EPA-670/9-74-005
October 1974
\
VIRUSES IN WASTE,
0 RENOVATED,
AND OTHER WATERS
| 1973
LITERATURE ABSTRACTS
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Research and Development
National Environmental Research Center
Cincinnati, Ohio
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EPA-670/ 9-74-005
October 1974
VIRUSES IN WASTE,
RENOVATED,
AND OTHER WATERS
Editor: Gerald Berg, Ph.D.
Editorial Assistant: F. Dianne White
1973
BIOLOGICAL METHODS BRANCH
METHODS DEVELOPMENT AND QUALITY ASSURANCE RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO
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1973
VIRUSES IN WASTE. RENOVATED, AND OTHER WATERS
Artykov, M. S. (1973). Impact of Viruses in Waste Water on Agricultural
Irrigation Fields. GIG SANIT, 38(4):110. Russian.
Enteroviruses were detected in soil, vegetables, and in the wastewater
used to irrigate the soil in which the vegetables were grown.
Viruses were detected on vegetables that grow close to the ground
(cucumbers), but not in those that do not contact soil or wastewater during
the growing season.
More viruses were detected in the soil and on vegetables in the summer
and autumn than during the other seasons.
Benarde, M. A. (1973). Land Disposal and Sewage Effluent: Appraisal of
Health Effects of Pathogenic Organisms. J AMER WATER WORKS
ASSN, 65{6):432-40.
In a broad review of the microbiological problems in land disposal of
sewage effluents, the virological problem is discussed.
Berg, G. Reassessment of the Virus Problem in Sewage and in Surface and
Renovated Waters. In "Progress in Water Technology," Vol. 3,
edited by S. H. Jenkins. Pergamon Press, New York, New York
(1973), 87-94.
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The bases for the problems of viruses in various waters, the
effectiveness of virus removal by sewage and water treatment procedures,
disinfection, and virus detection methodology are reviewed.
Relative concentrations of viruses and fecal coliforms in sewage and
in river water, some from near water intakes, were found to fluctuate widely.
Virus adsorption to solids in water was shown to occur in important
amounts.
The significance of detecting infection as well as disease in
epidemiological studies designed to demonstrate water transmission was
emphasized.
Because waters are long gone and often consumed before detection of
bacteria and viruses can be achieved, a tentative standard for microbiological
safety of potable waters based primarily upon disinfection criteria was
recommended. Bacteriological and viral testing were recommended as
important secondary backup.
Bbthig, B., Kiessig, R., Burkhardt, R. (1973). Coxsackievirus B6
Infections Among Children in the Magdeburg Area in 1971. Z GESAMTE
HYG, 19{5):355-7. German.
Coxsackievirus B6 was recovered during routine sewage screening in
Magdeburg, Germany during September and December 1970, and during
January, February, and March 1971, although this virus had previously been
absent from the spectrum of circulating enteroviruses. The virus was also
recovered from water samples from swimming pools in June and July 1971.
From January to July 1971, the same virus was recovered in the Magdeburg
district from 16 sick children suffering a variety of symptoms. The virus may
also have been the etiological agent of an outbreak of mild enteritis among
children in the area.
Bottiger, M. (1973). Experiences from Investigations of Virus Isolations
from Sewage over a Two Year Period with Special Regard to Polioviruses.
ARCH GES VIRUSFORSCH, 41:80-5.
Viruses were recovered from almost all samples collected at the inlets
of the three major sewage treatment plants in the Stockholm area during a
two year period (1969-1970). Two or more types of enteroviruses or
reoviruses were identified in one-third of the samples. Polioviruses were
recovered from 11 samples.
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Brisou, J., Denis, F. (1972). Viral Contamination of Seafood-Incidences
of Human Disease. ECON MED ANIMALES, 13f6):345-50. French.
Shellfish eaten raw or after rapid and superficial heating play an
important role in the transmission of certain viral infections.
Shellfish constitute true filters. The oyster passes through its body from
30 to 100 liters of water every 24 hours, depending upon its weight and
physiological activity. If toxic products or microbes' exist in the environment
only in traces or in very small numbers, molluscs will concentrate them at
staggering rates. The oyster can concentrate certain pesticides up to 70,000
times, depending upon the initial level present in the water.
Viruses, however, are not easily detected because the number of virus
particles present in water is often very low, and long and difficult
concentration procedures need to be carried out to recover them. Recovery
of viruses from water by concentration in oysters has been suggested.
Brown, E. R., Hazdra, J. J., Keith, L, Greenspan, I., Kwapinski,
J. B. G., Beamer, P. (1973). Frequency of Fish Tumors Found in a
Polluted Watershed as Compared to Nonpolluted Canadian Waters.
CANCER RES, 33(2): 189-98.
Tumors were found in 4.4% of 2,121 fish from Fox River water as
compared to 1.0% in 4,639 fish from Canadian waters. The Fox River was
highly polluted; the Canadian waters were not. Toluene, crude oil, gasoline,
benzanthracene, chlorinated hydrocarbons, phosphates, sulfates, and
coliform bacteria were among the pollutants found in the Fox River.
Dissolved oxygen content, temperature, and nutriments appeared to be
similar in both water systems.
The pollutants are believed to be responsible for the greater frequency
of tumors.
Brungs, W. A. (1973). Effects of Residual Chlorine on Aquatic Life. J
WATER POLLUT CONTRL FED, 45(10):2180-93.
Environmental variables did not usually significantly affect chlorine
toxicity for aquatic life. At low pH levels, however, forxicity often increased
as the result of the greater proportion of free chlorine present. Trout, salmon,
and some fish-food organisms were more sensitive than warm-water fish,
snails, and crayfish to chlorine compounds.
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Chronic toxicity to growth and reproduction occurred at chlorine
concentrations much lower than those that were acutely lethal. Lethal effects
of chlorine usually occurred within 12 to 24 hours. Free chlorine was lethal
at lower concentrations than chloramines. Dechlorination with sodium
bisulfite, sodium thiosulfate, and sulfur dioxide reduced or eliminated
chlorine toxicity.
Total chlorine concentrations in waters receiving continuously
chlorinated wastes should not exceed 0.01 mg/liter to protect resistant
aquatic organisms, and should not exceed 0.002 mg/liter to protect most
aquatic organisms. Total chlorine concentrations in waters receiving
chlorinated wastes intermittently should not exceed 0.2 mg/liter for more
than two hours a day to protect more resistant species of fish, and should
not exceed 0.04 mg/liter for more than two hours a day to protect trout and
salmon. If free chlorine persists in areas with populations of trout and
salmon, total chlorine levels should not exceed 0.01 mg/liter for more than
30 minutes a day.
Substitutes for chlorine for disinfecting wastewaters and cooling waters
should be sought, but should be used only after adequate acute and chronic
toxicity studies have determined the potential environmental impact of the
substitute.
Buras, N. Recovery of Viruses from Waste Water and Effluent by the Direct
Inoculation Method. In "Proceedings of the Conference on
Environmental Quality Research." Technion-lsrael Institute of
Technology, Haifa, Israel (1973), 19-31.
Chloroform or antibiotic-treated sewage and effluent samples were
inoculated directly onto MK2 or Vero cell monolayers for enterovirus
recovery. An average of 4,496 PFU of enteroviruses were recovered per 100
ml of sewage, and an average of 5,684 PFU of enteroviruses were recovered
per 100 ml of effluent.
The ratio of viruses to coliforms was 1:20,000 in sewage and 1:2,000
in effluent.
Chiurco, A. A., Sutnick, A. I., Cerda, J. J., London, W. T.,
Blumberg, B. S., Raunio, V. K. (1973). Antibody to Australia Antigen
in an Outbreak of Hepatitis on an Indian Reservation. RES COMMUN
CHEM PATHOL PHARMACOL, 6(1):273-92.
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A point source outbreak of hepatitis, unassociated with Australia
antigen in the serum, occurred in a village on an Indian reservation.
However, antibody to Au(l) was detected in 10% of the 40 patients with
clinical acute hepatitis and in 27% of 26 clinically well contacts with elevated
SGPT, Acute disease was more common in males; antibody was more
commonly detected in females. Twenty-four percent of the contacts who
received gamma globulin prophylactically developed icteric or anicteric
hepatitis. The disease was mild and occurred principally in children.
These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that this outbreak
was caused by an agent that shared some antigenic characteristics with
Au(l), or that the outbreak was caused by Au(l) itself present in very low
concentration or altered by some process in the pathogenesis of the disease.
Cohen, J., Shuval, H. I. (1973). Conforms, Fecal Coliforms, and Fecal
Streptococci as Indicators of Water Pollution. WATER, AIR, & SOIL
POLL, 2:85-95.
The presence and survival of coliforms, fecal coliforms, and fecal
streptococci in sewage treatment plants, heavily polluted rivers, a lake, and
other drinking water sources were determined.
The fecal streptococci were more resistant to the natural water
environment and to purification processes than the other indicator organisms
and, at points distant from the original source of pollution were often the
only fecal indicators detectable. In two of the systems studied, the survival
of the fecal streptococci reflected the survival of enteric viruses better than
the coliforms. Thus, fecal streptococci may sometimes provide a better
estimate of the probable virus content of lightly contaminated water than
the other two indicators.
Cooney, M. K. (1973). Relative Efficiency of Cell Cultures for Detection
of Viruses. HEALTH LAB SCI, 10(4): 294-302.
In a comparative study, more adenoviruses and polioviruses were
recovered from nasopharyngeal and fecal specimens in primary human
embryonic kidney (HEK) cells than in WI-38 cells. Coxsackievirus B strains
were recovered only in HEK cells. Herpesvirushomini$a.nd echoviruses were
recovered more frequently in WI-38 cells than in HEK cells and cyto-
megaloviruses and rhinoviruses were recovered only in WI-38 cells.
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Gulp, G. L, Gulp, R. L, Hamann, C. L. (1973). Water Resource
Preservation by Planned Recycling of Treated Wastewater. J AMER
WATER WORKS ASSOC, 65(10):64l-7.
The effectiveness of treatment processes and disinfection in removing
viruses from sewage and other waters is discussed within a general review
of treatment particularly in relation to new advanced waste treatment
facilities planned for Montgomery County, Maryland and the Occoquan
basin.
DiGirolamo, R., Daley, M. (1973). Recovery of Sacteriophage from
Contaminated Chilled and Frozen Samples of Edible West Coast Crabs.
APPL MICROBIOL. 25(6): 1020-2.
Edible West Coast crabs (Cancer magister and Cancer antennan'us)
contaminated with coliphage T4 yielded about one percent of the virus (more
than 100 PFU/gm) after 20 minutes at 100 C.
Boiled and unprocessed crabs yielded 40 and 29% of the virus,
respectively, after 120 hours of storage at 8 C, and 55 and 42% of the virus,
respectively, after 30 days of storage at -20 C.
Doeglas, H. M. G., Nater, J. P. (1973). Epidemiologies! Study of Patients
with Warts. NED T GENEESK, 117(6):216-20. Dutch.
From October 1970 to April 1971, an epidemiological study of 483
patients (10% of all new patients) in two dermatological practices in
Rotterdam and The Hague showed a significant statistical correlation
between visits to swimming pools, barefoot athletics, or hyperhidrosis and
the occurrence of plantar warts. In men more than 20 years of age, however,
no correlation could be made.
A correlation could be demonstrated also between nail-biting and the
presence of periungual warts.
Dflrkop, J. (1972). Viruses in Agricultural Waters. Z GESAMTE HYG,
18(12):957-9. Translation presently not available. German.
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Feinstone, S. M., Kapikian, A. Z., Purcell, R. H. (1973). Hepatitis A:
Detection by Immune Electron Microscopy of a Viruslike Antigen
Associated with Acute Illness. SCIENCE, 182(12): 1026-8.
Spherical particles, 27 nm in diameter, were detected by immune
electron microscopy in the stools of patients acutely ill with hepatitis A. The
particles were serologically specific for this disease, every hepatitis patient
tested showing a serological response to this antigen.
Patients with hepatitis B or with acute infectious nonbacterial
gastroenteritis (Norwalk) showed no serological response to the hepatitis A-
associated particles.
The findings suggested that the 27 nm particles are the etiological
agents of hepatitis A.
Foliguet, J.-M., Lavillaureix, J., Schwartzbrod, L. (1973). Viruses
and Water: II. General Review of the Methods Available to Detect Viruses
in Water. REV EPIDEMIOL, 21(3): 185-259. French.
Methods for concentrating small amounts of viruses from large
volumes of water are reviewed. Included are forced flow electrophoresis,
pressure ultrafiltration (through osmotic and soluble filters), coagulation,
membrane adsorption, adsorption to precipitates of inorganic salts, ion
exchange resins, insoluble polyelectrolytes, and iron oxide, two phase
separation, floatation, and continuous flow ultra-centrifugation.
Gentles, J. C., Evans, E. G. V. (1973). Foot Infections in Swimming
Baths. BR MED J, 3(8):260-2.
In a swimming pool survey of a 10% random sample of all bathers,
the incidence of Tinea pedis infections was 8.5% and of verruca 4.8%. The
incidence of Tinea pedis infections was 21.5% in 205 adult males, 6.3%, in
288 boys, 3.3% in 60 adult females, and 0.9% in 220 girls. The incidence
of verruca in juveniles was 4.2% in boys and 10.5% in girls.
Few swimmers took precautions to avoid foot infections. -
Guidon, L., Pierach, C. A. (1973). Infectious Hepatitis After Ingestion
of Raw Clams. MINN MED, 56(1):l5-9.
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A review of shellfish-transmitted hepatitis A is presented along with
a case-history of a suspected raw clam-associated case.
Hall, E. S. (1973). Quantitative Estimation of Disinfection Interferences.
WATER TREAT & EXAM, 22{3):153-74.
Using data from the literature on the chlorination of viruses and other
microorganisms, the author devised an equation which he believes may
enable optimization of plant design and control systems for disinfection.
Haufele, A., Sprockhoff, H. V. (1973). Ozone Disinfection of Water
Contaminated with Vegetative and Spore Forms of Bacteria, Fungi, and
Viruses. ZBL BAKT HYG, 175(1): 53-70. German.
Five million coliphage Tl in water were destroyed in two minutes by
2.5 mg O3/liter. High concentrations of coliphage T2 and T3 were also
destroyed rapidly by ozone.
Three-hundred-thousand Escherichia co//were destroyed in tap water
in less than three minutes by 0.16 mg O3/liter at 13.5 C. Serratia marcescens
and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were destroyed almost as quickly. Candida
albicans was also very sensitive to ozone but a species of Penicillium was
somewhat more resistant. Bacillus anthracis spores and spores of other
species of Bacillus were more resistant.
Hawley, H. B., Morin, D. P., Geraghty, M. E., Tomkow, J., Phillips,
C. A. (1973). Coxsackievirus B Epidemic at a Boys'Summer Camp. Isolation
of Virus From Swimming Water. J AMER MED ASSOC, 226(1 }:33-6.
During an outbreak of coxsackievirus B5 infections at a boys' summer
camp on Lake Champlain, the virus was recovered from the lake by
concentration on the polyelectrolyte PE 60.
Viruses were also recovered from clinical specimens obtained from
campers and staff who suffered a wide variety of clinical symptoms.
The findings suggested that lake swimming water contaminated with
viruses can be an important vehicle in enterovirus disease transmission.
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Hilton, M. C., Stotzky, G. (1973). Use of Coliphages as Indicators of
Water Pollution. CAN J MICROBIOL, 19(6):747-51.
A consistent relationship was not found between coliform (MPN) and
coliphage levels in sewage-polluted Hudson River water between March 15
and April 21, 1970.
Hloba, L I., Lastovet's, L. M., Rotmistrov, M. M. (1972). Adsorption
of Viruses from Water by Some Minerals. MIKROBIOL ZH, 34(1 ):64-5.
Ukrainian.
Polygorskite (attapulgite, bentonite, agloporite, vermiculite and silica
gel adsorbed coxsackievirus B3 from water. Kaolin and polygorskite, treated
with Al + + +or dimenthyldialkylammonium chloride, decreased survival of
human amnion cells in cultures.
The minerals may be used for removing viruses from water.
Homma, A.. Sobsey. M. D., Wallis, C., Melnick, J. L (1973). Virus
Concentration from Sewage. WATER RES, 7(7):945-50.
Optimal conditions for concentrating polioviruses from large volumes
of raw sewage were established.
Solids in the raw sewage, 1 Hm or larger, were removed by textile
clarifying filters without removing significant quantities of virus. After
acidifying the clarified sewage and adding salts to enhance adsorption,
viruses in the sewage were concentrated on a fiberglass depth filter and
subsequently eluted in small volumes of elutant.
An 80 to 90% efficiency of virus concentration was achieved.
Horbowska, H.. Wielopolska, H., Krolak, H. (1973). Virologic Studies
on Sewage in Warsaw in the Years 1966-1971. PREZEGL EPIDEMIOL,
27(3): 103-8. Polish.
From 1966 to 1971, 372 sewage samples from the city of Warsaw
yielded 139 viruses including 31 polioviruses (25 type 1, 4 type 2, and 2 type
3), seven group B coxsackieviruses (types 3, 5, and 6), four strains of
coxsackievirus A9, 72 echoviruses (types 1, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15), 13
adenoviruses (types 1, 2, 3, 5, 6) and 12 unclassified viruses.
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The numbers of polioviruses recovered did not correlate with
vaccination programs or with the fractions of populations vaccinated. Peaks
in adenovirus numbers occurred in the spring and fall and peaks in entero-
virus numbers occurred in the fall and winter. The types of echoviruses
recovered from sewage were the same as those recovered from hospitalized
patients in the same period of time.
Horst, H. (1973). Contamination of Effluents by Australia Antigen. ZBL
BAKT HYG. 156{2):551-6. German.
Hepatitis B antigen was detected in the sewage of a hospital after
antigenic material from an autopsied cadaver was discharged into the sewer
system.
Horstmann, D. M., Emmons, J., Gimpel, L, Subrahmanyan, T.,
Riordan, J. T. (1973). Enterovirus Surveillance Following a Community-
Wide Oral Poliovirus Vaccination Program: A Seven-Year Study. AMER
J EPIDEMIOL, 97{3):173-86.
The impact of oral poliovirus vaccination on the circulation of entero-
viruses in two small New England cities was measured by virologic
surveillance.
Sewage specimens, collected at weekly intervals over a seven-year
period, revealed polioviruses regularly throughout the year with no seasonal
variations. Other enteroviruses were recovered mainly in the summer and
autumn, the same ones tending to appear each year.
Rectal swabs collected from infants and preschool children attending
the Well Child Conference indicated that during the same period 7% of un-
vaccinated children excreted polioviruses, presumedly as a result of contact
infection acquired from vaccinees. Serodifferentiation and temperature
marker tests showed that the viruses recovered from the sewage and children
were largely vaccine derived.
The continuous use of oral poliovirus vaccine had no apparent
influence on the behavior of other enteroviruses, but dissemination of the
vaccine strains through contact infection probably raised the level of herd
immunity among young susceptible children.
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loli. A., Abenavoli, S. M. (1973). Persistence of Australia Antigen in
Water. BOLL DOLL DELL INSTITUTO SIEROTERAPICO,
52(3-4):103-5. Italian.
Au antigen, added to distilled water or spring water in a concentration
of 1,000 units/ml was detected by complement-fixation tests 16 days after
seeding.
Jepson, J. D. (1973). Disinfection of Water Supplies by Ultraviolet
Radiation, WATER TREAT & EXAM, 22(3): 175-93.
The destruction of viruses in water by ultraviolet light (UV) is briefly
reviewed within a broad review of the principles and application of UV
disinfection of water.
Kalitina, T. A. (1972). A Method for Recovering Enteroviruses from Meat.
I. Preparation of Meat Samples for Analysis. VOPR PITAN,
31(7-8):80-3. Russian.
Meat seeded with poliovirus 1 or echovirus 2 was homogenized in 0.15
M NaCl at pH 7.2 in a tissue grinder for five minutes at 8,000 rpm,
centrifuged for 30 minutes at 3,000 rpm, and the liquid extract was etherized
for 30 minutes under continuous shaking. Following removal of the ether
by centrifugation and decantation, the extract was shaken with freon 113
which yielded a transparent, slightly opalescent virus-containing liquid.
Complete recovery of the seeded viruses resulted.
Kapikian, A. Z., Wyatt, R. G., Dolin, R., Thornhill, T. S., Kalica, A.
R., Chanock, R. M. (1972). Visualization by Immune Electron Microscopy
of a 27-nm Particle Associated with Acute Infectious Nonbacterial Gastro-
enteritis. J VIROLOGY, 10(5): 1075-81.
A 27-nm particle was observed by immune electron microscopy in an
infectious stool filtrate obtained from an outbreak of acute infectious non-
bacterial gastroenteritis in Norwalk, Ohio. Both experimentally and
naturally infected individuals developed serological evidence of infection.
This, along with other evidence suggested that the particle was the etiological
agent of Norwalk gastroenteritis.
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Katzenelson, E., Schechter, H., Biederman, N., Rotem, Y., Shuval,
H. I. Ozone Inactivation of Waterborne Viruses. In Proceedings of the
Fourth Scientific Conference of the Israel Ecological Society,
April 1973.
Ozone concentrations ranging from 0.2 to 1.5 rag/liter destroyed
99.9% of poliovirus 1 in 40 minutes at 5 C. Lesser concentrations of ozone
produced little or no destruction of the virus at 5 C.
Konowalchuk, J., Speirs, J. I. (1973). An Efficient Ultrafiltration
Method for Enterovirus Recovery from Ground Beef. CAN J
MICROBIOL, 19(8): 1054-6.
Coxsackievirus B5 seeded into beef was eluted with 0.1% peptone in
PBS at pH 7.2 and recovered by ultrafiltration after clarification of the eluate
by acid-base treatment. A 67% recovery efficiency was achieved.
Ultrafiltration was achieved under pressure through an Amicon PM-
30 membrane.
Konowalchuk, J., Speirs, J. I. (1973). Enterovirus Recovery with
Vegetable Hoc. APPL MICROBIOL, 26(4): 505-7.
Flocced lettuce extract, formed from centrifuged, purreed lettuce
adjusted to pH 4.5, quantitatively adsorbed 100 PFU of coxsackievirus B5.
The floe was dissipated by adjustment of its pH to 7.5 and all of the virus
was recovered by elution with 10% fetal bovine serum and medium 199.
Chicory and parsley were equally effective concentrating agents.
Echovirus 7 and poliovirus 1 were concentrated almost as effectively
as coxsackievirus B5 with these technics.
Kostenbader, K. D., Jr., Cliver, D. O. (1973). Filtration Methods for
Recovering Enteroviruses from Foods. APPL MICROBIOL,
26(2): 149-54.
Coxsackievirus Bl, echovirus 6, and poliovirus 1, seeded into meat,
vegetables, bread, cakes, seafoods, and cheeses were recovered by ultra-
filtration under pressure on Amicon PM-30 filters.
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The viruses were eluted from the membrane by 3% beef extract.
Recoveries of at least 80% were obtained.
Kott, H., Fishelson, L. Survival of Enteroviruses on Vegetables Irrigated
with Chlorinated Oxidation Pond Effluents. In Proceedings of the
Fourth Scientific Conference of the Israel Ecological Society,
April 1973.
A factor in oxidation pond effluents accelerated the rate of poliovirus
1 inactivation by solar radiation (minimum of 0.35 cal/cmVmin) on the
surface of tomatoes and parsley. Chlorination of the effluents increased
inactivation efficiency.
Six hours after contamination of the vegetables with seeded, non-
chlorinated oxidation plant effluent, up to 2% of the virus was recovered
from vegetables exposed to sunlight and up to 3% of the virus was recovered
from vegetables kept in the dark. A maximum of 2% of the virus was
recovered from vegetables contaminated with chlorinated effluent and
exposed to sunlight, and a maximum of 8% was recovered when the
vegetables were kept in the dark.
When the vegetables were contaminated by viruses in PBS solution,
17% of the virus was recovered after six days of detention in darkness.
After exposure to two radiation peaks at higher levels of solar
radiation, viruses were not recovered from vegetable surfaces 28 hours after
contamination.
Kott, Y. (1973). Hazards Associated with the Use of Chlorinated Oxidation
Pond Effluents for Irrigation. WATER RES. 7(6):853-62.
Eight mg chlorine/liter in oxidation pond effluents did not destroy
algae effectively during two hours of contact. The chlorine did destroy more
than 99.99% of the conforms present.
Enterovirus counts decreased only from about 80/100 ml to 37
PFU/100 ml. Vibrio Cholerae (El-Tor) was destroyed rapidly under these
conditions.
Kott, Y.. Roze, N., Sperber, S., Betzer, N. (1973). Bacteriophages as
Viral Pollution Indicators. In "Proceedings of the Conference on
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Environmental Quality Research." Technion-lsrael Institute of
Technology, Haifa, Israel (1973), 99-118.
Poliovirus 1 and coliphage f2 introduced daily into a 350-liter
experimental oxidation pond were not reduced in numbers by the treatment
process. Naturally occurring coliphage were not reduced in numbers either.
Ratios of coliphages to human enteroviruses ranged from 1:1 to as
high as 10M.
During three outbreaks of waterborne diseases in small communities
attributed to failure in water treatment procedures, coliphages and human
enteroviruses were found in the water supplies.
Coliphages survived longer than human viruses in chlorinated
oxidation ponds.
Kretschmer, E. (1972). Water and Sewage as Transmission Factors in
Viral Hepatitis. Z ARZTL FORTBILD, 66(10): 1065-70. Translation
presently not available. German.
Kruse, C. W., Kawata, K., Olivier!, V. P., Long ley, K. E. (1973).
Improvement in Terminal Disinfection of Sewage Effluents. WATER &
SEWAGE WORKS, 120(6):57-64.
With dosages of chlorine considerably below the breakpoint level, viral
inactivation was greatly improved at a sewage treatment plant by improving
sewage-chlorine mixing and by lowering the chlorine-sewage reaction pH.
The combination of improved mixing and acid feed at a reaction pH of 5.0
was equivalent to viral disinfection with four times the chlorine dose, even
with improved mixing, under existing plant conditions.
Increased viral disinfection resulted from the prolonged existance of
some unreacted HOC1 at low reaction pH and its more efficient contact with
viruses brought about by flash mixing. Coliform destruction was not so much
enhanced. The generally modest colifonn reduction of 99.99% must have
resulted from the short (10 minutes) contact time provided and the protection
of bacteria in suspended solids.
To have increased the disinfection rate by increasing the chlorine dose
alone would have resulted in more than 20 mg total residual chlorine/liter
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in the effluent as compared to 3 mg/liter residual when flash mixing and acid
feed were employed. The relative impact on the ecology of the receiving
stream is obvious.
Lund, E. (1973). The Effect of Pretreatments on the Virus Contents of
Sewage Samples. WATER RES, 7(6):873-9.
Viruses were recovered from sewage and from sewage sludge, but not
from the secondary sludge of activated sludge treatment. Valid quantitative
estimates of virus numbers cannot be made in sewage or sludge from which
solids have been removed.
Reexamination of samples after storage at -20 C for six months
resulted in much reduced virus recoveries.
Lund, E., Roenne, V. (1973). On the Isolation of Virus from Sewage
Treatment Plant Sludges. WATER RES, 7(6):863-71.
Viruses were recovered from sludges of urban sewage subjected to
biological and chemical treatment. Activated sludge contained fewer viruses
than primary sludge contained.
Treatment with lime, ferric chloride, or alum removed viruses from
raw sewage so that viruses could be recovered from the sewage sludge when
they could not be recovered from the primary effluent.
Mack, W. N. (1973). Poliovirus in a Water Supply. J AMER WATER
WORKS ASSN, 65(5):347-8.
Viruses were recovered from 76% of 70 influent samples, 86% of 29
raw sludge samples, and from 60% of 68 unchlorinated effluent samples
taken from the East Lansing, Michigan sewage treatment plant. Five-
hundred feet downstream of the plant, viruses were recovered from ,80% of
40 river water samples taken when non-chlorinated effluent was discharged,
and from 45% of 36 samples taken when chlorinated effluent (1 mg/liter)
was discharged.
Poliovirus 2 was recovered from the well water supply of a restaurant
thought to be the source of several cases of gastroenteritis.
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Majumdar, S. B., Ceckler, W. H., Sproul, O. J. (1973). Inactivation
of Poliovirus in Water by Ozonation, J WATER POLLUT CONTR FED,
45(12):2433-*3.
A threshold concentration appears to exist for the inactivation of
poliovirus 1 in distilled water by ozone, wherein ozone concentrations greater
than one mg/liter appear not to increase the rate of virus inactivation.
In distilled water, one mg of ozone/liter destroyed 90% of the virus
in two to four minutes at 20 C. Results with primary and secondary
wastewaters were not significantly different at this ozone concentration.
Errors appeared in some of the calculations in this paper. A correction
is to appear in a future issue of the journal.
Mazur, B., Paciorkiewicz, W. (1973). Dissemination of Enteroviruses
in the Human Environment. I. The Presence of Poliovirus in Various Parts
of Vegetable Plants Grown on Infected Soil. MED DOSW MIKROBIOL,
25:93-8. Polish.
A total of 123 experiments were performed with 13 species of plants
grown in poliovirus-infected soil. The virus was detected 7 times (5.7%) in
green parts of the plants, 50 times (40.7%) in ground parts, and 108 times
(87.9%) in upper portion of the roots extending from the soil through an
air layer into vessels containing virus-bearing water. Ten percent of the soil
samples collected close to the contaminated water contained viruses.
These findings suggested the possibility of virus passage from water
to soil by external capilaries along the roots.
Melnick, J. L, Berencsi, G., Biberi-Moroeanu, S.. Combiescu, A.
A., Furesz, J., Kantoch, M., Kostrzewski, J., Mag rath, D. I.,
Perkins, F. T., Vonka, V., Cockburn, W. C., Dombk, I., Assaad, F.
A. (1972). WHO Collaborative Studies on Poliovirus Type 3 Strains Isolated
During the 1968 Poliomyelitis Epidemic in Poland. BULL WLD HLTH
ORG, 47{3):287-94.
An extensive outbreak of poliomyelitis caused by poliovirus 3 occurred
in Poland in 1968 about four months after small vaccine trials with the Leon
12a\b(Sabm) and USOL-D bac poliovirus vaccine strains had been carried
out. Because of the temporal association of the vaccination trials with the
outbreak, and because the first cases of disease appeared in the province in
which the USOL-D bac vaccine trial was carried out, a detailed investigation
16
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was made of the virus strains recovered from cases in the epidemic to
determine whether these strains were wild or whether they were related to
the vaccine strains used in the trials. All of the studies were made under
code in four different laboratories.
The ret marker did not differentiate the epidemic strains from the
vaccine strains. The McBride test and the elution marker test clearly
separated the Leon J2atb vaccine strains from those recovered from the
cases, but these tests did not differentiate the epidemic strains from the
USOL-D bac strain or from wild poliovirus 3 strains.
Thus these studies did not determine the origin of the epidemic.
Metcalf, T. G-, Walt is, C., Melnick, J. L. Concentration of Viruses from
Seawater. In "Advances in Water Pollution Research," edited by
S. H. Jenkins. Proceedings of the Sixth International
Conference, Jerusalem, June 1972. Pergamon Press, New
York, New York (1973), 109-18.
Virus concentrating equipment capable of sampling seawater at rates
approaching 300 gallons/hour functioned efficiently in field trials conducted
in salt water. Filters prepared from synthetic materials removed marine
sedimentary material without retaining significant quantities of viruses thus
making it possible to adsorb viruses from the clarified seawater onto virus-
adsorbing filters.
Laboratory trials with artificial seawater demonstrated that the
concentration methods recovered almost all viruses contained in the samples
tested.
Mintzker, N., Kott, Y. Chlorination of Effluents After Secondary
Treatment. In "Proceedings of the Conference on Environmental
Quality Research." Technion-lsrael Institute of Technology,
Haifa, Israel (1973), 119-64.
Trickling filter effluents and oxidation pond effluents were chlorinated
in the laboratory and in an experimental pilot plant and the inactivation rates
for coliforms and Escherichia coli bacteriophage were determined.
The dynamics of the process is represented by a modification of the
first-order reaction expression.
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A nomogram is presented showing chlorine dose-detention time
couplings required for given inactivation efficiencies.
Moore, B. The Health Hazards of Pollution. In "Society of Applied
Bacteriology, Symposium, Ser. 1." (1971), 11-32.
The epidemiological evidence for the transmission of virus diseases by
water is reviewed within a general survey of waterborne disease transmission.
Studies on the viral etiology of acute gastroenteritis are also reviewed.
Nacescu, N, Brandis, H., Werner, H. (1972). Recovery of Two
Bacteriodes fragilis Phages from Sewage and Detection of Lysogenic B
fragilis Strains. Z BAKT HYG, 219{4):522-9. German.
Two phages with identical host spectrums were recovered on
Bacteroides fragilis AI125 from two samples of sewage taken from the same
treatment plant. Both phages were specific for B. fragilis. Twenty-three of
68 B. fragilis strains tested were lysed by the phages. Other anaerobic and
aerobic bacteria tested were not susceptible to the phages.
Eight strains of phages recovered on mixed cultures of B. fragilis strains
included some that were lysogenic.
Nikolaevskaya, Z. S., Aizen, M. S. (1972). Detection of Small Amounts
of Viruses in Large Volumes of Water by Ultrafiltration through
Lantbanum-Aluminum-Alginate Ultrafilters. VOPR VIRUSOL,
17(9-10):723-6. Russian.
Filtration of virus-seeded water through asbestos filters impregnated
with sodium alginate, and subsequent concentration of the virus onto soluble
La-Al-alginate ultrafilters resulted in complete recovery of the virus. A
concentration factor of 400 to 500 was obtained.
With this method, viruses were recovered from 37% of the sewage
samples tested (1-liter samples) from a Moskva River plant and from 37%
of the Volga River (at Kalinin) water samples tested (3-liter samples).
18
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Nupen, E. M., Stander, G. J. The Virus Problem in the Windhoek Waste
Water Reclamation Project. In "Advances in Water Pollution
Research," edited by S. H. Jenkins. Proceedings of the Sixth
International Conference, Jerusalem, June 1972. Pergamon
Press, New York, New York (1973), 133-44.
On routine monitoring, no viruses were recovered from the final
effluent of the Windhoek Waste Water Reclamation Plant. Viruses were
recovered from the mixed conventionally purified Goreangab Dam and
reclaimed waters. Intensive testing of all other sources of water supply to
the Windhoek area resulted in the recovery of viruses from raw natural water
supplies and also from conventionally purified Goreangab Dam water.
On epidemiological evidence, the absence of Escherichia coli I from
100-mI samples of water has been a reasonably dependable indicator of the
bacteriological safety of the water, but this standard does not guarantee the
absence of all pathogenic organisms from 100 ml (or more) of the water. The
absence of enteroviruses from 10-liter samples should indicate that a water
is safe for drinking.
Break-point chlorination at low pH and low turbidity levels is of
cardinal importance in the disinfection of reclaimed water and all other
treated waters destined for drinking purposes.
The days of protected catchments and impoundments are over. The
treatment in a conventional plant of what is virtually wastewater for drinking
purposes is already a world wide practice. The major difference between this
practice and the direct reclamation of wastewater is that in a tertiary system
the process units are designed and controlled in accordance with environ-
mental factors and variables.
Olivieri, V. P., Kruse, C. W., Hsu, Y. C., Griffiths, A. C., Kawata.
K. The Comparative Mode of Action of Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine on
f2 Bacterial Virus. In Preprints of Papers Presented at the 166th
National Meeting of American Chemical Society, August 1973,
Chicago, Illinois. American Chemical Society, Division of
Environmental Chemistry, 13(2) (1973), 144-50.
The halogens are general protoplasmic poisons and are effective
disinfectants for a wide spectrum of microorganisms. Their modes of action
on viruses, however, appear to differ.
Iodine reacts with the amino acid tyrosine in the protein moiety of the
virus, but even in high concentrations has almost no effect on viral nucleic
acid.
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Bromine inactivates viral nucleic acid, but appears unable to penetrate
the protein. The primary mechanism for inactivation by bromine probably
involves the viral protein.
Chlorine readily inactivates the RNA in intact virus in a manner
similar to that observed for the whole virus with respect to contact time and
PH.
Palf i, A. Survival of Enteroviruses During Anaerobic Sludge Digestion. In
"Advances in Water Pollution Research," edited by S. H.
Jenkins. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference,
Jerusalem, June 1972. Pergamon Press, New York, New York
(1973), 99-104.
The virus concentration in digested sludge was 0.85 MPNCU/100 ml
while that in raw sludge was 17.9 MPNCU/100 ml. This is equivalent to
a reduction of about 95%.
Digested sludge is a potential source of infection and as such should
be handled as an infectious material.
Pike, E. B., Curds, C. R. The Microbial Ecology of the Activated Sludge
Process. In "Society of Applied Bacteriology, Symposium, Series
1."(1971), 123-47.
As part of a broad review on the microbial environment in activated
sludge, the removal of viruses by this process is discussed briefly.
Poynter, S. F. B., Slade, J. S., Jones, H. H. (1973). The Disinfection
of Water with Special Reference to Viruses. WATER TREAT & EXAM,
22(3}:194-208.
A comprehensive review of water disinfection is presented with a focus
on viruses. The disinfectants discussed are chlorine, iodine, ozone, ultraviolet
light, and ionizing radiation. Mechanisms of disinfection are also discussed.
Pozhar, V. N. (1973). Viability of Enteroviruses in the Alkaline and Acid
Effluents of the Gaysk Ore Dressing Combine. GIG SANIT, 38(4):101-2.
Russian.
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In alkaline industrial wastewater (pH 11 to 13.5) and in acid industrial
wastewater (pH not given), poliovirus 2, coxsackievirus B3, and echovirus
7, seeded in concentrations of 10,000 TCID50 /ml, survived for 11 to 18 days
at 16 to 20 C.
In river water, these viruses remained viable for 29 to 35 days in this
temperature range. Survival times increased somewhat at lower
temperatures. Chemicals in the acid and alkaline wastewaters were believed
to diminish the period of viral survival.
Rehacek, J., Fischer, R. G., Luecke, D. H. (1973). Friend Leukemia
Virus (FLV) Elimination in Feces of Flies and Fleas. ACT A VIROL,
17(3):167.
In two of 12 experiments, Ctenoclphalides fells (cat flea) fed on viremic
mice infected with Friend's leukemia virus (FLV) excreted the virus in its
feces from two to 24 hours after the infectious meal.
Stomoxys calcitrans (stable fly) did not excrete detectable amounts of
FLV after blood meals on infected mice or after feeding on infected spleen.
Rubenstein, S. H., Fenters, J., Orbach, H., Shuber, N., Reed, J.,
Molloy, E. (1973). Viruses in Metropolitan Waters: Concentration by Poly-
electrolytes, Freeze Concentration, and Ultrafiltration. J AMER WATER
WORKS ASSN, 65(3):200-2.
From 20 to 25% of echovirus 6 was recovered from 5-liter volumes
of seeded river and lake water by a procedure of freeze drying followed by
secondary concentration by ultrafiltration. More than 80% of poliovirus 1
seeded into tap water was recovered by the same process.
The PE60 procedure recovered less than 20% of poliovirus 1 and
echovirus 6 seeded into 5-liter volumes of tap, river, or lake water. ,
Initial virus seed concentrations ranged from 20 to 50,000 PFU.
Schwartzbrod, L, SchwarUbrod, J., Doncoeur, F., Foliguet, J.-
M., Lautier, F. (1973). Viruses and Water: Enteroviruses and Treatment
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of Wastewater and of Drinking Water for Human Consumption. REV
EPIDEMIOL, 21(2):99-114. French
The capability of sewage and water treatment processes for removing
viruses is reviewed.
Shechter, H. (1973). Spectrophotometric Method for Determination of
Ozone in Aqueous Solutions. WATER RES, 7(5):729-39.
A sensitive method based upon oxidation of buffered iodine and
Spectrophotometric measurement of the liberated triiodide ion was developed
for measuring concentrations of ozone in the 0.01 to 2.0 mg/liter range.
Reproducibility of results was very high.
This Spectrophotometric method was more accurate and more sensitive
than the volumetric method.
Shelton, S. P.. Drewry. W. A. (1973). Tests of Coagulants for the
Reduction of Viruses, Turbidity, and Chemical Oxygen Demand. J AMER
WATER WORKS ASSOC, 65(10}:627-35.
Aluminum sulfate (15 mg/liter), ferric chloride (40 mg/liter), and
ferric sulfate (62 mg/liter) removed 99 to 99.9% of coliphage f2 from seeded
raw surface waters. A cationic flocculant and nonionic coagulant aids did
not significantly improve the effectiveness of lower concentrations of the
primary coagulants.
Turbidity removals of more than 90% were achieved with most of the
coagulants and coagulant concentrations.
COD removals were generally less impressive.
Shuval, H. I., Gruener, N. (1973). Health Considerations in Renovating
Wastewater for Domestic Use, ENVIRON SCI & TECHN, 7{7}:600-4.
Within a discussion of health-related areas in wastewater renovation,
the occurrence and destruction of viruses is reviewed.
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Simkova, A., Wallnerova, Z. (1973). Survival of Small Amounts of
Coxsackievirus A4 in Danube River Water Under Laboratory Conditions.
ACTA VIROL, 17{6):505-6.
Coxsackievirus A4 was recovered after five months at 4 to 8 C in
Danube River water (but not in normal saline) seeded with 320 LD 50/liter.
»
Detectable amounts of the virus still survived in the river water after
45 days at 20 to 22 C, but only when the starting concentration was 32,000
LD50 /liter.
Smith, J. E., McVey, J. L. Virus Inactivation by Chlorine Dioxide and
its Application to Storm Water Overflow. In Preprints of Papers
Presented at the 166th National Meeting of American
Chemical Society, August 1973 Chicago, Illinois. American
Chemical Society, Division of Environmental Chemistry, 13(2)
(1973), 177-85.
Chlorine dioxide (C1O2) inactivated poliovirus and coliphage rapidly.
No resistant viruses were found.
Demand by heavily contaminated water was slightly less severe for
C1O2 than for Cl.
Sobsey, M. D., Cooper, R. C. (1973). Enteric Virus Survival in
Algal-Bacterial Wastewater Treatment Systems - I. Laboratory Studies.
WATER RES, 7(5):669-85.
In laboratory systems, a fraction of seed poliovirus 1 rapidly adsorbed
to solids in stabilization pond water by a reversible process. The process was
consistent with a Freundlich adsorption isotherm.
In laboratory cultures, the growth of Scenedesmus quadricauda and
Bacillus megatherium in sterile sewage did not affect poliovirus 1 survival,
but the growth of heterogeneous populations of stabilization pond bacteria
in the same medium resulted in substantial loss of virus.
Appreciable poliovirus 1 inactivation occurred in laboratory cultures
of algal-bacterial populations obtained from stabilization ponds. The degree
of antiviral activity in these cultures was greater than that in cultures of
stabilization pond bacteria.
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The results of this study suggest that in algal-bacterial treatment
systems both virus adsorption to solids and virus inactivation brought about
by microbial activity play a role in reducing enteric virus numbers in waste-
water.
Sobsey, M. D., Wallis. C., Henderson, M., Melnick, J. L. (1973).
Concentration of Enteroviruses from Large Volumes of Water. APPL
MICROBIOL, 26(4): 529-34.
Acidification of clean waters allowed efficient adsorption of viruses
onto epoxy-fiberglass and nitrocellulose filters in the absence of exogenously
added salts.
Water was acidified with HC1 prior to passage through a virus adsorber
consisting of a fiberglass cartridge depth filter and an epoxy-fiberglass
membrane filter in series. Adsorbed viruses were eluted with a 1-liter volume
of pH 11.5 elutant and reconcentrated by adsorption to and elution from a
small epoxy-fiberglass filter.
With this method, small quantities of poliovirus 1 in 100-gallon
(378.5-liter) volumes of tap water were concentrated nearly 40,000-fold. An
average virus recovery efficiency of 77% was achieved.
Sobsey, M. D., Waliis, C., Hobbs, M. F., Green, A. C., Melnick, J.
L (1973). Virus Removal and Inactivation by Physical-Chemical Waste
Treatment. J ENVIRON ENGIN DIV, ASCE, 99(6):245-52
A package physical-chemical treatment plant (commutation, alum
coagulation, carbon adsorption, diatomaceous earth filtration, and
chlorination) removed 99.95% of poliovirus 1 seeded into raw sewage and
more than 99.9996% of seeded virus from simulated river water.
Up to 2.6% of the seeded virus was recovered from filter cake solids.
Stevenson, J. H., Albright, L. J. (1972). Isolation and Partial
Characterization of a Marine Bacteriophage. Z ALLG MIKROBIOL,
12(7): 599-603.
A new marine bacteriophage (host is a Cytophaga sp.) with two distinct
plaque types, a hexagonal head and a cross-striated tail, and no tail sheath
is described. A smaller head occasionally occurred on the normal particles.
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The distal end of the tail was thickened in specimens stained with phospho-
tungstate.
The S 20 w n values of 187 S and 387 S may correspond to empty and
intact phage heads, respectively.
Stringer, R, P., Cramer, W. N., Kruse, C. W. Bromine, Chlorine, and
Iodine Compared as Disinfectants for Amoebic Cysts. In Preprints of
Papers Presented at the 166th National Meeting of the
American Chemical Society, Chicago, Illinois, American
Chemical Society, Division of Environmental Chemistry, 13(2)
(1973), 160-5.
In distilled water, bromine was superior to chlorine and iodine as a
cysticide throughout the pH range 4 to 10. Halogen species predominating
below pH 7 were more cysticidal than those predominating above pH 7.
In sewage effluent at pH 6, only iodine had significant value as a
cysticide. At pH 8, chlorine, bromine, and iodine were all poor cysticides.
Chlorine and bromine lost cysticidal potency in sewage probably because
they combined with interfering substances.
Iodine, unlike bromine and chlorine, remains free in sewage and is the
best halogen disinfectant for amoebic cysts in heavily contaminated water.
The Globaline tablet, which releases eight mg of iodine/liter and a
buffer to lower water pH to 6.5 to 7, is the best disinfectant available for
emergency supplies of drinking water contaminated with Endamoeba
hisiolytica cysts.
Sullivan, R., Scarpino, P. V., Fassolitis, A. C., Larkin, E. P., Peeler,
J. T. (1973). Gamma Radiation Inactivation of Coxsackievirus B2. APPL
MICROBIOL, 26(1): 14-7.
Irradiation of coxsackievirus B2 in minimal essential medium by a
cobalt-60 gamma source at temperatures of-30, -60, and -90 C resulted in
D values of 0.69, 0.59, and 0.64 Mrad, respectively.
When the virus was suspended in water and irradiated at -90 C, the
D value was 0.53 Mrad.
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When the virus was irradiated in cooked ground beef at temperatures
ranging from 16 to -90 C, the D values were 0.70 (16 C), 0.76 (0.5 C), 0.68
(-30 C), and 0.81 (-90 C) Mrad. Irradiation of the virus in raw ground beef
at -30, -60, and -90 C yielded D values of 0.75, 0.71, and 0.68 Mrad,
respectively.
All inactivation curves indicated first order reactions.
The rate of viral inactivation was clearly dependent on the suspending
menstruum.
Sun, W., Little, L. W., Johnson, J. D. Waste-water Disinfection of
Trickling Filter Effluent with Bromine and Chlorine. In Preprints of
Papers Presented at the 166th National Meeting of American
Chemical Society, August 1973, Chicago, Illinois. American
Chemical Society, Division of Environmental Chemistry, 13(2)
(1973), 156-9.
Reduction in demand of tertiary treated sewage allowed bromine to
become the superior disinfectant at the same weight dosage as chlorine in
the pH range 6 to 10.
Since tertiary treatment of sewage for phosphate removal may soon
become mandatory, bromine may become an attractive alternative to
chlorine.
Tierney, J. T., Sullivan, R., Larkin, E. P., Peeler, J. T. (1973).
Comparison of Methods for the Recovery of Virus Inoculated into Ground
Beef. APPL MICROBIOL, 26(4):497-501.
One-hundred-gram samples of ground beef, seeded with poliovirus 1,
were suspended in 150 to 900 ml of Eagle's minimal essential medium, pH
8.5, and mixed in either plastic bags or plastic cups on a mechanical shaker.
The particulate materials were removed by filtration through cheese cloth,
glass wool, woven fiberglass, or by low-speed centrifugation. Viruses in the
large volumes of fluid were concentrated by ultrafiltration. Microbiological
contamination was controlled by high antibiotic concentrations or by
filtration.
From 20 to 50% of the seeded viruses were recovered.
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Tsvetkova, S. A., Sobko, A. I. (1972). Detection of the Foot-and-Mouth
Disease Virus in Animal Slaughter Products. VETERINARIIA, 1(4):35-6.
Translation presently not available. Russian.
Valenciano, L., Najera, E., Lozano, A. (1972). Virological Study of
Sewage. Its Importance in Epidemiology. REV SAN I DAD HIG
PUBLIC A, 46(6):431-6. Spanish.
From February to September 1971, polioviruses, echoviruses and
group B coxsackieviruses were recovered from Madrid sewage by the
membrane filter technic. Most frequent recoveries were made between June
and September.
Viraraghavan, T. (1973). Water Quality and Human Health. J AMER
WATER WORKS ASSN. 65(10):647-50.
In a comprehensive review of water problems, the author briefly
discusses waterborne outbreaks of viral diseases.
Wallis, C., Melnick, J. L. A Portable Virus Concentrator for Use in the
Field. In "Advances in Water Pollution Research/' edited by S.
H. Jenkins. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference,
Jerusalem, June 1972. Pergamon Press, New York, New York,
(1973), 119-26.
An apparatus for the detection of viruses in large volumes of water is
described. This virus concentrator lends itself to the monitoring of water
reclamation plants to determine their efficiency in removing and inactivating
viruses.
Welke, G., Friedrich, U.. Mai, K. (1973). Inactivation Time
Determinations for Echoviruses 6, II, 30, and 33 in Water. Z GESAMTE
HYG, 5(5):353-5. German.
Survival of echoviruses 6,11, 30, and 33, seeded into diluted river water
maintained at 8 C, ranged from 0.1 to 30% after 300 days. Viable viruses
were recovered 560 days after seeding.
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At 20 C, inactivation of 10s to 107 5 TCD 50 of echoviruses 6, 11, 30,
and 33/0.25 ml of diluted river water occurred in from 70 to 322 days.
Won, W. D., Ross, H. (1973). Persistence of Virus and Bacteria in
Seawater. J ENVIRON ENG1N DIV, ASCE, 99(6):205-11.
Small amounts of organic substances, including feces, increased
bacterial survival in aerated sea water at 3 to 5 C. At 22 C, these organics
promoted the growth of Escherichia coli, bringing about a 40-fold population
increase and enabling viability to persist for 18 weeks.
Organic substances did not increase the survival of seeded echovims
6. The inactivation rate for this virus was greater at 22 C than at 3 to 5 C.
Young, R. H. F., Burbank, N. C., Jr. (1973). Virus Removal in Hawaiian
Soils. J AMER WATER WORKS ASSN, 65(9):598~604.
All of the tailed coliphage T4 percolated in concentrations of greater
than 10* PFU/ml through 2.5 inch depths of Wahiawa and Lahaina soils
were retained in the soil filters. Breakthroughs occurred quickly in 1 Vz inch
columns. Fifteen inches of Tantalus soil did not retain all of the virus.
More than 95% of poliovirus 2 was removed by 1 Vz inches of Wahiawa
and Lahaina soils, and more than 99% of the virus, percolated through in
concentrations of more than 10s PFU/ml, was removed by six inches of the
soils. Only 35% of the virus was retained by 15-inch columns of Tantalus
soil seeded with similar quantities of virus.
The Wahiawa and Lahaina soils are predominantly low humic latosols,
and the Tantalus soil is a volcanic cinder from Hawaii.
All soil columns were 1 Vt inches in diameter. The maximum amount
of water percolated through each filter was 30 inches (about 1,250 ml).
. S. GOYERNIHIENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1974-659-1
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