EPA 660/2-74-066
June 1974
Environmental Protection Technology Series
State-of-the-Art : Sand And
Gravel Industry
National Environmental Research Center
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and
Monitoring, Environmental Protection Agency, have
been grouped into five series. These five broad
categories were established to facilitate further
development and application of environmental
technology. Elimination of traditional grouping
was consciously planned to foster technology
transfer and a maximum interface in related
fields. The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION TECHNOLOGY series. This series
describes research performed to develop and
demonstrate instrumentation, equipment and
methodology to repair or prevent environmental
degradation from point and -non-point sources of
pollution. This work provides the new or improved
technology required for the control and treatment
of pollution sources to meet environmental quality
standards.
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EPA-660/2-74-066
June 1974
STATE-OF-THE-ART: SAND AND GRAVEL INDUSTRY
Bobby D. Newport
James E. Moyer
Mining Wastes Section
Treatment and Control Technology Branch
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
Post Office Box 1198
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
Project No. 21 AGG-02
Program Element IBB 040
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CORVALLIS, OREGON 97330
For Mb by the Superintendent of Document*, U.S. QoTemment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 • Price 85 cents
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ABSTRACT
This report presents an overview of the sand and gravel industry in
the United States and its relationship to the environment. The fate
and effects of sediment generated by this surface mining activity on
the benthic, planktonic, and fish communities of our waterways are
discussed in detail. Problems of the sand and gravel industry, types
of operations, status of current treatment technology, and legislation
affecting the industry are reviewed.
ii
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CONTENTS
Page
Abstract ii
Sections
I Conclusions 1
II Recommendations 3
III Introduction 5
IV Literature Review 11
Sediment Transport 11
Sediment Effects 12
Benthic Community 12
Planktonic Community 13
Fish Population 14
Fish Reproduction 16
Fish Species Composition 17
V Types of Sand and Gravel Mining Operations 21
Intermittent 23
Temporary 23
Dredging 24
Off-Shore 24
VI Status of Current Treatment Technology 27
Holding Ponds 27
Settling Aids 28
Closed Systems 29
Waste Fines 30
Sediment By-Product Recovery 31
Rehabilitation 31
VII Legislation Affecting the Industry 33
VIII References 37
iii
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
1. The production of sand and gravel represents the largest non-
fuel mining operation in the United States. Production is reported
from every state with the distribution pattern concentrated in areas
of high population density. Sand and gravel production is expected
to double by 1980, and forecast demand for this commodity ranges
from 300 to 400 percent increase by the year 2000.
2. Storm runoff and plant process water are the two main sources
of water pollution associated with sand and gravel production. Sediment
loads, from several hundred to several thousand mg/1, are detrimental
to: (1) aesthetic values, (2) stream biota, (3) downstream water quality
for domestic and commercial uses, and (4) the ability of a natural body
of water to purify itself.
3. Surface mining for sand and gravel has disturbed over 1,000,000
acres. A recent study by the Soil Conservation Service, as printed
in the Congressional Record of January 1, 1974, estimated that 4,418,710
acres had been disturbed by all surface mining activities. Of the
total 2,542,682 acres requiring reclamation, sand and gravel mining
operations were responsible for 35 percent; coal, 37 percent; and all
other mining, 28 percent. Unlike coal and iron surface mining that
are confined to specific geographical areas, sand and gravel operations
are widely distributed throughout the United States; hence, more people
are directly affected by the adverse effects than any other mining operation.
4. Three different methods of sand and gravel excavation are practiced:
(1) dry pit, sand and gravel is removed above the water table; (2) wet
pit, raw material is extracted by means of a dragline or barge-mounted
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dredging equipment both above and below the water table; and (3) dredging,
sand and gravel is recovered from public waterways, including lakes,
rivers, estuaries, and oceans. All methods require approximately 600
gallons of process water per ton to rid this product of mud, clay, and
other debris. The total volume of process waters utilized represents
over 500 billion gallons per year.
5. The most common treatment practice employs the use of holding
ponds for the purpose of solid separation. This method has proved
adequate for process waters containing small amounts of colloidal matter.
For the more refractory colloidal fines, settling aids have been utilized
with success. A small percentage of process waters cannot be adequately
clarified to meet designated discharge standards regardless of the treat-
ment method employed.
6. Dewatering and ultimate disposal of waste fines are two of the
more serious problems facing the sand and gravel industry. Accumu-
lations of 500 tons per day of solid waste material is generated in the
larger operations. Final disposition of this material will, in many
cases, be financially more burdensome than the initial waste treatment
process.
7. Great Britain, Japan, and the Netherlands are currently recovering
appreciable amounts of ocean-dredged sand and gravel from depths of
20 to 100 feet. Ocean dredging in the United States is minimal at the
present time. In 1972, 25 percent of the national production of sand
and gravel was consumed by the urban areas of the 21 states bordering
the ocean. Estimates by the Corps of Engineers indicate 75,000 square
miles are suitable for sand and gravel recovery from the coastal zones
of the United States. With improved technology, greater demand, urban
encroachment, and the increasing cost of land transportation, it is
reasonable to assume that ocean mining for sand and gravel will become
a significant domestic source of supply within ten years.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Research should be conducted on methods to remove finely dispersed
colloidal fines (smaller than 200 mesh) that remain in suspension in sand
and gravel effluents despite the utilization of settling aids. Methodologies
to be considered for removal purposes should include gas flotation, tube
or lamellae settlers, and microfiltration devices.
2. A survey of sand and gravel producers currently utilizing advanced
treatment procedures for the removal of suspended fines from their waste
discharges should be conducted. The survey should be made the subject
of a report delineating successful treatment technologies with cost consid-
erations , and receive wide distribution among members of the industry.
3. Studies should be undertaken to determine effective and economical
means of dewatering refractory clay slimes from sand and gravel processing
procedures, especially industrial glass-sand production.
4. Research should be initiated to determine methods for the removal
or containment of suspended solids generated from dredging operations
for sand and gravel on public waterways. While past efforts to contain
these sediments utilizing diking techniques, silt curtains, and bubble
barriers have not been totally successful, these procedures should be
reinvestigated.
5. Since ocean mining of sand and gravel in the United States is certain
to become an important domestic source of this product within a few years,
research should be undertaken to determine the impact of ocean dredging
operations on the marine environment. An investigation such as the NOMES
project (New England Off-Shore Mining Environmental Study) should be
coordinated among the interested agencies and approved for funding.
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6. Governmental control bodies, Federal, State, and local, should
develop a uniform set of rules, regulations, and guidelines for sand
and gravel operations to assist producers in planning their mining
operations.
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
Based on physical volume, the sand and gravel industry represents
the largest non-fuel industry in the United States. In 1972, 5,384
domestic plants produced 913 million tons of this product with a value
of 1,1 billion dollars, as reported by the Bureau of Mines. Sand and
gravel production was reported from all of the states, and active or
latent deposits are located in almost every county. Figure 1 shows
percentage production of sand and gravel by EPA regional divisions.
Construction use accounts for 96 percent of all sand and gravel produced;
hence, forecast figures for the construction industry may be used to
estimate future aggregate production. Utilizing these estimates, produc-
tion of sand and gravel is expected to double by 1980. Long-range
forecast demand for this product for the year 2000 range from 3.2 to
4.0 billion tons, an increase of 300 to 400 percent (Figures 2 and 3).
For the processing of a ton of sand or gravel, a minimum of 600 gallons
of water is required to remove clay, mud, and other undesirable sub-
stances. For 1972, this figure represented well over 500 billion gallons
that was utilized for washing purposes.
Contrary to most industrial effluents, sand and gravel wash waters
contain essentially one component, sediment, that exerts a detrimental
ecological impact on the environment. Due to the greatly increased
concentration of suspended solids, sand and gravel processing waters
may not be discharged under present regulations without prior treat-
ment. Unfortunately, in many instances, wash waters from active
installations, as well as storm runoff from both active and abandoned
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CO
FIGURE I • PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF SAND AND GRAVEL
PRODUCTION BY REGIONAL DIVISION 1972
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1300
1200-
1100-
1000-
o 900
o 800
v>
I 700
;| 600
£ 500
| 400
o
300
200
100
PRODUCTION
1 ,
300
1200
100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
CO
ac
UJ
400 <
300
200
100
1950 1955 I960 1965 1970 1975
FIGURE 2 - PRODUCTION 8 VALUE OF SAND
GRAVEL IN THE UNITED STATES
4000
3000 -
2000-
1000-
1950 I960 1970 1980 1990 2000
FIGURE 3-PRODUCTION FORECAST FOR
SAND AND GRAVEL
7
4000
FORECAST RANGE
3200
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facilities, are being released directly to surrounding surface waters.
This situation has occasioned complaints from environmentalists and
other concerned parties with regard to degradation of water quality
for other users, deleterious effects on the biota of the receiving waters,
and deterioration of the environment from an aesthetic standpoint.
Following siltation, an unsightly turbid body of water offers few recre-
ational opportunities. Gravel shallows, once providing nesting areas
for trout, bass, salmon, and other sport fish are covered and not avail-
able for these purposes. The benthic population is severely reduced,
with some species disappearing. Rocky areas harboring organisms,
while providing protective cover for fish larvae and nesting areas, no
longer exist. Turbidity, by affecting light penetration, reduces the
thickness of the euphotic zone, thus seriously affecting the productivity
of the planktonic and benthic community. Reduced numbers of organisms
result in a significant reduction of fish production and carrying capacity
of this water. The natural ability of a stream to purify itself is dependent
upon the existence of viable communities of bacteria, benthic, and plank-
tonic organisms. Solids that settle from suspension also carry organisms
plus unstable organic matter. Consequently, the characteristic population
increase response to organic waste discharges will not exist in silt-laden
waters.
In addition to water pollution, as of 1972, surface mining in the United
States had resulted in the disturbance of 3,935,000 acres of land. Of
this total, only 35 percent has been reclaimed for useful purposes.
Areas disturbed by this activity are currently increasing at a rate in
excess of 200,000 acres per year. Due to the expected rapid expansion
of surface mining, it is estimated that 5.5 million acres will have been
disturbed by this method of mineral extraction by 1980.
The Department of the Interior, by directive of Public Law 89-4, March,
1965, completed a comprehensive study on surface mining in 1967. The
report which followed, "Surface Mining and Our Environment," U.S.
Department of the Interior, July, 1967, delineated the problems and
environmental significance associated with surface mining activities.1
Findings of the study by members of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and
Wildlife identified two million acres of fish and wildlife habitat damaged
by surface mining: 13,000 miles of streams (135,970 surface acres),
281 natural lakes (103,630 surface acres), and 1,687,288 acres of land.
Due to the increase in surface mining since 1967, a 20 percent increase
in the above figures would be a conservative estimate.
8
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Virtually all land disturbed by surface mining was attributed to eight
mining activities: coal, 41 percent of the total; sand and gravel, 26
percent; stone, gold, phosphate, uranium, iron, and clay, 33 percent
(Table 1) .2 These figures were based on all surface mines, active
and abandoned, up to and including 1964. Of particular interest, based
on data reported by the producers to the U.S. Department of the Interior,
in 1964 alone, 153,000 acres of land were disturbed by surface mining.
Of the total, sand and gravel accounted for 60,000 acres (40 percent);
coal, 46,000 acres (30 percent); stone, 21,000 acres (16 percent);
clay and phosphates, each 9,000 acres (5 percent); and the remaining
minerals, 8,000 acres (4 percent) .
Table 1. PRINCIPAL SURFACE-MINED COMMODITIES AND
ESTIMATES OF DISTURBANCE8
Acres Percent of
Commodity Disturbed Total
Coal 1,614,000 41
Sand and Gravel 1,024,000 26
Stone 315,000 8
Gold 236,000 6
Phosphate 236,000 6
Iron 196,000 5
Uranium 196,000 5
Clay 118,000 3
Pegmatite
Gypsum
Copper
Barite
Chromite
Peat
Pumice
Total 3,935,000 100
Revised from table in Resource Publication 68, Bureau of Sport
Fisheries and Wildlife, 1968, to include 1972 production figures,
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Currently sand and gravel production accounts for 1,024,000 surface
acres disturbed through excavation processes. Improved technology,
more massive equipment, and greater demand is resulting in the
economic exploration of lower grade sand and gravel deposits, thus
increasing the ratio of acres disturbed per ton of sand and gravel
produced. With the mining of this commodity expected to double by
1980, and increase three to four times by the year 2000, the environ-
mental significance of surface mining and sand and gravel is evident.
10
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SECTION IV
LITERATURE REVIEW
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
The fate of sediment entering natural bodies of waters and its ultimate
distribution is complicated somewhat by the variables involved: par-
ticle size, stream depth and velocity, and flow variations resulting
from seasonal fluctuations. Due to these variables, sediment transport
in a stream can vary from a few feet to several miles.
Sediments have been classified most often according to size. Twenhofel
(1961)3 lists eleven categories of sediment classifications. These range
from clay particles that measure less than 1/256 mm to boulders with
a diameter of 257 mm or more. In considering sediment and its effect
on the environment, the more harmful sizes would be the smaller parti-
cles, classifed as clay or fine mud, and loam.
Twenhofel (1961)4 stated that a current of 0.18 mph would suspend
brick clay and a stream velocity of 0.72 mph would move fine mud
and loam. Average stream velocities in many instances exceed the
above values, but in areas of reduced flow such as pools or stream
widenings, the necessary velocity to suspend fine mud or loam is
not attained, resulting in the deposition of solids on the bottom.
Colloidal particles that remain in suspension necessitate expensive
treatment procedures downstream.
Cooper (1956),5 studying sediment transport versus stream velocities,
concluded that during a spring freshet the banks are washed and
the stream bed is scoured. During the early part of the high flow,
11
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transportable material is removed from the stream. As the freshet
passes, the availability of transportable material decreases rapidly,
leaving the bed .relatively free of fine sediment.
The percent contribution of suspended solids from sand and gravel
effluents to the total silt load in a stream has often been stated in
an effort to minimize its significance. Average yearly sediment
loads carried by a given stream are measurable and in most cases
are relatively high. However, the elevated natural loads occur
during periods of high flows when increased stream velocities scour
banks and bottoms and reduce accumulated siltation. Sand and
gravel plants operate the year round; hence, silt is deposited during
periods of normal or low flow. Once these particles have become
consolidated to form beds, a much greater velocity of water is
required to dislodge the sediment.
SEDIMENT EFFECTS
Innumerable studies concerning the effects of silt on stream biota
have been conducted. Some of the more pertinent findings related
to sand and gravel operations will be summarized in the following
discussion:
Benthic Community
The benthic community, composed of attached algae and aquatic
invertebrates on lake and stream beds, act as a sensitive indicator
of siltation since their numbers are adversely affected by sediment.
Most of the organisms thrive abundantly in an environment of gravel
and rubble that provides adequate shelter and surface area to grow
and reproduce. Sediments that fill the interspaces or cover this
productive area reduce or eliminate the number of benthic organisms.
Small amounts of silt, not readily apparent, can result in a serious
reduction of benthic organisms. Since benthic organisms comprise
a significant part of fish diets, a reduction in their numbers will
exert a concomitant effect on fish prevalent in the area.
Bottom sampling for the purpose of recovering benthic organisms
has been used extensively in the past, and is presently the method
of choice for the detection and measurement of silt pollution. The
method entails the collection of numerous representative bottom
12
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samples above and below sources of silt introduction, followed by
the enumeration and identification of the organisms present. This
technique has provided valuable information as to the direct effect
of inorganic silt on fish food organisms and sediment transport in
waterways.
Tarzwell (1937)6 and Gaufiri and Tarzwell (1952)7 rated different
substrates according to their ability to support macroinvertebrate
populations, using a scale from one to 452. Shifting sand, sup-
porting the fewest numbers, rated one, while gravel and rubble
rated over 400. All substrate mixed with inorganic silt rated 27
or less.
Bartsch (I960)** found that the effect of inorganic sediment from a
glass manufacturing plant on the Potomac River was still evident
13 miles below the outfall. Ziebell and Knox (1957),9 studying
the effects of a gravel washing operation on the South Fork of the
Chehalis River, Washington, found the recovery of bottom fauna
to normal concentration 6.5 miles below the outfall. Cordone and
Pennoyer (1960)*0 noted that silt below a gravel washing plant had
reduced the bottom organisms to 75 percent of normal ten miles
downstream. Reports published by the Oregon State Game Commis-
sion, et al, (1955)n and Wilson (1957)12 showed that silt from a
gold dredge operation on the Powder River resulted in the siltation
of 15-20 miles of that stream. Jackson (1963)13 concluded that
benthic organism reductions may approach 75 to 80 percent for
distances 10 to 50 miles below sources of silt pollution.
Planktonic Community
Algae are commonly considered as the most basic member of the
animal food chain, and any reduction effects of sediment on algal
numbers are of critical importance to the entire stream community.
Sediment is believed to destroy algae by abrasive action, physical
settling, covering and smothering attached algae, and reducing
illumination necessary for photosynthesis.
Cordone and Pennoyer (1960) *0 found that an abundant population
of algae pads was virtually destroyed by sediment discharge into
the Truckee River, California.
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Lackey, Morgan, and Hart (1959)14 reported a series of experiments
testing the ability of sediment of different sizes to settle blooms of
Golenkinia and Euglena. Sand, muck, and clay were all quite
effective in settling the plankton.
Mackenthun (1969),*^ studying a section of the Etowah River in
Georgia affected by silt pollution, found only 126 planktonic algal
cells per ml represented by two genera. A control stream in the
same watershed but unaffected by silt pollution yielded ten times
the above number of algal cells and was comprised of ten algal
genera.
Fish Population
The availability of food for fish depends ultimately upon the growth
of green plants (algae and higher aquatic plants). The prevalence
of plants and fish food fauna will decrease after introduction of silt.
The decrease will likely be evident at concentrations of 100 ppm
suspended solids and above. Water containing higher concentrations
of suspended matter is unlikely to produce an adequate plant life
which will consequently be evidenced in poorer fisheries.
Herbert and Richards (1963) *° reported the results of a questionnaire
sent to river boards in England inquiring about the abundance of
fish in water containing suspended solids of industrial origin. Their
conclusion was that fish are apparently unharmed at concentrations
of suspended solids below 100 ppm, but definite reductions were
observed at 300 ppm. .
Herbert, Alabaster, Dart, and Lloyd (1960)*^ noted normal brown
trout populations at sediment concentrations of 60 ppm with a 15 .
percent decrease of the normal population density in waters carrying
1,000 to 6,000 China clay wastes. No trout were found in another
stream where the concentration of suspended stonedust from a granite
crushing mill ranged from 11,000 ppm near the mill to 185 ppm at
the tributary!s junction with another stream.
1 R
Sumner and Smith (1939) noted that the king salmon avoided
entering the turbid water of the Yuba River, California, and pref-
erentially entered the clear tributaries.
14
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Baclun_aiui_(1958)_^^ reported that cutthroat trout stopped feeding
and sought cover when the turbidity was increased slightly to
35 ppm.
deary (1956)^ reporting on streams in Iowa noted.that during
sporadic periods of high turbidity, smallmouth bass nested, spawned,
and hatched. However, streams experiencing long periods of erosion
silt produced few finger lings or good fishing.
Generally, natural stream turbidities seldom exceed 100 ppm during
normal flows; however, 3,000 to 4,000 ppm are not uncommon during
periods of heavy runoff and Cross (1950) has reported colloidal
clay concentrations as high as 30,000 ppm in some Oklahoma streams.
Wallen (1951),22 conducting experiments on the direct effect of
turbidity on fish, used 16 species of warm water fish in controlled
aquarium investigations. Findings were that most individuals of
all species exposed to 100,000 ppm turbidity for a week or longer
survived. Survival of fish at these greatly increased turbidities
would tend to indicate that lower turbidities are not harmful. That
fish can withstand short periods of high turbidity, such as occur
during periodic flooding, would be expected for survival purposes.
!
Although the above research concludes that fish are not killed by
solids concentrations higher than those normally found in nature,
several longer term studies employing lower suspended solids con-
centrations indicate long-range detrimental effect. One study by
Griffin (1938) ,2^ working with rainbow trout at concentrations of
270 ppm, reported increased mortality, higher incidence of fin rot,
and thickened gill epithelium at the increased level of suspended
solids. Other studies by Herbert and Richards (1963),16 using
both coal washings and wood fibers, showed that growth rates
decreased as the suspended solids increased from 50 to a 100 to
200 ppm.
It can reasonably be concluded that high concentrations of several
thousand ppm suspended solids can be tolerated for short periods
of time without causing death, but a much lower concentration of
100-300 over a long period of time can result in death, slowed
growth rate, and susceptibility to disease. These lower concen-
trations may also kill weaker fish that would otherwise survive
in a more favorable environment.
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Fish Reproduction
Silt exerts its most disastrous effects on fish in the area of repro-
duction; notably, spawning, fish egg and fish larvae survival. It
is during this initial period of development that fish are most vul-
nerable. Direct damage to adult fish by sediment is evident long
after the more insidious indirect damage to fish populations has
occurred through destruction of eggs, alevins, and spawning areas.
There is evidence, Stuart (1953),24 that some salmonoid avoid
spawning in gravel areas that have been consolidated by sediment
infiltration. Additionally, it was noted that fish larvae could
tolerate small amounts of silt in holding traps if the silt was added
intermittently. Continuous additions of silt resulted in death of
the trout larvae from gill inflammation.
Alderdice, Wickett. and Brett (1958)25 showed that salmon eggs
required one ppm oxygen in the surrounding water during the
early stages and seven ppm at later stages to hatch successfully.
Wickett (1954) 26 concluded that the amount of oxygen available
to developing eggs depends not only on its concentration but on
the rate of flow over the eggs. A similar and contributing effort
by Alderdice and Wickett (1959)27 concluded that carbon dioxide
produced by the eggs, if not carried away, decreased the ability
of the eggs to use available oxygen. A study by Stuart (1953)2^
showed that silt in suspension adhered to the surface of fish eggs
and prevented their hatching. He attributed this finding to the
prevention of sufficient respiratory exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the eggs and surrounding water.
Hobbs (1937),28 conducting a study on natural reproduction of king
salmon, brown and rainbow trout and observing mortality of eggs
in gravel beds, stated that, "The bulk of losses, which irrespective
of species of fish, occur in varying intensity in different streams
and in different redds of the same streams are. attributed to a common
factor, sediment. Where redds are very clean, losses are very
slight, and where redds are very dirty, losses are heavy." He
states further that there is sufficient evidence to show that decreased
permeability in redds results in a greater loss of eggs than where,
other conditions being equal, the redd material is more permeable.
16
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Fish Species Composition
Following siltation, food for many fish species is not present in
the affected stream. Rocky areas are covered, eliminating cover
for smaller fish and nesting areas for larger ones. Many fish
species are sight feeders and due to foraging difficulties, avoid
turbid water if possible. Less desirable, mud-tolerant species
will predominate; hence, fish species composition will be adversely
affected by silt intrusion into a natural body of water.
Trautman (1957),^ studying species modification due primarily
to silt states that, "The fish fauna had changed from a species
complex dominated by fishes requiring clear and/or vegetated
water to one dominated by those species tolerant of much turbidity
of water and bottoms composed of clay silts. There has been
a shift from large fishes of great food value to smaller species
unfit as human food or large fishes of interior food quality."
Diversified fish populations before siltation in the Ohio region,
studied by Trautman, contained pike, walleye, catfish, buffalo,
sucker, drum, and sturgeon. Environmental changes, caused
by silt, altered the population to that of brown and black bull-
head , channel catfish, white crappie and carp. The author
also reported a reduction or elimination of 51 fish species in
the Middle Harbor Lake in Ohio, due to the elimination of fish
habitats by siltation. The remaining fish killed by rotenone
consisted of 90 percent carp, goldfish, hybrids, and dwarfed
bullheads.
nn
An extensive study by Buck (1956), examining the effects of
turbidity on largemouth bass, bluegill sunfish, redear sunfish,
and channel catfish, utilized farm ponds in Oklahoma. Twelve
ponds were separated into the following turbidity classes: (1)
clear ponds with average turbidities of less than 25 ppm, (2)
intermediate ponds with a range of turbidities from 25 to 100 ppm,
and (3) muddy ponds with turbidities in excess of 100 ppm. In
the study all ponds were treated with rotenone and then restocked.
The following findings are summarized (Figures 4 and 5):
1. At the end of two growing seasons, the average total
weight of fish in clear farm ponds was approximately 1.7 times
greater than in ponds of intermediate turbidity and approximately
17
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00
CO
o
o
a.
x
o
ui
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
n
CLEAR
p-25Dom
YOUNG
SUNFISH
75.2%
ADULT
SUNttSH
YBAgf[
ADULT
BASS
10.5%
1
NTERMEDIATE
44-86 ppm
49.0%
14.4%
(6.8%
19.8 %
MUDDY
116-214 ppm
12 6%
47.4%
—4.0%—
36.0%
0.020
oe
tu
o:
ui
a
w
a:
UJ
- o.oio
ui
2
_J
§
0.003
O.OOO
CLEAR
~0-25 ppm
INTERMEDIATE
44-86 ppm
MUDDY
116-214 ppm
f I
FIGURE 4 - FISH GROWTH AND COMPOSITION
FIGURE 5- NET PLANKTON
Reprinted with permission.
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5.5 times greater than in muddy ponds. Differences were due to
faster growths by all species and to greater reproduction in clear
ponds, particularly by bluegills and redear sunfish.
2. Of the three species used in farm ponds, largemouth bass
were affected by turbidity in both growth and reproduction. Redear
sunfish appeared less retarded in growth than did bluegills during
the first year, but the two sunfishes appeared equally restricted in
both growth and reproduction during the second year.
3. Average volume of net plankton in surface waters of clear
ponds during the 1954 growing season was eight times greater than
in ponds having intermediate turbidities; 12.8 times greater than in
the most turbid ponds.
In an effort to obtain comparative data on larger lakes, Buck designed
a project that utilized two Oklahoma reservoirs—one muddy and one
clear. Lake Heyburn, a 1,070-acre lake, was selected as the muddy
lake and Upper Spavinaw, with 3,192 acres, was selected as the clear
lake. The lake study results paralleled those from farm ponds.
1. Growth of largemouth bass, white crappie, and channel cat-
fish was much slower in turbid Heyburn than in clear Upper Spavinaw
reservoir.
2. Growth of flat he ad catfish was the most favorable of any
Heyburn species studied, and is apparently well adapted to the turbid
environment.
3. The number of species, as well as individuals of all scaled
fish, was low in the turbid Heyburn reservoir. This finding was
attributed to a lack of successful reproduction in the turbid waters
and also to competition from the better adapted catfishes.
4. An extreme scarcity of forage species was noted, particu-
larly gizzard shad, along with a limited development of carnivorous
fish species at Heyburn.
5. Lake Heyburn largemouth bass and white crappie popula-
tions exhibited unusual dominance by older individuals. This finding
was attributed to successively smaller year classes as a result of
increasing turbidities.
6. In 1954 the average volume of plankton in surface waters
was 13.8 times greater in Upper Spavinaw than in Heyburn, and
average volume from the 60-foot depth at the clear reservoir was
greater than the combined total from surface, 15-foot depth, and
30-foot depth in the muddy reservoir. The contrast was least marked
in 1955, possibly due to the somewhat lower average turbidities
recorded at Lake Heyburn that year.
19
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7. The clear reservoir attracted more anglers, yielded greater
returns per unit of fishing effort, as well as more desirable species,
and was immeasurably more appealing from an aesthetic standpoint.
In reviewing the literature on siltation, it became evident that the
major part of research investigations had taken place in streams
that for the most part were isolated from other pollution sources.
These virgin streams, except for silt, were relatively free of man's
degradating influences. Fortunately, the areas still exist, enabling
concerned individuals to study siltation problems in an atmosphere
free from the many complicating variables existing in populated
areas. Information gained in these studies has provided an invalu-
able insight into the effects of siltation on many of our streams.
In summary, the literature reviewed to date indicates that a precise
minimum concentration of inorganic solids detrimental to maintaining
good fisheries has not been unequivocally established. There is
sound evidence, based on the numerous research projects completed
in this area, however, that the suspended solids concentrations
listed below are meaningful approximations.
0-25 ppm—No harmful effects on fisheries.
25-100 ppm—Good to moderate fisheries.
100-400 ppm—Unlikely to support good fisheries.
400 and above ppm—Poor fisheries.
20
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SECTION V
TYPES OF SAND AND GRAVEL MINING OPERATIONS
Three different methods of sand and gravel excavation are practiced:
(1) dry pit, sand and gravel removed is above the water table;
(2) wet pit, raw material extracted by means of a dragline or barge-
mounted dredging equipment both above and below the water table;
and (3) dredging, sand and gravel is recovered from public water-
ways, including lakes, rivers, and estuaries. Figure 6 illustrates
a typical sand and gravel processing system.
Over 5,000 domestic plants in the United States fall into the above
categories. A breakdown of their percent contribution of the total
production is as follows: dry pit, 50 percent; wet pit, 30 to 40
percent; and dredging on public waterways, 10 to 20 percent.
Considerable production variations exist within the industry, with
the larger operations producing over 3.5 million tons per year.
The smaller, part-time operations may produce less than 1,000
tons. Capital outlay required ranges from $20,000 for marginal
producers to larger investments in excess of $10 million.
Although some of the larger operations are still releasing detrimental
silt loads to public waterways, many of the major installations are
now using totally closed systems or releasing only a small percentage
of their process water after effective treatment. Many of the low
volume or part-time producers, due to their relatively small or
intermittent effluents, have continued to operate without treatment.
Release of this sediment-laden plant process water has been over-
looked by the environmentalists and many state agencies whose
energies have been directed toward the more sensational forms of
pollution.
21
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to
to
RAW MATERIAL
\
HOPPER
ROCK AND
GRAVEL
SANO 8
FINES
-"-—/ BARREL 1
SCREEN
GRAVEL
TO \ X
STORAGE
SEPARATOR
COURSE '
SAND TO
STORAGE
SANO
SCREW
SEPARATOR
WASTE EFFLUENT TO HOLDING PONO
\
PUMP
^
SEPARATOR
FINE
SAND TO
STORAGE
SANO
SCREW
SEPARATOR
PUMP
FIGURE 6 - TYPICAL SAND AND GRAVEL PROCESSING SYSTEM
-------
INTERMITTENT
Numerous sand and gravel producers operate on a part-time or inter-
mittent schedule. The percent contribution of this type of operation
to the total national output is of significance. The operations, in many
cases, are carried out on a demand or seasonal basis, enabling an
operator to produce aggregate in response to periods of peak demand.
Some plants operate only a few days a month, during which time sand
and gravel is stockpiled to meet future demands. The same pollution
potential exists in these intermittent operations as with plants operating
full-time. Many of the operations have to remove considerable volumes
of water from the pit area before initiating each recovery operation.
Although some operations do not wash the material being recovered,
suspended solids included in or generated by the high volume dis-
charge may exert excessive loading on the receiving body of water.
TEMPORARY
Sand and gravel production figures do not reflect immediate vicinity
use of aggregate for rural roads and some highway construction
purposes. Sand and gravel produced in this manner is usually
removed without processing by the dry pit method, and transported
directly to the usage site. As no water is employed for processing,
effluents are not of concern; nevertheless, considerable damage may
be inflicted on the environment through subsequent erosion from
storm runoff. With minimal additional effort during excavation,
retaining dikes could be constructed to contain runoff. Additionally,
slope steepness during and following completion of the mining opera-
tion could be minimized without undue difficulty. Such procedures
would greatly reduce erosion and provide a rehabilitative base for
returning the land to productive use.
Operations of this nature exist in almost every county in the United
States. Many of the areas are mined for only a few weeks before
being abandoned; hence, are not subject to adequate regulation.
Individually, these operations produce relatively small amounts of
sand and gravel; collectively, however, annual production with
related erosion and siltation is significant. Storm runoff from one
of these temporary operations is capable of producing a silt load
exceeding the yearly output of a well-managed sand and gravel
plant.
23
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DREDGING
The dredging operation involves the removal of raw material from
lake, estuary, or stream beds by means of a ladder, clam shell,
or cutter head dredge. The material is either processed directly
on the dredge and loaded on barges, or transported hydraulically
to shore-based processing plants. Processing dredged material
requires the same steps as the dry or wet pit operation; screening,
washing, and grading to various sizes.
Effluents from barge-processing units contain essentially the same
high suspended solid concentrations as those generated by a land-
based operation, while additional solids are placed into suspension
by the action of the recovery assemblies. Depending on water
velocities and particle size, turbid plumes consisting of suspended
solids can be visible for several miles downstream. After leaving
the barge, reliable effluent sampling is technically difficult. Litera-
ture reviewed to date indicates that little effort has been expended
tracing silt from barge sources. As has been noted earlier and
documented in numerous reports, continuous additions of silt from
any source are undesirable. While the major portion of the studies
concerning silt from sand and gravel operations have concentrated
on land-based types, conclusions from these studies should also
be applicable to barge operations. It would not be logical to assume
that an effluent released in the middle of a river would have less
effect than an outfall on the side.
Current technology pertaining to successful treatment of barge
effluents is inadequate. Flocculants, silt curtains, and baffles
have been tried with only temporary and uneconomial success.
Dikes have been used to effectively eliminate dredge spoils from
entering public waterways in situations of restricted mining area
and relatively shallow water.
OFF-SHORE
The Corps of Engineers has estimated that 50,000 square miles of
the Atlantic Coast contain sand and gravel deposits suitable for
off-shore mining with another 25,000 square miles available in the
Pacific and Gulf of Mexico coastal areas.
24
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While production of sand and gravel by ocean dredging currently
comprises only a small percent of total United States production,
it is expected to increase significantly within the next few years.
A recent article reported that roughly 25 percent of the nation's
total sand and gravel consumption or 225 million tons was consumed
by the urban areas of the 21 states bordering the oceans.31 Con-
sumption in these areas is expected to at least double and possibly
triple by 1985, placing considerable pressure on current land-based
facilities. As urban areas expand, sand and gravel deposits will
become less available due to zoning restrictions. Recovery opera-
tions will necessarily be displaced to outlying areas, thereby in-
creasing the distance and cost of distribution of this product. On
this assumption, it is then reasonable to conclude that ocean mining
for sand and gravel will become a necessity within 10 years.
Ocean-going dredges, capable of dredging in 100 feet of water, are
expensive as compared to dredges now being used in rivers and
estuaries. Seventy-five dredges valued at $100 million are now
in economical use in Great Britain, The majority of the deposits
presently being worked are from one to 20 miles off-shore at depths
of 60 to 100 feet. Operating costs range from 35 to 49 cents per
ton, placing ocean mining in a strong competitive position in the
United Kingdom. Currently 16 percent or 20 million tons per year
is being ocean-mined with demand in the year 2000 expected to
reach two billion tons per year in Great Britain. In Japan, 18
percent of all sand and gravel comes from ocean dredging, and
the Netherlands are currently using considerable amounts of dredged
material.
The effect of off-shore mining of sand and gravel on environmental
quality is yet to be defined. The NOMES project (New England
O'ff-Shore Mining Environmental Study) was scheduled to recover
a million cubic yards from a Massachusetts Bay test site in an
effort to gain some insight into ocean mining and its effect on
the marine environment. The study was temporarily cancelled in
July, 1973, primarily by environmentalists who feared the findings
of the study would clear the way for ecologically harmful explora-
tions of coastal areas and associated fishing grounds. Cancellation
of this long-term research project delays indefinitely the scientific
determination of whether or not ocean mining of sand and gravel
should proceed. At present the NOMES project is given less than
a 50 percent chance of being reinstituted.
25
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The Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 provided for the establish-
ment of the Office of Coastal Management in the Commerce Department.
By providing two-thirds funding, the Federal Government is encour-
aging the states to identify coastal reserves and boundaries, determine
land and water use as pertaining to environmental impact, and con-
duct the necessary research to determine the effect of ocean mining
on off-shore ecosystems. Hopefully, meaningful information will be
derived from this research delineating the relationship between ocean
mining and the environment.
In its final report June 28, 1973, The National Commission on Materials
Policy encouraged further research into all aspects of ocean mining.
The Commission recommended that the Federal Government "encourage
orderly development of the undersea mineral resources and essential
deepwater port facilities and expedite settlement of related environ-
mental issues with all possible speed."
26
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SECTION VI
STATUS OF CURRENT TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
Waste from municipal or other industrial sources are responsible for
the more visible types of pollution such as fish kills; nevertheless,
the final effects of silt pollution are more permanent than the effects
of organic pollution. Elimination of organic waste discharges results
in rapid recovery of water quality. In contrast, silt pollution, due
to its ability to alter the physical nature of a stream, is relatively
irreversible. Pollution from sand and gravel sources are less obvious
and in many instances overlooked by the public and regulatory agencies
who tend to direct their attention towards the more sensational forms.
Because of an uninformed public and political priorities, many streams
continue to receive excessive amounts of silt from sand and gravel
effluents.
HOLDING PONDS
The most common treatment method practiced in the industry today
is the retention of wash waters in settling ponds. Treatment by
the ponding method requires construction of new ponds or utiliza-
tion of an area previously excavated during the mining process.
The size and number of treatment ponds vary considerably; usually,
any configuration that enables the suspended matter to settle satis-
factorily before wasting or reuse is considered adequate. One of
the major problems confronting the sand and gravel industry is
the availability of sufficient land area to construct adequate holding
ponds. Many of the operations are located near urban areas where
additional land is either not available or prohibitively exhorbitant
in cost.
27
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However, if the land requirements can be met, the settling character-
istics of the waste are then determined to insure that adequate clarifi-
cation will occur naturally within the allotted detention time of the
treatment ponds. Determination of the physical characteristics of the
effluent is vital before attempting full-scale pond treatment. Regard-
less of the detention time available, adequate suspended solid and
turbidity reduction in some effluents cannot be attained without addi-
tional treatment.
SETTLING AIDS
To expedite settling and minimize the necessity for large settling
ponds, some operators have installed systems that introduce floccu-
lating agents to the effluent stream to assist in clarification. Capital
expenditures for these systems have varied from elaborate systems
in excess of $100,000 to extremely simplified systems consisting of
a mixing barrel with an attached hose that only roughly meters
chemicals into the effluent.
Prior to implementation of full-scale treatment, a plant survey to
determine all points of suspended solids entry into the process waters
is conducted. Generally, attempts are made to reduce or concentrate
suspended solids normally discharged through the use of physical
methods; e.g., the manipulation of plant processing procedures.
Following optimization of in-plant procedures, technical expertise
is usually solicited to obtain assistance in determining the most
effective means of chemical treatment. Several manufacturers are
now producing flocculating agents, consequently considerable mar-
keting competition exists. Some companies, in an effort to merchan-
dise their product, will send specialists on request to assist in
developing an optimum treatment system. This service particularly
benefits the small operators who may not have the available personnel
or required technology to perform the necessary preliminary testing.
Maximum information concerning the physical and chemical character-
istics of the waste to be treated should be obtained before progressing
to the full-scale process. Engineering parameters taken into consid-
eration prior to chemical treatment are: total flow through the plant;
flow variations due to production fluctuations; and most important,
28
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flow characteristics of settling ponds. Chemical metering, mixing,
and detention times must be optimized to attain efficient treatment.
Proper construction and utilization of settling ponds can mean the
difference between an efficient economical treatment system and an
inadequate expensive one.
Quite often, despite extensive laboratory testing, types of chemicals
or chemical concentrations may require altering before satisfactory
treatment is attained. Once the proper conditions are determined,
sediment removal by means of flocculent addition is relatively un-
complicated with many operators able to control the process in spite
of varying effluent loadings.
The cost of chemical treatment for sand and gravel effluents ranges
from one to five cents per ton of product produced. This variation
is due to the initial outlay cost for equipment, the chemical selected,
the amount of chemical used, and labor required to maintain the
treatment system. In many cases, due to fixed labor cost, treatment
expense will decrease as production increases. Considerable vari-
ations in the price of chemicals necessitate a critical assessment
of chemicals employed.
CLOSED SYSTEMS
In some instances clarification by the use of flocculent aids has been
successful to the extent that the total wastewater from the final hold-
ing pond can be reused, thus, creating a closed system of treatment
whereby no process waters leave the premises. In other applications
a high percentage of the total effluent can be recycled. The deter-
mining factors on effluent reuse are the purity of the product desired
and the amount of suspended solids in the water to be recycled. In
many operations concentrations of suspended solids can be as high
as 500 ppm and still have a recycling capability.
Fortunately for many sand and gravel companies, either through
extensive planning or coincidence, effluents never leave company
property. As has been pointed out, some effluents enter large
holding ponds or go through extensive treatment before ultimate
reuse. Natural containment of waste fines exists in areas where
effluents enter low lands or marsh areas owned by the producing
company. In instances where silt from effluents or storm runoff
is contained on the premises, damage to the environment is elimi-
nated.
29
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Additionally, many operators are voluntarily practicing extensive
rehabilitation of mined areas to reclaim the areas for real estate
development and improve the public image of the company.
WASTE FINES
Currently, one of the most serious problems facing the sand and
gravel industry is ultimate disposal of waste fines. From one to
twenty percent of the total raw material processed will be classified
as waste fines. Using a realistic figure of five percent waste fines
and production figures quoted earlier, it can be estimated that larger
operations will have an accumulation of 500 tons per day of solid
waste.
Fortunately, many operations have sufficient land area available
for disposal of this waste. Some use previously mined areas,
obsolete sedimentation ponds, or open land areas to disperse the
sludge for drying. Even with favorable space accomodations,
however, waste fines handling can be financially quite burdensome.
Periodically, in many operations, sediment basins fill to capacity,,-
requiring the use of drag-line and trucks to remove and dispose
of sediment accumulations.
Problems concerning waste fines handling are compounded in
operations that lack the necessary land for convenient disposal.
Many sand and gravel companies continue to operate in areas
where the marketing of waste fines for top soil and fill material
is not economical. For these operators, it becomes of prime
necessity to extract as much marketable material as possible
down to the 100 mesh range. In this manner large amounts of
fines are eliminated from accumulation in settling ponds.
Cyclone separators, widely used throughout the industry for the
purpose of solid separation and material gradation, have proven
highly successful in reducing the amount of waste fines released
to settling ponds. One plant was originally cleaning a settling
pond every six months at a cost of $10,000; with the addition of
one cyclone separator (cost $2,000), cleaning intervals were ex-
tended to 18 months.
30
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One additional problem of waste fines handling concerns the drying
characteristics of the recovered sludge. Due to the varying nature
of this material and the different disposal techniques utilized, drying
times can range from a week to several years. Factors affecting
drying times are: sludge thickness and permeability, disposal site
drainage, and climatic conditions affecting rate of evaporation. Gen-
erally, assuming adequate space is available, sludge thicKn^ssep of
two feet will dry within one to three weeks.
SEDIMENT BY-PRODUCT RECOVERY
If the sediment is of the quality of topsoil or fill dirt, and a readily
accessible market exists in the immediate area, sediment recovery
can prove to be a profitable operation. In many instances, it is
advantageous to mix coarser material with the sludge to facilitate
drying and enhance the quality of the finished product. Some.
operators have added commercial fertilizer to waste fines to yield
a profitable product from this once burdensome material. Since
many sand and gravel operations are located near metropolitan
areas; the economic feasibility of combining municipal sludge with
waste fines to produce a marketable fertilizer or soil conditioner
is a possibility.
Waste fines have also been utilized for the production of building
bricks. With the increased demand for construction materials,
activity in this area is expected to increase. Some operators are
currently stockpiling suitable material for this eventuality.
It is misleading to imply that all waste fines can eventually be
channeled into useful or profitable products, since the sand and
gravel industry generates roughly 90 million tons per year. If
only a portion of this material can be converted into useful products,
however, the effort would be of benefit from an environmental
standpoint.
REHABILITATION
Rehabilitation of mined areas has received increased attention over
the past few years. Abandoned sand and gravel pits have been
recognized as potentially high value real estate. Since many of
31
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these areas are located in or near metropolitan areas, their use
as construction sites, golf courses, residential areas, recreational
parks, or sanitary land-fills are now being considered. Consulting
firms have been established that are concerned almost solely with
restoration of mined areas or pre-planning for ultimate reuse of
areas to be mined. Companies with portable equipment designed
for land reclamation are now in operation.
Prior to initiating excavation, many operators are using consultants
in landscape architecture to plan their operation. Using this approach,
the sand and gravel is systematically removed, the overburden con-
served, and the land restored to productive use as the mining process
progresses. Maximum utilization of manpower and equipment can be
attained by this method of operation. Other companies, with assistance
from Soil Conservation and Forestry Service personnel, are planning
site operations based on a sound program of rehabilitation.
In areas of low land values, restoration is not profitable for the sand
and gravel producer; hence, rehabilitation of the depleted site is
oftimes neglected. Since a large portion of the land used for aggre-
gate production is leased, there is a reluctance on the part of the
producer to invest in the necessary rehabilitation measures.
32
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SECTION VII
LEGISLATION AFFECTING THE INDUSTRY
In 1899 Congress passed the Rivers and Harbors Act which initially
affected all industries. Enforcement of this law has, until recently,
been limited to those industries discharging matter to navigable
waters which would interfere, become destructive, or hazardous
to navigation. Recent court decisions have allowed a broader inter-
pretation of the act.
In an effort to improve the water quality of our streams, lakes, and
coastal waters, the Federal Government has applied the provisions
of the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 to the general problems of
water pollution. Following passage of the Rivers and Harbors Act,
a number of laws were enacted in an effort to reduce or eliminate
pollution of the natural waters of the United States.
In 1912 the next major bill, the Public Health Service Act that dealt
with human health factors in relation to water pollution, was passed.
The Water Pollution Control Act was passed in 1948, and in 1956
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act became law. The Water
Quality Act of 1965 established the Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration under the Department of the Interior. In 1967 the
Air Quality Act was passed and in 1969 the National Environmental
Policy Act. In 1970 the FWPCA(FWQA) was reorganized and became
EPA, and Congress passed the Mining and Minerals Policy Act.
A number of other bills, over 100 in all, concerned with pollution
abatement have been passed from 1899 to the present. To clarify,
consolidate, and update this mass of environmental legislation,
Congress passed the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments
of 1972.
33
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The Mining and Minerals Policy Act of 1970 concerns mining in general
and includes the sand and gravel industry. The act defines the general
relationship between the Federal Government and the mining industry.
Section 2 reads as follows:
"The Congress declares that it is the continuing policy of the
Federal Government in the national interest to foster and encourage
(1) the development of an economically sound and stable domestic
mining and minerals industry, (2) the orderly development of domestic
mineral resources and reserves necessary to assure satisfaction of
industrial and security needs, and (3) mining, mineral, and metal-
lurgical research to promote the wise and efficient use of our mineral
resources. It shall be the responsibility of the Secretary of the
Interior to carry out this policy in such programs as may be author-
ized by law other than this Act. For this purpose the Secretary
of the Interior shall include in his annual report to Congress a report
on the state of the domestic mining and minerals industry, including
a statement of the trend in utilization and depletion of these resources,
together with such recommendations for legislative programs as may
be necessary to implement the policy of this Act."
On February 10, 1970, during the President's message on the envir-
onment, he proposed that state and federal water quality standards
be amended to impose precise effluent requirements on all industrial
and municipal sources. Nine months later on December 23, 1970,
an executive order was issued by the President that delegated the
responsibility of issuing discharge permits to the Corps of Engineers
and the determination of the quality of water being discharged to
EPA. In announcing this program, the Refuse Act Permit Program,
the President stated that the establishment of the program would
enhance the ability of the Federal Government to enforce water
quality standards and provide a major strengthening of efforts to
clean up our nation's waters by applying the provisions of the
Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 to the problems of water pollution.
The Refuse Act Permit Program, which went into effect July 1, 1971,
made it illegal to discharge materials into a navigable water or tribu-
tary without a permit from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. A -
permit would be issued if the material to be discharged met the appli-
cable water quality standards, or if a schedule of amelioration of
the quality of water to be discharged was approved that would bring
34
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the effluent quality within applicable standards by a specific date.
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 trans-
ferred the authority to issue permits to EPA, which has subsequently
delegated this responsibility to States meeting specified requirements.
THE FORMATION OF STATE LAWS
Virginia, in 1939, became the first state to enact a surface mining
law applicable to the sand and gravel industry. In 1941 and 1943,
Indiana and Illinois enacted surface mining laws which included the
sand and gravel industry. In 1967 the Department of the Interior,
under Congressional mandate, made a study of surface mining and
mined-land reclamation entitled "Surface Mining and Our Environment."
By pointing out the failure of mining industries in the past to reclaim
and restore mined surface areas, the study served as an impetus to
many states to enact surface mining and mined-land reclamation laws.
Additionally, many producers voluntarily initiated sound reclamation
practices.
To date, 35 states have enacted statutes regulating surface mining
of minerals. Of these, 21 specifically relate to the sand and gravel
industry. Many producers are now operating under local, state,
and federal laws. The disparity between the laws creates problems
with regard to the varying degrees of control.
In brief, an outline of the developing pattern of requirements of
most state regulations are: effluent characterization, flow diagrams,
amounts of waste water discharged, a mining plan, a reclamation
plan, and performance bonding prior to the initation of the mining
operation. An annual or semi-annual report of activity is required
with stipulated penalties for failure to comply.
Depending upon state and local requirements, a mineral producer
may be required to pay $25-$100 per year to obtain .a permit, plus
a fee based on the number of acres involved in the operation. An
employment fee dependent upon the average number of employees
in the organization may also be required. A document including
the starting date, the proposed movement or mining plan, the termi-
nation date, and an engineer's reclamation plan is necessary in some
states. The reclamation plan defines such items as degree of slope,
amount of topsoil to be replaced on the mined areas, and the type
35
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of vegetation required. To insure that reclamation is accomplished,
a bond of $150 to $1,000 per acre may be required subject to for-
feiture for non-compliance. Some state statutes specify criminal
penalties plus fines should a company operate without a valid permit
or in violation of permit requirements.
Sand and gravel operations are faced with a myriad of problems:
proper land use, pollution of air and water, noise, surface mining
regulations, bonding, reclamation, taxes, and federal, state, and
local laws and ordinances. The larger sand and gravel firms have
been able to solve these problems by retaining competent legal and
technical personnel; however, without assistance from the adminis-
tering agencies, smaller producers may be forced out of business.
36
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SECTION VIII
REFERENCES
1. Surface Mining and Our Environment. A Special Report to the
Nation. U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.
Second printing 1967. 124 p.
2. Spaulding, Jr., W. M. and R. D. Ogden. Effects of Surface'
Mining on the Fish and Wildlife Resources of the United States.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and
Wildlife, Washington, D.C. Resource Publication 68. August
1968. 51 p.
3. Twenhofel, W. H. Treatise on Sedimentation, Volume I.
New York, Dover Publications, Inc., 1961. p. 34.
4. Twenhofel, W. H. Treatise on Sedimentation, Volume II.
New York, Dover Publications, Inc., 1961. p. 645.
5. Cooper, A. C. A Study of the Horseful River and the Effect
of Placer Mining Operations on Sockeye Spawning Grounds.
International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission. Vol. 3,
58 p. 1956.
6. Tarzwell, C. M. Experimental Evidence as to the Value of Trout
Stream Improvement in Michigan. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 16:
177-178, 1936.
7. Gaufin, A. R. and C. M. Tarzwell. Aquatic Macroinvertebrate
Communities as Indicators of Organic Pollution in Lytle Creek.
Sew. Ind. Wastes. 28: (7): 906-924, 1956.
37
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8. Bartsch, A. F. Settleable Solids, Turbidity, and Light Penetra-
tion as Factors Affecting Water Quality. Robert A. Taft Sanitary
Engineering Center, Water Supply and Water Pollution Research,
Cincinnati, Ohio. Technical Report W60-3. 1960. p. 118-127.
9. Ziebell, C. D. and S. K. Knox. Turbidity and Siltation Studies,
South Fork, Chehalis River. State of Washington, Department
of Ecology. Biological Survey 3. June 13 and 24, 1957. 4 p.
10. Cordone, A. J. and S. Pennoyer. Notes on Silt Pollution in the
Truckee River Drainage, Nevada and Placer Counties. California
Department of Fish and Game. Inland Fisheries Administrative
Report Number 60-14. September 15, 1960. p. 1-25.
11. Oregon State Game Commission, Oregon State Sanitary Authority,
and U.S. Public Health Service. Gold Dredge Siltation, Powder
River, Oregon, 1953-1955. Water Supply and Water Pollution
Control Program. 1955. 9 p.
12. Wilson, J. N. Effects of Turbidity and Silt on Aquatic Life.
In: Biological Problems in Water Pollution. U.S. Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare. Washington, D. C., Govt.
Print. Off. 1957. p. 235-239.
13. Jackson, H. Effect of Silt on Aquatic Forms. Division of
Water Supply and Pollution Control. SEC Lecture. 1963.
14. Lackey, J. B., G. B. Morgan, and O. H. Hart. Turbidity
Effects in Natural Waters in Relation to Organisms and the
Uptake of Radioisotopes. University of Florida, Engineering
and Industrial Experiment Station, Gainesville. Technical
Paper 167. 1959. 9 p.
15. Mackenthun, K. M. Silts. In: The Practice of Water Pollution
Biology. U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration, Washington, D.C., 1969.
p. 96-108.
16. Herbert, D. W. M. and J. M. Richards. The Growth and
Survival of Fish in Some Suspensions of Solids of Industrial
Origin. Int. J. Air Wat. Poll. (Oxford) 7:297-302, 1963.
38
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17. Herbert, D. W. M., J. S. Alabaster, M. C. Dart, and R. Lloyd.
The Effect of China-Clay Wastes on Trout Streams. Int. J. Air
Wat. Poll. (Oxford) 5:56, 1961.
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with Reference to the Influence of Forest Road Construction.
Master's Thesis, University of Idaho, Moscow. 1958. 97 p.
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Bass Production in Iowa. J. Wildlife Mgt. 2_0(4):353-359, 1958.
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on the Fishes of Still water Creek in Payne County, Oklahoma.
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of Oklahoma A and M College, Still water. 48_(1): 27 p., January
1951.
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and Salmon-for Suspended Sediment in Water. Bulletin of the
Oregon Department of Geology. l£(Appendix B): 28-31, 1938.
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J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 15:797-799, 1958.
39
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28. Hobbs, D. F. Natural Reproduction of Quinnat Salmon, Brown
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40
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SELECTED WATER
RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
"t. Rep. -t No,
.3. Accession Ho.
w
t. Title
STATE-OF-THE-ART: SAND AND GRAVEL INDUSTRY,
, 5, K' ,t>rtDf :
S.
i
3, Pvfortnix
/. Aiithor(s)
Newport, B. D. and Moyer, J. E.
9. Organization
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
P.O. Box 1198, Ada, Oklahoma 74820
10. ProjectNo.
21 AGG-02
77, Contractf Grunt No.
i 13. Type,"'' Repot 3
I Period Covered
12. Sponiiriog Organization
IS. Supplementary Wotes
Environmental Protection Agency report number EPA-660/2-74-066, June 1974.
Id. Abstract
This report presents an overview of the sand and gravel industry in the United States
and its relationship to the environment. The fate and effects of sediment generated by
this surface mining activity on the benthic, plank tonic, and fish communities of our
waterways are discussed in detail. Problems of the sand and gravel industry, types
of operations, status of current treatment technology, and legislation affecting the
industry are reviewed. (Newport-EPA)
17a. Descriptors
*Water pollution sources, ^Discharge (water), ^Sediment transport, "Degradation (stream),
*Sediment control, Stream erosion, Discharge (sediment), Excavation, Ecology,
Flocculation, Storm runoff, Ocean mining.
17b. Identifiers
17c. COWRR Field & Group 05B , 05C
IS. Availability
15. S
(.
\ 2V. Secittny Class.
zi. ; . of
Pages
32. Price
Sand To:
WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
WASHINGTON, D. C. 20240
D. Newport
Protection Aaencv
WRSIC IO2 (REV JUNE
*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1974 582-412/17 1-3
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