WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES • 16080 GWF 02/72
SOIL SYSTEMS FOR MUNICIPAL
EFFLUENTS-A WORKSHOP
AND SELECTED REFERENCES
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES
The Water Pollution Control Research Series describes the
results and progress in the control and abatement of
pollution in our Nation's waters. They provide a central
source of information on the research, development, and
demonstration activities in the water research program
of the Environmental Protection Agency, through inhouse
research and grants and contracts with Federal, State,
and local agencies, research institutions, and industrial
organizations.
Inquiries pertaining to Water Pollution Control Research
Reports should be directed to the Chief, Publications
Branch (Water), Research Information Division, RSM,
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, B.C. 20H60.
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SOIL SYSTEMS FOR MUNICIPAL EFFLUENTS--
A WORKSHOP AND SELECTED REFERENCES
By
Ralph H. Ramsey
C. Rhys Wetherill
H. Casper Duffer
East Central State College
School of Environmental Science
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
for the
Office of Research and Monitoring
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Project #16080 GWF
February, 1972
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price 65 cents
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EPA Review Notice
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Protection Agency
and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the
contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Environmental
Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products
constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
ii
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ABSTRACT
An investigation of the use of Soil Systems for recycling treated munic-
ipal waste effluents was conducted. The scope of the project included:
the preparation of a user manual entitled Applying Treated Municipal
Wastewater to the Land; Current Technology and an annotated bibliography
of selected references in subject area.
A state of the art investigation was made of the design, operation and
control of irrigation and infiltration-percolation types of soil systems.
The summarized results from this investigation were used by workshop
participants selected from state, municipal, and federal agencies who
were involved in soil system activities as a starting point in writing the
manual. The workshop culminated in the preparation of a draft of the
manual. The bibliography contains selections which portrayed or influ-
enced the present state of art in the subject field.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Grant No. 16080 GWF under
the sponsorship of the Office of Research and Monitoring, Environmental
Protection Agency.
KEY WORDS: TREATED MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER, SOIL SYSTEMS, IRRIGATION,
INFILTRATION-PERCOLATION, USER MANUAL.
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CONTENTS
Section Page
I Conclusions 1
II RecoTinnendations 3
III Introduction 5
IV Project Activities 7
V Acknowledgments 15
VI Appendices 17
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TABLES
No. Page
1 Workshop Participants 11
2 Workshop Agenda 12
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
1. Soil Systems have the potential for removing additional pollutants
from treated municipal wastes and deserve consideration when expand-
ing or furthering the waste treatment processes in municipalities.
2. Each soil system must be designed subject to the constraints imposed
by the proposed site, the planned hydraulic load, and the contaminate
level of the effluent to be applied.
3. The operating and control parameters in soil systems utilized for
irrigation have been established through previous field practice
and research.
4. A letter of inquiry sent out by the project staff revealed that the
agencies of responsibility in the 32 states and 1 territory which
replied had no specific state or municipal regulations in force
pertaining to the use and operation of soil systems per se.
5. Technological transfers and policy alternatives on environmental
problems can be determined by small, informal work groups composed
of individuals involved in research, operation, and control activities
in the problem area.
6. The techniques utilized in this project are applicable for certain
research activities. Such functions as state of the art determina-
tions, synthesizing research findings into a new system or process
configuration, summarizing research findings on a particular topic,
and aiding technology transfers between research specialists and the
practitioners in a discipline are amenable to this approach.
7. Students and other non-experts can be trained in information search
techniques and in the terminology of a scientific specialty. Senior
scientists can utilize this talent pool and eliminate a portion of
their time normally spent in making an exhaustive information search
of the topic of research interest. Once trained in search procedures,
a search group can be given minimal instruction in the terminology
of a new discipline and redirected on a new .research topic.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based upon the findings and conclusions of this investigation, it is
recommended that:
1. Research be centered to determine the optimal application rates of
treated municipal waste, schedules of effluent application, and
operational parameter of infiltration-percolation systems in the
various climatological and physiographic regions of the United
States.
2. Further investigation be instigated to determine the final disposi-
tion of metals and organics of industrial origin which are consti-
tuents of municipal wastes.
3. Additional techniques be developed for maintaining high infiltration
rates through the surfaces of infiltration-percolation systems.
4. Infiltration-percolation systems be examined for application as an
alternate to returning wastewater effluents directly to the area's
drainage network in situations where no treatment or primary treat-
ment is presently utilized.
5. The non-profit sector be utilized to effect dialogues through work-
shops and conferences between specialists in the private sector
and government in proposing and structuring new institutional arrange-
ments for environmental management and control.
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
This has been an investigation to determine the status of soil systems
as a means of providing additional polishing to treated municipal waste-
waters. The central purpose of this effort was to evaluate the litera-
ture and information presently available and from this to structure a
design and operation manual for reference and general use by practitioners
in the field.
The interest in this method of wastewater renovation stems from the
factors of increased nationwide demand for water and the unequal distri-
bution of water supplies over the country. Variations in the types, prop-
erties, and occurrences of wastes, geographic areas, urban layout, climatic
elements, economic resources and water needs have necessitated that a
variety of approaches be provided for treating and reclaiming wastewaters.
Soil systems offer decision makers another option which can be added to the
list of treatment techniques for local adoption when a municipality or
sewage district must expand or replace its treatment facilities.
Although not specifically used for the function of water reclamation,
application of wastewater to the soil is one technique which has been
in use for centuries. Irrigation with raw sewage and with wastewater
treatment plant effluent has been a common practice in many countries
of the world. The water itself and the nutrients it contains have been
valued as agricultural resources. In the United States however, the
public health aspects early precluded the use of raw sewage for irriga-
tion. Water contaminated by human wastes was recognized as a transmission
medium for communicable diseases and infections. The practice of
applying treated wastewater to the soil, however, has been found to be
an effective means of reducing suspended particles, nutrients, and bio-
logical organisms from the waste stream with little or no health risk.
This technique of treatment through soil systems is applicable for
renovating water either in water deficient or in humid areas. Soil
systems are used for irrigation in water deficient areas to distribute
and apply treated wastewater to different types of agricultural crops and
for various types of landscaping. Infiltration-percolation type soil
systems in humid or arid areas utilize the soil to obtain advanced treat-
ment of wastewater effluents from secondary treatment processes in order
that it may be cycled for reuse.
This report deals with the technique by which the project goals were
accomplished and contains as an addendum a bibliography of the design
manual. The design manual prepared under the provisions of the grant
exists a$ a separate document from this report, and as such will not be
discussed other than in Section I and Section II of this report.
The project objective and its methodology were formulated on the premises
of establishing a means of facilitating technology transfer and of reducing
the time frame in which pertinent research findings can be identified and
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affixed in a strategy of practical application. The procedure that
evolved was effective in reaching the project goals. The original
project workplan was envisioned as follows.
A review of literature was to be made of published material and unpub-
lished material on soil systems in the areas of health, technological char-
acteristics, and current regulations, laws, and policies. The review
findings were to be evaluated by the project staff and the most pertinent
sources abstracted. The abstracts were to be sent to a selected group
of experts whose work or research experience were in the area of soil
systems. Comments on the abstracts evoked from the experts were to be
the basis for a workshop agenda. At the workshop the experts would meet
and write the draft copy of the design manual. This copy would then be
corrected by the project staff and sent to the participants of the work-
shop for final approval before the manuscript was submitted to the con-
tracting agency.
This procedure was modified somewhat during the project period. The
methodology used does -have merit and can be used in the survey, delinea-
tion, and evaluation of problems in the environmental area.
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SECTION IV
PROJECT ACTIVITIES
The project activities will be discussed briefly for the purpose of
describing a technique which worked well in this particular instance
where research findings in a particular area were reviewed and the
review results were used to synthesize a user document in a specific
interest area.
Information Search
The first phase of the project was the search for information. Means
were formulated to locate both published and unpublished information.
The unpublished information was presumed to reside with state agencies
who might happen to be involved with wastewater. Abstract and periodical
indexes would be used to locate the published documents.
Unpublished Material
A letter of inquiry was used to inquire about unpublished material. A
form letter was sent to all the state departments of health, state water
resource boards, and state pollution control agencies to ask for policy
statements and design guidelines currently controlling the use of soil
systems in that particular state. Many of the replies received expressed
an interest in the study results but had little information to offer in
the area of soil systems. Many of the recipients of the inquiry letters
were uncertain as to the definition of the term soil systems. A second
letter was not sent since it was determined that little would be gained
by pursuing that topic further with those agencies.
The answers from the states produced little in the area of rules and
regulations. Replies were received from 31 states and 1 territory by
specific state agencies which would be directly responsible for adminis-
tering regulations or cognizant of any established rules and regulations
pertaining to the use of treated municipal effluents in soil systems.
None of the states which replied had specific regulations in force
pertaining to the use and operations of soil systems per se. Two
states at the time of the survey in early 1971 were actively engaged in
activities which would lead to specific regulatory policies. The
Ground Water Section of the Department of Environmental Resources for
Pennsylvania had written a "Spray Irrigation Manual" designed to help
municipalities and consultants in locating and designing sites for spray
irrigating municipal wastes. This publication was being reviewed at the
time of the inquiry. The manual was to stress that all wastes which
could contain pathogens must be disinfected before being sprayed. The
Pollution Control Agency for the state of Minnesota was preparing design
criteria recommended for irrigation and seepage basin waste disposal systems.
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The replies mentioning the use of treated effluents in irrigation systems
showed little change in the position of the states from that expressed in
an earlier survey conducted by Coerver (22) when he ascertained the
status of state health regulations pertaining to the use of sewage
effluents for irrigation. Several systems utilizing treated effluents
were reported in operation in Colorado whereas no information on this
state was available in the earlier report. Wisconsin reported the use
of a ridge and furrow system. Missouri indicated in early 1971 that no
irrigation systems were in operation but one was proposed.
Answers from several of the states indicated to the investigators that
current regulations or policies might be used to judge the merits of
proposed infiltration-percolation systems. The Air and Water Pollution
Control Department of Florida reports, "There are no specific regulations
other than our evaluation of specific projects and their merits under our
permit system". Nevada's Division of Health reports, "... the only
regulations controlling soil systems are those which prohibit the contam-
ination of ground water". Wisconsin's Department of Natural Resources
relates that "Each proposal is judged on its own merits".
The replies received from the states included some in-house documents
on research activities which proved of value to the study. The dearth
of information pertaining to specific rules or policies gave the project
staff an indication that guidelines were needed to help establish policy
in this area.
Literature
The preparation for the literature search started with the training of
undergraduate students in library search procedures. Since the students
were from disciplines other than the study area, a familiarization pro-
gram in which the terminology and practices utilized in the subject area
was presented. Four hours out of the twenty hours in the training program
were used in subject familiarization. Typical articles with the key
terminology underlined were given as reading assignments to the students.
Check sheets designed for evaluating the articles were given to the
students to familiarize them with the project interest areas. The final
hour of the familiarization phase was a slide presentation showing soil
systems presently in use.
Twelve hours of the program were devoted to demonstration and practice
exercises in the organization of libraries, the use of card catalogs,
periodical indexes, abstract sources, and in techniques of library research.
The last four hours were spent in practical work searching abstracts in
the water resource area. In this period, the students had a chance to
get their questions answered on the boundaries of the search area and the
techniques to be used. The students were each assigned to a particular
periodical index or abstract source to examine. A check sheet like the
one used during the training phase and an author coded index card were
completed for each article which exhibited any relationship to soil
systems in the areas of health, operational characteristics, or regulatory
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measures. After completing the review of the assigned source material
another was assigned for examination.
It had originally been planned for teams of searchers to go to the
larger universities in the state and collect articles pertinent to the
search area. In utilizing the resources at the Robert S. Kerr Water
Research Center Library and those at the East Central State College
Library it became apparent that the local resources would suffice in
identifying articles pertaining to soil systems. As the search continued,
the compilation of author cards showed that considerable cross-referencing
had taken place by searching the different sources. The use of the
check sheet was abandoned as the searchers attained the skill of deter-
mining whether an article or the article abstract contained sufficient
material in the search area. The author coded cards became the basis
for the evaluation phase of the identified literature.
Review of Literature Search Findings
A survey of the author cards obtained in the literature review was used
to identify the publications which summarized soil system project activ-
ities and key articles which best described or summarized the work of the
scientist-author. Copies of these articles or abstracts of the articles
were then obtained. The usefulness of the article was determined through
a critical reading made by one of the trained student helpers. The
project staff then reviewed the selected articles for information appli-
cable to the project goals.
Modifications in the original workplan were made after this review.
Rather than abstracting the pertinent articles and sending them to the
workshop participants for review, a decision was made that the project
staff would summarize the research findings and prepare a preliminary
draft of the design manual based upon the information review. The
draft would then be sent to the participants for their review and comments
prior to the workshop.
This procedure was followed and the draft was prepared with two major
sub-sections. The sections were designated "Guidelines for Design and
Operation" and "Health and Regulatory Aspects of Soil Systems." The
health and regulatory aspects of soil systems were combined into one
section since the two topics were found to be mutually dependent during
the review phase of the information search. The workshop plans were also
adjusted to reflect this dualism.
The draft was sent to the participants and their comments on the manual
were sought prior to their arrival at the workshop. A revised copy of
the original manual manuscript with the draft copy statement and the
comments provoked from the individual participants were prepared for
distribution to the participants upon arrival at East Central for their
review prior to the first workshop session. The pre-conference responses
from the consultants were satisfactory with 8 of the 12 responding.
Last minute changes in personnel who were able to act as conference
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participants negated the time interval for prior study of the manuscript
and comment before arrival at the workshop.
Conduct of the Workshop
The workshop was held from May 3, 1971 to May 6, 1971 at East Central
State College in Ada, Oklahoma. The participants and the agenda of the
workshop are shown on Tables 1 and 2.
The group sessions were chaired by Environmental Protection Agency repre-
sentatives. Mr. Kenneth Dotson chaired the sessions of the Design and
Operation Section. Mr. R. E. Thomas, the project officer for the grant,
was the chairman for the sessions of the Health and Regulation Section.
The discussions and activities varied within each group. The Design and
Operation Section used the draft copy as a starting point for their
activities and expanded the coverage of the manuscript topics. The
Health and Regulation Section in their discussion found that it was
necessary to consider both the design and the operation of soil systems
in conjunction with the determination of the health aspects and the
regulatory measures required for public health safety. This group exam-
ined the complete draft and made modifications also in the D. and 0.
portion. The group decided that comments on the health and regulatory
measures were needed at the points where the design and operation topics
were discussed rather than in a separate section. Secretaries with each
group compiled the modifications in the draft and prepared a revised copy
which reflected the group's activities.
At the first session in which the full group met, copies of each group's
revisions were passed out. The conferees spent this session editing
their group comments and reading the comments from the other group.
In the last two sessions of the workshop, the participants spent their
efforts in joining the two manuscripts into one. The notes, comments and
guidelines given in the last sessions were used by Mr. Thomas, the EPA
project officer, to put together a post workshop draft of the manual.
The workshop conferees were given a short questionnaire to answer about
the conduct of the project activities. The questionnaires and a summary
of the replies obtained from the participants are included in Appendix B.
Post Workshop Phase
The post conference draft was assembled by the project officer. In
this draft, the design, operation, health, and regulatory aspects of the
manual were edited to reflect the attitude of the Environmental Protection
Agency toward soil system activities. The comments received on this
draft were acted upon and the user manual was assembled. This was sub-
mitted to the granter for final approval.
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TABLE 1
WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS
Name
Agency
Address
H
H
Herman Bouwer
Chief Hydraulic Engineer
W. R. Binges
Health Program Specialist
G. Kenneth Dotson
Soil Scientist
F. D. Dryden
Deputy Asst. Chief Engineer
Stuart Dunlop
Professor of Microbiology
Alvin L. Franks
Clark Harvey
Professor of Agronomy
Thomas D. Hinesly
Soil Ecologist
William Jopling
L. T. Kardos
Environmental Scientist
Donald Pierce
James E. Santarone
Richard E. Thomas
Research Soil Scientist
U. S. Water Conservation Lab
USDA, ARS
Division of Wastewater Technology
and Surveillance
EPAWQO
County Sanitation District
Los Angeles County
University of Colorado Medical Center
Division of Water Quality
State Water Resources Control Board
Department of Agronomy
Department of Agronomy
Bureau of Sanitary Engineering
Department of Public Health
Pennsylvania State University
Division of Engineering
Michigan Dept. of Public Health
Wastewater Section
Florida Division of Health
EPAWQO
4331 East Broadway
Phoenix, Arizona 85040
Texas State Dept. of Public Health
Austin, Texas 78701
Robert A. Taft Water Research Lab
Cincinnati, Ohio
2020 Beverly Blvd.
Los Angeles, Calif. 90057
Denver, Colorado
1416 9th Street
Sacramento, Calif. 95814
Texas Technological College
Lubbock, Texas 79406
University of Illinois
Urbana, Illinois 61801
2151 Berkeley Way
Berkeley, Calif. 94704
108 Research Building 3
University Park, Pa.
3500 N. Logan
Lansing, Michigan 48914
P. 0. Box 210
Jacksonville, Florida 32201
Robt. S. Kerr Water Research Center
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
T. C. Tucker, Prof.
University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona 85721
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TABLE 2
WORKSHOP AGENDA
Date
Time
Activity
May 3, 1971 6:30 p.m.
May 4, 1971 8:30-9:00 a.m.
9:00-10:15
10:15-10:30
10:30-12:00
12:00-1:00 p.m.
1:00-3:00
3:00-3:15
3:15-5:00
May 5, 1971 8:30-10:00 a.m.
10:00-10:15
10:30-12:00
12:00-3:30 p.m.
3:30-5:00
6:30
May 6, 1971 8:30-10:15 a.m.
10:15-10:30
10:30-12:00
12:00
Informal mixer and dinner, compliments of
Ada Chamber of Commerce
Charge to participants
1st session-Individual group discussion
Coffee Break
2nd session-Individual group discussion
Lunch
3rd session - Individual group discussion
Coffee Break
4th session-Individual group discussion
5th session - Individual group discussion
Coffee Break
6th session - Summary of individual group dis-
cussion
Lunch and tour of Robert S. Kerr Water
Research Center
7th session - First full group discussion
Dinner and entertainment
8th session - Full group discussion
Coffee Break
9th session - Full group concluding comments
Closing Luncheon
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The documents utilized in the preparation of the pre-conference draft
were abstracted or the document abstract was collected and compiled into
an annotated bibliography. This bibliography and an accompaning author
index comprise Appendix A of this report.
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SECTION V
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
East Central State College wishes to thank Mr. R. E. Thomas, EPA
Project officer, and Miss Lorene Fuller, librarian at the Robert S. Kerr
Water Research Center, for their services and cooperation in achieving
the project goals.
Acknowledgment is made to faculty, staff and students of East Central
as follows:
Dr. B. J. Tillman Grant Director
Mrs. Phyllis Johnson Typist
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SECTION VI
APPENDICES
Appendix Title Page
A An Annotated Bibliography of Selected 19
References used in the Preparation of
the User Manual and Author Index
B Results of the Questionnaire Survey 55
Given to the Workshop Participants
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APPENDIX A
AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SELECTED REFERENCES
USED IN THE PREPARATION OF THE USER
MANUAL AND AUTHOR INDEX
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ABSTRACTS
1. ANONYMOUS. 1953. Comments on Sewage Irrigation. Sew. & Indus.
Wastes 25:2:233-234.
A survey of the opinions of users of sewage for irrigation. Four
farm owners from around the San Antonio, Texas area give statements
on the effect of sewage on their crops or pastures.
2. ANONYMOUS. 1956. Continued Study of Waste Water Reclamation and
Utilization. A report by the State Water Pollution Control Board,
Sacramento, California Pub. No. 15.
Expansion of waste water reclamation facilities by the steel and
other industries, the scheduling of numerous, important conferences on
the re-use of waste waters, and the planning of new waste water reclama-
tion projects all indicate the increasing, nation-wide interest being
given to the reutilization of waste waters.
While public health problems have not arisen at any of the many
golf courses now using a sewage effluent for irrigation, reasonable
uniform procedures need to be developed.
A cooperative study has shown the reclamation of liquid sludge by
land disposal to be practicable. A cooperative study has also shown
the reclamation of a normal, domestic sewage by means of a primary la-
goon system will provide an effluent amenable to the irrigation of
grasses and shrubs. It is recommended that the study of waste water
reclamation and utilization be continued.
3. ANONYMOUS. 1957. Study of Waste Water Reclamation and Utilization.
3rd Report of the State Water Pollution Control Board, Sacramento,
California Pub. No. 18.
Studies show that waste water constitutes an increasing portion of
the nation's water supply. The Talbert Valley reclamation operation
shows that it is possible for a group of private farmers to organize,
finance and construct a reclamation system to utilize a sewage effluent
for economical irrigation of field crops. The several golf course studies
showed that the problems peculiar to irrigation with reclaimed water
such as odors, corrosion, chlorination for coliform control and soil
salinity can be controlled by careful planning. The studies also
showed where ground water recharge through injection wells is possible.
Health hazards are discussed as well as the San Diego liquid sludge
disposal operations and the Mojave waste water reclamation operation.
4. ANONYMOUS. 1963. Treated Sewage Irrigates Crops. Engr. News-
Record 171 (Part 2):45-46 (Oct.3).
Pennsylvania State University conducts a spray-irrigation program to
test the effect of treated domestic sewage on forest plantings and
adjacent croplands. The experiments seek to show how plant nutrients
in waste water can be conserved and best put to use in a community.
The program workers expect to learn how much acreage should be irrigated,
best rates of application, and the equipment needed. Part of the efflu-
ent is sprayed on fields planted to rye, wheat, corn, and alfalfa.
That diverted to forested areas is sprayed on tree tops from elevated
nozzles. The experimenters expect to learn its effect on crops and
timber as well as its effect on game and fish.
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5. ANONYMOUS. 1965. Microbiological Content of Domestic Waste Waters
Used for Recreational Purposes. A report by the State Water Quality
Control Board, State of California Pub. No. 32.
A water reclamation project involving secondary treatment of domestic
sewage followed by storage, filtration and disinfection was studied over
a period of 30 months. Virus studies were carried on for two years in
the laboratory of the San Diego Department of Public Health. Bacterio-
logical, physical and chemical data were gathered from 30 months of
analysis of samples taken from eight points in the treatment and
recovery system with some variations as described in the report.
6. ANONYMOUS. 1966. Warwick B. C. Improve effluent with spray irrigation
equipment. Survr munic. City Engr 127:3862:41-42.
An illustrated description is given of spray irrigation equipment
installed at Warwick sewage works in May, 1966 as the initial stage of
alleviating overloaded conditions. After primary sedimentation, efflu-
ent is pumped through standard farm irrigation equipment over an area
of 7.2 acres of grassland (which is divided into 2 plots, each of which
is allowed a 14-day rest period) before drainage to the river Avon.
7. ANONYMOUS. 1966. Wastewater Reclamation at Whittier Narrows. A
report by the State Water Quality Control Board, State of California
Pub. No. 33.
The general objective of this investigation was to determine the
effects of intermittent percolation through soil of highly treated acti-
vated-sludge effluent on the quality of ground water in the Whittier
Narrows area. The project was designed to study the fate of significant
mineral, organic, and biological constituents of renovated wastewater
and the phenomena associated with their removal or transformation.
The investigations were divided into three major categories. (1) A
total of 25 wells in the vicinity of Whittier Narrows were monitored
with respect to water quality at various elevations by means of a
selective-depth pumping unit. (2) Test spreading basins were constructed
and operated to study the phenomena associated with intermittent
vertical percolation through the upper few feet of soil. (3) Laboratory
soil columns were utilized to compare the degradation of the new linear
alkylate sulfonates (LAS) with the conventional alkyl benzene sulfonates
(ABS).
8. ANONYMOUS. 1967. Warwick B. C. Extend spray irrigation scheme for
effluent improvement. Survr munic. City Engr 129:3905:26-27.
A description, illustrated by plan and photograph, is given of
extensions and modifications to the original spray irrigation system
for disposal of effluent at Warwick sewage works; these include the
construction of a lagoon which receives humus-tank effluent, and from
which the original irrigation area is now sprayed, and the use of an
additional 10-acre plot (divided into 2 equal plots to allow a rest
period for each) onto which storm sewage from the storm tank is sprayed.
9. ANONYMOUS. 1967. Water Reclamation and Reuse. Journ. WPCF. 39:5:734-741.
Literature review of a symposium on Water Conservation by Reuse, by
the American Institute of Chemical Engineers at its 59th Annual Meeting.
Gives location and purpose of a large variety of systems and states
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general information on the type of system, efficiency, cost, and
health aspects.
10. ANONYMOUS. 1968. Reclamation of Waste Water. A report by the Los
Angeles Dept. of Water and Power, City of Los Angeles, California.
This report covers irrigation in the Sepulpa Flood Control Basin.
Costs are included. Irrigation and recreation in Griffith Park is
discussed as well as discussions of three sources of reclaimed water
for the Park. A wastewater treatment plant is proposed to be con-
structed jointly by Los Angeles and Glendale.
11. AMIROV, R. 0., SALIMOV, D. A. 1967. Sanitary-Helminthological Eval-
uation of Sewage Farms Under Climatic Conditions of the Apsheron
Peninsula. Hygiene and Sanitation 32:4-6:437-439.
Biological characteristics of sewage from Baku are given. High per
cent of viable helminth eggs is found in the municipal sewage (54.4).
Sewage is treated by Imhoff process. The treated sewage is used for
irrigation because of poor sandy soil and lack of rainfall. It was
found irrigation by flooding contaminated vegetables. There were no
viable eggs found after two months in the soil. Investigations show
sewage can be successfully used to irrigate eastern part of the Apsheron
Peninsula. Recommends irrigation on thermal processed food only and
only by farrow irrigation. Climatic information given.
12. ASKEW, J. B., BOTT, R. F., LEACH, R. E., ENGLAND, B. L. 1965. Micro-
biology of Reclaimed Water from Sewage for Recreational Use. Amer.
Journ. of Public Health 55:2:453-462.
As part of a continuing research program at the Santee Sewage treat-
ment plant, intensive bacteriologic and virologic tests have been
performed on specimens from seven sampling points. Bacteriologic
determinations indicate that it is possible to create a lake from
reclaimed water that has coliform counts within the limits allowed for
conventional origin. Virological tests completed to date on samples of
raw sewage, primary settling effluent, and activated sludge effluent
have been 100% positive, yielding 13 distinctive viruses. The per
cent of samples positive after approximately 30 days detention in an
oxidation pond dropped to 25, and the recreational lake samples have
been consistently negative for virus.
13. BACHMANN, G. 1954. The sewage utilization plant at Memmingen.
Wasserw.-Wass. Techn. 4:191; Zbl. Bakt., I, Ref., 1955, Vol 157:344.
The author describes the sewage works of Memmingen where sewage,
after sedimentation for 1% hours, is used as artificial rain. The
yield of hay on watered land has been increased by 52 per cent.
14. BEHNKE, J. J., HASKELL, E. E., JR. 1968. Ground Water Nitrate Distri-
butions Beneath Fresno, California. Jour. AWWA 60:4:477-480.
The occurrence and distribution of nitrates in ground water is a
complex problem dependent upon many variables. Nitrate concentration
maps are useful in ground water studies to indicate areas receiving
unusual nitrate concentrations. Nitrate may not be an effective ground
22
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water tracer in all cases, because its concentration in the water table
changes markedly with horizontal distance. Areas receiving nitrate
concentrations from organic sources should also have high chloride
concentrations. Therefore, a comparison of the chloride and nitrate
concentrations in the ground water may offer some insight into the
effects of bacterial action on nitrate concentrations. Nitrate concen-
trations in the uppermost 10 feet of the ground water body were approx-
imately one-third higher than in deeper waters - below 10 feet the
nitrate concentration was essentially uniform with depth.
15. BENDIXON, T. W., HILL, R. D., SCHWARTZ, W. A., ROBECK, G. G. 1968.
Ridge and Furrow Liquid Waste Disposal in a Northern Latitude. Jour.
Sanitary Div. - ASCE 94:SA1:147-157.
The operation and performance of a municipal ridge and furrow
liquid waste disposal system in use since 1959 was monitored for a year
and a half. One hundred and fifty thousand gallons a day of trickling
filter effluent are disposed into the soil via four 1-acre basins.
A heavy stand of grass left unharvested over the winter apparently
contributes to successful operation. The changes in infiltration rates
and quality of the infiltrate with season and under various loading and
operating conditions are examined, as are companion field and indoor
lysimeter studies comparing various design and operational factors that
may influence infiltration protection of ground water.
16. BLUMEL, F. 1965. Methods of treating agricultural land--a good method
for the treatment and application of sewage. Wass. Abwass., 1965, 35-45.
Existing methods for use of sewage in agriculture and plans for
its use in modern farming and soil improvement are discussed, and the
author reviews the application of sewage on land without preliminary
treatment, after mechanical treatment, and after biological treatment,
and compares these methods with those used abroad. Special reference
is made to the use of sewage effluents and trade waste waters for
irrigation.
17. BOUWER, H. 1970. Ground Water Recharge Design for Renovating Waste
Water. Jour. Sani. Engrg. Div. - ASCE 96:SA1:59-74.
Ground water recharge through surface spreading can be an effective
and economical method for further treatment or renovation of convention-
ally treated sewage effluent, cannery wastes, or other low-quality water.
The process could also be used in cases where keeping the waste water out
of surface waters is the main consideration. Infiltration of the waste
water can be accomplished with recharge basins, ridge-and-furrow systems,
or sprinklers. Most of the quality improvement takes place as the fluid
percolates through the first few feet of soil, but it is considered de-
sirable to allow the water to travel laterally as ground water for several
hundred feet or more before it is collected as reclaimed water by drains
or wells. The design of a system of recharge areas with infiltration
facilities and of wells or other facilities to collect the reclaimed
water must be based on: (1) Keeping the water table beneath the recharge
area at sufficient depth to maintain high infiltration rates, suffi-
cient aerobic percolation, and rapid drainage of the soil profile
during dryup; (2) allowing sufficient time and distance of underground
travel of the reclaimed water; and (3) minimizing spread of the reclaimed
23
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water into the aquifer outside the recharge system if contamination is
to be avoided. A procedure is presented to predict water-table positions
for a system of parallel, rectangular recharge areas, with wells
located midway between the areas. This enables the evaluation of the
most favorable layout of recharge areas and wells with the desired
water table response and travel times. Procedures for obtaining the
necessary information on the hydraulic conductivity conditions of the
aquifer for recharge systems are presented. Using an analog technique,
the horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer can be
determined from the recharge rate and the water level response in two
observation wells of different depths. From the hydraulic conductivity
data thus obtained, an effective transmissibility coefficient of the
aquifer for recharge can be computed for use in the analysis of a
multiple-basin, multiple-well recharge and renovation system. The pro-
cedures are illustrated with an evaluation of the hydraulic properties
of the aquifer for an experimental recharge system in the Salt River
bed west of Phoenix, Arizona, and with a calculation of watertable
positions and travel times for a system consisting of two parallel
recharge strips with wells midway in between.
18. BOUWER, H. 1968. 'Returning Wastes to the Land, A New Role for Agri-
culture. Jour. Soil and Water Cons. 23:5:286-290.
There is an everpresent need for reclamation and reuse of wastewater.
Land disposal is one way to use these wastes. Not only does the soil
benefit from the fertilizer value of the sewage effluent but the water
goes through a drastic quality improvement through soil percolation
before it reaches the ground water. Recharge basin management is discussed
along with the economics of land disposal. Three methods of reducing
the nitrate content from the soil are studied. A description of the
Flushing Meadows Project is given as an example of waste water reclamation.
19. BOUWER, H. 1970. Water Quality Aspects of Intermittent Systems Using
Secondary Sewage Effluent. Paper given at the Artificial Groundwater
Recharge Conference Univ. of Reading, England. 21-24 Sept., 1970.
Results from an experimental project on reclaiming water from
secondary sewage effluent by ground water recharge with infiltration
basins in the dry Salt River bed near Phoenix, Arizona, have shown
that the infiltration rate in grass-covered basins is 25 per cent higher
and in a gravel-covered basin 50 per cent lower, than in a bare soil
basin. Alternating 2-week inundation periods with 10-day dry-up periods
(17 days in winter) yields an annual infiltration rate of about 100m
(330 ft.). The hydrogeological conditions of the Salt River bed, i.e.
about 0.9m (3 ft.) of fine, loamy sand underlayed by sand and gravel
layers to great depth and a ground-water table at about 3m (10 ft.) depth,
are very favorable for high-rate waste water reclamation by ground-
water recharge.
20. CHASE, WILLIAM J, 1960. Spray Disposal of Domestic Wastes. Pub. Works
91:137-141 (May). PHE ABST. 40:8:107.
Emphasizes the need for proper disposal methods in relation to spray
irrigation of pasture and wooded areas with domestic wastes. Require-
ments are given in regard to pretreatment, allowable volumes according
to conditions, spray-nozzle arrangement, prevention of harm to foliage,
24
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and other details of application. Deep silty soil is preferable.
Clay subsoil may lead to bad effects from adsorption of sodium through
ion-exchange.
21. CHISTOVICH, G. N., ADEL'SON, L. I., IVANOVA, S. P., IL'IN, V. V.,
KIBORT, R. V., LYABINA, L. M., MOGUCHII, A. M., NECHAEVA, E. A.,
PADERINA, E. M. SMIRNOVA, A. M. , SHANDURIN, S. V., YAKOVLEVA, G. S.
1965. Experience of Comprehensive Sanitary and Microbiological
Evaluation of Sewage Irrigation Fields in the Suburbs of Leningrad.
Hygiene and Sanitation 30:10-12:129-131.
A total of 17 samples of sewage and 27 samples of drainage water,
131 samples of soils and 21 series of samples of vegetables, principally
cabbage was used in this experiment. A total of analyses was 1774.
Besides cabbage, cauliflower and potatoes were also used.
This article dealt with the following three areas:
(1) The degree of efficiency of sewage purification in the SIF
(sewage irrigation fields.)
(2) The degree of contamination of the soil in SIF and whether it
undergoes spontaneous decontamination fast enough.
(3) The possibility of using those vegetables grown in SIF.
22. COERVER, J. F. 1969. Health Regulations Concerning Sewerage Effluent
for Irrigation. Presented at a symposium held July 30, 1968 in Ruston,
La. Louisiana Polytechnic Institute Alumni Foundation.
Regulations on the use of municipal sewage effluent for irrigation
vary from state to state. The use of untreated sewage for irrigation
is generally prohibited. States approve the use of treated sewage for
irrigation except in those more hazardous situations involving vegetables
eaten raw, public access lawns, and dairy pastures, although some states
recognize that sewage can be reclaimed by extensive treatment to satis-
factorily reduce hazards.
23. CRAWFORD, A. B., FRANK, A. H. 1940. Effect on Animal Health of
Feeding Sewage. Civil Engrg. 10:8:495-496.
The U. S. Department of Agriculture's Beltsville Research Center
conducted a study in which sewage effluent was fed to swine and cattle
to see if disease would be carried in the stock. Raw sewage, treatment
plant effluent, and sludge were mixed with bran and fed to the stock
regularly. The water of the test animals was also saturated with the
effluent. It was concluded that virulent bacteria are not present in
sufficient concentration in the incoming sewage of the test sewage
plant to cause disease in susceptable animals.
24. CROSBY, J. W., JOHNSTONE, D. L. , DRAKE, C. H. , AND FENTON, R. L. 1968.
Migration of pollutants in a glacial outwash environment. Wat. Resour.
Res., 4, 1095-1114.
Soil samples were taken from test holes to determine the movement of
polluting chemicals and bacteria in the alluvial soil of the Spokane
river valley, Wash., caused by soil disposal of septic-tank effluent
from a nursing home. It was found that bacteria were normally removed
after passage through 20 ft of soil; that moisture fronts moved further,
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laterally and vertically, In the winter; and that chlorides and nitrates
moved at rates comparable to those of the dispersing effluents.
Detailed observations of moisture distribution were supplemented by
observations using sand models, and it was demonstrated that dry
conditions at depth were caused by lateral dispersion by capillarity.
25. DAVIS, G. E., STAFFORD, J. F. 1966. Tucson Wastewater Reclamation
Project. First Annual Report, Tucson Wastewater Reclamation Project,
June 1965-June, 1966. Tucson Wastewater Reclam. Proj. Rep., July
1966. Water and Sewers Dept., Tucson; Univ. of Arizona, Tucson.
A summary of the first year of the Tucson Wastewater Reclamation
Project. The primary purpose of the project is to demonstrate the
chemical, microbiological, and virological safety and aesthetic accepta-
bility of including wastewater, which has been renovated by use of a soil
system, as a dependable and substantial portion of the future water
supply for metropolitan Tucson.
26. DAY, A. D., DICKSON, A. D., TUCKER, T. C. 1963. Effects of City
Sewage Effluent on Grain Yield and Grain Malt Quality of Fall-Sown,
Irrigated Barley-Agronomy Jour. 55:317-318.
Experimants were conducted over a 2 year period to compare the
grain yield, grain quality, and malt quality of 2 malting barley
varieties (Atlas 54 and Hannchen) irrigated with sewage effluent with
the yield and quality of the same 2 barleys irrigated with well water
and fertilized with different amounts of commercial fertilizer.
The sewage effluent came from the Tucson, Arizona sewage plant
after the standard activated sludge treatment. It contained approxi-
mately 65 Ibs. of Nitrogen, 21.8 Ibs. of Phosphorous (50 Ibs. P205)>
and 26.6 Ibs. of Potassium (32 Ibs. K20) per acre-foot. About 3 acre-
feet of effluent per acre was applied four times. Well water in the
area contained about 10 Ib. of N., 0.2 Ib. of P (0.5 Ib. of P205>, and
11.6 Ib. of K (14 Ib. of K20) per acre-foot.
The results of various tests showed that kernel weights and kernel
size were reduced on plots irrigated with sewage effluent. Nitrogen
was increased by sewage effluent. Although the sewage effluent plots
produced a higher total yield of malt extract percentage from both
varieties, the high nitrogen in the sewage effluent tended to reduce
barley and malt quality.
27. DAY, A. D. AND TUCKER, T. C. 1959. Production of Small Grains
Pasture Forage Using Sewage Effluent as a Source of Irrigation Water
and Plant Nutrients. Agronomy Journal 51:569-572.
Winter pasture forage yields of 11.14 tons per acre were obtained
from barley irrigated with sewage effluent with no additional fertilizer.
Similarly, wheat and oats production was 263 percent and 249 percent
higher, respectively, than for check plots that received only pump
water. Barley was more sensitive to the detrimental effects of sewage
effluent than were wheat and oats.
28. DAY, A. D., TUCKER, T. C. 1959. Production of Small Grains Pasture
Forage Using Sewage Effluent as a Source of Irrigation Water and Plant
Nutrients. Agronomy Journal 51:569-572.
26
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Eight experiments were conducted over a two-year period (1957-58)
at Cortaro, Arizona, to compare the pasture forage production of small
grains (barley, wheat, oats) irrigated with sewage effluent with the
pasture forage obtained when small grains were irrigated with regular
irrigation water and fertilized with different amounts of commercial
fertilizer. These grains irrigated with sewage produced up to 263%
more forage compared to that of pump water.
29. DINGES, W. R. 1969. Review of Literature on Irrigation of Human Food
Crops with Waters Containing Various Amounts of Domestic Wastewaters.
Unpublished material by Div. of Wastewater Technology and Surveillance,
Texas State Dept. of Health.
Definitive epidemiological information about the transmission of
diseases by consumption of foods irrigated with contaminated water is,
essentially, non-existent. A search of the literature did not reveal
studies made on irrigation of food crops with treated and disinfected
sewage treatment plant effluents. Most investigators were of the opinion
that disease-causing organisms, with the possible exception of Ascaris
lumbercoides (eggs) and tubercule bacteria (spores), die rapidly (2-
30 days) under field conditions. The efforts at establishment of
realistic sanitary standards for irrigation waters by public health
authorities have suffered due to a paucity of reliable information.
30. DREWRY, W. A., ELIASSEN, R. 1968, Virus Movement in Groundwater.
Jour. WPCF 40:257-271.
Virus retention by soils is studied. The adsorption of virus by
soils is greatly affected by the pH of the water-soil system. At
lower pH values it was found that adsorption was faster. Virus
adsorption by some soils can be greatly enhanced by increasing the
cation concentration of the liquid phase of a soil water system. It
was concluded that virus movement through soils under saturated con-
ditions should present no great health hazard with respect to under-
ground water supplies.
31. DUNLOP, S.G., TWEDT, R. M., WANG, W. L. 1952. Quantitative Estimation
of Salmonella in Irrigation Water. Sewage and Industrial Wastes
24:1015-1020.
A quantitative method has been developed for the estimation of
Salmonella in sewage-contaminated irrigation water. Of 11 samples of
irrigation water, 8 were positive for Salmonella. The median value for
all 11 samples of vegetables irrigated with this water was positive for
those organisms.
Ratios of 255,000 coliforms and 4,800 enterococci to one Salmonella
were computed from the median values obtained from the water samples.
In comparing coliform and enteroccus counts from vegetables subjected
to washing and blending, no consistent trend was shown in favor of
either method.
Tables included are as follows:
Table I.--Quantitative Determinations of Salmonella in Irrigation Water
(Forest and International Centrifuged Sediments Inoculated into Modified
Tetrathionate Broth, 3 Tubes Each of 1.0, 0.1, and 0.01 Ml.)
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Table II.—Quantitative Determinations of Salmonella in Irrigation
Water (Forest Centrifuged Sediments Inoculated into Modified Tetra-
thionate Broth, 3 Tubes Each of 1.0, 0.1, and 0.01 Ml.)
Table III.—Summary of Most Probable Numbers of Coliform Organisms and
Enterococci in Irrigation Water, Samples 397-417 (MPN Counts in Thou-
sands per 100 Ml.)
Table IV.—Comparison of Coliform and Entercocci Counts on Vegetables
Using Direct Washing and Blending.
32. DUNLOP. S. G.., WANG, W. L. 1961. Studies on the Use of Sewage Effluent
for Irrigation of Truck Crops. Jour. Milk Food Tech. 24:2:44-47.
Salmonella, Ascaris ova and Endamoeba cysts were recovered from
more than 50 per cent of irrigation water samples contaminated with
raw sewage or primary-treated, chlorinated effluents. Only one of 97
samples of vegetables yielded Salmonella, but Ascaris ova were recovered
twice from 34 of the vegetable samples, the latter only when raw sewage
was being discharged into the stream. Although this work is not yet
completed, it would appear that, under the conditions studied, the use
of partially treated, chlorinated sewage effluents diluted in streams
does not significantly contaminate the vegetables furrow-irrigated with
this water. On the other hand, the presence of pathogenic organisms
in most of the water samples represents a potential public health
hazard to the farmers and communities using the water.
33. DYE, E. 0. 1958. Crop Irrigation with Sewage Effluent. Sewage and
Indus. Wastes 30:6:825-828.
A series of analyses were conducted, exdending over a 2 year period,
covering the chemical consideration in the application of sewage effluent
from the activated sludge treatment plant at Tucson, Arizona to soil
and plants. The total soluble salts of the effluent are within the
range of ordinary tap water. The HC03 increase at the field is reflected
in the pH change (7.4 to 7.9) and is influenced by algal growths; however,
this rise is only temporary. The slight rise in Na content suggests
increased detergents use which may in turn explain the P205 rise. The
total nitrogen increase is explained by microbial nitrogen fixation.
This method with only a few adaptations makes agricultural use of
usually wasted water with no hazards to operators or others possible.
34. DYE, E. 0. 1968. Wastewater Reclamation Project. Water Sewage
Works 115:4:139-144.
The city of Tucson is interested in waste water reclamation, with
approval by health authorities. The second year of the Tucson Waste-
water Reclamation Project embodied a program of intensive sampling and
analysis of applied activated sludge effluent, intrafilter aliquots
representing progressive stages of renovation, and the end products.
Two phases of application were completed and critically reviewed leading
to the beginning of a third. Costs were discussed.
35. EASTMAN, P.. W. JR. 1967. Municipal Wastewater Reuse for Irrigation.
Jour. Irr. and Drainage Div. - ASCE. 93:IR3:25-31. Jour. WPCF
40:6:969-974.
The demand for reuse of wastewater is discussed with a projection
of water needs to the year 2000. States using sewage applied to land
with estimated population served are described. California and Texas are
28
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two states used as examples for sewage irrigation. Health aspects
of sewage irrigation are studied in detail with references to other
countries.
36. EHLERS, V. M. , ROBERTS, F. C., JR., REINKE, E. A. 1934. Experiences
with Sewage Farming in Southwest United States. Amer. Jour.JPub.
Health 25:119-127, 1935. Sewage Wks. Jour. 7:320-322.
This article discusses the sewage disposal (using land systems)
problems and advantages in three states: Texas, Arizona, and California.
The article discusses the cost of the systems, the length of operation,
the type of crops which were grown, and the revenue from them. Sug-
gestions were given by Texas engineers. All data necessary was given
for the state of Arizona including rainfall, temperature, population,
average sewage flow, average type of sewage, etc. Ways of dispelling
odors were discussed. Health aspects, danger of polluting groundwater,
previous treatment and crop yields were discussed to a great extent.
A great deal was said about California's health laws (as to what crops
could be legally irrigated with sewage water and the type of sewage
that could be used) and their effect on the number of land systems used.
37. FISH, H. 1966. Some investigations of tertiary methods of treatment.
Instn publ. Hlth Engrs J. 65:33-47.
Tertiary treatment of sewage-works effluents in Essex by irrigation
on grass plots, slow sand filtration, microstraining, and lagooning
has been studied over a period of 12 months and the improvements achieved
performance for removal of BOD and suspended solids, and for nominal
oxygen balance of the effluent but some of the results obtained by
lagooning were superior. All 4 processes produced similar results
when treating humus-tank effluent conforming to the Royal Commission
standard. The costs of the processes are compared and their merits are
considered in relation to requirements of river authorities, sewerage
authorities, and public health protection.
In reply to a question raised in discussion, the author stated that
these processes caused only slight reduction in the concentration of
anionic detergents.
38. FLEMING, R. R. 1963. Water Reuse by Design. The American City
78:106-108.
The author reviews the reuse of sewage effluents as practiced in the
United States. Large quantities are reclaimed for both industrial and
agricultural reuse. Other reuse includes groundwater recharge to
prevent salt water intrusion. Over 200 municipal plants in Texas
supply effluent for irrigation. Several Arizona and New Mexico cities
water golf courses and parks with sewage effluent. Other examples of
reuse are cited.
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39. FOSTER, H. B., JR., JOPLING, W. F. 1969. Rationale of Standards for
Use of Reclaimed Water. Jour. Sani. Engrg. Div. - ASCE 95:SA3:503-514.
Committees developed workable standards for safely utilizing reclaimed
wastewater in California. Applications such as irrigation of crops
and parks, and recreational empoundments were developed. In the
development of the standards, the major controversy centered around
four basic subjects.
(1) Sampling and analysis requirements for adequate disinfection.
(2) Specification of proper practices in the production and use of
reclaimed waste water.
(3) Use of descriptive terms versus specific quality parameters in
definitions.
(4) Quality requirements for specific uses.
40. FOSTER, H. B., JR., WARD, P. C., PRUCHA, A. A. 1965. The Removal
of Nutrients by Spraying Effluent on a Saturated Hillside—Lake Tahoe,
California. Paper presented before ASCE, Sanitary Division, Pennsyl-
vania State University, August, 1965.
Sewage effluent was sprayed on an 80-acre hillside, sparsely forrested
with pine. During the first study period, Oct.-Nov. 1963, over 90% of
the total phosphate, over 5670 of the total nitrogen, and over 65% of the
ABS were removed from the hillside. The following spring, April 1964,
removal efficiencies were found to be lower. At this time, the hillside
was thoroughly saturated with the melt from ice and snow banks. The
hillside was covered with heavy snow during the early months of 1965.
Masses of ice had built up around the spray nozzles. Removal efficien-
cies were lower than at any previous times. Phosphate, total nitrogen,
and ABS removals were 27%, 26%, and 32% respectively. During all
periods of study the fecal coliform and enterococcus densities were
greatly reduced by the passage over the hillside spray area.
41. FRANKEL, R. J. 1967. Economics of Artificial Recharge for Municipal
Water Supply. Resources for the Future, Inc., Washington, D. C.
Artificial Recharge and Management of Aquifers, Symposium of Haifa
(March 19-26, 1967), International Association of Scientific Hydrology,
Publication No. 72, p. 289-301, 1967.
A research project was undertaken to determine whether or not
waste reclamation could be economically competitive with other water
sources for municipal water supply. Numerous advanced waste treatment
systems and recycle schemes were evaluated. Waste-water renovation
through groundwater recharge proved to be the most feasible solution
to reclamation of the effluent of any type treatment plant today.
Further study has evaluated the chemical and physical limitations of
artificial recharge using municipal wastes; the economic trade-offs
between additional treatment prior to recharge and greater land utiliza-
tion and the break-even point for land values as a function of economics of
30
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scale. Finally the economics of a particular case study in the arid
West of the United States is discussed as well as proposed scheme for
converting the nation's capital, Washington, D. C., in the humid East
from using solely surface water supplies to using artificial recharge
of undeveloped aquifers for future expansion of water supplies.
42. GREENBERG, A. E., THOMS, A. F. 1954. Sewage Effluent Reclamation for
Industrial and Agricultural Use. Sewage and Industrial Wastes 26:761-
770. Chem. Abs. 49:col 7161D, 1955.
Planned reclamation is designed to produce a usable water from sewage.
Such reclaimed waters may be used by industry or agriculture "directly"
or "indirectly." The latter involves replenishing groundwater basins
from which industrial, agricultural, or domestic supplies are drawn.
Experiments performed by the University of California's Sanitary
Engineering Research Laboratory are discussed, and the conclusions are
summarized.
43. GRIGOR'EVA, L. V., GONCHARUK, E. I. 1966. Elimination of Viruses from
Sewage in Experimental Underground Filtration. Hygiene & Sanitation
31:10-12:158-163.
Laboratory models of underground filtration beds and filtering
wells have been constructed to investigate the danger of bacterial
contamination of sewage. Two Coxsackie strains, A5 and A14, and E.
Coli No. 163 were used to test the sewage.
The sewage load was 301/24 hrs per 1 running meter for underground
filtration beds and 1801/24 hr per 1 m2 for the filtering wells. The
application of sewage continued for 42 days.
The results showed that the purification from viruses and bacteria
was more satisfactory in the case of the underground filtration beds
than in the case of filtering wells. After application in the period
of maturation, Coxsackie A viruses and E. Coli were more frequently
detected in the concentrated filtrate but only until the 20th day.
The underground filtration let through 0.002 to 0.0427, of the initial
bacteriophage while the filtering well let through 0.007 to 0.109%.
44 GRIGOR'EVA, L. v., GORODETSKII, T. G., OMEL'YANETS, x. G., BOGDANENKO,
L. A., 1965. Survival of Bacteria and Viruses on Vegetable Crops
Irrigated with Infected Water. Hygiene and Sanitation 30:10-12:357-361.
Investigates the survival of the pathogenic bacteria of the coli group,
Coxsackie viruses of Group A, Escherichia coli, and bacteriophages on
the leaves and fruits of plants irrigated with infected water. The
plants were grown in a laboratory condition but with natural simulation.
At different stages of vegetation period the plants were sprinkled with
sewage water with a low coli titer (10-8 -- 10-15) or with water which
was additionally contaminated with coli bacteriophage. Survival times
of enteroviruses and pathogenic bacteria of E. Coli family is compared.
The survival time depends on several factors, such as the species of
plants, the conditions and length of the vegetation period, the past of
the plants investigated (whether leaves or fruit), the species and
strain of the microorganism and its initial concentration. Three
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vegetables species were investigated and their conditions for the
survival of bacteria and viruses were discussed. The least favorable
conditions for :the survival of bacteria and viruses were offered by
cabbage leaves and the most favorable by tomato leaves.
45. GUYMON, B. E. 1957. Sewage Salinity Prevents Use of Effluents for
Golf Course Irrigation. Wastes Engrg. 28:80-83. P.H.E. Abst. 37:8:69.
The salinity of the treated sewage of the city of Coronado, California
was found to be too high to permit its use for irrigating a proposed
18-hole public golf course on land bordering San Diego Bay. The
annual cost of irrigating the tract with the municipal supply was
estimated to be $26,000. The author presents salinity data for both
the public water supply and the sewage, covering a typical 24-hour
day. A method of separating the merging flows of two main outfall
sewers, one high in salinity and the other acceptable, is illustrated
and briefly explained.
46. HAJEK, B. F. 1969. Chemical Interactions of Wastewater in a Soil
Environment. Jour. WPCF 41:1775-1786.
The effects of wastewater disposal to soil will be scrutinized
increasingly to predict the assimilative capacity of soil. One phase
of wastewater disposal to soil, that of chemically contaminated
wastewater, has been discussed to acquaint environmental engineers
and scientists with experimental methods presently available for making
such a prediction. These methods are wastewater chemical characteri-
zation, and chemical interactions of soil-waste systems.
47. HARMSEN, H. 1957. Irrigation and utilization of sewage residues.
Stadtehvgiene 8:25-27.
In view of the objections raised, especially from the hygienic
point of view, to the provisions of DIN 19 650, issued in 1956 and
dealing with irrigation and the use of sewage, the author surveys
work done and legal enactments on the hygienic problems of use of
sewage on land.
48. HARVEY, C. AND CANTRELL, R. 1965. Use of Sewage Effluent for Production
of Agricultural Crops. Texas Water Development Board, Austin, Report 9
December 1965.
The report summarizes the results of a 1965 Texas survey on agricultural
use of sewage effluent. Discussed are the suitability and cost of
effluent for crop production as well as crops and acreage irrigated.
The authors state that "crop irrigation with effluent can contribute
to the economy of the area and solve satisfactorily the sewage disposal
problem."
49. HEUKELEKIAN, H. 1957. Utilization of Sewage for Crop Irrigation in
Israel. Sewage and Industrial Wastes 29:8:868-874. Chem. Abs.
51:col 17050B, 1957.
The low annual rainfall in the agricultural areas of Israel and
its lack of sufficient water supplies makes irrigation with sewage
effluents feasible. The problems involved are: (1) construction and
collection systems for the wastes, (2) transmission of the sewage to
agricultural areas, (3) adequate treatment of wastes prior to irrigation,
(4) development of suitable farming areas and practices for the utili-
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zation. The land is irrigated about once in 10 to 15 days receiving \
inch during 220 days. At this rate irrespective of the method of
application there is no problem with odors or flies unless the sewage
had developed septicity prior to its arrival at the irrigation site.
There are 2 alternatives as to previous treatment of the sewage:
(1) secondary treatment for unrestricted crop irrigation or (2) primary
treatment for irrigation of crops not eaten raw by human beings such as
beets, cotton, pasture and hay, vegetables eaten only after cooking,
fruit trees, nursery plants, and ornamental plants and flowers. The
primary treatment with restricted use may be the most preferred. Methods
of primary treatment suitable for irrigation are: (1) screening or
comminution, (2) plain sedimentation tanks, (3) Imhoff tanks, (4) septic
tanks, and (5) earth basin tanks. The type of treatment used will
depend on the size of the plant, the cost of construction, and the
ease of operation. Plots irrigated with sewage show an accumulation
of chlorides; however, these are leached out during the rainy season.
The sewage also adds 2.5 to 3 kg. of Nitrogen, 1.0 kg. of phosphorus,
and 1.3 to 1.6 kg. of potassium per capita per year.
50. HILL, R. D., BENDIXON, T. W., ROBECK, G. G. 1964. Status of Land
Treatment for Liquid Waste - Functional Design. Presented at Water
Pollution Control Federation, Bal Harbour, Florida, October 1, 1964.
The distribution of liquid waste-land disposal systems by type of
waste, application technique, and geographic location has been presented.
The over 2,000 reported installations spread over many states with vastly
different climatic conditions have been used for the disposal of dif-
ferent wastes, and have had great diversity in the waste application
techniques used.
A review of the literature revealed that the median application rates
at seepage ponds, ridge and furrow, and spray systems were 1.5, 0.74,
and 0.22 inches per day respectively. Sand soils were used almost
exclusively at seepage pond installations, while soils with poorer
infiltration and percolation rates were usually used at ridge and furrow,
and spray sites. Cover vegetation reported in the literature is
described and its use at soil systems reviewed.
51. HOLLER, K. 1952. Fifteen Years of the Uthleben Sewage Cooperative.
Wasserwirtschaft-Wassertechnik 2:397.
Progress and effect of 15 years of sewage farming and technical
installations are described. Of about 613 hectares (1,515 acres)
440 hectares received spray irrigation and 173 hectares received trench
irrigation. The present maximum sewage flow is about 4,800 cu. m.
per day (1.27 m.g.d.) The raw sewage flows through a grit removal unit
and thence into a 5,000 cu. m. equalizing lagoon functioning at
the same time as a settling basin. This is drained once a year for
sludge removal. About 50 per cent of the wet sludge is used directly
with cattle manure on the fields. The other 50 per cent is dried on
beds and composted with garbage. The sewage is pumped to the land
through movable pipes. The importance of proper timing of irrigation
is emphasized and illustrated for grains (oats, wheat), beets,
rape seed, and pastures. Comparisons of crop yields with non-irrigated
surrounding areas are given.
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52. HYDE, C. G. 1950. Sewage Reclamation at Melbourne, Australia.
Sew, and Indus. Wastes 22:8:1013-1015.
Geological, climatic, and population statistics at Melbourne,
Australia are given. A description of the sewage farm facilities is
included. These facilities handle an average load of 58 m.g.d.
Grass filtration is used and cattle are raised or fattened on the plots.
53. JANERT, H. 1954. The suitability of different methods of application
for the utilization of sewage. Wasserw.-WassTechn. 4:231; Zbl. Bakt. I
Ref., 1955, 157:343.
The author recommends sub-soil irrigation as the best method for
agricultural utilization of sewage. Costs for surface and sub-soil
irrigation are about the same; artificial rain costs more than twice
as much. The hygienic advantages of sub-soil irrigation are discussed
in detail.
54. JEY, B. N., AGADZHANOV, R. A., ALLAKHVERDYANTS, S. A., DASHKOVA, E. M.
MAIOROVA, L. A., SHTOK, E. SH. 1960. The Results of Sanitary and
Hygienic Investigations of Ashkhabad Sewage Farms. Gigiena i
Sanitariya No. 12, 18-20.
The results of sanitary and hygienic investigations performed at
the Ashkhabad sewage farms have shown that the irrigation of farm
fields with sewage from Ashkhabad city produces heavy contamination of
the soil. The processes of mineralization and natural soil purification,
taking place during the interval of 3 to 6 days in between the watering
periods cannot cope with all the amount of organic waste introduced
into the soil.
The vegetables grown on sewage farms and, especially, those in con-
tact with the surface of the irrigated soil, are contaminated with
Esch. coli and eggs of helminths.
In contrast to other parts of the USSR, in these regions, the
eggs of helminths are found in water, soil and on vegetables only
during autumn and spring months.
55. KARDOS, L. T. 1967. Waste Water Renovation by the Land—A Living
Filter. Agriculture and the Quality of Our Environment, American
Association for the Advancement of Science, Pub. No. 85, 1967,
Washington, D. C., pp. 241-250.
The 4 year Penn State Project was designed to reclaim waste water
by the land using a "living filter" system. The soil ranged in surface
texture from silt loam to silty clay loam, with slopes averaging 4%.
Each irrigation area was 240 ft. wide and 800 ft. long, and the crops
were grown in a strip arrangement in a rotation sequence. The rate of
application of effluent in 1963 was 0.64 in/hr, and 0, 1, and 2 in/wk.
was applied. In 1964 and 1965 the rate was 0.25 in/hr. The fertilizer
equivalent of the waste water at the 2 in/wk level was equal to that of
2000 Ibs of 7-12-11 fertilizer/acre in 1963, 2000 Ibs of 14-15-14
fertilizer in 1964, and 2000 Ibs of 5-10-5 fertilizer in 1965. The
crops were harvested and subsamples were analyzed for nitrogen,
phosphorous, potassium, calcium, magnesium, etc. Soil water samples
were taken by means of suction lysimeters. Since the beginning of the
project the area has been under severe drought conditions; however, hay
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yields were increased 139%, corn silage 39%, corn grain 78%, and oats
grain 70%. The phosphorous and potassium concentrations in the alfalfa
were 63 and 35% higher in the effluent-treated plots than the control
plots, while at the same time the quantities removed were 300 and 224%
higher. At the 1 in/wk level corn silage removed 200% total N, 39% P,
and 62% K. The microbes also degrade the complex organic molecules.
After three years of operation water samples showed that the renovation
capacity of the soil profile was still excellent. The growing crop
prevents the break through of excessively large amounts of Nitrate
Nitrogen. The "living filter" also recharges the water table by
about 80% of the effluent applied to the land.
56. KIKER, J. E., JR. 1955. Reclamation of Water from Sewage. Prelimi-
nary Draft of a paper presented March 15, 1955 at the 8th Florida and
Public Health Engineering Conference, University of Florida, Gainsville.
Gives the need for water reclamation and reuse. Examples stated are
the Bethlehem Steel Company at Sparrows Point, Maryland who has spent
in excess of $2 million for the development of a water supply with the
treated effluent of the Back River Sewage Treatment Works of Baltimore
City and the University of Florida which irrigates its lawns with
effluent from its treatment plant. The University has found the
effluent valuable for irrigation in the production of flowers and in
growing shrubbery and turf for campus beautification. Other uses,
potentialities, and benefits of water reuse are discussed along with
planning and operation recommendations.
57. KREUZ, A. 1955. Hygienic evaluation of the agricultural utilization
of sewage. Gesundheitsing. 76:206-211.
The author discusses, with references to the literature, the hygienic
problems arising from the agricultural utilization of sewage,
giving accounts of the amount of agricultural use in the U.S.A.,
Gt. Britain, the Soviet Union, and Germany, and dealing with dangers
to health, the effect of treatment on pathogenic organisms and worm
eggs, and precautions necessary in the use of sewage and sludge. The
fertilizing and humus-forming effects of sewage and sludge and the
effect of treatment on the fertilizing constituents are also considered.
58. KRONE, R. B., MCGAUHEY, P. H,, GOTAAS, H. IB. 1957. Direct Recharge of
Ground Water with Sewage Effluents. Jour. San. Engrg. Div. - ASCE
83:SA4: Paper 1335 25pp.
The results of an investigation found that secondary sewage efflu-
ents could be successfully injected underground through an experimental
recharge well at a rate equal to about \ the safe yield of the well, and
that the well could be redeveloped to restore its original characteris-
tics after clogging by injecting chlorine. An injection rate of 8.4
gal/min/ft of aquifer was found to be practical. Gravel packing of
the recharge well was found to be necessary.
No particular danger to public health as a result of travel of bac-
terial pollution with ground water was found. Coliform concentrations
of 2.4 X 10°/100 ml. at a distance of 100 ft. from the recharge well
in the direction of normal movement from the well and 63 ft. for other
directions. No coliforms appeared at greater distances. Neither
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increased concentrations of organisms nor greater injection rates
produced greater distances of bacterial travel in the aquifer.
It was also concluded the mineral quality of recharged water may
be expected to undergo little improvement as it moves through an
aquifer; however, the normal ions in sewage, other than industrial
sewage, are not pollutants in the usual sense of the word.
59. KUDRYAVTSEVA, B. M. 1968. Influence of Lyubertsy Filtration Beds
upon Sub-surface Waters. Hygiene and Sanitation 33:1-3:271-274.
The Lyubertsy filtration beds are in an area where artesian waters
are extensively used for water supply. The beds are situated on a plain.
The geological structure of the area shows that the ground waters occur
in Quaternary sands at a depth of about 1 m. The artesian waters occur
in Upper, Middle, and Lower Carboniferous fissured limestones. The
principal confining layer is formed by Upper Jurasic clays.
The sewage received by the filtration beds has the usual composition
of household-fecal sewage. Twenty-six bore holes were drilled for
studies of ground waters around the filtration beds. Ground waters from
bore holes near the beds had a high concentration of ammonia (4 mg/1),
chlorides (85 mg/1), sulfates (105 mg/1) and dry residue (500 mg/1), as
against 0.5 mg/1 ammonia, 15 mg/1 chlorides, 40 mg/1 sulfates, and 180
mg/1 dry residue in the water of a control bore hole. The coli index
of the ground waters decreases from 500 at a distance of 5 m from the
filter to 5 at a distance of 125 m, their progress over this distance
taking approximately 300 days. Over the same period, the concentration
of ammonia nitrogen decreased from 4 to 0.5 mg/1, oxidizability from 10
to 5 mg/1, etc. The concentration of chlorides in the flow of ground
water increased with increasing distance, from 85 to 127 mg/1, their
concentration in the sewage being at the level of 50-60 mg/1 during
the last two years.
60. KUO, T. 1965. The utilization of city sewage in China. Vattenhygien
21:84-87.
The author discusses the increasing utilization of municipal sewage
for irrigation and fish culture in China. The sewage undergoes
preliminary treatment to conform with the standards of public health
and to ensure that the contents are suitable for farming and fish
culture. Over a number of years there has been a remarkable increase
in the production of wheat, rice, and kelp. The need is stressed for
further research into the effects of infiltration of the sewage into the
ground water, and the measures needed to protect soil and crops from
extraneous contamination and to prevent the spread of contagious diseases,
61. KUTEPOV, L. E. 1968. (Purification of effluent water by soils)
Pochvovedenie No. 11, 57-69.
A review with 55 references. Fields irrigated with effluent can
be used as independent purification systems or can be combined
with artificial biological purification systems.
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62. LEHMAN, G. S. 1968. Soil and grass filtration of domestic sewage
effluent for the removal of trace elements. Thesis, University of
Arizona. 129 pp.; Piss. Abstr. 1969, 29:B:3578.
Studies were carried out on the removal of trace elements from
sewage-works effluents by filtration through soil and grass, using
different cycles of application. The best results were obtained with
application for one day, followed by 3 dry days; this provided the
necessary aerobic environment for removal of trace metals, nitrification
of reduced nitrogen compounds, and removal of coliform organisms, while
the short flooding period provided the anaerobic conditions necessary
for removal of nitrate by denitrification.
63. MCGAUHEY, P. H., KRONE, R. B. 1967. Soil Mantle as a Wastewater
Treatment System: Final Report. Sanitary Engineering Research Labora-
tory, College of Engineering & School of Public Health, Univ. of Cali-
fornia, Berkeley. SERL Report No. 67-11.
The problem of treating sewage effluent through soil systems is
defined with concepts and rationale discussed. The problem of clogging
of the soil and quality changes in the soil systems is observed and
reported. Existing systems are described and requirements for engineered
soil systems are suggested.
64. MCGAUHEY, P. H., KRONE, R. B., WENNEBERGER, J. H. 1966. Soil Mantle
as a Wastewater Treatment System: Review of Literature. Sanitary
Engineering Research Laboratory, College of Engineering and School of
Public Health, University of California, Berkeley. SERL Report No. 66-7.
Article reviews the literature on sewage treatment through soil
systems. Topics discussed are the problems of soil systems, infiltration
and percolation, clogging of the soils, quality changes in soil systems,
and engineered systems. 289 references.
65. MARTIN, B. 1951. Sewage Reclamation at Golden Gate Park. Sew. and
Indus. Wastes 23:3:319-320. P.H.E. Abstract 31:5:36.
Sewage plant at San Francisco's Golden Gate Park is described.
Detention time in the primary sedimentation tank is about 2 hrs. In
the aeration tanks the detention period is approximately 8 hrs.
The effluent after treatment with chlorine meets drinking water stan-
dards. Until 1947 the plant effluent was used solely for maintaining
the level of various lakes in the park. After July of that year the
effluent was pumped directly into the irrigation system and Stow
Lake. Costs are evaluated.
66. MERRELL, J. C., JR., JOPLING, W. F., BOTT, R. F., KATKO, A., PINTLER,
H. E. 1967. The Santee Recreation Project Santee, California - Final
Report. U. S. Dept of the Interior, Fed. Water Poll. Control Adminis-
tration. Wat. Poll. Contr. Res. Ser. Pub. No. WP-20-7.
This report presents the results of a study of the Santee, California
lakes. The Santee Lakes were deliberately planned the community's
reclaimed sewage effluent. The seven-agency cooperative study evaluated
the fate of virus, total and fecal foliform, and fecal streptococci
as waste water passed through conventional secondary treatment processes,
the sand filtration, and the recreational lakes. It was found that
the additional treatment provided by intermittent sand filtration met most
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of the requirements for recreational use of the terminal ponds. No
health hazards have been demonstrated by the viral or other findings
and this fact had considerable impact in the promotion of public
acceptance of the use of the recreational facilities.
67. MERZ, R. C. 1955. A Survey of Direct Utilization of Waste Waters.
Calif. State Water Poll. Control Bd. Sacramento, Pub. No. 12, 80 pages.
A comprehensive survey of current practices in the use of waste
water by industry, by agriculture, for recreation, and for groundwater
recharge. The study permitted the following conclusions with regard to
the agricultural use of waste water: (a) Sewage effluent has been shown
to be a satisfactory irrigation water, where chemical concentrations
permit and where health regulations pertaining to type of crop are met;
(b) Sewage effluent has been shown to be an adequate medium for leaching
alkali soils, or improvement of barren soils; (c) Reclamation by land
irrigation is a means of protecting the quality of surface waters;
(d) Irrigation provides secondary treatment and disposal of wastes in
an economical manner and may provide the municipality with a substan-
tial monetary return; and (e) An ideal use of oxidized sewage effluent
is for irrigation of parks and golf courses and as a supply for decora-
tive lakes. Conclusions pertaining to other uses are also given.
Numerous examples of reuse are cited, and pertinent abstracts from
the literature are included. The bibliography contains 227 entries.
68. MERZ, R. C. 1959. Waste Water Reclamation for Golf Course Irrigation.
Jour. San. Eng. Div., Araer Soc. Civ. Engr. 85:SA6, 1, 79-85.
Three years' experience at municipal and military golf courses shows
that reclaimed wastewater can be properly used for irrigation purposes.
Value is derived from the fertilizing constituents. Difficulties may
arise in certain soils due to increased sodium content of the water.
Chlorination will prevent odor nuisance as well as the spread of B.
coli through wind action.
69. MULLER, G. 1957. Infection of vegetables by application of domestic
sewage as artificial rain. Stadtehygiene 8:30-32.
The author describes experiments in which plots of land, on which
carrots, cabbages, potatoes, and gooseberry bushes were growing, were
watered with settled sewage. The soil, vegetables, and fruits were
tested for thepresence of Bact. coli and Salmonella at intervals up
to 40 days after application of sewage. The amounts of sewage used were
small but Salmonella were detected in the soil and on the potato tubers
after 40 days, on carrots after 10 days and on cabbage leaves and
gooseberries after 5 days.
70. MULLER, W. 1955. Irrigation with sewage in Australia. Wass. u. Boden
7:12; Zbl. Bakt. I, Ref., 1956, 159:503.
The author gives an account of the conditions in which sewage is
used for irrigation in Australia. Only settled and biologically treated
sewage may be used. Surface irrigation is preferred. The amounts vary
from 350 to 7500 mm a year. Land for arable and pasture use and for
fruit growing is irrigated.
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71. OAKLEY, H. R., CRIPPS, T. 1969. British Practice in the Tertiary
Treatment of Wastewater. Jour. WPCF 41:1:36-50.
Studies effluent standards in Great Britain. Some legal aspects
are discussed. Five methods of tertiary treatment given are: pebble
bed clarifiers, land irrigation, microstraining, slow and rapid sand
filtration, and effluent lagoons. In the section on land irrigation
the author states that it is generally recognized that use of land for
treatment of anything other than secondary tank effluent by irrigation
is wasteful in a country where land is at a premium. Even irrigation
with secondary effluent is suitable only for smaller works where this
method can serve a particularly useful function in smoothing the inev-
itable variations in effluent quality. Properly managed land irrigation
areas can produce effluents of consistently high quality. Land irri-
gation is not well suited to large works or to sites in urban areas or
areas of high agricultural value.
72. ONGERTH, H. J. AND HARMON, J. A. 1959. Sanitary Engineering Appraisal
of Waste Water Reuse. Jour. Amer. Water Wks. Assn. 51:647-658.
This article briefly summarizes the historical development of
waste water reclamation and describes ways in which waste water may be
utilized. The engineering, public health, economic, legal, and
aesthetic problems encountered in waste water reclamation are discussed.
73. ORLOB, G. T., BUTLER, R. G. 1956. Use of Soil Lysimeters in Waste
Water Reclamation Studies. Jour. San. Engrg. Div. - ASCE 82:SA3:1002.
Article concerned with infiltration rates, soil particle size
(with respect to infiltration rates), soil particle size distribution
and effects of clogging on infiltration rates in experiments near
Lodi, California. 14 figures and 4 tables.
74. PAGE, H. G., WAYMAN, C. H. 1966. Removal of ABS and other Sewage
Components by Infiltration through Soils. Groundwater 4:1:10-17.
The nature and extent of movement of ABS and other sewage components
through natural soils were studied in the laboratory and in the field
north of Denver, Colorado. Small amounts of ABS and bacteria pass
through soils and reach the zone of saturation, where they move laterally
down-gradient several thousand feet.
In laboratory studies Denver Sewage - plant effluent was filtered
through packed columns of 8 types of soils. ABS was not significantly
removed by most of the soils; however, muck, greensand marl, and resi-
dual basalt soil initially removed up to 94 per cent of the ABS.
Bacterial clogging occurred quickly in the fine soils but only in modest
amounts in the course sand, even after three months of flow.
Field studies included analysis of river and irrigation water con-
taminated from sewage-plant effluent, and well water from selected
sites down-gradient between unlined irrigation ditches and the river.
Concentrations of ABS and bacteria were significantly reduced during
infiltration of irrigation ditch water to the water table. Dissolved
solids showed practically no change between the ditches and the wells.
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75. PARIZEK, R. R., KAROOS, L. T., SOPPER, W. E., MYERS, E. A., DAVIS, D. E.,
FARRELL, M. A., NESBITT, J. B. 1967. Waste Water Renovation and
Conservation. Pennsylvania State University Studies No. 23, The
Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania.
The application of treated effluent to croplands and forrested areas
was initiated in 1962 to develop a means of spraying effluent
on land throughout the year, to determine the degree of renovation of
effluent, to explore the possibility of conservation of water and to
measure the effect on soils, crops, trees, and wildlife. The geology,
soils, and hydrology of proposed irrigation sites were investigated
to ensure safe disposal of effluent by spray irrigation and to avoid
excessive runoff, ponding, and water logging of mantle and the type of
underlying rocks. The effluent, primarily derived from domestic
sewage, comes from the State College sewage facility which has two
parallel, 2-stage treatment plants each with a capacity of 2 million
gallons a day. Renovation (per cent reduction in concentration of con-
stituents) was demonstrated on crop and forrested areas at all appli-
cation rates. Sixty to eighty per cent of the water applied to the
research areas found its way to the ground water reservoir. The yields
of various crops were compared for areas receiving zero, one, or two
inches per week of effluent. Renovation of sewage effluent was measured
in the forest and found to be comparable to that in the crop areas.
Estimates of numbers and kinds of mammals and mosquitoes and of birds
and their blood parasites have been obtained from 1962-64. Thus far,
no differences have been detected.
76. PARKHURST, J. D. 1965. Progress in Waste Water Re-Use in Southern
California. Jour. Irr. & Drainage Div. - ASCE 91:IR1:79-91.
The author emphasizes the extensive planning behind Los Angeles
County's current water reuse operation. Waste water reclamation falls
into two categories: (1) that which is incidental to water pollution
control in inland areas; and (2) planned reclamation for the production
and reuse of reclaimed water. The latter would be for the purpose of
meeting a particular water resource need as in Los Angeles County.
Factors and conditions which justify water reclamation facilities are
discussed. The plan developed in southern California should stimulate
interest in planning for reuse in other communities that are concerned
about their future water resources. The author states, "The question
is not whether there will be water reuse, but when, where, and how
well it will be implemented."
77. PARNESS, W. H. 1968. Golf Course and Airport Irrigate with Sewage
Effluent. Amer. City 83:5:90-92.
Discusses the financial aspects of irrigation with sewage effluent.
The city of Livermore, California used this water to create 4 artificial
lakes in the golf course; to irrigate the area near the runways which is
leased for agriculture adding to the airport's income; to use for fire
protection at the airport and golf course. The golf course became self-
supporting in 1968. It operated on a budget of $155,600, but income
was expected to be $163,000. The airport brought in a net profit that
exceeded $7,000 in the first half of the fiscal year 1967-1968.
40
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The high quality effluent from their sewage treatment plant is
chlorinated and piped to the golf course lakes and irrigation systems.
With its high nitrate content the effluent fosters turf and crop growth.
About 35% of golf course maintenance centers around water so this
plant comprises a major asset.
In 1967 the city financed a $1.1 million plant expansion with the
aid of a $360,000 grant plus their sewer connection fees. This converted
the old trickling-filter process into an activated-sludge system and
doubled its capacity from 2.5 m.g.d. to 5 m.g.d. The plant removes 96%
of the BOD and 96% of the suspended solids. Financial aspects were
also discussed.
78. PAULSMEIER, F. 1955. Experiences in the agricultural utilization of
sewage. Desinfekt. u. Gesundheitswes 47:118; Zbl. Bakt., I, Ref.,
1956, 159:495.
From experience with the irrigation fields of Berlin, the author
discusses the agricultural and economic advantages of agricultural use
of sewage. He gives figures for the amounts of nutrient substances in
the sewage of Germany and deals with arguments raised against agricul-
tural utilization.
79. PENNYPACKER, S. P., SOPPER, W.E., KARDOS, L. T. 1967. Renovation
of Wastewater Effluent by Irrigation of Forrest Land. Jour, WPFC
39:2:285-296.
Methods and complete descriptions of apparatus used for sewage
treatment through forest soil are given. Study areas are described fully
giving plant species on each section. Application rates are given in
both British and metric units. Three tables and six figures give
composition of effluent before and after percolation, and concentration
of materials at different depths.
80. PETER, I. Y. 1958. Sewage Effluent into Sand Dunes. Water and Sew.
Wks. 105:493.
The effluent of a number of simple primary treatment sewage plants
near Tel-Aviv is pumped and distributed by sprinklers onto unused sand
dunes, after submitting the land to a minimum of regrading. Up to
now 225 dunams (4 dunams-1 acre) have been cultivated for two years.
The rate of application is 8-10 cu. m. per day per dunam for 200-250
rainless days. The crops grown are cattle fodder. Within the first
irrigation cycle the sandy soil was turned into good humus and the
shifting dunes were stabilized. An experimental percolation area has
been set aside and it has been established that the permissible rate of
application is 80-100 cu. m. per dunam per day, or about 10 times the
desirable rate used for agricultural purposes. This rate of application
has helped raise the ground water table by several decimeters.
81. POPP, L. 1967. Bacteriological and virological investigations on the
utilization of sewage in agriculture in areas of Lower Saxony.
Schr Reihe Kuratorium Kulturbauw. No. 16, 43-80.
Detailed laboratory and field experiments have been darried out
to assess the effects of agricultural utilization of sewage in areas of
Lower Saxony. Different processes of irrigation, application as arti-
ficial rain on plants and soil, and the effect of treatment by subsoil
41
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irrigation and of drainage water from sludge-storage tanks on receiving
waters were investigated in connexion with hygienic aspects and with
special reference to the viability of pathogenic bacteria.
82. REINKE, E. A. 1951. California Regulates Use of Sewage for Crop
Irrigation. Wastes Engr. 22:364,376.
The State Department of Public Health has adopted regulations gov-
erning use of sewage for crop irrigation. They prohibit use of raw
sewage on growing crops; provide that partially disinfected effluents
shall not be used to water growing vegetables, garden truck, berries,
or low-growing fruits such that fruit is in contact with the ground;
but may be used on nursery stock, cotton, and such field crops as hay,
grain, rice, alfalfa, sugar beets, fodder corn, cowbeets, and fodder
carrots. Well-oxidized, nonputrescible and reliably disinfected or
filtered effluents, which meet the bacterial standards established for
drinking waters, may be used without restriction.
The degree of sewage pollution of irrigation waters varies with
the source of supply.
83. ROBECK, G. G., COHEN, J. M., SAYERS, W. T., AND WOODWARD, R. L. 1963.
Degradation of ABS and Other Organics in Unsaturated Soils. Jour. WPCF
35:1225-1236.
Soil lysimeter studies showed the alkyl benzene sulfonate (ABS) in
a septic tank effluent can be degraded from 5 to 35 mg/1 to less than
0.5 mg/1 if applied properly to certain unsaturated soils. Under inter-
mittent loading on a daily basis aerobic organisms survived. Most
sandy soils handled at least 0.5 to 1.0 foot per day of waste. Organisms
usually found in sewage and soil were able to degrade ABS, 2, 4, 5-T,
2, 4-D, and o-cresol if time were allowed to adjust and handle new
organics in the waste. Coliform organisms, odor, turbidity, and COD
were greatly reduced and nitrification took place when the ABS was
degraded below 0.5 mg/1.
84. ROBECK, G. G., BENDIXEN, T. W., SCHWARTZ, W. A., AND WOODWARD, R. L. 1964.
Factors Influencing the Design and Operation of Soil Systems for Waste
Treatment. Jour. WPCF 36:971-983.
Soil lysimeter studies with septic tank effluent indicate that
soil systems can degrade the new synthetic organics as well as the usual
COD components. It appears that groundwater can be protected when
wastes are properly applied to the soil. Several important design
and operational features are listed which will help effect a 90 to 95
per cent reduction of ABS and other COD components in a septic tank
effluent and also protect the groundwater from microbial forms.
85. ROBECK, G. G. 1968. Microbial Problems in Ground Water Ground Water
7:3:33-35.
Research work has indicated that non fecal coliform can develop
or increase at a considerable depth within a sewage recharge system.
This seems to point to the need of a more specific indicator of fecal
organisms, and the need for the removal of waste that might be food
and nutrients for the organisms before waste water percolates down more
than 1 or 2 ft. Using fecal coliform as a test for the safety of well
42
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water may well be more meaningful than the old test as well as being
easier to run. The cost and hazards of making studies concerning
enteric virus limit work to small scale tests where cracks, weathering,
sunlight, etc. can only be simulated. Using round water rates of a few
feet per day, no significant difference in the movement of a 30 micro-
milicron virus and a 1 micron coliform was detected, and under the right
conditions the coliform multiplied and penetrated deeper than the smaller
virus. The amount of virus removed by 2 ft. of sand varies with the
flow rate, but in almost every case the virus was removed amazingly well.
It was also found that organisms native to domestic sewage can act as
a seed for developing a population in the soil to degrade detergents
and other organic materials. Oxidizing ammonia to nitrates is for some
a cause of concern. There are several possibilities to solve the deni-
trification problem: 1. organisms can be developed in a waste treatment
column of activated carbon or sand that will create denitrification.
2. the nitrates could be removed when the water is withdrawn from the
ground by clinoptilolite, a natural zeolite that will selectively
remove ammonia-nitrogen from waste water. The problems still need
further investigations and tests before they will be practical to put
into use,
86. ROHDE, G. 1962. The Effects of Trace Elements on the Exhaustion of
Sewage-Irrigated Land. Jour. Inst. Sew. Purif. Pt. 6, 581-585. Water
Poll. Abst. 36:421 (2063).
At the Berlin sewage farm, some of the soil has recently shown
signs of exhaustion, and crop yields have fallen. Samples of exhausted
soil and soil on which healthy plants were growing were examined, par-
ticularly for trace elements. The results were compared with analyses
of similar samples from a sewage farm in Paris where signs of exhaustion
had also been observed. The soil at the Berlin farm is sandy and acid,
while that at the Paris farm is rich in lime. The results of the analy-
ses are tabulated and discussed. It appears that the main cause of
exhaustion at both Berlin and Paris is the presence of high concentra-
tions of copper and zinc.
87. ROMANENKO, N. A. 1969. Hygenic Requirements for Irrigation with
Sewage Outside the USSR. Hygiene and Sanitation 34:10-12:275-278.
Reviews the practices, policies, regulations, and health standards
that have evolved out of the practice of using soil systems for
disposal and purification of sewage, sludge, and effluent.
88. RUDOLFS, W., FALK, L. L., RAGOTZKIE, R. A. 1951. Contamination of
Vegetables Grown in Polluted Soil: I. Bacterial Contamination. _Sew.
& Ind. Wastes 23:3:253-268.
Studies the removal of bacteria and decontamination of vegetables
irrigated with sewage. Methods discussed include storage, washing with
water, detergent solutions, decontamination formulations, and germici-
dal rinses. Methods of harvesting the fruit are discussed. Research
was done on tomatoes which had been irrigated with sewage and records
were kept. For each tomato the following information was recorded:
(a) the plant on which it grew, (b) its height from the ground, (c) its
state of ripeness, (d) the presence of cracks or crevices in and about
the stem and blossom ends, (e) the shading of the fruit by leaves and
43
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other fruit. Climatological data were given. Those tomatoes (even
those grown on soil which had received previous but not current sewage
treatment and those which had received none at all) that had normal stem
ends instead of those which were cracked and split showed lower average
contamination. Little evidence could be found of a relationship of
the coliform concentration to the height of the fruit above the ground
and the splashing of the soil upon the fruit during rain. Complete
exposure of tomatoes to the sun resulted in lower coliform concentrations
on the surfaces of normal tomatoes.
89. RUDOLFS, W., FALK, L. L., RAGOTZKIE, R. A. 1951. Contamination of
Vegetables Grown in Polluted Soil: VI. Application of Results. Sew.
& Ind. Wastes' 23:8:992-1000.
Studies have been made with tomatoes, lettuce, spinach, and carrots
grown in soil receiving sewage irrigation and artificially contaminated
with E. Coli, Salmonella, Shigella, E. Histoytica, Ascaris eggs, and
feces. Preparation for assays included the maceration of whole vegetables
in a Waring Blender because no successful way to wash the organisms
from the vegetables has been found. The coliform group of bacteria
was used to test the sanitization of the vegetables. It was found that
even vegetables grown in the absence of sewage pollution contained
numbers of coliform organisms; therefore, it was determined that
.vegetables receiving surface irrigation with sewage, but not containing
a higher number of coliform than normal vegetables are safe to eat.
Overhead irrigation was found to be safe also, if the spraying is dis-
continued at least one month before harvesting. It was found that
strains of Salmonella and Shigella do not survive on vegetables more
than one week. The resistance of cysts of E. Histolytica depends on
the amount of moisture present, but under field conditions they usually
survive only three days. To reduce the danger of transmitting amoebic
dysentery, the last application containing these cysts should be one
week before harvest. Ascaris eggs were recovered in reduced numbers
from the vegetables one month after application, but they had all
degenerated. The danger of transmission of Ascaris is greatly reduced
if fecal matter fertilization is stopped one month before harvest.
It has also been found that the only reliable method of decontamination
of bacterial, amoebic, and helminthic organisms after the vegetables
have been harvested is pasteurization.
90. SCHULZE, K. L. 1966. Biological Recovery of Wastewater. Jour. WPCF
38:12:1944-58.
The need for better quality in renovated wastewater has prompted
the development of tertiary or advanced treatment methods. After
biological tertiary treatment it is considered a good approach to use
the effluent for irrigational purposes. The many tons of Nitrogen and
phosphorous contained in the effluents would be a valuable asset in
the production of crops and timber as well as serving to replenish
the ground water table. It is preferrable to use tertiary effluents
instead of primary or secondary to cut down on problems of putriscible
matter and odors. Even with tertiary treated effluents there may be
problems such as accumulation of sodium and chloride in the soil.
There would also be the difficulty and expense of storage of the effluent
44
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during the winter months. However, in considering the problems and
inadequacies of todays treatments, it is imperative to reorient our
thinking and to develop new approaches to the problem.
91. SCHWARTZ, W. A. BBTTOIXON, T. W. 1970. Soil Systems for Liquid Waste
Treatment and Disposal: Environmental Factors. Jour. WPCF 42:4:624-630.
Evaluates quantitatively selected aspects of unsaturated depth of
media, climate, and vegetation, and their effects on the operation of
soil systems. The quantitative approach was intended to permit
comparison between various environmental situations and thus contribute
to the establishment of guidelines for site selection as an integral
part of soil system design.
The studies were performed at the Robert A. Taft Water Research
Center, Cincinnati, and outdoors at the Loveland, Ohio, waste water
treatment plant. Ground water depth studies were made under room
temperature conditions, using 6 in. (15 cm) diameter lysimeters;
the studies concerned with climatic effects and vegetation used 3 ft
(0.9m.) diameter units in the natural environment. The units were put
into the ground, flush with the ground surface, with graded gravel bases
and appropriate underdrains to collect effluent samples (composited
daily). All units were dosed intermittently once each day. Results were
given.
Biological treatment and hydraulic longevity and effects made on
them by the different seasons and by vegetation were discussed. Plant
assimilation of nitrogen and phosphate were also discussed.
92. SEGAL, A. 1950. Sewage Reclamation at Fresno, California. Sewage
and Ind. Wastes 22:1011-1012. .
The city of Fresno owns and operates a municipal farm, 1292 acres
in area, where the treated sewage effluent is used for the irrigation
of crops. In addition to 600 acres of grassland, the water is used to
irrigate such forage crops as alfalfa, sudan grass, and kaffir corn.
A herd of over 600 fine Hereford cattle are maintained on the farm.
For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1949, the city realized an operating
profit of $9,346.
In 1921, the city owned only 812 acres, and disposal of sewage
effluent created a serious problem with a high water table only about
2 ft. below the surface. Law suits were filed by adjacent landowners
for waterlogging and flooding adjacent lands. To correct this situation
some of the land was lagooned, and 9 wells were installed from 200 to
300 ft. deep with no perforation of the casing less than 100 ft. from
the surface. The wells were successful in lowering the water table.
Water from the wells was diverted to the Fresno Irrigation District
for use in its system. Increased irrigation agriculture and install-
ation of many wells in the area have helped to improve the ground-
water level and facilitate the percolation of plant effluent into the
underground basin.
93. SEPP, E. 1970. Nitrogen Cycle in Ground Water. Bureau of Sanitary
Engineering, State of California Department of Public Health
The sources of nitrogen compounds in soil and ground water are
numerous and diverse. The compounds undergo complex transformations
caused by environmental factors. Atmospheric precipitation adds from
0.7 to 14 pounds of nitrogen per acre to the soil annually. Nitrogen
45
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fixing organisms in the soil may add from a few pounds to 200 pounds
per acre of nitrogen per year. Depending on circumstance, either agri-
cultural practice or land disposal of sewage may be the major contri-
butor of nitrogen to groundwater. Ammonia and ammonium ion are held
close to soil surface by adsorption and cation-exchange reactions.
Nitrate and nitrite ions, however, move freely with the percolating
water. Experiments showed how nitrogen may be removed from the soil
by cropping, leaching, erosion, or volatilization. At present, not
enough is known to establish design criteria for controlling nitrate
reduction in the aquife'r.
94. SEPP, E. 1965. Survey of Sewage Disposal by Hillside Sprays. Bureau
of Sanitary Engineering, State of California Department of Public Health.
Sewage disposal by hillside spraying was studied at 30 treatment plants.
Fourteen of these plants have secondary treatment and the remaining
have only septic tanks or Imhoff tanks. Only 10 plants have chlori-
nation. Design and operation of the sprinkling systems were studied
giving types of nozzles and pipelines used and causes and effects of
nozzle clogging. Application rates operation data and appearance of
the spray sites is described. Results of bacteriological and chemical
tests, travel of airborne bacteria, and odor and insect problems are
discussed. It is recommended that hillside spraying be used only for
summer loads. The use of hillside spraying is to be discouraged for
year round operation.
95. SEPP, E. 1971. The Use of Sewage for Irrigation—A Literature Review.
Bureau of Sanitary Engineering, Dept. Pub. Hlth., State of California.
After reviewing literature from many areas in the U.S., Europe, and
the Mid-east, it was concluded that the consumption of raw vegetables
irrigated with sewage has given rise to outbreaks of typhoid fever and
worm infection. Crops grown in fields may be contaminated directly
by sewage and polluted water, or indirectly through contact with
polluted soil. Pathogenic bacteria, amoeba cysts, and helminth eggs
cannot penetrate the surfaces of healthy, unbroken vegetables. Survi-
val times of the various organisms are reported. Studies indicate
that the coliform bacteria count on grass and clover leaves drops to the
natural level 14 days after sewage application. Bacteriological standards
for irrigating crops with sewage have been established in some of the
western states of the U.S. and in Europe. Wide variation in the
requirements, however, exist.
96. SOPPER, W. E. 1968. Renovation of Municipal Sewage Effluent for
Ground-water Recharge through Forrest Irrigation. Paper No. 571
Internat. Conf. on Wat. for Peace, Wash. D. C. 1967. Jour_. WPCF
40:6:969-974.
Centre County, Pennsylvania has a problem of water supply shortage
and pollution of existing supply by dumping treated sewage into the
stream. A study project was set up to attempt to solve these problems.
46
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Effluent treated by primary settling, standard and high rate trickling
filters, modified activated-sludge process, final settling, and chlor-
ination was used to irrigate stands of white spruce, red pine, and a
60 yr. old natural mixed oak stand. The effluent was applied at a
rate of 0.25 in/hr at 1 to 2 in/wk except 1 plot which received 4
in/wk. The effluent was renovated effectively and the ground water
level was increased.
97. SOPPER, W. E. 1968. Waste Water Renovation for Reuse: Key to Optimum
Use of Water Resources. Water Research Pergamon Press 2:471-480.
In order to meet the increasing demand for sewage purification,
treated municipal waste water was applied to forrested areas at various
rates of application to determine the feasibility of land disposal
of such effluents and to determine to what extent effluents could be
renovated by the biosystem and recharged to the ground-water reservoir.
It was found that satisfactory renovation of waste water was achieved
when the effluent was applied at rates of 1, 2, and 4 in. per week in
forested areas during the period April-November. Approximately 90
per cent of the water, applied at 2 in. per week during this period
was recharged to the groundwater reservoir. Results of this study appear
to indicate that municipal waste water can be satisfactorily renovated
for groundwater recharge through irrigation of forrested areas under
controlled conditions.
98. STEFFEN, A. J. 1964. Control of Water Pollution by Wastewater Utili-
zation: The Role of the WPCF. Wat. & Sew Wks. 111:384-385.
The Water Pollution Control Federation has stressed the great impor-
tance of wastewater reuse in its Statement of Policy, Point No. 9:
"That Wastewater represents an increasing fraction of the nation's
total water resource and is of such value that it might well be reclaimed
for beneficial reuse through the restoration of an appropriate degree
of quality." The concern of the WPCF is evidenced by the many papers
and discussions on this subject that are presented at Association and
Federation publications and by the various medals and awards presented
for research in this field.
99. STENBURG, R. L., CONVERY, J. J., SWANSON, C. L. 1968. New Approaches
to Wastewater Treatment. Jour. Sani. Engrg. My. - ASCE 94:SA6:1121-1136.
Pilot plant and full-scale plant research and development studies of
conventional process modifications and tertiary processes will serve
to develop design data and provide more accurate and reliable cost-
quality relationships for many individual and combined treatment pro-
cesses. Basic research and laboratory-scale studies of other approaches
to wastewater treatment are also being conducted. As new processes
are developed, they will be evaluated in pilot plant and full-scale
facilities.
Waste characteristics vary widely with locations and each waste stream
must be considered individually in selecting unit processes.
Costs of tertiary treatment will be high by present standards.
Greatly increased expenditures will be required to eliminate pollution
of our lakes and streams. Water reuse by industry and for nonpotable
47
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purposes will be necessary to reduce the financial burden. Potable
water reuse by mixing with fresh water supplies is considered to be
a distinct possibility in the future.
100. STONE, R., CONRAD, E. T. 1970. Automatic Water and Waste Treatment
Plants in Operation. Civil Engrg - ASCE 40:5:37-40. Selected Water
Res. Abs. 3:24:34.
Description of an automatic waste treatment plant which reuses
purified waste water for recreational purposes with a portion of the
effluent being used for hillside irrigation. The effluent for irri-
gation is not recharged into the recreational system.
101. THOMAS, R. E., BENDIXON, T. W. 1969. Degradation of Wastewater Or-
ganics in Soil. Jour. WPCF 41:5:808-813. Wat. Poll. Abs. 42:10:461.
The results of Lysimeter studies show that soil microorganisms can
digest much of the organic carbon contained in primary and secondary
wastewater effluents. About 807» of the organic carbon from septic
tank effluent was digested under a variety of conditions. Large vari-
ations in temperature, the loading rate, and the duration of dosing had
no effect on the percentage of the organic carbon which was degraded.
Organic carbon application rates up to 31 tons/yr/acre. A loading
rate of 3.7 tpms/yr/acre resulted in a net reduction in the organic
carbon content of a silt-loam soil. C02 equivalent to about 60% of the
degraded organic carbon was released at the soil surface in one exper-
iment. Sludge loadings equivalent to 30 tons/yr/acre of organic carbon
can be applied to sandy soils for extended periods without resulting in
a detrimental accumulation of organic residues in the soil. Based on
typical values for the composition of sludge,this would be equal to
100 tons/yr/acre of dried digested sludge solids. Proper management of
liquid and organic carbon loads can result in long-term continuous,
operation with only minor changes in the organic carbon content of the
soil. Future studies are planned to evaluate the interaction between
loading factors and the alteration of the physical and chemical proper-
ties of the soil.
102. TODD, DAVID K. 1965. Economics of Groundwater Recharge. ASCE Proc.,
91:HY4:249-270.
Many variables are involved in determining the cost and economic
advantage to be gained from artificial recharge of ground water aquifers.
Information upon which to base such estimates is scarce. The size,
purpose, and method of recharge are significant factors, as are land
and water costs. Data from several recharge operations are presented
in an attempt to arrive at a logical basis for estimating these costs.
103. TRAVIS, P. W. 1960. Organizing a Sewage Effluent Utilization Project.
Pub. Works 91:119-120.
Following successful trial projects by the Orange County Farm Bureau
and other agencies to test the feasibility of using domestic sewage
effluent for crop irrigation, an agreement was drawn up between the
Sanitation Districts and about 30 land owners setting forth the rules
governing the use of domestic sewage effluent from the district's lines
for irrigation. The Talbert Water District was formed and, soon after
a bond issue was passed, an industrial waste permit was acquired, and
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the constructional and operational plans were approved by the Health
Department. The agreement concerning use of the effluent restricted
its use to irrigation of alfalfa, sugar beets, dried beans, and dried
peppers and it also set forth requirements to insure that sanitary and
healthful conditions were maintained at all times. The effluent is
made available by 3 pumps that supply the 40,000 ft. irrigation system
at a capital cost of about $100 per acre. Two problems have developed:
corrosion by sulfides and the odor. The latter has been solved by
dripping Alamask into the water. Over all the farmers seem satisfied
and the project has proven to be worthwhile.
104. TRIEBEL, W. 1966. Experiences with the disposal of sewage sludge in
agriculture. Korresp. Abwass. No. 10, 11-16.
In a detailed report on the activities of the Niersverband, which
is responsible for the protection of German waters in the 1348-km^
catchment area between the Rhine and the Maas, special reference is made
to the disposal and utilization of sewage sludge in agriculture.
Details are also given of the sewage-treatment facilities at the group
sewage works of the Niersverband. The increased use of sewage sludge
in agriculture is illustrated in tables, which show that since 1960
the group sewage works have supplied on average 820 farms, resulting
in increased yields of truck crops, especially beet, and pastures.
Studies showed also that wet sludge, deposited on grassland, had lasting
effects in reducing and thus regulating the soil evaporation. Special
reference is made to the advantageous sorption capacity of digested
sludge which greatly improves dry soil, contrary to dried sludge
which, owing to irreversible hydrophobia (caused by the drying process)
has adverse effects on the sorptive soil structure. Compared with
artificial fertilizers the use of sludge in agriculture presents more
work; this however is compensated by the valuable properties in the
humus, restoring the exploited soil. Existing parasites and micro-organ-
isms are destroyed by pasteurization plants which have recently been
installed, operating at a temperature of 65°C and for a period of 15
min., to comply with health regulations.
105. VAISMAN, YA. I. 1963. The Spread of Bacterial Contamination in
Underground Water. Hygiene and Sanitation 29:4:21-26, 1964.
From the data from the literature review at the first of the article
it is concluded that the existing data are extremely controversial
with respect to the quantitative characteristics.of the main limiting
factor which should be made the basis of calculations for determining
the boundaries of the second belt of the safety zone for underground
water supply sources. This precipitated a study of bacterial spread
in underground water. It was concluded that the colon bacillus can
go a distance of over 850 meters in the ground current in medium-
grain sand with cross-layers of gravel and pebble deposits, and that
400 days should be necessary for complete self-purification of the ground
flow from bacterial contamination.
106. WERLY, E. F. 1958. The Use of Sprinkler Irrigation Systems for Waste
Disposal. Irrig. Engrg. & Maintenance 8:1:21-27.
Discussion of the problems, requirements, and considerations given
for the development of an efficient and economic sprinkler system for
waste disposal.
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107. WHEATLAND, A. B. AND BORNE, B. J. 1960. Modifications of polluted
waters resulting from percolation in soil. (Water Pollution Research
Lab., Stevenage, Engl.). CEBEDEAU No. 49, 225-34.
Tests conducted with a sewage effluent and water from the river Trent
indicate that the percolation of these liquids through the soil removes
NH^ by cationic exchange. The removal of NH^ depends on the nitri-
fication of the NH already absorbed. At normal temps, during most
of the year, most of the NH^ is removed is an intermittent system of
distribution (e.g. by 12 hr. cycles) is employed. It is important
not to distribute water contg. more NH than the superficial bed can
adsorb and to allow sufficient time between distributions for the pene-
tration of atm. 0 and for the adsorbed NH to be oxidized. In practice
the rate of percolation will be detd. both by the surface and by the
perimeter of the area of aspersion, and the rate per unit of surface
will vary inversely with the perimeter. Concns. of Cu, Ni, Cr, Mi, Zn,
and Pb in the percolate were much lower than in the water distributed.
The proportion of bacteria removed varied between 81% and 96.5% within
the test area considered.
108. WHETSTONE, G. A. 1965. Reuse of Effluent in the Future with an
Annotated Bibliography. Texas Water Development Board, Austin, Report
8, December 1965. (187pp.)
An excellent comprehensive review of the literature dealing with
reuse of effluent for purposes of irrigation, recreation, industry,
ground water recharge, and potable water supply. There is a total of
663 abstracts dating from 1892 through 1965. The literature reviewed
is broad in scope, covering historical development, current status, and
unresolved issues in the reuse of effluents. The abstracts are indexed
by authors and subject, and are presented in chronological order.
109. WILLIAMS, R. E., EIER, D. D., WALLACE, A. T. 1969. Feasibility of
Reuse of Treated Wastewater for Irrigation, Fertilization and Ground-
Water Recharge in Idaho. Idaho Bureau of Mines and Geology, Moscow,
Idaho.
It has been demonstrated that under appropriate hydrogeologic con-
ditions wastewater renovated by a porous medium can be expected to
meet U. S. Public Health Service drinking water standards. Appropriate
hydrogeologic conditions include the presence of an unconsolidated
porous medium (such as sand) through which the wastewater can move an
appreciable distance (which will vary with geologic conditions) before
entering a water supply; the absence of surficial, jointed rocks through
which the wastewater might move without appreciable adsorption of dissolved
solids by the porous medium; and a water table depth of at least five
feet. Hydrogeologic conditions less than optimal will result in less
than optimal renovation of the wastewater, in which case care must be
taken during application if water supply sources are located near the
disposal area. Only rarely will a given hydrogeologic environment not
renovate wastewater to the equivalent of secondary (biological) treat-
ment. In many cases renovation of wastewater by vegetation and the
geologic column can be substituted for tertiary treatment. Terrestrial
disposal has also been used in lieu of secondary treatment.
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110. WILSON, C. W., BECKETT, F. E., (ed.) 1968. Municipal Sewage Efflu-
ent for Irrigation. Agricultural Engineering Dept. Louisiana Poly-
technic Institute, Ruston, La.
Papers given at a symposium held at Louisiana Polytechnic Institute
July 30, 1968. Areas covered were Problems and Opportunities; Soil
Response to Sewage Effluent Irrigation; Crop Response to Sewage Efflu-
ent;Salt Build-up from Sewage Effluent Irrigation; Agricultural Appli-
cation of Digested Sewage Sludge, Practical Irrigation with Sewage
Effluent; Groundwater Recharge with Treated Municipal Effluent; The
Movement of Disease Producing Organisms Through Soils; Survival of
Pathogens and Related Disease Hazards; Health Regulations Concerning
Sewage Effluent for Irrigation; A Technical and Economic Feasibility
Study of the Use of Municipal Sewage Effluent for Irrigation; Eutro-
phication.
111. WILSON, L. G., LEHMAN, G. S. 1967. Reclaiming Sewage Effluent
Prog. Agric. In Ariz. 19:4:22-24. College of Agriculture, Univ. of
Arizona, Tucson.
Data on preliminary studies, conducted cooperatively by the Water
Resources Research Center, and the Sanitary District No. 1 of Pima
County is presented. The main purpose of these studies was to deter-
mine the effectiveness and durability of grass filters during ter-
tiary treatment of sewage effluent under Arizona conditions. Auxil-
iary studies were made to determine intake rate and depth of penetra-
tion of percolating effluent to provide data for future soil filtra-
tion studies.
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AUTHOR INDEX
(Figures refer to bibliography entry)
Adel'son, L. I., 21
Agadzhanov, R. A., 54
Allakhverdyants, S. A., 54
Amirov, R. 0., 11
Askew, J. B., 12
Bachman, G., 13
Beckett, F. E , 110
Behnke, J. J., 14
Bendixon, T. W., 15, 50, 84, 91, 101
Blumel, J., 16
Bogdanenko, L. A., 44
Borne, B. J., 107
Bott, R. F., 12, 66
Bouwer, H., 17, 18, 19
Butler, R. G., 73
Cantrell, R., 48
Chase, W. J., 20
Chistovich, G. N., 21
Coerver, J. F., 22
Cohen, J. M., 83
Conrad, E. T., 100
Convery, J. J., 99
Crawford, A. B., 23
Cripps, T., 71
Crosby, J. W., 24
Dashkova, E. M. , 54
Davis, D. E., 75
Davis, G. E., 25
Day, A. D., 26, 27, 28
Dickson, A. D., 26
Dinges, W. R., 29
Drake, C. H., 24
Drewry, W. A., 30
Dunlop, S. G., 31, 32
Dye, E. 0., 33, 34
Eastman, P. W., Jr., 35
Ehlers, V. M. , 36
Eier, D. D., 109
Eliassen, R., 30
England, B. L. 12
Falk, L. L., 88, 89
Farrell, M. A., 75
Fenton, R. L., 24
Fish, H. ,. 37
Fleming, R. R., 38
Foster, H. B., Jr., 39, 40
Frank, A. H., 23
Frankel, R. J., 41
Goncharuk, E. I , 43
Gorodetskii, T. G., 44
Gotaas, H. B., 58
Greenberg, A. E., 42
Grigor'eva, L. V., 43, 44
Guymon, B. E., 45
Hajek, B. F., 46
Harmon, J. A., 72
Harmsen, H., 47
Harvey, C., 48
Haskell, E. E., Jr., 14
Heukelekian, H., 49
Hill, R. D., 15, 50
Holler, K., 51
Hyde, C. G., 52
II'in, V. V., 21
Ivanova, S. P., 21
Janert, H., 53
Jey, B. N., 54
Johnston, D. L., 24
Jopling, W. F., 39, 66
Kardos, L. T., 55, 75, 79
Katko, A., 66
Kibort, R. V., 21
Kiker, J. E., Jr., 56
Kreuz, A., 57
Krone, R. B., 58, 63, 64
Kudryavtseva, B. M., 59
Kuo, T., 60
Kutepov, L. E., 61
Leach, R. E., 12
Lehman, G. S., 62, 111
Lyabina, L. M., 21
Maiorova, L. A., 54
Martin, B., 65
McGauhey, P. H., 58, 63, 64
Merrell, J. C., Jr., 66
Merz, R. C., 67, 68
53
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Moguchii, A. M., 21
Muller, G., 69
Muller, W.', 70
Myers, E. A., 75
Nechaeva, E. A., 21
Nesbitt, J. B., 75
Oakley, H. R., 71
Omel'yanets, T. G., 44
Ongerth, H. J., 72
Orlob, G. T., 73
Paderina, E. M., 21
Page, H. G., 74
Parizek, R. R., 75
Parkhurst, J. D., 76
Parness, W. H. 77
Paulsmeier, F., 78
Pennypacker, S. P., 79
Peter, I. Y., 80
Pintler, H. E., 66
Popp, L., 81
Prucha, A. A., 38, 40
Ragotzkie, R. A., 88, 89
Reinke, E. A., 36, 82
Robeck, G. G., 15, 50, 83, 84, 85
Roberts, F. C., Jr., 36
Rohde, G., 86
Romanenko, N. A., 87
Rudolfs, W., 88, 89
Salimov, D. A., 11
Sayers, W. T., 83
Schulze, K. L., 90
Schwartz, W. A., 15, 84, 91
Segal, A., 92
Sepp, E , 93, 94, 95
Shandurin, S. V., 21
Shtok, E. Sh., 54
Smirnova, A. M. , 21
Sopper, W. E., 75, 79, 96, 97
Stafford, J. F., 25
Steffen, A. J., 98
Stenburg, R. L., 99
Stone, R.r 100
Swanson, C L., 99
Thomas, A. F., 42
Thomas, R. E., 101
Todd, D. K., 102
Travis, P. W., 103
Triebel, W., 104
Tucker, T. C., 26, 27, 28
Twedt, R. M., 31
Vaisman, Ya. I., 105
Wallace, A. T., 109
Wang, W. L., 31, 32
Ward, P. C., 38, 40
Wayman, C. H., 74
Wenneberger, J. H., 64
Werly, E. F., 106
Wheatland, A. B., 107
Whetstone, G. A., 108
Williams, R. E., 109
Wilson, C. W., 110
Wilson, L. G., Ill
Woodward, R. L., 83, 84
Yakovleva, G. S., 21
54
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APPENDIX B
RESULTS OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY
GIVEN TO THE WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS
55
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Question 1 - Is this an adequate technique for technology transfer?
Participant answers:
"Yes, for this type of data and at this level of data collection."
"It worked well here."
"Surprisingly effective in this instance. My first experience with it."
"Yes."
"Excellent."
"I feel our session was effective in this area; with varied backgrounds
and orientation it was often necessary to define terms for adequate
communication."
"Yes, I feel this was good way to transfer ideas and technology.1'
"Excellent."
"It is an additional technique - and certainly serves a purpose - adequate
for intended purpose."
"Yes - in addition to workshop subject also."
"Yes, but with not more than 5 individuals for each area and not less
than three and with greater selectivity of individuals."
"No, but it will help point uninformed people in the right direction.
Its a good way to transfer generalities from one field to another."
"Yes, very good."
Question 2 - What changes would you have made in the pre-workshop phases
of the project?
Participant answers:
"I was not involved at the early stages but could have made more of a
contribution if I had had more time."
"Earlier distribution of draft. Circulation of a revised draft."
"Need more instruction on what is needed from the consultant - nature,
extent and depth of review and comment. How much supplementary
material desired, etc."
"Present procedure worked pretty good."
"Would like to have had abstracts of current literature (if pertinent)
I do not see the journals on this subject regularly. Have to ask
for interlibrary loan on selected articles."
"Earlier mailing or first class mailing of draft; more detail explanations
re what was desired in way of treatment of first draft."
"It may have been better if the first draft and second draft with comments
could have been submitted prior to the actual meeting. As each of
the persons amending have available other persons in their home area
which could have been used, for input information. This would have
given the two groups more time together."
"It may have been worthwhile to assign each participant a specific topic
or topics for which he would have been responsible for reviewing
the literature, abstracting pertinent information, and served as
discussion leader for his assigned pact."
"Possibly one more exchange of material."
"None."
56
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"A longer lead time for the outside participants and a stronger nucleus
of competency in the fields involved in preparation of the initial
draft."
"Allow more time for participants to review and comment. I think partic-
ipants should be asked for a list of topics that should be included
prior to seeing the first draft."
"Perhaps it would be advantageous to provide, along with the initial
draft, an outline of the points being made (very brief). Then
ask the participant to add any other points he thought should be
included and maybe ask him to identify the most important ones for
each section. Commenting on a write-up is easy but it tends to lock
one into the form & subjects which are given."
Question 3 - What changes in the following should have been made?
(a) Physical facilities
Participant Answers:
"No change."
"Facilities were very adequate."
"Excellent."
"Excellent."
"None. They were excellent."
"Quite adequate."
"Good."
"None, Excellent."
"Very nice."
"More than adequate."
"They were very adequate - provision of secretaries an excellent feature."
"No complaints at all. Everything was extremely well-managed. The
redrafting is always a problem & I believe the girls did very well."
Question 3 - What changes in the following should have been made?
(b) Conduct of the sessions
Participant answers:
"Good."
"Really great - with the capable and resourceful moderator we had. Might
not always work out this well."
"Sometimes discussions get side tracked, less time could have been spent
on editorial matters."
"Good. I was lost at first, not quite sure of my mission. I thought
the first mailing was all introduction."
"Very good - perhaps more structure would increase output in limited
time, however, some secondary benefits could be lost."
"Good."
"None. The size of groups were about ideal. Dividing into two sections
was a good idea, because too much time would have been spent in
too much discussion if the groups had been larger."
"Have the two groups better coordinated"
"Fine."
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"More liaison between the two groups to prevent the unnecessary overlapping
activity which occurred."
"Good. Stayed on subject - I don't think split groups should go over the
same parts in detail. They should work on separate parts, then combine."
"I think a maximum of 4 people can bounce ideas around faster with not
too much loss in content. (If you get the right 4). The two sections
may have been a cause of some loss of time. Again, the number of
people required it. Maybe if the subject had been different with
clearer separations? Perhaps if the groups had been made up of
half health and half operation people and each had taken one
system. (Maybe not) Perhaps there should have been just fewer
participants. Some good progress was made on Wed. a.m., when
different pieces were assigned to individuals to come up with a
write-up."
Question 3 - What changes in the following should have been made?
(c) Length of the workshop
Participant answers:
"Good."
"It was about the right length. Gracious hospitality was appreciated."
"Fine."
"About right."
"Just about right, perhaps one day longer"
"About right."
"OK."
"The length of the workshop was sufficient. However, I believe that no
one would have objected to evening sessions if it would have resulted
in a more complete manual. You are to be commended for the dinner
arrangements on the first evening. It served as the "ice-breaker"
needed to put everyone at ease for the first work session."
"Lengthen it - or have more work done prior to the workshop."
"Fine."
"For this particular project a total of 6 half-day sessions would have
been desirable."
"About all one can afford to spend as a group. Someone has to take the
time to finish it. Good luck."
"I think it was just about right."
58
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Accession Number
Subject Field & Group
056
SELECTED WATER RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
Organization
East Central State College, Ada, Oklahoma
School of Environmental Science
Title
Soil Systems For Municipal Effluents - A Workshop and Selected References
1Q Authors)
Ramsey, Ralph H.
Wetherill, C. Rhys
Duffer, H. Casper
16
21
Project Designation
EPA, ORM Project No.
16080 GWF
Note
22
Citation
23
Descriptors (Starred First)
* Treated Municipal Wastewaters, ^Irrigation, ^Infiltration, ^Percolation,
Bibliography
25
Identifiers (Starred First)
* Soil Systems, ^Workshop, User Manual, State of Art
27
Abstract
An investigation of the use of Soil Systems for recycling treated municipal waste
effluents was conducted. The scope of the project included: the preparation of
a user manual entitled Applying Treated Municipal Wastewater to the Land: Current
Technology and an annotated bibliography of selected references in subject area.
A state of the art investigation was made of the design, operation and control of
irrigation and infiltration-percolation types of soil systems. The summarized
results from this investigation were used by workshop participants selected from
state, municipal, and federal agencies who were involved in soil system activities
as a starting point in writing the manual. The workshop ;culminated in the prep-
aration of a draft of the manual. The bibliography contains selections which
portrayed or influenced the present state of art in the subject field.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Grant No. 16080 GWF under the sponsorO
ship of the Office of Research and Monitoring, Environmental Protection Agency.
Abstractor,
Ralph H. Ramsey
/rgas^'°Central State College, Ada, Oklahoma
WR:1da (REV. JULY <969>
WRSIC
* U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1972—484-485/235
SEND TO: WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
WASHINGTON. D. C. 20240
* SPO: 1969-359-339
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