enviRonmenTflL
RESEflRCH
in 1975
flnnufiL
REPORT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
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CONTENTS
Reports from:
Office of Director, 1
Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory, 15
Analytical Quality Control Laboratory, 25
Edison Water Quality Research Laboratory, 33
Environmental Toxicology Research Laboratory, 48
Radiochemistry and Nuclear Engineering Branch and Facility, 57
Solid and Hazardous Waste Research Laboratory, 59
Water Supply Research Laboratory, 65
International Activities, 74
Special Features on:
Evaluation of Asbestos-Like Fiber Problem
in Drinking Water from Lake Superior, 79
Improved Techniques to Identify Spilled Asphalts, 80
Ion-Selective Electrodes in Water Analysis, 82
Nutrient Control at El Logo, Texas, 84
Research Tackles a Hazardous Material Spill
Problem in the Little Menomonee River, 86
Sanitary Landfill Leachate Research, 91
Toxicology of Atmospheric Pollutants Associated
with the Use of A utomobile Catalytic Converters, 96
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EPA-670/9-74-001
February 1974
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH
IN 1973
Annual Report
National Environmental Research Center
Cincinnati, Ohio
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Research and Development
National Environmental Research Center
Cincinnati, Ohio 4§268
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REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the National Environmental Research Center,
Cincinnati, and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial
products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
11
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FOREWORD
The research program of the National Environmental Research Center in
Cincinnati, Ohio, is directed toward solving major environmental problems in
wastewater management and treatment, drinking water, solid wastes, toxicants from
automobile exhaust and other sources, industrial and hazardous waste management
and control, radioactivity emissions from nuclear power plants, and methods de-
velopment and quality assurance. The work of the Center is principally governed
by legislative mandates.
In this, the Second Annual Report of the National Environmental Research
Center, the programs are described and progress during 1973 is delineated.
Articles on various specific projects provide some detailed results of research prog-
ress. Interrelationships of programs within NERC-Cincinnati and the other three
NERC's are coordinated to ensure maximum usage of results. Contacts with
scientists and grant projects in foreign countries assure that the research program
is of international significance. Hopefully, the information presented here will
contribute to bettering our environment.
Andrew W. Breidenbach, Ph.D., Director
National Environmental Research Center
Cincinnati, Ohio
111
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OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR
IMMEDIATE OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR
During 1973, the Office of the Director undertook
the accomplishment of a vigorous set of goals which,
when accomplished, were designed to strengthen the
National Environmental Research Center-Cincinnati
(NERC-Cincinnati) both administratively and tech-
nically. Accomplishing the goals called for numerous
scheduled events or milestones to be completed.
These accomplishments are grouped here in several
broad categories.
Improvement of the Personnel Management Program
In this area, several significant achievements were
made during the year. Because funding and positions
in the Solid Waste Research Laboratory and in other
areas were reduced or reallocated, a significant over-
age of positions had accumulated. During the year,
this entire overage situation was eliminated by the
outplacement or reassignment of the individuals in-
volved, without resorting to reductions in force or
other more drastic measures.
Grade ceilings for clerical and secretarial personnel
were established, a policy was developed for the use
of temporary and all other nonpermanent full-time
personnel, and an executive development training
program was established for all supervisory per-
sonnel. To establish a vigorous training program for
the Center, the Director appointed a task group to
recommend a viable training program. This program
has been adopted, and its implementation is now
underway.
Achievement of Interim/Optimum Use of Facilities
To obtain more economical use of facilities and
personnel, several small outlying laboratories were
consolidated into the Cincinnati complex. The per-
sonnel and functions of the Water Supply Research
Laboratories in Gig Harbor, Washington; Dauphin
Island, Alabama; and Narragansett, Rhode Island,
were transferred to Cincinnati, Ohio, and the vacated
facilities released for United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) or other Federal use. A
considerable savings in manpower, especially in the
support areas, was realized by this move.
During this period, a task group appointed by the
Director examined the use of our presently occupied
space, and as a result, numerous changes in space
assignments took place. Space assignment will be
under continuous surveillance to ensure we are mak-
ing optimum use of laboratories, offices, and other
space. With completion of the new research facility
at the University of Cincinnati now only 2 years
away, proposed space assignments in it are being
studied and evaluated to ensure the best use of the
new space as well as that of the Robert A. Taft
Research Laboratory after occupancy of the new
building.
Expansion oi Working Relationships with the
University of Cincinnati
To achieve a closer working relationship with the
University of Cincinnati (U.C.) and to bring about
a savings in resources, the services common to both
institutions are constantly being examined for pos-
sible sharing. During 1973, the University and
NERC-Cincinnati entered into a computer software
service contract. Under it, the University provides
NERC-Cincinnati with scientific computer program-
ming, data processing, consulting service, and aid in
laboratory automation projects.
To provide an instrument through which common
interests of professional personnel of the two insti-
tutions could be beneficially explored, symposium
INTERACT took place on December 11 and 12,
1972, on the campus of the University of Cincinnati.
This symposium was planned by a joint subcommittee
of the NERC/U.C. Linking Pin Committee appointed
by the Director of NERC and the President of U.C.
The symposium brought together professionals from
a wide variety of disciplines. Each presented his
own interest and sometimes those of departments or
programs with which he was associated.
During the fall of 1973, a series of graduate sem-
inars in science and engineering was presented by
NERC-Cincinnati and the College of Engineering.
Subjects covered during this series were: Pollution
in the Environment; Effluent Standards Strategy
Rejuvenation of an Old Game Plan; Advanced Waste
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Treatment; Asbestos in the Environment; Allergenic
Pollutants in the Air and Water Environments; Proc-
essing and Disposal of Sludges; New Atmospheric
Pollutants from Automobile Catalytic Converters;
Barriers to the Enforcement of Water Pollution Laws
at the Local and National Level; and Management
of Oil and Hazardous Material Spills.
During two 2-week periods in midsummer, June
17-30 and July 8-21, NERC-Cincinnati and the Uni-
versity, in cooperation with the Cincinnati Federal
Executive Board and the Cincinnati Public Schools,
sponsored a Summer Institute in Environmental Edu-
cation. This Institute was designed to assist junior
and senior high school science teachers develop en-
vironmental studies curricula. Each of the two ses-
sions was limited to 30 secondary science teachers
from Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, West Virginia, South-
ern Illinois, and Western Pennsylvania. The Institute
was funded by a grant from EPA to the University's
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering.
Strengthening of Staff Offices in the Office of the
Director and Providing for Additional Services
to Operating Research Laboratories
One of the prime goals of the Director's Office
during 1973 was to prepare and have accepted a
viable reorganization plan. A task force, appointed
by the Director, submitted a reorganization proposal,
and after several revisions, the plan was submitted
to EPA Headquarters for approval. The plan was
approved on September 14, 1973, and its imple-
mentation is now underway. A more detailed ex-
planation of this reorganization is in the discussion
of the Program Coordination Office.
Another major NERC-Cincinnati goal accom-
plished during 1973 was establishing a closer rela-
tionship with the EPA Regional Offices. During the
year, the Director and persons from his staff and
from the various NERC-Cincinnati laboratories
planned and carried out a series of visits to each
Region. The visits were designed to increase com-
munication with the Regions and to build stronger
and more responsive working relationships.
During the year, the Director's Office procured
two valuable research "tools" for the use of all lab-
oratories. The first was a closed-circuit, color tele-
vision system capable of creating live or taped-on-site
video presentations. The unit will be used for sur-
veillance of laboratory research projects and for
creating technical and nontechnical presentations for
distribution throughout the country. The second is
the purchase of a JEOL Model JEM 100B electron
microscope. This microscope, which is equipped for
scanning or transmission work, also allows for the
use of energy dispersive techniques. Acquiring these
items gives the NERC-Cincinnati researchers the very
latest state-of-the-art tools to conduct their research.
Purchasing these items would have been too costly
for individual laboratories; their purchase by the
Director's Office allows for more uniform use and
availability to all laboratories regardless of their
financial resources.
PROGRAM COORDINATION OFFICE
Two themes dominated the Program Coordination
Office (PCO) efforts in 1973: reorganization and
research program coordination. A summary of each
is described below:
Reorganization
In March 1972, Dr. Breidenbach formed an Or-
ganizational Task Force composed primarily of key
EPA Office of Research and Development (OR&D)
personnel and outside consultants to recommend a
new NERC-Cincinnati organization. The PCO was
the staff arm of the Task Force. After review and
modification, Dr. Breidenbach submitted an organ-
izational plan to the Assistant Administrator for Re-
search and Development that carefully preserved
strengths of the current organization and recom-
mended new organizational approaches to the dy-
namic OR&D program. The new organization:
creates an Industrial Waste Treatment Research
Laboratory, using the present Edison Water
Quality Research Laboratory as a base, sup-
plemented by transfer of the Mine Drainage
Program;
forms a Methods Development and Quality As-
surance Research Laboratory that combines the
present Analytical Quality Control Laboratory,
Radiochemistry and Nuclear Engineering Re-
search Laboratory, and present virology func-
tions of the Advanced Waste Treatment
Research Laboratory;
consolidates all municipal treatment water re-
search activities by reassigning the Edison-based
Storm and Combined Sewer Branch to the Ad-
vanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory;
retains the Environmental Toxicology Research
Laboratory, the Solid and Hazardous Waste
Research Laboratory, and the Water Supply
Research Laboratory with only internal changes;
directs significant internal branch changes within
the laboratories to consolidate like responsi-
bilities and efforts and to eliminate overlaps.
Major advantages of the new organization, which
was activated in October 1973, are a unification of
industrial waste research efforts, consolidation of
analytical methods and monitoring from three lab-
oratories into one, increased interaction of the Pro-
gram Area Managers and the Program Element Di-
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rectors through eliminating multi-laboratory program
element responsibilities, and an overall improvement
of intralaboratory organization.
Research Program Coordination
Significant strides were made to improve and re-
fine NERC-Cincinnati research efforts: intensive
Research Objectives Achievement Program (ROAP)
examinations enabled PCO to recommend specific
actions to reduce duplication and coordinate inter-
faces; management reporting system was designed
and implemented during the fiscal year; research
project report was compiled and distributed to pro-
vide all levels of management with an effective ready
reference for the hundreds of ongoing tasks at
NERC-Cincinnati; rational system for prioritizing re-
search needs was designed and successfully applied
to almost 500 NERC-Cincinnati generated needs;
monthly resources capsule report has been initiated
to provide the NERC-Cincinnati Director with crit-
ical data extracted from a variety of information
sources. PCO has responded to a number of requests
for information including potential research to be
funded by foreign currency programs, FY-75 legis-
lative needs, equipment inventory evaluation, OR&D
overhead review, and many other items. Budgeting
figures and expenditures are channelled through this
office (Tables 1 and 2; Figures 1-3).
TRAVEL.
1.6%
EQUIPMENT
3.3%
ALL OTHER
5.3%
FIGURE 1.
INTRAMURAL
RESEARCH
45.2%
EXTRAMURAL
RESEARCH
Contracts and Grants
54.8%
PERSONNEL SALARES
SAND BENEFITS
350%
WHERE THE NERC-CINCINNATI
DOLLAR GOES. PERCENTAGES ARE
BASED ON THE FY 1973 NERC-
ClNCINNATI RESEARCH BUDGET.
BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH
1AA007 I
METHODS DEVELOPMENT
~~~1BA027 I
MUNICIPAL SEWERED DISCHARGES
1BB033 I
STORM AND COMBINED SEWERS
NON-SEWERED DOMESTIC WASTES
}1BB035
HEAVY INDUSTRIAL SOURCES
11BB036
TRANSPORTATION SOURCES
1B6038|
MIMING SOURCES
16B040 |
OIL AND HAZARDOUS MATERIAL SPILLS
1BB041
TREATMENT PROCESS DEVELOPMENT AND OPTIMIZATION
1BB043
WATER SUPPLY HEALTH EFFECTS
1CA046 I
WATER SUPPLY CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
1CB047 I
WATER SUPPLY TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
|2C2227
BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH
\ 1DA132
COLLECTION & PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
11DB063
DISPOSAL TECHNOLOGY
M3B064|
HAZARDOUS SOLD WASTES
MDB3111
RESOURCE RECOVERY TECHNOLOGY
1DB314 |
MONITORING QUALITY ASSURANCE
11HA327
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 400O
DOLLARS(SIOOO)
FIGURE 2. NERC-CiNciNNATi FY 1973 LEVELS
OF EFFORT (IN $1000) BY PROGRAM
ELEMENT.
PUBLIC AFFAIRS OFFICE
New Facility
The Public Affairs Office (PAO) continued to
keep the NERC-Cincinnati employees informed as
to the progress of the new facility near the Uni-
versity of Cincinnati through Progress Report bulle-
tins. The mailing list for these bulletins included
not only regional and national media but also
interested members of both Houses of Congress.
The President's scheduling office was informed and
acknowledged receipt of a June 1975 completion
date.
Open House
During Earth Week, NERC-Cincinnati sponsored
an extremely successful Open House at the Taft
Laboratory, which featured guided tours, literature
displays, exhibits, movies, and slides. It was de-
cided that the Open House, which was attended
by over 700 individuals of all ages, will be con-
tinued on at least a semiannual basis. It provides
an excellent vehicle through which to acquaint high
school students with environmental problems and
their solutions. Media coverage for the event was
excellent.
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TABLE 1. NERC-CINCINNATI BUDGET FOR FY 1973 (in $1000)
Laboratory / Office
OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR
ADVANCED WASTE TREATMENT RESEARCH LABORATORY
Treatment process development
Mining sources of pollution
Municipal sewered discharges
Methods development
Nonsewered domestic wastes
Total
ANALYTICAL QUALITY CONTROL LABORATORY
Methods development
Methods standardization
Total
EDISON WATER QUALITY RESEARCH LABORATORY
Oil and hazardous material spills
Storm and combined sewers
Transportation sources of pollution
Heavy industrial sources of pollution
Total
ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY RESEARCH LABORATORY
Biomedical research
RADIOCHEMISTRY & NUCLEAR ENGINEERING RESEARCH
LABORATORY
Radiochemical measurements
SOLID WASTE RESEARCH LABORATORY
Disposal technology
Resource recovery
Hazardous solid wastes
Collection/processing technology
Behavioral research
Total
WATER SUPPLY RESEARCH LABORATORY
Health effects
Control technology
Technical assistance
Total
Total NERC-Cincinnati
Intramural
$ 771
1,980
416
294
222
42
2,954
917
263
1,180
525
161
84
96
866
1,120
136
464
264
94
146
135
1,103
1,316
634
393
2,343
10,473
Extramural
$
2,028
1,898
814
275
5,015
64
64
2,781
2,408
417
311
5,917
225
397
356
284
170
1,207
178
110
288
12,716
Total
$ 771
4,008
2,314
1,108
497
42
7,969
981
263
1,244
3,306
2,569
501
407
6,783
1,345
136
861
620
378
316
135
2,310
1,494
744
393
2,631
23,189
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TABLE 2. NERC-CINCINNATI BUDGET FOR FY 1974 (in $1000)
Laboratory/Office Intramural Extramural Total
OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR $ 769 $ $ 769
ADVANCED WASTE TREATMENT RESEARCH LABORATORY
Treatment process development 2,435 2,210 4,645
Storm and combined sewers 163 1,734 1,897
Municipal sewered discharges 315 360 675
Nonsewered domestic wastes 63 300 363
Total 2,976 4,604 7,580
ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY RESEARCH LABORATORY
Biomedical research 1,185 125 1,310
INDUSTRIAL WASTE TREATMENT RESEARCH LABORATORY
Oil and hazardous material spills 1,007 2,157 3,164
Mining sources of pollution 488 1,540 2,028
Heavy industrial sources 204 505 709
Transportation sources 32 19 51
Total 1,731 4,221 5,952
METHODS DEVELOPMENT AND QUALITY ASSURANCE
RESEARCH LABORATORY
Methods development 1,150 365 1,515
Monitoring quality assurance 384 384
Total 1,534 365 1,899
SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE RESEARCH LABORATORY
Disposal technology 299 663 962
Collection/processing technology 89 385 474
Hazardous solid wastes 85 210 295
Behavioral research 65 65
Total 538 1,258 1,796
WATER SUPPLY RESEARCH LABORATORY
Health effects - 1,529 379 1,908
Control technology 440 140 580
Technical assistance 403 403
Total 2,372 519" 2,891
Total NERC-Cincinnati 11,105 11,092 22,197
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]_$135,000 - IMPLEMENTATION RESEARCH
~\ $399,000 - MONITORING
$407,000 - INDUSTRIAL WATER CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
~~| $771,000 - PROGRAM MANAGEMENT
$1,345,000 - HEALTH EFFECTS
$1,478,000 - MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION
$2,175,000 - SOLID WASTE TECHNOLOGY
I $2,238,000- WATER SUPPLY
$6,121,000 - NONPOINT SOURCE
WATER CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
r~
1M
i
2M
r
3M
$7,727,000 - MUNICIPAL WATER CONTROL
r~
6M
i-
7M
TECHNOLOGY
4M 5M
DOLLARS, MILLIONS
FIGURE 3. EXPENDITURES BY PROGRAM AREA AT NERC-CINCINNATI IN FY 1973.
i
8M
Foreign Visitors
PAO increased its participation in the handling,
scheduling, and media exposure of important visitors
to the NERC-Cincinnati facilities. Of particular
note were the Japanese teams for Mission on En-
vironmental Issues, the German Ministry of Interior,
the Water Conservation Delegation from the Peoples
Republic of China, and two groups of scientists
from the Soviet Union. (The section on Interna-
tional Activities discusses the foreign visitors in
detail.)
Federal Executive Board
In 1973, the Director of PAO took on the addi-
tional duties of the Public Affairs Officer for the
Cincinnati Federal Executive Board (FEB). High-
lights of these FEB activities included a Consumer
Fair at Tri-County Shopping Center, Federal Em-
ployees' Day at Kings Island, and support given
the Cost of Living Council regional meeting. As
PAO of NERC-Cincinnati and of the FEB, the
PAO also assisted with the Summer Institute in
Environmental Education at the University of Cin-
cinnati; the teachers who attended the sessions have
been contacted and offered assistance so that effec-
tive courses in environmental education can be made
available in their classes.
Liaison
The PAO, by maintaining and developing con-
tacts in EPA offices in Washington and the Regions,
has been able to keep Dr. Breidenbach informed on
current issues. The contacts and liaison developed
with the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, local
officials, Congressional delegation, and the White
House have been continued throughout 1973.
CIVIL RIGHTS AND URBAN AFFAIRS
OFFICE
During 1973, the Civil Rights and Urban Affairs
Office (CRUAO), in cooperation with the Per-
sonnel Management Division, conducted an Equal
Employment Opportunity (EEO) Seminar for man-
agers and supervisors acquainting the participants
with the primary objectives of the equal employment
opportunity objectives of NERC-Cincinnati. Most
managers and supervisors attended the seminar.
This initial EEO Seminar launched a management
training program that, by year's end, had exposed
all of NERC-Cincinnati management and many of
its supervisory personnel to specific management
training in many diverse areas. The overall result
has been an intensified effort to amplify manage-
ment's commitment to equal opportunity in several
areas: recruitment and placement of minorities and
women in University of Cincinnati co-op positions
at NERC-Cincinnati and greater participation in
special program areas such as Summer Aid Pro-
gram (62 students) and Stay-in-School Program (10
students). These programs provide part-time em-
ployment for college students and disadvantaged
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high school youth whose education might otherwise
be curtailed without the funds provided by these
jobs. Similarly, valuable on-the-job training aids
in the maturing process of the young people.
CRUAO participated in Wilberforce University's
2nd Annual Career Symposium by providing a work-
shop acquainting co-op students with the role of
the Federal government as an employer, career op-
portunities with EPA, and their responsibilities in
the community and in the world of work.
CRUAO assisted EPA's Mobile Source Pollution
Control Laboratory (MSPCL), Ann Arbor, Michi-
gan, in establishing an EEO Program. The MSPCL
management staff was very receptive to the objec-
tives of the EEO team conducting the initial train-
ing sessions.
As the initial phase of the NERC-Cincinnati
Upward Mobility Program, a Skills Inventory Sur-
vey was conducted among employees in grades
GS-1 through 7 and WG-1 through 5 to assess the
under-utilized skills available in the workforce. The
second phase involved career counseling of the
participating employees to obtain more specific in-
formation about their aspirations and goals. During
FY 1974, the third phase will take place dis-
cussions between career counselors and supervisors
to ascertain the feasibility of training employees
or the type of training that will enable employees
who qualify to participate in phase four. With the
approval of the U.S. Civil Service Commission,
phase four will establish the Upward Mobility Pro-
gram that will set-up "bridge positions" and "career
ladders" to enhance promotional opportunities at
NERC-Cincinnati.
OFFICE OF ADMINISTRATION*
The Office of Administration (OA), with 133
employees, provides support services to the NERC-
Cincinnati, other EPA organizations located in Cin-
cinnati, and various installations not in Cincinnati.
The services include personnel, contracting, facili-
ties management, safety, library, financial manage-
ment, and computer services and systems.
In addition to the day-to-day support services
listed above, the OA is active in efforts to develop
EPA's relationship with other sectors of the scientific
community and the local universities. An example
of our continuing effort to work as a part of the
Cincinnati community is our sponsorship of a Junior
Achievement Company during the past year. This
company, Terramco, was composed of local youth
The organizational relationship of the Office of Administration to
Headquarters is through the Deputy Assistant Administrator for Admin-
istration, Assistant Administrator for Planning and Management, U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
and was given support and advice by a four-person
EPA team of volunteers.
During the year, the relationship between EPA
and U.C. has strengthened and grown to the
mutual benefit of both organizations. A specific
example of a joint activity sponsored by both or-
ganizations (through the Linking Pin Committee
whose formation the OA had spearheaded) would
be the INTERACT symposium. This symposium
was held to encourage personnel from both organ-
izations to become better acquainted; this, in turn,
will lead to increased sharing of scientific knowledge.
Other U.C.-EPA joint activities involving the OA
include hiring of U.C. students through a Coopera-
tive Agreement and a College Work-Study Agree-
ment; the University's use of noted EPA scientists
as Adjunct Professors to teach at U.C.; and the
EPA-funded - U.C.-sponsored Summer Environ-
mental Education Institute.
In addition to the nonroutine accomplishments
of the Office highlighted above, each Division in
Administration has made headway in significant
areas during the year. These accomplishments are
presented in the following narrative.
Personnel Management
The Personnel Management office made many
breakthroughs in 1973 that are helping EPA in
Cincinnati to operate more smoothly and produc-
tively. Our new Suggestion System has resulted in
a 100 percent increase in the number of suggestions.
A suggestion to modify lighting fixture panels at
the Ridge facility netted us a $39,000 savings in
replacement costs of the fixtures. The Personnel
office facilitated the hiring, during the summer, of
100 high school students to work in our various
laboratories. A new use was made of the Inter-
governmental Personnel Act: employees were tem-
porarily assigned from a Federal agency to State
and local governments. In the past, the Act has
only been used to assign personnel from State and
local governments to Federal agencies. The advan-
tage of these assignments is that talents of high
quality, skilled employees may be shared.
Computer Services and Systems
The Computer Services and Systems division
operates the EPA-Cincinnati Computer Center,
which provides a full range of computer services.
A significant project, initiated by the division, is a
long-range plan to develop a total, computerized,
laboratory automation system for EPA laboratories
in Cincinnati. This system will improve both the
quantity and quality of work in the labs as well as
provide new and improved research capabilities.
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This developmental effort is expected to have gen-
eral application throughout EPA. and as part of
this project, a continuing education program on
laboratory automation topics is being coordinated
by the division.
Financial Management
Our Financial Management branch has been able.
in the past year, to sort through the bushels of finan-
cial data coming to them daily and still have the
initiative to institute new and more efficient systems
to control funds and pay the Agency's bills! The
branch developed a reporting system for travel
advances to employees that allows outstanding indi-
vidual travel advances to be reported in a number
of different formats. The improved reporting has
enabled a closer review of fund control on advances
and has permitted the EPA research programs to
have access to this hitherto unavailable "informa-
tion. Another major improvement in the finance
area, which added new responsibilities, to the branch.
resulted from the Agency's integration of record
keeping, financial reporting, and fund control proc-
esses. The new system, which was successfully put
into operation in Cincinnati, made mechanized
record keeping accessible to the research programs
and. thereby, made possible more accuracy and
savings in the manhours spent on record keeping.
Library
This year the Library has automated many of its
operations the book catalog, original cataloging.
the circulation system, and various mailing and fife
records. The advantage of automation is that accu-
racy is increased and labor costs are reduced. In
fact, even with a two-position decrease in person-
nel, the services to the Cincinnati and to the other
EPA laboratories across the country supported by
the NERC-Cincinnati Library have increased. Per-
haps the most important service that has been
automated is searching literature for document titles.
Through this service, the time normally spent by
researchers hunting through journals for informa-
tion needed to perform their work is significantly
reduced. Over 2.000 computerized searches were
performed by the Library last year - more than
was performed by any other Federal agency.
Contracts Management
The Contracts Management division provides
support to EPA laboratories in Las Vegas, Nevada:
Corvallis. Oregon; and Ann Arbor. Michigan, in
addition to EPA-Cincinnati. The workload of the
other-than-Cincinnati labs has largely been taken
on without a proportionate increase in personnel.
Because of this, the Division has been highlv te-
N
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sourceful this year in finding and implementing
mechanisms to decrease the workload without de-
creasing the quality of work. Two of these
mechanisms are of most importance: intensive train-
ing courses for contracts personnel and develop-
ment of the oral purchase order procedure. The
training courses serve to increase each employee's
productivity without increasing the hours worked.
The oral purchase order procedure, for low-dollar-
value purchases, serves four functions, all of which
save time and money: vendor response is immediate;
typing of orders and purchasing agent reviews are
eliminated: mailing orders to vendors is eliminated;
and clerical efforts can be diverted to other needed
areas. The procedure has already saved at least 2
man-years of effort at NERC-Cincinnati. All other
major purchasing offices in EPA are now using the
procedure, to a similar benefit.
The New NERC-Cincinnati Facility
The estimated completion date of the new EPA
facility. located adjacent to the U.C. campus, is
still projected for July of 1975.
All EPA personnel in the Ridge facility. Laidlaw
facility, Broadway facility. Federal Office Build-
ing, and the Virginia Avenue and the Center Hill
facilities will relocate to either the Robert A. Taft
Laboratory or the new facility.
The new facility is a 10-story structure, rising
8 stories above grade, in the southeast sector of an
almost rectangular 20-acrc tract in the Corryville
section of Cincinnati. Ohio. The site, which is
bounded by Nixon, Vine, and St. Clair Streets, and
the rear property line of houses on Bishop Street
is strategically located between the main campus
of the University of Cincinnati on the southwest
and the hospital-medical complex, dominated by the
Cincinnati General Hospital, on the northeast. The
site straddles a ridge that extends diagonally through
the site in a northwesterly direction toward the
Mill Creek Valley.
The building will be located on the ridge at the
highest point of the site to take advantage of the
view afforded in all directions. The apex of the
L-shaped high-rise section is close to the center of
the site, with the wings extending to the east and
south. In this location, the building will serve as
a focal point for motorists going northward along
Jefferson Avenue. The main entrance road will
extend northward from St. Clair Street opposite
Jefferson Avenue, at the south boundary of the site.
The needed parking space will be separated into
five areas, two of which, at the west side of the site.
can be enlarged to accompany future expansion
of the facility. Access to the main employees'
entrance will be across a paved terrace outside the
October
November
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January, 1974
apex of the buildings. Pedestrian walkways extend
from this terrace to the parking areas, and westward
toward adjacent Burnet Woods.
The main L-shaped building is based upon the
concept of a 10-foot by 23-foot module. Certain
special functional spaces between the wings of the
main building, such as the computer room and the
library, are based on a 5-foot-square module.
Each module is adjacent to a central service core
or to an exterior vertical chase. All exhaust ducts.
all service piping for liquids and gases, and all
electrical feeders for service to laboratory furniture
and equipment are located in the cores and chases.
which will be sized and arranged for required main-
tenance, additions, and modifications to the piping
and ductwork and to the electrical system. Supply
air to laboratory modules is from main ducts in
circulation corridors. A separate air supply from
ducts in the service cores and vertical chases is
provided for auxiliary air-type fume hoods. In
addition, vertical chases contain laboratory waste
and vent lines, and piping for cold water, hot
water, natural gas. \acuuming. compressed air. and
(in some chases) steam and condensate. Similar
facilities, plus distilled water, are provided in the
central service cores where additional space will
be available for unforeseen additions and changes
to piping, duct, and electrical systems.
Future expansion is planned as two 4-story build-
ings located to the north and west of the main
building, as indicated on the site plan. These
buildings will provide an additional 50 percent
or more space. Placement of the expansion
buildings parallel to and approximately 65 feet
away from the main building will minimize disturb-
ance to the main building during their construction.
Their location will define the paved entry court that
will provide the access for all three building units.
The expansion units would also have entrances
from adjacent parking areas and would be linked
to the main building by bridges at an upper floor.
The space between the main building and the ex-
pansion units would be treated as courtyard space.
During the early months of construction in 1973
(January. February, March, and April), an unusual
amount of rain slowed the progress of the new
facility considerably. In the last 4 months, the
weather has cooperated and almost unbelievable
progress has been made. The building is well out
of the ground. The floor slabs for the first four
floors have been completed.
The Program of Requirements for the unassigned
space in this facility has been completed. This study
identifies the needs of each program as to the amount
10
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of space (laboratory, office, and special purpose),
configuration of the space, and also the type of
laboratory furniture required. The architect/engi-
neer is now in the process of revising the construc-
tion drawings to agree with the new Program of
Requirements. These drawings are scheduled for
completion in January 1974, and at that time, every-
one will be able to see exactly where he or she
will be located in the new building.
TECHNICAL INFORMATION OFFICE
Research without communication is like bottling
the product and then not distributing it. The aim
of the Technical Information Office (TIO) of NERC-
Cincinnati is to aid this communication process
through its three continuing services editorial,
graphics, and television. The TIO seeks to inform
the technical and scientific communities of industry,
government, and education of the research per-
formed at NERC-Cincinnati in its programs related
to advanced waste treatment, environmental toxicol-
ogy (air), industrial waste treatment, methods
development and quality assurance, solid and haz-
ardous waste, and water supply.
Editorial and Publications
The editorial staff is responsible for editing and
evaluating manuscripts intended as reports, symposia
proceedings, and journal articles. It coordinates the
issuance of the reports from the inception phase to
the printing process and through to the final pro-
duction. It provides policy guidelines and coor-
dinates final clearance for all NERC-Cincinnati
publications.
During the year, the TIO has edited and cleared
245 publications resulting from contracts, grants.
and in-house studies (Figure 4). Close liaison was
maintained with the Printing Specialist (Facilities
Management & Services Division) who arranged for
11
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the prompt and effective composition and printing
of research publications.
In May 1973, "News of Environmental Research
in Cincinnati," a pertinent fact sheet of the environ-
mental research being conducted in Cincinnati, was
started. Fourteen issues have been published; each
outlines various research efforts of the NERC-Cin-
cinnati laboratories and describes how they are
being handled. The reception given this publication
has been gratifying, as individual requests have con-
tinued to increase since its inception. These requests
and mailing lists for mass mailings are handled from
the Publications Distribution Unit of the TIO.
CO
H
OL
DC
O
CO
DC
111
DO
100 1
80-
60-
40-
20
SPEECHES
REPORTS
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ERIODICALS
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90 74 67 14
FIGURE 4. MANUSCRIPTS PROCESSED THROUGH
THE TECHNICAL INFORMATION STAFF,
JANUARY-OCTOBER 1973.
The TIO published a bibliography, "Environ-
mental Research Publications," listing reports and
publications of NERC-Cincinnati. It compiled and
prepared the "Annual Report for 1972" and assisted
in compiling and preparing for printing conference
proceedings on the "Cycling and Control of Metals";
"Symposium INTERACT"; "National Environ-
mental Information Symposium, Summary Report,
Volume 1"; and "Proceedings Second U.S.-Japan
Conference on Sewage Technology." Three manuals
"Procedures for the Radiochemical Analysis of
Nuclear Reactor Aqueous Solutions"; "Physical,
Chemical, and Microbiological Methods of Solid
Waste Testing"; and "Biological Field and Labora-
tory Methods for Measuring Water Quality" were
edited and published.
Editorial and graphics assistance was given to
the EPA's Office of Planning and Evaluation for the
"Clean Water - Report to Congress, 1973," a report
transmitted to the U.S. Congress as required by
Section 516(a) of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act.
Most reporting at NERC-Cincinnati is in the
form of professional journal articles rather than
as technical reports. Distribution of these reprints,
both internally and in response to requests, is an
important function in the Office. In addition to
updating a mailing list of 7,000, nearly 5,000 re-
quests were received and 20,000 pieces of tech-
nical literature were sent to the technical com-
munity and concerned citizens in 1973.
Graphic Arts
Visual communication plays an important role in
communicating the research efforts of NERC-Cin-
cinnati, and the Graphics Unit in the TIO carries
out the scientific and administrative visual infor-
mation aspects of all EPA programs in Cincinnati.
Services include providing illustrations, photographic
services, visual aids, slides, and exhibits covering a
wide variety of complex technical, scientific, and
specialized information material.
The members of the graphic arts staff work with
the program officials, writer-editors, and printers
in developing materials for publication, television,
and slide presentations.
During 1973, advice and assistance was given to
all programs for many projects, such as an up-to-
date photo and color-slide presentation of con-
struction progress of the new National Environ-
mental Research Center near U.C., or the layout,
design, and construction of a 4- x 8-foot, full-color,
illustrative display for the Cincinnati Public Library's
Environmental Information Room.
Major graphics operations 'have included pre-
paring 1,700 drawings for technical publications
and presentations; 3,600 black and white and
colored slides for special seminars, training, televi-
sion productions, and technical presentations; and
100 photographic assignments (filming, developing,
and printing for 450 photographs) for technical and
nontechnical reports, news releases, and special
presentations. Over 500 miscellaneous charts, forms,
paste-ups, full-color television visuals, signs, and
name tags were produced.
Television
Television productions are used at NERC-Cin-
cinnati to orient and inform foreign and domestic
visitors and for educational and training purposes.
12
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All productions are recorded on tape for repeated
showings.
The TIO and National Training Center are co-
operating to produce tapes to be used by employees
of NERC-Cincinnati as well as by trainees. Twelve
tapes have been produced for the different labora-
-tories describing laboratory techniques and how to
operate specific pieces of equipment. Two tapes
on oil identification and spills were made and tele-
vision production consultation was given to the
Edison Water Quality Research Laboratory. Six
tapes were made for the Office of Administration
on the themes of preparing travel authorization,
employee retirement, and the research library's
skills and services.
Present plans include exploring work accomplish-
ments of the specific laboratories at the Center, and
a TV tape is now being produced that will intro-
duce NERC-Cincinnati and its laboratory directors
and explain its mission.
The Television Unit offers complete production
services in color or black and white. This capability
includes tapes for film segments, slides, and studio
taping; these can readily be adapted to create a
production tape.
Production requires script writing, editing, and
technical expertise in recording and sound. The
editorial and graphics staff members of the TIO
cooperate with each other to assist the Television
Unit in taping their productions.
NERC Relationships
Nonresearch components of the Environmental
Protection Agency also have activities in Cincin-
nati, Ohio: the National Field Investigations Center,
a Division of the Office of Enforcement and Gen-
eral Counsel; and the National Training Center
under the Water Programs Operations Office. The
Office of the Director of the National Environmental
Research Center furnishes these organizations with
administrative and other support services through
the Office of Administration. Program direction is
provided from the cognizant Assistant Administra-
tors' offices in Headquarters.
Over 200 foreign visitors have visited this Center.
A small number of foreign scientists have also re-
ceived training at the Cincinnati facility. NERC
staff have been called upon for consultation and
assistance on international matters. The World
Health Organization sought and received assistance
in furthering environmental activities in Poland.
NERC-Cincinnati staff maintains a continuous
communication and information exchange with the
other three NERC's.
13
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Dewatering of wastewater sludges using a filter press.
Upgrading trickling filter - Richardson. Texas.
Centrifugation of wastewater sludges.
Ozone treatment of wastewater.
Use of wastewater sludge on land.
14
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ADVANCED WASTE TREATMENT RESEARCH LABORATORY
The advanced waste treatment program was ini-
tiated in Cincinnati in 1960 in response to the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act. Until EPA
was established in December 1970, research had
been conducted under the auspicies of the U. S.
Public Health Service and, later, the Department of
the Interior.
The Advanced Waste Treatment Research Lab-
oratory (AWTRL) develops new methods and im-
proves existing methods for wastewater treatment
and reuse. Most of the studies are centered on
municipal wastewater treatment; however, much of
the methodology is also adaptable to treatment sys-
tems for industrial and agricultural wastewaters.
For most of 1973, the Mine Drainage Pollution
Control activities, which will be discussed in more
detail later, have been included under AWTRL.
MUNICIPAL POLLUTION CONTROL
RESEARCH
Areas of interest to AWTRL include removing
oxygen-demanding materials and algal nutrient
such as phosphorus and ammonia and nitrate nitro-
gen from municipal wastewater, destroying patho-
gens including viruses, improving techniques for
handling and removing sludge, and renovating and
reusing wastewater. Included in the area of tech-
nology development is the instrumentation and auto-
mated control that are needed for dependable
operation. Cost effectiveness is an important factor
in all technology development, and the economic
feasibility of technology is investigated on a con-
tinuing basis to ensure that practicable treatment
methods will result.
Extramural and intramural efforts are combined
to carry out the program. Research contracts and
grants are utilized in the earlier stages of develop-
ment; demonstration grants are available for
evaluation of processes and systems at full scale.
Intramural work includes initial feasibility studies,
special analytical studies, and pilot-plant investi-
gations. In addition to pilot facilities at the Cin-
cinnati laboratory, pilot plants are operated in
cooperation with municipalities at Washington,
D. C.; Lebanon, Ohio; and Pomona, California.
Although the intramural staff was recently reas-
signed from the Pomona facility, plant operation
will continue under contract with the Los Angeles
County Sanitation Districts. Some of the work at
the District of Columbia-EPA pilot plant is carried
out under contract with the District of Columbia.
Biological Treatment Technology
Work was continued on a number of projects
aimed at improving the cost effectiveness of biologi-
cal treatment methods to remove organics. In
addition, study was begun to determine how to in-
crease the effectiveness of treatment lagoons.
Lagoon Upgrading
Of all conventional secondary treatment processes,
lagoons will have the most difficulty in routinely
producing an effluent that will meet the newly
promulgated secondary treatment standards. Season-
al algal blooms can drastically increase suspended
solids and organic carbon concentrations in lagoon
effluents. Algae removal presents a challenging task
because of the unicellular nature of many algae
species. The first projects of an intensive multi-
phase lagoon upgrading research and development
program were begun in 1973. In these studies, an
attempt will be made to reduce algae and other
suspended solids in lagoon effluents to satisfactorily
low levels. The upgrading techniques initially being
evaluated include an intermittent, slow sand filter
(Utah State University); a slow rock filter (University
of Kansas); and spreading lagoon effluent on land
(Utah State University). These techniques were
selected because they offer potential for cost-effec-
tive solutions compatible with the limited resources
of small rural communities. Future planned proj-
ects will examine year-round performance of several
lagoon configurations in different climates, methods
of improving organic removal during cold weather,
nutrient control, and disinfection requirements.
New Development in Activated Sludge Separation
A novel proprietary device of the FMC Corpora-
tion has been tested as a substitute for or as an aid
to the conventional gravity clarifier that separates
activated sludge from mixed liquor. The device is
15
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a rotating drum strainer equipped with an ultra-
sonic cleaner. The primary-stage strainer is im-
mersed vertically in the aeration tank with 6 to 18
inches of head. Rotational speed can vary from
30 to 120 rpm. Direction of flow is from outside
to inside with strained activated sludge solids being
retained in the aeration tank. On a recent con-
tract project, the strainer was tested over a range
of mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) concen-
trations from 3,000 to 12,000 mg/liter. With a
10-micron stainless steel fabric, the primary strainer
produced effluent concentrations of 20 to 30 mg/
liter at a surface loading of 0.122 cubic meter per
day per square meter (3 gpm per square foot) and
50 to 100 mg/liter at a surface loading of 0.41 to
0.49 cubic meter per day per square foot (10 to 12
gpm per square foot). Directing the primary strainer
effluent through a second-stage strainer located out-
side the aerator in a small receiver tank approxi-
mately halved the remaining suspended solids. A
follow-on contract will investigate other second-
stage polishing techniques for removing residual
solids from the primary strainer effluent including
direct settling, coagulation/sedimentation, direct fil-
tration, and coagulation/filtration. Potential appli-
cations for the mixed-liquor strainer include using
it: as a replacement of the first-stage clarifier in a
two-stage nitrification system; to reduce mass load-
ing on overloaded secondary clarifiers; to upgrade
overloaded aerators by permitting maintenance of
higher MLSS levels without attendant increase in
clarifier mass loading; and as a direct replacement
for final clarifiers when operated at conservative sur-
face loadings.
Oxygen Aeration Demonstrations
Full-scale, covered-tank, oxygen activated sludge
demonstrations are nearing completion in New York
City and Las Virgenes, California. Operation over
a wide range of loading conditions has verified the
high-rate capabilities of the process. On the Union
Carbide multistage, gas recycle system at the New-
town Creek plant hi Brooklyn, efficient secondary
treatment has been achieved at nominal aeration
detention times of 50 to 60 minutes in the summer
and 80 to 90 minutes in the winter. Similar results
have been experienced with the Cordon Interna-
tional single-stage, gas-recycle system at Las Vir-
genes with aeration detention times as low as 2
hours (minimum detention time possible with avail-
able plant flow). Preliminary data from the FMC
open-tank pilot-plant oxygenation study recently be-
gun in Denver, Colorado, indicate this unique proc-
ess will soon be ready for full-scale implementation
and, thereby, expand oxygen-activated sludge alter-
natives available to the design engineer.
Tube Settler Study
In a 1-year, full-scale demonstration of tube set-
tlers at the 1.1 mgd Lebanon, Ohio, wastewater
treatment plant, the effluent suspended solids were
50 percent less than those from a conventional
clarifier operated under the same loading condi-
tions.
Physical-Chemical Treatment
Physical-chemical methods for treating waste-
water have been investigated throughout the history
of the advanced waste treatment program. Initially,
however, strong emphasis was placed on utilizing
these treatment methods following conventional
biological treatment to upgrade effluent quality.
More recently, the concept of completely replacing
the biological system with physical-chemical methods
has evolved, because biological systems are suscepti-
ble to upset especially when industrial wastes
that are toxic to microorganisms occur in the raw
sewage. The past year has seen significant strides
made in the acceptance of physical-chemical sys-
tems as a substitute for biological systems. Some
22 plants, planned or under construction, will em-
ploy processes developed under the advanced waste
treatment program. One of the plants (Rocky River,
near Cleveland, Ohio) is nearing completion. This
plant, supported by EPA research and construction
grant funds, will be one of the first large-scale
demonstrations of physical-chemical treatment of
municipal wastewaters. On a smaller scale, at Free-
hold, New Jersey, a physical-chemical system has
been used to treat wastewater from a housing devel-
opment. The plant is in a house located near and
similar to others in the development. Full-scale
evaluation has been underway since July 1973.
Typical effluent characteristics are: BOD, < 2 mg/
liter; suspended solids, 1 mg/liter; COD, 20 mg/
liter; phosphorus, 1 mg/liter; MPN, < 1/100 milli-
liter. This project will evaluate the feasibility of
this system treatment in semi-rural areas far from
a centralized sewer system.
A major demonstration facility nearing comple-
tion in Rosemount, Minnesota, will exclusively em-
ploy physical-chemical methods to reduce solids,
organics, phosphorus, and ammonia to very low
levels. Ammonia will be removed by the selective
ion exchange or clinoptilolite process.
A technical feasibility study on the use of
powdered rather than granular carbon is nearing
conclusion at Salt Lake City. Previous work had
shown that powdered carbon in reasonable dosages
could treat chemically pretreated wastewater using
countercurrent slurry contacting. It has now also
been shown that powdered carbon can be regen-
16
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crated with the use of a fluidized-bed type of fur-
nace, whose development had been supported by
the advanced waste treatment program from incep-
tion of design to prototype operation.
An environmental first in physical-chemical treat-
ment was achieved this year at Pomona when the
exhausted carbon from a physical-chemical system
treating raw sewage was successfully regenerated
after 20 months of continuous operation. Total
carbon loading at the time of regeneration was
over four times that previously obtained with tertiary
carbon adsorption.
A new, short-contact time, single-stage, low-pH.
lime clarification system was successfully operated
at the Blue Plains pilot plant. A 30 percent savings
in capital and operating costs is projected for this
system over that of a two-stage, lime precipitation
system. Operation of a single-stage system has
proved difficult on low alkalinity water.
Three 5-gpm physical-chemical systems have been
constructed at the Cincinnati facility and will serve
to study: the removal of metals and nonmetallic
contaminants from wastewater, the effect of pH
on carbon adsorption, and the capability of the sys-
tem to remove hazardous synthetic organic chemi-
cals. The production of 138 billion pounds of
synthetic organics in the United States in 1970 lends
urgency to this study.
Nutrient Removal
Processes to control nitrogen and phosphorus in
municipal wastewater effluents were operated at both
pilot-plant and full-scale facilities during 1973.
Pilot work, conducted at experimental sites in
Cincinnati, Blue Plains (D.C.), and Pomona, Califor-
nia, covered such techniques as control of phos-
phorus in extended-aeration plants, oxygen aeration
and nitrification in suspended growth reactors, use
of attached growths in columns for nitrification of
both biological and physical/chemical effluents, and
combined nitrification and denitrification in a single
sludge process. The latter process is of interest
because it eliminates the need for methanol, which
must be added when denitrification is carried out
as a separate process.
Full-scale facilities that have been evaluated in-
clude Hatfield Township, Pennsylvania, and El Lago,
Texas. Hatfield Township is a 14,000 cubic meter
per day (3.6 mgd) plant that employs lime addition
to the primary clarifier and tertiary alum coagula-
tion, followed by multi-media filtration for phos-
phorus control. Residual phosphorus in the plant
effluent is 0.1 to 0.2 mg/liter.
The El Lago plant is a 1,900 cubic meter per
day (0.5 mgd) system that controls both nitrogen
and phosphorus. Phosphorus is precipitated in the
primary clarifier by ferric iron and polymer; nitrifi-
cation is accomplished in a second-stage suspended
growth reactor. Nitrogen removal is by biological
denitrification on packed columns. The effluent is
filtered before discharge. The total residual nitro-
gen content of the effluent is about 2 mg/liter.
A recent survey of EPA regional construction
grant activity revealed that 55 plants are in the
design or construction phase for nitrogen control
processes. Of this total, 45 are employing biological
systems and 10 are utilizing some type of physical-
chemical process such as breakpoint chlorination or
ion-exchange.
A national survey of phosphorus control imple-
mentation shows that 112 plants are being con-
structed for chemical supplementation to provide
for phosphorus removal. Sixty-six plants are op-
erational.
Ultimate Disposal
Ultimate disposal is concerned with the handling,
processing, transporting, and disposing of sludges
and brines removed from wastewater treatment proc-
esses. The emphasis has been on sludge disposal.
Brine disposal is presently of less interest because
large-scale implementation of brine-producing de-
mineralization methods is not anticipated to occur
in the near future.
Although sludge is often mistakenly considered to
be solid waste, it actually contains far more water
than solids. Removing this water, or devising a new
way to bypass the water removal step, is one of the
most important problems in sludge disposal. For
final disposal, the primary methods are incineration,
landfill including "permanent" lagoons, and land
spreading. Sludge disposed to landfill or to the
land must be stabilized to reduce its infection po-
tential and its tendency to decompose quickly. New
technology, particularly physical-chemical treat-
ment, is producing sludges for which new proc-
essing techniques are sometimes required. The
program has devoted major effort towards finding
new approaches to'these problems, but it is also
providing information that will improve reliability
of existing procedures and design methods.
Sludge Treatment
An improved dewatering method in which a
vacuum filter is modified to operate in a top-feed
mode has been investigated on a pilot scale at
Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The Milwaukee Sewerage
Commission has been granted funds to evaluate the
performance of a top-feed filter on full scale. West-
inghouse has completed experimental work on their
17
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capillary suction filter, which shows great promise
for dewatering waste-activated sludge at a high rate.
Pilot studies have indicated dewatering rates of 6
pounds per hour per square foot or greater and
dewatered sludge with at least 16 percent solids.
Conditioning chemical requirements are less than for
vacuum filtration of the sludge. A grant has been
awarded to the City of St. Charles, Illinois, to
demonstrate the use of this device at full scale. A
grant to Cedar Rapids, Iowa, has demonstrated that
incinerator ash may be used as a filter aid for pres-
sure filtration of sewage sludge. The resulting cake
is so dry that no supplementary fuel is required to
incinerate it.
Very effective use of limited resources resulted
when AWTRL funded the publication of two reports
on valuable research supported by sources other
than EPA. In these cases, the researchers had not
intended to make their results generally available.
One funded report described the extensive investi-
gation Los Angeles County made of alternative
schemes for dewatering digested sludges. The other
report described innovative work by Brown and
Caldwell Engineers for Contra Costa County, Cali-
fornia, on the successful use of centrifuges to sepa-
rate recoverable calcium carbonate from a primary-
lime sludge and then to dewater the waste sludge.
In both of these cases, work that was destined for
very limited distribution, but pertinent to the goals
of the program, was made generally available to
municipalities and the engineering profession.
A Task Force Report on Sludge Disposal, pre-
pared by staff in EPA's Offices of Research and
Development and Air and Water Programs, was dis-
tributed widely in FY 1973. It was prepared to aid
EPA in planning an overall research program and
in identifying major EPA policy issues with regard
to sludge disposal. The sludge analysis work, which
was begun to provide the Task Force with basic
information on the substances found hi sludge, has
been continued and benchmark data on heavy metal,
polychlorinated biphenyl, and insecticide concen-
trations in sewage sludge has also been collected.
Progress has been made in developing informa-
tion on processes to stabilize sludge, other than the
sensitive process of anaerobic digestion. Aerobic
stabilization investigations conducted on a plant
scale at Denver, Colorado, have provided valuable
information on cost and effect of process variables.
Stabilization of sludges by lime addition has been
investigated by contract with Battelle-Northwest.
The reports of these contracts, which are due in
FY 1974, will provide information of great value
for process design.
Many wastewater treatment plants, particularly
those in the Great Lakes region, are being required
to add chemicals that precipitate phosphate and re-
move it from the wastewater. The mass of sludge is
increased and its dewatering properties are drasti-
cally changed. Accurate predictions of sludge quan-
tities and dewatering rates are important so that
correctly sized equipment of the most suitable type
will be selected. The Eimco Corporation at Salt
Lake City, Utah, and in-house personnel at Leba-
non, Ohio, and Washington, D. C., are attempting
to supply this information, which will be made avail-
able to municipalities and consulting engineers
through reports and through the EPA Technology
Transfer Program.
Sludge Disposal
Although incineration and deposition in landfills
are common methods for disposal of dewatered
sludge, they are costly because 85 to 95 percent of
the water must first be removed. Disposal by apply-
ing wet sludge to land for soil improvement is often
an economical and ecologically advantageous alter-
native to incineration or landfill. Although many
various-sized communities have used this procedure,
Chicago is the first large city to preface the direct
land application of wet sludge to cropland with
large research and demonstration projects to deter-
mine long-term effects. These continuing pilot
studies have also served to develop design criteria for
pretreating, transporting, storing, and applying sludge
on cropland or on marginal land needing reclama-
tion. Soil management techniques to ensure safe ap-
plication and utilization of the sludge are being
studied. The soil-renovating quality of liquid sludge
has been demonstrated on the ashes of a burned
dump, infertile sand dredged from a lake, a strongly
alkaline silica waste, and very acid strip mine spoil.
Chicago now ships liquid sludge almost 200 miles
to renovate strip-mined land. Their chosen disposal
method for all of their sludge in the foreseeable fu-
ture is spreading wet sludge for soil improvement.
AWTRL has provided a portion of Chicago's fund-
ing needs and supports their long-term studies of
crop yields being conducted at the University of
Illinois.
Several coastal communities considering land dis-
posal as an alternative to ocean dumping have sub-
mitted research proposals; with EPA support, Ocean
County, New Jersey, is demonstrating the use of
sludge to increase the productivity of sandy, infertile
soils.
Many community officials and consultants con-
sidering alternate methods of sludge disposal lack
sufficient information concerning the state of the
18
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art of spreading sewage sludge or effluents on land.
A symposium at Rutgers University, cosponsored by
EPA and Rutgers, was designed to supply as much
of the needed information as is available. The pro-
ceedings are being published.
Pathogen Removal
Disinfection
The sole objective of disinfecting wastewater is
to prevent transmission of disease. Until recently,
this consisted of applying a sufficient amount of
chlorine to reduce the coliform content of effluents
to specified regulatory levels. Increasingly, evidence
indicates that proof of destruction of coliform or-
ganisms does not necessarily ensure that all viruses
are killed. In addition, there is growing concern
regarding the low virucidal potency of chloramines,
toxicity of chlorine to receiving water biota, and
the possibility of producing undesirable organic-
chlorine reaction products. As a result, the empha-
sis in disinfection research is shifting to alternatives
for chlorine or to methods of neutralizing its residual
effects; to a practical method for quantitatively re-
covering viruses from disinfected wastewater; and
to an improved biological indicator of wastewater
disinfection efficiency.
In October 1970, when concern was expressed
regarding the toxicity imparted to receiving waters
by chlorinated effluents, an EPA grant was de-
veloped with the City of Wyoming, Michigan, to
evaluate the disinfection efficiency of chlorine, ozone,
and bromine chloride. These disinfectants are being
applied to parallel streams of secondary effluent
from both an activated sludge plant and a trickling
filter plant. A stream of chlorinated effluent from
each plant is being dechlorinated with sulfur dioxide.
All disinfected streams, the dechlorinated streams,
and a control stream are being subjected to con-
tinuous short-term and long-term evaluation for
possible unfavorable effects on receiving water biota.
Data obtained in this study will provide a basis for
establishing which treatment system will combine
the desired level of disinfection with the lowest toxic
effect on biota tested.
In work on an EPA grant at the University of
Illinois, potential indicator organisms that are much
more resistant to chlorine than are coliform bac-
teria have been isolated from wastewater. A yeast
and two different acid-fast bacilli have been found
that are resistant to chlorine at levels considered
necessary for inactivation of pathogens, including
viruses. A draft of proposed methods for detection
and enumeration of these organisms has been pre-
pared.
In a completed study to determine the effect of
combining gamma radiation with chloramine to
destroy Escherichia coli, researchers found that com-
bining the two germicidal agents in any manner
(simultaneously or sequentially) did not produce a
synergistic effect. The bactericidal effect was addi-
tive to less than additive. It was further observed
that chloramine was destroyed faster than the or-
ganisms during the simultaneous exposures. Since
an increase in the bactericidal effectiveness of either
disinfectant (by prior or simultaneous treatment of
the cells with the other disinfectant) was not achieved
in buffered distilled water, it was concluded that
disinfection of wastewater effluents by combining
ionizing radiation with chloramine would not be
economically feasible.
Virus Studies
More than 100 different viruses excreted by man
may be discharged into waterways as a result of in-
adequate waste treatment practices. Since the im-
portance of viruses resides not in their number, but
in their infectivity, a high degree of removal of
viruses from effluents is desirable. AWTRL is
charged with developing methods to concentrate,
recover, and identify viruses in waste, renovated,
and other waters; assessing treatment processes for
their capacity to remove viruses and other pathogens;
and accumulating data on viral hazards in support
of enforcement efforts.
Prospects of increased water reuse have further
intensified concern over the degree of virus re-
moval by waste treatment processes. One major
effort, directed toward the viral aspects of present-
day treatment practices, has involved seeding a
three-stage activated sludge system at the Washing-
ton, D. C, pilot plant with a bacterial virus, coliph-
age f2. Data collected from a process-by-process
evaluation of the system showed varying degrees of
viral removal efficiency. Collectively, however, the
multi-stage system achieved removal of greater than
99 percent without disinfection. More recently, a
study was instituted to determine the removal of
virus in a solids-contact clarifier at the Dallas, Texas,
demonstration plant.
Developing relatively simple and inexpensive
methods to detect one virus in 100 gallons of water
is the objective of current research to recover low
concentrations of viruses from water. Clearly, such
recoveries require novel concentration methods, and
a number are under study. Which will prove the
most efficient and utilitarian is not known if, in
fact, any one does become universal in all of the
applications for which such methodology is needed.
The basic kinetics and chemistry of virus inacti-
vation by chlorine, iodine, and their compounds
19
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and by ozone are being carried out as comparative
studies that include both in-house and extramural
efforts on virus disinfection in waste, renovated, and
other waters. It is obvious from these studies that
in a water in which hypochlorous acid can be main-
tained there is no need to consider another agent
for disinfection. In nature, however, it often is im-
possible to maintain such conditions. To ensure
reliable virus destruction, disinfectants need to be
chosen to meet particular needs. To determine which
disinfectant species are best suited to satisfy each
specific situation, controlled and standardized labor-
atory experiments are being conducted at the Uni-
versity of Cincinnati, Hebrew University in Israel,
and AWTRL.
Viruses have been readily isolated from solids in
sewage and surface waters. In the past few years,
it has been learned that more viruses adsorb to these
solids than are found in the waters themselves. It
is possible to recover viruses from river solids, while
failing to demonstrate their presence in 50-gallon
water samples. Modest progress has been made in
increasing the level of virus recovery from solids.
Although recovery efficiency is low, data accumu-
lated by the program clearly point to solids in sew-
age and surface waters as major viral reservoirs.
Studies on the Wabash River (Indiana) were
made in support of a Region V enforcement action,
and more recently, studies on viral survival and
disinfection on samples collected from Lake Superior
were carried out.
Instrumentation and Control
Better instrumentation and automated control of
waste treatment plants is an important need in im-
proving effluent quality. A state-of-the-art report
on instrumentation and control, now being com-
pleted, includes a compilation of abstracts from a
literature survey and the results of a plant survey.
A digital computer program capable of simulating
operation of the activated sludge process under
various control schemes has been completed. Con-
trol of dissolved oxygen, based on a continuous dis-
solved oxygen measurement, is included in the pro-
gram. Sludge wasting can be accomplished based
on a waste stream of constant volume, on a waste
stream with a volume directly proportional to the
influent flow, or on a waste volume that keeps sludge
retention time fixed; the wasting can also be based
on not allowing the sludge blanket in the final
settler to exceed some value. Sludge storage can
be simulated in the final settler or in a separate
sludge storage tank in the return line. Sludge stor-
age can be used to fix mixed liquor suspended
solids in the aerator or to fix the food to micro-
organisms ratio. Cost effectiveness of these strate-
gies is being evaluated.
A grant at Palo Alto, California, provides for
operating an activated sludge plant under various
control schemes to evaluate the effectiveness of each
scheme. At this time, data have been received only
for the baseline 30-day period and for the 30-day
period in which dissolved oxygen control was car-
ried out. The electrical power savings associated
with dissolved oxygen control appear to be in the
range of 10 to 20 percent. The data, which are also
being used to validate the computer program, show
distinct diurnal trends with a minimum of scatter
and will, therefore, be of great value in under-
standing the time-dependent behavior of the acti-
vated sludge process.
At the Blue Plains pilot plant, several treatment
systems were automated. A physical-chemical sys-
tem consisting of two-stage lime treatment, filtration,
breakpoint chlorination, and carbon treatment was
operated with both digital and analog computer con-
trol. Flow rate was varied by making step changes.
In the lime treatment, lime feed, carbon dioxide,
and solid ferric chloride rates were controlled. The
control of the breakpoint chlorination was based on
inlet ammonia concentration, effluent chlorine con-
centration, and pH. Step changes could be easily
compensated for manually, and because of this,
there was not a significant difference in effluent qual-
ity between manual and automated control. Planned
testing of a typical diurnal variation in flow is ex-
pected to show greater difference between manual
and automated control.
Automated control was also tested on a three-
stage biological treatment system. Controlled para-
meters included dissolved oxygen, pH in the nitri-
fying stage, and methanol in the denitrifying stage
based on inlet nitrate concentration and flow rate. A
polishing dose of alum in the denitrifying stage was
also controlled to maintain good phosphorus re-
moval. The principal alum addition, which took
place in the first stage, was not automatically con-
trolled.
Treatment Cost Studies
Design and cost estimating relationships for most
conventional sludge handling processes were de-
veloped and inserted in an existing Executive Pro-
gram for waste treatment processes. The processes
for which subroutines were developed are gravity
thickening, air flotation thickening, centrifugation.
second-stage anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion,
vacuum filtration, filter presses, sand drying beds,
multiple hearth sludge incinerators, and land spread-
ing of liquid sludges. By considering conventional
20
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sludge-handling processes, 185 different treatment
systems have been enumerated to dispose of treat-
ment plant sludge, and preliminary computations of
the cost of these systems have been made. In terms
of dollars per ton of dry sludge, costs range from a
minimum of $7.29 for land disposal after lime treat-
ment to $66.73 for digestion, vacuum filtration, and
multiple hearth incineration.
The consumption of electrical power and the
cost of the power as compared with total treatment
cost or as compared with residential usage was
estimated for all conventional and advanced proc-
esses and for complete plants. In this work (pub-
lished in report No. EPA-R2-73-281, July 1973,
"Electrical Power Consumption for Municipal
Wastewater Treatment" by R. Smith, available from
NTIS as PB 223 360/9 WE), it was shown that for
secondary treatment using the activated sludge proc-
ess, the amount of electrical power consumed on a
per capita basis equals about one 15-watt light bulb
burning 24 hours per day in each household.
The potential cost-effectiveness of equalization
basins upstream from treatment plants was studied.
Diurnal dry weather flow patterns were collected
from 15 plants, and these data were integrated to
find the necessary equalization basin volume. Analy-
sis of the data showed that allowing 25 percent
excess capacity, the basin capacity should equal 15
percent of the daily influent volume flow. The cost
of equalization basins with this volume and the
cost for sufficient mixing to prevent settling of solids
were computed and compared with the cost saving
that would result from designing the primary and
final settlers on the average flow instead of on the
peak diurnal flow. Installing equalization basins
just to provide for better solids settling is not justi-
fied; there are, however, other possible benefits of
equalization that need to be considered before draw-
ing a final conclusion.
Major Demonstration Projects
Three new demonstration projects were initiated
in 1973. A project for the full-scale demonstration
of flow equalization was initiated at Ypsilanti Town-
ship in Southern Michigan. This 3-year project will
document the advantages of equalized flow, as com-
pared with unequalized flow, on the performance of
two parallel 4.5-mgd activated sludge plants.
At Rosemount, Minnesota, a new project was
initiated to completely evaluate a 600,000-gpd phy-
sical-chemical treatment plant. Processes to be
evaluated include chemical coagulation, dual-media
filtration, granular carbon adsorption, and ion-ex-
change for ammonia nitrogen removal. This plant
has been constructed, and the 2-year plant-scale
evaluation is scheduled to begin on January 1, 1974.
At Escondido, California, a 150,000-gpd reverse
osmosis unit of the spiral-wound configuration will
be demonstrated. The unit will utilize sand-filtered
secondary effluent for feed. This project represents
the culmination of over 8 years of bench scale and
pilot plant research on reverse osmosis treatment
(Figure 5).
Progress continued on major demonstration pro-
jects at Ely, Minnesota; Piscataway, Maryland; and
Rocky River, near Cleveland, Ohio. The tertiary
treatment plant at Ely has operated successfully and
produced effluent with residuals of 0.05 mg total
phosphorus per liter. It is hoped that this low phos-
phorus water, which discharges into Lake Shagawa,
will significantly reduce the eutrophication of that
lake. The 5-mgd advanced waste treatment plant at
Piscataway, Maryland, which utilizes secondary efflu-
ent for feed, has operated on a flow scheme of two-
stage lime clarification, dual-media filtration, and
granular carbon adsorption to produce an effluent
of less than 2.0 mg total organic carbon and less
than 0.1 mg of total phosphorus per liter. The
Rocky River project was mentioned earlier under
the Physical-Chemical Treatment discussion.
Other Research
Pressure-Sewer Demonstrations
Two pressure-sewer demonstration projects have
been completed. The utility of these systems in
areas where conventional sewers are prohibitively
expensive and septic-tank soil-absorption sys-
tems are not feasible has been demonstrated. In
addition to their technical feasibility, these pressure-
sewer systems have demonstrated such advantages
as no infiltration, ability to convey wastewater up
steep inclines, and ease of installation.
Water Conservation in the Home
Household water conservation was demonstrated
in a project with the Electric Boat Division of Gen-
eral Dynamics using eight test homes. The study
evaluated the water savings potential for reduced-
flow toilets and shower heads and for pilot recycle
systems that reused laundry and bath water for
toilet flushing and lawn watering.
Estimates, based on cost of water saved, indi-
cate that dual-flush modification of toilets and re-
duced-flow shower heads are cost effective. The
shallow-trap toilet should be considered for new
installations or when malfunctioning toilets need re-
placing; its relatively high initial and installation
costs, however, do not justify using it to replace
workable toilets. Wash-water recycle systems can
be justified for homes in areas of relatively high
water and sewerage charges and where a recycle
21
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^
FIGURE 5. REVERSE OSMOSIS PILOT UNIT TREATING WASTEWATER AT POMONA, CALIFORNIA.
system could eliminate the need for modification of
a septic tank system. These factors indicate that
more experimental work on recycle systems for
single homes is justified, and recycle systems for
multiple dwellings should be even more attractive.
With home recycling, however, there is need for
concern from the aesthetic and particularly the
public health standpoints. The systems must be re-
liable and provide adequate disinfection.
Technology Transfer
In addition to their work on technology develop-
ment, staff members have made significant contri-
butions to the program of the Office of Technology
Transfer. Since the inception of that program, the
AWTRL staff has participated in 21 Municipal De-
sign Seminars and 10 Infiltration Inflow Seminars.
Within the last year, staff members have also aided
in the revision of four design manuals and in the
preparation of four new manuals, two technical
brochures, and one television tape.
MINE DRAINAGE POLLUTION CONTROL
Activities in the area of mine drainage pollution
control involve research, development, and demon-
strations on the control of environmental problems
from mining operations on a nationwide scale. The
studies are divided into five areas: treatment of mine
drainage, surface mining, underground mining, new
mining methods, and demonstrations of economical
and practical control methods. Approximately one
half of the budgeted funds are expended in the last
area.
Major strides have been made in developing
methods for analyzing overburden from surface
mines as a technique for preplanning the mining
operation. Several states have adopted these pro-
cedures as prerequisites to obtaining a surface min-
ing permit. The methods were developed in the
Appalachian region and are currently being tested
for western coal-mining-area development and in
noncoal situations. Core borings or rock chips of
the overburden are collected at the proposed mining
22
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site and are then analyzed to determine potential
acid or other problems.
A feasibility study was completed showing that
longwall mining technology, which is used in under-
ground mines, can be adapted to the surface min-
ing situation. The use of the longwall method
should minimize the surface disturbance and reduce
water pollution. A surface mine is being developed
to test the method. Longwall mining is a system by
which the seam is removed in one operation by
means of a long working-face or wall. The work-
ings advance in a continuous line, which may be
several hundred feet in length. The space from
which the coal has been removed is allowed to
collapse (Figure 6). The longwall system should
resolve many of the environmental problems en-
countered in contour mining.
The mine drainage pollution control field site
for research on mine drainage treatment was com-
pleted near Morgantown, West Virginia. The faci-
lity, known as the Crown Field Site, is equipped for
studies on neutralization, reverse osmosis, and ion
exchange. In addition, lagoons, drying beds, thick-
eners, and irrigation systems are available for eval-
uating methods of disposing of the sludges from the
above systems.
Two coal by-products (coal-mine refuse and fly
ash) are being utilized for the first time as a highway
base material in an experimental parking lot at the
Crown Field Site (Figure 7). The base material is
composed of 75 percent coal refuse and 25 percent
fly ash and is covered with a 3-inch bituminous mix.
The durability of the material will be evaluated, and
in addition, drainage from the area will be moni-
tored to determine if acid mine drainage is formed.
Several additional grants were awarded under the
Section 107 Mine Drainage Demonstration Program,
a program to demonstrate economically feasible and
practical techniques for the abatement of mine drain-
age. Two of the projects deal with the-reclamation
LONGWALL
PANEL
LONGITUDINAL
ADVANCEMENT
LONGWALL MINING
REQUIRES MULTIPLE ENTRY
DEVELOPMENT ON EACH
SIDE OF THE PANEL TO PROVIDE
VENTALATION, ACCESS, AND
CONVEYOR ROUTES.
TAILPIECE
BELT
CONVEYOR
LATERAL
ADVANCEMENT
SELF-ADVANCING
;HYDRAULIC;
ROOF SUPPORTS
SHEARING
DRUM
SHEARER DRIVER MOTOR
GOB AREA
HEADPIECE
FIGURE 6. ILLUSTRATION OF LONGWALL MINING TECHNIQUE.
23
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of coal refuse piles. In the first, spoil material will
be used to cover a refuse pile and, thus, eliminate
the refuse and spoil problem. At the second pile,
hydrologic isolation will be used. In another pro-
ject, abandoned surface mines will be reclaimed with
fly ash. Control of erosion from surface mines and
haul roads will be demonstrated on two other pro-
jects. In Ohio, a massive sand erosion control pro-
ject was undertaken, and in Kentucky, the proper
methods of constructing and maintaining a haul
road to prevent erosion will be demonstrated. Two
feasibility studies were initiated for the control of
acid mine drainage and heavy metals from "hard
rock" mines.
FIGURE 7. COAL-REFUSE FLY-ASH HIGHWAY
BASE MATERIAL BEING LAID.
24
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ANALYTICAL QUALITY CONTROL LABORATORY
(METHODS DEVELOPMENT AND QUALITY ASSURANCE
RESEARCH LABORATORY)
PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL METHODS
DEVELOPMENT
The physics and chemistry studies of the Analy-
tical Quality Control Laboratory (AQCL) are sub-
divided into five functional areas, each with specific
assignments for analytical methods developments in
a particular area of expertise: trace metals measure-
ments, pesticides and other trace organics, oil identi-
fication, organics instrumentation, and general inor-
ganics. The activities and achievements in these
areas during the calendar year 1973 are indicated
below.
Trace Metals
Pursuant to Section 304(g) of the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act amendments of 1972, test
procedures for the determination of trace metals
have been provided to EPA and industrial water
laboratories. During the investigation, a variety of
industrial waste samples were examined to establish
detection limits, sensitivity, and optimum concentra-
tion range. Investigations of various digestion pro-
cedures to ensure conversion of organically bound
metals to an inorganic form were also initiated.
The direct reading emission spectograph was suc-
cessfully interfaced with the Wang 720B program-
mable calculator. With the use of a logarithmic
variation of a parabolic second order equation, a
program has been written that will record the
sealer count, recall the coefficients of the equation,
and print the corresponding concentrations on a
hard copy report form. Significant savings in time
are achieved, but more importantly, a copcentra-
tion printout is available after the sample has been
analyzed. Quality control techniques are incorpo-
rated that alert the analyst immediately to out-of-
control limits of precision and accuracy.
Acquisition of the P&E 503 Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer including the HGA 2000 Graph-
ite Furnace has resulted in a system capable of
measuring total concentrations of a variety of metals
without sample pretreatment. With the use of pro-
grammed sequence, a sample is dried, charred, and
subsequently atomized. The technique has been suc-
cessfully applied to various industrial wastes for
metals such as chromium, nickel, vanadium, and
selenium. Other metals are being investigated as
time permits.
Pesticides and Other Trace Organics
AQCL develops methods for the detection and
quantitative measurement of trace amounts of toxic
organic materials in the water-related environment.
In 1973, methods for chlorinated hydrocarbon pesti-
cides and other chlorinated organic pollutants in
industrial effluents were prepared and distributed.
Each method could be applied to a series of chem-
ically related toxic substances.
Gas chromatographic (GC) methods were pre-
pared for detecting both chlorinated and organo-
phosphorus insecticides after they are simultaneously
extracted from wastewaters. The methods employ
cleanup procedures to separate the insecticides from
the complex mixture of organic materials that may
exist in a sample. The method also serves as a
springboard for detecting a family of widespread
environmental pollutants, the polychlorinated bi-
phenyls (PCB). A sophisticated but easy-to-use ana-
lytical scheme was devised that employs gas
chromatography to quantitate these materials in a
variety of samples and in the presence of gross
interferences.
GC also serves as the basic approach for another
method reviewed by the group. The phenoxyacetic
acid herbicides (2,4-D; 2,4,5-T) and their various
esters and salts are detected after they are first
converted to a volatile form suitable for a GC ana-
lysis. Once again, cleanup procedures are supplied
to make the method applicable to wastewaters.
Insecticides and herbicides based on carbon-nitro-
gen structures have become popular because they
weather rapidly in the environment. This very char-
acteristic makes the analysis of many of these mate-
rials relatively difficult. A GC method was produced
for triazines (Atrazine), but methods produced for
25
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both aromatic carbamates (Sevin) and aromatic
ureas relied on thin-layer chromatography (TLC)
for detection.
A method was developed for the quantitative
determination of common chlorinated solvents in
effluent samples. This method relies on direct
aqueous injection of the water sample into a GC
for solvent levels of 1 ppm or higher. Several
methods for extracting PCB's and pesticides from
bottom samples have been evaluated; air drying
soxhlet extraction was found to be the most effective.
Another very promising method consists of a
sparging device in which certain classes of organics
may be removed from a sample and trapped directly
on an adsorbing column. The trap is then heated
in the inlet of a GC, and the trace organics are
separated and measured. The sensitivity of the
system lends itself to analysis of relatively clean
waters, i.e., drinking waters. Preliminary findings
with the use of this technique on some surface
waters, ground waters, and drinking waters have
revealed the presence of some unexpected materials,
such as chlorinated aliphatic materials.
Several methods for the determination of oil and
grease were also evaluated. Extraction with Freon
followed by a gravimetric determination was found
to be an effective quantitative measurement for oil
and grease in industrial effluents.
Oil Identification
The development and testing of a new concept
of oil analysis this past year has made possible the
successful application of GC electron capture
(EC) detector to the analysis and identification of
lubricating oils, residual fuel oils, and asphalts. Using
organic minor components in petroleum to serve
as fingerprints for identification is relatively new and
has not been applied toward the identification of
petroleum products. Much of petroleum products,
especially those derived from straight run distillates
such as No. 1 fuel oil and No. 2 fuel oil, appears
similar with respect to flame ionization detector
(FID) GC. Five detailed investigations may be
necessary to effect differences in these straight-
run fuels for enforcement purposes. Moreover,
no FID GC technique has been found suitable
for identification purposes when dealing with SAE
20, 30, 40, 50 lube oils and asphalts. (At times,
the latter product may be diluted with a light cutter
stock. Under these circumstances, the asphalt may
be studied with FID GC for identification purposes.)
The conversion of weak acids to the pentafluoro-
benzyl derivatives and the EC detector GC analysis
of asphalts have provided technical support in en-
forcement cases, e.g., tracing phenols found in the
City of Wheeling drinking water samples. The pro-
cedure, developed at AQCL, made possible the
tracing of minute quantities of phenols in the city
water to its source 20 miles upstream.
The recently developed ratio of infrared absorb-
ance technique was used to identify asphalt from a
spill on May 8, 1972, near Aliquippa, Pennsylvania.
Previously, the only "tools" or "handles" available
for enforcement in asphalt cases would have been
nickel-vanadium ratios and sulfur values. The in-
frared ratio method is successful for identifying
heavier petroleum products, and GC analysis of
derivatives of minor components is successful for
identifying pollutant asphalts to the source. Results
by elemental metals analysis and infrared computer
analysis also confirmed these initial findings.
The pentafluorobenzyl derivative analysis by EC
GC demonstrated that source and pollutant lube oil
found in the Allegheny River oil spill of April 18,
1972, were alike. The GC results confirmed the in-
frared identification of the two lube oils. Further
confirmation was gained through metals analysis (8
metals) and by elemental analysis.
Further research work was undertaken to deter-
mine optimum conditions for the isolation of the
weak acids from petroleum products and the separa-
tion of their respective derivatives on the GC
column. A superior extracting solvent and a superior
liquid phase for gas chromatographic separations of
the pentafluorobenzyl derivatives were found.
Organic Instrumentation
During 1973, the efforts devoted to organic in-
strumentation were divided among GC/MS research
(approximately 90 percent), nuclear magnetic reso-
nance research (5 percent), and laboratory automa-
tion plans (5 percent).
Work was completed on a GC/MS method for
PCB's in the presence of chlorinated pesticides.
The method eliminates the need for elaborate
cleanup on most samples and permits a significant
increase in sensitivity. This method was summarized
at the May 1973 meeting of the American Society
for Mass Spectrometry, and a manuscript describing
the method has been accepted for publication in
"Analytical Chemistry."
Work was completed on a procedure to evaluate
the performance of a computerized GC/MS with the
use of standard reference material. The procedure
and a sample of the reference compound were dis-
tributed to all EPA laboratories with GC/MS cap-
ability that requested it.
All EPA personnel (regional, National Field
Investigation Center, NERC, and others) using com-
puterized GC/MS to characterize organic environ-
mental pollutants were encouraged, through meet-
26
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ings and newsletters, to participate in the EPA Mass
Spectrometer Users Group. Two meetings were held
to informally exchange information and several
newsletters were compiled and distributed for the
same purpose.
General Inorganics
Studies were completed on the evaluation and
development of an automated colorimetric proce-
dure for the simultaneous determination of total
phosphorus and total Kjeldahl nitrogen. The tech-
nique can be used to measure concurrently these
constituents in surface waters and in domestic and
industrial wastes with applicable working ranges of
0.10 to 10 mg nitrogen/liter and 0.02 to 1.0 mg
phosphorus/liter. The results of this study will be
published as an EPA Environmental Monitoring
Series Report.
The Technicon procedure for phenols was eval-
uated, including the automatic preliminary screen-
ing and distillation of the sample. Results obtained
for both the AA-I manifold system and AA-II
cartridge system were compared with the manual
4-aminoantipyrine procedure on a variety of surface
waters, sewage samples, and industrial wastes. A
working range of 2 to 200 //.g/liter was developed
for those samples containing minimal amounts of
phenol.
In the continuing assignment to develop uniform
methodology, methods writeups were prepared for
both AA-I and AA-II systems for phosphate, am-
monia, and nitrate-nitrite. These writeups were done
in EPA, Standard Methods, and ASTM format, so
they may be considered concurrently by all three
official groups.
Studies were completed on an evaluation of a
forward-scatter-type turbidimeter, the Monitek 150.
Data were collected on standards, water, waste, and
sewage samples by comparing the Monitek unit with
the Hack 2100, Hellige unit, Jackson Candle meas-
urements, and suspended solids determinations. Re-
sults indicated that the forward-scatter-type concept
offered no advantages over side-scatter-measuring
units and, as a general trend, gave higher apparent
results on most sample types. These results were
presented at the 2nd Joint Conference on the Sensing
of Environmental Pollutants.
The Beckman Model 915 Total Carbon unit
was updated to new Beckman specifications, includ-
ing modification of the combustion train of both the
total and inorganic carbon channels. Routine use
on a variety of water and waste samples showed this
modified system to be similar to the original design.
A comparative study on techniques for calibrating
dissolved oxygen meters was completed. By com-
paring standard solutions and various water and
waste samples at different dissolved oxygen levels,
it was shown that a Winkler titration was still more
reliable than either air calibration or bottle (water-
saturated air) calibration.
As part of an on-going research contract, a com-
puter program was developed for potential applica-
bility on all instrumental techniques that will (a)
identify replicate, spiked, and standard samples, (b)
compute control limits for both CuSum and Shew-
hart quality control charts and determine if sys-
tem is "in" or "out" of control, (c) sound alarm
(buzzer) when something is amiss, and (d) compen-
sate for baseline drift.
Quality assurance techniques proposed for use by
both EPA and state laboratories in compliance
monitoring were developed. Items covered were:
(a) sampling and preservation, (b) laboratory analy-
sis, (c) quality control (intralaboratory), (d) labora-
tory review, and (e) special sampling cases.
The ammonia selective electrode was evaluated
in a variety of surface waters, sewage samples, and
saline waters. It compared very favorably with the
indophenol blue method, as done on the Technicon
Auto Analyzer. Both direct measurement and
known addition techniques were acceptable, with the
electrode having a minimum detectable limit of 0.03
mg nitrogen/liter on actual samples. In addition to
being inexpensive, the ammonia electrode offers
the advantage of minimal sample and reagent prep-
aration prior to analysis, wide concentration range,
precision and accuracy comparable to accepted
methods, and speed (maximum of 5 minutes per
sample).
The fluoroborate electrode was evaluated in con-
junction with monitoring for total fluoride. In addi-
tion to determining the response of the fluoroborate
and fluoride electrodes before and after the pre-
liminary distillation step for breaking down complex
fluorides, studies were also made on water and
waste samples over a time period to determine the
feasibility of tracing fluoroborate activity in the re-
spective samples. Results showed that, because of
the formation of various complexes under acid or
basic conditions, it is not practical to use the fluoro-
borate electrode to monitor fluoroborate as an indi-
cator of fluoride discharge.
The chloride ion selective electrode was evaluated
as a potential tool for measuring chloride in indus-
trial waste samples that are too colored or turbid
to be titrated. The results of direct measurement of
industrial waste and riverwater samples were higher
than those obtained with mercuric nitrate titration.
The electrode was also used to sense the endpoint
when titrating with silver nitrate, and the results
27
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from this method were in closer agreement with
those of the approved method than were the results
from the direct measurement technique.
Laboratory analyses were made on a variety of
industrial wastes to determine the applicability of
proposed test procedures for compliance monitor-
ing. Such procedures are used to analyze samples
collected from plant source and nonpoint source
and ambient samples for monitoring and enforce-
ment purposes. In addition to checking procedures
for minerals, nutrient, demand, and physical-analy-
sis-type measurements, special emphasis was placed
on the evaluation of methods for measuring cyanides,
nitrates, phenols, and bromides. Test procedures
for the analyses of approximately 70 pollutants were
published in the Federal Register.
MICROBIOLOGICAL METHODS ACTIVITIES
Microbiological methods are used to determine
the sanitary quality of water and wastewater, the
sources of microbial pollution, the adequacy of
treatment, and the effectiveness of control measures.
The methods presently available are not applicable
in all environmental situations nor to all types of
samples. Acceptable methodology does not exist
for many potential indicator organisms or for most
waterborae pathogens. New, improved, and more
rapid procedures must be developed and contin-
uously evaluated using the best available methods
as reference standards. The precision and reliability
of these methods must be determined.
One of the most persistent problems in microbio-
logical analyses is the lack of a method for preser-
vation and the need to examine samples as soon as
possible after collection. A delayed-incubation mem-
brane filter (MF) procedure for the examination of
fecal coliforms was developed, evaluated in field
tests by comparison with the immediate MF tech-
nique, and recently published. The procedure will
be useful under survey, monitoring, and emergency
conditions where the time and temperature require-
ments for sample transport and storage cannot be
met.
The laboratory is conducting replicate analyses
and statistical studies on the total and fecal coliform
MF techniques to determine, in more depth, their
precision, reproducibility, and performance varia-
tion.
Laboratory and field investigations encounter
various technical problems in the use of presently
available tests. Erratic results have been reported
when MF techniques for coliforms were applied to
chlorinated wastewaters. These erratic results are
particularly pertinent to the establishment and en-
forcement of effluent standards and to wastewater
monitoring. A detailed investigation was carried
out on chlorinated wastewaters from representative
sewage treatment plants in the Cincinnati area. The
MF results were not in agreement with the MPN
based upon the percentage of MF data that did not
fall with the 95 percent confidence limits of the
MPN. The MF levels were consistently low. Var-
ious alternative enrichment and temperature accli-
mation procedures that were investigated show
promise for increasing MF coliform recovery and
yielding results more consistent with the MPN
values.
A more rapid test for fecal streptococci has fre-
quently been sought. Newer, improved MF media
have been evaluated with representative, known cul-
tures and natural samples. The quantitative results
with these media compare favorably with the stand-
ard method results but clean-cut differentiation of
colonies does not result. Identification of strepto-
coccal species recovered by the respective proce-
dures is being carried out. Modifications of the
indicator system and the technique are being made
to produce an acceptable 24-hour procedure.
Uniform procedures for the evaluation of micro-
biological methods and performance are essential
to ensure reliable and valid data. Continuing studies
are being conducted on the evaluation of media and
materials used in commonly applied tests. Pro-
posed screening procedures and abbreviated test
materials and equipment are given special attention.
Many different procedures have been proposed
for the isolation and identification of enteric patho-
gens from water and wastewater, with no general
concensus on methodology. An evaluation of en-
richment and selective media for Salmonella has
been carried out on high-and-low-density natural
samples. A follow-up study is evaluating several
commercially available, multitest systems for the
identification of Enterobacteraceae isolated from
water.
Field surveys frequently experience the need to
test for microorganisms other than the conventional
pollution indicators. For example, it would be use-
ful to differentiate easily between fecal coliformf
and Klebsiella in special areas such as paper anc
pulp mill wastes, food processing plants, and recrea-
tional waters. A research plan has been completec
for the development of a laboratory procedure to
identify Klebsiella species in wastewater that wil'.
include appropriate field studies.
INSTRUMENTATION DEVELOPMENT
As one of the five activities within AQCL, instru-
mentation development is concerned with developing;
and demonstrating new monitoring instruments for
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environmental media; developing guidelines and pro-
grams for use of such instrumentation; and evalu-
ating water samplers, measurement systems, and
data transmission and handling functions. Specifi-
cations are developed for procurement application
by other Federal and state agencies and, frequently,
consultation is provided to these agencies in the
matter of automatic water quality monitoring.
An EPCO Model 6130 velocity probe was evalu-
ated during calendar year 1973, and a first draft of
the evaluation report was prepared. Results show
instrument drift under AC operation and instability
occurring on the low range when full-scale output
was exceeded by 30 percent. On battery power,
drift was less significant and the meter was accurate.
Resolution would be improved by changing to a
mirror-backed meter that is directly readable on all
ranges. Through the generosity of the University
of Cincinnati, the flume in the Civil Engineering
Department was temporarily modified by EPA per-
sonnel for these tests.
An automatic chlorination system for controlling
biological growth in the pump systems that are used
with automatic instrumentation was designed and
tested. Results show that proper intake system de-
sign with high-flow velocity should be completed
first and the inlet strainer should be kept clean and
raised from the river-bottom sediment. If DO still
changes after proper system design, some form of
cleaning would be required. These tests show that
intermittent automatic chlorination at low concen-
tration is a satisfactory method for minimizing sam-
ple change that results from biological growth within
the pumping system. Components used for auto-
mation are given in the report.
A survey of automatic compositors, listing the
advantages and faults of these devices, was initiated
with the intention of purchasing the three most
desirable for evaluation. A seminar was attended in
Region VII, sampling installations were inspected,
and reports and other information on the composi-
tors from Region VII, Department of the Army, and
manufacturers were collected. Information obtained
to date indicates need to determine sampler accu-
racy for parameters such as suspended solids and
totally automatic composite flow. Sampler evalua-
tion for endurance and ease of operation is also
required.
A survey on rapid instrumental techniques for
measurement of specific and gross pollution indi-
cator organisms indicated that chlorophyll, ATP,
and nitrates were most amenable to instrumental
field measurement. Chlorophyll, however, is the only
one that had been measured successfully on a con-
tinuous basis with the measurements primarily re-
stricted to large, "stable" bodies of water. Two
chlorophyll measurement systems, a Turner and
Amico, were tested. The former displayed reason-
ably consistent output for the total system under
temperature variations, but the latter displayed a
drift of approximately 10 percent for the same condi-
tions. The effects of turbidity were investigated by
employing a clear sample of reasonably high chloro-
phyll concentration and adding fuller's earth. The
fluorescence of the sample was greatly affected.
A survey of the application of instrumental tech-
niques for measuring selected ions to field use
revealed that sample preconditioning was of para-
mount importance before an ion selective sensor
could be employed. Sample preparation is not only
unique to the measurement, but the reagents are a
function of the interferences so that this type of
measurement is somewhat specific rather than gen-
eral. The draft report summarizes sensor manu-
facturers, sensor impedance, Interference, tempera-
ture range, pH range, and design philosophy. The
solid state sensor appears more amenable to field
service than does the liquid membrane sensors.
A draft report on "BOD Literature Survey and
Recommended Approach to Waste Treatment Plant
Control" has been completed, and it includes infor-
mation on the BOD obtained through the use of
differential measurements (ATOC, ATOD, ACOD).
The differential measurements are taken across the
treatment plant and across a sample processed
further biologically. Theoretically a good estimate of
the ultimate BOD can be obtained with further
processing of an effluent sample, e.g., biofiltration.
An evaluation of the American Limnetics dis-
solved oxygen meter has been completed. The
draft report discusses drift, instability, and tempera-
ture characteristics. The instability and long-term
drift of the thallium-mercury alloy electrode indi-
cates that this sensor is not satisfactory for the
controlling function intended.
A draft report entitled, "Comparison Program
for Water Quality Transmission Modes" has been
completed; it compares the automatic reduction of
data between transmissions via NASA facilities and
those via existing EPA facilities. The program
utilizes the PDP-8/S, which controls the station
interrogation/data storage and the teletype output
device. The report describes the segmentation of
the program and includes simplified flow charts and
a complete program listing.
As an integral part of a project for a recom-
mended monitoring intake system, a Goulds 2-hp
centrifugal pump was tested at the Great Miami
River research facility. This pump consisted of
five impeller stages driven on a hexagonal shaft by
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a 2-hp, submersible Franklin electric motor. To
date, the testing of the pump for flow characteristics
and mechanical wear over long-term continuous
conditions indicates that the motor bearings are the
weakest link hi the system. If these parts can be
strengthened or protected, pump life could be
lengthened to perhaps 8 to 12 months.
A prototype, sample preconditioning flow cell,
intended for intermittent determination of oxygen
decay and selected ions, was fabricated by the
Schneider Instrument Company in accordance with
EPA specifications. The device includes two re-
taining vessels: the first raises the sample tempera-
ture with simultaneous aeration and stirring, and
the second, which contains a lesser volume, pro-
vides for the sample measurement held at a con-
stant temperature. External means for pH control
are available. An auxiliary window wiper for dis-
solved oxygen removes bubble formation at the
sensor. The sample is first accumulated in the pri-
mary reservoir, treated, and transferred to the second
for measurement.
On numerous occasions, the AQCL has been con-
tacted for consultation on a variety of problems
including developing plans for effluent and back-
ground water quality monitoring. An opinion on
water quality instrumentation was provided to the
State of California, Department of Water Resources,
Delta Branch, for the Sacramento and San Joaquin
Rivers. On request, the New England District of
the Corps of Engineers were provided specifications,
addenda, and an evaluation of Invitation for Bid.
Additionally, two water quality monitors one
manufactured by the Schneider Instrument Com-
pany and the other by the Ecologic Instrument
Company-were evaluated in the AQCL for the
Corps of Engineers.
Periodically, intralaboratory assistance is pro-
vided between activities. On one such occasion,
an electronic inverter/converter was designed to
improve the scanning capability of the nuclear mag-
netic resonator. The inverter/converter provides
a discontinuous voltage input to a voltage-controlled
oscillator whose frequency varies between 0 and
10 KHz. A 100-MHz carrier within the nuclear
magnetic resonator is modulated by this frequency.
The inverter/converter is provided with offset so
that the frequency sweep can be minimized or maxi-
mized depending on the tests performed.
METHOD AND PERFORMANCE
EVALUATION
A preliminary comparison study on methods of
analyses for total mercury in water was completed
by AQCL and distributed as a formal report. In
this comparative study of the EPA method and
other methods of choice, completed by 42 private
and governmental laboratories, it was shown that
samples containing organic mercury require a vigor-
ous digestion step, such as that in the EPA method.
to obtain good recovery.
In "EPA Method Study 7, Trace Metals," three
sets of paired samples, each containing 10 metals
were analyzed by 164 analysts in both governmental
and private laboratories. Data were returned by
109 analysts and are being evaluated for a report
A joint "ASTM-EPA Method Study 8, Total
Mercury in Water" was conducted with 170 analysts
in a variety of laboratories. Sample pairs containing:
inorganic and organic mercury were tested at four
concentrations. The laboratory phase has been com-
pleted, and the data from 94 laboratories have beer
evaluated and a formal report is in final prepara-
tion. Statistical data were provided to the Task
Group on Mercury for consideration and acceptance
by Committee D-19, ASTM.
In a two-phase study, "EPA Method Study 9.
Chlorophyll," samples were prepared and distributed
to 124 analysts in a full range of laboratories. In
each phase, six chlorophyll samples were analyzed
spectrophotometrically and six fluorometrically. At
the final cut-off date, 68 laboratories had returned
data. An evaluation is now completed, and a final
report is in preparation.
Special nutrient, mineral, trace metal, mercury,
and demand samples were prepared and forwarded
to 27 laboratories participating as contract labora-
tories for the Effluent Guidelines Division (EGD),
EPA. When requested by project officer, data were
returned to AQCL for evaluation and interpretation
and subsequent reporting back to EGD.
In continuation of the cooperative effort between
The Soap and Detergent Association and EPA, a
new reference standard of linear alkylate sulfonate
(LAS) was prepared and analyzed and is being dis-
tributed by AQCL on a sole source basis. The
standard is required for use in the Methylene-Blue
Active Substance Test, and in the Shake Flask and
Activated Sludge Biodegradation Tests. A new series
of nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) reference samples has
been prepared and is now being distributed to
laboratories doing phosphate-substitute evaluations.
In a special study conducted on request from
IFYGL, nine Canadian and U.S. laboratories ana-
lyzed Lake Ontario-like water samples for 15 para-
meters in each of similar, yet different, sample pairs.
Under a confidential code known only to the IFYGI-
Coordinator, data from each laboratory were evalu-
ated and indicated Acceptable or Non-Acceptable.
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On an emergency basis, a special series of
1400 ampuls containing cadmium, mercury, PCB
(Arochlor 1242), or toxaphene at each of three
levels was prepared, analyzed, and shipped to a
laboratory doing bioassays on contract to EPA.
Exact chemical solutions were prepared in ultra-
pure water and furnished to the Benthos Group,
AQCL, for use in special fish bioassays.
In continuing support of analytical quality con-
trol in water laboratories, a total of 13,000 ampuls
containing reference samples for LAS, NTA, mer-
cury, minerals, nutrients, trace metals, and demand
parameters were prepared and shipped to approxi-
mately 4300 analysts.
DEVELOPMENT OF BIOLOGICAL METHODS
The ultimate proof that the Nation's surface waters
are adequately protected by the Federal and State
pollution control programs can be obtained only
by periodically examining the indigenous communi-
ties of aquatic organisms. Water quality is reflected
in the species composition and diversity, population
density, and physiological condition of native popu-
lations of aquatic organisms. Biological methods
employed in water pollution control, therefore, deal
primarily with the collection, counting, and identifi-
cation of these organisms, biomass measurements,
measurement of the toxicity, bioaccumulation and
biomagnification of pollutants, and biological data
processing and interpretation. AQCL conducts re-
search in all areas of biological methodology used
in both marine and fresh waters in routine field and
laboratory work arising during short-term enforce-
ment studies, long-term water quality monitoring,
and effluent testing. Methods evaluation and de-
velopment are accomplished through grants, con-
tracts, and in-house research.
Because of the broad scope of the biological
methodology involved in the EPA program, a na-
tional advisory committee of senior biologists was
selected from EPA enforcement laboratories and
from regional surveillance and analysis and national
research programs. The committee meets at least
once a year to review the biological methods re-
search program and to select methods for Agency
use.
Biological Methods Manual
The first EPA biological methods manual was
completed in 1973 and distributed to Federal and
State agencies and other interested programs. The
manual was prepared jointly by the Biological Ad-
visory Committee and the AQCL Biology staff; it
contains field and laboratory methodology for sam-
pling and identifying plankton, periphyton, macro-
phyton, macroinvertebrates, fish, and bioassays, and
has a chapter on biometrics. The manual will be
reviewed periodically by the Advisory Committee,
and existing methods will be revised and new
methods will be added as the need arises.
Sample Collection and Preparation
Projects underway in this area in 1973 included
studies of the effect of substrate depth on the abund-
ance and species composition of periphyton, the
effect of artificial substrate sampler geometry on
macroinvertebrate collections, and the compara-
bility of bottom grab samplers. A preliminary re-
port on the performance of the Ekman, Petersen,
and Ponar bottom grabs was completed and sub-
mitted for publication in a technical journal. A pre-
liminary study was completed on the recovery and
selectivity of various sieves used in processing macro-
invertebrate samples, and a report is in preparation.
The feasibility of developing an automatic sample
sorting and counting device for processing macro-
invertebrate samples was also explored in-house and
through discussions with consulting firms. Macro-
invertebrate field samples currently require 4 or
more hours for manual sorting. Mechanization of
this operation would result in a significant savings
in man-hours in Federal and State water pollution
control programs. The possibility of using auto-
matic, bacteria plate counters to speed the counting
of hand-sorted organisms was examined and showed
sufficient promise to warrant purchase of an instru-
ment (AMINCO PETRI-SCAN) for further studies.
Methods of Organism Identification
Keys for the identification of the diatoms and
midges, both of which are important water indicator
organisms, were reprinted because of the continued
high demand for these publications. Revisions of
both keys are underway and will be completed in
1974 or 1975. Work also continued on a key to
the Stenonema mayflies, which will go to press early
in 1974.
A small, scanning electron microscope was pur-
chased to aid in preparing the revision of the identi-
fication guides and in the preparation of new publi-
cations.
Measurements of Biomass and Metabolic Rates
The concentration and relative abundance of
chlorophyll a, b, and c, and chlorophyll degradation
products are widely used to estimate phytoplankton
density, taxonomic composition, and physiological
condition. Chlorophyll methodology, however, has
not been rigorously evaluated.
Long-term studies of the stability of chlorophyll
extracts completed early in 1973 demonstrated that
chlorophyll solutions stored in the dark at freezer
31
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temperatures (-20°Q were stable for at least 12
months. The results indicated that it would be feasi-
ble to use such extracts in a formal interlaboratory
study of chlorophyll analytical methodology, and
such a study was carried out (see the section on
interlaboratory methods studies, below). A high-
resolution research spectrophotometer (BECKMAN
ACTA V) was purchased to provide more accurate
data from laboratory analyses. A grant was awarded
to the Department of Biological Sciences, Univer-
sity of Cincinnati, to develop gas chromatographic
methods for chlorophyll identification and quantifi-
cation.
A study of the potential usefulness of macroin-
vertebrate biomass data in determining water quality
was completed and a report was prepared for publi-
cation.
An evaluation of methods of measuring plankton
biomass, begun in 1972, was continued in 1973.
Parameters being examined include cell count, cell
volume, dry weight, ash-free weight, and chlorophyll
and adenosine triphosphate content.
Bioassay, Bioaccumulation, and Biomonhoring
An evaluation of bioassay methods was initiated
hi 1973 with a review of the bioassay literature and
a laboratory evaluation of current standard methods
for conducting static fish toxicity tests. During the
tests, numerous instances were noted where changes
hi equipment and techniques would result in signifi-
cant improvements hi the tests. A preliminary re-
port was prepared and further studies are planned
for 1974.
A grant was awarded to the Department of
Botany, Ohio State University, Columbus, to de-
velop a rapid, algal bioassay technique.
Data Processing and Evaluation
A project was initiated in April 1973 to develop a
computerized biological data storage and retrieval
system within the Agency's data storage and re-
trieval facility (STORET) capable of handling the
hierarchical structure of taxonomic nomenclature.
A contract was awarded to the General Electric
Company, Beltsville, Maryland, to determine the
system requirements and design, and to develop the
master files for species, parameters, and stations. An
initial, minimal system was planned to handle the
data from the Lake Ontario study conducted by the
International Field Year for the Great Lakes (a joint
U.S.-Canadian ^project), the Ocean Disposal Pro-
gram, the National Eutrophication Survey, and the
EPA and State water pollution surveillance pro-
grams. Completion of this project has been delayed
temporarily because of lack of funds.
Grants were awarded to the Department of Bot-
any, Bowling Green State University, Bowling
Green, Ohio, to review the literature and compile
the published data on the environmental require-
ments of the common diatoms collected in water
quality studies, and to Florida State University,
Tallahassee, to carry out a similar project for the
midges. These grants, the first in a series to be
awarded to compile ecological data on all of the
common aquatic organisms, will assist Federal and
other water pollution biologists to evaluate data col-
lected in enforcement and water quality monitoring
studies.
Interlaboratory Biological Methods Studies
A formal interlaboratory study of chlorophyll
methodology was carried out in May and June 1973.
The reference sample was prepared and distributed
to approximately 100 laboratories. The results indi-
cated good precision for the method for chlorophyll
a, but data for the other chlorophylls and pheophytin
a showed considerable scatter. A final report on the
study is in preparation.
Preparations for a formal interlaboratory study
of macroinvertebrate identification methods were
initiated early in 1973. More than 100 laboratories
responded to the announcement of the study con-
tained In the July AQCL Newsletter. Work is con-
tinuing on the project, and the reference samples
will be distributed in January 1974.
Plans were also initiated for a formal interlabora-
tory study of a plankton counting and identifica-
tion methods to be carried out during the first half
of 1974.
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EDISON WATER QUALITY RESEARCH LABORATORY
(INDUSTRIAL WASTE TREATMENT RESEARCH LABORATORY)
At the Edison Water Quality Research Laboratory
(EWQRL), new process technology for abating water
pollution is developed from concept through
demonstrated hardware and processes. At this major
satellite facility of NERC-Cincinnati, the R&D ef-
forts are grouped in four areas: managing oil and
hazardous material spills, controlling industrial efflu-
ents, managing storm and combined sanitary sewer
overflows, and abating pollution from recreational
and transportation sources. There is useful cross-
fertilization among the areas within the laboratory;
e.g., the work of the industrial pollution control
program provides useful information to the hazard-
ous spill program and the spill control programs
can and do use technology developed by the others.
Related efforts at the other three NERC's, in indus-
try, and at universities is also closely coordinated
with EWQRL research.
The EWQRL serves as the center of oil and
hazardous spill control research in the Nation. It
has, since 1969, gained and continues to enjoy, a
worldwide reputation in this area. The prime em-
phasis of the team, supported by in-house engineer-
ing, chemistry, and biology efforts, is to develop new
hardware concepts to detect, contain, and remove
pollutants that leak or spill into the environment
accidentally.
The industrial pollution research effort of NERC-
Cincinnati is centered at EWQRL. The program in
the past focused on waste problems of the electro-
plating and nonferrous metals industries. Much of
the effort has been geared to supporting the demon-
stration of pollution control technology at the pilot
or semi-works scale. The program has also sup-
ported the standard-setting efforts of the Effluent
Guidelines Division of the Office of Water Programs.
This year, additional Edison R&D efforts covered
the inorganic and miscellaneous chemicals area,
as well as the manufacture of synthetics, plastics,
and rubber.
The storm and combined sewer overflow pro-
gram develops abatement concepts, at pilot and
full scale, to mitigate pollution resulting from water
runoff occuring in urban areas at times of heavy
rain or melting snow. These wet-weather flows can
cause over 50 percent of the pollution load in a
stream. The program not only demonstrates con-
trol technology, but sponsors work to minimize
urban runoff and urban runoff pollutant levels.
Waste management for small boats has been the
main thrust of the transportation program. This
3-year effort has demonstrated successful solutions
for controlling pollution from small and medium
size boats. Some of these solutions can be applied
to problems encountered at remote recreational facil-
ities; EWQRL has a minor effort in the area this
year.
The EWQRL has a fully equipped scientific labor-
atory for chemical and biological analysis to sup-
port the technology development work. Outdoor
and indoor test facilities include a 100-foot indoor
test tank. The laboratory shares facilities with Re-
gion IPs Surveillance and Analysis Division en-
joying the Region's support for routine work while
supporting the Region with its area of expertise.
OIL SPILL RESEARCH
The prime responsibility of the oil spill research
is to develop systems that will prevent, contain,
control, identify, and clean up spills of crude oil
and petroleum products. Current efforts include
work in managing waste oil, developing booms and
skimmers, utilizing total response systems during
spills of opportunity, identifying pollutants, and
demonstrating oil/water separation systems. A major
effort this past year has been devoted to constructing
the Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated En-
vironmental Test Tank (OHMSETT) which will be
operational in spring 1974.
Waste Oil Management
A study has been underway since 1972 to de-
velop a nonpolluting waste oil-refining process. The
full scale demonstration is being carried out by
the National Oil Recovery Corporation (NORCO).
The process utilizes vacuum distillation to produce
marketable lube stocks and No. 2 and No. 4 fuel
oils.
33
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Additional tasks incorporated in the contract in-
clude:
studies to determine a pretreatment process for
feedstock
design and development of specifications for
a bottoms incinerator
product outlets for high-solids-content bottoms
product quality studies
plant runs to obtain system design and operating
data
At present, a post-distillation process, hydrotreat-
ing, appears to be more attractive than pretreatment.
Hydrotreating should be demonstrated in 1974.
Process studies indicate that, if done at a sufficient
scale, re-refining can be economically attractive.
A grant was awarded to Maryland Environmental
Service to survey the waste oil problems in Mary-
land, as a typical state. The study will provide a
management program for collecting and recycling
waste oils; the plan will provide an example for
other states to follow. Preliminary evaluation of the
study results indicate that collection costs over an
entire state will be as high as $0.05 per gallon. An
amendment was awarded in June 1973 to investigate
technology for disposal of high-solids residues. A
report "Waste Oil Recovery Practices, State-of-the-
Art (1972)" has been published.
The EWQRL personnel helped prepare the report
"Waste Oil Study - Preliminary Report to the Con-
gress, April 1973," required 6 months after enact-
ment of Section 104(m)(3) of WPCA Amendments
of 1972. As part of the EPA working group for
Section 104(m), they are preparing major sections
of the final Report to Congress to be submitted by
April 1974.
Booms and Skimmers
Conventional oil retention booms fail to contain
oil in currents above 1 to 2 knots. A streamlined
boom was designed to operate in currents in excess
of 2 knots under varying wave-current conditions.
The initial boom design consisted of an airfoil-
shaped (hydrofoil) leading-edge section designed to
move near the water surface and permit oil and
water to flow over the top of the leading edge into
a flexible sump. Tests indicated that although the
flow associated with the leading-edge hydrofoil sec-
tion appeared promising, it would be difficult to con-
trol the flexible sump shape, especially in currents
greater than about 2 knots. A modified streamlined
boom was then designed with a rigid sump formed
by the interior of the streamlined shape. The boom
consists of an airfoil-shaped section resembling a
hydrofoil, operating at the water surface (Figure 8).
Motion of the boom through the water (or flow of
water past the boom) caused a bow wave that swept
oil and water over the top of the leading edge of
the boom into a sump. Tests indicated that the
streamlined boom has a drag profile less than one-
third that of conventional boom shapes of equiva-
lent depth. Measurements of oil collection efficiency
indicated that at a speed of 3 knots, collection effi-
ciencies can exceed 65 to 75 percent.
In a series of laboratory and tow-tank tests,
Consultec, Inc. studied the feasibility of using a
woven hydrophilic fabric boom to contain oil float-
ing on water. A 46-inch-wide model did not leak
when towed through calm water at 1.5 knots. An
Float
End Plate
Oil and Water
Oil Slick
Water
Airfoil-Shaped,
Streamlined Boom
Control Hydrofoil
FIGURE 8. STREAMLINED BOOM DESIGN WITH RIGID SUMP AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF THE SHAPE.
34
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adaption of this technique may contribute to solving
the problem of retaining spilled oil in rivers and
estuarine areas where water speeds reach 5 knots,
Oil Identification
A method was developed and evaluated by Esso
Research and Engineering Company to identify
sources of oil pollution by comparison of certain
stable chemical indices present in unweathered oil
from suspect pollution sources and the weathered
pollution sample. Several compound indices were
found to be stable after laboratory simulated wea-
thering and showed the ability to help discriminate
between pairs of oils used in the study. These in-
dices provided a means of clearly distinguishing
among the oils used in the study with a high degree
of statistical confidence.
An assessment of the utility of ultraviolet fluores-
cence spectrophotometry for characterizing and
identifying oils found as slicks and shore-line resi-
dues was completed. An intramural effort made
significant progress towards developing novel and
more efficient methods for characterizing and quan-
titating oil by fluorescent techniques. A broad
variety of severely weathered (simulated) oils were
successfully matched with their corresponding un-
weathered counterparts. A preliminary fluorescence
method was completed for quantitating oil directly
in water. Intramural efforts in this area will con-
tinue through 1974.
To provide a much needed instrument for auto-
matically measuring the concentration of oil in
water, NUCOR Corporation is developing an
"Oil Contamination Meter." This meter, based on
flame emission spectroscopy, will measure from 5
to 500 ppm of oil in marine, brackish, or fresh
water. The burner system will respond to 4 ppm
benzene and 10 pprn of No. 2 fuel oil in fresh
water and to 30 ppm of No. 2 fuel oil in brackish
water. A prototype unit should be tested and de-
livered to EWQRL by December 1973.
The State of Maine Department of Environmental
Protection (D.E.P.) evaluated an EPA high-resolu-
tion, gas chromatographic (GO analysis method to
be used in the enforcement of their state Oil Con-
veyance Law. To help identify "mystery oil spills,"
the law requires portions of all oils transported
through Maine to be stored for 15 days. The Woods
Hole Oceanographic Institution developed the GC
method for EWQRL; The Research Institute of the
Gulf of Maine (TRIGOM) conducted extensive oil
weathering experiments using large outdoor tanks
with continuously recirculating Casco Bay water;
and Bowdoin College conducted the GC analysis.
(TRIGOM and Bowdoin College are under the im-
mediate direction of D.E.P.).
When oil films of controlled thickness (up to
3000 panometers) were formed upon water surfaces
in the EWQRL laboratory, an inherent and orderly
thickness - appearance relationship was confirmed, a
relationship independent of oil type and water type.
These relationship studies also investigated the ef-
fects of viewing conditions on the ease with which
the film could be seen. The EWQRL out-of-doors
observations and work reported by other sources
correspond with the laboratory results. The visi-
bility of a thin oil film depends not only on its in-
herent thickness - dependent appearance, but also on
conditions external to the film: the nature of illu-
mination and sky conditions, sun angle, color and
depth of water, color of bottom, and viewing angle
(Figure 9). A very thin film can be detected under
favorable conditions (Figure 10).
Oil and Water Separation
A chemically assisted, backwashable coalescer
with a backwash solids treater is being developed
by Pollution Abatement Research. This system,
which will agglomerate submicron oil droplets, is
aimed at the water treatment problems encountered
FIGURE 9. VISIBILITY OF OIL SLICK ON WATER
DEPENDS ON MANY VARIABLES.
THE OIL SLICK COVERS THE ENTIRE
AREA BUT IS ONLY SEEN IN THE
RELATIVELY CALM AREA WHERE THE
VIEWING AND SUN ANGLE ARE
FAVORABLE.
35
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FIGURE 10. VISIBILITY OF 50 GPM, A 100 PPM OIL-WATER DISCHARGE, FROM THE AIR.
on offshore oil production platforms. Preliminary
testing of the system with a 50 gpm coalescer op-
erating on actual wastewater from an offshore oil
production platform shows considerable promise.
Benefits of the system will be its small size, contin-
uous backflushing to cleanse the backwashed solids.
and the resulting high quality water and solids efflu-
ents. The backwash solids treater will be tested
further, and the system will be used on an oil pro-
duction site for an extended time period.
The Ben Holt Company is investigating adsorptivc
techniques to remove chemically emulsified and dis-
solved oils from water. Preliminary investigations
with a solvent-regenerated, carbon adsorption sys-
tem pointed to solvent efficiency.problems. Further
investigations have been aimed at various thermally
regenerable adsorptive surfaces with oily water con-
tact being in the form of a spray or mist. Data pro-
duced thus far indicate considerable promise. With
a single pass at the adsorptive surface and a contact
time on the order of 1 second, recoveries of 69 per-
cent have been achieved (100 ppm "in." 31 ppm
"out").
Oil Spill Response
Under an EPA grant monitored at EWQRL, the
New York City Fire Department produced a film
and training manual aimed at promoting the re-
sponse of fire departments to oil spills. Fire de-
partments, trained and equipped to respond to a
community emergency, can provide a valuable "first
aid" action at an oil spill to limit spreading (Figure
11). Cleanup would be by a trained cleanup crew.
not the fire department. Copies of the film and
training manual were distributed nationwide to the
major city fire departments. Response to these
materials has been good, and a major oil company
is reproducing the film for international distribution
to its affiliates.
OHMSETT (Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated
Environmental Test Tank)
EWQRL continues to provide technical supervi-
sion during the construction of OHMSETT. the
670-foot-long. 65-foot-wide. 11-foot-deep wave tank
being constructed at Leonardo. New Jersey (Figure
12)." This S3 million facility for developing, test-
36
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ing, refining, and evaluating oil and hazardous ma-
terials spill cleanup equipment is scheduled to be
turned over to EPA by the contractor April 1, 1974.
The concrete work has been completed; the three-
story control building is ready for occupancy. The
large mechanical equipment is being installed. A
250-HP electrohydraulic system will power the gen-
erator to produce waves up to 2 feet in height and
16 feet in length. A 2000-gpm diatomaceous earth
filter system will help maintain the water clarity
needed for underwater photography and videotape
recordings that will constitute the bulk of the data
record. The foundation for the 7000-square-foot.
prefabricated, support-facilities building is complete,
and the building was completed in late 1973. The
completed OHMSETT facility will provide a much-
needed, environmentally safe transition between
laboratory work and actual river and harbor spill
conditions.
Conference: Prevention and Control of Oil Spills
Eighty-seven papers were presented to over 1500
attendees at the 1973 Conference on Prevention and
Control of Oil Spills sponsored by EPA, the Ameri-
can Petroleum Institute, and the U.S. Coast Guard.
This was the third such sesquiannual interchange
and assessment of technology within the last 4 years.
The exhibits, representing the best of more than 75
companies, demonstrated the dramatic advances in
the state-of-the-art in oil spill control and cleanup
made since the first conference in December 1969.
Fifty foreign delegates to the Conference ac-
cepted invitations to visit EWQRL and OHMSETT
on the day following the Conference.
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS SPILLS
RESEARCH
Within EWQRL. hazardous materials spills re-
search develop technology and systems for prevent-
ing, detecting, identifying, containing, monitoring,
controlling, and cleaning up in the water environ-
ment spills of hazardous substances that dissolve
in or react with water or that sink, float, or
volatilize. Some examples of hazardous materials
are: phenol, alcohol, nitric acid, chlorosulfontc acid,
acetone cyanohydrin. toluene diisocyanate. organo-
phosphate pesticides (Diazinon, parathion). chlor-
dane. perchloroethylene. creosote, carbon disulfidc.
styrene, iso-octane. formaldehyde, and chlorine.
During 1973, significant progress continued to be
made in the area of containing hazardous material
spills on land and in water. Spill alarm and treat-
ment devices were developed and new concepts
introduced. A manual of guidelines for disposing
of small-lots of spilled or unused pesticides, with
extensive tables of chemical properties and a review
FIGURE 11. FIRE BOAT HERDS SIMULATED OIL
SLICK WITH ITS MAIN FIRE
RESPONSE SYSTEM. THE OIL IS
SIMULATED BY THE WHITE PAPER
SQUARE.
FIGURE 12. OHMSETT (LOOKING DOWN THE
TANK TO THE CONTROL HOUSE) AS
IT APPEARED IN SEPTEMBER 1973,
ABOUT 75 PERCENT COMPLETE.
37
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FIGURE 13. QUICK SETTING FOAM PLUG APPLIED TO LEAKING BENZENE CONTAINER,
of relevant disposal chemistry, will soon be sub-
mitted for printing.
Containment
Following a demonstration (Figure 13) of the
feasibility of using foamed-in-place plastic for plug-
ging leaks in ruptured containers, a one-man-oper-
ated device is now being built.
A foam-dike backpack unit (cost about SI50 per
unit) has been constructed and is on stand-by for
actual field use in confining spills on land and pre-
venting their entry into nearby watercourses or storm
drains (Figure 14).
Characterization of a "universal" gelling agent for
increasing the viscosity of spilled hazardous mate-
rials is underway and a contract will be awarded for
producing a field-use application system. Based on
the preliminary evaluation, the cost of gelling haz-
ardous materials ranges from 30 to 60 cents per
gallon of spilled material. In field demonstrations
(Figure 15), the flow of cyclohexane spilled on land
(and on water) was halted by applying the gelling
agent. In a preliminary study, the treatment of land
with plastic sealants to make the ground impervious
to percolation of spilled hazardous materials shows
promise. The work is expected to be continued.
A sealed boom (water curtain) for confining a
spill by isolating a water column 70 feet in diameter
and up to 25 feet high has been constructed and is
scheduled for testing in a stream flowing at 2 knots.
The readily transportable, field-use, battery-
powered pump and self-deploying 7000-gallon con-
tainment bag system for collecting spilling or spilled
hazardous materials is being readied for an early
demonstration. The unit weighs less than 1000
pounds, costs between 52,500 and $3,000, and is
stowed on a 4- by 4-foot reinforced plastic pallet.
which can easily be moved to a spill site with a
small pick-up truck.
Removal
The 5-gpm "Dynactor" separator was successfully
demonstrated for removing hazardous materials dis-
solved in or associated with water. A scaled-up.
250-gpm, trailer-mounted "Dynactor" separator sys-
tem is presently being constructed under contract.
The system utilizes a dynamic, thin-film contactor
reactor ("Dynactor") coupled with special, high-
38
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FIGURE 14. PLASTIC FOAM DAM USED TO SEAL
STORM DRAIN.
filtration-rate separators to treat water with any or
a combination of activated carbon, precipitating
agents, neutralizing reagents, or ozone.
A commercial 17'/2-minute, color, sound film.
"Once A River." has been produced to document a
successful cleanup of hazardous materials in the
Little Menomonee River in Milwaukee. Wisconsin.
The 5-gpm "Dynactor" separator and the 200-gpm.
mobile, physical chemical separation system (which
consists of chemical reaction vessels and activated
carbon and mixed media filter columns) were each
successfully used, along with other EPA-developed
equipment, to clean up settled creosote from sepa-
rate 500-foot lengths of the river. The entire 2'/2-
mile contaminated length of the river is now being
cleaned, as a demonstration, at an estimated cost
of $70.000 per mile. Tests show that creosote con-
tinually oozes from the banks and is redeposited in
the cleaned sections of the river. The creosote-con-
taining earth is first removed. Next, the creosote
that lies in pools or is dispersed in mud on the river
bottom is sucked up by a specially constructed.
maneuverabic vacuum frame. The collected creo-
sote mud and water are separated by primary sedi-
mentation. The clarified water is then freed of dis-
solved creosote with the 200-gpm mobile physical
chemical treatment trailer (Figure 16) and returned
to the river. This treatment system can probably
be reproduced for $100,000.
As an add-on to an on-going project on hydro-
logical modification. Hittman Associates is assessing
the suitability of the "Mudcat" dredge and a physi-
cal, water-sediment separation system for removing
spilled hazardous materials, especially solids, from
watercourses and returning clean water to the spill
site. The feasibility of adapting this moderate scale
FIGURE 15. DEMONSTRATION ON THE USE 01
"UNIVERSAL GEL" TO SOLIDIFY
SPILLED CHEMICAL IN DITCH.
(1500 gpm) system to separating insoluble, or
slightly soluble, spilled, hazardous fluids from water
will be evaluated.
A cleanup system using floatable mass-transfer
media activated carbon to remove "Diazinon"
and an ion exchange resin to remove sulfuric acid
was successfully demonstrated in a large, concrete-
lined water pond. In the process, the adsorption
media are introduced to the bottom of a waterbody
in weighted containers, which can be dropped from
a helicopter or other aircraft (Figure 17). The
media self-release from the containers, float to the
surface of the water, and collect dissolved hazardous
material as they rise. The spent carbon or ion ex-
change resin is then harvested. Work is now in
progress on adapting the method for use in flowing
streams.
When activated carbon "tea bags" (Figure 18)
were tested in a static pool of water with phenol as
FIGURE 16. 200 GPM MOBILE PHYSICAL/
CHEMICAL TREATMENT SYSTEM
CLEANS UP SPILLS ON THE SPOT.
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FIGURE 18. CARBON "TEA BAGS" USED TO
ADSORB SPILLED CHEMICALS.
FIGURE 17. DROPPED CONTAINERS RELEASE
FLOATABLE MEDIA FROM POND
BOTTOM. MEDIA DECONTAMINATES
SPILLED MATERIAL AS THEY RISE
TO SURFACE.
the pollutant, the rate of phenol adsorption was
prohibitively slow unless the water was agitated or
became turbulent. It was determined that, under
calm conditions in an actual hazardous material
spill situation, a small number of outboard boats
could adequately produce the needed agitation.
A grant has been awarded to determine the feasi-
bility of biological countermeasures for mitigating
the effects of hazardous material spills.
Identification
CAM-1 (Figure 19), the organophosphate pesti-
cide alarm device featured in the "1972 Annual Re-
port" and "News of Environmental Research in
Cincinnati" (7-1-73), has had more laboratory test-
ing and is now being characterized and evaluated
for actual field use. An inexpensive (about $500)
portable version is planned, and similarly favorable
test results with a laboratory system that responds
to low levels of heavy metals in water, the cyclic
colorimeter, have led to the award of a contract for
developing and testing a more rugged field-use
model.
FIGURE 19. CAM-1 DEVICE WARNS OF
PESTICIDE SPILLS.
40
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Prevention
The problem of providing an alarm when an
earthen dike approaches failure is being tackled
through a grant to develop an acoustical-emission
sensing device, which responds to the interparticle
shear energy release of a dangerously stressed dike.
One goal of a model contingency plan that is
being prepared for handling spills of hazardous
materials in metropolitan areas is to keep the spill
from entering the sewer system. For spills that do
arrive at a sewage treatment plant, pilot-scale studies
of corrective measures are being tested. Specific
literature references on the effects of hazardous ma-
terials and on preventive measures in secondary
treatment systems have been collected and critically
evaluated. Publication of these references is planned
for early 1974.
The hazards to aquatic food chains and to water
quality are being assessed in a project concerning
the spillage and release of thallium and related
heavy metals (copper, lead, zinc) from ore smelting
and refining operations. State agencies in Montana,
Idaho, Missouri, and Arizona have cooperated ex-
tensively, and in one instance, between samplings,
a major smelter instituted certain on-site treatment
practices that improved water quality downstream.
Insurance and casualty loss records, a new source
of documentation on the causes of hazardous mate-
rial spills, are being examined along with the
usually available data sources to set realistic
priorities for developing up-coming hazardous mate-
rial spill prevention and control systems.
The need remains for a captive test site on which
to conduct the full-scale hazardous material spills
that are essential to proper testing of prevention,
control, and removal equipment, since it now ap-
pears that the NASA Mississippi Test Facility may
not be suitable "as is" without extensive modifica-
tion.
The American Institute of Chemical Engineers
(AIChE) has been awarded a grant to sponsor,
jointly with EPA, the 2nd National Conference on
the Prevention and Control of Hazardous Material
Spills. This 3-day meeting is scheduled to be held
at San Francisco in August 1974.
INDUSTRIAL WASTE TECHNOLOGY
The activity concerned with industrial waste
technology is responsible for developing and demon-
strating new and improved technology for the pre-
vention, control, treatment, recovery, and reuse of
wastes in the metal finishing, nonferrous metals,
rubber and plastics, inorganic chemicals, paint and
pigment, pharmaceutical, soap and detergent, and
miscellaneous chemicals industries.
During the past year, a number of significant
EWQRL extramural developmental demonstration
studies were completed. Major advances have been
made in the demonstration of closed-loop-type waste
abatement technology; technical assistance has been
provided to the Effluent Guidelines, Refuse Act Per-
mit, and Technology Transfer Programs; and in
addition, the staff has prepared overview papers on
pollution problems and on present and potential
waste abatement technology for the industries in the
program, and presented this information at annual
as well as numerous local meetings.
Surveys
State-of-the-art surveys of the ethical pharmaceu-
tical industry and of the paint and pigment industry
have been completed. The nature and extent of
their major pollution problems have been identified,
with information on the sources, characteristics, and
significance of specific wastes, current water man-
agement practices, waste treatment and recovery
procedures obtained directly from these industries.
This material will provide a basis for defining re-
search needs and for planning broadly applicable
pollution abatement development and demonstration
efforts in cooperation with the individual industries.
In addition, these surveys will serve as "pathfinder"
studies for development of effluent guidelines for
these industries.
Nonferrous and Electroplating Industries
Chemical rinsing of electroplated parts and batch
chemical treatment of spent processing solutions
have been demonstrated to be practical approaches
for abating pollution in a small captive metal finish-
ing facility. A full-scale treatment system reduced
the amount of chromium, nickel, zinc, copper, and
other heavy metals in the waste to a level where sub-
stantial quantities of water could be reused. The
waste treatment costs were estimated to be 1.5
percent of product value and 6 percent of value
added.
A study has been completed that demonstrated
the feasibility of using electrodialysis to treat copper
cyanide rinsewaters. A prototype electrodialysis
system was used to show that the chemicals could
be concentrated to a level that would permit their
return to the bath as well as allow reuse of the
treated wastewater in the rinsing operations. The
study also identified certain improvements that
should be made to currently available equipment.
The feasibility of using presently available re-
verse osmosis membranes to treat various metal
finishing rinsewaters was demonstrated in a compre-
hensive pilot plant program. This technique purifies
41
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the rinsewater for reuse and concentrates the chemi-
cals for return to the processing bath. The most
promising applications of reverse osmosis were iden-
tified, as were those rinse wastes that cannot be
effectively treated with existing membranes and
must await the development of new and improved
membranes capable of withstanding more severe
operating conditions. In addition to alleviating the
sludge problems produced by the commonly used
chemical treatment methods, reverse osmosis is at-
tractive because of low capital and operating costs,
simplicity of operation, and modular construction
requiring a minimum of space.
Using an ion exchange process to recover chrom-
ate from wastewaters containing high concentrations
of chromate (2700 ppm) was successfully demon-
strated. In the treatment process, washwater from
the production of zinc-yellow pigment is equalized,
acidified, and filtered before passing through the
exchange bed. The exchange bed effluent, which
contains less than 0.1 percent of its original chrom-
ate content, is neutralized with sodium carbonate
before conventional treatment of the remaining
chromate. The resultant zinc carbonate is recovered
and sold as a byproduct. Regeneration of the ex-
change bed with an alkaline solution recovers the
chromate, which is then used in the preparation of
the succeeding batch of pigment. This economically
advantageous process recovers over 99.9 percent of
the expensive chromate, allows formation of a sale-
able zinc carbonate byproduct, and substantially
lowers the chromate loading to the plant's conven-
tional chemical treatment and sedimentation facility.
Rubber Industry
A full-scale facility costing $1.5 million (exclusive
of another $0.5 million for stormwater segregation)
has been evaluated for the treatment of 3.5 mgd
wastewater from a synthetic rubber manufacturing
plant. The system consists of neutralization, chemical
coagulation, primary and secondary solids removal
by dissolved air flotation, and biological treat-
ment in a completely mixed aerated lagoon; it re-
moved just under 85 percent of the BOD, COD, and
suspended solids (SS) during the start-up and demon-
stration period. Improvements made during the
final months of the study and others that can be
made to overcome recognized problems suggest that
higher levels of pollutant removal are achievable.
Average operating cost of treatment during the
study period was $0.50 per 1000 gallons of waste-
water treated exclusive of sludge disposal.
Optimization of a full-scale storage pond sys-
tem for stabilization and storage of secondary,
treated, sanitary wastewater and cooling waters is
an effective means of increasing the reuse ratio
of water supplies from 6 to 15 times, a technique
useful during periods of drought and in water-short
areas. The system, which shows some similarities
to an oxidation pond, includes optimization of bio-
logical activities in shallow areas and control of
thermal stratification; it also allows the most ef-
fective use to be made of the pond system, includ-
ing potential for total water recycle during critical,
low-stream-flow periods.
STORM AND COMBINED SEWER
TECHNOLOGY
Studies are being conducted at EWQRL to de-
velop and demonstrate technology for controlling
urban storm-generated runoff pollution. The major
sources of this pollution are combined sewer over-
flows, storm sewer discharges, and nonsewered ur-
ban runoff.
Treatment
Conventional treatment processes apply basically
to the nearly steady-state conditions of sanitary
wastewater, whereas combined sewer overflows
occur on an intermittent and random basis. Conse-
quently, it has been difficult to adapt existing treat-
ment methods directly to storm-generated overflows,
especially the microorganism-dependent biological
processes. Adverse flow conditions and unpredict-
able shock loadings make it advisable to consider
the newer chemical and physical treatment tech-
niques.
The applicability of the Swirl Concentrator (Fig-
ure 20) to regulate combined sewer overflow was
demonstrated on a pilot scale level. This device re-
quires no moving parts and can control the rate
of flow to the interceptor and at the same time
significantly reduce the amount of settleable solids in
the overflow. Tankage requirements and associated
costs are far less than those for conventional
sedimentation. The estimated cost (1972) for a
165 cfs, 36-foot-diameter unit to -be installed
at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, is $100,000, or $700
per acre. Another 12.5-foot-diameter prototype
with a capacity of 15.5 cfs was shop-fabricated out
of carbon steel for installation in Onondaga County,
Syracuse, New York. The cost of this prototype,
including installation, appurtenances, and pumping,
was approximately $30,000.
Based on design criteria developed from a proj-
ect by the American Public Works Association for
a swirl degritter, a full-scale degritter unit, which is
now operating successfully without prescreening, was
installed in Denver, Colorado. Actual sampling has
substantiated that its performance is equal to or
better than anticipated.
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A physical-chemical process utilizing powdered
activated carbon for the treatment of sanitary and
combined sewage was successfully demonstrated in
Syracuse. New York, on a 100,000 gpd scale. For
combined sewage, average removals exceeded 94
percent for COD, 94 percent for BOD. and 99
percent for SS.
FIGURE 20. PLAN VIEW OF SWIRL FLOW
REGULATOR SOLIDS SEPARATOR
DEVICE DEPICTING FLUID ACTION;
PILOT STUDY FOR LANCASTER,
PENNSYLVANIA. AT LASALLE, P.O.
The Philadelphia Water Department completed
the second phase of work conducted to confirm the
performance of a microstraining unit (Figure 21)
and the effectiveness of disinfection at high rate with
chlorine. The SS in combined sewer overflow was
reduced from 700 to 45 mg per liter while flowing
through the microstrainer (with a 23-micron screen
aperture operating at flow rates of 35 gpm per ft-).
Disinfection with 5 mg chlorine per liter in a spe-
cially built, high-rate contact chamber for only 2
minutes contact time reduced the coliforrn concen-
trations by four, or more, orders of magnitude. The
cost of installing this microstrainer special chlor-
ine contact chamber is S6.750 per cfs of peak flow
rate capacity, less land and engineering. On the
design basis of 2 cfs instantaneous overflow per
acre, this is $13,500 per acre.
Control
An 8.66-acre-feet, paved, asphalt detention basin
was constructed at Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin, to
store overflow from a 90-acre drainage area. Treat-
ment was provided at the wastewater treatment plant
when precipitation subsided. During the 2-year
study period. 59 of the 62 overflow events were
captured in the basin. This means that 93.7 percent
of the total overflow volume was withheld for sub-
sequent treatment before release to the river. This
represented 98.2 percent of the BOD and 95.8
percent of the SS in the overflow. The estimated
cost of operating and maintaining the basin and
associated facilities was $7,300 per year for the
2-year period. Capital costs were $6.780 per acre
of drainage area.
The importance of surface and sewer system
"housekeeping" was examined in work conducted
by the URS Research Company. Materials that
commonly reside on street surfaces were found to
contribute substantially to urban pollution when
washed into receiving water by storm runoff, and in
fact, the runoff is similar in many respects to sani-
tary sewage. Characterization studies also revealed
a significant amount of exotic pollutants in the run-
off pollutants that included heavy metals (lead.
zinc, cadmium, mercury, copper, chromium), pesti-
cides and PCB's. nutrients, chemical deicers, and
nonbiodegradable and refractory organics. Increas-
ing street cleaning efficiency and limiting the use
of chemicals are ways to reduce these pollutants,
but specific stormwater treatment methods are also
needed.
Sewer Design
University of Illinois evaluated the British Road
Research Laboratory (RRL) method of storm sewer
design. They found that the RRL method provides
an accurate means of computing runoff from the
paved area portion of an urban basin and adequately
represents the runoff from actual urban basins when
the basin area is less than 5 square miles, the directly
connected paved area is at least 15 percent of the
basin area, and the frequency of the storm event
being considered is not greater than 20 years.
FIGURE 21. MICROSTRAINER SYSTEM USED FOR
STUDY TO EVALUATE ITS USE IN
TREATING COMBINED SEWER
OVERFLOWS, PHILADELPHIA,
PENNSYLVANIA.
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The effectiveness of small, nonmetallic pipe
(sewer) to transport wastewater from a macerator
device under pressure was successfully demonstrated
by the New York State Department of Environ-
mental Conservation in Albany. When compared
with conventional wastewater, the pressure sewer
waste was 100 percent stronger. The pressure
sewer system is designed to serve as an adjunct to
conventional gravity sewers and to offer a new de-
gree of freedom in providing sewer service. Use of
a pressure system to collect and convey sanitary
wastewater can reduce the waste volume generated,
reduce conduit sizes, eliminate infiltration, minimize
associated installation and treatment costs, and also
alleviate overflows. In an average household, the
power cost for a macerator was only $0.34 per per-
son for a year; the unit cost was less than $1,000.
If there is insufficient carrying capacity in sewers,
adding polymers may measurably reduce fluid fric-
tion. In the Columbia Research Corporation study
of the effect of these additives on open channel flows,
the changes in flow characteristics produced by poly-
mer additives were reflected as either a water sur-
face level decrease at constant flow rates or a flow
rate increase at constant static heads. Such addi-
tives could increase the flow capacity of sewer lines,
especially older ones, and accordingly reduce over-
flows from.combined as well as sanitary sewers. A
preliminary cost comparison for a 15-inch sewer in
Garland, Texas, indicated that using polymers to
control overflow and surcharge in pipes would cost
one-fourth as much relief sewer construction. Addi-
tional cost verification is necessary for other loca-
tions, however.
Instrumentation
Geophysical Survey Systems, Inc., studied a
unique radar system that produces a continuous
profile of subsurface conditions the depth and
location of geological formations and buried utilities.
This underground mapping will yield better cost
estimates for designing sewage collection systems.
Hydrospace-Challenger, Inc., evaluated the suit-
ability of over 60 models of automatic samplers to
measure the flow of storm and/or combined sewers.
Design guides for a new and improved device for
storm and combined sewer application were de-
veloped. The assessment and guide development are
applicable to all disciplines of flow sampling.
Deicer Effects
The Storm and Combined Sewer Technology
Branch recently completed a state-of-the-art review
of highway deicing practices and associated environ-
mental effects entitled "Water Pollution and Asso-
ciated Effects from Street Salting."
In a related project conducted by Abt Asso-
ciates, Inc., several approaches were identified (both
new and existing) aimed at the problems of snow
removal and ice control. They concluded that more
information is required on deicing, both in defining
the problem and in evaluating the alternatives. The
study recommended developing a hydrophobic/ice-
phobic (water/ice repellent) substance as an alterna-
tive to the commonly used highway deicer salt.
Beneficial Use of Stormwater
Hittman Associates, Inc., in a project at Colum-
bia, Maryland, determined that the use of local
storage and treatment represents a feasible and eco-
nomic method of for urban runoff pollution control
and, further, that the use of the treated water can
supply a large portion of the fresh water demands
of a typical urban residential community.
In Mount Clemens, Michigan, a series of three
"lakelets" has been incorporated into a park de-
velopment. Treatment is being provided so that
these lakes are aesthetically pleasing and so their
waters can be used for recreation and reused for
irrigation. The Mount Clemens design has won the
ASCE Conceptor Award in the state. Another proj-
ect, conducted by Roy F. Weston, Inc., in the Wash-
ington, D.C. area, has also shown the feasibility of
reclaiming stormwater.
Because of their value in urban planning, more
demonstrations of the beneficial use of stormwater
are needed. Another 1973 EPA project, part of a
planned community being developed near Houston,
Texas, will focus on how a "natural drainage sys-
tem" can be integrated into a reuse scheme for
recreational and aesthetic purposes. In this new
community development, the concept of urban run-
off as a benefit, rather than as wastewater, to be
blended into and enhance the environment rather
than upset it, will be employed and thoroughly
evaluated for the first time. Hopefully, it will be
shown that man and the natural environment can
coexist.
TRANSPORTATION AND RECREATIONAL-
AREA WASTE TECHNOLOGY
Watercraft Waste Technology
The research concerning transportation wastes in-
volves developing the technology for the economic
treatment of wastewater (including bilge and ballast
discharges) from watercraft, for handling galley
wastes and litter from boats, and for minimizing
engine emissions.
Research on systems for managing wastes on com-
mercial and recreational watercraft continued with
44
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emphasis placed on recirculating waste treatment
technology. To date, seven wastewater treatment sys-
tems that employ scrceening, filtration, centrifugation,
carbon adsorption, incineration, and disinfection
have been evaluated onboard operating water-
craft. Development and laboratory testing of five
other systems under simulated field conditions was
also completed. Treatment effectiveness, operational
and maintenance requirements, safety aspects, and
costs were documented for each system evaluated.
Table 3 summarizes these projects.
A physical-chemical, low-volume flush, recirculat-
ing waste treatment system was demonstrated over a
5-month period on a 50-man Corps of Engineer's
dredge. The system consists of a unique, moving-
paper filtration process. The demonstration showed
TABLE 3. MARINE SANITATION PROGRAMS
Contractor
(subcontractor)
Ametek
AWT, Inc.
Cleveland Cliffs
Iron Co.
(Thiokol Chemical)
Delaware River &
Bay Authority
(Marland
Environmental Inc.)
Fairbanks-Morse
General American
Transportation
Corp.
General Electric
Gulf & Western
Ocean Science &
Engineering
Ocean Systems
Thiokol Chemical
Corp.
Westinghouse
System
type
Flow thru
(physical-
chemical)
Flow thru/
recirculation;
(physical-
chemical)
Flow thru
(physical-
chemical)
Flow thru/
recirculation;
(physical-
chemical)
Recirculation;
(physical-
chemical)
Flow thru
(physical-
chemical)
Flow thru
(electro-
chemical)
Flow thru
(physical-
chemical)
Recirculation;
(chemical)
Incinerating
toilet
Flow thru/
recirculation
(physical-
chemical)
Recirculating
toilet
Capacity
crew size
4-6
4-10
30
(3000 gpd)
(5000 gpd)
25
20
(700 gpd)
35
15
man-days
50
4
4-10
4-5
Major equipment
Surge tanks; chemical addition;
sand filter; carbon adsorption;
disinfection
Filter incinerator; carbon
adsorption; disinfection
Primary tanks; chemical addition;
centrifuge; holding tank;
catalyst column; incinerator
Vibro-separafor; collection
tank; centrifuge; carbon
adsorption; disinfection; solids
holding tank
Rotary strainer; surge tank;
chemical feed; paper filter;
collection tank; carbon adsorption;
incinerator
Primary tanks; chemical addition;
rotary feed valve; moving screen
filter; carbon adsorption;
disinfection
Pump grinder; electrocoagulation
cells; upflow clarifier and
concentrator; carbon adsorption;
disinfection; incinerator
Carbon injection; mixing tube;
filter; disinfection
Chemical addition; mixing and
settling tanks; sludge tank;
hydraulic accumulator
Oil burner; combustion chamber;
afterburner
Holding tank; filter incinerator;
catalyst tank; disinfection
Traveling spring screen;
in-line filter; carbon adsorption;
electric incinerator
Installation
Recreational charter
boat
Recreational vessel
Cliffs Victory ore
carrier
Cape May -
Lewes Ferry
Corps of Engineers
dredge "MacKenzie"
Corps of Engineers
dredge "Ros"
Corps of Engineers
dredge "Gerig"
Recreational vessel
Alcoa Seaprobe
research vessel
Recreational vessel
Houseboat
Westinghouse research
craft "NorthStar"
45
-------
that the system can reduce SS and BOD by 99 and
95 percent, respectively. The quality of the flush
water throughout the test remained generally clear
and odorless with only a slight ammonia odor and
bluish color occasionally detectable. Shipboard oper-
ation indicated problems that required some addition-
al developmental work and also the need for routine
maintenance to ensure unnecessary system break-
down. The unit cost is estimated between $27,000
and $39.000 and operating costs at about $3 per
day.
A 5000 gpd physical-chemical treatment system
was installed and evaluated onboard a ferry operat-
ing in Delaware Bay. The shipboard demonstration
was conducted during the 1972 peak summer season
with the system operating in the flow-through (over-
board discharge) and the recirculating modes. Per-
formance data for overboard discharge showed that
SS in the effluent were always less than 50 mg per
liter. Effluent BOD ranged from 98 to 150 mg
per liter. The BOD and ammonia nitrogen, which
increased rapidly in the treated recycle water, caused
serious deterioration of the flush media. The system
costs about $40,000, and operating expenses can
be $200 per month during peak periods.
A wastewater treatment system with a novel filter-
incinerator and catalytic oxidation process, used as
flow through or recycle operation, was developed
for recreational watercraft. Typical results shown
during extensive laboratory testing illustrate that
significant reduction in BOD and SS, generally
greater than 90 percent, can be achieved by the
system. Tests performed in the laboratory indicate
that the system is capable of maintaining an aesthet-
ically acceptable flush liquid, i.e., containing no
color, slight cloudy appearance, and no objectionable
odor. The analytical data collected during these
tests indicated a gradual buildup of BOD to con-
centrations between 1000 and 1500 mg per liter.
SS were generally maintained around 100 mg per
liter. The system will be tested on a houseboat
to generate operating data; the hardware cost is
estimated between $500 and $1000.
Laboratory and on-ship evaluation of a small
recirculating waste-treatment device for recreational
watercraft indicated that human waste can be effec-
tively treated to provide an aesthetically acceptable
recirculating flush media. The device (Figure 22),
which provides liquid-solids separation, disinfection.
and electric incineration, will cost about $500 and
can handle 46 man-days of usage without discharge
to shoreside support facilities.
Treating vessel-retained waste, which is extremely
high in organics and often contains toxic, deodoriz-
ing chemicals, presents a serious shoreside problem.
Projects were initiated to characterize this unique
waste, perform treatability and toxicity studies, and
demonstrate promising systems to document treat-
ment effectiveness, reliability, cost, and sludge dis-
posal needs. The waste characterization program
showed that pumpout waste can obtain BOD and
SS in excess of 1000 mg per liter; the treatability
and toxicity studies indicated that, at small dilution
ratios, these wastes can adversely affect conven-
tional treatment processes. Initial evaluation of one
of these projects at the Lake Mead Marina indicates
that a physical-chemical system can effectively re-
duce BOD and SS by greater than 90 percent (de-
sign objective). An evaporator-incinerator system to
treat pumpout waste is also under development and
evaluation. Laboratory investigations have been con-
ducted to establish and verify heat transfer coeffi-
cients, continuous sludge feed technique, ash re-
moval, and optimum cool-down cycle. The ability
of the materials to withstand the corrosive effects of
FIGURE 22. WESTINGHOUSE COMPACT
RECIRCULATING TREATMENT TOILET
FOR FOUR-MAN CREW VESSEL.
46
-------
the process will also be investigated. The concept,
thus far, appears feasible although some material
problems have been indicated. A field evaluation.
scheduled at a marina on the Great Lakes for sum-
mer 1974, will define the ability of the system to
effectively and economically treat pumpout waste
under normal operating conditions. Waste input,
evaporator effluent, exhaust streams, and ash residual
will be monitored over the 90-day test period.
Research was initiated to advance the technology
for collecting, handling, and treating all vessel-gen-
erated waste at port facilities. Emphasis has been
placed on the Great Lakes where a waste charac-
terization program is underway at Duluth-Superior
Harbor. Useful quantitative and qualitative data on
the character and generation of various waste sources
offloaded from both domestic and foreign craft will
result.
Research continued through 1973 to investigate
the extent of pollution from outboard engine ex-
haust and its impact on the aquatic environment.
The collection of chemical, physical, and biological
data is complete, and the complex evaluation under-
way will provide a scientifically based assessment of
the outboard engine exhaust problem.
Recreational-Area Waste Treatment
Treating wastes generated at recreational areas is a
major problem because of the short-duration and
high load factor and the need to provide a high
level of treatment to protect the water quality of the
recreational area. The installation and demonstra-
tion of a nonaqueous, recirculating waste treatment
system at Mt. Rushmore, South Dakota, was suc-
cessfully completed. The evaluation showed the
concept to be feasible and effective for areas where
water supplies are limited. Continued support was
given projects to demonstrate a recirculating, cata-
lytic oxidation waste treatment system for a ski
resort and urea formaldehyde foam for a flora-filter
waste treatment system at two Ohio State parks.
A Federal Interagency Committee on Recrea-
tional Waste Management Research was established
to coordinate, accelerate, and enhance the research,
development, and demonstration efforts of the
agencies involved with recreational waste manage-
ment. The Committee will identify mutual, imme-
diate, and long-term research needs, set priorities,
provide a technical exchange forum, and promote
cooperative research projects among Federal agen-
cies.
Edison Water Quality Research Laboratory, Edison, New Jersey.
47
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ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY RESEARCH LABORATORY
The Environmental Toxicology Research Labora-
tory was charged to test, evaluate and define potential
harmful effects of environmental pollutants from
mobile and stationary sources. The data obtained
in experimental biological models, particularly in
mammalian species, provide necessary input for the
development of criteria documents, which in turn
serve to establish realistic environmental standards.
A major effort during 1973 was the evaluation of
biological effects of fuel and fuel additive emissions
from automobiles and of engine models equipped
with catalytic converter control systems.
The definitive toxicological investigations con-
ducted in this laboratory are particularly related to
air pollutants, and the route of animal exposure is,
primarily, inhalation. In many instances, however,
the pollutants studied are found in various environ-
mental media, and to provide relevant information
on the public health impact of such pollutants, the
different routes of entry must be studied. In addi-
tion, using judicious selection, several appropriate
animal species of different ages (from embryonic to
aged models) are being used to optimize the prob-
ability of reproducing human response.
The protocol followed in the process of toxicologic
investigation is summarized in Figure 23. Whether
this matrix is followed in part or in full depends on
the theoretical prediction of potential toxicity and
the amount of knowledge presently available on the
pollutant in question.
ANIMAL EXPOSURE STUDIES
During 1973, animal exposure studies were con-
ducted to assess the relative health hazard of whole
exhaust emissions coming from gasoline engines
equipped with catalytic converters. The auto exhaust
generating facilities were extensively modified before
the beginning of TAME* G study. Additional mod-
ifications including installation of two 1975 proto-
type engines were made after its completion. The ad-
dition of an air dilution tube for the immediate mix-
ing of the entire raw exhaust emissions with filtered
and temperature controlled air was used for the first
Toxicity Assessment Mobile Emissions (TAME)
GENERATION OF
EXPOSURE
t. AUTOMOTIVE
2. SINGLE
POLLUTANT
m
EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL
EXPOSURE
INHALATION.
INGESTION. ETC
1
~~~~
CHARACTERIZATION
OF EXPOSURE
AEROMETRY OF
EMISSION. AEROSOL
CHARACTERISTICS ETC.
1
1. LD50, LC50. ETC.
2. PHYSIOLOGICAL
SCREEN:
PULMONARY FUNCTION
NEUROPHYSIOLOGIC
RESPONSE, ETC.
3. PATHOLOGY:
GROSS 1 LIGHT
4. SENSITIVITY:
DERMAL. OCULAR. ETC
5. BIOCHEMICAL SCREEN
>UBACUTE EXPOSURE* | |
1. PHYSIOLOGY:
PULMONARY,
BEHAVIORAL. NEURO-
, PHYSIOLOGICAL
REPRODUCTIVE
2. BIOCHEMISTRY
ENZYMES
METABOLITES
3, PATHOLOGY:
LIGHT AND EM
4. METABOLISM:
CHRONIC EXPOSURE* |
SELECTIVE TESTS FROM
WHICH EVER OF THE
FOLLOWING IS DEEMED
MOST PRODUCTIVE:
1. BIOCHEMICAL
2 PHYSIOLOGICAL
3 PATHOLOGICAL
4. ELEMENTAL
ANALYSIS
5 OTHER, AS
APPROPRIATE
KINETICS. BODY ^
BURDEN. ETC
*
TEST REPORTS
(OPEN LITERATURE.
INTERNAL)
s
/
/
/
"THE APPROACH FOR ANY GIVEN POLLUTANT(S) WILL VARY SOMEWHAT FROM
THIS GENERAL SCHEME. DEPENDING ON WHAT IS CURRENTLY KNOWN ABOUT
THE POLLUTANT AND THE TYPE OF INFORMATION NEEDED TO FIT THE GAPS
FIGURE 23. DEFINITIVE TOXICOLOGICAL MATRIX
FOR INDIVIDUAL POLLUTANTS AND
EMISSIONS FROM MOBILE SOURCES.
time beginning with study G. This dilution tube
eliminated the necessity of a heat exchanger, which
had been attributed to loss of paniculate in the
former exhaust dilution system, and the raw exhaust
now entered a large volume mixing chamber from
the dilution tube. Because the engine cycle produces
varying amounts of exhaust and the gaseous com-
ponents are in different proportions, this mixing
chamber provides a degree of integration of the flow
and concentration. A bleed line to the outside atmos-
phere, with a motorized damper, is controlled by
sensing downstream pressure from the mixing cham-
ber. The supply source for both raw and irradiated
exhaust gas to the animal chambers must be as
identical as practicable.
After the completion of TAME G, the laboratory
acquired, free of charge, 1975 prototype engines
equipped with catalytic converters from General
Motors Company and the Ford Motor Company.
The 1972 Chevrolet engines were removed from the
dynamometer test stand and the following engine
systems were installed:
48
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FORD 400 C.I.D., R-6 engine with R-14 cali-
bration and the following controls:
(1) EGR (exhaust gas recirculation)
(2) Air pump
(3) Fluidic spark delay valve
(4) Various temperature sensing triggers
(5) Catalytic converter of monolith, noble
metal oxidation type. Two converters of
this type are required, one for each bank
of cylinders. (Catalyst by Matthey-Bishop
Co.)
GENERAL MOTORS 350 C.I.D.
(1) EGR
(2) Air pump
(3) Catalytic converter, pelletized type, noble
metal oxidation catalyst. One converter
after Y pipe. (Catalyst by W. R. Grace &
Co.)
During studies H, I, J, and K, the 1975 prototype
Chevrolet engine was operated continuously on the
California Cycle for 7 days without interruption.
Although the exact average gaseous pollutants in the
animal exposure chambers are not available at this
time, the approximate chamber concentrations and
other control criteria are given in Table 4.
Under similar operating conditions on the dyna-
mometer test stand, the 1975 prototype Chevrolet
engine consumed 28 percent more fuel than the 1972
Chevrolet used in study G. The average speed cal-
culated for the California Cycle was 20 miles per
hour, which resulted in 17.2 miles per gallon for the
1972 engine compared with 13.4 miles per gallon
for the 1975 prototype. These figures are not ab-
solute for road vehicles; they were compiled from
many weeks of engine operation and are accurate
for comparison between road vehicles. The principal
reason for the extra fuel consumption is the exhaust
gas recirculation system added to the later model
engine.
Catalysts are designed to lower the exhaust emis-
sions of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and oxides
of nitrogen, the three pollutants specifically listed in
the Federal Clean Air Act of 1970. The regulations
also require that no pollution control device shall
emit "noxious or toxic" substances. Two possible
TABLE 4. COMPARISON OF EMISSION COMPONENTS AND CONTROL CRITERIA
IN TAME STUDIES
Measurement
TAME G*
TAME
TAME It
TAME J
TAME K§
Dates
Fuel
Engine
Engine hours
Study hours
Engine miles
Cumulative catalyst
hours
Catalyst miles
Total fuel, Ib.
Fuel, Ib./hr.
Exhaust oxygen, percent
Air/fuel ratio
Dilution ratio
4/13 _ 6/15
Ref. + MMT
72 Chev
A 348- 723
B 2161-2353
509
3614
7.1
1.6
15.3
25/1
9/10 17
Ref. Only
75 Chev
w/Cat.
62-230
168
4608
244
4608
1533
9.10
4.9
8.0/1
10/10 17
Ref. Only
75 Chev
No Cat.
255-425
170
8504
244
4608
1545
9.08
N.A.
14.4 cycle
12.4 idle
9.6/1
10/2431
Ref. Only
75 Chev
w/Cat.
444-615
171
12,292
465
9308
1601
9.40
4.2
8.7/1
11/14 21
Ref. + Sulfur
75 Chev
w/Cat.
675-841
166
16,812
632
12,636
1493
9.02
4.7
9.5/1
Exposure chamber concentrations
Carbon monoxide, ppm
Total hydrocarbon, ppm
Nitrogen oxides, ppm
135
78
21.75
7
12
11
560
120
12
40
20
15
30
17
12
8 hour/day, 7 days/week interrupted exposure. MMT added, 0.2Sg as manganese per gallon ref. fuel.
tStudies H, J, K. were continuous (24 hour/day) 7-day runs. Factory tuned, carburetor/'Iimiters" in place. No adjustments.
JStudy I, no changes except for removal of catalyst.
§Thiophene added to produce 0.10% by weight sulfur in reference fuel (Indolene "clear").
//Air/fuel ratio determined with air pump disabled. (Cycling and at idle).
49
-------
FIGURE 24. ENGINE DYNAMOMETER ROOM
problems could create these noxious or toxic sub-
stances. One could arise as the hot catalysts pro-
mote the oxidation of carbon monoxide and hydro-
carbons in automotive exhaust, converting them to
carbon dioxide and water. At the same time, the
catalysts would convert small amounts of organic
sulfur compounds present in all gasoline into sulfuric
acid mist. The second problem could arise from the
metal used in the device, such as platinum and
palladium, which may be emitted from the exhaust
pipe in very fine particles and be suspended in the air.
Sulfur compounds present in gasoline are mainly
in the form of polysulfides and of thiophene com-
pounds with, possibly, an insignificant amount of
hydrogen sulfide dissolved in the gasoline. To pro-
duce a high-sulfur content gasoline free of other
undesirable substances such as lead, thiophene was
added to produce a sulfur content of 1000 ppm in
the Indolene for TAME K. With the use of the
Catalytic Converter Control System, the higher sul-
fur gasoline produced almost the same exhaust
chemistry with the additional expected sulfur dioxide
plus sulfur trioxide compounds.
It was reported and confirmed in our laboratory
that installation of oxidation catalysts in the auto-
motive exhaust system causes an increase in the
emitted particulate material, which consists mainly
of hydrated sulfuric acid droplets resulting from the
oxidation of organic sulfur compounds in gasoline.
Recent averages of the sulfur content run between
210 and 260 ppm for premium gasoline, and be-
tween 390 and 440 ppm for regular gasoline. The
"Indolene" motor fuel used at the ETRL facility had
a sulfur content of 0.4 percent by weight or 400 ppm.
It is hypothesized that the internal combustion proc-
ess causes the organic sulfur compounds to become
sulfur dioxide, which is oxidized by the emission
catalyst to sulfur trioxide, which then reacts with
water vapor in the exhaust to form sulfuric acid
droplets. Among measures considered to decrease
formation of the sulfuric acid are: lower sulfur con-
tent in the gasoline, low excess oxygen supply to the
catalytic converter, and optimization of catalyst
temperature.
The best current estimate of the resulting increase
in suspended acid aerosol emissions and particulate
50
-------
sulfates is about 0.05 gram per mile measured as
sulfate with a range of 0.02 gram per mile to 0.10
gram per mile.
TAME studies H, I, J, and K. were conducted at
this laboratory to substantiate these estimates based
on rather limited data. Initial measurements indicate
that particulates are increased 2!/2 to 3 times in
animal exposure chambers (Figure 25), and the
relative acidity of the emissions is increased approx-
imately 65 times with the use of the catalyst and
reference fuel Indolene.
FIGURE 25. ANIMAL EXPOSURE CHAMBER.
EXPERIMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY
Toxicity of Pollutants as Determined by
Cardiopulmonary Response
Although most of the respiration, cardiovascular
function, and other physiological studies have been
done on anesthetized animals, it is recognized that
anesthesia in many cases alters physiological re-
sponse. The cardiovascular and respiratory systems
are among those that are highly sensitive to anes-
thesia. During 1973, the physiology laboratory at
ETRL developed three separate studies in which
unanesthetized animals are discretely monitored for
cardiovascular or respiratory system response during
actual pollutant exposure.
Telemctric Measurement of Respiration Rate and
Volume in Dogs
If rate and depth of breathing in a conscious dog
are measured while the dog is in a controlled atmos-
phere, then the problem of measuring a dose of any
fixed atmospheric pollutant administered to the dog
is a matter of simple arithmetic. This method, there-
fore, greatly increases the precision in determining
the amount of inhaled compound. Known doses of
any pollutant can then be more easily correlated with
other physiological or behavioral effects or patholog-
ical tissue changes.
The study was projected in two steps: (1) The
design and building of a workable implantable strain
gage sensor for monitoring respiration; the design
and assembly of equipment required for transmitting,
receiving, and recording respiratory signals; and de-
velopment and execution of a method (closed TV)
for viewing the animal indirectly. (2) Implantation
and calibration of the strain gage - transmitter unit;
control measurements; exposure to a pollutant agent
(sulfates); and data collection, reduction, and in-
terpretation. At the present time, step 1 has been
completed and the first phases of step 2 have begun.
The sensor, which consists of a semiconductor strain
gage deposited on a small plate, has been surgically
attached to the ninth rib with bone screws. Stress
on the rib, generated by intercostal muscle pull dur-
ing breathing, produces a measurable voltage output
by the strain gage. The calibrated signal from the
gage reflects respiratory rate and volume. The strain
gage output modulates an FM transmitter via an
impedance transformer. The transmitted signal is
received by a commercial receiver, and the output
from a discriminator is fed to a chart recorder. The
surgically prepared and calibrated dogs are located
in atmospherically controlled chambers, and the res-
piratory signals are being recorded in an adjoining
room as the animal's behavior is being monitored
on a television screen.
Cardiovascular Response to Pollutants as Measured
in an Unanesthetized Rat: A Screening Technique
A study is presently underway that utilizes a sys-
tematic method for screening pollutant effects on the
heart and blood vessels in the unanesthetized rat.
Parameters measured are ECG, heart rate, ventric-
ular contractility, blood pressure, and breathing rate
and depth. Initial work includes using a number of
platinum and palladium compounds, which are of
interest because of their use in the catalytic con-
verter. Measurements will assess effects of subacute
dosages of different agents when administered intra-
venously, intraperitoneally, or orally.
Physiologic Responses of the Respiratory Tract
During Pollutant A erosol Exposure
Guinea pigs have been used extensively to study
pollutant effects on the respiratory system. Much
information can be gained to evaluate effects of par-
ticulate irritants on health when a system is used
that combines aerosol generation and exposure with
51
-------
simultaneous animal physiological measurements.
Such a system is presently being developed at ETRL.
The goal of this task was to establish a routine pro-
cedure to screen a large number of pollutants for
subacute toxic effects. Platinum and palladium com-
pounds, as well as sulfates, are of primary concern
and are to be tested first. For the exposure, par-
ticulate size, concentration, and exposure time are
controlled. Guinea pigs are measured for total respi-
ratory flow resistance, respiratory frequency, minute
volume, arterial oxygen tension, body temperature,
and ECG.
Neurotoxicity Index of Metals from Mobile or
Stationary Sources
The rat visual-evoked potential is being utilized
as a screening technique to test the relative short-
term effects of various metal pollutants on central
nervous system function.
Over 120 rats have been exposed via intravenous
injection to several toxicologic agents in the past
year. The resultant change in the visual-evoked po-
tential has been analyzed using various methods
including computer averaging techniques. The pre-
liminary results have indicated that the rat visual-
evoked potential may be important in assessing the
significant acute effects of various pollutants on
central nervous system function. In Table 5 are the
threshold doses of tested cations that elicited a re-
producible effect in the visual-evoked potential.
TABLE 5. VISUAL-EVOKED POTENTIAL
SCREEN
Metal compounds
Reproducible dose-effect
threshold (mg/kg)
Cobalt
Cadmium
Chromium
Palladium
Barium
Manganese
Platinum
0.010
0.10
0.40
0.40
2.0
2.0
Minimal effect
Therefore, the relative short-term effect of the
intravenous administration of these metals on the
rat visual-evoked potential was ranked as follows:
Cobalt>Cadmium, Chromium, Palladium>Barium,
Manganese1* Platinum
Further work is currently underway in order to
determine the dose-response of these and other
toxicologic agents.
Behavioral Toxiciry oi Automotive Emissions
in Mice
Experiments indicated that the voluntary wheel
running activity of mice was suppressed during ex-
posure to raw and irradiated automotive exhaust in
direct proportion to the atmospheric concentration.
Further observations have shown that the level of
activity suppression was not changed by the intro-
duction of a manganese fuel additive into the gas-
oline. When mice were exposed to exhaust emissions
for only 8 hours per day, their wheel running was
suppressed during those 8 hours but returned to con-
trol levels during the remainder of each day, through-
out the 8-week study. When the exhaust was passed
through a catalytic converter before entering the
exposure chambers, wheel running decreased for only
the first day of exposure and thereafter returned to
control (normal) levels for the duration of the
experiment.
Lead and Mercury Contract Study
Heavy metals, particularly lead and mercury, have
been implicated in various disturbances of central
nervous system function. Due to inherent technical
difficulties, there have been very few electrophys-
iological studies of specific neural circuits that will
elucidate the mechanism of action of these metals
on the central nervous system function. Results from
the experiments outlined here should provide defin-
itive conclusions regarding the effects and the site
and mode of action of lead and mercury on spinal
reflex transmission.
Thus far, experiments have been performed to
examine the effects of lead injected directly into the
cat spinal cord. Preliminary data have shown that
lead reduces the rate of transmission between cells
in the spinal cord. Since information of this type
may have important consequences, further ex-
periments are underway in an attempt to ascertain
the precise site and mode of action of lead and other
heavy metals.
METABOLISM AND KINETICS
Pulmonary Cytologic Defense System
Methods were adapted to assess the effects of in-
halation and intratracheal exposure to test pollutants
on lavage-recoverable free cells of the pulmonary
tree. Following experimental pollutant exposure, test
animals were anesthetized and polystyrene latex
spheres were administered intratracheally. After 30
minutes the lungs were lavaged with normal saline.
Lavage suspension cell count and cell size were de-
termined as well as cell character and phagocytic
activity. Also noted on each animal was body weight
and total and differential WBC counts. Test ex-
52
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posures to evaluate pulmonary cellular responses
have included the mobile emission tests to examine
1-week inhalation toxicity of automotive exhaust
associated with the use of a prototype catalytic con-
verter system and with fuel of low and high sulfur
content. Other tests included brief inhalation ex-
posure to respirable titanium dioxide dust (used in
studies or "inert" dust lung clearance) and intra-
tracheal instillations of two palladium compounds.
Preliminary analysis of TAME H data suggests
an exhaust exposure effect in terms of altered cell
size and of distribution of phagocytic activity (num-
bers of latex spheres phagocytized). Male hamsters
exposed to irradiated exhaust without the converter
showed signs of illness and weight loss, whereas in a
study with a converter, exposed animals did not lose
appreciable weight and were not grossly ill.
Dermal Irritancy and Cellular Toxicity Testing
As a component of a broad toxicologic evaluation
of substances possibly associated with the use of
automotive catalytic emission control systems and
fuel additives, several chemicals were tested with
respect to severity of response when applied directly
to the intact (irritancy) and abraded (cellular toxic-
ity) skin of rabbits. Three palladium compounds and
one platinum compound were assessed as probably
unsafe for human skin contact, either intact or
abraded; three additional palladium compounds were
assessed as safe for intact skin, but unsafe for un-
protected abraded skin contact. The other palladium
and platinum compounds, two lead compounds, and
an organic manganese fuel additive (MMT) ap-
peared safe for skin contact.
Tests for dermal sensitization are in preparation;
they may have a greater environmental health signif-
icance since the dermal irritancy is relevant primarily
to industrial exposures.
PHARMACOLOGIC METABOLISM
Microsomal Enzyme Effects of Auto Exhaust
Several compounds in automotive exhaust are
known to affect the microsomal enzyme system. Since
the system is responsible for the biotransformation
of xenobiotic and numerous endogenous compounds,
its integrity is of paramount importance to the
organism.
Lung microsomal metabolism as reflected by aryl
hydrocarbon hydroxylase (AHH) activity was de-
termined in hamsters following exposure to auto
exhaust. Using interrupted exposure (TAME G,
8 hours per day for 8 weeks), average AHH activity
was depressed 22 percent by nonirradiated and 31
percent by irradiated exhaust. The reduction was
significant following 8 hours' exposure and remained
depressed for at least 15 days. After 8 weeks' ex-
posure, AHH activity was still depressed, although
the difference was not statistically significant.
The effectiveness of exhaust catalytic devices was
evaluated by comparing the AHH activity after 5
days' continuous exposure with and without the
catalyst (TAME I and TAME J, respectively). With-
out the catalyst, AHH activity was reduced by 56
and 57 percent in irradiated and raw atmosphere,
respectively. Introducing the catalyst resulted in 26
percent and 9 percent reduction, respectively, in the
irradiated and raw atmosphere at the same exhaust
dilution ratio. The reduction in AHH activity fol-
lowing exposure to irradiated exhaust was statistically
significant in both studies and the reduction following
exposure to raw (nonirradiated) exhaust was signif-
icant in TAME J (without catalyst).
Biotransformation of Manganese Fuel Additive
The metabolism and biotransformation of MMT
was investigated using in vivo and in vitro techniques.
Following intravenous administration of radioactive
labeled MMT and manganese chloride in adult rats,
0.23 percent of the manganese chloride was excreted
in the urine and 17.0 percent in the feces; 15.8 per-
cent of the manganese from MMT was excreted in
the urine and 22 percent in the feces. In both ex-
periments, the manganese was not organic extract-
able, which indicates that inorganic manganese was
being excreted. Since inorganic manganese is not
readily excreted in the urine but does appear in the
feces, in vitro metabolism studies were undertaken.
The results showed that for a concentration of 5ju.g
MMT per ml tissue homogenate, the rates of me-
tabolism for liver, kidney, lung, and brain were 1.24,
0.07, 0.0317 and 0.03 percent per minute, respec-
tively. The results indicate that (1) MMT is metab-
olized by the microsomal system; (2) the ability to
metabolize MMT was found in liver > lung > kidney
> brain in decreasing order; (3) some volatile form
of manganese may be produced by metabolism; and
(4) metabolism by the kidney occurs at some point
distal to the site of manganese reabsorption in the
nephron.
Acute Toxicity Studies with Palladium Chloride
The acute single dose toxicity in rats of palladium
chloride following administration by the intravenous
route was 5 mg per kg; the intraperitoneal route,
75 mg per kg; and the oral route, greater than 200
mg per kg. A similar response was noted in the
rabbit after intravenous administration. Toxicometric
effects observed were decreased food and water in-
take, loss of body weight, renal effects as manifested
by proteinuria, increased urine output with constant
decreased specific gravity, elevated urinary ketone
53
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bodies, exitus due to respiratory arrest without
cyanosis (and convulsion both clonic and tonic).
Additional studies are in progress.
Protein Binding Studies
Because of the rather sharp threshold for acute
intravenous toxicity, which suggests some compart-
mental saturation phenomena, protein binding studies
were performed with palladium and platinum chlor-
ides. At concentrations up to 200 mg palladium
chloride per ml, binding to protein was greater than
99 percent as measured by the Toribara technique.
Temperature, pH, and type of protein were not
found to affect binding. Similar results were noted
with platinum.
PATHOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL
EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS
These studies have been directed toward delin-
eating some of the pathological and biochemical
changes in animals that result from exposure to en-
vironmental pollutants. During 1973, the major em-
phasis has been placed on determining the biological
fate and toxicity of: (1) methylcyclopentadienyl
manganese tricarbonyl (MMT), a fuel additive com-
bustion improver; (2) lead pollutants, bound in
environmental dust; (3) methylmercury, essentially
completed in 1973; (4) automobile exhaust whole
emission products; and (5) catalytic converter com-
ponents initiated in mid-19 73.
Methylcyclopentadienyl Manganese Tricarbonyl
(MMT)
Federal regulations require that an unleaded
grade of gasoline be made generally available to
permit the use of emission control devices on 1975
light duty vehicles. This mandate has stimulated
renewed consideration of MMT as a primary anti-
knock agent. In this grade of gasoline, MMT would
not be competing with tetraethyl lead. MMT con-
tains approximately 25 percent manganese by weight,
and the maximum concentration recommended by
the producer is 0.125 gram manganese per gallon
of gasoline. Generally, following combustion, only
manganese oxides are present in exhaust emissions.
In ascertaining the environmental impact of MMT,
it is important to determine if its usage will cause a
significant increase in manganese concentrations in
urban ambient air and whether or not an increase in
the air concentration of manganese will produce bio-
logical effects or affect other atmospheric pollutants.
We reported last year on the toxicity of MMT and
on its ability to produce damage to lungs, liver, and
kidneys. This year, we were able to demonstrate that
capillary permeability in the lungs may be altered
by oral doses of MMT as low as 15 mg per kg.
Lung lavage techniques, utilizing radioiodinated al-
bumin as a tracer, have shown that maximum
response occurs within 24 hours.
In an 8-week whole emission study, animals were
exposed in our chamber facility to exhaust products
from an engine fueled with Indolene containing
MMT. No lesions attributable to MMT or man-
ganese oxides could be found in any of the animals.
Microscopic examination of the lungs showed min-
imal changes related to the exhaust emissions. There
appeared to be an increase in the concentration of
manganese in tissues taken from the exposed rats
(Table 6) when compared with control rats (clean
air); both groups of rats were fed a specially form-
ulated diet low in manganese. Similar changes were
noted in rats maintained on a regular diet containing
normal amounts of manganese.
Environmental Lead
Tetraethyl lead is the most effective and commonly
used primary antiknock agent in gasoline. Following
combustion, lead is emitted in auto exhaust and con-
sequently contaminates the environment. The con-
centration of lead in street dust and surface soil has
been shown to correlate with the amount of traffic
and distance from the highway. This environmental
lead dust has been incriminated as one source of
human exposure, especially in children .that have
TABLE 6. MANGANESE CONCENTRATION IN DIFFERENT RAT ORGANS AFTER
EXPOSURE TO AUTOMOTIVE EMISSIONS, /ig P6' gram drv weight
Treatment
Organ
Brain
Heart
Kidney
Liver
Lung
Clean air,
regular diet
5.06
3.80
5.63
4.37
1.36
Irradiated exhaust,
regular diet
9.44
3.08
5.80
7.39
2.07
Clean air,
special diet
3.54
4.23
3.34
1.77
1.81
Irradiated exhaust,
special diet
5.16
4.37
4.03
3.14
2.94
54
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pica. In these studies, laboratory animals were used
to show that, following ingestion, lead was absorbed
from lead-contaminated street dust at a rate similar
to that found for elemental lead.
Studies this year have shown that the chemical
form in which lead is found is not significant from
the standpoint of physiological availability. Tracer
studies that employed radioactive lead oxide, ace-
tate, and chlorbromide showed similar absorption
and distribution curves following oral ingestion in
rats. Another study demonstrated that lead would
cross the placenta and could be found in the unborn
fetus. A 5-month rat study in which lead oxide,
tetraoxide, acetate, or chlorbromide was added to
the diet has shown no difference in blood levels that
are attributable to the chemical form of lead. There
were significant increases in blood lead levels when
compared with controls, however. Organ concen-
trations of lead are not yet available as the study
is continuing.
Mercury
High concentrations of mercury in certain food-
stuffs, especially seafood, are a major international
problem and have resulted in banning the use of
certain types of aquatic animals for food. Our studies
have been concerned with developing methods for
the detection of early biohemical changes associated
with mercury toxicity.
From radiorespirometric investigations of the
metabolic effects of methyl mercury chloride, a
mathematical model was developed that permits
metabolic effects to be predicted over a longer time
period by examining the carbon-14 labeled carbon
dioxide excretion over a 30- to 60-minute period.
In addition, the dose:response can be predicted over
a wide range of toxicant concentrations by data
simulation on an analog computer and interpolation
following a small number of strategic experiments.
Gaseous Emissions (Nitrogen Dioxide)
A study was completed in which hamsters were
continuously exposed for up to 5 days to 5, 10, and
20 ppm nitrogen dioxide. Lesions were confined to
the lungs and were localized at the level of the ter-
minal bronchioles. The severity of the lesions corre-
lated well with dosage and had similar chronological
stages. These stages consisted initially (the first 48
to 72 hours) of an exudative stage in which macro-
phages and inflammatory cells predominated. Sub-
sequently, a proliferative stage developed and the
predominant features were alveolar septal thickening
and extension of cuboidal respiratory epithelium
more distally into the lungs. These lesions appeared
identical to those seen in the whole auto exhaust
emission studies; this suggests nitrogen dioxide as a
major causative agent for the pulmonary morphologic
changes noted thus far.
Catalytic Converter Components (Platinum and
Palladium)
Automotive manufacturers have indicated that
platinum and palladium will be used in catalytic con-
verters, which are designed to reduce the concen-
trations of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons in the
exhaust stream by oxidizing them to carbon dioxide
and water. This use of platinum and palladium in
automotive catalytic converters creates the possi-
bility that some amount of these elements will be
emitted into the atmosphere or enter other segments
of the biosphere following degradation during driving
or disposal of worn-out converters.
Current studies involve exposing animals to plat-
inum and palladium and determining the biological
fate of these metals. Radioactive platinum and
palladium have been given orally, intravenously, and
intratracheally to young, adult, male rats. Data in-
dicate that these metals are not readily absorbed from
the gastrointestinal tract and that the whole body
retention time is rather short. Both metals will
cross the placental barrier. One study with palladium
has been completed; it indicates transfer of the metal
to suckling rats in milk from mothers given palladium
intravenously. Biochemical studies have demon-
strated that compounds of platinum and palladium
have an inhibitory effect on certain serum enzymes
in vitro. In on-going but not completed studies con-
cerned with the fate and toxicity of inhaled platinum
and palladium, the Lovelace Chamber (Figure 26)
is being used; this permits exposure to high con-
centrations of respirable materials with minimal con-
tamination of the animal's body.
Acute (7 day) studies comparing the biologic
effects of exhaust emissions from engines with and
without catalytic converters have been completed.
Use of the catalytic converter markedly reduced
carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon levels, and essen-
tially, no lesions were detectable in exposed animals.
In the exposure without the converter, extensive
lesions were noted as well as high infant-rat mortality
(Figure 27), body weight loss, and changes in blood
components in exposed animals.
55
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100
80
> 60
DC
40
20
FIGURE 26. LOVELACE CHAMBER.
% SURVIVAL OF SUCKLING RATS
RH
__CA
CA
TAME J
(Catalyst)
H
46 024
DAYS EXPOSED
FIGURE 27. PERCENT SURVIVAL OF SUCKLING RATS.
56
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RADIOCHEMISTRY AND NUCLEAR ENGINEERING BRANCH
AND FACILITY*
In the field of radiochemistry and nuclear engi-
neering, NERC-Cincinnati undertakes studies at com-
mercially operated nuclear power facilities to provide
guidance for radiological surveillance. These studies
are jointly supported by the Office of Radiation Pro-
grams and the Office of Research and Development.
For the former, reports are prepared that provide
information on population and environmental radi-
ation exposure during routine operation of the sta-
tion, with emphasis on the validation of radiation
exposure models; for the latter, manuals of proce-
dures are written for measuring radionuclides and
radiation at these facilities and in the environment.
A 6-year program of generic radiological sur-
veillance studies at four nuclear power stations
two boiling water reactors and two pressurized water
reactors was completed. Reports of two of the
studies were published in previous years, and the
report of the third study was prepared this year in
draft form and is being circulated for review; in the
fourth study, all sample collection and measurements
were finished. Publication of the third and fourth
reports is planned for next year. The reports describe
in detail, where possible, movement of radionuclides
from their formation in the reactor to points of
discharge at the facility and through the environment
to points of population radiation exposure. Data are
provided on the concentrations of the radionuclides
in effluents and environmental samples, and radiation
exposures are calculated.
A generic study at a nuclear fuel reprocessing plant
was planned to begin during the summer of 1973,
but the plant has not yet started operating. This com-
mercial plant, the only one of its kind in the United
States, will process all fuel for nuclear power stations
in the immediate future. The study is being post-
poned until the plant will be in routine operation,
possibly in the middle of 1974. Of particular interest
will be the amounts of 3H, 85Kr, 129I, and transuran-
ium elements discharged to the environment.
*The Radiochemistry and Nuclear Engineering Facility is part of the
Technology Assessment Division, Office of Radiation Programs, U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Following the NERC-Cincinnati in-
ternal reorganization in the latter part of 1973, the Radiochemistry and
Nuclear Engineering Branch became part of the Methods Development
and Quality Assurance Research Laboratory.
A special study was undertaken in cooperation
with the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission to eval-
uate the model for 131I exposure by the air-milk
pathway. The study had particular urgency because
the EPA and AEC, in preparing to publish guides
for population radiation exposure, observed that this
may be the critical pathway after the application of
waste treatment processes to reach "lowest prac-
ticable" exposures. The complex of three Dresden
nuclear power stations at Morris, Illinois, was used
as sources, and measurements were focused on a
dairy herd located (for the purpose of the study)
approximately 1 km distant. Iodine-131 was meas-
ured at the points of discharge (two chimneys and a
stack), in ground-level air, in deposition and grass,
and in the cows' milk. The chemical forms of the
131I were identified by the AEC at the points of dis-
charge. The values measured in the environmental
samples were compared with values predicted from
models of atmospheric dispersion, deposition, and
the cows' metabolism. Of particular interest were the
observations that most discharged 131I was in the
form of CH3I, not I,; that most of the 131I in milk
apparently reached the ground in rain rather than as
dry deposition, as commonly assumed; and that the
main sources of 131I for the nearby cows may have
been the relatively low-level effluent from the stack
and possibly other low-lying sources, rather than the
chimneys. The report of this 2-month study was
published, and a more detailed study may be planned.
In response to a request by the state of Vermont,
a demonstration program of environmental radiation
exposure measurements was undertaken in coop-
eration with the EPA Eastern Environmental Radi-
ation Facility at the Vermont Yankee nuclear power
stations. A network of radiation detection instru-
ments was located in Vermont, New Hampshire, and
Massachusetts, and in the immediate vicinity of the
station. Radiation exposure was measured with
thermoluminescent dosimeters for 4 months. Results
during periods of station operation and station shut-
down were compared to compute, by difference, the
radiation exposure attributable to the station. Var-
iations in the natural radiation background due to
57
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snow covering the ground, for example exceeded
those from station operation. Brief direct measure-
ments were also undertaken to relate exposures hi
the environment to radiation from the plume of
gaseous stack effluent and from on-site radionu-
clides. A report of this activity (in preparation) in-
cludes descriptions of measurement capabilities for
environmental radiation exposure and recommenda-
tions for an exposure monitoring program.
A manual of analytical procedures for measuring
radionuclides in aqueous solutions at nuclear power
stations was published after several years of prep-
aration. These methods are directed mainly toward
solutions that contain numerous radionuclides at
readily detectable levels, and emphasize use of chem-
ical separation to purify radionuclides for radiation
detection. Concurrently, methods were tested and
modified for determining radionuclides hi surface
and marine waters. Radionuclides in these samples
are usually fewer in number but at extremely low
levels, so that an initial concentrating step is needed.
Concentration steps for surface water had been de-
scribed in a paper published earlier; methods for
concentrating radionuclides in seawater are described
in a paper submitted for publication this year.
In gases, analysis of the radionuclides 3H, "C, and
85Kr from nuclear power stations requires distinctly
different methods than analyses for most other im-
portant radionuclides, which can be measured by
gamma-ray spectral analysis. Methods for concen-
trating the three radionuclides and for purifying for
their subsequent analysis are being prepared and
should be complete for publication next year. As a
concurrent project, procedures will be tested for
separating the various forms of 3H and 14C in air
e.g., water vapor, H2, CH4, CO, and CO2 so that
radionuclide concentrations in these various forms
can be distinguished.
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SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE RESEARCH LABORATORY
LABORATORY FUNCTION
The Solid and Hazardous Waste Research Lab-
oratory (SHWRL) plans, conducts, and evaluates
research to develop improved methods of dealing
with solid wastes from all sources. Efforts are di-
rected primarily toward determining means of re-
covering materials and energy from solid wastes,
toward determining the public's attitude on resource
recovery and waste reduction at the source, and
toward developing suitable techniques for the dis-
posal of all forms of nonrecyclable solid wastes
including extremely hazardous wastes.
Analytical and pilot-plant facilities are maintained
to conduct and support research studies designed to
develop new waste handling or processing methods
and to develop resource recovery procedures and
appropriate ultimate disposal methods for solid
wastes.
BACKGROUND
The problems of solid waste disposal are inter-
related with those of air and water pollution. In-
cineration, grinding, and the use of water for either
transportation of solids or as solid waste sinks im-
pinge upon the concurrent attempts to purify the air
and water environments. Additionally, the elim-
ination of impurities from air or water effluents at
the sources of pollution results in the generation of
solids wastes by such processes as separation, drying,
or compaction solids that in turn require disposal.
Measures to reduce pollution, or dispose of waste
material, must therefore be taken with full consid-
eration of the effect upon the overall environment
air, water, and land.
The solid waste problem is concentrated in densely
populated urban areas. In some cases, entire neigh-
borhoods are being degenerated, blighting much of
the inner cities. Refuse storage, collection, trans-
portation, and processing directly and intimately
affect some 80 percent of the population. The costs
of waste handling, already severe, are rising. The
loss of billions of tons of material to unreclaimed
waste each year indirectly affects each consumer.
The aesthetic and real values of certain areas are
being degraded by inadequate solid waste disposal.
Only in the last decade have serious thought and
effort been addressed nationally to the problems of
solid waste disposal. From an initial concentration
on pollution control and the attempt to regulate the
flow of waste from its sources, a realization has
grown that our real concern should be for the overall
quality of the environment.
PROJECTS
Land Disposal
Sanitary landfilling and land burial are the only
low-cost methods presently available for disposal of
solid and hazardous waste onto the land. Landfills
for disposal of solid wastes can be designed to pro-
duce little or no impact on the environment; how-
ever, additional technical information is needed on
decomposition rates and leachate and gas production
to allow efficient rational design of sanitary landfills
and to select suitable landfill site locations. Also,
much information is needed regarding the disposal
of sludge and industrial liquid waste materials into
a landfill environment. Disposal of these high-mois-
ture content and potentially hazardous materials into
a landfill can cause environmental and health effects
problems if not properly controlled. The land burial
of hazardous wastes has caused much concern be-
cause of the pollution potential, especially to ground
and surface waters. Consequently, much technical
information is needed regarding documentation of
past incidences, effects, and migration phenomena
and criteria development to produce standards for
enforcement and regulation. The SHWRL has an
integrated program of grants, contracts, and in-house
research to develop the needed information.
In-house activities have emphasized the collection
of field-scale data from two experimental landfills
located in Walton, Kentucky. Also, the construction
of a third experimental landfill has been completed
at a research site located at Center Hill in Cincinnati,
Ohio. Leachate production rates have been deter-
mined twice a week. A total of 75,000 gallons of
leachate has been collected from experimental cell 1.
This cell was constructed in June 1971 with 435
tons of municipal-type solid waste deposited. From
cell 2, constructed in June 1972, 7,500 gallons of
59
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leachate was collected leachate generated from
126 tons of municipal-type refuse. Gas samples to
date have numbered 700, and analyses for nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and methane indicated vary-
ing concentrations of these gases being produced.
Experimental cell 3 consisting of fifteen 6-foot-
diameter steel pipes provides the capability of analyz-
ing pollutant production under a variety of climatic
conditions for various waste materials. These sim-
ulated cells will be used to evaluate a large number
of variables without the great expense of quality-
controlled field cells.
Under a grant to the Georgia Institute of Tech-
nology, the feasibility of modifying traditional san-
itary landfill operational procedures is being studied.
Leachate produced in laboratory-scale simulated
landfills is recycled through the compacted waste.
The objective is to achieve a high rate of anaerobic
decomposition by creating a natural buffer system
conducive to methane formation.
Data have been collected over a period of 780
days for the initial two simulated sanitary landfills,
and for about 480 days on two additional test sim-
ulations. These data continue to indicate the bene-
ficial effect of leachate recycle and pH control on
the initiation of rapid decomposition. In general,
the changes recorded by the test parameters con-
tinued to follow a trend predictable by the recog-
nized sequence of events occasioned by an initial
acid fermentation followed by methane generation.
An in-house project relating to spray irrigation of
landfill leachate has also been undertaken. The data
obtained indicate that both organic and inorganic
contaminants carried in leachate are retained within
the grass cover and the soil or are converted to
gaseous products. Study of leachate characteristics
applied with percolate and surface runoff character-
istics generally indicated greater than 90 percent re-
duction in all contaminants except for nitrate, which
showed greater than 300 percent increase. This large
increase is due to the oxidation of the large quantities
of ammonia and organic nitrogen.
The University of Arizona and the Illinois State
Geological Survey are investigating the leachate pol-
lution attenuation in soils. This contract will identify
the attenuation mechanisms; evaluate pollutant at-
tenuation of soils by column studies; and develop
simulation for models for the prediction of solute
changes as a result of water flow through soils. Nine
specific soil types have been collected and character-
ized for column studies. Equilibrium studies and soil-
column acid-leaching studies are presently being per-
formed. Specifically, the effect of H+ on movement
of native soil constituents is being investigated. The
model for solute movement has been characterized
by three mechanisms for solute transport: convective
flow, diffusion-like process into a stagnant region,
and the dispersion effect. Also, basic pure-clay min-
erals kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite have been
obtained and separated prior to admixing with var-
ious sands and silts. Six preliminary columns have
been set up to study hydrologic equilibria and column
design in general. Microbial activity at the soil
leachate interface has caused separation of the soil
particles. To determine the effects of this microbial
activity, it is anticipated that two sets of columns,
one sterile and one active, will be constructed and
evaluated to determine effects of microbial activity
on pollutant attentuation.
An extensive study to develop treatment meth-
odology for landfill leachates is being performed
under a research grant with the University of Illinois.
This three-phase project is (a) characterizing leach-
ates; (b) determining various unit processes appli-
cable for treating of leachates; (c) evaluating these
individual processes or specific combinations of proc-
esses for best performance in leachate treatment.
The characterization effort establishes the first com-
prehensive data on the organic and heavy metal
content of landfill leachate.
Michigan State University has been evaluating the
landfilling of high-ash papermill sludges for the
laboratory. The first annual report indicated that
soil mechanics theory can be used to accurately
model the sludge consolidation behavior for different
loading conditions. The second annual report indi-
cates that soil mechanics theory can be used to
predict the stability of slopes excavated in a sludge
landfill. Also, data indicate that reasonable estimates
can be obtained from the theory equations for ulti-
mate primary settlement and pore pressure.
Under a research contract with Arthur D. Little,
Inc., the design of a detailed, practical, systematic
classification system has been developed. This sys-
tem is applicable to all solid wastes generated by
industries in all divisions of the Standard Industrial
Codes (SIC). The project involved the use of an
extensive literature search of past classification efforts
and personal interviews with government agencies,
trade associations, and university personnel. Also,
site visits were conducted at selected industries for
observing and testing of the classification scheme.
Information of interest included waste generation
(quantities and properties), present handling proce-
dures with emphasis on salvage operators (present
and potential), and environmental impact (hazard-
ous nature if any).
Hazardous Wastes
The SHWRL has been engaged in a series of con-
tracts designed to gather information needed to pre-
pare a report to Congress on National Disposal Sites
60
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(NDS) for hazardous wastes in compliance with
Section 212 of Public Law 91-512. Three contracts
were awarded during FY-72 and FY-73. Their re-
spective purposes were to: (1) develop an inventory
of hazardous waste materials; describe their effects
on man and his environment; and determine pres-
ently used methods for their disposal; (2) provide
recommended methods of reduction, neutralization,
recovery, and disposal of all hazardous waste; and
(3) determine public and private attitudes of persons
near proposed regionally located disposal sites
towards disposal of hazardous wastes.
A list of over 500 hazardous materials known to
be components of industrial waste streams was com-
pleted under the first contract effort, performed by
Booz-Allen Applied Research, Inc. The three-volume
final report, delivered in June of 1972 (available
from NTIS as PB 221 464), also summarized waste
disposal practices in industries handling the desig-
nated materials. The final report further pointed out
that current literature did not provide sufficient in-
formation on the forms of hazardous materials found
in the waste streams, the quantities of the wastes, and
their distribution within the United States; nor was
such information readily available from other sources
such as trade associations.
The second contract effort, performed by TRW
Systems, was completed in June 1973. The final
16-volume report has been received (available from
NTIS as PB 224 579 SET/AS), and the title head-
ings are:
Volume
Title
1 Executive Summary
2 Toxicologic Summary
3 Incineration, Pyrolysis
4 Biological Processes
5 Pesticide and Cyanide
6 Mercury, Arsenic, Chromium, Cadmium
7 Propellants, Explosives
8 Miscellaneous Organic and Inorganic
Compounds
9 Nuclear
10 & 11 Categories 2 and 3 Organics
12 & 13 Categories 2 and 3 Inorganics
14 Form and Quantities
15 Research and Development Plans
16 References
These volumes contain profile reports summarizing
the definition of adequate waste management and
evaluation of waste management practices for over
500 hazardous materials. These reports also serve
to designate a material as a candidate for NDS, and
they describe current acceptable disposal methods
for non-NDS candidates. The reports also discuss
and list recommended research and development
activities to develop adequate waste management
practices for hazardous waste disposal. Specific in-
formation obtained from these report volumes has
been incorporated in the "Reports to Congress on
Hazardous Waste Disposal" dated June 30, 1973.
The third contract conducted by HumRRO and
completed in June 1973 (available from NTIS as
PB 223-638) presents results obtained from a na-
tional survey. The data indicate that most respon-
dents have positive attitudes toward NDS, would
accept one in their county, and believe an NDS
would be beneficial to their area. About 50 percent
of the respondents wanted information before agree-
ing to a nearby NDS. Most respondents named the
mass media (TV and local newspapers) as the great-
est sources of influence on their environmental and
ecological attitudes. Specific information obtained
in this report was also included in the "Reports to
Congress on Hazardous Waste Disposal."
An extramural study of hospital solid waste hand-
ling systems was completed. A model was developed
for estimating hospital solid waste generation as a
function of location, bed capacity, and use of dis-
posable items. Other extramural studies were also
implemented to forecast household solid wastes and
the effects of air and water pollution controls on
total solid waste generation. These efforts are needed
to predict the magnitude of future solid waste flows
and to develop appropriate and timely strategies.
Also, a research grant has been awarded to the
University of Florida to determine the types and
quantities of toxic and hazardous materials (non-
industrial) in municipal wastes. An interim report
from this grant has been developed that discusses and
summarizes nonindustrial toxic and hazardous wastes
related to biological, business, agriculture, and house-
hold waste streams.
Collection and Transport
The SHWRL has continued several studies in an
effort to define and evaluate more efficient collection
and transportation systems. A grant to Dr. J. C.
Liebman at the University of Illinois has been com-
pleted. This research involves conventional packer
trucks and describes a new set of techniques that
determine near-optimum districts and routes for the
collection vehicles. These techniques emphasize new,
mathematical solutions to both single and multiple
truck routing problems for various kinds of street
and traffic situations. At the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Dr. D. H.
Marks completed a similar investigation of computer-
ized districting and routing techniques with emphasis
on methods for dividing a municipality into equal-
effort collection districts. Both the Liebman and
Marks studies are primarily paper studies devoted
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to technology advancements through applications and
solutions of heuristics and classical urban decision
theory. However, Dr. Marks also demonstrated the
practical application of his programs to the solid
waste generation, districting, and routing problems
within the nearby town of Brookline, Massachusetts.
To ensure that the foregoing theoretical develop-
ments will meet the needs of local governments, a
research grant to Public Technology Incorporated of
Washington, D. C., is in progress. The grantee is
evaluating the results of the available computer pro-
grams and will demonstrate certain case study appli-
cations in addition to providing practical instruction
documents. Finally, through a contract with Messer
Associates, Inc., Silver Springs, Maryland, "effective-
ness measures" for solid waste storage, collection,
and transportation are being developed. The intent
of this study is to provide a system of universal
ratings whereby storage, collection, and transporta-
tion effectiveness in a given local area can be com-
pared with a national standard.
Research continued on ways to improve the
efficiency of collections. Using wage incentives to
increase collection crew productivity is being in-
vestigated. Further research in this area involves the
evaluation of collection, processing (including re-
cycling) and disposal systems, and the location and
design of facilities. Particular emphasis in this study
is being placed on the feasibility of transfer stations.
In the area of potential future use of sanitary
sewerlines as transport lines for solid waste, an
initial technical feasibility study by Foster-Miller
Associates, indicated positive and encouraging results
for the concept. A further study by Curran Asso-
ciates was begun into the economic and political
impacts of sewerline transport of combined sewage
and ground solid waste. The Curran study, now
nearly completed, has brought to the foreground
several discouraging aspects about the concept in-
cluding (1) high overall system costs, (2) increased
sewer network maintenance, and (3) a greater aware-
ness of the treatment plant problems. It now appears
that this concept, although still viable, will require
several years of additional research in various pilot
plant phases before any full-scale application can be
considered.
Processing
SHWRL has continued to obtain basic perform-
ance requirements of refuse size-reduction equip-
ment. Dr. G. Trezek at the University of California
at Berkeley has completed his first year's effort in
this area. Tests made thus far include an evaluation
of the effects of refuse moisture content, grinder
shaft speed, grate opening, grinder materials, and
other variables. The ultimate goal is to provide
guidelines for mechanical equipment and process
design that will lead to significantly lower solid waste
processing costs and improved safety of operation.
Separation
The design phase of an in-house pilot plant study
of mechanized, dry sorting and separation of munic-
ipal refuse has been completed. All major equipment
items have been received. Actual setup and operation
of the pilot plant has been delayed.
A Massachusetts Institute of Technology study on
automatic "sensing" separation is essentially com-
pleted. This study provides an assortment of futur-
istic, albeit potentially very functional, coding and
sensing devices and techniques for solid waste sep-
aration. The mechanisms for sensing component
materials are based on real, identifiable physical prop-
erties including electrical conductivity, infrared prop-
erties, and reaction to impact.
Incineration
Research is continuing at Battelle of Columbus,
Ohio, to establish the extent of and the mechanism
whereby corrosion of metallic incinerator compo-
nents occurs. The main thrust of this research is
determining the corrosive effects from the incinera-
tion of PVC plastics. However, other factors such as
moisture, sulfur, sodium, and phosphorus, and con-
tents of the refuse and their interactions are included.
Actual corrosion tests in operating incinerators with
simulated boiler-tube configurations have already
provided a wealth of materials compatibility data.
An in-house incinerator was operated for a series
of brief shakedown runs under a range of conditions
including stack testing. This research evaluation has
been suspended, however, due to limited funds.
Recycling: Resource Recovery
A major resource recovery process developed
under contract by the Combustion Power Company
in Menlo Park, California, is the CPU-400. The
process involves the high-pressure combustion of
municipal solid waste and the direct conversion of
the energy contained in hot gas effluent to electricity.
Following successful low-pressure operation of the
100-ton-per-day pilot plant, the turbine was inte-
grated into the system. Initial tests on the fully
integrated system indicate its ability to burn solid
waste efficiently and to generate full power output
(1000 kw) under complete automatic control. Re-
cent tests, however, have demonstrated that extensive
deposits of alumina and silica develop on the first
stage turbine stator blades after operating only a
few hours. Since the inefficiency of the inertial sep-
arators to remove extremely fine particulate matter
is believed to be the predominant cause, adding
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another participate removal stage to the system is
being investigated.
Extramural and in-house research on recycling of
solid waste has focused on the transformation of
selected refuse items into useful products. Protein
production studies at Louisiana State University have
been completed. Under this research grant, the basic
information on the conversion of municipal cellulosic
wastes and agricultural crop residues into a protein
for animal feed has been obtained. This information
was used by a private company, Bechtel, in deter-
mining the economic feasibility of this process. Re-
sults from a rainbow trout feeding trial showed
conclusively that microbial protein produced from
organic wastes can be substituted for conventional
protein sources in fish diets. A chick feeding trial
has been initiated, and this study is expected to con-
firm the value of microbial protein as a protein
supplement.
Gillette Research Institute has demonstrated that
the degree of polymerization of cellulose is signif-
icantly reduced by a sensitized photochemical proc-
ess. This technique is expected to improve the cost
factors of processes that utilize waste cellulose to
produce various forms of animal feed. A final report
describing this work is now being prepared.
A completed research grant with the University of
Montana indicates that a low-pressure hydrogenation
process offers potential for converting cellulosic
waste into a high-grade fuel. The process is tech-
nically feasible but is not presently economically
attractive. In a research study entitled "Chemical
Conversion of Wood and Cellulosic Wastes," three
fractions were isolated from the pyrolysis of cellulosic
material. These fractions contain products that could
be used as fuels.
A research grant with the University of Utah in-
dicates that waste glass recovered from the solid
waste stream can be converted into a product of
commercial quality. By processing waste glass with
calcium carbonate, foamed glass can be produced
with uniform cell size, good insulating capacities, and
negligible solubility in water. The investigators found
that this foamed glass could be used as a premium
grade insulation for industrial and commercial uses
and that foamed-glass pellets could be used as loose-
fill insulation or lightweight aggregate.
Two research grants were awarded to the National
Center for Resource Recovery during the year to
develop statistical sampling plans for use in main-
taining quality control at resource recovery process-
ing plants and to establish specifications for the
products of separation. Specifications were developed
for steel in tin cans, steel for iron precipitations,
aluminum, glass, inorganic fines, and mixed organics.
In addition, a mobile air classifier was tested and
provided an acceptable split between aluminum and
paper. Data were generated describing recovery
systems.
The role of transportation in resource recovery
was investigated through a research grant. The re-
sults indicated that in recent years transportation
rates for selected secondary materials (ferrous scrap
and waste paper) have increased nearly three to five
times faster than rates for the competing virgin
materials. On a direct comparison basis for the
competing raw materials, the ICC-regulated rates
favor the movement of virgin materials over that of
ferrous scrap and waste paper. Because comparisons
for waste paper and ferrous scrap with the equivalent
virgin components were complicated by the kind of
virgin material and the distance of haul, conclusions
are uncertain without further research. Other efforts
in the resource recovery area included implementa-
tion of a study to determine the kind and level of
incentives needed to encourage recycling of sec-
ondary fiber. The impact of incentives involves
complex corporate decisions on alternative paper-
making processes, long-run capital investments, and
location factors. The opportunity for federal pro-
curement policies and practices to provide incentives
for recycling was also investigated. Results of the
study are incomplete, but preliminary indications
suggest a major opportunity area one where the
government can influence recycling through its pur-
chasing power is that of using paper and paper-
board as packaging material. Extramural research
was also directed towards evaluating the adminis-
trative efficiency and political feasibility of regional
solid waste management systems. A model frame-
work for description, analysis, and selection of
alternative systems is being developed, and recycling
activities in a regional setting will be evaluated.
Systems and Behavioral
Systems and behavioral activities were directed
towards evaluating various economic alternatives
available to improve the efficiency of managing solid
wastes. A study was initiated to investigate the
applicability of material balance models for attaining
economic efficiency in solid waste management.
General equilibrium models incorporating this con-
cept have been developed for waste residuals in
general. The contractor will develop models de-
signed especially to provide information on policy
alternatives related to solid waste flows. Another
study is investigating the economic implications of
various pricing mechanisms for solid waste manage-
ment. The theoretical efficiency and effectiveness of
pricing mechanisms for allocating efficiency resources
in a market economy are well known, but the par-
ticular applicability to the solid waste management
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problem has not been determined. Incremental user
charges for collection and disposal are being con-
sidered as an operational pricing mechanism. User
charges may influence consumer behavior in a so-
cially desirable manner and thereby reduce solid
waste management costs. A recent study completed
for NERCrCincinnati by the University of Chicago,
Center for Urban Studies, suggests that the amount
of household refuse generated is strongly influenced
by the level of household income. The relative in-
fluence of this variable on total household refuse
collected was observed to vary with the season
of the year. The overall quantity of household refuse
was sensitive to normal seasonal changes.
In-house activities were concentrated on evaluating
the potential for recovering the resource value of
selected waste materials. The state-of-the-art for
associated reclamation technology was examined and
the market potential for reclaimed materials was
assessed. It was concluded that uncertainty over
scrape prices deters increased recovery of both alum-
inum and ferrous scrap from the solid waste stream.
The use of ferrous scrap hi steelmaking also involves
the risk of contamination, which further deters its
increased use. Potential resource value of waste
materials also includes its conversion to other useful
products. The economic feasibility of marketing
microbially converted cellulosic waste (bagasse) as
a human or animal protein supplement was eval-
uated. Preliminary results suggests that the produc-
tion costs associated with the presently known
technology will make it difficult for the end product
to compete with normal supply and demand for the
conventional forms of proteins.
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WATER SUPPLY RESEARCH LABORATORY
The Water Supply Research Laboratory (WSRL)
performs health-effects studies necessary to es-
tablish standards for drinking and recreational
waters,
develops the microbiological, chemical, and en-
gineering technology necessary to ensure the
attainment of drinking water standards and the
maintenance of satisfactory quality throughout
the distribution system, and
provides analytical and technical services to
EPA Regional Offices and the Office of Air and
Water Programs.
STANDARDS ATTAINMENT STUDIES
Water Treatment Research
Inorganic Contaminant Removal
In 1973, laboratory tests for removal of inorganic
contaminants were continued for mercury. In ad-
dition, barium, seleniumiv (selenite), seleniumvi
(selenate), and arsenic7 (arsenate) were studied.
Contaminant levels generally ranged from Drinking
Water Standards limits to 10 times the limits. Jar
test results indicate that the most effective removal
processes are: excess lime softening to pH 10.6 for
90+ percent removal of barium and arsenicT, 60
percent removal of inorganic mercury; and coagula-
tion with ferric sulfate for 90+ percent removal of
arsenicv, and 60+ percent removal of seleniumlv.
Both inorganic mercury, as HgCl2, and organic mer-
cury, as CH3HgCl, were removed in the 60 to 90
percent range by activated carbon. No conventional
process effectively removed SeVI (selenate).
Particulate Removal
Construction of a fully instrumented water treat-
ment pilot plant capable of treating two parallel
streams at about 0.5 cubic meter per hour was com-
pleted and put into operation. The plant is designed to
permit studies of various water treatment processes in-
cluding direct filtration, coagulation with tube settling,
conventional coagulation, softening with secondary
coagulation, and excess lime softening with recarbon-
ation for pH control. Filtration through conventional
sand media, sand-anthracite media, sand-anthracite-
garnet media, or granular carbon media is possible.
Early studies are concerned with particulate removal,
with the production of a minimum of sludge.
A bench-scale study of nitrate removal with anion
exchange resin was performed. These studies showed
that:
Nitrates can be removed from water by anion
exchange resins.
Other anions present will reduce nitrate removal.
Silicate will not foul the resin so as to prevent
the removal of nitrates although it will reduce
removal when present.
Iron can cause caking and fouling of the resin.
Concentrated solutions of anions cannot be used
to determine or estimate removal performance
with regard to specific ions in a weaker solution.
Each individual water to receive anion exchange
treatment will have to be tested if an accurate
estimate of the performance of the resin with
this water is desired.
Disinfection
The disinfection studies performed this year had
two purposes: one, to determine if natural virus
(directly from infected hosts) had the same inacti-
vation rates when disinfected with chlorine as their
"cousins" that had been transferred many times in
the laboratory; and two, to determine if the presence
of turbidity interferes with viral inactivation by
chlorine. Results from the first study are confusing
at the moment as some tests indicated similarity
between "natural" and "laboratory" virus types of
the same strain and others showed dissimilarity.
Differing degrees of clumping will be investigated as
a possible explanation of these differences. Results
from the second study showed that the presence of
alum floe does not interfere with inactivation of virus
with chlorine.
Organic Contaminant Removal
During 1973, experimentation was begun on the
removal of organic compounds from drinking water
with the use of ozone. Organic compounds, which
are measured by the organics-carbon adsorbable
(O-CA) method in water prior to ozone treatment,
may be changed through ozonation to other com-
pounds not measured by this method. This would
65
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result in a "reduction" in O-CA levels, when, in fact,
little or no organics had been removed. To ensure
that the reductions are real, total organic carbon
(TOC) measurements are needed, but work on this
task has been temporarily halted until a sensitive,
low-level TOC instrument is obtained.
A project funded by the National Science Founda-
tion was begun to perform laboratory verification
testing of small ozone water treatment devices.
Purpose of the project is "to provide verification
testing of a technical innovation by an independent,
scientifically recognized organization in order to
assess the impact of such testing on the future
economic development and marketing potential of
the innovation."
The most common adsorbant used in treating
drinking water is powdered activated carbon. The
use of granular activated carbon is, however, steadily
rising. During 1973, a number of water purveyors
were queried by the WSRL on the use of granular
activated carbon. These experiences showed that
design and operation of carbon beds is largely trial
and error because of difficulties in monitoring for
organics and the differences in properties and sorptive
characteristics between commercially available acti-
vated carbons. The general organics sampler devel-
oped by the WSRL and used as a field monitor has
repeatedly shown that granular activated carbon,
although effective for many months for taste and
odor control, rapidly (within a few weeks) becomes
exhausted for general organics removal.
Adsorption studies are underway that will evaluate
the performance of granular activated carbon sub-
jected to a variety of: loading rates; backwash rates;
and activated carbon types, sizes, depths, and re-
activation frequencies. An obstacle in developing
and evaluating any treatment process is the ability
to measure and identify the parameters of interest.
There are a number of organic monitoring methods
either adapted for use or about to be refined for use
by the WSRL in this problem area.
Bench- and pilot-scale studies on the removal of
trace organics and taste and odor compounds from
water through the use of various oxidants and/or
adsorbants are beginning. In support of this work
on organic contaminant control technology develop-
ment, a strong capability to measure pertinent phys-
ical and chemical parameters has been developed. In
addition to providing general analytical support to
the organic removal experiments, specific accomplish-
ments include: 1) developing optimum conditions
for gas phase chromatography of carbon chloroform
extract (CCE) and carbon alcohol extract (CAE)
fractions, which has resulted in the resolution of 101
and 83 peaks in selected CCE and CAE fractions,
respectively; 2) developing proficiency in the use of
phenol and iodine tests to evaluate adsorption char-
acteristics of activated carbon samples; 3) establish-
ing an inventory of refractory industrial wastes and
other synthetic organic compounds known to cause
taste and odor problems in water supplies. These
compounds and samples of the natural products,
geosmin and methyl isoborneol (taste and odor
causing compounds), procured through award of a
research grant, will be used as standards in organics
removal experiments.
Ongoing studies include:
Evaluation of analytical procedures for the
determination of organic content of water as
related to the need for a monitor of water treat-
ment unit processes, including the O-CA mini-
sampler technique (and characterization of CCE
and CAE), TOC adsorption, and fluorescence-
spectrophotometry;
Development of procedures for assessing the
status of activated carbon filter beds with regard
to their ability to remove tastes and odors in
addition to general organics; and
Investigation of the phenomenon of "bed un-
loading" as evidenced by negative CAE removal
values that have been found during the field
monitoring of granular activated carbon beds.
Water Quality in Distribution Systems
Microbiological Quality
At present, the most promising MF technique for
standard plate count populations results in a 70 to
75 percent bacterial detection when compared with
the standard pour plate procedure. Various com-
mercial media, prepared formulations, and specially
prepared membranes were evaluated.
Research t»n the radiometric method for coliform
detection indicates that relatively high background
counts of experimental controls continue to interfere
with test sensitivity. Modification of incubator
chamber design is completed, and further testing may
show increased test sensitivity.
For the disinfection of newly laid water mains,
laboratory studies showed chlorine to be a much
better disinfectant than potassium permanganate.
Field studies at Charleston, West Virginia, demon-
strated that thoroughly flushed or cleaned new mains
can be satisfactorily disinfected by low, free-residual
chlorine. Chlorine was also a better disinfectant than
potassium permanganate in these field studies.
Chemical Quality
A study was made of the Seattle, Oregon, water
obtained from two sources, the Cedar River and the
south fork of the Toll River. The hardness, alkalinity,
salinity, and trace metal content of these waters are
quite low, but they have aggressive corrosion tenden-
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ties. Standing and running samples were taken from
various locations within the city and analyzed for
various chemical parameters. A report was issued to
the Seattle Water Department for correlation with
their pipe materials in the distribution system. Further
studies were interrupted by the transfer of WSRL
laboratory facilities and personnel to Cincinnati.
The Mobile Water Quality Monitoring Laboratory,
which was built under contract by the National San-
itation Foundation, was delivered to WSRL on
October 1, 1973. Before delivery, it was field tested
in Chicago for 1 month and in Philadelphia for 1
month. An on-board computer was installed just
before the Philadelphia test to operate and collect
data from each of the analyzer systems. The com-
puter obtains data from each of the 17 different
monitoring systems once or twice every 13 minutes
and also can activate a sampler to collect samples
with a preset frequency or whenever any of the 17
parameters shows an anomaly. The results are
punched out on paper tape for later computer pro-
cessing and analysis. During the testing in Phila-
delphia, each of the WSRL personnel to be involved
in the laboratory operation received a week's train-
ing. Further testing and evaluation will now be done
by WSRL personnel.
Bottled Water
The bottled water study was completed June 1.
1973, and final analysis of data is complete. The
study indicated that coliforms are observed infre-
quently in bottled water; however, the general bac-
terial population often exceeds 1.000 organisms per
1 ml. This condition may reflect contamination
during bottling and storage or unsanitary practices
associated with water cooler dispensers. The lack
of a systematic surveillance of bottled waters is a
matter of growing concern. These sources of drink-
ing water should be analyzed at the same bacteriolog-
ical sampling frequency per month that the Interstate
Drinking Water Standards require for public water
sampling, including repeat sampling and a follow-up
sanitary survey when data indicate unsatisfactory
quality.
Quality of Raw Stored Water
Commercial manufacture of the bottom sampler
was completed and each sampler was satisfactorily
field tested (Figure 28). These bottom samplers will
be sent to collaborating American Water Works
Association Quality in Reservoir Committee mem-
bers who will participate in gathering bacteriological
data pertaining to water quality and the impact of
stratification on reservoirs.
Preliminary data obtained from a study conducted
in March 1973 on the Big Creek Reservoir, Mobile,
FIGURE 28. SAMPLER USED FOR COLLECTING
BOTTOM MUD FROM RESERVOIRS TO
BE USED FOR BACTERIOLOGICAL
ANALYSIS.
Alabama, indicate that variations of bacterial popu-
lation densities, pH, temperature, and turbidity were
attributed directly to run-off after heavy rains rather
than to stratification. Transferring of laboratory
capabilities from the study area near Mobile, Ala-
bama, to NERC-Cincinnati interrupted reservoir
studies and necessitated locating alternative study
areas in the Cincinnati area.
Technical Assistance
Twenty-seven state bacteriological laboratories
were surveyed in 1973, a 30 percent increase in
laboratory evaluations over 1972. In addition, three
water chemistry laboratories were surveyed.
For the surveillance of Interstate Carrier Water
Supplies (ICWS). the evaluation of State water sup-
plies, Federal water supplies, and in special studies
the following number of samples were analyzed:
Analysis for
ICWS
State evaluation
Federal study
Trace
metals
129
391
325
Other
chemical
parameters
125
174
37
Pesticides
50
78
O-CA Test
79
23
An additional 393 samples were examined for
bacteria, 253 for asbestos, and 101 for such mis-
cellaneous substances as silica, barium, fluorides,
selenium, and nitrates.
67
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la the way of general technical assistance (that is:
answering letters and telephone calls, preparing re-
ports, and working on the drinking water standards),
1248 man-days were spent by 25 staff members.
Some modifications were made of a procedure for
the determination of arsenic and selenium by con-
verting them to their hydrides and sweeping the
hydrides into an argon-hydrogen flame of an atomic
absorption spectrophotometer.
Special Asbestos Study
In mid-June, WSRL was asked to provide tech-
nical assistance to Region V and to the Assistant
Administrator for Enforcement and General Counsel
in connection with the findings of fiber-like partic-
ulates in the drinking water of Duluth, Minnesota.
For the next 6 weeks, 12 staff members, working
full time, made fiber counts on over 50 Duluth area
samples and over 200 treatment research samples
and, in addition during this time, developed an eco-
nomical treatment method to remove at least 90
percent of these fiber-like particulates. This treat-
ment process will be tested in a pilot plant at Duluth.
HEALTH EFFECTS STUDIES
Organic Contaminants
Suspicion exists that the organic compounds in
drinking water produce, or at least contribute to,
chronic diseases in man. A research program is being
implemented to determine the potential or actual
hazard to human health from ingesting these organics.
The evaluation of the health effects of organic
materials in drinking water has made significant
progress in the areas of (1) concentration and ex-
traction of organics, (2) characterization of fractions
and identification of specific compounds, and (3)
toxicity testing of the organic concentrates and
fractions.
The application of reverse osmosis (RO) mem-
brane technology to the concentration of organics has
proven successful. Cellulose acetate membrane can
recover 30 to 40 percent of the organics from drink-
ing water, a substantial increase over other concen-
tration methods. An important advantage to this
method is that the compounds are not altered chem-
ically. Still to be determined is whether the molar
ratios of the compounds are altered during concen-
tration. A nylon membrane and aqueous concen-
trator are presently being tested in sequence with the
cellulose acetate membrane to determine if they will
significantly increase the yield of organics. Prelim-
inary results with the use of the two membranes are
encouraging. The development of new membrane
materials for the concentration of organics is being
pursued extramurally. Several macroreticular resins
are being evaluated for their ability to concentrate
organic material in water; however, their useful-
ness appears to be more limited than that of the
membranes.
Gross chemical characterization of the organic
concentrates and fractions has been undertaken to
establish similarities and differences between water
samples, concentrates, and partitions that will permit
further comparison with results of toxicity tests.
Evaluation of gas chromatographic retention times
as well as infrared and ultraviolet spectra indicates
a large number of similarities between samples taken
from the same water supply but at different sampling
tunes. Such evaluations also demonstrate substantial
differences between the different fractions of the same
concentrate. Mass and nuclear magnetic resonance
spectra indicate that many different compounds are
present in the concentrates and that the fractionation
procedures are successful in segregating specific types
of compounds. Only a relatively small number of
compounds in these concentrates have been identi-
fied. Because our laboratory capabilities are expand-
ing and because the need exists to determine which
specific compounds are responsible for the observed
toxicity, increased emphasis will be placed on the
identification of specific compounds from those con-
centrates and partitions that are most toxic.
Total organic carbon analysis (TOC) is being
evaluated as a monitoring system for organic loading
of drinking water. A study is being initiated to de-
termine the variability of the organic loading in
potable water systems and to ascertain whether a
correlation exists between the level of TOC and the
toxicity of the concentrates.
The toxicity of the concentrates and partitions is
being tested in experimental animals. The RO con-
centrates of organics from drinking water are highly
toxic when administered in a single dose. The hydro-
philic fraction, corresponding to "natural" rather
than "synthetic" organics, appears to be substantially
less toxic than does the whole concentrate. With a
few concentrates, the materials were administered
repeatedly to experimental animals, and the results
indicate that some of the fractions have potential for
cumulative toxicity.
The compounds identified in the concentrates and
fractions serve as models for further studies. As a
result of the identification of halo ethers in drinking
water, a subchronic toxicity study is being initiated
on a homologous series of these agents. The po-
tential for interaction of specific agents added in
known amounts to the concentrates will also be
determined. A literature search will be made of
the identified compounds to learn of their toxic
properties.
The long-range goal is to identify the relative
toxicity of the concentrates after repeated exposures.
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Dose-response data from such studies will permit the
calculation of a margin of safety for man and will
provide a basis for conducting epidemiologic inves-
tigations to determine the validity of the margin of
safety.
Biological Contaminants of Water Supplies
Improving Methods to Detect Viruses in Water
The potential occurrence of enteric viruses in
potable waters is of major concern to environmental
health officials. The enigma of the virus-in-water
problem is related directly to the lack of a sensitive
method for detecting viruses that occur at very low
levels. A need, therefore, exists for a reliable method
for concentrating and recovering low levels of virus
from large quantities of water. This is particularly
relevant if viral surveillance of potable water supplies
is to be implemented successfully.
Another major activity of WSRL is concerned
with the improvement of virus detection methods,
methods adapted to concentrating and detecting
enteric viruses in water samples of 400 liters or more.
The emphasis during 1973 was placed on three basic
methods that had shown promise for satisfying the
established criteria: (1) the flow-through gauze pad
sampler technique, (2) the membrane virus-adsorp-
tion technique, and (3) the insoluble polyelectrolyte
(PE 60) method.
To investigate the flow-through gauze pad sampler
technique, a number of experiments employing polio-
virus type 1 and reovirus type 3 as test viruses were
conducted and completed. Adding various cations
as salts to the test water before sampling was found
to increase virus recovery about fourfold when com-
pared with that recovered from control samples.
Recovery of reovirus type 3 paralleled that of polio-
virus type 1. A number of experiments were also
conducted using a fiberglass filter as a virus ad-
sorbent; recoveries using poliovirus type 1 as the test
virus were good-to-excellent when input levels were
high in 114 liter-size water samples.
Earlier investigations of the membrane virus-
adsorption technique coupled with the two-phase
aqueous polymer separation technique indicated
good virus recoveries from 400-liter potable water
samples at low virus input levels. A recognized
limitation of this technique, however, concerns the
premature clogging of the filter surfaces when the
test waters contain suspended particulate matter.
Consequently, efforts in 1973 were oriented toward
ameliorative measures to permit recovering virus
from large quantities of turbid water. At the outset,
a number of experiments were conducted with polio-
virus type 1 and 400-liter quantities of water. A
membrane filter was compared with a microfilter
composed of microsized glass and asbestos fibers
bound in epoxy saturant; both filters had controlled
porosities of 0.45 /un. Recoveries of the test virus
were found to be essentially the same for both filter
types when virus input levels were high using turbid
water. Processing 400-liter volumes of turbid water
was facilitated by adding Celite as a filter aid. A
number of experiments were also conducted at low
virus input levels using turbid water. Virus recov-
eries were significantly lower.
When the insoluble polyelectrolyte (PE 60)
method was investigated, the PE 60 was retained
on three fiberglass element cartridges assembled in
parallel on a manifold. These experiments were also
conducted with poliovirus type 1 and 400-liter quan-
tities of water. In low virus input studies, virus re-
coveries from potable water were moderate. No
significant difference in virus recovery was observed
when experiments were performed with tap water at
a pH of 5.5 or at 8.0. In deionized water, however,
virus recovery was greater at 5.5 than at 8.0. It was
also observed that adding sodium thiosulfate to pot-
able water before sampling produced no noticeable
effect on virus recovery.
The virus recovery studies described above were
performed at three satellite laboratories of WSRL:
Northeast at Narragansett, Rhode Island; Gulf Coast
at Dauphin Island, Alabama; and Northwest at Gig
Harbor, Washington. The virology function of these
satellite laboratories has been recently consolidated
at Cincinnati. Program needs concerning meth-
odology are now being integrated to further test and
evaluate not only the three virus concentrating
methods but also a recently developed virus-concen-
trator device. These tests will be conducted under
simultaneous experimental conditions, and poliovirus
type 1 and 400 liters or more of test water will be
used as the sample size. The superior efficiency of
any of the methods should become manifest during
the course of experimentation. A number of bench-
type experiments are also planned for the purpose of
optimizing or refining many of the procedural steps
involved in virus concentration.
Viruses in Finished Water
A study was begun at the three satellite facilities
with the following objectives:
to determine if viruses could be detected in
finished drinking water,
to evaluate and compare, under actual field con-
ditions, the efficacy of three different virus con-
centrating techniques, and
to relate the presence or absence of viruses in
finished drinking water to treatment processes,
water source and protection, total and fecal
coliform densities, standard plate count, and
zoomicrobe population.
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Of the 84 virus study samples collected from 10
water treatment plants in 6 states and the District
of Columbia, 80 have been examined for viruses.
Sample volumes varied from 19 to 950 liters because
of the techniques used and the quality of the water
sample. Additionally, 12 positive controls (known
virus deliberately added) were processed as a con-
tinual check on the sensitivity and recovery efficiency
of the techniques used. Data indicated that the three
techniques had a sensitivity of detecting about one
virus unit per 3.8 liters for enteroviruses.
No viruses were recovered in 45 study samples
examined at the Gulf Coast laboratory, nor were any
viruses detected in 12 study samples collected by the
Northwest laboratory.
Of the 29 samples of water collected from 6 com-
munities and processed in the Northeast laboratory,
3 were positive controls (poliovirus added) and 3
were negative controls (heated or autoclaved virus-
free water). Virus (poliovirus type 3) were detected
in two samples, one collected at Billerica, Massachu-
setts, on August 15, 1972, and one negative control
sample (60°C tap water that should not have con-
tained viable virus), which was processed on August
24, 1972. It is our professional opinion that the
virus found in the Billerica water sample was prob-
ably the result of laboratory contamination and that
it was not present in the original water sample,
particularly since this water sample had a free
chlorine residual of 1.0 rag per liter (total chlorine
1.1 mg per liter) and a turbidity recorded as zero.
This belief was reinforced when the same virus type
was isolated in a negative control water sample
processed 1 week later.
Cytopathic effects (CPE's) were observed in five
other study samples collected by the Northeast lab-
oratory. The occurrence of CPE in cell culture does
not necessarily mean a virus is present; CPE can be
caused by a number of substances or conditions,
including enteric viruses. These five samples were
submitted to the National Center for Disease Control,
Atlanta, Georgia (NCDC) for confirmatory test, and
no viruses were isolated from any of the samples.
CPE's were also observed in cell cultures that re-
ceived each of three positive controls and in two
additional study samples. All five of these samples
are now being processed to determine whether or not
the CPE is of viral etiology.
Coliform organisms were found in only four sam-
ples of finished water in the entire study and these
were well within the limit of 1 coliform per 100 ml
allowed by the U. S. PHS Drinking Water Standards.
No Salmonella, Shigella, or coliform organisms were
detected in the water samples that had been con-
centrated for viral analyses.
From a bacteriological standpoint, source waters
for each of the treatment plants were generally better
than had been anticipated from background data that
had been obtained from State and local sources.
Zoomicrobes (nematodes and amoebae) were
found in essentially all finished water samples tested.
It seems safe to state that the drinking water from
these 10 selected systems was rarely, if ever, polluted
with sufficient numbers of virus to be an important
vehicle for the transmission of human enteric viruses.
Whether these 10 selected systems produce a finished
product representative, from a viral standpoint, of
the drinking water in this country remains to be
determined.
Even though the main objectives of this study have
not been fully realized because all tests have not been
completed, much background data have been ob-
tained and many of the areas of difficulty in conduct-
ing such a study have been uncovered.
As a result of the consolidation of field laboratory
personnel into the Cincinnati Center, sampling sites
for the coming year will be selected water supplies
in the midwest.
Epidemiological Studies
An integral part of studies on biological contam-
inants in water supplies is designing and carrying out
epidemiological studies of those contaminants whose
transmission by drinking water is suspected, but not
definitely proven.
During 1973, two types of such studies were
begun. The first is an intensive literature search
relating to the minimal infective dose of enteroviruses
and data collection on recovery of poliovirus from
stools, sewage, streams, etc. The objective of this
study is _to attempt to determine the "real world"
significance of the experimental observation that one
virus particle is sufficient to infect some completely
susceptible persons. It is important to attempt to do
this in order to be able to evaluate the true health
significance of viruses in drinking water, should they
be found there. Such a study is very complex and
involves statistical probability, infectivity of the or-
ganism, host susceptibility, etc.
The second study has the objective of determining
at what age children become infected with entero-
viruses, particularly when there are siblings in the
family. Such a study, if it can be accomplished,
would show the role of drinking and recreational
water in the transmission of virus disease or infection
as contrasted with the role of person-to-person spread
of these viruses.
Waterborne Disease Surveillance
A WSRL tabulation on waterborne-disease out-
breaks is maintained (Figure 29). In cooperation
70
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"* 1938-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 61-65 66-70
FIGURE 29. OUTBREAKS OF WATERBORNE DISEASE IN THE UNITED STATES, 1938-1972.
71-72
with NCDC, investigative assistance is available to
States and localities to determine the cause of the
outbreaks.
In the last 2 years, 47 waterborne outbreaks, re-
sulting in 6817 illnesses, are known to have occurred
in the United States. During the period 1951-1970,
waterborne outbreaks occurred, on the average, at a
rate of about one per month; in the past 2 years,
the rate has increased to about two per month. This
increase occurred primarily in semi-public and in-
dividual water systems and probably results from
greater awareness and better reporting. Most of the
outbreaks were in the semi-public systems and in-
volved travelers, campers, and restaurant patrons.
Outbreaks associated with municipal systems, how-
ever, were responsible for the greatest number of
illnesses; the largest outbreak, 3500 cases, occurred
in Pico Rivera, California, in 1971.
Safe Recreational Water Quality Criteria
Central to the program concerned with safe recre-
ational waters is a series of epidemiological micro-
biological surveys to be conducted at appropriate
salt and fresh water bathing beaches. The objective
is to relate some microbial, chemical, or physical
measure(s) of water quality at the beaches to the
incidence and nature of illnesses among the swim-
mers using them. Concurrently, microbiological and
epidemiological methods are being refined and de-
veloped. Saltwater beaches at Coney Island and the
Rockaway in New York City were chosen as the
test and control beaches for the first survey.
The first phase of the survey, whose objective was
to pretest the methodology and determine the suit-
ability of the test sites, was completed in 1973. In-
formation on swimming activity and on the incidence,
nature, and severity of illnesses among swimmers and
nonswimming controls was obtained from about 700
individuals at each beach during the course of 8
trials. A preliminary analysis of the data the first
such data to become available since the 1950's in-
dicates that the-epidemiological methodology will be
satisfactory for the Phase 2 of the study scheduled for
the summer of 1974. In addition, there was a sug-
gestion that the rate of gastrointestinal disturbances
among swimmers, when corrected for that among
nonswimmers, was higher at the test than at the
control beach. An additional pair of demographically
comparable beaches (one test and one control) was
sought and located in Nassau County, New York.
Development and laboratory evaluations were com-
pleted on membrane filter and enumerative methods
for fecal streptococci (mSD); for Aeromonas hydro-
phila (mA); and for total coliforms, fecal coliforms,
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and the component members of the coliform popu-
lation (Klebsiella, Escherichia, Enterobacter, and
Citrobacter) (mC). A high-volume (about 50 liters
of water) method for Salmonella was developed.
These methods, along with that developed for Pseu-
domonas aeruginosa, were successfully used during
the summer trials of 1973. Unique data comparing
the densities of these organisms were developed dur-
ing these trials.
Environmental isolates of Klebsiella species, A.
hydrophila, V. parahemolyticus, and P. aeruginosa
have been collected. Their pathogenicity, growth,
and biochemical and serological characteristics are
being or have been compared with those of chemical
isolates.
In conjunction with the National Lake Eutrophi-
cation Study, water samples were examined for the
presence of amoeba, especially pathogenic Naegleria.
Small, free-living amoeba were isolated from a num-
ber of the samples, and there was a suggestion that
in certain regions their densities were correlated to
the trophic state of the lake. Pathogenic Naegleria sp.
were not isolated from any of the samples. A number
of additional clinical isolates of Naegleria species
were examined to confirm the correlation of cyto-
pathogenicity in tissue culture to mouse pathogenicity.
In addition, P. aeruginosa, A. hydrophila, and Kleb-
siella densities in a large number of the lakes were
examined to determine if the levels of these pathogens
could be correlated to the trophic state.
Screening of Known Chemicals for Specific Toxic
Effects
Controlled studies on experimental animals were
conducted during the year (1) to determine the
lowest dose of methyl mercury in drinking water that
would produce biochemical changes in the central
nervous system and (2) to ascertain whether methyl
mercury in drinking water would produce synergistic/
antagonistic toxicity of other environmental chem-
icals. Results indicate that measurable changes occur
in the biochemistry and physiology of brain slices
taken from animals exposed to levels of methyl mer-
cury much below those required for the development
of overt symptoms. A significant slowing of the rate
of pyridine nucleotide reoxidation was noted at dos-
age levels as low as 0.01 mg per kg per day in water
at both 90 and 180 days of exposure. To determine
whether subacute exposure to methyl mercury pro-
duces synergistic/antagonistic toxicity of other chem-
icals, a study of the effects on hepatic detoxification
enzymes (EPN detoxification System and p-Nitroani-
sole O-Demethylase) of adult male rats was con-
ducted. In long-term experiments, animals were
exposed to methyl mercury in drinking water at con-
centrations of 0, 0.01, 0.1, 1.0, and 10.0 mg per liter
for up to 180 days. At 90 days, the activity of the
EPN Detoxification System was inhibited by 32 per-
cent in the highest dose group and activity of
O-Demethylase was depressed by 14 percent at the
10 mg per liter level; no inhibition occurred at lower
dose levels. After 180 days exposure, there was no
statistically significant effect on the enzyme activities
at any exposure level. Additional studies could not
explain the magnitude of inhibition observed at 90
days of exposure.
Controlled animal experiments begun in 1973 in-
clude (1) studies of the effects of lead on the meta-
bolic integrity of the central nervous system, (2)
study of the effects of cadmium on hepatic detoxifi-
cation enzymes, (3) a study of the effects of cadmium
on renovascular function, particularly its effect on
the renin-angiotensin system and renal hypertension,
and (4) studies to determine the absorption, dis-
tribution, and excretion and the toxic effects of sub-
chronic ingestion of soluble barium. The barium
study is in response to a need for health effects data
to support the present limit of 1.0 mg per liter in
drinking water, which is exceeded by several water
supplies in Illinois.
An appreciation of the current knowledge on the
health effects of asbestos, especially ingestion via
food or water, was obtained through an extensive
literature review and personal communication with
leading scientists in the field. Meetings were held
with other Federal agencies and interested parties to
discuss limitations and difficulties of previous re-
search and to plan studies for obtaining a better
assessment of the possible risk to the population from
asbestos in drinking water, whether it originates at
the source of supply or from the use of asbestos-
cement pipe in distribution systems. Important factors
that must be considered in any animal experiment
or epidemiologic study include type of fiber, fiber
size, amount, exposure period, type of exposure, type
of experimental animal, and feeding to minimize in-
halation. It is planned to determine the extent of
absorption and distribution of asbestos hi the gas-
trointestinal tract after ingestion by rats. To accom-
plish this task, a radioactive label must be incor-
porated into the crystalline mass of the asbestos fiber
so as to require dissolution of the fiber before the
label will be lost. If additional resources are ob-
tained, long-term animal studies and epidemiologic
studies of the effects of asbestos ingestion will be
initiated before July 1974.
Quantitative in vitro mammalian cell methodology
was evaluated as a screening device for use hi studies
concerned with the genetic toxicity of chemicals.
Emphasis was on the induction, isolation, and
characterization of nonlethal genetic damage. Stan-
72
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dardization of the BUdR-visible light technique for
determining mutant mammalian cells is planned with
application of the technique as a bioassay system,
the goal for 1975. A study of the mutagenic/carcino-
genic potential of raw and finished drinking water
from the lower Mississippi River using cultured
mammalian cells and in vivo techniques was also
initiated.
Studies of trace-metal body burden and environ-
ment exposure were expanded to include four New
Jersey communities near New York City; Birming-
ham, Alabama; and Charlotte, North Carolina. Tap
water has been collected and analyzed for trace
metals found in scalp hair. Other variables, par-
ticularly exposure to trace metals via inhalation, will
be assessed by NERC-RTP as part of the Community
Health and Environmental Surveillance Studies.
During the past year, Boston was identified as
having a significant problem with lead in tap water.
Results of a survey in the Beacon Hill area showed
lead concentrations above the Drinking Water Stan-
dards limit in over half of the homes sampled with
some samples being five to six tunes the limit. Since
lead in this concentration is not present in the raw
or finished water, these concentrations can be attrib-
uted to the "aggressiveness" of the water on lead
distribution piping. An epidemiologic study is planned
to determine if a correlation exists between blood
lead levels and the lead concentration hi tap water
when all other variables are controlled.
A cooperative study with the National Institute of
Heart and Lung Disease was initiated to better de-
fine the role of water quality in chronic disease
mortality (cardio-vascular).
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INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES
AT HOME
Foreign Visitors
During 1973, NERC-Cincinnati received 222
foreign visitors who represented national and local
governments and industry from 27 different coun-
tries. Much interest is expressed by these visitors
in our major water programs, Advanced Waste
Treatment and Water Supply Research, and in our
solid waste program. Our industrial waste activities
at Edison, New Jersey, are also at times visited by
foreign scientists. The countries represented by these
visitors (and their numbers) in 1973 were: Japan,
131; Germany, 16; Poland, 11; China, 10; U.S.S.R.,
8; Australia, 6; South Africa, Italy, and the Nether-
lands, 4 each; and England, Sweden, Singapore, and
Hungary, 3 each. An additional 16 visitors came
from 14 other countries: Switzerland, Norway,
France, Finland, Czechoslovakia, Spain, Surinam,
Ghana, Iran, Liberia, Mexico, Taiwan, Chile, and
Brazil.
Foreign Scientists Receiving Research Training
Although NERC-Cincinnati has no formal research
training program for visiting scientists, several re-
quests are made each year by foreign governments
and scientists to come here for work experience hi
special fields. The scientists are supported by NATO
and WHO scholarships or by their employer.
During 1973 the following scientists conducted re-
search and obtained training here.
Shinichiro Uchida
Dr. Hubert J. Kastenhuber
Tokuyi Annaka
Chief Sanitary and
Planning Engineer
Sewerage Bureau
Osaka Municipal Government
Osaka, Japan
On a fellowship from
the German Academic
Exchange Service
Research Engineer
Sewage Works Section
Public Works Research
Institute
Ministry of Construction
Tokyo, Japan
Physical-Chemical
Treatment Program,
AWTRL
Physical-Chemical
Treatment Program,
AWTRL
Biological Treatment
Program, AWTRL
March-July 1973
April 1973
March 1974
September 1973
August 1974
Dr. Susanna Deak
WHO Fellow and
Senior Research Worker
National Institute of
Public Health
Budapest, Hungary
Microbiology Group
WSRL and Waste
Identification and
Analysis Section,
AWTRL
November 1973
January 1974
Akio Yutani
Sanitary Engineer
City of Osaka
Osaka, Japan
Ultimate Disposal
Program, AWTRL
November 1973
March 1974
74
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While at NERC-Cincinnati, Mr. Uchida worked
on a research proposal involving a laboratory in-
vestigation of a novel process to remove ammonia
from wastewater. In the process, a suitable exchanger
is treated with a solution containing a metal ion that
forms a complex with ammonia. The exchanger re-
moves ammonia from aqueous solution by ligand
exchange. The exhausted exchanger is regenerated
thermally using low pressure steam. Technical feas-
ibility of the process was demonstrated with the use
of actual municipal wastewater.
Dr. Kastenhuber is engaged in a pilot-plant study
of the removal of ammonia from a physical-chemical
treatment plant effluent by partial chlorination fol-
lowed by dechlorination by activated carbon. The
influence of variations in pH, chlorine to ammonia-N
ratio, and contact time on the chemistry of the
chlorine-ammonia reactions is being determined.
Also being evaluated, in terms of ammonia removal,
are the reaction products of the carbon-chlorine and
carbon-chloramine reactions.
Mr. Annaka is studying integrated chemical and
biological nitrification for the control of phosphorus
and nitrogen with the use of 800-liter-per-day pilot
plants. Small 20-liter-per-day bench scale units are
used to determine kinetic rates of nitrification. Dis-
cussions with AWTRL staff, review of publications,
and field-site visits to operating facilities will be em-
ployed in the general evaluation Mr. Annaka is mak-
ing of advanced treatment processes.
Dr. Deak is to study radiometric determination of
coliform bacteria in water with the use of carbon-14
sodium formate and also to work on a project at-
tempting to recover viruses from a potable water
using large samples.
Mr. Yutani's research will center mainly upon the
classification of filtrates and centrates that result dur-
ing vacuum filtration and centrifugal dewatering of
phosphorus-laden chemical sludges. Results of the
research will provide a better insight into the best
method of ultimately disposing of these liquid side
streams.
ABROAD
Public Law 480 Projects
Under P.L. 480, U. S. counterpart funds in foreign
countries are being used to finance projects designed
to advance scientific and technical research in the
particular country, as well as in the United States.
From NERC-Cincinnati, Project Officers supervise
investigations relating to the identification and solu-
tion of environmental problems.
"Development of Methods and Techniques for Final
Treatment of Combined Municipal and Textile
Waste-waters Including Sludge," Water Economy
Research Institute, Katowice, Poland (Investigator:
J. Suschka; EPA Project Officer: R. L. Bunch)
Various combinations of waste treatment processes
will be investigated to effectively treat a combination
of domestic and textile wastewater. Special emphasis
will be placed on color elimination. Consideration
will also be given to pretreatment of textile waste-
water before combining with municipal wastewater.
Sludge disposal from best processes will be con-
sidered.
Dr. Suschka, the project officer, visited this country
in the middle of November 1973 and reported that
the literature has been reviewed for analytical meth-
odology on dyes used in textile processing. Various
methods have been tested and modified to meet the
requirements of the study. Samples of dye work
wastes are being characterized as to their physical
and chemical properties.
"Epidemiological Study of Methemoglobinemia
in Croatia," Institute of Public Health in Croatia,
Zagreb, Yugoslavia (Investigator: B. Plese;
EPA Project Officer: L. J. McCabe)
Continued investigations were conducted on rural
water supplies. Staffing and transportation difficulties
have impeded progress on the annual report.
"Factors Influencing Lead Absorption from the
Intestine," Institute for Medical Research,
Zagreb, Yugoslavia (Investigator: Dr. K. Kostial;
EPA Project Officer: Dr. J. F. Stara)
This project is designed to investigate in experi-
mental animals the different factors (age, pregnancy,
lactation, and selected dietary additives) that might
influence the absorption and metabolism of ingested
lead. The data will provide additional necessary in-
formation on the metabolism of lead and calcium in
the very young and on dietary additives that could
be used to decrease physiological availability of lead
for absorption. The project has been in progress
since July 1972, and manuscripts dealing with the
effect of lead ions on calcium transport through the
intestine, the effect of milk additives on intestinal lead
absorption, - lead absorption from the intestine in
lactation, and comparative metabolism of lead and
calcium in young and adult rats have been prepared.
The senior investigator is internationally recognized
as an expert in this area of research.
"Health Effects of Nitrates in Drinking Water,"
Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel (Investigator:
H. Shuval; EPA Project Officer: L. J. McCabe)
Methemoglobinemia in infants (blue baby) is the
cause of concern for nitrates in drinking water. A
final report was completed that presents the results
of a series of field and laboratory studies designed
to evaluate the health effects of nitrates in drinking
75
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water. The results of the epidemiological and toxi-
cological studies do not provide a basis for a liberal-
ization of the current drinking water standard for
nitrates. If anything, evidence is presented that may
raise some questions as whether the current standard
provides a sufficient margin of safety below the de-
tectable effect level.
"Neutralization and Utilization of Post-Coagulation
Sludge," Institute of Municipal Economy, Warszawa,
Poland (Investigator: J. Salbut; EPA Project
Officer: R. B. Dean)
This project is concerned with treatment of sludges
from the purification of river water by coagulation
with alum. Recovery of alum is believed to be
economically viable. Basic studies on chemical re-
covery and concentration by freezing have been ini-
tiated. There is a good possibility that the Warsaw
project may be able to demonstrate disposal of alum
sludges in the new municipal sewage treatment plant
at minimal cost.
"The Role of Silicates in the Etiopathogenesis
of Endemic Nephropathy," Belgrade University
Medical School, Belgrade, Yugoslavia (Investigator:
A. Bata; EPA Project Officer: L. J. McCabe)
The first annual progress report covering the lit-
erature review and initiation of the research was re-
ceived. Two animal experiments are currently in
progress. Water obtained from a well epidemiolog-
ically associated with several cases of endemic
nephropathy is concentrated and fed to rats. This
group is to be compared with a control group ex-
posed to Belgrade water and another exposed to
filtered water from the same well. A second exper-
iment consists of feeding rats concentrations of 25,
50, and 100 mg quartz per liter and 50 and 100 mg
granite per liter suspended in drinking water. Phys-
iological and biochemical variables are monitored,
and pathohistological investigations are planned.
"Sludge Utilization, in Physico-Chemical Treatment
of Combined Municipal! Steel Industry Wastewater,"
Environmental Protection Center, Katowice, Poland
(Investigator: Dr. Jan Suschka; EPA Project
Officer: Dr. H. S. Skovronek)
A process is being developed to use available,
iron-rich sludge from primary treatment as the coag-
ulant for physico-chemical treatment of combined
industrial and municipal wastewaters. The effective-
ness and dependability of such a procedure, even
under adverse climatic conditions, will be compared
with that achievable by biological treatment in sim-
ilar circumstances.
The initial work has demonstrated that the waste-
water generated in the highly industrialized Katowice
region of Poland can be treated effectively with con-
ventional coagulants. Experiments are now under
way to establish the effectiveness of the iron-rich
sludge, both as is and after physical and/or chemical
modifications. Simultaneously, pilot-plant equipment
has been modified to allow evaluation of the physico-
chemical treatment process on a larger scale and to
establish more fully the effectiveness of the sludge or
the selected derivatives, or both, relative to commer-
cial coagulants. For comparison, data have been
collected over the past several months to establish
the best results which can be expected from biological
treatment. In the future, the investigators will attempt
to identify and optimize the major parameters in-
fluencing the efficiency of coagulation and pollutant
removal.
"Solid Waste in India," Central Public Health
Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, India
(Investigator: A. D. Bhide; EPA Project
Officer: L. W. Lefke)
A survey has been conducted of the solid waste
problems in India, with regard to the generation,
storage, collection, processing, disposal or recycling
of wastes generated in urban communities. The
development of solid waste technology, as well as of
nontechnological systems, is dependent on a complete
understanding of the composition and properties of
waste materials.
The information obtained on composition and
quantity of solid waste is of value to Indian and
United States researchers concerned with the proper
management of solid residues. A final report pre-
pared for this project is now undergoing review.
"Utilization of Sewage Sludges from Combined
Treatment Plant/ Textile and Tannery Wastes and
Sanitary Sewage I in Combination with Municipal
Wastes," Institute of Meteorology and Water
Economy, Wroclaw, Poland (Investigator:
H. Manczak; EPA Project Officer: R. B. Dean)
This project is concerned with sludge disposal in
an industrialized mountainous region above a water
supply reservoir. Composting with municipal solid
waste to produce a useful product is being investi-
gated. The properties of industrial and municipal
sewage sludge combinations, including biological
stabilization and dewatering by filtration, can be
measured at their field laboratory.
International Organizations, Working Agreements,
and Conferences
International Joint Commission
Throughout the year, Mr. D. G. Ballinger served
as Chairman of the Standing Committee on Analyt-
ical Sampling and Measurement Methods, Research
76
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Advisory Board, International Joint Commission. At
regular meetings of the Committee, held in Canada
and the United States, reports and recommendations
on research needs, on-going research in both coun-
tries, and a joint Canadian-U.S. research information
system were prepared and forwarded to the Board.
International Standards Organization
In September 1973, Mr. Ballinger again headed
the U. S. delegation to Technical Committee 147
Water Quality of the International Standards Organ-
ization. The biannual meeting was held in Wash-
ington, D. C.
International Conference on Pollution Control
in the Marine Industries
In 1973, this international conference was co-
sponsored by the Edison Water Quality Research
Laboratory. The conference, held in Canada, cov-
ered all aspects of marine pollution control including
legislation, enforcement, development, and research.
The presentations at the meeting are available in a
Proceedings.
Committee on Challenges to Modern Society
The project activities of this NATO environmental
coordinating committee are expanding and progress-
ing rapidly. The United Kingdom, pilot country for
the project, has announced that construction of the
Physical-Chemical Pilot Plant at Coleshill has been
initiated and completion is scheduled for the spring
of 1975.
Development of a study plan and common basis
of analytical methods and data exchange has been
initiated.
Dr. R. L. Bunch participated in a project-related
workshop at Wuppertal, Germany, on oxygen aera-
tion technology. The proceedings of this workshop
have been printed.
The U. S. delegate to the October plenary, Mr.
John Barnum, announced the start up of the first
full-scale independent physical-chemical treatment
plant in this country. Performance evaluation of this
0.6 mgd facility in Rosemount, Minnesota, is being
supported by an Office of Research and Develop-
ment (EPA) grant. The process sequence includes:
chemical coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, gran-
ular activated carbon, second-stage filtration, nitrogen
removal using ion exchange with an ammonia selec-
tive resin (clinoptilolite), and chlorination.
Interest in the AWT project is expanding, with
NATO delegates from Canada and Italy indicating
an interest in active participation.
Canada
In May 1973, Dr. A. J. Klee presented a paper
"An Overview of Environmental Plastics Legislation
in the United States" and served as one of the U. S.
representatives on a panel entitled "The Environ-
mental Impact of Plastics" at the 31st Annual
Technical Conference of the Society of Plastics En-
gineers, Inc., held in Montreal, Canada. The inter-
national conference was jointly sponsored by the
American Society of Plastics Engineers, Inc., and
the Plastic Institute of Great Britian. The technical
session provided the forum for scientists to discuss
the status of research throughout the world on the
environmental effects of plastics.
Israel
At the request of the Water Commissioner's Office,
Ministry of Agriculture, Israel, Mr. N. B. Schomaker
visited several existing and proposed sites within the
Dan Region and the Northern District of the Ministry
of Health, January 1-12, 1973, to review and study
Israeli groundwater pollution abatement techniques
as applied to landfill leachate control and to discuss
technology regarding solid waste disposal. These
existing sites were located specifically in Tel Aviv
and Jerusalem. Technical institutions in Haifa and
Jerusalem were also visited.
Mr. Schomaker presented lectures on solid waste
management practices relating American technology
to current and potential solid waste management
problems in Israel. Mechanisms were set up for the
further exchange of information of interest to Israel.
The Water Commissioner expressed an interest in
further developing an exchange program between his
office and EPA.
Europe
Dr. J. M. Symons visited France, Germany, The
Netherlands, and the United Kingdom in March
1973 to discuss water supply practices and research
programs as they exist in Europe and the United
States. Dr. Symons also participated in a Water
Research Association conference and presented a
paper on activated carbon experience in the United
States.
77
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EVALUATION OF ASBESTOS-LIKE FIBER PROBLEM
IN DRINKING WATER FROM LAKE SUPERIOR*
In June 1973, an apparent problem with fiber-
like participates in the drinking water of Duluth,
Minnesota, and surrounding communities was re-
vealed by the National Water Quality Laboratory.
NERC-Corvallis. The Water Supply Research
Laboratory (WSRL), NERC-Cincinnati, staff was
asked two questions: Could we help evaluate the
relative fiber-like content of various waters in the
Duluth area? What treatment processes, if any.
would remove these particulates?
Samples sent us from the Duluth area were ana-
lyzed using the optical microscope method originally
developed by the National Institute of Occupational
Safety and Health for air sampling and modified
for water samples. This showed the extent of the
problem that all drinking water supplies using
water from western Lake Superior contained high
numbers of extremely small, fiber-like particulates
(Figure 30).
Treatment research was also conducted along
with the fiber count determinations of various raw
water sources. Because Lake Superior water was
of high quality except for the small particulates, a
simple form of treatment by direct granular filtration
was tried first. By adding a small amount of coagu-
lant and a polymer to the water, the small particu-
lates were agglomerated sufficiently to remove most
of them in the filter. Preliminary tests showed this
process very promising and about 4 weeks after
the problem was first surfaced, the final, confirming,
small-scale, pilot-plant treatment run was performed.
J \\. Symons. Water Supply Research Laboratory.
FIGURE 30. ELECTRON PHOTOMICROGRAPH
OF AN ASBESTOS FIBER (CENTER)
AT 10,OOOX MAGNIFICATION.
Large-scale pilot plant work on site is now being
planned that will yield final design criteria for the
needed treatment plants in the area.
In a companion effort, the epidemiologist and
toxicologists, along with the engineers of WSRL
assisted the Office of Air and Water Programs in
developing an EPA guideline document for interim
measures to be taken by water utilities using western
Lake Superior as a source.
79
-------
IMPROVED TECHNIQUES TO IDENTIFY SPILLED ASPHALTS^
The primary goal of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency is the preservation and improve-
ment of the environment. The National Environ-
mental Research Center - Cincinnati, one of the four
EPA research centers, is dedicated to solving re-
search and engineering problems related to restora-
tion of the quality of our environment. Among the
many efforts for upgrading the environment studied
at the Cincinnati center are the control of stack
emissions, the wide use of pesticides, reduction of
pollutants in automotive exhausts, efficient manage-
ment of solid wastes, and the improvement of water
quality. One of the serious and continuing water
problems is the discharge of oils into surface waters.
Thus, analytical procedures for the identification of
discharged petroleum products and the successful
application of these techniques are significant con-
tributions to enforcement and environmental im-
provement.
Asphaltic materials cannot be readily identified to
a source because they are not, by their very high
molecular weights, complexity, and physical nature,
usually amenable to analysis by gas chromatography
with flame ionization detector. The limiting diffi-
culty is the inability to vaporize and to separate the
high molecular weight components in the gas
chromatographic column. One feasible approach
leading to identification, however, is the use of elec-
tron capture gas chromatography to separate the
passively-labeled perfluoro phenolic ethers and
thioether derivatives of the weak acids present
in discharged heavier petroleum products. The
identification is corroborated by results obtained by
infrared spectrophotometry, metals analysis, ele-
mental analysis, and statistical linear discriminate
function analysis.
The measurements of major components, minor
components, trace metals, spectral properties, and
physical properties are illustrated in an enforcement
case brought by the U.S. Coast Guard against an
asphalt plant in 1971. The action involved an as-
phalt-like material spilled on the Ohio River at
Aliquippa, Pennsylvania, and the Coast Guard re-
*F. K. Kawahara, Anlytical Quality Control Laboratory.
quested the help of AQCL to identify the sub-
stances and company involved.
PREPARATION OF SAMPLE
The black, tacky material was completely ex-
tracted with chloroform, washed, and dried. Sol-
vent was removed under reduced pressure. The
source sample taken from the company asphalt
pipeline and the river sample were treated similarly.
ASPHALTENE CONTENT
The two dried samples collected from the source
and the river were subjected to asphaltene deter-
mination described by Abraham (1). The asphal-
tene contents were as follows: source sample, 21.1
percent; river sample, 22.6 percent.
INFRARED ANALYSIS
Spectra of the source and river samples were
obtained with use of the Perkin-Elmer 137 In-
frared Spectrophotometer. Spectra were character-
istically similar throughout the range from 4000
cm"1 to 660 cm""1. Examination of six infrared
absorbance ratios for the source and river samples
demonstrates the similarity of the ratios and of the
samples.
CARBON AND HYDROGEN ANALYSIS
The carbon determinations for the source asphalt
and river samples were 85.57 and 86.07 percent,
respectively, and the hydrogen determinations were
10.86 and 11.16 percent. Values are averages of
seven determinations per sample, and each deter-
mination was made on the Hewlett-Packard 185B.
This agreement of the carbon and hydrogen content
of the pipeline sample with the river sample sug-
gests similarity between the two.
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
To demonstrate the similarity of the Ohio River
sample and the source sample taken from the as-
phalt pipeline, the weak acid components (phenols
and mercaptans) of the asphalts taken from the
source and from the river were compared. Each
asphalt mixture is treated with pentafluorobenzyl
80
-------
bromide and potassium carbonate in an acetone-
chloroform mixture. Each reaction mixture is then
fractionated into six fractions with the use of solvent
mixtures of varying polarity to effect a separation on
silica gel column. The third eluate fraction yielded
the revealing electron capture detector gas chromato-
grams. The retention distances of the 14 resolved
peaks taken from the electron capture gas chromato-
graphic analysis of the pentafluorobenzyl derivatives
of the asphalt pollutant from the Ohio River are
compared with those from resolved peaks of the
derivative asphaltic material that was taken from
the asphalt pipeline. Fourteen peaks (phenols and
mercaptans) of the source sample match the 14 peaks
(phenols and mercaptans) of the pollutant Ohio
River sample. When a scatter diagram was made
of 28 retention times, a 45° diagonal line showed an
excellent fit to the points. (Three components of
the 14 peaks found in the source sample are larger
hi amount than those in the river sample; three
components may have been lost as a result of solu-
bilization, etc., in the river sample.) The two as-
phalts are the same. This specific class analysis that
determines phenols and mercaptans as ethers and
thioethers (3,4) provides prima facie legal evidence.
NICKEL AND VANADIUM RESULTS
The residue of asphalt resulting from the digestion
in concentrated nitric acid was dissolved in dilute
nitric acid and analyzed by atomic absorption. The
nickel and vanadium contents in the source sample
were 81 and 30 mg per gram, and these values in
the river sample were 49 and 28 mg per gram, re-
spectively. The nickel in the river sample appears
to be somewhat lower than expected, whereas the
vanadium results agree well.
DATA TREATMENT AND STATISTICAL
ANALYSIS
Infrared spectrophotometry has been a useful
technique for the characterization and identification
of these materials. With the use of a combination
of infrared spectrophotometry, data treatment, data
transformation, and discriminant function analysis
with computer assistance, a precise method of
classification has been derived. From among 20-
plus samples of commercial asphalts, the unknown
river sample was coupled to the commercial source
via good agreement of mathematical values from the
corresponding linear discriminant functions (5).
ENFORCEMENT ACTION
The Coast Guard won its case. All results pointed
to the conclusion that the pipeline asphalt was the
source of the pollutant river asphalt.
REFERENCES
1. Abraham, H., "Asphalt and Allied Substances,
Industrial Raw Bituminous Materials," Volume
IV, 294 (1960). D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc.,
Princeton, N. J.
2. Kawahara, F. K., and Ballinger, D. G., "Charac-
terization of Oil Slicks on Surface Waters," In-
dustrial and Engineering Chemistry, Product Re-
search and Development, 9, 553 (1970).
3. Kawahara, F. K., "Microdetermination of De-
rivatives of Phenol and Mercaptans by Means of
Electron Capture Gas Chromatography," Analyt-
ical Chemistry, 40, 1009 (1968).
4, Kawahara, F. K., "Characterization and Identifi-
cation of Spilled Residual Fuel Oils by Gas Chro-
matography and Infrared Spectrophotometry,"
Environmental Science and Technology, 5, 235
(1971).
5. Kawahara, F. K., Santner, J. F., and Julian, E.
C., "Characterization of Heavy Residual Fuel
Oils and Asphalts by Infrared Spectrophotometry
Using Statistical Discriminant Function Analysis,"
Analytical Chemistry, 46, (February 1974).
81
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ION-SELECTIVE ELECTRODES IN WATER ANALYSIS
Since their introduction a few years ago. ion
selective electrodes have found application in a
variety of chemistry-related fields. In bio-medicine,
clinical laboratories have employed electrodes in
blood and urine analysis. In analytical chemistry
research, the kinetics and mechanisms of certain re-
actions can be followed in solution by ion selective
electrodes. In water analysis, these electrodes show
great promise as analytical tools in the laboratory
and in continuous monitoring equipment. This last
area has been the main impetus behind the research
and marketing of a variety of ion selective elec-
trodes.
In simple terms, ion selective electrodes are elec-
trochemical, potentiometric sensors that contain an
internal phase and a membrane, which separates the
internal and external (sample) phases. The type of
membrane and the nature of the internal solution
determine the electrode responsivity to a particular
ion. When the ion is sensed, a potential is developed
across the membrane, and the potential generated
is compared with a reference potential. The dif-
ference is amplified by an electrometer. The elec-
trometer output varies with the logarithm of the
activity of the ion, not the concentration. In addi-
tion, the activity is greatly affected by the amount
and type of background ions in a sample. For this
reason, the application of electrodes to in situ water
quality monitoring is severely limited.
At the Methods Development and Quality Assur-
ance Research Laboratory (MDQARL), a number
of electrodes and their associated methodology have
been evaluated for usage with waters of all types.
There are four basic electrode methods: direct, ionic
strength adjustment, known addition, and potentio-
metric titrations. With the direct method, the re-
sponse for a sample is compared with a previously
calibrated standard curve, with the limitation that
the standards and sample must have the same ionic
(background) strength. This method is applicable
only to pure solutions of the ion sought and. there-
fore, cannot be employed in water analysis. The
ionic strength adjustment technique circumvents the
limitation of the direct method by adding a sufficient
R. F. Thomas. Analytical Quality Control Laboratory.
amount of a noninterfering ionic compound to both
the standards and the samples. In this way. any
differences in ionic strength will be effectively
"swamped out" and made constant. The known
addition method requires the analyst to determine
sample concentration by adding a known amount of
standard to the sample. A simple calculation is
made or a set of tables consulted to obtain the
original concentration, without resorting to a stand-
ard curve. Finally, electrodes can be utilized as
end-point detectors in potentiometric titrations, pro-
viding, of course, that a titration procedure is avail-
able for the ion in question.
Electrodes incorporating a solid crystal membrane.
such as fluoride, chloride, and cyanide probes, have
been evaluated by the MDQARL staff. Electrode
maintenance is a major factor in constructing con-
tinuous monitoring apparatus; with this type of elec-
trode, the amount of maintenance is limited. There
is no need to replace the membrane or to replenish
the filling solution.
Of the ion selective electrodes, the fluoride elec-
trode (Figure 31) has enjoyed the widest popularity
FIGURE 31. FLUORIDE SELECTIVE ELECTRODE.
because it has performed satisfactorily in a variety
of sample media. Adding an ionic strength adjuster
buffer to the water sample is the only modification
necessary for uncomplexed fluoride analysis. For
total fluoride analysis, however, a preliminary dis-
tillation must be performed. The chloride electrode
is an excellent end-point detector in the potentio-
metric titration of a water sample with silver nitrate.
When used in this manner, it has correlated well
with an approved manual titration. So far, this is
82
-------
the only mode in which the chloride electrode may
be used. If the electrode is standardized in a sample-
matching matrix and this matrix remains constant.
it may find additional application. The cyanide
electrode cannot be used directly on a sample. Pres-
ently, this electrode is being evaluated on water
samples that have previously undergone a distilla-
tion to ensure the dissolution of all metal-cyanide
complexes.
The filling solutions of the nitrate and fluoroborate
electrodes are high molecular weight organic com-
pounds that serve as ion-exchange media. The filling
solution is separated from the sample solution by a
small porous membrane. Because these liquid mem-
brane electrodes require a great deal of upkeep to
work properly, their adaptation to continuous moni-
toring is difficult. The nitrate electrode has been
extensively investigated with various waters and
found to be useful, with limitations. Extreme care
must be taken to nullify the effect of the sample ionic
strength by adding an ionic strength adjuster. How-
ever, the proper adjustor and the appropriate amount
to be added have not as yet been determined. In
addition, many of the ions normally found in water
samples interfere with the nitrate electrode. The
fluoroborate electrode suffers from the same limi-
tations as the nitrate electrode, since it is a part
of the same electrode family. As a matter of fact,
the presence of nitrate in a sample greatly interferes
with the results of the fluoroborate electrode.
Finally, MDQARL has thoroughly investigated
the ammonia electrode (Figure 32). It utilizes a
unique gas-sensing approach. The sample is pre-
treated with a strong base so that all the ammonia
is converted to the gaseous form. The ammonia
then passes through the membrane, which is solely
gas permeable, and is measured by the electrode.
This concept eliminates any problems resulting from
background ionic strength and interferences. In this
laboratory and in others, results with the electrode
were comparable to accepted methods when em-
ployed on a wide variety of water samples.
The development and utilization of ion selective
electrodes for measuring inorganic ions in water will
continue to be of utmost concern to the water
chemist. Current research includes a promising sul-
fate electrode, and even development of a phosphate
electrode is in the distant future. There are elec-
trodes available for measuring certain metal cations,
but this measurement is much more easily accom-
plished by means of atomic absorption spectroscopy.
By the same token, present methodologies must be
refined to achieve the optimum performance from
each electrode. In short, the electrode surface is
just being scratched.
FIGURE 32. AMMONIA SELECTIVE ELECTRODE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Public Health Association, et al., "Stand-
ard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater," 13th Edition, APHA. New York,
New York, 1971.
American Society for Testing and Materials. "An-
nual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 23." Phila-
delphia, Pennsylvania, 1972.
Analytical Quality Control Laboratory, "Methods
for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes,"
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National
Environmental Research Center, Cincinnati, Ohio,
1971.
Thomas, R.F., and Booth. R.L., "Selective Electrode
Measurement of Ammonia in Water and Wastes."
Environ. Sci. Tech. 7(6): 523-526, 1973.
83
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NUTRIENT CONTROL AT EL LAGO, TEXAS*
The Harris County Water Control and Improve-
ment District #50 has constructed and operated an
advanced wastewater treatment process at its El
Lago, Texas, facility. Funds for the demonstration
project were shared by the District and the U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
Advanced waste treatment is needed at El Lago
because of Texas Water Quality Board requirements
designed to protect receiving waters (Clear Lake)
from excessive pollution by organic carbon, sus-
pended solids, ammonia nitrogen oxygen demand.
and phosphorus. Nitrate removal, although not part
of the Clear Lake requirements, is included as a
demonstration of the capability of denitrification.
When the grant was initiated, it was not known
whether the Texas Water Quality Board would re-
quire nitrogen removal or elect to establish nitrogen
control on a total oxygen demand basis.
All existing facilities of the nominal 1,135 cubic
meter per day (0.3-mgd) plant were utilized in the
advanced waste treatment design. The processes in
the operation were:
phosphorus control by metallic salt addition to
the primary settler
carbonaceous removal by trickling filters
nitrogenous oxygen demand control by sus-
pended-growth, second-stage activated sludge
nitrogen removal via attached-growth-column
denitrification
tertiary solids removal by granular media filtra-
tion
These processes are operated in series. The con-
struction and installation of the capital equipment
for nitrogen control started February 1972. The
phosphorus removal, nitrification and tertiary filtra-
tion facilities are designed for a maximum dry
weather flow of 1,892 cubic meters per day (0.5
mgd). Design for denitrification is for average dry
weather flow of 1.135 cubic meters per day (0.3
mgd) since there was no established nitrogen removal
standard.
The main thrust of the demonstration is the com-
parison of two types of attached-growth denitrifica-
*E. F. Earth, Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory.
tion processes. One process uses 3- to 4-mm sand
particles and the other, 15- by 15-mm plastic
cylinders as surfaces for attachment of active or-
ganisms. Each type medium is contained in a steel
tower with suitable piping and valving. Figure 33
is a view of the El Lago plant. Shown in sequence
from front to back are the intermediate clarifier.
centrifugal air compressors, nitrification reactor, and
denitrification towers. The two smaller towers con-
tain the sand media; the size and shape of this
media is shown in Figure 34. The larger towers
contain the plastic media. Figure 35 shows various
sized cylinders; the size used in this demonstration
is the one on the extreme right of the photograph.
FIGURE 33. DENITRIFICATION TOWERS.
Each set of denitrification towers was operated
initially for a 6-week period. The two processes
are about equal in nitrogen removal capability but
differ in operation. The small-media towers are
operated downflow and have a void volume of about
40 percent. This void volume tends to be blocked
by the growth of organisms resulting from the in-
jection of methyl alcohol that is used to control
the denitrification reaction. These towers must be
back-washed once each 24 hours to maintain unre-
stricted flow through the system.
84
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FIGURE 34. SMALL SAND MEDIA.
The plastic-media towers are operated upflow
and have a void volume of 92 percent. Growth of
organisms in this system does not impede the flow
to any appreciable extent, and these towers only
require back-washing once a month.
The El Lago plant is the first full-scale applica-
tion of attached-growth biological denitrification
technology, and initial evaluation of the efficiency of
the various plant processes, as given in Table 7.
shows a high-quality effluent can be produced. The
data contained in this table were collected during
operation of the plastic media towers in July and
August 1973. The values are the residual concen-
trations of the pollutants in each major process
stream; thus, the final effluent being discharged to
Clear Lake has a low suspended solids, total nitro-
gen, and oxygen demand.
The cost of chemicals for controlling nitrogen and
phosphorus during the demonstration was 2.6 cents
per cubic meter (9.6 cents per 1.000 gallons) which.
on a population basis for El Lago, figures to 1 cent
per day per person.
In a 6-month evaluation program, now in pro-
gress, slight modifications in operational control
are being made to produce lower effluent residuals
and to determine the operational reliability and
variability experienced in daily operation of this ad-
vance waste treatment system.
FIGURE 35. LARGE PLASTIC MEDIA.
TABLE 7. EVALUATION OF LARGE-MEDIA (PLASTIC CYLINDER) DENITRIFICATION
TOWERS. JULY 8 - AUGUST 31, 1973*
Item
Total phosphorus
Soluble phosphorus
Suspended solids
Ammonia nitrogen
Total Kjeldehl nitrogen
Nitrate nitrogen
Biochemical oxygen demand
Chemical oxygen demand
Methanol dose
Raw
wastewater
12.3
10.3
102
16.3
29.7
-
143
248
-
Primary
influent
13.1
3.1
231
14.6
31.8
-
156
336
-
Primary
effluent
6.7
2.4
63
14.4
26.7
-
87
167
-
Nitrified
effluent
-
-
43
0.9
2.6
13.6
43t
107t
34
Denitrified
effluent
-
-
19
1.2
2.5
0.9
15
52
-
Final
effluent
0.9
0.7
4.5
0.9
1.7
0.6
8
38
-
'All values are averaged and in mg 1.
tlncludes demand due to added methanol.
85
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RESEARCH TACKLES A HAZARDOUS MATERIAL SPILL PROBLEM
IN THE LITTLE MENOMONEE RIVER*
Hazardous material spills adversely affect the com-
munity and its facilities. Effective cleanup tech-
niques, directed by the Edison Water Quality Re-
search Laboratory (EWQRL) demonstrated that
these effects need only be temporary. Such a pilot
demonstration has been going on in Milwaukee, Wis-
consin, for the past year with successful results.
The scene was a sunny afternoon early in June
1971. A group of Milwaukee junior-high school
students rolled up their sleeves and undertook to
reclaim a debris-littered stream in one of the county's
parks. By the end of the afternoon, several teenagers
required out-patient hospital care for "chemical"
burns on their hands, arms, and legs; and one was
retained in the hospital for a week with systemic
effects, including a kidney malfunction.
The stream they had set out to clean up, the Little
Menomonee River, had once been a pleasant site,
full of fish and suitable for wading and the other
recreational activities associated with a small water-
course. Years of neglect and ignorance, however,
caused it to become a hidden public menace with
a toxic, oily substance, creosote, lurking beneath its
innocent-looking waters. The material had been
deposited there over the previous three decades by
a number of spills from a railroad-tie treating oper-
ation.
Within days of the "cleanup" incident, the State
of Wisconsin, the County Parks Commission, and
the Federal Government ordered that the creosot-
ing plant stop all discharges to the river. The Com-
pany rapidly complied with the abatement orders,
but the problem of how to remove the remaining
pollutant from the bottom muds was still to be
solved.
By chance, at approximately the same time that
these events were transpiring in Milwaukee, the
Hazardous Material Spills Research Branch of the
EWQRL was seeking a site to demonstrate and
evaluate methods to physically remove spilled,
heavier-than-water material from the bottoms of
watercourses. Upon learning of the problem in
*J. P. Lafomara and I. Wilder, Edison Water Quality Research Lab-
oratory.
the Little Menomonee River, the Branch initiated
contact with the appropriate State and local agen-
cies. Several site inspection visits were made during
the next few months to characterize the stream and
ascertain whether the settled creosote would be
transported downstream by the natural flow of the
river. After it was determined that the pollutant
would not be rapidly flushed from the stream and
that physical removal was the only means of re-
storing the stream within a reasonable time frame,
EWQRL initiated an RFP (Request for Proposal)
seeking methods and devices to remove the creosote
from the Little Menomonee River. The intent of
the RFP was to demonstrate at least two methods
that would not permanently damage the stream
bottom or banks or stir up the bottom to a point
where the creosote would be resuspended and, in
turn, become a threat to downstream waters. In
addition to the engineering demonstrations, each
contractor was required to conduct a detailed samp-
ling and analysis program before, during, and after
cleanup operations to determine the efficiency of
the removal methods and their environmental im-
pact.
As a result of the RFP, both Rexnord Corpora-
tion, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and Industrial Bio-
Test Laboratories, Inc., Northbrook, Illinois, were
selected to demonstrate their cleanup systems on
separate 500-foot segments of the river, during a
designated 10-day period (Phase I). The more cost-
effective of the two systems would later be chosen
to remove creosote from the entire (2V2 mile) con-
taminated section of the river bottom (Phase II).
Both contractors initiated laboratory, design, and
fabrication work in June 1972, and the field demon-
strations were conducted during October and No-
vember.
REXNORD SYSTEM
Rexnord Corporation used a system (Figure 36)
consisting of: a "river sweeper" to physically remove
the creosote-soaked mud from the river bottom;
the EPA "beach cleaner" to separate the creosote
86
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Creosote-Mud
Slurry
"RIVER
SWEEPER"
'BEACH
CLEANER
Mud Slurry
Creosote
for
Disposal
Mud Sludge
for
Disposal
FLOCCULATION
TANK
Untreated Water
Carbon
Columns
Mixed
Media
Filters
TREATMENT TRAILER
Treated Water
Back to
River
FIGURE 36. FLOW DIAGRAM OF CREOSOTE RI M<>\ AL SYSTEM USED BY REXNORD CORPORATION.
from the mud and water: a flocculation tank to
settle the mud; and the EPA "mobile spills treat-
ment trailer" to remove any residual dissolved and
colloidal creosote from the water. The "river
sweeper" (Figure 37) consisted of a pontoon-
mounted device with a suction head joined to the
end of a hydraulically operated mast that moved in
three dimensions. During removal operations, the
mast was lowered into place so that the suction head
was touching the river bottom where it could vacuum
up the mud. creosote, and associated water. When
the contaminated mud was completely removed from
any particular location in the river, the mast and
head were raised from the bottom and moved for-
ward or back, or to the left or right as was appro-
priate, and the mast was again lowered into another
position to pump up more creosote, mud. and
water.
From the "river sweeper." this mixture entered the
EPA "beach cleaner" (Figure 38). a device pre-
viously developed under contract for EWQRL to
remove oil from beach sand. The creosote-mud
slurry was pumped directly into the beach cleaner's
froth flotation cells (Figure 39). Air was blown
through diffuscrs into the slurry causing the creosote
to become separated from the mud and to rise to
the surface with the air bubbles. The resulting froth
was skimmed from the surface and disposed of at a
state-approved sanitary landfill.
The remaining mud and water was pumped to a
portable flocculation tank (Figure 40) where ferric
chloride was added to hasten settling of the mud.
This tank is an integral part of EPA's "mobile spills
treatment trailer" (Figure 41). a device previously
designed and fabricated for EWQRL by Rexnord
Corp. The settled sludge was removed from the
flucculation tank periodically and deposited in the
approved landfill. The supernatant water from the
FIGURE 37. "RIVER SWEEPER" PICKS up
CREOSOTE-MUD SLURRY I ROM THE
RIVER BOTTOM.
87
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FIGURE 38. "BEACH CLEANER" SEPARATES
CREOSOTE FROM THE MUD SLURRY.
FIGURE 39. FORMATION OF CREOSOTE FROTH
IN "BEACH CLEANER'S" FLOTATION
CELLS.
FIGURE 40. FLOCCULATION TANK SEPARATES
MUD FROM THE WATER.
FIGURE 41. "MOBILE SPILLS TREATMENT
TRAILER" FILTERS SUSPENDED
PARTICLES AND REMOVES DISSOLVED
CREOSOTE BY CARBON ADSORPTION.
tank was processed through the "mobile spills treat-
ment trailer" where suspended particles were re-
moved by mixed filters and dissolved creosote was
removed by carbon adsorption columns.
The processed water from the carbon columns
was returned to the river. The creosote concentra-
tion of this water (as determined by the "hexane"
extractables method) varied from 1 to 3 ppm as
compared with a background creosote concentra-
tion in the river water of between 10 and 15 ppm.
INDUSTRIAL BIO-TEST SYSTEM
In contrast to the rather large equipment used by
Rexnord, the Industrial Bio-Test system utilized
relatively small-scale devices of novel design. The
system (Figure 42). which was designed, built, and
operated under a subcontract to RP Industries, Marl-
boro. Massachusetts, was automated to the maximum
extent possible and could be operated by only two
men. Its main components were a hand-held
vacuum nozzle, an in-line grass filter, a primary set-
tling column, a "Dynactor," a secondary settling col-
umn, a magnetic separator, and a final sand filter.
The creosote-mud slurry entered the system through
a nozzle that was designed in much the same manner
as a vacuum cleaner nozzle, so that there were no
constrictions where clogging could take place. The
slurry then passed through a grass filter that was
needed to protect the rest of the system from fouling
caused by aquatic weeds and other debris from the
river bottom.
From the filter, the slurry was pumped to the
primary settling column (Figure 43) where a floccu-
lant was added and the mud and creosote were
separated from the water. The mud-creosote sludge
was drained from the bottom of the settler and
disposed of at the approved landfill. The supernatant
-------
Creosote-Mud,
Slurry
VACUUM
NOZZLE
GRASS
FILTER
PRIMARY
SETTLING
COLUMN
Untreated Water
\
Creosote-Mud
Sludge for Disposal
Magnetic Carbon
Added
"DYNACTOR"
SECONDARY
SETTLING COLUMN
Treated Water
\
Magnetic Carbon Sludge
\
Treated Water
Back to River
SAND
FILTER
Treated Water
MAGNETIC
SEPARATOR
\
FIGURE 42.
Thickened Carbon
Sludge for Disposal
FLOW DIAGRAM OF CREOSOTE REMOVAL SYSTEM USED BY
INDUSTRIAL BIO-TEST LABORATORIES AND RP INDUSTRIES.
water was pumped through the "Dynactor" where a
blend of activated carbon and a magnetic oxide was
introduced to remove the residual dissolved carbon
creosote from the water. The resulting carbon slurry
from the "Dynactor" entered a secondary settling
column (Figure 43) where another flocculant was
added to aid the settling of the carbon. The carbon
sludge was dewatered in a "magnetic separator." and
both the supernatant water from the secondary
settler and the water that was removed from the
carbon sludge by the "magnetic separator" were
passed through a final sand filter. The effluent from
the filter was then returned to the river. The creo-
sote concentration (hexane extractables) of the proc-
essed water was always significantly lower than the
background creosote concentration in the stream.
EVALUATION AND AWARD OF PHASE II
After both contractors completed their demon-
strations and sampling and analysis programs, final
reports were submitted to EPA. The data presented
indicated that each contractor performed well enough
in Phase I to qualify to conduct the full-scale clean-
up (Phase II). Observations during Phase I showed
that not only was the river bottom contaminated
FIGURE 43. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SETTLERS
REMOVE MUD AND CARBON,
RESPECTIVELY, FROM THE WATER.
89
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with creosote but the river banks were also soaked
with this coal tar substance.
A revised Work Scope that included some toxi-
cological studies and bank cleanup, as well as the
full-scale stream bottom removal, was prepared by
EWQRL. Both contractors were invited to resub-
mit bids for the Phase II work. The low bidder,
Rexnord Corporation, was awarded the contract and
proceeded with the cleanup operations hi July 1973.
PROGRESS TO DATE
Rexnord made minor modifications to its Phase I
system to increase its cost effectiveness: two river
sweepers were deployed in the river instead of one
and the "beach cleaner" was replaced by a pre-
settling column. To clean up the river bank creo-
sote, manual labor using a rototiller, and picks and
shovels removed the contaminated soil for ultimate
disposal to the approved landfill and, thereby, en-
sured that irreparable damage would not be done
to the trees and brush along the river by heavy
earth-moving equipment. The bank cleanup has
already been completed and about 1.5 miles of
stream bottom have been decontaminated. The
remaining creosote laden portion of the stream was
expected to be cleaned up in December 1973. Fish
and aquatic plant life have already begun to return
to the cleaned section of the river, and the prognosis
for a complete biological recovery is good.
After this project is complete, the Little Men-
omonee River, which flows through county park land
for nearly all its length, will be restored for the
beneficial use of the people of Metropolitan Mil-
waukee. A giant step has been taken to demon-
strate that Research and Development does not have
to remain in its "ivory tower" but can be utilized
to solve some of the environmental problems of the
real world.
90
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SANITARY LANDFILL LEACHATE RESEARCH'
The sanitary landfill method of solid waste dis-
posal is advocated by the U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency (EPA) when raw solid waste is
disposed of on land.f The method of disposal, prac-
ticed to a limited extent since 1940, is an engineered
alternative to burning and to open or intermittently
covered dumps. Approximately 10 percent of the
Nation's solid waste is disposed of in this manner.
The major objections to dumping solid waste are
the unacceptable aesthetic appearance and the threat
to public health. Although the sanitary landfill
method was developed to alleviate these problems,
it does not inherently prevent contamination of sur-
face or groundwater. Careful site selection and de-
sign can minimize and, under optimum conditions,
eliminate the potential for water contamination.
Because rain isn't controlled, water percolates into
the landfilled solid waste and carries off dissolved
and finely suspended solids called leachates. In
essence, rainwater has leached waterborne contami-
nants from the decomposing landfilled solid waste.
Sufficient moisture is available within the disposed
solid waste to allow a vigorous growth of aerobic
microorganisms; this initial growth is followed by a
slower, more prolonged growth of anaerobic and
facultative organisms. These microorganisms utilize
the innumerable constituents of solid waste and
produce waste products such as carbon dioxide,
methane, organic acids, and humic substances.
These are the waste products, along with the soluble
fraction of raw solid waste, that are of primary inter-
est in evaluating the impact of the sanitary landfill
method on the specific environment in which it is
located.
The Boone County Field Site (BCFS) was estab-
lished to realistically evaluate, by field-scale studies,
the potential impact of sanitary landfilling on the
environment. Previous sanitary landfill research was
lab-scale oriented or was aimed at measuring the
effects of a specific, full-scale, operating landfill
without appropriate control of variables.. Leachate
studies represent only one portion of the total Boone
*D. R. Brunner, Solid and Hazardous Waste Research Laboratory.
fFederal Register, "Solid Waste Disposal; Proposed Guidelines for
Thermal Processing and Land Disposal of Solid Wastes," 38(81):10544-
10553, Part II, April 27, 1973.
County effort. Studies on settlement, landfill gas
production and migration, and detection and sur-
vival of pathogens have been part of the original
planned research activities. The 3.6 hectare (9-acre)
ridge-top site, leased from a privately operated solid
waste management firm, is located on McCoy's Fork
Road, Walton, Kentucky. A storage shed, con-
verted trailer/office, portable scale, front-end loader/
back-hoe, and a trailer-mounted, 3.8-cubic meter
(1000-gallon) water tank are available at the site.
AH leachate and gas analyses (except pH, tempera-
ture, specific conductivity, and dissolved oxygen) are
performed in Cincinnati.
In June 1971, the best available sanitary land-
filling techniques were used to dispose of 394 metric
tons (435 tons) of municipal solid waste by the
trench method (Figures 44 and 45). The objectives
for leachate research were to determine the composi-
tion and flow rates of leachate from this waste. Two
drains and an impermeable liner were installed to
evaluate the ability of the indigenous clay soil to
act as a liner for leachate collection. Other studies
included viral and pathogen survival (Figure 46),
settlement, temperature, gas, and moisture move-
ment. Random samples were obtained for subse-
quent physical categorization (paper, metals, etc.)
and chemical composition. After 0.6 meter (2 feet)
of the indigenous clay soil was placed on top (Figure
47) of the 594 kg per cubic meter (1000 pounds
per cubic yard) of compacted solid waste, the site
was graded to encourage surface runoff in accord-
ance with best practices.
. As a result of channeling rainwater through the
compacted solid waste, leachate first appeared in
August 1971, only 2 months after placing the solid
waste and after 403 mm (16.12 inches) of rain.
Typical composition of leachate and the range in
values reported since August 1971 are shown in
Table 8. The leachate composition depicted indi-
cates degradation of the solid waste is still active.
Since a finite mass of 394 metric tons (435 tons) of
solid waste is being leached, the quality of the
leachate should improve with time.
Leachate volumes are small when compared with
domestic wastewater volumes from an equivalent
91
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FIGURE 44. MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE BEING DEPOSITED IN SANITARY LANDFILL.
FIGURE 45. MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE BEING SPREAD IN SANITARY LANDFILL.
92
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FIGURE 46. PREPARATION OF VIRAL AND BACTERIAL INNOCULUM.
FIGURE 47. SPREADING AND COMPACTING SOIL OVER MUNICIPAL WASTE IN SANITARY LANDFILL.
93
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TABLES. COMPOSITION OF LEACHATE
FROM UPPER COLLECTION PIPE AT
BOONE COUNTY FIELD SITE LANDFILL
Parameter
PH
Specific conductance (^mho/cm)
Total solids (mg/1)
Suspended solid (mg/1)
Dissolved solids (mg/1)
Volatile solids (mg/1)
Fixed solids (mg/1)
Chloride (mg/1)
Sulfate (mg/1)
Calcium (mg/1)
Magnesium (mg/1)
Iron (mg/1)
Manganese (mg/1)
Zinc (mg/1)
Potassium (mg/1)
Sodium (mg/1)
Hardness as CaCOa (mg/1)
Alkalinity as CaCOa (mg/1)
Acidity as CaCOa (rng/ 1 )
Chemical oxygen demand (mg/1)
Biochemical oxygen demand (mg/1)
Total inorganic phosphate (mg/1)
Orthophosphate (mg/1)
Nitrite-N (mg/1)
Nitrite-N + Nitrate-N (mg/1)
Range
5.2-6.4
6000-12200
10000-23600
30-1840
10000-23400
5000-13000
4500-11300
600-1560
400-1200
900-2320
160-374
210-548
75-125
10-30
295-737
450-1040
3500-7500
800-8040
1500-3700
16000-37500
7500-18500
25-65.7
23-33
0.02-0.05
0.2-0.8
Typical
5.7
10200
20700
49
20700
11 100
9580
1270
1040
1882
291
518
93
26.5
658
858
5680
7460
3100
32000
15700
29.3
26.0
0.04
0.05
population of 450,000. Over a 781-day period,
295.6 cubic meters (78,089 gallons) of leachate have
been collected. Although the volume is small, leach-
ate contains high concentrations of organic and in-
organic matter, most of which are present in the
dissolved form. The impact of this highly contami-
nated small flow must be carefully evaluated for
each sanitary landfill site.
Collection, treatment, and disposal of leachate
may be required in some particularly sensitive loca-
tions such as a site with sand overlying a good-
quality aquifer that is being used for drinking water.
Spray irrigation of the collected leachate is being
evaluated at the BCFS on a small test-bin basis.
Leachate collected from Test Series No. 1 is ap-
plied at three different loading rates to (a) a clay
soil indigenous to the site, (b) a sandy clay, and
(c) two control bins, where hydraulic loading and
composition of the percolate are being evaluated.
Results, to date, indicate significant organic removals
after 2 years of intermittent leachate (greater than
80 percent) application. Significant removals of in-
organic contaminants such as iron were noted in the
first year; these were not monitored in the second.
Nitrates, however, increased by more than 300 per-
cent the first year because of oxidation of the high
ammonia and organic nitrogen concentrations. Ad-
ditional leachate treatment work is being conducted
by contract and grant.
Test Series 2 was installed in August 1972. The
major purpose of this cell was to evaluate the in-
FlGURE 48.
PLACEMENT OF SMALL-SCALE LYSIMETER AS PART OF TEST SERIES 2. THESE CONTAIN SAND
AND GRAVEL UNDERDRAINS, COMPACTED MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE, AND COMPACTED SOIL FOR
COVER MATERIAL.
94
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herent variability of small-scale, 1.8-meter (6-foot)
diameter lysimeters (Figure 48) and also to gather
some indication of scaling factors between large-
scale lysimeters (more than 90.7 metric tons, 100
tons) and the small-scale ones (1.8 metric tons, 2
tons). Results so far indicate that temperatures
within the two, different-sized landfill cells are signif-
icantly different. Peak temperatures observed dur-
ing the initial short-term aerobic biodegradation were
identical, but the small-scale lysimeters approached
ambient soil temperature at a faster rate than did
the large-scale cell. No significant temperature dif-
ference between the three small-scale cells was ob-
served. The secondary purpose of Test Series 2
was to obtain leachate volume and composition for
landfilled solid waste receiving a net infiltration rate
of 500 mm (20 inches) per year, as compared with
the estimated 150 mm (6 inches) per year that Test
Series 1 receives in the Greater Cincinnati area.
Data obtained to date are insufficient to draw any
trends or conclusions.
A third series of 17 cells, designed around the
1.8-meter (6-foot) diameter scale, is planned. With
these cells, the influence of different rainfall patterns
will be evaluated. Other tests will be made to deter-
mine what effect adding raw and digested domestic
wastewater has on leachate and gas generation, as
well as the effect of adding surplus nitrogen and
phosphorus, adding lime to control pH, and adding
water at the same time municipal solid waste is
placed in the cell. Several of the lysimeters will be
used to evaluate the leachate from hazardous waste
that has been disposed of by sanitary landfilling with
municipal solid waste.
This leachate research performed by various mem-
bers of the Solid and Hazardous Waste Research
Laboratory is planned to provide criteria on which
to rationally design sanitary landfills. When this
information is combined with that from projects
being performed by grantees and contractors, a
planned approach to a full evaluation of leachate
and the sanitary landfill method can be made.
95
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TOXICOLOGY OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS ASSOCIATED
WITH THE USE OF AUTOMOBILE CATALYTIC CONVERTERS*
Based on 1970 Clean Air Act legislation, the
level of gaseous emissions from mobile sources,
namely, carbon monoxide, total hydrocarbons, and
nitrogen oxides, must be reduced by 90+ percent
by 1976. The automotive industry plans to achieve
compliance with the legal requirements by installing
catalytic converter systems to control carbon mon-
oxide and total hydrocarbon emissions (nitrogen
oxide control to be implemented at a later date)
from the internal combustion engines. In the case
of cars to be sold in California, catalytic converters
will be used at an earlier date in order to comply
with interim standards set by this state. Based on
these guidelines, General Motors plans to install the
catalysts on most of their 1975 models for the U.S.
market as well as on cars designated to the California
market. Ford and Chrysler also plan to install the
catalytic systems on cars sold in California. As a
result, it is estimated that between 6 and 10 million
new automobiles will be built and marketed with
catalytic converters in 1975.
These future plans of the auto manufacturers
make it mandatory to evaluate, as rapidly as possi-
ble, emissions from vehicles equipped with the
catalyst from the standpoint of chemical assessment
for possible new pollutants or for changes in the
levels of existing pollutants and their potential
harmful effects on public health. During initial
chemical assessment of the emissions, it was deter-
mined that the oxidizing and reducing types of cata-
lysts have the capability of controlling the three
major gaseous emissions; however, during this proc-
ess, other potentially hazardous pollutants were
measured. There was an increase in sulfuric acid
and sulfate emissions in the exhaust because of the
catalyst reaction with the organic sulfur in gasoline.
In addition, new atmospheric pollutants, specifically
platinum and palladium compounds, may be intro-
duced into the environment with the use of the noble
metal catalyst.
J. F. Stara, M. Moore, and R. Hinners, Environmental Toxicology
Research Laboratory.
Basically, the automotive catalytic converter is a
device containing catalytic material capable of de-
creasing the concentration of emitted gases by
increasing the rate of chemical reaction during
passage through the device. The automotive and
ancillary industries have developed and tested literally
hundreds of catalytic converter prototypes. Cur-
rently, there are three basic catalytic systems under
consideration:
1. single-bed oxidation catalysts that remove hy-
drocarbons and carbon monoxide,
2. dual-bed device having one oxidation catalyst
bed to remove hydrocarbons and carbon mon-
oxide and a separate reduction catalyst bed
to remove nitrogen oxides, and
3. tricomponent single-bed catalytic device that
removes hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and
nitrogen oxides, simultaneously.
Testing the different types of devices has met with
varying degrees of success. By far, the greatest ef-
fort has gone into developing catalysts that oxidize
hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide into carbon
dioxide and water. Secondary air is added to the
engine exhausts to supply the hydrocarbons/carbon
monoxide oxidation catalysts the excess oxygen (air)
they need.
Catalytic converters are further classified based
on the metal(s) used for catalytic action:
1. Base metal catalyst uses base metals from
transitional group (e.g., vanadium, chromium,
manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, and
zinc). The structural support consists of
alumina (A12O3), and/or silica (SiO2), or both.
2. Noble metal catalyst uses precious metals,
platinum and palladium (0.1 to 0.6% by
weight). The structural support here con-
sists of alumina or silica.
3. Bulk metal catalyst uses homogeneous metals
in different shapes such as pellets, wires, and
honeycomb structures (e.g., copper, stainless
steel, and copper-coated stainless steel).
96
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The noble metal catalysts seem to be the most effi-
cient and. at present, are the systems of choice.
Some of the specific structural and chemical formula-
tions are considered trade secrets.
The performance and life of the catalyst depend
on engine operating conditions and other emission
control components. In turn, the performance and
characteristics of the catalytic converter affect the
complete system. Some of the major causes of
catalyst degradation are: (1) lead coating, (2) ther-
mal effects, (3) ignition failure, (4) vigorous vibra-
tion. In addition to lead phosphorus, chlorine.
bromine, and sulfur in the fuel also have detrimental
effects.
In July 1973, the Environmental Toxicology Re-
search Laboratory was assigned the mission of
evaluating the potential toxic effects of the pollutants
related to the catalyst emission. With the coopera-
tion of the General Motors and Ford companies,
we obtained prototypes of 1975 GM and Ford
engines, including the noble-metal catalytic con-
verters. (Figure 49 shows the GM prototype engine
system, which is currently being operated.)
A major concern in the use of catalysts is the
presence of increased concentrations of certain types
of sulfur compounds in the exhaust emissions. Aero-
metric measurements of exhaust emissions that have
passed through the catalyst have shown an increase
in paniculate matter by 2.5 to 3.0 times, as well
as a major increase in acid particulates indicating
the presence of sulfuric acid droplets in the catalyst
emissions and formation of sulfates. Biological ef-
fect studies with these compounds have been ini-
tiated.
FIGURE 49. GENERAL MOTORS PROTOTYPE ENGINE UNIT WITH CATALYTIC CONVERTER.
97
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With the almost exclusive use of the noble metal
catalyst as the system of choice to control carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions, the possibility
exists that some amounts of platinum and palladium
will be emitted into the atmosphere or enter into
other parts of the biosphere following degradation
during driving or disposal of worn-out converters.
Because of the paucity of data on toxic effects of
these elements, particularly after their deposition
into the respiratory system, current studies at ETRL
involve exposing animals to platinum and palladium
by different routes of administration and determining
the biological fate of the two metals. Data indicate
that these metals are not readily absorbed from the
gastrointestinal tract and that following oral ad-
ministration, the whole body retention times for
these metals were rather short. A much greater
percent of the dose was retained in the body after
intratracheal administration of the compounds (Fig-
ure 50). In both instances and for both metals,
the pattern of distribution was similar. Among the
organs with greatest concentrations were the kid-
neys, liver, lung, spleen, and bone.
Acute toxicity studies demonstrated that the lethal
dose (LD50) of palladium chloride (PdCl2) was 5
mg/kg after intravenous dose, 70 mg/kg after intra-
peritoneal dose, and more than 200 mg/kg follow-
ing oral administration. These results support the
kinetic data. Biochemical data have shown that
compounds of platinum and palladium have an in-
hibitory effect on certain enzymes in vitro. Skin
irritancy tests demonstrated various levels of effects
rSuckling Rat
Oral
ft Percent of Initial 103Pd
Retained
60
Percent of Initial 191Pt
Retained
Adult
IV
Adult
Intratracheally
Adult
IV
* T
\ Adult
^^Intratracheally
8 12 16 20 24 28
Days After Dosing
32
8 12 16 20 24 28
Days After Dosing
FIGURE 50. RETENTION OF PALLADIUM AND PLATINUM CHLORIDES IN RATS
FOLLOWING DIFFERENT ROUTES OF ADMINISTRATION.
98
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TABLE 9. DERMAL TOXICITY OF
PALLADIUM AND PLATINUM
COMPOUNDS IN RABBITS*
Treatment
Intact skin* Abraded skin*
Deionized water
(Negative Control) 0
Palladium monoxide (PdO) 0
Palladium dichloride
(PdCl2)
Ammonium hexachloro-
palladate
[ (NH,) 2PdCl6]
Platinum dioxide (PtO2)
Platinum dichloride
(PtCl2)
Platinum tetrachloride
(PtCl4)
2-Methylcyclopentadienyl
manganese tricarbonyl
(MMT)
Glacial acetic acid
0
0
0 (0.1)* 0.6 (LO)*
2.8 (4.0)*
0
0.2
1.8 (2.7)*
0.1
2.6
3.2 (4.0)*
0
0.6
2.6 (3.8)*
0.8
3.2
*0 no irritation; 1 erythema; 2 erythema and edema confined
to test area; 3 erythema and edema extending beyond test area; 4 ,
Eschar (deep reaction involving dermis). Rating in the parentheses in-
dicates the most severe test result where tested more than once; those
without parantheses indicate a single test rating or average of 2
or 3 test ratings.
both on intact and abraded skin ranging from no
effect for palladium monoxide and platinum dioxide
to severe effects for ammonium hexachloropalladate
and platinum tetrachloride compounds (Table 9).
Screening tests for potential neuro-toxic effects
conducted on several metals of environmental signif-
icance indicated that palladium was potentially
neuro-toxic whereas platinum produced a minimal
effect under the conditions of these investigations.
In a different series of automotive emission studies
with catalysts, no significant amounts of platinum or
palladium were found in tissues of animals exposed
continuously. The converter reduced markedly the
carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon levels, and no
significant pathologic lesions were found in animals
exposed to the exhaust. However, in the control
study in which the engine operating conditions were
identical except the converter was removed, exten-
sive lesions were found in adult animals exposed to
the exhaust and a significant mortality rate was ob-
served in exposed suckling animals. This effect was
not due to the carbon monoxide levels. The great-
est mortality rate in the suckling animals occurred
in the chambers with the irradiated exhaust. All
these studies are rather acute and in some respects,
preliminary, since the program began only 2 months
ago. A detailed set of data using longer periods of
exposure will be available in April 1974.
99
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This 1973 Annual Report was prepared by the Technical Information
Staff of NERC-Cincinnati: G. M. Gigliotti planned, gathered, and
assembled the material; Mrs. M. Curry edited the report; D. W. Dietrich
prepared the drawings, artwork, and layout; Mrs. E. Cole proofed,
typed, and generally assisted. The perspective, comments, and assist-
ance of M. E. Folkers, Printing Specialist, are gratefully acknowledged.
100
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DIRECTOR
A.W. BREIDENBACH
DEPUTY DIRECTOR
P.M. MIDDLE TON
PROGRAM COORDINATION STAFF
L.W. LEFKE
TECHNICAL INFORMATION STAFF
G.M. GIGLIOTTI
PUBLIC AFFAIRS STAFF
W.E. Ml IVOR
OFFICE OF ADMINISTRATION
W.J. BENOIT
CIVIL RIGHTS AND URBAN AFFAIRS STAFF
W.E. TOLLIVER
ADVANCED
WASTE
TREATMENT
RESEARCH LAB.
J.J. CONVERY.
Director
TREATMENT PROCESS
DEVELOPMENT BRANCH
SYSTEMS * ENGINEERING
EVALUATION BRANCH
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
SUPPORT BRANCH
INDUSTRIAL
WASTE
TREATMENT
RESEARCH LAB.
P.B. LEDERMAN,
Acting Director
OIL SPILL
TECHNOLOGY BRANCH
HAZARDOUS SPILL
TECHNOLOGY BRANCH
INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
CONTROL BRANCH
WATERCRAFT &
RECREATIONAL POLLUTION
CONTROL BRANCH
MINING POLLUTION
CONTROL BRANCH
SOLID &
HAZARDOUS
WASTE
RESEARCH LAB.
R.L. STEA/BURG,
Director
DISPOSAL BRANCH
PROCESSING BRANCH
WATER SUPPLY
RESEARCH LAB.
G.G. ROBECK.
Director
CRITERIA DEVELOPMENT
BRANCH
STANDARDS ATTAINMENT
BRANCH
METHODS
DEVELOPMENT &
QUALITY
ASSURANCE
RESEARCH LAB.
D.G. BALL INGE R.
Director
PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL
METHODS BRANCH
BIOLOGICAL METHODS
BRANCH
QUALITY ASSURANCE &
LAB EVALUATION BRANCH
ENVIRONMENTAL
TOXICOLOGY
RESEARCH LAB.
J.F. STAR A.
Director
EXPERIMENTAL
TOXICOLOGY BRANCH
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
BRANCH
EXPOSURE SYSTEMS &
ASSESSMENT BRANCH
INSTRUMENTATION
DEVELOPMENT BRANCH
RADIOCHEMISTRY &
NUCLEAR ENGINEERING
BRANCH
Organization of NERC-Cincinnati, effective September 14, 1973.
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