fefe iiiiii" !«i Ji! !!!H iniiniiiiniiiil »i !!!!!!iii'!!!i! inLiiiifgiiK rrrrr annual report 1972 ^** r-i T" ' ri i ' j j-i i-i- , .1 i ( , v -I * r-a V \ NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER CINCINNATI, OHIO « ftl IGS • ••. U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY OFFICE OF RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT ------- FEDERAL OFFICE BUILDING ROBERT A. TAFT LABORATORY RIDGE AVENUE NEW NERC, CINCINNATI FACILITY (under construction) LAIDLAW AVENUE 1014 BROADWAY VIRGINIA AVENUE CENTER HILL COVER: NERC-Cincinnati Facilities ------- EPA-670/9-73-055 August 1973 ANNUAL REPORT 1972 NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER Cincinnati, Ohio U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research & Development National Environmental Research Center Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 ------- REVIEW NOTICE The National Environmental Research Center, Cincinnati, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, has reviewed this report and approved its publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. ii ------- PREFACE An impressive list of accomplishments can be posted in FY 1972 for the National Environmental Research Center (MERC) in Cincinnati. The most basic achievement was that NERC- Cincinnati began to function as the integrated environmental research organization envisioned by the Administrator in August 1971, when he formally designated it as the first of EPA's four national environmental research centers. The fol- lowing- report shows how this goal was reached, reveals the scope of our activities, and documents the progress made in environmental research here. Research activities of each of the NERC laboratories in Cincinnati are summarized, and a number of contributions made by our staff members to international activities of the EPA are highlighted. Certain projects from the research activities have been chosen for special mention in the text. Also described is the first National Environmental Informa- tion- Symposium, held in September 1972 and jointly planned and executed by the staff of NERC-Cincinnati and our Washington headquarters. As this report clearly indicates, FY 1972 has witnessed a significant step forward in the Cincinnati mission to develop pollution control technology in the fields of air, water, radiation, and solid waste. s-' Andrew W. Breidenbach, Ph.D. Director, National Environmental Research Center - Cincinnati 111 ------- CONTENTS NERC-CINCINNATI AT A GLANCE Office of the Director 1 NEPC Laboratories 1 Facilities 3 Budget & Personnel 3 LABORATORIES Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory 3 Analytical Quality Control Laboratory 16 Edison Water Quality Research Laboratory 17 Environmental Toxicology Research Laboratory 22 Radiocheraistry & Nuclear Engineering Research Laboratory 26 Solid Haste Research Laboratory 28 Water Supply Research Laboratory 34 FEATURE ARTICLES CAM-1: Using Enzymes to Detect Insecticides 39 Development of Gas Chromatograph/Mass Spectroscopy 45 Lake Restoration by Phosphorus Control: Shagawa Lake, Ely, Minnesota 47 National Environmental Information Symposium: An Agenda for Progress 51 A New Facility for NERC-Cincinnati 53 Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank 57 Resource Recovery via CPU-400: Power from Solid Waste 61 INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES 63 LIST OP PUBLICATIONS 69 ------- NERC-CINCINNATI AT A GLANCE Introduction The National Environmental Re- search Center (MERC) in Cincinnati, formed in August 1971 from research programs administered by EPA in the Cincinnati area, is one of four EPA research centers reporting to the Assistant Administrator, Office of Research and Development (OR6D). Water pollution control activities under Federal auspices in Cincinnati date back to 1913. Water supply research and radiological health programs were added in the interven- ing years, and during the 1960's, solid waste research was initiated here. Cincinnati-based air pollution control laboratories (except for an inhalation toxicological laboratory) were recently transferred to North Carolina. NERC-Cincinnati presently con- sists of seven major laboratories conducting research in water, air, solid waste, and radiation. The principal research theme is the devel- opment of environmental protection technology. Secondary research themes also exist in the areas of health effects research and monitor- ing. The total research and adminis- trative staff of NERC-Cincinnati numbers about 500, including research- ers at satellite laboratories in Edison, N.J., Narragansett, R.I., Dauphin Island, Ala., and Gig Harbor, Wash. The Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory operates pilot plants in Blue Plains, Washington, D.C., Lebanon, Ohio, Pomona, Calif., and Crown, W.Va. The Cincinnati environmental research effort has produced a significant cadre of dedi- cated researchers, many of whom occupy key positions throughout the Office of Research and Development. The various administrative and laboratory organizations of NERC- Cincinnati and a brief description of each operation are given below. Office of the Director The Director of the National Environmental Research Center in Cincinnati is responsible for the over- all direction of the research programs assigned to the seven NERC laboratories. The major staff functions in the Office of the Director include program coor- dination, technical information, public affairs, civil rights, and urban affairs. A separate Office of Administration pro- vides other services including the NERC library (which functions as EPA's central technical library), computer services, and personnel services. NERC Laboratories The Directors of the seven NERC laboratories in Cincinnati are respon- sible for the day-to-day implementation and administration of the research programs assigned to them. The labora- tory directors plan their research programs under the overall direction ------- of ORD headquarters and the NERC Director, who approve all plans and the expenditure of resources consis- tent with these plans. Research is conducted directly by NERC investi- gators or through the use of extra- mural contracts and grants, with NERC researchers serving as project officers. The results of this re- search are published both in engineering and scientific journals and in an EPA technical report series. The scope of the research pro- grams at NERC-Cincinnati ranges from basic developmental or investigative studies to full-scale demonstration projects. The output of the research program is available to a wide range of users: to public or private agencies for design and construction of pollution control facilities, to EPA enforcement groups for technical back-up, to EPA programs concerned with the establishment of guidelines, and to private and university research laboratories for support of their own work. The seven NERC laboratories in Cincinnati are as follows: 1. Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory. The AWTRL program develops and demonstrates practicable means of treating municipal sewage and polluted mine water, handles sludge, and esti- mates the costs of treatment processes. 2. Edison Water Quality Research laboratory. The EWQRL program develops and demonstrates practicable means of (a) treating or otherwise handling wastewaters from storm and combined sewer overflows, heavy industrial sources, watercraft and recreational sources, and fb) controlling spills of oil and hazardous materials. 3. Water Supply Research Laboratory. The WSRL program performs research necessary to establish drinking water standards so that drinking water will be safe and otherwise acceptable to consumers. The WSRL studies health effects and develops suitable water treatment technology and methodology. 4. Solid Waste Research Laboratory. The SWRL program develops and demon- strates technology and systems for the management of solid waste. Research areas include the generation, storage, collection, transport, processing for disposal or resource recovery, and ultimate disposal of solid waste. 5. Analytical Quality Control Labora- tory. The AQCL program (a) develops physical, biological, and microbio- logical methods for the analysis of water, wastewater, and sediment; (b) evaluates method reliability, analyst performance, and quality con- trol techniques; and (c) develops instrumentation for environmental monitoring. 6. Environmental Toxicology Research Laboratory. The £TRL program in bio- medical research determines the toxicological effects of fuel and fuel additive emissions to provide health- related data for development of EPA emission control regulations. The data are also used for the development of air pollution criteria and standards. 7. Radiochemistry and Nuclear Engineer- ing Research Laboratory. The RNERL program for monitoring quality assurance quantifies and qualitates radioactive discharges at nuclear power stations and associated facilities. RNERL also develops radiochemical analytical methods and guidelines for radiological monitoring systems. ------- The activities of each of these laboratories are discussed under "Laboratory Reviews." Facilities The Office of the Director and most of the wastewater treatment and drinking water research staffs are located in the Robert A. Taft Labora- tory in Cincinnati. Several other buildings in and around the city house other NERC programs. In all, there are four major facilities in Cincin- nati. By the end of 1975, a major new facility now under construction adjacent to the University of Cincinnatil will house many NERC- Cincinnati programs; the world-renowned "Taft Center" will remain a NERC facility, however. Budget and Personnel The budget and personnel of each NERC laboratory are presented in Tables 1 and 2, with some breakdown by activity to illustrate the level of effort being devoted to major categories of research. LABORATORIES ADVANCED WASTE TREATMENT RESEARCH LABORATORY The advanced waste treatment program was initiated in Cincinnati in 1960 under the Federal Water Pol- lution Control Act. Until the estab- lishment of EPA in December 1970, research here was conducted under auspices of the Public Health Service, and later the Federal Water Quality Administration. The Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory (AWTRL) develops and improves methods for wastewater treatment and reuse. Most of our studies are centered on municipal wastewater treatment; however, much of the methodology is also adaptable to treatment systems for industrial and agricultural wastewaters. High-priority projects at AWTRL in 1972 (and continuing in 1973) are removal of oxygen-demanding materials from municipal wastewaters, removal of nutrients such as phosphorous, ammonia, and nitrate nitrogen, and improved techniques for removing and handling sludge from treatment plants. In the area of disinfection, em- phasis is on removal or destruction of viruses. Water reuse studies are concentrated on development of treat- ment systems capable of reducing the amounts of trace metals and pathogens in reusable waters. Cost effectiveness studies are an integral part of all new technology developments at AWTRL. The economic feasibility of applying new treatment systems is rigorously investigated to assure that our processes, instrumen- tation, and control devices are economically adaptable to the waste treatment industry. Contracts and Grants Advanced waste treatment research at NERC-Cincinnati is conducted through both intramural work and grants and contracts to extramural groups. Demonstration grants are made to support research that is well enough ------- TABLE 1. NERC BUDGET - PY 1972 Office of the Director Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory Treatment Process Development Mining Sources of Pollution Municipal Sewered Wastes Methods Development Non-Sewered Wastes TOTAL Intramural ($1000) 395.4 Extramural ($1000) 1803.8 1356.8 2121.4 307.7 65.9 5655.6 Total ($1000) 395.4 3724.4 1905.4 2409.0 519.9 95.9 Edison Water Quality Research Laboratory Oil & Hazardous Material Spills Storm & Combined Sewers Transportation Sources of Pollution Heavy Industrial Sources of Pollution TOTAL Water Supply Research Laboratory Health Effects Process Development Technical Assistance TOTAL Solid Waste Research Laboratory Disposal Technology Resource Recovery Collection/Processing Technology Hazardous Solid Wastes Behavioral Research TOTAL 1314.0 800.0 380.0 341 .0 402.3 479.5 1222.8 4319.5 3808.0 806.0 114.0 9047.3 100.0 100.0 1775.6 3314.0 1346.5 6436.1 1314.0 900.0 380 .0 2594.0 2116.6 3716.3 1826.0 Analytical Quality Control Laboratory Methods Development Methods Standardization TOTAL Environmental Toxicology Research Laboratory Biomedical Research Radiochemistry &• Nuclear Engineering Research Laboratory Radiochemical Measurements 1010.0 140.6 1010.0 140.6 TOTAL NERC-CINCINNATI 10 ,222 5 21 ,654 3 31 ,876 8 ------- TABLE 2. NERC BUDGET - FY 1973 (6-30-73) Office of the Director Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory TreatmentProcess Development Mining Sources of Pollution Municipal Sewered Wastes Methods Development Non-Sewered Wastes TOTAL Edison Water Quality Research Laboratory Oil and Hazardous Materials Spills Storm and Combined Sewers Transportation Sources of Pollution Heavy Industrial Sources of Pollution TOTAL Water Supply Research Laboratory Health Effects Process Development Technical Assistance TOTAL Solid Waste Research Laboratory Disposal Technology Resource Recovery Collection/Processing Technology Hazardous Solid Wastes Behavioral Research TOTAL Analytical Quality Control Laboratory Methods Development Methods Standardization TOTAL Environmental Toxicology Research Laboratory Biomedical Research Radiochemistry and Nuclear Engineering Research Laboratory Radiochemical Measurements Intramural ($1000) 771.5 1982.3 475.2 293.6 221.6 41.7 3014.4 464.2 263.9 145.7 93.9 134 .6 1102.3 Extramural ($1000) 1849.1 1754.3 814.2 275.0 1116.5 136.4 4692.6 2780.9 2407.0 417.8 306.9 5912.6 139.0 89.0 451.7 341.0 177.9 224.5 1195.1 101.0 101.0 112.0 Total ($1000) 771 .5 3031.4 2229.5 1107.8 496.6 41.7 7707.0 3305.5 2567.1 501. 7 409.6 6783.9 1454.8 723.6 392.8 2571.2 915.9 604.9 323.6 318.4 134.6 2297.4 999.3 262.9 1262.2 1228.5 136.4 OTAL NERC-CINCINNATI 10 ,516.8 12,241.3 22,758.1 ------- developed to warrant evaluation of processes and systems at full scale treatment plants. Intramural work conducted at the Robert A. Taft Laboratory in Cincin- nati includes pilot plant studies in biological and physical-chemical treatment. Additional intramural research is conducted in cooperation with municipalities in the pilot plants at Blue Plains near Washington, D.C.; Lebanon, Ohio; and Pomona, California. FY 73 Budget Table 3 presents the FY 1973 AWTBL budget for municipal wastewater treatment research. 1972 Research Oxygen-Aeration Systems Oxygen-aeration of wastewater is a biological treatment process of high reliability, which promises savings in aeration volume, power, and sludge production. Pilot-plant work in this process is continuing at the Blue Plains facility. Demon- stration projects at Las Virgenes, California and New York City's Newtown Creek Plant is providing valuable design data. In 1972, a contract was negoti- ated with the Martin-Marietta Company to demonstrate a modified oxygen-aer- ation system. Work also began at Lebanon, Ohio on an oxygen expanded- bed contacting system. TABLE 3. ESTIMATED FY 1973 BUDGET BREAKDOWN FOR AWTRL Category Amount Demonstration of advanced technology to achieve non-polluting municipal discharges Ultimate disposal of sludges Removal of phosphorus and nitrogen Instrumentation and process control Removal and enumeration methods for virus Upgrading of biological treatment methods and development of new methods Renovation and reuse of wastewater Development of physical-chemical treatment Treatability of organic compounds Destruction of pathogens Treatment process and system optimization Removal of inorganic materials including trace elements Development of small treatment systems $1,380,000 910,000 780,000 530,000 500,000 450,000 300,000 300,000 220,000 200,000 100,000 50,000 40,000 ------- Major Construction Work on three major demonstration projects proceeded apace in 1972. A tertiary treatment plant at Ely, Min- nesota was completed and operation of the 1.5 mgd plant was begun. The Ely project will help restore water quality of Shagawa Lake by limiting phosphorus in discharges to the lake to 0.05-0.10 mg/1 P by use of tertiary lime clari- fication followed by filtration. Construction of the advanced waste treatment plant at Piscataway, Maryland was also completed in 1972. The second largest AWT plant in the country, the Piscataway installation is now opera- ting on a flow scheme of two-stage lime clarification gravity-thickening, de- watering, recalcination, gravity dual- media filtration, neutralization and carbon absorption and regeneration system. At Muskegon, Michigan, work is continuing on construction of the wastewater management system plant which is designed to demonstrate a wastewater management system utilizing spray irrigation to handle combined municipal and industrial flows total- ing 42 mgd with an ultimate peak of 90 mgd. Nutrient Removal The most thoroughly evaluated pro- cesses for nutrient removal are the mineral-addition processes for phos- phorus precipitation and the three- stage biological system for nitrogen removal. During 1972, at the Blue Plains Pilot Plant, a full year's dem- onstration of a combination of these processes to provide combined carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus removal was completed. Operation of this flow scheme provided design data for expand- ing and modifying the District of Columbia Treatment Plant. Mineral ad- dition for removing phosphorus was studied in conventional plants. Full- scale studies of alum and iron additions at Pomona and Lebanon confirmed the utility of mineral addition to both the primary clarifier and the aerator of an activated sludge plant. Another promising process for nitrogen removal, breakpoint chlorina- tion, was studied at Owosso, Michigan and Washington, D.C. Almost complete removal of ammonia nitrogen was achieved and residual free chlorine and chloramines were removed by short contact with activated carbon. The process results in increased chloride content; however, where mineral con- tent of the water is not an important consideration, the increased chloride content would be negligible. At Pomona, a full year's evalua- tion was completed of a two-stage carbon adsorption system in which a comparison was made of the operating characteristics of two commercially available granular activated carbons. Currently under evaluation at Pomona is a carbon system being fed with chemically treated raw sewage. Reverse osmosis was studied at Lebanon and Pomona to develop data for defining an optimum pretreatment method. The work at Lebanon showed that "fiber configurations" are not acceptable for municipal wastewater applications. Physical-Chemical Treatment Data obtained through 1972 permit increased confidence that physical- chemical treatment is a viable alter- ------- nate to biological treatment. There are a number of possible systems of both types. While there exist several criteria for making a choice, the most important factor is the amount of certain industrial wastes in the wastewater. Biological systems are more susceptible to upset by a variety of industrial wastes. During the past year a completely automatically con- trolled physical-chemical system was demonstrated at Washington, D.C. The treatment system demonstrated in- cluded two-stage lime clarification, filtration, carbon adsorption, and breakpoint chlorination, giving high level carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus removal. New P-C and biological sys- tems are capable of producing effluent organic pollutant levels almost an order of magnitude lower than conven- tional primary-plus-secondary treatment. Both systems also provide nitrogen and phosphorus removal if mineral addition to the aerator is included in the biological system. Other Research Numerous other aspects of waste- water treatment were explored at AWTRL in 1972. Powdered carbon treatment was investigated in the laboratory and in pilot plants in Cincinnati and Salt Lake City. Combined with chemi- cal coagulation and granular media filtration, one-time use of carbon is economically attractive for the smaller plant where installation and operation of a carbon regeneration furnace is difficult to justify. Methods of upgrading trickling filters were investigated. One in- volves alum addition to the final clarifier with recirculation of set- tled sludge to the primary clarifier. This technique was evaluated at Richardson, Texas and similar work is continuing at Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Excellent results were ob- tained at both facilities, with sig- nificant improvement in organic carbon, suspended solids and coliform removals, as well as efficient phosphorus pre- cipitation. Pilot ozone treatment carried out at Washington, D.C. showed that this method is excellent for organic oxidation. In addition, the method provides disinfection without produc- ing the secondary pollution which may result from use of chlorine. Improved reactor design is expected to reduce costs and to make ozone treatment more economically attractive. The ability of physical chemical treatment to remove 12 different heavy metals was evaluated in pilot plants at Cincinnati. The processes of chem- ical precipitation by lime or ferric sulfate, granular media filtration and activated carbon adsorption were shown capable of removing over 98% of most of the metals studied. The metals were concentrated in the chem- ical-organic sludge, indicating a need for concern for disposal of sludges with increased .metal content. Research was begun on the removal of the thousands of synthetic organic chemicals which are being discharged to municipal sewers. Many of these compounds are not degradable and can- not be substantially removed by con- ventional biological processes. Some of the compounds are toxic to man or lower animals. Virtually nothing is known about the fate of specific organic compounds in physical-chemical processes. A recently initiated AWTRL study seeks to determine the capabil- 8 ------- ities of physical-chemical processes to remove organic compounds selected on the basis of their hazards to man or to water quality. Thus far, P-C processes have shown excellent capa- bility for removal of pentachloro- phenol, styrene and diethylene glycol. Virus Removal Large quantities of viruses of human origin are present in sewage, sewage effluents, and in rivers and streams. Since very small amounts of viruses can produce infection in man, as complete removal as possible is desirable. The Virology Program of AWTRL is devoted to the development of methods for removing and destroying viruses in waste, renovated, and other waters, development of methods for detecting small amounts of viruses in large volumes of water, assessment of the hazards of various groups of viruses present in waste and natural waters, and support of enforcement efforts. Viral removal effectiveness of the three-stage activated sludge system is under study at the Washington, D.C., pilot plant. This type of treatment is to be adopted by the District of Columbia. Considerable daily fluctu- ations have been found in both viral and bacterial populations with peak hours appearing in the late afternoon and extending into the evening hours. Seeding was done with a bacterial virus coliphage f2 similar to poliovirus in structure and size but harmless to humans, at levels about 500 times that of the natural coliphage background. With only one exception, the data re- vealed 90% or greater reduction of the virus in the three sludge process. The relative effectiveness of chlorine and iodine, their compounds, and ozone are being evaluated as dis- infectants for effluents, renovated wastewater, and other waters under a cooperative project between the University of Cincinnati, Hebrew University in Israel, and AWTRL. Hypochlorous acid (a form of chlorine) and ozone were found to be rapid viru- cides and bactericides in clean water. Iodine may be more effective than chlorine for certain effluents, how- ever, because it does not suffer a reduction in effectiveness in the presence of ammonia as chlorine does. Final analysis of the data from the completed study will permit determin- ation of the most effective disinfec- tant for any use situation. A major program has been dedica- ted to acquiring the capability for detecting and identifying small amounts of viruses in large volumes of water. Methodology developed under a grant to Baylor University now per- mits sampling of 100-gallon quantities or more. At AWTRL a system has been developed which considerably reduces the cost of testing filter systems for virus removal and recovery capability. An asbestos-wood pulp disc, effective with this system, has been singled out for further study. Another method for reducing costs in virus work has been developed. Viruses are grown in living cells, and those prepared freshly each week from living animals are among the largest cost items of the virus laboratory. A cell line (BGM) has been found that is inexpensive to propagate and is more sensitive to viruses in field evaluations than expensive primary rhesus nonkey cultures. A considerable ------- cost saving has resulted from use of this cell line. We have also found that it may be feasible to process large volumes of water at sampling sites and then re- turn only the membranes containing the adsorbed viruses to the laboratory for virus recovery. After adsorption on the membrane and refrigeration at 4 C, two viruses, poliovirus 1 and echovirus 7, could be stored for 3 days before there was a substantial loss in their recovery. This new meth- od may also result in a large cost saving. The Virology Program has contri- buted significantly to enforcement actions. Early this year, in support of a Federal court action in New Jersey against discharging sludge into coast- al waters, viruses were recovered from both sludge and seawater samples. Testimony given in support of the data was critical in winning a landmark enforcement decision against ocean disposal under the Refuse Act of 1899. More recently, samples from the Wabash River in the vicinity of Vincennes, Indiana, along with raw and treated sewage from the city's plant, were surveyed for viruses in support of an enforcement action by the EPA Region V District Office at Evansville, Indiana. Viruses have been recovered from the Vincennes treated wastewater effluent and from several of the col- lected river water samples. Ultimate Disposal Ultimate disposal is concerned with the handling, processing, trans- porting, and disposal of sludges and brines removed from wastewater treat- ment processes. The program emphasis has been on sludge disposal. Brine disposal is of less interest presently because large scale implementation of brine-producing demineralization methods has not yet been necessary. Although sludge is often mistaken- ly considered to be solid waste, it actually contains far more water than solids. Removal of this water, or de- vising a new way to bypass the water removal step, is one of the most impor- tant problems in sludge disposal. For final disposal, the primary methods are incineration, landfill including "permanent" lagoons, and land spread- ing. For land spreading, pretreatment methods have been investigated to make the sludge innocuous. Also, efforts have been devoted to by-product recov- ery from the sludge. Increased mineral content of sludge from physical-chemical treatment has also been of major con- cern. An improved method for dewatering appears possible from modification of a vacuum filter in Milwaukee to oper- ate in the top-feed mode. A grant application has been received to fur- ther demonstrate this idea. Westing- house is studying the dewatering of sludge using capillary suction (Figure 1). This method removes water by an action similar to a sponge but uses an endless belt. A pilot machine large enough to handle all of the waste activated sludge from a 2 mgd plant is routinely dewatering a 1% sludge to 18% solids with 98% capture. Conven- tional pressure filters using ash as a filter aid are being demonstrated for dewatering at Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Both fly ash from coal and incinerator ash may be used. The major advantage of pressure filtration is that the final cake is dry enough to incinerate without added fuel. 10 ------- Figure 1. Dewatering of sludge by capillary suction ------- Aerobic stabilization circumvents many of the problems of conventional anaerobic digestion and appears to be particularly useful with land disposal of sludge. This method has been shown to be attractive in laboratory and pi- lot plant studies at Cincinnati and at a grant project in Hollywood, Florida. Process parameters will be further de- fined with a demonstration project being initiated at Denver. Stabiliza- tion using lime has also been studied and a contract has been let with Battelle-Northwest to evaluate this process. Although incineration and deposi- tion in landfills are common methods for disposal of dewatered sludge, they are costly because 85% to 95% of the water must first be removed. Incin- eration can also cause air pollution unless costly afterburners, scrubbers, and automatic controls are installed. Direct application of wet sludge to the land can be a lower cost method and can also improve the soil. Chica- go has pioneered in large-scale land disposal of wet sludge and is now ship- ping sludge 200 miles to rehabilitate strip mined areas. Technical factors limiting sludge application appear to be nitrogen and heavy metals; however, a lack of public acceptance of land spreading in new areas has stopped some projects that had high technical merit. Land disposal of total sewage using the soil as a "living filter" can be used in some areas provided that the hydraulic acceptance of the soil is adequate. Since sludge repre- sents less than 1% of sewage flow, disposal of sludge to the land is less likely to be limited by poor hydraulic permeability of the soil than is direct application of sewage. Several coastal communities have submitted proposals to study land disposal of sludge as an alternative to ocean dumping. Ocean County, New Jersey, has already re- ceived a grant. By-product recovery and recycling are more desirable than disposal by incineration and land spreading. The South Tahoe Public Utility District has demonstrated the practice of re- covering lime, but other recent attempts at by-product recovery have not been as successful. A contract with Monsanto showed little economic incentive for recovery of phosphates. Foster D. Snell, Inc., has been study- ing the recovery of amino acids as' the basis of an animal feed supplement and has shown that the product does not produce abnormal growth or birth defects in test animals. An economi- cal process for recovering the amino acids is still under study. Treatment Costs and Operation Cost and design information from projects and other sources was com- piled to provide a basis for deter- mining the cost effectiveness of treatment systems. A significant event during the past year was the publication of "Estimating Cost and Manpower Requirements for Conventional Wastewater Treatment Facilities* EPA Water Pollution Control Research Series, Report No. 17090DAN10/71, the final report on a study conducted by Black and Veatch Consulting Engineers. Regressions have been made of data in the Black and Veatch report and a com- puter program was developed for sizing and costing conventional wastewater treatment processes. The program was also modified to include the cost of chemical addition for phosphorus re- moval, including the cost of extra sludge handling. 12 ------- Other projects during the year consisted of efforts in the areas of computer design programs, costs, and instrumentation and automation. Com- puter programs for designing pressure vessels and concrete tanks were com- pleted. Cost studies were done on physical-chemical and other advanced treatment methods, alum and methanol addition, wastewater renovation, and automation. A report was completed on electrical power consumption for municipal wastewater treatment. More emphasis was placed on in- strumentation and automation of plants with a project being initiated for compilation of the present state-of- the-art related to wastewater treat- ment. Intramural evaluation of ammonia probes for application to process con- trol is also underway. If satisfactory performance of a probe can be obtained it can be of significant value to ni- trogen removal treatment processes. Mine Drainage Pollution Control Activities The Mine Drainage Pollution Con- trol Activities program performs re- search, development, and demonstrations on the control of environmental prob- lems from mining operations on a nationwide scale. The program is divided into five areas of concern: surface mining, underground mining, new mining methods, treatment of mine drainage, and demonstrations of eco- nomical and practical control methods. Daring the past year major strides have been made in developing methods for analyzing overburden from surface mines as a technique for preplanning the mining operation. Through a grant to West Virginia University, methods of analyzing core-boring and rock chips to predict the potential of the various strata to create acid mine drainage problems, or a difficult revegetation problem, are being evaluated. With this information, the mine operator can selectively remove and place the material to minimize the environmen- tal damages during and following mining and to facilitate the stabil- ization of the area through revegeta- tion. Further progress was made on the development of the permeable limestone mine seal. Flooding of underground mines by placement of a "bulkhead" seal in the mine openings has been found to be an effective means of controlling acid mine drain- age. The major drawback of this method is the high cost of the seal. A cheaper seal was developed and patented through an EPA grant. This seal is constructed by pneumatically placing limestone in the mine opening and grouting the top for a tight fit. As the acid mine drainage flows through the limestone, it is neutral- ized and a ferric hydroxide-calcium sulfate precipitate forms that fills and plugs the opening in the lime- stone barrier. Thus, the barrier treats the water until it is self- sealed. Current work deals with the optimization of the seal construction, e.g., the sizing of limestone in the seal. If an underground mine can be operated in an inert atmosphere, then acid mine drainage, explosion, and health problems can be eliminated. In order to mine in an inert atmos- phere, the miners themselves must have a self-contained atmosphere. An EPA grant to Island Creek Coal Company has been used to develop and 13 ------- test a Miners' Life Support System (MLSS). MLSS is based upon the "space suits" developed by NASA. The MLSS is being tested under actual mining systems and shows great promise of success. During active mining and in those situations where control techniques are not available, mine drainage must be treated. Currently the mine drain- age is neutralized with lime, aerated and the resulting sludge removed by settling and disposed of by lagooning. The drawbacks of the process are the high cost of lime and the high volvme of low solids sludge produced. Re- search by EPA has shown that a lime- stone-lime process can reduce the reagent cost by 25%, decrease the sludge volume by one-half and increase the sludge solids content by four times. The limestone-lime process consists of neutralizing the mine drainage with ground limestone to a pH of 4.5, to take advantage of the reactive pH zone of limestone and the low reagent cost, then polishing the water with lime to the desired pH (Figure 2). Reverse osmosis has been shown to be an effective method of treating acid mine drainage to produce a high quality of water for domestic and industrial use. However, where, mine drainage high in ferrous iron was treated, a severe fouling of the membrane occured due to iron. EPA and the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania studied this problem and found that the fouling of the mem- brane was due to bacterial oxidation of the ferrous iron on the membrane sur- face and that it could be controlled by lowering the pH of the raw water to 2.5 or pretreating the water with ul- traviolet light. Section 14 of the original Federal Water Pollution Control Act established a program to demonstrate economic feasibility and practical techniques for the abatement of mine drainage. During 1972 three new pro- jects were initiated, bringing the total number of projects to eight. The state of Maryland was awarded a grant to demonstrate the elimination of an underground mine drainage prob- lem by removing the entire overburden to convert the underground mine to a strip mine, making it possible to use conventional strip mining and land reclamation techniques. This process is termed "daylighting." The use and effectiveness of control structures to prevent stream siltation from strip mining activities will be demonstrated in Kentucky. A West Virginia project will deal with the insertion of an impermeable trench in a surface mine backfill to seal off the leakage from an underground mine. Section 107 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 has expanded the scope of Section 14 to emphasize the utilization of waste materials to reduce pollution from minine activities. Discussions have been held with a number of states who are developing proposed demonstra- tions to utilize waste materials as proposed by the Law. Technology Transfer In addition to providing improved treatment methods through research and development projects, laboratory staff contributed to EPA Technology Transfer seminars and design manuals. During 1971; process design manuals were is- sued in four areas: Upgrading Exist- ing Wastewater Treatment Plants, Sus- pended Solids Removal, Phosphorus 14 ------- Removal, and Carbon Adsorption. These manuals are now being updated to in- corporate newly developed technology. A new manual on Sulfide and Odor Con- trol is also being prepared. Figure 2. Lime neutralization plant treating mine drainage near Morgantown, West Virginia 15 ------- ANALYTICAL QUALITY CONTROL LABORATORY The Analytical Quality Control Laboratory research programs are de- voted principally to the development of analytical methods and monitoring technology, to evaluation of the re- liability of methods and of analyst performance, and to the establishment of quality control techniques. Research projects have included development and improvement of analyt- ical methods for inorganic ions in water and wastes, heavy metals in industrial wastes, pesticides in sur- face waters, and characterization of petroleum products from oil spills. Biological investigations covered aacroinvertebrate sampling and identi- fication, the development of improved biomass measurements, and the prepar- ation of an EPA manual for field and laboratory biological methods. Micro- biological methods were examined and improved, including procedures for total ooliform organisms by membrane filter, fecal coliform, and fecal streptococci techniques. A procedure for delayed incubation of fecal coli- form membranes was investigated. A full series of reference samples for major constituents in water was prepared and distributed to coopera- ting laboratories. More than 2000 sets of samples were distributed in PY 72. These samples provided a valu- able service in laboratory quality control and evaluation of performance. Method studies for the evaluation of approved EPA analytical procedures yielded data from more than 100 labora- tories on methods for mercury, nutri- ents, oxygen demand and organic carbon, and mineral constituents. Studies on procedures for heavy metals and chloro- phyl were initiated. Reports were issued on manual methods for nutrients and procedures for biochemical and chemical oxygen demand and total organic carbon. Improvements in automatic monitor- ing instrumentation included a better dissolved oxygen system, the design of a flow cell to provide self-cleaning of sensors, and selection of new pump- ing equipment to overcome siltation and corrosion. Data acquisition by computer was initiated and new inter- face and output devices were developed. The Analytical Quality Control Newsletter, begun in FY 70, was expanded to cover broader technical areas and the distribution was increased to 5000 readers. Analytical methods for the identi- fication of clandestine oil spill materials were developed, based on the use of infrared ratios. The technique was originated at the Laboratory and has been widely accepted in the petrol- eum industry. Extension to other in- strumental measurements, in conjunction with IR, were initiated in PY 72. Technical assistance was provided to other EPA programs through advice on analytical methods, laboratory ex- amination of industrial waste samples, identification of petroleum products with preparation of enforcement affi- davit, training course development in quality control techniques, and consul- tation with research project officers on grant and contract laboratory per- formance. 16 ------- Among the major accomplishments the Laboratory were: • distribution of more than 20,000 copies of "Methods for Chemical Analysis cf Water and Wastes" • preparation and distribution of "Methods for Organic Pesticides in Water and Wastewater" • preparation of a "Handbook for Analytical Quality Control in Water and Wastewater Laboratories" laboratory investigations and final recommendation of methods for total and methyl mercury in water, sedi- ments, and fish development of gas chromatograph/ mass spectrometer techniques for identification of organic pollutants in industrial wastes operation of a ground-to-satellite transmission system for water quality monitoring, involving an EPA in situ data acquisition system and the NIMBUS satellite. EDISON WATER QUALITY RESEARCH LABORATORY The Edison Water Quality Research Laboratory (EWQRL) develops new pro- cess technology in a number of comple- mentary areas of water pollution abatement. The work may be grouped into four main areas: oil and hazar- dous material spill control, industrial effluent control, storm and combined sewer overflow management, and waste management from recreational and transporation sources. In the area of spill control, special emphasis is placed on control of oil spills. The industrial waste control program deals primarily with waste from the electroplating and non-ferrous metal industries. The storm and combined sewer overflow pro- gram develops and demonstrates manage- ment concepts via full-scale municipal tests designed to abate pollution caused by wet weather flows. Waste management for small boats has been the main thrust of the transportation program. Oil Spill Research Program The prime responsibility of this program is to develop the technology and systems necessary to prevent, con- tain, monitor, control, identify, and clean up spills of petroleum and petrol- eum products. The following projects represent major accomplishments of this program. Melloy Laboratories demonstrated that the froth flotation technique for ore separation could also be used to remove oil from contaminated beach sand. A prototype unit was built, tested, and delivered to EWQRL. This unit, consisting of four flotation cells, is mounted on a 40-foot flatbed trailer. It has a through-put capacity of 30 tons of oiled sand per hour. The effluent sand is clean enough for re- placement on the beach. The JBF Scientific Corporation demonstrated the Dynamic Inclined Plane 17 ------- (DIP) Oil Harvester. This unit, several different sized models of which are currently available, has a skimming efficiency of better than 90% in 2-foot harbor waves at 2 knots relative velocity. The principle operation has been adopted for use in units sold to the State of Massachu- setts and the Navy Department. To provide the much-needed tran- sition between laboratory work and actual spill conditions, a large wave tank is being constructed in which equipment and procedures for handling spills of oil and hazardous materials can be developed, tested, refined, and evaluated without harming the envi- ronment. The 667 x 65 x 11 foot tank will be completed in the fall of 1973 and is located at Earle, New Jersey. An intramural effort has produced an oil measurement technique good down to 100 ppm of oil in water. By modi- fying the sample preparation step, the measurement can be extended to the 50 ppm level in both water and sedi- ment samples. Hazardous Materials Spills Program The Hazardous Materials Spills Research Branch of EWQRL develops technology and systems for preventing, detecting, identifying, containing, monitoring, controlling, and cleaning up in the water environment spills of hazardous substances that dissolve in or react with water or that sink, float, or volatilize. Some examples of hazardous materials are: phenol, alcohol, nitric acid, chlorosulfonic acid, acetone cyanohydrin, toluene diisocyanate, organo-phosphate pesti- cides (Diazinon, parathion), chlor- dane, perchloroethylene, creosote. carbon disulfide, styrene, iso-octane, formaldehyde, and chlorine. During 1972, significant progress was made in the areas of hazardous spill containment on land and in water. Spill treatment and detection devices were developed, and hazardous material information systems designed. The feasibility of plugging leak- ing containers in the field using "foam plugs" was demonstrated. A system for dispensing "foamed-in-place" dikes was developed and tested. These dikes can be used on land to prevent spilled materials from reaching nearby watercourses or storm drains. Several methods to prevent spilled materials from percolating into ground water were developed and tested, includ- ing the use of chemical additives to absorb, gel, or co-polymerize the material. A sealed boom (water curtain) was developed and tested. This water cur- tain incorporates a flotation collar that supports the top of the barrier and a steam-bed conforming, water- filled cuff that seals the barrier to the bottom of the watercourse. The system provides EPA with the capabil- ity to isolate a spill in a section of a watercourse by surrounding it with the boom. Several systems for treating spill-contaminated water were developed and evaluated: a truck-mounted dynactor-magnetic separator system (5 gpm), a "tea-bag" concept for in- stream treatment using mass transfer media, and a system for in-stream treatment using flotable mass trans- fer media. 18 ------- The dynactor-magnetic separator system utilizes a thin film aerator device coupled with a special, high filtration-rate separator to treat water with activated carbon, ion- exchange resins, precipitating agents, neutralizing agents, and/or ozone. Simple aeration is also possible. In the "tea-bag" method for re- moving dissolved spilled materials from streams, activated carbon is placed into sausage-like fabric sacks that are constructed to have suffici- ent head-end buoyancy to allow them to float vertically in the water- course. The bags drift slightly out of phase with the gross movement of the slug of pollutant in the stream. Thus, when the bags are introduced at the leading edge of the slug, they gradually sweep to the trailing edge and adsorb pollutant during their transit. The system for using flotable mass-transfer media uses weighted containers which are filled with acti- vated carbon or ion-exchange resins. After the containers sink to the bot- tom of the watercourse, the resin or carbon is released slowly and then floats to the surface, adsorbing the dissolved pollutant during transit of the water column. The spent sor- bent (carbon or resin) is later har- vested and removed from the surface by conventional skimming techniques. Several devices for detecting spills of hazardous materials were developed. These include a detector for dissolved organo-phosphate and carbamate pesticides (pesticide- inhibited cholinesterase activity is measured electronically), a modulated cyclic colorimeter for heavy metals, and a sensitive vapor-sensing device for volatile organics. A detection kit was also developed to aid field personnel in locating and identifying spills. To aid the spill-response person- nel of EPA and other Federal agencies, a handbook of procedures to be followed for the disposal of small lots of un- used pesticides was prepared. A hand- book of techniques for assessing the damage caused by spills was also com- pleted. In addition, the first Conference on the Control and Prevention of Hazardous Material Spills was held under EPA sponsorship during March 1972 in Houston, Texas. A contingency plan for handling spills of hazardous materials in muni- cipalities is being developed. A major part of the work is directed toward keeping the spill from entering the sewer system. For those spills that do enter a sewage treatment plant, operational procedures for maintaining the efficiency of secondary treatment are being tested. The hazards to aquatic food chains and to water quality are being assessed in a project studying spillage and re- lease of thallium and other heavy metals (copper, lead, zinc) from ore mining, milling, smelting, and electro- reduction and chemical processing. A readily transportable field-use pump and 7,000 gallon collection bag system is being fabricated to collect and temporarily store suraped or diked spills of hazardous materials. A large "captive" site (the NASA Mississippi Test Facility, Hancock County, Mississippi) is being evaluated 19 ------- cis a facility for large-scale demon- strations of equipment for the prevention, control, containment, and disposal of spills of hazardous materials. The area has a well- characterized ecology, climate, geography, and hydrology. The nature of the terrain and the existence of an extensive canal system make the site potentially attractive for evaluating methods for preventing hazardous substances spilled on land from entering watercourses or the ground water table. Industrial Waste Technology Program The Industrial Haste Technology Branch is responsible for the develop- ment and demonstration of new and improved technology for the preven- tion, control, treatment, recovery, and reuse of wastes in the metal finishing, non-ferrous metals, and heavy chemicals industries. The state-of-the-art review of metal finishing waste treatment was completed and published. The review examines the nature of metal finish- ing wastes, the impact of these wastes on sewers, sewage treatment plants and water bodies, current restrictions on disposal, and metal finishing waste treatment technology. A carbon adsorption system for treating cyan- ide and chromate metal finishing wastes was developed. It was demon- strated on a pilot plant scale and has potential application for the small metal plating companies. The effectiveness and economic feasibility of integrated chemical rinse treatment for a small metal finishing operation was also demonstrated. A significant and troublesome problem in the metal finishing indus- try is the large amount of sludge produced by chemical waste treatment practice. A project has been completed which provides information on the nature of the sludges produced, the effects of weathering on these sludges disposed of on land sites, and the potential economics of the processes. An evaluation of the water pollu- tion control practices in the primary non-ferrous metal industries was com- pleted. This study identifies the nature and extent of the pollution problems, the sources, characteristics and significance of the wastes, and the current water use and waste treat- ment/recovery practices of the industry. A pollution abatement program for the copper industry was demonstrated at the Volco Brass and Wire Company in Kenilworth, New Jersey. This pro- ject involves process changes, recovery, treatment, and reuse of copper and brass mill wastes. The process changes eliminated chromate, ammonia and fluoride ions, and permitted reuse of the pickling baths. An electrolytic system recovers copper from the baths and an integrated rinse treatment system permits most of the water to be reused. The sludge produced con- tains sufficient copper to be salable. Costs for the new pickling, waste treat- ment, and recovery processes are $194 per day compared to an estimated cost of $540 per day for the former pickling treatment process. Storm and Combined Sewer Technology Program This program develops and demon- strates technology for controlling urban storm-generated runoff pollution. The major sources of this pollution are 20 ------- divided into three categories: com- bined sewer overflows, storm sewer discharges, and non-sewered urban run- off. During 1972, the following major studies were made to advance storm and combined sewer pollution control. Because of the intermittent and variable nature of storm flow, emphasis was given to the physical-chemical approach as a basis for independent satellite wet-weather flow treatment plants. Successful pilot scale devel- opments and demonstrations included: (1) microstraining and fine mesh screening; (2) dual media, deep bed, high-rate filtration; (3) a swirl cham- ber for simultaneous flow regulation and solids separation; (4) combination screening-coagulation-dissolved air flotation; and (5) a system for inject- ing powdered carbon and coagulants into a pipeline, separation by tube-settling, polishing by multi-media filtration, and regeneration of chemical additives by fluidized-bed incineration. Biological treatment systems were developed as auxiliary facilities for treating excess wet-weather flows at a conventional plant. Two such full- scale biological processes, one a plastic media high-rate trickling fil- ter and the other employing contact stabilization, were demonstrated. To provide feasible disinfection for the high and intermittent storm flows encountered, high-rate disinfec- tion processes utilizing a corrugated baffle contact chamber to obtain good mixing and chlorine dioxide, a rapid oxidant, were evaluated. An electro- chemical hypochlorite generator for on-site use has also been developed. Significant decreases in coliform counts have been obtained from an 11,000 cfs storm water pumpage disin- fection system in New Orleans. Combined sewer overflow storage systems are of crucial program impor- tance because gross variations in flow must be equalized as much as possible prior to treatment. Four large full- scale holding tank systems have been demonstrated and satisfactory results obtained from a project in Seattle which relies on remote monitoring and computer assisted control to obtain in- sewer storage of storm flow. The pro- gram has developed and demonstrated the nationwide application of a storm- water management model for evaluating and planning a control system. Further work will develop a model decision- making capability for detailed design and operation purposes. An instantaneous in situ suspended solids meter was also evaluated and shows promise for use as a prime sens- ing tool for automation and datamation. Small-scale demonstrations have also been made for porous pavement to attentuate storm runoff, and a pump- storage-grinder unit and pressure sewer system. A program overview report entitled "Management and Control of Combined Sewer Overflows," to transfer basic program technology has received inter- national recognition in the municipal pollution abatement field. Transportation and Recreational Waste Technology Program The transportation wastes program is charged with the development of tech- nology for the economic treatment of wastewater (including bilge and ballast discharges) from watercraft, technology to handle galley wastes and litter from boats, and to minimize engine emissions. 21 ------- Seven systems for management of wastes on commercial and recreational watercraft are under study. The methods being studied include: fil- tration, screening, centrifugation, adsorption, incineration, and disin- fection. A recirculating waste management system for use on a large 50-man ves- sel was demonstrated. The demonstra- tion of this waste treatment system in both the discharge and recycle operating modes has shown that the system can provide a high level of secondary treatment. Effluents con- tained both biochemical oxygen demand and suspended solids generally below 50 mg/1. Several macerator-chlorina- tors and a Microphor biological marine sanitation device were evaluated in the marine sanitation devices test facility. Research in the watercraft area also included the development of inexpensive, compact, and automatic instrumentation which is capable of monitoring effluent from vessel waste treatment systems. These instruments will also have wide application shore- side at recreational and other remote areas. Research is also underway to in- vestigate the extent of pollution from outboard engine exhaust and its impact on the aquatic environment. Two cur- rent studies will provide the chemical, physical, and biological data needed to properly assess the outboard engine exhaust problem. The treatment of recreational wastes is a major problem primarily because of the short-duration and high- load factor, and the need to provide a high level of treatment to protect the water quality of the recreational areas. With limited resources the program was able to support the design and fabrication of a recirculating catalytic oxidation waste treatment system for the Grand Targhee Ski Resort in Idaho, and the installation and operation of a non-aqueous recirculating waste treatment system at Mount Rushmore, South Dakota. Site preparation and the spreading of urea formaldehyde foam for a flora filter wastewater treatment demonstration at Delaware and Dillon Reservoir State Parks in Ohio was also completed. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY RESEARCH LABORATORY The Environmental Toxicology Research Laboratory evaluates potential toxic effects of fuels and fuel addi- tive emissions from mobile and station- ary sources in order to provide data in support of establishing environ- mental pollution standards. The Laboratory conducts definitive toxi- cologic investigations of individual potential pollutants found in various environmental media in order to pro- vide information on the impact of pollu- tion on man's health and well-being. The research program includes develop- ment and evaluation of protocols for definitive testing of toxic materials. This health effects research must necessarily be conducted primarily in non-human biological systems. Since the probability of reproduc- ing human response in animals increases 22 ------- with the number and judicious selec- tion of animal species, the research program utilizes several mammalian species, e.g., mice, rats, guinea pigs, rabbits, dogs, Syrian hamsters, non-human primates, and cats. The animal experimentation approach per- mits strict control of a large range of concentrations and durations of exposure, and allows detailed observa- tions in tissues and organs to be made. Research on the potentially toxic effects of mobile source emissions is complicated by the rapidly changing scope of fuels and fuel additives marketing, and development of new emission systems and control devices, e.g., catalytic converters. The ETRL uses a multi-disciplinary research approach in two major areas of envi- ronmental pollution: 1. Inhalation and ingestion studies of single pollutants with particular emphasis on hazardous substances (trace metals); and, 2. Inhalation exposure of fuel and fuel additive emissions from mobile sources, representing a complicated but realistic mixture of pollutants in the environment. Single Pollutant Studies Manganese The organometallic compound 2-Methylcyclopentadienyl Manganese Tricarbonyl (MMT) is of current inter- est because of its possible use as an anti-knock agent in unleaded gasoline. The compound is presently marketed as a combustion improver for fuel oils and as a smoke depressant for diesel engines and stationary jet fuel power sources. Ingestion of both Mn tricarbonyl and Mn tricarbonyl produced uptake, concentration, and bioeffects in the liver and kidneys of rats. Rats ex- posed to Mn tricarbonyl vapor indicated early changes in the liver and the corneas. Single-dose embryotoxicity studies are in process on pregnant female rats given 5l*Mn tricarbonyl to determine abnormalities and histological changes in the fetuses and to determine the Mn radioactivity per fetus. Dilu- tions of less than 10~7 gm (as Mn in MMT) were lethal to both primary and passed cells in a tissue culture system utilizing primary lung cell cultures derived from the Chinese hamster. Cyto- genetic toxicity decreased with higher dilutions and none was observed above 10~9. Performance of monkeys, trained on a fixed interval schedule of rein- forcement, was observed after acute administration of manganese dioxide. Although the study is not complete, raw data indicates that there was a suppres- sion of response rates. Preliminary experiments have indicated that the intravenous 'administration of low levels of Mn elicits a reproducible change in the rat visual evoked potential. Cadmium The kinetic and metabolic fate of different compounds of cadmium were in- vestigated to provide information about this potential pollutant. An investiga- tion of gastrointestinal absorption showed that the compound of Cd adminis- tered orally only slightly influenced absorption, retention, distribution, or pattern of excretion of Cd. Oral ad- ministration of different levels of 23 ------- 115mCdCl2 to rats showed that while the Cd dose did influence the amount absorbed through the G.I. tract and resulting tissue concentrations, the amount absorbed was not proportional to the concentration. Initial clear- ance of Cd was markedly influenced by the route of administration (intrave- nous, intraperitoneal, inhalation, and intragastric). The four routes men- tioned showed 95%, 93%, 41%, and 5% retention, respectively. The biologi- cal half-life of the long retention component was greater than 175 days for all routes. Approximately 10% of the total inhaled Cd was retained, and 40% to 50% of the retained Cd was found in the lungs after inhalation exposure. Equipment and experimental techniques have been developed to study hyperten- sive effects and renal damage related to cadmium intake in both pigs and monkeys. A simple, reliable method to measure blood pressure of unanesthe- tized monkeys over an extended period of time was developed, utilizing a tail-cuff method. Lead Dust samples containing environ- mentally-bound lead were fed to rats in an attempt to determine whether: (1) lead bound in environmental samples is absorbed by blood and tissue at dif- ferent rates and magnitudes than lead compounds used in previous laboratory experiments and (2) lead deposited in- to the environment from different sources is absorbed at different rates and in different amounts from the G.I. tract into the blood. In rats receiv- ing a single oral dose, the Pb blood level rose for 24 hours and then de- creased rapidly until at 36 days they were comparable to the levels in con- trol rats. Three different daily dosages of lead in New York Queen's Tunnel dust samples fed to rats indi- cated that levels in the blood were related to levels fed and that the G.I. tract is a significant route of absorption of lead. In an effort to detect absorption differences among environmental lead dust samples col- lected at New York Queen's Tunnel, a Los Angeles freeway and the vicinity of an El Paso smelter, rats were fed 1.0 mg daily for 40 days. The highest blood levels were observed using the freeway dust sample, followed by the tunnel sample and the smelter sample. However, the tunnel dust was the most biologically active since it was found in greater amounts in the skeleton and organs. Mercury An early biological effect was demonstrated in rats exposed to a low concentration of methylmercury, using radiorespirometry. Intragastric admini- stration caused suppression in l ''cOj output following an injection of 1- C-glucose. This effect was cumu- lative when treatment was repeated 1 week later. Attempts are being made to refine this technique for utiliza- tion as a rapid screening method for other potentially-toxic compounds. Most of the changes noted in renal tissue from rats exposed chronically to mercury administered at various levels in drinking water were relatable to the aging process. Animals receiv- ing the highest level, however, showed severe interstitial effects in the renal tubules. Additional animals would be needed, however, to relate this finding to a treatment effect since the sample size examined was small. 24 ------- Toxicologic Assessment of Mobile^ Emissions (TAME) Gasoline Fuel Emission Studies Laboratory animals were exposed to emissions of a small internal com- bustion engine and tested for lethal responses in order to determine the comparative susceptibility of different animal species, ages, and sexes. Util- izing 1972 automobile engines and ex- haust treatment exposure systems to simulate environmental atmospheres, comparative toxicity was assessed and engine exhaust emissions were charac- terized. Results to date indicate that fuel emissions are biologically active at realistic exposure levels. Experimental Physiology Studies Current hematological and blood chemistry data indicate clear cut de- trimental health effects subsequent to exposure. There was a pronounced body weight loss and a definite degree of anoxia in exposed rats. It remains to be seen whether or not MMT additive accentuated the health effects. Sup- pression of voluntary activity observed in mice exposed to automotive engine fuel exhaust emissions was directly related to the concentration of exhaust but not to the level of carbon monoxide in the exhaust. Analysis is presently underway to determine if activity sup- pression is affected by the presence of a manganese additive. Changes in patterns of learned operant behavior of exposed hamsters performing a simple task were not evident. Exposure to the raw exhaust atmos- phere produces a change in the rat visual evoked potential. New methods are being developed in computer analysis techniques to more adequately determine the effects of exposure. Spinal re- flexes are being tested for the screen- ing of potential toxic agents. Spinal reflexes may be studied in isolation by stimulating and recording from the appropriate nerves to determine effects of toxicological agents. The visual evoked potential work and spinal work can be easily correlated, and the vari- ous transmitters responsible for the complex waveform of the evoked potential may thus be elucidated. The pulmonary clearance rate in hamsters decreased after exposure to irradiated auto exhaust. Biochemical Studies Long chain unsaturated fatty acid films exposed to fuel emissions in vitro exhibited oxidative destruction, as was demonstrated earlier with single pol- lutant studies using O3 and NO2. Fur- thermore, greater changes were observed in the studies in which Mn-carbonyl was used. In the in vivo system, fatty acid composition of lung lavage showed a trend of oxidative destruction due to fuel emissions. Since several compounds resulting from automotive fuel emissions are known to be carcinogenic in experimen- tal animals, the determination of their biologic fate in the body following inhalation is of utmost significance. Interaction with other environmental components may have significant effects on body burden and effective biological residence time as has been shown with aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase (AHH). Lung AHH activity has been assessed in old male hamsters exposed to diluted auto exhaust. Preliminary results indicate a significant reduction in enzyme activity and a significant dif- ference was observed between control 25 ------- and exposed animals and between irra- diated and non-irradiated exposure. Pathology Pulmonary tissues from rats ex- posed to emissions showed essentially no changes other than chronic respiratory disease which was also present in the control animals. Pulmonary tissue from hamsters showed early changes and were most severe in the irradiated ex- haust exposure. RADIOCHEMISTRY & NUCLEAR ENGINEERING RESEARCH LABORATORY The Radiochemistry & Nuclear Engi- neering Research Laboratory is primar- ily concerned with the evaluation of the environmental and public health impacts of nuclear power stations and other facilities in the nuclear fuel cycle during routine operation. More specificially, it obtains measurements to (1) identify and quantify the radio- activity and direct radiation from stations, (2) delineate the main path- ways leading to population radiation exposure from these sources, (3) indi- cate the magnitude of population radi- ation exposure, and (4) present effective monitoring procedures. The resulting information is used by EPA for the establishment of radiation ex- posure guidelines, review of Environ- mental Impact Statements, organization of monitoring systems, and recommenda- tions for measures intended to attain the lowest practicable population radi- ation exposures. Because the Laboratory provides information for a variety of needs in a highly specialized area in EPA, it is supported by both the Office of Mon- itoring (OM) and the Office of Radiation Programs (ORP). The staff of the Laboratory reflects a coordination of disciplines in engineering, physics, chemistry, and biology. Expert assis- tance is provided by other EPA compon- ents, notably the Division of Meteorology* NERC-Research Triangle Park; the Cincinnati National Field Investigations Center, Office of En- forcement & General Counsel; the Eastern Environmental Radiation Facil- ity, Office of Radiation Programs; the Division of Environmental Surveil- lance, NERC-Las Vegas; and the other laboratories of NERC-Cincinnati. Necessary measurements are ob- tained through field studies at com- mercial nuclear power stations and associated facilities, in cooperation with the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, the state environmental protection agency, and the station operator. A study begins with samplings and mea- surement on site to identify the ra- diations and radionuclides of interest, and at the station boundary to define source terms. This information is utilized in computational models to predict radiation and radioactivity levels in the environment. The model indicates critical radionuclides, path- ways, and populations for detailed study, and provides the basis for selecting sampling media, minimum sample volume, indicator radionuclides, and analytical techniques. Model predictions and mon- itoring techniques are then experimen-r tally tested in the station's environ- ment. Finally, the entire study is described in published reports. 26 ------- Field Studies Completed The first part of our 5-year pro- gram consisted of field studies at four facilities typical of coniaercial U.S. nuclear power stations - two boiling water reactors (BWR's) and two pressurized water reactors (PWR's). The study at the first BWR was reported in FY 1971. In FY 1972, the report of the study at the first PWR was pub- lished, and studies were begun at the second BWR and second PWR. Results of these studies pertaining to radio- nuclide discharges, monitoring tech- niques, and population exposures have also been published. A manual of radiochemical proce- dures for analyzing water samples at nuclear power stations is being pre- pared. Work toward a similar manual of procedures for environmental water samples that contain extremely low levels of radionuclides is in progress. There is also a small continuing pro- ject for determining radiation expo- sures of uranium miners. The major observations from the study at the first PWR - the Yankee Nuclear Power Station at Rowe, Mass. - were as follows: 1. The station should probably be considered a good example rather than a typical source of radiation exposure because its radioactive discharges are far below normal. Total discharges of all radionuclides other than tritium to air and water were less than 10 Curies per year (Cl/yr). Approximately 1,000 Ci of tritium - a relatively low-hazard radionuclide - were dis- charged annually. 2. The PWR has numerous points of discharge to be considered in evalua- ting effluent radioactivity. In addi- tion to the obvious sources - the reactor plant liquid and gaseous waste tanks - radionuclides are discharged without collection in tanks from the secondary-system main condenser air ejector, liquid waste and blowdown drains, and in ventilating air. 3. The only environmental radionuclides attributable to the station were present in low concentrations in sediment and aquatic vegetation near the outfall for liquid effluent. 4. Radiation exposures in the envi- ronment were too low to be measured directly. Values inferred from meas- urements within the station were 6 ± 3 milliroentgen/yr (mR/yr) at the nearest house and 3 ± 3 mR/yr at the nearest village due to direct radia- tion, 0.4 mR/yr at the station bound- ary due to airborne radioactive efflu- ent, and 0.3 mR/yr to persons eating fish caught just beyond the outfall for liquid radioactive effluents. These values can be compared to the natural radiation background of 64 mR/yr measured in the environment, and the USAEC limits of milliroentgen- equivalent-man/year (mRem/yr) to the population. 5. An environmental surveillance pro- gram was recommended that is directed toward the main radiation exposure pathways and utilizes procedures ap- propriate to the radiation and radio- activity levels measured on-site. Current Field Studies The current studies are at sta- tions newer and larger than Yankee- Rowe. Sampling programs have been emphasized that include collection of 27 ------- radioactive gases and measurement of external radiation from these gases in the environment while simultaneous- ly obtaining gas samples at the sta- tion during discharge; and collection of radioactive liquids in effluent with concentrating devices simultan- eously with samples from the liquid waste tank before dilution. Radiation detection survey instruments of suf- ficient sensitivity are used to meas- ure direct radiation on land and radiation from benthai deposits of radionuclides. Radioactivity is also measured in terrestrial and aquatic animals. The detailed radiological surveil- lance studies at the four nuclear power stations are to be completed by FY 1974. These will be followed by several studies of specific problems and possible approaches to the lowest practicable radiation exposures at appropriate nuclear power stations. A detailed radiological surveillance study will be started at a fuel re- processing plant. SOLID WASTE RESEARCH LABORATORY The Solid Waste Research Labora- tory (SWRL) conducts research to develop improved methods of dealing with solid wastes from all sources. Work is directed primarily to solving problems in three areas: recovery of materials and energy from solid waste, determining public attitudes on re- source recovery, and development of disposal techniques for all forms of non-recyclable solid wastes - includ- ing hazardous wastes. Analytical and pilot-plant studies are designed to develop new waste handling or processing methods, and to develop resource recovery procedures and appropriate ultimate disposal methods for solid wastes. The SWRL uses grants, contracts, and in-house research to develop the needed infor- mation. Scope of Solid Waste Problems The problems of solid waste dis- posal are related to those of air and water pollution. Incineration, grind- ing, and the use of water for either transporation of solids or as a solid waste sinks, impinge upon concurrent research in air and water pollution abatement. Further, elimination of pollutants from air or water effluents at the source results in the genera- tion of solid wastes by such processes as separation, drying, or compaction- solids which in turn require disposal. Measures to reduce pollution or dis- pose of waste material must be taken with full consideration of the effect upon the overall environment - air, water, and land. The solid waste problem is con- centrated in densely populated urban areas. In some cases, entire neigh- borhoods have degenerated, blighting much of the inner city. Refuse storage, collection, transportation, and pro- cessing directly affect some 80% of the population. The costs of waste handling, already severe, are rising. The loss of billions of tons of material as unreclaimed waste each year indirectly affects every con- sumer. 28 ------- Land Disposal Sanitary landfilling is the only acceptable low-cost method presently available for disposal of solid waste on the land. Although landfills can be designed to produce little or no impact on the environment, additional technical information is needed on de- composition rates and leachate and gas production in order to design effici- ent sanitary landfills. Intramural activities emphasize the collection of field-scale data at an experimental landfill located in Walton, Kentucky. Leachate production rates are determined twice a week. A total of 2,500 gallons of leachate was collected during the first year of operation from 435 tons of municipal type solid waste deposited there. An expanded series of tests, be- gun in August 1972, is evaluating leachate production rates and scaling factors between three 6-foot-diameter simulated cells and a field-scale 28-fcot-square cell. The simulated cells will be used to evaluate a large number of variables without the great expense of quality-controlled field cells. Under a grant to the Georgia Institute of Technology, the feasibil- ity of modifying traditional sanitary landfill operational procedures is being studied. Leachate produced in laboratory-scale simulated landfills is recycled through the compacted waste. The objective is to achieve a high rate of anaerobic decomposition by creating a natural buffer system conducive to methane formation. Re- sults to date indicate that the high organic acid content of leachate is reduced by this technique and decom- position is more rapidly stabilized. Researchers at Drexel University are investigating quality and quantity of leachate produced from landfilled solid waste under precisely controlled laboratory conditions. Results indi- cate leachate production is highly dependent on rainfall conditions and that leachate quality is extremely variable. After 3 years of leaching, the concentration of contaminants in leachate has decreased to only one- tenth of that initially observed. Under a research grant with the University of Wisconsin, treatability of leachates is being investigated. Preliminary results indicate leachate to be biodegradable, but chemical pro- cessing gives relatively poor removal of organics. It also produces large quantities of sludge. More extensive studies to develop treatment methodol- ogy for leachates will be conducted under a contract with the University of Illinois. The characterization of leachate samples from across the coun- try has already begun. This charac- terization study will establish the first comprehensive data on the organic and heavy metal content of leachates. Hazardous Wastes SWRL has been gathering informa- tion for a report to Congress on National Disposal Sites for hazardous wastes. The purpose of this work is to (1) develop an inventory of hazard- ous waste materials; describe their effects on man and his environment; determine presently used methods for their disposal; (2) determine recom- mended methods of reduction, neutral- 29 ------- ization, recovery and/or disposal of all hazardous waste; and (3) determine public and private attitudes toward disposal of hazardous wastes at re- gionally located disposal sites. An inventory of hazardous mater- ials has been completed and a three- volume report submitted to EPA by Booz-Allen Applied Research. Work to develop recommended methods for dis- posal and to determine quantities and forms in which hazardous wastes occur is being done under a contract by TRW. Profile reports on 543 materials, 133 of which are considered candidates for processing at National Disposal Sites, have been compiled to date. Under a research contract to HumRRO Company, a national attitudinal survey is being developed. Question- naires have been designed and prelim- inary surveys conducted. A 2-year grant to the University of Florida is investigating quantities and identities of nonindustrial toxic and hazardous materials in municipal wastes. Collection and Transport Labor-intensive collection and transportation aspects of solid waste management constitute up to 80% of the total disposal cost. SWRL is involved in several studies designed to provide more efficient methods of collecting and transporting solid wastes. A research grant at the Universi- ty of Illinois is developing new math- ematical solutions to classical postman and salesman routing problems that have direct application to the optimal routing of packer trucks for the col- lection and transporting of solid waste. The objective is to provide practical methods for optimizing col- lection truck routing for various street networks including combinations of one- and two-way streets. A similar study by the Massachu- setts Institute of Technohogy is con- cerned with developing mathematical algorithms whereby large urban areas can be logically divided into equal solid waste districts, each district representing one day's collection activity for a packer truck. This work also includes a separate study to establish the location of solid waste transfer and disposal facilities. Since the use of existing gravity sewers to transport ground household solid waste holds potential as a sub- stitute method for collecting and transporting solid waste, a research study to evaluate its technical feasi- bility is being conducted by Foster- Miller Associates. Results indicate that sewer transport is conditionally feasible in both straight-run lines and in many of the sewer fittings for slurries of sewage, plus up to 1% by weight of refuse. The original technical feasibility study is being supplemented by an economic study at Curran Associates to establish economic feasibility data. The Curran study is a computerized economic sensitivity study involving systems analysis of alternative methods within the wet pipeline approach. Should the Curran study indicate strong economic and social impact advantages in the pipe transport system, further technical studies on a pilot plant and demonstration project scale would be recommended. 30 ------- Processing Incinerators In many plants processing munici- pal refuse, the expense for grinding the refuse constitutes the major cost. Because basic data on refuse size re- duction mechanisms and associated equipment design are not available, research is being conducted by SWRL to obtain these data. Availability of this information will allow more efficient utilization of existing grinding equipment and provide design information for constructing improved grinders. These factors could help to significantly reduce the grinding cost associated with processing re- fuse. Fundamental data on the size distribution of ground refuse and compression strength of various refuse components have also been measured. Separation Automatic separation of the vari- ous constituents normally found in municipal refuse is being approached through the development of sensing devices which operate with infrared absorptivity or reflectivity, reaction to impact, or electrical conductivity. Once the sensors are perfected, a cod- ing device will be used to effect the mechanical removal of the selected material from the refuse. Wavelength spectra for paper, some plastics, cans, and glass have been identified so far. Assembly of mechanical handling equip- ment is nearing completion. An intramural pilot plant to study automatic sorting and separation of municipal refuse on a dry basis has been designed. The pilot plant will investigate promising resource recov- ery hardware technology and dry separ- ation processes. SWRL research on incineration processes has contributed to a better understanding of combustion processes and incinerator design. Combustion reactions above the fuel bed were found to be a function of the degree of mixing of the overfire air. It was also found that organic pollutants could be significantly reduced by the efficient use of overfire air jets. One study investigated burning rate as a function of underfire air produced data useful in establishing new design criteria as well as combustion control information. Work is underway to es- tablish the extent and mechanism by which corrosion of incinerator metal occurs. Once the corrosion reaction is known, steps can be taken to cir- cumvent it or slow its progress. These advances have provided the basis for more refined research pro- jects designed to advance the state- of-the-art of incinerator design and operation. An intramural incinerator designed to simulate municipal incin- erators has been installed which has the capability to study combustion processes and incinerator effluent stream contaminants. CPU-400! Resource Recovery The major resource recovery pro- ject being undertaken by the Solid Waste Research Laboratory involves an elaborate process called CPU-400 which burns the combustible component of refuse and uses the hot gas stream to drive a turbine for the generation of electricity. The CPU-400 pilot plant is in the final development phase and system performance is being evaluated using a series of long-duration runs of operation. 31 ------- Recycling; Resource Recovery Research conducted on the recy- cling of solid waste has also concen- trated on the conversion of waste cellulose, rubber, plastic, and glass into useful products. Protein has been successfully produced from cellu- losic waste using fermentation tech- niques. Under a research grant with Louisiana State University, results from a small batch-type fermentor re- produced in a larger continuous-type unit will help to evaluate the econom- ics of the process. Louisiana State University has also developed tech- niques to separate and purify the microbial protein. Intramural work to evaluate phys- ical and chemical pretreatment of wastes to enhance the rates of cellu- lose utilization indicates that a sensitized photodegradation process and a chemical pretreatment process are most effective. Studies by Gil- lette Research Institute demonstrated that the degree of polymerization of cellulose is significantly reduced by the photochemical process. A research grant with Worcester Polytechnic Institute indicates that a low pressure hydrogenation process offers potential for converting cellu- losic waste into a high grade fuel. The process is technically feasible but is not presently economically at- tractive. In a research study on chemical conversion of wood and cellu- losic waste, three fractions were isolated from the pyrolysis of cellu- losic material which contain products that could be used as fuels. Two projects have demonstrated that waste rubber can be successfully recycled into useful products. A con- tract with Hydrocarbon Research, Inc., demonstrated the technical feasibility of a hydrogenation process for utiliz- ing waste rubber. Ground rubber tires can be converted to fuel gas, naphtha gas, oil, and carbon black in a hydro- genation reactor operating at tempera- tures from 660 F to 850 F with hydrogen at partial pressures of 500 to 2,000 psig. Favorable economics have been projected for a plant processing 1,000 tons per day of ground waste rubber. Haste rubber was also recycled for use as a road dressing. Water emulsions of blends of waste rubber, asphalt, and coal tar were applied to high-traffic areas of selected parking lots for testing. This work is being conducted by Battelle Memorial Institute under a research grant on scrap tire utilization in road dressings. In another project studying the use of waste glass as a paving material, laboratory and field tests on asphalt containing waste glass aggregate demon- strated the suitability of these wastes for paving materials. Systems and Behavioral Studies The major emphasis of the systems and behavioral activities was directed towards (1) determining the economic effects of various government policies on selected solid waste problems; (2) determining the attitudes of the nation's citizens regarding solid waste and resource recovery; and (3) developing a framework for the Labora- tory 's future soft science solid waste research program. The extent of solid waste problems caused by beverage containers and aban- doned automobiles has been examined and 32 ------- possible strategies have been devel- oped for easing these problems. The beverage container study concluded that the container's major area of environmental insult is in the form of litter and recommended that a low tax (0.5 to 1.0 cents per container) should be placed on beverage contain- ers with the revenues used for more frequent litter collection. The abandoned automobile study concluded that the problem was getting worse, especially in rural areas, and that a more active role must be taken by the public sector to ease the problem. Recommended strategies included a disposal certification program for automobiles and a state-subsidized collection program for rural areas. A major effort was undertaken by the International Research and Tech- nology Corporation to determine how much combustible solid waste is gen- erated in the country and what tech- nologies and strategies should be supported by EPA to reduce the prob- lems caused by combustible solid wastes. Certain feasible strategies were identified for recovering re- sources from combustible solid wastes. The preferred strategy calls for im- position of an excise tax to subsidize municipalities that process wastes according to approved waste disposal and resource recovery procedures. A study analyzing the effects of Federal Government regulations and policies on solid waste generation concluded that although some Federal agencies do influence the generation and reclamation of solid waste, sur- prisingly few agency policies have a major effect on generating solid waste or inhibiting the recovery of resources. The recommendations for improving the Federal role in resource recovery included (1) revising Federal tax treatment of virgin materials ver- sus secondary materials, (2) clarifying the Tax Reform Act of 1969 to include solid waste as well as air pollution and water pollution control facilities for favored tax treatment, and (3) in- cluding the consideration of solid waste generation in Environmental Impact Statements. A national survey of housewives was made to determine their feelings about solid waste problems in general and about programs to reduce such prob- lems. Findings indicate that housewives have only a fragmented understanding of solid waste problems and their solu- tions. Housewives are willing and eager to reduce their solid waste im- pact and feel they have the responsi- bility to do so, but they see a need for government to provide them with the necessary information on what to do, and how. Other projects undertaken during the year included (1) in-depth analyses of the ferrous metal and aluminum in- dustries, (2) studies to develop an economic framework for policy analysis, (3) extensive analysis of the effect of Federal purchasing policies on solid waste problems, and (4) develop- ment of criteria for regional solid waste management planning. 33 ------- WATER SUPPLY RESEARCH LABORATORY The Water Supply Research Labora- tory performs health-effects studies necessary to establish standards for drinking, recreational, and food-grow- ing waters, and develops the microbio- logical, chemical, and engineering technology necessary to ensure the attainment of drinking water standards and the maintenance of satisfactory quality throughout the distribution system. The Laboratory also provides analytical and technical services to EPA Regional Offices and the Office of Air and Water Programs. The WSRL was instrumental in re- vising the Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards, as well as an appendix with background informa- tion. The revised standards were used as a partial basis by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) Panel ap- pointed to revise the Raw Water Criter- ia for Public Water Supplies. Similar information and liaison was given to the NAS Panel revising the Criteria for Recreation and Aesthetics. Health Criteria Studies Unknown Organic Contaminants Toxicological studies necessary to support a drinking water standard for general organics have long been hampered by the lack of an acceptable test material from drinking water. Reverse osmosis now appears to be a promising method for concentrating most organics from drinking water with- out altering their character. Animal experiments using some of these concen- trates should identify a basis for an organic limit in drinking water. Inorganic Chemical Contaminants Proposed mercury standards of 2 microgram/liter necessitated meas- urement of mercury concentrations in many drinking waters throughout the country. This study showed that the proposed standard was reasonable and indicated no imminent health hazard from mercury in drinking water. Con- trolled studies are being made on ex- perimental animals: (1) to determine the lowest dose of methyl mercury in drinking water that will produce bio- chemical lesions in the central nerv- ous system, and (2) to ascertain whether methyl mercury in drinking water will produce synergistic toxicity of other environmental chemicals. Home water samples were obtained from families participating in a New York air pollution investigation under the Community Health and Environmental Surveillance Studies. An exposure gradient for copper and zinc in water was discovered in this study, and lead was found in several samples taken in New York City during a Community Water Supply Study. Some public water supplies have nitrate levels exceeding the Drinking Water Standards (2% in Community Water Supply Study). Actually, the problem is most acute in individual private well systems (70% in some isolated counties), but few cases of metheme— globinemia occur. Field studies of infants in California and Illinois showed a subclinical effect, elevated methemoglobin in infants using water at 90 mg of nitrates per liter. This effect occurs at or above the standard 45 mg/1 depending on use of powdered 34 ------- formula, boiled water, and susceptible babies under 3 months of age. Because the Russian literature reported effects in older children at high levels, the WSRL made a study in Washington County, Illinois, where only a slight effect among pre-schoolers was found. Infectious Waterborne Disease A WSRL tabulation on waterborne disease outbreaks is maintained, and investigative assistance is available to communities to determine the cause of the outbreaks. A 10-year review of outbreaks showed that 46,000 cases of illness involved occurred in 130 separate out- breaks. The use of untreated ground water for public supplies caused over half of the reported waterborne dis- eases. Most infectious hepatitis was not a treatment problem, but was caused by cross-connections or back siphonage into the distribution system. The past downward trend has leveled off and there is now about one waterborne dis- ease outbreak per month in the U.S. WSRL has been striving to improve analytical methods to identify viruses in water. A survey of the persistence of virus through several public water treatment plants is underway. Control Technology Studies Removal of Trace Organics and Taste and Odor Historically, water treatment plant operators were unable to measure the organic content of their drinking water except by measuring the qualita- tive parameter of threshold odor. A miniaturized sampler and an improved carbon extraction procedure for deter- mining these organics (carbon chloro- form extract (CCE) and carbon alcohol extract (CAE)) were developed and field tested. This method will permit most water treatment plants to measure sig- nificant organic content of their fin- ished drinking water, including taste and odor producing components. Monitoring of general organic con- tent and odor was conducted at four field sites using granular activated carbon as a combination filtration and adsorption media. This work showed that organics break through activated carbon beds long before taste and odor materials, which may indicate the neces- sity for altering the reactivation cycle of granular activated carbon beds, if their purpose is the removal of most organic materials having health signif- icance. Removal of Turbidity and Specific Particles Two parallel 1 gpm water treatment pilot plants are now under construction. These fully-instrumented plants will be used to study filtration, granular car- bon adsorption, and ozonation (among other processes), and to confirm batch treatment results in a continuous flow plant. Removal of Trace Metals and Nitrate Laboratory studies with both in- organic and methyl mercury at environ- mental levels showed that if sufficient turbidity is present to adsorb all of the mercury,, coagulation and sedimen- tation will remove it. Precipitative softening removed some inorganic mer- cury, but not methyl mercury. Both mercury forms were removed effectively by activated carbon. Similar studies are underway on barium, arsenic, and selenium. 35 ------- Selective ion exchange resins can remove nitrate from drinking water, but studies are underway to determine the interfering effect of highly min- eralized water (containing silica, in particular) on this process. Chemical Quality Deterioration Under contract with the National Sanitation Foundation, an automatic portable monitor is being developed to measure temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, conductivity, nitrate, hardness, free and complexed fluoride, chloride, turbidity, free and combined chlorine residual, cadmium, lead, and copper. Field testing of this device is now underway. Contaminants and Additives in Drinking Water During Storage A protocol was established for the study of bacterial dynamics in reservoirs through bacteriological, physical, and chemical analyses. Spe- cial equipment for vertical and bottom sampling, and for survival studies of both indicator and pathogenic organisms is being constructed. Preliminary studies of indicator organisms in ther- mally stratified reservoirs is being analyzed to determine the best sampling locations and best techniques for ob- taining valid bacteriological data. Bacteriological Quality Deterioration of Potable Water There is a need for rapid assess- ment of the sanitary quality of water for emergency or temporary potable water supplies, at bathing beaches whose quality may have deteriorated following storms, and where shellfish- growing areas are subjected to sewage pollution. A procedure adaptable to true emergency situations, and utiliz- ing readily available equipment and materials, was tested at 14 Lake Michigan beaches and the results are being evaluated. Bottled water is being studied to obtain data on the relationship between bottled water quality and the bacteriological quality of its source. Storage studies compared refrigerated and non-refrigerated bottled waters and indicated that low-temperature storage apparently retards development of high bacterial populations. In general, the quality of pasteurized bottled water is better than in ozon- ated or U.V. irradiated waters. Any of these treatments produced a bacteri- ological quality better than bottled water subjected to ion exchange systems. Adequate disinfection of newly laid or repaired water mains has long been a problem. Distribution-line disinfection studies involving compar- ative effects of chlorine and potassium permanganate were intiated using test sections of simulated water pipe and contaminated tap water and the addi- tion of clay, humus, and sand slurries. Preliminary studies uncovered some ex- perimental problems; e.g., using thio- sulfate to dechlorinate the tap water reduces permanganate. Microorganisms in Drinking Water Chlorination studies on over 30 virus species showed that effective disinfection time for low-temperature conditions ranged from less than 3 min- utes to more than an hour, depending on the species of virus. Studies are being conducted on turbidity interferences to disinfection with chlorine. Waters with turbidities at or near the Drinking Water Standards and containing natural viruses are 36 ------- being disinfected with chlorine and the inactivation rates are being com- pared to similar samples without tur- bidity. Safety of Products The safety of products used in connection with water supplies is an urgent problem now being evaluated. Such products include chemical addi- tives, paints, liners, etc. A more specific example is the monomer content of polyacrylamide coagulant aids. A cooperative study with the City of Dallas and Texas ASM University is measuring the metal content of the tertiary effluent of an advanced waste treatment plant. Safe Recreational Water Quality Criteria A program for .-:veloping criteria for recreational waters includes a series of epidemiological-microbiologi- cal trials at bathing beaches - intit- ally salt water beaches in New York City - to relate the incidence of ill- ness among swimmers to some microbio- logical, chemical and/or physical indicators of water quality. A pre- liminary test of the methodology is planned for the summer of 1973. Pre- liminary demographic and behavioral data were gathered at New York City beaches during this past summer. In addition, an evaluation of existing enumerative methods for a large number of potential bacterial indicators and pathogens was conducted. Most of the methods were found to be deficient for use during the trials at the New York City beaches. A membrane filter (MF) method for the enumeration of Pseudo- monas aeruginosa was developed. Sig- nificant progress has been made toward .the development and evaluation of MF enumerative methods for fecal strepto- cocci, Staphylococcus aureus, Aeromonas hydrophila, Klebsiella sp., and the component parts of the coliform popu- lation. In cooperation with the Corvallis, NERC, water samples collected as part of the Lake Eutrophication Study were examined for Naegleria gruberi. This ubiquitous amoeba is the cause of amebic meningoencephalitis, a univer- sally fatal but infrequent disease (22 reported cases since 1966) associ- ated with water-based recreation. Technical Assistance The Water Supply Research Labora- tory supplies technical assistance to other elements of EPA as well as to states and other Federal Agencies. These activities fall into the follow- ing major categories: • evaluation of state laboratories • surveillance of interstate carrier water supplies • assistance to the States in surveil- lance of their water supplies • technical assistance to EPA Regions, states, and other Federal agencies • surveillance of water supplies of National parks and other Federal installations • surveillance of bottled water. Other technical assistance activ- ities include the development of special analytical methodology for water sup- plies. For example, a procedure has been drafted for the determination of 19 different metals by atomic adsorp- tion spectrophotometry and for the wet chemical determination of mercury for inclusion in the 14th Edition of "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water." 37 ------- FEATURE ARTICLES CAM-l: USING ENZYMES TO DETECT INSECTICIDES Introduction The rapid monitoring and accurate detection of certain cholinesterase- inhibiting substances in watercourses are critical. These materials, which include insecticides of the organo- phosphate and carbamate types (Azodrin, DDVP, dimetiIan, malathion, parathion, paraoxon, and Sevin), interfere with physiological and neurological func- tions by inhibiting the action of cholinesterase-type enzymes. They are toxic to living things, particularly to humans. The development of CAM-l, a fully engineered prototype model of a system for using enzymes to detect organophos- phate and carbamate pesticides in water, represents a significant tech- nological advance in the field. The device is the first instrument to successfuly use an immobilized enzyme product for automatically monitoring water supplies for the presence of cholinesterase-type inhibitors. CAM-l is sensitive enough to prevent the poisoning of humans and animals by a wide variety of organophosphate and carbamate insecticides. Although it was specifically designed to monitor the concentration of these types of insecticides in water supplies, the device can also be used to check the quality of industrial plant effluents and to detect spills of the types of pesticides to which it responds. • CAM-l was developed by the Mid- west Research Institute (MRI) in Kansas City, Missouri, under EPA's Hazardous Materials Spills Research Program. The project (EPA Contract No. 68-01-0038) was sponsored by the Edison Water Quality Research Labora- tory of the National Environmental Research Center in Cincinnati, Ohio. In 1972, CAM-l received national recognition at the IR-100 annual com- petition, where it was selected from several thousand entries as one of the 100 most significant advances in ap- plied science and technology. The device was included in the month-long IR-100 display at the world-famous Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago (Figure 3). Requests for fur- ther information about CAM-l have been received not only from interested parties in the United States, but also from scientists and engineers in 29 foreign countries. A cholinesterase is an enzyme that causes the hydrolysis (splitting) of esters of choline. Cholinesterase is essential to the proper functioning of the human nervous system. Certain organophosphates (which are produced by the reaction of phosphoric acid and alcohols) inhibit or are antagonistic to action of the enzyme cholinester- ase. Thus CAM is an acronym for "cholinesterase antagonist monitor," and its action can be regarded as that of a toxicity meter for certain materials. Previous attempts to use cholin- esterase-type enzymes for pesticide detection generally depended on adding the enzyme to the suspected water and then determining whether the enzyme retained the capacity to hydrolyze a material (substrate) that was subse- quently added. Frequently, the deter- mination was made by spectr©photometric means. The procedure was time-consuming 39 ------- Figure 3. Display of "CAM-1" at the Museum of Science and Industry, Chicago, September-October 1972 40 ------- and unsuitable for the rapid alarm re- quired to signal the presence of toxic levels of organophosphate pesticides in water supplies. Furthermore, the enzymes and substrates were moderately costly and were required in consider- able quantities. Design and Operation of CAM-1 Two technological advances were needed to accomplish the creation of the CAM-1 system: (1) development of techniques for bonding an enzyme to a carrier material so that the enzyme is active, conserved, and readily avail- able, and (2) the development of some rapid, convenient, accurate method for detecting hydrolysis of the substrate. A breakthrough came with development of techniques for bonding an enzyme to a carrier; MRI bonds the enzyme either to cotton or to polyurethane foam. The process roughly resembles dyeing with a mordant. MRI developed an in-place, electrochemical method for determining the extent or degree of hydrolysis, which is an inverse measure of the inhibition of the enzyme (or, consequently, of the toxicity of the water being tested). After these two major obstacles had been overcome, a flow-through sys- tem could be engineered. In this sys- tem, water suspected of containing organophosphates is passed through a pad dyed with the enzyme. (Pesticide in the water reacts with, and thus inactivates, immobilized enzyme mole- cules to an extent that is proportional to the quantity of pesticide passed through the cell and at a rate that is proportional to the concentration of the pesticide in the water.) The water flow (500 ml/min) is diverted, and a small amount of substrate solution (1 ml) is added to the pad. When the enzyme has not been inhibited by the toxic materials in the water, the sub- strate will be hydrolyzed. When there has been an inhibition of the cholin- esterase, however, the rate of hydrol- ysis of the substrate, as well as the quantity of material hydrolyzed during the operating time period, will decrease. The critical element of the CAM-1 design is a pad of immobilized chol- inesterase, which is sandwiched between perforated platinum electrodes. The electrode unit is about 8 mm thick and 1 on in diameter. Water is pumped through the pad for 2 rain; during the third minute, air and an enzyme-active reagent or substrate solution is forced through the cell (the enzyme is equine serum cholinesterase (I.V.B. 3.1.1.8), and the substract is 2.5 x 10"** M butyrylthiocholine iodide in 0.08 M TRIS buffer at pH 7.4). Finally, during the last half minute of the complete 3-min cycle, a battery is connected across the platinum electrodes and a small current (2UA) flows through the cell. When the substract is being hydrolyzed at the maximum rate (that is, when the cholinesterase has not been inhibited by toxic substances in the water), the voltage across the cell will be significantly lower than when the enzyme has been inhibited. The voltage registers on a digital voltmeter and on a small strip-chart recorder. (The normal voltage for a fresh pad is about 100 mV; the voltage across an inactivated pad is about 500 mV.) The explanation for the voltage change has not been sought in detail, but the change does not arise from a mere alteration in conductivity. There is evidence that both a redox potential change and a depolarization effect are involved. On hydrolysis, the substrate produces a hydrosulfide, which is 41 ------- readily electrooxidized to a disulfide. The redox potential of such a hydrosul- fide-disulfide half-cell is of the proper order. As the immobilized en- zyme becomes inactivated, the concen- tration of hydrosulfide available for oxidation is decreased, and the poten- tial of the couple increases toward that of the oxygen electrode potential. The electronics are designed so that a previous cell voltage reading can be stored in the memory of a small, built-in computer and compared with a new voltage reading. When the new voltage is greater than the previous voltage by a preset value (which can be dialed into the CAM-1 device), an alarm sounds. With tine, the enzyme pad loses some of its activity, particularly be- cause of inactivation by toxic sub- stances, but also as a result of the slow washing out of the enzyme. In normal operation, a pad is good for a day. A pad-change voltage can be dialed into CAM-1, so that when the voltage exceeds a preset value, the cell is automatically opened and the pad changed. The device holds 10 new pads. Thus, CAM-1 operates for sev- eral days without attention, unless organophosphates occur in the test water in such concentration and dura- tion that the pad supply is used up. CAM-1 is designed so that is can be operated in tandem with a second unit, but half a measurement cycle (1-1/2 min) out of phase. This ar- rangement reduces the minimum alarm time and provides, in addition, com- plete sampling of the water; there is no "dead" time. The arrangement with two units in tandem is self-confirma- tory. In a limited series of laboratory experiments, CAM-1 consistently gave an alarm at the concentrations of pesticides shown in Table 4. The alarm threshold level was set at 15 millivolts, but a detection limit 2 or 3 times smaller (5 millivolts) can certainly be used with the existing device. TABLE 4. ALARM RESPONSE OF CAM-1 TO SELECTED INSECTICIDES Type of Response insecticide concentration Organophosphate: Malathion Parathion DDVP Paraoxon Carbamate: Sevin Dimetilan ppm 16 5 1 0.1 50 10 LD rats so mg/kg 1,640 56 56 4 560 64 Toxicities are given for refer- ence. A rough correlation exists between toxicity and the CAM-1 response levels; but it should be noted, for example, that a rat weighing 1 kg would have to imbibe more than 10 liters of water with a parathion con- centration of 5 ppm to accumulate a toxic dose (56 rag/kg of body weight) of the pesticide (5 ppm - 5 mg/liter » 5 mgAg water). 42 ------- Future Developments The next steps in the development of CAM-1 will be to determine whether any nontoxic materials give alarm sig- nals and to measure the actual thresh- hold limits for a wide variety of pesticides. In principle, the CAM-1 system could also be developed to use enzymes other than cholinesterase. The following represent a few examples of enzymes and the substrates that are antagonistic to their action: catalase (cyanides, azides), urease (fluorides, formaldehyde) , lipase (aldrin, lindane), hexokinase (2,4-D and 2,4,5-T), and cytochrome oxidase (cyanides). CAM-1 can be produced in a sim- plified, more portable version that will be suitable for rapid detection of cholinesterase antagonistic pesti- cides under field conditions. 43 ------- DEVELOPMENT OF GAS CHRQMATOGRAPHY/MASS SPECTROSCOPY Many of the standard techniques of chemistry that have provided very valuable information in flagrant pol- lution situations suffer severe limi- tations. They may be slow, expensive, relatively insensitive to very small quantities, or unable to generate really definitive information. As a result, environmental researchers have begun to turn to a new interdisciplin- ary technique, computerized gas chro- ma tograpy /mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Like any automated method, com- puterized GC/MS does not reduce the need for skilled manpower. Indeed, it requires highly skilled interdisciplin- ary teams of spectroscopists, analyti- cal chemists, electronics engineers, and lab minicomputer specialists. Its major advantage is that it increases enormously the capabilities of a staff of fixed or limited size. A computerized GC/MS system was installed at the Analytical Quality Control Laboratory (AQCL), in September 1971. Since that time, it has been used in a variety of methods develop- ment projects, including development of a procedure for analysis of poly- chlorinated biphenyl compounds in the presence of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides. Use of the GC/MS system in the latter case eliminates the need for laborious and time-consuming chro- ma tographic separation. Seventeen complete GC/MS systems, valued at about $1.7 million, were in- stalled and operating in EPA labs in the last 2 years. The systems are em- ployed in six regional surveillance and analysis labs, two national field investigations centers, and at various NERC laboratories in Cincinnati, Ohio, Corvallis, Ore., and Research Triangle Park, N.C. An EPA mass spectrometer users group was organized by AQCL to promote the informal exchange of technical in- formation among EPA labs using comput- erized GC/MS. Effective use of this sophisticated equipment will provide enforcement officials a significant tool for analysis of organic pollutants. Design The three functional parts of the systems are as follows: 1. The gas chromatograph. This device is very well established as a powerful separation tool for complex mixtures of organic compounds. 2. The mass spectrometer. Convention- al GC detectors provide too little information content and have been re- placed by the mass spectrometer, which is the only GC detector used. Like conventional GC detectors, it is very sensitive, but it provides a response that carries a great deal of informa- tion characteristic of the molecular structure and composition of organic compounds. This information is dis- played as a histogram by a plotter. 3. The minicomputer. The hookup be- tween production and utilization of information is made possible by the minicomputer. Unlike conventional GC detectors, the mass spectrometer is not run continuously in noncomputer- ized systems because it would generate far more information than could be 45 ------- assimilated and used. The minicomputer takes all this information in stride and controls the whole operation in its spare time. Personnel are thus freed to do productive tasks like data interpretation. Methods Development The manufacturers of the GC/MS equipment provide basic operating in- structions, of course. But since they manufacture equipment for use in a wide variety of applications (from bi- medical research to identification of drugs in racehorse urine), they cannot possibly provide detailed methods for any one of them. Therefore, one pro- ject of NEPC-Cincinnati AQCL research program is to develop detailed methods for the use of computerized GC/MS sys- tems in EPA laboratories. Needed methodology includes calibration and quality control techniques, data in- terpretation aids, and revised and updated minicomputer programs to ex- pand capabilities. The problem of identifying and measuring specific organic compounds (e.g., DDT) that contaminate the en- vironment has concerned environmental research scientists for many years. The huge number of potentially harmful or toxic compounds that are possible generally precludes the development of a specific analytical method for each. Therefore, general approaches based on slight differences in solubility, chro- raatographic behavior, and spectroscopic measurements have been developed and widely used. Conclusion Identification of noxious pollu- tants at the parts per billion level, with a high degree of confidence in the result, have become nearly routine in a few EPA laboratories since GC/MS systems have been installed. What was once a nearly impossible task for a staff of 100 working for 6 months can now be accomplished by three people in a few hours. 46 ------- LAKE RESTORATION BY PHOSPHORUS CONTROL: SHAGAWA LAKE, ELY, MINNESOTA Many small communities in the United States are located on inland lakes that have become polluted and overly fertilized by poorly treated sewage. Shagawa Lake, which extends within the city limits of Ely, Minn., is a graphic example. The lake has a long history of producing nuisance algal blooms in the summer, although advanced eutrophy is not common in this geographical region. The major source of phosphorus input to Shagawa Lake is the wastewater treatment plant discharge of the city of Ely. Ely has a resident population of about 5,000, but this figure is typically inflated to 10,000 during the summer tourist season. The city has been discharging sewage in to the lake since 1901, but only since 1954 has secondary treatment of the waste been provided. Except for the city of Ely, the vicinity of the lake is sparsely popu- lated. Most of the surrounding land is covered with deciduous and conifer- ous forest. No significant amount of agriculture is carried out in the area, and there is very little industry. The primary surface input is via Burntside River, which is fed by oligotrophic Burntside Lake. The Ely wastewater plant effluent thus represents essen- tially a point source of phosphorus and other nutrients. Circumstantially, it appears that Shagawa Lake may have been significantly advanced in its eutrophic state because of its history as a receptor for municipal sewage ef- fluent. The secondary treatment facilities of the city handle an average daily flow of about a million gallons and consist of a primary clarifier, a high-rate trickling filter, a second- ary clarifier, and a chlorine contact chamber. This type of plant is tradi- tionally ineffective in removing phos- phorus. Studies conducted over a period of several years by EPA's National Eutrophication Research Pro- gram (NERP) indicated that removal of nearly all of the phosphorus from the municipal treatment plant effluent would restore Shagawa Lake to a much improved condition within a relatively few years. The studies were performed using (1) a 20,000-gal-per-day, ad- vanced waste treatment pilot plant fed with Ely trickling filter plant efflu- ent and (2) in situ bioassays conducted in three 150,000-gal, floating test basins. Shagawa Lake itself has a surface area of 2,500 acres, an average depth of 22 ft and a maximum depth of 48 ft, a mean volume of 15 billion gal, and a calculated retention time of less than 1 year. This short retention time, the virtual absence of diffuse sources of nutrients, the existence of only one significant point source of phosphorus, an inflow of oligotrophic water, and the reasonably small size of the lake and city made this a nearly ideal situation in which to carry out a lake restoration study. Restoration of Shagawa Lake is especially important from a regional viewpoint because its water flows into several other oligotrophic streams and lakes, including Canadian border waters. The lake is located about 260 miles 47 ------- north of Minneapolis-Saint Paul and about 16 miles south of the Canadian border—in the heart of a vast lake region at the edge of a designated wilderness area of the Superior Nation- al Forest. Restoration would also be of great value to the city of Ely, since the lake in its present condition has lost its great recreational and economic value. These factors and the national impact that a successful lake restoration demonstration would have on implementing phosphorus removal technology contributed to the joint decision by EPA and the city to pro- ceed with full-scale phosphorus removal at Shagawa Lake. Project Objectives Two EPA research, development, and demonstration grants were awarded to Ely, the first in February 1971 for design of the full-scale facilities, and the second in June 1971 for plant construction and operational supplies, chemicals, and utilities. At the time of these grant awards, Ely was under stipulation from the State of Minnesota to reduce the phosphorus concentration in its plant effluent to 1 mg per liter by May 1973. The results of the pilot studies conducted at Ely indicated, however, that a greater degree of phos- phorus removal was necessary to demon- strate measurable restoration of Shagawa Lake over a relatively short period of time. A phosphorus concen- tration of 0.05 mg per liter of efflu- ent was recommended by Dr. A. F. Bartsch, Director of the National Environmental Research Center (NERC), Corvallis, Ore., as a more realistic level for achieving the desired degree of restoration in a 3-year period. Consistent production of municipal sewage plant effluent with a phosphorus level of 0.05 mg per liter is, however, the most ambitious known phosphorus re- moval of its kind in the world. The tight control required to achieve such an objective and to provide the sub- stantial improvement in organics and suspended solids removals stipulated for Ely by the State of Minnesota dictated the design and construction of a tertiary operation to supplement the existing trickling filter plant, rather than an in-process upgrading of the existing facilities. Construc- tion of these tertiary facilities was essentially complete in late 1972, and the first few months of 1973 have been devoted to plant startup, process checkout, and equipment adjustment. Plant Design The tertiary treatment facilities are designed for maximum phosphorus removal and include flow equalization of effluent from the trickling filter plant, two-stage lime clarification with intermediate recarbonation, dual- media filtration, and final pH adjust- ment and disinfection. The chemical sludges produced are dewatered in a gravity thickener followed by vacuum filtration and final disposal in a sanitary landfill. A flexible chemical dosing system is provided to enable several types of coagulants and poly- mers to be added as necessary at mul- tiple feed points. Facilities for dosing powdered activated carbon to the existing secondary clarifier to improve soluble organic carbon capture are also provided. All of the above equipment is housed in a new combined laboratory, control, and tertiary pro- cess building. The individual process units are sized for an average flow rate of 1 million gallons per day, with a capacity factor of 1.5 48 ------- Both the first- and second-stage lime clarifiers have a diameter of 55 ft and are of the sludge-recircula- tion, solids-contact type. Each of the four effluent filters is a 12-ft- diameter unit equipped with anthracite- over-sand media and automatically con- trolled, air-scour gravity backwash. The sludge thickener has a diameter of 26 ft and a side-wall liquid depth of 15 ft; it is equipped with a center- drive sludge thickening rake. The vacuum filter is of the continuous- fabric media type, with a drum diameter of 6 ft and a length of 8 ft. Sufficient lime is added to the first-stage contactor to raise the pH to approximately 11.8 (lime dosages to accomplish this have averaged about 300 mg of CaO per liter during plant startup). This procedure converts virtually 100 percent of the soluble phosphate to insoluble calcium phos- phate. Carbon dioxide is utilized in the second-stage contactor to lower pH to 9.5-10.0 and allow precipitation of excess causticity as calcium carbonate. Small doses (5-10 mg per liter) of ferric chloride and aluminum sulfate added to the second-stage contactor are being evaluated as to (1) their capacities for precipitating trace quantities of soluble phosphorus still remaining in the wastewater at that point in the treatment sequence, and (2) their coagulative value in aiding colloidal solids capture in the dual- media filters. After filtration, final pH adjustment to approximately 7.5 is accomplished with sulfuric acid. To assure complete control of phosphorus entering the lake and to provide for the maximum beneficial im- pact to the lake, it was necessary to install channel collection and pumping facilities to intercept septic tank runoff from 120 homes that previously drained directly in to Shagawa Lake. This drainage is now pumped to the head- works of the treatment plant, thus preventing a significant source of extraneous phosphorus from entering the lake untreated. Administration Administration of grant activities and technical assistance related to treatment processing is provided rou- tinely by the National Environmental Research Center (NERC), Cincinnati, Ohio. Under an agreement with the city of Ely, EPA is authorized to operate both the secondary and tertiary treatment facilities during the 3-year demonstration period (terminating in April 1976), during which it is antici- pated that Shagawa Lake will exhibit first a decline and then a reversal in its current accelerated aging process. NERC-Cincinnati is providing 17 plant operators and plant laboratory techni- cians, plus a resident plant engineer for the duration of the project. The project director and personnel for carrying out lake sampling, lake meas- urements and analytical determinations, and documentation and evaluation of lake data are provided by NERP (admin- istered by NERC-Corvallis). The city is contributing one Class B operator and two operator helpers. No previous demonstration of lake restoration has been attempted based on the premise that it can be accom- plished by removing a critical nutrient from municipal wastewater and allowing the treated wastewater to continue flowing into the lake. Preliminary data generated during plant startup indicate that the effluent residual objective of 0.05 mg of phosphorus 49 ------- per liter can be continuously met with of the Ely treatment facilities and careful and dedicated operation and all progress made in restoring Shagawa control. The prognosis for a success- Lake will undoubtedly be closely fol- ful demonstration project is encourag- lowed by sanitary engineers and regu- ing. Both the continuing performance latory groups alike. 50 ------- NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYMPOSIUM: AN AGENDA FOR PROGRESS For some time there has been a widening interest in and demand for improved organization, processing, and dissemination of environmental infor- mation. In response to this growing concern, the National Environmental Information Symposium (NEIS) was held in Cincinnati, Ohio, on September 24- 27, 1972. This symposium, sponsored by EPA and hosted by NERC-Cincinnati, was the first general convocation of the environmental information commun- ity. It grew out of the conviction that environmental problems could be more easily solved if the information required were readily available to all segments of society. More than 1,700 participants represented a substantial portion of the community of producers and users of environmental information in the United States. In addition, about 50 international observers were present. The program was enriched through the participation of about 125 exhibitors, who gave detailed descrip- tions and demonstrations of the infor- mation sources and services available. In cooperation with other Government agencies, EPA undertook to organize the Symposium with three basic purposes: * To bring together concerned citizens, trade associations, professional societies, and governmental bodies to share ideas, interests, and com- mon concerns. • To identify specific directions that governmental and private organizations could take to strengthen coordination and cooperation and to improve envi- ronmental information exchange. • To provide a forum for producers and processors of environmental data to demonstrate the most up-to-date tech- niques, methods, and equipment to users in the fields of information science and systems. The proceedings of the National Environmental Information Symposium are being issued in two volumes. Volume 1 contains a statement of the background and purpose of the Symposium, a summary of participant comments and recommendations (gleaned from verbal and written communications with members of the Symposium committees), and the full text of the user panel reports. Volume 2 includes the papers presented by the general session speakers, intro- ductory statements by the moderators, papers presented by the session speakers, and any reports submitted from the even- ing forum sessions. The proceedings will be published and distributed by the National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of Commerce. 51 ------- A NEW FACILITY FOR NERC-CINCINNATI Groundbreaking ceremonies for the National Environmental Research Center's new facility near the University of Cincinnati were held on June 28, 1972. Land for the new EPA facility was donated to the Federal Government by the city of Cincinnati. The ceremony, whose participants included, Julie Nixon Eisenhower, the Administrator of EPA, and other EPA, State, and City officials, climaxed more than 10 years of planning for the multidisciplinary environmental center. In 1972, the Director of NERC-Cincinnati and the president of the University of Cincin- nati , signed an "Agreement of Mutual Assent," which identified areas of mutual interest and concern to the University and to EPA. The cost of the construction con- tract, awarded in November 1972, is about $21 million. Work on the center began in December. After completion, which is scheduled for May 1975, it is anticipated that all EPA personnel in Cincinnati will consolidate in just two facilities—the new center and the Robert A. Taft Laboratory. A study is presently in progress to identify the programs that will be housed in each of these buildings. The new facility will be a 10-story structure, rising eight stories above grade in the southeast sector of an almost rectangular, 20-acre tract. The site is strategically located be- tween the main campus and the hospital —medical complex of the University. Required parking space will be separ- ated into five areas, two of which can be enlarged to accompany future expan- sion of the facility. Figure 4. Architect's conception of new facility ------- April. 1973 June, 1973 Figure 5. Progress of new construction 54 ------- Figure 6. Progress of new construction ------- OIL AND HAZARDOUS MATERIALS SIMULATED ENVIRONMENTAL TEST TANK The Edison Water Quality Research Laboratory (a division of NERC-Cincin- nati) is currently constructing an oil and hazardous materials simulated en- vironmental test tank (OHMSETT) on the south shore of Raritan Bay in Leonardo, N.J. This facility will provide an environmentally safe place for develop- ing standard test procedures and for evaluating, under reproducible condi- tions, devices designed to contain and to pick up oil and hazardous materials spilled in rivers, harbors, and estu- aries. In 1970, 3,334 oil spills (totaling about 15 million gal) and 376 hazardous material and other spills (totaling about a quarter of a million gallons) were tabulated. Of these 3,711 spills, 2,784 (involv- ing 9.56 million gal) occurred in rivers and other inland waters, and in coastal bays, estuaries, sounds, ports, terminals, docks, beaches, and channels: that is to say, precisely in those environments whose conditions OHMSETT is designed to simulate. OHMSETT is large enough to test and evaluate prototype, full-sized devices, thus, any scale-up difficulties from lab and pilot-sized models can be caught here without having the envi- ronment suffer from misjudgments. Tank Design The test tank, which is 670 ft long, 65 ft wide, and 11 ft deep, is being constructed of reinforced con- crete by Remsco Associates of Matawan, N.J. It was designed by Engineers, Inc., of Newark, N.J., for towing test equipment weighing up to 20 tons and for drawing up to 3 ft of water. One of the tank's long sides has a 14-ft wide roadway accessed by a ramp at the south end; the other has a 7-ft wide sidewalk. One short side will support a mechanically driven, flap-type wave generator capable of making 2-ft high waves with frequencies from 2.0 to 0.55 Hertz and with lengths up to 16 ft. Wave height will be selected before each test, and frequency may be varied to some extent during each test. Waves will either be absorbed by a "beach" at the opposite end of the tank, or (when the beach is dropped to the bottom) be reflected off the slightly V-shaped north end to generate the "confused sea" typical of a busy harbor or tide-ripped narrows (Figure 7). Currents will be simulated by tow- ing test equipment lengthwise down the tank with a 68-ft wide,•34-ton bridge that spans the tank and runs on rails. The bridge is pulled at speeds up to 6 knots by cables powered by two 500 hp electric motors located at the beach end of the tank. The bridge and wave gener- ator will be controlled from a three- story, 18 ft by 25 ft control building to be located between the winch pad and the tank. The bridge will be used as a platform from which to disperse and re- cover test oil and hazardous materials, as well as for towing. Special equipment for treating tank water is located near the control house. A 2,000-gpm pressure leaf, diatomaceous earth filter will clarify the 2.6 million gal of Raritan Bay water required to fill the tank to a depth of 8 ft. The same equipment, with the addition of a carbon filter aid, will treat water recircu- lated between tests to maintain the 57 ------- Figure 7. Oil and hazardous materials simulated environmental test tank 58 ------- clarity required for photography and TV instant replay. Spent filter aid will be dwwatered using a paper tape filter, and the spent filter aid and tape will be disposed of at an ap- proved landfill site. When the tank must be emptied for maintenance pur- poses, the entire water volume will be treated until it meets all appli- cable State and Federal criteria be- fore being returned to Raritan Bay (at a higher quality than when origi- nally withdrawn). Additional special- ized treatment equipment will be used whenever hazardous materials are used in tests. The 40-ft by 50-ft preparation building for laboratory and shop equipment will parallel the west side of the tank, near the center. Anal- yses of tank water, oil, and hazardous materials will be performed in this building to determine whether they meet specifications for tests in the tank. The building will also house maintenance of the sensors, construc- tion of the adapters necessary to mate them with the various items of equip- ment to be tested, and preparation of the equipment itself after it has been transported to the site. Some storage and office space will also be located there. Data Collection Data collected in tests at OHMSETT will be in the form of camera film, TV videotape, tape recorder tape, rolls of chart paper, IBM magnetic tape, and the conventional paper and pencil re- cords common to laboratory analyses and field investigations. Some data reduction will be performed under con- tract, but the majority of the analysts and report writing will be conducted at the site or in the Edison Water Quality Research Laboratory. Goals The present goal is to develop as rapidly as possible standard tests and procedures to improve the quality and effectiveness of spill containment and cleanup devices. To this end, consul- tation with the Coast Guard, Navy, uni- versities, and private and public parties has already been initiated. The aim is to make the tank fully productive just as soon as it becomes operational in early 1974. To recapitulate, the chief purpose of the test tank is to ensure that if the test equipment fails for any reason to pick up or contain 100% of the test oil or hazardous material, these test fluids will be confined to the tank and not loosed on the environment. 59 ------- RESOURCE RECOVERY VIA CPU-400: POWER FROM SOLID WASTE The major resource recovery pro- ject being undertaken by the NERC- Cincinnati Solid Waste Research Laboratory (SWRL) involves a process that burns the combustible component of refuse and uses the hot gas stream to drive a turbine for the generation of electricity. The system, conceived to burn 400 tons of solid waste per day, has been designated as the CPU-400 by the contractor (Combustion Power Company of Menlo Park, Calif.). The SWRL has pursued the develop- ment of this process over the past several years, and these efforts have resulted in a fully integrated, opera- tional pilot plant. Over $6 million has been expended in the development of this process and pilot plant system. Plant Design The pilot plant model is a 100-ton per day unit consisting of a front-end solid waste separation system where incoming municipal refuse is shredded and air classified to remove noncom- bustibles (Figure 8). Metal and glass components are separated into categor- ies suitable for recycling. The com- bustible fraction is transported pneumatically to a storage vessel that holds about 20 tons. From there, the shredded refuse passes into a weighing conveyor and then to the rotary air- lock feeder valves, which deliver the solid waste fuel into the pressurized combustor. The turbine compressor sup- plies compressed air for transporting the solid waste fuel, for fluidizing the combustor sand bed, and for com- bustion air. The hot gases from the fluidized- bed combustor pass through an alumina/ sand separator and two stages of inertial separators to remove particulates. The cleaned, hot gases are then expanded through a gas turbine that will generate about 1,000 kw of electricity. The pilot plant fluidized-bed com- bustor operates at a pressure of about 45 psig. The outside diameter of the combustor is almost 10 ft, the inside diameter is 7 ft, and the height is 22 ft. The external shell is made of mild steel, with refractory lining on the inside. Future Outlook The CPU-400 process is in the final stages of pilot plant development. Total system performance is being evalu- ated by a series of automatically con- trolled, long-duration test runs. The utility of this process for the combined energy conversion of sewage sludge and municipal solid waste to usable power is being scrutinized. The performance of the CPU-400 system under extended test conditions will very likely deter- mine the role it is to play in solving two of the Nation's most pressing prob- lems, the energy crisis and resource recovery. 61 ------- 10 STOMGt vnip W*SI| SIOKAGI SOLID WASTE PROCESSING STATION CONTROL ROOM Figure 8. CPU-400 Pilot Plant ------- INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES The Federal Environmental Research Programs in Cincinnati have for many years drawn thousands of foreign scien- tists to laboratories here. Conversely, many Cincinnati-based researchers have traveled abroad to participate in in- ternational seminars and to serve on technical committies in conjunction with a number of international agree- ments . Since the inception of NERC-Cin- cinnati, these scientific exchanges have become increasingly important, and a number of official international agreements are being pursued with funds available under P.L. 480 and other pro- grams set up to encourage worldwide cooperation in identifying and solving environmental problems. International Organizations and Working Agreements Committee on Challenges to Modern Society (CCMS) This NATO committee coordinates environmental activities of NATO countries. International contacts and conferences between the United States Council of Environmental Quality and Great Britain's Department of Environ- ment established plans for a joint effort in advanced wastewater treatment. In September 1971, Mr. Francis M. Middleton, Deputy Director, NERC- Cincinnati, and Mr. Jesse M. Cohen, Chief, Physical-Chemical Treatment Section, AWTR Laboratory, met with British scientists in London to ex- change information on the status of advanced waste treatment processes in the respective countries. From these contacts, an agreement was reached under which Great Britain is developing advanced waste treatment systems and is constructing a $2 million physical-chemical treatment plant. Any NATO country may participate as copilot countries with the United States and Great Britain. Representatives of the German and French governments, who attended the initial CCMS meetings in London, are studying pure oxygen-acti- vated sludge systems. In November 1972, Mr. John J. Convery, Director of the NERC-Cincinnati Advanced Waste Treatment Research Labora- tory, visited Brussels to attend the Plenary Session of the CCMS. In Decem- ber 1972, a delegation from the United Kingdom including representatives of the Department of Environment from the Stevenage Laboratory, and consulting engineers who are designing the advanced waste treatment plant, visited the United States to observe a number of advanced waste treatment plants and to discuss treatment plant design problems. US - USSR Bilateral Agreement In July 1972, Mr. Convery visited the Soviet Union as part of a seven-man U.S. delegation. This delegation and their host counterparts discussed waste- water treatment technology in the USSR, as part of the information exchange provisions of the 1970 bilateral agree- ment between the US and USSR. 63 ------- The delegates identified areas of mutual interest for possible further cooperation under the May 1972 accord signed by Presidents Nixon and Podgorny. The delegation met with a variety of Soviet groups concerned with wastewater treatment technology, industrial wastes, municipal wastes, water supply, water resources, and construction of treat- ment plants and irrigation works. The meeting convened in Moscow and visits were made to Leningrad, Kiev, and Siktivkar. US - Japan Agreements As a result of several bilateral agreements, the United States and Japan have established joint panels on envi- ronmental matters. Following exchanges of visits during 1969-70, a joint committee on sewage treatment technology was estab- lished. In October 1971, Mr. Middleton headed a five-man team which visited Japan. In December 1972, a Japanese delegation visited Cincinnati and ad- vanced waste treatment installations in California and Washington, D.C., and participated in a 3-day discussion with the Office of Air and Water Pro- grams. They also visited NERC-Corvallis to discuss problems of eutrophication. Other Overseas Visits Organization for Economic Cooperation Dr. Robert L. Bunch, Chief, Bio- logical Treatment, AWTRL, has partici- pated in meetings of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Develop- ment, and has been an official United States representative of the Working Group on Detergents and Treatment Pro- cesses. This group is considering all aspects of the detergent problem, in- cluding their composition, health aspects of detergent additives, appro- priate sewage treatment processes, treatability of detergent preparations in conventional processes, and the fate of particular consituents such as heavy metals and complex ions. The purpose of this effort is the development and dissemination of information concerning detergent preparations and associated environmental problems on the interna- tional scene. Romania At the request of the Romanian government, Mr. Jesse M. Cohen and Mr. Middleton visited Bucharest in September 1971 to discuss sewage treat- ment technology with Romanian author- ities. Mechanisms were set up for exchange of literature and research results and the Romanian government was invited to make use of any of the advanced technology that has been developed in the ORSD research program. World Health Organization In December 1971, Mr. Middleton served on a panel on wastewater reuse sponsored by the World Health Organiza- tion (WHO) in Geneva, Switzerland. Mr. Middleton was responsible for com- pleting the panel's report which will be published in a WHO series. Technical Committee 147 Mr. Dwight G. Bellinger, Director, Analytical Quality Control Laboratory, headed the United States delegation to Technical Committee 147 - Water Supply of American National Standards, in Geneva, Switzerland, in April 1972. The committee is devoted to the develop- ment of analytical methods for water, 64 ------- including characterization by physical, chemical, radiological, and microbio- logical measurements. Great Lakes International Field Year Mr. John A. Winter and Dr. Cornel- ius I. Weber, Analytical Quality Con- trol Laboratory, participated in meetings of the study committees of the International Field Year for the Great Lakes (IFYGL) at Niagara Falls, Ontario, in November 1972. They re- ported on findings in the areas of interlaboratory chlorophyll reference samples, quality control measurements, and biological methodology employed by IFYGL labs, and a computerized system for IFYGL data in STORET. Water Supply Meetings Mr. Edwin E. Geldreich, NEFC Water Supply Research Laboratory, attended a WHO conference in Ostend, Belgium, in March 1972, devoted to the development of health criteria guidelines for the WHO. Dr. Norman A. Clarke and Mr. Donald Herman consulted with local officials in Buenos Aires, Argentina, and Sao Paulo, Brazil, concerning establishment of virology laboratories there. The Pan American Health Organization ar- ranged this international technical assistance committee, which met in May 1972. Mr. Gordon G. Robeck visited Singapore in March 1972 to serve as one of ten advisory panelists from the National Academy of Sciences at a workshop dealing with water resources in Singapore, Indonesia, Philippines, South Vietnam, and Thailand. Experts from Japan, France, and the United Kingdom also attended. Mr. Robeck visited Lima, Peru, in August 1972 to participate in a sympos- ium on water treatment methods sponsored by the Pan American Health Organization, and attended subsequent meetings on the same topic in Asuncion, Paragual, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and Buenos Aires, Argentina. The trip afforded a valuable opportunity to discuss vital problems of water supply with researchers, edu- cators, and public officials from all over South America. Poland Dr. Andrew W. Breidenbach, Director, NERC-Cincinnati, visited Poland in January 1973 to act as a temporary ad- viser to the seminar "Design of Envi- ronmental Information Systems" sponsored by WHO in Katowice, and to consult with Polish officials regarding the P.L. 480 program. Foreign Visitors During the period covered by this report, NERC-Cincinnati was host to about 150 foreign visitors. These visitors came from many countries, with about half coming from Japan. The Cincinnati laboratory complex has been known throughout the world for many years, and many types of work being conducted here are of interest to foreign researchers. Historically, a large number of the visitors have come because of our activities in water pollution control, but much interest has been shown lately in solid waste, water supply, and other activities at NERC-Cincinnati. 65 ------- Public Law 480 Projects The Environmental Protection Agency is using funds available to the United States Government in various foreign countries under P.L. 480 to sponsor pollution control research projects in those countries. NERC- Cincinnati project officers are working with local research organizations in Poland, India, Israel, and Yugoslavia on several projects of mutual interest in the wastewater, water supply, air pollution, and solid waste areas. New projects are currently being developed in Poland and Tunisia. These coopera- tive efforts not only serve to advance the art of pollution control technology in all countries concerned, but also to promote the spread of information and a spirit of cooperation among environ- mental control researchers around the world. A summary list of foreign projects involving NERC-Cincinnati scientists is listed below: "Neutralization and Utilization of Post- Coagulation Sludge" Institute of Muni- cipal Economy, Warszawa, Poland (Investigator: J. Salbut - EPA Project Officer: R. L. Bunch) A new treatment plant will produce drinking water from the Wista River by using alum coagulation. All available methods for dewatering alum sludge prior to its disposal will be evaluated, and an attempt will be made to find an economical way to recover alum for re- use in the plant. The Wista is similar to many major rivers in the United States in that it is both a receiving stream for wastewater and a source for drinking water. "Utilization and Ultimate Disposal of Sludge from the Combined Treatment Plant/Sewage and Wastewater from Cotton, Linen, and Tannery Industry/Together with the Municipal Solid Wastes" Water Economy Research Institute, Wroclaw, Poland (Investigator: H. Manczak - EPA Project Officer: R. B. Dean) The treatment of sludges from in- dustries and municipal sewage in the upper valley of the Bystrzyca River near the Czechoslovakian border will be in- vestigated. All wastes are to be col- lected in order to protect a water reservoir on the river. An attempt will be made to compost industrial sludges with municipal sludges and solid waste to make them acceptable for landfill disposal and, if possible, to utilize them in agriculture. The same necessity for complete treatment and export of liquid wastes also exists in industrialized river basins in the United States. "Development of Methods and Techniques for Final Treatment of Combined Munici- pal and Textile Wastewaters Including Sludge" Water Economy Research Insti- tute, Katowice, Poland (Investigator: J. Suschka - EPA Project Officer: R. B. Dean) The United States and other coun- tries are undergoing a change in the cloth and fibers being used. Cotton and wool are giving way to synthetic fibers in the textile industry, and new types of dyes are consequently also being introduced. Various combinations of wastewater treatment processes are being investigated to determine their effectiveness in treating a combination of domestic and textile wastewaters, 66 ------- emphasizing the removal of color. The disposal of sludges generated by these processes is also being investigated. "Solid .Waste in India" Central Public Health Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, India (Investigator: A. D. Bhide - EPA Pro- ject Officer: L. W. Lefke) A survey is being conducted of the present solid waste problems in India, with regard to the generation, storage, collection, processing, dis- posal or recycling of wastes generated in urban communities. The development of solid waste technology, as well as of non-technological systems depends on a complete understanding of the composition and properties of waste materials. The information being obtained on composition and quantity of solid waste will be of value to Indian and United States researchers concerned with the proper management of solid residues. "Health Effects of Nitrates in Drinking Water" Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel (Investigator: H. Shuval - EPA Project Officer: L. J. McCabe) Methemoglobinemia in infants (blue babies) is the cause of the con- cern for nitrates in drinking water. Surveys have now indicated that nitrates in water are not a public health prob- lem in Israel because infants are not exposed to waters bearing significant nitrates. Epidemiological studies have therefore shifted to the Gaza Strip, where exposure is significant. Toxi- cological studies on rats -have shown definite brain effects attributable to nitrate. "Epidemiological Study of Methemoglobi- nemia in Croatia" Institute of Public Health in Croatia, Zagreb, Yugoslavia (Investigator: B. Plese - EPA Project Officer: L. J. McCabe) Surveys of several rural water supplies have been made and levels of nitrate and bacterial contamination have been determined. Three specific areas have been identified where 75% of the wells exceed the drinking water standard for nitrate and 87% show bac- terial contamination. Case-control studies have begun in the town of Osijek, where 59 cases of methemoglobi- nemia have been reported since 1968. "The Role of Silicates in the Etiopatho- genesis of Endemic Nephropathy" Beograd University Medical School, Belgrade, Yugoslavia (Investigator: A. Bata - EPA Project Officer: L. J. McCabe) Endemic nephropathy is a serious kidney disease in some areas of the Balkans. The pattern of occurrence has suggested that water supply may play a role in its epidemiology. Silicates in drinking water are a possible cause of the disease. This hypothesis is being examined on this project. "Physico-chemical Treatment of Combined Industrial-Municipal Wastewater and Sludge Utilization" Water Economy Re- search Institute, Katowice, Poland (Investigator: J. Suschka - EPA Project Officer: H. S. Skovronek) Combined industrial-municipal waste- water (primarily steel mill wastes) will be treated by physico-chemical methods on both laboratory and pilot plant scales. 67 ------- Sludges available from current waste- water treatment operations, themselves a local enviornmental problem, are high in iron and should be useful as a coagulant for such treatment, as should the newly generated sludge. The extent to which the sludges must be dewatered and modified to make them suitable for this purpose, and the effectiveness of physico-chemical treatment, including multimedia filtration for this waste- water, will be established. "Factors Influencing Lead Absorption from the Intestine" Institute for Medical Research, Zagreb, Yugoslavia (Investigator: K. Kostial - EPA Pro- ject Officer: J. F. Stara) Various factors which might influ- ence the absorption, metabolism, and toxicity of lead are being investigated. Special attention is given to lead ab- sorption at the various physiological stages (young age, pregnancy, and lac- tation, and to the effect of selected dietary additives on the metabolism of the ingested lead (alginates, calcium, phosphorus, vitamin D, and milk)). Most of the experimental work is per- formed on rats using radioactive tracers such as lead 203 or 210 in the studies of lead metabolism, and calcium 45 or 47 in investigations of the comparative metabolism of calcium and lead. This work should provide a better understand- ing of lead metabolism and toxicity, particularly during the early stages of life, and of the methods which might be used to decrease lead absorption from the gut. "The Detection and Inactivation of En- teric Viruses in Wastewater" Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel (Investigator: H. Shuval - EPA Project Officer: G. Berg) The development of effective and economical procedures for inactivation by ozone of enteric viruses in waste- water, other polluted waters, and in renovated waters (with or without the aid of other disinfectants) is the subject of this grant. The chemistry of ozone and ozone species in polluted water is also being studied as it re- lates to ozone virucidal properties so as to optimize its application. Addi- tional efforts are being devoted to a series of controlled comparative labora- tory and field studies to develop and refine inexpensive methods for the quantitative detection of small amounts of viruses in large volumes of water. "Indicators of Enteric Viruses in Waste and Other Waters" Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Technion City, Haifa, Israel (Investigator: Y. Kott - EPA Project Officer: G. Berg) The validity of fecal coliforms as indicators for the presence of viruses in various waters has been questioned because of the basic dif- ferences between viruses and bacteria in the relative numbers excreted, in the constancy of their excretion, and in their survival capability in the environment. Yet both viruses and fecal bacteria are from the same sources, and some useful virus indicator func- tions may be assignable to the fecal bacteria. Since it is expensive, time- consuming, and relatively difficult to recover viruses, a suitable indicator for viruses in all situations would be a valuable tool. The major thrust of this project is thus to determine the relative ratio that occurs among these organisms under a variety of treatment and natural conditions. 68 ------- LIST OF PUBLICATIONS NERC-C-71-1 NERC-C-71-2 NERC-C-71-3 NERC-C-71-4 NERC-C-71-5 NERC-C-71-6 NERC-C-71-7 "Relationships of Salmonellae to Fecal Coliforms in Bottom Sediments," D. J. Van Donsel and E. E. Geldreich. Water Research. 5:1079-1087. 1971. "Spectrophotometric Measurements of Metabolic Responses in Isolated Rat Brain Cortex," J. T. Cummins and R. Bull. Biochim. Biophys . Acta. 253:29-38. 1971. "Integrated Approach to Problem of Viruses in Water," G. Berg. J. San. Engrg. Div. , ASCE. 9 7 (SAG ): 867-8 82 . 1971. Also printed in Proc. National Specialty Conf. on Disinfection, Univ. of Mass., Amherst, Mass. July 8-10, 1970. 1971, Discharges from an Operating Boiling Water Reactor Nuclear Power Station," G. E. Stigall, T. W. Fowler and H. L. Krieger. Health Phys. 20:593-599. 1971. "Coagulation-Flocculation," J. M. Cohen and S. A. Hannah. Water Quality and Treatment. Editors: AWWA. Chapter 3: 66-122. Third Edition. McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1971. "Sewage Effluents and Sludge Analyses," R. L. Bunch. Treatise on Analytical Chemistry. Editors : T~. lT. Kolthof f , P. J. Elving and F. Stross. Chapter 47, Part III. 2:563-587. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1971. "Factors Influencing Phosphorus Removal by Biological Treatment," R. L. Bunch. Chemical Engrg. Progress Symposium Series, Water— 19 70 . • 6 7 ( 10 7) : 90-94 . 1971. 69 ------- NERC-C-71-8 NERC-C-71-9 NERC-C-71-10 NERC-C-71-11 NERC-C-71-12 NERC-C-71-13 NERC-C-71-14 NERC-C-71-15 "Body Burden, Distribution and Internal Dose of 210Pb and 210Po in a Uranium Miner Population," R. L. Blanchard and J. B. Moore. Health Phys. 21:499-518. 1971. "Evaluation of Ion-Exchange Surveillance Sampler for Analyzing Radioactive Liquid Effluents," H. L. Krieger and G. W. Frishkorn. Health Phys. 21:591-595. 1971. "L,and Spreading, A Conserving and Non- Polluting Method of Disposing of Oily Wastes," G. K. Dotson, R. B. Deanj B. A^ Kenner and W. B. Cooke. Proc, 5th-Inter- national Water Pollution Research Conf-, San Francisco, Calif., July-August 1970. Sec. II, 36/1-15. Pergamon Press. 1971. "Hydrolysis of Activated Sludge," R. B. Dean and R. Bouthilet. Proc. 5th International Water Pollution Research Conf. San Francisco, Calif., July- August 1970. Sec. Ill, 31/1-13. Pergamon Press. 1971. "Sludge Handling and Ultimate Disposal," J. E. Smith, Jr. Third Annual Short Course on Water Quality Control, Univ. of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass. 115-131. 1971. "Recovery of Small Quantities of Viruses from Clean Waters on Cellulose Nitrate Membrane Filters," G. Berg, D. R. Dahling and D. Berman. Applied Microbiology. 22(4):608-614. 1971. "Toxicity, Synergism, and Antagonism in Anaerobic Waste Treatment Processes," I. J. Kugelman and K. K. Chin. ACS Advances in Chemistry. No. 105. 55-90. 1971. "Radionuclide Release at a PWR Nuclear Power Station," B. Kahn, H. L. Krieger and H. E. Kolde. Trans. Amer. Nucl. Soc. 14:326-327. 1971. 70 ------- NERC-C-71-16 NERC-C-71-17 NERC-C-71-18 NERC-C-71-19 NERC-C-71-20 NERC-C-71-21 NERC-C- 7l-2'2 "Removal of Organics from Wastewater by Activated Carbon," J. N. English, A. N. Masse, C. W. Carry, J. B. Pitkin and J. E Haskins. Chemical Engrg. Progress Symposium Series, Water--197G. 67(107):147-153. 1971. "Assay and Control of Marine Biotoxins," E. F. McFarren. Food Technology. 25(3) : 38-1+6. 1971. "Reclamation and Revegetation of Strip- Mined Lands for Pollution and Erosion Control," R. D. Hill. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engrgs. 14(2):268-272. 1971. TOO "Field Determination of Dose from Xe in the Plume from a Pressurized Water Reactor," G. J. Karches, H. E. Kolde, W. L. Brinck, R. L. Shearin and C. R. Phillips. Proc. International Symposium oh Rapid Methods 'for Measuring Radioactivity inthe Environment.IAEA, Vienna. 1971: 515-523. "Radiological Surveillance Studies at a BWR Nuclear Power Station - Estimated Dose Rates," R. L. Blanchard, H. L. Krieger, H. E. Kolde and B. Kahn. Proc. Symposium on Health Physics Aspects of Nuclear Facility Siting.Editors: Paul G. Voilleque and Burton R. Baldwin. Burton R. Baldwin, Idaho Falls, Idaho. 1971. 372-38"+. "Radiological Surveillance Studies at a Boiling Water Nuclear Power Reactor," B. Kahn, R. L. Blanchard, H. L. Krieger, H. E. Kolde, D. B. Smith, A. Martin, S. Gold, W. J. Averett, W. L. Brinck and G. J. Karches. Environmental Aspects of Nuclear 'Power Stations', IAEA, Vienna.1971.535-548. "Water Physics No. 1," R. Lishka and E. F. McFarren. Anal. Ref. Service Report No. 39. 154 pp. 1971. 71 ------- NERC-C-71-23 NERC-C-71-24 NERC-C-71-25 NERC-C-71-26 NERC-C-71-27 NERC-C-71-28 NERC-C-71-29 NERC-C-71-30 NERC-C-71-31 "Water Chlorine (Residual) No. 2," R. Lishka and E. F. McFarren. Anal. Ref. Service Report No. 40. 97 pp. 1971. "Identification of Iron and Sulfur Bacteria," R. F. Lewis. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste- water.13th Edition.American Public Health Association, New York. 715-721. 1971. "Carbon Adsorption for Recovery of Organic Pesticides," J. W. Eichelberger and J. J. Lichtenberg. JAWWA. 63:25-27. January 1971. "Solid Waste Management in the United States—Technological Developments," A. W. Breidenbach and H. L. Hickman, Jr. ISWA Information Bulletin No. 4. 113-130. January 1971. "The Use of Collaborative Studies to Evaluate Water Analysis Instruments," E. F. McFarren and R. J. Lishka. JWPCF. 43:67-72. January 1971. "Bacteriological Quality vs. Residual Chlorine," R. W. Buelow and G. Walton. JAWWA. 63:28-35. January 1971. "Occurrence of Toxic Bivalve Molluscs During a Gymnodinium breve 'Red Tide' ," J. M. Cummins, A. C. Jones and A. A. Stevens. Trans. American Fisheries Society. 100:112-116. January 1971. "Nitrate in Drinking Water," E. F. Winton, R. G. Tardiff and L. J. McCabe. JAWWA. 63:95-98. February 1971. "Removal of Viruses from Water and Waste- water," G. Berg. Proc. 13th Water Quality Conf. - Virus and Water Quality: Occurrence and Control, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, February 15-16, 1971. Univ. of Illinois Bull. 69. 126-136. 72 ------- NERC-C-71-32 NERC-C-71-33 NERC-C-71-34 NERC-C-71-35 NERC-C-71-36 NERC-C-71-37 NERC-C-71-38 NERC-C-71-39 NERC-C-71-40 "Chlorination for Control of Bacteria and Viruses in Treatment Plant Effluents," C. W. Chambers. JWPCF. 43:228-241. February 1971. "Chemical Characterization of Bottom Sediments," D. G. Ballinger and G. D. McKee. JWPCF. 43:216-227. February 1971. "Nitrogen in Industry," J. B. Farrell. Proc. Symposium on Nitrogen in Soil and Water, Hespeler, Ontario, Canada, March 30-31, 1971. 92-108. "Phosphorus Removal Practice," J. F. Kreissl. Proc. Sanitary Engrg. Institute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wise., March 9-10, 1971. 28 pp. "Nitrogen Removal Today," J. F. Kreissl. Proc. Sanitary Engrg. Institute, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wise., March 9-10, 1971. 20 pp. "Collecting Ohio River Basin Chironomidae (Dipthera) with a Floating Sticky Trap," W. T. Mason, Jr. and J. E. Sublette. The Canadian Entomologist. 103:397-404. March 1971. "Gas Chromatographic Analysis of Mercaptans, Phenols , and Organic Acids in Surface Waters with Use of Pentafluorobenzyl Derivatives," F. K. Kawahara. Environmental Science and Technology. 5:235-239. March 1971. "Advanced Waste Treatment and Alaska's North Slope," J. F. Kreissl, S. E. Clark, J. M. Cohen and A. J. Alter. Proc. Symposium on Cold Regions Engineering. Editor: John L. Burdick. Univ. of Alaska, College, Alaska, August 17-19, 1970. 2:647-689. March 1971. "Fecal Contamination of Fruits and Vegetables During Cultivation and Process- ing for Market. A Review," E. E. Geldreich and R. H. Bordner. J. Milk and Food Technology. 34:184-195. April 1971. 73 ------- NERC-C-71-41 NERC-C-71-H2 NERC-C-71-43 NERC-C-71-44 NERC-C-71-45 NERC-C-71-U6 NERC-C-71-47 NERC-C-71-48 NERC-C-71-49 "Application of Bacteriological Data in Potable Water Surveillance," E. E. Geldreich. JAWWA. 63:225-229. April 1971. "Municipal Wastewater Treatment by Physical and Chemical Methods," R. V. Villiers, E. L. Berg, C. A. Brunner and A. N. Masse. Water and Sewage Works. R-62 - R-64 and R-77 - R-81. May 1971. "The Effect of Sludge Additives on Soil Fungus Populations," W. B. Cooke. Mycopathologia g Mycologia Applicata. 4U(3):205-219. May 1971. "Detection of Viruses in Water: A Review of Methods and Application," W. F. Hill, Jr., E. W. Akin and W. H. Benton. Water Research. 5:967-995. Pergamon Press. May 1971. "Status of Advanced Waste Treatment," I. J. Kugelman. Proc. Seminar on Advanced Waste- water Treatment and Disposal, Hauppauge, New York, June 10, 1971. 19-99. "Digital Computer Program for the Cost Engineer," R. Smith. American Association of Cost Engineers Bulletin. 13(3):21-27. June 1971. "Decisions to be Made in the Use of Automatic Water Quality Monitors," D. G. Ballinger. Proc. International Symposium on Identification and Measurement of Environmental Pollutants, Ottawa, Canada, June 1971. 18 pp. "Simulation of Ammonia Stripping from Wastewater," J. F. Roesler, R. Smith and R. G. Eilers. J. San. Engrg. Div., ASCE. Proc. Paper 8182. 97(SA3):269-286. June 1971. "Persistence of Pesticides in River Water," J. W. Eichelberger and J. J. Lichtenberg. Environmental Science and Technology. 5:541-541*. June 1971. 74 ------- NERC-C-71-50 NERC-C-71-51 NERC-C-71-52 NERC-C-71-53 NERC-C-71-54 NERC-C-71-55 NERC-C-71-56 NERC-C-71-57 NERC-C-71-58 NERC-C-71-59 "Microbiology of Waste Treatment—1970 - Literature Review," C. W. Chambers. JWPCF. 43:1217-1221. June 1971. "Wastewater Treatment by Physical and Chemical Methods - Literature Review," J. M. Cohen. JWPCF. 43:1092-1104. June 1971. "Biological Filters - Literature Review," R. L. Bunch. JWPCF. 43:1104-1107. June 1971. "Limestone Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage," R. D. Hill and R. C. Wilmoth. Transactions of the Society of Mining Engineers, AIME. 250:162-166. June 1971. "Restoration of a Terrestrial Environment-- the Surface Mine," R. D. Hill. The ASB Bulletin. 18(3):107-116. July 1971. "Sludge Dewatering by High-Rate Freezing at Small Temperature Differences - Dis- cussion," J. B. Farrell. Environmental Science and Technology. 5:716. August 1971. "Radiological Surveillance Studies at a Pressurized Water Nuclear Power Reactor," B. Kahn, R. L. Blanchard, H. E. Kolde, H. L. Krieger, S. Gold, W. L. Brinck, W. J. Averett, D. B. Smith and A. Martin. NERC-Cincinnati, EPA (RD-71-1). 99 pp. August 1971. "Analyzing the Effect of Fly Ash on Water Pollution," F. A. Rohrman. Power. 2 pp. August 1971. "Artificial Destratification in Reservoirs," J. M. Symons.. JAWWA. 63:597-604. September 1971. "The 1967 Foray in Texas," W. B. Cooke. Mycologia. LXIII(5):1063-1067. September-October 1971. 75 ------- NERC-C-71-60 NERC-C-71-61 NERC-C-71-62 NERC-C-71-63 NERC-C-71-64 NERC-C-71-65 NERC-C-71-66 NERC-C-71-67 NERC-C-71-68 "Nitrification and Denitrification in Activated Sludge Systems," M. C. Mulbarger. JWPCF. 43:2059-2070. October 1971. "Municipal Pollution Control Technology in the United States of America," F. M. Middleton and J. J. Convery. Proc. 1st U.S./Japanese Conf. on Sewage Treatment Technology, Tokyo, Japan. October 1971. 80 pp. "Modern Concept of Disinfection," S. L. Chang. J. San. Engrg. Div., ASCE Proc. Paper 8441. 97CSA5):689-707. October 1971. "Viral Disinfection of Estuarine Water by UV," W. F. Hill, Jr., E. W. Akin, W. H. Benton and F. E. Hamblet. J. San. Engrg. Div., ASCE. Proc. Paper 8423. 97(SA5):601-615. October 1971. "Disposal of Mercury Wastes from Water Laboratories," R. B. Dean, R. T. Williams and R. H. Wise. Environmental Science ; and Technology. 5:1044-1045. October 1971, "Mobile Pilot Plants for the Removal of Ammonia and Phosphates from Wastewater - Discussion," J. B. Farrell. Proc. 31st International Water Conference, Engineers Society of Western Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh, Penn., October 1971. 27-28. "Cost of Residential Solid Waste Collec- tion," R. M. Clark, B. L. Grupenhoff, G. A. Garland and A. J. Klee. J. San. Engrg. Div., ASCE. 97CSA5):563-568. October 1971. "Perspectives on Wastewater Treatment Processes—Physical-Chemical and Biological," E. F. Earth. JWPCF. 43:2189-2194. November 1971. "Sludge Dewatering by Freezing," G. S. Logsdon and E. Edgerley, Jr. JAWWA. 63:734-740. November 1971. 76 ------- NERC-C-71-69 NERC-C-71-70 NERC-C-71-71 NERC-C-71-72 "An Experimental Depuration Plant: Operation and Evaluation," B. E. Huntley and R. J. Hammerstrom. Chesapeake Science. 12(4):231-239. December 1971. "Methods for Organic Pesticides in Water and Wastewater," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Environmental Research Center, Analytical Quality Control Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio. 52 pp. 1971. "Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Environmental Research Center, Analytical Quality Control Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio. 312 pp. 1971. "Environmental Impact of Highway Deicing," E. J. Struzeski, Jr. Proc. Street Salting Urban Water Quality Workshop, State Univ. College of Forestry, Syracuse, New York. May 6, 1971. 14-19. 77 ------- NERC-C-72-1 NERC-C-72-2 NERC-C-72-3 NERC-C-72-4 NERC-C-72-5 NERC-C-72-6 NERC-C-72-7 NERC-C-72-8 "Design of Treatment Facilities for the Control of Nitrogenous Materials," E. F. Barth. Water Research. 6:481-483. 1972. "Viruses in Water--Current Status," G. Berg. Air and Water Pollution. Editors: Wesley E. Brittin,Ronald West, and Robert Williams. 45-65. Colorado Assoc. Univ. Press, Boulder, CO. 1972. "Saxitoxin Tetrodotoxin and the Metabolism and Cation Fluxes in Isolated Cerebral Tissues," R. J. Bull and A. J. Trevor. J. Neurochemistry. 19:999-1009. 1972. "Sodium and the Flux of Calcium Ions in Electrically-Stimulated Cerebral Tissue," R. J. Bull and A. J. Trevor. J. Neurochemistry. 19:1011-1022. 1972. "Pathways for the Transfer of Radionuclides from Nuclear Power Reactors Through the Environment to Man," R. L. Blanchard and B. Kahn. Proc. International Symposium on Radioecology Applied to the Protection of Man and His Environment, Rome, Italy, September 7-10, 1971.1:175-190. 1972. "Disinfection and Temperature Influences," C. W. Chambers and G. Berg. Proc. International Symposium on Water Pollution Control in Cold Climates, Fairbanks, Alaska, July 22-24, 1970. 312-328. 1972. "Physical-Chemical Treatment for Wastewater," J. M. Cohen and I. J. Kugelman. Water Research. 6:487-492. 1972. "Automatic Amino Acid Analyses for Determining the Amount and Quality of Protein in Fungal Protein and in Other Protein Sources,". W. E. Coleman. Symposium: Seed Proteins. Editor: G. E. Inglett. Chapter 2(J: 2VV-283. Avi Publishing Co., Inc. 1972. 78 ------- NERC-C-72-9 NERC-C-72-10 NERC-C-72-11 NERC-C-72-12 NERC-C-72-13 NERC-C-72-14 NERC-C-72-15 NERC-C-72-16 "The Use of Ultraviolet Absorbance for Monitoring the Total Organic Carbon Content of Water and Wastewater," R. A. Dobbs , R. H. Wise and R. B. Dean. Water Research. 6:1173-1180. 1972. "Buffalo Lake Recreational Water Quality: A Study in Bacteriological Data Interpretation," E. E. Geldreich. Water Research. 6:913-924. 1972. "Water-Borne Pathogens," E. E. Geldreich. Water Pollution Microbiology. Editor: Ralph Mitchell.Chapter 9:207-241. Wiley Interscience. 1972. "Environmental Experience with Radioactive Effluents from Operating Nuclear Power Plants," B. Kahn, C. Weaver and B. Shleien. Proc. 4th International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, September 6-l€, 1971. 11:559-573. 1972. "Radionuclides Used in Biological Research," H. E. Kolde and W. E. Siri. Biology Data Book, Editors: Philip L. Altman and Dorothy S. Dittmer. 1:477-484. 2nd Edition. Federation of Societies for -Experimental Biology. 1972. "Review and Comment on Waste Treatment Techniques for Commercial Vessels," W. Librizzi. Pollution Control In the Marine Industries. Editor: Thomas P. P. 163-180. International 1972. Sullivan. Association for Pollution Control. "New Approaches to Water Quality Control in Impoundments," J. E. Ridley and J. Symons. Water Pollution Microbiology. Editor: Ralph Mitchell. Chapter 17:389-412 Wiley Interscience. 1972. "A Comparative Study of the Inactivation of Viruses in Water by Chlorine," P. V. Scarpino, G. Berg, S. L. Chang, D. Dahling and M. Lucas. Water Research. 6:959-965. 1972. 79 ------- NERC-C-72-17 NERC-C-72-18 NERC-C-72-19 NERC--C-72-20 NERC-C-72-21 NERC-C-72-22 NERC-C-72-23 NERC-C-72-24 NERC-C-72-25 "Cost to the Consumer of Collecting and Treatment Waste Water in the U.S.," R. Smith and R. G. Eilers. Man and His Environment: The Effects of Pollution on Man.Editor: T. R. Vickery. Part 3:83-132. Press. 1972. Syracuse University "Coprostanol: A Positive Tracer of Fecal Pollution," H. H. Tabak, R. N. Bloomhuff and R. L. Bunch. Developments in Industrial Microbiology. 13(Chapter 25):296-307. 1972. "Isolation and Characterization of AS-1, a Phycovirus Infecting the Blue-green Algae, Anacystis nidulans and Synechococcus cedrorum," R. S. Safferman, T. 0. Diener, P. R. Desjardins, and M. E. Morris. Virology. 47:105-113. January 1972. "New, Simplified Methods for Metal Analysis," E. F. McFarren. Water Technology/Quality, JAWWA. 28-31. January 1972. "Mercury in Drinking-Water Supplies," R. J. Hammerstrom, D. E. Hissong, F. C. Kopfler, J. Mayer, E. F. McFarren, and B. H. Pringle. JAWWA. 64:60-61. January 1972. "Economic Basis for Recycling Solid Waste," 0. W. Albrecht. The Environmental Capsule. 2 pp. January and February 1972. " 'Cold Vapor' Method for Determining Mercury," J. F. Kopp, M. C. Lonsbottom, and L. B. Lobring. JAWWA. 64:20-25. January 1972. "Determination of Nitrilotriacetic Acid by High-Speed Ion Exchange Chromatography, J. E. Longbottom. Analytical Chemistry. 1+4:418-4-20. February 1972. "Instruments for Water Quality Monitoring," D G. Ballinger. Environmental Science and Technology. 6:130-133. February 1972. 80 ------- NERC-C-72-26 NERC-C-72-27 NERC-C-72-28 NERC-C-72-29 NERC-C-72-30 NERG-C-72-31 NERC-C-72-32 NERC-C-72-33 "Present and Future Technology Requirements for the Containment of Hazardous Material Spills," I. Wilder and J. E. Brugger. Proc. 1972 Nat'l Conf. on Control of Hazardous Material Spills , Univ. of Houston, Houston, Texas, March 21-23, 1972. 77-83. "In Situ Treatment Methods for Hazardous Material Spills," R. C. Ziegler and J. P. Lafornara. Proc. 1972 Nat'l Conf. on Control of Hazardous Material Spills, Univ. of Houston, Houston, Texas, March 21-23, 1972. 157-171. "Hazardous Material Spills vs Oil Spills Common Biological Denominator," R. J. Nadeau and R. T. Dewling. Proc. 1972 Nat'l Conf. on Control of Hazardous Material Spills, Univ. of Houston, Houston, Texas, March 21-23, 1972. 211-216. "Outbreaks of Waterborne Diseases in the United States, 1961-1970," A. Taylor, Jr., G. F. Craun, G. A. Faich, and L. L. McCabe. J. Infectious Diseases. 125:329-331. March 1972. "Nitrogen Removal from Municipal Wastewater by Columnar Denitrification," J. M. Smith, A. N. Masse, W. A. Feige, and L. J. Kamphake. Environmental Science and Technology. 6:260-267. March 1972. "Construction Techniques for Sanitary Landfills," N. S-chomaker. Waste Age. 24-25 and 42-44. March-April 1972. "Elkins Mine Drainage Pollution Control Demonstration Project—An Update," R. D. Hill and J. F. Martin. Proc. 4th Symposium on Coal Mine Drainage Research, Mellon Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. April 26-27, 1972. 96-104. "Treatment of Ferrous Iron Acid Mine Drainage by Reverse Osmosis," R. C. Wilmoth, D. G. Mason and M. Gupta. Proc. 4th Symposium on Coal Mine Drainage Research, Mellon Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, April 26-27, 1972. 115-156. 81 ------- NERC-C-72-34 NERC-C-72-35 NERC-C-72-36 NERC-C-72-37 NERC-C-72-38 NERC-C-72-39 NERC-C-72-40 NERC-C-72-41 NERC-C-72-42 NERC-C-72-43 "Combination Limestone-Lime Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage," R. C. Wilmoth, R. B. Scott and R. D. Hill. Proc. 4th Symposium on Coal Mine Drainage Research, Mellon Institute 3 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, April 26-27, 1972. 244-265. "An Overview of Hazardous Waste Disposal," L. P. Wallace. Proc. 2nd Annual Environmental Engrg. and Science Conf., Louisville, Kentucky, April 20-21, 1972. 779-787. "Virus in Water, II. Evaluation of Membrane Cartridge Filters for Recovering Low Multiplicities of Poliovirus from Water," W. F. Hill, Jr., E. W. Akin, W. H. Benton and T. G. Metcalf. Applied Microbiology. 23:880-888. May 1972. "Inexpensive Mercury-Specific Gas Chromatographic Detector," J. E. Longbottom Analytical Chemistry. 44(6):1111-1112. May 1972. "Biological Filters - Literature Review," R. L. Bunch. JWPCF. 44:923-924. June 1972. "Microbiology of Water - Literature Review," E. E. Geldreich. JWPCF. 44:1159-1172. June 1972. "Microbiology of Waste Treatment - Literature Review," C. W. Chambers. JWPCF. 44:1172-1175. June 1972. "Microbiology-Waterborne Outbreaks - Literature Review," G. F. Craun. JWPCF. 44:1175-1182. June 1972. "Microbiological Pathogens in Animals and Their Detection - Literature Review," D. J. Reasoner. JWPCF. 44:1182-1193. June 1972. "Microbiology—Detection and Occurrence of Viruses - Literature Review," G. Berg. JWPCF. 44:1193-1197. June 1972. 82 ------- NERC-C-72-44 NERC-C-72-45 NERC-C-72-46 NERC-C-72-47 NERC-C-72-48 NERC-C-72-49 NERC-C-72-50 "Wastewater Treatment by Physical and Chemical Methods - Literature Review," J. M. Cohen and I. J. Kugelman. JWPCF. 44:915-923. June 1972. "Reassessment of the Virus Problem in Sewage and in Surface and Renovated Waters," G. Berg. Proc. 6th International Water Pollution Research Conf., Jerusalem, June 18-23, 1972. B/14/28/1 - B/14/28/8. "Cost of Reclamation.and Mine Drainage Abatement, Elkins Demonstration Project," R. B. Scott, R. C. Wilmoth, and R. D. Hill. Transactions of the Society of Mining Engineers, AIME. 252:187-193. June 1972. "The Federal Government's Role in Recycling," 0. W. Albrecht. Univ. of Kentucky, College of Engrg. Technical Report UKY 44-72-CE 11. pp. 3. June 1972. "Research Needs for Advanced Waste Treatment," F. M. Middleton and R. Stenburg. J. San. Engrg. Div. , ASCE. 98CSA3):515-528. June 1972. L. Ozone in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Editor: F. L. Evans III. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan. 1972. pp. 195. (Available from Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan at $14.50/copy). "Ozone as a Water and Wastewater Disinfectant: A Literature Review," A. D. Venosa. Ozone in Water and Wastewater Treatment.Editor:F. L. Evans. Chapter 5:83-100. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan. 1972. 83 ------- NERC-C-72-51 NERC-C-72-52 NERC-C-72-53 NERC-C-72-54 NERC-C-72-55 NERC-C-72-56 NERC-C-72-S7 NERC-C-72-58 "A New Method for the Gas Chromatographic Separation and Detection of Dialkylmercury Compounds — Application to River Water Analysis," R. C. Dressman. J. Chromato- graphic Science. 10:472-475. July 1972. "The Conversion of Pheny liner curie Salts DiphenyImercury and Phenylmercurie Chloride Upon Gas Chromatographic Injection," R. C. Dressman. J. Chromatographic Science. 10:468-472. July 1972. "Management: and C 'ol of Combined Sewer Overflows," R. Field and E. J. Struzeski, Jr. JWPCF. 44:1393-1415. July 1972. "Nitrogen Removal by Ammonia Stripping," T. P. O'Farrell, F. P. Frauson, A. F. Cassel and D. F. Bishop. JWPCF. 44:1527-1535. August 1972. "Production of Fungal Protein from Cellulose and Waste Cellulosics," C. J. Rogers, E. ColeTian, D. F. Spino, T. C. Purcell and P. V. Scarpino. Environmental Science and Technology. 6:715-719. August 1972. "Municipal Waste Treatment by Physical- Chemical Methods," J. F. Kreissl and J. J. Westrick. Applications of New Concepts of Physical-Chemical Wastewater Treatment. Editor: W. W.E chenfeIder, Jr. 1-11. Pergamon Press. London. 1972. "The Necessity of Controlling Bacterial Populations in Potable Waters: Community Water Supply," E. E. Geldreich, H. D. Nash, D. J. Reasoner and R. H. Taylor. JAWWA. 64:596-602. September 1972. "Bridging the Gap - Analysis of Federal Programs Affecting Solid Waste Generation and Recycling: a Summation," H. M. Freeman, D. E. Ross and R. P. Stearns, waste Age. pp. 5.- September/October" 1972 . 84 ------- NERC-C-72-59 NERC-C-72-60 NERC-C-72-61 NERC-C-72-62 NERC-C-72-63 NERC-C-72-64 NERC-C-72-65 NERC-C-72-66 "Automation and Control of Physical- Chemical Treatment for Municipal Wastewater," J. J. Convery, J. F. Roesler and R. H. Wise. Proc. International Conf. Applications of New Concepts of Physical-Chemical Wastewater Treatment, Vanderbilt Univ., Nashville, Tennessee, September 18-22, 1972. Pergamon Press, Inc. 199-209. "Impediments to Recycling Obsolete Ferrous Scrap," 0. W. Albrecht." Public Works. pp. 4. October 1972. "Characterization and Identification of Spilled Residual Fuel Oils by Gas Chromatography and Infrared Spectrophotometry," F. K. Kawahara. J. Chromatographic Science. 10:629-636. October 1972. "The Utilization of Expert Opinion in Decision-Making," A. J. Klee. J. American Industrial Chemical Engrg. 18(6):1107-1115. November 1972. "Radiorespirometry in the Study of Biological Effects of Environmental Pollutants," S. D. Lee, K. C. Butler, R. M. Banner, L. McMillan, W. Moore _,and J. F. Stara. American Laboratory. 8-14. December 1972. "Basic Data for Solid Waste Management," R. M. Clark, J. R. Sweeten, and D. G. Greathouse. J. San. Engrg. Div., ASCE. 98CSA6):897-907. December 1972. "Prediction of Heat of Combustion of Solid Wastes from Ultimate Analysis," D. L. Wilson. Environmental Science and Technology. 6(13):1119-1121. December 1972. "A Correction in the Comparison of 210Pb Skeletal Levels with Radon Daughter Exposures," W. L-. Wagner , V. E. Archer and R. L. Blanchard. Health Physics. 23:871-872. December 1972. ' 85 ------- NERC-C-72-67 NERC-C-72-68 NERC-C-72-69 NERC-C-72-70 NERC-C-72-71 NERC-C-72-72 NERC-C-72-73 NERC-C-72-74 "Hexachlorophane Teratogenicity in Rats," C. A. Kimmel, W. Moore, Jr., and J. F. Stara. Lancet. 765. October 7, 1972. "Advanced Waste Treatment Systems at the Environmental Protection Agency - District of Columbia Pilot Plant," D. F. Bishop, T. P. O'Farrell, J. B. Stamberg, and J. W. Porter. AlChe Symposium Series 124, Water 1971. 68:11-24. 1972. "Activated Sludge Treatment with Oxygen," J. B. Stamberg, D. F. Bishop and G. Kumke. AlChe Symposium Series 124, Water 1971. 68:25-34. 1972. "Alum Addition to Activated Sludge with Tertiary Solids Removal," A. B. Hais, J. B. Stamberg and D. F. Bishop. AlChe Symposium Series 124, Water 1971. 68:35-42. 1972. "Physical-Chemical Nitrogen Removal from Municipal Wastewater," A. F. Cassel, T. A. Pressley, W. W. Schuk, and D. F. Bishop. AlChe Symposium Series 124, Water 1971. 68:56-64. 1972. "Computer Control of Physical-Chemical Wastewater Treatment," D. F. Bishop, W.W. Schuk, R. B. Samworth, R. Bernstein and E. Fein. Pollution: Engineering and Scientific Solutions. Editor: Euval S. Barrekette.522-547. Plenum Publishing Corp., New York. 1972. "Nutrient Removal from Wastewater by Physical-Chemical Processes," J. M. Cohen. Nutrients in Natural Waters. Editors: Herbert E. Alien and James R. Kramer. Chapter XII:353-389. John Wiley S Sons, Inc. 1972. "Upgrading Existing Wastewater Treatment Plants," J. M. Smith, A. N. Masse and W. A. Feige. Proc. International Conf. Applications of New Concepts of Physical- Chemical Wastewater Treatment, Vanderbilt Univ., Nashville, Tennessee, September 18- 22, 1972. Pergamon Press, Inc. 103-117. 86 ------- NERC-C-72-75 NERC-C-72-76 NERC-C-72-77 NERC-C-72-78 NERC-C-72-79 "Active Research Projects Report—Fiscal Year 1972," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Environmental Research Center, Cincinnati, Ohio. 742 pp. 1972. "Membrane Filter Technique for Enumeration of Pseudomonas aeruginosa," M. A. Levin and V. J. Cabelli. Applied Microbiology. 24(6):864-870. December 1972. "Radiological Surveillance at Pressurized Water Reactors," W. L. Brinck, H. E. Kolde, H. L. Krieger and B. Kahn. Trans. Amer. Nucl. Soc. 15:640-641. 1972. "Handbook for Analytical Quality Control in Water and Wastewater Laboratories," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Environmental Research Center, Analytical Quality Control Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio. June 1972. "EPA's Watercraft Waste Program," W. J. Librizzi. Proc. 1972 Conf. on Sewage Control for Great Lakes Vessels, Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. January 1972. 3-12. 87 ------- RESEARCH REPORTS Environmental Monitoring Series Report Number Title EPA-R4-72-002 "Tentative Procedure Analyzing Pesticide Residues in Solid Wastes," R. A. Carnes 15 pp. August 1972. Source: NERC-Cincinnati NTIS EPA-RU-72-006 "References for the Identification of Freshwater Macroinvertebrates," P. A. Lewis 17 pp. October 1972. Source: NERC-Cincinnati NTIS - PB 213 379 Paper Back $3.00 Microfiche .95 EPA-R4-72-003 "Analyses for Mercury in Water—A Preliminary Study of Methods," J. A. Winter and H. A. Clements 58 pp. September 1972. Source; NERC-Cincinnati Environmental Protection Technology Series Report Number Title SW-72-U-4- "Analysis of Federal Programs Affecting Solid Waste Generation and Recycling" 153 pp. 1972. (Project Officer: Harry Freeman) Source; NTIS - PB 213 311 Paper Back $3.00 Microfiche .95 88 ------- Report Number Title SW-72-3-3 "Corrosion Studies in Municipal Incinerators" 120 pp. 1972. (Project Officer: R. Thurnau) Source: NERC-Cincinnati NTIS - PB 213 378 Paper Back $3.00 Microfiche .95 SW-72-1-1 "Landfi-11 Decomposition Gases--An Annotated Bibliography," J. A. Geyer 28 pp. June 1972. Source: NERC-Cincinnati NTIS - PB 213 487 Paper Back $3.75 Microfiche .95 EPA-R2-72-011 "Management Information for Solid Waste Collection," R. M. Clark 18 pp. August 1972. Source; NERC-Cincinnati NTIS - PB 213 308 Paper Back $3.00 Microfiche .95 EPA-R2-72-012 "Urban Solid Waste Management; Economic Case Study," R. M. Clark 21 pp. August 1972. Source: NERC-Cincinnati NTIS - PB 213 394 Paper Back $3.00 Microfiche .95 EPA-R2-72-046 "An Investigation of the Biodegradability of Packaging Plastics" 80 pp. August 1972. (Project Officer: C. J. Rogers) Source: NERC-Cincinnati NTIS - PB 213 488 Paper Back $4-. 85 Microfiche .95 89 ------- Report Number Title EPA-R2-72-059 "The Beverage Container Problem--Analysis and Recommendations" 190 pp. September 1972. (Project Officer: R. H. Ongerth) Source: NERC-Cincinnati GPO $2.25 NTIS - PB 213 341 Paper Back $6.75 Microfiche .95 EPA-R2-72-004 "Identification of Polychlorinated Biphenyls in the Presence of DDT-Type Compounds" 62 pp. October 1972. (Project Officer: D. G. Ballinger) Source: NERC-Cincinnati GPO $1.25 EPA-R2-72-131 "Microbiological Studies of Compost Plant Dust," D. H. Armstrong and M. L. Peterson 13 pp. November 1972. Source: NERC-Cincinnati NTIS EPA-R2-72-055 "Biological Effects of Oil Pollution-- Selected Bibliography II," R. J. Nadeau and T. H. Roush 62 pp. November 1972. Source: NERC-Cincinnati NTIS - PB 213 483 Paper Back $4.50 Microfiche .95 EPA-R2-72-031 "An Investigation of Phosphorus Removal Mechanisms in Activated Sludge Systems" 146 pp. November 1972. (Project Officer: R. L. Bunch) Source: NERC-Cincinnati GPO $2.00 90 ------- Report Number Title EPA-R2-72-065 "Full Scale Parallel Activated Sludge Process Evaluation" 203 pp. November 1972. (Project Officer: R. G. Eilers) Source: GPO$"2. 75 EPA-R2-72-123 "Ammonia Removal in a Physical-Chemical Wastewater Treatment Process" 66 pp. November 1972. (Project Officer: F. L. Evans III) Source: GPO$~1.25 EPA-R2-72-053 "Initial Mixing in Coagulation Processes" 161 pp. November 1972. (Project Officer: S. A. Hannah) Source: NERC-Cincinnati GPO $2.25 EPA-R2-72-056 "Acid Mine Drainage Treatment by Ion Exchange" 215 pp. November 1972. (Project Officer: R. D. Hill) Source: NERC-Cincinnati GPO $2.75 EPA-R2-72-119 "Revegetation Augmentation by Reuse of Treated Active Surface Mine Drainage" 147 pp. November 1972. (Project Officer: R. D. Hill) Source: NERC-Cincinnati GPO $2.00 EPA-R2-72-1U7 "Biological Consequences of Plant Residue Decomposition in Soil" 136 pp. November 1972. (Project Officer: C. C. Wiles) Source: NERC-Cincinnati NTIS 91 ------- Report Number Title EPA-R2-72-101* "Photochemical Methods for Purifying Water" 29 pp. November 1972. (Project Officer: R. H. Wise) Source; NERC-Cincinnati GPO 70 cents EPA-R2-72-032 "Fluidized Bed Clarification as Applied to Wastewater Treatment" 98 pp. December 1972. (Project Officer: J. F. Kreissl) Source: NERC-Cincinnati GPO $1.50 EPA-R2-72-064 "Calcium Phosphate Precipitation in Wastewater Treatment" 96 pp. December 1972. (Project Officer: W. A. Schwartz) Source: NERC-Cincinnati GPO $1.50 EPA-R2-72-103 "Hollow Fiber Technology for Advanced Waste Treatment" 91 pp. December 1972. (Project Officer: J. M. Smith) Source: NERC-Cincinnati EPA-R2-72-125 "A Search: New Technology for Pavement Snow and Ice Control" 55 pp. December 1972. (Project Officers: R. Fields and H. E. Masters) Source: GPCf ^1.00 92 ------- Report Number Title EPA-R2-72-039 "The Appearance and Visibility of Thin Oil Films on Water, B. A. Hornstein 95 pp. August 1972. Source: GPO $2.50 EPA-R2-72-049 "Concept Evaluation: Recovery of Floating Oil Using Polyurethane Foam Sorbent" 97 pp. 'September 1972. (Project Officer: R. T. Dewling) Source: GPO51.50 EPA-R2-72-054 "Runoff of Oils from Rural Roads Treated to Suppress Dust," F. J. Freestone 29 pp. October 1972. Source: GPO $"1.00 EPA-R2-72-008 "The Swirl Concentrator as a Combined Sewer Overflow Regulator Facility" 179 pp. September 1972. (Project Officer: R. I. Field) Source: NERC-Cincinnati (EWQRL) GPO $2.25 93 ------- Socioeconomic Environmental Protection Series Report Number Title EPA-R5-72-004 "An Investment Decision Model for Control Technology," R. M. Clark 20 pp. September 1972. Source: NERC-Cincinnati NTIS - PB 213 482 Paper Back $3.00 Microfiche .95 EPA-R5-72-003 "Metropolitan Housewives' Attitudes Toward Solid Waste Disposal" 80 pp. September 1972. Source: NERC-Cincinnati GPO $1.50 NTIS - PB 213 340. Paper Back $5.45 Microfiche .95 UiewaotenHMKmtG Cfftt ]jn- 758-486/1010 94 ------- |