EPA-670/2-74-095a
December 1974
Environmental Protection Technology Series
THE EFFECTS OF AIR AND WATER
POLLUTION CONTROLS ON SOLID WASTE
GENERATION, 1971-1985
Executive Summary
National Environmental Research Center
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
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EPA-670/2-74-095a
December 1974
THE EFFECTS OF AIR AND WATER POLLUTION
CONTROLS ON SOLID WASTE GENERATION, 1971-1985
Executive Summary
By
Ralph Stone
Ralph Stone and Company, Inc.
Los Angeles, California 90025
Program Element No. 1DB314
Project Officer
Ronald J. Talley
Solid and Hazardous Waste Research Laboratory
National Environmental Research Center
Cincinnati , Ohio 45268
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
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REVIEW NOTICE
The National Environmental Research Center--
Cincinnati has reviewed this report and approved
its publication. Approval does not signify that
the contents necessarily reflect the views and
policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, nor does mention of trade names or com-
mercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
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FOREWORD
Man and his environment must be protected from the
adverse effects of pesticides, radiation, noise and other
forms of pollution, and the unwise management of solid
waste. Efforts to protect the environment require a focus
that recognizes the interplay between the components of our
physical environment—air, water, and land. The National
Environmental Research Centers provide this multidisciplinary
focus through programs engaged in
• studies on the effects of environmental contaminants
on man and the biosphere, and
• a search for ways to prevent contamination and to
recycle valuable resources.
Recognizing the interplay among the components of our
physical environment, this study presents quantitative estimates
of the effects of air and water pollution controls on the
generation of wastes destined for land disposal.
A. W. Breidenbach, Ph.D.
Director
National Environmental
Research Center, Cincinnati
m
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ABSTRACT
The effects of air and water pollution controls on solid waste generation were evaluated.
The solid wastes from pollution control were identified for individual industrial sectors,
by their original air or water pollutant constituents, and the treatment process applied.
The wastes were categorized by type and by location (rural or urban). Total solid
wastes from pollution control activities were estimated for 1971 and projected for 1985.
Particulates and sulfur oxides were identified as the major air pollutants capable of
generating solid wastes when treated; suspended solids and biological oxygen demand
were identified as the principle means of estimating the impact of water pollution
control on solid wastes. Important sectors generating solid wastes included power plants
(SIC 491), paper and pulp (SIC 26), chemicals (SIC 28), cement and clay (SIC 324-326),
steel furnaces (SIC 331), nonferrous smelting and refining (SIC 333, 334), sewerage
systems (SIC 4952), and hazardous wastes from uranium mining (SIC 10). Mine tailing
ponds were estimated to be a greater source than al I the above sources but were not seen
to be a landfill disposal problem.
The report is submitted in fulfillment of Contract 68-03-0244 by Ralph Stone and
Company, Inc. under the sponsorship of the United States Environmental Protection
Agency. Work was completed August, 1974.
IV
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
I. Findings T 1
II. Recommendations 5
III. Introduction 7
IV. Effects On Solid Waste Management Of Federal Legislation
Requiring Pollution Control 14
V. Indus try-By-Industry Breakdown of Solid Residues 18
VI. Nature and Fate of Solid Residues 54
VII. Glossary 69
VIII. References 72
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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
FIGURES
Figure No. Description Page
111-1 The Solid Waste Implications of Increased 8
Pollution Control
V-l Generation of Solid Residues: Mining 20
V-2 Generation of Solid Residues: Paper and 26
Allied Products
V-3 Solid Residue Generation: Chemicals 27
Manufacture
V-4 Generation of Solid Residues: Cement and 34
Clay
V-5 Solid Residue Generation: Basic Steel 36
V-6 Solid Residue Generation: Nonferrous Metals 40
V-7 Solid Residue Generation: Power Plants 44
V-8 Total Impact of Air and Water Pollution 50
Controls in Major Polluting Sectors on Solid
Waste Generation
V-9 Industrial Sectors Contributing Solid 51
Wastes from Air and Water Pollution Control
V-10 Relative Contributions to Increases in 53
Solid Waste Residues from Air and Water
Pollution Controls: 1971-1985
VI-1 Solid Waste Residues from Air and Water 61
Pollution Control vs. Total U.S. Solid
Waste Generation
Vl-2 Air and Water Pollutant Contributions to 64
Solid Waste Residues
VI-3 Air and Water Treatment Contributions to 68
Solid Waste Residues
VI
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TABLES
Table No. Description Page
V-l Solid Waste Residues from Pollution Controls in 21
Mining
V-2 Solid Waste Residues from Pollution Controls in 25
Paper
V-3 Solid Waste Residues from Pollution Controls 28
in Chemicals
V-4 Solid Waste Residues from Pollution Controls 32
in Cement and Clay
V-5 Solid Waste Residues from Pollution Controls 37
in Blast Furnaces and Steel
V-6 Solid Waste Residues from Pollution Controls 41
in Nonferrous Smelting and Refining
V-7 Solid Waste Residues from Pollution Controls 45
in Power Plants
V-8 Solid Waste Residues from Air Pollution Control 49
and Water Pollution Control
V-9 Increases in Solid Waste Residues from Air and 52
Water Pollution Controls: 1971-1985
Vl-1 Biodegradability and Destination of Solid 55
Waste Residues from Pollution Control-1971
Vl-2 Biodegradability and Destination of Solid Waste 57
Residues from Pollution Control-1985
VI-3 Solid Waste Residues from Air and Water 59
Pollution Control vs. Total Solid Wastes
VI-4 Air and Water Pollutants Whose Control 62
Generates Solid Waste Residues
VI-5 Pollution Trea-ment Processis Contributing to 66
Solid Waste Generation-1971
Vl-6 Pollution Treatment Processes Contributing to 67
Solid Waste Generation-1985
VII
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Sincere appreciation is expressed for the able direction and assist-
ance given for this project by the Environmental Protection Agency's
Project Officer, Ronald J. Talley. We also wish to express our
thanks to all firms and individuals contacted during the industrial
pollution control telephone survey; these sources provided much
information not otherwise available in the literature.
This publication is a summary of the more extensive report,
Forecasts of the Effects of Air and Water Pollution Controls on
Solid Waste Generation, submitted by Ralph Stone and Company, Inc.
to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in fulfillment of
Contract No. 68-03-0244. That report is available from the
National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of Commerce,
5285 Port Royal Rd., Springfield, Virginia 22151. Mr. Ralph Stone
served as Project Director and Mr. David E. Brown served as Project
Coordinator. Ralph Stone and Company staff who participated in
this project were Messrs. Cecil Owusu, 0. B. Kaplan, Timothy
Zimmerlin, Edward J. Daley, Tuan Huynh, Herbert A. Smallwood,
Albert Herson, Howard Smith, and John East. Valuable secretarial
assistance was provided by Mrs. Martha Lieberman and Miss Greta
Wall in. This Executive Summary report was written by Messrs.
Ralph Stone, John East and Albert Herson.
vm
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SUMMARY
This study contains the major conclusions concerning the effects of air and water
pollution controls on solid waste generation. These conclusions were drawn from the
final report of an EPA-sponsored project (Contract No. 68-03-0244) entitled "Forecasts
of the Effects of Air and Water Pollution Controls on Solid Waste Generation."
The main focus of this report is the change in pollution control residues between 1971 and
1985 and the major SIC code sources of those residues. Sections I, II and ill present the
main conclusions and recommendations of the study and provide an introduction to the topic
Section IV considers the legislative basis (the Clean Air and Clean Water Acts of 1970 as
amended) of increased pollution control requirements. Section V considers the effects
of these laws on specific industries, discussing specific pollution control processes
applied and forecast quantities of residues remaining (after reuse) for ultimate disposal.
Section VI further characterizes the solid waste residues, comparing the quantity of
residues resulting from pollution control with the National solid waste total (for 1971 and
1985). The biodegradability and destination of the residues from pollution control are
also discussed. The Section concludes with a discussion of the relative contributions
of the various treatment processes to residue generation. A Glossary and References
are also included.
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SECTION I
FINDINGS
Sources of Pollution that Generate Solid Waste Residues.
1, Of the major air pollutants/ those that generate solid waste residues when controlled
nationwide are particulates and sulfur oxides. Control of carbon monoxide generates
no solid waste residues, and control of nitrogen oxides generates relatively insignificant
amounts. Hydrocarbons in particulate form generate solid residues when controlled by
filter-type devices; however, when they are Incinerated, they produce little solid resi-
due. The control of gaseous hydrocarbons creates little solid waste residue. Other mis-
cellaneous air pollution control activities, principally fluoride and hydrogen sulflde con-
trol ,create solid residues, but their contribution to the total of solid residues resulting
from air pollution control is negligible due to their relatively small total discharges when
compared to the total particulate and sulfur oxide discharges. Table VI-4 presents,
for 1971 and 1985, estimates of solid waste residues from air and water pollution control
broken down by type of pollutant controlled and industry source.
2. The major water pollutants capable of generating solid waste residues when controlled
are suspended solids, dissolved solids, and biological oxygen demand (typically measured
as BODc). Certain commonly-used wet process air pollution treatments, such as lime-
stone scrubbing, generate suspended solids which add to the total water pollutant load.
Acids in wastewater generate solid wastes when inert salts are formed by their neutrali-
zation or precipitation.
3. A relatively small number of industrial sources generate the majority of those air and
water pollutants whose control can create solid waste residues. The main industrial solid
waste residues and their sources are: Feedlots (SIC 02), Meat and Dairy Products (201,202),
Canned and Preserved Fruits and Vegetables (203),and Sewerage Systems (4952)—suspended
solids and 8005; Mining (10-12,14)—suspended solids and acidity; Grain Mills (204),
Cement and Clay Products (324-326), Blast Furnaces and Basic Steel Production (331), Iron
Foundries (332), and Solid Waste Incineration (4953)—particulates; Paper and Allied Pro-
ducts (26)—suspended solids, particulates, and BOD5; Chemicals (28)—suspended solids
and SO ; Petroleum Products (13,29)—suspended solids, BOD5, particulates, and SOX;
Nonferrous Smelting and Refining (333,334)—suspended solids, particulates, and SOX;
and Steam Electric Power Plants (491)—particulates and SOX.
4. Of the major Industrial sources, power plants, steel production, cement and clay
production, and nonferrous metallurgy are the largest contributors to air pollution;
they generated 63 percent of all uncontrolled particulates and 77 percent of all uncon-
trolled sulfur oxides in 1971. The largest contributors to water pollution (excluding
mining) are sewerage systems, paper products, steel products, and feedlots; they gen-
erated 69 percent of all uncontrolled suspended solids and 75 percent of all uncontrolled
BODc in 1971. Mining operations generated suspended solids in quantities large enough
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to make the other industrial contributions insignificant; however, these solids are largely
generated and disposed of in the immediate vicinity of the mine/ posing no significant
urban treatment and disposal problems.
5. Excluding mining pollution control, In 1971, the control of particulates accounted for
62 percent of total solid residues from pollution controls, with sulfur oxide and other air
pollutant controls accounting together for only one percent of the total residues. Con-
trol of all water pollutants accounted for the remaining 37 percent of total solid residues.
By 1985, these respective contributions to total solid waste residues are forecast to change
as follows: particulate control—40 percent, sulfur oxide control—39 percent, other air
pollutant controls—0.2 percent, and water pollution control, the remaining21 percent.
Figure Vl-l presents this information graphically.
6. Urban storm drain runoff, conventionally considered as a "background" for other sub-
stances causing water pollution, isactuallyasignlficant pollution source caused by man's
activities. Although waste contributions from storm drainage to water pollution are un-
quantifiable due to limited investigations, future increased treatment of the runoff by pollution
abatement systems could result in considerable additional solid waste generation.
Pollutant Abatement Measures and Their Impacts on Residues.
1. Principal pollutant abatement alternatives are waste treatment processes and
plant process modifications designed to eliminate uncontrolled industrial pollution discharges.
The end products of pollution treatment processes are typically solid or liquid residues
("solid waste residues") which must be disposed, most often to land,if they are not reused
or recycled. The effect of reuse and recycling, relative to the disposition of these re-
sidues^ is to reduce the amounts that must be disposed. The effect of plant Industrial waste-
reducing process modifications Is to lower the total pollutant load that ordinarily must
underao treatment, thus reducing potential pollution control residues.
2. Common air pollution treatment processes may be classified as wet versus dry and
physical versus chemical. Dry processes generally produce solid waste residues directly,
while wet processes (e.g., scrubbers) create residues suspended in water which must be
removed by water treatments. Physical (filtration) processes (e.g., baghouses, scrubbers)
generally are employed for particulate control and create solid residues approximately
equal to the weight of the pollutant removed. Chemical treatment processes (e.g., limestone
scrubbers), often used for sulfur oxide control, usually add reacting chemicals to the original
pollutants and create solid residues greater in weight than the original pollutant. Limestone
scrubber residues are over twice the weight of the SO removed from the stack gases.
3. Common water pollution treatment processes may be classified as primary, secondary and
tertiary. Primary (physical)treatments (e.g., screening, sedimentation, flotation) generally
remove suspended and flotable solids, creating solid waste residues equal in weight to the
original pollutant removed. Secondary treatments, which are either biological or chemical,
can result in either less (via biological decomposition) or more (via chemical addition) solid
residue weight than that of the original pollutant, depending on the specific treatments) in-
volved. Efficient biological treatment residues from the treatment of organic wastes may
range from as low as 25 percent of the BOD_ removed(after anaerobic digestion)to 50 percent
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of the BOD5 (after activated sludge aerobic digestion). Where the pollutants do not
decompose easily, these ratios may be considerably higher. Estimates for 1971 of solid
waste residues generated by specific air and water pollution controls for key polluting
sectors are presented in Table VI-5 . Corresponding forecasts for 1985 are presented in
Table VI-6.
Tertiary treatments of organic waste streams, due to extensive solids removal by primary
and secondary treatments, usually contribute only small amounts of solid residues, but
may generate extensive salt residues when demineralization is employed for inorganic
waste streams.
4. It is estimated that in 1971 , solid waste residues from pollution control were due
largely to physical wet air treatments (accounting for 49 percent of all solid residues)
and primary water treatments (accounting for 20 percent). By 1 985, 40 percent of all
residues are expected to be produced from chemical wet air treatments (e.g., limestone
scrubbing), 32 percent are forecast to be produced from physical wet air treatments, and
only 12 percent are forecast to be produced from primary wastewater treatment processes.
This information is summarized in Figure VI-2 .
Impacts of Federal Pollution Control Legislation on Solid Waste Generation.
1 . The major Federal legislative measures that affect the type and quantities of solid
wastes generated from air and water pollution control are the Federal Water Pollution
Control Amendments of 1972; the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act
of 1 972; and the Clean Air Act of 1970. In general, the effect of this Federal legisla-
tion is to increase the quantities of solid waste residues from air and water pollution
control by banning or reducing pollutants discharged to the air and water.
2. The Clean Air Act of 1970 will have differential impacts on particulate and sulfur
oxide emissions. Particulate emissions, which are currently (1974) partially controlled,
will be further controlled in the future. Sulfur oxide emissions, currently (1974) largely
uncontrolled on a National basis, should be greatly reduced in the future. Air pollutant
control levels should increase removal to at least 90-95 percent of the untreated emissions
by 1977 as a result of the Clean Air Act, although no nationwide deadline is specified
in the Act. No specific legislation for the anticipated increased treatment requirements
beyond 1977 has yet been promulgated.
3. Current water pollution control legislation requires that secondary treatment and, to
a limited extent, tertiary treatment should be employed for most wastestreams by 1977. By
1983, discharges to water are required to be further reduced, in part by additional secon-
dary and tertiary treatment beyond the 1977 levels and restricted ocean dumpings.
4. Air and water pollution control enforcement will increase the quantities of solid waste
residues to the extent that they require or otherwise result in increased application of pol-
lution treatment processes; this study assumes that increased application of treatment con-
trols will probably be industry's short-term (i.e., pre-1985) answer to strict emissions re-
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quirements. If long-term economic considerations dictate increased plant process modifi-
cations and/or increased recycling and reuse by industry as a result of strict emissions re-
quirements, then the increased solid waste residues resulting from Federal legislation will
in turn be reduced.
Estimates of Pollution Control Residues.
1. Total post-consumer and industrial solid wastes were forecast to increase from 214
million metric tons in 1971 to 370 million metric tons in 1985. Of these, solid waste
residues from air and water pollution controls were estimated at 61 million metric tons
for 1971 (29 percent) and forecast to increase to 244 million metric tons by 1985
(66 percent). Mineral and agricultural wastes are excluded from the above figures (see
Table VI -3 for estimates) because they normally are generated in relatively isolated
rural locations and present relatively minor handling and disposal problems. Non-point
sources are also excluded; these include natural sources (e.g., volcanoes,forest runoff)
and runoff from urban, agricultural, and landfill areas.
2. The largest weight of solid residues from pollution control activities is contributed
by the mining industry. However, the solid residues produced are not a problem for
urban solid waste management, as they are generally non-hazardous and disposed in the
immediate vicinity of the mining operations, usually in rural areas.
3. The organic solid waste residues from pollution control in feedlots, meat and dairy
products, canned and preserved fruits and vegetables, grain mills, paper products, and
sewerage systems are readily decomposed. These residues may also contain some toxic
constituents.
4. The solid waste residues from pollution control in cement and clay products, blast
furnaces and basic steel production, iron foundries, and fossil fuel plants, although not
in general highly toxic, are largely inert and do not biologically decompose.
5. Radioactive solid residues from pollution control activities in nuclear power plants
and fuel reprocessing plants are not nearly so great in magnitude as radioactive residues
that are concentrated and handled as solid residues; these wastes from pollution control
generally have both shorter half-lives and lower levels of radioactivity than solid or
liquid wastes from nuclear reprocessing plants.
6. Radioactive solid residues from mine tailings are the largest source of radioactive
wastes from air and water pollution control. These wastes, although having a low level
of radioactivity, contain many long-lived isotopes and the resulting tailing piles remain
hazards to the environment for many years.
7. Residues from air and water pollution control form a significant portion of the total
National solid waste production from the following sources: post-consumer, industrial,
and mineral. Wastes from pollution control in agricultural activities form an insignificant
proportion of the total National agricultural solid waste production.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
Two sets of conclusions resulted from this study. The first set, although not strictly deal-
ing with forecasting residues from pollution control, does result directly from the fore-
casts presented in the full report. This first set of recommendations suggests alternative
strategies (or policies) for reducing the solid waste impact of pollution control activities.
The second set of recommendations deals with areas requiring further research, data,
or methodologies if the solid waste implications of pollution control are to be more
fully assessed.
Alternatives for Reducing Impact on Solid Waste Management.
1 . Reuse of residues from pollution control should be encouraged, since it would reduce
the adverse impact of control activities on solid waste management. Such reuse could be
encouraged in several ways,including incentive taxes, subsidies, further research, and
direct legislation.
2. To minimize the impact on solid wastes, consideration should be given to modifying
the organization of industrial production instead of simply adding additional controls.
For example, the current (1974) requirement for use of available low sulfur fuels is
effective in reducing the potential solid wastes from sulfur oxide control.
3. Reuse, recycling, and process modifications should be emphasized, where practical,
since they can reduce solid waste residues from pollution control. Pollution controls
create solid residues both directly (from trapped emissions) and indirectly (from manufacture
and operation of control equipment and the energy requirements for these activities).
Further Research Needed.
1 . Future effluent guidelines and other detailed studies of industrial pollution control
should require a mass balance analysis. The mass balance allows an analysis of the
intermedia effects of specific pollution controls.
2. A National survey of the potential for recycling solid residues from air and water
pollution controls should be taken since the available literature is inadequate.
3. Methods of stimulating the reuse of solid waste residues from fossil fuel power plant
pollution controls should be developed to reduce their environmental impact.
4. A detailed National assessment of solid residues from qir and water pollution control
of hazardous pollutants should be made.
5. A National survey of the sulfur content of available fossil fuel reserves should be
made to more accurately estimate solid wastes produced from sulfur oxide control in
fossil fuel power plants.
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6. Environmental impact reports should be required to include evaluations of the solid
waste impact of proposed developments.
7. Improved methods are needed for segregating solid wastes by type and character-
istic to allow for optimum disposal and reuse. Combustible solid wastes could be re-
claimed for power generation; toxic wastes should be segregated and neutralized before
entering the environment.
8. Further analysis of the pollutants contained in urban yagricu I rural, and sanitary landfill
runoffs and the potential solid waste residues from their control should be made. These
pollutants, conventionally considered as natural or non-point source pollution are, in
reality, a by-product of society's activities. Natural pollution does occur (e.g., from
volcanoes, forest and field runoff) and must as well be quantified.
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
The Problem of Pollution-Control Generated Solid Waste: An Overview,
Two pollution control laws enacted by the U. S. Congress will have a major impact on
National solid waste generation: the Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (the Clean Water Act). Their primary
objective is the reduction of environmental degradation caused by air and water
pollutants. Many impediments to the achievement of the objective exist, however.
For example, two key problems encountered to date are: (1 ) who will pay for an
improved environment, and (2) what specific form should the implementation require-
ments (such as monitoring, interim emission standards, permits, and enforcement) take.
An effect of these laws (which has received little attention) is the increased solid
waste residues requiring disposal which will result from application of pollution control
devices. Although the intent of the Clean Air and Clean Water Acts is to improve the
air and water environment, the steps taken by industries and municipalities to comply
with specific requirements may create new, unanticipated environmental problems.
The negative effects of environmental protection measures, a familiar occurrence to
professionals in the environmental field, usually are called secondary or time-related
impacts. Examples include consumption of scarce resources for construction and
operation of additional water pollution control facilities and increased unplanned
residential development resulting from sewering previously undeveloped suburban land.
An increase in the pollution-control generated solid wastes destined for land disposal
is a probable, secondary impact of air and water pollution legislation. The specific
quantity and composition of this increment to solid wastes will be determined by
industrial and municipal responses to increased pollution control requirements.
Figure Ill-l summarizes the relationship between increased poliution control and solid
waste generation. Increased pollution control requirements present dischargers with
three alternatives: greater recycling of materials, plant process-modifications ( e.g.,
low-sulfur coal in power plants) which reduce discharges, or additional pollution
control devices. The final alternative (additional pollution control devices) so far
appears to be the main short-term response of industry to the more stringent Federal
emission requirements. Pollution control devices capture pollutants before they can be
released to the environment. The captured pollutants, whether in solid or concentrated
sludge form, require ultimate disposal.
Materials derived from pollution control which are destined for disposal rather than
reuse are defined in this report as solid waste residues. Such "solid wastes" may be
solid, sludge, or aqueous - the criteria being that they are destined for final disposal.
The solid waste residues from air and water pollution control impact adversely on the
environment.
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Increased
Pollution Control
Increased Recycling
& Reuse
Discharge-Reducing Plant
Process Modifications
Increased Application of
Pollution Treatment Processes
Air
Water
Increased Solid Wastes
from Pollution Control
Solid Waste
Processing
Final Fate of Solid Waste
Reuse and
Recycling
To Land
Incineration
Ocean &
Waterways
Sanitary
Landfill
Other
Land
Disposal^
FIGURE 111-1
THE SOLID WASTE IMPLICATIONS
OF INCREASED POLLUTION
CONTROL
8
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Disposal alternatives for various solid wastes are incineration, land disposal and
ocean or waterway dumping. Current trends in solid waste management favor land
disposal. Current air pollution control legislation places strict limits on conventional
incineration (although less polluting techniques such as pyrolysis and improved
incineration are being developed),and current marine protection and water pollution
control legislation severely limit the dumping of wastes into oceans and fresh water.
The need to predict the sources, quantities, composition, and ultimate fate of solid
waste residues derived from air and water pollution control is clear. Implementation
of higher air and water pollution control standards is scheduled by law for the
mid-1970's (air) and the mid-1980's (water). Annual increases in solid waste residues
generated are predicted due to greater application of pollution abatement techniques
and industrial growth. Accurate forecasts of the quantity and composition of solid
waste residues will enable environmental planners and decision-makers to devise and
implement comprehensive strategies for minimizing the adverse effects of these wastes
on the total environment by anticipating ultimate disposal needs.
Objectives and Scope of Study.
The study objectives as set forth in the authorized work program were:
1 . Review the available literature from published EPA reports, "The Intermedia
Aspects of Air and Water Pollution Control" and supplemental data sources.
Evaluate available predictions concerning economic growth and the trends in industrial
production methodology.
2. Identify the major air and water pollutants capable of creating solid wastes
and the SIC code sources of these pollutants.
3. Identify the pollution abatement measures, their costs, and their impact upon
solid waste generation.
4. Review Federal pollution control laws as they affect the degree and type of
waste treatments that may be required through 1985.
5. Forecast the effects of pollution control measures on solid waste generation
through 1985. Establish both the quantities and characteristics of these latter solid
waste residues.
The study objective was to predict the degree that control of air and water pollution
will increase the quantities of solid wastes destined for land disposal. To accomplish
the study objective, it was necessary to first provide an inventory of all SIC code^
industrial air and water pollution discharges before treatment, predict the waste
treatment processes that will be applied, then establish the resulting solid waste
residues and the probable disposal techniques for these solid residues. The extent to
which these residues will be recovered for useful purposes was an important component
in the analysis.
9
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This study was not concerned with solid wastes normally resulting from residential,
commercial, and industrial process steps per se, but rather with those solid wastes
resulting from air and water pollution controTactivities. More specifically, the study
investigated possible increases during the 1971 and 1985 period of solid waste residues
attributable to air and water pollution control activities. The study's scope was National,
encompassing all solid wastes generated from air and water pollution control activities
by all the private industrial and public sectors in the 50 States of the Union.
Method of Analysis.
Individual SIC code industries generating large quantities of solid waste residues were
evaluated separately. This was necessary because each industrial sector has different,
unique requirements for pollution treatment processes and industry-specific character-
istics for residue reuse and disposal . Lesser industries (in terms of the quantity and
impact of residues)were evaluated jointly in a separate section of the report. A
standardized analytical format was developed and applied to each sector. First, air
and water pollutant unit discharge rates (before pollution treatments) for various
industrial processes were estimated; economic growth was forecast for each of these
processes for the selected years 1971, 1975, 1980, and 1985 to arrive at estimated
uncontrolled pollutant discharges. Next, the probable waste treatment processes,
their efficiencies, and the solid waste residues they create were identified for each
air and water pollutant discharged by the contributing industrial sector. The amount
of reuse or recycling of residues from pollution control activities was then forecast, as
was the percentage of pollutant discharges by particular processes for the years 1971
through 1985. These analytical steps led to a final estimate of the total solid waste
residues generated from pollution control activities for each industrial sector.
In mathematical form, the process used to derive these final estimates of solid waste
residues may be reduced to the following equations:
(HM) R. = p(r • E • Z)
w R. = total residues from a particular treatment process i in
' industry x (units = kg) generating pollutant y
p = percent of a particular pollutant y treated by process
i (no units)
r = solid residues that would be produced by process i
assuming it were 100 percent efficient (units = kg)
E = the actual efficiency of process t in trapping pollutant
y (no units)
Z = the percent of the residues provided from process i that are
not forecast to be reused
10
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The total solid residue estimate, Rx,provided by industry x was obtained by summing
over residues produced by all treatment processes for all pollutants, as in Equation 2:
(111-2) R = £ER.
x \ y ixy
Pollutants, Treatment Processes, and Solid Waste Management: An Overview.
Pollution Sources Considered in this Report. It is estimated that the SIC code sources
covered in the report account for approximately 95 percent of the air and water point source
pollutant emissions in the United States which when controlled could impact on solid
waste generation. Certain major polluting sectors were omitted either because their
control would not produce significant solid waste residues, or because no control
program is forecast to be implemented by 1985. For example, no consideration was
given to the automobile (or other) transportation sector, although it generates large
amounts of air pollutants, simply because the control of those emissions does not have
a significant solid waste impact. As another example, the impact of storm drainage
was not evaluated because there is no National plan for controlling these presently
largely uncontrolled wastes, although future Federal legislated water quality require-
ments may require treatment. Treatment of storm-drain waters, in addition to being
extremely expensive, would generate large quantities of solid waste residues. These
water pollutants and other non-point pollution sources, such as-landfills, forests and fields,
will require extensive study in the future.
Hazardous Solid Residues from Air and Water Pollution Control. A preliminary analysis
was made of hazardous waste streams resulting from air and water pollution control. This
analysis was much more qualitative than other sections of this report, because available
information was limited. Some preliminary estimates were made, but they are admittedly
limited. The major sources of hazardous wastestreams considered were: pesticides,
munition plants, radioactive wastes (mainly from nuclear power generation), chemicals
manufacturing, and metals mining, smelting and refining. Radioactive wastes were
considered together with steam electric power plants.
Pollutant Treatments and Intermedia Transfers. Preliminary analyses based on inter-
industry comparison concluded that particulates and sulfur oxides are the major air
pollutants whose treatment generates solid waste residues. The control of hydrogen
sulfides and fluorides also produces solid waste residues, but those pollutants are
generated in relatively small amounts and only by a few industries. Control of carbon
monoxide and gaseous hydrocarbons will most likely have minimal impact on solid waste
residues through 1985, largely because controls for these pollutants result in gaseous products
released to the air. Particulates are normally controlled by physical filtration, using
either dry (e.g., precipitators, baghouses) or wet (e.g., wet scrubbing) processes.
(Pollution treatment processes are evaluated more completely in the following Section.)
Sulfur oxides, if not reclaimed for sulfuric acid or elemental sulfur reuse, are normally
controlled by chemical neutralization with reactants such as limestone (either dry or
wet methods are used) or dolomite. Reactions with limestone create cakium sulfates
and sulfites weighing approximately twice as much as the sulfur oxides removed. All
wet treatment methodologies result in transfer of suspended and dissolved solids to water,
where final residues may be created by further processing.
11
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Determination of solid residues from water pollution control is made more complex by
the diverse physiochemical nature of solids in water and the use of a wide variety of
alternative physical/ chemical, and biological treatment methods both within and
between industries. On an inter-industry basis, BOD5 and suspended solids removal are
reasonable indicators of solid residues created from biological treatments, although
knowledge of organic content of solids in water and the ratio of total dissolved to
suspended solids (generally unavailable) would enable more accurate prediction. The
weight of residues from a variety of preliminary waste treatments is normally equal to
the weight of suspended solids removed, usually 60 to 80 percent of the suspended solids
in the treated influent. Activated sludge treatment is estimated to create sludge solids equal
to half of the BOD^ load in the influent following preliminary treatments. Trickling
filters normally produce approximately 90 percent of the residues created by an
activated sludge plant for a similar influent stream. Lagoon treatment produces even
less residue, since most organic suspended solids are stabilized. Lagoon treatment
produces a total residue of about 0.25 times the influent BOD,.. Thus, total weight
of organic residues may be estimated from influent suspended solids and BODj.; other
inert pollutants in the influent can determine the specific nature of the solid waste
residues created.
Overview of Pollution Treatment Processes. This section briefly describes the most
commonly used pollution control devices; most of these descriptions were modified from
information appearing in the 1973 Environmental Wastes Control Manual. Air
pollution control methods can generally be categorized as filtration, scrubbing,
cycloning, electrostatic precipitation, incineration, oxidation, or adsorption. Common
types of filtering devices employed for air pollution control are baghouse filters; these
can be very efficient in particulate collection. Baghouses use fabric filters (with
openings usually around TOO //) to separate particles from their gas medium. The
filters are contained by structures known as baghouses. The filters are usually cleaned
by mechanically shaking the bags to remove trapped particles; reverse air cleaning is
sometimes used.
Wet scrubbers are useful for removing particulates, acids, fumes, and gases; their use
in the control of sulfur oxides emissions is expected to increase. Scrubbers operate by causing
surface contact between a liquid medium (usually water)and air pollutants. The scrub
water often has additives such as detergents or caustics (lime or limestone) to increase
removal efficiencies. Scrubbers may operate by water spraying against baffles or in
packed towers. In venturi scrubbers, the air and water media are injected into a
venturi tube.
Cyclones are used for dry particulate control and operate on the principle of centrifugal
force. Particulates are removed by contact with the walls of the collector and sub-
sequently settle in the cone of the separator. Electrostatic precipitators,which are also
used for particulate control, ionize gases with a high voltage corona discharge. The
charged gas ions then charge particulates; these then migrate to a collecting electrode
where they are neutralized by an opposite charge. Fine particulates and colloidal
particles may largely escape the aforementioned air pollution equipment.
12
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Incineration is generally used to burn combustible fumes at high temperatures. Combust-
ibles may also be stabilized by catalytic oxidation. Gases are preheated and passed
over a catalyst (usually a nickel alloy) to achieve oxidation at lower temperatures than
possible with simple incineration.
Adsorbers selectively remove air pollutants from the gas stream. Activated carbon
adsorption, the most common adsorption method, is used to adsorb organic gases and odors.
Silica gel (to remove organic and inorganic gases) and alumina and bauxite (to achieve
dehydration) media are less common adsorption media.
Water pollution control devices can be classified as primary, secondary, and tertiary
or advanced waste treatment methods. Primary treatment involves physical removal of
suspended pollutants through the use of screening, settling and flotation processes.
Screens employed may be either coarse or fine, and are generally used to remove the
less dense suspended solids. Denser suspended pollutants, such as cinders and metal
fillings, are removed through grit collection, in which the velocity of the effluent is
slowed to allow differential settlement of the heavier solids. The lighter solids are
often removed by clarification in settling tanks; flotation, flocculation, and sludge-
thickening methods are often included as a clarification process.
Secondary treatment includes several treatment processes; the EPA has defined secondary
treatment as those processes producing the following effluent quality: BODc and SS at
a maximum monthly average of 30 mg/l, fecal coliform at a maximum monthly average
of 200/100 ml, and pH equivalent to 6 to 9. The main secondary treatment processes
are activated sludge, oxidation ponds, and trickling filters. In conventional activated
sludge processes, the effluent, following settling, is aerated for 6-8 hours. Aeration
may also be accomplished in oxidation ponds. Aeration and sludge recirculation biologically
stabilize the dissolved solids in the effluent. Biological stabilization by trickling filters
involves passing effluent over rock or other media where attached microorganisms grow.
Advanced wastewater treatment processes can remove residual solids, dissolved organics,
and pathogens still present in the effluent following secondary treatment. A wide variety
of treatment processes are available for this further treatment. These include electro-
dialysis for demineralization, reverse osmosis to remove suspended and dissolved solids,
lime or alum coagulation to remove phosphates, dual media filtration to remove
suspended solids, activated carbon beds for organics removal, coagulant addition
(principally aluminum sulfate, ferric chloride, ferric sulfate, and ferrous sulfate) to
remove a variety of pollutants, etc.
13
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SECTION IV
EFFECTS ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT OF FEDERAL LEGISLATION
REQUIRING POLLUTION CONTROL
To estimate the future degree of pollution treatment in the various industries, it was
necessary to first review the relevant Federal legislation. Recent relevant Federal
environmental protection legislation includes the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
Amendments of 1972; the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972;
and the Clean Air Act of 1970. The following is a summary of major provisions of the
three laws. The implementation of these laws will have a substantial National impact
on the distribution within the environment of solid wastes. The first part of this Section
presents a summary of the three laws; the final part discusses the implications of this
legislation for solid waste management.
Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972. The goals of this law are to
achieve, by July 1983 wherever possible, water clean enough for both human body
contact and the continued existence of fish, shellfish, and wildlife; these goals further
specify the elimination of the discharge of municipal and industrial point source
pollutants into the Nation's waterways by July 1985. Pollutants to be controlled under
the Act include, but are not limited to: dredged soil, solid waste, incinerator residue,
sewage, sewage sludge, garbage, munitions, chemical wastes, biological materials,
radioactive materials, heat, wrecked or discarded equipment, rock, sand, dirt, and
industrial, municipal, and agricultural wastes discharged to water.
Industrial Pollution Treatment. The EPA has or will establish effluent limitations
and performance standards for categories of stationary industrial pollution sources which
include the following sectors: industrial pulp and paper mills; paperboard, builder's
paper, and board mills; meat product and rendering processing; dairy product processing;
grain mills; canned/preserved fruits and vegetables processing; canned/preserved
seafood processing; sugar processing; textile mills; cement manufacturing; fertilizer
manufacturing; petroleum refining; iron/steel manufacturing; phosphate manufacturing;
steam electric power plants; ferroalloy manufacturing; leather tanning and finishing;
glass/asbestos manufacturing; rubber processing; timber products processing; etc.
The EPA, in accordance with the FWPCA goals, has issued development documents for
effluent limitation guidelines listing the "best practicable" and "best available"
technologies for the treatment of waste prior to discharge to receiving waters; these
reports identify pollution control methods for the complete elimination of industrial
dischargers to receiving waters. Existing stationary industrial sources discharging
pollutants to the Nation's waters must use the "best practicable" control technology
by July 1977, and the "best available" by July 1983. New industrial sources of
pollution must use the "best available demonstrated control technology" by May 1974.
Where practicable, new industrial facilities may be prohibited from discharging any
pollutants to the Nation's waters. For all industrial wastes discharged to a municipal
treatment plant, pretreatment will be required by July 1974 for new industrial facilities,
and by July 1976 for existing industrial facilities.
14
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Municipal Pollution Treatment. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments
of 1972 require that new treatment plants approved before July 1974 must at least
provide secondary treatment to qualify for Federal construction grants; after that date,
"best practicable" treatment must be used. By July 1977, ail sewage treatment plants
in operation must provide "secondary treatment" and must also comply with any additional
effluent limitation established by either the EPA or the State. By July 1983, all
publicly-owned waste treatment plants in operation must use "best practicable" treatment
methods. The EPA will encourage waste management which provides for recycling of
pollutants, confined or contained disposal where not recycled, wastewater reclamation,
nonhazardous final sludge disposal, integrated sewage, and industrial or other municipal
waste treatment and recycling facilities.
Water Quality Standards. The discharge to navigable waters of any radioactive,
chemical or biological warfare agent, and of any high-level radioactive waste, is
prohibited by these amendments. In addition,the EPA is to identify substances which
in any quantity present an imminent and substantial danger to the public health or
welfare, whose discharge is also to be prohibited. Federal standards of performance
for marine sanitation devices will be established by the EPA and Coast Guard.
The EPA is to publish criteria relating to the following: chemical, physical, and
biological integrity of water; the protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and
wildlife; recreational use; measurement and classification of water quality; maximum
daily load requirements; best practicable control technology to achieve effluent re-
duction; pretreatment guidelines; and pollution discharge source categories. States
must adopt intrastate water quality standards subject to EPA approval, and the EPA will
establish such standards in the event a State fails to do so. If the "best practicable"
or "best available" controls are inadequate to meet water quality standards, the State
is required to impose stricter controls. To this end, the State must establish daily
maximum total load standards. The Corps of Engineers may issue permits for the discharge
of dredges or fill material; these permits are subject to EPA prohibition if the effects
on municipal water supplies, fish, wildlife, or recreational areas would be unacceptable.
The NPDES Permit System. Under the 1972 law, it is illegal to discharge any
pollutant to National waterways without an NPDES (National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System) permit. Point sources requiring a permit for water pollutant dis-
charges include municipal wastewater treatment facilities, all industrial sectors, and
all other service, wholesale, retail, and commercial establishments. The NPDES permit
system is to assure that effluent limitations and performance standards are met, that
necessary anti-pollution technology is applied, and that all other sections of the amend-
ments are met.
The NPDES permit system is the main implementation mechanism for the 1972 law. The
permits specify the types and concentrations of pollutants which are allowed to be
discharged by each point source; they are fixed for a period of time not exceeding five
years. If immediate compliance with these standards is not possible,the permits set
target dates for progressive steps towards compliance. If the conditions of the permit
15
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are violated, or if a point source is found to be illegally discharging without a permit,
the discharger faces the prospect of penal action, fines,and sometimes imprisonment.
State permit programs are subject to the 1972 Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amend-
ments; State permit programs must be approved by the EPA, and the EPA is responsible
for issuing permits if State permit programs are not deemed acceptable.
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972. This Act restricts the trans-
port or dumping of any radiological, chemical or biological agent, or high-level
radioactive waste, within the 12-mile territorial limit. The EPA is authorized to
issue permits for the transport and dumping of waste materials when such disposal would
not unreasonably endanger human health and welfare or the marine environment, and to
designate sites where transport and dumping are permitted. The Corps of Engineers is
authorized to issue permits for the transport and dumping of dredged or fill materials.
The restrictions on ocean dumping will necessitate alternative methods for disposal of
these wastes.
Clean Air Act of 1970. This Act is intended to control two types of air pollutants:
those which endanger public health or welfare (i.e., pollutants having an adverse
effect on the environment or public health) and those considered "hazardous" (i.e.,
pollutants which may cause or contribute to increased mortality or irreversible and
incapacitating illness).
Ambient Air Quality Standards. The EPA is authorized to establish primary (public
health) and secondary (welfare) ambient air standards for each pollutant from stationary
or mobile sources judged to endanger public health or welfare. No ambient air standard,
however, is applicable to hazardous air pollutants. Each State is required to develop
plans subject to EPA approval which include: emission limitations; timetables; land-use
and transportation controls; and appropriate devices, systems, and monitoring require-
ments. The EPA is authorized to act if States fail to provide for the implementation of
Federal ambient standards or the enforcement of National emission standards and re-
quirements. No industry-wide deadlines exist for implementation of EPA-required
emission standards. However, most sources will be required to improve controls over
present levels by 1976. The Economics of Clean A?r° lists forecast control levels for
emissions in major polluting industries for 1977; no data are available for controls to be
established beyond 1977.
Stationary Sources. The EPA will maintain a list of categories of stationary sources
which may contribute significantly to air pollution, establish National standards of
performance for new sources within each category, and issue information on related
pollution control techniques. State plans may include standards and requirements for
pollutant emissions from existing stationary sources for which no Federal standards have
been issued, and may implement the Federal standards for existing or new stationary
sources.
The EPA will publish a list of hazardous air pollutants, issue information on control
techniques, and establish emission standards. No new source or modification of an
existing facility may violate standards for any hazardous pollutant. The EPA may,
however, grant waivers of up to two years for existing sources.
16
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Mobile Sources. It was required by the Clean Air Act, by 1975, that carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions from light-duty automotive vehicles and engines
must be reduced a minimum of 90 percent based on model-year 1970 averages; by 1976,
oxides of nitrogen emissions must be reduced a minimum of 90 percent based on model-
year 1971 averages. The EPA may control the sale or commercial use of automotive
fuel or additives which either endanger the public health or impair the emission control
system or device. Subsequent rulings by the EPA in 1973°/', however, have resulted
in the delay of full-scale implementation of these requirements.
Effects of Federal Legislation on the Disposition of Solid Waste Residues. The effect
of these three laws, and particularly the FWPCA Amendments of 1972 and the Clean
Air Act of 1972, will generally be to increase the quantity of solid waste residues
disposed to land. The goal of these laws is the reduction and eventual elimination of
pollutant discharges to air and water media. There are, in general, two ways of re-
ducing discharges: treatment and capture of pollutants is one; the other is process
modifications designed to reduce or eliminate the generation of pollutants. Abatement
through treatment methods will increase solid waste residues for land disposal, The
response of industrial and municipal dischargers to Federal air and water pollution
control legislation is likely, at least in the short-term, to be preference toward in-
stalling pollution control devices, rather than switching to production methods which
are less polluting.
Current trends in pollution abatement measures dictated that increased application of
pollutant treatment methods will comprise the bulk of industry's short term (pre-1985)
response to the goals and requirements of Federal air and water pollution control legisla-
tion, if long-term economic considerations or technological breakthroughs result in
increased use of more non-pbl luting processes or increased amounts of reuse and re-
cycling of wastes, the amount of solid waste residues destined for land will correspond-
ingly be reduced. The possibility exists that future Federal legislation or economic
incentives will require or stimulate the incorporation of more non-polluting processes
or increased reuse and recycling of wastes, thus mitigating the solid waste impacts of
existing legislation.
17
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SECTION VI
INDUSTRY-BY-INDUSTRY
BREAKDOWN OF SOLID RESIDUES
Feedlots (SIC 02).
Pollutants generated by housing animals in feedlots are mainly dry solids, BOD,./
and nitrogenous wastes; these pollutants are either directly discharged into the water
medium or removed via mechanical means. The main sources of water pollutants in this
sector are: milk rooms (for dairy cattle) and housing (barns, yards, etc. for all -other
animals), and storm drainage runoff. Total untreated solids generated from dirt lots were
forecast to increase from 20,000 million kg in 1971 to 25,466 million kg in 1985; total
untreated solids generated from solid and slotted floors were forecast to increase from
28,665 million kg to 30,264 million kg during the same period.
Common waste-removal methods are mainly mechanical (e.g., scraping) and water
flushing. Mechanical removal creates solid residues which are usually reclaimed; flushed
wastes, along with drainage runoff, must undergo effluent treatment. These wastewater
treatments, which all produce some solid waste residues, are mainly lagooning, oxidation
ditches, activated sludge, and evaporation. Of the various alternative disposal methods,
composting, soil conditioning,and other utilizations provide complete reuse, feed recycling
involves 80 percent reuse,dehydration 43 percent reuse, oxidation ditch provides 25
percent solids, and incineration little. Total solid residues from pollution control in feed-
lots were forecast to increase from 920 million to 1,150 million kilograms between 1971
and 1985. Additional solids from feedlots are generated from dry processes; these were
forecast to decrease from 5,540 to 4,560 million kg between 1971 and 1985. This fore-
cast reduction is a consequence of the forecasted increase in feedlot solid waste reuse,
and a corresponding decrease in landfill disposal, between 1971 and 1985. Raw solid
waste residues from feedlots were estimated to be composed of about 84 percent water.
Of the dry residue, approximately seventy percent is biodegradable, thirty percent ash,
seventeen percent potassium, three percent phosphorus, and one percent magnesium.
Mining (SIC 10-12, 14). Particulate emissions in mining and milling operations are
very large. Total emissions before treatment were forecast to increase from 8,000
million kg in 1971 to 13,100 million kg in 1985. Huge amounts of suspended solids
are discharged before treatment. Tailing ponds have been in common use long enough
so that partial suspended solids control is an accepted practice in the industry.
Suspended solids before treatment were forecast to increase from 8 x 10' ' kg in 1971
to 13 x 10' ' kg in 1985. Both process water and drainage water contribute to this
pollutant load.
Cyclones and baghouses are the most common air pollution control devices, although
wet scrubbers are utilized in some milling operations. Sedimentation in tailing ponds
18
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removes the overwhelming portion of suspended solids discharged by mines, and neutral-
ization followed by sedimentation is used to treat acid mine drainage. Passive controls
entail the sealing of "dead" mines to prevent the discharge of drainage waters. The
degree of reuse of solid residues from air and water pollution control is a function of mine
type, product quality, etc. Metal mines typically do not recycle residues, while coal
cleaning produces both usable and solid waste residues. Normally, dust collected from
non-metal mining can be reused. Figure V-l is a schematic of pollution control
generation of solid waste residues.
Table V-l presents forecasts for the years 1971 and 1985 of solid waste residues gener-
ated by pollution control activities. Total solid residues from air and water pollution
control in mines and ore milling operations were forecast to increase from 8 x 10' ' kg in
1971 to 13 x 10^ kg in 1985, mostly from tailing ponds. This tends to obscure the very
significant quantities of solid waste residues from air pollution control and drainage from
dead mines; waste residues from air pollution control were forecast to increase from 460
million kg in 1971 to 1,410 million kg in 1985. The impact of total solid wastes is not as
important as it seems from the quantities involved, since the mines from which they orig-
inally came are near at hand and are natural disposal sites. The cost of reclaiming strip
mined land is significant, however, and so the solid wastes have an economic impact even
though they do not directly create a residue which cannot be handled locally. The heavy
metal content of solid wastes from air and water pollution controls in mines causes these
residues to have toxicity problems, particularly when water leaches through disposal sites.
There are two distinct types of solid waste residues, commonly termed sludges and
silicates. Sludges result from limestone neutralization. Silicates are the non-organic
soils and rocks tailings usually excavated with the ore. Sludges contain high concen-
trations of metallic oxides, calcium sulfate, and silicates. Sludges are subject to leach-
ing and require isolation. Most tailings and air pollution residues not reused are
"silicates" and are largely inert and relatively insoluble.
Meat and Dairy Products (SIC 201, 202).
The majority of pollutants generated by this industry are derived from slaughtering and
by-product handling and are released to water. Air pollutants from the industry are
relatively insignificant. Untreated BOD^ discharges were forecast to increase from 700 to 890
million kg between 1971 and 1985; total suspended solids discharges during the same period
were forecast to increase from 590 to 710 million kg. Meat products account for the
majority of these untreated BOD^ and SS discharges. This sector, in addition, was
forecast to generate significant amounts of untreated dissolved pollutants (e.g.,
phosphorus, chlorides); dissolved pollutant generation is forecast to increase from 257
to 334 million kg between 1971 and 1985.
Primary in-plant controls (e.g., screening, settling) are common in the meat products
industry, and produce significant quantities of solid waste residues. Common wastewater
treatments for meat and dairy product effluents are biological treatments, spray irrigation,
ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, dissolved air flotation, coagulation, lagooning, aeration,
trickling filtration, and ion exchange. Ion exchange is used generally for dissolved pol-
lutants only, and the remaining treatments are used for suspended solids and other flotables.
From the latter advanced wastewater treatments, solid wastes are generated mostly from
19
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AIR
WATER
Ore
Crushing
Stone
Processing
PO
o
Coal
Cleaning
Mining
Proc
Wat
ess
ater
Acid Mine
Drainage
Uranium
Mining
Sedimentation &
Limestone Neutralization
Oa
100
Estimated reuse percentage for 1985.
FIGURE V-l
GENERATION OF SOLID RESIDUES:
MINING
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TABLE V-l
SOLID WASTE RESIDUES FROM POLLUTION CONTROLS IN MINING
SIC 10-12, 14
1971
Pollutant Treatment Residues Before Reuse Solid.Waste Residues Before
Method Process Reuse (106 kg) (%) Residues (10° kg) Reuse (106 kg)
AIR POLLUTANTS
Parti cu lates
Milling Cyclones, bag- 3,390 86 4oU 11,200
houses
Total Residues Directly
from Air Pollution Control 3,390 86 46U M,2bO
ro
"" WATER POLLUTANTS
Acid Mine Drainage
Active mines Limestone 2/0 0 2/0 2,VVO
a
Process Water c c /
All mines Sedimentation 8x10 0 8x10 l.3xlU
Radioactive Tailings
All mines Sedimentation/ 990 0 WO 2y,/OU
limestone
Total Residues from Water c «> A
Pollution Control 8x10 b x 10 1 .3 x IU
Total Residues from Air and r 56
Water Pollution Control 8x10 8x10 1.3x10
1985
Reuse Solid Waste
(%) Residues (106 kg)
88 1,410
88 1,410
0 2,990
0 1.3xl06
0 29,700
1.3x 106
1.3x TO6
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TABLE V-l (Cont.)
SOLID WASTE RESIDUES FROM POLLUTION CONTROLS IN MINING
SIC 10-12, 14
ro
ro
Pollutant Treatment
Method Process
Total Residues from Air
and Water Pollution
Control Excluding
Process Water
Residues Before
Reuse (106 kg)
4,650
1971
Reuse Solid Waste
(%) Residues ( 10° kg)
1,720
Residues Before
Reuse (10° kg)
43,970
1985
Reuse Solid Waste
(%) Res? dues (10° kg)
34,100
Specific pollutants depend on the type of ore being mined.
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aerobic lagooning followed by trickling filtration, dissolved air flotation followed by
inorganic coagulation, and ion exchange. The main instances of reuse in these industries
are use of integument as food supplements for animals, and similar by-product reclamation
of the grease produced from dissolved air flotation.
Total solid residues from water pollution control in these sectors were forecast to increase
from 60 to 220 million kilograms between 1971 and 1985. The vast majority of the solid
waste residues produced will likely be from meat products, which are also forecast to be
responsible for the majority of untreated discharges. The small 1971 contribution of the
dairy products sector, 16 million kg, was forecast to decline to 6 million kg by 1985.
Canned and Preserved Fruits and Vegetables (SIC 203).
This sector generates few air pollutants but a substantial quantity of water pollutants.
Total BODr discharges before treatment were forecast to increase from 350 million kilo-
grams in 19/1 to 600 million kilograms in 1985; total suspended solids discharges were
forecast to show a similar increase from 390 to 670 million kg during the same period. Most
plants currently employ primary treatment processes such as screening, sedimentation, and
flotation. Secondary controls will be required by 1977 and further improvements by 1983.
Although large amounts of solid waste are generated in this sector (both during processing
and as a result of pollution control), their reuse potential is high (mostly for animal feed).
Approximately 80 percent of the residues generated from pollution control were forecast
to be reused. For 1971 and 1985, final solid waste residues for land disposal were forecast
to be only 50 million kg and 140 million kg, respectively. The waste residues are mainly
organic and may be used as a soil conditioner or for spray irrigation. Because of their
organic content, solids disposal in landfills presents no major problems.
Grain Mills (SIC 204).
Grain mills generate air pollutants (largely particulates) almost exclusively; these part-
iculate emissions are normally controlled by dry methods. The cyclone is currently the
predominate treatment method; fabric bag filters are more efficient and are likely to be
the major treatment method by 1985. Total uncontrolled particulate pretreated discharges
(before treatment) were forecast to increase from 4.8 billion kg in 1971 to 7.8 billion
kg by 1985.
Treatment generated an estimated 500 million kg of solid waste residues in 1971, a
weight forecast to increase to 2,700 million kg in 1985. These figures assume a fairly
high degree of reuse. As more fines are captured with more stringent emission control
equipment, the degree of reuse will decline slightly.
Papers and Allied Products (SIC 26).
The recycling process is the major source of water pollutants. Significant quantities of
air pollutants, sulfur oxides, particulates, and hydrogen sulfide are also emitted. Most
23
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air pollution control is currently accomplished with wet scrubbers, although electrostatic
precipitators may be used more frequently in the future. Primary and secondary treatments
are applied to the effluent stream to control suspended solids and BOD^, while carbon ab-
sorption and lime coagulation are used to control the discharge of color (lignins).
The total solid waste residues from air and water pollution control were forecast to increase
over the period 197! to 1985 from 6,910 to 15,350 million kg. Table V-2 summarizes
the solid waste residues resulting from air and water pollution control. Although currently
(1974) most wastes are incinerated or landfilled, the use of recovered fibers in the building
materials industry, of dried activated sludge as a fuel, and of processed activated sludge
as a commercial sot! conditioner holds promise for future recycling (see Figure V-2 ).
Chemicals and Allied Products (SIC 28).
This sector generates substantial quantities of both air and water pollutants. Particulates
are discharged from the production of carbon black, plastics, nitrate and phosphate fer-
tilizer, and phosphoric acid. Sulfur oxides and hydrogen sulfides are discharged from
sulfuric acid and carbon black, respectively. The untreated discharges of particulates
and sulfur oxides were forecast to increase from 6,370 million kg in 1971 to 10,390 mil-
lion kg in 1985. Untreated water pollution discharges in the form of suspended and dis-
solved solids generated by the manufacture of inorganic chemicals amounted to 14.9 billion
kg in 1971 and were projected to increase to 20.9 billion kg in 1985. Untreated sludge
from the production of plastics and synthetics and untreated BOD^ load from the manu-
facture of organic chemicals were forecast to increase from 93 million kg and 3,647 mil-
lion kg in 1971, respectively, to 324 million kg and 8,336 million kg in 1985.
Air pollution treatments applied in the chemical manufacturing industry are primarily
bag filters, cyclones, electrostatic precipitators, wet and dry scrubbers, and incinerators.
The reuse of the residues generated by pollution treatment is fairly common in the industry.
Water pollutants are typically subjected to settling and clarification to remove settleable
solids in the effluent prior to being neutralized, evaporated, or lagooned. Figure V-3
is a schematic of the generation of solid waste residues by pollution control.
Table V-3 presents, for 1971 and 1985, estimates of total solid waste residues resulting
from air and water pollution controls in the chemical sector. Solid wastes were profected
to reach 17,400 million kg in 1985, a considerable increase of 80 percent over the 1971
level of 9,680 million kg. Residues derived from air pollution control are mainly attri-
butable to fertilizer, carbon black, and sulfuric acid manufacture; those derived from
water pollution control are mainly attributable to inorganic chemicals and plastics, and
synthetics manufacture. Required advance water pollution treatments alone will create
820 million kg of solid waste in 1985, as compared with a zero level of solid waste
residues in 1971.
Petroleum Extraction, Refining and Transportation (SIC 13, 291).
Oil extraction and transportation primarily generate water pollutants; refining generates
both air and water pollutants. Total uncontrolled particulate emissions from this industry were
24
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TABLE V-2
SOLID WASTE RESIDUES FROM POLLUTION CONTROLS IN PAPER
SIC 26
01
1971
Pollutant Treatment Residues Before Reuse Solid.Waste
Method Process Reuse (10° kg) (%) Residues (lO* kg)
AIR POLLUTANTS
Parti cul ate s
All Precipitator
Wet scrubber
Total Residues Directly from
Air Pollution Control
WATER POLLUTANTS
Suspended Solids
Wood prepara- Pri mary
tion
All other steps Primary
BOD5
ATI Secondary
Color
Pulping and Carbon adsorption
bleaching Lime coagulation
Total Residues from Water
Pollution Control
Total Residues from Air and
Water Pollution Control
1,450
2,634
1,450
180
2,730
1,070
6,210
1,440
11,630
13,080
0 1,450
transferred to water
0 1,450
0 180
55 1,130
80 860
70 1,860
0 1,440
5,460
6,910
Residues Before
Reuse (10° kg)
4,900
2,540
4,900
310
3,040
3,540
.8,010
5,020
19,920
24,820
1985
Reuse Solid Waste
(%) Residues (106 kg)
0
transferred
0
0
0
49
70
0
48
38
4,900
to water
4,900
310
900
1,820
2,400
5,020
10,450
15,350
-------
AIR
WATER
Wood Preparation
Rnal Paper
Stock Preparation
ro
en
Wood
Preparation
Pulping
Washing, Thick-
ening, Blanching
Reuse
64°
Primary Treatment
1
36
Secondary Treatment
490
Lime Coagulation &
Carbon Adsorption
Estimated reuse percentage for 1985.
FIGURE V-2
GENERATION OF SOLID RESIDUES:
PAPER AND ALLIED PRODUCTS
-------
AIR
WATER
ho
-•si
Cyclone, Fa-
bric Filter,
or
Precipitator
Scrubber or
Wet Cyclone
Settling Ponds
or
Clarification
=
55
Mlsc; Mostly
Soda Ash.
NaCIT&TiO2
i
TDS
1
Evaporation,
Demineraliza-
tion or
Neutralization
Primary + La-
goons, Activa-
ted Sludge or
Trick! i na Fiit ^
100
a Estimated reuse percentage for 1985.
FIGURE V-3
SOLID RESIDUE GENERATION:
CHEMICALS MANUFACTURE
-------
TABLE V-3
SOLID WASTE RESIDUES FROM POLLUTION CONTROLS IN CHEMICALS
SIC 28
ro
CO
Pollutant
Method
1971
1985
Treatment Residues Before Reuse Solid. Waste Residues Before Reuse Solid Waste
Process Reuse (106 kg) (%) Residues (10° kg) Reuse (10° kg) (%) Residues (106 kg)
AIR POLLUTANTS
rarncu lares
Su If uric and
phosphoric ac
Nitrate
fertilizer
Phosphate
fertilizer
Plastics
Carbon black
Sulfur Oxides
Sulfuric acid
Fluorides
Phosphoric aci
Total Residues
Air Pollution
Venturi scrubber
:5d and recycle 40 transferred to water 90
Other 60 0 60 130
Wet cyclones and
scrubbers 630 transferred to water 1,800
Dry cyclones 240 50 120 590
Wet acid scrubber 2,700 transferred to water 3,900
Fabric filter 320 50 150 440
Misc. controls 30 25 20 130
Electrostatic precipitator
andbaghouse 1,290 0 1,290 1,840
Absorption tower and
alkali scrubber 1,060 transferred to water 2,310
d Scrubbers and recycle 40 transferred to water 160
Directly from
Control 1,930 1,640 3,130
transferred to water
0 130
transferred to water
50 300
transferred to water
0 440
25 ' 100
0 1,840
transferred to water
transferred to water
2,810
-------
IS)
TABLE V-3 (Cent.)
SOLID WASTE RESIDUES FROM POLLUTION CONTROLS IN CHEMICALS
SIC 28
Pollutant
Method
Treatment Residues Before
Process Reuse (1 06 kg)
1971
Reuse
(%)
1985
Solid Waste Residues Before Reuse
Residues (1 06 kg) Reuse (106kg) (%)
Solid Waste
Residues (106 kg)
WATER POLLUTANTS
Suspended Solids
All
Dissolved Solids
Sodium silicate
& sodium metal
Soda ash
T.02
Sodium
dichromate
Sulfuric acid
Sodium chloride
Hydrofluoric
acid
Misc. chemicals
Settling ponds
Other
Neutralization or
separation
Evaporation
Evaporation & deep
well disposal
Deep well disposal
Demineralization
plus evaporation
Evaporation
Neutralization
Storage ponds
Neutralization and
land dumping
Misc. controls
4,644
26
23
122
1,850
2,040
1,560
1
10
6,150
neg.
n.d.a
40
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
100
0
2,417
23
23
122
1,850
2,040
1,560
1
0
0
neg.
9,100
9
12
7,220
0
1,470
2
30
8,540
neg.
n.d.
20
0
0
0
0
0
100
100
0
5,062
7
12
7,220
0
1,470
2
0
0
neg.
-------
TABLE V-3 (Cent.)
SOLID WASTE RESIDUES FROM POLLUTION CONTROLS IN CHEMICALS
SIC 28
OJ
o
Pollutant Treatment Residues Before
Method Process Reuse (106 kg)
WATER POLLUTANTS (Cont.
Sludge-dr/ solids
Plastics Primary and
BOD5
Organ! c chem- BPCTA plus
icals None
Total Residues from Water
Pollution Control
Total Residues from Air and
Water Pollution Control
)
secondary n.d.
BATEA 0
0
16,430
18,360
1971
Reuse Solid Waste Residues Before
(%) Residues (10° kg) Reuse (10° kg)
n.d.
820
0
51 8,040 27,210
46 9,680 30,340
1985
Reuse Solid Waste
(%) Residues (10° kg)
0 820
46 14,590
57 17,400
No data available.
-------
forecast to increase from 300 million kg in 1971 to 430 million kg in 1985. Sulfur oxides
were forecast to Increase from 3,480 million kg in 1971 to 4,990 million kg in 1985.
Crude oil spills were forecast to remain constant at 65.5. million kg of oil through 1985,
as improved technology offsets Increased oil drilling and transportation. Brine salts were
forecast to Increase from 550 million kg in 1971 to 1,130 million kg in 1985, although
this Is highly dependent on the percentage reinfected into the ground. Refinery operations
produce large quantities of BOD / oil and grease, phenols, ammonia, suspended solids,
and miscellaneous other pollutants. BOD_ discharges were forecast to increase from
100 million kg In 1971 to 140 million kg in 1985, and suspended solids from 35 to 50
million kg over the same period.
Refinery particulate emissions are commonly controlled by electrostatic precipitators,
although a few baghouses may be used in the future. Sulfure recovery plants are the
common method of sulfur oxide control in refineries. These plants produce a saleable
by-product and generate no solid waste. The treatment of brines to extract valuable
minerals leaves 85 to 90 percent of the original dry weight of brine treated as solid
waste requiring disposal. The clean-up of oil spills is done by a combination of surface
skimming and the use of various sorbents. The skimmed product may many times be pro-
cessed to yield refinery crude feedstocks. Sometimes the sorbents are squeezed to yield
crude oil and regenerate the sorbents for reuse.
Total solid waste residues from air and water pollution control in the petroleum industry
were forecast to Increase from 770 million kg in 1971 to 1,490 million kg in 1985. A
targe proportion of these wastes were forecast to be generated by brine disposal, which
is performed near the extraction site and can only be roughly estimated. The
mixtures of oil and sorbents from oil spill clean-up are normally sent to landfills when
the sorbents are not reprocessed.
Cement and Clay (SIC 324,326).
The main pollutant generated during cement and clay manufacture is particulates. Total
pretreated discharges from the sector were forecast to almost double from 1971 (8,200
million kg) to 1985 (15,813 million kg). Some water pollution is created through inter-
medial transfer to water during control. Estimates of the total solid waste residues from
control (presented in Table V-4) were forecast to decrease from 3,780 million kg in 1971
to 2,640 million kg in 1985. This decline was attributed to increased recycling forecast
for the future. Most pollutants which are captured in solid formmay be added back into
the batch due to the nature of cement and clay. Figure V-4 is a schematic of pollution
control processes and solid waste residue generation from control.
The large percentage of kiln dust and wastewater reused In both cement and clay manu-
facture lessens on solid waste residue generation from pollution treatment processes.
Blast Furnaces and Steel Mills (SIC 331). This industry is a significant contributor to both
uncontrolled air pollution (particulates, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide) and uncon-
trolled water pollution (suspended solids). Significant quantities of particulates are gen-
erated from steel furnaces (especially basic oxygen), and during coking, reduction, scarfing,
31
-------
TABLE V-4
SOLID WASTE RESIDUES FROM POLLUTION CONTROLS IN CEMENT AND CLAY
SIC 324, 325, 326
CO '
ro
1971
Pollutant Treatment Residues Before Reuse Solid.Waste
Method Process Reuse (10° kg) (%) Residues (10° kg)
AIR POLLUTANTS
Parti culctes
All Fabric filter
Multi -eye lone
Elect, precipitator
Wet scrubber
Total Residues Directly from
Air Pollution Control
WATER POLLUTANTS
Suspended Solids
Scrubber efflu- Settling basins &
ent lagoons
Reuse
Leaching All
TDS
Leaching Lagoons
Carbonation &
adv. sedimen.
Non-leaching Coagulation & lagoons
Reuse
2,680
2,600
1,030
3,720
6,310
2,110
1,150
10
70
5
8
5
70
92
70
transferred
1
0 2
100
0
10
10
10
0
810
460
310
to water
,580
,110
0
10
60
5
7
0
1985
Residues Before Reuse Solid Waste
Reuse (10° kg) (%) Residues (106 kg)
6', 480
4,470
2,350
2,230
13,300
210
1,950
20
6
130
1
20
80
87
80
transferred
82
0
100
0
80
80
8
100
1,300
570
470
to water
2,340
210
0
20
1
25
0
0
-------
TABLE V-4 (Cont.)
SOLID WASTE RESIDUES FROM POLLUTION CONTROLS IN CEMENT AND CLAY
SIC 324, 325, 326
GO
GO
Pollutant Treatment
Method Process
WATER POLLUTANTS (Cont.)
Alkalinity.
All Neutralization
Carbonation
Total Residues from
Water Pollution Control
Total Residues from Air and
Water Pollution Control
Residues Before
Reuse(106kg)
0
5
3,290
9,600
1971
Reuse
0
0
33
61
Solid. Waste
Residues(106kg)
0
5
2,200
3,780
Residues Before
Reuse (106 kg)
0
40
2,370
15,670
1985
Reuse Solid Waste
(%) Residues (106 kg)
0
0 40
87 300
83 2,640
-------
AIR
WATER
CO
Crushing
Grinding
Cement
Production Steps
Parti -
culates
Alkalinity
Fabric Filter;
Elect. Precip.
or Cyclone
Lagoons, Carbonation,
& Advanced Sedimentation
Solid
Residues
Solid
Residues
'Estimated reuse percentage for 1985.
FIGURE V-4
GENERATION OF SOLID
RESIDUES: CEMENT AND CLAY
-------
and sintering. Large quantities of suspended solids are discharged to water during blast
furnace reduction and sintering, and from steel furnaces and rolling mills. Iron sulfate
and sulfuric acid are generated in significant quantities during pickling. Total uncontrolled
particulate discharges from SIC 331 were forecast to increase to 18.6 billion kg in 1985
from 14.4 billion kg in 1971; uncontrolled SS discharges were forecast to increase from
11.3 to 15.5 billion kg during the same period.
The main treatment methods that were forecast to be used to control particulate and other
air pollutants discharges in blast furnaces are fabric and other filters and precipitators.
Control of particulate emissions from steel furnaces can be economically accomplished
through wet scrubbers as well as fabric filters and precipitators. Medium energy wet scrub-
bers are sufficient for particulate control during sintering. Suspended solids generated from
blast furnaces and rolling mills and during sintering can be controlled through a combination
of recirculation, coagulation, and sedimentation. Iron sulfate and sulfuric acid in pickle
liquor can be removed through lime neutralization followed by sedimentation, evaporation
followed by crystallization, or dialysis. Potential reuse of pollutants in blast furnaces and
steel mills is high. Figure V-5 is a schematic of the generation in the steel industry of
solid waste residues from pollution control.
Total solid residues generated from air and water pollution control in blast furnaces and
basic steel mills were forecast to increase from 3,210 million kg in 1971 to 4,600 million
kg in 1985. (See Table V-5.) Most of these residues will be derived from water pollution
control; this includes particulates transferred to water from air pollution controls (scrubbers
and precipitators). The main sources of these residues will be particulates generated from
blast furnaces and basic oxygen steel furnaces, and suspended solids generated from hot
rolling mills. The residues generated from steel furnace pollution control will be fairly
dry, inert, and non-biodegradable, and will contain no hazardous substances. Solid
residues generated through lime neutralization during pickling will tend to be more
corrosive and toxic, but these are a relatively minor contribution to total residues
generated.
Iron Foundries and Ferroalloy Production (SIC 3312 and 332).
Particulates are the only significant pollutant generated in this industry. Small quantities
of water pollutants are produced but are negligible when compared to particulate emissions
and are, therefore, not considered in the report. Most particulate emissions originate from
cupola furances in iron foundries or from blast and electric furnaces and material handling
in ferroalloy production.
Baghouses and wet scrubbers are the most common air pollution control devices used in this
sector. The limited data available on residue reuse indicate that a significant portion is
recycled in the ferroalloy industry itself or sold for use in cement production and as trace
minerals for fertilizer. The total solid waste residues generated by air pollution control
were forecast to increase from 130 million metric tons in 1971 to 650 million kg in 1985.
The chemical composition of furnace fumes is similar to that of the materials charged.
Silicon, iron, magnesium, and manganese oxides predominate, although chromium and
heavy metal oxides and carbonaceous compounds are sometimes present in the particulates.
Most of the particulates generated are relatively insoluble.
35
-------
WATER
cr>
Materials
Handling &
Scarfing
Sintering &
Roll ing Mi 11
Steel
Furnace &
Sintering
Sulfuric
cA^-
Scrubbing
Filters &
Precipitators
30'
Precipitators,
Filters, or
Scrubbers
^T \
i
Recircu lotion,
Coagulation,
& Sedimentation
Neutralization/
Sedimentation, or
Evaporation/
Crystallization
FIGURE V-5
SOLID RESIDUE GENERATION:
BASIC STEEL
Estimated reuse percentage for 1985.
-------
TABLE V-5
SOLID WASTE RESIDUES FROM POLLUTION CONTROLS IN BLAST FURNACES AND STEEL
SIC 331
to
--J
Pollutant
Method
Treatment Residues Before
Process Reuse (TO6 kg)
1971
Reuse Solid.Waste Residues Before
(%) Residues (10° kg) Reuse (10° kg)
1985
Reuse Solid Waste
(%) Residues (106 kg)
AIR POLLUTANTS
Parti culates
Reduction
Steel furnace
Sintering
Materials
handling
Scarfing
Ammonia
Coking
Total Residues
Air Pollution
Filters & precipi-
tate rs
Scrubbers
Precipitators
Scrubbers
Fabric filters
Scrubbers
Precipitators
Precipitators
Scrubbers
Scrubbers
Directly from
Control
1,760
1,760
690
690
120
650
640
60
60
240
1,000
transferred
transferred
transferred
transferred
transferred
transferred
60
70
70
30
to water
to water
to water
to water
to water
to water
250
20
20
170
460
3,410
3,410
1,250
1,240
640
570
610
130
130
450
1,320
transferred
transferred
transferred
transferred
transferred
transferred
60
70
70
30
to water
to water
to water
to water
to water
to water
240
40
40
310
630
-------
TABLE V-5(Cont.)
SOLID WASTE RESIDUES FROM POLLUTION CONTROLS IN BLAST FURNACES AND STEEL
SIC 331
Pollutant Treatment
Method Process
WATER POLLUTANTS
Suspended. Solids
Reduction
Steel furnace All
Sintering
Hot rolling mills
Pickle Liquors
Pickling All
Total Residues from
Water Pollution Control
Total Residues from
Air and Water Pollution Control
Residues Before
Reuse(106kg)
2,360
3,620
460
4,280
640
11,360
12,160
1971
Reuse
80
80
80
70
70
86
88
So lid. Waste
Residues (10° kg)
470
720
90
1,280
190
2,750
3,210
Residues Before
Reuse (10° kg)
3,460
4,120
4,120
6,980
1,010
15,870
17,190
1985
Reuse
80
80
80
70
70
80
80
Solid Waste
Res3dues(106kg)
690
820
60
2,100
300
3,970
4,600
-------
Primary and Secondary Nonferrous Smelting and Refining (SIC 333, 334).
Nonferrous smelting and refining is a significant contributor to National discharges of
both air and water pollutants. Total particulate discharges before treatment are forecast
to increase from 1,420 million kg in 1971 to 2,060 million kg in 1985; over 95 percent
of these emissions stem from primary smelting and refining. Sulfur oxide emissions before
treatment were forecast to increase from 4,740 million kg in 1971 to 7,430 million kg in
1985. These emissions also stem primarily from primary smelting and refining with secon-
dary nonferrous smelting and refining playing only a relatively minor role. Suspended
solids are also significant for this sector, although reliable data exist only for bauxite
refining, whose discharges were forecast to increase from 7,250 million kg in 1971 to
15,630 million kg in 1985.
Both mechanical and wet scrubbing methods are used to control particulate emissions,
although fabric filters are becoming increasingly popular. Some plants currently control
sulfur oxide emissions by the use of sulfuric acid recovery plants. In the future, lime-
stone scrubbers may be used on the recovery plant tail gases in order to achieve the required
level of control; this would increase the solid waste residues generated. Ponding and lime-
stone precipitation are the current methods of controlling water pollutants. These methods
create residues with little or no potential for reuse with the exception of cryolite precipita-
tion from which 30 percent of the residues may be reused. Figure V-6 is a schematic of
pollution control and their generation of solid waste residues.
The total solid waste residues from air and water pollution control in this sector were
forecast to increase from 5,990 million kg in 1971 to 27,520 million kg in 1985 (see
Table V-6). Limestone scrubbing of sulfur oxide emissions contributes the majority of
solid wastes from air pollution control while settled mud from bauxite refining contrib-
utes most of the water pollution control solid waste residues. Metal oxides are
prevalent in settled mud from bauxite refining. Although the settled mud might
potentially be reused in the manufacture of cement or bricks, or as an iron ore source,
no economically practical reclamation has yet been developed. A landfill receiving
solid waste residues from nonferrous smelting and refining could be expected to have a
relatively high metals content in its leachate.
Electric Power Plants (SIC 491).
Fossil fuel and nuclear fission power plants are significant contributors to the National
pollution load. The residues from fossil fuel plants are significant in terms of weight;
those from fission plants are significant In terms of radioactive hazards. Fossil fuel
plants release to the air significant quantities of participates, sulfur and nitrogen oxides,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrocarbons. Of these, only sulfur oxides
(principally sulfur dioxide) and non-hydrocarbon particulates will have significant
impacts on solid waste generated from pollution control. Of the three fossil fuels,
only coal combustion produces significant amounts of particulates. However, coal, oil,
and, to a lesser extent, gas combustion all produce some sulfur oxide emissions.
Discharges before treatment of particulates from power plants were forecast to increase
39
-------
AIR
WATER
Y> &2°
Smelting &
Refining
Cf
articulates
Collection or
Filtration
/v
Reuse
1
^—«
90
•"•"li
H2SO4 Re-
covery & Lime
Scrubbing
Settling &
Precipitation
Bauxite Refining
/Settled
Estimated reuse percentage for 1985.
FIGURE V-6
SOLID RESIDUE GENERATION:
NONFERROUS METALS
-------
TABLE V -6
SOLID WASTE RESIDUES FROM POLLUTION CONTROLS IN NONFERROUS SMELTING AND REFINING
SIC 333, 334
1971
Pollutant Treatment Residues Before Reuse Solid Waste
Method Process Reuse (106 kg) (%) Residues (10^ kg)
AIR POLLUTANTS
Parti culctes
Primary alum1- • Dry collection
inum Wet scrubber
Primary lead, Dry collection
zinc,& copper
Secondary non- Fabric filter
ferrous metals Wet scrubber
SO
X
Primary lead, Su If uric acid recovery
zinc,& copper
Total Residues Directly from
Air Pollution Control
WATER POLLUTANTS
Settled Mud
10
100
690
30
10
1,240
2,240
100
transferred
0
70
transferred
100 1
0
to water
690
10
to water
,240
2,210
1985
Residues Before Reuse Solid Waste
Reuse (I06 kg) (%) Residues (106 kg)
140
130
1,040
90
10
13,340
14,610
100
transferred
0
0
transferred
21
0
to water
1,040
90
to water
10,590
11>720
Bauxite
refining
Ponding
5,180
5,180
15,630
15,630
-------
TABLE V-6 (Cent.)
SOLID WASTE RESIDUES FROM POLLUTION CONTROLS IN NONFERROUS SMELTING AND REFINING
SIC 333, 334
ro
Pollutant Treatment
Method Process
WATER POLLUTANTS (Cont.)
Suspended .Sol ids
Primary alum- All
inum
Secondary All
aluminum
Total Residues from Water
Pollution Control
Total Residues from
Air and Water Pollution Control
Residues Before
Reuse (106 kg)
120
14
5,310
7,280
1971
Reuse
(%)
17
0
0
18
Solid. Waste
Residues ( 106 kg)
100
14
5,290
5,990
Residues Before
Reuse (10° kg)
170
25
15,820
30,430
1985
Reuse
(%)
12
0
0
10
Solid Waste
Residues (10° kg)
150
25
15,820
27,520
-------
from 33.6 billion kg in 1971 to 65.8 billion kg in 1985. Similar discharges of sulfur
dioxide were forecast to rise at a more rapid rate, from 19.9 billion kg to 42.9 billion
kg during the same period.
To control sulfur oxide and particulates generated from fossil fuel plants, three types of
abatement measures may be used: low sulfur fuels (primarily for coal and, to a lesser
extent, for oil), throw-away flue gas cleaning systems, and three saleable by-product
flue gas cleaning systems. The three main throw-away technologies are: lime scrubbing,
limestone scrubbing, and furnace injection (primarily dolomite). The three main
saleable product systems are: magnesium oxide scrubbing, the Wellman-Lord process,
and catalytic oxidation. Considerable uncertainty exists pertaining to the industry-wide
application of low sulfur fuels vs. throw-away systems vs. saleable by-product systems.
Saleable product systems were forecast to account for 15 percent of total sulfur oxide
emissions control by 1975, and for 20 percent by 1980 and through 1985. The treatment
of radioactive wastes from nuclear power plants generally involves collection and
storage for a sufficient time prior to disposal. Figure V-7 is a schematic of pollution
controls and their generation of solid waste residues.
Forecasts of solid waste residues from pollution control are presented in Table V-7.
These solid wastes were forecast to increase from 25.6 billion to 135.5 billion kg
between 1971 and 1985. The weight of solid wastes from nuclear power plants was
forecast to increase from 730,000 kg to 23 million kg between 1971 and 1985; it is
assumed that 100 percent control will be enforced throughout this period.
Sewerage Systems (SIC 4952).
Municipal influent including industrial wastes from the serviced population is the main
source of pollutants discharged to sewerage systems evaluated in this sector. Solids,
BOD , total nitrogen, and chlorides are the most significant pollutants contained in
municipal sewage. Uncontrolled discharges for these pollutants in 1985 were fore-
cast to be 6.6, 5.6, 1.4, and 2.8 billion kg, respectively. The impact of treatment
methods on solid waste will greatly depend on subsequent disposal practices. Secondary
treatments will produce more solid waste residues than primary treatments. Disposal
methods that will have a significant impact on solid waste residues are primarily land-
filling, with or without prior digestion, and,toa lesser extent, incineration. The reuse
potential for sewage sludge is great; agricultural or other land application is often
feasible, depending primarily on the physiochemlcal nature of the sludge, but was fore-
cast to remain stable through 1985.
Solid residues generated from water pollution control and subsequent disposal were fore-
cast to increase to 2.8 billion kg in 1985, up 85 percent from 1 .5 billion kg in 1971
The predicted growth in sewered population and the increased use of both pr.mary and
secondary wastewater treatment plants are the main factors responsible for the forecasted
increase. The composition of the residues will be a function of the types of treatments
applied to the sludge. Bacteria counts will be high in raw primary sludge, and d.gested
sludges will have less volatile matter, greases and fats, and protein and more ash and
silica than either raw primary or secondary sludges. Sludge from urbanized areas will
43
-------
AIR
WATER
Nuclear
Plants
Nuclear
Plants
Fossil Fuel
Plants
Radioactive
Isotopes
Radioactive
Isotopes
Coagulation & Sedi-
mentation, Filtra-
tion, & Ion
Exchange
Settling
Ponds
Product
Treatment
Adsorption,
Distillation, or
Fi ItratFon
Solid
Residues
Solid
Residues
'Estimated reuse percentage for 1985.
FIGURE V-7
SOLID RESIDUE GENERATION:
POWER PLANTS
-------
TABLE V-7
SOLID WASTE RESIDUES FROM POLLUTION CONTROLS IN POWER PLANTS
SIC 491
Pollutant
Method
Treatment
Process
1971
Residues Before Reuse Solid Waste
Reuse (106 kg) (%) Residues (10° kg)
Residues Before
Reuse (10° kg)
1985
Reuse Solid Waste
(%) Residues (106 kg)
AIR POLLUTANTS
Particular
Coal
Oil
Gas
Sulfur Oxides
Coal
Oil
Gas
Total Residues
Air Pollution
Total Solids
Fossil fuel
plants
Scrubber
Scrubber
Scrubber
Wet limestone
Saleable product
systems
Wet limestone
Saleable product
systems
Scrubber
Directly from
Control
Settling ponds
28,500 transferred to water
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
25,600 0 25,600
62,320
190
20
56,660
9,040
16,340
2,780
neg.
11,820
135,530
transferred to water
transferred to water
transferred to water
transferred to water
100 0
transferred to water
100 0
transferred to water
0
0 135,530
-------
o>
TABLE V-7 (Cont.)
SOLID WASTE RESIDUES FROM POLLUTION CONTROLS IN POWER PLANTS
SIC 491
Pollutant Treatment
Method Process
Total Residues from Water
Pollution Control (Fossil Fuels)
AIR AND WATER POLLUTANTS
Nuclear power All
plants
Total Residues from Air
1971
Residues Before Reuse
Reuse (106 kg) (%)
0.73 0
So lid. Waste Residues Before
Residues (10° kg) Reuse (10° kg)
25,600
0.73 23.1
1985
Reuse Solid Waste
(%) Residues (10° kg)
135,530
0 23.1
and Water Pollution Controls 25,600 0 25,600 147,370 9 135,550
-------
have a much higher concentration of heavy metals than that from rural areas, and thus
be less suitable for land reuse.
Other Sources of Solid Wastes Generated by Air and Water Pollution Control.
Untreated discharges of relevant air pollutants from remaining sectors are mainly
particulates (largely from paving and roofing materials, concrete, plaster, and gypsum
production). Particulate emissions from all sectors evaluated were forecast to increase
from 8.4 billion to 18.3 billion kg between 1971 and 1985. Sulfur oxide emissions
were forecast to increase from 2.9 billion to 4.7 billion kg during the same period.
BOD,, and suspended solids are the primary water pollutants affecting solid wastes.
Textile mills account for a large portion of both these water pollutants, while the
beverage industry also discharges significant amounts of 6005. Total BOD^ discharges
were forecast to increase from 0.9 to 1 .5 billion kg between 1971 and 1985; total
suspended solids discharges were forecast to increase from 450 to 660 million kg during
this period. Particulate emissions from these assorted industries will be controlled by
cyclones, filtration, baghouses and electrostatic precipitation; the specific treatments
used will vary by industry. Particulates trapped by pollution controls can, in most
industries, be extensively reused; conversely, little reuse of water pollution control
solid residues is possible.
Total solid waste residues from pollution control were forecast to increase from 720
million kg In 1971 to 2,300 million kg in 1985. Textile mills, paving and roofing
materials production, and incinerafion of municipal refuse are important contributors
to the solid residues derived from pollution control activities.
Hazardous Wastes from Air and Water Pollution Control.
Radioactive wastes were projected to increase very rapidly as the result of the increasing
use of nuclear power to replace limited fossil fuel supplies. The largest growth in the
production of non-radioactive hazardous waste streams was projected to be from inorganic
chemicals, synthetic drugs, organic chemicals, industrial machinery, electrical
machinery, aircraft, and power utilities. The discharges were separated into aqueous
inorganic solutions, aqueous organic solutions, sludges, and radioactive wastes.
Because of the extremely diverse nature of these waste streams, no general statements
could be made as to their composition. All the waste streams evaluated in this sector
are far more damaging than their mass alone would indicate.
Non-radioactive hazardous wastes are subject to few controls at the present time, but
may create increasing amounts of hazardous solid waste residues as advanced treatments
are applied by 1985. Evaporation, neutralization, flocculation, sedimentation, carbon
adsorption and other treatments are all projected to increase in the future. In general,
little reuse potential exists for most hazardous waste residues. Most radioactive wastes
are solidified before final disposal.
47
-------
The total known hazardous wastes from air and water pollution controls were projected
to increase from 1,030 million kg in 1971 to 29,770 million kg in 1985. Over 99
percent of this increase is attributable to increased uranium tailings from uranium mines.
Uranium tailings were forecast to increase from approximately 1,000 million kg in
1971 to approximately 30,000 million kg in 1985. Quantities of other hazardous solid
residues derived from pollution control are much smaller in absolute value and were
predicted to show a much slower rate of increase between 1971 and 1985. Hazardous
solid residues from inorganic and organic residues plus those from sludges were estimated
to be approximately 33 million kg in 1971, and were forecast to increase to 36 million
kg by 1985.
Non-radioactive hazardous solid residues, although of minor importance compared to
radioactive hazardous solid residues in terms of weight, nevertheless present significant
handling and disposal problems. In California, a landfill classification system is in
effect which classifies those landfill sites environmentally suitable for hazardous
waste disposal; this sytem is a promising method for informing hazardous waste
generators where wastes may be properly disposed. Unfortunately, recent regulations
have caused industrial confusion concerning acceptable disposal alternatives, resulting
in the dangerous practice of storing hazardous residues on-site until disposal alternatives
are further clarified.
Relative Contributions by Industrial Sector.
*
Table V-8 and Figure V-8 present estimates of solid waste residues resulting from air
and water pollution controls from major polluting sectors for the years 1971 and 1985.
During that period (1971 to 1985), these solid waste residues were forecast to increase
from 60,700 million kg to 244,300 million kg—excluding mining wastes. Including mining,
the forecast increase was from 560,700 million kg to 1,544,300 million kg.
Figure V-9 shows the relative contributions of major polluting sectors to solid waste gen-
eration from pollution control, excluding mining wastes. Power plants are forecast to in-
crease their share from 42 to 55 percent by 1985. The major factor in this increase is the
forecast expanded use of limestone scrubbers to control sulfur oxides. Other major indus-
trial sectors generating solid waste residues from pollution control are nonferrous smelting
and refining, chemicals, paper, cement and clay, steel, and hazardous-waste producing
sectors. Including power plants, these sectors contributed 90 percent of all non-mining
solid wastes from air and water pollution control in 1971 and are forecast to contribute 91
percent in 1985.
Table V-9 and Figure V-10 show the contributions of the major industrial sectors to the
forecast increase in residues from pollution control during the period 1971 to 1985. Mining
accounts for 73.1 percent of the forecast change, power plants 16.1 percent, hazardous
4.2 percent, and nonferrous 3.1 percent. Excluding mining, the important contributors
to increased residues from pollution control are power plants—59.9 percent, nonferrous—
11.7 percent, and hazardous—15.7 percent.
48
-------
TABLE V-8
SOLID WASTE RESIDUES FROM AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
AND WATER POLLUTION CONTROL (10° kg)
Sector
Feed lots
Mining
Grain mills
Paper
Chemicals
Petroleum
Cement
Steel
Iron foundries
Non ferrous
Power
Sewerage
Hazardous
Misc. and other
Total0
Total
1971
920
8x 105
500
6,910
9,680
770
3,780
3,020
130
5,990
25,600
1,540
1,030
830
60,700
560,700
1985
1,150
13 x 105
2,700
15,340
17,400
1,490
2,640
4,600
650
27,520
135,550
2,830
29,770
2,660
244,300
1,544,300
Percent Change
25
63
440
130
80
94
-30
52
408
359
429
84
2,790
220
302
175
Excluding mining residues.
49
-------
SECTOR
Feed lots
Mining
Grain Mills
Paper
Chemicals
Petroleum
1971
1985
1971
1985
1971
1985
1 971
1985
1971
1985
1971
-1985
Cement and 1971
Clay 1985
Blast Furnace, 1971
Basic Steel 1 985
Iron Foundries 1971
1985
Non ferrous
Power Plants
Sewerage
Systems
Hazardous
Misc.
1971
1985
1971
1985
1971
1985
1971
1985
1971
1985
104 105
Solid Waste Residues
006kg)
FIGURE V-8
TOTAL IMPACT OF AIR AND WATER POLLUTION CONTROLS
IN MAJOR POLLUTING SECTORS ON SOLID WASTE GENERATION
106 107
50
-------
Power Plants
(42%)
1971
Nonferrous
Smelting
&
Refining
(11%)
Power Plants
(55%)
1985
FIGURE V-9
INDUSTRIAL SECTORS
CONTRIBUTING SOLID WASTES
FROM AIR AND WATER
POLLUTION CONTROL
51
-------
TABLE V-9
INCREASES IN SOLID WASTE RESIDUES FROM
AIR AND WATER POLLUTION CONTROLS:
1971-1985
Sector
Feedlots
Mining
Grain mills
Paper
Chemicals
Petroleum
Cement
Steel
Iron foundries
Non ferrous
Power
Sewerage
Hazardous
Misc. and other
Total
Total0
Change in
Residues: 1971-1985
(106 kg)
230
5x 105
2,200
8,430
7,720
720
-1,140
1,580
520
21,530
109,950
17290
28,740
1,830
683,300
183,600
Percent of
Total Change
«o
73.1
0.3
1.2
1.1
0.1
-0.2
0.2
0.1
3.1
16.1
0.2
4.2
0.5
100.0
Percent of
Total Change
0.1
1.2
4.6
4.2
0.4
-0.6
0.9
0.3
11.7
59.9
0.7
15.7
0.9
100.0
Excluding mining residues.
52
-------
Non ferrous
(3.1%) ~"
Hazardous
(4.2%)
Power
Plants
(16.1%)
Mining
(73.1%)
(3.5%)
Including Mining
Chemicals
(4.2%)
Paper
Nonrorrous
(11.7%)
Hazardous
(15.7%)
Power
Plants
(59.9%)
Excluding Mining
FIGURE V-10
RELATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS TO INCREASES IN
SOLID WASTE RESIDUES FROM AIR AND WATER
POLLUTION CONTROLS: 1971-1985
53
-------
SECTION VI
NATURE AND FATE OF SOLID RESIDUES
Biodegradability and Destination of Solid Residues.
Tables VI -1 and VI -2 list estimates of the biodegradability and ultimate destinations
(urban vs. rural) for all residues generated from pollution control for the years 1971 and
1985, respectively. Estimates of biodegradability were based on solid residue composi-
tion data presented previously. Estimates of urban or rural disposal destinations were
based largely on generation sites of the residues; it was assumed that due to transporta-
tion costs, residues would be disposed to land areas close to their generation, all other
things being equal. For 1971, out of a total 60,705 million kg residues, 10,225
million kg (17 percent) were organic, i.e., biodegradable, and the remaining 50,480
million kg (83 percent)were nonbiodegradable; during the same year, 35,510 million kg
(59 percent) were destined for rural areas while 25,195 million kg (41 percent) were
destined for urban areas. For 1985, out of a total of 244,240 million kg residues, only
23,730 million kg (10 percent) are forecast to be easily biodegradable, and the remaining
220,510 million kg (90 percent) are forecast to be relatively nonbiodegradable; most of
the residues, 185,510 m? I lion kg (76 percent) are forecast to be disposed to rural sites,
with the remaining 58,730 million kg (24 percent) forecast to be disposed to urban sites.
Thus, the trend over time appears to be increasingly nonbiodegradable solid waste
residues being produced, whose adverse impact on solid waste management will be
mediated somewhat by an increasing trend towards disposal in rural sites.
Comparison of Solid Wastes from Pollution Control with Total Solid Waste from All
National Sources.
Table VI —3 compares the total community-type solid wastes generated in the United
States with the solid wastes from air and water pollution control alone. In 1971, 61
million metric tons of solid wastes were generated by pollution controls (excluding
mining). About 214 million metric tons of solid wastes were produced by post-consumer
and industrial U.S. sources in 1971. Wastes from air and water pollution controls,
then, contributed approximately 29 percent of ail solid wastes produced in 1971. By
1985, total solid wastes from industrial, residential, commercial, and institutional
sources were forecast to increase to 370 million metric tons, of which 244 million
metric tons are forecast to originate from air and water pollution control, a contribution
of 66 percent.
Data are more limited for mineral wastes, but pollution controls are significant here.
The 800 million metric tons of wastes from mining tailing ponds for 1971 are over half
the 1,540 million metric tons of total mineral wastes for 1969. These 800 million metric
tons are forecast to increase to 1,300 million by 1985. Total mining wastes for 1985
are estimated to be 2,895 million metric tons. Most of the wastes listed as air and
water pollution control mineral wastes are from tailing ponds, most of which have never
been allowed to be released directly to waterways. Very little of the agricultural wastes
of 2,070 million metric tons for that year is expected to be derived from air and water
54
-------
TABLE Vl-l
BlODEGRADABiLITY AND DESTINATION OF SOLID
WASTE RESIDUES FROM POLLUTION CONTROL (106 KG)—1971
Sector Destined For Rural Disposal Sites Destined for Urban Disposal Sites
Easily Non- Easily Non-
Biodegradable Biodegradable Biodegradable Biodegradable
M~jor Sectors
~ ~7 " i eon
Perots ,7t\j
Mining (8 x ;0 )
Meat and dairy products °5
Canned and preserved 50
fruits and vegetables
Grain mills 500
Paper and allied products 6,9iO
-, . , 9,680
Cnccmcais
Pevroleum extraction, 550
• refining and trans
Cement and clay 3'780
3 020
Blast furnaces and '
bcsic stael
, , .. 130
Iron founones
, - 5,990
Pn rr.ary and secondary
nonferrous metals
Steam electric power 25,600
plants
1 54Q
Sewerage systems ' '
Hazardous i,030
Minor Sectors
Forestry neS'
50
Misc. food
Textile mi I Is
1 " ' """
55
-------
TABLE VI -1 (Cont.)
B1ODEGRADABIL1TY AND DESTINATION OF SOLID
WASTE RESIDUES FROM POLLUTION CONTROL (10° KG)~1971
Sector Destined for Rural Disposal Sites Destined for Urban Disposal Sites
Easily Non^ Easily Non-
Biodegradable Biodegradable Biodegradable Biodegradable
Minor Sectors (Cont.)
i I7 -i J 40 50
Leather, lumber, and wood
Paving and roofing material
Rubber and misc. plastics
Concrete gypsum and plaster
Nonferrous foundries
Railroad transportation
Trucking and warehousing
Air transportation
Automobiles
270
Solid waste disposal
(incineration control)
Totals
Total rural
Total urban
Total biodegradable
Total not easily
3,330 27,180 1,895 23,
35,510
25,195
10,225
50,480
biodegradable
Grand total 60,705
JNot included in totals.
56
-------
TABLE VI -2
BIODEGRADABILITY AND DESTINATION OF SOLID
WASTE RESIDUES FROM POLLUTION CONTROL (106 KG)— 1985
Sector Destined for Rural Disposal Sites Destined for Urban Disposal Sites
Easily Non-Easily Non-
Biodegradable Biodegradable Biodegradable Biodegradable
Major Sectors
Feedlots 1,150
Mining (13 x 10 )°
Meat and dairy products 220
Canned and preserved 140
fruits and vegetables
Grain mills 2,700
Paper and allied products 15,340
Chemicals *7,4CO
Petroleum extraction, 1,000 490
refining and trans
Cement and clay 2,640
Blast furnaces and 4,600
basic steel
Iron foundries 65°
Primary and secondary 27,520
nonferrous metals
Steam electric power 135,550
plants
Sewerage systems 2,830
Hazardous 29,770
Minor Sectors
Forestry
Misc. food 70
Textile mills 240 250
57
-------
TABLE VI -2(Cont.)
BIODEGRADABILITY AND DESTINATION OF SOLID
WASTE RESIDUES FROM POLLUTION CONTROL (TO6 KG)— 1985
Sector Destined for Rural Disposal Sites Destined for Urban Disposal Sites
Easily Non- Easily Non-
Biodegradable Biodegradable Biodegradable Biodegradable
Minor Sectors (Cont.)
Leather products,
lumber and wood
Paving and roofing
40 30
320
materials
Rubber and misc .
plastics
Concrete gypsum and
plaster
Nonferrous foundries
Railroad transportation
Trucking and warehousing
Air transportation
Automobiles
Solid waste disposal 1 ,350
(incineration control)
Totals
Total rural
Total urban
Total biodegradable
Total not easily bio-
degradable
Grand total
20,190 165,320
185,510
58,730
23,730
220,510
244,240
3,540 55,190
Not included in totals.
58
-------
TABLE VI -3
SOLID WASTE RESIDUES FROM AIR
AND WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
VS. TOTAL SOLID WASTES
Source
Millions of Metric Tons
1971 1985
From Total
Pollution
Control
Post-consumer
Industrial, except
mineral
Subtotal: post-consumer
& industrial
Mineral
Agricultural
61
800
114
ioob
214
l,540t
neg. 2,070
29
52
0
From Total
Pollution
Control
244
neg
182
188C
370
1,300 2,895(
3,891'
66
45
0
a Assumes 60 percent increase between 1971 and 1985.
1969 data from Reference 12.
CAssumes 88 percent increase between 1971 and 1985.
59
-------
pollution controls. Solid waste residues from pollution control are expected to form a
significantly greater percentage of total post-consumer and industrial solid waste,
increasing from 29 percent in 1971 to an estimated 66 percent in 1985.
FigureVI-1 presents total solid waste residues from air and water pollution control versus
other solid wastes generated in the United States. Solid wastes from various societal
sources (post-consumer, industrial, mineral, and agricultural) are shown as percentage
contributions of total U.S. solid wastes generated and total solid waste residues from
pollution control alone for the years 1971 and 1985. For 1971, total solid waste
generation was primarily from agriculture (54 percent) and mining (40 percent); post-
consumer and industrial sources each contributed but three percent. The corresponding
1971 figures for residues from air and water pollution control are: mining - 93 percent;
and post-consumer/industrial - seven percent. Total 1985 solid waste residue generation
by contributing source is forecast to maintain the same percentages as in 1971 . However,
residues from pollution control in 1985 will likely show a percentage decrease from 1971
for mining to 84 percent, with post-consumer/industrial sources registering a projected
sixteen percent.
Of prime significance, then, is the forecast change between 1971 and 1985 in the per-
centages of solid waste residues generated from air and water pollution control by various
societal sectors. Post-consumer and industrial sources (subtotalled) will increase rather
substantially as a percentage of the total solid wastes from pollution control; this will be
a result of the more stringent controls to be effected in the coming years on the residues
and waste-producing activities of these sectors. Mining residues as a relative percentage
of solid wastes generated from pollution control will accordingly decrease (although the
absolute quantity of residues will increase - see Table VI-3). Agricultural solid waste
residues, controlled negligibly in 1971, are expected to similarly receive little control
through 1985.
Solid Wastes from Pollution Control Identified by the Pollutant from which they were
Originally Derived.
Table VI-4 and Figure Vi-2 show the total solid wastes from air and water pollution for
1971 and 1985 broken down by the pollutant from which they were derived. Particulates,
sulfur oxides, and miscellaneous air pollutants are identified, while all water pollutants
are grouped together. It was impossible to separate the source of the residues from water
pollution control, since suspended solids and biological oxygen demand overlap. The
pollutant contributions in Table VI-4 are broken down by major contributing sectors.
In 1971, 62 percent of all solid wastes from air and water pollution control were generated
by particulate control, while 37 percent were generated by the control of water pollutants.
Solids removed from air pollution scrubber effluent water v/ere counted with the appropriate
air pollurai t category. By 1985, sulfur oxides are forecast to have increased very significantly
to 39 percent with particulctes having fallen to 40 percent, and water pollutants to 21
percent. The main cause of this large predicted relative shift is the projected control of
sulfur oxides in electric power plants by limestone scrubbing.
60
-------
Post—consumer0
and Industrial (7%)
Post-consumer0 (3%)
Industrial (3%)
1971 - From
Pollution Control
1971 -Total
Post-con-
sumer0 and
Industrial
Post-consumer0 (3%)
f /^Industrial (3%)
Agricultural
(54%)
1 985 - From
Pollution Control
1985-Total
Normal solid waste.
FIGURE Vl-l
SOLID WASTE RESIDUES FROM
AIR AND WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
VS. TOTAL U.S. SOLID WASTE GENERATION
61
-------
TABLE VI -4
AIR AND WATER POLLUTANTS WHOSE CONTROL GENERATES SOLID WASTE RESIDUES
cr>
ro
Industry
io6
Parti dilates
Feedlots
Mining
Meat and dairy
Fruits and vegetables
Grain mills
Paper and allied prod.
Chemicals and
allied products
Petroleum refining
Cement and clay
Blast furnaces and
steel
Iron foundries
Nonferrous metals
Power plant
Sewerage systems
Other sources
0
460
0
0
500
2,440
3,140
200
3,690
300
130
800
25,600
0
370
1971
kg Residues (dry wt.)
Sulfur
Oxides
0
0
0
0
0
0
470
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Other Air
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
0
0
170
0
0
0
0
0
Water
920
8x IO5
60
50
0
4,470
6,050
570
90
2,550
0
5,190
0
1,540
350
1
Particulates
0
1,410
0
0
2,700
5,800
5,860
420
2,550
320
650
2,350
62,530
0
1,820
6 1985
0 kg Residues (dry wt.)
Sulfur
Oxides
0
0
0
0
0
0
1,300
0
0
0
0
9,070
73,000
0
0
Other Air
0
0
0
0
0
0
90
0
0
310
0
0
0
0
0
Water
1,150
13 x IO5
220
100
0
9,540
10,150
1,070
90
3,970
0
16,100
20
2,830
480
-------
TABLE VI -4 (Cont.)
AIR AND WATER POLLUTANTS WHOSE CONTROL GENERATES SOLID WASTE RESIDUES
Industry
Total
Hazardous waste
streams;
Percent of total
106
Particulates
37,170
+ 460
l,030x 106kg in
62
1971
kg Residues (dry wt.)
Sulfur Other Air
Oxides
470 190
1971
0,7 0.3
10
Water Parti culates
21,940° 84,950
29, 770 x 106kg
37 40
6 1985
kg Residues (dry wt.)
Sulfur
Oxides
83,370
in 1985
39
Other Air Water
400 45,760°
0.2 21
Excluding mining.
-------
Water
Pollutants
(37%)
Other Air Pollutants
,(0.3%)
Sulfur Oxides
(0.7%)
1971
Water
Pollutants
(21%)
Sulfur Oxides
(39%)
-.wOther Air Pollutants
(0.2%)
1985
FIGURE VI-2
AIR AND WATER POLLUTANT CONTRIBUTIONS
TO SOLID WASTE RESIDUES
64
-------
Relative Solid Waste Contributions by Pollution Treatment Process.
Tables VI-5 and VI-6 list the total solid wastes from air and water pollution control for
1971 and 1985, respectively, identified by the air and water treatments which generated
the residues. Contribution of treatments is diagrammed in Figure VI-3. The air pollution
treatments are categorized irito mechanical, electrostatic, water scrubbing, and wet
chemical treatment. Mechanical air treatment includes those treatments which use dry
physical removal mechanisms such as cyclones and baghouses; electrostatic treatment
includes mainly electrostatic precipitators. Water treatment scrubbers use pure water
to scrub solids from flue gases; wet chemical treatments include methods which use chemicals
in the scrubber water to capture gaseous pollutants. The most significant wet chemical
method is limestone scrubbing, which reacts limestone with sulfur oxides in order to
form calcium sulfate and sulfite, which then may be precipitated from water. Although
these treatments require further water treatment to remove the solids created, the
residues produced are categorized with the air treatment residues.
Water pollution treatments are categorized as primary, chemical secondary, biological
secondary, and advanced. Primary treatments include physical systems such as screening,
flotation,and sedimentation. Chemical secondary treatments react chemicals with the
pollutants in order to cause them to precipitate from solution, while biological treatments
utilize bacteria in order to decompose organics in water. Advanced treatments include
methods which are efficient in the removal of dissolved solids such as ion exchange,
reverse osmosis, etc.
In 1971, 49 percent of all solid residues were produced by water scrubbing systems, 20
percent by primary water treatment, and 10 percent by chemical water treatments. By
1985, chemical scrubbing had increased to 40 percent of all solid wastes from air and
water pollution control, reducing water scrubbing and primary water treatment to 32 and
12 percent, respectively. The main source of this increase in the contribution of chemical
scrubbing was the projected application of limestone scrubbing of electric power plant
sulfur oxide emissions.
65
-------
TABLE VI -5
POLLUTION TREATMENT PROCESSES CONTRIBUTING TO SOLID WASTE GENERATION - 1971°
cn
Air Treatment (106 kg)
Industry Mechan-
Feodlots
Mining
Meat and dairy
Fruits and vegetables
Grain mills
Paper and allied prod.
Chemicals and allied prod.
Petroleum refinery
Cement and clay
Blast furnaces and steel
Iron foundries
Non ferrous metals
Power plants
Sewerage systems
Other sources
Total (excluding mining)
Percent of total
ical
0
0'
0
0
500
0
890
0
1,120
30
80
800
0
0
no
3,500
5
Electro-
static
0
0
0
0
0
1,450
730
200
460
80
0
0
0
0
200
3,080
5
Wet
Water Chemical
0
0
0
0
0
990b
1,540
0
2,100
200
50
0
25,600
0
60
29,400
49
0
0
0
0
0
0
470
0
0
170
0
0
0
0
0
1,780
3
Water Treatment (10° kg)
Primary
Secondary Advanced
Chemical Biological
250
8x 10"
20
40
0
320
4,480
550
0
0
0
5,190
0
370
90
12,470
20
0
1,260
20
10
0
370
1,570
0
80
2,540
0
100
0
580
50
5,920
10
770
0
20
1
0
1,920
0
0
20
0
0
0
0
590
210
2,850
5
0
0
0
2
0
1,860
0
20
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1,880
3
Industry
Total
920
8x TO5
60
50
500
6,910
9,680
770
3,780
3,020
130
5,990
25,600
1,540
720
59,670
a Does not include hazardous wastes.
k Unless otherwise shown, effluent from wet air pollution controls is assumed to be handled by sedimentation.
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TABLE VI -6
POLLUTION TREATMENT PROCESSES CONTRIBUTING TO SOLID WASTE GENERATION- 1985
Air Treatment (106 kg)
Industry
Feed lots
Mining
Meat and dairy
Fruits and vegetables
Grain mills
Papers and allied prod.
Chemicals and allied prod
Petroleum refinery
Cement and clay
Blast furnaces and steel
Iron foundries
Nonferrous metals
Power plants
Sewerage systems
Other sources
Total (excluding mining)
Percent of total
Mechan-
ical
0
0
0
0
2,700
0
. 1,760
0
1,770
90
350
1,130
3
0
470
8,270
3
Electro-
static
0
0
0
0
0
4,900
1,010
420
570
400
0
0
0
0
1,080
8,380
4
Wet
Water Chemical
0
0
0
0
0
900b
3,180
0
210
240
300
150
62,530
0
270
67,780
32
0
0
0
0
0
0
1,300
0
0
310
0
10,590
73,000
0
0
85,200
40
Water Treatment (10° kg)
Primary
Secondary Advanced
Chemical Biological
310
I.SxIO6
10
90
0
310
7,850
1,000
0
0
0
15,610
0
510
70
25,760
12
0
32,690
70
20
0
5,120
2,300
0
90
3,560
0
40
0
11,600
70
12,430.
6
840
0
20
0
0
1,710
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1,160
340
4,070
2
0
0
120
30
0
2,400
0
70
0
0
0
0
20
0
0
2,640
1
Industry
Total
1, 150
1 .3xl06
220
140
2,700
15,340
17,400
1,490
2,540
4,600
650
27,520
135,550
2,830
2,300
214,530
100
Does not include hazardous wastes.
b Unless otherwise shown, effluent from wet air pollution controls is assumed to be handled by sedimentation.
-------
1971 - Treatment
Secondary
Water Treatment
(Chemical)
(10%)
Secondary Water
Treatment
(Biological)
(5%)
Advanced
Treatment
(3%)
Primary
Water Treatment
(20%)
Wet Air Treatment
(Water)
(49%)
Wet Air Treatment
(Chemical)
(3%)
Electrostatic Air
Treatment
(5%)
Mechanical Air
Treatment
1985 - Treatment
Primary -^.
Water Treatment
(12%)
Secondary
Water Treat-
ment (Chemicals)
(6%)
Secondary Water
Treatment
(Biological)
(2%)
Advanced
Water Treatment
(1%)
Wet Air Treatment
(Water) (32%)
Wet Air Treatment
(Chemicals)
(40%)
Electrostatic Air
Treatment (4%)
Mechanical Air
Treatment (3%)
FIGURE VI-3
AIR AND WATER TREATMENT CONTRIBUTIONS
TO SOLID WASTE RESIDUES
68
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SECTION VII
GLOSSARY
Abbreviations
Measures of Energy and Weight
BTU British thermal unit
Iccal Kilogram-calorie (3.9685 BTU)
3
kwh Kilowatt-hour {10 watts for one hour)
kg Kilogram
3
kkg Metric ton (10 kilograms)
Measures of Volume and Length
I Liter (.2642 U. S. gallons)
3
m Cubic meter
H Micron - (10 m)
cm Centimeter
m Meter
Measures of Radioactivity
Ci Curie-measure of radioactivity in which 3.7 x 10 disintegrations per second
occur
ftc Microcurie (10 curies)
Pollutants
BO0,. Five-day biological oxygen demand
SS Suspended solids
TDS Total dissolved solids
TS Total solids
Conversion Factors from English to Metric Units
1 kg/metric ton = 2 Ibs/short ton
1 metric ton = 1.1022 short tons
1 liter = .2642 gallons (U.S.)
3
1 m - 35.34 cubic feet
1 kcal = 3.9685 BTU
69
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SECTION VII (Cont.)
GLOSSARY
Definitions
General Terms
Intermedial
Intramedial
Media
Pollutant
Reuse
Solid waste
residue
Solid waste
Treatment
process
Water Pollutants
A pollutant capable of transfer between air-water-land media
A pollutant incapable of transfer between media
The media (air, water, or land) in or on which a pollutant is found
Any material wtfch may contribute to environmental degradation
and thus must be controlled
The reclamation or use of a solid residue or waste product for
beneficial purposes
Solid waste material left over from a pollution treatment process;
solid waste residues may or may not be in solid form; in fact,
many residues are dissolved or suspended in liquid medium
For specifically forecasting purposes, solid waste residues for which
no economic opportunity for reuse exists; more generally, wastes
destined for primarily land disposal
Method of eliminating a pollutant or transferring it to another media
Biological The amount of oxygen used up by the natural decomposition of waste
oxygen
demand
Pickle liquor
Suspended
solids
Total dissolved
solids
Total solids
matter usually measured as the amount demanded in 5 days (BOD,-)
Waste liquid from pickling of mill scale in steel mills
Solids in water which are not in solution. Unless otherwise indicated
in this study it will include settleable and flotable solids
Total solid material in a dissolved state in water
Suspended plus dissolved solids
Air Pollutants
Ammonia
Carbon mono-
xide
NHL, a gaseous air pollutant
\j
CO, an intramedial air pollutant, controlled by conversion to CO2
70
-------
SECTION VII (Cont.)
GLOSSARY
Definitions (Cont.)
Air Pollutants (Cont.)
Fluorides
Various fluorine compounds which may be in gaseous or particulate
form
Hydrocarbons Particulate and gaseous hydrocarbons. Particulate hydrocarbons are
included with the measure of particulates
Hydrogen sulfide H«S
Nitrogen oxides NO, NO , NO^, almost a completely intramedial pollutant,.
predominantly NO«
Sulfur oxides SO«, SO~, predominantly SO«; is capable of generating large amounts
of solid residues when treated with lime scrubbing methods followed
by sedimentation
Particulates
Solid particles of all types emitted into the air and capturable by filters
71
-------
SECTION VIII
REFERENCES
1. Economic Analysis of Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines: Feedlot Industry.
Prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Series No. 230/1-73-008.
Washington, D. C., 1973.
2. Stone, R., and Smallwood, H. Intermedia Aspects of Air and Water Pollution Control,
Environmental Protection Agency Report 600/5-73-003. Washington, D. C., 1973.
3. Standard Industrial Classification Manual-1972. Executive Office of the President,
Office of Management and Budget. Washington, D. C., 1972.
4. Imhoff, K., Muller, W.J., and Thistlethwayte, D.K.B. Disposal of Sewage
and Other Water Borne Waste. Ann Arbor, Michigan, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, 1971.
5. The 1973 Environmental Wastes Control Manual and Catalog File. Public Works
Journal Corporatibn,TR5dgewood, NT. T.,^973.
6. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency* The Economics of Clean Air. Washington,
D. C., 1972.
7. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Report to Congress on Hazardous Waste
Disposal. June, 1973.
8. Newsweek, April 23, 1973, p 90.
9. Los Angeles Times, July 7, 19737 Section I, p. 2.
10. Development Document for Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines: Bauxite
Refinery. Prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Series
440/1-73/019. Washington, D. C., 1973.
11. Second Report to Congress: Resource Recovery and Source Reduction. Office of
Solid Waste Management Programs, EPA, 1974.
12. Council on Environmental Quality, First Annual Report, 1970. In: Wobile, P.,
and Deddy, J., eds., Complete Ecology Factbook, New York, Doubleday,
1973. 472 p.
13. Mar, B. W., "Sludge Disposal Alternatives—Socio-Economic Considerations,"
WPCF Journal, 41, No. 4, 1969, p 547.
14. Council on Environmental Quality, Environmental Quality, Third Annual Report,
1972.
72
-------
REFERENCES (Cont.)
15. Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards of
Performance: Cement Manufacturing. Prepared for the Environmental Protection
Agency. EPA Series No. 440/1-73/005. Washington, D. C., 1973.
16. Economic Analysis of Proposed Effluent Guidelines: Cement Industry. Prepared
for the Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Series No. 230/1-73/004.
Washington, D. C., 1973.
17. Economic Analysis of Proposed Effluent Guidelines; Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard
Industry. Prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Series No.
230/1-73/023. Washington, D. C., 1973.
18. Economic Analysis of Proposed Effluent Guidelines: Steam Electric Power Plants.
Prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Series No. 230/1-73/006.
Washington, D. C., 1973.
19. Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines; Steel Making.
Prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Series No. 440/1-73/024.
Washington, D. C., 1974.
20. Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines; Major Inorganic
Products. EPA Series No. 440/1-73/007. Prepared for the Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D. C. 1973.
21. Economic Analysis of Proposed Effluent Guidelines: Basic Fertilizer Chemicals.
Prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Series 440/1-73/011 .
Washington, D. C., 1973.
22. Economic Analysis of Proposed Effluent Guidelines: Inorganic Chemicals, Alkali,
and Chlorine. Prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Series
No. 230/1 -73/015. Washington, D. C., 1973.
73
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-670/2-74-095a
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION'NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
5. REPORT DATE
THE EFFECTS OF AIR AND WATER POLLUTION CONTROLS ON
SOLID WASTE GENERATION, 1971-1985
Executive Summary
December 1974; Issuing Date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
Ralph Stone
9. PERFORMING ORG \NIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Ralph Stone and Company, Inc.
10954 Santa Monica Boulevard
Los Angeles, California 90025
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1DB314; ROAP 09ABF; TASK 03
11.
68-03-0244
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
National Environmental Research Center
Office of Research and Devleopment
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
3, TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
•inal Report
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Project Officer: Ronald Talley 513/684-4484
16. ABSTRACT
The effects of air and water pollution controls on solid waste generation were eval-
uated. The solid wastes from pollution control were identified for individual
industrial sectors by their original air or water pollutant constituents, and the
treatment process applied. The wastes were categorized by type and by location (rural
or urban). Total solid wastes from pollution control activities were estimated for
1971 and projected for 1985. Particulates and sulfur oxides were identified as the
major air pollutants capable of generating solid wastes when treated; suspended solids
and biological oxygen demand were identified as the principle means of estimating the
impact of water pollution control on solid wastes. Important sectors generating solid
wastes included power plants (SIC 491), paper and pulp (SIC 26), chemicals (SIC 28),
cement and clay (SIC 324-326), steel furnaces (SIC 331), nonferrous smelting and
refining (SIC 333, 334), sewerage systems (SIC 4952), and hazardous wastes from uranium
mining (SIC 10). Mine tailing ponds were estimated to be a greater source than all the
above sources but were not seen to be a landfill disposal problem. This publication
is a summary of the more extensive report "Forecasts of the Effects of Air and Water
Pollution Controls on Solid Waste Generation" (EPA-670/2-74-095b), submitted by Ralph
Stone and Company, Inc., to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in fulfillment of
Contract No. 68-03-0244. That report is available from the National Technical Infor-
mation Service, Springfield, Va. 22151.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
*Air pollution, *Water pollution,
*Abatement, Contaminants, *Industrial
wastes, *Waste disposal, *Water
treatment, *Residues, *Wastes
*Pollution control,
Solid waste residues,
*Intermedia transfer
13B
18, DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to public
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
84
20. SECURITY CLASS (This pageJ
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
74
^V U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICM975-&57-590/5332 Region No. 5-1 I
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