EPA-660/2-75-018
JUNE 1975
                        Environmental Protection Technology Series
Use  of  Climatic  Data in Design  of
Soils Treatment  Systems
                                     National Environmental Research Center
                                       Office of Research and Development
                                      U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                                              Corvallis, Oregon 97330

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                      RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, have been grouped into
five series.  These five broad categories were established to
facilitate further development and application of environmental
technology.  Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in
related fields.  The five series are:

          1.   Environmental Health Effects Research
          2.   Environmental Protection Technology
          3.   Ecological Research
          4.   Environmental Monitoring
          5.   Socioeconomic Environmental Studies

This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
TECHNOLOGY STUDIES series.  This series describes research
performed to develop and demonstrate instrumentation, equipment
and methodology to repair or prevent environmental degradation from
point and non-point sources of pollution.  This work provides the
new or improved technology required for the control and treatment
of pollution sources to meet environmental quality standards.

                         EPA REVIEW NOTICE

This report has been reviewed by the Office of Research and
Development, EPA, and approved for publication.  Approval  does
not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and
policies of the Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention
of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.

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                                      EPA-660/2r75-018
                                      July  1975
       USE OF CLIMATIC DATA IN DESIGN OF

            SOILS  TREATMENT. SYSTEMS
                        By

                 Dick M.  Whiting
            National Climatic Center
           Environmental Data Service
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
        Asheville,  North Carolina  28801
                 EPA-IAG-D4-F451
              Program Element 1BB045
              ROAP 21-ASH, Task 018
                 Project Officer

                Richard E. Thomas
Robert S. Kerr  Environmental Research  Laboratory
     National' Environmental Research Center
                  P.  0. Box 1198
              Ada,  Oklahoma  74820
     NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
       OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
     U. S.  ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
              CORVALLIS, OREGON  97330

         For «al* by the Superintendent of Document!, U.S. Government
               Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402

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                                ABSTRACT
Planners, designers and operators of land-based wastewater management
systems need information about climatic influences on storage require-
ments.  Parameters of special interest are discussed and two guidelines
have been developed.  The guideline referred to as the Freezing Index
is recommended for stations whose average normal temperature during the
coldest month is less than 32°F, while a study of days defined as either
Favorable or Unfavorable is recommended for stations in the warmer
climatic zones.  The effect of a run of unfavorable days immediately
following a cold period can also be determined by examining the daily
listings.

A number of graphs, charts and maps are included to describe ways of
presenting climatological data and to show the availability of summa-
rized climatic elements.  Air temperature, ground frost, evaporation,
precipitation, snowfall, snow depth and wind direction and speed are
discussed in relation to the possible effect of each on land applica-
tion systems.

This report is submitted in fulfillment of Interagency Agreement
EPA-IAG-D4-F451 by the National Climatic Center (NCC), Ashevllle,
North Carolina.  Work was completed on February 28, 1975.
                                     11

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                             TABLE OF CONTENTS
                                                                  Page
ABSTRACT                                                            ii
FIGURES                                                             iv
CONVERSION TABLES                                                    v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS                                                     vi

Sections
I      CONCLUSIONS                                                   1
II     RECOMMENDATIONS                                               2
III    INTRODUCTION                                                  3
IV     NETWORKS OF OBSERVING STATIONS                                8
V      SOIL TEMPERATURE                                             10
VI     GROUND FROST                                                 12
VII    PRECIPITATION                                                15
VIII   EVAPORATION                                                  16
IX     SNOWFALL                                                     17
X      SNOW DEPTH                                                   19
XI     WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED                                     21
XII    AIR TEMPERATURE                                              22
XIII   FREEZING DEGREE DAYS                                         23
XIV    FAVORABLE AND UNFAVORABLE DAYS FOR OPERATION                 27
XV     REFERENCES                                                   33
XVI    APPENDICES                                                   37
                                   ill

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                            FIGURES
No.                                                         Page
 1        Generalized Climatic Zones for Land
          Application                                         6

 2        Relationship Between Freezing Index and
          Freezing Temperature Penetration for
          Various Surface Conditions for Granular
          and Fine-Grained Soils                             11

 3        Average Depth of Frost Penetration (inches)
          in the United States                               13

 3a       Extreme Frost Penetration (inches) in the
          United States                                      14

 4        Extremes of Snowfall by States                     18

 5        Average Annual Number of Days with Snow-
          cover 1.00 Inch or More in Depth                   20

 6        Examples of the Freeze Index During a Mild
          Winter and a Cold Winter at Hampton, Iowa          24

 7        Distribution of Mean Air Freezing Index
          Values in the Continental United States            25

 8        Description of Chronological Listing
          Shown in Figure 9                                  29

 9        Chronological Listing of Daily Weather
          Observations for Baltimore, Maryland for
          December 1960 with Computed Values                 30

10        Seasonal Values of the Freezing Index,
          as Indicated, with Percentiles                     31

11        Distribution of Sets of UNF-FA Days of
          Operation                                          32

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                            CONVERSION TABLES


                         BRITISH  TO METRIC UNITS
Length:

         1 inch (in.) =25.4 millimeter (mm.)
                      =2.54 centimeter (cm.)

         1 foot (ft.) = 30.48 millimeter  (mm.)
                      = 0.3048 centimeter  (cm.)

         1 yard (yd.) = 91.44 centimeter  (cm.)
                      = 0.9144 meter  (m.)

         1 statute mile (stat. mi.) = 1609.344 m.
                                    = 1.609344 kilometer  (km.)

Speed:
         1 mile per hour  (mi. hr.-1, mph)  = 0.868391 knot  (kt.)
                                           = 0.44704 m. sec."1
                                           = 0.609344 km. hr."1

Density, Specific Volume:

         1 pound per cubic foot  (lb.ft.~3) = 0.0160185 grams
                                             per cubic centimeter  (g.cm~3)

Pressure:

         1 standard atmosphere (14.7 Ibs.  in.~^) = 760 millimeters of mercury
                                                   (mm.Hg.)

         1 millibar (mb.) = 0.750062 millimeters of mercury  (mm.Hg.)

Temperature:

         Celsius (C) =5/9 (F-32) where F  is temperature  in  degrees Fahrenheit

         Absolute (A) or Kelvin  (K) = C +  273.16

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                              ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The leadership and assistance of Richard E.  Thomas, Project Officer,
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory and Frank T.  Quinlan,
Chief, Climatological Analysis Division, National Climatic Center,
is gratefully acknowledged.

Previously published EPA reports containing results of investigations
by Consultants Donald M. Parmalee, Dr. George Tchobanoglous, Dr.  J. R.
Mather, Charles E. Pound and Ronald W. Crites were referred to exten-
sively in this report.

The cooperation of Wayne Tobiasson and Michael Bilello, U. S.  Cold
Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory and Mr. Douglas Griffes,
Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. is acknowledged with thanks.

The author gratefully acknowledges the cooperation and support of the
personnel in the several Divisions and Branches within the National
Climatic Center who contributed to this report.  Special thanks are
extended to Mrs. June Radford and Mrs. Myra Ramsey for their contri-
butions in typing and proof reading the report and to Miss Dorothy
Goodman for preparing many of the graphs and charts.
                                    vi

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                                SECTION I

                               CONCLUSIONS
The amount of wastewater storage required at a location because of
climatic constraints can be estimated from analysis of weather station
data with a program developed at the National Climatic Center.  One
feature of the program is an analysis of Favorable-Unfavorable days
which shows the number of days during the winter season when operations
will be restricted, based upon assigned thresholds for commonly measured
weather parameters; a second feature is the Freezing Index which pro-
vides a measure of the intensity and duration of cold periods.  When the
index reaches 200 to 300 the ground is assumed to be frozen.  The depth
of frost penetration is not considered to be a critical factor in this
program.  Should it be necessary to estimate the depth of frost penetra-
tion, a graph is included for this purpose.

The lack of soil temperature data, the variability of winter tempera-
tures from year to year and the differences in design and operating
practices in the existing land application systems make it impracticable
to accurately determine storage needs on the basis of available soil
temperature data.  An individual station analysis of climatic data can
be extremely helpful in determining storage requirements once the
limiting operating factors are defined.

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                               SECTION II

                             RECOMMENDATIONS
Local decision making bodies should define acceptable climatic risks
for the design of wastewater treatment plants.  These criteria can
then be used in the Freezing Index and Favorable-Unfavorable days
program to determine the duration of non-operating conditions.  It
would be advantageous for climatologists to assist in the approxima-
tion of storage requirements.

It is recommended that the programs developed and discussed in this
report be used as a test procedure to estimate storage needs with due
consideration for the special operating practices designed for each
installation.  The climatological data should be applied only after
decisions have been made as to the type of equipment, method of
operation, expected volume, vegetation cover, loading rate, period
of operation, etc.

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                               SECTION III

                               INTRODUCTION
The application of wastewater effluents on the land is being practiced
at several hundred sites throughout the United States.31*35  These
land utilization systems employ a multitude of land types and methods
to dispose of different types of effluents with varying results.  Repre-
sentative information on the design, operation and performance of these
systems can serve as a basis for defining good practice and determining
the climatological constraints.  Storage requirements must be accurately
determined to avoid unplanned discharge of wastewater into streams and
rivers due to under design or excessive costs due to over design.  Climate
constraints which prohibit irrigation are of special importance since
they will help determine the long term storage needs.

The purpose of this report is to provide planners and designers of waste-
water treatment systems with information about the type and availability
of both raw and processed climatological data as well as possible methods
of using these data as an aid for determining storage needs.  This report
describes two types of weather reporting stations, periods of record,
elements reported, availability of digitized data (magnetic tape) and
special programs developed by the National Climatic Center to provide
summaries of selected climatological parameters for use in the decision
making process.

In most land application operations, the vegetation cover is a major
factor in the success of the system.35   Both the rate of growth of
vegetation and the rate of decomposition of organics in the effluent
are regulated, in large part, by the energy available.  Most places
in the United States have sufficient energy for the development of a
good ground cover of vegetation, although low levels of energy receipts
in the winter in northern areas, with resulting low temperatures, will
limit the rate of decomposition of any solids removed from the effluent.30

As stated in the CRREL Special Report No. 171,3If "storage could be avoided
if the land disposal site could function on a year-round basis; however,
major risks to be considered prior to adopting year-round application
include wintertime constraints on the movement of water, and wintertime
response of the site ecosystem."  The special report goes on to point
out that winter time application can reduce the renovative capability
of the site and inhibit the chemical reactions in the soil.  For example,

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some systems obtain nitrate removal by plants and micro-organisms in
the ecosystem and since these are essentially dormant in winter,
nitrate losses could be significant.

If land application in northern latitudes is planned only during  the
warmer months, the application period might vary from 20 to 40 weeks
(March-November) depending on local conditions.34  Storage and/or
some other form of treatment will be necessary for the remainder  of the
year.  Further restrictions might also be necessary during the warm
months since spray irrigation should be avoided during periods of high
winds and it may be desirable to cease all wastewater application
during periods of intensive rainfall.

The three principal methods used in land application of wastewater are
irrigation, overland flow and infiltration-percolation.  According to
an Environmental Protection Agency  (EPA) publication35 irrigation is the
most reliable land application technique with respect to long term use
and removal of pollutants from the wastewater, while overland flow and
infiltration-percolation methods are feasible in many cases.  The storage
requirements estimated from climatic constraints may have to be supple-
mented depending on the date irrigation is required in the spring.  Cli-
mate will affect irrigation and overland flow more than infiltration-
percolation because the water needs of plants are affected by air tem-
perature, humidity, solar radiation, and wind velocity.

Other disposal methods include subsurface leach fields, injection wells
and evaporation ponds.  EPA publications31'35 refer to the importance of
making a proper assessment of the type of system suitable for a given
situation.  The principal factors are classified as regulatory, economic
and technical.  The technical factors include the physical aspects of the
land, underground formations, ground slope, wastewater characteristics
and flow rates, climate and whether the flow remains constant throughout
the year.

The extent to which weather affects the operation of a system depends
on the type of system and equipment, as well as the volume of effluent.
Some small systems are known to operate continuously during severe
winters, while others utilize storage ponds capable of holding four
to six months of effluent.31  Obviously, climatic constraints to
operation are quite variable and depend on the particular system and
location.  This demonstrates the fact that no hard and fast guidelines
on climatic constraints can be established under all conditions.31*35

The following material concerning generalized climatic zones for the
United States (Figure 1) was prepared for the Environmental Protection
Technology Series 660/2-73-006 and  published in August 1973.35  The

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map is a useful guide although detailed analysis of climatological data
at the location under consideration is also recommended.   In preparing
the map, an effort was made to simplify distribution patterns; where
possible, state boundaries were used for ease in setting zone boundaries
even though climates seldom change at such political sub-divisions.  The
classification of mountainous areas should be adjusted according to
elevation.

Zone A, which covers California except for the extreme southeastern part,
delineates the unique Mediterranean climatic region with its marked
seasonal pattern in precipitation.  Average annual precipitation is about
15 to 25 inches confined generally to the six months from November to
April; practically no precipitation falls in the other six months of
the year.  Temperatures are mild in winter and hot in summer so that
adequate energy is available in almost all seasons for plant growth.
Storage of the effluent due to freezing will not be necessary except
at higher elevations, but may be desirable to maximize summer appli-
cation rates or to make the addition of nutrients in wastewater
correspond to crop requirements.

Zone B covers southwestern United States, an area of very hot, arid
climates.  Winter storage should not be a concern in most of the area
although there will be a real problem due to the lack of sufficient
moisture for vegetation growth in all seasons unless irrigation is
available.  There may also be problems of salt in the soil if brackish
water is used in irrigation or constitutes a significant portion of the
effluent.

Zone C covers primarily the states identified as the Mid and Deep South
as well as the western portions of Washington and Oregon.  In general,
precipitation varies from 40 to 60 inches during the year, and average
monthly temperatures range from the low 40's in winter to the low 80's
in summer, except for part of the Washington-Oregon area which experi-
ences mild summers and winters.  Twelve-month operation of land appli-
cation systems is possible from the standpoint of temperature.  However,
the well distributed and relatively high precipitation eliminates the
need for extended periods of irrigation which are desirable from the
standpoint of wastewater application.

The northern tier of states in Zone C and the states along the southern
border of Zone D in the midwest represent areas that experience wide
variations in weather from one winter season to the next.  Fort Smith,
Arkansas, for example, has a January normal temperature of 39.0°F, but
recorded an average January temperature of 26.4°F in 1940.  Dodge City,
Kansas with a January normal of 30.8°F recorded a January average of
16.6°F that same year.

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CLIMATIC ZONES

A   MEDITERRANEAN  CLIMATE  -
      DRY SUMMER  -  MILD, NET WINTER
B   ARID CLIMATE  -  HOT,  DRY

C   HUMID SUBTROPICAL  -  MILD WINTER - HOT. WET SUMMER
      (WASHINGTON,  OREGON  AREA MILD, MOIST SUMMER)
0   HUMID CONTINENTAL  -  SHORT WINTER,  HOT SUMMER
E   HUMID CONTINENTAL  -  LONG WINTER, WARM SUMMER
Source:  EPA publication 660/2-73-006b (1973)
                             Fig. 1  Generalized climatic zones for land application

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Zone D covers the middle tier of states running eastward from Colorado
to southern New England and the eastern portions of Washington and
Oregon.  The climates are marked by moderately cold winters (average
temperatures in the 20*s), hot summers (average temperatures in the
mid-70fs), and precipitation well distributed through the year.  Some
irrigation might be needed in the western portion for vegetation
development, but little would be needed in the east.  Winter tempera-
tures are cold enough so that effluent storage for several months or
so may be necessary.

Zone E covers the northernmost tier of states.  Very cold winters with
warm summers and adequate moisture for vegetation exist.  Winter oper-
tion of irrigation systems is quite limited because the low temperatures,
with ice and snow, contribute to the storage of effluent for up to six
months.

Evaluation of the effect of large land application systems on local
climatic conditions is difficult because of the lack of observations.
However, it is possible to draw certain conclusions on the basis of
observations taken around reservoirs both before and after their
establishment, from studies in the vicinity of large irrigation
enterprises, and on the basis of various theoretical considerations.

According to Dr. J. R. Mather,31 "the climatic changes that accompany
irrigation enterprises are relatively local in extent.  Air moving over
an irrigated tract will rapidly pick up moisture and the air temperature
will cool.  Within the first few hundred feet in all but the most arid
region, the air will have essentially reached equilibrium.  Once the
air has left the moist area, turbulent mixing will, within just a few
miles, reduce its moisture content to its original low value and return
the temperature to its value upwind of the irrigated tract."

It has been recommended that wastewaters with high temperatures be
cooled prior to land application because of the adverse effect on both
vegetation and soils.31  Cooling ponds or lagoons used for this purpose
might be a source of fog during the period from November through April
in many parts of the country, especially in climatic Zones D and E.

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                               SECTION IV

                     NETWORKS OF OBSERVING STATIONS
The National Weather Service and its Cooperative Networks collect  a
great deal of climatological data at thousands of locations.   (See
Appendix B.)  The National Climatic Center publishes much of  this  infor-
mation on a State basis by month, and annually.  (See Appendix C.)
Many of the original observations are digitized and retained  on magnetic
tape for rapid computer processing as the need arises.  Single station
summaries based on long periods provide a variety of detailed infor-
mation about the climate of an area.  The large number of programs
developed at the National Climatic Center over the years provides  a
broad base of useful climatological information to all segments of the
economy.

When the climatological material required can be clearly specified, it
may be ordered and sent on an invoice.  If, however, the needs are not
clearly known, or cannot be adequately described in terms of  available
National Climatic Center programs, the services of a consultant to
assist in developing the specifications and interpreting the  results
are recommended.

The analysis of climatological data can provide insight into  the special
problems of planning, design and location of land application systems.
It can also be useful in studies relating to the growth and yield of
plants.  It is very important to establish which climatic parameters
are essential to a specific problem, to process the data to obtain
meaningful results and, most importantly, to correctly evaluate the
results of such programs in terms of both cost and risk.

All climatological studies are limited by the type, amount and condition
of the available observational data.  The daily temperature,  precipita-
tion and snowfall data used in the program referred to in this report
represent the best long term daily data available on a nationwide basis.
Unfortunately, these observations contain only a few of the desired
elements.  Because climate cannot be described simply, or reduced to a
single figure, decisions will most likely be based on probabilities
after the planner has examined all available information.
                                    8

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The National Climatic Center's data base includes over 40,000 reels
of magnetic tape.  Observations are received from over 10,000 stations
in the United States; however, there are differences in the type of
elements reported and hours of observation.  Some stations report on
an hourly or three-hourly basis, while the majority of the stations
report only the daily maximum and minimum temperatures and total
precipitation.  In any case, a survey can be made to select the weather
station which has the appropriate data in digital form and is most
representative of the selected site.  Some of the elements, tabulations
and programs described in the Appendices are discussed briefly in the
following paragraphs.

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                                SECTION V

                             SOIL TEMPERATURE


The EPA summary35 recommends that climatic investigation be undertaken
to define simultaneously surface soil and ambient air temperature for
the United States.  Such information would be useful in determining
the annual period in which vegetation and active bacterial metabolism
might be maintained by wastewater application.  However, relatively
few stations report soil temperatures on a regular basis.  Unfortunately,
neither the hours of observations, nor the depths at which the sensors
are placed have been standardized.  Because of this and the differences
in soil types, ground cover, slope, etc., no attempt has been made to
define simultaneous surface soil and ambient air temperature relation-
ships .  Figure 2 shows the relationship between the Freezing Index and
freezing temperature penetration for various surface conditions for
granular and fine grained soils.  Other maps of interest are shown
in the Appendices.
                                    10

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 TURF
 12" SNOW
 COVER

TURF
SNOW FREE
                                           FREEZING INDEX

       0     500      1000      1500        2000         2500

       i I I I  I I  I  I • I  I  I  I  I  I  r  I  I  I  I   I  I  i  i  i   |
                                                                  3000
                                                               _L_L
    10
o

tt
in
Z
uj
n.
 •
    lit,
    JO
g   80
a

I   90
13

N  100
UJ
tr.
"•  110
   120


   130


   140
                  600
                              1000
                                                                                                3*00
                                                                             FINE GRAINED SOIL
                                                                               1SILTORCLAY)
                                                                            GRANULAR SOIL
                                                                                OR GRA VEL)
                                                        I           I
           Adapted from:
           "ANALYTICAL STUDIES OF FREEZING AND THAWING OF SOILS'"
           H.P. Aldrich and H.M. Paynter, Arctic Construction and Frost Effects
           Laboratory, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army, dated JUNE 1953.
              I
           Fig. 2  Relationship between freezing index and freezing temperature penetration
                  for various surface conditions for granular and fine-grained soils

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                               SECTION VI

                              GROUND FROST
No article on this subject would be complete without making reference
to the work of Jessberger.19  This detailed and comprehensive volume of
some 500 pages carries a bibliography of over 1300 references dealing
with the freezing and thawing of soils, structure of water and ice,
mechanical properties of ice, etc.  Much of the text covers the under-
lying principles of the effects of frost on soil and the carrying
capacity of roads in relation to frost.  Other important investigations
have been carried out by Aldrich and Paynter1 in connection with frost
penetration.

Jessberger states that "the frost depth beneath a covering free of snow
and ice depends on the Frost Index (FI), the properties of the subjacent
materials and the water conditions.  The expected frost penetration can
be approximately determined as a function of the accumulated cold in a
freezing period."  Much of the interest in Jessberger's study was in
road building and the load capacity of roads; however, the fundamentals
are of importance for land application of wastewater.

For the purpose of this report and the programs discussed, it is not
necessary to determine the depth of the 32°F isotherm, but only to
establish whether the ground is frozen.  There is no question that
such information may be critical at some installations when the applied
effluent is considerably warmer than the ground.  Investigation into
such cases may be necessary at sites operating twelve months a year, but
will necessarily be limited to those locations which record soil tempera-
ture measurements.

(NOTE:  Figures 3 and 3a are included because they are the only known
maps of average and extreme frost penetration for the United States.
No background information is available concerning the source material,
method of computation, or the document in which these maps were originally
published.  Caution is recommended in the use of these maps.)
                                   12

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Fig. 3  Average depth of frost penetration (inches) in the United States  ,„

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130
                                                           u S DEPARTMENT  )F COMMERCE

                                                                WlATMfR BUREAU
                                  *o   *^,   "...-—
                                           Fig. 3a  Extreme frost penetration (inches) in the United States   M
                                                                                   I     	l	2

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                              SECTION VII

                             PRECIPITATION
The water balance is governed primarily by precipitation, evaporation
and transpiration of the plant.  The requirements of water are very
different from one plant species to another as well as at different
time periods throughout the year.  There are times when too much water
is as detrimental as is insufficient moisture at other times.J 3

Precipitation probabilities, frequency distributions and maps  have been
prepared which furnish useful information on a local, state and national
level.25*37  Many of the estimated probabilities are for one,  two and
three week periods, while others give values to be expected on a monthly
basis.  The week is the smallest unit of time used in these programs and
a weekly total of one inch could have fallen in a 30-minute period, or
gently over several days.  These studies show the probability  of receiv-
ing selected amounts of precipitation during a given period and location.
Other studies give return periods for one to seven day rainfall amounts,
while extreme rainfall values have been computed for many locations.

Although the state of the soil is not, strictly speaking, a climatic
factor, it can be a definite constraint to the application of  waste-
water.  Prolonged rainy spells can saturate the ground in some areas
for up to several weeks.  Storage will normally be adequate to handle
such events if the rains occur during the summer or fall; however, a
prolonged period of heavy rain immediately following the spring thaw
could extend the run of unfavorable days and, therefore, increase the
amount of storage needed.

It may be of interest to note that Holt, Missouri holds the world's
record for the greatest 42 minute rainfall.  On June 22, 1947, 12
inches of rain fell in that time period.  Thrall,, Texas holds  the
U. S. unofficial 12-hour rainfall record of 32 inches which fell on
September 9, 1921.  No one would be expected to design for such rare
events as these and climatological information can be provided that
will permit design of a system with an acceptable built-in risk factor.
(See Appendix E.)

Precipitation frequency maps may be obtained from the Office of Hydrology,
National Weather Service, National Oceanic and Atmopsheric Administration,
Silver Spring, Maryland 20910.
                                  15

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                              SECTION VIII

                              EVAPORATION
Weather conditions which restrict operation of wastewater treatment
plants have been defined elsewhere in this report.  Storage of the
effluent may be necessary for a period of from 10 to 180 days.  The
length of the storage period is usually greatest in the areas where
evaporation is at a minimum (climatic zones D, E) and the least in
areas of relatively high evaporation (climatic zones A, B, C).  Al-
though evaporation can be of primary importance during the time
wastewater is being applied, it appears to be of limited importance
in estimating storage requirements due to climatic constraints.  The
estimated capacity of reservoirs in zones D and E could not be reduced
significantly because of loss through evaporation during the winter
months.  In zones A, B, and C storage due to climatic constraints will
be needed for relatively short periods, perhaps 10 to 30 days.  A
detailed study of the expected loss through evaporation at those sites
might reduce storage needs slightly.

Pan and lake evaporation values are available in a series of climatic
maps of the United States.^7,23  ^B reliability of the maps is obviously
poorer in the areas of high relief than in the plains region and the
density of the observation network is an important factor in the series.
In addition, the effect of topography has been considered only in a
general way except where the data provided definite information.  There
is a considerable difference between the evaporation from a pan four
feet in diameter and 10 inches deep and that from a large reservoir.
Estimates indicate that evaporation from reservoirs averages about 30%
less than that measured from Class A pans.  (See Appendix F.)

This report is primarily concerned with estimating storage needed due to
climatic constraints.  An important related problem is one of storing
wastewater during the off-season for irrigation during the growing season.
In this case, the estimated water loss is an important factor in reservoir
design.
                                  16

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                               SECTION IX

                                SNOWFALL
Snowfall distributions exhibit wide variation whether one considers a
24-hour period, a single storm, a calendar month, or an entire season
(Figure 4).  Extremes of seasonal snowfall (1930-1970) are listed below
for a few selected stations to show this variation.  Hartford, Connect-
icut recorded 83 inches during the 1966-67 season, but had only 15 inches
during the 1936-37 season; while Sandburg, California had 101 inches
during the 1943-44 season and only 2 inches during the 1934-35 season.

Maps and tables of monthly and seasonal snowfall have been prepared for
most of the stations reporting this element.  Generalized maps showing
the greatest 24-hour snowfall and the greatest monthly snowfall of record
are presented in Appendix G.  Summaries are also available which give the
greatest daily, monthly and annual snowfall.  (See Appendix C.)  The
amounts shown in the examples may not agree due to the use of different
periods of record.
                                    17

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ALABAMA
ALASKA
ARIZONA
ARKANSAS
CALIFORNIA
COLORADO
CONNECTICUT
DELAWARE

LORIDA
GEORGIA
IDAHO
ILLINOIS
INDIANA

IOWA
KANSAS
KENTUCKY

LOUISIANA
MAINE
MARYLAND
MASSACHUSETTS
MICHIGAN

MINNESOTA
MISSISSIPPI

MISSOURI
MONTANA
NEBRASKA
NEVADA
NEW HAMPSHIRE
NEW JERSEY
NEW MEXICO
NEW YORK
NORTH CAROLINA
NORTH DAKOTA

OHIO
OKLAHOMA
OREGON
PENNSYLVANIA
RHODE ISLAND
SOUTH CAROLINA
SOUTH DAKOTA
TENNESSEE
TEXAS
UTAH
VERMONT
VIRGINIA
WASHINGTON
WEST VIRGINIA
WISCONSIN
WYOMING
24 Hours
19.2 Florence I2/31-1/I/64
62.0 Thompson Pass 12/29/55
38.0 Heber R.S. 12/14/67
25.0 Coming 1/22/18
60.0 Giant Forest l/lg-19/33
75.8 SUrer Lake 4/14-15/21
28.0 New Haven 3/12/88
24.0 Milford 2/12-13/99
24.0 Dover 12/25-26/09
4.0 Milton Exp. Stat. 3/6/54
19.3 Cedartown 3/2-3/42
30.0 Pierce R.S. 12/28/68
36.0 Astoria 2/27-28/00
20.0 Evansville 1/14/18
20.0 La Porte 2/12/44
21.0 Siblcy 2/18/62
26.0 Fort Scott 12/28-29/54
18.0 Bowling Green 3/9/60
18.0 Cecilia 11/2/66
24.0 Rayne 2/14-15/95
35.0 Middle Dam 11/23/43
31.0 Clear Spring 3/29/42
28.2 Blue Hill 2/24-25/69
27.0 Dunbar 3/29/47
27.0 Ishpemig 10/23/29
28.0 Pigeon R. Bridge 4/4-5/33
18.0 Mt. Pleasant 12/23/63
18.0 Tunica 12/23/63
27.6 Neosho 3/16-17/70
30.0 Summit 10/29/51
24.0 Hkkman 2/11/65
25.0 Mt. Rose Resort 1/20/69
56.0 Randolph 11/22-23/43
29.7 Long Branch 12/26-27/47
30.0 Sandia Crest 12/29/58
45.0 Watertown 11/14-15/00
31.0 Nashville 3/2/27
24.0 Lisbon 2/15/15
24.0 Berthold Agency 2/25/30
2O.7 Youngstown 11/24-25/50
23.0 Buffalo 2/21/71
37.0 Crater Lake 1/17/51
38.0 Morgantown 3/20/58
34.0 Foster 2/8JJ/45
21.8 Caesar's Head 2/16/69
38.0 Dumont 3/27/50
22.0 Morristown 3/9/60
24.0 Plainview 2/3-4/56
35.0 Kanush 2/9/53
33.0 St. Johnsbury 2/25/69
33.0 Big Meadows 3/6/62
52.0 Winthrop 1/21/35
34.0 Bayard 4/27-28/28
26.0 Nefllsvflle 12/27/04
34.0 Bechler River 1/28/33
Single storm
19.5 Florence 12/31-1/1/64
175.4 Thompson Pass 12/26-31/55
67.0 Heber R.S. 12/13-16/67
25.0 Coming 1/22/18
149.0 Tahoe 1/11-17/52
141.0 Ruby 3/23-30/99
50.0 Middletown 3/11-14/88
25.0 Milford 12/25-26/09

4.0 Milton 3/6/54
19.3 Cedartown 3/2-3/42
60.0 Roland W. Portal 12/25-27/37
37.8 Astoria 2/27-28/00
37.0 LaPorte 2/14-19/58

30.8 Rock Rapids 2/17-21/62
37.0 Olathe 3/23-24/12
27.0 Bowling Green 3/7-11/60

24.0 Rayne 2/14-15/95
56.0 Long Fulls Dam 2/24-28/69
36.0 Edgemont 3/29-30/42
47.0 Peru 3/2-5/47
46.1 Calumet 1/15-20/50

35.2 Duluth 12/5-8/50
18.0 Mt. Pleasant 12/23/63
18.0 Tunica 12/23/63
27.6 Neosho 3/16-17/70
46.0 Summit 3/31-4/3/54
41.0 Chadron 1/2-4/49
75.0 Mt. Rose Resort 1/18-22/69
77.0 Pinkham Notch 2/24-28/69
34.0 Cape May 2/1I-I4/99
40.0 Corona 12/14-16/59
69.0 Watertown 1/18-22/40
31.0 Nashville 3/2/27
35.0 Lisbon 2/13-15/15

36.3 Steubenville 11/24-26/50
36.0 Buffalo 2/21-22/71
95.0 Crater Lake 1/15-19/51
50.0 Morgantown 3/19-21/58
34.0 Foster 2/8-9/45
28.9 Caesar's Head 2/15-16/29
60.0 Dumont 3/26-28/50
28.0 Westboume 2/19-21/60
33.0 Hale Center 2/2-5/56
64.0 Alta 12/2-7/51
50.0 Readsboro 3/2-6/47
42.0 Big Meadows 3/6-7/62
129.0 Laconia 2/24-26/10
57.0 Pickens 11/23-30/50
30.0 Racine 2/19-20/98
52.0 Bechler River 1/15-19/37
Calendar month
24.0 Valley Head 1/40
297.9 Thompson Pass 2/53
104.8 Flagstaff 1/49
48.0 Calico Rock 1/18
390.0 Tamarack 1/11
249.0 Ruby 3/99
73.6 Norfolk 3/56
36.0 Milford 2/99

4.0 Milton 3/54
26.5 Diamond 2/95
143.8 Burke 1/54
47.0 Astoria 2/00
59.8 La Porte 2/58

42.0 Osage, Northwood 3/15
55.9 Olathe 3/12
46.5 Benham 3/60

24.0 Rayne 2/95
88.3 Long Falls Darn 2/69
58.0 Oakland 1/95
78.0 Monroe 2/93
115.3 Calumet 1/50

66.4 Collegeville 3/65
23.0 Cleveland 1/66

47.5 Poplar Bluff 1/18
123.0 Summit 1/54
59.6 Chadron 1/49
124.0 Mt. Rose Resort 1/69
130.0 Pinkham Notch 2/69f
50.1 Freehold 12/80
144.0 Anchor Mine 3/12
120.0 Old Forge 3/71
56.5 Boone 3/60
45.5 Tagus 4/70

69.5 Chardon 12/62
39.5 Buffalo 2/71
256.0 Crater Lake 1/33
86.0 Blue Knob 12/90
62.0 Foster 3/56
33.9 Caesar's Head 2/69
94.0 Dumont 3/50
39.0 Mountain City 3/60
36.0 Hale Center 2/56
165.0 Alta 3/48
75.0Waitsfieldt
54.0 Warrenton 2/99
363.0 Paradise R.S. 1/25
97.0 Pickens 2/47
80.5 Gurney 12/68
188.5 Bechler River 1/33
Season
25.0 Valley Head 1939-40
974.4 Thompson Pass 1952-53
226.7 Hawley Lake 1967-68
61.0 Hardy 1917-18
884.0 Tamarack 1906-07
779.0 Ruby 1S96-97
177.4 Norfolk 1955-56
49.5 Wilmington 1957-58

4.0 Milton 1953-54
39.0 Diamond 1894-95
441.8 Roland W. Portal 1949-50
77.0 Chicago 1969-70
122.3 La Porte 1962-«

90.4 Xorthwood 1908-09
82.1 Olathe 1911-12
108.2 Benham 1959-60

24.0 Rayne 1894-95
238.5 Long Falls Dam 1968-69
174.9 Deer Park 1901-02
162.0 Monroe 1892-93
298.3 Herman 1968-69

147.5 Pigeon R. Bridge 1936-37
25.2 Senatobia 1967-68

70.3 Maryville 1911-12
406.5 Kings Hill 1958-59
104.9 Kimball 1958-59
323.0 Mt. Rose Resort 1968-69
323.0 Pinkham Notch 1968-69t
108.1 Culvers Lake 1915-16
483.0 Anchor Mine 1911-12
375.0 Old Forge 1970-71
100.7 Banner Elk 1959-60
99.9 Pembina 1906-07

161.5 Chardon 1959-60
87.3 Beaver 1911-12
879.0 Crater Lake 1932-33
225.0 Blue Knob 1890-91
122.6 Foster 1947-48
60.3 Caesar's Head 1968-69
222.7 Lead 1969-70
75.5 Mountain City 1959-60
65.0 Romero 1923-24
663.0 Alta 1951-52
197.5 Waitsfieldf
98.0 Mountain Lake 1913-14
1027.0 Paradise R.S. 1970-71
266.2 Pickens 1959-60
230.0 Gumey 1968-69
491.6 Bechler River 1932-33
                        (Measurements are inches of snowfall)
                  t Figures have been exceeded at mountain top stations.


Source: Ludlum, DM, "Weather Record Book - the Outstanding Events 1871-1970"
                 Fig. 4  Extremes of snowfall by states
                                    18

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                               SECTION X

                               SNOW DEPTH
Numerous studies have been made of the relationship between snow cover
and frost penetration. 2,^,5,24,28,30   Crawford11* states that on the
average the frost depth is reduced about two feet for each foot of
snow cover, while others report that snow reduced frost penetration
by an amount equal to its depth.  Baker3 concludes that examination
of the type of winter (snow depth and duration) with cumulative grow-
ing degree days proved to be a simple and effective means of predicting
the maximum freezing depth.  Baker also states, "the period when liquid
water is restricted in movement through the soil is of obvious impor-
tance."  This is defined as the period extending from the time when
the temperature (at the 5 cm. depth) remained less than 32°F until the
32°F isotherm completely disappeared from the soil.  The commencement
date of this period was selected to ensure that water was in solid
form and that soil was frozen sufficiently to serve as an effective
barrier to surface water.  The mean commencement date of this period
at St. Paul, Minnesota was December 1 and the mean termination date
was April 16.  Thus, the mean duration was 136 days and over the eight
years he examined ranged from 118 to 166 days.  It is interesting to
note that the Freezing Index program gives a mean of 124 days, while
the value expected to be exceeded 10% of the time is 142 days.

Maps showing the depth of snow on the ground at 0700 EST each Monday
during the winter months are published in the Weekly Weather and Crop
Bulletin. "  A map of the average annual number of days with snow cover
one inch or more is presented in Figure 5.  In addition, maps showing
the maximum water equivalent, in inches, have been published in the
U. S. Weather Bureau Technical Paper #50.32  They show the maximum water
equivalent for selected periods (i.e., March 1-15) expected to be
equaled or exceeded once in two years, once in 25 years, etc. (selected
probability levels).  These can be useful in estimating soil moisture
and stream flow in the Midwest during the spring months.
                                  19

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to
      BASED ON 200 FIRST-ORDER
      WEATHER BUREAU STATIONS
           PERIOD 1899-1938
                                                                                                       \          DAYS
                                                                                                            [""] UNDER 10
                                                                                                            E3 '0-40
                                                                                                                40-80
                                                                                                                80-120
                                                                                                                OVER 120
                                                                                     Source:  1941 Yearbook of Agriculture
                               Fig. 5 Average annual number of days with snow cover 1.00 inch or more in depth

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                               SECTION XI

                        WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED
Analysis of wind speed and wind direction can be provided in many
ways as shown in Appendix I .   Maps have been prepared which show
the prevailing direction and speed on a monthly basis for the United
States.  While this information can be useful, the design engineer
may be more interested in the occurrence of high wind speeds from
certain sectors.  In spray irrigation, for example, high winds might
be acceptable only from a certain quadrant.  In addition, the duration
and frequency of such events may be of special interest.  Processing
the observed data can provide probabilities, or the likelihood of
certain conditions occurring during those months when spraying is
at a peak.  The wind pattern is of particular interest 35  where
municipal wastewater is applied by spraying and aerosol drift is a
problem of significant concentration.  In addition, prevailing wind
direction, especially during the warm months, should be considered
if odor is a problem.

Stations in the National Weather Service routinely report hourly wind
direction and speed.  Most of these stations also report the daily
peak gust, along with its direction and time of occurrence.  Special
summaries can be prepared for those areas where more detailed wind
information is available.
                                  21

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                              SECTION XII

                            AIR TEMPERATURE
Hourly and daily temperatures are recorded at most of the stations
operated by the National Weather Service, while only daily measure-
ments are taken at the cooperative stations.  The mean of the daily
maximum and minimum temperatures measured in a shelter about six
feet above the ground is the average daily temperature.  Although
some stations compute daily averages for a 24-hour period ending at
midnight and other stations use a different 24-hour period (8 a.m.
to 8 a.m.), either type can be used in the programs discussed in this
report.

Any combination of freezing air temperatures, frozen ground or the
presence of snow and ice can result in ice formation from at least
part of the applied liquid.  A frozen surface reduces (or prevents)
the infiltration of the effluent which leads to ponding and/or runoff
which can cause severe erosion.^

A wide assortment of temperature summaries, maps,   etc., have been
prepared as shown in Appendix J.  Tables showing the average dates
of the last freezing temperature in the spring and the first in the
fall are available in several publications *8136 g^^ provide infor-
mation on the length of the growing season.
                                   22

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                              SECTION XIII

                          FREEZING DEGREE DAYS
Degree Days are a measure of the departure of the average daily
temperature from a standard.  Freezing degree days are computed by
subtracting 32°F from the average daily temperatures.  They are
positive when the average daily temperature is above 32°F and neg-
ative when below 32°F.  Degree days accumulated over a winter season
provide a measure of the intensity of the cold.  The length of time
between the onset of the cold period and the spring thaw can be used
in estimating storage requirements (Figure 6).  Degree day accumula-
tions are obtained for each freezing season (November-April) and the
Freezing Index is defined as the number of degree days between the
highest and lowest point on a curve plotted against time.'S26  The
indexes are averaged over a 20 to 30 year period and probability
tables can be prepared for both the intensity (FI) and the duration.

A map of mean air Freezing Index values in the continental United
States is shown in Figure 7.  Notice the expected general agreement
with maps of daily average temperature, the climatic zones for land
application, average depth of frost penetration and the 10th percentile
minimum temperature for January shown in Appendix J.

Missing temperature data can introduce a significant error into the
computation of the Freezing Index.  An inventory of the digitized
record for the station is examined prior to processing.  If more than
four days records are missing in an individual year-month the data for
that station are not processed and a substitute station is used.

The Freezing Index should be computed only at stations where the
average daily temperature remains below 32°F for at least two weeks.
As a rule, the index can be computed for all stations in climatic
zones "D" and "E"; for some stations in zones "B" and "C" and for most
stations at high elevations.  When the temperatures are not low enough
to obtain the Freezing Index an estimation of the storage needs may be
obtained from the periods of Favorable and Unfavorable days.  Monthly
normals of temperature based on the period 1941-70 have been published
for each state 9and are useful in planning.
                                   23

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300
200
100
0
•100
200
•300
IT
w 400
LU
t/»
s. "50°
> -600
0
ffi -700
oc
0
8 -800
900
-1000
-1100
•1200
-1300
1400
1500
1600
1

J
/
/










/^


/










ACTUAL F
HAMPTON,

	 ! 	








1
X
^^^ \




























^\
\
~N











/
<
v
X








REEZE DATA FOR
IOWA

— 	




1953-54 SEASON
1964-65 SEASON














1953-
DUR/
N
\
\















54 (Fl
!\TION

\
\
V
\
\













= 764
= 112


\
\
\
\
\











1
DAY!




^ 	 i*
M i» ^1
V
A
\
\















^




\
\
























X.


























	












/










7
/





1964-65 (Fl = 1882)
/ DURATION = 133 DAYS
V.

\






H
\






^
\
\
\




J
'



'





f
I
1









t
/
'










































10 20 30 10 20 30 10 20 30 10 20 1 10 20 30 10 20 30
NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR
TEMPEI
ASSUN
MATURE
i . 1 YEAR _ i
<
\ z
MP
AT /
ABOVE FREEZING \ /
BELOW FREEZING
\ /
1 DURATION OF 1
FREI
AN At
—- Tl
N AIR TEMP
EZING PERK
JNUAL AIR TEMPERATURE
ME
ERATURE DURING
)D
1 ~ "1
FREEZING PERIOD
1ED ANNUAL CURVE OF MEAN AIR TEMPERATURE AT NORTHERN STATIONS
(ADAPTED FROM ALDRICH AND PAYNTER)
Fig. 6 Examples of the freeze index during a mild winter and a cold winter at Hampton, Iowa



                                     24

-------
I  J
' ;i
               NOTE:
                   Mean air freezing index values are cumulative
               degree-days to base 3?°F computed on the basil of
               mean air temperature data. The isolini>s ot mean air
               free/ing index were drawn  using data from the 361
               Weather Bureau stations shown aj data on the map.
               The map is offered as a guide only. It does not at
               tempt to show local variations which may be con-
               siderable, particularly in mountainous areas. The
               actual mean air freezing index used should be com-
               puted for the specific project using temperature data
               from the nearest station. (Adapted from "pavement
               design  for frost conditions," U.S. Army  CE, Dept.
               EM 1110-1 306 (19621 and TM5-818-2 (1965)
                                                              Fig.  7  Distribution of mean air freezing index values in the continental  United States

-------
A special feature has been included in this program which permits
greater flexibility in determining the duration of a "cold period"
in the milder climates.  The mild days occurring between cold spells
can be considered as an extension of the cold spell.  In addition, the
intensity of the mild days (Positive Degree Days) is examined and the
episode continued until either the duration, or the intensity reaches
fixed threshold values.  This feature can be seen in the listings
(Figures 8, 9, 10, and 11) and is especially useful in areas where the
mean temperature of the coldest month is between 28° and 34°F.  A mean
daily temperature of 33° and 34* may not be considered significant in
breaking a cold spell if it persists for only a few days.  Requesters
have the option of setting a limit on the number of mild days as well
as on the maximum number of degree days observed during this mild
period.  For example, if a cold period lasting twelve days was followed
by three days when the positive cumulative degree days did not exceed
6 and low temperatures returned for an additional ten days, the total
duration would be defined as 25 days.

An example is given in Figure 9 of a station in a mild climate where
the greatest Freezing Index is not selected for a particular season.
The modified threshold of 4 days, or 8 cumulative degree days has been
used to continue cold spells which would otherwise be ended by a warm
period.  The cold period of greatest duration during the 1960-61 season
ran 28 days (from December 8, 1960 to January 5, 1961) and had a Freezing
Index of 171.  A more intense (FI=266), but shorter (20 days) cold spell
occurred between January 18 and February 7, 1961.  The modified program
is thereby designed to select the longest cold period rather than the
one with the largest Freezing Index.
                                    26

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                               SECTION XIV

              FAVORABLE AND UNFAVORABLE DAYS FOR OPERATION
The Freezing Index can be a useful guide in estimating storage require-
ments for stations in cold climates, but is not designed for locations
where the average daily temperature remains above 32°F.  For stations
whose monthly normal temperature during January is around 30°F, an
examination of the Favorable-Unfavorable days is more useful.  The
constraints to operation are assumed to be average daily temperature
32°F or less; snow depth 1.00 inch or more, or daily precipitation
greater than 0.50 inch.  These thresholds are flexible depending on
the definition of non-operating conditions for the system being con-
sidered.  The occurrence of fog or high winds might be a constraint
for a short period, but neither is likely to be of significance except
in isolated cases.  Daily weather observations for a 20 to 30-year
period are scanned by the computer and each day is classed as Favorable
or Unfavorable according to the previously mentioned criteria.  The
number of days in sequence for each condition is printed each time the
sequence is broken.

If a system is designed for twelve months operation, storage needs can
be estimated by converting the number of Unfavorable days into days of
storage.  The estimated daily volume to be distributed is then reduced
according to the number of Favorable days.  This is necessary since,
when irrigation begins, the current daily flow must be used as well as
the stored volume.    This cumulative cycle is continued through each
winter season to determine the maximum number of days when storage is
required based upon the assigned threshold criteria.  The example in
Figure 8 uses thresholds of (1.00) for an Unfavorable day and minus
one-half (-0.50) for Favorable days.  The greatest accumulated value
is printed out at the end of each season and in Table 1 as MAX STOR.
Examination of the frequency distribution of the length of runs of
Favorable-Unfavorable periods is also recommended (Figures 8, 9, 10,
and 11).

The marginal areas between distinct climatic zones present the greatest
challenge in estimating the climatic constraints and the associated
storage requirements.  Over-estimating storage needs will result in
excessive costs.  If the estimated storage is insufficient, the opera-
tional problems are obvious.  For such cases, the extreme conditions
could be examined to discover their frequency and intensity as well
as the ensuing consequences of such events.
                                    27

-------
The Favorable-Unfavorable day (FA-UNF)  program has been used to process
climatological data for a number of stations.  Data for Pauls Valley,
which lies in South Central Oklahoma, is an example of a location where
the normal temperature for the coldest month is above 32 °F and the FA-
UNF portion of the program should be utilized.  Although the maximum
number of UNF days is given, the exact distribution of FA-UNF days is
not obvious from the tables.  Several runs of UNF (storage) days may be
broken by short spells of FA (operating) days.  In order to take into
account those days when operation could take place, the following pro-
cedure was initiated.  An assumed storage volume (1 unit) was assigned
to each day defined as UNF.  It was further assumed that during FA days
of operation the system could disperse an amount equal to one and one-
half units.  Therefore, a one Is added in the storage counter for each
UNF day and a one-half is subtracted for each FA day.  This cumulative
count (MAX STOR) is continued through each individual season and the
largest number is thus an estimate of the number of days storage would
be required based upon the defined thresholds.  At the end of each
season and period of record these values are listed and percentiles
are computed.  This method of accounting results in a more reliable
estimate of storage requirements than obtained from relying only on
the maximum number of UNF days.
                                   28

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               JOB NO. 14843
                                                        USE OF CLIMATIC DATA IN DESIGN OF SOILS  TREATMENT  SYSTEMS

                                                                  Listing of Daily Weather Observations
               STA:
               YR:
               MO:
               DA:
               MAX:
               MIN:
               MEAN:
               SNOW DEPTH:
               PPPP:
               FOG:
               DD:
               CDD:
IsJ
NO
               FA:

               UNF:
               DUR FA,  UNF:
               MAX STOR:
                                                                                  PERIOD OF  RECORD:


49 - 1949, etc.
01 • Jan., etc.
01-31
daily maximum temperature (°F)
daily minimum temperature (°F)
dally mean temperature (°F)
depth of snow on the ground at observation time.   T « trace
total daily precipitation amount, inches and hundredths (T - trace)
an  "F" in this column means that fog occurred on the indicated date
daily degree days to base 32°F, computed by subtracting 32 from the  daily mean  temperature (DMT) i.e., DD « DMT - 32
the cumulative degree days provide a measure qf coldness.   As the  winter becomes  colder  the  CDD's change from
positive to negative (or decrease).   The difference between the extreme values  is  a measure  of the intensity
of the cold period and is defined as the freeze index.   The number of  days between these points is the duration
of the cold period.  Tables  of high to low freeze index and percentiles are  furnished in Table 1.
An option is available which provides for extension of  cold periods  through  short  (4 day) warm spells.  In
addition, the intensity of the warm period determined by the accumulated degree days may not exceed a selected
base (currently set at 8).
favorable day of operation:   Mean dally temperature is  above 32°F, snow depth is  less than 1 inch and total
daily precipitation is less  than 0.50 inch (all conditions must be met).
unfavorable day of operation:  Mean daily temperature is 32'F,  or  less, snow depth is 1", or more, and total
daily precipitation is more than 0.49 inch (one or more conditions must be met).   Thresholds may change from
one station to the next.
The numbers here indicate the length of runs (in  days).
A value of one (l.OO)is assigned to each day when storage  is required  (unfavorable), while a value of minus
one-half (-0.50) is given to each day when the system could operate  (favorable).   These  values are accumulated
for each season with the  counter reset to a minimum base of zero regardless  of  the number of favorable days in
a sequence (Figure 9).   The  maximum values in this column  are orinted  at the end of each season and in Table 1.

Table 1:  A summary of the information obtained at the  end each season which shows 10, 25, 50, 75 and 90
percentile values along with the average Freeze Index over the  period.

Table 2:  A distribution  of  the sequential sets of unfavorable-favorable days shown in the listings.   For
example, a run of 12 UNF  days followed by a run of 20 FA days makes  the set  (12-20) and  is counted in the
third row down (11-15 UNF) and the fourth column  (16-20 FA)  from the left.
                                                  Fig. 8  Description  of chronological listing shown in  Fig. 9

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             OF  CLIMATIC  DATA IN DESIGN OF SOILS TREATMENT SYSTEMS
         STA  *   937210   BALTIMORE/ MD (FRIENDSHIP AP )
                                       SNOW
         YR   MO   DA   MAX   MIN  MEAN  DPTH    PPPP  FOG     DO     COO
         PQR» 501101-720430
            OUR         OUR
      FA     FA  UNF    UNF
                                                                                       01/08/75

                                                                                          MAX
                                                                                         STOR
         60   12   01     40    28    34                         2
         60   12   02     43    22    33                         1
         60   12   03     53    26    40                         8
         60   12   04     58    23    41                         9
         60   12   05     64    34    49                        17
         60   12   06     65    30    48                        16
         60   12   07     55    34    45                        13
         60   12   08     42    27    35                         3
         60   12   09     33    13    23                        -9
         60   12   10     49    12    31                        -1
         60   12   11     39    23    31          1.12   F      -1
         60   12   12     24    14    19    12     .53   F     -13
         60 ,  12   13     19     8    14     9                 -18
         60   12   14     33    11    22     7                 -10
5        60   12   15     33     9    21     6           F     »11
         60   12   16     42    24    33     5     .01   F       1
         60   12   17     37    14    26     5                  -6
         60   12   18     34    10    22     3                 ->10
         60   12   19     38     8    23     2           F      -9
         60   12   20     31    10    21     2                 -11
         60   12   21     37    21    29     2     .41   F      -3
         60   12   22     21     4    13     2                 -19
         60   12   23     26     0    13     2                 -19
         60   12   24     24    11    IB     2                 -14
         60   12   25     42    12    27     2                  -5
         60   12   26     50    16    33     2           F       1
         60   12   27     44    22    33     1                   1
         60   12   28     26    15    21     1                 *11
         60   12   29     33    24    29     2     .84   F      -3
         60   12   30     39    24    32                 f       0
         60   12   31     37    20    29     1     .01   F      -3
456    X
457    X
465    X
474    X
491    X
507    X
520    X
523    X
514          38    X
513                X
512                X
499                X
481                X
471                X
460                X
461                X
455                X
445                X
436                X
425                X
422                X
403                X
384                X
370                X
365                X
366                X
367                X
356                X
353                X
353                X
350                X
                                                                                           1.0
                                                                                           2,0
                                                                                           3.0
                                                                                           4.0
                                                                                           5.0
                                                                                           6.0
                                                                                           7.0
                                                                                           8.0
                                                                                           9.0
                                                                                          10.0
                                                                                          11,0
                                                                                          12.0
                                                                                          13.0
                                                                                          14.0
                                                                                          15.0
                                                                                          16.0
                                                                                          17.0
                                                                                          18.0
                                                                                          19.0
                                                                                          20.0
                                                                                          21.0
                                                                                          22.0
                                                                                          23.0
Fig. 9  Chronological listing of daily weather observations for Baltimore, Md. for Dec. 1960 with computed values

-------
USE  DP CLIMATIC  DATA IN DESIGN  OF SOILS TREATMENT SYSTEMS
STA  #  937210    BALTIMORE/ MD  (FRIENDSHIP  AP)
                          HIGH TO LOW FREEZE  INDEX
                                                       POR» 50U01-720430
                                                                           01/08/73
DATE
NDX
217
188
171
171
149
144
118
117
112
104
99
94
79
69
62
62
39
38
55
41
35
8
BEGIN
660107
621208
601208
671222
631213
580207
600229
691231
581205
570110
550126
650110
510129
551209
540110
670216
681229
511212
620206
720203
701224
521226
END
660209
630105
610105
680117
640101
580221
600316
700116
581222
570120
550205
650121
510210
551223
540118
670301
690108
511219
620221
720210
710101
521229
OUR
33
28
28
26
19
14
16
16
17
10
10
11
12
14
8
13
10
7
13
7
8
3
MAX
FA
29
34
38
36
20
19
25
16
28
25
30
35
24
23
33
28
34
17
19
22
24
17
MAX
UNF
23
22
30
22
20
24
17
11
13
7
5
14
7
14
8
11
8
8
14
12
17
5
MAX
STOR
37.0
54.0
54.5
24.5
34.5
36.0
25.0
34.0
31.5
13.5
19.0
26.5
21.0
32.5
11.5
28.0
23.0
10.5
50.0
20.0
35.0
7.5
AVERAGE  INDEX
101.
PERCENTILES
10%
25%
50%
75%
90%
183
145
 96
 59
 37
28
17
13
 9
 7
53.0
35.2
27.2
19.7
10.8
                      Fig. 10  Seasonal values of the freezing index, as indicated, with percentiles

-------
N9
UNFAVORABLE
DAYS OF 1-
OPERATION 5
1-5 246
6-10 21
11-15 9
16-20 1
21-25 3
26-30 1
31-35
36-40
41-45
46-50
51-55
56-60
61-65
66-70
71-75
76-80
81*85
86-90
91-95
96-100
100+
6
10
72
5

2
2
















                            USE  OF  CLIMATIC DATA IN DESIGN OF SOILS TREATMENT  SYSTEMS                          •    01/08/75
                            STA  #   937210   BALTIMORE* MD (FRIENDSHIP AP)                       PORl 501101-720430
                                               FAVORABLE   DAYS   OF   OPERATION
                           6-  11-   16-  21-  26-  31-  36-  41-  46-  51-  56-  61-  66-  71-  76-  81-  86-  91-  96-  100*
                              15    20   25   30   35   40   45   50   55    60  65   70   75   80   85   90   95   100

                              39    18    7    3    4    1
                                     Fig.  11  Distribution of sets of UNF-FA days of operation

-------
                                SECTION XV

                                REFERENCES
 1.   Aldrich,  H.  P., Jr. and Paynter,  H.  M.,  "Depth of Penetration in
     Non-Uniform Soil," Special Report 104, U.  S.  Army Corps  of
     Engineers, Cold Regions Research  and Engineering Laboratory,
     Hanover,  New Hampshire (October 1966). 11  p.

 2.   Atkinson, H. B. and Bay, E. E., "Some Factors Affecting  Frost
     Penetration," Transactions, American Geophysical Union,  Vol.  21,
     Part 3B,  pp 935-947 (September 1940).

 3.   Baker, D. 6., "Snow Cover and Winter Soil  Temperatures at St. Paul,
     Minnesota," Water Resources Research Center,  Minneapolis, Minnesota
     (June 1971). 16 p.

 4.   Bigelow,  N., Jr., "Freezing Index Maps of  Maine," Technical Paper
     69-5R, Materials and Research Division,  Maine State Highway
     Commission (September 1969). 20 p.

 5.   Boyd, D.  W., "Normal Freezing and Thawing  Degree Days for Canada
     (1931-1960)," Atmospheric Environment Service, Department of
     Environment, Downsview, Ontario,  Canada  (1973). 40 p.

 6.   "Climate  and Man," Yearbook of Agriculture,  U. S. Department  of
     Agriculture, Washington, D. C. (1941). 1248  p.

 7.   "Climatic Atlas of the United States," U.  S.  Department  of Commerce,
     Environmental Science Services Administration, Environmental  Data
     Service,  Washington, D. C. (June  1968).  80 p.

 8.   "Climatological Data, National Summary," U.  S. Department of
     Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
     Environmental Data Service, National Climatic Center, Asheville,
     North Carolina (1973). 114 p.

 9.   "Climatography of the U. S. No. 81,  Monthly  Normals of Temperature,
     Precipitation and Heating and Cooling Degree Days, 1941-70 (by
     State),"  U.  S. Department of Commerce, National Climatic Center,
     Asheville, North Carolina (August 1973). 250 p.

10.   "Climatography of the United States, No. 82,  Summary of  Hourly
     Observations," U. S. Department of Commerce,  U. S. Weather Bureau,
     Washington,  D. C. (1963). 15 p.
                                      33

-------
11.  "Climatography of the United States, No. 84, Daily Normals of
     Temperature and Heating and Cooling Degree Days, 1941-70," U. S.
     Department of Commerce, National Climatic Center, Asheville,
     North Carolina (September 1973). 650 p.

12.  "Climatography of the United States, No. 85, Monthly Averages of
     Temperature and Precipitation for State Climatic Divisions 1941-70,
     U. S. Department of Commerce, National Climatic Center, Asheville,
     North Carolina (July 1973). 150 p.

13.  "Compendium of Meteorology," edited by Thomas F. Malone, American
     Meteorological Society, Boston, Massachusetts (1951). 1334 p.

14.  Crawford, C. B., "Construction on Permafrost," Division of Building
     Research, National Research Council, Ottawa, Canada.

15.  Decker, W. L., "Periods with Temperatures Critical to Agriculture,"
     North Central Regional Research Publication No. 174, University of
     Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Columbia, Missouri (1967).
     76 p.

16.  Doner, J. P., "A Predictive Study for Defining Limiting Temperatures
     and Their Application in Petroleum Product Specifications," U.  S.
     Army, Mobility Equipment Research and Development Center, Coating
     and Chemical Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland (1972).
     176 p.

17.  "Extreme Maximum Values of Evaporation at Selected Stations in
     Eleven Western States and Texas," Bulletin 761, Washington Agri-
     culture Experiment Station, College of Agriculture, Pullman,
     Washington (October 1972). 32 p.

18.  "Freezing Temperature in Oklahoma," Oklahoma State University
     Extension Center, Stillwater, Oklahoma (undated). 23 p.

19.  Jessberger, H. L., "Ground Frost:  A Listing and Evaluation of
     More Recent Literature Dealing with the Effect of Frost on the
     Soil," U. S. Army Foreign Science and Technology Center, U. S.
     Army Material Command, Washington, D.  C. (February 1970). 500 p.

20.  "Local Climatologies! Data, Annual Summary with Comparative Data,"
     U. S. Department of Commerce, National Climatic Center, Asheville,
     North Carolina (1973).

21.  Ludlum, D. M., "Weather Record Book-The Outstanding Events
     1871-1970," Weatherwise, Inc., Princeton, N. J.  (1971). 98 p.

22.  "Muskegon County Plan for Managing Wastewater," Bauer Engineering
     Co.,  Chicago, Illinois (1969).
                                    34

-------
23.  "National Atlas of the United States," Hydrologic Services Division,
     U. S. Weather Bureau, Washington,  D.  C. (1966).  417 p.

24.  "Pavement Design for Frost Conditions," U.  S.  Department  of  Commerce,
     Superintendent of Documents,  Washington, D.  C.  (1962).  64 p.

25.  "Precipiation Probabilities in the North Central States,"
     Bulletin 753, Agricultural Experiment Station, University of
     Missouri, Columbia, Missouri (June 1960).  72  p.

26.  "Prediction of Freezing Temperature Penetaration in New England,"
     Miscellaneous Paper II, Arctic Construction and  Frost Effects
     Laboratory, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers,  Boston, Massachusetts
     (June 1955).

27.  "Revised Uniform Summary of Surface Weather Observations, Part  B,"
     Unpublished Tabulations, U. S. Department of Commerce,  National
     Climatic Center, Asheville, North  Carolina (1973). 6 p.

28.  Sanger, F. J., "Computations on Frost in the Ground," Journal of
     the New England Water Works Association 80 (1):   pp 47-67 (1966).

29.  Sepp, E., "The Use of Sewage for Irrigation -  A  Literature Review,"
     Bureau of Sanitary Engineering, Sacramento, California (1971).

30.  "Soil Temperature and Ground Freezing," Bulletin 71, Proceedings
     of the Thirty-Second Annual Meeting of the Highway Research  Board,
     Washington, D. C. (January 1953).

31.  "Survey of Facilities Using Land Application of  Wastewater,  Report
     No. 430/9-73-006, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
     Washington, D. C. (July 1973). 377 p.

32.  "Frequency of Maximum Water Equivalent of March  Snow Cover in
     North Central United States," Technical Paper  No. 50, U.  S.  Weather
     Bureau, Office of Hydrology,  Cooperative Studies Section, Washington,
     D. C. (1964). 24 p.

33.  "The National Climatic Center (NCC)," U. S. Department of Commerce,
     National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington, D. C.
     (1970). 34 p.

34.  "Wastewater Management by Disposal on the Land," Special  Report #171,
     U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Cold Regions Research and  Engineering
     Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire (May 1972). 183 p.

35.  "Wastewater Treatment and Reuse by Land Application, Volumes I  and
     II," Report No. 660/2-73-006 a and b, Environmental Protection
     Technology Series, Office of Research and Development, U. S.
     Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.  C. (August 1973).
     80 p. and 249 p.
                                     35

-------
36.  "Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin," U.  S.  Department of  Commerce,
     U.  S.  Department of Agriculture,  Agricultural Climatology Service
     Office, Washington, D.  C.  (1973). 14 p.

37.  Wisner, W. M.,  "Rainfall Frequency Atlas for Missouri,"  University
     of  Missouri Extension Division, Columbia,  Missouri (1973).  32  p.
                                      36

-------
                               SECTION XVI



                               APPENDICES


                                                                 Page



A     INTRODUCTION TO APPENDICES                                   38



B     PRIMARY WEATHER REPORTING NETWORK AND PUBLICATIONS           39



C     COOPERATIVE WEATHER REPORTING NETWORK AND SUMMARIES          43



D     STATE CLIMATIC DIVISIONS AND MONTHLY AVERAGES 1941-70        46



E     PRECIPITATION                                                48



F     EVAPORATION                                                  50
                                       ,j


G     SNOWFALL                                                     52



H     SNOW DEPTH                                                   54



I     WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED                                     55



J     AIR TEMPERATURE                                              59



K     MONTHLY AND DAILY NORMALS 1941-70                            64



L     OTHER PUBLICATIONS AND UNPUBLISHED TABULATIONS               66
                                  37

-------
A.  INTRODUCTION TO APPENDICES
Examples are presented in the Appendices of some of the many types of
published and unpublished summaries of climatological data which may
be of interest to those planning Soil Treatment Systems.  They have
been prepared by a number of organizations and are shown primarily to
provide information on the variety of material available.  Many of the
summaries were developed to fill a need in one particular discipline,
e.g., engineering, aviation, agriculture, etc., but can be useful in
others.

Special methods sometimes must be designed to fit the needs of a particu-
lar problem, as in the case of the Freeze Index and Unfavorable-Favorable
Day programs.  In all cases, the weather observations have been recorded
by several networks to satisfy the public requirements by the most eco-
nomical means.  They occasionally may be less than ideal for answering a
specific problem because of incomplete or broken periods of record.  Care-
ful examination of basic input data will be a guide as to the degree of
confidence one might expect.

The NCC library participates in the Intra-library Loan System with the
Library of Congress, universities and other State and Federal Agencies.
Copies of all NCC produced computer tabulations of climatological data
are indexed and filed for future use.  A large part of the Center's
holdings are available in the form of microfilm and/or magnetic tape
and can also be furnished to users for the cost of duplication.

For easy reference the Appendices B-L are identified in the following
pages in the lower right corner.
                                  38

-------
LO
                           PRINCIPAL CLIMATOLOGICAL STATIONS  (24-HOURLY)
                                                    AS OF JANUARY  1970
                                              VrV-  ^"^^v-
                                              SniL    pMOCK »ICHITA FALLS
                                                               1JFORT»ORTH —
                                              _l   .      • ABILENE        •
                         LEGEND
         Obtervotioni are lurniihed by the Agencies ai fallowi
         FAA    Federal Aviation Administration
         WI-FAA  Combined Weather Bureau and Federal Aviation Adminiitro
         SAWR   Supplementary Aviation Weather Reporting
         WB-SAWR Combined Weather Bureau and Supplementary Aviation
                   Weather Reporting
         WB-S    Combined  Weather Bureau and Second Order Synoptic
         A      Second Order Aviation Weather Reporting
         Wt     Weather Bureau
              * leu than 74 Hourly Obtervatient Doily
                                                                100   MO  300

                                                               STATUTE MILES
                                                 Fig. 1  Primary weather reporting network

-------
        LOCAL CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA
        ^DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE     .
        NATIONAt OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION
        ENVIIONMENTAl DMA SEIVICE
%$£ IKi" """
l vmy •
^•—- ^fl l«m™u 1T' ,y i Lmutitude ]««

I
2
1
4
5
6
7
1
9
10
.,
11
14
15
16
17
11
19
20
21
22
11
14
15
26
27
21
19
10

S
10
11
11
11
14
15
16
17
11
19
to
11
22
21
24
19
16
«T
16
1*
30
_

i
10
61
79
77
76
76
70
71
77
71
77
60
89
11
11
76
79
80
81
79
74
10
T3
75
71
76
71
71
77
77
-foi-
AvB.
lUximu
Temperature
1
fc
60
61
66
61
56
60
62
63
37
60
570
59
61
66
70
61
61
61
59
62
63
61
64
69
66
62
61
66
64
59
60
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T
T
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71
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69
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68
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67
70
73
74
760
72
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72
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.29
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7
7
.03
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63
64
67
63
58
60
64
64
59
62
59
63
66
69
67
64
62
61
60
63
65
66
65
70
66
64
64
63
63
61
59
Temp.
Degree oays
Base 65*
I
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7A
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0
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1
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•
4
1
4
Total
	 16,
-nip:
^
oV n Elevation ground> 27 fl Standard time used: ALASKAN WMN •21304
Weather types
on dates of
occurrence
H«««r fol *
ThunderKomt
Glue
DualKonn
Smoke. Haze
Blown* anov
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- Number of  rf wM ,Hwtt»
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.47
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1.34
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4.29
.10
0
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7
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10."
Dep
-oi.16
Snow,
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pcllcii
In
C
c
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C
C
c
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G
G
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Total
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n.
Elev. £
16 4
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12 1,
29
29
29
29
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29
30
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29.
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29
29
30
30
30
30
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30
29
29
29
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29
29
29
29
29
?9
"29"
Precipitation
4.MT24-25
cloudy 1*5 dot*
64 L
91 1
99 1
96 1
68 2
92 2
99 2
01 2
97 3
93 3
91 1
93 1
93 1
96 1
98 1
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02 1
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85 1
74 1
79 0
66 3
65 1
64 3
79 3
73 3
76 3
T
OUTS i
*r&
Wind
x
III
14
6 4.6
4 4.3
0 3.3
4 1.1
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3 .1
1 .3
; .8
3 .2
4 5.0
5 6.6
6 5.6
6 5.5
7 .4
i 1.0
4 3.0
6 5.3
0 4.2
1 4.7
4 9.4
5 6.9
1 4.6
> 2.9
6 6.5
3 4.8
3 3.6
I 1.0
ij_Ui
1
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13
6.0
7.3
6.2
4.9
6.6
5.3
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6.
6.
7.
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7.
7.
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6.
10.
7.
6.
6.
7.
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6.
5.
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1 6.4
ffld dates 	
ir. ice pellets
rater equivalent in inchest
T 	 P.M. Hour en
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.04
.01
.02
.14
7
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7
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Subscription Price: Local Cllmetolog
leal Data S 1 .00 per year Including
annual stanary if published. Single
copy: 10 cents for sttnthly sutaaary;
.5 cents for annual suooary. Checks
or money °rder« should be s»de payabli
and remittances and correspondence
should be sent to the Superlncenden
of Dociaaents, U. S. Government Print
Ing Office, Washington, D. C. 20402.
.03
.01
.02
.93
_
t
1 certify that this Is an official
. publication of the national Oceanic
a. and Anaoapheric Administration, and
* is ccnplled from records on file at
'- the National Cllsutle Center. Ashe-
J vine. North Carolina 28801.
b / ,. j/jL.. /)
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19
11
10
12
11
10
11
9
S
n
E
E
E
sy
HE
HE
sy
s*
sy
HE
N
E
E
E
E
HE
K
S
s
N
N
N
Ny
~~sT"
Sunshine
jl
18
6.3
5.4
2.1
3.4
6,5
2.6
0.1
0.1
5.3
6.4
7.1
1.8
5.1
3.0
2.9
2.6
1.5
6.8
5.4
2.1
1.2
0.0
4.2
0.0
0.0
6.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
4.3
1.5
Total
343T9
«r
it
rt-3
19
51
49
19
31
59
24
1
0
48
56
65
16
46
27
26
24
11
61
49
25
10
0
37
0
0
54
1
0
0
38
11
Tenths
S
i!
7
7
1
1
to
B
to
10
5
10
10
10
1
9
S
1!
21
5
7
9
8
5
1
10
10
6
7
4
7
6
6
9
7
7
5
7
6
6
10
6
10
10
7
10
to
10
6
9
2.43
Avt
7,6
1 Greatest depth on (round of snow.
ice pellets or ice and dote
JESTS ! ...|
.02
,06
,02
7
.04
7
7
.01
7
• 04
7
.33
I
.02
.11
7
7
.01
.01
7
7
.02
.09
7
.13
.03
.01
.06
.02
7
7
7
7
.01
7
IV
7
T
.10
7
.01
.02
.03
.01
7
.01
7
M
7
.06
.01
7
7
.33
.02
7
.01
.02
li
.04
7
.02
.04
.22
7
.02
.01
.04
7
SUMMARY BY HOURS
AVERAGES ""Stad"
&
05 7
08
11
IT
20
23
I1S
29. 9c
29.94
29.9J
29.61
29. 6<
19. 9«
29.9!
Temperature
•*
64
66
74
75
72
61
66
b.
i!
62
61
69
69
67
66
64
*#*
61 <
61
66 '
61 '
65
64
61
!!.:!
jl'I
10 12
17 12
PI 07
PI I 06
n 07
11 20
10 22
!!
1.8
4.0
3.5
6.5
1.7
1.4
2.7

I
22
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
21
29
30
31
S
2
3
4
5
6
7
9
10
11
12
11
14
15
16
17
16
19
20
21
22
13
14
15
26
27
28
29
10
11



                           Director, National Cliavafic Center
Fig. 2 Local climatological data (monthly) prepared for stations in the primary network
                                        40
                                                                                             B

-------
COLUMBIA,   S.C.
METEOROLOGICAL  DATA  FOR  THE  CURRENT YEAR
Station.
Month
•El
HAH
HAV
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
tut
COUJHtM, SOUTH CAt.OL.lNA
Temperature

ll
97,4
69.9
72.6
10,6:
16,1
90.!
90.4
19.0
10.7
74.9
62.2
79.9
*"""•
* -1
s 1
10.6
47. (
9«;<
17.6
70.1
70.7
61.1
92.6
16il
92,0

J
44,9
44,0
96.6
60.0
67,1
77.2
• 0.6
71,6
66.7
99.0
49,9
64.0

i
X
71
71
II
14
91
93
99
96
96
90
19
tl
99
Eitr
1
104
14
21*
11
17
10
11
1
11
JUl.
10
emei
I
11
i
26
10
It
57
69
61
63
19
24
11
9

I
14
12
1
12
9
1
11
21
20*
11
12
22
•El.
12
CBHIHIU nETIWOLITAN AIK'HIT Standard lime u.ed: |.STHN La""«l«: U'97'N LMtituoa: 11.07.. Elevation (,ro™d) : j,, feet ,,„. „„
Dtfm day*
(Base 65')
1
611
919
219
179
47
0
0
0
0
97
209
477
2119
M
J
. J
0
0
11
13
141
179
444
490
411
116
12
6
2110

I
9.29
9.79
10.19
4.47
4.04
14.11
1.19
6.92
4.47
0.71
0.41
6.66
67.57

5
1 j
<5s
1.94
t.47
2,14
2,49
L.ll
9.44
0.74
2.71
1.49
0.52
0.11
1.71
9.44
Precipi
1
7.1
1-2
7
7-1
15-16
21
1
9-10
21-29
21
1-9
JUN.
19-16
lation
Snow, Ice pellet.
|
2.2
16.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
J.O
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
T
11.2
h
2.2
19. T
0.0
0.0
0.0
0,0
0,0
0,0
0.0
0,0
0,0
T
19,7
a
7-1
9-10
17 4
Ml.
9-10
Relative humidity
|
01
71
72
12
74
• 4
19
11
91
19
91
l»
10
11
X
07
Lot.
79
10
19
• 0
19
91
17
91
91
90
90
19
17
11
time
92
46
61
49
49
62
97
99
56
49
46
91
91
3
1*
69
99
6|
49
97
71
70
71
77
71
67
M
67
find »
RemHant
1
11
12
20
24
24
11
19
22
01
36
27
27
26
1
1.
2.
0.
3.
3.
1.
1.
0.
1.
1.
i!
0.9
I
7.1
7.6
7.4
I.I
7.1
6.0
6.0
9.1
9.1
9,6
6.7
7.6
6,1
Paeteal nile
1
11
29
11
10
21
29
21
29
21
11
29
22
11
j
10
01
27
21
11
19
04
11
07
21
11
21
27
J
19.
10
17
10
11
19
21
20
26
21
21
10
MA«,
17
«
2s
1!
94
90
19
70
47
97
66
97
64
67
7>
61
99
|a
9.1
Number of dayi
SvnriM l« lumel
u
12
4
12
7
6
9
1
1
11
14
11
112
II
6
1
9
6
9
4
19
11
17
1
5
1
96
1
16
11
11
12
15
20
11
14
5
10
11
12
197
ll
1 *
11
1
17
6
1
14
9
14
7
4
2
12
112
ll
J 8
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
e
0
1
6
2
7
14
19
10
7
1
0
2
67
?
J
i
i
4
0
1
4
4
7
0
9
2
14
Temp,
t
ll
0
0
0
0
1
6
21
ll
14
2
0
0
64
H
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
ranittt
ll
17
17
4
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
Ll
62
0 £
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1!
}!

                                                            NORMALS,  MEANS,  AND  EXTREMES
5
(a)
J
F
n
A
M
J
J
A
$
0
N
0
r«
Temperature

*!
s s
96,9
9Y.7
66.3
76.9
14.5
90,1
92.0
91.0
•5.4
77.1
66.9
9 7. .9
79.4
Norna
I
! 1
11.
15.
41.
91.
99.
67.
70.
69.
61.
91.
40.6
94.1
91.5

i
49.4
47.
94.
64.
72.
71.
• 1.
• 0.
74,
64,
93.
46.
61,5
Extremes
I!
7
79
11
91
94
99
104
103
106
97
90
15
13
106
1
1970
1972
1973
1470
1970
1970
1970
1961
1970
19734
1973
1971
AUG.
1961
11
7
1
5
20
29
16
46
19
51
40
29
12
17
9
|
1970
1971
1967
L972
L97L
1972
L972«
L969
1967
1967
1970
1972«
Ml.
19714
{
« _
c "
601
493
160
13
12
0
0
0
0
112
341
919
1991

1
3.44
3.67
4,67
3.51
1.19
1.12
5.69
9.61
4.12
2.51
2.14
1.11
46,16

If
26
7.62
1.61
10.19
9.19
1.19
14.11
11.17
16.72
1.71
12.09
7.20
7.41
6-71

1
1972
1961
1971
1991
1967
1971
1999
19*9
1991
999
957
953
UC.
949

if
26
0.97
1.12
1.25
0.91
0.29
1.26
1.19
1.11
0.76
T
0.41
D.92
T
Precipitation
8
1949
1910
1949
1970
1951
1959
1957
1961
1951
961
971
959
OCT.
963
II
1 "
26
2.12
»!j»
1.66
»,57
9.44
9.11
7.66
6.21
9,46
2.30
3.11
7.66
,
1961
1962
1440
1956
967
97!
999
949
953
964
763
470
UC.
949
Snow, Ice pellela
S
26
0.4
0.9
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0,0
0.0
o.o
0.0
T
0.4
1.9
I f
1 I
26
2.2
16.0
3.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
T
9.1
16.0
s
1973
1973
1960
1961*
1991
FEI.
1973
ll
S. s
26
2.2
L5.7
2.1
0.0
0,0
0,0
0.0
0,0
0,0
0.0
T
19.7
a
1973
1971
1960
19614
1991
FEI.
1971
Relative
humidity
01
(
7
10
74
74
77
• 4
II
19
91
92
19
14
SO
14
3
07
oca
7
11
10
11
14
II
90
91
91
94
92
• 1
19
II
1
11
tin
7
59
41
41
45
49
94
57
99
96
94
49
99
91
1
19
!)
7
66
97
94
90
11
64
72
74
79
76
71
71
66
W,n<»
I
1
29
7
7
7.0
ll
Q. W
14
S
t
i
S
f
SH
SH
sw
NE
NE
SH
US*
SW
Fill.il mile
i
20
46
40
60
40
46
40
40
44
11
27
99
10
60
S
20
21
20
27
27
23
21
39
16
11
21
39
29
27
s
1964
19664
1954
1961
1991
1997
1969
1961
1959
19614
1967
1994
«u.
1954
Pel. of possible sunshine
20
91
99
64
61
69
64
65
66
69
69
69
61
64
_ Z
i!
29
6
i
9
9
i
6
9
9
4
4 7
9 7
9.5
Mean number ot days
Siuuihe
to
8
*
26
9
9
10
Ll
10
6
9
10
L5
13
LL
121
S*
n
26
6
6
1
1
10
12
L3
L2
9
6
7
6
103
f
26
Ll
L3
13
LL
11
10
12
10
11
10
10
14
141
i!
Is
26
10
10
a
i
4
9
H
11
7
6
7
9
110
||
26
*
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
*
L
j
26
1
1
1
4
6
9
11
10
4
L
L
54
1
1
25
27
Temperatures
Max MLR
ll
7
0
0
0
2
4
14
20
19
9
•
0
0
69
ll
7
1
a
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
Is
7
17
17
7
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
9
11
69
11
o £
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1 £•
•?!
Ii
•i I

            Me«n«  and extremes above are from existing md comparable exposures.  Annual extremes  have been exceeded at other sites  In the locality as foLlo
            Highest  temperature 107  In June I954+;  Lowest temperature -2 In February  1899.
           Length  of record, y*«r»,  twvext on January *it*,
           Other momni  may be  for more or fewer year., U
           there hav« been break* in the record.
           CUnntoloflcal narmaU (1941-1970).
           Lcai than ore half.
           Al*o on earlier daiei, month*, or yeara.
           Trace, in tftiount too •m*U to measure.
           Below XVTQ lemjeramrea are preceded try amJnuaaHa
           > TO* at Altalun aUtlona,

           The prevailing direction for wind  In the Normal*,
           Meani,  and Extremea table ia from recorda ihrou&h
     Unlcaa otherwlM Indicated. dlmenaloTial unlu uaed In thlt bulletin are: lempe
     prcclpltarlon. Including anowfall. In Itiche*.; wind movement In mil.-, per hour-
     In percent.  Heating degree day iot*l» *rc the auma of negative depanurca of ai
     turea from &5* F, Cooling degree day «xalB are the iuma of poalilve depar
     lemperaturea from 6S* F.  Sleet was Included In anowfall toula beginning with
     "Ice pelleta"  Includea eolld gralna of Ice (aJeet) and panicle* conalatlng o(
     In a thin Layer of tee. Heavy fog reduce i vlaiblllty to 1/4 mile or leaa.

     Sky  cover It ecpreiaed In a range of 0 for no cloud* or obscuring phenomena i
     cover.  The number of clear day* ia based on average clou4ln<» o-J. p
     cloudy daya 8 10 tenth*.
 rat u re In tegreea F.;
 and relative humidity
 'er.ge dally tempera-
 :urea ol aveiage dally
n July 194B. The term
>( inow pellet a encaned


to 10 for complete ity
V cloudy daya 4-7. ind
                                                      i one fram calorie per *quar« centimeter.
* 1FIaur*4"1I?lcld 0( le""8 in • Direction column indicate direct!,
 1.*.. 09-Eaat. IB-Smith. 27-WeH. 36-North. •ndOO-Calm,
 wind direction* and speed* dlvtded by the number of obaervatli
 column under "Faateat mile" the cor re upending *peeda are fawei
i In ten* of degree* from true North;
Resultant wind Ii the vector »um of
ia. If figures appear In [he direction
observed 1-mlnuie values.
 SOURCE:  Local Climatological Data, Annual

               Summary 1973
                                       Fig. 3  Local climatological data (annual) prepared for stations in the primary network

-------
COLUMBIA,  S.C.
 AVERAGE TEMPERATURE
 Y««r|j»n.|Feb.|M«r.iApr.|May|june| Jaly|Aug.|Sept.|Oct.|Nov.|P«c.|Aiin^'«l

19»7
1939
1940
1941
1942
1944
1943
M*-»T
1*49
1931
1952
1959
1954
1956
1936
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1966
• 1966
1967
1961
1970
1971
1972
1973
Mcote
NiAM
KM
HIM




31.9
35.1
63.1
92.3
44,7
47.3
42.7
40.0
44.6
41.3
44.1
41.3
44.1
40.3
46. <
61.1
31.3
49.4
SO.'
44,9
46.3
96.2
>6.4




42.6
54.1
41.2
49,6
52,9
32.0
40. •
30.1
52.5
41.0
43.7
46.9
43.0
40.1
47.9
46.3
49.7
44.0
41.1)
51.4
37. f




4T.4
59.4
39.3
36.0
M.5
34.7
49.9
3t.l
51.3
59.0
14.1
91.1
57.1
94.1
17.1
10.0
33.9
51.6
95.1
**.o
44.1




66.6
61.9
el. 9
01. 1
•6.9
61,*
63.6
91.6
60. •
65.3
64.1
03.1
65.6
69.1
67.6
61.9
•3.1
•0.0
•3.4
74. »
31. »




72.6
71.7
70.9
66.3
73.7
71.9
••.1
76.7
70,4
72.4
70.2
•7.0
•9.6
71.0
•9.1
••*»
•7.1
71.1
11.1
•0.5




71. c
79.2
10.0
79.9
79,4
71.2
77,1
77,3
77.5
90.5
79.0
73.5
77.9
71. «
•0.3
73*9
77.2
7«.5
•9.2
67. •




71.0
•3.2
11.4
13.9
12.3
• 1.9
11.2
11.6
79.9
71.1
11. •
77.6
10.5
• 3.4
10.0
79.2
• 0.7
•O.I
90.7
70,9




• 0.4
79.
•2.
13.
11.9
*1»1
71.6
10.6
11.7
71.4
79.1
73.7
12.9
• 1.9
10.1
79.1
10.6
79.9
19.6
70.1




76.0
72.9
73.5
79.1
72.3
73,1
76.2
73.9
72.3
73,1
73.1
67.3
72.4
7>,6
77.1
73.2
7«.6
75.1
13.0
• 5.2




61.2
61.7
07.7
•5.1
66.0
61.2
61.9
63.4
64.3
99,1
•i.l
•0.2
64.0
64.7
•9.0
62.7
66.7
•4.3
73.6
93.3




51.1
32.6
49.9
50.4
52. «
57,3
31.7
52.3
54.3
31.2
33.4
49.1
93.6
30.7
53.1
53.3
59.0
54.3
63.5
61.1


50.2

45.7
48.6
49.4
44.6
36.2
42.2
47.1
47.0
43.7
39.6
49.9
45.7
69.6
42.7
30.1
56.6
31.3
49.5
47.3
57.1
17.2
63.1
•4.2
•4.7
64.4
64.1
3.2
3.4
64.3
• 4.4
64.1
61.0
•4.0
•2.5
•3.1
3.4
2.4
3.2
2.0
1.0
2.0
4.9
64.2
63.1
64.0
63.1
74.3
53.2
HEATING DEGREE DAYS COLUM8IA, SOIITH ^^
Season (July | Aug.|Septj Oct.
•1914-35
1913-36
•1996-27
1937-1I
19)1*3*
1919-40
1940-41
1941-42
1942.43
194)-44
1944-43
194>.t6
•1946-47
1947.41
1*4».49
1949-50
1930*51
1951-32
1952-31
1953-54
1934-33
1953-36
19S6-37
1937-51
199C-59
1939-60
1960-61
1961-62
1962-63
1963-6*
1964-63
1965-66
•19*6-67
1967-6*
196B.69
1969-70
1970-71
1971-71
1971-7.
1979*74
0
0
0
4
9
0
!0
0
21
7
0
1
31
6
17
12
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
7
1«
14
I
2
0
32
I
6
1
1
1

• 1
65
107

IS
209
131
141
15
129
70
204
1>I
127
164
121
•6
• 5
13
9B
37
Nov.) Dec.

257
400
151


313

249

472
311
216
303
331
469
339
419
420
354
350
203

543
519
37!


620

702

550
779
47)
943
596
410
614
640
46Z
292
423
477
Jut.

474
913
576


467

6)0

620
640
392
759
534
732
613
12)
602
429
611
Feb.
496
299
527
377


423

412

160
612
466
302
605
717
594
414
319
593
511
Mar.| Apr.jMay Uunej Total
177
133
203
376
3)2
116
313
212

463
370
Ml
630
325
39B
401
170
327
490
252
462
341
119
130
109
101
141
192
J7
141
133
137

119
95
227
113
11
9
12
6
104
71
7)
13J
136
179
13
1
42
49
4
1)
39
7
10
14
0
1
19
3
15
0
17
0
19
71
'0
13
12
27
12
47
0



1
2)21
2943
2007
3009
2379
2474
2)26
2011
2747
19 1<
1*33
1395
2605
3025
2614
2916
2753
2343
2154
2MO
2445
2103
2631
30*7
2999
2791
2731
2133
2517
TOT
Yen
1934
P193S
9.9)6
.997
1911
1939
1940
1941
1942
1941
1944
.943
1944
• |947
1941
1949
I'SO
1951
1952
1993
1954
1953
1936
»957
1991
1959
I960
1961
1962
1943
19M
1969
1966
1967
19*1
1969
1970
1971
.972
>973
KCOOO
HEM
'AL PR!
J.n.l Feb.
0.77
5.96
4.10
1.17
1.64
1.49
1.16
1.20
1.01
!.*!
1.6)
.96
.17
.31
.97
.77
.90
.41
.91
.91
.90
.71
.41
.09
,*4
.19
.93
.49
.19
.94
.43
.12
.79
.94
.•4
.21
.53
.62
.15
3.27
1.17
4.10
.13
.49
.39
.19
.»0
.9*
.90
.66
.91
.56
.71
.44
.31
.11
.42
.31
.95
.16
.17
.49
.10
• •7
.99
.91
.••
.11
.94
.39
.39
.96
.16
.14
.91
.99
.19
.91
5.79
l.M
ECI]
Mar.
5.16
1.50
1.09
1.19
1.01
1.17
6.11
5.12
• .90
1.10
1.11
9.14
7.47
1.15
• .16
• .99
7.00
3.70
1.44
1.00
1.99
• .59
••47
• .21
• .17
9.79
6.40
1.11
• .16
7.41
2.11
1.01
1.92
1.16
• .42
9.5)
1.79
10. •«
3.17
PITATION
Apr. I M«v I June I July | Aug.| S*pt| Oct.
10.76
6.41
7.J4
2.11
1.09
2.11
2.79
1.1*
4.19
1.73
.71
.41
.10
.11
.19
.(7
.10
.41
.»
.01
.11
.13
.99
.•4
.91
.91
.11
4,l«
1.60
1.99
3.91
1.71
4.11
4.57
0.91
• .11
l.K
4.49
9.22
0.06
1.29
6.21
1.47
1.90
0.51
4.37
1.07
1.76
1.61
1.19
1.17
9.60
1.3*
4.45
0.29
1.47
».49
1.20
1.00
1.92
6.71
1.79
5.7*
1.47
2.91
2.12
2.17
2.61
1.46
• ,14
• ••5
4.17
1.21
4.10
2,71
• .41
4.04
1.13
1.15
6.10
4.63
2.13
4.21
9.94
4.47
3.13
4.«3
1.06
0.71
4.11
2,79
1.70
1.15
4.7«
2.44
• .46
1.49
1.26
1.70
1.16
).61
l.*7
2.17
1.95
4.79
4,1.
2,97
1.10
3.66
4.11
9.41
4.70
1.05
7.46
6.10
14.11
«.n
:«
.91
.93
• **
.53
.24
•46
.54
.71
.20
.11
.•0
.16
11.79
9.16
1.17
4.23
2.14
2.93
1.61
1.19
1.70
13. IT
4.7»
1.70
2.*1
2.4t
10.11
4.1>
.:»
*.»
4.11
4.74
11.11
9.11
1.19
5.62
9.12
6.10
0,91
6.16
5.1>
4.99
4.M
1.14
1,12
4.09
2.74
1.96
2.74
It, 71
4.72
1.17
11.93
t.ll
1.91
4.79
1.77
4.12
1.91
4.32
9.12
14.94
1.10
1.91
9.97
9.19
1.21
11.16
1.11
2.91
7.11
10.61
2.17
6.91
9-.63
2.09
».27
1.01
6.06
1.1*
1.27
2.46
2.65
1.42
10.54
1.16
9.07
7.29
2.65
• .46
4.70
1.63
9,71
1.75
l.ll
7.94
6.74
0.76
7.12
1.94
1.46
1.15
».*•
t.93
1.99
2.02
2.91
2.40
1.17
1.72
5.03
2.11
4.47
1.10
4.72
2.21
1.10
0.04
0.66
0.91
1.01
0.11
2.19
0.69
4.62
1.17
3.50
l.M
1.14
0.47
o.;o
0.12
1,21
2.39
1.99
l.»0
1. »»
11.09
1.17
0.12
0.99
T
10.3*
2.14
1.47
0.42
4.11
1.17
1.19
1.44
1.19
0.71
»•»*
Nov.
2.51
2.10
2.44
0.90
4.42
0.46
2.25
0.76
1.29
0.16
l.«7
7.95
4.1>
1.01
1.70
2.11
1.31
1.2"
1.91
2.11
O.M
7.20
0.5.
0.07
0.»9
.01
.91
.20
.16
.77
1.05
1.71
5.21
1.20
1.41
2.15
9.62
0.41
1.12
Dec.
4.62
2.01
2.46
2.11
l.M
4.14
4.14
3.75
0.91
4.»
0.47
6.06
l.M
l.M
1.51
3.76
1.64
7.43
1.94
0.11
1.44
2.44
!.««
2.
2.*
1.21
2.27
3.05
4.9>
0.64
}.ll
2.19
1.26
4.91
4.33
1.90
3.1*
6.46
1.13
AnnutJ
41.77
91.92
45.63
11.91
43.31
10.7*
It. 9*
49.21
16.70
43.09
40.04
90.20
60.46
94,99
47,17
46.93
19.39
49.47
3«.»4
27.31
31.46
11.42
41.64
44.19
•6.00
49.07
34.93
42.69
4t.ll
70.93
52.35
42.31
34.71
41.67
•0.67
91.49
•9.11
99.51
•7.57
49.04
TOT
Season
1936-17
.937-31
1*38-3*
l*3**40
1*40-41
1 *41*«2
1*42*49
1*41*«4
1*44-49
1*43-46
,M*4 6*47
1*41.41
19*1-4*
1*4*^50
1*50-91
1*31*12
1*92-9*
1*51*94
1*54**»
1*36*37
1*97-91
1*10.19
1939*60
1*60-61
1*6 I -62
1*62*61
1*61-64
1*64*6*
1*69*49)6
1*66*67
1*67-61
1*61*6*
196**70
1*71-72
1*7.* .>7»
1*71*74
AL
July
0.0
0.0
0,0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0*0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
SNOWED
Aug.|Sept| Oct.
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
o.o
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

0.0
o.o
0.0
0.0
o.O
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
o.o
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0
0,0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0,0
0*0
0,0
0,0
0,0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0*0
0*0
0.0
0.0
0*0
0*0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0*0
0.0
0.0

iLL
Nov.
0*0
T
T
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0,0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
O.JO
0.0
0.0
T
0.0
0.0
0*0

Dec.
0*0
0.0
0.0
0,0
T
1.1
0.0
T
0.0
0,0
0.0
o.o
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
o.o
0.0
T
*.l
T
0,0
0*0
T
0.0
T
0.0
e.o
T
0.4
0.0
T
Jan.
0.0
T
0.0
1.*
7
0.0
1-1
0.0
T
0.0
T
0.0
0.0
0.0
7
T
1.7
T
T
0.0
T
T
T
0.0
1.1
0.0
1.7
T
l.«
0.0
2.2
Feb.
0,0
T
0.0
0.0
T
0.0
0.0
0,0
o.o
0.0
T
0,0
0.0
7
7
0.0
o.o
0,0
1.4
0.0
7
0,0
7
0.0
0,0
».4
1.0
O.B
T
0.0
16.0
Mar] Apr*|M*y{JuiM|ToU!
T
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
T
0.0
0.0
0,0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0*0
0.0
0.0
7
0.0
1.0
».2
T
0.0
0.0
7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
O.o
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
o.o
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
o.o
0.0
0.0
0*0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
o.o
0.0
0,0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0<0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0,0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0,0
0,0
0.0
0.0
0.0
OtO
0.0
0.0
0,0
0,0
0*0
0.0
0.0
0,0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
o.o
0.0
0,0
0.0
0.0
0,0
o.o
0.0
0.0
o.o
0,0
0.0
0.0
0,0
0,0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0,0
0,0
0.0
7
11. T
7
7
T
1.5
T
7
1.8
1,1
T
7
o.o
7
o.o
o.o
7
7
7
7
1,*
7
7
1.*
10.1
',*
7
7
7
1.1
1.0
1.4
2.7
O.I
!*•
1,T
o.t
11.2
                leeord —san values above (not id jus ted for in err™ent location changes listed in the Station Loc.tlo
                period beginning In 1880.
                Statlon*Location'lable. Data .re fron"clty Office location* through 2-14-47 end fro. Airport locations thereafter.
                             Fig. 4  Sequential tables in the local climatological data (annual)
                                                                  42
                                                                                                                                              B

-------
Mtd.i,
lc..l.r—«
 • W
                     -o-
                   Worthlnfton
                 TJTK^  TCT.fr-

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Vis LyiwvlU* Dem "
                                                                                                NOR
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                                                                                  W'Blerioo WSO
                                                                               "1,          L     rw"
                                                                                            McGracor
                                                                                               V

                                                                                               4
                                                                                           Outltnbirt L fc D I
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                                         T"
                                D*l Momri Clly W9O |
                                 1
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                                                                -            .mom..,,,.,.        |       ,...r,i, ».!..«,
                                                                             >1         I North Entll.h      !„,. Clly R.liM
                                                                  I	rj	r-1—•frL—ass
                                                                          - -

                                                                           I
  t     "••"•_      C&^rtort   Or..nf,,U   I
y         ma^j.   5      0       u
M. »V,            I
«,  	c^_JSpjJTHWEgT	}
                                                                                       ig^ney
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                                                                              „!_   ©
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                                                   "*     L        C.r,«.

                                  1   T      A'r  L"    i         !'
                                  j_«»£-_iii	^n;^	L	L
                                                   T'r"f~
                                                                                                                 l~ft>ur( 1 t

                                                                                                  «, io nun
                                                                                                  Bi>rlln|to. MA AP
                                                            O
                                                          ll.rc.r 1 M*
                                                  ,r,,U, 4 SS* •         ,  K.«m> Ho I  |  O        y
                                                   •             i	JT	j      ,  ^
                                                                           \    <
            IOWA
         90 TH MERIDIAN TIME  ZONE
                                                                                        M.mphl.
                                                                                         -O-
                                   ALBERS  EOUAL ABEA PROJECTION

                                 STANDARD PARALLELS AT 29^ AND 4
                                                                                                 (•hr>k»  \


                                                                                                   Krohuk Lo
                                      Fig. 1  Cooperative weather reporting network for Iowa

-------
             39° 17' II
            1U° 51' V
                625)
                              CLIsUTOGsUFHY OP TOf UNITKD STATES  NO. 2O  - mti
                                     CUMATOLOGICAL SUMMARY

                                            D arukin FOB rmoo 1*36-1969
                                                                                                           rruioil Ely.  (evada
                                                                                                                  (Yallaad Field)
         i
                      Ta-»pa«tu« ('D
                                                     I

                                                                        PracipttlUc«Tc«mU (taokee)
                                                        1
                                                                                              ,  •!*•.
                                                                   1
 U)
Jan
Feb
Her

May
Jvn
Jut
Aug
*«•
Oct
         37.
         40.
         46.
         56.
         66.
         76.
         86.
         84.
         76.
         63.
         49.
         41.0
 31

 9.1
13.9
19.1
26.7
33.9
39.7
48.0
46.7
37.7
28.7
18.8
                     31
                    23.
                    5
                 27.4
                 33.0
                 41.7
                 50.3
                 57.9
                 67.2
                 45.5
                 56.9
                 46.2
                 34.0
1951
1953
1966
1954
I960
1950
1967
1949
1949
1952
1963
1950
1950
1948
1960
1965+
                                         1964
                                         1951
 (b)

1308
1075
 977
 672
 456
 225
  28
  43
 2)4
 592
 939
1184
  31


 '.U
 .85
1.03
 .92
 .92
 .58
 .51
 .69
 .66
 .59
 .65
 31

0.95
1.54
0.86
1.04
1,42
1,50
1,22
0.69
1.25
1.09
1.29
1.12
1952
1969
1954
1947
1955
1963
1952
1937
1963
1961
1960
1966
31

24.8
19.9
24.8
24.5
10.8
 5.6
 0.0
 0.0
 0.8
 7.8
IS.)
22.)
1967
1959
1958
1963
1964
1939
                                               1958
                                               1954
                                               1946
                                               1968
31

13.1
10.4
10,
 8.
 7.
 3.


 0.
 7.
10.4
         60.4
               27.1
                    44.2
                                                          8.71
                                                                                 46.0
                                                                                     24.8
                                                                                            1967+
                                                                                                   13.1
                                                                                                                                     Ymmr
                      (a)  Avant-W lanotai 0! nooni*-
                      (b)  Cllmstologleal Standard Normals (1931-1960)
                       T  Tra*, u unout too null to BMMUT*.

                                «S*F
                                                                             +   Also on earlier  the  table below.

                                              ILECTED TIMES Of DAT
                                              '   Oct  »ov  DiT
                                                  62   71   72
 10 am   59  59  48   39   34   28   23   26   28  3S   50   57
 4 pm   55  52  40   34.   30   24   21   23   23  2*   45   54
 10 urn   69  73  65   57   SI   43   37   41   43  52   66   70

  The warm moist  southerly sir flow  from the Gulf of Mexico la
prevalent over eastern (evade for much of the simmer.  This moisture
contributes to the production of an  average of 32 thunderstorm'days
and 4 hall daya making this the highest In the state.

     Like much, of swvada, sunshine 1* Ely is abundant, avsragtng
around 73 percent for the year and ranging from shout 65 percent
   la .the winter to near 80 percent for the summer.
   below.
                                                         per
                                                  See the table
   *
        Feb
                 -*-
                    -"S-
                                         Sep  Oct Hoy  Dec  Ann
                                          82   76   68
                                                                               BATES OF LAST STUK OCCUUIK1 OF LOW TEMmATUK (01 LOWE)

                                                                                        ftrefnt clrno* of lattr tlm indioaud dot*
                                                                               DATZI OF HIST FALL OCCOUIKE OF LOW TEMRIATDU (01 LOHUU

                                                                                        ftratnt etano* of farlitr than indioattd <
                                                                               Tew»   101
                                                                                24»  1/13
                                                                                                 30*
                                                                                                                  •<«
                                                                                     1/13  4/20  J/23  9/17  107110/5  10/9  10/13 10/1-
                                                                                28°  9/03  9/08  9/11  9/14  9/17 9/20  9/23  9/26   10/01
                                                                                32°  8/16  8/22  8/28  9/01  9/05 9/09  9/13  9/19   9/26
                                                                                               atomic SEA** LEKTH (DATS)

                                                                                              '._ okmo* of Zotsjei1 tfcan inaV«rtaJ i
                                                                                              t  MI   *01  501   601
                                                                 28»   129
                                                                 32°   103
                                                                                             155   147  141
                                                                                             115   110  103
                                                                                              90    85   80
                                                                                                                             122   UV
                                                                                                                        91    M    II
                                                                                                                        70    64    57
                                                                               Month   Mean hourly   Travel
                                                                                       Speed tmnhl   Direction
                                                                                                  trip MI*
                                                                                                  •availing
                                                                                                                              ijrectiem   Tear
Jan.
Feb
Her
Apr
"ay
Jim
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
HOV
Dec

Annual
10,
10.
11.
11.
10,
10.
10.
to.
10.
10.
10.
10.













10.7
Clarence M. Sakamoto, ISSA S
tlchard 0.
Clfford, AeaocUt
66 SE 1952
56 S 1954
59 SE 1951
59
74
63
50
57
57
65
51
1948
1912
W 1957
1954
1953
1950
1950
1954
61 SE 1952
May
74 S 1948
ate Clime tologlst
Frofeaaor
riant. Soil t Water Science Division
University
6/70
of Hevada, Kaxo 89J07

Fig. 2  Climatography of the  United  States No.20 prepared for stations in the cooperative network
                                                                          44

-------
                                                            A*«g«
                                                                                  CF)
                                                                                                                                                                             Total l*M«lpll»Ue» (facto)
YMT
19M
19)9
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1930
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
196)
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
I«n.

21.1
26.4
27.2
23.4
25. 3
16.7
25.6
21.2
20.0
28,8
5.8
20.2
25.3
17.6
33.5
27.2
14.6
31.9
18.7
27.5
28.8
19.0
27.0
20.4
22.9
19.3
29.4
20.1
26.2
23.1
31.2
r«b.

14.7
31.2
34.7
23. t
28.6
23.0
29.0
25.6
34.6
24.0
15.0
33.0
29.3
19.9
30.7
34.3
17.9
19.5
34.3
33.9
26.0
23.3
31.7
29.4
16.8
22.3
27.8
22.5
28.4
31.8
25.9
KUr.

34.5
38.3
36.2
10.6
36.8
29,5
27.6
15.4
37.6
26.4
31.8
33.7
12.3
22.4
35.1
31.8
31.4
35.8
35.9
30.2
35.6
39.3
34.0
29.3
32.3
27.9
32.4
36.7
38.4
36.7
26.2
Ap,.

43.8
43.4
36.2
41.6
48.1
38.0
37.4
49.2
41.2
42.8
46.0
42.4
43.5
43.0
39.8
46.1
39.3
41.3
41.0
38.2
44.8
43.2
41.4
47.4
36.1
39.6
41.9
42.6
34.7
38.0
43.2
May

51.8
55.4
31.4
46.0
49.8
51.0
49.0
48.3
53.5
48.8
50.0
47.3
50.3
52.1
42.7
54.0
47.6
50.5
47.5
54.1
47.4
50.3
50.2
49.0
54.3
48.6
45.9
55.5
49.2
49.3
56.9
lun«

57.4
62.
55.
57.
54.
53.
53.
59.
55.
57.
57.
56.
56.
57.
57.
57.
57.
60.
60.0
59.5
63.3
62.6
62.4
59.6
53.7
56.6
55.2
60.6
54.6
59.4
57.4
July

67.4
68.1
65.1
70.1
66.6
65.2
67.2
67.6
67.3
66.2
66.3
65.9
67.3
66.5
69.1
69.6
65.2
65.6
67.0
65.7
69.4
68.0
68.4
65.5
66.5
68.4
65.5
68.6
66.1
68.4
66.3
Ana.

66.3
68.1
63.0
65.
65.
63.
65.
66.
65.
64.
64.
63.
64.
67.
65.
64.
67.
62.
66.
68.
65.
65.
66.
65.
65.
64.
63.
66.3
68.1
61.1
69.6
S*pt

57.1
56.3
31.1
55.7
99.)
57.0
55.0
56.2
58.4
57.1
99.0
54.8
57.6
99.3
59.7
56.5
56.8
59.8
56.4
57.8
53.5
60.6
52.6
58.9
59.8
54.4
50.5
59.1
57.9
94.5
60.7
Get
44.8
44.4
47.1
41.
43.
46.
47.
48.
39.
48.
44.
4).
51.
43.
50.
45.
46.
47.
44.
43.
47.
46.
46.
43.
48.7
50.7
49.6
49.2
45.7
47.7
46.7
40.4
Nor.
28.6
37.7
31.9
34.6
35.0
36.2
30.4
32.6
29.6
29.0
30.4
41.4
39.0
31.6
26.9
37.9
38.6
31.6
30.6
29.1
34.6
34.4
35.3
30.5
38.0
43.3
29.3
37.6
36.1
37.6
34.6
35.1
D*e.
27.3
34.0
30.4
28.6
31.2
27.1
25.5
24.6
30.0
24.8
16.9
23.4
34.8
18.4
24.6
24.1
23.6
28.6
26.8
10.6
33.9
23.9
26,6
25.1
29.7
27.6
26.0
24.5
27.0
17.6
23.8
29.8
Ann'l

44.
46.
43.
43.
45.
41.
42.
43.
44.
42.
42.0
45.2
43.4
42.3
45.1
46.0
42.2
44.1
44.2
46.0
45.0
45.0
44.4
45.2
45.0
42.2
43.6
45.2
44.1
44.3
45.4
                                                                STATION HISTORY

                                   The first  observation at the Ely weather  station wa» taken on October 12,  1938.
                              Original instrumentation consisted of wind instruments, thermometers, psychroneter,
                              tipping bucket  rain g*ge, weighing rain gage,  8-Inch rain gage, and a pyronometer, lo-
                              cated at.6262 feet.  The equipment haa been located at Yelland Field since 1938, with
                              only one minor  change.  On September 8, 1961,  the entire station was moved to the
                              Yelland Field PAA - Weather Bureau Building, some 400 feet north northwest of the pre-
                              vious location.   Ares condition* were the  same so that there was no change in exposure
                              or elevation.  All records are considered  compatible.  During the changeover, the
                              wind equipment  was moved 3,000 feet further north to Che center of the airfield,
                              and lowered from  66 feet to 20 feet above  the  ground.  Also, the pyronometer was
                              raised lit elevation from 6262 feet to 6279 feet above mean sea level.
Y«i
19J8
1939
1940
1941
1*42
1943
1944
1945
1941
1947
1941
1949
1950
1951
1932
1953
1954
1955
1956
1997
1951
1939
1960
1961
1962
196)
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
Itt.

0.83
0.95
0.35
0.61
1.00
0.5)
0.23
0.62
0.14
T
0.78
0.45
0.11
1.92
0.51
0.94
1.00
0.99
1.01
0.53
0.17
0.60
0.15
0.81
0.11
1.41
0.46
0.23
1.86
0.15
1.24
r»b.

0.56
1.12
0.60
O.Z7
0.50
0.56
0.61
0.08
0.28
0.89
0.4$
0.11
o.oa
0.87
0.14
0.54
0.76
0.94
0.17
1.08
1.43
0.70
0.16
1.31
0.49
0.07
0.64
0.31
0.10
0.92
2.19
Mat.

0.17
0.31
0.93
1.03
0.44
0.99
2.01
1.22
0.21
0.87
0.53
0.88
0.20
2.40
0.52
1.37
0.07
0.14
1.14
2.25
0.31
.077
1.21
1.09
0.84
1.24
0.46
0.16
0.37
0.67
0.41
Am.

1.57
1.76
2.63
0.59
l.St
1.16
1.31
0.97
1.79
0.62
0.36
0.16
0.94
1.77
0.43
0.54
0.21
0.63
0.31
0.69
0.46
0.67
0.80
0.18
2.12
2.77
0.74
0.16
1.38
1,26
0.98
M*y

0.60
0.07
1.14
0.69
0.11
0.52
1.04
1.21
1.17
T
1.53
0.87
0.48
0.36
0.49
0.28
1.74
1.61
2.68
0.58
1.07
0.79
0.64
1.26
0.40
1.17
0.54
0.46
3.05
1.00
0.28
Jtnw

0.94
0.70
1.4S
I
1.10
1.15
2.19
T
0.49
0.92
0.57
0.04
0.36
0.31
0.33
0.19
0.76
0,38
0.41
0.35
0.17
0.21
0.56
0.45
3,53
2.44
1.25
0.14
2.83
1.12
2.80
July

1.42
0,03
1.35
0.13
0.17
T
0.43
1.18
I
T
0.61
0.87
1.13
1.51
1.11
0.12
0.47
0.18
0.66
0.12
0.16
0.26
0.64
0.62
0.01
0.02
1.12
0,16
0.84
1.32
0.55
Aug.

0.53
0.03
0,73
0.17
0.27
t
1.58
0.54
0.48
0.26
0.18
0.06
1.05
0.19
0.74
0.05
1.21
I
0.71
0.49
0.44
0.19
1.14
T
0.29
0,58
1.52
0.61
0.41
1.04
0.14
S.PL

1.47
2.07
0.19
T
0.13
0.11
1.03
0.01
1.04
0.26
0.16
0.98
0.10
0.03
T
1.48
0.16
0.63
0.02
0.79
0.99
0.98
0.41
0.10
2.18
0.09
1.56
1.34
2.23
0,10
0.37
Oct

1.69
1.06
1.76
0.40
1.55
0.43
1.48
1.46
0.81
0.47
0.61
0.63
0.32
0.00
0.57
0.47
0.04
0.54
0.77
T
0.15
0.37
0.52
1.06
0.37
0.19
0.27
0.10
0.13
1,44
0.91
Nor.
0.42
0.07
0.19
0.67
0.61
0.29
1.60
0.87
1.60
0.20
0.10
0,42
0.54
0.76
0.43
0.10
1.12
0,66
0.04
0.54
0.53
I
1.82
0.36
0.28
0.60
0,93
0.91
0.10
0 84
0.22
0.79
DM.
0.43
0.07
0,15
0.80
0.06
0.91
0.44
0.23
0.67
0.30
0.92
0.41
0.42
1.54
0.99
0.24
0.59
1.68
0.06
0.50
0.17
0.62
0.31
0.48
I
0.20
1.7?
1.28
2.11
0.69
0.79
0.59
Ann']

10.62
8.66
13.52
4.60
8.27
7.49
11.23
9.56
6.91
5.31
6.88
6.03
7.29
10.98
3.22
7.89
8.76
6.36
9.14
7.5»
5.9?
7.89
7.27
7.36
11.14
12.70
10.77
6.08
14.73
10.03
11.45
100

 9O

 80'
 30
                                                    CONCHES
                                                    PER MONTH
                                                                                                                                                 JFMAMJJASOND
PRECIPITATION PROBABILITY

     The figure on  th« left
represents the chance (per-
cent probability of receiv-
ing at Itaat the indicated
amount (inch) of precipita-
tion (liquid fora)  per month,
To uae the figure,  determine
your critical amount: 0.01.
0.20, or 0.60 inch  per month.
Locate Che time period on the
bottom scale; proceed up un-

Flnd the chance of  receiving
at leaat this Mount on the
left scale.  For example, the
chance of at leait  0.20 inch
per month in the middl* of
September Is approximately 55
percent (the mid-month value
Is utilized}*
                                                                                 Fig. 3  Climatography  of the United States No.  20,  page 2
o

-------
    VIRGINIA
For hydrology, agriculture uses, energy supply, etc. it is sometimes necessary  to
use values averaged over an area of a state rather than a point  (station).
state is divided into divisions (up to 10) which represent,  as nearly  as  possible.
homogeneous climatic regimes.  These divisions have been established to i
assistance to a variety of interests, and some areas  (Rocky  Mountain States,  :
example) may have rather extreme variations within a  division.   The data  presented
have many applications, but like all climatological products they must be us«
within the framework for which  they were designed.


                         Fig. 1  Climatological divisions in Virginia
                                        46

-------
MONTHLY AVERAGES OF TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION FOR STATE CLIMATIC DIVISIONS 1941-70
                           MONTHLY AND ANNUAL DIVISIONAL AVERAGES
                                          TEMPERATURE (°F)
      DIVISIONS
           1941
           1942
           1943
           !944
           1S45
           1946
           1947
           1948
           1949
           1950
           1951
           1952
           1953
           195*
           1955
           1956
           1957
           1958
           1959
           I960
           1*61
           1962
           1963
           1964
           1965
           1966
           19o7
           196«
           1969
           1970

           NORHAL
                                                                                           VIRGINIA
                                                              JUL
37.
36.
40.
39.
35«
40.
45.3
32. 8
47.2
51.0
42.9
43.9
44.7
40*1
37.1
36.7
37.6
35.6
38.2
40.9
34.0
38.4
35.7
40.
38*
34.
42.
34.
36i
32.5
39.1
35.8
36.9
42.0
40.9
41 .2
42.9
34.7
40*5
47.7
42.6
42.3
42.7
45.2
46.2
40.3
44.5
43.9
35.0
42. 1
40.9
42.7
39.9
34.3
39.2
39.8
38.1
37.9
34.5
38.3
39.8
41.7
48.7
47.0
49.6
57.2
94.4
40.4
51.4
48.9
45.9
47.2
47.2
49.4
48.7
51.5
47.3
47.7
43.1
48.
37.
50.
44.
51.
49.
43.
8.0
7.0
9.7
3.2
4.0
5«.7
5«.4
53.6
55.9
6O.5
57.0
57.7
57.4
57.0
54.6
56.9
59.1
58.0
61.3
60.5
55.7
61.6
57.3
59.6
61.8
53. a
57.0
58.4
55.7
54.1
54.2
5».3
56.3
58.5
56.2
68.3
69.1
68.3
70. »
4.0
6.1
7.4
6.3
6.0
4.8
5.0
66.2
71.3
63,9
67.4
65.0
68.1
66.1
69.3
65.3
63.1
68.9
63.9
66.7
69.4
64.2
60.9
64.1
65.8
67.8
73.2
75.5
78.8
7 .1
7 .2
7 ,7
7 .5
7 .3
75.0
7.3.8
74.2
78.0
74.4
74.9
70.9
74.7
76.6
71.
75.
74.
72.
73.
73.
74.
71.
72.
71.0
74.3
75.7
74.5
78.0
79.6
77.9
77.7
76.7
75.5
75.6
78.4
80.9
77.0
78.3
80.2
79.7
77.8
81.1
77.9
78.1
80.5
76.0
76.5
78.8
75.1
77.0
77.1
76.4
78.4
75.6
78.0
78.3
76.9
76.4
75.6
77.1
75.6
75.0
73.2
78.2
76.2
77.6
75.1
76.7
77.1
77.1
77.3
79.5
76.5
73.2
76.9
79.3
78.4
77.3
75.6
76.1
74.5
76.7
76.1
74.9
78.9
75.2
77,4
73.4
72.1
68.7
72.0
74.6
70.5
72.0
70.3
69.2
69.8
71.0
70.8
71.0
73.8
71.6
69.6
73.4
69.6
72.4
71.5
74.4
68.4
67.0
70.3
72.6
69.5
66.9
70.2
69.7
74. Z
66.!
61.!
58.<
59.!
59.1
62-
64.
57.
64.
62.
62,
56.
61.
63.
61.
62.
56.
60.
63.
60'
60.
61.
60.
56.
98.
58.
58.
6?.
60.
63.
51.7
92.0
48.8
48.7
52.4
54.3
48.0
55.4
50.0
49.3
47.5
50.8
49.9
47.6
4'.0
50.1
52.0
53.4
50.2
51.4
32.5
48.0
52.1
53.4
50.8
50.6
46.0
52.3
48.5
51.1
44.
38.
39.
37.
35.
44.
39.0
44.0
44.1
37.5
44.2
41.1
44.1
39.6
36. B
50.2
44.8
35.0
43.
35.
40.
36.
34.
44.
42.
40.2
43.3
39.1
39.2
42.6
58.8
58.7
SS.3
58.3
58.9
59.5
58.0
58.7
60.7
58.6
59.1
59.5
60.5
59.6
58.9
59.2
59.6
57.0
60.0
57.9
58.4
57.3
57,0
58.5
57.9
57.1
56.9
57.9
>7.4
58.3
58.6
      EASTERN PIEDHONT   02        J«N    fit   «•»   »P"   H>Y

           1941               36.5   35.1  41.5   59.8  67.0
           1942               36.5   36.1  48.7   58.9  68.6
           1943               40.0   41.0  46.8   53.8  68.6
JUN
73.0
75.2
78.3
JUL
78.5
78.5
77.7
AUG
76.0
74.5
77.5
SEP
72.3
70.2
66.8
OCT
65.3
59.6
56.3
     49.5
     49.5
     46.3
42.5
36.6
38.1
58.1
57.7
      DIVISIONS

     TIDEWATER

           1941
           1942
           1943
           1944
           1945
           1946
           1947
           1948
           1949
           1950
           1951
           1952
           1933
           1»54
           1955
           1956
           H57
           1958
           1959
           i960
           1961
           1962
           1963
           1964
           1965
           1966
           1967
           1768
           1969
           1»70

          NORMAL
                            MONTHLY AND ANNUAL DIVISIONAL AVERAGES
                                       PRECIPITATION (INCHES)
                                                                                           VIRGINIA
J»N
2.49 1
2.90 :
2.60 ;
3.76 4
2.40 4
2.43 2
4.39 .
3.96 i
2.47 3
2.24 1
1.60
5.41 «
2.65 3
4.86
1.98 1
2*24 <
3.60 J
3.71 ]
1.68
2.96 <
3.39
5.16
2*03
4.11
2.38
4.27
2.81
2.89
2.63
2.09
FEB- HAR
.89 2.24
.64 9.49
.50 3.47
.91 5.98
.01 1.15
.91 2.28
.39 2.39
.90 9.30
.74 2.43
.59 .25
.94 .18
.00 .68
.17 .73
.79 .75
.22 .70
1.40 .15
k.65 .44
1.71 .77
.95 .50
k.l9 .85
.21 .24
.34 4.18
.03 4.74
.89 2.60
.10 3.55
.65 1.62
.55 2.12
.97 4.32
.05 4.20
.24 4.04
APR
3.10
0.65
2.53
3.55
2.90
3.08
2-47
4.99
2.13
1.87
2.77
3.55
3.8.0
2.60
2.59
3.26
2.36
4.26
4.77
2.48
2.63
4.16
0.83
3.34
2.42
2-04
1.29
2.40
2.60
3.51
n«Y
.35
.79
.29
.17
.77
.98
.79
.55
.89
.52
.60
.06
.55
.08
.20
.01
.23
.90
• 82
.71
.29
.65
8.81
1.35
1.09
4.58
3.52
3.15
2.26
2.23
JUN
3.64
3.38
3.45
1.74
5.21
4.08
4.31
3.J7
3.47
2.11
5.36
2.33
3.61
1.19
4.39
2.76
3.73
5.11
2.24
3.08
5.66
5.37
7.62
2.98
4.93
3.63
2.08
3.72
3.92
3.20
JUL
5.53 i
4.69 1
4.51
4.31
13.10
4.55
3.83
3.97
5.49
7.84
3.87
3.52
2.34
4.12
3.79 1
7.47
2.07
4.49
6.69
6.67
2.93
5.39
l.«9
4.40
6.40
3.34
4.69
4.40
6.81
5.83
AUC
.99
.67
.75
.31
.04
.20
.39
.73
.01
.23
.71
.24
.52
.24
.77
.98
.13
.46
.32
.11
.43
.26
.46
5.08
2.54
3.83
7.63
3.01
6.97
2.48
SEP
0.89
4.57
3.72
5.93
5.39
3.32
4.93
3.04
3.16
4.50
1.47
2.55
4.12
2.07
6.55
4.11
4.76
0.»4
3.30
7.20
2.28
3.80
4.75
6.74
2.06
4.78
2.14
1.90
3.25
2.17
net
i.i«.
6.28
4.37
2.79
1.87
2.41
2.06
2-83
2.43
1.83
2.74
2.22
1.31
2.54
2.50
6.29
4.82
4.50
6.52
3.58
5.71
2.06
0.48
4.72
1.18
2-3>
1.1°
2.82
1.82
1.63
NOV
0.89 2
1.12 3
1.78 1
3.78 2
3.26 6
2.37 1
9.21 1
6.37 4
2.96 1
1.79 2
3.37
5.20
2.47
2.04
2.12
2.56
5.15
2.17
.95
• 12
.67
.76
.32
.74
0.42
1.04
1.76
3.48
2.25
3.49
DEC
.95
.36
.74
.24
.11
.75
.89
.72
.93
.43
.42
.18
.04
.01
.37
.29
.37
.84
.37
.39
.86
.14
.69
,48
.65
.03
.35
.61
,08
E.78
ANN
29.14
44.94
36.71
44.47
92.21
41.36
38.03
52.53
43.11
37.20
39.03
44.94
40-31
37.29
44.78
46.52
49.31
53.86
42.91
48.34
49.30
48.27
39.25
45.63
29.32
38.19
38.20
35,63
44.44
36.69
                             3.OB   3.12   3.54  2.82   3.41  3.70   9.02  4.93
2.97   2.94   3.13  42.38
      EASTERN PIEDfONT  02

           1941
           1942
           1943
           1944
           1945
           1946
           1947
2.49 ]
3.24
3.31
2. 61
2.62
2.51
4.60 .
.20
.66
.00
.82
.39
.94
!.07
2.44
4.69
4.08
6.36
1.31
3.12
2.38
3.64
0.68
2.58
3.80
3.27
3.18
2.70
1.03
2.71
3.30
2.24
5.00
6.87
3.30
4.17
4.64
3.93
1.61
1.96
3.39
3.11
6.84
3.87
4.86
5.34
11.92
3.92
3.56
2.38
8.09
1.20
4.34
2.71
3.06
2.07
1.39
4.14
3.21
8.56
7.55
3.37
3.38
0.61
6.13
1.56
2.44
1.30
2.44
2.48
0.68
1.73
2.61
2.98
3.01
1.90
9.66
3.30
3.69
2.46
2.58
3.59
2,34
1.07
30.99
47.19
35.10
47.68
49.59
41.20
38.38
 Fig.  2 Averages of temperature and monthly precipitation for state climatic division, 1941-70
                                                    47

-------
                24160
                   STAIION
WALLA WALLA WASHINGTON fAA
                                           STATION NAME
                                                                     45-65
                                                                                         TEAM
DAILY  AMOUNTS

 PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY OF
  PRECIPITATION
 (FROM DAILY OBSERVATIONS)

»IEC*
SNOWfAl
SNOW
DEPTH
JAN
fit
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUC
sir
OCT
NOV
DEC
ANNUAL

NONC
NONE
NONE
30.5
41.7
50.1
55.3
60.0
67.6
86.1
81.2
76.7
61.7
42.2
32.3
57.2

TtACt
TKACI
TKACt
22.0
19.4
13.7
15.1
14.2
12.0
6.6
7.4
7.6
11.4
16.1
22.4
14.0

01
0.1-0.4
t
6.6
3.5
2.6
1*6
3.0
1.6
1.1
1.9
.6
2.8
5.3
5.5
3.0
AMOUNTS (INCHES)
01..03
O.J-1 4
)
11.8
9.4
9.7
7.8
4.7
6.5
1.9
2.3
4.9
6.\
7.8
13.5
7.2
06., 10
1.3-1.4
I
8.9
7.3
5.5
4.1
3.2
3.3
1.3
1.3
2.4
4.2
7.8
8.3
4.8
11. .13
J3 J4
4.6
10.8
11.2
10.6
10.2
7.4
4.3
1.3
2.3
4.5
7.0
10.6
10.1
7.5
16.. 30
3 3-4.4
7.11
6.6
5.8
6.6
4.3
4.4
2.5
1.1
2.7
1.6
3.6
6.3
4.9
4.2
31-1.00
4.3.64
13-14
2.3
1.7
.9
1.6
2.5
1.6
.4
.6
1.6
2.7
3.7
2.5
1.8
i.oi.j.30
6.3.10.4
13.16
.4



.6
.6

.4
.2
.6
.2
.6
.3
5.51.3,00
10.3.13.4
37 -4t













3.01-10.00
13 3.13.4
4»-60













lo.oi-io.o
13.3-30.4
61-110













OVEI 10.0C
OVEI 30.4
OVER 110














OF DAYS
MEASUR
ABIE
AMTS
47.4
39.0
36.2
29.6
25.8
20.4
7.2
11.4
15.7
26.9
41.8
45.4
28.8
TOTAl
NO.
Of
DBS.
527
480
527
510
527
510
527
527
510
527
510
527
6209
MONTHLY AMOUNTS
(INCHES)
WEAN
2.20
1.66
1.71
1.44
1.76
1.21
.35
.71
.89
1.79
2.28
2.14
8.15
GKEATEST
5.25
3.92
IEAST
.45
.41
3.28J .42
3.57" .15
4.13
2.86
2.12
2.7C
2.85
4.42
4.14
4.69
V
.4C
.21
.CC
.CO
.IE
.03
.5C
.49
V
          00
                                                Fig. 1 Percentage frequency of daily amounts of precipitation
m

-------
                                                       •410
                                                                    '406
        Maximum one-day rainfall amounts (inches) expected to occur with an average frequency of once in two yean
(a), once tn 10 yean (b), ana in 25 yean (c), and met in 100 yean (d).

SOURCE: Rainfall frequency atlas for Missouri, Wisner, W.M., University of Missouri Extension Division, Columbia



 Fig. 2  Maximum one-day rainfall amounts (2,10,25 and 100 year return periods) for Missouri
                                                   49

-------
         EXTREME  MAXIMUM VALUES OF EVAPORATION AT SELECTED  STATIONS
         Evaporation extremes for consecutive day periods and frequencies of occurrence for stations in California adjusted to
         in irrigated environment ancJ standard 4-ft USWB CUss A pan

                                                            Consecutive days in period
Station
Backus Ranch
(04-0418)
Boca
(04-0931)
Burlingame
(04-1206)
Chuia Vista
(04-1758)
Davis 2 USU
(04-2294)
Fall  River Mills
Intake
(04-2964)
Friant Govt.  Camp
[04-3261)
Kettleman City
(04-4534}
Oakdale Woodward
Dan
(04-6305)
Riverside E*p.
Station
(04-7473)
Years
of
record
Z3



22



16



30



30



27



20



IS



15



30




Adjust.
factor
.775



.775



.900



1.00



.800



.775



.800



.775



.800



.800



Occur.
freq.,
years
2
5
10
20
2
5
10
20
2
5
10
20
2
5
10
20
2
5
10
20
2
5
10
20
2
5
10
?0
2
5
10
20
2
5
10
20
2
5
10
20
1

2

3

4

5 7

Evaporation amounts,
0.70
0.79
0.85
0.91
0.37
0.46
0.51
0,56
0.36
0.44
0.49
0.53
0.33
0.40
0.46
0.50
0.44
0.51
0.56
0.60
0.39
0.46
0.50
0.54
0.54
0.61
0.65
0.69
0.61
0.75
0.84
0.93
0.60
Q. 72
0.80
0.67
0.34
0.38
0.42
0.44
1.30
1.46
1.55
1.64
0.67
0.73
0.78
0.81
0.66
0.77
0.85
0.92
0.61
0.69
0.74
0.79
0.81
0.94
1.02
1.10
0,73
0.83
0.90
0.96
1.03
1.13
1.18
1.24
1.09
1.27
1.4Q
1.50
1,04
1.19
1.29
1.38
0.63
0.70
0.74
0.78
1.B6
2.11
2.26
2.40
0.95
1.02
1.06
1.11
0.94
1.09
1.19
1.27
0.89
0.96
1.01
1.06
1.14
1.30
1,40
1.50
1.05
1.17
1.26
1.33
1.50
1.63
1.72
1.80
1.55
1.77
1.92
2.06
1.46
1.65
1.77
1.88
0.90
1.01
1.07
1.14
2.40
2.69
2.87
3.04
1.Z3
1.31
1.36
1.41
1.20
1,35
1.44
1.53
1.16
1.24
1.29
1.34
1.45
1.64
1.77
1.89
1.36
1.51
1.61
1.70
1.96
2.14
2.25
2.35
2.00
2.28
2.46
2.63
1.86
2.07
2.22
2.34
1.18
1.30
1.38
1.46
2.91 3.90
3.26 4.34
3.47 4.63
3.67 4.86
1.51 2.06
1.60 2.17
1.66 2.24
1.71 2.30
1.46 1.97
1.63 2.18
1.74 2.30
1.84 2.43
1.42 1.94
1.51 2.04
1.57 2.11
1.63 2.17
1.76 2.34
1.96 2.62
3.12 2.79
2.27 2.96
1.67 2.30
1.85 2.54
1.97 2.69
2.07 2.83
2.42 3.30
2.64 3.58
2.78 3.77
2.93 3.95
2.44 3.29
2.77 3.70
2.98 3.95
3.18 4.19
2.25 3.03
2.51 3.38
2.6S 3.59
2.84 3.80
1.44 1.94
1.59 2.14
1.69 2.27
1.78 2.40
9

inches
4.87
5.40
5.74
6.06
2.61
2.74
2.84
2.91
2.48
2.74
2.91
3.06
2.45
2.57
2.64
2.72
2.93
3.24
3.46
3.65
2,92
3.23
3.43
3.60
4.18
4.52
4.74
4.96
4.18
4.70
5.05
5.35
3.80
4.23
4.50
4.75
2.45
2,70
2. S8
3.04
11

of water
5.78
6.40
6.80
7.17
3.15
3.32
3,43
3.53
2,98
3,29
3.49
3.67
2.95
3.08
3.17
J.26
3.52
3.90
4.14
4.38
3.53
3.89
4.12
4.32
5.03
5.46
5.74
6.02
5.03
5.66
6.06
6.43
4.58
5.12
5.46
5.78
2.93
3.24
3.43
3.63
15

depth
7,60
8.42
8.97
9.46
4.19
4.45
4.61
4.76
3.98
4.36
4.60
4.82
3.94
4.12
4.24
4.36
4.66
5.13
5.45
5.74
4.74
5.19
5.49
5.76
6.74
7.30
7.66
8.02
6.73
7.54
8.06
8.53
6.05
6.70
7.12
7.50
3.91
4.34
4.61
4.88
20


9.85
10.82
11.44
12.00
5.51
5.84
6.05
6.23
5.23
5.74
6.08
6.37
5.18
5.44
5.61
5.77
6.10
6.69
7.07
7.45
6.24
6.84
7.23
7.59
8.79
9.54
10.00
10.49
8.67
9.90
10.56
11. IS
7.86
8.66
9.16
9.66
5.11
5.66
6.02
6.37
25


12.14
13.24
13.95
14.59
6.77
7.17
7,42
7.65
6.45
7.11
7.52
7.91
6.41
6.74
6.96
7.18
7.52
8.24
8.71
9.18
7.72
8.46
8.94
9.39
10.88
11.75
12.33
12.89
10.90
12.08
12.83
13.52
9.69
10.66
11.29
11.86
6.30
6.98
7.43
7.87
30


14.37
15.74
16.62
17.42
8.03
8,53
8.88
9.15
7.65
8.44
8.96
9.41
7.63
8.01
8.26
8. SO
8.95
9.77
10.29
10.81
9.15
TO. 04
10.60
11.13
12.94
13.99
14,67
15.33
12.94
14.32
15.21
16.01
11.45
12.62
13.36
14.05
7.50
a. 29
8.80
9.30
                        CALIFORNIA STATION DESCRIPTIONS

Index
number
04-0418
-0931
-1206
-1758
-2294
-2964
-3261
-4534
-6305
-7473


Station name
Backus Ranch
Boca
Burlingaoe
Chuia Vista
Davis 2 WSU
Fall River Mills Intake
Friant Government Camp
Kettletnan City
Qakdale Woodward Dam
Riverside E»p. Station
Normal
precip.,
inches
6.51
20.80
18.89
9.98
16.46
18.48
13.72
6.42
13.56
11.45

Elev.
feet
2645
5575
10
9
60
3340
410
250
215
986
                                                         North
                                                         latitude
                                                         o    i
  West
longitude
34
39
37
32
38
41
36
36
37
33
57
23
35
36
32
01
59
00
5?
58
118
120
122
117
121
121
119
119
120
117
11
06
21
06
46
28
43
58
52
21
 Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station
 Bulletin 761
                    Fig. 1  Extreme maximum values of evaporation at selected stations
                                                     50

-------
Ul
                               ,
             Ha. 1  AVERAGE ANNUAL IAKE EVAPORATION IN INCHES
                         ( PERIOD 1946 I9SS)
         'SOURCE:  U^a^Weather Bureau T^P^ST  «,
                                                                                                                                                            MoM X
                                                           Fig. 2  Average annual lake evaporation, in inches

-------
SOURCE: Technical Note No. 10, U.S. Weather Bureau 1962
                   Fig. 1  Greatest 24 hour snowfall of record
                                     52
                                                                                       G

-------
SOURCE: Technical Note No. 10, U.S. Weather Bureau 1962
                    Fig. 2  Greatest monthly snowfall of record
                                       53

-------
                                 DEPTH OF SNOW ON THE GROUND. INCHES

                                     7 A.M. E.S.T..  DECEMBER 17, 1973

                                          N      _*•    wm-Tte. cMn -H.i hr iMMft o* 1
                                          •-     y   iw tto BMur. tt n (MM «ther and Crop BulUBn
            Fig. 1  Depth of snow on ground (inches) on Feb. 26 and  Dec. 17, 1973
                                                    54
                                                                                                                            H

-------
                                                            WIND  DIRECTION VERSUS  WIND SPEED

                      Station: 12834  Daytona  Beach,  Florida                Hours: 24 observations per day     Period: 1956-1963



                     Station Name/Number, Type of Run - Monthly,  Seasonal  or Annual and  Period of Record.  Month or Seasons  Data for individual
                     months, or seasons, combined for the period  of  record.   Annuals  Total of .11 months combined.  Tabulations prepared for
                     stations reporting less than twenty-four observations per day will  carry a special notation indicating the actual hours
                     or observations •

                      SPEED GROUPS;  Knots (knots)              A  choice of units (as  shown) is offered in the vind speeds.   In general,  no
                                    MPH (miles per hour)^     increase in cost  will  be  incurred by altering class intervals,  provided the
                                    MPS (meters per second)    number of classes shown is not exceeded.

                     MO:   Month  01 • Jan., 02 • Feb., etc. where 12 - Dec.
                                 AH - Annual
                                 SI - Season 1 (Dec., Jan., Feb.) S2 » Season 2 (Mar.,  Apr., May), etc.
                      CODE:
    Months selected for specific- seasons  may vary, but each season will be clearly defined in  a separate document
    furnished with the tabulation.


Ho entry indicates that ALL weather conditions are Included in the tabulation. When tabulations are prepared for  selected
weather conditions a series of special Identification codes will be used and defined.              .prepared for  selected
in
In
                      DIE:  Wind Direction to 16 Compass Points and Calm.

                           The' distribution represents mean conditions for the period specified.  The direction is that from which the wind is
                           blowing.  Reporting practices vary somewhart among  services and over different periods;  however,  it  Is conmon practice
                           to  prepare wind tabulations to 16 compass  points and calm.  The practice of .reporting wind directions to 36 points began
                           in  January 1964.  Tabulations can be prepared  for  stations and periods reporting to 36  points by using the conversion
                           table shown below.

                                      35,36,01 - N            08,09,10 .  E           17,18,19 • S            26,27,28 . W
                                         02,03 • HUE             11,12 .  BSE             20,21 - SSW            29,30 - WHW
                                         04,05 " HE              13,14 .  SB              22,23 • SW             31,32 - KW
                                         06,07 - ENE             15,16 -  SSE             24,25 • WSW            33,34 . NMW

                      TOTAL:  Total frequency by direction and by speed groups.

                      PERCENT:  Total frequency by direction or speed  group divided by the total number of observations for  indicated period, rounded to
                               tenths of percent.  A percent shown as (.0) indicates an occurrence, but less than  0.05J&.

                      AVG SPEED:  Sum of speeds by direction divided by total  number of observations in that direction category for tabulations prepared by
                                 computer.  For those prepared by hand, an estimated value will be used based on the sums of the frequency times the cell
                                 mid-point for each class and divided by  the  total number of observations for that direction.
                                     The usual input for  this tabulation is the  simultaneous observation of wind speed and direction
                                     recorded hourly,  tw.nty-four times « day.   Most wind tabulations on file contain a minima of  rive
                                     o"data  reC°rd "lth " °b*"vatlons p" d*y-  U"er observations  are used pending the availability
                                                     Fig. 1 Description of a wind direction vs. wind speed distribution

-------
(J\
             ^NAME/NUMBER    12834 Dtytona Beach. Florida
WIND DIRECTION VERSUS WIND SPEED
            HOURS       24 Obwrv»tion» per day
                                                                                                       PERIOD OF RECORD	1956-1963
                                                                                                                                USCOt* — NOAA —ASHEVILLE
                                           Fig. 2 January wind distribution at Daytona Beach, Florida (1955-63)

-------
SURFACE WIND ROSE
  THE WIND ROSE IS A SCALED GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF SURFACE WIND DATA IN TERMS OF SPEED
  AND DIRECTION. THE RADIAL LINES OF THE DIAGRAM ARE POSITIONED SO THAT AREAS BETWEEN THEM
  ARE CENTERED ON THE DIRECTION FROM WHICH THE WINDS ARE REPORTED. THE CONCENTRIC CIRCLES
  REPRESENT LIMITS BETWEEN SPEED GROUPS SECTORS. I.E., 4, 13, 15, 18, 24. 31, 38, AND 39+ MILES PER
  HOUR. RADII FOR THESE GROUPS ARE ACCURATELY SCALED TO THE RESPECTIVE SPEEDS, f HE SEGMENTS
  ENCLOSED BY RADIAL LINES AND CONCENTRIC CIRCLES ON THE DIAGRAM REPRESENT WIND SPEED-DIREC-
  TION COMBINATIONS. THE DATA FROM A WIND SUMMARY ARE TRANSFERRED TO THE APPROPRIATE AREA
  ON THE DIAGRAM AS A PERCENTAGE OF THE TOTAL OBSERVATIONS EXAMINED.


                              Fig. 3 Surface wind rose diagram
                                          57
                                                                                        I

-------
    93837
      STATION
JACKSONVILLE FLORIDA NAS
45-68
                                                                                                 SURFACE WINDS
                                                                                                 (FROM DAILY O8SEHVATIONSI
                               STATION NAME
                                                                                   TEAKS
                                          EXTREME VALUES:  DAILY PEAK GUSTS IN KNOTS
^\MONTH
YEAR^\.
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60


—

JAN.
WNW 34
SE 31
sw 15
NW 23
NTJK 27
WNW 27
NW 32



ESE 32

FEB.
SW 31
SW 54
NNE 12
W 42
NW 38
SW 35
S 55


SSW 49

MAR.
WSW 34
WNW 44
W 5"5
SSW 39
W 35
SW 42



WSW 40

APR.
NNW 46
N 32
SSW 1R
SSW 32
NF. Lfi
WNW 36
W 32
NW 41


WNW 38

MAY
NE 42
SW 57
WSW 57
SW 34
NNW 14
WSW 40
W 43
WNW 45


W 32

JUN.
WNW 59
NW 32

NE 38
N 50
NNW 38
S 29
W 46


WSW 44

JUl.
W 38
N 39
S 18
SSW 33
NE 59
NE 31
SE 39
SSW 39
WNW 46


SE 44

AUG.
WNW 42
N 39
N 40
ESE 66
S 15
SSW 37
SW 34
S 47


WSW 44

SEP.
N 67
NNE 32
S 46
NF 15
NE 30
F.NF. Ifi
SSW 18
E 34


NE 56

OCT.
NNE 39
E 54
N 52
NNE 27
NF, fi7

NNE 31


S 33

NOV.
NW 32
SW 33
WSW ?9
WNW 30

N 38


NNW 23

DEC.
SW 42
N 26
N 16
N 38
SF 25




NNE 31

ALL
MONTHS
N 67

ESE 66




NE 56

Extreme Values - Peak Gusts: Derived from daily observations and presented by individual year and
month for the entire period of re
are given in 16 compass points fr
cord available.
Speeds are presented in knots, while directions
om the beginning of record through 01/71, and in tens of degrees
starting in Feb. 1971. When 90% or more of the daily observations of peak gust wind data are
available for a month, the extreme is selected and printed. These values are then used to compute
means and standard deviations for the entire period. Every month of a year must have valid obser-
vations present before the ALL MONTHS value is selected for that year. Means and standard devia-
tions are computed when four or more values are- present for any column. A supplementary list of
Peak Gusts by year-month with <90% observations reported is also provided.
NOTE: According to Circular N specifications, "peak gust data are recorded only at stations with
continuous instantaneous wind-speed recorders."

MEAN
S. D.
TOTAL OBS.

33.7
6.011
644

40.1
7.996
586

39.8
5.809
616







































—
54.3
9. 547
7546
00
                                           Fig. 4 Daily peak wind gusts (surface), by month and year

-------
                          PERCENTILES OF  MONTHLY  MAXIMUM  AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURES
Oi
10
                    MACOt TEXAS - CONNAUY AFB
                                                                    WICHITA FALLSt TEXAS
PERCENTILE
JAN
MAXIMUM
100
99
97
95
90
85
80
75
50
MINIMUM
0
1
3
5
10
15
20
25
SO
3 HR MIN
0
1
3
S
10
15
20
25
50
84
80
78
77
73
71
69
67
58
9
11
15
18
23
26
29
30
36
10
12
16
19
24
28
30
32
38
6 HR HIM
0 13
1 14
3 18
5 20
10 25
15 30
20 31
25 33
SO 40
FES
90
86
80
78
75
74
72
70
62
7
21
23
25
28
31
32
34
40
9.
21
24
26
30
32
34
35
42
10
21
26
28
31
34
35
37
44
MAR
93
88
85
84
81
79
78
76
69
22
25
29
30
33
35
38
39
46
22
27
30
31
34
37
39
41
48
23
28
31
33
36
39
41
43
50
APR
98
91
89
88
85
84
83
83
78
33
36
39
41
44
46
48
49
57
35
38
41
42
46
48
49
51
58
36
40
43
45
48
SO
52
53
60
MAY
99
95
93
93
91
90
89
89
8*1
43
46
51
52
56
58
60
61
65
45
49
52
54
57
59
61
62
66
47
52
54
56
59
62
63
64
68
JUN
102
100
99
98
96
96
95
94
92
54
58
62
63
65
67
68
68
71
57
60
63
64
67
68
69
70
73
58
62
64
66
69
70
71
72
75
JUL
109
104
102
101
100
99
99
98
96
66
67
68
69
71
72
72
73
75
6T
68
69
71
72
73
73
74
76
69
70
72
72
74
74
75
76
78
AUG
107
106
104
103
102
101
100
99
96
59
62
66
67
69
70
71
72
*»
61
65
67
69
71
72
72
73
76
63
67
70
71
72
73
74
75
78
SEP
105
103
99
97
96
95
95
94
90
49
54
56
57
60
62
64
65
70
31
55
57
59
61
63
65
66
71
54
57
59
61
64
66
67
68
73
OCT
96
95
92
91
90
89
87
86
80
35
37
42
44
46
48
50
51
58
35
40
44
46
48
50
51
53
60
36
42
46
48
50
52
53
55
62
NOV
89
86
84
83
60
78
76
75
68
20
26
26
31
34
35
36
39
46
22
27
29
32
35
37
39
40
47
26
29
31
34
37
39
41
43
50
DEC
85
80
78
76
73
71
69
68
60
13
16
21
24
27
30
31
33
39
IS
20
22
25
29
31
33
35
40
17
21
24
27
30
33
35
36
42
PERCENT ILE

JAN
MAXIMUM
100 85
99 78
97 75
95 74
90 71
85 68
80 65
75 63
50 54
MINIMUM
0 -1
1 6
3 9
5 12
10 16
15 20
20 22
25 24
50 30
3 HR
0
1
3
5
10
IS
20
25
x 50
6 HR
0
1
3
5
10
15
20
25
50
NIN
3
7
10
13
18
22
23
25
32
NIN
6
8
12
15
19
23
25
27
34
FEB
87
85
82
80
73
72
70
68
58
1
12
19
20
23
25
27
29
35
3
14
19
21
24
26
28
30
36
4
15
20
22
26
28
30
32
39
MAR
92
90
67
85
61
79
76
74
66
14
20
23
25
28
31
32
34
40
15
20
24
26
29
32
34
35
42
16
22
26
28
32
34
36
38
44
APR
98
95
92
91
88
86
84
82
75
29
31
33
36
39
42
43
45
51
30
33
35
38
41
44
45
47
S3
33
35
37
40
43
46
47
49
56
MAY
101
99
97
95
93
91
90
89
84
37
42
46
48
52
54
56
57
62
39
44
47
SO
53
56
57
59
64
41
45
49
52
55
58
59
60
66
JUN
108
104
102
101
99
96
97
96
92
51
55
57
59
62
64
65
66
70
53
56
59
60
63
65
66
67
72
54
58
61
62
65
67
68
69
75
JUL
109
107
105
104
102
101
100
99
96
58
62
65
67
69
70
70
71
74
59
64
67
68
70
71
72
73
76
62
65
69
70
71
72
74
75
78
AUG
111
107
106
104
103
102
131
too
97
56
59
62
64
66
68
69
70
73
58
60
64
66
68
69
71
72
75
61
62
66
68
70
71
73
74
77
SEP
106
104
101
100
98
96
95
94
89
47
48
51
53
56
58
59
61
66
48
50
53
54
57
59
61
62
68
50
52
55
57
60
62
64
65
70
OCT
100
96
94
93
90
88
86
85
78
26
36
38
40
44
45
46
48
55
29
36
40
42
45
46
48
50
56
31
39
42
44
48
49
51
52
59
NOV
87
83
82
81
78
75
73
72
61
15
21
23
25
28
31
32
33
40
18
22
25
26
30
32
34
35
42
20
23
26
28
31
34
36
37
44
DEC
87
ill
75
72
69
66
64
62
55
8
11
IS
18
22
24
26
27
32
9
12
16
19
23
25
27
29
34
11
14
18
21
25
27
29
31
36
         SOURCE:  U.S. Army,  Aberdeen Proving Grounds,  MD.  (J.P.Doner  1972)



                              Fig. 1 Percentiles of monthly maximum and minimum temperatures (°F)

-------
         Mean length of freeze-free period (days) between last 32° (F.) temperature in Spring and first 32°
(F.) temperature in Fall.
                                                                                    APfl K
                                                                                       APH14
          Mean occurrence date of  last 32° (F.) temperature in Spring.
              OCTU
  OCT tf     OCTM
                                     NOV
         Mean occurrence date of first 32° (F.) temperature in Fall.

       SOURCE:Freezing  Temneratures  in  Oklahoma,  OSU Ext.  Center
                           Fig. 2  Freeze data for Oklahoma
                                           60

-------
cr.
        USA ABERDEEN RESEARCH ANC
           DEVELOPMENT CENTER
          COATING  AND CHEMICAL
               LABORATORY  ( Doner, J. P. ]
                                                                                        JANUARY
                                                                      10th PERCENTILE   MINIMUM  TEMPERATURE
J
                                      Fig. 3  Tenth percentile of minimum temperature for January

-------
10
                                                       -p-*»5-	-.as.35^
                                                                 x
                                                                                      /
                                                                                —-—

                                          Fig.4 Normal daily average temperature (°F), 1941-70 - January

-------
RUNS OF 15 OR MORE DAYS WITH MAXIMUM ABOVE 40F. EACH MAP
PRESENTS THE PERCENTAGE OF YEARS HAVING SUCH PERIODS BEGIN
DURING THE WEEK  INDICATED.
Reprinted from " Periods with Temperatures Critical to Agriculture/' Decker, W.L.


  Fig. 5 Runs of 15 or more days with maximum temperature above 40 °F, by week
                              63

-------
       OKLRHOMR
                                  PRECIPITflTION NORMflLS
STATION
FAIRVIEU
FAMSHAtC
FMG8
FLHSHnWI TIMER
rear OMB
F8HT SUPPLY DAn
FREDERICK
CAGE rm AIRPORT
GARBER
GEIWY
JAM
0.79
2.31
0.51
3.41
0.99
0.49
0.91
0.5:
0.8C
o.at
FEB
1.20
3. 14
0.9«
4.11
1.20
1.0"
1.31
0.95
1.01
1.12
ma
1.94
3.61
.23
.47
.65
.24
.61
.12
.77
.68
APR
2.S2
4.96
1.96
5.79
2.91
1.74
2.40
1.90
3.10
2.83
MAY
4.34
.20
.66
.62
.86
.49
.75
3.71
4. SB
4.42
JUM
3.93
4. IB
.37
.37
.74
.21
.42
.07
4.49
4.18
JUL
2. SO
4.07
2.58
4.12
2.72
2.76
2.17
2.58
3.38
2.59
BUG
2.77
3.32
2.39
4.43
2.40
2.53
2.09
2.31
3.07
2.55
SEP
2.80
4.48
1.85
4.75
3.30
2.00
2.66
1.65
3.77
3.41
ecT
2.06
3.14
2.18
4.02
2.36
1.93
2.66
2:09
2.58
2.62
nav
1.40
3.35
O.89
3.B1
1.19
0.64
1.27
0.76
1.52
1.13
DEC
1.03
3.00
0.72
3.71
1.25
0.70
1.12
0.74
1.25
1.13
ANNUAL
27.54
46.03
22.31
63.68
28.53
21.97
26.45
21.41
31.38
28.64
                                     HERN TEMPERATURE
STATian
ADA
AL1US IRK. RCSCH STN
HLVA
AHADMH.8
ANTLERS 2 CME
APACHE
nRDiionc
ARNETT
BARTLESVILLE 2 U
6CRVCR 1 SU
JAM
40.!
4O.O
35. G
38.1
41.1
39.i
42. 1
35. (
35.'
34.'
FEB
45.!
44. C
40. 2
43. E
46.0
43.!
47.1
39.^
40.9
39. C
n«R
51.9
51.4
46.8
50.5
52.8
5O.7
53.6
45.
47.5
45.2
APR
62.9
63.3
59.2
62.3
63.5
62.2
64.9
57.8
60.4
57.5
MAT
69.9
71.5
68.2
70.0
70.3
69.8
71.8
66.5
68.4
66.8
jun
77.9
8O.3
78.0
78.4
78. 1
78.2
79.8
75.7
76.7
76.2
JUL
82.6
84.3
83. 1
82.9
82.1
82.8
84.0
80. 4
81.3
81.1
AUG
82.2
83.6
82.2
82.5
81.6
82.7
84.0
79.7
80.5
80.1
SEP
74.6
75.6
73.3
74.3
74.6
74.8
76.7
71.4
72.3
71.6
ecr
64.8
64.8
62.4
63.6
64.5
63. 1
66.9
60.5
61.8
59.9
nav
52.4
51.6
47.9
50.5
52.8
51.0
54.5
46.7
48.4
45.5
DEC
43.5
42.8
38.1
41.7
44.3
42.1
45.7
38.0
38.6
36.7
ANNUAL
62.
62.
59.
61.
62.
61.
64.
58.
59.
57.
NORMALS.  A normal  of a climatological  element is the arithmetic mean for a specific
period of record; it estimates the true mean of the element at the current exposure
of the instrument measuring the element.  The true mean is the mean of all possible
observations (population)  at the current  exposure.  It is from this population that
future observations will come, not from values in the past record.

Normals for National Weather Service Offices and Principal Climatological Stations
are computed by simply averaging the values from the 1941-1970 record, if no exposure
changes have occurred at the station.   Since it is not possible to maintain a multiple
purpose network of meteorological  stations without having some exposure changes, it
is first necessary to identify periods  of heterogeneity.  After the periods have been
determined, adjustments are applied to  correct the heterogeneities in the record.  This
is done by comparing the record at the  station for which the normal is desired to the
record at a supplementary station with  a  homogeneous record.  The difference method
is used to adjust the monthly average maximum and minimum temperatures.  The normal is
the weighted average of the various partial means of the adjusted record.

Normals for Substations are computed somewhat differently than those for the National
leather Service ^irst-Order stations.   Monthly substation normals are the simple
arithmetic averages of the monthly values of temperature for the period.  The 1941-
1970 normals were computed only for substations active during the entire period.  No
attempt was made to adjust for minor changes in location of the observing site, or
for changes in the time of observation.  Normals were not computed for substations
which moved a significant distance during the 1941-1970 period, (more than 5 miles
horizontally, or 100 feet vertically).  Missing values in the data series were es-
timated up to a maximum of 18 consecutive temperature values.  Annual substation
heating and cooling degree day normals  are the sums of the monthly values.


                    Fig. 1 Monthly normals (1941 - 70) are published by state
                                          64
                                                                                            K

-------
   RICHMOND. V*

         JANUAIY
   TIMEtATME DEC UV
DAY MX DIN AVC HOD COD
                                               CLIMAT06RAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES NO. B4
                   DAILY NORMALS OF TEMPERATURE AND HEATING AND COOLING DEGREE DAYS 1941-70
                BYRO  FID









10
11
12
11
14
11
16
IT
11
If
20
11
12
21
24
29
2*
2T
21
2*
M
47
4T
4T
47
47
4T
4T
4T
4T
4T
4T
4T
4T
4T
4T
4T
47
4T
47
41
41
4*
41
46
41
41
46
41
41
41
27
2T
2T
JT
2T
27
27
2T
27
27
27
27
21
21
21
2*
2*
21
21
21
21
2*
21
26
21
II
26
21
21
21
17
17
17
IT
IT
IT
IT
IT
IT
17
IT
IT
IT
JT
IT
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
II
11
11
11
11
11
II
11
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
27
27
27
27
27
2T
2T
2T
2T
2T
2T
2T
27
27
      FEIIIUARY

TIMH.iTuM DEC BAY
MX HIM AVC HOD COO

 4i  21 II 27
 41  H II 2T
 41  I* II 27
 4i  II II 27
 41  2> M 27
                       4»  I*
                       «»  2«
                       4»  2*

                       »»  2«
                       .»•  *•
                       4»  2«
                       10  21
                       10  21

                       90  2»
                       90  2»
                       90  2*
                       90  2»
                       91  2*

                       II  2»
                       91  10
                       91  10
                       92  10
                       92  10

                       92  10
                       92  11
                       91  11
II  27
II  27
II  27
II  27
It  26

It  26
It  26
It  26
It  26
It  26

It  26
40  25
40  29
40  29
40  25

40  25
40  25
41  24
41  24
41  24

41  24
42  21
42  21
TEHPERATME DEC OAY
MX NIN AVC HDD CDD

 91  11 42 21
 99  12 42 21
 94  12 41 22
 14  12 41
 94  12 41
                                                    22
                                                    22
94  II
99  »
99  99
95  11
56  14

56  14
IT  14
17  15
57  15
51  15

51  15
51  16
If  16
9*  16
60  17

60  17
10  IT
61  II
61  II
62  II
44  22
44  21
44  21
44  21
45  21

45  20
45  20
46  20
46  It
46  It

4T  It
47  II
47  II
41  II
41  17

41  IT
4t  16
4t  16
50  16
50  19
 62  II  50  15
 42  It  51  14
 61  It  11  14
 61  40  52  14
 64  40  12
                                                    11
               TEWEXATURE DEC DAY
               MM NIN AVO HDD COD

                65 40 91  12
                65 41 99  12
                66 41 91  12
                66 42 94  11
                67 42 54  11
                                       6T  42  99  10
                                       IT  41  99  10
                                       61  41  59  10
                                       61  41  96
                                       6»  41  96

                                       6*  44  96
                                              57
                                              57
                                              91
                69
                70
                70 49
                                        70  49  51
                                       Tl  46  5t
                                       Tl  46  5t
                                        72
                                        72
                   46 9t
                   47 5t
                                        72  47  60
                                        71  47  60
                                        71  41  60
                                        71  41  61
                                        74  41  61

                                        74  4*  61
                                        74  4*  61
                                        74  4*  62
                                        74  4*  62
                                        75  90  62
TENMIATUXE DEC DAY TEWEXATUM
MX NIN AVC HOO COD MX NIN AVC
79
79
79
79
76
76
76
76
77
77
76
71
71
76
7»
71
7»
7»
10
•0
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11
11
11
11
12
•I
50
90
91
51
91
91
92
52
52
5)
51
59
94
94
94
99
99
99
59
56
56
96
57
57
5T
57
51
51
51
5»
69
61
69
61
64
64
64
65
69
65
65
66
66
66
66
67
67
67
61
61
61
61
6t
6t
6t
6«
70
70
70



























• 2
11
11
93
11
•4
14
• 4
• 5
• 9
IS
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16
•6
16
16
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IT
IT
67
17
IT
17
67
IT
IT
• •
59
60
60
60
60
61
61
61
62
62
61
6}
61
61
64
64
64
64
69
69
69
69
65
65
66
66
66
71
71
71
72
72
72
72
71
71
74
74
74
75
75
79
79
75
75
76
76
76
76
76
76
77
77
77
DEC DAY
HDD COO
0 6
0 6
0 6
0 7
0 7
0 1
0 7
0 1
0 1
0 »
0 »
0 »
0 10
0 10
0 10
0 10
0 10
0 10
o ii
0 11
0 11
0 11
0 11
0 11
0 12
0 12
0 12
                                                                             11
                                                                             12
                                                                             11
                                                                             14
                                                                             19
                                                                             IT
                                                                             II
                                                                             It
                                                                             20

                                                                             21
                                                                             22
                                                                             21
                                                                         26
                                                                         27
                                                                         21
                                                                         2t
                                                                         10
 11  41  21 II  27
                                          64  40  12  11
       MMTHIY
       NOHIULS

       «»X     47.4
       HIN     27.6
       heAM    )7.9
       HEATINC 191
       COOtIMC   0
    MONTHLY
    NOXMLS

    MAX    4t.t
    KIN    21.1
    MEAN   It.4
    HEAT1NC 717
    COOL IMC   0
MONTHLY
HOXML5

MX    91.2
KIN    11.9
MEAN   46.t
HEATINC 96*
COOL INC   I
                       MONTHLY
                       NOXNAIS

                       NAX    TO.l
                       "IN    49.2
                       MAN    97.1
                       HEATINC  226
                       COOL INC   10
                                                       MONTHLY
                                                       NOMALS

                                                       MAX    71.4
                                                       MIX    94.5
                                                       MEAN   66.9
                                                       HEATINC   64
                                                       COOL INC  111
                                                             MONTHLY
                                                             NORMALS

                                                             MAX     15.4
                                                             KIN     12.t
                                                             MEAN    T4.2
                                                             HEATINC   0
                                                             COOL INC  2T6
 This publication presents dally  temperature, and heating and cooling degree day normals for  selected stations
 based  on the 1941-70 record, adjusted  to the present station location.   The following elements are presented:
          MAX - Maximum Temperature  (°F)
          ION - Minimum      "
          AVG - Average      "         "
                                 HDD - Heating Degree Days (Standard Base of 65°F)
                                 CDD - Cooling    "     "         "      "   "   "
 The stations included In this publication are the National Weather  Service Offices and Principal Cllnatological
 Stations  Included in Climatography  of_ the United States No. 81  (1).

 The daily values presented in these tables are not simple means  of  the observed dally values.   They are Inter-
 polated from the much less variable monthly normals by use of the natural spline function  as  described by Greville
 (2).   The procedure Involved construction of a cumulative series of the monthly sums with  the sum for each month
 being  assigned to the last day  of the month.  The cumulative series was for an 18-month period (October, November,
 December, January	December,  January, February, and  March) so the Interpolating function could
 adequately fit the end points of  the annual series.  This process was applied Independently to all five elements.
 No normal values for February 29  are Included here; in common practice the normal values for  the 28th are used
 for the 29th in each leap year.

 The monthly heating and cooling degree day normals (base 65°F) are  derived from the monthly normal temperatures
 using  the technique developed by  Thorn (3), (4).  An asterisk (*) for a dally value indicates  a dally normal of
 less than one degree day, but not equal to zero.

 Additional Information about the  climate of the cities listed in this publication may be obtained from the
 National  Climatic Center. Federal Building, Asheville, N. C. 28801.

 References

 1.  Climatography of the United States No. 81, "Monthly Normals  of  Temperature, Precipitation, and Heating and
     Cooling Degree Days 1941-70."
 2.  Greville, T. N. E., "Spline Functions, Interpolation, and Numerical Quadratlve," Mathematical Methods of Digital
     Computers. Volume 2 (edited by  Ralson, A., and Vilf, H. S.)'.  John Wiley and Sons,  Inc.,  New York 1967.
 3.  Thorn, H. C. S., "The Rational Relationship Between Heating Degree Days and Temperature," Monthly Heather Review.
     Volume 82 No. 1. January 1954.
 4.  Thorn, H. C. S., "Normal Degree  Days Above Any Base by the Universal Truncation Coefficient," Monthly Weather
     Review, Volume 94 No. 7, July 1966.



                   Fig. 2  Climatography of the United States  # 84 daily normals of heating and
                           cooling degree days 1941  - 70
                                                          65
                                                                                                                               K

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                   CLIMATOGRAPHY OF  THE  UNITED STATES  NO. 82-9
      ATLAUTA, OKBGIA
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                                                     1951 - 1960
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                                Fig. 1 Climatography of the United States # 82 — a summary of ten years
                                     (1951 - 60) of hourly observations

-------
                     FREEZING
                      INDEX
 '•
• -I
2000


1100


1800


i/im


1600


I MO


1400


1300


1200


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 tot

                                _L
                                                            Graph of seasonal Freezing Index values at Hampton, Iowa from Nov. 1949 • April 1972.
                                                            The number of days between the on-set of the cold period in fall and the beginning of
                                                            the spring thaw is shown for each season.
                              1949-50  50-51   51-52  52-53  53-54   54-55   55-56   56-57   57-58   5»-59   59-60  60-6t   61-62  62-63   63-64  64-65   65-66  66-67  67-68  68-69   69-70  70-71   71-72
                                                Fig. 2  Freeze indices and duration of cold periods at Hampton, Iowa for selected seasons

-------
                                   TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
                            (Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
  EPA-660/2-75-018
                                                           3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSIOI»NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
  USE OF  CLIMATIC DATA IN DESIGN OF SOILS TREATMENT
  SYSTEMS
                                                           5. REPORT DATE
             6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)

  Dick M.  Whiting
                                                           8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
  National Climatic Center (Asheville, NC)
  Environmental Data Service
  National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
             10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
               1BB045 (ROAP 21-ASH, Task  18)
             11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.

               EPA-IAG-D4-F451
12. SPONSORING AGENCX NAME AMD ADDRESS    rtn c r>  XTTTI/- <-     11-
  Environmental Protection Agency,  OR§D, NERC-Corvallis
  Robert  S.  Kerr Environmental  Research Laboratory
  P.  0.  Box  1198
  Ada,  Oklahoma  74820
             13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
               Final (03/11/74 - 02/28/75)
             14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
   Planners, designers and  operators of land-based  wastewater management  systems
   need information about climatic influences on  the determination of  storage
   requirements.  Parameters  of special interest  are discussed and two guidelines
   have been developed.  The  guideline referred to  as the freezing index  is
   recommended for stations whose average normal  temperature during the coldest
   month is less than 32°F, while a study of days defined as either favorable or
   unfavorable is recommended for stations in the warmer climatic zones.   The effect
   of a run of unfavorable  days immediately following a cold period can also be
   determined by examining  the daily listings.

   A number of graphs, charts and maps are included to describe ways of presenting
   climatological data and  to show the availability of summarized climatic elements.
   Air temperature, ground  frost, evaporation, precipitation, snowfall, snow depth
   and wind direction and speed are discussed in  relation to the possible affect
   of each on land application systems.
17,
                                KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
                  DESCRIPTORS
                                              b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
                           c. cos AT I Field/Group
 Waste  treatment
 Irrigation
 Design criteria
 Climatic  changes
  Soil treatment  systems
  Pri. 04/02
  Sec. 02/03
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT

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19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
   Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
    67
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                                                                         22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
                           ft U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1975-698-780 /I70 REGION 10

-------