, children, the ill, and the growing number of night-
workers (day-sleepers).
This Initiative is scheduled for Fiscal Years 1984 and 1985
and beyond, and is anticipated to extend at least through Fiscal Year 1987.
Budgeting will be $100K/year for Fiscal Years 1984 and 1985.
Relation to Ongoing Non-EPA Research.— NIH's study on sleep
and sleeping pill usage may be considered to address a "special population,"
i.e., persons who perceive themselves as having difficulty sleeping and who
are regular users of drugs. Potential applicability of this work is
presently unknown.
Expected Results.—The objective is a family of sleep disturbance
criteria (by noise) for people of different ages, states of health,
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occupations, and lifestyles.
V. Adaptation to Sleep Disturbance by Noise
Description and Basic Considerations.—Using both short-term
(behavioral and electroenc.ephalographic) as well as other measures
(biochemical, health and performance) derived from previous Initiatives,
studies will determine degrees of adaptation, habituation and/or
sensitization to noise disturbance over time (in terms of years of chronic
exposure).
Studies are planned to be conducted in Fiscal Years 1985 and
1986, funded at $150R per year.
Expected Results.—Objectives are revised criteria for sleep
disturbance and awakening, and preliminary criteria for the long-term
effects of noise-disturbed sleep on general health and performance.
5.3 Timing and EPA Funding for the Research Initiative.
See Figure 5-1, on the following page.
5.4 Monitoring and Coordination
EPA staff will maintain liaison with other agencies and
groups involved in the sleep area. Additional liaison and coordination
is anticipated to take place through the National Academy of Sciences.
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RESEARCH INITIATIVES
I. Relationship between field and laboratory data on sleep
disturbance by noise.
II. Health consequences of noise-disturbed sleep
o Primate studies
o Human studies and continuation of primate
o Application of primate findings to humans
III. Acoustic parameters related to sleep
IV. Susceptibility of sensitive populations to sleep
disturbance by noise
V. Adaptation to sleep disturbance by noise
TOTALS
Fiscal y<
1981
$100K
$100K
$200K
1981
aar fund In
1982
$100K
$150K
$50K
$300K
1982
g
1983
$250K
$150K
$400K
1983
1984
$350K
$150K
$100K
$600K
1984
1985
$250K
$200K
$50K
$100K
$150K
$750K
1985
FIGURE 5-1. TIMING AND EPA FUNDING FOR SLEEP-DISTURBANCE
-------
5.5 Research Initiatives That Will Not Be Undertaken by EPA
The identified funding levels will not permit the type of
comprehensive investigation necessary to meet the full objectives of
the described Initiatives. In addition, work under some Initiatives which
would otherwise be completed in a year or two, is being prolonged over a
number of years or being delayed to later years to meet the funding
requirements.
5-15
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6. RESEARCH PLAN FOR
INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY RESPONSE
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
6.1 Rationale for Selecting Specific Research 6- 1
Initiatives
6.1.1 What is Known 6- 1
6.1.2 What is Not Known 6- J
6.1.3 EPA Priorities 6- 4
6.1.4 Current Research Activities 6- 5
6.1.5 Position on the Research Continuum 6- 7
6.1.6 List of Planned EPA Research Initiatives 6- 7
for the Five-Year Period
6.2 Detailed Descriptions of the Research Initiatives 6- 9
I. Determination of the magnitude of 6- 9
community and individual response
attributable to specific source
of noise.
II. Determination of the relationship 6-12
between specific acoustic
attributes and the magnitude of
individual/group response to noise.
6.3 Timing and Funding of the Research Initiatives 6-15
6.4 Monitoring and Coordination 6-15
6.5 Research Initiatives That Will Not Be Undertaken g_17
by EPA
6-ii
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6. RESEARCH PLAN FOR INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY RESPONSE
The long-term EPA objective for research in this category
is to determine and quantify subjective reactions of individuals and
communities to different noise environments and sources, and to in-
vestigate mediating factors.
For purposes of brevity, this category will be referred to
as "community response" in this chapter.
6.1 Rationale for Selecting Specific Research Initiatives
6.1.1 What is Known
Information is available about individual and community
response to commonly occurring forms of noise exposure. The major
physical determinants of both individual and community annoyance due
to noise are understood in fair depth. For example, most of the
variability in individual judgments of annoyance associated with noise
can be accounted for under laboratory conditions by a number of objective
physical measurement procedures.
Psychoacoustic research in the last two decades has refined
the long-known relationship between the frequency sensitivity of human
hearing and annoyance judgments. Scales of varying complexity, some
directly readable from simple instrumentation, others requiring complex
computations, are commonly used to predict the annoyance of a great
many noise sources. The combined effects of pure tones and duration of
6-1
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sounds, among other factors, are known to influence annoyance reactions
to noise, but research has not yielded the anticipated applications to
the community environment.
General relationships of overall community response to noise
(the central tendency of large numbers or groups of individuals) have
been derived and accepted scientifically, and are more precisely known
than are the responses of individuals (that is, individual variations
are generally "averaged out" in commonly used community response
measures).
It is also known, however, that nonacoustic factors, such
as attitudes toward noise sources, or the particular activities disturbed,
can affect both individual and community reactions to sound. Thus,
although many determinants of individual and community annoyance are
well understood on a global level, this general knowledge will not yet
; support precise situation-specific predictions of individual or
\ community response to noise exposure.
>v The prevalence of annoyance due to noise exposure throughout
American society is known in considerable detail. It is known, for
example, that annoyance due to noise exposure is not only restricted to
neighborhoods near airports, highways, and other major noise sources, but
that exposure to levels typical of many urban environments also produces
widespread annoyance. Noises associated with automotive sources (e.g.,
street traffic noise) are the most universal sources of annoying noise
exposure in urban America.
Cumulative measures of total outdoor noise levels (for
example, L , the Day-Night Sound Level) have been shown to provide a
6-2
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useful reflection of community reaction, at least at higher exposure
levels. Thus, the proportion of a community highly annoyed by noise
exposure can be reliably predicted from objective measures of noise
levels. Demographic factors such as age, sex, and socioeconomic status
do not appreciably affect the accuracy of such calculations.
6.1.2 What is Not Known
Quantitative information is still lacking on the influences
of a number of factors that may affect individual and community response
to noise exposure. On an individual basis, considerable uncertainty
remains about the annoyance of specific noise intrusions superimposed
on the ambient noise environment. Other unsettled issues concern the
annoyance associated with exposure to unusual and unsteady sounds.
These include sounds that may vary in level over time, sounds of very
short duration, and sounds that occur infrequently, intermittently,
or unpredictably. The precise influence of audible pure tones in the
noise, and the presence of impulsiveness is open to question. It is
also unclear how the immediate annoyance of noise intrusions is
affected by the nature of an individual's ongoing activities at the
time of the noise intrusion. The manner in which people integrate or
cumulate annoyance or other adverse reactions over time is not at all
understood.
On the community level, the effects of noise exposures at
different times of the day and seasons of the year are not fully resolved,
nor are the effects of temporary (as opposed to long term) exposure,
6-3
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or numbers of discrete noise events. Although existing criteria are
judged adequate for Federal regulatory purposes, a controversy exists
as to differences in annoyance response that may be attributable to
specific yet different sources of noise such as construction noise,
recreational noise, household noise, and so forth, as well as re-
actions that occur in special noise environments such as in transit
vehicles or work places. Annoyance by warning signals is as yet
unexplored.
The influence of accompanying nonacoustic variables such
as people's preconceived attitudes toward or associations with particular
sources of noise are not understood. The questions of annoyance and
stress upon special population groups such as children, the elderly,
and the ill, as well as the variability in annoyance response between
individuals, have not been addressed.
In addition, little is known about annoyance response to low
levels of noise (below L, =55 dB). The variability of individual annoyance
judgments on low level noise cannot yet be accounted for on the basis
of physical (acoustical) parameters of the noise. Yet there are environ-
mental settings such as parks, and residential, recreational and wilderness
areas, where such annoyance certainly exists.
6.1.3 EPA Priorities
EFA program priorities require that research attention be
focused on individual and community response to a variety of special
sources of noise exposure, including construction, railroads, household
and consumer products, mass transit, noise sources in outdoor recreational
6-4
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areas, blast noise, and certain forms of air and ground transportation.
For example, more specific criteria for construction sites will be needed
to support planned EPA construction noise programs, as well as to support
State and local noise control programs in their efforts to control
construction noise.
Determining the relationship between specific attributes
of noise and the magnitude of individual or community response will
require further research attention by EPA for the same programmatic
reasons. The specific noise attributes that need to be addressed are
noise with pronounced tonality, fluctuating levels, and impulsive
components; vibration concomitant with noise; noise of varying duration,
time of occurrence, and number of discrete occurrences; and noise of
varying intrusiveness.
The influence of a number of nonacoustic factors on indi-
vidual and community response also requires more careful study. These
include contextual factors such as the purpose of noise emissions (e.g.,
warning signals), the perceived ability to control the noise emission
\ f / i
exposure, and certain attitudes toward the sources of noise exposure/V'^r ^
4 ^. .i>
The response of certain, identifiable special groups within the pop- f
ulation also deserves study.
6.1.4 Current Research Activities
EPA has undertaken two base year activities dealing with com-
munity response to noise: (1) A study of community reactions and attitudes
towards construction noise, and (2) an examination of response to noise
that intrudes into the environment over relatively short periods of time.
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The first study, "Construction Site Noise Attitudinal
Survey," is being conducted in cooperation with the U.S. Army Construction
Engineering Research Laboratory. Community response data will be acquired
around construction sites in order to establish the relationship between
construction noise and degree of impact on the community.
The other study is "Annoyance by Intrusive Sounds." The
base-year activity will consist of a psychoacoustic laboratory investi-
gation to determine the influence of the subjects' degree of involvement
in various foreground tasks on their indicated annoyance by intrusive
type sounds. This is a necessary step before the development of a
quantitative intrusiveness-type annoyance scale.
An additional study will soon be undertaken assessing human
response to the repetitive-type impulse noise associated with engine
brake noise.
Over $1 million has been spent by other Federal agencies
in the area of individual and community response to noise over the last
three to six years. Of the three agencies primarily active in this
category, NASA leads the way, with over eight projects and more than
$600K devoted to such studies. However, these activities concern
mainly aircraft noise. Some of the specific Federal research activities
in the base-year include the following:
o NASA study of the validity of the 10 dB night-time
weighting penalty applied to aircraft noise;
o NBS (National Bureau of Standards) investigation of
the human response to time-varying traffic noise;
o An Air Force study assessing the impact of their
aircraft noise activities.
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6.1.5 Position on the Research Continuum
As indicated in Table 6-1, preliminary criteria exist for
quantifying the relationship between general community annoyance re-
sponse and higher level noise exposures. However, little is known
about the effect of lower level exposures, intervening factors, and
effects on special populations.
6.1.6 List of Planned EPA Research Initiatives for the 5-Year
Period
After reviewing the status of community and individual
response research, EPA program needs and priorities, and the planned
activities of other Federal agencies, the following major Research
Initiatives have been selected for EPA funding over the next five years.
I. Determination of the magnitude of community and
individual response attributable to specific
sources of noise.
II. Determination of the relationship between specific
acoustic attributes and the magnitude of individual/
group response to noise.
The assumptions made selecting these Initiatives are as follows:
1. Specific components within the Initiatives can only be
identified for Fiscal Years 1981-82. Since each Initiative and its
components undertaken during the five-year period have a direct pro-
grammatic application, only during the first two years of this Plan
can specific components be identified based on defined program needs
in the Fiscal Year 1984-85 time frame. Research results derived from
the latter three years of the five-year period, however, will feed into
programs beyond the Fiscal Year 1985 time frame. Therefore, only broad,
6-7
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TABLE 6-1
POSITION ON THE RESEARCH CONTINUUM - INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY RESPONSE
Research Continuum
1. Demonstrate existence of an
association
2. Demonstrate basic cause-effect
relationship
3. Investigate response mechanisms
4. Investigate intervening factors.
Improve cause-effect relationship
A. Acoustic
B. Nonacoustic
5. Quantify dose response relationship
6. Refinement and special populations
Current State of Knowledge
Adequate Marginal Inadequate
x*
X*
*A1though rated as marginal, the only parameter that has been sub-
stantially quantified and is fully usable for noise assessment purposes
is that of perceived amplitude or intensity (level).
6-8
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general Initiatives are entered into Fiscal Years 1983-85, with the
intent of narrowing the Initiatives into specific components as de-
fined program needs become apparent.
2. Because of the emphasis placed on the nonauditory
physiologic effects research, only low-level funding for individual
and community response is anticipated during this five-year period.
However, it is expected that other Federal agencies, and investigators
in other countries and in the private sector, will conduct some re-
search in this effects category. Although EPA will have only limited
influence on the precise direction of this research, it is anticipated
that many of the experimental findings will be usable by EPA. As new
program needs are defined in the next few years, funding levels in this
category will be reevaluated.
3. No component within any Initiative will be completed
within this five-year time frame. Thus, results may not yield quan-
titative relationships suitable for all conceivable applications.
4. The level of funding suggested will allow study of only
one or two components within any Initiative at a time.
6.2 Detailed Description of the Research Initiatives
I. Determination of the magnitude of community and individual
response attributable to specific sources of noise.
Description and basic Considerations.—This Initiative consists
of two components: a construction noise component to be started immediately,
and other components to be started later.
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Construction Noise.—The construction noise component under-
taken in Fiscal Year 1981 is a carryover from the previous year (Fiscal
Year 1980). The purpose of this research element is to acquire community
response data around construction sites in order to establish the relation-
ship between construction noise and the degree of impact upon the people
exposed. Special emphasis will be placed on the varying longitudinal
aspects of the exposure and on the impact on two particular populations:
residential and workday. The program will include the development of
a survey questionnaire and noise measurement protocol; a site selection
and respondent sampling plan; and the implementation and analysis of
a comprehensive attitudinal survey and noise measurement programs.
Total funding will be $300K between Fiscal Year 1980 through 1983.
Funding will be on the order of $65K in Fiscal Year 1980, $100K in
Fiscal Year 1981, $100K in Fiscal Year 1982, and $35K in Fiscal Year
1983.
Other components.—These will consist of topics most important
to EPA program needs beginning in Fiscal Year 1983. One or more of the
following are the most likely candidates:
a. Railroad and rail facility noise: formulate criteria
directly pertaining to this type of noise, including yard as well as main
line activities.
b. Household and consumer products/interior noise: formulate
quantitative criteria pertaining to these special types of noises and/or
situations of exposure.
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c. Mass transit noise: formulate criteria directly
pertaining to this type of noise, including community as well as passenger
subjective response.
d. Recreational areas/off-road vehicles: formulate criteria
pertaining to this special type of noise exposure.
e. Aviation noise: refine currently available criteria for
application to special situations.
f. Ground transportation noise: refine currently available
criteria for application to special situations.
g. Blast noise: formulate quantitative criteria pertaining
to human subjective response to this special type of noise.
At least two of the components listed above will be studied
from Fiscal Years 1983 through 1985 (depending on program requirements
defined at that time) at a total cost of $590K. Funding will be $150K
in Fiscal Year 1983, $190K in Fiscal Year 1984, and $250K in Fiscal Year
1985.
Expected Results.—
1. The program will initially yield dose-response type
criteria (annoyance and/or other subjective evaluative attributes)
pertaining to construction noise by Fiscal Year 1983. These criteria will
not have general application to all aspects of the construction noise
problem, but will yield criteria directly applicable to construction noise
for vihich no criteria already exist. Information from this research will
feed into the EPA construction site/equipment noise control programs
anticipated beyond the Fiscal Year 1984 time frame. Also, the research
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results will feed into State and local noise control programs where
interest in controlling construction noise has been expressed.
2. Based upon the selection of one or more additional
research components under this Initiative, this research will yield
additional dose-response criteria with respect to other sources of noise,
although these criteria will be somewhat limited for many applications.
II. Determination of the relationship between specific
acoustic attributes and the magnitude of individual/group
response.
Description and Basic Considerations.—This Initiative
consists of three components.
In the first component, undertaken in Fiscal Year 1981, human
subjective response to intrusive noise will be studied, continuing work
started in the base year (Fiscal Year 1980). Formulation of a descriptor
or metric that pertains to noise that intrudes into the environment for
discrete periods of time (whether minutes, hours, days, or seasons) has been
identified as a high programmatic need within EPA. Cumulative predictive
methods are not entirely adequate in a descriptive sense to account for
this type of noise. This program will, in the initial years, consist of
a series of laboratory psychoacoustic studies aimed at scaling the
magnitude of subjective response to various degrees of "intrusiveness"
or detectability of noise over a background. Funding levels are at $65K
in Fiscal Year 1980, $125K in Fiscal Year 1981, and $100K in Fiscal
Year 1982.
6-12
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A second component consists of a small program undertaken
to investigate the annoyance and detectability of warning signals within
construction settings. This program will consist of a laboratory psycho-
acoustic study examining signal detectability of warning devices or
signals over a series of background noises typical of construction site
activity. Funding will be at a level of $55K in Fiscal Year 1981.
Other components to start in Fiscal Year 1982 will be
selected later on the basis of EPA1s latest assessment of its program
requirements. Only a few components can be chosen. Candidates include:
a. Intrusiveness of low-level noise: further work is
needed to develop criteria pertaining to low-level noise (a problem noted
in many areas where background noise is already low), or to refine work
completed up to this point (as described above in the first component).
b. Tonality: a descriptor or adjustment method is needed
to ascertain adverse subjective response of people to noise which contains
perceptible tones.
c. Duration: a descriptor or adjustment method is needed
to assess the influence of duration on human subjective response.
d. Impulsiveness: a descriptor or adjustment method is
needed to ascertain the adverse subjective response of people to noise
which is characterized by impulsiveness.
e. Fluctuating noise: a descriptor or adjustment method
is needed to ascertain adverse subjective response of people to noise
that fluctuates in character over time.
6-13
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f. Interaction of vibration and noise: determine the
contribution to subjective human response caused by vibration con-
comitant with noise.
g. Multiple events: the manner in which people perceive
and integrate multiple events over time as reflected in their subjective
response.
h. Diurnal penalties: the adjustment method currently in
use needs to be further verified with regard to magnitude of response as
a function of time of day.
Research studies investigating selected components will be
funded at a level of $60K in Fiscal Year 1982, $150K in Fiscal Year
1983, $200K in Fiscal Year 1984, and $50K in Fiscal Year 1985.
Expected Results.—
1. The program on intrusive noise will yield criteria based
on laboratory psychoacoustic studies that will be usable for limited
application in the Fiscal Year 1984 time frame. Criteria will relate
objectively measured intrusiveness of noise to anticipated annoyance re-
actions. EPA will evaluate the need to proceed with additional work for
Fiscal Year 1984 and beyond in this area, depending upon adequacy of the
research findings up to that time and EPA priorities reevaluated at
that time.
2. Results from the program pertaining to detectability of
warning signals on construction sites will yield information for use within
EPA programs in the Fiscal Year 1982 time frame and beyond.
6-14
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3. Depending upon the selection of one or more additional
research components under this Initiative, research will yield additional,
but preliminary, adjustment methods or descriptors with respect to the
specific acoustic attributes, discussed above, that may influence the
exact individual and community response to noise. The information derived
from this research will be useful as a basis for regulatory and certification
measurement procedures, as well as a focus for the development of noise
control techniques.
6.3 Timing and EPA Funding of Research Initiatives.
See Figure 6-1.
6.4 Monitoring and Coordination
This set of Research Initiatives will require careful
coordination, since specific components are closely tied to producing
results in accordance with the core EPA Five-Year Noise Plan. A
second type of coordination of particular importance to this cateogry
is close liaison with researchers in other agencies and institutions,
since EPA is also relying on the large amount of work going on elsewhere.
Coordination will be maintained with the American National Standards
Institute's (ANSI) committees on community noise and auditory magnitude,
as well as the Federal Interagency Noise Effects Research Panel.
6-15
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RESEARCH INITIATIVES
Fiscal year funding
1981 1982 1983
1984
1985
I. Determination of the magnitude of community and Individual
response attributable to specific sources of noise.
o Construction noise (a carry-over from FY 80).
o Other topics which may include: railroads; household
and consumer products/interior noise; mass transit;
recreational areas/off-road vehicles; aviation noise;
ground transportation noise; blast noise.
II. Determination of the relationship between specific acoustic
attributes and the magnitude of individual/group response.
o Intrusiveness (a carry-over from FY 80).
Warning signals
Other topics which may include: tonal components;
duration; impulsiveness; fluctuating noise; multiple
events; diurnal penalties.
TOTALS
$10QK
$100K
$35K
S150K
$190K
$180K
$100K
or both
lements.
ee
$60K
$150K
$200K
$250K
§280K
$260K
$335K
$390K
$500K
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
FIGURE 6-1. TIMING AND EPA FUNDING FOR COMMUNITY RESPONSE
-------
6.5 Research Initiatives that will not be Undertaken by EPA.
The identified funding levels will not permit the type of
comprehensive investigation necessary to meet the full objectives of the
described Initiatives. In addition, work under some of the Initiatives
is being delayed under the funding constraints.
The following Initiatives will not be undertaken by EPA
due to limited resources available:
o Identification and quantification of nonacoustic determinants
of community and individual response to noise.
This Initiative will not be undertaken during the five-year
period, because (a) it is more important to acquire information on the
acoustic determinants initially since they will have the most direct
programmatic applications, and (b) it is not experimentally desirable
to proceed to examine the nonacoustic parameters unless the variation
typically encountered in measuring human response to noise is minimized
to the greatest extent possible by proper quantification of the acoustic
factors.
Components within this Initiative include:
a. Influence of contextual factors and attitudes on
response to noise.
b. Identification of nonverbal reactions to noise.
c. Determination of reactions to warning signals or other
noises with high meaningfulness.
6-17
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o Determination of susceptible population subgroups.
Criteria for source specific environments and acoustic/
nonacoustic attributes are needed prior to the refinement of these
criteria to account for especially sensitive or susceptible populations.
6-18
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7. RESEARCH PLAN FOR
NOISE-INDUCED HEARING LOSS
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page
7.1 Rationale for Selecting Specific Research 7- 1
Initiatives
7.1.1 What is Known 7- 1
7.1.2 What is Not Known 7- 3
7.1.3 EPA Priorities 7- 5
7.1.4 Current Research Activities 7- 6
7.1.5 Position on the Research Continuum 7- 7
7.1.6 List of Planned EPA Research Initiatives 7- 9
for the Five-Year Period
7.2 Detailed Descriptions of the Research Initiatives 7-10
I. Determine the incidence of NIHL in 7-10
the United States and contribution
of sociocusis (nonoccupational
exposure), presbycusis (aging), and
occupational exposures.
II. Establish parameters of individual 7-11
sensitivity to NIHL.
III. Refine criteria for low-level noise 7-14
exposure.
7.3 Timing and Funding of the Research Initiatives 7-15
7.4 Monitoring and Coordination 7-15
7.5 Research Initiatives That Will Not Be Undertaken 7-15
7-ii
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7. RESEARCH PLAN FOR NOISE-INDUCED HEARING LOSS
The long-term objective for research in this category is to
determine the extent of the problem, causative factors, and associated
effects.
7.1 Rationale for Selecting Specific Research Initiatives Over
the Five-Year Period
7.1.1 What is Known
The prevalence of hearing loss among workers in industry
has been recognized since the start of the industrial revolution. Within
the last three decades a number of hearing loss studies in industry have
shown a direct relationship between hearing loss and the intensity and
duration of noise exposure. As the intensity and duration of noise
exposure increases, a greater proportion of the sensory cells within the
inner ear will be damaged and eventually destroyed. This will result in
a permanent, irreversible loss in hearing sensitivity.
Noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) increases most rapidly over
the first 10-15 years of noise exposure in the higher frequencies. Noise-
induced hearing loss has been observed for daily noise levels as low as
75 dB after 10 years of exposure. Because the loss in hearing is so
gradual, most people do not recognize the reduction in their hearing
sensitivity until it is too late. Hearing loss often causes a complete
change in a person's social and work life. The hearing process is
7-1
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fundamental to the perception and understanding of speech, and persons
with noise-induced hearing loss have great difficulty understanding
speech when there is some noise in the background.
Industrial hearing loss studies have provided a set of
quantitative damage risk criteria. Risk refers to the probability
that a certain percentage of a noise exposed population will suffer
NIHL in excess of a specified value. Specific noise limits have been
proposed for the purpose of protecting workers' hearing levels based on
these criteria. However, there is a great deal of individual variation
in susceptibility to hearing loss. Industrial studies have shown a wide
variation in hearing levels for worker populations of the same age and
with the same occupational noise exposure. Animal experiments as well
have shown substantial variations in the hearing damage of animals of the
same species after comparable exposures. There is also some evidence that
young animals incur more auditory damage than predicted for older animals.
This finding has relevance to the issue of children and NIHL.
Some hearing surveys in the population have shown demo-
graphic differences in the hearing levels of different races, sexes,
cultures and social groups. Certain people in remote areas of the world,
who have not been exposed to the din of noise in our mechanized society,
have much better hearing in comparison to urban populations of correspond-
ing ages. The only factor that is known to increase the likelihood of
a hearing loss besides aging and disease is increased exposure to environ-
mental noise. For example, listening to amplified music, shooting guns,
and motorcycle riding are a few of the common recreational noise exposures
7-2
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known to contribute to hearing loss. The auditory effects of environ-
mental noise exposures in transit, recreation and in the household have
not been studied in enough detail to determine their consequences on
hearing.
7.1.2 What is Not Known
Although generally adequate for Federal regulatory purposes,
there remain a number of unanswered questions concerning the effects
of noise on hearing. Most of the data concerning the long-term auditory
hazards of noise come from studies of continuous steady state occupational
noise exposure. There is a lack of definitive information on the effects of
shorter term intermittent noise exposures which may be less harmful to
hearing. Most of the knowledge concerning impulse noise comes from
studies of the effects of gunfire noise, yet millions of Americans are
exposed to impulse/impact noise on the job. Existing criteria may not
fully account for time varying noise exposures. Neither do these
criteria account for what may well be additive effects of concurrent
impulse noise and steady state noise exposure.
Much of the present occupational hearing loss data base is
contaminated by nonoccupational noise exposures in the military, trans-
portation, hobbies and recreational activities. Furthermore, there is
a marked deficiency in our knowledge of the incidence of NIHL in the
United States outside of the workplace. Very little is known about
the contribution of certain environmental noise source exposures and
7-3
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patterns of exposure on the population's hearing sensitivity. These
lower level nonoccupational noise exposures must be considered when
investigating the effect of occupational noise.
Although significant efforts are being made to improve our
understanding of the relationship between noise exposure and hearing
loss in industry, little is known about the effects of varying degrees
of hearing impairment on the social and economic functioning of the
affected individuals. Criteria for hearing handicap have been developed
indirectly from speech discrimination tests which do not simulate life-
like conditions. The relationship between hearing sensitivity and
social functioning must be more adequately researched. Likewise, very
little is known about the secondary auditory effects of NIHL such as
tinnitus (ringing in the ear), changes in loudness, and discomfort, which
are highly annoying to hearing impaired persons and seem to accompany
most hearing losses due to noise.
Susceptibility to noise-induced hearing loss varies considerably
among individuals. Little is known about the causative factors underlying
these differences in susceptibility. Little is known about the suscepti-
bility of children to NIHL. Furthermore, current monitoring methods do
not allow for the identification of persons susceptible to NIHL. It
is often assumed that Temporary Threshold Shift (TTS) is correlated with
susceptibility to NIHL, yet this has not been proven in humans.
I Properly planned studies are needed to address the inter-
actions of noise with other stressors. There is little information
\ describing whether poor health status, specific disease states, ototoxic
7-4
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drugs, or chemical agents increase predisposition to or enhance noise
induced hearing loss. Further, if a high level noise exposure is
voluntary and less aversive to the individual, there is little infor-
mation on whether the net effect on hearing sensitivity is different.
7.1.3 EPA Priorities
In the EPA document published in 1977, "Towards a
National Noise Strategy," EPA identified the important goal of^ajcing
IjrC ^eCL^fji. T£yft^^M&Wjip C
all practical steps necessary to ^eliminate/hearing loss as a consequence
of exposure in the workplace and the general environment. This program
goal will require more detailed information on hearing loss caused by
nonoccupational noise. Thus, the following EPA priorities have been
established.
EPA will focus on environmental exposures causing temporary
and permanent defects in the auditory acuity of adults and children.
Research is needed to assess the consequences of high level non-
occupational noise source exposures on the public and to determine the
contribution of specific exposures to the public's hearing status.
Major emphasis will be placed on investigating the auditory
effects of noise on children. Hearing is considered by many to be the
most critical sense in childhood because of language development and
its implications for overall cognitive development and learning.
EPA will also place high priority on studying the interrela-
tionships between NIHL and other general health conditions of the public.
Certain health conditions may interact with noise to produce reduced
hearing sensitivity.
7-5
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7.1.4 Current Research Activities
The current and planned research activities of other Federal
agencies have influenced the EPA decision for a limited but very focused
role in the category of NIHL research. Over the past few years, other
Federal agencies have spent over $3 million per year in related research
under this category. These agencies have indicated their intent to
continue at least the present level of effort in the future. In the
areas of impulse noise, intermittent noise, the social impact of hearing
loss and individual susceptibility research, funding levels are expected
to rise.
In order to better understand the responsibilities and
particular interests of other agencies in researching the category of
NIHL, a brief overview of the Research Initiatives anticipated to be
undertaken by other agencies is as follows:
Underlying Physiologic Mechanisms of NIHL
Physiologic and biomedical research will continue to be
principally supported by the National Institute of Health (NIH) at
funding levels of approximately $1 million per year. Other agencies
such as the Department of Defense (DOD) will conduct research at a
much lower funding level.
Refinement of Criteria for Intermittent Noise and Impulse
Noise
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) and the U.S. Army have assumed lead responsibilities in filling
7-6
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the research gaps related to non-steady state noise and developing revised
criteria for impulse and intermittent noise. Both animal and field re-
search will be sponsored.
Establishment of Parameters of Individual Susceptibility
NIOSH research plans specify the study of the interactive
effects of noise with lead and other potentially ototoxic agents.
NIH and the U.S. Navy are planning to undertake research to
enable the identification of individuals susceptible to NIHL and to
determine causative factors underlying this enhanced susceptibility.
Determination of Social and Economic Impact of NIHL
The Department of Labor is presently studying the technical
appropriateness of different hearing impairment criteria used in workers'
compensation laws for NIHL.
A related EPA research project in Fiscal Year 1980 will
attempt to develop a methodological research design for quantifying
the social and economic consequences of hearing loss with the aim of
eventually developing a more accurate index of hearing handicaps.
7.1.5 Position in the Research Continuum
As depicted in Table 7-1, NIHL research is relatively well
advanced compared to some of the other health effects of noise. From
years of research, a systematic relationship has been developed between
steady-state noise exposure levels, the duration of exposure, and the
resulting hearing loss. The statistical predictiveness of this relationship
provides a good basis for Federal occupational noise legislation. However,
7-7
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TABLE 7-1
POSITION ON THE RESEARCH CONTINUUM - NIHL
Research Continuum
1. Demonstrate existence of an
association
2. Demonstrate basic cause-effect
relationship
A. Animals
B. Humans
3. Investigate physiologic mechanisms
4. Investigate intervening factors.
Improve cause-effect relationship
A. Acoustic
B. Nonacoustic
5. Quantify dose-response relationship
6. Refinement and special populations
Current State of Knowledge
Adequate Marginal Inadequate
x
x
7-8
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research has not yet accounted for wide individual variations in suscep-
tibility to NIHL, the effect of noise with varying temporal patterns,
nonacoustLc intervening factors, and the severity of NIHL.
7.1.6 List of Planned EPA Research Initiatives for the Five-Year
Plan Period
After reviewing the status of NIHL research, EPA program
needs and priorities, and the planned research activities of other
Federal agencies, the following Research Initiatives for EPA funding
have been selected for the next five years. They are not listed in
order of priority.
I. Determine the incidence of NIHL in the United States
and contribution of socLOCUS is (nonoccupational NIHL)
presbycusis (aging), and occupational hearing loss.
II. Establish parameters of individual sensitivity to NIHL.
III. Refine criteria for low-level noise exposure.
These EPA Research Initiatives are chosen based on the
following assumptions:
1. That other Federal agencies will continue to play the
most active role in NIHL research. Although EPA will
have only limited influence on the direction of this
research, it is anticipated that many of the findings
will be useful to EPA.
2. The planned research studies of other agencies will
be conducted with adequate funding levels until
completion.
7-9
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7.2 Detailed Descriptions of the Research Initiatives
I. Determine the incidence of NIHL in the United States
and contribution of sociocusis (environmental exposure),
presbycusis (aging), and occupational exposures.
Description and Basic Considerations.—The objective of this
Research Initiative is to isolate NIHL from other hearing loss etiologies
and estimate the magnitude of the problem caused by different noise
source environments. In the past it has been difficult to separate the
hearing loss caused by age, societal factors and industry, and to predict
the hazards of noise in different environments. This research will assist
in describing the extent and severity of hearing loss due to different
patterns of noise source exposures.
The principal data for this initiative will be provided
by the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) of the Public Health
Service in their periodic health surveys. Specifically, EPA will use
the results from past, current and planned National Health and Nutrition
Examination Surveys (HANES) in the areas of hearing-related problems,
demographic information, and indices related to noise exposure. The
HANES survey is periodically conducted to obtain national estimates of
the health status of the population.
EPA will incur only data analysis costs. Funding of $50K
per year between Fiscal Years 1981 and 1985 will be necessary. Cardio-
vascular and other health status information will be included in the
analysis supportive of data requirements in other research categories.
Some co-support funding is anticipated from the National Institute of
Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke (NINCDS).
7-10
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Expected Results.—The resulting analyses will attempt to
(1) describe hearing-related problems caused by recreational, transporta-
tion and residential noise; (2) determine the incidence of NIHL in the
United States; and (3) develop separate sets of curves for presbycusis,
sociocusis and NIHL. The results of this analysis will then be available
for use in source specific assessment programs planned for Fiscal Years
1982, 1983 and 1984.
All of the resulting information will be useful to Federal
agencies and State and local governments in support of regulatory,
labeling, and consumer information programs.
II. Establish Parameters of Individual Sensitivity to NIHL.
II-A. Relationship between physiologic disease and hearing
loss.
This research will attempt to isolate relevant biologic
variables and physiologic problems which are correlated with auditory
difficulties. Certain health conditions will be analyzed to determine
whether they predispose an individual to NIHL. At the present time, the
HANES survey results will provide the focus for this investigation. More
in-depth research plans are contingent upon the results of the HANES data
analysis and the results of research planned by NIH and the U.S. Navy. No
additional funding is being planned above what is required for Research
Initiative I.
Expected Results.—Descriptive analyses will be provided
which show whether there are any associations between certain health
conditions, diseases and hearing loss.
7-11
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II-B. Susceptibility of special populations — children.
While environmental noise may adversely affect people
of all ages, children may require special consideration and safeguards.
Research with animal models indicates that younger organisms are more
susceptible to NIHL than are adults. Children may also be exposed to
different sources of noise not currently recognized as affecting hearing.
For the past four years, EPA in cooperation with the Air
Force has funded a longitudinal study at Fels Research Institute of
the Wright State Medical school to analyze age-related changes in the
auditory thresholds of children, and to relate changes in auditory
sensitivity to environmental noise exposures and developmental and
physiologic variables. This information is essential in order to
determine whether additional controls are necessary to reduce the
noise exposure of children.
This research study will continue to be funded by EPA at
a level of approximately $50K per year over the next five years. A
comparable level of co-support will be added by NINCDS to expand the
subject population to include a large sample of urban and minority
children.
Expected Results.—Periodic results are awaited describing:
1. changes in the hearing sensitivity of both children
and teenagers related to specific environmental factors;
2. the consequences of a hearing loss in-childhood with
respect to communicative and educational problems;
3. whether auditory patterns and noise exposures during
childhood may be correlated with hearing acuity later
in life.
7-12
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II-C. Determine source exposures causing TTS and assess
debilitating consequences.
There are many hazardous noise environments outside of
the workplace which can cause temporary reductions in auditory sensitivity,
commonly called ITS (Temporary Threshold Shifts). The results of TTS
experiments have been used in the past to predict permanent reductions
in hearing for persons with long-term occupational noise exposure.
However, TTS itself may warrant special consideration where the reduction
in sensitivity interferes with ongoing activities. Specifically, the
activities of children will be investigated where the repeated occurrence
of TTS may have deleterious effects on education, communication and
performance. Field and laboratory TTS studies with children will be
conducted. The Research Initiative will assess whether there is a need
to control source exposures on the basis of TTS. The planned Research
Initiative will be a continuation of research started in Fiscal Year
1980. The funding level will be approximately $50K.
Expected Results.—The results will be incorporated into
the EPA regulatory program, State and local noise control programs, and
public information materials for parents, the PTA and other organizations.
Results include:
1. the identification of hazardous noise conditions par-
ticular to the activities of children (e.g. riding
school buses, listening to music on stereo headsets);
2. determination of the amount of TTS caused by these
common activities of children;
3. assessment of the related consequences on education,
communication, and performance.
7-13
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III. Refine Criteria for Low-Level Noise Exposures.
Existing criteria are extrapolated downward from the higher
level noise exposures in industry to determine the related auditory
risk at lower level noise exposures. Recent studies have revealed that
children, homemakers and many segments of the public are exposed to
noise levels in environmental settings capable of causing permanent
reductions in auditory sensitivity. There is an urgent need to more
accurately estimate the lower limit of steady state and fluctuating
noise levels capable of causing permanent hearing loss and incorporate
these into comprehensive damage risk criteria.
The HANES data analyses will determine specific environ-
mental noise source exposure patterns associated with reduced hearing
sensitivity. The research effort planned under this Initiative will
isolate and quantify these specific source exposures in a selected
population and determine the contribution of these source exposure
patterns on an individual's hearing sensitivity. Hearing tests will
be conducted in conjunction with dosimetry measurements and a
questionnaire program. Research is to start in Fiscal Year 1982 and
continue through Fiscal Year 1984 at $50K/year.
Expected Results.—The magnitude of the auditory problems
associated with specific environmental source exposures will be determined.
This information will assist in the development of refined hearing loss
criteria.
7-14
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7.3 Timing and Funding of the Research Initiatives.
See Figure 7-1.
7.4 Monitoring and Coordination
Performance of these Initiatives will be coordinated with
the Interagency Regulatory Liaison Group (IRLG). The IRLG has established
a subgroup on noise, which among other things is concerned with the total
body burden of noise and the interaction of workplace noise with off-the-
job noise exposures.
Liaison will also be maintained with the other Federal
agencies sponsoring NIHL research through the Federal Interagency
Noise Effects Research Panel as well as the ANSI committees on hearing
conservation criteria and impulse noise.
7.5 Research Initiatives That Will Not Be Undertaken by EPA
The following research initiatives are expected to be
undertaken by other agencies, and are therefore not considered for the
EPA Plan:
o Underlying physiologic mechanisms of NIHL
o Refinement of criteria for intermittent noise and
impulse noise
o Determination of social, economic, and other impacts
of NIHL.
Substantial increases in funding will be needed under
this (last) Initiative by other agencies. Research initiated by EPA
7-15
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RESEARCH INITIATIVES
I. Determine the incidence of NIHL in the U.S., and contribution
of sociocusis, presbycusis, and occupational exposures.
II. Establish parameters of individual sensitivity to NIHL.
o Relationship between physiologic disease and hearing
loss. (included in I)
o Susceptibility of special populations - children (Fels -
Continuation from 1976). *
o Determine source exposures causing TTS and asses
debilitating consequences. (Begun in FY 80.) *•
III. Refine criteria for low-level noise exposures,
TOTALS
Fiscal yc
1981
$50K
$50K
$50K
$150K
1981
»ar fund in
1982
$50K
$50K
$50K
$150K
1982
g
1983
$50K
»
$50K
$50K
$150K
1983
1984
§50K
S50K
$50K
$150K
1984
1985
$50K
$50K
$100K
1985
FIGURE 7-1. TIMING AND EPA FUNDING FOR NOISE-INDUCED HEARING LOSS (NIHL)
-------
and Che Department of Labor in Fiscal Years 1979 and 1980 should provide
focus as to what is needed and the ramifications of the work. Workers
compensation costs for NIHL are predicted to increase to approximately $1
billion over the next 10 years, yet little is still known about the
adequacy of current criteria in terms of the real social and economic
impacts. Increased research above what is presently being planned is
mandatory. The real cost to the nation of NIHL remains unknown.
o Establishment of Parameters of Individual Susceptibility
This Research Initiative will be partially undertaken by
EPA. It is listed both in the EPA Plan as Initiative II and in Che list
of Initiatives being undertaken by NIH and the Navy (in Section 7.1.4).
7-17
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8. RESEARCH PLAN FOR
BEHAVIORAL, SOCIAL AND
PERFORMANCE EFFECTS
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Concents
8.1 Rationale for Selecting Specific Research
Initiatives
8.1.1 What is Known 8-1
8.1.2 What is Not Known 8-3
8.1.3 EPA Priorities 8-4
8.1.4 Ciirrent Research Activities 8-5
8.1.5 Position on the Research Continuum 3-7
8.1.6 List of Planned EPA Research Initiatives 3-7
for the Five-Year Period
8.2 Detailed Descriptions of the Research Initiatives
I. Effects of Noise on Cognitive and o-j
Behavioral Development
II. Behavioral and Social Adjustment of Noise 3-10
8.3 Timing and Funding of the Research Initiatives 8-11
8.4 Monitoring and Coordination 3-11
8.5 Research Initiatives That Will Not 3e Undertaken bv EPA 8-11
S-ii
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8. RESEARCH PLAN FOR BEHAVIORAL, SOCIAL AND PERFORMANCE EFFECTS
The long-term objective of research under this category is
to determine the effects of noise on social behavior, mental health and
human performance.
8.1 Rationale For Selecting Specific Research Initiatives
8.1.1 What is Known
The behavioral, social and performance effects category is a
very broad category encompassing most aspects of personal and social
adjustment and performance. These effects are often complex, subtle and
indirect, and the result of complex interactions with nonacoustic variables.
By a wide margin, the greatest amount of scientific attention
has been devoted to relatively short-term laboratory investigations
(typically exposures of one hour or less) of the performance of mental
and motor tasks under noise. Unfortunately, findings to date have been
quite ambiguous and controversial. Although no direct, simple statements
are possible, some rather general conclusions can be drawn.
It is probably safe to conclude that few performance decre-
ments occur under steady state noise when the level is below 80 to 90
dB. A number of studies have shown that exposure to unpredictable or
aperiodic intermittent noise may result in more pronounced performance
effects, even at levels considerably below 80 to 90 dB. Changes in the
prevailing noise level may also have an adverse effect on performance.
8-1
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Tasks Chat require simple, repetitive operations are usually
unaffected and sometimes even improved by the presence of noise. On the
other hand, most performance decrements have been found on complex tasks
that require continuous activity, prolonged attention, or the accomplish-
ment of two or more simultaneous tasks. Noise has often been found to
reduce the accuracy rather than the overall rate of performance.
Research has shown that motivational and personality variables
can influence the effects that noise will have on performance. A fairly
recent series of studies demonstrated that although performance may be
unaffected during noise exposure, impairments may occur after the noise
stops. It has also been demonstrated that providing the individual with
the perception of control over the noise resulted in the elimination of
these effects. These findings suggest the importance of contextual and
other nonacoustic variables in influencing performance under noise.
A small amount of laboratory research suggests that noise
may have an adverse effect on certain aspects of social behavior. There
has been work on the relationship between noise and social conformity,
aggression, verbal disinhibition, and altruistic (helping) behavior.
There is a growing body of evidence which shows that noise
adversely affects the learning and cognitive development of children.
Studies have shown that auditory discrimination and reading achievement
are adversely affected in children attending school or residing in high
noise environments. These studies represent some of the few attempts to
assess long-term performance effects.
8-2
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There have been a few other scattered attempts to assess the
long-term effects of noise in field settings. There is some evidence of
decreased productivity and increased absenteeism and accidents among
workers exposed to high noise levels on the job. Some correlational
research has also been performed on the relationship between noise
exposure and mental hospital admissions, showing increased admission
rates in high noise environments. Social survey work has revealed
positive associations between the noise levels and various symptoms of
psychological stress and negative affective states.
8.1.2 What Is Not Known
Thus far, no direct cause-effect relationships have been
derived that quantitatively express the effects of noise on performance
or other kinds of behavior.
A major stumbling block to progress is that there are few,
if any, direct effects of noise on performance. Under most circumstances,
it is not practicable to predict effects by relying only on information
concerning the physical parameters of the noise. Although we have
acquired some knowledge of the connection between noise and performance,
the exact relationship is quite complex and often dependent upon many
elusive nonacoustical parameters such as the demands of the task, inter-
vening factors of the performance situation, and the presence of intrinsic
personality variables. Identification, description and quantification
of the many non-physical parameters is clearly required before a concern
8-3
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with performance as disrupted by noise will become a critical factor in
influencing the nature, direction and stringency of noise control programs.
Precise data are needed on the effects of noise on the
cognitive and social development of children. Noise does appear to
interfere with the acquisition of important language and reading skills.
It is not known with any certainty, the extent to which
noise may adversely affect work performance and social behavior in real
world situations. If people are forced to cope with noise, the question
is what, if any, are the costs incurred as a result of the extra effort
required to cope with noise? Are there affects which occur after the
noise is no longer present? Research is needed to determine whether
existing laboratory findings are generalizable to natural settings.
Information is lacking on the relationship between noise and
social and mental pathology. Methodologically sound studies in this
area are needed. Very little is known about individual differences in
sensitivity to noise. Research is needed to help explain the observed
large variability in individual sensitivity to noise.
8.1.3 EPA Priorities
As pointed out previously, there is ample support for the
contention that behavioral effects of noise are of direct concern to
EPA, in view of EPA's responsibility of guarding public health and
welfare. The potential adverse behavioral effects of noise are great
and include not only unnecessary disruption of productivity but also
accidents on the job, absenteeism, effects on learning, social behavior,
8-4
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and increased social problems like crime. Quantified dose-response
relationships between noise and adverse behavioral, social and performance
effects are now completely lacking. However, there are promising avenues
along which future research should be directed in support of EPA's
requirements.
Taking into consideration current funding estimates, rela-
tively little research can be adequately carried out in this health
effects category over the five-year period. Based on programmatic needs
and other factors, emphasis will be placed on investigating the effects
of noise on children and studies of behavioral and social adjustment to
long-term noise exposure.
8.1.4 Current Research Activities
At the present time, EPA is not sponsoring any research in
the behavioral category. The amount of related activity by other Federal
agencies has also been less than adequate. Only seven studies have been
undertaken by other agencies in the last few years, at a cost of approxi-
mately $500K. According to the information gathered to date in the
update of the Panel Report, overall funding levels may have declined in
this category of research. Moreover, with few exceptions, much of the
ongoing research does not seem to be directly applicable to everyday
environmental noise problems.
Some of the specific research activities include the following:
8-5
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Studies by Che Department of Defense (DOD) assessing
the performance effects of noise (and other environ-
mental stressors) in military situations. Some of the
findings of these studies may be applicable to EPA
questions concerning the interaction of noise and
other stressors in affecting performance.
A small study by the National Institute of Mental
Health (NIMH) investigating personal adjustment to
urban noise.
Performance effects research by the National Science
Foundation (NSF) investigating the relationship between
noise control in the workplace and productivity.
Research by the National Science Foundation (NSF) on
the effects of environmental noise on children's
attentional strategies and generalized expectations
concerning controls.
A study sponsored by the State of California on
achievement test scores of elementary school children
in schools near freeways.
8-6
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8.1.5 Position on the Research Continuum
From Table 8-1, it is clear that compared to some of the
other health effects research categories, research in many facets of the
behavioral category is still in the exploratory phase. With the exception
of laboratory studies of task performance, suspected effects have been
identified, but not sufficiently investigated.
8.1.6 List of Planned EPA Research Initiatives for the Five-Year
Period
I. Effects of Noise on Cognitive and Social Development
II. Behavioral and Social Adjustment to Noise
These initiatives, together with their proposed funding
levels, have been chosen based on the following assumptions:
1. Due to the relatively low level of emphasis placed on
this category, only limited funding will be available during the five-
year Plan period.
2. Because Research Initiatives in higher priority categories
must be started as soon as possible, limited EPA resources make it
necessary to defer research startups in this category until Fiscal Year 1983.
8.2 Detailed Descriptions of the Research Initiatives
I. Effects of Noise on Cognitive and Social Development
Description and Basic Considerations.—A relatively small
but growing literature exists showing that environmental noise is
8-7
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TABLE 8-1
POSITION ON THE RESEARCH CONTINUUM - BEHAVIORAL. SOCIAL, AND PERFORMANCE EFFECTS
Research Continuum Current State of Knowledge
Adequate Marginal Inadequate
1. Demonstrate existence of an association X*
2. Demonstrate basic cause-effect relationship
3. Investigate physiologic mechanisms X
4. Investigate intervening factors. Improve
cause-effect relationship
A. Acoustic X
B. Nonacoustic X**
5. Quantify dose-response relationship X
6. Refinement and special populations X***
* Task performance studies only
** Much research in this area has established that nonacoustic factors
have a strong influence in most aspects of this category.
*** Generally inadequate, but research indicates that noise does
interfere with the acquisition of important language and reading
skills in children.
8-8
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associated with impaired speech discrimination or understanding, reading
achievement, problem solving, and task performance in children. This
research has involved infants through young adolescents, and has dealt
with noise in both home and school environments. Other research exists
which indicates that certain groups of special children may be even more
sensitive to noise than normal children.
The aim of this Initiative is to determine the extent to
which living or attending school in high noise areas has adverse effects
on cognitive and social development.
A. In the first phase, an appraisal of the existing data
will be carried out, using not only noise studies per se. but other
relevant studies as well. A fairly extensive literature base reveals
the importance of early environmental stimulation on the development of
both animals and humans. Other research has dealt with the concepts of
selective attention and distraction in children, particularly with
respect to learning and performance in educational settings.
The first phase will be undertaken in Fiscal Year 1983 at a
cost of $60K.
B. In the second phase, a lab and/or field study will be
conducted, incorporating the following factors in its design.
o Socioeconomic characteristics (age, race, sex)
o School performance (in-class performance, homework
performance, standardized tests.)
o Social behavior (in home; at school)
o Acquisition of speech and language
o Performance of selected tasks (psychomotor, cognitive).
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The second phase will be funded at a level of $150K in
Fiscal Year 1984 and $100K in Fiscal Year 1985.
Expected Results.—The results of the first-year appraisal
will be used to develop the protocol of the study. The study will yield
some of the information necessary for deriving quantitative dose-response
criteria including speech communication criteria for children.
II. Behavioral and Social Adjustment to Noise
Description and Basic Considerations.—Many of the behavioral
effects of noise are complex, subtle and indirect. Although it is
widely accepted that noise has disruptive effects, little is known about
how people adapt to and cope with noise in their environment. Research
under this Initiative will try to assess and quantify some of the major
adverse effects of noise on social and personal adjustment.
The emphasis will be on methodologically sound studies of
long-term adaptation to noise. Attempts will be made to assess the
social and behavioral costs of adaptation and, where warranted, to
assess the generalizability of laboratory findings to naturally occurring
situations.
In the first phase, the literature will be reviewed and
evaluated to 1) determine which areas of behavioral and social adjustment
offer the most promise in providing criteria and 2) the specific research
questions that need to be addressed. Research studies will then be
designed and implemented under the second phase of this Initiative.
8-10
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The appraisal of literature will be conducted in 1983 at a
level of funding of $55K. Research studies will be conducted in Fiscal
Years 1984 and 1985 at funding levels of $110K and $250K, respectively.
Expected Results.—Results of the literature appraisal will
be used to decide which topics should be selected, and in designing the
specifics of the research studies planned for the following years (Fiscal
Years 1984-6). Only preliminary results may be expected from the research
before Fiscal Year 1986.
8.3 Timing and Funding of Research Initiatives
See Figure 8-1.
8.4 Monitoring and Coordination
During the appraisal work, liaison will be maintained with
scientific groups to provide important inputs for the research design of
the planned studies. Workshops for this purpose are also being considered.
Coordination will be maintained with such agencies as DOD,
NSF and NIMH and through the Noise Effects Advisory Group.
8.5 Research Initiatives That Will Not Be Undertaken by EPA
The scientific appraisals currently planned will place EPA
in a position to move into studying two major topics under these two
Initiatives. Other topics will be identified, but due to limited
resources will not be started. It is too early to list these topics.
8-11
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RESEARCH INITIATIVES
Fiscal year funding
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
T. Effects of noise on cognitive and social development.
II. Behavioral and social adjustment to noise.
TOTALS
oo
i
$60K
$150K
$55K
$115K
$260K
1981 1982 1983
1984
$100K
$110K I $250K
$350K
1985 j
FCGURE 8-1. TIMING AND EPA FUNDING FOR BEHAVIORAL, SOCIAL-AND PERFORMANCE RESEARCH
-------
Other major Initiatives will not be addressed at all. These
include:
o The relationship of noise to mental pathology
(virtually no attention under this Plan)
o The role of acoustic and nonacoustic factors on task
performance
o Individual differences in sensitivity to noise
o Interaction of noise with other stressors in the
performance situation
8-13
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9. RESEARCH PLAN FOR
COMMUNICATION INTERFERENCE
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page
9.1 Rationale for Selecting Specific Research
Initiatives
9.1.1 What is Known 9-1
9.1.2 What is Not Known 9-2
9.1.3 EPA Priorities 9-3
9.1.4 Current Research Activities 9-4
9.1.5 Position on the Research Continuum 9-6
9.1.6 List of Selected EPA Research Initiatives 9-6
9.2 Detailed Descriptions of the Research Initiatives 9-6
9.3 Timing and Funding of the Research Initiatives 9-6
9.4 Monitoring and Coordination 9-6
9.5 Research Initiatives That Will Not 3e Undertaken 9-8
bv EPA
-------
9. RESEARCH PLAN FOR COMMUNICATION INTERFERENCE
The long-term EPA objective for research on Communication
Interference is to determine and quantify the effects of noise on communi-
cation and its developmental, social and other implications.
The reader should note that the contents of this chapter and
the following chapters differ from the others thus far, in that Research
Initiatives are proposed but none are expected to be funded by EPA due
to higher priorities and resource constraints.
9.1 Rationale for Selecting Specific Research Initiatives
9.1.1 What is Known
The ease with which normal-hearing adults can communicate
with each other face-to-face, or understand speech over communication
systems such as telephones, intercoms, radios, and the like, is governed
primarily by the amount of background noise present in the environment.
Although individuals can compensate to some degree for the interference
created by masking noise by raising their voices, or by listening more
carefully, such compensation is often tiring and unpleasant, and in
extreme background noise conditions, ineffective.
Most research on the adequacy of speech communication was
initially conducted in the context of evaluation of military communica-
tion systems. More recently, this body of knowledge has been applied to
9-1
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the slightly different problem of determining the effects of environmental
noise on face-to-face communication. The fundamental tools used for
assessing the acceptability of speech communication are procedures for
estimating speech intelligibility on the basis of assumed background
noise spectra and speech levels. A number of efforts have been made to
equate percentages of words and sentences correctly understood within
fixed contexts to typical speech and noise characteristics. Thus, EPA
has developed and published in the "Levels Document"* general purpose
criteria relating levels of continuous noise to percentage of sentence
intelligibility at specific distances under normal, face-to-face speaking
conditions. One set of criteria exists for indoor speech interference
and one for outdoor speech interference. These criteria are judged to
be adequate for most Federal regulatory purposes. In addition, criteria
exist for intelligibility where the speaker has exerted greater vocal
effort to overcome perceived background noise, for cases where the
communications are perceived by the speaker as "vital" or "not vital."
9.1.2 What is Not Known
Although the major acoustic determinants of speech inter-
ference are well known, the assessment of the quality of face-to-face
verbal communication is not yet a routine matter. This is so because
nonacoustic circumstances of the communication situation have not yet
been reduced to a manageable set of standard conditions. For example,
* Information on Levels of Environmental Noise Requisite to Protect
Public Health and Welfare with an Adequate Margin of Safety, U.S. EPA
550/9-74-004, March 1974.
9-2
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it is not yet known at what distances people actually choose or attempt
to communicate indoors, outdoors, and in other special environments
(schools, transportation vehicles, public meeting places, group gatherings,
etc.).
Similarly, the degree to which other non-standard conditions
affect speech intelligibility (such as non-native or inexperienced, or
very young, old, or hearing-impaired speakers or listeners) are not yet
usefully quantified. By the same token, it is not yet known how unusual
background noise conditions (such as intermittent high level or time
varying noise) affect satisfaction with speech communication.
Additional gaps exist in our knowledge of the indirect
effects of communications interference. These include: effects on
education, safety and the quality of everyday social interactions.
There are numerous anecdotal reports of noise interference in the
classroom. Likewise, there are reports of safety hazards in a number of
different traffic and industrial situations due to the masking of emer-
gency signals. None of these more indirect effects of communications
interference by noise has been quantified.
9.1.3 EPA Priorities
To continue to support the EPA mission of protecting the
public health and welfare from the adverse effects of environmental
noise, research must now focus on refined criteria which will be helpful
in assessing the effects of noise on special subpopulations, the effects
of special noise patterns on the population, and the indirect effects of
noise on safety, productivity and performance.
9-3
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From EPA's point of view, therefore, the most useful specific
directions for work refining criteria are to:
o Establish criteria for special groups (elderly,
children, hearing-impaired, people with English as a
second language)
o Establish criteria (families of dose-response curves)
for:
- relaxed vocal effort indoors
- relaxed vocal effort outdoors
- relaxed vocal effort inside transportation
vehicles
o Establish better criteria for time-varying noise.
In addition, EPA needs to understand better the indirect adverse effects
of disruption of speech by noise. These include the question of safety,
extreme annoyance, disturbance of normal activities such as domestic
life or learning, and effects on social interaction. Of particular.
interest, and already addressed by a Research Initiative in the behavioral,
social and performance effects Plan, is the determination of the effects
of noise on teaching and learning activities. Thus it can be seen that
understanding of communication interference is a necessary aspect of
work in some of the other research categories.
9.1.4 Current Research Activities
EPA is presently providing indirect support in this area
through the Pels longitudinal study. The speech discrimination abili-
ties of children are being investigated under different noise conditions.
Other Federal agencies are much more directly active in this category.
According to the information gathered to date in the update of the Panel
9-4
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Report, over $1 million has been spent by other agencies on at least
nine projects over the last few years. Three agencies are significantly
involved in investigating the effects of noise on the speech perception
of special groups of people. Their specific research activities include
the following:
o The National Institute of Neurological and Communicative
Disorders and Stroke (NINCDS) has sponsored the bulk
of the research. Their research includes studies of
speech perception problems of children and the hearing-
impaired.
o The Veterans Administration is investigating the
acoustic needs of aphasics (persons with neurologically
damaged language functions).
o The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
(NIEHS) has sponsored studies of the effects of time-
varying noise on communication interference of people
with special hearing problems.
o In addition, branches of the Department of Defense are
continually undertaking research studies in assessing
and redesigning speech communication systems for
maximum communication effectiveness and the least
interference by noise.
9-5
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9.1.5 Position on the Research Continuum
General criteria have been achieved, and work is now pro-
ceeding on refined criteria and factors related to special populations
(See Table 9-1).
9.1.6 List of Selected EPA Research Initiatives
There are no EPA Research Initiatives slated for funding in
this five-year Plan period. However, EPA has developed a set of Research
Initiatives which are important from the EPA standpoint. Those are
described in Section 9.5 of this Plan.
Moreover, part of a needed Initiative will be carried out
under the Plan for behavioral, social and performance effects. Under
Initiative I, as part of the study of effects of noise on learning,
preliminary work on developing speech criteria for children will be
conducted.
9.2 Detailed Descriptions of the Research Initiatives
(Not applicable, See Section 9.5).
9.3 Timing and Funding of the Research Initiatives
(Not applicable).
9.4 Monitoring and Coordination
Although EPA will not need to coordinate with outside
groups with respect to EPA projects, it will be necessary to stay abreast
9-6
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TABLE 9-1
POSITION ON THE RESEARCH CONTINUUM - COMMUNICATION INTERFERENCE
Research Continuum
1. Demonstrate existence of an association
2. Demonstrate basic cause-effect relationship
3. Investigate physiologic mechanisms
4. Investigate intervening factors. Improve
cause-effect relationship
A. Acoustic (impulse, intermittent)
B. Nonacoustic (situational factors),
5. Quantify dose response relationship
5. Refinement and special populations
Current State of Knowledge
Adequate Marginal Inadequate
X
X
NA
X
X*
X
* Adequate for normal-hearing adults only under ideal listening contexts.
9-7
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of progress made by other research agencies so that work useful to the
EPA mission may be acquired in a timely fashion. Of particular relevance
in this regard is work being conducted by NINCDS and NIEHS. In addition
there will be continuing active participation in ANSI committees dealing
with speech intelligibility.
9.5 Research Initiatives That Will Not Be Undertaken by EPA
The following Initiatives will not be undertaken by EPA due
to limited resources available:
o Relaxed Conversation in Different Environments
Under this Initiative are included criteria for relaxed
conversation indoors, outdoors, and inside transportation sources (cars,
trains, buses, etc.).
o Speech Intelligibility for Special Groups
Special dose-response criteria are needed for the elderly,
children, and the hearing-impaired (both listeners and speakers) and for
dialects and speech as spoken by non-native speakers.
o Effect of Time-Varying Noise on Speech Intelligibility
The effects of time-varying noise of various types (e.g.,
passbys, overflights, periodic sources) need to be studied in laboratory
conditions to develop appropriate criteria.
9-8
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o Communications Interference Effects in High-Noise Work
and Traffic Environments
The objective of this Initiative is the eventual quantifi-
cation of risk from accidents caused by failure to hear warning signals,
of loss of productivity, and decrements in performance where auditory
communication is required. As such, the contents of this Initiative are
similar to and partly covered by the Initiatives to be pursued under the
behavioral, social, and performance effects research Plan.
9-9
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10. RESEARCH PLAN FOR EFFECTS OF
NOISE ON WILDLIFE AND OTHER ANIMALS
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page
10.1 Rationale for Selecting Specific Research
Initiatives
10.1.1 What is Known 10-1
10.1.2 What is Not Known 10_2
10.1.3 EPA Priorities 10_3
10.1.A Current Research Activities 10-4
10.1.5 Position on the Research Continuum 10-4
10.1.6 List of Selected EPA Research Initiatives 10-4
10.2 Detailed Descriptions of the Research Initiatives 10-4
10.3 Timing and Funding of tne Research Initiatives 10-4
10.4 Monitoring and Coordination 10-4
10.5 Research Initiatives That Will Not Be Undertaken 10-6
by EPA
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10. RESEARCH PLAN FOR EFFECTS OF NOISE ON WILDLIFE AND OTHER ANIMALS
The long-term EPA objective for noise effects research in
this category is to determine and quantify the effects of noise on
wildlife and domestic animals.
10.1 Rationale for Selecting Research Initiatives
10.1.1 What is Known
Research on effects of noise on laboratory animals is fairly
plentiful. While its purpose is usually to apply findings to human
beings, it also serves to focus attention on the range of potential
noise effects on domestic animals and wildlife. The applicability of
the existing laboratory research is limited, however, by at least two
factors: (1) the extreme noise levels or other unnatural exposure
characteristics presented in many of the experiments, and (2) the use of
species which, for the most part, are different from the wild animals of
interest. Considering these limitations, laboratory research has demon-
strated the following potential effects of noise: noise-induced hearing
loss; nonauditory physiologic effects; important behavioral changes;
masking of auditory signals.
A number of studies have demonstrated some adverse, and a
few beneficial, noise effects in domestic animals, such as cattle,
sheep, pigs and fowl. Largely, these studies employ experimental and
unnatural noise conditions, rather than typical noise environments for
10-1
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these animals, such as highway and aircraft noise. Effects observed
include adverse color changes in meat, other metabolic changes in sheep
and lamb, reduced egg hatching due to decreased broodiness in hens, and
startle and alarm responses in all species studied.
Very little is known about effects of noise on wildlife.
Only a handful of studies exist, and these are largely anecdotal or
based on captive wild animals. Many wild animals, fish and birds are
startled by noise, but the response appears to habituate in a number of
species. Attempts to use noise to repel species considered pests have
failed for this reason. Where flight from noise does occur, it is
unknown whether there are any adverse consequences. Adverse physiologic
effects either have been noted or suggested in a number of species,
including caribou and deer. These were noted under artificial conditions,
however, and any effects in the wild are unknown.
An area of potential concern is masking effects of noise.
Noise interferes with the hearing of desired signals for animals just as
for humans. While this masking is known to occur, we can only suggest
possible effects on auditory behaviors such as when evading predators;
locating mates, young and prey; defining territory; and avoiding harm
from falling trees and other hazards.
10.1.2 What is Not Known
With regard to domestic animals, existing information on
noise effects on growth, metabolism, reproductive, physiological and
behavioral activity needs to be expanded and refined. Special emphasis
10-2
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should be placed on quantifying effects in everyday noise exposure
situations for these animals. At present, the impact of different noise
sources such as highways and airports cannot be estimated.
Effects on physiologic functioning, hearing, communications
and behavior are all unknown, although many potential effects have been
hypothesized. A prerequisite for much of the needed research is to
measure the hearing thresholds of the species of concern, because animals
often have auditory sensitivities greatly different from humans.
Thresholds of audibility across frequencies are known for some species,
but unknown for others.
10.1.3 EPA Priorities
The highest EPA noise program priority in this research
category is the identification and quantification of effects of noise on
susceptible animal populations. At this time, these are judged to be:
o Endangered species;
o Animals heavily reliant on audition for survival, for
which continuous masking noise in the habitat could have grave effects
(such as fish, marine mammals and birds);
o Animals which are important to humans for food, such
as livestock, fowl, fish and other marine animals.
It is important for research to focus on effects in natural
or typical settings because confined animals will show different effects.
10-3
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It is also important to study everyday noise levels due to exposures
from typical mechanical noise sources or products (as opposed to water-
falls and other natural sources).
10.1.4 Current Research Activities^
EPA is not proposing to conduct any research activities in
this category within the five-year time frame. It also appears that no
research is presently being sponsored by other Federal agencies such as
the Department of Agriculture and the National Park Service.
10.1.5 Position on the Research Continuum
Overall, existing knowledge is not adequate for an appraisal
of noise effects on wildlife and other animals. (See Table 10-1).
10.1.6 List of Selected EPA Research Initiatives
Due to higher priorities and limitations in resources, EPA
will not be funding any Initiatives in this category within the Five-
Year Plan period. A set of Initiatives has been developed, however, and
is listed in Section 10.5. It is hoped that these may be pursued by
other agencies.
10.2 Detailed Descriptions of the Research Initiatives
(Not applicable. See Section 10.5).
10-4
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TABLE 10-1
POSITION ON THE RESEARCH CONTINUUM — WILDLIFE EFFECTS
Research Continuum
Current State of Knowledge
Adequate Marginal Inadequate
1. Demonstrate existence of an association
X
2. Demonstrate basic cause-effect
relationship
3. Investigate physiologic mechanisms
4. Investigate intervening factors.
cause-effect relationship
A. Acoustic
B. Nonacoustic
Improve
X
X
5. Quantify dose-response relationship
6. Refinement and special populations
10-5
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1Q.3 Timing and Funding of the Research Initiatives
(Not applicable.)
10.4 Monitoring and Coordination
Although EPA has no plan to undertake research within the
next five years, it is essential to learn from ongoing studies being
conducted elsewhere. This information is very relevant to EPA program
activities.
10.5 Research Initiatives That Will Not Be Undertaken by EPA
These Initiatives will produce results relevant to EPA
programmatic activities. (Note that there is considerable potential
overlap among Initiatives.) It is hoped that some of them will be
undertaken elsewhere during the Five-Year Plan period.
o Noise Impact on Endangered Species
The objective of this Initiative is to produce criteria
where adverse effects are found to occur in threatened species. Studies
should focus on long-term effects found in natural habitats where noise
made by humans may occur.
o Impact of Masking Noise on Susceptible Species
This Initiative comprises studies on species heavily
reliant on audition for activities such as locating offspring, mates,
prey and/or predators, defining territories, and other activities related
10-6
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to survival. These studies should focus on long-term effects in natural
habitats, using typical man-made noise sources.
o Impact of Noise on Species Prominent in the Production
of Food for Humans
This Initiative addresses the impact of noise exposure
on livestock, domestic fowl, fish and other marine animals. Of particu-
lar importance are stress effects in farm animals. Typical noise sources
for each species should be investigated.
10-7
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11. RESEARCH PLAN FOR
EXPOSURE CHARACTERIZATION
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page
11.1 Rationale for Selecting Specific Research 11-1
Initiatives
11.1.1 What is Known 11-1
11.1.2 What is Not Known 11-2
11.1.3 EPA Priorities 11-3
11.1.4 Current Research Activities 11-4
11.1.5 Position on the Research Continuum 11-5
11.1.6 List of Planned EPA Research Initiatives 11-5
for the Five-Year Period
11.2 Detailed Descriptions of the Research Initiatives jj.g
11.3 Timing and Funding of tfie Research- Initiatives 11-6
11.4 Monitoring and Coordination 11-6
11.5 Research Initiatives That Will Not Be Undertaken 11-6
by EPA
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11. RESEARCH PLAN FOR EXPOSURE CHARACTERIZATION
The long-term EPA objective for research in this category is
to determine patterns of noise exposure, typical noise doses attributable
to different sources and/or environments, and health-related consequences
of these exposures.
11.1 Rationale for Selecting Specific Research Initiatives
11.1.1 What is Known
Current knowledge of the noise exposure of the American
population is composed primarily of source and situation information.
Information about source levels is quite comprehensive. Typical levels
produced by virtually all types of high-level noise sources and a great
many moderate- to low-level noise sources have been measured, tabulated,
analyzed, and compiled many times. Standards for measuring many noise
sources have been proposed and/or adopted. Some of these standard
procedures deal with technical details of physical aspects of measurement,
while others deal with means of calculating complex indices and contours
of various sorts. Computerized models of noise levels produced by
simultaneous operation of multiple noise sources engaged in specific
activities have also been devised. Information about noise levels
encountered in different environments, although less comprehensive than
information about sources per se, is nonetheless quite extensive. Noise
levels of many indoor and outdoor spaces have also been repeatedly
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measured. Some limited studies have been undertaken assessing exposures
of workers, military personnel, homemakers and children over 24-hour and
longer periods. For the most part, these studies have shown rather high
individual exposures over these periods.
11.1.2 What is Not Known
Many studies have been undertaken which have increased our
knowledge of source and situation contributions to the undesirable
effects of noise. However, these studies so far have not provided us
with critically needed information concerning how people interact with
their total noise exposure environments and the implications of this
interaction with respect to the health-related consequences of noise
exposure. The emphasis is on knowing the levels and patterns of noise
actually received by people as they move from environment to environment.
With this information, noise doses can be better related to health
effects, such as hearing loss that depend on a 24-hour dose and not just
on the exposure at work.
For example, knowledge about individual exposure patterns is
quite fragmentary. It is not yet known, for example, whether groups of
people engaged in similar occupations share similar individual exposure
patterns outside of work; whether certain subgroups of the population
are more heavily exposed to noise than would be suggested by their
occupations; whether recreational and other forms of voluntary noise
exposure contributes substantially to the total daily noise dose; and so
forth. One reason this issue is so important is that certain population
11-2
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subgroups may be more susceptible to noise effects due to their total
noise dose, both inside and outside work.
Results of a few preliminary dosimetric studies are not yet
readily interpretable, due to a number of technical problems and small
sample sizes. A major uncertainty in exposure characterization is the
careful determination of the relationships between source and situation
oriented measures of noise levels and measures of personal exposure.
Most importantly, the critical relationships between personal noise
exposure patterns, and the incidence and magnitude of the harmful effects
of noise, have yet to be derived.
11.1.3 EPA Priorities
There are many reasons to undertake a national program to
assess individual or personal noise exposure. A primary need is to
obtain information which will enable EPA to determine the kind and
extent of the principal known effects of noise on health and welfare due
to all of the varying noise exposure patterns typical of different
personal lifestyles. Such information will also aid in determining the
relative importance of typical environmental noise situations experienced
day to day. Furthermore, it will help to develop and validate predictive
models to assess the contribution of specific sources of situations to
the total noise problem. Information to be obtained must include site
specific monitoring, identification of lifestyles, personal noise
monitoring and exposure time-histories, and recognition of human response
patterns.
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To that end, EPA program priorities require that both indivi-
dual dosimetric and site specific studies be conducted to quantify the
sources and situations responsible for major contributions to total at-
ear noise exposures. It is also recommended that such studies concern
themselves with differences in exposure patterns for different segments
of the population, and that exposure patterns in turn be associated with
patterns of activity such as sleeping. Additional study is desirable
ultimately to associate noise effects information from all the other
research categories with patterns of personal at-ear exposures. This
will help to establish the incidence and severity of different noise-
related effects on the U.S. population.
11.1.4 Current Research Activities
EPA has undertaken a relatively small-scale base year effort
of site-specific community noise monitoring. Specifically, this activity
will attempt to define national ambient noise levels over time within an
array of environments, and to identify specific noise source contribu-
tions to those noise environments.
Additionally, EPA is completing in the base year a study of
typical daily activity patterns of the United States population, as well
as various population subgroups identified on the basis of a number of
occupational and demographic characteristics. The objective of this
study is to relate particular lifestyles or patterns of human activity
to noise exposure and/or dosimetry information to be gathered in the
future.
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In the Fels longitudinal study being jointly sponsored by
EPA and the Air Force, measurements are being taken of the specific
noise exposures of children and the major source contributants to their
total daily noise exposures. Individual noise exposures will be measured
in a serial manner to determine changing noise exposure patterns as a
function of age and sex. The measured exposures will then be related to
the childrens' hearing abilities in an effort to determine the resulting
auditory effect caused by noise.
Other Federal agencies have little additional related research
in progress or planned. The only exception is the Air Force and Navy
who are assessing personal monitoring methods using dosimeters, and
measuring military noise exposures and exposure patterns.
11.1.5 Position on the Research Continuum
Not directly applicable. Only limited exposure information
has been related to the various effects of noise.
11.1.6 List of Planned EPA Research Initiatives for the 5-Year Period
There are no direct EPA Research Initiatives slated for
funding in this five-year Plan period. Some limited work will be in-
directly conducted by EPA under Initiative I in the NIHL Research Plan.
Data from national health surveys of the Public Health Service will be
used to relate the hearing status of the public to certain demographic
indicators and indirect indices of exposure. However, EPA has developed
a set of Initiatives which are important. They are described in Section
11.5 of this Plan.
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11.2 Detailed Description of the Research Initiatives
(Not Applicable.)
11.3 Timing and EPA Funding of Research Initiatives
(Not Applicable.)
11.4 Monitoring and Coordination
EPA will closely participate with the IKLG subgroup on
noise, in assessing the total body burden of noise and the interacting
effect of workplace noise with off-the-job exposures. This group will
try to come up with suitable methods and models to assess the cumulative
noise doses of workers and the differential effects of noise sources on
hearing. Close coordination will also be maintained with DOD in their
noise exposure assessments.
11.5 Research Initiatives That Will Not Be Undertaken By EPA
The following Research Initiatives will not be undertaken
during the five-year period due to relatively low priority and the
necessity of obtaining basic human response and health effects informa-
tion before relating to patterns of exposure.
o Determine where and when primary exposures occur, and
sources of exposure.
o Determine total exposure patterns of different people,
and relate to time/activity profiles.
o Relate health effects of noise with different patterns
of exposure (total and interactive effects).
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CHAPTER 12
SUMMARY AND INTEGRATION
The purpose of this chapter is to pull together information
on the proposed Research Initiatives year by year, so that for any
year, the total array of research activities, research milestones and
research decision points can be identified, compared, and discussed across
all of the health effects categories. This overview (as presented in
Sections 12.1, 12.2* and 12.3*) will then set the stage for interrelating
the proposed Health Effects Research Plan with the core EPA Noise Control
Program Plan throughout the five-year period. The interrelation between
the two Plans will be discussed in Section 12.4.* Although the Research
Plan is presented independently, it is an integral and inseparable part
of the EPA Program Plan. The Research Plan provides for the development
and refinement of necessary health effects criteria to support noise
control activities over the Five-Year Plan period and even beyond, when
some of the results of planned research activities started during the
1981-1985 Fiscal Year period are expected. A projection of research
needs for the following five years, beyond the present Plan, is presented
in Section 12.5.*
*These sections will be included in the next cycle of revisions to the Plan.
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12.1 Integrated Research Initiatives by Fiscal Year
Figure 12-1 displays Che aggregate funding levels for each
research category per year, from Fiscal Year 1981 through 1985. Approxi-
mately $10 million of health effects research related to noise will be
undertaken by EPA over the duration of the Plan.
As shown, the largest share of the research funding will
go to nonauditory physiologic effects research, specifically the effects
of noise on the cardiovascular system. Funding in this category will
comprise approximately 46 percent of the EPA noise effects research
budget over this period ranging from approximately $570K in 1981 to $1.3
million in 1985.
These funding levels are dependent upon co-support from
other agencies to conduct the necessary work within the Five-Year Plan
period. The assumed level of co-support by other agencies will increase
the effective size of the nonauditory research budget by 34 percent in
Fiscal Year 1982 and by 77 percent in Fiscal Year 1985. Thus by 1985,
the total research budget in the category will climb to $2.3 million,
with 43 percent of the funding coming from other agencies.
The necessity for funding at this level is based on the
potentially great health implications of such effects, the small amount
of research that has been undertaken in this country thus far, and
the high cost of biomedical research. These funds will support Research
Initiatives to assess medically significant physiologic responses due
to noise in experimental animal and human clinical studies, the first
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to
I
U)
o
Q
I
1981
1982
1983
FISCAL YEAR
1934
1985
FIGURE 12-1. AGGREGATE FUNDING FOR ALL CATEGORIES BY FISCAL YEAR
-------
U.S. prospective epidemiological study in this area, and basic investi-
gations of physiologic effects other than on the cardiovascular system.
Table 12-1 lists the specific Research Initiatives proposed
to be undertaken by EPA each year across all categories. Detailed
descriptions of these Initiatives are provided in Chapters 4 to 8.
Turning to research categories other than the nonauditory
physiologic category, the following budgetary trends and features can be
seen in the research budgets over the Five-Year Plan period.
Funding in support of sleep disturbance research will require
approximately 23 percent of the research budget over the five-year period
and, therefore, will be the second highest funded research category.
Over 50 percent of the proposed research in this category will address
the long-term health consequences of noise.
Funding in the area of community and individual response
will constitute approximately 17 percent of the total EPA noise effects
research budget over the next five years. Social surveys and psycho-
acoustic studies will be conducted in response to EPA needs for more
detailed human response criteria for special noise sources and acoustical
parameters.
In terms of noise-induced hearing loss research, the pro-
posed EPA research effort will maintain a limited but focused profile
due to the continuing research efforts of other agencies. Funding will
comprise approximately 7 percent of the total EPA research budget and
will not be higher than $150K in any year. Research will focus narrowly
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on the incidence of NIHL, wich emphasis on Che contribution of non-
occupational noise environments.
Funding in support of behavioral, social and performance
effects will not start until Fiscal Year 1983, due to the resource
requirements for funding research in other health effects categories.
Overall, only 7 percent of the total research budget (the same amount
as for NIHL research) will be put towards research in this category,
which will feature the clarification of the adverse role noise plays
in the learning process of children.
Research in the categories of communication interference,
wildlife, and exposure characterization will not be directly funded
by EPA over the Five-Year Plan period due to resource constraints and
higher priorities.
It is hoped that other agencies can undertake research
efforts in these areas, which are applicable to general EPA objectives
as defined in Chapter 2. Accordingly, Research Initiatives have been
identified in these latter categories for the consideration of the
other agencies.
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FY 81: 1.2 Million
NONAUDITORY PHYSIOLOGIC EFFECTS
Animal Experimental Studies
o Replications and Refinements
Epidemiologic Studies
o Retrospective Analysis
Human Clinical Studies
o Acoustic/nonacoustic Factors
o Susceptibility Differences
COMMUNITY RESPONSE
Specific Sources of Noise:
o Construction
Specific Acoustical Attributes:
o Intrusiveness and warning signals
SLEEP DISTURBANCE
Relationship between field and laboratory data
on sleep disturbance by noise
Health Consequences of noise-disturbed sleep
NOISE-INDUCED HEARING
Parameters of Individual Sensitivity
o Susceptibility of Special Populations -
Children. (Fels)
o Determination of Source Exposures Causing ITS
and Assessment of Debilitating Consequences.
Incidence of NIHL in the U.S. and Contribution of
Sociocusis, Presbycusis, and Occupational Exposures.
EPA Funding of Each
Research Initiative
$290K
$100K
S100K
$80K
($570K)
$100K
$100K
($200K)
$ 50K
$ 50K
$ 50K
($150K)
$1.2 Million
TABLE 12-1 FUNDING OF PLAN BY FISCAL YEAR
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FT 82; 51.5 million
EPA Funding of Total Funding of
Each Research Nonaudieory Physiologic
Initiative Research Inieiacives
with Co-Funding*
NONAUDITORY PHYSIOLOGIC EFFECTS
Animal Experimental Studies
o Replication and refinement
Epidemiologic Studies
o Retrospective Analysis
o Prospective Analyses (Phase I)
Human Clinical Studies
o Acoustic/Nonacoustic Factors
o Susceptibility Differences
COMMUNITY RESPONSE
Specific Sources of Noise:
o Construction
Specific Acoustical Attributes:
o Intrusiveness
o Other Topics
SLEEP DISTURBANCE
Relationship between field and
laboratory data on sleep disturbance
by noise
Health Consequences of Noise-
disturbed Sleep
Acoustic Parameters Related to Sleep
NOISE-INDUCED HEARING LOSS
Parameters of Individual Sensitivity:
Susceptibility of Special
Populations - Children. (Fels)
Incidence of NIHL in the U.S. and
Contribution of Sociocusis,
Presbycusis, and Occupational Exposures.
Refinement of Criteria for Low-level
Noise Exposures.
$290K
$100K
$130K
$150K
$125K
($795K)
$100K
$100K
$ 60K
($260K)
$100K
$150K
$ 50K
$ 50K
$290K
$100K
$«OOK
$150K
$125K
($1065K)
$1.5 million
* It is assumed that approximately $270K will be provided by other agencies.
This amounts to approximately 34 percent of EPA's Nonauditory Physiologic
Effeccs Research Funding of $795K, or 25 percent of the combined funding.
TABLE 12-1 FUNDING OF PLAN BY FISCAL YEAR (cont'd)
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FY 83: $1.9 Million
EPA Funding of
Each Research
Initiative"
NONAUDITORY PHYSIOLOGIC EFFECTS
Animal Experimental Studies
o Acoustic/Nonacoustic Factors
o Susceptibility Differences
Epidemiologic Studies
o Prospective Analyses (Phase I)
o Special Sub-populations—
Children
Human Clinical Studies
o Acoustic/Nonacoustic Factors
o Susceptibility Differences
Other Nonauditory Effects
o Appraisals
COMMUNITY RESPONSE
Specific Sources of Noise:
o Construction
o Other Topics
Specific Acoustic Parameters
o Other Topics
SLEEP DISTURBANCE
Health Consequences of Noise-
disturbed Sleep
Acoustic Parameters Related to Sleep
NOISE-INDUCED HEARING LOSS
Parameters of Individual Sensitivity:
Susceptibility of special
populations - children. (Fels)
Incidence of NIHL in the U.S. and
Contribution of Sociocusis,
Fresbycusis, and Occupational Exposures.
Refine criteria for low-level noise
exposures.
BEHAVIOR, SOCIAL AND PERFORMANCE
Cognitive and Social Development:
Noise and School Performance Study
Behavior/Social Adjustment to
Noise
SIOOK
$100K
$500K
$100K
5100K
($900K)
$ 35K
•$150K
S150K
($335K)
$250K
$150K
(S400K)
$ SOK
$ SOK
$ SOK
(S150K)
$ 60K
$ 55K
(S115K)
$1.9 Million
Total Funding of
Nonauditory Physiologic
Research Initiatives
with Co-Funding*
$200K
$100K
5550K
$150K
$1SOK
$150K
$100K
($1400)
* It is assumed that approximately S500K will be provided by other agencies.
This amounts to approximately 56 percent of EPA's Nonauditory Physiologic
Effects Research Funding of $900K, or 35 percent of the combined funding.
TABLE J2-1 FUNDING OF PLAN BY FISCAL YEAR (cont'd)
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FY 84: $2.4 Million
NONAUDITORY PHYSIOLOGIC EFFECTS
Animal Experimental Studies
o Acouscic/Nonacouselc Factors
o Susceptibility Differences
Epidemiologic Studies
o Prospective Analyses
o Special Subpopulations—
Children
Human Clinical Studies
o Acoustic/Nonacoustic Studies
o Susceptibility Differences
Other Nonauditory Effects
o Appraisal.Selected Studies
COMMUNITY RESPONSE
Specific Sources of Noise
Specific Acoustic Attributes
o Other Topics
SLEEP DISTURBANCE
Health Consequences of
Noise-Disturbed Sleep
Acoustic Parameters Related to Sleep
EPA Funding of
Each Research
Total Funding of
Nonauditory Physiologic
Initiative
SIOOK
$100K
$500K
$100K
S100K
$100K
($1000K)
,$190K
S200K
($390K)
S350K
5150K
Susceptibility of Sensitive Populations $100K
to Sleep Disturbance by Noise
NOISE-INDUCED HEARING LOSS
Parameters of Individual Sensitivity:
Susceptibility of Special
Populations - Children. (Fels)
Incidence of NIHL in the U.S. and
Contribution of Sociocusis, Presbycusis,
and Occupational Exposures.
Refinement of Criteria for Low-level
Noise Exposures.
BEHAVIOR, SOCIAL AMD PERFORMANCE
Cognitive and Social Development:
Noise and School Performance Study
Behavior/Social Adjustment to
Noise
($600K)
$ 50K
$ 50K
$ 50K
(S150K)
$150K
$110K
Research Initiatives
with Co-Funding*
$200K
$100K
$600K
S150K
515DK
S150K
S300K
(S1650K)
2.4 million
* It is assumed that approximately $650K will be provided by other agencies.
This amounts to 65 percent of EPA's Nonauditory Physiologic Effects Research
Funding of $1000K, or 39 percent of the combined funding.
TABLE 12-1 FUNDING OF PLAN BY FISCAL YEAR (cont'd)
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FY. 85! $3.0 Million
NONAUDITORY PHYSIOLOGIC EFFECTS
Animal Experimental Studies
o Acoustic/Nonacouscic Factors
o Susceptibility Differences
EPA Funding of
Each Research
Total Funding of
Nonauditory Physiologic
Initiative
$100K
S150K
EpldemLologic Studies
o Prospective Analyses (Phase I) S400K
o Prospective Analyses (PHase II) —
o Special Subpopulacions— $1SOK
Children
Human Clinical Studies
o Acoustic/Nonacoustic Studies
o Susceptibility Differences
Other Nonauditory Effects
o Selected Studies
COMMUNITY RESPONSE
Specific Sources of Noise
Specific Acoustic Attributes
o Other Topics
SLEEP DISTURBANCE
Health Consequences of
Noise-Disturbed Sleep
SIOOK
SIOOK
$300K
($1300K)
S250K
S250K
($500K)
$450K
Susceptibility of Sensitive Populations $100K
to Sleep Disturbance by Noise
Adaptation to Sleep Disturbance by
Solas
Acoustical Parameters Related to Sleep
NOISE-INDUCED HEARING LOSS
Parameters of Individual Sensicivlcy:
Susceptibility of Special
Populations - Children. (Pels)
Incidence of 5IIHL In the U.S. and
Contribution of Sociocusis, Presbycusis,
and Occupational Exposures
BEHAVIOR, SOCIAL AND PERFORMANCE
Behavior/Social Adjustment to Noise
Cognitive and Social Development:
Noise and School Performance
?150K
S 50K
(S750K)
$ 50K
$ 50K
(SIOOK)
S250K
SIOOK
$350K
S3.0 Million
Research Initiatives
with Co-Funding*
$250K
$100K
$SOOK
S150K
S200K
S150K
S950K
(S2300K)
* It is assumed that approximately $1000Kuill be provided by other agencies.
This amounts to approximately 76 percent of EPA'3 Nonauditory Physiologic
Effects Research Funding of $1300Kf or 43 percent of the combined funding.
TABLE 12-1 FUNDING OF PLAN BY FISCAL YEAR (cont'd)
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