SSI/174111
HANDBOOK FOR REGIONAL
NOISE PlliMMS
SAN
APRIL1974
BOSTON
NEW YORK.
KANSAS CITY I CHICAGO
PH1LAOEI-PI-'
*
WASHINGTON
t
'i
UJ
OFFICE OF NOISE IIITEMEII III (HTML
IUIIIITII.I.C.2I400
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SS / 74
HANDBOOK FOR REGIONAL NOISE PR06RAMS
APRIL1974
IFFICE OF IBISE UMEMEN1 111 C1ITIIL
KISHIIfilllll.O.t. 21410
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
1 INTRODUCTION
2 ACOUSTIC PRINCIPLES AND TERMINOLOGY
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
INTRODUCTION
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
ACOUSTIC TERMINOLOGY
DECIBEL LEVELS
COMBINATION OF SOUNDS
SOUND POWER
FREQUENCY ANALYSIS
AMBIENT NOISE
REFERENCES
3 EFFECTS OF NOISE ON PEOPLE
3.1
3.2
33
3.4
3.5
INTRODUCTION
AUDITORY EFFECTS
GENERAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
GENERAL PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
SUMMARY
4 CRITERIA FOR RATING SOUNDS
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4 II
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
INTRODUCTION
RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HUMAN EAR
SINGLE-NUMBER RATINGS FOR NOISE
CALCULATED LOUDNESS
PREFERRED SPEECH INTERFERENCE LEVEL (PSIL)
NOISE RATING NUMBER (N)
NOISE CRITERION NUMBER (NC)
PERCEIVED NOISE LEVEL (PNL)
NOISE AND NUMBER INDEX
ENERGY EQUIVALENT NOISE LEVEL (Leq)
DAY-NIGHT AVERAGE SOUND LEVEL (Ldn)
NOISE POLLUTION LEVEL (LNP)
NOISE EXPOSURE FORECAST (NEF)
COMPOSITE NOISE RATING METHOD (CNR)
COMMUNITY NOISE EQUIVALENT LEVEL (CNEL)
l-l
2-1
2-1
2-1
2-3
2-4
2-6
2-8
2-8
2-10
2-12
3-1
3-1
3-2
3-3
3-11
3-11
4-1
4-1
4-1
4-3
4-6
4-6
4-9
4-9
4-13
4-15
4-15
4-15
4-15
4-16
4-17
4-17
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (con't)
Section Page
4.16 COMPARISON OF COMPOSITE RATING SCALES FOR
SPECIFYING COMMUNITY NOISE EXPOSURE 4-19
REFERENCES 4-20
5 SOURCE OF NOISE 5-1
5.1 INTRODUCTION 5-1
5.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE OUTDOOR NOISE ENVIRONMENT 5-2
5.3 INTRUDING NOISES AND COMMUNITY REACTION 5-6
5.4 CONSTANT-LEVEL NOISE INTRUSIONS 5-6
5.5 INTERMITTENT SINGLE-EVENT INTRUDING NOISES 5-7
5.6 COMMUNITY REACTION TO NOISE 5-7
REFERENCES 5-11
6 NOISE REDUCTION 6-1
6.1 INTRODUCTION 6-1
6.2 NOISE REDUCTION OF THE SOURCE 6-1
6.3 NOISE REDUCTION OF THE PATH OF SOUND 6-3
6.4 NOISE REDUCTION AT THE RECEIVER 6-3
REFERENCES 6-8
7 MEASURING AND MONITORING NOISE 7-1
7.1 INTRODUCTION 7-1
7.2 COMMON NOISE MEASURING EQUIPMENT 7-1
7.3 CONSIDERATIONS IN MEASURING AND MONITORING 7-4
7.4 DATA REDUCTION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION 7-6
REFERENCES 7-7
8 LAWS AND ORDINANCES 8-1
8.1 FEDERAL NOISE ABATEMENT REGULATIONS 8-1
8.2 STATE NOISE ABATEMENT REGULATIONS 8-5
8.3 REGIONAL NOISE ABATEMENT REGULATIONS 8-5
8.4 LOCAL NOISE ABATEMENT REGULATIONS 8-6
8.5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STATE ENABLING LEGISLATION 8-6
9 HEADQUARTERS-REGIONAL INTERFACE 9-1
9.1 INTRODUCTION 9-1
9.2 PRESENT REGIONAL CAPABILITIES IN NOISE PROGRAMS 9-1
9.3 REGIONAL PROGRAMS 9-5
9.4 REGIONAL/ABN COMMUNICATION 9-8
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (con't)
Section Page
9.5 OUTLOOK FOR THE FUTURE 9-10
10 INTERAGENCY COORDINATION 10-1
10.1 AUTHORITY 10-1
102 PRESENT INVOLVEMENT 10-2
10.3 FUTURE PROGRAMS 10-2
11 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT PROGRAM -I
11.1 INTRODUCTION -1
11.2 STATUS OF NOISE IMPACT DISCUSSION -2
11.3 CRITERIA FOR EIS ASSESSMENT -2
11.4 FUTURE EIS GUIDANCE -3
REFERENCES 1-4
GLOSSARY Glossary-1
APPENDICES
A LIST OF EPA PUBLICATIONS ON NOISE A-l
B MUNICIPAL NOISE CONTROL REGULATIONS B-l
C NOISE WORKSHOPS FOR PUBLIC OFFICIALS C-l
D EPA GENERAL COUNSEL MEMORANDUM OF AUGUST 24, 1973
RE: PRE-EMPTION UNDER THE NOISE CONTROL ACT D-l
in
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Pa*5e
2-1 Commonly Encountered Noise Levels 2'2
2-2 Typical Power Levels for Various Acoustic Sources 2-9
2-3 Typical Octave Band Filter Characteristics 2-1 1
3-1 Quality of Speech Communication as Dependent on A-Weighted Sound Level
(dBA) of Background Noise and Distance between Talker and Listener 3-4
3-2 Simplified Chart Showing Quality of Speech Communication in Relation to
A-Weighted Sound Level of Noise (dBA) and Distance between Talker
and Listener 3-5
3-3 Nocturnal Sleep Pattern of Young Adults 3-6
3-4 Awakenings to Sound from Various Laboratory and Questionnaire Studies 3-7
3-5 Relation between Community Response and Noise Exposure 3-9
3-;' Relations between Community Noise Levels (Measured in CNR or NEF),
Judgments of Unacceptability, and Community Responses 3-10
4-1 Equal Loudness Contours for Pure Tones 4-2
4-2 Equal Loudness Contours for Relatively Narrow Bands of Random Noise 4-3
4-3 International Standard A, B, and C Weighting Curves for Sound Level Meters 4-5
4-4 Frequency Spectra for Identical Overall Sound Levels 4-7
4-5 Equal Loudness Contours 4"8
4-6 Speech Interference Effects of Noise
4-7 Noise Rating Number Curves and Criteria
4-8 Noise Criterion Curves
4-9 Equal Noisiness Contours 4'14
5-1 Two Samples of Outdoor Noise in a Normal Suburban Neighborhood with
Microphone Located 20 Feet from Street Curb 5'4
5-2 Various Measures of Outdoor Noise Level 5-5
5-3 Histograms of Percentage of Time Noise Was in Each 5 dB Interval for
Three Time Periods 5"5
5-4 Average Mean Subjective Rating as a Function of Maximum Noise Level in
dBA for British Experiment at Motor Industry Research Association
Proving Grounds 5-8
6-1 Noise Level Addition Chart 6'2
6-2 Possible Noise Reduction Effects of Some Noise Control Measures 6-4
6-3 Noise Reduction Possible by the Use of Enclosures 6-5
6-4 Highway Noise (dBA, LJQ) at Various Distances from Edge of 4 Lane Highway 6-6
9-1 General EPA Noise Control Strategy, FY '73-FY '78 9''
IV
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table
4. 1 Representative Values of Loudness Uvel and Loudness 2
„
of Aircraft Noise into the Community
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
<»*
importan the various EPA technical documents and the maual reare y Dr. W.S. Gatiey
and Mr. E.F. Frye, entitled "Regulation of Noise in Urban Areas.
1-1
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SECTION 2
ACOUSTIC PRINCIPLES AND TERMINOLOGY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In order to understand the characteristics of sound and the meaning of acoustical terms, a
foundation of basic principles, definitions, and techniques is essential. Since it is possible for a
discussion in acoustics to easily become comprehensive and technical, only the basic fundamentals
arc presented in this section.
2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
Basically, the sound we experience in our everyday lives can be a result of objects or bodies
being set into vibration. More specifically, when a vibrating surface imparts its motion to the sur-
rounding air, a minute time variation in atmospheric pressure called sound pressure results. In
addition, the air itself can vibrate (turbulence) and generate sounds. The word "minute" is obviously
a relative term and is used in designating just how small the sound pressure quantity really is.
In order to adequately describe the magnitude of the sound pressure, the metric units of
Newtons per square meter (N/m2) are used. Figure 2-1 shows the wide range of sound pressures
associated with some commonly encountered noise conditions in terms of this system of units.
The sound source and the medium surrounding the source vibrate in a similar fashion, and the
resulting disturbance propagates outward from the source. When the pressure variations occur
regularly, a definable number of repetitions occur each second and this is called the frequency of
the sound. The units previously applied to frequency were cycles per second (cps); now the Hertz
(Hz) is used (in honor or Heinrich Hertz who discovered the means of generating radio waves). The
units are equivalent.
Since air can be compressed and rarefied, a "wave motion" occurs and a "sound wave" tends
to propagate outward and away from its source. The speed of propagation is about 344 meters/sec
under normal atmospheric conditions. If the sound source is confined to a small region in space
(the point source), the wave front will diverge so that the sound energy passing through a unit of
area will diminish with increasing distance, implying that the sound pressure will diminish with
distance.
The sound energy passing through a unit of area per unit of time is called the sound intensity.
It can be shown from the study of acoustics that, in the case of a small sound source, the intensity
2-1
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Sound pressure
InN/nT
100
10 .
1
0.1
0.01 •
0.001 •
o.oooi.
Sound (aval In dB
140
. 134
130 .
120 .
. 114
110 .
100 .
94
90 .
80 .
74
70 .
60 .
54
SO .
40 .
34
30 .
20 .
14
10 '
0 •
Environmental condition*
Threshold of pain
Pneumatic chipper
Loud automobile horn (dlil. 1 m)
Inside subway train (New York)
Inside motor bus
Average traffic on street corner
Conversational speech
Typical business office
Living room, suburban area
Library
Bedroom at night
Broadcasting studio
Threshold of hearing
Figure 2-1. Commonly Encountered Noise Levels
2-2
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varies inversely as the square of the distance from the sound source. This is called the inverse
square law.
As u final comment on the characteristics of sound, it is important to realize that sound pres-
sure is normally presented in terms of its root-mean-square value. This is because the average
fluctuation of the pressure variations in compression and rarefaction about the equilibrium pressure
level is zero. Consequently, the pressure values during a time interval are squared, then the time
average is obtained, followed by taking its square root value. The notation Prms is used to represent
this quantity.
In conclusion, the minute pressure disturbances designated as sound waves have the following
characteristics.
1. The magnitude of the sound pressure is given in N/m2 and is normally the root-mean-
square value.
2. The frequency of the sound wave is given in Hertz.
3. Sound waves move at 344 meters/sec under normal atmospheric conditions in air.
4. The sound pressure of the wave almost always decreases with increasing distance from
its source.
5. For a freely propagating spherical wave the intensity decreases with the inverse of the
distance squared.
2.3 ACOUSTIC TERMINOLOGY
One of the more difficult quantities to define is the decibel. What exactly is it? How is it
used and applied?
The decibel (dB) is used universally to describe the relative magnitude of sound. It is a
dimensionless measure of the logarithm of the ratio between two values (i.e., a measured quantity
and a reference quantity). The decibel has been applied to the acoustics field for the following
reasons:
1. Tf one used the almost unbearable roar of a jet engine at close range and the barely
audible whisper to describe the range of the human ear, the corresponding sound pres-
sures would have a ratio of 1,000,000 to 1. By employing the logarithmic feature inher-
ent in the decibel's definition, this tremendous pressure range is resolved into a condensed
and more meaningful scale that ranges from 0 dB (by definition) to approximately
120 dB (Figure 2-1).
2. The ear tends to respond in a logarithmic manner. The human auditory response to a
given increase in sound pressure is approximately proportional to the ratio of the increase
in sound pressure to the sound pressure already present. (For example, the ear is capable
of detecting a very small increase in sound pressure when the ambient level is low; with
high ambient level, a much larger increase is necessary to give the ear the same sensation.)1
2-3
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Under ideal laboratory conditions, the average ear can detect a minimum sound pressure level
change of I dB. In everyday encounters, a 3 dB change in sound pressure level is barely percep-
tible, whereas a 5 dB change is clearly noticeable.
2.4 DECIBEL LEVELS
The following are the mathematical definitions of the sound power level, the intensity level,
and the sound pressure level. Note that the term "level" refers to a logarithmic measure and is
expressed in decibels. Also note that the term log is a logarithm to the base 10.
/ W \
Sound Power Level = PWL = 10 log ( — ), dB relative to Wo
where
W = source power in watts
Wo = reference power = 10~'2 watts
I y- I,
Intensity Level = IL = 10 log I — I, dB relative to I~
\ Io/ °
where
I = intensity in watts/meter2
IQ = reference intensity = 10~'2 watts/meter2
/P2\
Sound Pressure Level = SPL = 10 log I ~y I , dB relative to po
* \Po/
where
p- = mean-square pressure in (N/m2)2
P0 = reference pressure = 0.00002 N/m2 = 20 micro N/m2
i
From the above definitions for the decibel, it is first noted that for a 3 dB drop, the power,
the intensity, and the mean-square pressure must be halved. By way of example, consider intensity
I ] with intensity level ILj and intensity I2 with intensity level IL2 = ILj - 3. Thus, by definition,
IL, = lOlogl —
(I
-
2-4
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Subtracting the second equation from the first,
IL| -IL2 = 10 log
•ft)---ft)
Now, using the given relationship between ILj and IL2 on the left side of the equation, we get
3 = 10108 (17)
so that by rearranging and taking the antilog of both sides, we obtain
«2
and
I
2
This proves that for a 3 dB drop, the intensity is halved.
Another interesting observation is that the intensity level decreases by 6 dB for each doubling
of distance from the source producing a freely propagating spherical wave. This latter observation is
a consequence of the inverse square law3, which is given mathematically as
W
where r is the distance between the source center and the point of observation. Thus, for a given
sound power W, let the intensity level at distance rj be given as
IL| = 10 log I —I = 10 lo
Suppose the distance is doubled, so that r2 = 2rj.
2-5
-------
Then, at this distance, the intensity level is
IL2 = 10 log
= 10 log
= 10 log I ^— I -101og4
-6
Since it can be shown3 that under normal atmospheric conditions
SPL » IL
then, from the above derivation, the SPL also decreases by 6 dB for each doubling of distance from
the source.
An important point here is that at a particular location the sound pressure level due to a sound
source will, in general, vary with a change of the local surroundings. A typical example would be
parking a car in a garage. The sound level we hear inside the garage is different from that which we
hear while parked on the driveway even while standing in the same location relative to the car.
Another example is the household vacuum cleaner. From experience we know that this appliance
appears to produce different levels of sound when used in a carpeted living room and in the tiled
recreation room.
To obtain a better appreciation for the sound pressure levels of typical noise sources, refer to
Figure 2-1. These sound pressure levels can be considered to be representative, although it must be
remembered that sound pressure level readings are dependent upon local surroundings and distance
from the noise source. The sound pressure level readings given are those that would be typically
present in the environments specified.
2.5 COMBINATION OF SOUNDS
The total sound energy at a given location is usually a combination of the sound energy arriving
at the given point from many different sources. For example, the listener may be exposed simul-
taneously to the Muni's from a barking dog, a power mower, a garbage disposal, and u ringing tele-
phone. What is the total sound that the listener hears? For most types of sounds, the total is
obtained by summing the acoustical energies produced by each source that arrive at the listener's
ear in u given time interval. This combination yields an effective sound pressure that can be easily
2-h
-------
converted to SPL. In fact, a sound level meter is an instrument that performs this operation auto-
matically and displays the result on a meter.
Let us now consider what happens when two sources produce identical sound pressure levels
at the location of a sound level meter. This means that the same amount of acoustic energy is
arriving per unit time from each source. If the SPL from either one of the sources is, say, 80 dB,
what does the meter read when both sources are operating? Because SPL values are logarithmic,
the answer is not 160 dB. Combining the two sounds on an energy basis shows that the total SPL
is83dB
This result is obtained since it is shown in acoustics that the quantity p2 is additive.3 For the
above example, if the SPL is 80 dB, then from the definition of SPL,
SPL = 10 log
fer)
Substituting the given value in the left side of the equation, we obtain
i
80 = 10log(-£-J
Therefore, rearranging and taking the antilog of both sides,
antilog 8 = 108
Thus, for the two sources operating simultaneously, since p2 is additive,
p =
= 2 X 108
Consequently, the SPL for the two sources is
SPL = 10 log (2 X 108)
= 10 log 2-I- 10 log 108
= 3 + 80 = 83dB
2-7
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2.6 SOUND POWER
Since the sound pressure level is a function of the environment, a characteristic of a sound
source that is absolute and independent of its surroundings Would be useful. One such characteristic
is the sound power output of a source. The sound power output of a source (at specified operating
conditions) is a measure of the acoustic work it produces per unit time, a fixed value which is
independent of source location. The measuring unit that is applied is the watt. Like sound pres-
sure, sound power has an overwhelming range of values. Typical values for the very soft whisper
and jet engine are .000,000,0001 and 100,000 watts respectively. Again, the logarithmic character
of the decibel is advantageous to compress this large range of numbers into a more manageable
range. The sound power and corresponding sound power level of some typical noise sources are
shown in Figure 2-2.
If sound power output is a non-variant with respect to source location, one might ask "Why
doiwe measure the sound pressure level of a source instead of the sound power level?" There are
at least two reasons for doing so:
I. Sound power levels, at the current state of the art, cannot be measured directly, but
must be calculated from sound pressure measurements.
2. Measurements to calculate the sound power output require special test conditions and
environments (anechoic chambers, reverberation rooms, etc.) that often are not available
on location.
The primary purpose of determining the sound power output of a source is that once this
value is known, the sound pressure level can be estimated, knowing the acoustic qualities of the
proposed or actual surroundings. An example might be to estimate the increase in the sound pres-
sure level if an air-conditioner is added to an already noisy office.
2.7 FREQUENCY ANALYSIS
As was shown earlier, one of the important characteristics of sound is its frequency or fre-
quency content. The spectrum (or range) of frequencies of interest to us is the human auditory
range. This spectrum typically extends from approximately 20 to 20,000 Hz, but for most persons
the range is about 40 - 13,000 Hz, and decreases with age. This spectrum can be viewed as a contig-
uous band of frequencies, each 1 Hz wide.
The simplest of all sounds are those composed of a single frequency. These sounds are called
pure tones, or simple harmonic sound waves. However, the sounds to which we are usually
exposed are much more complex than pure tones. These sounds are composed of many frequencies,
each occurring simultaneously at its own sound pressure level. The striking of a chord on the piano
or guitar are examples. Often, the sound does not appear to have any tonal quality. Examples of
this category would be ventilating duct noise or the sound produced by escaping steam. The
important point to remember is that our world of sound is composed of many frequencies, each
at u given sound pressure level, occurring simultaneously and generally changing with time. In
2-8
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ACOUSTIC POWER
nrOMMiioi
(99 uiunnocut
170
160
ISO
140
120
110
100
90
I
80
70
60
SO
40
30
MT»
IMUSt
t 'nm.ii • >mMi
IVIICI OKHIIIK
}»ll«MSll«ILt>
i VWCOB mini
M
»
PUNO -1
MP Il»« J I »U«MD IIHIIHlt
KMI CHOTMG
PUM)
•OKI . MOUIKB IMBUGf I0i»f M ••!
. coMiwraw LI«IL
IDVUMt UNQ.IM M
•aci . >in KVI
Figure 2-2. Typical Power Levels for Various Acoustic Sources
2-9
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order to investigate the frequency content of a sound, a procedure known as a frequency analysis
can be performed. This procedure enables us to obtain a sound pressure level versus frequency
picture or spectrum of a sound source.
. When a frequency analysis is performed, the sound spectrum is electronically divided into
adjoining frequency bands and the SPL is computed for each band, called band level. The basic
scheme employs octave bands to divide the spectrum into continuous and adjoining frequency bands
(Figure 2-3). The upper frequency of each band fu is twice the lower frequency f j, and the center
frequency of each band fc =/fuf], that is, the geometric frequency of the adjoining frequency
bands. The precision instrument which divides the spectrum and measures the SPL for each
octave bund is known as an octave band analyzer. It is noted that narrower band analyzers
such as the one-third octave band analyzer are also available for those cases where more detailed
frequency data are required.
. Instead of naming the upper and lower frequencies of each band it has become standard
practice to specify a center frequency within each band. Center frequencies in use today (the
preferred octave bands) are as follows: 31.5, 63, 125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000,4000, 8000, 16,000
Hz. An older series of octave bands is sometimes encountered in noise standards and codes This
older series is comprised of the following frequency bands: 37.5-75, 75-150, 150-300, 300-600,
600-1200, 1200-2400, 2400-4800, and 4800-9600 Hz. It is important to note that the band levels
for these two series of octave bands cannot be interchanged. In other words, the 75-150 Hz band
level cannot be substituted for the preferred 125 Hz band level.
In summary, a frequency analysis defines two characteristics of a sound source:
1. The frequency distribution of the sound
2. The amount of sound energy concentrated in the various frequency bands.
2.8 AMBIENT NOISE
Ambient noise or background noise is defined as the total of all the noise in a system or situa-
tion, independent of the presence of the desired signal. When noise emitted by a source is measured.
we;may justifiably question whether the resulting decibel value is truly due to the source alone or is
possibly the source plus ambient noise. A simple rule-of-thumb has become accepted and is quite
accurate: "If the sound pressure level in all octave bands (with the source operating) is 10 dB SPL
or greater than the ambient level, the contribution due to the ambient noise is negligible." The
decibel values thus obtained are essentially those due to the source. Otherwise, the ambient effect
should be subtracted from the sound pressure levels for the source plus ambient noise. (This sub-
traction should be performed on an energy basis analogous to the addition process for combining
sources described in Subsection 2.5).
2-10
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IM no MO MOO 1000 MOO KLOM 10 OOO
Figure 2-3. Typical Octave Band Filter Characteristics
2-11
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REFERENCES
1. Randall, An Introduction to Acoustics. Addison-Wesley, 1951.
2. Verges, Sound. Noise and Vibration Control, Van Nostrand, 1969.
3. Beranek, Noise and Vibration Control, McGraw-Hill, 1971.
2-12
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SECTION 3
EFFECTS OF NOISE ON PEOPLE
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This section summarizes the main points of the EPA Noise Technical Information Document
300.7 "Effects of Noise on People." The NTID should be consulted for greater detail and for an
extensive list of references. Since the section was written, the Criteria Document on the effects of
noise has been published by the Office of Noise Abatement and Control. This document should
also be consulted for further details on the effects of noise on people, including the effects of
mtiabound and ultrasound.
It has not been demonstrated that many people have had their lives shortened by noise. While
undoubtedly serious accidents have occurred when auditory warning signals were misunderstood or
not heard due to intrusive noise, their prevalence has not been evaluated. Perhaps the stress of
continued exposure to high levels of noise can produce disease or make one more susceptible to
disease, but there is no definitive evidence. There are only hints of relations between exposure to
noise and the incidence of disease. In other words, the effects of noise on people have not been
successfully measured in terms of "excess deaths" or "shortened lifespan" or "days of incapaci-
tating illness". The most well-established effect of noise on health is that of noise-induced hear-
ing loss.
There is clear evidence to support the following statements about the effects on people of
exposure to noise of sufficient intensity and duration:
• Noise can permanently damage the inner ear, with resulting permanent hearing losses
that can range from slight impairment to nearly total deafness.
• Noise can result in temporary hearing losses, and repeated exposures to noise can lead to
chronic hearing losses.
• Noise can interfere with speech communication and the perception of other auditory
signals.
• Noise can disturb sleep.
• Noise can be a source of annoyance.
3-1
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• Noise can interfere with the performance of complicated tasks and, of course, can
especially disturb performance when speech communication or response to auditory
signals is demanded.
• Noise and other acoustical considerations can reduce the opportunity for privacy
• Noise can adversely influence mood and disturb relaxation.
In all of these ways, noise can affect the essential nature of human life - its quality.
3.2 AUDITORY EFFECTS
An understanding of the auditory effects of noise requires a brief explanation of how the ear
functions. When sound enters the ear, the waves pass through the ear canal to the eardrum which
vibrates in response to the sound stimulus. The eardrum conducts these vibrations to three tiny
bones called ossicles - the three smallest bones in the body. The ossicles conduct sound into the
inner ear and in so doing, tend to modify (attenuate) the loudness of the signal to some extent.
Normal action of the ossicles may amplify soft sounds or dampen loud sounds by a mechanism
known as the acoustic reflex.
Although the acoustic reflex protects the inner ear by reducing the intensity of low-frequency
sounds similar to the way in which the eye protects itself from bright light by contracting the pupil,
the acoustic reflex provides only partial protection to the ear. First, the reflex occurs in response
from the brain a few hundredths of a second after the loud sound is first perceived. So, when
impulsive sounds (such as those associated with explosions) occur, they reach the inner ear ut full
impact, with little adaptation. Also, the muscles tend to relax after a few minutes, so their sound-
dampening capacity is limited when loud sounds are sustained.
When loud sounds enter the inner ear, the ossicles transmit the vibrations to a fluid contained
in a tiny, snail-shaped structure called the cochlea. Within the cochlea are microscopic hair cells
that move back and forth in response to the sound waves. Neural impulses are created by the move-
ment of these crucial hair cells that go to the brain where they are interpreted as sound. These
delicate hair cells can be damaged by too intense sound waves.
When intense sound waves occur only briefly, the damage may be temporary. But if loud
noises are frequent or sustained, the damage may be permanent, and such noise-induced hearing
loss cannot be restored through surgical procedures or by medication.
The number of people in the United States exposed to potential hearing loss directly caused
by noise was estimated at 40 million by the EPA "Report to the President and Congress on Noise."
Moreover, permanent loss tends to occur initially in frequencies above the range of speech. Thus,
by the time a person realizes he is suffering hearing loss, that loss may have spread and become
permanent. People whose hearing has been impaired from noise exposure do not live in an auditory
world that is merely muffled. Sounds that are heard may be distorted; and, while hearing aids can
amplify sound, they cannot correct the distortions caused by noise-induced injury to the ear.
3-2
-------
The occupational and non-occupatonal causes of noise-induced hearing loss are many and
varied, but noise-induced hearing loss and ear damage can be eliminated if exposures to noise are:
I Held to sufficiently low levels.
2. Held to sufficiently short durations.
Another important auditory effect of noise is called masking or noise caused interference
with the perception of wanted sounds or signals. In some cases, the masking of a signal such as
that of an approaching vehicle can lead to property damage, personal injury, or even death.
Masking also has considerable implications for normal speech communication. For adults,
free and easy speech communication is probably essential for full development of social relations.
Additionally, especially for children, there is the problem that masking caused by a transportation
noise source may interfere with the learning process. Since speech perception deteriorates with age,
thi- elderly population is even more susceptible to the masking of speech by noise than are young
adulis. Thus, background noise can crucially influence the important role that speech communica-
tion plays in our society.
Figures 3-1 and 3-2 demonstrate graphically the relationship of speech communication to
background noise and the distance between the talker and listener. It can be seen that at I 5-20
feet, distances not uncommon to many living rooms and classrooms, A-weighted sound levels of the
background noise must be below 50 decibels if speech communication is to be nearly normal.
3.3 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
3.3.1 Effect on Sleep
Noise not only has direct effects on auditory function as described above, but it also produces
other behavioral effects of a more general nature. As is evident from everyday experience, noise can
interfere with sleep. It takes longer to fall asleep under noisy conditions, and noise of sufficient
intensity and duration can be disturbing throughout the sleep period. Women tend to awaken to
noises of lower levels than do men, and persons over 60 years of age are much more likely to have
their sleeping disturbed by noise than are younger people.
While the adverse effects of sleep disturbance are not completely known, one can tentatively
assume that sleep disturbance by excessive noise will reduce one's feelings of well-being. Further-
more, when noise conditions are so severe as to disturb sleep on a regular, unrelenting basis, then
such sleep disturbance may constitute a hazard to one's physical and mental health. (See Figure
3-3 for the sleep pattern of young adults and Figure 3-4 which charts awakenings to sound from
laboratory and questionnaire studies.)
3-3
-------
i
120
TALKER TO LISTENER DISTANCE IN FEET
5 10 15 20 25 30
ID
•o
o
o
I
AREA
NEAR
SPEECH COMMUNICATION
60 -
50 -
40
INTIMATE
PERSONAL
USUAL TYPE OF COMMUNICATION
NOTE: Heavy data points represent scores of 90% correct with tests done with phonetically balanced lists of one-
syllable words (Waltzman and Levitt, 1971). Types of speech communication typical of various talker-
listener distances are based on observation (Hall. 1959).
Figure 3-1. Quality of Speech Communication as Dependent on A-weighted Sound Level (dBA)
of Background Noise and Distance between Talker and Listener. (Modified from
Webster, 1969.)
3-4
-------
1 i i i i I i n
COMMUNICATION
IMPOSSIBLE
COMMUNICATION
DIFFICULT
_n
50 - NEARLY NORMAL
5 10 15 20 25 30
TALKER TO LISTENER DISTANCE IN FEET
Figure 3-2. Simplified Chart Showing Quality of Speech Communication in Relation to A-weighted
Sound Level of Noise (dBA) and Distance between Talker and Listener.
3-5
-------
AWAKE
REM-
YOUNG ADULTS
3 45
HOURS OF SLEEP
6
6
NOTE: Stag* IV \i absent during later part of sleep period, and more time is spent in Stage II and REM. Notice
the two brief periods that sleeper spontaneously awoke. (From Berker, 1969. in Sleep: Physiology and
Pathology, A. Kales, Editor, with the permission of the author, editor, and the J.B. Lippincott Company.)
Figure 3-3. Nocturnal Sleep pattern of Young Adults.
3-6
-------
100
90
% 80
I »
to
£ 60
£ SO
UJ
o
(T 4°
UJ
O- 30
20
10
AWAKENING
FROM STAGE
SINGLE NOISE
•v-
—I 1 1—I
f AWAKENING
r—{ OVERALL
\ I SINGLE NOISE
>*" X'"
NOISE WAKES
ME UP"
NOISES
•NOISE KEEPS
ME FROM GOING
TO SLEEP*
30 NOISES
yV f AWAKENING
/ \-{ STAGES III A IV
[SINGLE NOISE
_L
J_
_L
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
dBA-INDOORS-BRIEF SOUNDS (UNDER 3 MINUTES)
NOTE:
Horizontal axis gives approximate A-weighted sound level (dBA) of the noise. Curves labelled "awakening"
are from normally rested young adults sleeping in a laboratory and moderately motivated to awake in
response to sound. Percentage of awakening responses will depend on intensity of sound and also on defi-
nition of "awakening," motivation of the subject to awake in response to sound, and sleep stage when
stimulus is presented. Questionnaire results. "Noise wakes me up," and "Noise keeps me from going to
sleep," are derived from the Wilson Report (1963) for the case of 30 brief noises distributed throughout
the night. Laboratory results are from various studies. Filled circles were gathered throughout the night
without regard to sleep stage (Steinicke, 1957). Data from sleep stage II are represented by 2't; those from
sleep stages III and IV by deltas, A's. Circles with unbroken borders are from Williamset al. (1964). Circles
with broken borders are from Williams ef a/.(1965). Boxes with solid borders are from Rechtshaffen at al.
(1966). Boxes with broken borders are from Lukas and Kryter (1970). Broken arrow is from Watson and
Rechtshaffen (1969). Solid arrows are from Kryter and Williams (1970).
Figure 3-4. Awakenings to Sound from Various Laboratory and Questionnaire Studies.
3-7
-------
3.3.2. Annoyance
A great many instances of annoyance produced by sound may be due to the masking effects
of sound, to particular responses to the message content of the sound, or to physiological responses
to the sound (such as a startle reaction to a sudden noise). Despite wide variations in human
responses among members of a community with regard to the intensity of their reactions and the
specific noises that they find objectionable, well-defined trends have emerged. On the average, there
are relations between the physical characteristics of noises and the amount of annoyance, irritation,
distraction, and disturbance. Physical measurements of sounds can be weighted in such a manner us
to enable one to generally predict judgments of noisiness. The resulting decibel values are said to be
perceived noise levels (PNLs), and they are expressed as PNdB.
3.3.3 Community Responses
Certain generalizations can be made concerning community response. For exposure to fixed
noise sources, instances of annoyance, disturbance and complaint are greatest for rural areas,
followed by suburban, urban residential, commercial and industrial areas, in decreasing order. Simi-
larly, a given noise will be more disturbing at night than during the day and cause greater annoyance
in summer than in winter. Moreover, there is little evidence that annoyance due to community
noise decreases with continued exposure. Rather, the annoyance may increase the longer one is
exposed to it.
As Figures 3-5 and 3-6 indicate, community responses to noise can range from indifference
and mild annoyance to highly-organized group action. Those who complain about aircraft noise
(the most thoroughly studied group) cannot be identified as having a special set of psychological
and sociological characteristics. Those who complain about aircraft noise, contrary to the beliefs
of some, are not highly sensitive to noise. Nevertheless, total numbers of complaints of community
anti-noise action are correlated with measures of the severity of the noise exposure
3.3.4 Other Possible Psychological and Sociological Effects
• It is difficult to assess the effects of noise on human performance. However, the belief is that
noise can reduce the accuracy of work, particularly that of complex tasks requiring mental output.
Also, when a task requires the use of auditory signals, speech or nonspeech, then noise at any
intensity level sufficient to mask or interfere with the perception of these signals will interfere with
the performance of the task. Environmental noise alone probably does not produce mental illness,
but the continual bombardment of noise on an already psychologically sensitive or predisposed
population cannot be helpful. Clearly, the facts of speech interference, hearing loss and annoyance
support the contention that noises can act as a source of psychological distress.
3-8
-------
RESPONSE
VIGOROUS
LEGAL ACTION
THREATS OF
LEGAL ACTION
STRONG
COMPLAINTS
MILD
COMPLAINTS
MILD
ANNUTANCt.
NO ANNOYANCE
AVERA(
Rl
nil
if
E EXPECTED yff \ /
SPONSE - —-A. , •
A/" "F
1 1 n i \\jr\ \ \ \ 1 1 1 \s \ \
lir
^rltfjlx' ""P
'.,--'F
r
RANGE 01 EXPECTE D RESPOh
FROM NO IMAL POP ILATION
i i
fflmn
j^uu*"
5ES
B
D E F
NOISE RATING
H
Figure 3-5. Relation between Community Response and Noise Exposure. Noise Exposure
Increases from A to I. (From Rosenblith et al., 1953.)
3-9
-------
REACTIONS TO
NOISE
AVERAGE
PERCENT
OF PEOPLE
RATING NOISE
ENVIRONMENT
UNACCEPTABLE
LEGAL ACTION
GROUP APPEALS
TO S10P NOISE
SOME COMPLAINTS
TO AUTHORITIES "
NO COMPLAINTS
IO AIMHORITIPS
THRESHOLD OF
I'll
ESTIMATED PROBABLE
AND RANGE '• — ^
OF REACTIONS OF N
TYPICAL PERSONS TO
A GIVEN NOISE
ENVIRONMENT ,
0S
xx*
xx
* xx
.X
xx 2^
.'' *r
.* >*
xxxx ^ .Sf xx'
'"' i Xi s?
NEF 0 10
CNR 65 70 75 80 85
\
AVERAGE
s>^^
>\xx"'
yt
x x
^X
s^
^
4
•*
f*
\
20
90
1 | ^xf | >*- -90
~X xx'X J^ ''
\xx /
xx\ • •••j—»»»« ••• •< 60
«j" \ ^^ xx
ytit \ X X-^ ^xx
J ...^.... ..'<'.. . .„
^S^^^ x
\xx
X
xx x AND • REPRESENT - 10
xx ACTUAL "CASE HISTORY"
," FINDINGS fOR
rnMMiiNiricc
*
'I.I. n
30 40 50
95 100 105 110 115 120
INCREASING NOISE EXPOSURE
Figure 3-6. Relations between Community Noise Levels (Measured in CNR or NEF), Judgments
of Unacceptability, and Community Responses. (After KrytertVa/., 1971.)
3-10
-------
3.4 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Sound produces transient physiological responses in the muscular and neuro-endocrine
systems. It has been proposed that frequent repetition of these responses may lead to persistent
pathological changes in non-auditory bodily functions. Also, it has been proposed that frequent
repetition of these transient physiological responses might aggravate existing physiological dis-
orders. These proposals have not been verified, but evidence consistent with them has been
gathered by Messrs. Karl Kryter, Henning von Gierke and others. While these claims of noise-
induced pathology of non-auditory bodily functions merit further research and investigation,
as of now, they are unproven.
However, the evidence suggests that, if noise control sufficient to protect persons from hear-
ing loss were instituted, it is unlikely that the noise of lower level and duration resulting from this
effort could directly induce non-auditory disease.
3.5 SUMMARY
In summary, noise can have various adverse effects on people. There is the danger of perma-
nent hearing loss from excess noise and interference with speech communication, sleep and daily
activities. Moreover, it appears that noise may be a contributing factor to mental stress and psycho-
logical disorders. As the noise levels continue to rise in our cities, homes and places of work we
can expect these adverse effects of noise to become more prevalent unless effective implementation
of comprehensive noise regulations is achieved.
3-11
-------
SECTION 4
CRITERIA FOR RATING SOUNDS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The only objective characteristics of sound that present acoustical equipment can measure are
the sound pressure level and the frequency content. Thus, the subjective response of the public to
various sounds and noise sources must be correlated in some manner to these two quantities, as
well as other factors (e.g., number of occurrences within a given period, the time of day, etc.).
Much work has been done in this area; although the optimum method has yet to be contrived,
numerous methods of approach have become acceptable and are widely used. As will become evi-
dent in the discussion which follows, it seems that there is no single measuring method which
accurately describes or correlates well with the public's reaction to all sounds and noise sources.
Thus, several methods have been devised, each with its own refinements and proposed area(s) of
application. To the uninitiated it might appear that acousticians have devised noise measuring
methods that are too limited in application, and that they have lost sight of the ultimate goal.
Actually, all of their efforts have a common purpose: to produce reliable measuring or rating meth-
ods which correlate well with the subjective response of the public to the various classes of urban
noise.
All rating methods are based upon the sound pressure level and frequency content of the noise.
Some also include effects from pure tones, duration of the noise, number of occurrences, and time
of day.
4.2 RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HUMAN EAR
Before delving into the various measuring methods it would be best to investigate the response
characteristics of the human ear.
The perception of the loudness of pure tones of different frequencies was first investigated by
Fletcher and Munson almost 40 years ago. Basically, their procedure was to place an observer in a
very quiet room and subject him to a 1000 Hz reference pure tone. The sound pressure level of •
another pure tone of a different frequency was then adjusted until it was judged "equally loud" by
the observer. The results of their research were a set of curves similar to those in Figure 4-1. These
contours have been verified and internationally standardized and are called equal loudness level
contours for pure tones.
4-1
-------
100 1000 9000 10,000
FREQUENCY IN CYCLES PER SECOND (Hz)
Figure 4-1. Equal Loudness Contours for Pure Tones
Each contour is given a value in phons which corresponds to the sound pressure level in
decibels of the 1000 Hz reference tone. These contours illustrate that the response of the human
ear is dependent upon not only the frequency of a tone, but also the sound pressure level. Two
examples of the use of the contours are:
1. An observer would nominally judge a 30 dB SPL, 125 Hz, pure tone to be equally loud
as a 200 dB SPL, 1000 Hz, pure tone. Thus the 30 dB tone has a "loudness level" of
20 phons.
2. An observer would nominally judge an 80 dB SPL, 31.5 Hz pure tone to be equally loud
as a SO dB SPL, 1000 Hz pure tone. The 80 dB tone has a loudness level of 50 phons.
It can be seen that the response of the human ear is complex and nonlinear. At lower sound
pressure levels, the ear is not as responsive to low frequencies as at higher frequencies. However, as
the sound pressure level increases, the response of the ear become flatter.
As was mentioned earlier, the sounds we experience rarely consist solely of pure tones. To
take this into account, equal loudness level contours for narrow bands of noise have been developed
and are similar in appearance to those for pure tones. (Figure 4-2.)
If the sounds one is exposed to are composed of pure tones or narrow bands of noise, a phon
value for these sounds can be obtained directly from eighter Figure 4-1 or 4-2. If the sounds are
complex (i.e., broadband with or without pure tone components), an equivalent phon value can be
calculated from an octave band analysis of the noise.
4-2
-------
300 1000
FREQUENCY IN Hz
5000
Figure 4-2. Equal Loudness Contours for Relatively Narrow Bands of Random Noise
Although the phon scale covers the large dynamic range of the ear, it does not fit a subjective
loudness scale. Doubling the number of phons does not correspond to a subjective loudness
increase of two. For loudness levels of 40 phons and greater, an increase of 10 phons corresponds
to a subjective doubling of loudness. To obtain a quantity proportional to loudness, a scale has
been defined in which the unit is called a sone. This loudness scale (in sones) corresponds quite
closely to our subjective sensation of loudness. Using this scale, we can say that a jet aircraft at
takeoff is approximately 50 times as loud as normal conversation. Stating that jet aircraft generate
120 phons in contrast to 60 phons for ordinary conversation probably conveys less meaning.
Table 4-1 gives some typical loudness levels in phons and loudness in sones.
4.3 SINGLE-NUMBER RATINGS FOR NOISE
The simplest sound measuring technique is to measure the sound level using a sound level
meter. This instrument includes frequency weighting networks referred to as the A, B, or C
scales.* The frequency characteristics of these scales have become internationally standardized and
are shown in Figure 4-3.
As shown in the figure, the A scale attenuates those frequencies below approximately 500 Hz.
In other words, frequencies above 500 Hz are weighted more heavily in an attempt to parallel the
*On some sound level meters, a D weighting network has been added to provide an indication of
perceived noise decibels (PNdB) which is defined later in this chapter.
4-3
-------
TABLE 4-1
REPRESENTATIVE VALUES OF LOUDNESS LEVEL AND LOUDNESS
LOUDNESS LOUDNESS
LEVEL (PHONS) (SONES)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
3
Threshold of pain
Jet aircraft
Truck
Orator
Low conversation
Quiet room
Rustling of leaves
Hearing threshold
1024
256
64
16
4
1
response characteristics of the human ear. Careful comparison of the A weighting network and the
equal loudness level curves will reveal that the A weighting approximates an inverted 40 phon
contour. Likewise, the B weighting network approximates an inverted 70 phon contour. The C
network is essentially flat and approximates the response of the ear to intense sound pressure
levels.
When a sound is measured with a sound level meter, the weighting network must always be
stated. For example, if a measurement was made using the A scale, the results should be specified
as dB (A) or dBA. Noises can also be measured without using a weighting network. When this is
done, all frequencies are admitted unattenuated to the sound level meter, and what is termed an
overall SPL results. When an overall reading is taken, it can be described correctly three ways: The
noise is SO dB SPL (overall), SO dB overall SPL, or SO dB OSPL.
A similar situation occurs when we obtain octave band data. The measured values we obtain
from each band are SPL's, since all frequencies within each band are admitted unattenuated and are
called the octave band sound pressure levels. Thus we can conclude by saying that when a weighting
network is employed, the resulting decibel values are "sound levels" and the appropriate weighting
must be specified. When no weighting is employed, the decibel values are either overall SPL for
sound level meters or just sound pressure levels for octave band data.
4-4
-------
20 60 100 200 600 1000 2000 GOOD 10.000 20.000
FREQUENCY (Hz)
Figure 4-3. International Standard A, B, and C Weighting Curves for Sound Level Meters
4-5
-------
Before we continue to other noise measuring methods, two important points concerning over-
all SPL and A, B, or C weighted sound levels must be presented.
1. It is possible for two different noise sources to produce identical overall SPL's or identical
dBA values, since different frequency distributions can produce identical overall sound
levels. This phenomenon is demonstrated by two examples in Figure 4-4. Thus when we
specify a limiting OSPL or dBA level we really have no knowledge of the frequency dis-
tribution of the sound. A given distribution of octave band levels does, however, signif-
icantly restrict the frequency distribution of the sound.
2. The OSPL, by definition, provides no indication as to the frequency content of the
sound. The weighted sound levels, on the other hand, are designed to closely approxi-
mate the response characteristics of the human ear to pure tones. Thus the weighted
sound levels provide additional qualitative information that the OSPL does not.
The remaining noise measuring methods require octave band or 1 /3 octave band data in order
to be evaluated. A brief description of some of these methods follows.
4.4 CALCULATED LOUDNESS
The calculated loudness method is used for obtaining a sone value for complex sounds and
primarily applies to steady, wide-band noise. Two methods of performing calculated loudness are
currently in use, the Stevens procedure and the Zwicker procedure. A detailed treatment of these
procedures can be found elsewhere.' However, to provide an introduction to one of these
methods, Figure 4-5 shows the Curves for obtaining the sone value of a noise according to the
Stevens method when its octave band sound pressure levels are known. The sone value for each
center frequency is obtained from the figure. The equivalent sone value is then calculated by the
following equation:
Sgq = (Z0.3Sn) + 0.7 S max
Where Seq = equivalent sone value
Sn = octave band sone value
Smax x maximum octave band sone value
The equivalent phon value can be obtained from the conversion chart supplied with Figure 4-5.
One advantage of the calculated loudness method is that some people tend to identify more
readily with the sone unit rather than the decibel. They grasp the concept of one sound being
twice or three times as loud as another more easily than that of the decibel scale.
4.S PREFERRED SPEECH INTERFERENCE LEVEL (PSIL)
The Preferred Speech Interference Level (PSIL) predicts the masking effect of noisy environ-
ments. The inability to converse or to hear adequately at normal distances is a common occurence
4-6
-------
to
fi-
ll ID
f«
40
Mi 75 ISO 100 tOO 1.200 2.400 4,600
7} tM 300 (00 1.200 1,400 4.800 9,600
63 125 250 SOO IK 2K 4K 8K
FREQUENCY IN CYCLES PER SECOND
Figure 4-4. Frequency Spectra for Identical Overall Sound Levels
4-7
-------
Sontl - PhMi
SOO-c
100-
300-
JOO-
150-
100-
SSi
50-
*0
10
110
100
-90
•HI"*0
:_70
i-.
2- -SO
0.5-*- 30
1000 '
FREQUENCY
WOOO'/k
Figure 4-5. Equal Loudness Contours
4-8
-------
at cocktail parties or conventions. Also the inability to hear telephone conversations is character-
istic of many office and/or industrial work areas.
"The region of intelligibility for the human voice is roughly from 300 to 3000 Hz."2 Thus,
the PSIL is defined as the arithmetic average of the 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz octave band levels,
since noise in these bands interferes with (masks) effective speech communication more than the
rest of the spectrum. When this averaged number (in decibels, SPL) exceeds a certain value, speech
comprehension becomes difficult or impossible as shown in Figure 4-6. For example, a PSIL of
66dB would require a very loud voice level for reliable conversation at a distance of 6 ft.
4.6 NOISE RATING NUMBER (N)
The noise rating method is based on a set of curves as shown in Figure 4-7. This family of
curves is similar to the equal loudness contours and attempts to approximate the subjective charac-
teristics of the ear to various types of sounds. These curves are used to judge the acceptability of
noises for different environments with primary emphasis on the annoyance character of the noise.
T.ic method of approach is to plot the octave band sound pressure levels on the family of curves.
The noise rating number (N) of the noise is the number of the curve that lies just above the plotted
spectrum. Specific noise rating criteria for various environments have been established and are
shown in Figure 4-7. A sample spectrum also has been plotted in Figure 4-7, its N value is 45.
The corrected noise rating is an N number that has been corrected for specific environments
or circumstances. Corrections for dwellings are indicated in Figure 4-7. An illustration of this
procedure follows.
Suppose, for example, that a municipal maintenance crew was removing a diseased or dying
tree from your immediate neighborhood. The maximum corrected noise rating that should be
allowed in your living room under this criterion would be:
N = 30 for living rooms
+ 5 correction for assuming removal work occurred during the daytime
+ 5 correction for assuming removal work occurred 25% of the time (of each hour)
+ 5 correction for assuming a residential urban neighborhood
45= corrected noise rating number
4.7 NOISE CRITERION NUMBER (NC)
The noise criterion method is almost identical to the noise rating procedure but applies mainly
to ".. . the steady, continual ambient levels within a space or neighborhood, as opposed to specific
noises or intermittent activities occurring there."^ The family of curves shown in Figure 4-8, how-
ever, is slightly different. The NC contours are more lenient from the 500 Hz octave band up
through the 8000 Hz octave band. The process of plotting the local noise spectrum on the family
of curves is identical for both NR and NC ratings. Representative NC values for different spaces
are shown in Table 4-2. For the spectrum plotted in Figure 4-8, NC=49.
4-9
-------
90
580 -I
0
•M
I
•S 70-
3
M
at
I
M
JC
40-
w
30.
Loss Of Intelligibility
At Normal Voice Level
Normal
Speech Receptions
I
4
I
8
2 4 6 8 10
Distance Between Speaker and Listener in Feet
12
Figure 4-6. Speech Interference Effects of Noise
4-10
-------
^
140
130
120
110 -95^^
1UO
50
40
30
20
10
I
z
o
i
broadcasting studio
concert hall, legitimate theatre
900 seats
class room, music room, TV studio.
conference room, 90 seata
sleeping room (see corrections
below)
conference room JO seats or with
public adress system, cinema
hospital, church, courtroom, library
living room (see corrections below)
private office
realaurant
gymnasium
office (type writers)
workshop
Cofiecuons for dwelllnge
a) Purs) tone eaally perceptible
b) Impulsive and/or intermittent
c) Noise only during working hours
d) Noise during 21 •/, of time
1.8 %
0 •/,
0.1 'A
002%
e) Very quiet suburban
suburban
residential urban
urban near some industry
are* ol heavy Industry
Cri-
terion
IS
20
.10
M
«n
I- 5
•• S
+ 10
-us
+20
»2S
4-30
0
•f to
•Hi
10
Estimated Community Reaction
No Observed Reaction
Sporadic Complain!*
Widespread Complaints
Threats of Community Action
Vigorous Community Action
Corm-tttl
A/our
Less than 40
40 VI
4S $5
3060
Above 65
62.5 12S 260 BOO 1000 2000 4000
MIDFREQUENCIES OF OCTAVE BANDS
Figure 4-7. Noise Rating Number Curves and Criteria
4-11
-------
TABLE 4-2
REPRESENTATIVE NOISE CRITERIA (NC) VALUES FOR DIFFERENT SPACES
SUBJECTIVE
CLASSIFICATION
Quiet
Critical Hearing
And Listening
Normal
Noisy
Very Noisy
FUNCTION
Sleeping
Music
Discussion
Mental And
Creative Tasks
Dining
Clerical
Sports
Transportation
Computing And
Calculating
Production
SPACE
Bedrooms
Hospital Rooms
Concert and
Recital Halls
Classrooms
Conference Rooms
Executive Offices
Study Rooms
Restaurants
Kitchens
Stenography And
Duplicating
Stadiums
Railroad Stations
Computer Rooms
Factories And
Shops
NC LEVEL
30
30
25-30
30
25-30
30
35
45
55
50
55
55-65
70
50-75
4-12
-------
FttQUtNCT M CYCUS PM SECMW
Figure 4-8. Noise Criterion Curves
4.8 PERCEIVED NOISE LEVEL (PNL)
Kryter followed a procedure similar to that used for loudness, but he asked the observer to
compare noises on the basis of their acceptability on their noisiness. The judgments were found
to be similar to those for loudness, but enough difference was observed to give a somewhat differ-
ent rating for various sounds. On the basis of these results, Kryter has set up a calculation proce-
dure for perceived noise level (PNL). In essence, then, the PNL concept accounts for the noisiness
or intrusiveness rather than the loudness. The perceived noise level is registered in perceived noise
decibels, PNdB. It has found particular use in gauging response to aircraft noise.
The calculation procedure for PNdB is identical to that used for calculating loudness, except
that curves of constant noy values shown in Figure 4-9 are used. The effective noy value is given
by:
Nt =(Z0.3Nn)+0.7Nmax
Where Nt = Effective noy value
Nn = noy value corresponding to each octave band SPL
Nmax = maximum octave band noy value
An equivalent PNdB value is obtained by using the conversion chart provided in Figure 4-9.
4-13
-------
now joooo
FMCOUCNCV M Hz
Figure 4-9. Equal Noisiness Contours
4-14
-------
If 1/3 octave band data are used, the constants 0.3 and 0.7 are replaced by 0.1 5 and 0.85,
respectively.
On some sound level meters, the 40 noy curve has been incorporated into an additional
weighting network (D weighting) to provide a direct approximation to PNL. The proposed D
weighting curve is shown in Figure 4-3. The measured sound pressure level from the D-network,
Lj), is approximately related to the PNL as follows: PNL = Lp + 7,PNdB.
4.9 NOISE AND NUMBER INDEX (NNI)
Several single-number ratings include corrections for number of events and in some cases,
time of occurence. One example of these is the noise and number index (NNI), which is based
upon surveys and sociological investigations made near London's Heathrow Airport and is used
for measuring aircraft noise. Conceivably it could also be used to gauge the response to other tran-
sient noise sources such as trains. Essentially, the NNI takes an average peak PNL and adjusts it in
relation to the number of events that occur, day or night; i.e. number of aircraft flyovers. Since
t*'is method was conceived for use in a particular geographical area with possibly unique air traf-
fic densities and flight patterns, it may not be universally applicable to other airport situations.
4.10 ENERGY EQUIVALENT NOISE LEVEL (Leq)
Fluctuating noise levels such as noise from highway traffic is sometimes represented in terms
of a steady noise having the same energy content as the fluctuating noise. Using the definition of
the sound pressure level, it can be shown that the energy equivalent steady noise level (Leq) is
given by:
' 10
eq ^
2 1 t|
where SPL is the measured sound pressure level as a function of time and tj and ^ denote the times
at the beginning and ending of the measurement period, respectively.
4. 1 1 DAY-NIGHT AVERAGE SOUND LEVEL (Ldn)
The day-night average sound level (L(jn) is a measure of the average A -weigh ted sound level
during a 24-hour time period, with a 10 decibel penalty applied to nighttime sound levels. Thus,
the Ljj, is essentially an energy equivalent noise level, Leq, evaluated over a 24-hour period except
for the nighttime penalty.
4.1 2 NOISE POLLUTION LEVEL (LNP)
The noise pollution level (L^p), attempts to deal with fluctuating noise by accounting for the
Lgq along with the range of variation of the noise. Thus:
LNP = Leq + 2-56 » dB(NP)
4-15
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where Leq and t are the energy equivalent noise level and standard deviation, respectively, of the
measured A-weighted SPL.
4.13 NOISE EXPOSURE FORECAST (NEF)
A method currently in wide use for making noise exposure forecasts (NEF) of aircraft noise
utilizes a perceived noise level scale with additional corrections for the presence of pure tones.
Two time periods are used to weight the number of flights.
The single event noise level is defined in terms of effective perceived noise level (EPNL)
which can be specified approximately by:
EPNL = PNLmax + lOlogliO. + F.EPNdB
20
Where
PNLmax = maximum perceived noise level during flyover, in PNdB,
tlO = 10 dB down duration of the perceived noise level time history, in seconds,
and
F = pure tone correction. Typically, F = + 3 dB
Community noise exposure is specified by the term, "noise exposure forecast" (NEF). For
a given runway and one or two dominant aircraft types, the total NEF for both daytime and night-
time operations can be expressed approximately as:
NEF= EPNL + logNf - 88.0
Where
EPNL = energy mean value of EPNL for each single event at the point in question
Nf = (N'd + 16.7Nn)or
= (15n'd + 150nn)
N'd- "d= total number and average number per hour, respectively, of flights during
the day period 0700 to 2200.
Nn, hn = the total number and average number per hour, respectively, of flights during
the night period 2200 to 0700.
The constant (-88.0) dB includes an arbitrary -75 scale-changing constant and a reference
number of daytime flights of 20. The constant 16.7 accounts for the 10-to-l weighting factor
for flights during the 9-hour night period.
4-16
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4.14 COMPOSITE NOISE RATING METHOD (CNR)
The original method for evaluating land use around civil airports is the composite noise rating
(CNR). It is still in wide use by the Federal Aviation Administration, the Department of Housing
and Urban Development, and the Department of Defense for evaluating land use around airfields.5
This noise exposure scale may be expressed as follows:
The single event noise level is expressed (without a duration or tone correction) as simply the
maximum perceived noise level (PNLmax) in PNdB.
The noise exposure in a community is specified in terms of the composite noise rating (CNR),
which can be expressed approximately as follows:
CNR = PNLmax + logNf - 12
Where
PNLmax = approximate energy mean maximum perceived noise level (PNL) at a given
point
Nf = same as defined for NEF. The actual method for accounting for the number
of flights and time periods uses discrete interval correction factors. These have
been approximated by the use of the equivalent continuous weighted number
of nights, Nf.
4.15 COMMUNITY NOISE EQUIVALENT LEVEL (CNEL)
The following simplified expressions are derived from the exact definitions in the report,
"Supporting Information for the Adopted Noise Regulations for California Airports." They can
be used to estimate values of CNEL where one type of aircraft and one night path dominate the
noise exposure level.
Single event noise is specified by the single event noise exposure level (SENEL) in dB and can
be closely approximated by:
SENEL = NLmax+ 101og,0tea'dB
Where
= maximum noise level as observed on the A scale of a standard sound level meter
'max
and
tw.. = effective time duration of the noise level (on A scale) in seconds
Cd
The effective duration is equal to the energy of the integrated noise level (NL), divided by the
maximum noise level (NLmax) when both are expressed in terms of antilogs. It is approximately
1/2 of the 10 dB down duration, which is the duration for which the noise level is within 10 dB
of'NLmax.
4-17
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A measure of the average integrated noise level over one hour is also utilized. This is the hourly
noise level (in dfi), defined as:
HNL = SENEL + 10 log n - 35.6, dB
Where
SENEL= energy mean value of SENEL for each single event,
and
n = number of flights per hour
The total noise exposure for a day is specified by the community noise equivalent level (CNEL)
in dB, and may be expressed as:
CNEL = SENEL + 10 log NC - 49.4,dB
Where
Nc = (Nd + 3Ne -MONn)
or
= (12nd + 9ne + 90nn)
Nj, rij = total number and average number per hour, respectively, of flights during
the period 0700 to 1900
Ne> "e ~ tota' number and average number per hour, respectively, of flights during
the period 1900 to 2200
and
Nn, h~n = total number and average number per hour, respectively, of flights during
the period 2200 to 0700
An alternative form of Community Noise Equivalent Level (CNEL2) employs the time period
weighting factor from the Noise Exposure Forecast method. It is approximated as:
CNEL2= SENEL + 10 log Nf - 49.4 dB
Where
N|- was given previously for NEF calculation.
4-18
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4.16 COMPARISON OF COMPOSITE RATING SCALES FOR SPECIFYING COMMUNITY
NOISE EXPOSURE
The basic expressions previously defined foi specifying community noise exposure arc sum-
marized:
Noise Exposure
Forecast
Composite Noise
Rating
Community Noise
Equivalent Level
and
NEF = EPNL + 101ogNf - 88, dB
CNR = PNLmax + 101ogNf- 12,dB
CNEL = SENEL + 10 log Nc - 49.4, dB
CNEL2= SENEL + 10 log Nf - 49.4, dB
4-19
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REFERENCES
1. "Fundamentals of Noise: Measurement, Rating Schemes, and Standards," EPA Repoit
NTID300.15, December 31, 1971.
2. Newby,Audiology. 2nd ed,,Meredith, 1964.
3. Verges, L., Sound. Noise and Vibration Control, Van Nostrand, 1969.
4. Galloway, W. J. and Bishop, D.E., "Noise Exposure Forecasts: Evolution, Evaluation,
Extensions and Land Use Interpretations," FAA-No-70-9, August 1970.
5. Civil Engineering Planning and Programming, "Land Use Planning with Respect to Aircraft
Noise," AFM 86-5, TM 5-365, NAVDOCKS P-98, October 1, 1964.
4-20
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SECTION 5
SOURCES OF NOISE
S.I INTRODUCTION
A characterization of the sources of environmental noise and an assessment of their impact on
the quality of life is central to the formulation of a balanced environmental -noise abatement pro-
gram. Clearly, such a program must be predicated on a quantitative understanding of the contribu-
tion of each of the broad array of noise-producing devices. Most people are aware, at least quali-
tatively, of the impact of aircraft noise on airport communities, and many are aware of the noise
from the numerous diesel trucks presently on our roads. But noise from other types of vehicles,
construction and industnal operations, and appliances are also problems in various segments of
society. People assess the relative and absolute impact of these sources differently. Such impres-
sions are generally closely tied to an individual's life style and experience and cannot be used as the
basis for the establishment of national policies. An objective and quantitative description of noise
sources and effects is needed to establish priorities and to cast the problem of environmental noise
in proper perspective. It is even more important to determine the average cumulative noise expo-
sure of typical individuals in our complex society.
Sources may be characterized individually and in the aggregate. To assess relative importance
and to serve as a basis for impact evaluation, it is generally adequate to determine a simple measure
of the noise level (e.g., dBA) of a source at a particular distance. For example, by comparing the
A-weighted sound levels of appliances at a 3-foot measuring distance, one can tentatively conclude
that the noise from refrigerators at 42 dBA is less likely to be a serious problem than noise from
vacuum cleaners at 72 dBA. Further, noise levels at other distances and in other situations charac-
teristic of personal exposure may be estimated by accounting for changes in level as sound
propagates through the air and structures.
Characterizing noise levels in a more collective sense is also of use in assessing impact. People
tend to respond differently to the noise characteristics of a distant highway or construction site
than to a readily identifiable single incident such as a passing truck. Highways, for example, are
typically characterized by a nearly continuous background level, with fluctuations owing to vehicle
spacing and the various source levels of each vehicle. Single events are different in that they may
intrude excessively in otherwise quiet environments, and annoyance is strongly related to both the
peak level and duration of exposure.
5-1
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One step further than aggregating vehicles is to consider the noise generation in the community.
This means the combination of all sources creating a total noise environment. The value of consider-
ing community noise as a whole, rather than evaluating each source in isolation, is twofold. First,
human behavior is not arithmetically additive, reactions to individual acoustic stimuli do not provide
a simple measure of the reaction to concurrent stimuli. Secondly, the myriad sources around us
make the synthesis of community noise profile difficult. To acquire an indication of realistic com-
munity situations, it is more useful to have a total noise picture, established from actual field
measurement.
: As with noise source levels, the community impact must be treated quantitatively and in terms
that can be readily interpreted. It is not necessarily of great interest that a piece of construction
equipment may generate noise levels as great as 95 dBA to 50 feet. It is of interest that this noise
level will contribute to the hearing loss of construction workers and other people exposed daily foi
several hours, that it will prevent intelligible conversation, and that it could affect the sleep of
people living nearby. The number of people disturbed in these ways and the extent of their distur-
bance is important. In a sense, the magnitude of the noise problem is proportional to the number of
people whose lives are significantly degraded by noise.
It is neither practical nor desirable to identify and characterize all sources of environmental
noise. Every piece of machinery, from a jet aircraft to an electric clock, produces sound; but not
all of these sounds are of sufficient significance to merit study. Furthermore, the appropriate
depth of treatment varies with the significance of the source. The following sources of environmental
191 '
noise have been identified and analyzed in references: ' '
1. Transportation systems.
2. Devices powered by internal combustion engines.
3. Industrial plants.
4. Construction equipment.
5. Household appliances and building equipment.
5.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE OUTDOOR NOISE ENVIRONMENT
, A physical description of a sound must account for its frequency characteristics, magnitude,
and temporal pattern. A sound level meter, when used with the A-weigh ting characteristic, accounts
for the frequency characteristics of a noise and the magnitude of outdoor noise by weighting the
amplitude of the various frequencies approximately in accordance with a person's hearing sensitivity.
To complete the description of the outdoor noise environment at a specific location, it is
necessary to account for the temporal pattern of the A-weighted noise level. The temporal pattern
is most easily observed on a continuous graphic-level recording, such as the two samples illustrated
5-2
-------
in Figure 5-1. The first striking feature of these two samples is that the noise level varies with time
over a range of 33 dB, which is greater than an eightfold range of noisiness.*
The second major feature of the samples is that the noise level appears to be characterized by
a fairly steady lower level, upon which are superimposed the increased levels associated with discrete
single events. This fairly constant lower level is termed the residual noise level. The continuous
noise heard in the backyard at night when no single source can be identified, and which seems to
come from all around, is an example of residual noise. Distinct sounds that are superimposed on
the residual noise level, such as aircraft overflight, cars, and dogs barking (Figure 5-1), are classified
as intrusive noises. They can be separated both into intrusive noises from outside the neighborhood,
such as aircraft and the cars on boulevards, and local neighborhood noises, such as dogs barking and
local cars passing by.
Both direct reading and statistical methods have been applied to 24-hour recordings of the
outdoor noise level at a typical suburban residential location.4 The results are illustrated in Figures
5-2 and 5-3. The variation of the hourly and the day, evening, and nighttime values of the various
statistical measures, together with the minimum and maximum values read from a continuous
recording, are summarized in Figure 5-2. The period histograms showing the percentage of time
that the level was in any stated level interval are shown in Figure 5-3.
All of the statistical measures in Figures 5-2 and 5-3 show the typical daytime-nighttime varia-
tion in noise level. In this example, the residual noise level drops sharply after midnight, reaching a
minimum value between 4:00 and 5:00 a.m. Between 6:00 and 8:00 a.m. it rises to almost constant
daytime value. This time variation of the noise is generally well correlated with the amount of on-
going activity. It is particularly well correlated with the amount of vehicular traffic in urban areas,
which is generally considered to be the basic source of the residual noise. For this report, L90, the
level which is exceeded 90 percent of the time, will be used as the statistical measure of residual
noise where there are no identifiable steady-state noises present. The median noise level (L50) is a
useful measure of the average noise environment in the sense that one-half of the time it is quieter
and one-half of the time it is noisier than L50. The dashed line in Figure 5-2 is the energy equiva-
lent noise level (Leq) affected by both the duration and the magnitude of all the sounds occurring
in the time period. Its value equals that of a steady-state noise that has the same energy during the
period analyzed as that of the actual time-varying noise. The energy equivalent noise level is one of
the most important measures of the outdoor noise environment for the purpose of correlating noise
and community reaction.
*A change of approximately 10 dB represents a doubling, or halving of perceived loudness or
noisiness of a sound. Thus, a 33-dB range of variation represents more than 2x2x2, or eightfold,
range of possible variation in loudness or noisiness.
5-3
-------
Early Af:rrnoon
8
s
3
s
I
80
70
60
50
40
30
jCart on Nearby
Boulevard
Aircraft
.Overflight
Local Can
Residual Noise Level
345'
Time in Minutes
Late Evening
348
Tim* in Minute*
Figure 5-1. Two Samples of Outdoor Noise in a Normal Suburban Neighborhood with
Microphone Located 20 Feet from Street Curb.
5-4
-------
Hourly V.lu«
Ourinf P«rkx<
0 RMidud Noitt L.V.I
• Miximum Noiw Ltvrt
(Rnd from griphic l««l rtcordingi)
12 2 4 6 • 10 12 2 4 • 8 10 12
Figure 5-2. Various Measures of Outdoor Noise Level
100
D«v (7 l.m. - 7 p m.l
.m. - 10 p.m INi^hi 110 p.m
30 40 SO «0 70 30 40
50 «0 70
L .v.l in d8 r, M <|NMl2
30 40 SO 60
Figure 5-3. Histograms of Percentage of Time Noise Was in Each 5-dS Interval for Three
Time Periods.
5-5
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5.3 INTRUDING NOISES AND COMMUNITY REACTION
There are two basic types of identifiable intruding noises that increase the outdoor noise level
above the residual noise level-steady or quasi-steady-state noises and intermittent single-event noises.
A steady or nearly constant level noise intrusion may result from a nearby freeway, industry, or air
conditioner. The intermittent single-event noise is exemplified by the noise from an aircraft flyover,
a single car passby, or a dog barking.
5.4 CONSTANT-LEVEL NOISE INTRUSIONS
One of the best known examples of constant-level noise intrusion is the noise environment
within a busy city. The high daytime noise levels within the city make it difficult to have an outdoor
conversation at normal voice levels. For example, if the outdoor noise level is 76 dBA, a condition
commonly encountered in cities, it is necessary to talk in a raised voice to achieve intelligibility at
a 2-foot distance.
Similar data show that the maximum distance for normal voice conversation outdoors in a
noisy urban residential area is 3 to 5 feet, according to the range of noise levels for this category
in Table 5-1.* Also, the noise associated with the "very noisy urban residential" area of Table 5-1
is sufficiently high to restrict the amount by which doors and windows can be opened if one is to
retain a desirable indoor noise environment.**
The noise levels associated with the "quiet suburban residential" area of Table 5-1 permit
barely intelligible normal voice conversation at distances ranging between 30 and 50 feet.* However,
if the noise level is so low that the distance for intelligible conversation in normal voice approaches
the distances between neighbors, it becomes difficult to have a private conversation. For example,
with a 50-foot distance between neighbors, the median noise level required to obtain privacy would
have to be on the order of 46 to 50 dBA, depending upon orientation of the talker relative to the
neighbor and assuming no barriers exist. This median noise level range is approximately that of the
normal suburban community.
The considerations of speech intelligibility and privacy suggest that there are both maximum
and minimum bounds to the outdoor noise levels that are compatible with reasonable enjoyment
and full use of patios, porches, and yards. The upper bounds for speech intelligibility appear to be
in the range of the very noisy urban residential category of Table 5-1, and the lower bound for
speech privacy is a function of the distance and shielding between neighbors.
*See Reference 4 for the criteria basis.
** A general estimation of building interior noise levels could be made on the basis of a reduction
of exterior levels by about 7 dBA with windows open and 15 dBA with them closed, in the direction
facing the noise source, and assuming average residential structures.
5-6
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TABLE 5-1
QUALITATIVE DESCRIPTORS OF URBAN AND SUBURBAN DETACHED HOUSING
RESIDENTIAL AREAS AND APPROXIMATE DAYTIME RESIDUAL NOISE LEVEL (L90)
DESCRIPTION
Quiet Suburban Residential
Normal Suburban Residential
Urban Residential
Noisy Urban Residential
Very Noisy Urban Residential
TYPICAL RANGE
dB(A)
36 to 40 inclusive
41 to 45 inclusive
46 to 50 inclusive
51 to 55 inclusive
56 to 60 inclusive
AVERAGE dB(A)
38
43
48
53
58
5.5 INTERMITTENT SINGLE-EVENT INTRUDING NOISES
At many points in typical communities, the noise environment is made up of a series of tran-
sient noise events, such as that caused by vehicular traffic. Many of these single-event noises inter-
fere with speech and other activities for brief intervals of time. However, their impact is not as
easily quantified in terms of speech interference as are constant level noise intrusions.
One method for estimating the magnitude of the intrusion for single-event noises is to have
people rank the acceptability of a series of noises at different levels. One of the most comprehen-
sive recent studies of the subjective judgment of single-event noises was performed using vehicle
traffic noises. The results'are summarized in Figure 5-4. This data is consistent with the apparent
general acceptance of maximum levels that result from standard passenger automobiles driven on
residential streets.
5.6 COMMUNITY REACTION TO NOISE
The advent of commercial jet aircraft initially increased the maximum noise levels at some
locations around major airports by 10 to 20 dBA. These increases in noise caused widespread com-
plaints and various forms of legal action from citizens living in neighborhoods near these civil air-
ports. This situation paralleled the earlier history of military jet operations by the Air Force after
World War 11, although only a few Air Force operational bases were close to cities and towns.
Unfortunately, the civil airports, which accounted for the majonty of the early commercial
jet operations, were located near the major cities they served. Further, they were becoming sur-
rounded by homes constructed in the post-World War II building boom. As jet thrust ratings, jet
aircraft operations, and airports continued to increase, the airport noise problem tended to spread
through the wider areas of the community and to more communities.
The U. S. Air Force and other governmental agencies began to investigate the effects of aircraft
noise on people in communities in the early 1950's. This early research resulted in a proposed model
5-1
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for relating aircraft noise intrusion and the probable community reaction. This model, first pub-
lished by the U. S. Air Force5 accounted for the following seven factors:
1. Magnitude of the noise with a frequency weighting for hearing response
2. Duration of the intruding noise (10 times the logarithm of the relative duration).
3. Time of year (windows open or closed).
4. Time of day noise occurs.
5. Outdoor noise level in community when the intruding noise is not present.
6. History of prior exposure to the noise source and attitude towards its owner.
7. Existence of pure tone or impulsive character in the noise.
Corrections for these factors were generally made in 5-dB intervals, since many of the initial
relationships were based solely on the intuition of the authors (Rosenblith and Stevens), and it
considered difficult to assess the response to any greater degree of accuracy. This method was
incorporated in the first Air Force Land Use Planning Guide in 1957 6 and was later simplified for
i::,se of application by the Air Force and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).
Many other methods have been proposed for describing repeated single-event type noise, with
primary application to airport noise problems. Most of those methods represent an evolution of llic
community noise reaction model and consider at least some of its principal factors. Three of the
methods for calculating the magnitude of noise intrusion are summarized in Table 5-2.
The Composite Noise Rating (CNR) was introduced in the early 1960's and has been widely
used by Federal agencies. The Noise Exposure Forecast (NEF) is a recent evolution of the CNR and
is proposed as its successor by the FAA. It essentially updates the CNR by substitution of the tonc-
and duration-corrected Effective Perceived Noise Level (EPNL) scale used for aircraft certification,
instead of the Perceived Noise Level (PNL) scale of the earlier CNR. Thus, the NEF accounts for
both duration and pure tone content of each single-event sound, whereas the CNR accounted lor
neither.
The Community Noise Equivalent Level (CNEL) was recently introduced by the State of
California for monitoring purposes. It is based on the A-weighting to avoid the complexity of the
computer calculations required to obtain ENPL and, thus, cannot contain a pure-tone weighting.
It also differs from the NEF by inclusion of the evening time period weighting, in addition to day-
time and nighttime. However, despite these structural differences, the difference between the
absolute values of CNEL and NEF for specific locations near airports is approximately constant
at 35+2 dB. Thus NEF-30 is approximately equivalent to CNEL-65.
5-K
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70 80 90
Maximum A-Weighted Noitt Level in dB re 20 fjN/m2
100
-Quiet
Acceptable
-Noltv
Exctwively
Noity
I'igure 5-4. Average Mean Subjective Rating as a Function of Maximum Noise Level in dBA
for British Experiment at Motor Industry Research Association Proving Grounds
5-9
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TABLE 5-2
FACTORS CONSIDERED IN EACH OF THREE METHODS USED FOR DESCRIBING
THE INTRUSION OF AIRCRAFT NOISE INTO THE COMMUNITY
FACTOR
Basic measure of single event
noise magnitude
Measure of duration of
individual single event
Time periods during day
i
Approximate weighting
added to noise of single
event which occurs in
indicated period
Number (N) of identical
events in time period
Summation of contributions
COMPOSITE
NOISE
RATING
(CNR)
Maximum
perceived
noise
level
None
NOISE EXPOSURE
FORECAST
(NEF)
Tone-corrected
perceived
noise level
Energy
integration
Day time (7 AM- 10PM)
- Nighttime (10PM-7 AM)
i
' Daytime 0 dB
Nighttime 1 2 dB
10 log N
Logarithmic
COMMUNITY NOISE
EQUIVALENT LEVEL
(CNEL)
/
/
A-weighted noise
level
Energy integration
Daytime (7 AM-7 PM)
Evening (7PM- 10PM)
Nighttime (10 PM-7 AM)|
Daytime 0 dB
Evening 5 dB
Nighttime lOdB
10 log N
Logarithmic
5-10
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REFERENCES
1. Transportation Noise and Noise from Equipment Powered by Internal Combustion Engines,
NTID300.13
2. Noise from Construction Equipment and Operations. Building Equipment, and Home
Appliances, m\D 300.1
3. Noise from Industrial Plan ts, NTID 300.2
4. Community Noise, NTI D 300.3
5. Handbook of Noise Control, vol. 2, "Noise and Man." WADC TR 52-204
6. "Procedures for Estimating Noise Exposure and Resulting Community Reaction from Air
Base Operations, " WADC TN 57-10
5-11
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SECTION 6
NOISE REDUCTION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Noise reduction encompasses a rather broad technical area of acoustics. Consequently, this
section is intended to be only an introduction to the subject matter. Should the reader require
more detailed information, it can be found elsewhere (References 1-3).
Nevertheless, a basic principle in noise reduction can immediately be offered. This principle
applies well to simple problems as well as complex ones. It can be simply stated that to have
effective noise reduction, the noise level of the noisiest component (or components) should first
be reduced. The principle indirectly implies that efforts of noise reduction on components of
lesser noise level may be wasteful as shown in the following example: suppose there are three
sources in a certain noisy situation of sound pressure levels 70 dB, 75 dB and 80 dB. By adding
these levels as shown in Subsection 2.5 or from Figure 6-1, the overall sound pressure level will be
81.6 dB. If noise control efforts are devoted to decreasing the sound pressure level of the loudest
noise by 10 dB from 80 dB to 70 dB, the overall sound pressure level will become 77.1 dB (from
Figure 6-1) giving a reduction of 4-5 dB in sound pressure level. On the other hand, if the sound
pressure level of the 70 dB noise is reduced by the same amount of 10 dB to 60 dB, the overall
sound pressure levels will be 81.2 dB giving a reduction of only 0.4 dB. Thus the measure of noise
control in the second case is much less effective than the first case. It is interesting to note that a
noise reduction of 4.5 dB will also result if 5 dB reduction is achieved for each of the 75 dB and
80 dB noise.
Normally, when a noise problem exists, the acoustic system may be viewed as consisting of
three major components:
1. The source from which the acoustic energy emanates.
2. The path along which the' acoustic energy travels.
3. The receiver upon which the acoustic energy impinges.
We wish, therefore, to introduce methods and examples of reducing the noise for each com-
ponent of the source-path-receiver model.
6.2 NOISE REDUCTION OF THE SOURCE
The most effective approach to treating a noise problem is to reduce the noise at its source.
In some cases, the solution to the problem may be straightforward and inexpensive; other problems
6-1
-------
• 2S-
t
dB
\
\
s
s
s
s
s.
-^
***
0 •
^
••••^
•*»i
10
(W- UdB —
~^«
•«—
1!
•
+SH4.
NOTE: To use the chert the level difference (in dB) between the two noise levels, L1 and L2to be combined
is calculated (X-axis). From the chart a dB-value (AL) is then found which should be added to the
highest of the levels, L1 or L2 . to give the combined noise level.
Figure 6-1. Noise Level Addition Chart.
involving complex forces acting simultaneously may require sophisticated analysis and treatment
which, in turn, will be expensive. The following discussion outlines some approaches which have
been found useful in industrial noise contror and which can be extended to general noise control
problems.
1. Substitution Method-This approach considers using quieter equipment, a quieter pro-
cess, or introducing different material. For example, high velocity turbojet engines are
being replaced by lower velocity fanjet engines resulting in substantial reduction in air-
craft noise. In the case of impacting bodies consisting of metal on metal, a reduction of
the impact noise can be achieved by replacing the metal with some other material such
as rubber, should the process allow it.
2. Modification of the Noise Source-
A. Reduce the driving force on the vibrating surface by maintaining the dynamic
balance of rotating bodies, minimizing the rotational speed, increasing the duration
of the work cycle, or decoupling the driving force. The feasibility of these
approaches naturally depends upon the overall function of the vibrating body.
B. Reduce the response of the vibrating surface by adding damping materials to the
surface, changing the structural support of the surface, or increasing the mass of
the surface.
6-2
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C. Reduce the area of the vibrating surface by reducing the overall dimensions or per-
forating the surface.
D. Make use of the directionality of the source by positioning the noise source in such
a way that the receiver is exposed to minimum noise levels.
E. Whenever possible, try to reduce the speed of moving objects both solid or fluid,
as on an assembly line in a bottling plant.
F. Introduce streamline surfaces to minimize turbulence associated with fluid flow.
G. Use mufflers to reduce noise due to exhaust gases.
6.3 NOISE REDUCTION OF THE PATH OF SOUND
If it is not possible or economical to reduce the noise at the source, the next step is to
consider treating the path along which the sound energy flows. The following methods may be
used to reduce noise along the path of sound:
1. Introduce vibration isolation mounts.
2. Place a baffle between the source and receiver.
3. Place sound absorbing material on existing surfaces. An example showing the effect of
each of these approaches on the speech interference level (SIL) is shown in Figure 6-2.
4. Place a rigid sealed enclosure around the source. Varying degrees of such treatment on
the SIL for a given example are shown in Figure 6-3.
5. Use sound absorbing materials such as acoustic tile, heavy draperies, plush carpeting,
etc. to change the acoustic environment inside rooms. It is important to realize that
should the receiver be close to the sound source in the same room, such treatment will
have little effect in reducing the noise level experienced by the receiver. This is due to
the fact that the direct sound field will not be affected by the sound absorbing materials.
6. Figure 6-4 is an illustration of techniques employed to abate highway noise levels. Such
techniques include landscaping (which must be dense to be effective), wall barriers, and
depressing the highway.
6.4 NOISE REDUCTION AT THE RECEIVER
One obvious approach to reducing noise between a source and receiver is to increase the
distance between them. Such an approach allows the noise intensity to decrease with the distance
traveled by the freely progressing sound waves. Again, referring to Figure 6-4, we see that where
there is no barrier next to the highway, the sound level is decreased with the distance from the
right-of-way. (It is sometimes assumed that a decrease in the sound level occurs at a rate of 4.5 dB
as the distance is doubled).
The concept of decaying sound levels with distance from the source is useful for proper land
use zoning. For example, land areas close to airports could be reserved for industrial or commer-
cial use only, so that residential areas would be suitably removed from high levels of aircraft noise.
6-3
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OCTAVE-BAND ANALYSIS
OF NOISE
7-1
a
•o
l
_l
UJ
LU
Q
i
IOO
90
•0
70
80
50
40
OHIttlNAL
2O 78 ISO SOO
73 ISO 500 iOO
.— r—
1
ill*
70
UJ
-I tO
20 T5 190 300 100 1200 Z4OO 4WO
79 190 100 600 1200 Z4OO 4BOO MOO
FREQUENCY BAND
Figure 6-2. Possible Noise Reduction Effects of Some Noise Control Measures (From Handbook
of Noise Measurement, General Radio Company)
64
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RIGID, SEALED ENCLOSURE
7-5
r_
OCTAVE- BAND ANALYSIS
OF NOISE
to
75
Tf
ISO
ISO 500 «00 1200 1400 4MO
3OO. 600 1200 2400 4«OO MOO
FREQUENCY BAND
100
90
7-6
__ emouMt.
MOLATWH
*COU»TIC»L *liO«giNO MAT t RIAL
to n iso soo «oo 1200 MOO «MO
75 ISO 3OO SOO 1200 240O 48OO *«OO
FREQUENCY BAND
7-7
7-8
71 ISO SOO (00 1200 MOO 4«JO
ISO SOO tOO IJOO 2400 4«00 MOO
FREQUENCY BAND
Figure 6-3. Noise Reduction Possible by the Use of Enclosures. (From Handbook of Noise
Measurement, General Radio Company)
6-5
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HIGHWAY NOISE (dBA, L10 ) AT VARIOUS
DISTANCES FROM EDGE OF 4-LANE HIGHWAY
TRAFFIC: 5,000 VEHICLES PER HOURS. 5% TRUCKS. 53 MPH
72
67
64 63 60
60 57
71 70 65
300
69
64
57
54
62
400
67
62
55
53
59
Figure 6-4. Highway Noise (dBA, LJQ) at Various Distances From Edge of 4-Lane Highway
-------
An approach such as land use planning, when utilized by local jurisdictions, would block expansion
of existing residential areas into acoustically undesirable land areas.
When industrial noise levels cannot be reduced to acceptable occupational noise levels, the
receiver may be rotated in job locations to meet allowable time exposures. In some cases the
receiver may require hearing protection devices such as earplugs.
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REFERENCES
!. Berdiiek, L. L., (ed.), Noise Reduction, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1960.
2. Verges, L., Sound, Noise and Vibration Control, Van Nostraiid, 1969.
3. Beranek, L. L., (ed.), Noise and Vibration Control, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1971.
4. Industrial Noise Manual, 2nd ed, Detroit: American Industrial Hygiene Association, 1966
6-8
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SECTION 7
MEASURING AND MONITORING NOISE
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Measurement is essential for developing intelligent appraisals of environmental noise.
The accuracy of the data derived from environmental noise measurements depends upon many
important factors. Foremost, the equipment used for the measurement must be standardized. Stan-
dardization implies that the results are accurate within specified tolerances, repeatable under the
same environmental conditions, and that the results can be correlated with the results of other instru-
ments. Likewise, the measurement methodology must be a standard one since it too will affect the
outcome of the measurement. An important procedure is the calibration process which accurately
sets the read-out scales of the measurement equipment subjected to known, standardized inputs. It
is the process which establishes the validity of the measured data within the limitations of the equip-
ment. Quite often, appropriate measurement procedures include sketching the physical layout,
showing the measurement stations with respect to nearby walls and other reflecting objects. Most
equipment, operational characteristics, measurement methods, and procedures are contained in recom-
mended specifications and procedure promulgated by national and international organizations. These
specifications and procedures must be followed in the measurement and monitoring of noise.
7.2 COMMON NOISE MEASURING EQUIPMENT
The following list sets forth some commercially available acoustic measuring equipment with
which regional personnel should be familiar:
• Sound Level Meter/Microphone.
• Calibrator.
• Octave Band Filters.
• Tape Recorder.
• Graphic Level Recorder.
• Statistical Analyzer
• Spectrum Analyzer.
• Impulse Meter.
• Dosimeter.
• Real Time Analyzer.
7-1
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7.2.1 Sound Level Meter/Microphone
This is the most important instrument of all sound measuring equipment. Commercially
available units are self-contained, battery operated, and portable. Usually a microphone is supplied
with the sound level meter.
Most manufacturers supply two different damping levels to the meter indicating mechanism
(needle); thus, the meter can be read in fast or in slow setting. Generally, on the fast setting, the
needle indicates the sound level within a fraction of a second after a steady signal is first applied.
The overshoot is generally not greater then 1 dB. The slow setting averages the sound level for a
greater time period.
The weighting networks, designated A, B, and C, were originally designed to approximate the
human reception of sound at different loudness levels as discussed in Section 4 (Subsections 4.3
and 4.4). In some newer sound level meters, a D weighting network provides measured levels which
are related to the perceived noise level due to aircraft noise (Subsection 4.8)
Depending on the tolerance of the weighting network, sound level meters can be classified as
Type 1-Precision, Type 2-General Purpose, Type 3-Survey, and Type S-Special Purpose. The Type
2-Gcneral Purpose meter gives the sound level within a few decibels of the meter reading. Type 2
is generally satisfactory for most measurements in compliance with noise ordinances (i.e., the results
are usually acceptable in a court of law).
The microphone of a sound level meter is generally of the omm-directional, random-incident
type and is suitable for most sound measurements. In addition, other accessories may include a
wind screen, random incident corrector, tripod, etc.
7.2.2 Calibrator
Commercially available sound pressure level calibrators are portable, battery operated units
which, when fitted to a microphone, supply a specified sound pressure level within a fraction of a
decibel. The calibration procedure involves only a battery check and the setting of the sound level
meter control knobs. It is good practice to calibrate the sound level meter both prior to making a
survey and afterwards. For monitoring projects, occasional calibration is very desirable. For a more
complicated survey involving the use of recorders, it is important to feed the calibration signal to
the recorders for reference purposes.
7.2.3 Octave Band Filters
The octave band filter set is an analyzer that indicates at what frequency range the sound
energy is concentrated. For this reason, the instrument is particularly useful in noise control
assignments.
Portable units conforming to ANSI and IEC specifications 2) 3 are commercially available as
accessories to the sound level meter over the frequency range between 31.5 Hz to 31,500 Hz in
eleven octave bands.
7-2
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7.2.4 Tape Recorder
A tape recorder is required for more elaborate surveys where a permanent record of the
acoustic environment is desired or where more detailed analysis in the laboratory is anticipated.
The unit with a DC option is particularly useful for Held survey since the powering of the unit may
be tapped from a car battery. Depending upon the type of survey, the sound level meter is set on
the A-weighting network (community noise studies) or on the linear weighting network (noise
control).
In selecting a recorder for noise measurement, care should be exercised to assure that the unit
has good sound reproduction capability m the audible range. Quality tape should always be chosen
for the recording.
7.2.5 Graphic Level Recorder
This is basically a recorder which gives a temporal trace of the sound pressure level on paper
for visual examination. Commercial units are AC operated. Both linear and logarithmic (dB) dis-
plays of the signal can be obtained.
7.2.6 Statistical Analyzer
The statistical analyzer provides a histogram of recorded noise. One commercial unit divides
the sound level into ten equal intervals of 5 dB each with ten windows indicating the time lapse for
each interval. Two additional windows indicate the time when the sound is above and below the
50-dB sound level intervals. The sampling time varies from 0.1 second to 10 seconds. This unit is
coupled to a compatible level recorder.
7.2.7 Spectrum Analyzer
This AC operated, laboratory instrument is desirable for detailed analysis of a steady sound
signal measured directly or on tape. For virtually all tasks performed by regional personnel, an
octave/third octave analyzer is sufficient. Commerical units having filter sets conforming to national
and international standards can provide an octave or third octave analysis of a signal automatically
when coupled to a level recorder.
7.2.8 Impulse Meter
This is generally a precision sound level meter with the additional capability of measuring signals
with a high crest factor such as impulse sound or blast. A specially designed "hold" circuitry enables
the operator to read the maximum rms or maximum peak values of the impulsive signal.
7.2.9 Dosimeter
This noise exposure meter provides a reading which can be related to the percentage of a
predetermined period when the noise environment exceeds a set level. Commercially available
7-3
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units are designed for compliance with the Occupational Safety and Health Act regulations
(Chapter 8). A noise exposure meter for community noise monitoring is being developed through
and ABN-National Bureau of Standards interagency agreement.
i
7.2.10 Real Time Analyzer
This is an analyzer which displays the energy spectrum on a fluorescent screen in a vacuum
tube. This analyzer, capable of providing 1/3 octave spectra in the order of a few milliseconds, may
be used in measuring PNdB values associated with aircraft noise. It can also be used to analyze
impulsive sound.
7.3 CONSIDERATIONS IN MEASURING AND MONITORING
7.3.1 Understanding the Problem
First, the problem must be clearly understood, whether it is a comprehensive law enforcement
piogram or a telephone complaint of a single offensive source.
7.3.1.1 Locality of the Problem
It is necessary to determine if measurements are to be taken indoors or outdoors. The demo-
graphic setting should also be known.
7.3.1.2 Nature of the Noise
It is necessary to determine whether the noise is steady, fluctuating or impulsive and whether
any pure tone exists.
7.3.1.3 Operational Characteristic of the Noise
It is necessary to determine whether the noise occurs continuously or periodically in the day,
and also whether it occurs in daytime or nighttime.
7.3.1.4 Physical Characteristics of the Noise
It is necessary to determine the sound pressure level, the frequency and directivity of the noise.
7.3.2 Methodology
Once the problem is understood, a program can be planned based on the available resources.
Several considerations are important in formulating the measurement program.
7.3.2.1 Location and Frequency Requirements
The planner must decide how many measurement stations are sufficient and how often data
are taken at these stations.
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7.3.2.2 Manpower Requirement
The planner must also estimate the required number of technical and non-technical personnel
and in what way they are to be used.
7.3.2.3 Equipment Requirement
This concerns the assembly of suitable equipment for the execution of the program. Careful
planning such as the rotation of the equipment and personnel is necessary Auxiliary equipment
such as power supplies, cable connections, etc. should not be neglected.
7.3.2.4 Data Requirement
The planner must decide what type of results (rms, peak, dBC (A), etc.) are to be recorded,
what degree of accuracy is acceptable, and what type of permanent record is required.
7.3 3 Measurement and Monitoring
7.3.3.1 Visual Inspection
Upon arriving at the measurement site, it is advisable to study the area and listen to the noise
so that any necessary adjustments to the program can be made immediately. Most of the time, it
is necessary to have permanent records of the physical layout of the site including the measurement
stations.
7.3.3.2 Calibration
The batteries of the equipment should be checked and the equipment should be calibrated in
accordance with standards specifications and procedures.
7.3.3.3 Background Noise Survey
If the offending noise can be turned off, it is advisable to obtain a measurement of the back-
ground noise.
7.3.3.4 Operation
For recorded data to be useful, published procedures must be followed strictly. These proce-
dures are contained in manufacturer manuals, standards specifications and applicable laws and
ordinances. Any deviation should be noted in the permanent record.
Sometimes erroneous data are obtained due to environmental elements such as humidity,
temperature, and atmospheric changes. The errors can be eliminated by making corrections in
accordance with the procedures recommended by the manufacturers. Wind errors can be mimmi/cd
by windscreens.
7-5
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7.4 DATA REDUCTION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION
In data manipulation, the manufacturers' manuals and standards specifications should be
consulted for corrections and calculation procedures.
The analysis and the presentation of the data depend on the nature of the survey. Several
commonly encountered situations are given below.
7.4.1 Complaints, Noise Control
For noise of a steady nature such as that from a stationary source, sound level meter results
in dB(A) and dB(C) at the property boundary are often sufficient to determine if compliance of a
local noise ordinance is met. If the readings are about the same, the noise has high frequency char-
acteristics (i.e., the energy is concentrated in frequency ranges of about 500 Hz and above), other-
wise the noise is low frequency in nature. For more elaborate analysis, a portable octave set is
incorporated or attached to a sound level meter. Examples are given in Figure 4-2.
7.1.2 Community Noise Survey and Monitoring
For community noise survey and monitoring activities, it is sometimes best to record the
temporal sound pressure level in dB(A) with a recorder (Figure 5-1). Histograms (Figure 5-3) can
be presented from the results taken from the statistical analyzer to provide statistical sound levels.
7.4.3 Impulsive Noise Measurement
An impulse sound level meter will give the peak and the rms sound pressure levels. Sometimes
it is desirable to record the noise on tape which can be analyzed in an oscilloscope for the waveform,
and other times in a real time analyzer for the spectra.
7.4.4 Aircraft Noise
This fluctuating noise can best be recorded on tape for further analysis,. In the most sophisti-
cated arrangement, a real time analyzer is coupled to a computer to calculate aircraft noise ratings
7-6
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REFERENCES
1. "American National Standard Specifications for Sound Level Meters," ANSI S1.4-1971.
2. "American Standard Specification for Octave, Half-Octave, and Third-Octave Band Filter Sets,"
ASA SI.11-1966.
3. "Octave, Half-Octave and Third-Octave Band Filters Intended for the Analysis of Sounds and
Vibration" (1966), IEC Recommendation, Publication 225.
4. Noise and Vibration Control, Chapter 4, Beranek, L. L., ed., McGraw Hill Book Company, 1971
5. Tutorial Papers on Noise Control. Chapter 12, Inter-Noise 72, Crocker, M. J., cd., Institute of
Noise Control Engineering, 1972.
6. Handbook of Noise Measurement, Seventh Edition by Peterson, A. P G., Gross, E. E., Jr.,
General Radio Company, 1972.
7. Acoustic Noise Measurements by Broah, J. T., Bruel & Kjaer, 1971.
7-7
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SECTION 8
LAWS AND ORDINANCES
8.1 NOISE ABATEMENT REGULATIONS
8.1.1 General Policy for Federal Noise Abatement and Control
The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 has required, since January 1, 1970, that
Federal agencies use an interdisciplinary approach to integrate the environmental design arts into
IMC decision making process [Section 102(2) (A&B)]. Initially, this new approach to decision
making has taken the form of environmental impact statements required pursuant to Section 102
(2) (C) on all Federal actions significantly affecting the human environment. Noise was not
specifically mentioned but the Council of Environmental Quality chose to consider noise as an
influence on the quality of the environment. Such statements should, therefore, include consid-
eration of environmental noise. Section 102(2) (A&B) is intended to bring about the synthesis ot
an environmental awareness within Federal agency decision making processes.
The Noise Pollution and Abatement Act of 1970 was the first legislation to provide a central
focus for overall environmental noise abatement at the Federal level. This Act required that an
Office of Noise Abatement and Control be established in the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) to carry on research and investigations into environmental noise. The act further directed
in Section 402(c) that, following a determination by the Administrator of EPA that noise related
to a Federal agency's activity or its sponsored activities is a public nuisance or is otherwise objec-
tionable, the Federal department or agency sponsoring such activity must consult with the
Administrator of EPA to determine possible ways of abating such noise. Previous Federal legis-
lation had been directed to noise abatement with respect to specific noise sources (such as air-
craft noise) or in regard to special environmental situations (such as occupational exposure or
transportation planning).
The Noise Control Act of 1972 represents the first major Federal attempt to eliminate
excess noise at the design stage of a wide variety of new consumer products. Major provisions
of the Act include the following:
• EPA is directed to develop and publish information on the limits of noise required for
protecting public health and welfare as well as a series of reports to identify products
that are major sources of noise and to give information on the techniques for con-
trolling noise from such products.
8-1
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« Using the criteria thus developed, the EPA Administrator is required to set noise
emission standards for products that have been identified as major sources of noise and
for which standards are deemed feasible. The law requires such standards to be set for
products in the categories of construction equipment, transportation equipment (except
aircraft), all motors and engines, and electrical and electronic equipment. It also grants
authority to set for other products, standards deemed feasible and necessary to protect
public health and safety.
• EPA has authority to require the labeling of domestic or imported consumer products as
to their noise-generating characteristics or their effectiveness in reducing noise. Manufac-
turers or importers of nonconforming or mislabeled products are subject to fines of up to
$25,000 per day for each violation and to imprisonment for up to one year. Manufac-
turers must issue warrants that their regulated products comply with Federal standards
at the time of sale. They are also required to maintain records and provide information,
including production samples, if requested by EPA.
• The EPA Administrator also is to prescribe noise emission standards for the operation of
equipment and facilities of interstate railroads, trucks, and buses.
• All Federal agencies'are directed to use the full extent of their authority to insure that
purchasing and operating procedures conform to the intent of the law. EPA may certify
low-noise-emission products for purchase by the Federal Government.
• As required by the Noise Control Act of 1972, EPA completed and submitted to the
Congress on July 27, 1973, a comprehensive study of aircraft noise and cumulative noise
exposure around airports. Using this information, EPA will submit to the FAA proposed
regulations to control aircraft noise and sonic booms. After a hearing and further con-
sultation with EPA, the FAA may adopt or modify the proposed regulations. The FAA
may reject the proposals if it believes they are unsafe, technologically or economically
infeasible, or inapplicable to certain aircraft. However, it must publicly explain its
specific reasons for rejection. A continuing review and consultation role is provided for
EPA.
It is apparent that the Noise Control Act of 1972 has mandated a strong leadership role in
noise emission control at the Federal level. However, while certain preemptive powers do exist (see
Appendix E) it is important for State and local governments to realize that a quiet environment can
be achieved only through a partnership with the Federal government.
8.1.2 Aircraft Noise
The Department of Transportation (DOT) Act of 1966 was the first statutory authority
relevant to aircraft noise. Section 4(a) of the Act directed the Secretary of Transportation to
"promote and undertake research and development relating to transportation, including noise
abatement, with particular attention to aircraft noise". Although some efforts were undertaken
fc-2
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by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as early as 1960, it was not until the 1968
enactment of Section 611 (PL 90-411), relating to Control of Aircraft Noise and Sonic Boom, us
an amendment to the Federal Aviation Act of 1958, that the Federal government undertook an
active program of civil aircraft noise abatement.
In November 1969, the FAA published in the Federal Register the Federal Aviation Regulation
(FAR) Part 36 - Noise Standards: Aircraft Type Certification. This far-reaching rule applies to
certain subsonic jet aircraft (see reference 3 for a complete discussion). The rule defines noise
limits which aircraft must meet at certain locations with respect to the airport runway during
takeoff and landing operations. Additional restrictions are imposed by the FAR-36 to insure that
aircraft become progressively quieter at flight positions further from the airport.
In the Airport and Airways Development Act of 1970, the FAA has a valuable tool that could
be used to abate noise with respect to airports, since the Act declares the "national policy that
airport development projects authorized pursuant to this part shall provide for the protection and
enhancement of the natural resources and the quality of environment of the Nation". The airport
certification provisions of Section 51 (b)( 1) direct the Administrator of the FAA to set minimum
operational safety standards for airports served by Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) certified air
carriers, but do not apply to the regulation of airport noise levels. The Act is applicable to all
projects involving new airports and runways or extension of existing runways; thus, relatively few
airport developments that might create additional noise escape consideration.
The FAA issued FAR Part 91 - General Operating and Flight Rules: Civil Aircraft Sonic
Boom in April 2, 1973. The purpose of the rule is to afford the public protection from civil air-
craft sonic boom by prohibiting supersonic flights of civil aircraft, except under terms of an
authorization to exceed Mach 1.
8.1.3 Highway Noise
Beginning in 1965, the Secretary of Commerce (duties transferred to the Secretary of Trans-
portation since 1966) was required to "cooperate with the States ... in the development of long
range highway plans ... which are formulated with due consideration to their probable effect
on the future development of urban areas of more than fifty thousand population." The first
active consideration of highway noise at the Federal level was contained in the Policy and Procedures
Memorandum 20-8 of the Bureau of Public Roads, issued January 14, 1969. Environmental effects,
which must be considered by the State or local sponsor seeking Federal aid, are defined to include
"noise, air, and water pollution."
A 1970 amendment to the Federal-Aid-Highway Act (PL 91-605) required the Secretary of
Transportation to develop and promulgate standards for highway noise levels compatible with
different land uses. Such standards were issued in April 1972 by the Federal Highway Administra-
tion (FHWA) as Policy and Procedure Memorandum (PPM) 90-2.
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8.1.4 Occupational Noise Abatement and Control
The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 mandated the Department of Labor to
promulgate regulations to protect employees of all firms affecting interstate commerce. Limitation
of noise at the employee's work place, based on necessity to protect against permanent hearing
handicap, has been established by regulation. Section 18 of the Act permits a state to assume
responsibility for administering and enforcing the Occupational Safety and Health Program within
the state.
The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), in AEC Manual 0550-01 OS, February 25, 1970, and
the Department of Interior, pursuant to the Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969, have also
adopted the OSHA standards for occupational noise programs. The AEC program is intended,
"... for the protection of AEC and AEC contractor employees, the general public, and the
environment . . . ." The Department of the Interior, through the Bureau of Mines, applies the
standards to some 1900 licensed underground coal mines. The Bureau of Motor Carrier Safety,
Department of Transportation has extrapolated the OSHA standards for maximum allowable
in-cab noise levels for 10-hour periods. These proposed regulations were published in the
Federal Register on January 4, 1973.
8.1.5 Acoustic Characteristics of Buildings
Regarding acoustical characteristics of buildings, the Department of Housing and Urban
Development (HUD) has issued Policy Circular 1390.2, August 4, 1971, concerning acoustical
acceptability of new sites and existing buildings to be aided by HUD monies. This circular applies
noise standards to programs where none existed previously and replaces the standards of the Federal
Housing Administration (FHA), which is under HUD, to the extent that programs, "... have less
demanding noise exposure requirements."
The General Services Administration (GSA), under PBS P3410.5, June 12, 1968; PBS P
3460.1C, June 12, 1968; PBS 4-0950, November 1970; PBS 4-1021, February 1970; and PBS
4-1515-71, April 1971, has established certain objective standards to be met in various segments of
government buildings constructed under GSA contract. These standards are designed to reduce the
impact of noise by providing a buffer between the noise source and the receiver. Furthermore,
under PBS 4-01100, August 1972, GSA set allowable decibel levels for the purchase of construction
equipment.
8.1.6 Other Noise Sources Controlled at the Federal Level
The Federal Power Commission, acting under the authority of the Natural Gas Act of 1938
(15 U.S.C. §717), has directed in 18C.F.R. §2.69, 1971 (first appearing on July 16, 1970 in
35 Fed. Reg. 11389) that compressors, when used above ground in connection with gas pipelines,
must be located and treated so as to reduce the noise impact on the environment.
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8.2 STATE NOISE ABATEMENT REGULATIONS
Many States are entering the noise control Held in earnest, as demonstrated by the large
number of recently enacted or proposed State laws in this area. (To date, approximately 20 States
have some objective type of noise law.) It is increasingly common for States to establish environ-
mental departments to deal with noise and other pollutants, and the number of noise sources
being regulated by any single State is growing. The States are also becoming more sophisticated in
the writing of noise laws and are beginning to specify noise limits in terms of decibels instead of
the subjective and inexact terms previously used, such as "unnecessary" and "unreasonable,"
although such standards have by no means disappeared. A growing number of states are also setting
standards for noise from new vehicles and equipment, forbidding the sale of any that fail to con-
form to the standards.
8.2.1 Trends and Gaps in State Legislation
The trend in the area of state regulation is toward more comprehensive, objective laws cover-
ing more noise sources and enforced by environmental agencies. States tend to adopt laws that set
progressively stricter standards over specified time periods and often direct their laws at the
manufacturers.
Despite these encouraging signs, there are still gaps in State regulation. Aircraft noise is not
restricted except in California. Colorado has taken steps in the direction of control of railroad and
construction site noise.
With some exceptions, States have not been experimenting with new methods of regulating
noise. In particular, there has been a noticeable failure to employ land use policies to limit the
effects of noise. To date, Minnesota and New York are the only States to have passed such laws.
(Five other States are currently considering similar legislation.)
8.3 REGIONAL NOISE ABATEMENT REGULATIONS
One significant regional regulation of noise sources is the limit on aircraft takeoff noise
imposed by the Port of New York Authority, which operates Kennedy, La Guardia, Newark, and
Teterboro Airports in the New York City vicinity. Takeoffs are not permitted if atmospheric
conditions and operating procedures would cause a limit of 112 PNdB to be exceeded at certain
measuring points near the airport.*
Other examples of regional efforts in noise abatement include the Minneapolis-St.Paul regional
zoning for airports as well as a similar scheme for the Dallas-Fort Worth Regional Airport.
*The suitability of these rules as effective measures has been challenged by nearby communities.
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8.4 LOCAL NOISE ABATEMENT REGULATIONS
Appendix C is a compilation^ of municipal (i.e., a city and not a borough, township, or
county jurisdiction) noise regulations currently enacted, covering the categories of nuisance, zoning
(land use), buildings, vehicles, and aircraft. These are over 175 noise related regulations involving
approximately 43 million people, which is equivalent to 23 percent of the total U.S. population.
Nearly 85 percent, or 148, of these laws contain nuisance provisions and are classified as "nuisance
type ordinances." They typically prohibit unreasonably loud, disturbing, or unnecessary noise but
fail to define noise quantitatively. The remaining laws are "performance type ordinances." This
smaller group, incorporating acoustical criteria, is more objective in nature. These criteria include
overall sound level measurements, usually expressed in decibels on the A-weighted scale (dBA).
However, many ordinances include octave band provisions in addition. Examples of local ordi-
nances employing performance type standards can be found elsewhere.
8.4.1 Trends and Gaps in Local Legislation
Noise has traditionally been regulated more often at the local level, beginning in Boston in
1850. The first quantifiable noise ordinances adopted at the local level included Seattle (1952),
Cincinnati (1953), and Chicago (1955). However, with the increase in the general environmental
noise levels of American cities in recent years, local governments have begun to adopt more compre-
hensive laws to deal with a variety of noise sources. These laws are tending to include more strin-
gent standards and are often directed at manufacturers. Although the major noise sources are
regulated at the local level, any one city does not have laws governing noise from every type of
noise source. More cities must expand the number of regulated noise sources if local control of
noise is to be more effective. They must also increase local expenditure for personnel and equip-
ment to implement existing laws.
8.5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STATE ENABLING LEGISLATION
At its April meeting, 1973, the Council of State Governments adopted a model bill for noise
control legislation at the State level. Briefly, the bill attempts to give the states maximum authority
to regulate noise pollution consistent with the preemptive provisions of the Federal Noise Control
Act of 1972.
The model bill contains the following provisions, many of which are patterned on their
Federal counterparts:
I. Policy-a declaration of policy of noise control to better the public health and welfare.
2. State agencies are obliged to follow that policy and to obey all Federal, State, and local
noise laws.
3. The State is to adopt a comprehensive program of noise control including:
a. Control of environmental noise.
b. Control of product noise.
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c. Labeling requirements for noisy and noise reducing products.
d. Notice to purchasers of real property of the noisiness of the area.
e. Setting of ambient standards.
f. Adoption of a plan for achieving those standards.
g. Noise insulation standards for new construction.
h. Regulation of noise at places of work.
i. Regulation of airport and aircraft noise.
4. Standards-The basis of the standards for the above regulations is consideration of the
public health and welfare, taking into account the magnitude and conditions of use of
the product or activity involved, degree of noise reduction available through the opera-
tion of the best available technology, and the cost of compliance.
5. The State also is to:
a. Conduct studies.
b. Comment on noise impact of environmental impact statements.
c. Give technical and legal drafting assistance to local governments.
d. Procure low noise emission products.
e. Give variances.
f. Submit annual reports.
6. Local Governments are to develop a noise control plan and implementing mechanisms.
7. Enforcement provisions are geared to each State's usual procedures but may include
civil remedies and criminal penalties.
8. Provision is made for citizen suits with a simplified version of the Federal act.
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REFERENCES
1. Noise Source Regulation in State and Local Noise Ordinances, NTID 73.1, March 1, 1973.
2. Bragdon, Clifford, "Community Noise Ordinances: Their Evolution, Purpose and Impact,"
presented at the 74th National Meeting of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers,
New Orleans, March 13, 1973.
3. Transportation Noise and Noise from Equipment Powered by Internal Combustion Engines,
NTID 300.13, December 31, 1971.
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SECTION 9
HEADQUARTERS-REGIONAL INTERFACE
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The EPA regional noise abatement effort was given impetus by the Office of Noise Abatement
and Control's first summer intern program, which began in June 1971 with the assignment of one
intern to each region. Prior to that time, the regions had virtually no personnel with even limited
expertise in the noise field. (ABN, itself, was not established until April 1971 as a result of the
Clean Air Act Amedments, passed in December 1970.) The interns' work involved initiating
various projects to bring the noise problem to the attention of both public and private groups.
Since that time, the regions, with varying degrees of involvement and often with ABN
assistance, have been performing certain noise related tasks. These tasks have included:
• Review of environmental impact statements, with noise control as a consideration.
• Response to public inquiries and complaints.
• Collection of information pertaining to the particular region (e.g., ordinances, projects,
contacts, etc.)
• Consultation with State and local officials regarding noise ordinance development and
noise programs.
• Workshops, etc.
Regional involvement in these activites as well as in many others has established the framework
for a truly effective national noise abatement program.
9.2 PRESENT REGIONAL CAPABILITIES IN NOISE PROGRAMS
9.2.1 Personnel and Funding
Although no formal noise control program existed in the regions until FY'74, from inception,
ABN endeavored to upgrade the personnel capability in the regions.
In November 1971, the regions sent representatives to an ABN funded, one-week, noise
training course at Pennsylvania State University. The course provided the regions with the capa-
bility to deal with noise problems on a limited basis.
By March 1972 both Region IV and Region VIII, with ABN encouragement, were utilizing
part-time ABN funded noise control consultants. (These regions had completed arrangements
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prior to the imposition of a freeze on hiring consultants.) The other regions will be able to draw
upon contractor furnished technical assistance during FY'74.
In January 1973 the Assistant Administrator for Hazardous Materials Control proposed
granting a temporary position to each region from the Office of Hazardous Materials Control for
FY'74 if the region would actively request and support this position being made permanent in
FY'75.
Also, ABN decided to utilize, beginning in FY'74, another method of staffing the regions
which is provided for in the Intergovernmental Personnel Act of 1970, (Mobility of Federal, State
and Local Employees). The number of IPA personnel in each region will depend upon the funding
available for this program in ABN. Approximately $22,000 is budgeted for each region in FY'74.
Specifically, the act permits the temporary assignment of personnel among the Federal
Government and State and local governments and institutions of higher education to perform
assignments mutually beneficial to the organizations involved. Assignments may be initiated by
the State or local government or by the Federal agency concerned. Each assignment is implemented
by a written agreement that must be consented to by the Federal agency, the State or local govern-
ment or institution of higher education, and the employee to be assigned.
9.2.2 Technical Assistance from Laboratories and Other Organizations
9.2.2.1 U.S. Air Force 6570th Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory (AMRL).
Since July 1972, ABN has made available to the regions technical consulting services from
AMRL. This consultation is intended to include, but not be restricted to, impact statements,
advice on noise surveys, complaint follow-ups, application of noise criteria, etc. The appropriate
AMRL contacts are:
Mr. John Cole
Chief, Biodynamic Environmental Branch
(513/255-3675)
Dr. Charles Nixon
Chief, Biological Acoustics Branch
(513/255-3607)
Since it is necessary for ABN to maintain an accounting of services rendered by AMRL for cost
reimbursement, regions should notify the coordination and technical assistance staff whenever
AMRL has been requested to provide a specific service.
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9.2.2.2 CHABA (the NAS-NRC Committee on Hearing, Bioacoustics and Biomechanics)
This important interagency group may be utilized by the regions if requests are coordinated
through ABN. Sponsored by the National Academy of Sciences, the CHABA includes representa-
tives from academia, industry and government. The government organizations represented are:
• Department of the Army
• Department of the Navy
• Department of the Air Force
• NASA
• FAA
• EPA
• NIH
• DOT (highway Safety Council).
Services and activities of CHABA include:
• Literature reviews
• Reports on special problem areas
• Evaluations of research proposals
• On-going research projects
• Opportunity for interaction among the various agencies.
9.2.2.3 Industrial and Professional Associations
Interest in noise related problems is demonstrated by the activities of over 100 professional/
industrial organizations. Some of these organizations, of course, have a direct interest while others
have a more tangential one. The Institute of Noise Control Engineering and the Acoustical Society
of America are two of the larger professional societies that are directly engaged in a broad spectrum
of noise problems. These two organizations are among those which have been most cooperative
with ABN. Addresses are:
Acoustical Society of America
c/o Mr. Eugene Kone
American Institute of Physics
335 East 45th St.
New York, New York 10017
Institute of Noise Control Engineering
P.O.Box 1758
Poughkeepsie, New York 12601
A discussion of these and other organizations is contained in the EDP Noise Technical
Information Document 300.9.
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9.2.2.4 Citizens Groups
There are many citizens groups interested in noise pollution; such groups can send support to
a number of regional programs. Among the most well known are:
• National Organization to Insure a Sound-Controlled Environment (N.O.I.S.E.)
Executive Building
I West Street
Mineola, New York 11501
• Citizens Against Noise
2729 West Lunt
Chicago, Illinois 6064S
Attn: Mr. Ted Berland
• Citizens for a Quieter City, Inc.
P.O. Box 7777, Ansonia Station
New York, New York 10023
Attn: Mr. Robert A. Baron
• Sierra Club Headquarters
1050 Mills Tower
222 Bush Street
San Francisco, California 94104
9.2.2.5 Universities
In over 90 institutions of higher learning, courses are being offered in noise related subjects.
Research, covering a variety of subjects, is also being conducted.
University programs are discussed in detail in the EPA Noise Technical Information Document
300.9.
9.2.2.6 Other Federal Agencies
Regional offices of the other Federal agencies involved in noise may be a valuable resource to
the regional noise program office.
Federal activities in the noise area are discussed in a separate section of this planning guide.
9.2.3 Instrumentation and Supporting Equipment
9.2.3.1 Sound Measuring Equipment
Each region has the following ABN supplied equipment in addition to any it may have pur-
chased on its own:
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General Radio Item Number
1. 1565-9702, 1565-B Sound Level Meter
2. 1560-9667, Cable
3. 1562-9701, 1562-A Calibrator
4. 1560-9570, 1560-9570 Microphone
5. 1560-9606, 1560-P6 Microphone
6. 1560-9642, 1560-P42 Pre-amplifier
7. 1560-9580, Tripod
8. 1560-9521, Windscreen Pack
9. 1521-9833, Graphic Level Recorder
10. 1521-9423, Chartpaper
9.2.3.2 Computer Services
ABN is currently making available to the regions its own noise library, known as NOISE,
which is on the EPA computerized retrieval system (ENVIRON). Accessible from remote terminal,
it is an on-line system containing abstracts and other bibliographic information on noise-related
topics.
The Management Information and Data Systems Branch in the region leases the remote ter-
minal. Arrangements for the use of the terminal may be made through that branch. (Cost is
assumed by the regional office.)
9.2.3.3 Sound Demonstration Kit/Movies/Visual Aids
Each region received a noise control demonstration kit in 1972 designed to teach people how
to reduce noise. The effectiveness of basic noise control methods can be demonstrated acoustically
with this apparatus. Each region was also provided the National Bureau of Standards film "Noise
Presentation." Various other movies and visual aids are available from ABN.
9.3 REGIONAL PROGRAMS
9.3.1 ABN Priorities
ABN, in providing guidance and support to the regions, identified three regional output
priorities for FY'74:
1. Establishment of mechanisms and relationships for coordination of all activities of
Federal agencies in the region which impact the generation of noise by the private sector.
2. Regional assesment of the needs of States and local governments. These assessment
statements should include an evaluation of existing legislation, regulations, and noise
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control programs as well as a discussion of recognized problem areas. This will enable
ABN to determine the resources required for State and local ambient control programs.
3. Structure and conduct, with ABN guidance of the initial phase, an environmental noise
monitoring program. Base line data on environmental noise levels will be obtained from
representative land use areas within the regions.
These output priorities are consistent with the Office of Hazardous Materials Control's primary
objective of regional program activities which is to establish a basis for expansion to full scale oper-
ations through FY'78.
In addition to these priorities, ABN also has listed the activities which are necessary and/or
desirable for accomplishment (although not all in FY'74).
9.3.1.1 Public Awareness Program
Develop and implement a public awareness program on the effects of noise and the measures
needed for abatement and control:
• Workshop - a 2-day program for State and local officials to inform them on the assessment
of noise problems and the implementation of noise control programs. (Since May 1972,
when Region X conducted a two-day workshop in Seattle, Washington, ABN has been
actively encouraging and supporting the regional involvement in this area. For a schedule
of workshops conducted, see Appendix D.
• Conference - a 1 to 2 day program for citizens groups, etc.
• Information - promulgate information and data on noise and its effects via literature,
radio/T.V. media, demonstrations, speeches, etc.
• Educational Institutions - promote curriculum consideration for noise courses, seminars,
etc., at the high school and college level.
9.3.1.2 Technical Assistance
Provide technical assistance to State and local governments to implement noise control
programs:
• Ordinances - assist in the drafting and review regarding content, dB levels, types of
controls, enforcement techniques, etc.
• Resources - advise on the selection of personnel, equipment, supporting services, etc.
• Training - advise on the nature of training required for program officials, survey techni-
cians, etc. Provide training where possible.
• Noise control programs - collect and review existing State and local regulations to
establish a base line of noise control activities within the region.
• Surveys - Provide survey equipment and/or conduct surveys to determine ambient
noise levels in response to requests from Federal installations and local governments.
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9.3.1.3 Other areas
• Identify research requirements.
• Review and evaluate environmental impact statements.
• Reply to inquiries (letter, calls, etc.)
• Provide testimony for public hearings, etc.
• Plan for future compliance and enforcement strategies.
• Support ABN in standard setting and criteriadevelopment, as appropriate.
• Provide information to ABN about the kinds of programs needed at the regional level to
implement intent of NCA'72.
9.3.2 General description of regional tasks in support of FY'74 goals
The following chart indicates the three priority areas with the tasks and milestones set forth
in detail.
DATE
TASK START COMPLETE
1) Establish Region Interagency Coordination
Explore possibility of using Federal
Regional Councils as a coordinating device. July 1973
Review regulations and major policies of
each of the major agencies. August
Choose 1 or 2 major policies and investigate
their application in the Region. October
Recommend to Hq. any initiatives for Hq. to
take with other Federal Agencies' Hq's. Any —
2) Data Base for State and Local Assistance
Planning
Distribute draft assessment format and
instructions to regions for review and
comment. 7/15/73
Final outlines and instructions provided. 12/15/73
Assessments of States completed and
submitted to Hq. 1/30/74
Assessments of other jurisdictions completed
and submitted to Hq. 1/30/74 On-going
Region
On-going Region
On-going Region
Region
Head-
quarters
Head-
quarters
Region
Region
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TASK
3) ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STA TEMENT
REVIEW
4) TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO STA TES
AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
DATE
START COMPLETE
On-going Regions
On-going Regions
Output of regional programs will in part be measured through a series of reports to be sub-
mitted to headquarters.
9.4 REGIONAL/ABN COMMUNICATION
9.4.1 Current EPA Regional Contacts.
Region
1 John F. Kennedy Bldg. Rm. 2203
5.
6
Boston, Mass. 02203
26 Federal Plaza
New York, New York 10007
Curtis Building
6th & Walnut Sts.
Philadelphia, Pa. 19106
Suite 300
1421 Peachtree St., N:E.
Atlanta, Ga. 30309
1 NW Wacker Drive
Chicago, 111. 60606
1600 Patterson St.
Dallas, Texas 75201
Room 249
173S Baltimore St.
Kansas City, Mo. 64108
Mr. Earl Anderson
Mr. Alan Hicks
Mr. Conrad Simon
Ms. Jan Pawlak
Dr. Roy Sullivan
Mr. Emilio Escaladas
Mr. Gordon Rapier
Dr. Rocco DiTaranto
Mr. Asa Foster
Dr. Clifford Bradgon*
Mr. Lawrence Jefferson
Dr. Kent Williams
Mr. James Conlon
Mr. George Putnicki
Dr. Hal Watson
Mr. Charles Riddel
Mr. Donald A. Townley
Mr. Vincent Smith
617-223-5775
617-223-5708
212-264-2301
212-264-2110
215-597-9872
215-597-9869
404-526-5289
404-526-5861
312-353-5248
214-749-3971
816-374-3307
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Region
8
10
Room 916
Lincoln Tower
1860 Lincoln St.
Denver, Colo. 80220
100 California St.
San Francisco, Calif. 94102
1200 Sixth Ave.
Seattle, Washington 98101
* ABN supported consultants
Mr. David Wagoner
Mr. Robert Simmons
Dr. Robert Chanaud*
Mr. James West
Mr. Clyde Eller
Dr. James Channel!
Ms. Maria Brenner
Dr. Richard Procunier
Mr. Douglas Hansen
Ms. Deborah Humphrey
303-837-2407
303-837-2222
415-556-1406
415-556-4606
206-442-1253
9.4.2 ABN Personnel
The following is a list of ABN personnel who should be contacted by EPA Regional noise
officials who require information and/or assistance in the specialty areas as noted:
Rudy Marrazzo 703-557-7750
Program Plans
Budget Activities
Policy Matters
Resources
Regional Visits & Meetings
Susan Absher 703-557-7760
Nancy Braymer 703-557-2126
Reports on Consultants
Intergovernmental Personnel
Act
Interagency Agreements
Regional Workshops
Training Programs
Regional Reporting System
Public Information
Casey Caccavari 703-557-7749
Arnold Konheim 703-557-7604
Tom Gutmann 703-557-7604
Ordinances and Laws
Model Noise Legislation
E1S Process
Noise Complaints re: Federal
Installations
Technical Assistance Monitoring
9.4.3 Regional Reporting System
A formal system of reporting to ABN was established in February 1973 (although ABN has
been communicating regularly with the regions since June 1971). The regions were requested to
report according to the following schedule:
Report Received by ON AC
Tuesday-First Week of Month
Tuesday-Second Week of Month
Tuesday-Third Week of Month
Tuesday-Fourth Week of Month
Regions
V, VII
VI, IX
I.H.X
III. IV, VIII
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In turn, the regions are provided information regularly on ABN's activities, including the
weekly action summary, the monthly status report and the noise program work plans as they are
revised.
9.4.4 Meetings
ABN visited nearly every regional office during FY'73. Various regions are being invited on a
periodic basis to participate in ABN's program reviews.
In March 1973, ABN sponsored a Regional Planning Workshop in Denver, Colorado, for
development of regional plans and programs. 'Two full days were devoted to discussions of noise
program strategy and planning. The program was structured so that ABN staff personnel and
regional noise representatives could have ample time to discuss various problems in the areas of
resources, communications, and technical assistance.
ABN plans to hold other mettings of this type (perhaps on an annual basis). In the meantime,
ABN welcomes visits by regional personnel to headquarters.
9.5 OUTLOOK FOR THE FUTURE
The following chart graphically illustrates the general noise control strategy of EPA for FY 73-
78. It shows relative resource commitment as a function of time among the major tasks to be
accomplished by the EPA noise program. The chart is based upon the following premises:
a. that all statutory deadlines are to be met effectively and on time.
b. that establishment of effective State/local programs of noise control, coordination of
Federal agency research and control programs, and initiation of EPA noise research and
enforcement programs should begin at a relatively low level and expand after all initial
regulatory deadlines have been met.
Therefore, a heavy resource commitment expectedly will not be undertaken on the regional
level until after 1976. This increased commitment will be concurrent with the rising commitment
of resources for enforcement and research activities.
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GENERAL r >E CONTROL STRATEGY
FY 74-79
VERY HEAVY
JHEAVY —
JMODERATE
I LIGHT
I MINIMAL
PRODUCT REGULATIONS
NIL
REGIONAL OPERATIONS
AIRCRAFT & AIRPORT REGULATIONS
i PLANS & REQUIREMENTS
INTERSTATE SURFACE
CARRIER REGULATIONS
Figure 9-1. General EPA Noise Control Strategy FY 74-79
-------
SECTION 10
INTERAGENCY COORDINATION
10.1 AUTHORITY
Prior to October 1972, EPA's authority for coordinating Federal agency noise programs was
contained in three laws*
t. Title IV, Section 402(c) of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970.
2. Section 309 of the Clean Air Act.
3. National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA, PL 91 -190).
The first of these, Title IV of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970, provides that:
In any case where any Federal department or agency is carrying out or sponsoring any
activity resulting in noise which the Administrator determines amounts to a public
nuisance or is otherwise objectionable, such department or agency shall consult with
the Administrator to determine possible means of abating such noise.
In 1972, ABN utilized this authority in successfully abating noise from naval training flights in
the San Diego, California area. The situation was reviewed thoroughly with Department of Defense
officials, and the naval training flight patterns were subsequently altered to alleviate the problem.
Section 309 of the Clean Air Act provides general authority for EPA to review proposed envi-
ronmental regulations of other Federal agencies. Pursuant to this authority, ABN reviewed, from
the standpoint of noise impact, certain proposed regulations of other Federal agencies, such as the
FHWA's noise standards and procedures, PPM 90-2.
Finally, the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 established the environmental impact
statement process. ABN's role with regard to this law is discussed in detail in Chapter 11.
In October 1972, the Noise Control Act of 1972 (PL 92-574, hereafter referred to as NCA '72)
was signed into law, granting EPA broad authority in the area of interagency coordination for noise
programs. Section 4 of the act directs EPA to coordinate all Federal agency noise standards and
regulations and to develop a report on the status of the Federal Government's overall efforts* to con-
trol noise (NCA'72 is discussed in depth in Section 8.)
NCA '72 also requires all Federal agencies to execute their programs in such u manner as to
"promote an environment for all Americans free from noise that jeopardizes their health or welfare"
In addition to the general policy to be followed by Federal agencies in the management of their
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noise programs, the act specifies that Federal agencies shall comply with all applicable Federal. State,
interstate, and local requirements regarding noise.
10.2 PRESENT INVOLVEMENT
At present, ABN is utilizing the extensive capabilities of other Federal agencies to enhance
those of EPA's own noise program. ABN, through the use of interagency agreements, has established
working relationships with the U.S. Air Force Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory (AMRL) at
Wnght-Patterson AFB, Ohio, the Committee on Hearing, Bioacoustics, and Biomechanics (CHABA)
of the National Academy of Science-National Research Council, the U.S. Air Force Academy, and
the National Bureau of Standards. Through these agreements, ABN has drawn upon highly skilled
technical resources to assist in various programmatic areas. (The capabilities of AMRL and CHABA
are discussed in Section 9.)
ABN is gathering information for effective coordination of the Federal Government's noise
programs Data has been acquired and analyzed for the first report on Federal agency noise programs,
which should be published in July 1974 and cover FY 73-74. The report will provide ABN the infor-
mational base line necessary for decision making regarding redirection of effort, resource commit-
ment, and elimination of overlapping areas. Included in the report will be a summaiy of Federal
noise research and control programs.
10.3 FUTURE PROGRAMS
On December 17, 1973, the President signed Executive Order 11752, entitled "Prevention,
Control, and Abatement of Environmental Pollution at Federal Facilities." This order revised Exec-
utive Order 11507 to provide a strong management role by the EPA in insuring compliance by Fed-
eral facilities with environmental pollution standards. The new order also added noise, pesticides,
radiation and solid waste to the list of pollutants covered. (E.O. 11507 had covered Federal Facility
compliance with only air and water quality standards.)
The EPA Office of Federal Activities has developed a strategy to implement the new order.
Although the bulk of the actual effort (inspections, assigning budget priorities to various projects,
etc.) will be made on the regional level, ABN will provide necessary guidance for projects involving
noise control. It should be noted that the order is in essence a mechanism for accomplishing the
compliance mandate specified in Section 4b of the Noise Control Act of 1972 (PL92-574). How-
ever, efforts by EPA to act in the Federal facility compliance area are not dependent upon the order.
The ABN noise control strategy chart (see Section 9) shows the relative resource commitment
accorded to the various areas of the noise program for fiscal year 1973-1979. Although the overall
level of regional activity will be relatively low until FY'76, ABN intends to give development of
activities in the interagency coordination area as much support as possible.
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SECTION 11
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT PROGRAM
11.1 INTRODUCTION
The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (PL 91-190) directs all Federal agencies to
"identify and develop methods and procedures which will insure that presently unquantified
environmental amenities and values are given appropriate consideration in decision making along
with economic and technical considerations." The Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ), m
furthering this act, has established guidelines for preparation of the required environmental impact
statements (EIS).
Practically speaking, an industry contemplating new construction or major expansion or modi-
fication should seriously consider the advisability of preparing an environmental impact statement
to meet applicable Federal and State requirements.
All Federal agencies must submit EIS's for any Federal action affecting the environment. The
different requirements of each Federal agency make uniformity in the preparation of statements
difficult Many states have now adopted legislation covering environmental impact statements at
the local level.
Generally an EIS contains the following.
• Description of the proposed action.
• Probable impact of the proposed action on the environment, including impact on
ecological systems.
• Probable adverse environmental effects which cannot be avoided.
• Alternatives to the proposed action.
• The relationship between local short-term uses of man's environment and the maintenance
and enhancement of long-term productivity.
• Any irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources.
• Problems and objections raised by other Federal, State, and local agencies and by private
organizations and individuals in the review process and in the disposition of the issues
involved.
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11.2 STATUS OF NOISE IMPACT DISCUSSION
Prior to January 1972, noise impact generally was not considered in the preparation of most
EIS's. This was due to the following reasons:
• Lack of information on behalf of applicants
• Inadequate review by EPA on noise impact.
• Lack of noise criteria for use in noise impact assessment.
EPA's review was inadequate for various reasons, the primary one being the absence of the
technical capability to perform such an analysis. Prior to January 1972, most EIS's having an
obvious noise implication (i.e., airports, highways, etc ), were sent to EPA headquarters in
Washington. In some cases, limited manpower and the time needed to assess the statements
restricted adequate review.
After the establishment of regional noise contacts (See Section 9) and the associated noise
training and assistance provided by ABN, the regions began evaluating their respective impact
statements. Presently the evaluation of the noise impact in EIS' vanes in each regional office
depending upon the location for the programmatic responsibility.
Preliminary findings in an EPA contracted study, conducted by George Washington University,
to evaluate the treatment of noise impact by the applicant and reviewer indicated shortcomings in
both the preparation and assessment stages of the EIS process. This caused ABN to carefully evalu-
ate its own performance as well as that of others involved in the process. It was ABN's opinion that
more guidance was needed regarding the types of criteria which should be utilized in the EIS prepa-
ration and evaluation.
11.3 GUIDELINES FOR EIS ASSESSMENT
Presently only two Federal agencies have acoustical guidelines to evaluate noise impact. The
Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) published a policy Circular 1390 2m 1971
on noise abatement and control together with a HUD Noise Assessment Guideline to be used in
considering financing proposals sent to HUD.
The Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), issued noise
standards for the design of new highways and modification of existing highways in January 1973.
Many FHWA regional offices as well as State highway offices use the Highway Research Board's
Report #117 as a guide in preparing highway EIS's.
At this time, the only guidelines for assessing EIS's to be set by EPA are those for highways.
ABN recommends that its regional counterparts utilize certain accepted guides such as HUD's
Circular 1390.2, the Highway Research Report #117, DOT Highway Noise Computer Program,
the Noise Exposure Forecast (NEF) or Composite Noise Rating (CNR) for airport evaluations, and
other rating scales such as speech interference levels, sleep interference criteria, etc., as necessary.
These are to be viewed as surrogates until such time as EPA develops and publishes additional
recommended guidelines to be used in the EIS process.
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11.4 FUTURE EIS GUIDANCE
Much information is still needed for guidance in the assessment of EIS's. ABN's aim is to
provide this guidance by:
1. Publishing the Levels Document as required by the Noise Control Act of 1972
(PL 92-574).
2. Obtaining a better working definition of what is meant by noise impact through the
National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council (Committee on Hearing,
Bioacoustics and Biomechanics.)
3. Working with other segments of EPA, especially the Office of Federal Activities, to
develop guidelines for EPA's EIS review. (OFA published guidelines for review of high-
way impact statements in September 1973.)
Until these efforts are realized it will be the responsibility of each region and ABN to use the
best available information for EIS assessment.
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REFERENCES
1. National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) (PL 91 -190)
2. Executive Order #11514. This order sets forth general requirements for agencies to implement
NEPA, and directs the Council on Environmental Quality to issue guidelines to Federal Agen-
cies for the preparation of impact statements.
3. CEQ Guidelines/April 23, 1971. These guidelines establish the EIS process.
4. CEQ Guidelines/May 16, 1972. These guidelines supplement the earlier ones, and a number
of questions on procedure and content are addressed which arose in the first year's experience
of implementing NEPA.
5. Federal Register [December 11, 1971, Implementation of the National Environmental Policy
Act. This gives all the Federal agencies regulations for implementing NEPA.
6. Clean Air Act Amendment of 1970, Section 309. This section requires the Administrator of
EPA to review and comment in writing upon all those actions subject to the impact statement
requirements of NEPA which relate to any of the authorities of the Administrator.
7. EPA Order 1640.1. This explains the policies and procedures to be followed in reviewing
Federal agency actions and fulfilling EPA's responsibilities under Section 309 of the Clean
Air Act Amendments.
8. Federal Register/January 17, 1973, Interim Regulation. This provides for Interim Guidance
for EPA Environmental Impact Statements.
11-4
-------
GLOSSARY
ACOUSTICS-(l) The science of sound, including the generation, transmission, and effects of
sound waves, both audible and inaudible. (2) The acoustics of an auditorium or of a room, the
totality of those physical qualities (such as size, shape, amount of sound absorption, and amount
of noise) which determine the audibility and perception of speech and music.
AIRBORNE SOUND-Sound that reaches the point of interest by propagation through air.
AMBIENT NOISE-See background noise.
ANALYSIS-The analysis of a noise generally refers to the composition of the noise into
various frequency bands, such as octaves, third octaves, etc.
ANECHOIC ROOM-A room whose boundary walls absorb almost completely sound waves
incident upon them, with practically no sound being reflected.
ARTICULATION INDEX (AI)-A numerically calculated measure of the intelligibility of
transmitted or processed speech. It takes into account the limitations of the transmission path and
the background noise. The articulation index can range in magnitude between 0 and 1.0. If the
AI is less than 0.1, speech intelligibility is generally low. If it is above 0.6, speech intelligibility is
generally high.
A-WEIGHTED SOUND LEVEL (dBA)-A quantity, in decibels, read from a standard sound-
level meter that is switched to the weighting network labeled "A". The A-weighting network dis-
criminates against the lower frequencies according to a relationship approximating the auditory
sensitivity of the human ear at moderate sound levels. The A-weighted sound level measures
approximately the relative "noisiness" of "annoyance" of many common sounds.
AUDIO FREQUENCY-The frequency of oscillation of an audible sine-wave of sound; any
frequency between 20 and 20000 hertz (Hz). See also frequency.
AUDIOGRAM-A graph showing hearing loss as a function of frequency.
AUDIOMETER-An instrument for measuring hearing sensitivity.
BACKGROUND NOISE-The total of all noise in a system or situation, independent of the
presence of the desired signal.
BAND CENTER FREQUENCY-The designated mean frequency of a band of noise or other
signal. For example, 1000 Hz is the band center frequency for the octave band that extends from
707 Hz to 1414 Hz, or for the third-octave band that extends from 891 Hz to 1123 Hz.
Glossary-1
-------
BAND PRESSURE (OR POWER) LEVEL-Thc pressure (or power) level for the sound con-
tamed within a specified frequency band. The band may be specified either by its lower and upper
cut-off frequencies, or by its geometric center frequency. The width of the band is often indicated
by a prefatory modifier; e.g., octave band, third-octave band, 10-Hz band.
CONTINUOUS SOUND SPECTRUM-A continuous sound spectrum is comprised ol compo-
nents which are continuously distributed over a frequency region.
C-WEIGHTED SOUND LEVEL (dBC)-A quantity, in decibels, read from a standard sound-
level meter that is switched to the weighting network labeled "C". The C-weighting network
weights the frequencies between 70 Hz and 4000 Hz uniformly, but below and above these limits
frequencies are slightly discriminated against. Generally, C-weighted measurements are essentially
the same us overall sound-pressure levels, which require no discrimination at any frequency.
CYCLES PER SECOND-See frequency.
DAMAGE-RISK CRITERIA (HEARING-CONSERVATION CRITERIA)-Recommended
maximum noise levels that for a given pattern of exposure times should, if not exceeded, minimize
the risk of damage to the ears of persons exposed to the noise.
DAMPING-The dissipation of energy with time or distance. The term is generally applied to
the attenuation of sound in a structure owing to the internal sound-dissipative properties of the
structure or owing to the addition of sound-dissipative materials.
DECIBEL-The unit in which the levels of various acoustical quantities are expressed Typical
quantities so expressed are sound pressure level, noise level, and sound power level.
DIFFUSE SOUND FIELD-The presence of many reflected waves (echoes) in a room (or audi-
torium) having a very small amount of sound absorption, arising from repeated reflections of sound
in various directions.
DIRECTIVITY INDEX-In a given direction from a sound source, the difference in decibels
between (a) the sound pressure level produced by the source in that direction, and (b) the space
average sound pressure level of that source, measured at the same distance.
DUCT LINING OR WRAPPING-Usually a sheet of porous material placed on the inner or
outer wall(s) of a duct to introduce sound attenuation and heat insulation. It is often used in air
conditioning systems. Linings are more effective in attenuating sound that travels inside along the
length of a duct, while wrappings are more effective in preventing sound from being radiated from
the duct sidewalls into surrounding spaces.
EFFECTIVE PERCEIVED NOISE LEVEL (EPNL)--A calculated measure designed to esti-
mate the effective noisiness of a single noise event, usually an aircraft flyover; it is derived from
instantaneous perceived noise level values by applying corrections for pure tones and for the
duration of the noise.
Glossary-2
-------
FAR FIELD-Consider any sound source in free space At a sufficient distance from the
source, the sound pressure level obeys the inverse-square law, and the sound particle velocity is in
phase with the sound pressure This region is called the far field of the sound source. Regions
closer to the source, where these two conditions do not hold, constitute the near field. Now con-
sider a sound source within an enclosure. It is also sometimes possible to satisfy the far field condi-
tions over a limited region between the near field and the reverberant field, if the absorption within
the enclosure is not too small so that the near field and the reverberant field merge.
FILTER-A device that transmits certain frequency components of the signal (sound or elec-
trical) incident upon it, and rejects other frequency components of the incident signal.
FLUCTUATING NOISE—A noise whose sound pressure level varies significantly but does not
equal the ambient environmental level more than once during the period of observation.
FREE SOUND FIELD (FREE FIELD)-A sound field in which the effects of obstacles or
boundaries on sound propagated in that field are negligible.
FREQUENCY-The number of oscillations per second (a) of a sine-wave of sound, and (b) of
a vibrating solid object; now expressed in hertz (abbreviation Hz), formerly in cycles per second
(abbreviation cps).
HEARING DISABILITY-An actual or presumed inability, due to hearing impairment, to
remain employed at full wages.
HEARING HANDICAP-The disadvantage imposed by a hearing impairment sufficient to
affect one's efficiency in the situation of everyday living.
HEARING IMPAIRMENT-A deviation or change for the worse in either hearing structure
or function, usually outside the normal range; see hearing loss.
HEARING LOSS-At a specified frequency, an amount, in decibels, by which the threshold
of audibility for that ear exceeds a certain specified audiometric threshold, that is to say, the
amount by which a person's hearing is worse than some selected norm. The norm may be the
threshold established at some earlier time for that ear, the average threshold for some large popula-
tion, or the threshold selected by some standards body for audiometric measurements.
HEARING LOSS FOR SPEECH-The difference in decibels between the speech levels at which
the "average normal" ear and a defective ear, respectively, reach the same intelligibility, often arbi-
trarily set at 50%.
HERTZ-See frequency.
IMPACT INSULATION CLASS (IIC)-A single-figure rating which is intended to permit the
comparison of the impact sound insulating merits of floor-ceiling assemblies in terms of a reference
contour.
IMPACT SOUND-The sound arising from the impact of a solid object on an interior surface
(wall, floor, or ceiling) of a building. Typical sources are footsteps, dropped objects etc.
IMPULSIVE NOISE—Noise which is characterized by brief excursions of sound pressure which
significantly exceed the ambient environmental sound pressure. The duration of a single impulse is
usually less than one second.
Glossary-3
-------
INVERSE-SQUARE LAW-The inverse-square law describes that acoustic situation where
the mean-square sound pressure changes in inverse proportion to the square of the distance from
the source. Under this condition the sound pressure level decreases 6 decibels with each doubling
of distance from the source.
ISOLATION-See vibration isolator.
LEVEL-The level of an acoustical quantity (e.g., sound pressure), in decibels, is 10 times the
logarithm (base 10) of the ratio of the quantity to a reference quantity of the same physical kind.
LINE SPECTRUM-Thc spectrum of a sound whose components occur at a number of dis-
crete frequencies.
LOUDNESS-(l) A listener's perception of the intensity of a strongly audible sound or noise,
(2) The factor n by which a constant intensity sound or noise exceeds, in the judgment of u listener,
the loudness of a 1000 Hz tone heard at a sound pressure 40 dB above threshold The unit is the
sone See also loudness level.
LOUDNESS LEVEL-The number, attributed to a constant intensity sound or noise, of deci-
bels by which a 1000 Hz pure tone, judged by listeners to be as loud as the sound or noise, exceeds
the reference level 2 X 10~5 N/m2. The unit is the phon. See also loudness.
MASKING-The action of bringing one sound (audible when heard alone) to inaudibility or to
unintelligibility by the introduction of another, usually louder, sound. See masking noise.
MASKING NOISE-A noise which is intense enough to render inaudible or unintelligible
another sound which is simultaneously present.
NEAR FIELD-See far field.
NOISE-Any sound which is undesirable because it interferes with speech and hearing, or is
intense enough to damage hearing, or is otherwise annoying.
NOISE CRITERION (NC) CURVES-Any of several versions (SC, NC, NCA, PNC) of criteria
used for rating the acceptability of continuous indoor noise levels, such as produced by air-handling
systems.
NOISE EXPOSURE FORECAST (NEF)-A measure of the total noise exposure near an air-
port; it is derived from EPNL contours for individual aircraft by including considerations of mix of
aircraft, number and time of operations, runway utilization, flight path, and operating procedures.
NOISE INSULATION-See sound insulation.
NOISE ISOLATION CLASS (NIC)-A single number rating derived in a prescribed manner
from the measured values of noise reduction It provides an evaluation of the sound isolation
between two enclosed spaces that are acoustically connected by one or more paths.
NOISE LEVEL-See sound level.
NOISE AND NUMBER INDEX (NNI)-A measure based on perceived noise level and used for
rating the noise environment near an airport.
NOISE POLLUTION LEVEL (LNp)-A measure of the total community noise environment
regardless of the type of noise source; it is computed from the energy mean of the noise level and
the standard deviation of the time variation of noise level.
Glossary-4
-------
NOYS-A unit used in the calculation of perceived noise level.
OCTAVE-Any two pure tones, whose ratio of frequencies is exactly two, are said to be
an octave apart, or to be separated by an octave.
OCTAVE BAND-All of the components in a sound spectrum whose frequencies are between
two sine-wave components separated by an octave.
OCTAVE BAND SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL-The integrated sound pressure level of only
those sine-wave components in a specified octave band for a noise or sound having a wide spectrum.
OSCILLATION-The variation with time, alternately increasing and decreasing, (a) of some
feature of an audible sound, such as the sound pressure, or (b) of some feature of a vibrating solid
object, such as the displacement of its surface.
PEAK SOUND PRESSURE-The maximum instantaneous sound pressure (a) for a transient
or impulsive sound of short duration in time, or (b) in a specified time interval for a sound of long
duration.
PERCEIVED NOISE LEVEL (PNL)-Thc level in dB assigned to a noise by means of a calcu-
lation procedure that is based on an approximation to subjective evaluations of noisiness
PHON-The unit of measurement for loudness level.
PITCH-A listener's perception of the frequency of a pure tone; the higher the frequency, the
higher the pitch.
PRESBYCUSIS-The decline in hearing acuity that normally occurs as a person grows older.
PURE TONE-A sound wave whose waveform is that of a sine-wave.
RANDOM INCIDENCE-If an object is in a diffuse sound field, the sound waves that comprise
the sound field are said to strike the object from all angles of incidence at random.
RANDOM NOISE-An oscillation whose instantaneous magnitude is not specified for :my
given instant of time. It can be described in a statistical sense by probability distribution functions
giving the fraction of the total time that the magnitude of the noise lies within a specified range.
RESONANCE-The relatively large effects produced, e.g., amplitude of vibration, when
repetitive sound pressure or force is in approximate synchronism with a free (unforced) vibration
of a component or a system.
REVERBERATION-The persistence of sound in an enclosed space, as a result of multiple
reflections, after the sound source has stopped.
REVERBERATION ROOM-A room having a long reverberation time, especially designed to
make the sound field inside it as diffuse (homogeneous) as possible.
REVERBERATION TIME-The time required for the sound pressure level, arising from rever-
beration in a room or auditorium and measured from the moment at which the source of sound
power is stopped, to die away (decay) by 60 dB.
ROOT-MEAN-SQUARE (RMS)-The root-mean-square value of a quantity that is varying as a
function of time is obtained by squaring the function at each instant, obtaining the average of the
squared value over the interval or interest, and taking the square root of this average.
Glossary-S
-------
SINE-WAVE-A sound wave, audible as a pure tone, in which the sound pressure is a sinu-
soidal function of time; sound pressure since of (2 X frequency X time).
SONE-The unit of measurement for loudness.
SONIC BOOM-The pressure transient produced at an observing point by a vehicle that is
moving past (or over) it faster than the speed of sound.
SOUND- See acoustics (1).
SOUND-ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT (ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT)-The sound-absorbing
ability of a surface is given in terms of a sound-absorption coefficient. This coefficient is defined .is
the fraction of incident sound energy absorbed or otherwise not reflected by the surface. Unless
otherwise specified, a diffuse sound field is assumed. The values of sound-absorption coefficient
usually range from about 0.01 for marble slate to about 1.0 for long absorbing wedges such as are
used in anechoic chambers.
SOUND INSULATION-(l) The use of structures and materials designed to reduce the trans-
mission of sound from one room or area to another or from the exterior to the interior of a building.
(2) The degree by which sound transmission is reduced by means of sound insulating structures and
materials.
SOUND LEVEL (NOISE LEVEL)-The weighted sound pressure level obtained by use of a
sound level meter having a standard frequency-filter for attenuating part of the sound spectrum.
SOUND LEVEL METER-An instrument, comprising a microphone, an amplifier, an output
meter, and frequency-weighting networks, that is used for the measurement of noise and sound
levels in u specified manner.
SOUND POWER-Of a source of sound, the total amount of acoustical energy radiated into the
atmospheric air per unit time.
SOUND POWER LEVEL-The level of sound power, averaged over a period of time, the
reference being 10~12 watts.
SOUND PRESSURE-(l) The minute fluctuations in atmospheric pressure which accompany
the passage of a sound wave; the pressure fluctuations on the tympanic membrane are transmitted
to the inner ear and give rise to the sensation of audible sound. (2) For a steady sound, the value of
the sound pressure averaged over a period of time. (3) Sound pressure is usually measured (a) in
dynes per square centimeter (dyn/cm2), or (b) in newtons per square meter (N/m2). 1 N/m2 =
10 dyn/cm2 I0~5 times the atmospheric pressure.
SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL-Is defined as 10 times the logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio
of the pressure squared to a reference pressure squared.
SOUND TRANSMISSION CLASS, (STC)-The preferred single figure rating system designed to
give an estimate of the sound insulation properties of a partition or a rank ordering of a series of
partitions. It is intended for use primarily when speech and office noise constitute the principal
noise problem.
SOUND TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT-The fraction of incident sound energy transmitted
through a structural configuration.
Glossary-6
-------
SOUND TRANSMISSION LOSS (TRANSMISSION LOSS) (TL)-A measure of sound isola-
tion provided by a structural configuration. Expressed in decibels, it is 10 times the logarithm to
the base 10 of the reciprocal of the sound transmission coefficient of the configuration.
SPECTRUM-Of a sound wave, the description of its resolution into components, each of
different frequency and (usually) different amplitude and phase.
SPEECH INTERFERENCE LEVEL (SIL)-A calculated quantity providing a handy guide to
the interfering effect of a noise on speech. The speech interference level is the arithmetic average
of the octave-band sound pressure levels of the noise in the most important part of the speech fre-
quency range. The levels in the three octave-frequency bands centered at 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz
are commonly averaged to determine the speech interference level.
SPEED (VELOCITY) OF SOUND IN AIR-The speed of sound in air is 344 m/sec or 1128
ft/sec at 78°F.
SPHERICAL WAVE-A sound wave in which the surfaces of constant phase are concentric
spheres. A small (point) source radiating into an open space produces a free sound field of spheri-
cal waves.
STANDING WAVE-A periodic sound wave having a fixed distribution in space, the result of
interference of traveling sound waves of the same frequency and kind. Such sound waves are
characterized by the existence of nodes, or partial nodes, and antinodes that are fixed in space.
STEADY-STATE SOUNDS-Sounds whose average characteristics remain constant in time.
Examples of steady-state sounds are a stationary siren, an air-conditioning unit, and an aircraft
running up on the ground.
STRUCTUREBORNE SOUND-Sound that reaches the point of interest, over at least part of
its path, by vibrations of a solid structure.
THIRD-OCTAVE BAND-A frequency band whose cut-off frequencies have a ratio of 2 1/3,
which is approximately 1.26. The cut-off frequencies of 891 Hz and 1123 Hz define a third-octave
band in common use. See also band center frequency.
THRESHOLD OR AUDIBILITY (THRESHOLD OF DETECTABILITY)-For a specified
signal, the minimum sound pressure level of the signal that is capable of evoking an auditory sensa-
tion in a specified fraction of the trials.
THRESHOLD SHIFT-An increase in a hearing threshold level that results from exposure to
noise.
TRAFFIC NOISE INDEX (TNI)-A measure of the noise environment created by highways; it
is computed from measured values of the sound levels exceeded 10 percent and 90 percent of the time.
TRANSDUCER-A device capable of being actuated by waves from one or more transmission
systems or media and supplying related waves to one or more other transmission systems or media.
Examples are microphones, accelerometers, and loudspeakers.
TRANSIENT SOUNDS-Sounds whose average properties do not remain constant in time.
Examples are an aircraft flyover, a passing truck, a sonic boom.
Glossary-7
-------
TRANSMISSION LOSS (TL)-See sound transmission loss.
VIBRATION ISOLATOR-A resilient support for machinery and other equipment that might
be a source of vibration, designed to reduce the amount of vibration transmitted to the building
structure.
WAVEFORM-A presentation of some feature of a sound wave, e.g., the sound pressure, as a
graph showing the moment-by-moment variation of sound pressure with time.
WAVEFRONT-The front surface of a sound wave on its way through the atmosphere.
WAVELENGTH—For a periodic wave (such as sound in air), the perpendicular distance
between analogous points on any two successive waves. The wavelength of sound in air or in water
is inversely proportional to the frequency of the sound. Thus, the lower the frequency, the longer
the wavelength.
Glossary-8
-------
APPENDIX A
LIST OF EPA PUBLICATIONS ON NOISE
-------
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
The following "Noise" technical documents are for sale by the Superintendent of Documents. US Government Printing
Office, Washington, D. C. 20402 (Phone: Area Code 2021541-3311 or 541-3712)
EPA DOCUMENT
NO.
Senate 92-63
NTID300.1
NTID300.2
NTID300.3
NTID300.4
NTID300.5
NTID300.6
NTID300.7
NTID300.8
NTID300.9
TITLE
Report to the President and
Congress Noise
Noise from Construction
Equipment and Operations,
Building Equipment, and Home
Appliances
Noise from Industrial Plants
Community Noise
Laws and Regulatory Schemes
for Noise Abatement
Effects of Noise on Wildlife
and Other Animals
An Assessment of Noise-Con-
cern in Other Nations
Effects of Noise on People
State and Municipal Non-
Occupational Noise Program
Noise Programs of Professional/
Industrial Organizations,
Universities and Colleges
GPO STOCK
NO.
5500-0040
5500-0044
CATALOG
NO.
92-2:5.Doc 63
EP1.2:N69/4
3.45
5500-0055 EP1.2:N69/8 .95
5500-0043 EP1.2:N69/9/V.l 3.50
5500-0052 EP1.2:N69/9/V.2 .75
5500-0050 EP1.2:N69/10 2.10
Available at NTIS
Only
5500-0053 EP1.2:N69/12 1.00
BOOK-
STORE
$ 3.00
5500-0042
5500-0041
5500-0046
EP1.2:N69/5
EP1.2:N69/6
EP1.2:N69/7
2.50
2.60
6.05
2.25
5.50
.70
.50
1.75
.75
-------
EPA DOCUMENT
NO.
NTID300.10
NTID300.11
NTID300.12
NTID300.13
NTID300.14
> NTID300.15
to
*VOLI
*VOLII
*VOL III
GPO STOCK
TITLE NO.
Summary of Noise Programs 5 500-0061
in the Federal Government
The Social Impact of Noise 5 500-0047
The Effects of Sonic Boom 5500-0048
and Similar Impulsive Noise
on Structures
Transportation Noise and Noise 5500-0045
from Equipment Powered by
Internal Combustion Engines
Economic Impact of Noise 5500-0049
Fundamental of Noise: 5 500-0054
Measurement, Rating
Schemes, and Standards
Construction Noise - Atlanta, 5500-0037
Georgia July 8-9, 1971
Manufacturing and Transpor- 5500-0085
tation Noise (Highway and Air)
Chicago. Illinois July 28-29,
1971
Urban Planning, Architectural 5500-0062
Design: and Noise in the Home
Dallas. Texas August 18-19,
1971
CATALOG
NO.
EP1.2:N69/13
EP1.2:N69/14
EP1.2:N69/15
EP1.2:N69/16
EP1.2:N69/17
EP1.2:N68/18
EP1.2:N69/3/V.l
EP1.2:N69/3/V.2
EP1.2:N69/3/V.3
POST-
PAID,
3.75
.50
.30
4.30
1.00
1.25
.75
2.10
1.25
BOOK-
STORE
.35
3.75
1.75
-------
EPA DOCUMENT
NO.
*VOLIV
•VOLV
"VOL VI
•VOL VII
*VOLVIII1
**NT1D73.1
TITLE
GPO STOCK
NO.
Standards and Measurements 5500-0036
Methods, Legislation and
Enforcement Problems
San Francisco - September
27-29,1971
Agricultural and Recreational
Use Noise - Denver, Colorado
September 30 - October 1, 1971
Transportation Noise (rail and 5500-0038
other); Urban Noise Problems
and Social Behavior - New
York, New York, October
21-22,1971
Physiological and Psychological 5500-0056
Effects - Boston, Massachusetts
October 28-29,1971
Technology and Economics of 5500-0039
Noise Control; National Pro-
grams and their Relation
with State and Local
Washington, D.C. - November
9-12,1971
Noise Source Regulation in 5500-0095
State and Local Noise
Ordinances - March 1, 1973
CATALOG POST-
NO. PAID
EP1.2-N69/3/V.4
Available at EPA
Only
EP1.2:N69/3/V.6
EP1.2:N69/3/V.7
EP1.2.N69/3/V.8
EP1.2-N69/22
BOOK-
STORE
2.25
1.50
2.00
2.00
35
.25
-------
EPA DOCUMENT
NO.
**Senate 93-8
* '550/9-73-002
GPO STOCK CATALOG POST-
TITLE NO. NO. PAID
Report cfn Aircraft-Airport 5270-01936 93-1 S. doc 8 1.25
Noise
Public Health and Welfare 5500-00103 EP1.2:N69/23/973 1.95
Criteria
Noise Facts Digest - Out of stock - will be available at NTIS only in the near future
BOOK-
STORE
*EPA Public Hearings
••Current Technical Documents
I
-------
In addition to the mail-order service provided by the Office of the Superintendent of Documents,
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, there are also GPO retail bookstores in
other locations as indicated below:
Department of Commerce
14th & E Streets, N.W. - Room 1098
Washington, D.C. 20230
Telephone: AC 202/967-3527
Department of State Building
21st & C Streets, N.W. - 1st Floor
Washington, D.C. 20520
Telephone: AC 202/632-1437
Forrestal Bookstore
James H. Forrestal Building
Room 1-J001
1000 Independence Avenue, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20407
Telephone: AC 202/426-7973
Government Printing Office
710 North Capitol Street
Washington, D.C. 20402
Telephone: AC 202/783-3238
Pentagon Building
Main Concourse, South end
Washington, D.C. 20310
Telephone: AC 202/541-2998
USIA Building
1st Floor
1776 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20547
Telephone. AC 202/632-9668
Atlanta Bookstore
Federal Building — Room 100
275 Peachtree Street, NE
Atlanta, Georgia 30303
Telephone: AC 404/526-6947
Birmingham Bookstore
2121 Building - Room 102A
2121 Eighth Avenue North
Birmingham, Alabama 35203
Telephone: AC 205/325-6056
Boston Bookstore .
John F. Kennedy Federal Building - Room G25
Sudbury Street
Boston, Massachusetts 02203
Telephone: AC 617/223-6071
Canton Booksotre
Federal Office Building
201 Cleveland Avenue Southwest
Canton, Ohio 44702
Telephone: AC 216/455-4354
Chicago Bookstore
Everett McKinley Dirksen Building
14th Floor - Room 1463
219 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
Telephone: AC 312/353-5133
Cleveland Bookstore
Federal Office Building - I st Floor
1240 East 9th Street
Cleveland, Ohio 44114
Telephone: AC 216/5224922
A-5
-------
Dallas Bookstore
Federal Building-U.S. Courthouse
Room 1046
1100 Commerce Street
Dallas, Texas 75202
Telephone: AC 214/749-1541
Denver Booksotre
Federal Building—U.S. Courthouse
Room 1421
1961 Stout Street
Denver, Colorado 80202
Telephone: AC 303/837-3965
Detroit Bookstore
Federal Building - Room 229
231 W. Lafayette Boulevard
Detroit, Michigan 48226
Telephone: AC 313/226-7816
Kansas City Bookstore
Federal Office Building - Room 144
601 East 12th Street
Kansas City, Missouri 64106
Telephone: AC 816/374-2160
Los Angeles Bookstore
Federal Office Building - Room 1015
300 North Los Angeles Street
Los Angeles, California 90012
Telephone: AC 213/688-5841
Milwaukee Bookstore
Federal Building - Room 190
517 East Wisconsin Avenue
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53202
Telephone: AC 414/224-1304
New York Bookstore
26 Federal Plaza - Room 110
New York, New York 10007
Telephone: AC 212/264-3825
Philadelphia Bookstore
Federal Office Building - Room 1214
600 Arch Street
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106
Telephone: AC 215/597-0677
Pueblo Sales Outlet, PDDC
Pueblo Industrial Park
Pueblo, Colorado 81001
Telephone: AC 303/544-2301
San Francisco Bookstore
Federal Office Building - Room 1023
450 Golden Gate Avenue
San Francisco, California 94102
Telephone: AC 415/556-6657
Seattle Bookstore
Federal Office Building - Room 1056
909 First Avenue
Seattle, Washington 98104
Telephone: AC 206/442-4270
As of 10/25/73
A-6
-------
The following "Noise" technical documents are for sale by the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia
22151 (Phone: Area Code 7031321-8543)
EPA DOCUMENT
NO.
NCR500.1
NT1D300.1
NT1D300.2
NTID300.3
NTID300.4
NTID300.5
NTID300.6
NT1D300.7
NTID300.8
NTID300.9
NTID300.10
NTID300.il
NTID300.12
NTID300.13
NTID300.14
NTID300.15
TITLE
Report to the President and Congress on Noise
Noise from Construction Equipment and
Operations, Building Equipment, and Home
Appliances
Noise from Industrial Plants
Community Noise
Laws and Regulatory Schemes for Noise
Abatement
Effects of Noise on Wildlife and Other
Animals
An Assessment of Noise Concern in Other
Nations
Effects of Noise on People
State and Municipal Non-Occupational
Noise Programs
Noise Programs of Professional/Industrial
Organizational, Universities and Colleges ^
Summary of Noise Programs in the Federal
Government
Social Impact of Noise
The Effects of Sonic Boom and Similar
Impulsive
Transportation Noise and Noise from Equip-
ment Powered by Internal Combustion Engines
Economic Impact of Noise
Fundamental of Noise: Measurement, Rating
Schemes, and Standards
NTIS DOCU-
MENT NO.
PB-206716
PB-206717
PB-206718
PB-207124
PB-206719
PRICE
S 6.00
6.00
6.00
3.00
9.00
PB-206720 3.00
PB-206721 (Vol I) 6.00
PB-206722 (Vol II) 3.00
PB-206723 3.00
PB-208659 3.00
PB-207125 3.00
Available at GPO
Only
PB-206724 3.00
PB-206725 3.00
PB-208660 6.00
PB-206726 3.00
PB-206727 3.00
A-7
-------
EPA DOCUMENT
: NO.
*AMRL-TR-73-53
*EPA/550/9-73-
001 -A
*EPA/5 50/9-73-
001-B
**NTID 73.7
**NTID 73.6
**NTID 73.5
**NTID 73.4
**NTID 73.3
**NTID 73.2
TITLE
Relation Between Daily Noise Exposure and
Hearing Loss Based on the Evaluation of
6,835 Industrial Noise Exposure Cases
A Basis for Limiting Noise Exposure for
Hearing Conservation
Predition of NIPTS Due to Continuous
Noise Exposure
Military Aircraft and Airport Noise and
Opportunities for Reduction Without
Inhibition of Military Missions
Review and Analysis of Present and Planned
FAA Noise Regulatory Actions and Their
Consequences Regarding Aircraft and Airport
Operations
Noise Source Abatement Technology and
Cost Analysis Including Retrofitting
Impact Characterization of Noise Including
Implications of Identifying and Achieving
Levels of Cumulative Noise Exposure
Operations Analysis Including Monitoring,
Enforcement, Safety, and Cost
Legal and Institutional Analysis of Aircraft
and Airport Noise and Apportionment of
Authority Between Federal, State, and
Local Governments
Noise Facts Digest
NTIS DOCU-
MENT NO.
AD-767204
AD-767274
AD-767205
PB-223637
4.75
3.00
5.25
N/A at this time
N/A at this time
N/A at this tune
N/A at this time
N/A at this time
Out of Stock - Will be avail-
able in the near future
*Currcnt "Noise" technical documents by contracts
**Current EPA "Noise" technical documents
NOTE. Documents are obtainable faster from NTIS than GPO
A-8
-------
APPENDIX B
MUNICIPAL NOISE CONTROL REGULATIONS
(January, 1973)
-------
1970
LOCATION POPULATION
ALABAMA
1 Birmingham
ALASKA
2 Anchorage
3 Juneau
ARIZONA
4 Fldgstdl'l
5 Phoenix
6 Tucson
ARKANSAS
7 Little Rock
CALIFORNIA
8 Alh.imbra
9 Anaheim
10 Beverly Hills
II Burbdiik
1 2 El Segundo
13 Freemont
14 Hemel
15 Ingle wood
16 Los Altos Hills
1 7 Los Angeles
18 Sacramento
19 S.m Clemente
20 Sjn Uii-jiD
2 1 Sjn Francisco
22 San Jose
2.' Sanla Barbara
24 Santa Monica
25 lorrance
MUSANCh ZONING BUILDING VEHICLE AIRPRAFT
Accmsucal Acoustical Acoustical Acoustical AeousUcdl
Criteria Cruena Cntena rr,,,r,,
'" is'° ** No Yes No Y^ No" Yes No
300.910
48.081
6.050
26.177
58 1 .562
262.933
132.483
62. 1 25
166.704
33.416
88.871
1 5.620
100.869
12252
89.98s
6 865
2.816.061
254.413
1 7 Oh.'
<<9h 7(>9
715.674
445 7"»9
"0.215
NS 28l»
1. '4.584
X'
X
x
\
X
X
X
x
x
\
x
x
X
x
x
\
X
\
\
X
\
x
\
\
\
X
V
A
X
\
X
x
X
X
X
\
X
X
-------
1970
LOCATION POPULATION
COLORADO
26 Aspen
27 Boulder
28 Denver
29 Dillon
30 Lakcwood
CONNECTICUT
31 Hurtlord
32 New Haven
DISTRICT OF
33 COLUMBIA
DELAWARE
34 Wilmington
FLORIDA
35 Corjl Gables
36 Forl Laudcrdalc
37 Madeira Beach
38 Jacksonville
39 Munii
40 Orlando
GEORGIA
41 Atlanta
42 Collet* Park
43 Macon
44 Mavcrou
45 Lake City
IDAHO
46 Pocalello
2404
66.870
514.678
182
92787
158.017
137.707
756.510
80.386
42494
139.590
4.342
528.865
334.859
97565
497.421
IS 203
122.423
1 8.996
2306
40 03d
NUISANCE ZONING BUILDING VEHICLE AIRCRAFT
Acoustical Acoustical Acoustical Acoustical Acoustical
Criteria Criteria Criteria Criteria Criteria
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
\
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
\
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
\
X
X
-------
CD
ll>7U
LOCATION POPl LATION
ILLINOIS
47 Chicago
48 DCS Plames
49 Hark Ridge
SO Peona
SI Norlhbrook
52 Urbana
S3 DcLdtur
INDIANA
54 Indiunapolis
IOWA
SS DCS Moincs
KANSAS
56 Wichita
KENTUCKY
57 Covington
58 Louisville
LOUISIANA
59 New Orleans
MARYLAND
60 Baltimore
MASSACHUSETTS
ti\ Acton
62 Boston
63 Pilisfield
64 Springfield
3 369.359
57.239
42.466
126.963
27 297
32.800
90 397
745 739
200,587
276534
52.535
361.472
593.47 1
905 759
14.770
Ml. 070
57.020
163 PO^
NUISANCE ZONINC. BUILDING \LHICLb AIRCRAFT
Ai.oiMii.al A^oiMKal Ai.inisln.jl Ai.oiMu.il AiOlMiejl
Criieru Criieru Criteria ( nteri.i C'nleru
^ es No Ye^i No ^'es No ^ es No Yes No
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
\
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-------
ll>70
LOCATION POPULATION
MICHIGAN
65 Ann Arbor
66 Del roil
67 Grand Kapids
68 Wyoming
\1INNbSOTA
69 Bloonnnyton
70 Minneapolis
MISSISSIPPI
71 Jackson
MISSOURI
72 Independence
73 Kansas Cit>
74 St Louis
MONTANA
75 Billings
76 Helena
77 Missoula
NF.BRASKA
78 Seoltsbluff
NEVADA
79 Las Vegas
NhWJhRSEY
80 Absecon
81 Asbury Park
99 797
1 512893
197.649
56.560
81 970
434 400
I5396K
1 1 1 662
507.330
622.236
61.581
22730
29.497
14.507
125787
6.094
16.533
NUISANCE ZONING BUILDING VEHICLE AIRCRAFT
Ai.oiisliv.al Ai.ouslii.jl Ai.oiistiv.al AcOiistic.il Acoustical
Criieru Criteria Criteria C riien.i Criteria
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-------
CD
V/l
1970
LOCATION POPULATION
NEW JERSEY
82 Bay on nc-
SS Belleville
84 Bloom field
85 Boonton
86 Bordcntown
87 Brigantinc
88 Burlington
89 Camden
90 Ope Mjy
91 Clifton
92 Clinton
93 Corbm
94 Dover
95 E Orange
96 Eh/abeth
l>7 Fjirlawn
98 Gloucester
99 Gutlenberg
100 Huniiuonlon
101 Hanover
102 Harrison
103 Hawthorne
104 Hoboken
105 Imngton
106 Jersey City
107 Long Branch
108 Margate
109 Mornstown
110 Newark
1 1 1 NCWIOII
112 N Wild wood
113 Nuiley
1 14 Ocean City
1 15 Orange Cit\
1 16 Paterson
1 1 7 Perth Amboy
72.743
34,643
52.059
9.261
4.490
6.741
11.991
102.551
4.392
82.437
1.742
258
15.039
75.471
112.654
37.975
14.707
5.754
11.464
10.700
11.811
9 173
45.380
. 59.743
260.545
31.774
10.576
1 7.662
382417
7 :*>7
3.914
32.099
10575
32.5w>
144.824
38.798
NUISANCE ZONING BUILDING VEHICLE AIRCRAFT
Acoustical Acoustical Acoustical Acoustical Acoustical
Criteria Criteria Criteria Criteria Criteria
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
^._
~
-------
OD
6\
LOC ATION
NbWJLRSEY
18 PIdinliL-ld
10 PkMsjnivilk-
20 PriiKclon
21 Ruhwjy
22 KidiiclK-ld P.irk
23 Sdk-m
24 SCUIIIUN
25 S A in hoy
1(i Summit
27 Trunlon
28 Vmcldiid
2l> WcMhcId
30 W Orjnyc
31 Wildwoud
32 Wood bridge
NKWIIAMPSIIIRL
133 MjiiilksiiT
NhW MLXICO
13-4 Albii(|ucri|iic
MiW YOKK
135 Albany
136 BinjJi, mi km
137 Bufljlo
1 3K Now York
I3l> RoJicMer
140 Wlnii- Pljins
141 New Rochcllc
ll>"0
POPL i. \ nu\
4(> «h2
13 7-7K
1 2 3 1 1
24 114
144^3
7MK
13 22X
V 338
23 <>20
1 04 (>3K
47 3W
33 720
43715
4 110
7X Mh
87.754
243751
115 781
M 123
402.768
7.8V5.503
2l>h.23^
^U 125
75.385
\LISA\CL
\L(>l^Ill..ll
C riioru
N is \o
\
\
X
\
\
\
\
X
\
\
\
X
X
X
\
X
-
\
\
X
\
\
\
X
ZO\I\C,
-\<.i>U^llv.>ll
( niiru
^ IS \0
X
X
\
X
-
X
X
X X
BLILDIV.
•\I.OllN|K.ll
(. riUTi.i
^ is \o
\EIIICLh
UoiMu.il
(. nun.i
Yis \D
X
X
X
X
X
•MRCRAFI
•\v.0lls|ll..ll
C riicn.i
^ is No
-------
CD
1-170
LOCATION POPULATION
NORTH CAROLINA
142 Greensboro
143 Rjleiph
NORTH DAKOTA
144 Bisnurk
OHIO
145 Akron
146 Cnii.iiin.iti
147 Cleveljnd
148 Columhus
I4l) Djylon
150 Tok-ilo
151 UimeisllX lleiplllo
ORI C.ON
152 Meillonl
153 Portl.nul
OKLAHOMA
1*4 Okl.ilionu Cn\
PI NNS^ LVANIA
15^ 1'liil.ulolpln.i
I5(< Pilishniiili
l^~ Si. union
RHODl ISLAM)
US \\.nikk
144.076
123.793
34.703
275.425
452.524
750.^03
540.025
243.601
383818
1 7.055
28 454
3SO 620
36S K5h
1 45UUl>6
520 IT
103 ^t.4
S' dl'4
NUISXNCE ZONING BUILDING VEHICLE AIRCRAFT
Ai.oiitiK.il AcoustiL.il Ai.ouslii.jl Ai.oustiL.il At.oiistn.jl
(IIUTI.I C'rilL-ru CrikTia C'ritcru C'nlvru
Yos No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
\
X
\
X
X
X
\
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
-------
1970
LOCATION POPULATION
SOUTH CAROLINA
159 Columbia
SOUTH DAKOTA
160 Sioux Falls
TENNESSEE
161 Memphis
162 Nashville
TEXAS
163 Dallas
164 EIPjso
<3° 165 Houston
00 166 Irving
167 Killeen
108 San Antonio
UTAH
160 Ogden
170 Salt Lake City
VIRGINIA
171 Norfolk
172 Richmond
WASHINGTON
173 Seattle
WISCONSIN
1 74 MjdiNOii
175 Milwaukee
10TAL
P5
^
113 542
72.488
623 530
448 003
844.401
322.261
1.232.802
97.457
35.507
054.153
69.478
175.885
307 l)5l
249621
5W83I
173.258
~M7..«~:
4-" 208 5l>3
NUISANCE ZONING BUILDING VEHICLE AIRCRAFT
Av.oustn.al Acoustical At.oiistn.jl A*.ou-itH.al Acoustical
Criteria Criteria Criteria Criteria Criteria
Yes No Yes No Yes No
===p^=^==^====^:
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
\
24 124
X
X
X
X
X
53 l|
X
» 4
Yes No
^==
X
X
Y
A
X
X
X
X
15 27
Yes No
^===
1 6
-------
Appendix C
NOISE WORKSHOPS
for
PUBLIC OFFICIALS
-------
NOISE WORKSHOP FOR PUBLIC OFFICIALS
1. REGION X. SEATTLE
2 "PILOT." KANSAS CITY
3 REGION IX, SAN FRANCISCO
4. REGION IV, ATLANTA
5. REGION VIII, DENVER
(Held Salt Lake City)
6. REGION II, NEW YORK CITY
(Albany)
7. REGION VIII, DENVER
(Helena, Montana)
8. REGION I, BOSTON
(Waltham, Mass.)
9. REGION II, NEW YORK CITY
10. REGION VIII, DENVER
(North Dakota)
11. REGION VIII, DENVER
(Denver)
12. REGION II, SAN JUAN, P.R.
13. REGION III, PHILADELPHIA
14. REGION VI, DALLAS
15. REGION IX, SAN FRANCISCO
16. REGION X, SEATTLE
17. REGION IV, ATLANTA
18. REGION VII, KANSAS CITY
MAY |i>-20. W72
SEITEMBER 11-12, 1972
DECEMBER 10, 1972
DECEMBER 19-20, 1972
APRIL 24-25, 1973
JUNE 20-21, 1973
JULY 24-25, 1973
OCTOBER 23, 1973
NOVEMBER 28-29, 1973
FY'74
FY'74
JANUARY 23-25, 1974
FY'74
FY'74
FY'74
FY'74
FY'74
MARCH 20, 1974
"CONDUCTED WITHOUT ABN SUPPORT
C-l
-------
APPENDIX D
EPA GENERAL COUNSEL MEMORANDUM
OF AUGUST 24, 1973 RE:
PREEMPTION UNDER THE NOISE CONTROL ACT
-------
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
SUBJECT: Preemption Under the Noise Control Act DATE: August 24, 1973
FROM: Anthony O Garvin, Attorney
Air Quality & Radiation Division
TO: Dr. Alvin Meyer
Deputy Assistant Administrator
Office of Noise Abatement and Control
THRU: Richard Denney, Attorney
Air Quality & Radiation Division
Question
What is the preemptive effect of regulations issued under the regulatory sections of the Noise
Control Act?
Answer
Section f>
Once a noise emission regulation has been promulgated by EPA pursuant to §6 of the Noiso
Control Act, the authority of states and local governments to adopt or enforce limits on noise emis-
sions for new products is preempted, unless the state or local regulation is identical to that adopted
by the Administrator. States and localities may control environmental noise by regulating the use
of any product, including a product covered by Federal noise emission regulations. However, state
restriction on use which is so broad as to be effectively a restriction on the sale of a new product
probably would be invalid.
Section 7-
The authority of states and localities to control aircraft noise through their police power has
been completely preempted by the Federal Aviation Act and the Noise Control Act. There is
still some question regarding the extent to which airport operators can regulate airport noise
through their proprietary authority.
Section N
After the effective date of Federal labeling regulations adopted under § 8, states arc only pro-
hibited from regulating labeling in a manner which conflicts with Federal requirements.
Section 17 and 18-
On their effective dates, the noise emission regulations adopted by EPA pursuant to § § 17 or
18 preempt the authority of states and local governments to regulate noise emissions resulting from
D-l
-------
the operation of interstate railroads or interstate motor carriers, unless the state or local regulation
is identical to that adopted by EPA. States and localities may, however, regulate the levels of
environmental noise or control the use of any product if the Administrator determines the slate or
local regulation is necessitated by special local conditions and is not in conflict with regulations
promulgated under §§ 17 or 18.
Discussion
St'i lion f>
Section 6(a) of the Noise Control Act directs EPA to prescribe noise emission standards
applicable to new products which are major sources of noise, for which noise standards are feasible
and which fall into one of the following categories: 1) construction equipment, 2) transportation
equipment (including recreational vehicles and related equipment): 3) any motor or engine (includ-
ing any equipment of which an engine or motor is an integral part), 4) electrical or electronic
equipment
Section 6(b) authorizes the Administrator to adopt regulations for other products for which
noise emission standards are feasible and necessary to protect public health and welfare
Section 6(e) (I) provides that the noise emission regulations adopted under §6 shall have the
following preemptive effect.
No State or political subdivision thereof may adopt or enforce-
(A) with respect to any new product for which a regulation'has been prescribed by the
Administrator under this section, any law or regulation which sets a limit on noise emissions
from such new product and which is not identical to such regulation of the Administrator; or
(B) with respect to any component incorporated into such new product by the maiuilacturcr
of such product, any law or regulation setting a limit on noise emissions from such component
when so incorporated.
(2) Subject to sections 17 and 18, nothing in this section precludes or denies the right of any
State or political subdivision thereof to establish or enforce controls on environmental noise
(or one or more sources thereof) through the licensing, regulation, or restriction of the use,
operation, or movement of any product or combination of products.
It is clear from the Act that after the promulgation of Federal regulations, no State or city may
adopt or enforce any noise emission regulation applicable to any new product unless such regula-
tion is identical to the Federal regulation. Prior to the promulgation of Federal regulations by
EPA there is no restriction on State or local regulation. Even after promulgation of EPA regula-
tions covering a product, States and municipalities retain wide authority to control noise resulting
from the use of the same product. Techniques available for this purpose include- speed and load
limits, curfews on the use of noisy products, zoning restrictions, boundary line restrictions and
similar restrictions.
D-2
-------
There are still unresolved questions concerning the extent of State authority under the Act.
For example, it is not clear to what extent States and municipalities can prescribe decibel limits on
the use of products once they are in the hands ot consumers. Although §6(e) (2) of the Act seems
to leave the States with unlimited authority to regulate use of products, a decibel limit on use of a
product is effectively a prohibition on the sale of such a product with higher decibel emissions when
the noise emitted is not within the control of the user For example, consumers will be reluctant to
purchase a snowmobile that emits more than 85 decibels in a State which prohibits the use of any
snowmobile which emits more than 85 decibels. A similar effect would result from State regula-
tions that prohibited the use of a product meeting Federal noise standards in a way or at the times
such a product is ordinarily used, unless the product met lower noise levels
Unfortunately, the legislative history of §6(c) is somewhat ambiguous regarding the propriety
ol use regulations which have the practical effect of emission limitations. The preemption provision
ol § (> was proposed in approximately its final form as § 6(d) of the House Bill, H R 11021. The
House Report explained the preemptive operation of that section as follows:
Section 6 of the Committee's bill affects the authority of States and political subdivisions
over noise emissions only in one respect* States and local governments are preempted from
prescribing noise emission standards for new products to which Federal standards apply,
unless their standards are identical to the Federal standards A similar provision applies to
component parts. For products other than new products to which Federal standards apply.
State and local governments attain exactly the same authority they would have in the absence
of the standards setting the provisions of the bill. The authority of State and local govern-
ment to regulate use, operation, or movement of products is not affected at all by the bill.
Nothing in the bill authorises or prohibits a State from enacting State law respecting testing
procedures. Any testing procedures incorporated into the Federal regulations must, however,
be adopted by the State in order for its regulations to be considered identical to Federal
regulations.
Localities are not preempted from the use of their well-established powers to engage in zoning,
land-use planning, curfews and other similar plans. For example, the recently enacted Chicago
Noise Ordinance provides that heavy equipment for construction may not be used between
9:30 p.m. and 8:00 a.m. within 600 feet of a hospital or residence except for public improve-
ment or public service utility work. The ordinance further provides that the motor of a
vehicle in excess of 4 tons standing on private property and within 150 feet within residential
property may not be operated for more than two consecutive minutes unless within a com-
pletely enclosed structure. Such local provisions would not be preempted by the Federal
government by virtue of the purported bill. H. Rep. No. 92-842, 92nd Cong., 2d Sess.,
at 8-9.
The reference in the House Report to the Chicago ordinance indicates that States and localities
are free to prohibit the use of noisy products during specified hours
D-l
-------
Although the report does not indicate whether States can completely prohibit all uses of a
noisy product, a statement made by Congressman Rogers in response to a question raised by
Congressman Eckhardt indicates that a total prohibition is permissable. Congressman Rogers is
chairman of the subcommittee which held hearings on the noise legislation. The following exchange
took place:
Mr. Eckhardt. Now suppose the State of Texas should attempt to accomplish essentially the
same thing as the [hypothetical] New York statute concerning pile drivers was intended to
accomplish, but suppose the Texas statute controlled use instead of production or assembly.
Thus, Texas provides that no pile driver shall be used within the confines of the State of Texas
which has a noise emission level above a certain number of decibels. Could the State so
regulate?
Mr. Rogers. Yes. Though a noise emission limit is provided, it is not applied in the area this
bill is designed to control; that is, primarily the manufacture of equipment with a certain
noise potential. The preemption provision in section 6(d) (1) [now 6(e) (1)1 applies only to
State regulation of "new products" and "new product" is defined in section 3.
Of course, we do know all of this would have to bear any constitutional overview as to the
commerce clause and requirements that statutes be reasonable and not a burden on interstate
commerce. (Cong. Rec., p. HI515, February 29, 1972).
This discussion supports the proposition that States can prohibit the use of products regardless of
the effect on sales of new products.
On the other hand, the legislative history of the preemption provision in the Senate provides
some support for the opposite position. Section 408(d) of the Senate bill prohibited, after the
effective date of a Federal standard, any State or local standard on noise emissions of a product
which was "enforceable against the manufacturer". (Sec 118 Cong. Rec. SI7745-46, October 12.
1972). The prohibition of only those local regulations which are "enforceable against the manu-
facturer" suggests that States may set use limits which discourage the sale of new products which
emit noise in excess of the local regulation. However, in the report of the Senate Committee on
Public Works which accompanied the bill to the Senate floor, the Committee stated:
Subsection 408(d) of the bill deals with the responsibilities of the Federal government and
State and local governments in controlling noise. For any product manufactured after the
effective date of an applicable Federal standard, authority to establish noise emission standards
for the manufacturer is preempted. States and cities, however, retain complete authority to
establish and enforce limits on environmental noise through the licensing, regulations, or
restriction of the use, operation, or movement of a product, or concentration or combination
of products.
It is the intention of the Committee to distinguish between burdens which fall on the manu-
facturers of products in interstate commerce and burdens which may be imposed on the users
-------
of such products. In the judgment of the Committee, noise emission standards for products
which must be met by manufacturers, whether applicable at the point of introduction into
commerce or at any other point, should be uniform.
At a minimum, States and local governments may reach or maintain levels of environmental
noise which they desire through (a) operation limits or regulations on products in use (such
as speed or load limits or prohibitions of use in given areas or during given hours); (b) quanti-
tative limits on environmental noise in a given area which may be enforced against any source
within the area, including zones adjacent to streets and highways; (c) regulations limiting the
environmental noise which may exist at the boundary of a construction site; (d) nuisance laws.
or (e) other devices tailored to the needs of differing localities and land uses which do not
amount to a burden manufacturers must meet to continue in business Sen. Rep. No. 92-1160,
92nd Cong., 2d Sess., at 7-8.
The references in the Senate report to preemption of standards enforceable "indirectly against the
manufacturer" and of standards "which must be met by manufacturers, whether applicable at the
point of introduction into commerce or at any other point" suggest that the Senate did not intend
to permit the States to set standards which would discourage or eliminate the sale of new products
meeting Federal standards.
The preemptive language of §6(e) as finally adopted reflects the broad language of the House
bill. Unfortunately, there was no discussion of the meaning of the final preemptive language. The
incorporation of the broad language of the House bill implies that the section should be given an
interpretation that is consistent with the statement made by Congressman Rogers. On the other
hand, the deletion of the language in §6(e) (1) of the Senate bill which had limited preemption to
State regulations "enforceable against the manufacturer" suggests that the final Act preempts use
regulations which would indirectly eliminate or discourage sales of new products.
Since the legislative history of §6(c) is somewhat ambiguous it is difficult to predict with any
certainty how the courts would construe the preemptive provisions. However, a case which will
undoubtedly influence the determination isAllway Taxi. Inc v City of New York, 340 F. Supp.
1120 (S.D. N.Y. 1972). In that suit several corporations challenged a New York City ordinance
which required taxicabs to be equipped with emission control devices. The ordinance was challenged
on the ground that it violated § 209 of the Clean Air Act which prohibits States from regulating
exhaust emissions for new motor vehicles. Section 209(c), however, expressly authorized State use
regulations in language very similar to § 6(e) (2) of the Noise Control Act:
(c) Nothing in this part shall preclude or deny to any State or political subdivision thereof
the right otherwise to control, regulate, or restrict the use, operation, or movement of
registered or licensed motor vehicles.
Moreover, §213(3) of the Clean Air Act defined the term "new motor vehicle" as a motor vehicle
"the equitable or legal title to which has never been transferred to an ultimate purchaser" (The
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definition of "new product" in §3(5) (A) of the Noise Control Act is identical). Even though the
city emission limitation may have indirectly discouraged the sale of new motor vehicles as taxicabs,
the court held that the ordinance was not preempted by §209 of the Clean Air Act. However, the
court warned that the imposition of State emission standards immediately after a new car is bought
and registered "would be an obvious circumvention of the Clean Air Act and would defeat the Con-
gressional purpose of preventing obstruction to interstate commerce " On the other hand, the
court stated that State emission requirements "upon the resale and reregistratton of the automobile"
or "for the licensing vehicles for commercial use within that locality" would not be preempted.
Thus the Court in Allway Taxi recognized that a restriction which does not apply before or
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to leave no room for local curfews or other local controls." The opinion further declared that a
uniform and exclusive system of Federal regulation is necessary because of the interdependence
of safety and the control of noise pollution.
In light of the recent decision in City ofBurbank v Lockheed Air Terminal, supra, it is clear
that State and local governments are completely preempted from adopting or enforcing regulations
to control aircraft noise under their police power. The authority of States and local governments
is preempted whether or not the Federal government has in fact adopted any regulations control-
ling aircraft noise.
However, in a footnote to the majority opinion. Justice Douglas suggested that localities may
have proprietary authority as airport owners to control airport noise.* Since Justice Douglas
failed to indicate the types of measures that could be taken by airport operators under their pro-
prietary authority, it is impossible at this time to determine whether the police power-proprietary
distinction is really meaningful. The fact that Justice Douglas reserved the right to rule upon "what
limits if any apply to a municipality as a proprietor" suggests that the proprietary authority may
also be held in the future to have been preempted by the pervasive nature of Federal airport noise
regulations.
Section tS'
Section 8 authorizes Federal noise labeling requirements for products which emit noise capable
of adversely affecting the public health or welfare or which are sold on the basis of their effective-
ness in reducing noise. Section 8(c) provides:
This section does not prevent any State or political subdivision thereof from regulating
product labeling or information respecting products in any way not in conflict with regula-
tions prescribed by the Administrator under this section.
Section 8 thus leaves the States with considerable power in the area of labeling. Prior to the pro-
mulgation of Federal labeling requirements, States and municipalities may regulate labeling in any
manner desired. After the effective date of Federal regulations, States are only prohibited from
regulating labeling in a way which conflicts with Federal requirements. Thus, for example, a
Federal regulation requiring manufacturers to place a label on the product specifying the noise
emission level of the product in decibels would not preclude a State regulation requiring manu-
facturers to indicate that the high noise level might impair the buyer's hearing after a specified
amount of time near the product. The States, therefore, have wide authority in this area
Sections 17 and 18.
Sections 17 and 18 direct the Administrator to promulgate noise emission regulations for
interstate railroads and interstate motor carriers. Noise emission regulations adopted by EPA
pursuant to §§ 17 and 18 must include limits on noise emissions that are based upon "best avail-
able technology, taking into account the cost of compliance."
U.S. , 93 S.Ct. 1854, at 1861 n. 14
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Suction 17(c) (1) provides for Federal preemption in the following language:
. . . After the effective date of a regulation under this section applicable to noise emissions
resulting from the operation of any equipment or facility of a surface carrier engaged in
interstate commerce by railroad, no State or political subdivision thereof may adopt or
enforce any standard applicable to noise emissions resulting from the operation of the same
equipment or facility of such carrier unless such standard is identical to a standard applicable
to emissions resulting from such operation prescribed by any regulation under this section
The preemptive provision of § 18(c) (1) is nearly identical to that of §17(c) (1) except that §I8(O
(I) prohibits state and local regulations "applicable to the same operation of such motor carrier"
while § I7(c) (1) forbids the adoption of regulations "applicable to noise emissions resulting from
operation of the same equipment or facility of such carrier." Since the legislative history does not
indicate whether the use of different phrases was intentional, the words of each section should be
construed literally.
Section 17(c) (1), therefore, preempts only regulations that apply to "operation of the same
equipment or facility." However, this leaves open the question whether local regulation of greater
or smaller units of equipment or facilities than arc covered by Federal regulations would be preempted.
For example, if Federal standards exist for locomotives, can local governments regulate brake noise
or noise from the entire tram?
Section I8(c) (1) applies to all State and local regulations applicable to the "same operation"
covered by Federal regulations. The question here is what is the "same operation" of a motor
earner? For example, it is not clear whether EPA, by the adoption of noise emission standards for
those trucks with a gross vehicle weight rating over 10,000 pounds, has preempted the States from
regulating the operation of trucks weighing less than 10,000 pounds.
In our opinion, the question of what is the "same operation" or "operation of the same
equipment or facility" will be influenced greatly by EPA statements concerning what it believes
its regulations cover. Therefore, EPA should state [when promulgating regulations] what particular
operation or equipment it intends to cover by its regulation. For example, if EPA promulgates a
regulation under § 18 limiting noise emissions only from trucks over 10,000 Ibs., it should state
the reason it did not regulate noise emissions from trucks under 10,000 Ibs EPA should indicate
whether it believes that such trucks do not need regulation, in which case there should be preemp-
tion, or whether noise from such trucks is essentially a local problem, in which case there should
not be preemption.
The position that EPA's statements will be controlling is supported by Chrysler Corporation v
Tufany, 419 F. 2d 499 (2d Cir. 1969). In Tofany. the U. S. Court of Appeals had to interpret the
preemptive language of the Federal Motor Safety Act, which is similar to § § 17(c) (a) and 18(c) (I)
Section I392(d) of the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Act provides:
Whenever a Federal motor vehicle safety standard established under this subchapter is in
effect, no State or political subdivision of a State shall have any authority either to establish.
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or to continue in effect, with respect to any motor vehicle or item of motor vehicle equip-
ment any safety standard applicable to the same aspect of performance of such vehicle or
item of equipment which is not identical to the Federal standard, (emphasis added.)
The Court interpreted the phrases "item of motor vehicle equipment" and "same aspect of per-
formance" narrowly. The court concluded that Federal regulation of lighting generally did not
preclude State regulation of a specific type of auxiliary lighting. In reaching this conclusion, the
court heavily relied on the fact that the Federal Highway Administration never intended to deal with
that specific type of auxiliary lighting. The court quoted the decision of the U.S. Supreme Court
in Thorpe r Housing Authority oj Durham. 393 U.S. 268, 276, 89 S.Ct. 518, 523 (1969), for the
proposition that the administrative interpretation of a regulation is controlling unless plainly errone-
ous. Tojany and Thorpe thus indicate that EPA's statements regarding the preemptive effect of
regulations implementing § § 17 and 18 will be controlling. However, EPA's statements will not
be dispositive if a court believes that the State or local regulations impose an undue burden upon
interstate commerce.
Assuming that a State or local regulation would be preempted by the terms of § § 17(c) (I)
or 18(c) (1), a State or locality may apply for an exemption under §§ 17(c) (2) or I8fc) (2)
Sections 17(c) (2) and I8(c) (2) provide in identical language as follows:
Nothing in this section shall diminish or enhance the rights of any State or political subdivision
thereof to establish and enforce standards or controls on levels of environmental noise, or to
control, license, regulate, or restrict the use, operation, or movement of any product if the
Administrator, after consultation with the Secretary of Transportation, determines that such
standard, control, license, regulation, or restriction is necessitated by special local conditions
and is not in conflict with regulations promulgated under this section.
The term "not in conflict" must be construed in accordance with the purpose of § I7(c) and
§ 18(c), / c to avoid undue burdens on interstate commerce.41 Thus § § 17(c) (2) and 18(c) (2)
determinations will have to be made by balancing local needs against the impact local regulation
will have on interstate commerce. In view of recent judicial decisions affecting EPA actions, we
believe that any reasonable determination by the Administrator which takes both of these factors
into account will be sustained //the Administrator clearly articulates his reasoning.
"'Congress' intent in enacting the preemption sections was clearly to minimize the burden on inter-
state commerce. See 118 Cong. Rec. SI7777, SI8002-03 (October 12 and 13. 1972).
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Thus, EPA can to a great extent control the preemptive effect of its regulations under § § 17
and 18 by (1) explaining the preemptive effect EPA believe its regulations should have and
(2) granting exemptions under § § 17(c) (2) and 18(c) (2).
cc: Robert Zener
Robert Baum
Alan G. Kirk II
David Dominick
Henry Thomas
Leslie Carrothers
Robert Randall
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