POULTRY
WATER
QUALITY
HANDBOOK
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region A
345 Courtland Stieet, N. L.
Atlanta, Georgia 30365-2^01
U. S. A.
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C. 1101 Market Street
Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297
Fax: (615) 751-7479
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INTRODUCTION
Preface
Acknowledgments
Poultry Environmental Issues and Impacts PWQ / 0
WATER QUALITY ISSUES (wgi)
Protecting the Environment and Water Quality WQI / 1
What Is Water Quality WQI / 2
Poultry Production and Water Quality WQI / 3
Understanding Water Quality Regulations WQI / 4
POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT (PWM)
Environmental Impacts of Poultry Waste PWM / 1
Planning Poultry Waste Management PWM / 2
Dry Waste Management PWM / 3
Liquid Waste Management PWM / 4
Composting Waste Products PWM / 5
Putting Nutrient Management to Work PWM / 6
Economics of Transporting Poultry Wastes PWM / 7
POULTRY MORTALITY MANAGEMENT (PMM)
An Overview of Poultry Mortality Management PMM / 3
Bunal A Disposal Method for Dead Birds PMM / 2
Incineration A Disposal Method for Dead Birds PMM / 3
Composting A Disposal Method for Dead Birds PMM / 4
Rendering A Disposal Method for Dead Birds PMM / 5
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES (OEI)
Site Selection for the Poultry Farmstead OEI / 1
Air Quality and Its Management OEI / 2
Preventing Fires in Manure/Litter Storage Structures OEI / 3
Treatment Lagoons and Ponds OEI / 4
Controlling Struvire Buildups OEI / 5
Protection Against Pests, Predators, and Darkling Beetles OEI / 6
ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGY CAT)
Constructed Wetlands AT / 1
Feeding Litter to Rudiments AT / 2
Horticultural Uses of Litter AT / 3
RESOURCE INFORMATION (RI)
Poultry Water Quality Consortium RI / 1
Southeastern Poultry & Egg Association RI / 2
USD A Sod Conservation Service RI / 3
Tennessee Valley Authority RI / 4
U.S Environmental Protection Agency RI / 5
Directory of Poultry Associations RI / 6
Other Agencies Supporting the Poultry Industry RI / 7
USDA Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service
USDA Cooperative Extension Service
Directory of State Water Quality Agencies RI / 8
2 POUL TRY WA TER QUALITY HANDBOOK
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Another New Venture for Southeastern
Poultry & Egg Association
^^he environment and our natural resources form one of the cornerstones of
JL our quality of life. Every industry, every company, every individual has a
giant stake in the environment.
The poultry industry recognizes the significance of our natural resources and
the importance of conservation and the protection of the environment. The
growth and progress of the U.S. poultry industry have been phenomenal. How-
ever, rapid advancement has brought challenges that are often too complex to be
solved easily or quickly. Answers are sometimes long-term and require deliber-
ate, progressive action. Some solutions are environmentally related.
Southeastern Poultry & Egg Association understands the challenges that
come with progress, particularly those that impact the environment. Industry
leaders who make up Southeastem's Board of Directors, in yet another new As-
sociation venture, teamed up with key federal agencies USDA Soil Conserva-
tion Service, Tennessee Valley Authority, and U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency to work on water quality issues related to the poultry industry The
Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort to identify and adopt
environmentally prudent uses of poultry by-products. The objective: to use by-
products as a resource.
However, success requires teamwork: the combined efforts of people and or-
ganizations, industry and government. No one is excluded from responsibility,
not farmers, service providers, company management, or government officials
This handbook is one part of a new and vital enterprise The goal is to consol-
idate information, ideas, and references to enhance water quality As this joint
venture between industry and government continues, the handbook will be re-
vised and updated to include new technology and techniques that will ensure
the quality of water for everyone
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K N
The Poultry Water Quality Protection Handbook was prepared under the direc-
tion of the Poultry Water Quality Consortium members, assisted by Ed
Schwille. Liaison, with invaluable coordination provided by James M. Ransom,
Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama; Richard D. Urban, Tennes-
see Valley Authority, Chattanooga, Tennessee; Harvey I. Mack, USDA Soil Con-
servation Service, Washington, D.C.; Ira H. Linville, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Atlanta, Georgia; and Richard D. Reynnells, Cooperative Ex-
tension Service, Washington, D.C. References to source material are shown on the
information sheets in the handbook.
Other major contributors who have given their time and knowledge to help
organize and write this handbook are the following:
Don Dalton, Southeastern Poultry & Egg Association, Tucker, Georgia
Peter Tidd, USDA Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D.C.
Victor Payne, Jr., USDA Soil Conservation Service, Auburn, Alabama
F.E. Busby, Winrock International Institute, Morrillton, Arkansas
Stan Chapman, University of Arkansas, Little Rode
David Goldenberg, Pacific Egg & Poultry Association, Modesto, California
George Watts, National Broiler Council, Washington, D.C
Michael Quart, University of Florida, Gainesville
Gene Gregory, United Egg Producers, Inc., Atlanta, Georgia
Kevin Almand, Gold Kist Company, Athens, Georgia
Lewis Carr, University of Maryland, Princess Anne
Sally Noll, University of Minnesota, St. Paul
Thomas A Carter, North Carolina State University, Raleigh
Larry Goff, USDA Soil Conservation Service, Nashville, Tennessee
Stuart Proctor, National Turkey Federation, Reston, Virginia
Charles Beard, Southeastern Poultry & Egg Association, Tucker, Georgia
Richard Strickland, Tennessee Valley Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama
Tom McCasky, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama
Ellis Brunton, Tyson Foods. Inc . Spnngdale, Arkansas
Dwight Bond, ConAgra Broiler Company, Eldorado, Arkansas
Ken Tanji, University of California, Davis
Dov Weitman, U S Environmental Protection Agency, Washington. D C
Anne Weinberg, U S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
]. William Sarterfield, Delmarva Poultry Industry, Georgetown, Delaware
Dan Cunningham, University of Georgia, Athens
Alan Koepcke, De Kalb Poultry Research, De Kalb, Illinois
Bill Brown, Perdue Farms, Hurlock, Maryland
] M. Vandepopuher, University of Missouri, Columbia
4 POUL TRY WA TEH QUALITY HANDBOOK
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o w
V
Joe Berry, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater
Dr. Charles Goan, University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Charles Adams, and Staff, USDA Soil Conservation Service, Ft. Worth, Texas
Vernon Rowe, Rowenvironmental, Pittsburg, Texas
James Donald, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama
David Moffitt, USDA Soil Conservation Service, Ft. Worth. Texas
John Kosco, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Special recognition is given to Rachel Reeder and Judith Taggart, JT&A., inc.,
Washington, D.C., for their invaluable assistance in writing and editing this
handbook and to Jessica Johnson for the design and typesetting.
And, finally, our heartfelt thanks goes out to others too numerous to men-
tion, who contributed technical and general assistance to keep this handbook of
manageable proportions and practical use.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 5
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POULTRY ENVIRONMENTAL
ISSUES AND IMPACTS
In the United States, poul-
try is a major source of
agricultural income. In 1992, the industry con-
tributed over $12 billion to the economy of this
nation. During the same period, U.S. exports
exceeded 207 million pounds of poultry prod-
ucts, and U.S. per capita consumption of poul-
try reached 37.3 pounds per annum. Some
75,000 growers are involved in producing over
6.4 billion broilers, 269 million layers, 69 billion
eggs, 285 million turkeys, and 20 million
ducks, and recent estimates conclude that an-
other half-million people are employed in
hatcheries, live-bird processing plants, feed
mills, and other allied operations serving the
poultry industry. Both genetics and efficiency
contribute to this magnitude of production.
These figures, which are projected to in-
crease 5 percent each year into the future, are
impressive, however, they also come with a
yearly legacy of some 20 million tons of poul-
try manure and Litter, over 50 million dead and
unused carcasses, and over 50 billion gallons of
water from hatchery, layer, and live-bird pro-
cessing operations. These by-products must be
safely disposed of or used. The challenge is
where and how to use these poultry wastes to
benefit the grower and the environment.
Traditional uses for poultry by-products
are not always sufficient Expanded or new
uses for poultry waste have been found, such
as enhanced fertilizers, horticultural and
mushroom growing medium, and feed prod-
ucts for Livestock, dogs, cats, and aquaculture.
Indeed, a continuing search for additional uses
is part of the challenge.
Protecting water quality, the environment,
and the natural resources of this nation is a
commitment of the poultry industry and grow-
ers. The industry shares responsibility with
other segments of the agricultural community
and other human activities for nonpoint source
pollution: the pollution that originates from
diffuse sources (e.g., stormwater runoff). Some
industry practices could contribute to point
source pollution: the pollution that issues from
a known or direct discharge (e.g., from the end
of a pipe).
One must understand the complexity of
poultry operations when addressing water
quality and environmental issues. The indus-
try can be separated into hatchery, breeder,
broiler-roaster-Comish (meat types), turkey,
egg, duck, and other poultry and live bird pro-
cessing operations. Each of these operations
produces either dry or Liquid waste and dead
birds Environmental awareness has shifted
beyond live-bird processing plants (offal,
feathers, and wastewater) to the grower
As any poultry grower knows, the speed,
efficiency, and methods used to produce poul-
try and poultry products have changed drasti-
cally over the past 20 years As a result of rapid
growth, most poultry are grown in confined
operations with limited use of water, except for
drinking water for the birds. The expansion of
ihe industry coupled with concentrating the
growing operations has created a unique chal-
lenge that of proper disposal of immense
quantities of waste. It is important for produc-
ers and others to understand how poultry
waste can pollute the environment. Each indi-
vidual operation is different, yet many of the
problems can be prevented or solved through
proper waste disposal methods and changes in
management and production methods during
the production cycle.
6 POULTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND IMPACTS
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It is important for producers to know (1)
what is in the waste that must be disposed of;
(2) how much waste is expected to be gener-
ated; (3) what are the impacts of the waste on
water quality, the environment, and human
health; (4) how these materials can get into the
water* and (5) how to manage the waste in an
environmentally safe manner.
The most overriding environmental issue
facing growers today is the impact mat poultry
waste can have on water quality. Potential
water pollutants from on-farm poultry opera-
tions can be classified as (1) nutrients and salts,
(2) organic materials, (3) bacteria, and (4) vi-
ruses. These pollutants originate from manure
and litter and dead birds improperly handled.
How the waste is disposed of, treated, or man-
aged has a direct influence on the cleanliness
of surface and groundwater.
Properly managed poultry wastes from
manure, litter, dead birds, and wastewater are
profitable farm investments. An effective
waste management plan provides for the
proper collection, storage, handling, and use of
poultry waste. Products derived from wastes
reduce chemical fertilizer costs, improve soil
quality, and protect water resources, air qual-
ity, and human and animal health. Effective
waste management promotes a favorable pub-
lic attitude toward the industry.
Disposing of dead birds is an increasing
problem. Daily numbers and poundage of
dead birds can be dictated by the birds' age
and weight, the number of birds in the poultry
house, and climatic conditions. Acceptable
methods of disposal include (1) burial, (2) in-
cineration, (3) composting, and (4) rendering.
Burial pits may have severe environmental
limitations in areas of porus or fractured soils
that would allow leaching of nutrients to
groundwater. Incineration has some limita-
tions: the possibility of air pollution and fuel
and labor costs.
Many progressive growers are switching to
composting or to rendering as preferred solu-
tions from an environmental and economic
viewpoint. A grower must choose a method
compatible with his or her individual opera-
T = thousand $
M = million S
B = billion S
Figure 1.Poultry cash receipts (in dollars).
OVFRVIFW 7
-------
tion and company preference. Dead birds must
be treated as a resource that can add value to a
grower's operation. Improper methods of dis-
posal are unacceptable and cannot be con-
doned.
State regulations and permitting require-
ments vary from state to state and may be
more stringent than national regulations. In
general, environmental needs are site specific
and regional in nature. Local sources of infor-
mation, including industry associations, ap-
propriate state agencies, soil and water
conservation districts, and the USDA Soil Con-
servation and Cooperative Extension Service
offices, should be consulted to ensure that your
waste management plan complies with all
state and federal regulations.
There is not a single best or optimal ap-
proach to protect or preserve water quality and
the environment. Good waste management
practices are essential if the poultry industry is
to continue to grow and thrive under today's
environmental challenges. The remainder of
this handbook relates to the management of
poultry wastes, mortalities, and wastewater
Information sheets on these topics provide
management "guidance" to help poultry pro-
ducers make sound environmental decisions;
additional fact sheets discuss other environ-
mental issues and alternative technologies,
and sources of assistance are provided in the
section on Resource Information (RI). Produc-
ers are encouraged to seek assistance from the
appropriate state and federal agencies, private
consultants, and other professionals on how to
implement waste management techniques that
protect water quality and the environment.
Permission is hereby granted to growers, as-
sociations, and others serving the poultry industry
to reproduce this material for further distnbution
The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a coop-
erative effort of industry and government to iden-
tify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products
that will preserve the quality of water for every-
one. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium does
not discriminate against any person or group on
the basis of race, color, sex, handicap, age, or na-
tional ongin
Other pages m this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material for
further distnbution. The Poultry Water Quality. Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone PWQ / 0 - 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
8 POUL TRY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND IMPACTS
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WAT
L I T Y
U E S
0
PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT
AND WATER QUALITY
>rotecting natural re-
sources is a major goal
of the agricultural community in general, and
poultry producers in particular, who care
about the environment. The quality of our air,
soil, and water resources, the welfare of our
animals, and human health issues are impor-
tant to us and to our children; they are our con-
nection to the future. Water quality is the most
important environmental concern of the poul-
try industry.
Environmental protection begins with
awareness. We have to know what's at stake
when we read or hear about water quality and
conservation, or that high concentrations of ni-
trates or other contaminants have been found
in surface and groundwater. We need to under-
stand how the industry's waste management
affects water quality. Above all, we must be
able to assess the opportunities we have, as
private producers and as an industry, to meet
these environmental challenges head on
Poultry growers and the industry must be
concerned about the quality of water that
comes into and flows from their farms or
plants The industry's first concerns are those
that everyone snares: Does the water we use
support our needs? Is it drinkable (potable)
and palatable? What does it cost to supply
water to our homes and businesses? Would ad-
ditional costs for water treatment ensure its
safety for our use?
Where the Water Is
Water covers 70 percent of the earth's surface,
but only 3 percent of the earth's water is usable
by plants, animals, and humans. Usable water
exists either as surface water or groundwater.
Surface water is the runoff that flows above
ground through rivers, streams, and springs
until it eventually drains into the sea or oceans.
The land area that collects runoff in defined lo-
cations is called a watershed, and no matter
how far one lives from the water, everyone
lives in a watershed (see Fig. 1).
Groundwater is water that percolates
through the soil or enters the earth's subsur-
face through sinkholes, permeable soils, and
fractures in rock formations. The underground
water formation is known as an aquifer within
which the groundwater moves in various di-
rections. Some aquifers are several hundred
feet deep while others lie near the surface of
the earth. The upper level of shallow aquifers
is called the water table. It rises and falls de-
pending on how dry or wet the season is, or
how much groundwater is extracted for use
Water is a renewable resource, therefore,
surface and groundwater are constantly being
replenished But water can also be used up
faster than it can be renewed or, in the case of
groundwater, "recharged." Groundwater re-
charge is enhanced by limiting runoff. Human
activities that speed runoff or add contami-
nates to surface and groundwater must be con-
trolled. Land sediments, animal wastes,
pesticides, detergents, oils, and grease are
some of the human contributions to poor
water quality
Understanding Water Pollution
Strictly speaking, pure water does not exist.
Even rainfall contains gases, dust, ai\d ions ac-
quired from the air. In fact, water (a molecule
containing two hydrogen atoms and one oxy-
gen atom) is a solvent; its ability to dissolve
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WAT
U A L I T Y
ISSUES
Figure 1.U.S. Watershed Regions (Brown and Caldwell).
substances is essential to plant and animal life.
Most of the substances, elements, or com-
pounds that we think of as pollutants are also
found naturally in water: nitrogen, phospho-
rus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium,
bicarbonate, chloride, sulfate, carbon dioxide,
oxygen, and some heavy metals. But when one
or more of these substances is found in exces-
sive amounts, the water's use is impaired and
the water may be considered polluted.
Potentially polluting substances, some-
times called dissolved substances or solids, can
be organic or inorganic, and they occur in nat-
ural interaction among the elements of earth
and sky. Their effects include color (or lack of
clarity) and offensive taste and odor. They can
be added to the water during industrial, agri-
cultural, silviculrural, land development, or
other activities that serve human needs and
pleasures. In the poultry industry, for example,
components of manure, dead birds, and
wastewater include nutrients that may be re-
leased to water through direct discharge, ex-
cessive runoff from the land, or leaching
through the soil.
We expect, then, to find some dissolved
substances in water; however, water's proper-
ties are degraded its quality impaired if it
contains chemical, biological, physical, or ra-
diological substances in sufficient quantity to
restrict its use. Water quality standards defined
by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) identify what substances must not ap-
pear in water and at what concentrations other
substances may be permissible under certain
conditions. Tests or analyses performed on
drinking water, surface, and groundwater il-
lustrate the complexity of the issue.
This information sheet has introduced the
topic of water quality. Poultry growers and others
should always check with local health agencies or
state departments of environmental protection or
similar agencies to ensure that they have access
to current water quality criteria and standards ap-
plicable to their location. Water quality criteria are
published in the Federal Register as they are de-
veloped.
2 PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT AND WATER QUALITY
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WAT
Q U
References
Kintzer, B.E 1990. How poultry waste management can
prevent contamination of ground and surface water
Pages 15*21 m Proceedings of the 1990 National Poultry-
Waste Management Symposium. National Poultry
Waste Management Symposium Committee, Auburn
University Printing Servke, Auburn, AL.
National Pork Producers Council. 1992. Guide to Environ-
mental Quality in Pork Production. National Pork Pro-
ducers Council, Environmental Task Force, Des
Moines, IA.
Truitt G.B Jr. 1990. Why address the problem' An over-
view of the poultry system's response to major envi-
ronmental issues. Pages 7-14 in Proceedings of the 1990
National Poultry Waste Management Symposium. Na-
tional Poultry Waste Management Symposium Com-
mittee, Auburn University Printing Service, Auburn,
AL.
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects. Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving (he poultry industry to reproduce this matena! for
further distribution. The Poultry Water Qualrty Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
tor everyone WQI /1 - 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUAUTY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT AND WATER QUALITY 3
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WAT
QUA
ISSUES
WHAT Is WATER QUALITY
public domestic water
supplies are regularly
tested or analyzed for pollutants or contami-
nants. The results can be obtained from local
health departments or appropriate state agen-
cies. Private water supplies or wells should
also be analyzed.
The most common tests for water quality
analyze (1) pH (the level of hydrogen ions in
the water), (2) total alkalinity, (3) total hard-
ness, (4) salts, (5) chlorine, (6) dissolved oxy-
gen, (7) metals, and (8) pathogens. Sometimes
water needs to be tested for heavy metals, such
as lead, mercury, or zinc, or for toxins, such as
DDT or Atrazine. In some areas of the country,
tests for radiological contaminants may be
needed The following parameters are used to
test water's chemical properties.
* The measure of pH in water determines its
acidic or alkaline quality on a relative scale
(For example, in a solution of hydrochloric
acid, the pH is 3, for sodium hydroxide, it is
12 ) In water, on a scale from 0 to 14, a pH
measure of 7 is neutral, for drinking water
for humans and animals, the desirable mea-
sure of pH is 6 5 to 8
* The total alkalinity of water is a measure of
its capacity to neutralize acidity, which is
usually expressed in milligrams per liter of
calcium carbonate (mg/L of CaCOs) Natu-
ral waters may have less than 50 or as
many as 500 mg/L of CaCOs). These varia-
tions may be affected by the rocks and soils
that the water passes through. The alkalin-
ity vanes with pH and hardness, but
sudden fluctuations may indicate a con-
taminant.
* Water also contains total dissolved sobds
(TDS) and minerals. TDS represent the sol-
uble mineral or salt content of water, espe-
cially calcium, magnesium, sodium, chlo-
ride, sulfate, bicarbonate, and silica. These
substances, if excessive, can affect indus-
trial processes, and their presence in water
is frequently associated with discharge
from industrial operations. TDS also affect
the germination and growth of plants and
the palatability of drinking water. Some
minerals are desirable for their beneficial
properties. Drinking water should not have
more than 500 mg/L of TDS and irrigation
waters may have up to 1,500 mg/L of solu-
ble minerals
Hard waters contain so much calcium and
magnesium that it is difficult to make
soaps lather. When heated, hard water
forms scale or deposits that we see on
cooking utensils and water pipes. Water
softening solves the hard water problem
but may increase the amount of sodium
in the water a possible danger to peo-
ple on low sodium diets Sodium in
drinking water should be limited to
about 20 mg/L.
Total iron (suspended and dissolved)
causes problems in water if it exceeds 0 3
mg/L. High iron levels impart a reddish
brown color to water or a bad taste to
cooked foods and may restrict growth in
turkeys.
Chlorides in water should not exceed 250
mg/L; otherwise, the water may have a
salty taste. High chlorides may also indi-
cate pollution from sewage or other
sources.
Sulfates, which should not exceed 250
mg/L, are caused by the leaching of nat-
ural deposits of magnesium sulfate
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WATER
Q U
L I T Y
(Epsom salts) or sodium sulfate
(Glauber's salt). These salts are undesir-
able because of their laxative effects.
Nitrates (NQs-) and nitrites (NOa-) pose
health problems to animals and humans,
including poultry. Their presence in sur-
face or groundwater in large amounts
may indicate mat someone has over-
fertilized a field or allowed a septic tank
system failure. Nitrate levels in drinking
water should not exceed 10 mg/L; and
nitrites, which convert to nitrates, should
not exceed 1 mg/L.
* Chlorine gas and other chlorine com-
pounds are powerful disinfectants and oxi-
dizing agents. Chlorine should be limited
in drinking water to no more than 0.05
mg/L; however, there must be a small chlo-
rine residual in drinking water to assure
that it is disinfected.
* Dissolved oxygen (DO), which is vital for
aquatic life, can be a key test for water pol-
lution. At DO levels below 3 mg/L, fish
may become stressed or die. Generally, in
unimpaired waters, dissolved oxygen
ranges from 7 to 14 mg/L. However, DO
levels approaching 14 mg/L on sunny days
may indicate high density algae growth
and possible nutrient enrichment (pollu-
tion).
Usually among these parameters, only pH,
total iron, DO, and nitrates/nitrites have refer-
ence to poultry. Nevertheless, careful and com-
plete monitoring of private water supplies and
wells is a must because they provide drinking
water for home and poultry operations. When
the chemical properties of water exceed accept-
able limits for intended uses, water quality is
impaired.
Biological Properties
Private water supplies should also be tested
once or twice a year for any sign of coliform
bacteria. The test for fecal coliform bacteria can
differentiate between the bacteria found in
soils and plants and the bacteria found in
warmblooded animals. Common symptoms of
coliform bacteria in humans are intestinal
bloating and diarrhea.
Other bacteriological tests can identify
many kinds and numbers of bacteria in water,
but they do not separate harmful and harmless
bacteria. Tests for Fecal Streptococci, Shigella,
Salmonella, Staphylococci, and other bacteria
may be necessary under certain circumstances.
These tests are specific, time-consuming, and
expensive. They isolate bacteria that cause ty-
phoid fever, eye and ear infections, dysentery,
boils, or other skin diseases. There are also
tests for viruses, protozoa, and parasites.
In surface waters, aquatic vegetation and
microscopic animal and plant life may be stim-
ulated or retarded by various water quality
factors pH, nutrients (nitrogen and phos-
phorus), and turbidity, among others. But
growth and decay cycles may have side effects
that adversely affect the water quality. Even
helpful substances can become harmful in
overabundance; for example, organic nitrogen
in animal wastes and soils can cause "nutrient
loading," which results in low DO levels and
eutrophication (i.e., an overly productive
waterbody.)
Physical Properties
Physical characteristics of water include tur-
bidity, color, tastes, odors, and temperature.
The presence of foam is an indicator of dis-
solved organic substances, perhaps raw sew-
age. Suspended particles may cloud the water,
and dissolved substances may alter its odor or
taste. Turbidity or cloudy water may indicate
the presence of sediments, which reduce light
penetration. Color affects quality and can be
aesthetically displeasing. Taste and odors can
result from dissolved metals, gases, or chemi-
cals.
Radiological Properties
Some radioactivity in water, food, and air is
natural. However, if higher levels than usual
are suspected, the appropriate state agencies
should be notified.
Without efficient management of poultry
waste and dead birds, poultry operations
could become a source of excess nutrients, dis-
ease-causing bacteria or viruses, and dissolved
substances in our nation's surface and ground-
water supplies. Proper waste management will
enhance the quality of water for everyone.
2 WHAT IS WATER QUALITY
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WAT
Q U
I S S U
References
Palmer, EL., J.J. Kotega, and RS WoodhuU 1972. Home
Water Supply Treatment. Pamphlet. Reprint Coopera-
tive Extension Service, College of Agriculture and Nat-
ural Resources, University of Connecticut, Stonrs.
SheJton, T.B. 1971. Interpreting Water Quality Analysis-
What Do the Numbers Mean? Cooperative Extension
Services of the Northeast States. Cooperative Extension
Service, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ.
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects. Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this matenal for
further distribution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone. WQI / 2 - 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615)751 -7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
WHAT IS WATER QUALITY 3
-------
WAT
POULTRY PRODUCTION AND
WATER QUALITY
e
Ev
d
kvery year, the poultry in-
fdustry produces about
20 million tons of manure/litter, 50 million tons
of dead birds, and 46 billion gallons of waste-
water. What happens to these by-products can
be good or bad for the industry and for the envi-
ronment
On the one hand, poultry wastes can do a
lot of good. They can be used as fertilizer, soil
enhancers, cattle feed, or energy. Poultry pro-
ducers can add value to these products and
prevent them from contaminating surface and
groundwater by using proven, acceptable
methods of collection, storage, handling, dis-
posal, and management. All such beneficial
uses depend on proper management. Without
such management, the value of the waste rap-
idly declines, resulting in its greater potential
for adversely affecting the environment and
water quality
To control and prevent pollution, poultry
growers need to understand how these values
can be enhanced and maintained and how the
wastes may contribute to point and nonpoint
source pollution. The value in poultry by-
products and their potential to cause water
pollution have the same source. That is, the
wastes and dead birds contain elements of the
following categories: nutrients and salts, sus-
pended materials, products of biological reac-
tions, and microorganisms These elements can
be beneficial to the grower and other farmers,
or they can be harmful to the environment.
Nutrients and Salts
Poultry manure is a valuable nutrient for grain
and fiber crops, forage crops, fruits, and vege-
tables. However, if manure, litter, dead birds.
and/or wastewater are not properly protected,
water contamination can occur from the pre-
mature release of nitrogen and phosphorus
into the environment.
Nitrogen is an essential plant nutrient but,
in excess, it can be harmful. High concentra-
tions of nitrate (dissolved nitrogen) in drinking
water can affect human health, especially in in-
fants and children. Ammonia in small quanti-
ties is toxic to fish and aquatic organisms.
When nitrogen and phosphorus concentra-
tions in waterbodies rise too high, algae and
rooted aquabc plants take over, prematurely -
aging and choking the waterbody and creating
undesirable conditions odors, offensive
taste, and discoloration all of which can
make the water unfit for consumption or recre-
ational and aesthetic use. Further, these eutro-
phic conditions can kill fish, clog water
treatment plant filters, and lead to the growth
of blue-green algae, a species that can be fatal
to livestock.
Because nitrate-nitrogen is highly mobile,
it can leach into groundwater and flow with
stormwater runoff into surface waters. If too
much poultry manure and Utter are used as
fertilizer, nitrogen and phosphorus concentra-
tions in nearby waters are likely to be high
Soil erosion also increases the amount of phos-
phorus in surface waters. Excessive phospho-
rus in sod, above 800 mg/L, may become
soluble and move into groundwater.
Calcium and sodium salts are added to
poultry feeds to help the birds maintain chemi-
cal balance and nutrition. Excess salts pass
through the animals and are eliminated in ma-
nure. Sometimes, when the waste accumulates,
the salts leach into groundwater and enter
-------
WAT
surface water through unprotected runoff.
There they alter the water's taste or harm
freshwater plants and animals.
Suspended Materials
When suspended matter from poultry wastes
reach surface water, the waterbody not only
looks unattractive the quality of the water
invariably suffers. The suspended material re-
duces the penetration of sunlight and therefore
slows the production of oxygen. The result is
an oxygen demand that reduces the levels of
dissolved oxygen in the water. It also clogs fish
gills, makes it difficult for sight-feeding fish to
find food, and settles over fish spawning areas.
Products of Biological Reactions
In a natural environment, the breakdown of or-
ganic matter, such as poultry waste, is a func-
tion of complex, interrelated, and mixed
biological populations. All substances of ani-
mal or vegetable origin contain carbon and are,
therefore, organic. Organic matter is converted
to simple compounds by naturally occurring
microorganisms. These simple- compounds
may be other forms of organic matter or they
may be nonorgaruc compounds or gases, such
as nitrates, orthophosphates, ammonia, and
hydrogen sulfide. A biological reaction occurs
when manure or other organic matter is added
to water and aerobic organisms (oxygen re-
quiring organisms) begin the decaying proc-
ess The bacteria consume free oxygen and
produce carbon dioxide gas. Under anaerobic
conditions (without oxygen), methane, amines,
and sulhdes are produced.
Mic ro organisms
Desirable and undesirable microorganisms live
in our environment. Animal waste is a poten-
tial source of some 150 diseaselle
Magette, W L , and R A WeismiUer 1991 Nutrient Man-
agement for Water Quality Protection BFS-3 Maryland
Cooperative Extension Service, University of Mary-
land, College Park
U S Department of Agnculture 1992 Agricultural Waste
Management Field Handbook, Part 651 Soil Conserva-
tion Service Washington, DC
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material for
further distnbutton The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone WQI73-6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
2 POUL TRY PRODUCTION AND WATER QUALITY
-------
WAT
Q U
UNDERSTANDING WATER
QUALITY REGULATIONS
As
**gr
te poultry industry
ows, so does concern
for water quality, conservation, and manage
ment of our natural resources. Growers have
individual and civic reasons for caring: you are
responsible, with other human beings, for the
earth's environment and more personally
you realize that you, your families, and neigh-
bors all drink the same water. Pollution is in-
tolerable whether it is detected in your own
land and water, or after it has traveled many
miles downstream from the source. The arith-
metic is simple: good environmental steward-
ship reduces the costs of production, reduces
water pollution, saves natural resources, and
makes good neighbors.
Changing Attitudes
It is important to note that most federal regula-
tions are delegated to states. In some few cases,
double jeopardy may exist the effect of com-
bined federal and state regulations Because
states monitor water quality resources, poultry
owners must check with state and local agen-
cies before setting up compliance programs
Often the states are more stringent than federal
enforcement requires. Engineering and gov-
ernment consultants can help growers know,
understand, and comply with the regulations
in their area.
Reasons to change personal attitudes to-
ward water use and conservation have less to
do with regulation than with management.
Growers want a good public image, cost reduc-
tions, efficiency, and compliance. Most opera-
tions have discovered a workable slogan and a
reasonable directive in "pollution prevention
pays." Making pollution prevention changes
can bring a big return on investment; however.
they should also be made with an eye on the
best ways to protect the environment. For ex-
ample, we should
* prevent the generation of wastes
where possible;
v recycle wastes that cannot be
prevented;
T pretreat wastes to eliminate
possible contaminants; and
v dispose of unusable wastes
properly as a last resort.
Water quality concerns for the poultry in-
dustry include
* protection of water quality
through management of soil
erosion, waste, nutrients, and
pesticides;
v the continuing availability of
water in sufficient quantities for
washing, making bnne, cooking,
cooling, cleaning, processing,
conveying, and sanitation; and
* the safe disposal and use of
wastewater and other wastes
Management commitment and awareness,
scientific research and common sense, and in
some cases, new installations and equipment
are needed to protect the availability and
quantity of OUT natural resources. The scope of
the problem is global, national, and industry-
wide; cooperation among agencies, associa-
tions, and individuals speeds the development
of technology and its transfer, and creates a
participatory environment that encourages the
search for solutions.
-------
WAT
Difficulties encountered in the 1950s and
1960s often resulted from an absence of water
quality standards and confusing, contradic-
tory, or nonexistent national effluent limita-
tions. These difficulties have been remedied by
national legislation and regulations that are
often administered by the states. Federal legis-
lation for controlling water pollution that has
developed over the past two decades illus-
trates the national commitment to develop and
implement a strategy that will lead to cleaner
air and water.
Point and Nonpoint Source
Pollution
For best management, water pollution sources
are divided into two groups depending on
their point of release. Point source pollution
has a known origin, such as a pipe or storage
tank. Nonpoint sources of pollution are dis-
persed, harder to pinpoint, and cumulative.
They include land uses, such as human activi-
ties, that are potentially significant because
they occur in high densities. Agriculture, min-
ing, forestry, septic and other waste disposal
systems, and urban runoff are examples of
nonpoint source pollution.
Poultry growers must know how to man-
age point and nonpoint sources because waste
handling and disposal may contribute to non-
point sources of pollution; while concentrated
animal feeding operations (CAFOs), including
some large poultry houses, are regulated as
point sources of pollution. Federal law gener-
ally forbids point source discharges, that is, the
discharge of any pollutant or contaminate to
"waters of the United States." States adminis-
ter the federally mandated National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) pro-
gram. This program requires dischargers to
have an operating permit before discharging
potentially contaminated wastewater into
streams, ponds, waterways, sinkholes, drain-
age ditches, or groundwater.
Practices that protect surface water include
diverting off-site drainage around the feeding
facility and constructing storage for manure
and process-generated wastewater. Adequate
runoff storage should be included in the de-
sign. Lagoons or holding ponds should be
built to hold a 25-year, 24-hour duration storm
I T Y
I S S U
Managing Nonpoint Source
Pollution
The extent and importance of nonpoint sources
have been more fully realized in the last dec-
ade. But nonpoint sources are so diffuse that
they are usually assessed locally on a stream-
by-stream basis and controlled by best man-
agement practices (BMPs). BMPs are routine
methods of animal and crop farming that also
control stormwater. That is, they are farming
methods that control or eliminate the poten-
tially harmful effects of agriculture on runoff.
Compliance Issues
Water quality legislation has teeth. Section 309
of the Clean Water Act establishes criminal
penalties for failure to comply with the regula-
tions. The threat of prosecution can be a first
step in forcing compliance; the charges can
range from minor infringements or negligent
actions (lightly punished) to more serious
charges of conscious violations and knowing
endangerment. Knowing and willful endan-
germent and outright falsification are the most
serious charges
In short, point source wastewaters that
leave a poultry house or plant must comply
with the national effluent levels A prerreat-
ment program may be necessary Some poultry
operations have discovered that running their
own pretreatment plants, though expensive,
can be more efficient than other methods of
compliance
The U S Environmental Protection Agency
now uses audits to determine how and why
publicly owned treatment works are not in
compliance. Recent regulations (in 40 C R F
Part 403) concern pretreatment.
* Pollutants that would interfere
with the operation of the publicly
owned treatment works or cause
fire or explosive hazards are not
permitted.
* No pH levels lower than 5.0 are
allowed.
T Solid or viscous pollutants are
monitored.
2 UNDERSTANDING WATER QUALITY REGULATIONS
-------
WAT
* High levels of biological oxygen
demanding substances (BOD) are
regulated as are oils, grease, and
toxic gases.
The poultry industry should, therefore,
take an active part in pretreatment programs.
Current Developments
The Clean Water Act was amended in 1987 and
is scheduled for further amendment and
reauthorization in 1994 or 1995. The original
legislation (and NPDES program) was mainly
concerned with industrial wastes; the later
amendments have placed, and will continue to
place, more emphasis on controlling nonpoint
sources of pollution (urban and agricultural
runoff).
Since 1987, nonpoint source pollution has
been recognized as a major contributor to sur-
face and groundwater contamination. In addi-
tion, permits have been required since 1972 for
concentrated animal feeding operations.
Poultry growers and processors should be
concerned beyond the short-term availability
of water resources.'But a change in our attitude
about water use depends on cooperation,
knowledge, and commitment to quality, effi-
ciency, and environmental protection.
ISSUES
Federal regulations are administered in most
cases by the states, whose regulations and per-
mitting requirements vary and may be more strin-
gent than national regulations. Please consult
local sources of information, including industry
associations, state departments of environmental
protection and public health, and USDA Soil Con-
servation Service and Cooperative Extension
Service offices, to ensure that your waste man-
agement activities comply with all regulations and
ordinances.
References
Carawan, R.E. 1992. Update on federal wastewater regu-
lations. Pages 84-101 in J.P. Blake, J.O Donald, and P.H
Patterson, ed.. Proceedings 1992 National Poultry
Waste Management Symposium. National Poultry
Waste Management Symposium Committee Auburn
University Printing Service, Auburn, AL
Gleichert, G.C., E.W. Brunton, and K. Whitmire. 1992
Corporate Management Commitment to Waste and En-
vironmental Management. Panel. Pages 19-32 in Pro-
ceedings 1992 National Poultry Waste Management
Symposium. National Poultry Waste Management
Symposium Committee Aubum University Printing
Service, Aubum, AL
33 U S C §1251 et seq (Title 33, Section 1251 of the U S
Code is correlated to §101 of the Federal Water Pollu-
tion Control Act [1972| It is entitled "Congressional
Declaration of Coals and Policy ")
US. Department of Agriculture 1992 Agricultural Waste
Management Field Handbook, Part 651 Soil Conserva-
tion Service, Washington, DC
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects. Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this matenal for
further distribution The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone. WQI / 4 - 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
UNDERSTANDING WA TEfi QUALITY REGULA TIONS 3
-------
POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
0
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF
POULTRY WASTE
gricultural activities,
including the produc-
tion of poultry wastes, may be increasingly
responsible for contributing excess nutri-
ents (especially nitrogen and phosphorus)
to our water resources. Nutrient manage-
ment planning in conjunction with land ap-
plications can reduce or eliminate this
excess and contribute to more productive
farming by helping farmers apply only as
much nutrient to the soil as the plants can
use. Most problems can be controlled if the
grower knows how nutrients and soil inter-
act and plans accordingly.
Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
move through cycles on a farm. As nutrients,
they go from crops to animals (in feed) to the
soil (waste applications) and back again to
other crops If the cycle holds, everything
works as it should. But if too many of these nu-
trients are already in the soil or too much
waste is applied to the land, they can move
with the soil into surface water or through the
soil into groundwater until their presence in
the water reaches unacceptable levels, that is,
is sufficient to impair water quality
Nitrogen
Of the three major nutrients in poultry waste,
nitrogen is the most complex and likely to con-
tribute to environmental problems. Most of
earth's nitrogen exists as nitrogen gas in the at-
mosphere (see Fig. 1). It can be transformed
into inorganic forms by lightning or into or-
ganic forms by plants, such as soybeans, al-
falfa, or clovers. Nitrogen can also be
transformed into inorganic forms (commercial
fertilizers) by energy intensive processes.
Most of the nitrogen found in animal
wastes is organic nitrogen. A smaller amount
of the nitrogen in litter is ammonium. Organic
nitrogen can be mineralized or converted by
soil bacteria into inorganic nitrogen, the form
in which nitrogen is available to plants. Exces-
sive organic and ammonium forms of nitrogen
are transformed in the soil into nitrate nitrogen
(that is, into water soluble nitrogen).
Losses of nitrogen from the cropping sys-
tem can occur as a result of surface runoff and
leaching. Surface runoff can move dissolved
nitrogen (especially narrate), ammonium rutro-
gen attached to eroding soil particles, and or-
ganic nitrogen contained in organic or plant
residues into streams and lakes. Nitrates move
with the soil or leach through well-drained
soils past the root zone into the groundwater
supply
High levels of nitrate can be toxic to
human health, especially newborns Nitrate
can reduce the blood's capacity to cam' oxy-
gen or cause internal suffocation Scientists tell
us that too much nitrate can affect the weight,
feed conversion, and performance of poultry
Too much nitrogen in surface water can kill
fish and cause the water to be less productive
Phosphorus
Poultry wastes also contain significant
amounts of phosphorus (Fig. 2) Phosphorus,
bke nitrogen, is essential for plant and animal
growth, however, if it is used improperly,
phosphorus can also contribute to environ-
mental and water quality problems It can be a
major cause of water quality degradation in
surface waters.
-------
POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
Plant and
Animal
Irrigation,
Ammonia gas rainfall,
snowmelt
0<
Plants
Nitrogen gas
Runoff.
Ammonia
fertilizer
11
00
Nitrate
fertilizer
Manure, Litter,
Oeadbirds,
Wastewater
Nitrogan fixation
bybactarta
Ammonium
Organic
Nitrogen
Figure 1.The nitrogen cycle.
Phosphorus exists in either dissolved or
solid form. Dissolved phosphorus usually
exists as orthophosphates, inorganic poly-
phosphates, and organic phosphorus in the
soil. Phosphorus in the solid form is referred to
as particulate phosphorus and may be com-
posed of many chemical forms. Particulate
phosphorus comes in four classifications:
^ adsorbed phosphorus, which attaches to
soil particles;
^ organic phosphorus, which is found in
dead and living materials;
T precipitate phosphorus, which is mainly
fertilizer that has reacted with calcium, alu-
minum, and iron in the soil; and
* mineral phosphorus, the phosphorus in
various soil minerals.
Approximately two-thirds of the total
phosphorus in soil is inorganic phosphorus;
the remaining one-third is organic. Both forms
are involved in transformations that release
water-soluble phosphorus (which can be used
by plants) from solid forms, and vice versa.
Phosphorus-laden soil moves via runoff
into rivers, lakes, and streams, where it can
cause excessive plant and algae growth, which
in horn depletes the dissolved oxygen content
in the water. Phosphorus-enriched waters con-
tribute to fish kills and the premature aging of
the waterbody. In the end, the beauty and use
of the waters are seriously curtailed. Even rela-
tively small soil losses may result in significant
runoff leading to high nutrient depositions in
the water.
Controlling soil erosion and proper land
application of phosphorus-containing wastes
will greatly reduce the amount of phosphorus
in water. Care must also be taken to prevent
soluble phosphorus from leaching into ground-
water.
Applying poultry waste to the land at rates
based on supplying the nitrogen needs of grain
or cereal crops can lead to a phosphorus
buildup in the soil. Planting forage crops in ro-
tation with grain crops will help remove excess
phosphorus. Maintaining soil pH at the recom-
mended level is also an effective and econorru-
2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF POULTRY WASTE
-------
POULTRY
WASTE
MANAGEMENT
Removed by
P in naMncotporated
maMlostmninaff
P attached
to eroded
soil lost in runoff
i>
P tnnaiOi uta&ons
m soil profile
OrguucP
Temporarily
bound mnuenbbd
roots, plant
v icli tftftCncQ r
for wfaocpoon se
N
\
InotgaiucP.
f-1-*
f- * *^ »
DtoohedP. .
(aotobh,
avaUalile F)
HjPQi t BFO4
hsdanlSN
ofiaalP
*
\*>
\
, /
A Y
N
Attached P
Libde
Fu^hanjmJilj
P loosely
bound to
AlFfcCa.
AsraaO
ftaeoonof
anachedP
Fteed
Tightly
bound
wutunthe
sodas
AI&Fe
phosphates
and as
Ca,HPO«
and other*
compounds
lost through
leaching
Figure 2.Abbreviated phosphorus cycle.
cal practice for maximizing phosphorus effi-
ciency Crops use phosphorus most efficiently
when the soil pH is between 6.0 and 7 0
Soil phosphate levels are an important con-
sideration in calculating poultry litter applica-
tion rates Land applications should be made
only to soils that do not already contain exces-
sive phosphate levels. An analysis or test
should be conducted on each waste source
prior to land application to determine proper
phosphorus application rates.
Potassium
Potassium in poultry waste is a soluble nutri-
ent equivalent to fertilizer potassium. (Ex-
creted as unc acid, it is combined with the
feces, and referred to as excreta.) It is immedi-
ately available to plants when it is applied. Po-
tassium is fairly mobile but does remain in the
soil to help supply plant needs, for example.
strong stems, resistance to disease, and the for-
mation and transfer of starches, sugars, and
oils. Excessive amounts of potassium can in-
hibit or restrict the growth of some plants at
certain stages of development. Small amounts
of potassium may be leached to groundwater,
especially in sandy soils, however, potassium
or potash is usually not a threat to water qual-
ity or considered a pollutant
Heavy Metals and Trace Elements
Heavy metals and trace elements, such as cop-
per, selenium, nickel, lead, and zinc, are
strongly adsorbed to clay soils or complexed
(chelated) with soil organic matter, which
reduces their potential for contaminating
groundwater. However, excessive applications
of organic waste containing high amounts of
heavy metals or trace elements can exceed the
adsorptive capacity of the soil and increase
the potential for groundwater contamination. I
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF POULTRY WASTE 3
-------
POULTRY WASTE MANA GEM E N T
Surface water contamination is a potential haz-
ard if poultry wastes are applied to areas sub-
ject to a high rate of runoff or erosion.
Salts
Dissolved salts, mainly sodium, in high con-
centrations interfere with plant growth and
seed germination, and may limit the choice of
plant species that can be successfully grown.
Poultry waste with low salt content and a high
carbon to nitrogen ratio can improve soil water
intake, permeability, and structure.
Using Litter Nutrients Wisely
High nitrate levels in groundwater and high
phosphorus levels in surface water may be an
indication that too much litter or fertilizer is
being applied on too little land. Yet the fact
that poultry litter is high in nutrients is pre-
cisely its value. The nutrients in this resource
make it an excellent soil conditioner and fertil-
izer. Growers can maximize the benefits of
having this resource and help protect their
local water resources from high nutrient levels
by planning and operating an effective nutri-
ent management system.
Application practices will vary with the
area's cropping practices, topography, and
other environmental and economic conditions.
Waste and soil testing are the simplest and
most important aspects of nutrient manage-
ment. They help farmers monitor the nutrient
supply to guarantee that it is sufficient and ad-
equately controlled to produce the best crop
yields and maintain water quality.
References
Bandel, V.A. 1988. Soil Phosphorus- Managing It Effec-
tively. Fact Sheet 513. Cooperative Extension Service,
University of Maryland, College Park.
Cartel; T.A., and R.E. Sneed. 1987. Drinking Water Quality
for Poultry. PS&T Guide No 42. Cooperative Extension
Service, North Carolina State University, Raleigh
Fulhage, C D. 1990. Reduce Environmental Problems with
Proper Land Application of Animal Wastes WQ201
Cooperative Extension Service, University of Missouri,
Columbia.
Goan, H.C., and J. Jared. 1991. Poultry Manure Proper
Handling and Application to Protect Our Water Re-
sources. PB 1421. Cooperative Extension Service, Uni-
versity of Tennessee, Kjnoxvilte.
Keeney, D.R., and R.F. Follett 1991. Overview and Intro-
duction. Chapter 1. In Managing Nitrogen for Ground-
water Quality and Farm Profitability Proceedings. Soil
Science Society of America, Madison, WI.
Killpack, S, and D Buchholz 1991 What Is Nitrogen'
WQ251 University Extension, University of Missoun,
Columbia
U S Department of Agriculture 1992. National Engineer-
ing Handbook 210, Part 651. In Agricultural Waste
Management Field Handbook Soil Conservation Serv-
ice, Washington, DC
Wells, K.L., G W. Thomas, J.L Sims, and MS Smith 1991
Managing Soil Nitrates for Agronomic Efficiency and
Environmental Protection AGR-147 Cooperative Ex-
tension Service, University of Kentucky, Lexington
Other pages m (his handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects. Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this matenal for
further distnbution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone PWMM-6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF POULTRY WASTE
-------
POULTRY WASTE MANA3EM E N T
e
PLANNING POULTRY WASTE
MANAGEMENT
D
I evelopments within
'the poultry industry,
changes in land use patterns, and increasing
restrictions or regulations on the disposal of
poultry waste have significantly altered the
industry's attitudes about this immense re-
source. Over 50 million tons of poultry waste
are produced each year. Because production is
concentrated in very small geographic areas,
waste management planning is extremely im-
portant.
Historically, poultry growers applied poul-
try waste to their farms as much to dispose of
the material as to use it for fertilizer. Difficul-
ties with this practice increase with the supply
for several reasons:
T Less cropland is farmed today than 20
years ago, and more poultry operations
exist today
* Other resources (wastewater, composted
residential waste, and sludge) are also
being used for land applications, which in-
creases competition for the remaining crop-
lands and pastures.
* We know now mat valuable nutrients ni-
trogen, phosphorus, and potassium are
squandered and water resources are threat-
ened if land applications of waste are over-
done or misapplied
* Regulations regarding waste management
are now enforced by many states.
Concern for water quality has been a major
catalyst for the upsurge of interest in new ap-
proaches to land application. Today's growers
are finding that poultry waste planning in-
creases farm production, protects the environ-
ment, and lowers costs.
An Integrated Approach
Traditionally, poultry growers have efficiently
disposed of these wastes as soon as possible by
spreading the manure or litter on croplands or
pasture. Now growers plan for its ultimate
use, and waste management begins inside the
poultry house. Along with the grower's objec-
tives, for example, flock health,, production,
and odor control; today's waste management
planning must also protect water quality and
contribute to a profitable farm operation. Inte-
grating these broad objectives requires many
growers to develop other options in addition
to land application
Thus, to be profitable and to protect our
natural resources air, soil, water, plants, and
animals poultry growers must plan their
waste management practices carefully The\
must base application rates and timing on soii
test results and crop removal needs along with
an analysis or estimate of the nutrients con-
tained in the manure or litter
Poultry waste management planning be-
gins before actual production and may have as
many as six steps or functions {Fig 1)
The first step is to understand the waste
management process. What are these wastes'
How much does a particular operation pro-
duce on an annual basis? Where or how can
these wastes be used? The second step, once
the quantity and quality of the wastes have
been determined, is to put efficient collection
methods in place.
-------
POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
1
Production
I
| Collection |
| Storage [*" j Transfer [, '| Treatment |
*
I Utilization |
For a apecfflc *y*tam iheaa function* may be combined,
repeated, eliminated, or arranged aa neoMsary.
Figure 1.Steps in an animal waste management
planning system.
The third and fourth steps are to have ade-
quate storage facilities and the ability to trans-
fer or move the waste from the point of
collection to the appropriate point of use. In
some cases, a fifth step is included to deter-
mine whether biological, physical, or chemical
treatment of the wastes is needed to reduce the
potential for pollution or to prepare the wastes
for final use.
The sixth and final step in the waste man-
agement plan is to use the wastes normally,
for land application as a fertilizer and soil im-
provement or as a feed ingredient in accor-
dance with the nutrient management plan
Growers will usually have identified sufficient
land on which to apply the waste before pro-
duction begins If enough land does not exist,
other uses must be assigned or additional
lands located for disposal.
The Benefits of Nutrient
Management
Nutrient management planning begins when
the poultry waste management plan has pro-
ceeded from conservation and protection to
the actual use of these products for land appli-
cations or energy and feed production. Nutri-
ent management planning matches the
nutritional requirements of the soils, crops, or
other living things with the nutrients available
in the manure or litter, thereby preventing nu-
trient imbalances, health risks, and surface and
groundwater contamination.
Nutrient management recognizes the nitro-
gen, phosphorus, and potassium content of
poultry waste, which is its value; and increases
this value by matching the nutrients available
in the resource with the nutrients needed in the
application. This planning also reduces dis-
posal and handling costs. Nutrient manage-
ment planning makes it possible to use poultry
manure to replace commercial fertilizers or at
least to reduce their use thereby reducing
the costs of nutrients associated with, crop pro-
duction. Nutrient management also minimizes
the potential harmful effects that overapplica-
tion can have on the environment.
An essential goal of nutrient management
is to make sure that any poultry waste, espe-
cially manure or litter, is used safely and effec-
tively. Nutrient management is, in fact, the key
to using this waste as a beneficial by-product.
To obtain maximum benefit and prevent possi-
ble contamination of surface and groundwater,
the following management principles and
practices can be applied.
* Develop and apply a Resource Manage-
ment System, an Animal Waste Manage-
ment System, a Nutrient Management
Plan, or similar program. Assistance is
available from the local offices of the U.S
Department of Agriculture's Soil Conserva-
tion Service, the Cooperative Extension
Service, or state departments of agriculture
T Find out Lf your state uses nitrogen as a
basis for land application requirements. If
not, is phosphorus a concern in your area7
T Analyze poultry waste regularly to monitor
major nutrients and pH levels. Proper soil
pH will help maximize crop yields, in-
crease nutrient use, and promote decompo-
sition of organic matter.
* Apply only as much fertilizer (nutrients) as
the crop can use.
T Calibrate equipment and apply waste uni-
formly
T Incorporate poultry waste into the soil if
possible to reduce runoff, volatilization,
and odor problems.
2 PLANNING POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
-------
POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
T Do not spread poultry waste on soils that
are frozen or subject to flooding, erosion, or
rapid runoff prior to crop use.
* Spread poultry waste during specific grow-
ing seasons or as scheduled for maximum
plant uptake and to minimize runoff and
leaching.
^ Use proper storage methods prior to land
application.
T Maintain a vegetative buffer zone between
the field of application and adjacent
streams, ponds, lakes, sinkholes, and wells.
* Follow approved conservation practices in
all fields.
^ Be considerate of neighbors and minimize
conflicts when transporting or land-apply-
ing poultry waste.
Training, technical assistance, and in some
cases, financial aid are available to help grow-
ers and crop farmers identify problems and de-
velop solutions for using poultry waste in their
specific regions The Soil Conservation Service
and Cooperative Extension Service, for exam-
ple, have developed work sheets for animal
waste management systems that will help
growers make production estimates, obtain
soil and manure analyses, and make economi-
cal and practical use of the organic resources
generated on the farm These agencies and oth-
ers can help growers design facilities and de-
velop overall resource management plans.
References
Bell, D 1982 Marketing Poultry Manure University of
California, Cooperative Extension, Riverside.
Cabe Associates, Inc. 1991. Poultry Manure Storage and
Process: Alternatives Evaluation Final Report. Project
100-286. University of Delaware Research and Educa-
tion Center, Georgetown.
Department of Natural Resources and Environmental
Control. 1989. Poultry Manure Management: A Supple-
ment to Delaware Guidelines Cooperative Bulletin 24
Delaware Cooperative Extension. University of Dela-
ware, Newark
Fulhage, C 1992. Reduce Environmental Problems with
Proper Land Application of Animal Wastes WQ201
University Extension, University of Missouri, Colum-
bia.
Margette, W.L., and R.A. WeismiUer 1991 Nutrient Man-
agement for Water Quality Protection. Bay Fact Sheet 3
Cooperative Extension Service, University of Mary-
land, College Park.
Missouri Department of Natural Resources. 1993. Obtain-
ing a DNR Letter of Approval for a Livestock Waste
Management System. WQ217. University Extension,
University of Missouri, Columbia
Swanson, M.H. No date. Some Reflections on Dried Poul-
try Waste University of California Cooperative Exten-
sion, Riverside
U.S Department of Agriculture 1991 Improving and Pro-
tecting Water Quality m Georgia One Drop at a
Time Soil Conservation Service, Athens, GA
US Department of Agriculture 1991 Improving water
quality by managing animal waste SCS WQ3 in Water
Qualify and Quantity for the 90's Sod Conservation
Services, Washington, DC.
1992 National Engineering Handbook 210, Part
651, in Agricultural Waste Management Field Hand-
book Soil Conservation Service, Washington, DC
U S Environmental Protection Agency 1993 The Water-
shed Protection Approach A Project Focus Draft As-
sessment and Watershed Protection Division
Washington, DC
Zublena. J 1993 Land Applications Nutrient Manage-
ment Plan Presentation Poultry Waste Management
and Water Quality Workshop Southeastern Poultrv
and Egg Association, Atlanta, GA
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material for
further distribution The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone PWM12- 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
PLANNING POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT 3
-------
POULTRY WASTE MAN A GEME N T
0
DRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
v
* well-planned waste
management system
will account for all wastes associated with a
poultry agricultural enterprise throughout the
year, from the production of such wastes to
their use. It is likely that the more integrated
the waste management system is with the
grower's other management needs, such as
production, marketing, pest control, and con-
servation, the more profitable the farm will be.
Kinds of Poultry Waste
Manure and Litter
Poultry wastes are handled differently de-
pending on their consistency, which may be
liquid, slurry, semisohd, or solid.
The total solids concentration of manure
depends on the climate, weather, amount of
water consumed by the birds, type of birds
produced, and their feed; it can be increased by
adding litter or decreased by adding water
Thus, poultry waste systems can be either liq-
uid or dry Liquid waste management is ex-
plained in an additional fact sheet contained m
this handbook (PWM-4)
Within the poultry industry, broiler,
roaster, Cornish hen, pullets, turkey, and some
layer operations are dry; live bird processing,
some layer, and most duck and goose opera-
tions are liquid. In most dry operations, the
birds are grown on floors covered with bed-
ding materials. The manure collected from
ducks, geese, and large high-rise layer opera-
tions is usually pure or raw manure, unmixed
with litter. But it may be mixed with water
during deanout. Dry and liquid wastes require
different collection, storage, handling, and
management systems
The amount of manure produced by a
given flock of poultry can be roughly esti-
mated from the amount of feed the birds eat.
Table 1 can be used to estimate how much
fresh manure and manure dry matter will be
produced by various species and numbers of
birds. Roughly, it is estimated that 20 percent
of the feed consumed by poultry is converted
to manure.
Litter
Manure mixed with a bedding material is
called litter. The composition of litter varies,
depending on how the chickens were fed, age
and size of birds, the presence of moisture, the
age and type of the litter itself, frequency of
cleanout, and conditions of storage. Its compo-
sition can be estimated from analyses that have
already been made on similar types of waste,
but all litter should be analyzed at least once a
year for nutrient content. Litter moisture in a
well-managed house generally ranges from 25
to 35 percent Higher moisture levels in litter
result in greater weight and reduced levels of
nitrogen.
Diminished productivity and income are
the almost certain outcomes of an improper or
failed animal waste management system
Good management has two" goals lo reduce
the production of Utter and to make the best
use of the btter that is produced
How much litter is produced varies widely,
depending on the producer's management
style, feedstocks, number of cleanouts, climatic
conditions, and bird genetics. However, broil-
ers may produce up to one ton of litter per year
per 1,000 birds, or about 81 cubic feet of Litter
for each 1,000 birds. The bedding materials,
manure, and used feed in the litter have nutri-
ent value for land applications, but may also
be useful in other ways for example, as a
fuel source, as an ingredient in compost, or as
beef cattle feed.
-------
POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
Table 1.Approximate manure production by poultry.
Type of
animal.
2345
Feed
Marketer Animals/ eaten
aduttttve 1000 to /animal
wt/antmal animal (Ib/growtng /animal (Ib/yr
(to) unit Flocks/yr period) (Ib/yr) /animal)*
67- 8 9
Manure Animals
Feed dry matter to supply Nutrient content
eaten produced 1 ton dry of dry manure
matter
manure/yr*
Layer4 4
Layer, heavy 7
Puller3
Broiler
Roaster
Turkey
Duck
Guinea
Pheasant
Chukar
Quail
3
4
7
20"
7
3-4
3
1.S
0.5
250
143
333
250
143
50
143
285
333
666
2000
1
1
2
6
4
2
6
1
1
2
2
77/52 wk
90/52 wk
15/20 wk
9/7 wk
18/10 wk
60/20 wk
19/7 wk
18/18 wk
16/18wk
8/18 wk
3/12 wk
77
90
30
54
72
120
114
18
16
16
6
154
18
6
10.8
144
24
22.8
3.6
3.2
32
1.2
130
111
333
185
139
83
88
555
625
625
1666
100 40-70 40
80 40-70 60
100 40 20
120 40 50
Note: Pounds of teed at 11 to 13 percent moisture x 0.20 = pounds of manure dry matter. Fresh manure is 75 to 80 percent
moisture. Manure can be atr-dned in the poultry house toaslowasl5to25 percent moisture
Figure may vary with animal, ration, and season.
"Column 8 is obtained by dividing 2000 pounds by the value in column 7
'Figure may vary plus or minus 50 percent depending on animal, ration, and manure handling.
"Single Comb White Leghorn.
Adult turkeys may vary from 12 to 36 pounds per txrd bve body weigfn
Litter that is saturated with water is called
cake. This litter must be removed from the
house between flocks; it must be prevented
from mixing with stormwater and becoming
overly wet, and it must be dried to prevent
odor. Good management practices will reduce
the production of cake for example, by
checking for water leaks in the house and
keeping the house at an even temperature
Litter that has not become saturated in
water can be left in the house between flocks If
the cake is properly removed from the house,
total cleanouts can be delayed sometimes
for as long as two years or more.
Weight and volume of litter will depend on
type of bedding material used, depth of bed-
ding to start with, amount of cake removed or
present, and length of time between complete
cleanouts. The quality of litter depends on the
method of removal, whether the matenal was
raked or stirred between flocks, and manner
and length of storage.
Outdoor or Open Range
Fields, pastures, yards, or other outdoor areas
are used as ranges for chickens, turkeys, ducks,
or game birds Such areas must be located and
fenced so that manure-laden runoff does not
enter surface water, sinkholes, or wells These
operations may be required to have a dis-
charge permit from the appropriate state regu-
latory agency
Manure
The best method for managing manure de-
pends on the type of housing used, dry or liq-
uid collection, and the way the housing is
operated. Misuse of poultry manure can re-
duce productivity, cause flies, odor, and aes-
thetic problems; and pollute surface and
groundwater. Poultry manure can produce
dust and release harmful gases such as carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulh'de, methane, and am-
monia. Fresh manure is troublesome if it gets
too wet.
2 DRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
-------
POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
Fresh manure can be handled in either dry
or liquid form. Aerating or drying of manure
requires ventilation. Ventilation can be
achieved naturally (through proper housing
design) or mechanically (through equipment)
Aeration produces a low odor product of 15 to
25 percent moisture. Because it has less odor
and weight, it is less expensive to haul, con-
tains more nutrients, and can be stored more
easily.
Liquid manure contains about 95 percent
moisture and consequently weighs more than
twice as much as dry manure. The trend within
the industry is to avoid liquid waste handling
operations and use the more convenient dry
systems. Manure that is between 30 and 60
percent moisture is sticky, difficult to scrape,
and more likely to break cleaning equipment.
Storage Facilities
Dry litter from broiler operations and dry ma-
nure from a layer operation are best stored
under a roof or in covered stacks. These stor-
age facilities have five essential features:
* sufficient capacity to hold the
waste until it can be applied to
land or transported off the farm,
* adequate conditions of
temperature and humidity to
permit storage of the waste until
it is needed,
T a concrete or impermeable clay
base to prevent leaching to
groundwater,
T proper location to avoid runoff to
surface waters or percolation to
groundwater, and
* ventilation and containment for
effective air quality and nuisance
control.
Thus, the ideal storage design is a roofed
structure with an impermeable earthen or con-
crete floor. This design keeps the litter dry, uni-
form in quality, and easy to handle; it also
minimizes fly and odor problems. Manage-
ment plans that allow for proper storage
T save water,
* improve bird quality.
» improve the production
environment,
^ reduce the amount of ammonia
released from litter,
* reduce the volume of cake,
^ extend the time between
cleanouts,
* increase the product's value and
flexibility, and
* prevent pollution of adjoining
waters.
Kinds of Storage Facilities
Generally, storage facilities can be open, cov-
ered, or lined (permanently lined, in some
cases); or they can be bunkers or open-sided
buildings with roofs. Perhaps the most com-
mon facilities for collecting and storing poultry
litter include floors, pits, dry-stack buildings,
or covered outdoor storage facilities with im-
permeable earthen, or concrete flooring.
Floor Storage
Most broiler, roaster, Cornish hen, pullet, tur-
key, and small layer operations raise birds on
earthen or concrete floors covered with bed-
ding material (Fig. 1). A layer of wood shav-
ings, sawdust, straw, peanut or nee hulls, or
other suitable bedding material is used as a
base before birds are housed Wet litter that
is, cake is removed after each flock A com-
plete clean-out can be done after each flock or
once every 12 months or longer, depending on
the producer's requirements. Slat or wire floor
housing, used mainly for breeder flocks, can be
handled the same way. Floor storage is the
most economical method to store litter Care
must be taken not to leave foreign matenal
such as wire, string, light bulbs, plastic, or
screws in the litter
Dry Stack Storage
Temporary storage of litter in a roofed struc-
ture with a compacted earthen or concrete
floor is an ideal management method (Fig 2)
Large quantities of waste can be stored and
kept dry for long periods of time. To prevent
excessive heating or spontaneous combustion
of wastes, stacks should not exceed 5 to 8 feet
DRY WASTE MANAGEMENT 3
-------
o u
R Y
WASTE MANA GEM E N T
Ventilation ran
1 . t
V
O-l
J N.
Water
^ U
^ f
1
Gr<
10
am
Liner
Feeder Concrete or earth floor
Single-story poultry house
Ventilation Ian
round
sloping
away
Lifter Wood floor
Liner
r
Concrete or earth door
Two-story poultry house
Figure 1.Two types of litter-floor poultry
houses.
Dry stacks promote ease of handling and uni-
formity of material, in addition, disposal is rel-
atively easy Dry stacks protect the resource
from bad weather and make it available for
distribution at appropriate tunes
A variation on this option is a stack or
windrow located in the open on well-drained
areas and protected from storm water runoff
The stack must be covered with a well-secured
tarpaulin or other synthetic sheeting
Grower storage in covered or uncovered
facilities is not the only storage alternative
Field storage on the farm, applicator storage
(that is, storage by the crop fanner who will
use the litter for fertilizer), cooperative storage
(several growers sharing a larger facility off-
site), and private storage (by entrepreneurs
who will sell or process the litter to create new
Figure 2.Roofed structure with earthen or
concrete floor.
products) are additional methods of waste
storage. Each method must be evaluated in
terms of cost, environmental safety, and indus-
try and regulatory practice.
In some states, permits may be required for
your storage facility or for other parts of your
resource management system. Possible zoning
restrictions may also influence your choice of
storage systems.
Proper storage is essential to maintain the
waste's fertilizer value for crops, provide ease
of handling, and avoid groundwater contami-
nation. Consider also the feasibility of process-
ing alternatives Waste can be
T composted and pelletized to
produce fertilizer,
^ converted to feed for beef cattle
or to briquettes for fuel, or
T deposited in lagoons for
anaerobic digestion and methane
production.
Above all, use soil and manure testing to
improve the success (crop yields) and timing
of land applications. Practice biosecunty (that
is, safeguard the application from disease caus-
ing organisms and fly larvae) at all fames.
Using poultry litter as a feed supplement
for cattle has become popular. Methods of
waste handling and storage can greatly affect
the quality of the material as a feed ingredient
Litter with the highest nutritional value for re-
feeding is found in the upper layers of the litter
4 DRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
-------
POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
pack. Large amounts of soil increase the ash
content and reduce the nutritive value of litter.
Feed litter should be kept covered with poly-
ethylene at least three weeks to ensure that suf-
ficient heat is generated to kill pathogens.
Remember, storage is an interim step in
waste management planning. It should be fol-
lowed by nutrient management planning and
appropriate use of the lifter for land applica-
tion
References
Brodie, H.L, LE Carr, and C.F Miller 1990 Structures
for Broiler Litter Manure Storage Fact Sheet 416 Coop-
erative Extension, University of Maryland, College
Park
Cabe Associates, Inc. 1991. Poultry Manure Storage and
Process Alternatives Evaluation Final Report. Project
Number 100-286 University of Delaware Research and
Education Center, Georgetown
Department of Natural Resources and Environmental
Control and Cooperative Extension Service 1989 Poul-
try Manure Management: A Supplement to Delaware
Guidelines University of Delaware, Newark
Donald, J O 1990 Litter Storage Facilities DTP Circular
10/90004 Alabama Cooperative Extension Service.
Auburn University, Auburn, AL
Payne, VWE., and J.O Donald 1991. Poultry Waste
Management and Environmental Protection Manual.
Circular ANR-580 Alabama Cooperative Extension
Service, Auburn, AL.
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this matenal for
further distribution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative eflort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone PWM / 3 - 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C. 1101 Market Street Chattanooga. TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax: <615) 751-7479
DRY WASTE MANAGEMENT 5
-------
POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
0
Ligum WASTE MANAGEMENT
lor ducks, geese, and
some layer operations,
manure is usually handled through liquid
waste management systems. Water increases
the amount of waste to be processed. There-
fore, drying the manure naturally or through
forced air systems as part of the collection and
storage procedures can help control the
amount of material to be managed.
A liquid waste system involves collection,
storage, handling, and use. Collection and
storage are generally combined into one opera-
tion that can include pits, settling tanks, or
earthen storage ponds.
Advantages of a liquid waste management
system are that it is easier to automate and less
labor intensive. However, there are also disad-
vantages associated with liquid waste systems:
* constraints on management
must be emptied when full,
* costs concrete can be costly or
a grower may have insufficient
land to construct a holding
facility,
* toxic gases or unpleasant odors
these problems occur
especially during waste removal,
* flies insects will breed in
improperly managed waste,
T volume water vastly increases
the amount of waste to be
handled, and
T land applications of liquid wastes
must be carefully planned and
timed.
Volume comparisons between liquid and
dry manure show that 10,000 caged layers pro-
duce nearly 2,500 pounds of manure per day,
with an estimated volume of 50 cubic feet. In
dry form, this manure weighs about 695
pounds, with 10 percent moisture, and reaches
a volume of 27 cubic feet.
Most liquid waste systems require permit-
ting by the appropriate state agency. Without
the water, solid waste systems have less vol-
ume to control and lower equipment and en-
ergy costs. These considerations and operator
preference help determine a particular
grower's choice of poultry waste management
systems.
Liquid Collection Methods
Most layer or pullet operations have cages ar-
ranged in up to four decks. The manure falls
directly into a pit or is scraped into the pit from
intervening dropping boards. Pits must be
cleaned regularly, and the manure stored in
concrete or steel storage tanks or applied di-
rectly to the land. A lagoon may be necessary
to catch overflow Ventilation fans are essential
to keep the manure dry, and reduce toxic
gases, fly problems, and offensive odors
Equipment is available for m-pit manure com-
posting There are three basic pit designs
* Shallow-pit systems, built of concrete at
ground level, are 4 to 8 inches deep and lo-
cated 3 to 6 feet below the cages. Manure is
scraped from the pit or flushed out with
water and collected in a storage area or
loaded directly into a spreader (Fig. 1).
* Deep-pit systems are usually 4 to 8 feet
wide and may extend 2 to 6 feet below
ground level with the cages at least 8 feet
above the concrete or masonry floor. The
pit floor and sidewalk must be sealed and
thoroughly protected from outside surface
-------
POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
Figure 1.Shallow-pit poultry house with cages.
Air inlet
Manure
Figure 2.High-rise poultry house with cages.
or ground water. Foundation drains and ex-
ternal grading are needed to remove sub-
surface water and allow surface water to
drain away from the budding
* High-rise systems are similar to deep-pit
systems but are built entirely above
ground, with the cages 15 to 30 feet above
the ground (Fig. 2). The pit floor should be
concrete and graded, with foundation
drains. The water supply must be con-
trolled if the wastes are stored for extended
periods. If outside water penetrates the sys-
tem, the manure can cause a serious fly
problem or leach nutrients into surface or
groundwater.
Settling Tanks
Concrete, concrete block, or steel storage tanks
can be used to collect solids and to skim float-
ing material from a layer operation. A floating
baffle or other separator can be installed to re-
move egg shells, feathers, and other debris
The tank should be placed between the layer
house and a waste storage pond or lagoon
Normally, a settling tank is 4 feet at the deep
end, sloping to ground level. Walls are slotted
to allow drainage of the settled waste.
It is recommended that two settling tanks
be installed; one can be drained and cleaned
while the other remains in operation. The
tanks must be properly constructed and sealed
to prevent groundwater or surface water pol-
lution. In tanks and storage ponds, unpleasant
odors and dangerous gases may be present
and may require protective measures.
Storage Pond
A storage pond or lagoon is an anaerobic stor-
age facility. It is designed to hold liquid waste
from layer or other liquid waste operations.
When the potential for groundwater contami-
nation exists because of site conditions, the
pond should be lined with clay, concrete, or a
synthetic matenal. In warmer climates, struc-
tures are designed for a 30- to 90-day holding
period but in colder areas, 180-day storage is
needed. It is not practical to design a structure
for less than 30-day storage. When the struc-
ture becomes full, it must be emptied, regard-
less of weather conditions Specific criteria for
construction of storage ponds can be obtained
from the USDA Soil Conservation Service of-
fice
Land Applications
Solid forms of manure are probably easier than
liquid for land applications, but a manure
slurry or irrigation system may be used. If the
application falls directly on the crop, care must
be taken to prevent ammonium toxicity and
burning. Because raw manure contains high
amounts of uric acid, it should be thoroughly
mixed before application Layer lagoon sludge
is more dense than a pullet lagoon sludge be-
cause of its high grit or limestone content and
should be diluted before application.
Timing is a major factor in successful land
applications The manure must also be uni-
formly applied whether you are using a
manure spreader or an irrigation system. The
applicator should, be particularly careful
2 LIQUID WASTE MANAGEMENT
-------
POULTRY WASTE MANAG EM E N T
(especially during a drought) not to coat the
plants with lagoon liquid. Instead, make sev-
eral small applications of lagoon liquid, rather
than one large one.
Liquid waste is primarily disposed of
through land applications. Proper spreading
on the land is an environmentally acceptable
method of managing waste. However, with in-
creasing environmental concerns, and the need
to match closely the fertilizer needs of crops,
fanners can no longer afford to simply "spread
manure."
The USDA Soil Conservation Service,
Cooperative Extension Service, and other
agencies offer poultry waste and nutrient man-
agement planning assistance. These offices
have worksheets to help growers plan liquid
waste management, which includes the follow-
ing tasks:
* determining the amount and
volume of waste generated,
^ calculating land application
requirements,
T sampling and analyzing the
nutrient composition in poultry
litter, and
* matching the nutrients available
in these products with crop
nutnent requirements for land
applications
Detailed information on how to prepare
nutrient assessments, conduct soil testing, and
calculate application rates, timing, and meth-
ods of application are also available from these
agencies.
The use of nutrient management planning
will help growers make economical and practi-
cal use of the organic resources generated on
their farms.
References
Brodie, J.L., L.E Can, and C.F. Miller 1990. Structures for
Broiler Litter Manure Storage. Fact Sheet 416. Coopera-
tive Extension Service, University of Maryland, College
Park.
Fulhage, C. 1993. Land Application Considerations for
Animal Wastes. WQ202. University Extension, Univer-
sity of Missouri, Columbia.
Payne, VW.E., and J.O. Donald. 1991 Poultry Waste Man-
agement and Environmental Protection Manual. Circu-
lar ANR-580 Alabama Cooperative Extension Service.
Auburn, AL
U S Department of Agriculture. 1992 National Engineer-
ing Handbook 210, Part 651 In Agricultural Waste
Management Field Handbook Soil Conservation Serv-
ice, Washington, DC
Watson, H 1990 Liquid Manure Handling Systems DTP
12/90-018 Alabama Cooperative Extension, Auburn
University, Auburn, AL
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects. Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this matenal for
further distnbution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone. PWM / 4 - 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
-------
POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
0
COMPOSTING WASTE PRODUCTS
sultry litter or layer ma-
nure is most often land
applied to pastures and crops for its value as
an organic fertilizer. We know from long expe-
rience how beneficial this practice can be when
soil and manure nutrient testing are integrated
with crop nutrient needs to determine the
amount and tuning of the application. This in-
tegration makes it possible to approach land
application as a wise use of resources rather
than as a disposal method.
Proper storage and treatment of poultry
by-products (litter, manure, hatchery waste,
and dissolved air flotation [DAF] skimmings)
before use are important to minimize composi-
tional changes and decrease odor and handling
problems. Depending on the by-product, dry
storage, ensiling, or composting may be appro-
priate treatments. Resource management sys-
tems may include incineration and burial as
methods of disposal; however, these tech-
niques are not called treatments because they
do not usually provide any reusable products
Composting is an environmentally sound
and productive way to treat poultry by-prod-
ucts and mortalities (see also PMM/4). The
product of composting is easier to handle, has
a smaller volume, and is a more stable product
than the raw materials. The nutrient content of
the compost will be nearly the same as the
starting materials if the composting is per-
formed properly.
While compost can be land applied to de-
crease the need for nutrients from commercial
fertilizers, composted by-products may also be
marketed for higher value uses such as turf,
nursery, and home and garden uses. It can be
added as an amendment to soils for transplant-
ing flowers, trees, and shrubs, or to establish
new lawns. Compared to commercial fertiliz-
ersi poultry by-product compost will have a
lower nutrient analysis (e.g., 2-2-2) for nitro-
gen, phosphorus, and potassium. However,
there are other benefits to the soil and plant
growth associated with the organic matter and
micronutrients in compost.
Understanding the Process and
Benefits of Composting
Composting is a natural, aerobic, microbiologi-
cal process in which carbon dioxide, water, and
heat are released from organic wastes to pro-
duce a stable material. Leaves and other or-
ganic debris are subject to this process all the
timethat Ls, the activity of microorganisms
transform these materials into a soil-like,
humus-rich product called compost.
This natural process can also be used as a
resource management technique to transform
large quantities of litter, manure, and other
poultry by-products into compost. The condi-
tions under which natural composting occurs
can be stimulated and controlled so that the
materials compost faster and the nutrient
value of the compost is maximized
The composting process is relatively sun-
pie-
1 By-products, for example, litter ma-
nure, eggshells, hatchery waste, and
DAF skimmings, are placed in bins,
piles, or elongated piles called wind-
rows. A bulking agent or carbon
amendment (e.g., sawdust, wood chips,
yard waste, or paper that is rich in car-
bon but low in other nutrients) is usu-
ally necessary to provide the proper
ratio of carbon to nitrogen in the mix
and improve aeration.
2. Air is added to support and enhance
rrucrobial activity. Because composting
^
-------
POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
microorganisms are aerobic, that is, oxy-
gen using, sufficient aeration is very im-
portant to the efficiency of the process.
Sufficient aeration also minimizes the
formation of objectionable odors that
form under anaerobic (oxygen depleted)
conditions. Adequate aeration can be
provided by forced air systems, such as
blowers or fans; or by turning the com-
post with a front-end loader or a com-
mercially available compost turner as
required.
3. Mechanical agitation or turning of the
materials supplies aeration, helps mix
the materials, and distributes any added
water.
4. Temperatures in the compost must be
maintained at levels above approxi-
mately 130 °F to kill any pathogens (dis-
ease-causing organisms) and promote
efficient composting. Temperatures
above 150 to 160 *F should be avoided
because they reduce microorganisms
beneficial to the composting process
5. Adequate moisture, between 50 and 60
percent, is necessary for optimal micro-
bial activity.
Using Compost
Compost produced from poultry by-products
has many potential uses it can be used directly
as a soil amendment for agricultural or horti-
cultural uses, it can be pelletized or granulated
for ease of transportation and application, and
it can be enhanced with conventional fertili2-
ers to improve its nutrient value. Off-farm uses
are limited more by the absence of markets for
the products and competition from less costly
products than by technical problems. Practi-
cally speaking, composting is a preferred
method for managing a variety of poultry by-
products. Composting is often recommended
for use on the farm and at the hatchery.
Possible Drawbacks
Composting, like any management technique,
cannot be undertaken lightly, whatever its ben-
efits. It requires a commitment of time and
money for equipment, land, storage facilities,
labor, and management. Composting is an in-
exact process that depends heavily on the qual-
ity and characteristics of the materials being
composted and the attention given to the com-
posting process.
Although the finished product should
have no odor or pest problems, such problems
may occur during the composting process.
Weather may also affect the process adversely.
Compost releases nutrients slowly as little
as 15 percent of the nitrogen in compost may
be available during the first year of applica-
tion. In addition, costs associated with produc-
tion-scale composting can be significant, and
federal and state regulations for stormwater
runoff from the composting site must be fol-
lowed.
Despite these potential drawbacks, com-
posting on the farm is a practical resource
management technique. Good management
will consider every opportunity to eliminate or
reduce the concerns associated with compost-
ing while maximizing its benefits. Once it is re-
alized that composting can be more than a
"dump it out back and forget it" procedure,
the technique can be used and adjusted to meet
by-product management needs.
Composting Methods
There are four general methods of composting:
passive composting, windrows, aerated piles,
and in-vessel composting
* Passive composting is the simplest,
lowest cost method, it requires little or no
management because the materials to be
composted are simply stacked into piles
and left to decompose naturally over a
long time.
Passive composting is not suitable for the
large quantities of litter or manure pro-
duced on poultry farms. It occurs at
comparatively low temperatures and de-
composition occurs at a slow rate. Anaero-
bic conditions resulting from insufficient
aeration can result in objectionable odors.
* Windrow composting occurs in long
narrow piles that can vary in height and
width depending on the materials and
equipment available for turning. For most
2 COMPOSTING WASTE PRODUCTS
-------
POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
efficient composting, windrows are turned
as required depending on temperature and
oxygen measurements.
Windrow composting (Fig. 1) is usually
well suited to poultry farms. In this
method, the windrows are formed from
the material to be composted, water, and
any bulking agent or carbon amendment.
The piles can range from 3 feet high for
dense materials to as high as 12 feet for
lighter, more porous materials like leaves.
If the piles are too large, anaerobic condi-
tions can occur in the middle; if they are
too small, insufficient heat will be main-
tained for pathogen reduction and opti-
mum microbial activity.
The windrows are turned periodically to
add oxygen, mix the materials, rebuild po-
rosity (as the mixture settles), release ex-
cess heat, and expose all materials equally
to the high interior heat that kills patho-
gens. Turning can be labor and equipment
intensive depending on the method used.
In the beginning, it may be necessary to
rum daily or even several times a day to
maintain sufficient oxygen levels; however,
turning frequency declines with the
windrow's age.
In addition to needing space for the wind-
rows, the producer will also need turning
equipment, a source of water, a dial ther-
mometer, and perhaps an oxygen meter.
The turning equipment (Fig. 2) can be
front-end loaders, manure spreaders with
flails and augers to provide good mixing,
or specialty machines. Often older, unused
farm equipment, for example, an old po-
tato plow and a farm tractor, can be used
for turning compost.
Temperatures within the windrow are
most commonly used to determine when
turning is necessary. Low temperatures
and odors are signs that more oxygen is
needed, while cool or hot spots at intervals
along the windrow indicate that the mate-
rial needs to be mixed. During fly season,
all windrows should be turned at least
weekly. In the winter, windrows can be
combined to conserve heat as they dimin-
ish in height Composting time can vary
from weeks to months depending on the
Figure 1.Typical windrow shapes and
dimensions.
Figure 2.Windrow composting with an
elevating face windrow turner.
Figure 3.Passively aerated windrow method for
composting manure.
material being composted, the attention
given to composting conditions, and the
quantity of material composted.
^ Aerated static composting eliminates
the labor of turning the compost by using
perforated pipes to introduce air into piles
or windrows. Air can be supplied pas-
sively, or with blowers to force air into or
through the composting material.
Passively aerated windrows (Fig. 3) are a
modification of windrow composting that
COMPOSTING WASTE PRODUCTS 3
-------
POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
eliminates turning. In a commonly used
system, the windrow is placed on a base of
wood chips, straw, or peat, and perforated
aeration pipes are added on top of this
base. The material to be composted must
be very well mixed, since it is not turned,
and.the windrow should not be higher
than 3 to 4 feet. This method has the ad-
vantage of minimizing odors and helping
to conserve nitrogen.
Aerated static piles or windrows add blow-
ers to the aeration pipes. This method al-
lows larger piles or windrows and permits
more efficient composting than passively
aerated static piles. Air can either be drawn
into or forced through the composting ma-
terial. The blowers may be controlled to
rum on at set intervals or in response to
temperatures in the pile or windrow.
^ In-vessel composting is similar to aer-
ated methods but the materials to be com-
posted are contained in bins or reactors
that allow for control of aeration, tempera-
ture, and mixing, in some systems.
In-vessel composting is actually a combi-
nation of methods that involve both aera-
tion and turning. The advantages of
in-vessel composting include the elimina-
tion of weather problems and the contain-
ment of odors. In addition, mixing can be
optimized, aeration enhanced, and temper-
ature control improved.
The simplest form of in-vessel composting
is bin composting, which is readily adapt-
able to poultry farms Bins may be plain
structures with wood slatted floors and a
roof, conventional grain bins, or bulk stor-
age buildings. Other types of in-vessel
composters use silos in which the air goes
in at the bottom and the exhaust is cap-
tured for odor control at the top; agitated
bed systems; and rotating drums. Costs for
equipment, operation, and maintenance
for a large quantity of materials are high
for in-vessel composting.
Factors to consider in choosing a compost-
ing method are speed, labor, and costs. Wind-
rows are common on farms; they can use
existing equipment, no electricity is required
(so they can be remotely located), and they
produce a more uniform product. They are,
however, also labor intensive and at the mercy
of the weather. Adding a paved or compacted
clay surface and a simple open-sided building
can minimize weather problems and the im-
pact of composting on water quality.
For more information, technical assistance,
and possible cost-share programs that may be
available to help you begin a composting oper-
ation, contact your local conservation district
office, the Soil Conservation Service, or the Co-
operative Extension Service.
References
Biocycle. 1991 The Art and Science of Composting The
JG Press, Inc., Emmaus, PA.
Cabe Associates, Inc. 1991 Poultry Manure Storage and
Process. Alternatives Evaluation Final Report Protect
Number 100-286. University of Delaware Research and
Education Center, Georgetown
Donald, J O, C C Mitchell, and C H Gilljam 1990 Com-
posting Agricultural Wastes in Alabama AMR Circular
572 Cooperative Extension Service, Auburn University,
Auburn, AL
Rynk, R, editor 1992 On-fanm Composting Handbook
NRAES-54 Cooperative Extension Northeast Regional
Agricultural Engineering Service Ithaca. NY
Smith, B 1993 Composting and Uses for Manure Presen-
tation 1993 Waste Management and Water Qualin,
Workshop Southeastern Poultry and Egg Association.
Atlanta, GA
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material for
further distribution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone. PWM/5-6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
4 COMPOSTING WASTE PRODUCTS
-------
POULTRY
WASTE
MANAGEMENT
PUTTING NUTRIENT
MANAGEMENT TO WORK
and application, espe-
fcially field spreading, is
in most cases the best use of poultry wastes. It
is cost-effective, disposes of the largest amount
of waste closest to the point of production, and
is environmentally safe if handled properly. To
ensure that waste is not overapplied to the
land, the amount and type of nutrients in it
must be known and the timing of applications
must be adjusted to ensure that growing plants
can use the nutrients. The application should
also be made evenly, so that all plants have the
same access to the nutrients.
What Is a Nutrient
Management Plan?
A nutrient management plan is necessary to
mmirruze edge-of-field delivery of nutrients
and lurut leaching of nutrients from the root
zone Nutrient management plans include de-
veloping a nutrient budget for the crop, apply-
ing nutrients at the proper time, applying only
the types and amounts of nutrients necessary
to produce a crop, and considering the envi-
ronmental hazards of the site.
More specifically, nutrient management
plans should apply nutrients at rates necessary
to achieve realistic crop yields, improve the
timing of nutrient application, and use agro-
nomic crop production technology to increase
nutrient use efficiency. At a rrurumum, nutrient
management involves determining the nutri-
ent value of manure by testing, crediting the
nitrogen contribution of any legume crop, and
testing the soil routinely.
An effective nutrient management plan
consists of the following core components:
* farm and field maps.
* realistic yield expectations for the
crops to be grown,
v a summary of the nutrient
resources available (the results of
soil tests and nutrient analyses of
manure, sludge, or compost),
v an evaluation of field limitations
based on environmental hazards
or concerns (e.g, sinkholes, land
near surface water, highly
erodible soils),
T application plans based on the
limiting nutrient,
* plans that include proper timing
and application methods (avoid
application to frozen soil and
during periods of leaching or
runoff), and
T calibration of nutrient application
equipment
The USDA Soil Conservation Service and
Cooperative Extension Service offices have pre-
pared tables of the mean average amounts of
key nutrients found in different kinds of ma-
nure (Table. 1). These tables may be used to es-
timate the nutrient content of your waste
source or stockpile. However, as this resource is
produced and used under many different cir-
cumstances, it is always best to have samples of
your supply tested by a state or private lab
Preparing Samples
Always prepare your samples from six to 12
representative areas in the poultry house or
from at least six different locations in the stock-
pile. (Samples collected from the stockpile
-------
[POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT |
Table 1. Nutrient content of different sources of animal manure.
MANURE TYPE
AND HANDLING
INTO.
SOURCE
BROILER
all types
fresh (no litter)
broiler litter
roaster litter
breeder litter
stockpiled litter
a
b
b
b
b
b
d
TURKEY
all types
fresh (DO litter)
brooder litter
grower litter
stockpBed litter
a
b
b
b
b
LAYER
all types
fresh (no litter)
under cage scraped
highrise stored
all types
a
b
b
b
d
liquid slurry
anaerobic lagoon sludge
b
b
anaerobic lagoon liquid b
SWINE
fresh
scraped
c
c
liquid slurry
anaerobic liquid sludge
all types
anaerobic lagoon liquid
c
c
d
c
DAIRY
all types d
HORSE
all types d
TOTAL
N
AMMONIUM-N
PHOSPHORUS
PA
POTASSIUM
K,0
51
26
72
73
31
36
59
13
10
11
12
7
8
15
64
17
82
75
54
80
63
48
11
46
45
31
34
40
Ib/ton
61
27
45
57
36
18
8
9
16
8
57
25
52
72
72
41
12
32
40
33
Ib/ton
35
26
28
38
39
14
6
14
18
15
42
22
31
56
57
28
11
20
30
30
Ih/lfYY) fnTlrtfi
62
26
42
8
59
92
37
13
179 154 46 266
Ib/ton
12
13
7
7
9
12
9
9
lb/1000 gallon
31
22
40
19
6
19
ii
136 111
22
49
37
17
7
23
53 133
lb/1000 gallon
28 11 19 25
Ib/lOton
90
6
58
109
a - Data compiled by J. J. Camberato, Extension Agronomist. 1990-91.
b - Soil Facts-Fbuitiy Manure as a Fertilizer Source. North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service Fact Sheet AG-439-5.
J. P. Zublena, J. C Barker. andT. A. Carter.
c - Soil Facts-Swine Manure as a Fertilizer Source. North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service Fact Sheet AG-439-4.
J. P. Zublena. J.C. Barker, and J.W.Parker.
d - Using Manure to Cut Fertilizer Costs. University of Maryland Cooperative Extension Service Fact Sheet 512. V. Allan Bande
should be taken from a depth of about 18 To collect the sample, obtain a quart of
inches; careful handling will ensure that no soil waste from six to 12 locations in the house or
is intermixed in the sample.) Samples should stock pile and place them in a large, clean
be taken as dose as possible to the time of ap- bucket. Mix the contents thoroughly; then
plication; however, allow sufficient time to re- place about a quart of the mixed sample into a
ceive test results. clean plastic bag or bottle. Seal it tightly, but
2 PUTTING NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT TO HOOK
-------
POULTRY
WAST
MANAGEMENT
allow room for the sample to expand. Keep the
sample cool; if it is not mailed to the laboratory
on the same day as it was withdrawn from the
source, then the entire sample should be refrig-
erated. The accuracy of the lab test depends on
the quality of die samples collected. Contact
the lab that will be analyzing your sample for
information on collection, handling, and ship-
ping.
For Best Results
Both dry and wet samples should be routinely
tested on an "as is" basis for total nitrogen, am-
monia-nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
The key to successful land applications is to
apply the right amount of waste at the right
time, using the right method so that the waste's
nutrient content is closely correlated with the
nutrient needs of the plants and soil. Be aware
that some nutrients will accumulate in the soil
and reach high levels; apply the product imme-
diately before planting, during a high growth
season, and not in bad weather (when the nu-
trients may be washed away). Incorporate
waste in the soil, if possible. For best results,
use biennial soil tests in connection with your
manure sample and basic calculations.
Land Application Rates
and Methods
Whether the poultry waste is taken to nearby
farms or spread on your own land, the amount
applied, the timing of the applications, and the
methods used will affect the outcome. Under-
standing how the soil and waste interact and
calibrating the spreader will help growers
apply the right amount at the nght time in just
the nght way.
Manure spread on the surface and not
worked into the soil will lose most of its vola-
tile nitrogen compounds, which will be re-
leased as ammonium gas to the atmosphere.
This release may not represent a pollution po-
tential, but such lost nutrients are not available
for plant growth
Poultry waste spread on frozen or snow-
covered soil has a high potential for runoff to
surface water. It should not be surface applied
to soils near wells, springs, or sinkholes or on
slopes adjacent to streams, rivers, or lakes. In
fact, some states prohibit this activity. Conser-
vation practices can reduce runoff, nutrient
loss, and pollution.
Water pollution potential can be decreased,
and the amount of waste nutrients available to
plants can be increased, by working poultry
waste into the soil either by tillage or by sub-
surface injection. Subsurface injection of waste
only minimally disturbs the soil surface and
would be appropriate for reduced till and no-
till cropping systems.
Manure or litter must have time to break
down before the nutrients in it become avail-
able to the crop. Fall applications allow this
breakdown to occur, but some of the nitrogen
in the manure may be lost through leaching
and runoff. Spring applications prevent this ni-
trogen loss but do not allow enough time for
the breakdown of the manure. Incorporation of
poultry waste beneath the soil surface in the
fall is a way to conserve the nutrients and pro-
tect water quality.
Spring and summer applications are rec-
ommended based on plant uptake, though it is
always important to check for good weather
before applications are planned. If litter is ap-
plied in bad weather, nutrients may be lost in
stormwater runoff. Nutrient-enriched runoff
from agriculture could be a leading cause of
nonpoint source pollution.
How the poultry waste is applied also af-
fects how quickly the nutrients are incorpo-
rated. Generally, incorporation within 12 hours
is ideal The waste can be broadcast over the
whole field, followed by incorporation tillage
This method has the advantage of good distri-
bution, because it is visible, the grower can de-
termine the uniformity of the broadcasting.
There will, of course, be some odor on the day
of the application. Farmers may also want to
investigate incorporation, topdress, sidedress,
and band application methods.
Spreader Calibrations
Calibration of the spreader machine is also
necessary to monitor and control the amount
and uniformity of the application. Calibration
specifies the combination of settings and travel
speed needed to apply nutrients at a desired
rate. By knowing a spreader's application rate,
a producer can correctly apply the nutrients to
PUTTING NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT TO WORK 3
-------
POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
meet the needs of the plants. Generally, there
are two types of nutrient spreaders solid or
semisolid and liquid. Broiler growers handle
solid or semisolid nutrients; many egg produc-
ers have liquid waste systems.
Solic] or semisolid waste is usually handled
in box-type or open-tank spreaders, and the
application rate is expressed in tons per acre.
Nutrient concentrations in pounds per ton can
be estimated, or calculated from the lab analy-
sis. The nutrient application rate in pounds per
acre must be determined, based on the tons per
acre of waste application.
Liquid or slurry waste is usually handled
by tank wagons or irrigation systems, and the
application rate is expressed in gallons per
acre. Nutrient concentrations in pounds per
gallon (or pounds per 1,000 gallons) can be es-
timated or obtained from lab analysis and used
with the application rate in gallons per acre to
obtain pounds per acre nutrient applied.
The volumetric capacity of spreaders is
generally provided by the manufacturer. Cau-
tion should be exercised in using manu-
facturer's data for spreader volume. A more
accurate and preferred approach is to calibrate
your own equipment.
Assistance is available from the USDA Soil
Conservation Service or Cooperative Exten-
sion Service offices to calibrate your spreader
Worksheets are available to determine
spreader capacity and application rate. Unless
the waste has been analyzed for nutrient con-
tent and unless the crop soil nutrient needs are
known, spreader calibration may have little ef-
fect on the application's success
Once the desired application rate is ob-
tained, record the pertinent information so that
you do not have to recalibrate the spreader
each time it is used. Spread poultry wastes in a
uniform manner. If lush, green growth and
not-so-lush growth of plants are observed,
adjustments will need to be made during the
next application. Calibration of the nutrient
spreader is an important practice that is eco-
nomically and environmentally useful.
A nutrient management plan should be pe-
riodically updated to ensure its effectiveness.
Often nutrient management can save a pro-
ducer money by reducing the amount of fertil-
izer purchased. This reduction in cost is a
result of crediting for nutrients already in'the
soil and manure. For more information, or for
nutrient management planning assistance,
contact your local USDA Soil Conservation
Service or Cooperative Extension Service office
or a nutrient management consultant in your
area.
References
Barker, J.C. 1990. Livestock Waste Sampling, Analysis.
and Calculation of Land Application Rates Reprint.
EBAE 111-84 Agricultural Extension Service, North
Carolina State University. Raleigh
Brodie, H.L., and V.A. Bandel 1990 Manure Testing FS-
430 Cooperative Extension Service, University of
Maryland, College Park
Fulhage, C.D 1989. Reduce Environmental Problems with
Proper Land Application of Animal Wastes WQ201
University Extension, University of Missouri, Colum-
bia
1992. Land Application Considerations for Aru-
mat Wastes WQ2D2 University Extension, University
of Missouri, Columbia
Goan, H C, and J Jared 1991 Poultry Manure Proper
Handling and Application to Protect Our Water Re
sources PB1321 Cooperative Extension Service North
Carolina State University. Raleigh
Ogbum, C B, and J O Donald 1990 Calibrating Spread-
ers for the Application of Animal and Poultry Manure
DPT Circular 11/90-006 Cooperative Extension Serv-
ice Auburn University, Auburn, AL
Woodward, M No date Manure Spreader Calibration
Work Sheet Technical Note 4 Cooperative Extension
Service, Pennsylvania State University, Lancaster
Zublena.JP,J.C Baiker, and T.A Carter 1993 Soil Facts
Poultry Manure as a Fertilizer Source 1993 AG-139-5
WQWM-41 North Carolina Cooperative Extension Ser-
vice, Raleigh.
Ottier pages in this handbook conlatn more detailed information on these subjects. Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this matenal for
further distribution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperatrve effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone PWM / 6 - 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax: (815)751-7479
4 PUTTING NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT TO WORK
-------
POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
ECONOMICS OF TRANSPORTING
POULTRY WASTES
W!
hen land suitable
for spreading poultry
waste as a fertilizer or soil amendment is not
available or not under the control of the poul-
try grower, new markets for land applications
and new ways to use the waste must be found.
Poultry waste can be marketed as a fertilizer,
soil amendment, growing medium, or beef cat-
tle feed. These options could involve moving
the material from the point of production to
the point of use
A Concentrated Industry-
Most poultry growers are concentrated within
a 25 to 50 mile radius of the hatchery, feed mill.
and live bird processing plant. The cost of
broiler production increases one cent per
pound when the production radius increases
over 25 miles Transportation and labor costs
are the reason for the increase, which can cost a
broiler production unit an additional S2 mil-
lion annually
However, costs must also be applied to the
protection and preservation of water quality A
producer must ask whether it is better to in-
crease the area of the poultry operation to ac-
commodate all waste products or to transport
the excess materials to other areas. For exam-
ple, suppose that a broiler complex that in-
cludes pullets and breeders handles about I
million birds a week. These birds will produce
about 65,000 tons of litter annually. At the rate
of 4 tons per acre, a total of 16,250 acres will be
needed to use this quantity of waste for land
applications.
If more than the one company is operating
in the area, then even more waste will be pro-
duced and mote land will be needed. One
method of dealing with these large quantities
is to generate markets or disposal areas at a
point some distance from the point of produc-
tion. Growers need to find buyers for their
poultry waste. In some instances, custom
cleanout operators will broker the waste for
the grower.
Because of the bulkiness of the solid or
semisolid product, transportation will be the
Litter buyer's highest cost An average farm
truck can carry 9 to 12 tons. A 30-foot, open
trailer used for transporting grains can carry
18 to 24 tons. As load size increases, the cost
per ton should decrease. Figure the cost on a
round-trip basis, but if you can schedule back-
hauls in the empty truck, you can push the
costs even lower. Current cost estimates are
about $1 per mile on a round-tnp basis for a
20-ton load
If the grower is paid a per ton price rang-
ing from S5 to $10 and the litter has a value of
S22 to $28 as a fertilizer or S40 to S80 as a feed
ingredient, the buyer can afford to transport
the litter 100 miles for land applications or up
to 300 miles for use as a feed
Other Considerations
A method for loading waste into trucks that
have 11-foot sides is needed. Front-end loaders
or an elevator that can be loaded with a
smaller tractor or skid loader will work. The
storage facility must have a smooth hard pad
to accommodate the loading process, and the
litter must be free of foreign materials such as
soil, rocks, broken glass, or other debris. Pro-
tect material from stormwater runoff.
Roads and turn-around areas at both ends
of the trip must beiarge enough to aocommo-
-------
POULTRY WASTE MANAGEMENT
date the process, and storage facilities must
exist at the delivery depot if land applications
or other use will be delayed.
The quality and biosecurity of the waste
must be protected. Poultry waste should be
transported only from well-managed and dis-
ease-free farms. All trucks should be properly
cleaned and disinfected, and any leakage from
the trucks should be properly drained and di-
verted from runoff and groundwater. Before
transportation to off-farm use, the product
should be deep stacked so that the heat in the
stack can kill off any harmful microorganisms
that might be present.
Transportation of liquid waste is more or
less restricted to on-farm or short local hauls
because of the type and size of equipment used
and transporting time.
Before waste can be readily accepted as a
substitute for commercial fertilizer, growers
must be confident that this waste product is
truly a marketable resource. When properly
collected, stored, handled, and used, poultry
waste is an effective substitute for fertilizer. It
also builds organic matter in the soil and im-
proves soil quality. Thus, it is not a waste, but
an economic asset.
Reference
Donald, J O., and J P Blake 1990. Economics of Transport-
ing Poultry Litter as a Fertilizer. DTP Circular 10/90-
007. Alabama Cooperative Extension Service, Auburn
University, Auburn. AL.
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects. Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material for
further distribution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone. PWMII- 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax: (615) 751-7479
2 ECONOMICS OF TRANSPORTING POULTRY WASTES
-------
POULTRY MORTALITY MANAGEMENT
AN OVERVIEW OF POULTRY
MORTALITY MANAGEMENT
>oultry mortalities
dead birds are a daily
or near daily occurrence. Responsibility for
safe and nonwasteful management of the car-
casses begins with choosing the best method
for their proper disposal. Because dead birds
constitute a large portion of the total wastes
generated in poultry production, their disposal
is a practical problem for growers. In fact, even
environmentally safe and economical methods
of disposal can be a chore to producers.
Normal mortality for broiler production is
3 to 5 percent over the production cycle or
about .01 percent per day. However, the size of
flock, the number of birds on hand, and the
size and age of the birds will dictate the num-
ber and weight of the carcasses that must be
disposed of daily. Massive die-offs or cata-
strophic losses must be handled differently.
Most normal mortalities occur during the
first and fast two weeks of the growing cycle
for broilers and from 10 to 13 weeks of age for
layers Mortality rates in other kinds of poultry
operations will be similar to, if not somewhat
lower than, the rate for broilers. A single
grower, assuming that a typical broiler house
holds 20,000 birds weighing 2 to 4 pounds,
may have as many as 85 pounds of dead birds
to dispose of each day near the end of the
growing cycle. A roaster operation may have
to dispose of as many as 115 pounds per day,
and a turkey operation may dispose of 150 to
200 pounds per day.
Burial in specially designed pits, incinera-
tion, and transporting the carcasses off-farm to
rendering plants are the three most common
means of disposing of dead birds; and recent
environmental, economic, and practical con-
cerns have sparked interest in an alternative
method: composting. Each of these four meth-
ods has best management practice guidelines
associated with its use in poultry mortality
management.
Burial in pits is not always practical and
may not always be permitted. In some places,
pits may have adverse effects on water quality,
a serious drawback given the intensity and
concentration of today's industry. Where per-
mitted, such pits must be properly sized, lo-
cated, and constructed. The decomposition
process in the pit works less well in cold
weather, and the pit must be tightly covered
for safety and to prevent odors.
Incineration is an acceptable alternative to
the use of burial pits. It is environmentally
safe, though care must be taken to insure that
emissions do not create air quality problems or
nuisance odors. Incineration is a more costly
method of mortalities disposal; however, incin-
erator equipment is improving to meet a\r
quality standards
The Composting Alternative
Composting dead birds has become an accept-
able method of disposing of poultry mortali-
ties Composting is an ancient, natural
technique that was practiced with little change
throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. In that
era, composting methods and speed differed
little from the decomposition of organic matter
that occurs naturally. The use of composting as
a managed method of mortalities disposal is a
relatively new process to the poultry grower
Composting will result in an inoffensive
end product; in fact, composting may add
value to the wasfe. Composted dead birds
-------
POULTRY MORTALITY MAN AGE M E N T
make good fertilizer or soil amendment
each carcass is 2 to 9 percent nitrogen, 1 to 4
percent total phosphorus, and 1 to 7 percent
total potassium.
Rendering
Rendering may be the most environmentally
safe method for disposal of carcasses. It, like
composting, adds value to a waste product
in this case by producing feed products, such
as feather meal, with or without blood, and
other by-products for poultry and other ani-
mals.
A major problem with this method of mor-
tality management is to determine how best to
transport the carcasses to the plant before de-
composition sets in. The grower's concern is to
eliminate the possibility that disease or dis-
ease-causing organisms might be picked up in
the vehicle or at the rendering plant and unin-
tentionally transported back to the farm.
Besides the delivery of fresh carcasses to
the renderer, acid preservation and lactic acid
fermentation practices can be used on the car-
casses. These practices help neutralize patho-
gens and toxic chemicals and provide for
longer holding times on the farm before the
carcasses are transported. Refrigeration or
freezing is another method to preserve dead
birds prior to delivery to the plant.
Before You Decide
Unsanctioned methods, such as feeding the
carcasses to hogs or other domestic animals or
abandoning them in sinkholes or creeks or in
the wild, should not be attempted. Disposing
of dead birds in a municipal landfill is also no
longer acceptable.
In all cases, dead bird disposal should be
recognized as a potential health hazard and in
most states, as a regulated activity. Growers
must choose the permitted disposal method
that best suits them. Standards must be strictly
maintained to ensure sanitary conditions and
the least possible environmental consequences.
Growers should check with their state regula-
tory agency to be certain that their planned
methods of disposal comply with all dead ani-
mal disposal regulations. The USDA Soil Con-
servation Service and Cooperative Extension
Service offices can be of assistance.
More detailed discussions of burial pits, in-
cineration, rendering, and composting as
methods for managing dead birds can be
found in the Poultry Mortality Management
(PMM) section of this handbook.
References
Blake, J.P. 1993. Mortality Management Presentation.
Poultry Waste Management and Water Quality Work-
shop Southeastern Poultry and Egg Association. At-
lanta, GA
Payne, V WE , and J O Donald 1991 Poultry Waste Man-
agement and Environmental Protection Manual Circu-
lar ANR-580 Alabama Cooperative Extension Service.
Auburn, AL
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects. Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material for
further distribution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
tor everyone. ******'1 ~
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 - Fax:(615)751-7479
2 AN OVERVIEW OF POUL THY MORTAL/TV MANAGEMENT
-------
POULTRY MORTALITY MANAGEMENT
BURIALA DISPOSAL METHOD
FOR DEAD BIRDS
he burial of dead birds
in trenches, open pits,
and landfills is not an acceptable method of
dead bird disposal. In some states, no burial
pits whatsoever are permitted or it is pre-
dicted that they will not be permitted in the fu-
ture. However, in states that do permit this
practice, properly constructed disposal pits
may provide a safe and economical component
of a mortalities management plan. In all cases,
the pits must be fabricated.
Fabricated Disposal Pits
A fabricated pit is an open-bottomed, rein-
forced hole in the ground that has one or more
openings at the top through which carcasses
are dropped. An airtight cover above the open-
ings prevents odors from escaping. The pit
provides an environment for aerobic and an-
aerobic microorganisms to decompose organic
materials. Although disposal pits require mini-
mal labor and supervision, they must be main-
tained in a sanitary, legal, and socially
acceptable manner.
Some prefabricated pits can be purchased
from septic tank dealers and delivered to the
farm ready for installation. Under no circum-
stances, however, should the pit be simply a
hole in the ground dug with a backhoe and
lined with tin. Instead, the fabricated pit should
be made of concrete block, poured concrete, or
treated timbers. The decomposition process
produces very little water inside the pit, but the
pit must be covered (with soil and planted to
vegetation) to carry water away from the pit
and to prevent access to heavy equipment.
The openings also called drop chutes
are made of plastic (PVC) pipes, which pro-
trude out of the mound at intervals of five feet.
The chutes should have tightly fitted but re-
movable covers. The bottom of the pit is
earthen with holes at intervals up the sides.
Location
Generally, a disposal pit should be located at
least 200 feet from dwellings and the nearest
water well, 300 feet from any flowing stream
or public body of water, and 25 feet from the
poultry house. Before constructing a disposal
pit, make certain that the soil composition is
Properly constructed disposal pits are made of
concrete block, poured concrete, or treated
timbers.
-------
POULTRY MORTALITY MANAGEMENT
acceptable. Bedrock (especially limestone)
should be avoided. Locate pits in soil where
good surface runoff will occur.
To prevent groundwater contamination,
the pit's lowest point should be at least five
feet above the highest known water table and
at least five feet above bedrock to keep con-
tamination from traveling along a rock fissure.
To prevent water from seeping into the pit,
construction on a slope, floodplain, or low-
lying area should be avoided. Sandy soils are
not suitable for installing a disposal pit.
Pit Size
The pit itself should be at least six feet deep
with reinforced walls. The size of the pit de-
pends on several factors, including tine ex-
pected mortality rate of the flock, bird size, and
environmental conditions. Use the following
table to estimate pit size:
TYrE OF
PRODUCT
Broilers
Turkeys
(to IS weeks)
Commercial
layers
SIZE OF PIT IN CUBIC FEET
PER THOUSAND BIRDS
50
100
55
For broiler mortalities, for example, if you
ha\e a 5 percent mortality rate in a flock of
20,000 and you raise five flocks per year, your
burial pit should contain at least 250 cubic feet
of disposal space. That is, it should be about
six feet deep, six feet wide, and about seven
feet long. Sometimes it can be more convenient
to use several smaller pits to prevent overload-
ing In cooler climates, the pit size should be
larger to accommodate a slower rate of decom-
position.
Durability and Cost
The life of the pit will depend on its location
and whether it is properly sized, constructed,
and managed. Because bacterial action is im-
portant, the pit must be operated in a way that
will protect the bacterial population. High
acidity can slow the decomposition of dead
birds. Disposal pits are most efficient during
warmer months when bacterial action is great-
est. Decomposition is slowed by winter tem-
peratures or by accumulation of water in the
pit. Grinding the carcasses or splitting open
the dead birds will increase the pif s efficiency
and extend its life.
The cost of constructing disposal pits will
vary widely depending on the materials used,
site conditions, and the size of the pit. The ge-
ology rocky soil, for example can make
digging expensive. As pit size increases, heav-
ier construction is required for walls and tops;
thus, higher costs are incurred. For a well-built
pit, a useful life of five years is not uncommon,
and some producers have reported that pits
can be useful for eight to 10 years. Replace-
ment is required when the pit is full.
Operation
After a pit is constructed, producers should
check their facilities twice daily for mortalities,
which should be transferred immediately to
the pit. Covers on the drop chutes should be
kept tight at all times to prevent odor and re-
strict unauthorized access by children, ani-
mals, and rodents. Certain insects in a disposal
pit are beneficial to the decomposition of the
carcasses, but insects should not be allowed to
develop into a nuisance. With proper handling
the disposal pit costs nothing to maintain ex-
cept for the labor required to collect the car-
casses
Drawbacks
Burial pits may attract flies and scavengers,
and they may create offensive odors Further,
today's farm may have insufficient land space
for burying birds, or the capacity of the pits
may be limited in wintertime. In many in-
stances, the dead birds do not completely de-
compose because of the lack of oxygen
Slacked lime may be added to the burial pit to
break down the tissue of the dead birds, which
will also, in effect, sterilize the remains. If poor
soils or a high water table are not considered
before pits are dug, groundwater can become
contaminated.
Before constructing or installing a prefabn-
cated disposal pit,* poultry producers should
2 BURIAL
-------
POULTRY MORTALITY MANAGEMENT
consult with their state's veterinary specialist,
other agricultural offices, and environmental
or natural resource agencies. These agencies
may regulate the use of burial pits, or the state
may have disallowed burial pits entirely, so
seeking expert guidance will often save time
and money. Local USDA Soil Conservation
Services or Cooperative Extension Service of-
fices can provide technical assistance to grow-
ers who want to use disposal pits as part of
their mortality management plans.
References
Arkansas Soil and Water Conservation Commission and
the Water Resources Center. No date Water Quality
and Poultry Disposal Pits. Fact Sheet 2. Arkansas Soil
and Water Conservation Commission, Little Rock AR.
Donald, J.O., and J.P. Blake. 1990. Use and Construction of
Poultry Burial Pits. DTP Circular 10/90-013 Alabama
Cooperative Extension Service, Aubum University. Au-
burn, AL
Wineland, M.J., and T. A Carter. 1987. Poultry Science and
Technology Guide Proper Disposal of Dead Poultry
PS&T Guide No. 19. North Carolina Agricultural Ex-
tension Service, Raleigh
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material for
further distribution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone PMM12- fi/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751 -7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
A DISPOSAL METHOD FOR DEAD BIRDS 3
-------
OULTRY MORTALITY MANAGEMENT
INCINERATION A DISPOSAL
METHOD FOR DEAD BIRDS
Incineration, or cremation,
is a safe method of carcass
disposal and may be an alternative to burial
pits. The major advantage of incineration is its
security it is biologically secure, and it will
not create water pollution problems. Ash is
easy to dispose of and does not attract rodents
or pests.
On the other hand, incineration is slow and
costly and likely to become more expensive
as fuel costs rise. Incinerators must be properly
sited, too, because unpleasant odors may ac-
company the process. Indeed, an air quality
issue for poultry growers who choose this
method of mortalities management is the emis-
sion of odor and dust (particulates) that may
be generated during the process.
Nevertheless, incineration is considered
very sanitary when properly applied. Home-
made incinerators, that is, 55-gallon barrels or
drums containing carcasses that have been
drenched in a flammable liquid, are not accept-
able and do not meet air quality standards.
Good Incinerator Design
Incinerator design and use are often regulated
by states. Producers considering this method
of poultry mortality management should con-
sult with their state's environmental and natu-
ral resources agencies before incorporating
incineration into their mortality management
plan. A variety of commercial incinerators are
available that will ensure a proper bum and air
quality safeguards.
Incinerators should be sturdily built and
able to accommodate normal daily mortalities.
Those that have automatic controls are most
convenient. The unit you purchase should be
able to handle large loads and high tempera-
tures, and the size of the incinerator should
also be carefully estimated to avoid overload-
ing the equipment Other disposal methods
should be included in your resource manage-
ment plan to cover situations in which heavy,
unexpected losses occur.
Incinerator Location
Additional considerations include the location
and proper operation of the incinerator equip-
ment. Nuisance complaints about incinerators
are many; where and how you install and op-
erate your equipment will influence the fre-
quency of these complaints. First, locate the
unit downwind of the poultry house, resi-
dences, and your neighbors' properties. Sec-
ond, be sure that the discharge stack is far
enough away from trees or wooden structures
to avoid fires. Incinerators burn at intensely
high temperatures. Locating the incinerator Ln
A variety of commercial incinerators are available.
-------
POULTRY MORTALITY MANAGEMENT
an area convenient to the poultry house will
also contribute to better management.
Sheltering the incinerator from inclement
weather will extend the life of the unit. For best
results, place it on a concrete slab inside a
roofed structure.
Incinerator Costs
You will want to consider at least two items to
determine the cost of incineration as a disposal
method for poultry mortalities:
* equipment purchase and
maintenance, and
T the rate of bum and fuel costs.
Purchase costs will vary depending on the
size and type of the incinerator. Discharge
stacks and afterburner devices that recycle the
fumes can help control odors and dust, but air
pollution is difficult to avoid with incinerators.
Expendable parts and grates will need to be re-
placed periodically perhaps every two or
three years and the whole system may need
replacement (or overhaul) every five to seven
years.
The rate of burn will likewise vary depend-
ing on the weight, moisture, and fat content of
the carcasses and on the loading capacity of the
unit (e.g., incinerators may have to be loaded
several times to handle a day's mortalities).
Some broiler producers have experienced an
average bum rate of about 65 pounds an hour;
they estimate that it costs about $3.50 (1990 es-
timates) to incinerate 100 pounds of mortali-
ties. If fuel prices increase, so will the cost of
each burn.
Incineration is an acceptable and safe
method of poultry mortalities management. It
does not risk the spread of disease or water
pollution; however, it is costly. Not only are di-
rect costs involved in the process, the choice of
incineration also means the loss of any nutrient
value that the mortalities might have had if
composted for land applications or other uses.
Growers considering incineration as a method
of poultry mortalities management are encour-
aged to plan this action in connection with
their entire resource management system.
References
Brown. W R 1993 Composting Poultry Manure Presenta-
tion Poultry Waste Management and Water Quality
Workshop Southeastern Poultry and Egg Association,
Atlanta, GA
Donald, J O, and J P Blake 1990 Installation and Use of
Incinerators DPT Circular 11/90-014 Alabama Cooper-
ative Extension Service, Auburn University, Auburn,
AL
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material for
further distribution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone PMM / 3 - 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
2 INCINERATION A DISPOSAL METHOD FOR DEAD BIROS
-------
POULTRY MORTALITY MANAGEMENT
0
COMPOSTING A DISPOSAL
METHOD FOR DEAD BIRDS
Composting poultry mor-
' tali ties or dead birds is
a practical and sanitary alternative to burial
pits and incinerators. It is a fairly odorless and
biologically sound practice. Management com-
mitment is the key to the success of compost-
ing dead birds.
Composting yields a valuable product:
compost, an odorless, spongy humus-like ma-
terial that has several uses ranging from soil
conditioner to horticultural growing medium.
However, most states require that composted
birds be applied to the grower's own land.
Composting also has other advantages.
* It is not a costly method of
mortality disposal.
* The materials needed for
composting litter, mortalities,
straw, and water are readily
available.
T It increases biosecurity; that is,
composting destroys
disease-causing organisms and
fly larvae.
* Composting is environmentally
sound; properly done, it will not
cause odors or water pollution
* Once a composting system has
been set up, it will not require
much labor.
* Composting systems have been
developed and tested to fit both
large and small growers' needs.
A Natural Process
Composting is a controlled, natural aerobic
process in which heat, bacteria, and fungi
change organic wastes into compost. Success-
ful composting requires a specific range of
particle sizes, moisture content, carbon-to-
nitrogen ratio, and temperature.
* Particle Size. Particles that are too small
will compact to such an extent that air
movement into the pile is prevented. Mate-
rial that is too large allows too much ex-
change of air, and so prevents the heat
from building up properly. A proper mix-
ture of size allows both air exchange and
temperature buildup.
* Moisture Content. The ideal moisture
content in the composting pile is 60 per-
cent. Too much moisture can cause the pile
to become saturated, which excludes oxy-
gen The process then becomes anaerobic,
a condition that results in offensive odors
and attracts flies Runoff from a composter
that is too wet can pollute the soil or
water Too little moisture reduces micro-
bial activity and decreases the rate of com-
posting.
* Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio. Carbon and
nitrogen are vital nutrients for the growth
and reproduction of bacteria and fungi;
therefore, the ratio of carbon to nitrogen
(C N) influences the rate at which the com-
posting process proceeds. Conditions are
most ideal for composting when the CN
ratio is between 20:1 and 35:1.
If the carbon ratio is too high, the process
slows down because it has insufficient ni-
trogen. This imbalance can be corrected by
-------
POULTRY MORTALITY MANAGEMENT
adding more manure or litter to the com-
post pile. If the carbon ratio is too low, the
bacteria and fungi cannot vise all of the
available nitrogen, and the excess nitrogen
is converted to ammonia, resulting in un-
pleasant odors. This problem is fixed by
adding more straw or sawdust.
v Temperature. The best indicator of
proper biological activity in the composter
is temperature. Use a probe-type 36-inch
stainless steel thermometer, 0 to 250 *F,
with a pointed tip to monitor temperatures
within the compost pile. Optimum temper-
ature range is 130 to 150 °F. When the tem-
perature decreases, the general problem is
that not enough oxygen is available for the
bacteria and fungi. Oxygen can be replen-
ished by turning or aerating the pile. Tem-
peratures will rise as the composting
process repeats itself.
The cycle of composting, turning, com-
posting can be repeated as long as there is
organic material available to compost and
the proper moisture content and C:N ratio
are present. When temperatures reach the
optimum range for three days, harmful mi-
croorganisms (pathogens) and fly larvae
will be destroyed. Daily recording of the
temperatures in the piles is important be-
cause it will indicate whether the bacteria
and fungi are working properly.
Composter Design and Operation
Composting poultry mortalities can be done in
or outside the poultry house, but it should al-
ways be done in an environmentally safe and
healthy manner, under a roof, and protected
from ram. Dead bird composters are generally
classified as single-stage or two-stage struc-
tures. The small, single-stage composter was
developed to dispose of small birds, to operate
in normal or lower than normal mortality
events, and to serve smali farms without front-
end loaders. The operation is simple, yet effec-
tive, and requires only a shovel or pitchfork
and a thermometer.
To make an in-house composter, use four
screen-and-lumber panels (about 40 by 36
inches) to make a single square bin (Fig. 1).
Each bin has a capacity of up to 30 pounds of
dead birds per day or a total capacity of 600
Figure 1.Typical in-house composter.
pounds. Four to six such bins will handle the
dead birds from a 20,000-bird broiler house at a
cost of about $500. Position assembled bins at a
location convenient for gathering the dead
birds and for easy access for unloading be-
tween flocks.
The process for composting in a single-
stage composter begins with the procedures
previously described. The recipe or start-up
materials are 200 pounds of litter, one-third
bale of straw, and 15 gallons of water. Add
these ingredients to a bin in the following
order 6 inches of loose straw, 65 pounds dry
litter, and 5 gallons of water. Repeat the layer-
ing process three times until all start-up ingre-
dients have been used. Insert thermometer;
when the material reaches 140 to 150 *F, the
composter is ready to begin processing dead
birds
Form a V-shaped IS-inch deep trough in
the center of the bin. Add straw, btter, dead
birds, water, and btter, and cover or cap with
start-up ingredients. Avoid placing dead birds
closer than 6 inches to the walls Mixing and
aeration take place when the bin is prepared
for the next load of dead buds (Fig 2). Record
the temperature at a depth of 8 to 20 inches in
the center of the pile daily Repeat this proce-
dure until the bin is filled Compost may be
used in place of new materials to restart.
An outside single-stage composter can be
any size. However, an area 4 feet square and a
36-by-48-inch bin is a workable size Place the
bins on a concrete pad with a roof to protect
the compost from excessive moisture, anaero-
bic conditions, and pests. The management of,
and recipe for, outside composters are the
2 COMPOSTING
-------
POULTRY MORTALITY MANAGEMEN
Figure 2.Loading an in-house composter.
same as for in-house composters, but adjust-
ments can be made to meet individual situa-
tions. The time and hand labor required to
manage an outside composter must be care-
fully considered before installation. The cost of
an outside single-stage composter varies ac-
cording to its size, from $500 to $1300.
Two-stage Composters
A two-stage composter is larger and more ex-
pensive than the single-stage composter, but it
will accommodate more dead birds. A two-
stage composter is also less labor intensive be-
cause it relies on mechanized equipment.
However, it must be compatible with the man-
agement capabilities of the producer. The com-
posting process is done in primary and sec-
ondary bins. The following requirements
describe the design and lay-out of a two-stage
composter.
^ The size of the composter is 1 cubic foot of
primary bin and 1 cubic foot of secondary
bin per pound of daily mortality.
* The height of bins should not exceed 5 feet.
Heights greater than 5 feet increase com-
paction and the potential for overheating.
* The width of the bins is usually selected to
accommodate the loading and unloading of
equipment. A width of 8 feet is normal, but
the bins could be wider.
v Most bins are typically 5 or 6 feet deep, al-
though deeper bins can be used. Longer
bins are more difficult to enter and exit and
take more time to work.
^ Several smaller primary bins work more ef-
ficiently than a few large bins. Secondary
bins can be larger, but they must have the
same capacity as the primary bins (see Fig.
3).
SLAB CONCRETE
WWM
SECONDARY
PUSH POST ROW
UTTER STORAGE
10* X 16'
|_ "]^_ TREATED COLUMNS _J
<
FLOOR PLAN
Figure 3.Typical two-stage composter floor plan (not to scale).
A DISPOSAL METHOD FOR DEAD BIRDS 3
-------
POULTRY MORTALIT
ANAGEMENT
v It is desirable to have extra primary bins in
which to store litter and straw. If high mor-
talities occur, these bins could be used for
composting.
* Ceiling height of the composter should be
high enough to accommodate a front-end
loader extended upward.
^ Concrete flooring should be extended be-
yond the bins sufficiently to allow a tractor
or other equipment to work entirely on a
concrete surface. Dirt or gravel will rut, dig
out. and reduce traction.
* Roof overhang must extend sufficiently to
prevent blowing rain from reaching the
compost. Side curtains are another option
to protect the compost from blowing rain.
Maintain dry conditions within the com-
posting structures.
T A composter that has a litter storage facility
can greatly enhance the management of
dead birds, building cleanout, and litter
spreading operations
^ The composting facility should be supplied
with fire protection equipment in case the
compost self-ignites
* The composting facility should be
equipped with water and electrical serv-
ices Water is required for the compost rec-
ipe, equipment cleanup, and for the
washdown of personnel. Electrical outlets
are required for lights and power tools or
appliances
Costs of composters depend on many fac-
tors size, configuration (e.g., work areas, in-
gredients, and finished compost storage), and
utilities Some composting structures have
been built for as little as $500; others, for as
much as 550,000. No specific plan or layout for
composters works best in all cases. Many dif-
ferent designs will perform adequately, but
management capabilities determine the suc-
cess of the composting process. Standard plans
and management information for poultry mor-
tality composters are available through local
USDA Sod Conservation Service or Coopera-
tive Extension Service offices.
Financial aid or cost-share funding may be
available to help pay for the design and con-
struction of composting facilities. Check with
your local conservation district, USDA Soil
Conservation Service, or Cooperative Exten-
sion Service offices to learn more about these
programs.
Composting Recipe
For composting poultry mortalities in a two-
stage composter, a prescribed mixture of ingre-
dients is used called a "recipe." The recipe calls
for one part dead birds, one part manure and
litter, two-to-three parts straw or other carbon
source, and zero-to-a-half part water (Table 1).
Recipes for a single-stage composter differ
slightly.
Table 1.Typical recipe for composting
dead birds with litter, straw and water as
ingredients.
INGREDIENTS
Dead Birds
Litter or cake
Straw
Water*
PARTS BY WEIGHT
1.0
1.5
01
0.2
* Water as an ingredient may not be necessary.
Too much water may result in anaerobic
condition.
Proper layering of the reape will ensure
appropriate heat for composting the mortali-
ties in about 14 days To begin, place 6 to 12
inches of litter or manure, followed by a 6-inch
layer of loose straw to provide aeration, fol-
lowed b\ a layer of dead birds Depending on
the moisture content of the manure or cake,
water may or may not be added Repeat this
layering process until the pile or bin is full (see
Fig 4)
Leave 6 to 8 inches of space between the
edges of the dead bird layer and the wooden
wall of the composter This space allows air
movement around the pile and keeps carcasses
nearer to the center of the pile, where the heat
is highest. Do not stack dead birds on top of
each other. They may be adjacent to one an-
other, even touching, but they must be ar-
ranged in a single layer. Spread litter or
manure and straw as evenly as possible.
4 COMPOSTING
-------
POULTRY MORTALITY MANAGEMENT
Repeat
layer
fopeal
layw
Tint
layrr
only
Manure
Chickens
Straw
Manure
Chickens
Straw
Manure
Chickens
/^Jr'#*tvl->'#^
Manure
Concmr
*i 4 4* manurr c»p
Manure is aJways
plared on top of
6*
-------
POULTRY MOR T A LITY MANAGEMENT
v Foundations An impervious, weight-
bearing foundation or floor, preferably of
concrete, should be provided under pri-
mary and secondary composting vessels or
bins. Experience has shown that after fre-
quent loading and unloading activities,
dirt or gravel tends to become rutted and
pot-holed. A good foundation ensures all-
weather operation, helps secure against ro-
dent and animal activity, and minimizes
the potential for pollution of surrounding
areas.
* Building Materials and Design. Pres-
sure-treated lumber or other rot-resistant
materials are necessary. A roofed compos-
ter ensures year-round, all-weather opera-
tion, helps control stormwater runoff, and
preserves composting ingredients at the
desired moisture content. Adequate roof
height is also needed for clearance when
using a front-end loader. The amount of
rain that is blown into the composter can
be minimized by the addition of partial
sidewalls or curtains and guttering along
the roof.
Thus, the key requirements for a mortality
composter are good management; a properly
sized, properly located facility; easy access,
and a well-constructed, roofed structure. Fol-
lowing these regulations will result in a mor-
talities management system that is nonpollut-
ing and capable of producing a valuable by-
product.
References
Arkansas Soil and Water Conservation Commission and
the Water Resources Center. No date. Composting- A
Safe and Simple Alternative m Water Quality and Poul-
try Disposal Pits. Fact Sheet 2. Arkansas Soil and Water
Conservation Commission, Little Rock.
Brown. W.R 1993. Composting Poultry Mortality Presen-
tation. Poultry Waste Management and Water Quality
Workshop. Southeastern Poultry and Egg Association,
Atlanta, GA.
Fulhage, C. 1992. Composting Poultry Carcasses in Mis-
souri WQ205. Cooperative Extension, University of
Missouri, Columbia
Murphy, D.W. 1993. Mirticomposter Dead Bird Dis-
posal. Fact Sheet 642. Cooperative Extension, Univer-
sity of Maryland, College Park.
Murphy, D.W., and L.E. Can. 1991 rev Composting Dead
Birds. Fact Sheet 537. Cooperative Extension, Univer-
sity of Maryland, College Park.
Payne, V W.E., and J O Donald 1991 Poultry Waste Man-
agement and Environmental Protection Manual. Circu-
lar ANR 580. Cooperative Extension Service, Auburn
University, Auburn, AL.
Scarborough, J N , D H Palmer, and T H Williams No
date Composting Structures for Dead Poultry Dela-
ware Cooperative Extension, University of Delaware,
Newark
U S. Department of Agriculture 1993 Agricultural Waste
Management Handbook, Part 651 Soil Conservation
Service, Washington, DC
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material lor
further distribution. The Poultry Water Qualrty Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone PMM 74-6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2601
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
6 COMPOSTING
-------
POULTRY MORTALITY MANAGEMENT
0
\
RENDERING A DISPOSAL
METHOD FOR DEAD BIRDS
R<
<
.endering the process
of separating animal
fats, usually by cooking, to produce usable in-
gredients such as lard, protein, feed products,
or nutrients is an ancient waste manage-
ment process. It is also an excellent way to
recycle dead birds. We are now able to reclaim
or recycle almost 100 percent of inedible raw
poultry material through rendering tech-
niques.
Until recently, the animal protein in meat
and bone meal residues was considered a
waste of the rendering process; it was usually
discarded, though it could sometimes be used
as a fertilizer Now rendering plants pick up or
receive about 91 million pounds of waste an-
nually to supply 85 percent of all fats and oils
used in the United States. They also export 35
percent of the fats and oils used worldwide.
Rendering operations provide a vital link be-
tween the feed industry and the poultry
grower and help us control odor and prevent
air and water pollution.
Rendering has not always been widely
practiced as a poultry mortality management
technique because
* dead birds may carry disease-
causing organisms;
* suitable facilities for rendering
have not always been available;
and
* it can be difficult to keep the
carcasses suitable for rendering.
Thus, dangers associated with the routine
pick up and delivery of the carcasses to the
rendering plant have been perceived as a
threat to avtan health and the environment.
Rendering's great advantage as a manage-
ment technique is that it removes mortalities
from the farm and relieves the grower of envi-
ronmental concerns related to other methods of
disposal. It may also provide some economic
return. Therefore, as concerns for nutrient
losses and water quality increase, producers
and buyers of poultry products are experiment-
ing with new techniques for delivering poultry
mortalities to rendering plants as part of their
mortalities management planning.
A major disadvantage of rendering as it is
usually perceived is that disease may be car-
ried back to the poultry farm by the vehicles or
containers used to convey the dead birds to the
tendering plant. Appropriate management
and handling techniques can alleviate this dif-
ficulty.
Holding Methods
Raw or fresh poultry mortalities that are des-
tined for a rendering plant must be held in a
leak-proof, fly-proof container, and they must
be delivered to, or be picked up by, a rendering
company within 24 hours of death All mortali-
ties must be held in a form that retards decom-
position until they are collected
Freezing or Refrigeration,
A New Holding Technique
Some producers are experimenting with a
technique that combines on-the-farm freezing
or refrigeration and the rendering process to
determine whether freezing can be an effective
way for growers to hold dead birds until they
can be rendered. Large custom-built or ordi-
nary commercial freezer boxes are being used
to preserve dead birds until they can be picked
-------
POULTRY MORTALITY MANAGEMENT
up and delivered to the rendering plant.
Custom-built boxes or units are usually free
standing with self-contained refrigeration
units designed to operate at temperatures be-
tween 10 and 20 *F.
Ideally, these freezer units will have no en-
vironmental or health impacts. The smaller
ones are designed to allow the immediate re-
moval of the carcasses from the growers; the
larger ones, to hold the birds frozen until the
box is full or otherwise scheduled for delivery
to the plant.
Large domestic freezers will hold about
250 to 300 pounds of dead birds. Specifically
designed boxes can handle 1,600 to 2,000
pounds of dead birds and are easily loaded
through various door arrangements. They
must also be sealed against weather and air
leakage. The grower can load the freezer each
day once is a minimum. Putting the birds in
the freezer in a single layer helps ensure that
all the carcasses are properly refrigerated or
frozen.
Fresh unfrozen carcasses are added to the
box as the top layer. The temperatures are set
to allow the product to be completely frozen
within 24 hours. Check the temperature gauge
at each loading. Overloading may prevent the
total freezing of the carcasses.
The boxes can be emptied at the end of
each growing cycle or as needed. The render-
ing plant can send a truck to the farm, or the
grower may deliver the unit to the plant Boxes
or containers are picked up (using a forklift or
front-end loader) and emptied. The freezer
boxes open from the top, bottom, or sides for
easy access and are then reseaJed The refriger-
ation unit never leaves the farm, only the con-
tainer holding the dead birds is removed or
emptied. Freezer units are expected to last
roughly 10 years. They operate on energy effi-
cient circuit boxes with an operating cost of
about SI 50 per day.
So far, the cost of freezing as a collection
method is related to the cost of energy; its po-
tential for generating income is not yet known.
The product is processed at a rendering plant.
Although some companies have already made
an investment in these units, other growers
should be able to recoup the costs of freezer
boxes and product transportation. Transfer of
pathogens or harmful microorganisms be-
tween farms has not been found to be a prob-
lem with this method of collection. Additional
research is needed to fully explore this man-
agement option and any pathogenic problems
that may be perceived in it; however, its propo-
nents stress its usefulness as a way to reduce or
eliminate potential pollution and improve con-
ditions on the farm.
Fermentation
Fermentation procedures have been explored
to determine whether they can contribute to a
biologically secure and environmentally safe
method of holding poultry carcasses until their
nutrient components can be recovered in a
form suitable for reprocessing and refceding.
Fermentation is, in fact, a way to safely dis-
pose of poultry mortalities, but it also keeps
them on-site until the end of the growing cycle
or until sufficient volume is attained for deliv-
ery to a rendering plant. Fermentation mixes
the mortalities and a fermentable carbohy-
drate, such as sugar, whey, ground com, or
molasses.
The fermentation process produces organic
acids that lower the pH of the mixture. The
acidity of fresh tissue is near neutral (pH
equals 6.3 to 6.5), while the acidity of the silage
is 4 0 to 4.5. Thus, the activity of anaerobic bac-
tena (Lactobacillus, which are found naturally
in poultry) converts the sugars into lactic acid
and lowers the pH to less than 5 0, thus inacti-
vating the pathogenic microorganisms in the
carcasses and preserving the organic materials
In the experiments presently underway, it
has not been necessary to use any bacterial uv
oculant in the mixture The fermented product
is incubated anaerobically in airtight contain-
ers where it can be safely stored for several
months that is, until the amount of the
product suffices to warrant the cost of trans-
portation to the rendering plant
Acid Preservation
Preserving foodstuff by acidification has been
a widespread practice in agriculture. This
method of preserving dead birds is the same as
the fermentation process except that propioruc.
2 RENDERING
-------
LITY MANAGEMENT
phosphoric, or sulfuric acid is added to the
poultry carcasses, which are kept in an airtight,
plastic container. Sulfuric add may be pre-
ferred because it (1) retards spoilage, (2) excel-
lently preserves the carcass, and (3) is
relatively low in cost.
Carcasses can be punctured with a blunt
metal rod rather than placed through a
grinder. Punctured carcasses can be separated
from the acid solution without the accumula-
tion of sludge in the holding container.
The product resulting from lactic acid fer-
mentation and acid preservation reduces the
transportation costs associated with rendering
by 90 percent. What is more important, how-
ever, is that these processes eliminate the po-
tential for transmitting pathogenic organisms
into the rendered products or environment.
Accurate costs of fermentation and preserva-
tion are limited because most of the work has
been through research. It is estimated, how-
ever, that costs will range from three to four
cents per pound of dead birds.
In an expanding poultry industry, the pro-
duction of manure and mortalities will only in-
crease. Producers should contact the Tenderers
in their area to determine which holding and
transportation methods are acceptable, and
they must increase their search for safe, cost-ef-
fective disposal and reuse methods. Every pos-
sible safe method should be explored until
each grower determines the method most com-
patible with his or her situation and manage-
ment abilities. Rendering, like composting,
adds value to the end product.
References
Blake, JP 1993. Mortality Management Presentation
Poultry Waste Management and Water Quality Work-
shop Southeastern Poultry and Egg Association, At-
lanta, GA
Lomax, K.M., G W. Malone, and W.W Saylor. 1991. Add
Preservation for Poultry Carcass Utilization Paper No.
91-4051. American Society of Agricultural Engineers,
Albuquerque, NM.
Murphy, D.W., and S.A Silbert. 1992. Preservation of and
nutrient recovery from poultry carcasses subjected to
lactic acid bacteria fermentation. Journal of Applied
Poultry Research l(l):66-74.
Zimmerman, M. 1993. Freezing for the Rendering Plant.
Presentation. Poultry Waste Management and Water
Quality Workshop. Southeastern Poultry and Egg As-
sociation, Atlanta, GA
Other pages m this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material for
further distribution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government lo identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone. PMM / 5 - 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax: (615) 751-7479
A DISPOSAL METHOD FOP DEAD BIRDS 3
-------
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
o
SITE SELECTION FOR THE
POULTRY FARMSTEAD
kite selection and general
'farmstead planning are
important elements in subsequent profitability
and ease of animal waste management han-
dling. Each site is, of course, unique, but some
general environmental and safety considera-
tions apply to all sites. Besides the visual im-
pact, the first considerations are air quality
(dust and odor control), the movement and
quality of the water (drainage and supply),
and availability of sufficient land for handling
waste production. Site selection is also an ap-
propriate beginning for establishing a good
neighbor policy
A good location will help you minimize
potential problems with odor, rats, flies, bee-
tles, and mice. Locating the poultry house con-
veniently near the farm residence is useful; but
the location should also be attractive, or the
house should be shielded (not visible) from the
road, especially if it is near a property line.
Building a vegetative windbreak or fence will
not only help the operation's appearance, it
will also reduce dust and odors that might cre-
ate a nuisance, or the perception of a nuisance,
among your neighbors If the house is sited
Figure 1.Siring of a typical broiler operation.
within an adequate windshed, many potential
air quality problems can be avoided with little
on no adverse effect on the community (see
Fig. 1).
Soil drainage (both surface and subsurface)
is likewise an important consideration. A site
on relatively high ground with adequate drain-
age can help prevent flooding, road wash outs,
wet litter, and disease. Good drainage coupled
with an appropnate use of gutters and grading
around the outside of the building will direct
runoff away from the production facility and
family home. Sod drainage helps ensure access
to the facility at all times on all-weather roads
It also helps secure a safe drinking water sup-
ply
Subsurface drainage is also important to
prevent excessive nutrients or other possible
contaminants from entering the groundwater
In the manure storage area, a barrier between
the manure and the ground is needed, such as
a plastic tarp under the gravel or concrete base
of the structure Within the house itself, the re-
moval of cake and wet litter should be
planned, waterers should be inspected for
leaks, and stirring, air drying, and ventilation
should be part of standard operating proce-
dures Foundation drains or footing drains can
also be added to remove any subsurface water
that rrught otherwise enter the house.
Manure Storage Sites
Manure storage sheds, stacks, or windrows
should be convenient to the poultry house, but
distant enough to reduce disease transmissions
between flocks or houses. A distance of 100
feet is reasonable Storage structures are usu-
ally 40 feet wide with a 14-to-16-foot clearance.
-------
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
The length varies depending on the amount of
manure to be stored. Many of these structures
are three-sided a rectangle with one end
open. The interior wall should be strong
enough to withstand the weight of piled ma-
nure and the force of front-end loaders.
The site for a stack or windrow should be
properly prepared before manure is laid down.
If the storage time exceeds one month, a pad
must be available, and the stack or windrow
should be covered to reduce flies and odor
problems. Manure stored on the bare earth
must be completely removed to avoid creating
an area in which high salinity and nitrate-
nitrogen are a potential for groundwater con-
tamination.
Dead Poultry Disposal
In the past, poultry mortalities were simply
buried on site, but this disposal method is no
longer feasible and is, in some places, illegal.
Composting is one of several alternative meth-
ods that use this resource economically; it also
helps protect water quality. For composting to
work effectively, however, an appropriate
structure is necessary. This structure can be
conveniently attached to the manure storage fa-
cility. Refer to the appropriate fact sheets on
manure storage and poultry mortality manage-
ment for additional material on these topics.
The Farm*A*Syst
Assessment Program
A new program that is helping to prevent
water pollution in rural America is called
Farm*A*Syst, the Farmstead Assessment Sys-
tem It is a voluntary, farmstead or rural resi-
dent pollution risk assessment, designed to
help rural residents become knowledgeable
about water pollution risks and to help them
develop an action plan to reduce the risks
identified by the system. It may also be a use-
ful tool for site selection and general farmstead
planning.
The Farm*A*Syst program addresses nu-
trient contamination, water well design and lo-
cation, waste and fertilizer storage, septic
systems, dead bird disposal, pesticide and pe-
troleum storage, household and farmstead
hazardous waste and waste disposal, and mi-
croorganism contamination of well water.
Growers can learn more about this program
and how they can participate in it by contact-
ing the National Farm*A*Syst Staff, B142
Steenbock, 550 Babcock Drive, University of
Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706 (phone
608/262-0024); or the USDASoil Conservation
Service or Cooperative Extension Service of-
fices. Farm*A*Syst is jointly funded by the
USDA'Soil Conservation and Cooperative Ex-
tension Services, and the US. Environmental
Protection Agency.
Conclusion
Proper siting and design of a poultry facility is
important to the economy and success of the
whole operation. It prevents problems before
they arise, thus saving the grower money, time
and worry, and best of all, it protects the envi-
ronment and community from senous prob-
lems or distressing nuisances.
References
Donald,) O, and J Blake 1990 Guidelines for Proper Sit-
ing of New and Expanded Poultry Facilities DTP Cir-
cular 10/90-009 Cooperati\e Extension Service,
Auburn University, Auburn. AL
Jackson, G, D Knox, and L Nevers 1992 Protecting
Rural America's Water Farm'A'Syst National
Farm'A'SvslStaff University of Wisconsin, Madison
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects. Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material for
further distribution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quaJrty of water
for everyone OEI / 1 - 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax: (615)751-7479
2 S/TE SELECTION FOR THE POULTRY FARMSTEAD
-------
OTHER ENVIRONMEN T A L ISSUES
AIR QUALITY AND ITS
MANAGEMENT
le Clean Air Act of 1970
provided for uniform
air quality standards and control of emissions
from existing facilities. It also prohibited the con-
struction of new facilities that violate or interfere
with federal or state regulations for air quality
standards. Although many of the private citizen
complaints and civil suits brought against live-
stock and poultry operators are because of odor
problems, many of the states' air quality require-
ments have been established as a direct result of
federal legislation. The odor (and sometimes
dust) problems denved from poultry operations
are associated with improper or mismanaged
bunal pits, emissions from incinerators, and land
applications of poultry waste.
The Clean Air Act Amendment of 1990
(Pub. Law 101-549) also contains provisions of
importance to producers of agricultural prod-
ucts. Because its goals are to reduce emissions
that cause acid rain and to protect stratospheric
ozone, ammonia volatilization from animal and
other agricultural operations will most likely
come under increased scrutiny and possible
control Some states are starting to request at-
mosphenc ammonia test results on air samples
taken at the property lines of animal opera-
tions
Methane emissions from "rice and livestock
production" and from "all forms of waste man-
agement . . . including storage, treatment, and
disposal" are mentioned in the 1990 law as
being of concern with regard to ozone deple-
tion. These sources and others, both nationally
and internationally, are to be evaluated by EPA
jointly with the secretaries of Agriculture and
Energy, and control options will be developed
that can be used to stop or reduce growth of
methane concentrations in the atmosphere.
Poultry Production Facilities
and Air Quality
Poultry production facilities can be the source
of gases, aerosols, vapors, and dust that can,
individually or in combination, create air qual-
ity problems. These problems include
^ nuisance odors,
^ health problems for poultry in
confined housing,
v deadly gases that can affect
poultry and humans, and
^ corrosion.
A variety of gases are generated during the
decomposition of poultry wastes Under aero-
bic conditions, carbon dioxide is the principal
gas produced; under anaerobic conditions, the
primary gases are methane and carbon diox-
ide About 60 to 70 percent of the gas gener-
ated in an anaerobic lagoon or pit is methane
and about 30 percent is carbon dioxide Trace
amounts of more than 40 other compounds
have been identified in the air exposed to de-
grading animal waste, including mercaptans
(the odor generated by skunks and the smell
introduced in natural gas are in the mercaptan
family), aromatics, sulhdes, and various esters,
carbonyls, and amines
Methane, Carbon Dioxide,
Ammonia, and Hydrogen Sulfide
The gases of most interest and concern in poul-
try nutnent management are methane (CHO,
carbon dioxide (COz), ammonia (NHs), and
hydrogen sulfide (H2S). The following para-
graphs summarize the most significant charac-
teristics of these gases.
-------
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
T Methane. Methane, a flammable gas, is a
possible source of energy on the farm. Because
methane is also explosive, extreme care is re-
quired when attempting to generate and cap-
ture this gas for on-fann use.
* Carbqn Dioxide. Carbon dioxide can be an
asphyxiant when it displaces normal air in a
confined facility. Because CO2 is heavier than
air, it remains in a tank or other well-sealed
structure, gradually displacing the lighter
gases. With high-density housing, gas and par-
ticulate levels may increase, and control be
comes more difficult. Carbon dioxide increases
substantially with the larger number of poul-
try producing CO2, as compared with earlier
low-density housing. Continued monitoring of
temperature, air removal rate, and manure
moisture content is required to maintain
proper carbon dioxide concentrations.
* Ammonia. Ammonia is primarily an irri-
tant and has been known to create health prob-
lems in animal confinement buildings. Irrita-
tion of the eyes and respiratory tract are
common problems from prolonged exposure
to this gas. It is also associated with soil acidifi-
cation processes.
Ammonia concentration in broiler houses
has increased in the past few years. The pri-
mary reason is that ventilation rates are re-
duced to conserve heat in the winter months
Research also shows that dust particles serve as
an ammonia transport mechanism, so over-
ventilation to the outside may lead to odors
near the house and overly dry litter inside the
house.
Ammonia concentration increases with in-
creasing pH, temperature, and litter moisture
content. It is desirable to maintain litter mois-
ture in a production house below 30 percent
for ammonia control. Studies indicate that am-
monia increases bird susceptibility to Newcas-
tle disease and decreases feed intake and egg
production.
* Hydrogen Sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide is
deadly. Humans and farm animals have been
killed by this gas after falling into or entering a
manure tank or a building in which a manure
tank was being agitated. Although only small
amounts of hydrogen sulfide are produced as
compared to other major gases, this gas is
heavier than air and becomes more concen-
trated over time.
Hydrogen sulfide has the distinct odor of
rotten eggs. Hydrogen sulfide deadens the olfac-
tory nerves (the sense of smell); therefore, if the
smell of rotten eggs appears to have disap-
peared, this does not indicate that the area is not
still contaminated with this highly poisonous
gas. Forced-air ventilation or an exhaust system
helps prevent gas poisoning. Otherwise, evacu-
ate the area until the gas can be removed.
Where to Go for Help
Information on achieving air quality standards
and managing the air quality problems of
poultry production facilities is available from
the U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency, and the Depart-
ment of Energy. Poultry associations and state
water quality agencies can also help.
References
U S Department of Agriculture 1992 Agricultural Waste
Management Field Handbook AWMFH-l Soil Conser-
\ aeon Service, Washington, DC
Barker, J C 1988. Poultry Layer Production Facility Ma-
nure Management High Rise. Deep Pit EBAE 131-88
\orth Carolina Agricultural Extension Sen-ice, Raleigh
Carr L E , F W Wheaton. and L W Douglas 1990 Empm-
ca! Models to Determine Ammonia Concentrations
from Broiler Litter Transactions of the American Soa-
ety of Agricultural Engineers 33(4) 1337-42
King, H F, and GO Bressler 1974 Gas and Paniculate
Levels in Sloping Wire Floor Poultry Houses PR 342
Agricultural Experiment Station, Pennsylvania State
University, University Park
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects. Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material for
further distnbutoon. The Poultry Water Qualrty Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality oi water
for everyone OEI/2-6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street « Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: <615) 751-7297 Fax: (615)751-7479
2 Mfi QUAJJTY AND ITS MANAGEMENT
-------
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
PREVENTING FIRES IN
MANURE/LITTER STORAGE
STRUCTURES
TTTTundr
flmanv
fund reds of poultry
mre/litter storage
structures have been built as a component of a
total waste management program on the poul-
try farmstead. Storage facilities help prevent
the possibility of water pollution and provide
flexibility in the timing of land applications.
They also protect this resource from the
weather and wildlife so that it can be used as a
cattle feed.
Manure piles will generate heat, however,
and care should be taken to prevent fires in the
storage facility. Spontaneous combustion in a
litter stack is possible, probably as a result of
the buildup of combustible methane or the
storage of wet and dry litter. Fires may also
occur if the manure is stacked too close to
wooden wails that may ignite when the tem-
perature in the litter reaches the wood's flash
point The exact causes of litter storage fires are
difficult to know, but good management prin-
ciples will help protect the litter.
Methane Production
Anaerobic bacteria generate about 50 to 65 per-
cent methane, about 30 percent carbon dioxide,
and a smaller percentage of other gases. There-
fore, if the moisture content of stored litter is
more than 40 percent in a stack with little or no
oxygen, then conditions are right for anaerobic
bacteria to grow and methane to result. Un-
vented landfills have the same problem.
Methane's specific gravity is less than air, how-
ever. If the stack has adequate pore spaces (or
the landfill has ventilation pipes), the methane
will escape into the atmosphere.
High moisture levels in stored litter help
create the potential for fires, as does layering
the manure (putting new litter on top of old ut-
ter). Compacting the litter will trap heat in the
pile, and failure to provide an adequate ratio of
surface area to volume can also create prob-
lems.
Tips for Fire Prevention
The following guidelines will help prevent
fires in storage facilities:
T Keep the litter dry and do not stack it too
near the open end of the building (methane
is flammable in air)
^ Do not compact moist cake or mix it with
dry litter, and do not stack cake or dry litter
higher than 5 feet or store it against the
wood
* Do not compact the dry litter, since com-
pacting creates anaerobic conditions and
prevents the natural venting of methane
T Do not cover moist litter but allow the open
litter to vent naturally.
* Monitor the resources in your storage facil-
ity regularly, and remove any materials
that have temperatures greater than 180 *F.
If the temperatures exceed 190 *F, notify the
fire department and prepare to move the
material. Emptying the storage area will
bring the litter out into the air, so precau-
tions must be taken against a fire occurring
at this tune.
-------
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
It is a good idea not to store expensive
equipment in the litter storage facility.
If you are storing dry litter for later use as a
cattle feed, cover it with polyethylene. This
technique will suppress the temperature
buildup and reduce the production of bound
nitrogen, a form of protein that cattle are un-
able to digest.
References
Soil Conservation Service. 1993. Preventing Fires in Litter
Storage Structures. Guide AL-39 in Alabama Poultry
Waste Management. Waste Utilization and Facility De-
sign Workbook US Department of Agriculture, Au-
burn, AL.
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects. Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material for
further distribution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone OEI / 3 - 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615)751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
2 PREVENTING FIRES IN MANURE/LITTER STORAGE STRUCTURES
-------
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
iO
TREATMENT LAGOONS
AND PONDS
M;
[anure in shallow pits
(from caged layers)
can be flushed out once a day or scraped out
dry every one to three days. Flushed manure
can then be transferred to storage by gravity or
with a pump. Semisolid or liquid manure can
be stored in below or above ground ground
storage tanks, steel storage tanks, or earthen
basins. Thus, lagoons are a type of earthen
basin used for waste storage; however, they
can also be used as manure treatment systems
for converting the organic matter in animal
wastes into more stable products Lagoons
have even been used as digesters to convert
large masses of waste into gases, liquids, or
sludge. Aerobic and anaerobic lagoons work
with bacteria to decompose the dissolved sol-
ids in animal waste.
Lagoons became a somewhat popular
component of waste management systems
during the 1970s when the interest shifted
from simply using waste for fertilizer in land
applications to treating the waste to produce a
more convenient waste management system
overall
Anaerobic bacteria in animal waste (i.e.,
bacteria that live in animal intestines) cannot
work in the presence of oxygen. Aerobic bacte-
ria, on the other hand, must have oxygen;
therefore, anaerobic lagoons are deep and air-
less, aerobic lagoons are spread over a large
surface area, take in oxygen from the air, and
support algae.
The advantages of lagoons are that they are
easy to manage, convenient, and cost-efficient.
Storage and land application can be handled
more opportunely if the grower has a Lagoon,
and labor costs and operating costs are slight
after the initial investment. In general, anaero-
bic lagoons do not require much space, and
they provide storage and disposal flexibility.
Other factors, however, must also be con-
sidered. Lagoons are a source of odors and ni-
trogen losses and may require frequent sludge
removal if they are undersized. Groundwater
protection may be difficult to secure, and if
mechanical aeration is used, energy costs must
be included in the accounting. Proper manage-
ment is essential for lagoon maintenance and
operation.
Aerobic Lagoons
The design, shape, size, capacity, location, and
construction of the lagoon depends on its type.
Aerobic lagoons require so much surface area
(to maintain sufficient dissolved oxygen) that
they are an impractical solution to most waste
management problems They may require 25
times more surface area and 10 times more vol-
ume than an anaerobic lagoon Nevertheless,
some growers may consider using an aerated
lagoon despite its expense if they are op-
erating in an area highly sensitive to odor
Some of the sizing difficulty can be solved
by using mechanical aeration by pumping
air into the lagoon but the energy costs for
continuous aeration can be high Aerobic la-
goons will have better odor control, and the
bacterial digestion they provide will be more
complete than the digestion in anaerobic
lagoons
Lagoon design and loading specifications
should be carefully followed and monitored to
increase the effectiveness of the treatment. No
more than 44 pounds of biological oxygen de-
mand (BOD) effluent should be added to the
-------
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
lagoon per day per acre. The lagoon should
have sufficient depth so that light will pene-
trate the 3 or 4 feet of water. Effluents from the
lagoon should be land applied to avoid long-
term ponding and to make economical use of
the nutrients that remain in them.
Anaerobic Lagoons
Anaerobic treatment lagoons are earthen ba-
sins or ponds containing diluted manure that
will be broken down or decomposed without
free oxygen. In the process, the organic compo-
nents or BOD in the manure will be liquified or
degraded naturally. Anaerobic lagoons must
be properly designed, sized, and managed to
be an acceptable animal waste treatment facil-
ity.
Liquid volume rather than area determines
the size of anaerobic lagoons. The lagoon
should accommodate the design treatment liq-
uid capacity and the amount of wastewater to
be treated; it should also have additional stor-
age room for sludge buildup, temporary stor-
age room for rain and wastewater inputs, extra
surface storage for a 25-year, 24-hour storm
event, and at least an additional foot of free-
board to prevent overflows.
The design criteria for anaerobic lagoons
are based on the amount of volatile solids to be
loaded each day. The range is from 2.8 to 4.8
pounds of volatile solids per day per 1,000
cubic feet of lagoon liquid. The amount of rain
that would collect in a 24-hour storm so in-
tense that its probability of happening is once
in 25 years requires at least 5 to 9 inches of sur-
face storage
To protect the ground water supply, la-
goons should not be situated on permeable
soils that will not seal, on shallow soils, or over
fractured rock. Nor should mortalities be dis-
posed of in lagoons; in fact, screening the
wastes before they enter the lagoon helps en-
sure complete digestion and the quahty of the
wastewaters for land applications. If the site's
topography indicates a potential for ground-
water contamination, then any earthen basin
should be lined with day, concrete, or a syn-
thetic liner.
New lagoons should be filled one-half full
with wastewater before waste loading begins.
Planning start up in warm weather and seed-
ing the bottom with sludge from another la-
goon helps to establish the bacterial
population. Because bacterial activities in-
crease in high temperatures, lagoons, in gen-
eral, work best in warm climates. Manure
should be added to anaerobic lagoons daily,
and irrigation (drawdown) should begin when
the liquid reaches normal wastewater maxi-
mum capacity. The liquid should not be
pumped below the design level treatment,
however, because the proper volume must be
available for optimum bacterial digestion.
Drawdown (that is, the lagoon liquid) can
be used for land applications guided by regu-
lar nutrient management planning and sam-
pling of the lagoon liquids and soils to ensure
safe and effective applications. When sludge
accumulation diminishes the lagoon's treat-
ment capacity, it, too, can be land applied
under strictly monitored conditions.
Secondary lagoons are often needed for
storage from the primary lagoon. Using a sec-
ondary lagoon for irrigation also bypasses
some of the solids picked up in the primary la-
goon. The size of secondary lagoons is not crit-
ical.
Information and technical assistance and
some cost-share programs are available for
producers who determine that a lagoon system
should be part of their resource management
system. The LJSDA Soil Conservation and Co-
operative Extension Service offices can provide
additional assistance.
References
Barker, JC 1990 rev Lagoon Design and Management lor
Livestock Waste Treatment and Storage Agn-Waste
Management EBAE-103-83 North Carolina Agricul-
tural Extension Service Agricultural and Technical
State University of North Carolina, University Station
Michigan Agriculture Commission 1991 Generally Ac-
cepted Agricultural Practices for Manure Management
and Utilization Lansing, Ml
Payne, VWE, and).O Donald 1991 Poultry Waste Man-
agement and Environmental Protection Manual Circu-
lar AMR 580 Cooperative Extension Service, Auburn,
University, Auburn, AL.
Ritter, W F. No date Poultry System Design and Manage-
ment for Environmental Protection University of Dela-
ware, Newark.
US Department of Agriculture. 1993 Agricultural Waste
Management Handbook. Part 651 Soil Conservation
Service, Washington, DC
2 TREATMENT LAGOONS AND PONDS
-------
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this matenal tor
further distribution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
lor everyone OEI/4-6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax.-(615)751-7479
TREATMENT LAGOONS AND PONDS 3
-------
OTHER ENVIRONME N T A L I._S_S_U E S
0
CONTROLLING STRUVITE
BUILDUPS
1\>Tag
IVJLpt
Fagnesium ammonium
phosphate, sometimes
called struvite, is a grayish-white crystalline
salt that builds up on the internal pump and
piping surfaces used for lagoon liquid recycl-
ing. It usually appears on metallic surfaces but
also on plashes. Steel, cast iron, bronze, and
brass are equally susceptible.
Struvite usually builds up on the internal
pump components first, then moves outward
to the discharge pipes. It often occurs at pipe
joints, elbows, valves, or imperfections because
grit and solids tend to lodge at these points,
providing a base for the salt to grow. Predict-
ing struvite is difficult because its cause is not
well known. Design, maintenance, and man-
agement techniques have been researched that
can reduce the buildup to acceptable levels
Pumping and Piping System
Use only high-quality, low-pressure, self-prim-
ing centrifugal or submersible pumps. They
should not be oversized in relation to the pip-
ing network, and should perhaps be on a
timer The suction pipe should also be large
enough to prevent pump cavitation. Normally
the suction pipe diameter should be one size
larger than the discharge pipe. Locate the
pump close to the high-water level to mini-
mize suction lift. Replace fine mesh suction in-
take strainers with wire screens or baskets of
1-inch mesh or larger The diameter should be
at least five times the diameter of the suction
pipe. Struvite will also build up on the screens.
Use nonmetallic pipes and fittings. Pipes
should be large enough to maintain flow veloc-
ities between 3 to 5 feet per second; the mini-
mum pipe diameter at any point except at the
immediate discharge point should be 1.5
inches. Sharp pipe bends (elbows and tees)
should be avoided. Instead, use flexible plastic
pipe and long sweep elbows for the direction
changes. The system (pumps and piping)
should have sufficient capacity to work only
one-half to two-thirds of the time, and piping
systems not in continuous use should be
drained between pumping events.
Electrostatic Charges
Stray voltage is also believed to contribute to
struvite. Direct grounding of the pump hous-
ing can discharge any static charges. A metal
rod should be placed 10 to 12 feet into the
moist soil near the lagoon's edge, and cable
connections at the ground rod and pump
should be checked periodically for corrosion.
Lagoon Management
Lagoons should be properly sized New ones
should be charged at least half full of water be-
fore startup, and the liquid level should be
brought up to design levels as soon as possible.
Rainfall during normal years dilutes lagoon
liquid while extended periods of hot, dry
weather increase nutnent and salt levels and
the rate of salt buildup in recycling systems
Flushing with fresh water or irrigating a por-
tion of the lagoon contents may help
Acid Cleaning
Salts can be dissolved with dilute acid treat-
ments. Several doses followed by flushing the
spent acid solutions will be needed to treat
heavy buildups. A more thorough and more
costly method is to install an acid recirculation
loop. Use a 150-gallon acid-resistant tank as
-------
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
the reservoir. You will need enough solution to
fill the pipe length and some in reserve to keep
the redrcularionpurnp pruned. Use the accom-
panying table to determine how much acid
you will need.
Table 1.Amount of solution needed for acid
cleaning Busing an acid recirculation loop.
DIAMETER OF PIPE.
IN INCHES
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
6.0
SOLUTION NEEDED
PER FOOT OF LENGTH.
IN GALLONS
0.06
0.13
0.20
0.29
0.43
0.70
1.53
To reduce the size of the tank, isolate sec-
tions of the line with valves and circulate the
aad through only one section-. The flush pump
suction is switched from the lagoon and con-
nected to the bottom of the acid tank with a
quick-connect coupling. A 1-inch line returns
acid from the end of each treated pipe section
to the tank.
Hydrochloric acid can be purchased at
most chemical supply houses or paint stores.
Dilute the acid with water on a 1 to 9 ratio 1
gallon aad to 9 gallons of water. Use caution.
Mixing acids with water is a hazardous opera-
tion. Partially fill the tank with water, then add
the acid slowly to the water. Eye protection is
essential, and heat will be generated. To treat
heavy struvite buildups, recirculate the mix-
ture overnight and count on using the mixture
only once. Spent acid may be dumped into the
lagoon. Acids currently cost about $14 for a 15-
gallon drum or about $33 for a 50-gallon drum.
Deposits on the drums are $25 and $50, respec-
tively.
References
Barker, JC 1981 Crystalline (Salt) Formation in Wastewa-
ter Recycling Systems EBAE 082-81 North Carolina
Agricultural Extension Service, North Carolina State
University, Raleigh
Payne, VWE 1993. Persona] Communication US De-
partment of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Au-
burn, AL
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this matenal for
further distribution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the qualrty of water
for everyone OEI IS- 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
2 CONTROLLING STRUVITE BUILDUPS
-------
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
e
PROTECTION AGAINST PESTS,
PREDATORS, AND
DARKLING BEETLES
T>est
Abe<
sts, often called vectors
because they may be a
point of entry for disease or other nuisances in
the poultry house, are an aspect of waste man-
agement that should not be overlooked. Vec-
tors can be either living or nonliving carriers of
disease. Especially troublesome on the poultry
farm are house flies, rats, and darkling beetles.
Wildlife, especially feral dogs and coyotes,
must also be controlled. Having proper waste
management facilities and maintenance proce-
dures on the farm will contribute to productiv-
ity, nutrient management, and environmental
safety. A cost-effective and safe pest control
system is essential.
Uncontrolled pests cause irritation to birds
and workers, carry poultry disease pathogens,
increase mortality, lower carcass grades and
production, damage building materials, and
interfere with feed conversion. In addition,
and if they did nothing else, poultry pests
must be carefully controlled because they can
migrate from litter to nearby residences, where
they may become a serious nuisance among
the neighbors
Flies
Moist manure is not only a threat to surface
and groundwaters; it is also an ideal breeding
ground for fbes. Caged layer operations are
most susceptible to this problem, followed by
breeder farms and, occasionally, broiler farms.
Wherever poultry houses are susceptible to
flooding, or litter is stored outdoors, the poten-
tial exists for fly-control problems.
Flies, which generally become active in the
early spring (mid-March in many areas), have
four stages of development: egg, larva, pupa,
and adult. Most generations require about two
weeks to develop. Females will produce 120 to
150 eggs in three or four days, and hatching oc-
curs between eight and 24 hours later. House
flies can complete their entire life cycle in as
few as seven days; therefore, many of these 150
flies will also breed within a few days. Twenty
to 30 generations in a fly season is not unusual.
As many as 1,000 flies can develop in a single
pound of suitable breeding material.
The actual rate of development depends on
the temperatures and moisture levels in the
breeding area. Since fresh manure is about 75
percent moisture, and flies breed in areas con-
taining 75 to 80 percent moisture, poultry litter
should be kept as dry as possible. Leakproof
waterers should be installed and maintained in
good condition. Broken eggs and mortalities
among the flock should be cleaned up immedi-
ately
Manure should be removed from the house
every four to seven days during hot weather
After removal, it must be stored and used
properly to achieve fly control If manure can
be dried quickly or immediately liquified, it
will not become a breeding ground for flies
During land applications, poultry manure
should be spread thinly to promote drying. If
fly larvae are in the manure, then incorporat-
ing it into the soil as quickly as possible will
help break the fly development cycle.
Under certain conditions, insecticides may
be used to control adult flies in bams and poul-
try houses. But these products should be re-
served for critical times when the management
system breaks down, because flies quickly de-
velop resistance. Insecticide applications may
-------
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
be regulated in some states and should be
handled carefully to minimize any harmful ef-
fects associated with toxic ingredients.
Rats and Mice
Voles, field mice, and cotton rats are not usu-
ally the source of problems for poultry grow-
ers. NoAvay rats and roof rats, however, are
two non-native species of rats that can be trou-
blesome and they proliferate rapidly. A pair
of rats will produce six to 12 young in 21 days
and each of these becomes sexually mature
in three months. A single pair of rats, if they
find food, water, and shelter, can produce a
colony of 640 rats in a year.
Poultry houses provide everything the rats
need: food, water, and shelter. Norway or
wharf rats usually nest under buildings and
concrete slabs and in garbage dumps. They are
great burrowers and may have an extensive
system of burrows under the poultry house,
with several escape routes. They eat anything
but prefer nuts, grains, meats, and some fruits
They can easily find meats and grains in the
poultry house.
Roof or black rats are more aerial than
Norway rats. They enter buildings from the
roof or utility lines. They usually live in trees,
so access to the poultry house is easy: up the
walls, across vines, along pipes. Exterior walls
should be hard, flat surfaces, and all entrance
holes should be plugged up. Rats can make
themselves "paper thin" to come in under
doors and through holes as small as one-half
inch in diameter
The best rat control program is proper re-
source management, maintenance, and sanita-
tion, but the food supply in the poultry house
makes rat occupation probable. Some chemical
controls or rodenticides may, and probably
should be, added to your control program To
administer rat poison effectively, first know
how many rats you are dealing with; then, es-
tablish bait stations near the walls in areas of
rodent activity.
To determine how many rats are in the
poultry house, observe the area at night as well
as in the daylight. Rats are nocturnal; if you see
no rats in the day or at night, there probably
are not many around. If you see old droppings
or gnawed areas, no rats during the day, and
only a few at night, rats are probably present in
medium numbers only. Finally, if you see fresh
droppings and tracks, some rats during the
day, and three or more at night, large numbers
are probably present.
To control the infestation, use single or
multiple doses of a rodenticide in the bait sta-
tions. Avoid making the rats sick; if they get
sick and do not die, they will become bait-shy
and not eat the poison. Place the bait stations
appropriately and protect them from moisture,
dust, and weather to encourage the rats to eat
from these stations. Rats, like many animals,
prefer fresh food.
Because rats are colorblind and have poor
eyesight, rodenticides can be marked for
safety. If other conditions make poisons inad-
visable, rats can be trapped with common snap
traps, glue boards, or in live traps.
Darkling Beetles
Known as litter beetles, lesser mealworms, or
"black bugs," the darkling beetle (Alphitobius
diapermus) is found in large numbers in poul-
try houses, in the woods, and around feed
bins These black or reddish-brown beetles are
troublesome in turkey and broiler production
because deep litter and open-floor housing
provide an ideal habitat in which the beetles
can survive and reproduce.
The total effect of darkling beetles on poul-
try production is not known They may be
more problematic as a nuisance than as a vec-
tor (carrier of disease) However, beetles are
thought to harbor a number of disease organ-
isms for example, fowl pox, E coli. Salmo-
nella spp, Newcastle disease, and avian
leukosis and to be involved in the transmis-
sion of the causative organism for Marek's dis-
ease, although immunization against Marek's
disease is now available. Darkling beetles are
also an intermediate host for poultry tape-
worms and cecal worms. If they are in litter
that is land applied, their possible effects on
wildfowl must be considered.
An undisputed second concern related to
the darkling beetle is that they can damage the
insulation in poultry houses. Larvae bore into
the insulation to find safe places to pupate. But
adult beetles who eat the pupae soon enlarge
the larval tunnels in their search for an easv
2 PROTECTION AGAINST PESTS PREDATORS. AND DARKLING BEETLES
-------
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
meal. Birds and mice then daw at the insula-
tion to get at the adult beetles, larvae, and
pupae. In a severe darkling beetle infestation,
as much as 25 percent of the insulation can be
lost in a single year.
Another potential problem arises if in-
fested litter is spread on crops. Adult beetles
may migrate from the field into nearby resi-
dences; the result can be a nuisance complaint
to the health department and sometimes
lawsuits.
Temperature and moisture affect the
amount of time an insect needs to complete its
life cycle. Temperatures between 60 and 100 *F
and moisture levels above 12 percent are opti-
mum for its survival. Food sources, decaying
litter, an occasional bird carcass, and the ab-
sence of major predator and parasite com-
plexes in the poultry house help the beetle
population to increase.
The life cycle of the beetle takes 35 to 60
days to complete. The adult female lays eggs
individually or in dusters at intervals of one to
five days throughout her life cyde. The eggs
hatch into tiny larvae after four to seven days
and grow through five to rune stages, called in-
stars. This period lasts for seven weeks; then
the beetles pupate in cracks and crevices, in the
soil and lower strata of the litter, and in build-
ing insulation. The pupal state lasts for seven
to 11 days, after which a new adult emerges.
To manage darkling beetles effectively re-
quires monitoring, cultural practices, and some
insecticide applications. Treatment should be
maintained regularly, even if beetle numbers
are low Individual beetles or larvae (100 or
fewer) pose no problem, however, their pres-
ence indicates a need for continued monitor-
ing, ideally on a weekly basis, from the time
the birds are brought into the house until they
are removed. Visual inspection is the best way
to monitor the open-floored, deep litter house
The grower should look at litter, carcasses,
cracks and crevices, equipment, and insulation
at intervals of 30 to 40 feet throughout the
house.
* Litter should be examined along wails,
around support posts, and under brooder
hoods and feeders. Dig down 1 to 2 inches
in caked litter to look for small, early in-
stars
v Carcasses should be examined during daily
collections. A large number of beetles on a
large number of carcasses may point to a
heavy infestation.
T Equipment and cracks and crevices are fa-
vorite beetle habitats. Be sure to check the
framing joints and other cracks as well as
the brooder guard, house dividers, drink-
ers, and feeders.
v Insulation in new houses should be
checked for clusters of small holes along
seams, in corners, at the eaves, and along
the gable. Insulation board may also be dis-
colored. If mice damage appears, look also
for beetle tunnels. In older houses, it will be
hard to distinguish between old and new
beetle damage.
Trapping beetles is a second control
method. Traps can be made using a 2-inch
schedule 40 PVC pipe, a 10-to-12-inch section
for each trap. Put a roll of corrugated card-
board (brooder guard) inside the pipe, and
place six or so traps between the wall, feeder,
and brooder locations from one end of the
house to the other. To prevent the birds from
moving the traps, stake the traps in place. Re-
move the cardboard and count the beetles on a
weekly schedule. Their presence or a rapid rise
in their number indicates a need for treatment.
Cultural methods for controlling beetles
are nonchemical ways to reduce the pest popu-
lation. Cold weather is the most effective
measure, and proper Utter handling is also an
essential for good control If the weather coop-
erates, open the house to the cold between
flocks. If the temperature drops below 30 °F, all
stages of the darkling beetle will die. As soon
as the birds are moved, the grower can remove
Utter and litter cake from the poultry house.
Darkling beetles will move to protected areas
in the empty house within a few days; there-
fore, moving the litter before that time will
more effectively control the beetle population.
Fresh litter that is applied to cropland
should be incorporated to prevent any return
of the darkling beetle. Stockpiled or com-
posted litter should be turned every two weeks
to promote enough heat to kill beetle eggs and
larvae.
PROTECTION AGAINST PESTS PREDATORS AND DARKLING BEETLES 3
-------
OTHER ENVIRONM EN TAL ISSUES
Although ail insecticides registered as con-
trolling darkling beetles will work, none con-
trols the house for more than one flock.
Therefore, a treatment program should be
maintained year-round. Most products remain
active about a week and are designed to be ap-
plied when the birds have been removed from
the house. The best time for application is on
the first day after the birds have been removed
followed by cleanup immediately on the sec-
ond day. Treating the house again and its
outside perimeter just before the placement
of a new flock, is also useful. Surface sprays,
dusts, and baits are available for making these
applications.
Beetles love temperatures between 70 and
90 *F; they are nocturnal and can be found
everywhere. Seeing them during the day is a
sure sign of infestation of their presence in
great numbers. Young chicks will eat them.
Darkling beetles can fly up to one mile a night.
If a million or so are taken from a house, 15,000
of those taken will return in the direction of the
house from which they came. Approved insec-
ticides are Rabon, Sevin, and boric aad com-
pounds. Best control methods are careful
cleanout and spraying.
Beetles cause reductions in feed conver-
sions and weight gains, and possible disease.
Under dry conditions, they will eat the flesh of
dead or down birds, and at night crawl up the
feathers of resting birds and bite the skin
around the feather folhcals. Bitten birds may
have weeping skin lesions or pink and swollen
areas around the feather follicals that resemble
skin leukosis The birds are forced to rest and
wander all night instead of eating and sleeping
as they would in properly managed houses
Darkling beetles are a general nuisance be-
cause they are attracted by light; therefore,
they will crawl out of the litter and move to-
ward the bght at night. Large numbers of bee-
tles on or in houses create a negative public
image and give rise to complaints against the
broiler producer. To prevent migration, spray
the pit walls and posts, or use well-sealed, an-
gled, metal flashing attached to pit walls at
posts and masonry frame wall joints.
Coyotes and Feral Dogs
Coyotes and feral dogs are opportunistic feed-
ers. If they live in the area, their presence
around a poultry house is not remarkable.
They will kill the poultry for food, but they can
easily be prevented from gaining access to the
house. Complete confinement of the poultry is
the best way to stop predation. Heavy wire
should be used to cover all openings. Sanita-
tion and the proper disposal of mortalities will
cut down on the attraction of coyotes to the
area.
Predator calling and shooting may be used
in most states to harvest these animals. Preda-
tor calling is a mechanical device that attracts
the animals within shooting range. Trapping is
also an effective control method. Traps and
trap sizes as well as hunting and trapping sea-
sons may be regulated in some places. Leghold
traps that do not harm the animal or traps with
padded jaws may offer the best control in some
situations.
Controlling animals and pests in poultry
houses involves a combination of resource
management, sanitation, and exclusion, and
some special measures such as chemicals,
hunting, or trapping
References
Arends, J Darkling Beetle Control Using Disodium Oc-
taborate Tetrahydrate (Red Zone). North Carolina State
Newsletter North Carolina Extension Service, Raleigh
Armstrong, JB 1990 Rat Control in Poultry Houses DTP
Circular 12/90-016 Cooperative Extension Sen-ice. Au-
burn University, Auburn, AL
1990 Controlling Coyotes and Dogs Around
Poultry Houses DTP Circular 12/90-017 Cooperative
Extension Service, Auburn University Auburn, AL
Call, A Are Lesser Mealworms Worth the Trouble They
May Cause Poultry Digest February 1980 76-77
Nolan, M P Jr 1988 Control External Parasites and House
Flies Around Poultry Operations Bulletin 723 Cooper-
ative Extension Service College of Agriculture, Univer-
sity of Georgia, Athens
PennsyKarua Slate University No date. Darkling Beetles,
and Pest Management Recommendations for Poultry-
No signatures Lancaster, PA
Skewes, PA, and J L Monroe 1991 Research Note The
Effects of Darkling Beetles on Broiler Performance
Poultry Science 70 1034-36
Strother, G R 1990 Fly Control in Poultry Operations
DTP Circular 12/90-015 Cooperative Extension Serv-
ice, Auburn University, Auburn, AL
4 PROTECTION AGAINST PESTS. PREDATORS. AND OARKUNQ BEETLES
-------
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Other pages >n this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material for
further distnbution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone. OEI / 6 - 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
PROTECTION AGAINST PESTS, PRHMTOBS. AND DARKLING BEETLES 5
-------
RNATIVE TECHNOLOGY
0
CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS
A
gricultural runoff con-
ktributes about 60 per-
cent of the nonpoint source pollution that
threatens water quality in the rivers and lakes
of the United States. Water that flows off the
land after precipitation events picks up fertil-
izers and animal wastes that have been ap-
plied to the soil and deposits them in lakes
and rivers.
If the runoff is uncontrolled, it causes soil
erosion and the flow of high amounts of sus-
pended solids, nutrients, pesticides, herbicides,
and metals into the receiving waters. Flooding
and the degradation of rivers, streams, and
lakes are the consequence. Nonpoint source
pollution can also threaten groundwater qual-
ity as the same pollutants leach through the
soil.
Runoff can be controlled. Best manage-
ment practices (BMPs) can be adopted as part
of the poultry grower's operating procedure
For example, stormwater can be diverted from
poultry houses and manure storage areas, and
land applications can be made when no storms
are predicted. In addition, the arsenal of BMPs
now includes the use of natural or constructed
wetlands for treating runoff and wastewater
Functions of Wetlands
Wetlands are defined as transitional areas be-
tween the land and water. They support water-
tolerant or aquabc plants, and their sods are
saturated (waterlogged) or covered with shal-
low water for some part of the year. Bogs,
swamps, marshes, and sloughs are types of
wetlands.
Wetlands help improve water quality, store
floodwaters, reduce erosion, and recharge
groundwater. They are also habitat for wildlife
and home to about one-third of our endan-
gered species, though our focus is on wetlands
for waste treatment. The treatment process
involves complex physical, biological, and
chemical interactions, but it can be simply de-
scribed.
If surface runoff flows through wetlands
before reaching open water, its progress will be
slower here than in channelized flows over
drier lands. Suspended solids will settle or fil-
ter out, and microorganisms will pick up the
organics and nutrients in the water for food.
Metals mil settle into the soil and be absorbed
by plants. Thus, pollutants in stormwater run-
off can be reduced, cleansed, or transformed
into harmless substances during the runoff's
passage or treatment in natural or constructed
wetlands. Most pollutants are transformed
into basic elements, compost, or biomass.
The constructed wetland is the heart of the
treatment system. It deans wastewater by fil-
tering and settling solids, decomposing organ-
ics, and adsorbing/absorbing other pollutants
such as phosphorus and trace metals The dis-
solved organic pollutants are removed by a
complex group of microbes (bacteria, fungi,
alg.'e, and protozoa) that live in the wastewater
and on plant and sediment surfaces Since
waste materials are food for most of these mi-
crobes, pollutants are gradually converted
through complex food cycles into environmen-
tally harmless by-products (gases that escape to
the air and inert solids that stay in the system).
The primary purpose of wetland plants is
to provide a place for these microbes to attach
and grow. Generally, treatment effectiveness
increases with plant density, which allows a
larger quantity of attached microbes to exist
within the system. The density of plants also
affects flow hydraulics. Uniform flow is en-
hanced by uniform plant densities, but vari-
able densities create short-circuiting which
-------
E R N A T I V E
reduces the retention time and treatment effec-
tiveness of the wetland. In addition, plants
make the system attractive and provide food
and shelter for wildlife.
The system remains effective during win-
ter because the microbes are still present on the
dead stalks and stems of the vegetation. Be
cause the biological processes slow down dur-
ing winter, wetland systems are typically sized
to meet treatment objectives during cold
weather.
Notwithstanding their usefulness, over 50
percent of the natural wetlands in this country
have been destroyed, according to estimates
from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Wet-
lands have been drained and converted into
farmland or drained and filled for urban devel-
opment. They have even been used as dumps
for hazardous wastes. Until recently, many
people believed that wetlands were nothing
more than a nuisance a source of mosqui-
toes, flies, mildew, and unpleasant odors.
These attitudes and our care of wetlands is
changing rapidly as we become more knowl-
edgeable about total resource and animal
waste management procedures.
Section 404 of the Clean Water Act protects
our nation's wetlands by regulating the dis-
charge of dredge or fill materials into most
wetlands, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv-
ice purchases some wetlands each year with
federal funds Numerous private incentives
also support wetlands conservation. For exam-
ple, the 1986 tax reform bill prohibits deduc-
tions by farmers to drain or fill wetlands, and
the 1985 Swampbuster Program removes both
flood and crop insurance and price supports
from farmers who drain wetlands.
Designing Constructed Wetlands
Constructed wetlands can effectively treat
poultry industry wastewaters, including
stormwater runoff. These wetlands are de-
signed by engineers and built to restore, en-
hance, or replace the physical, chemical, and
biological processes in natural wetlands. They
are typically used as polishing cells following
conventional primary treatment facilities such
as lagoons, settling basins, or septic tanks. The
integrated treatment system provides a higher
quality wastewater that may be recycled or
TECHNOLOGY
discharged to a receiving stream if appropriate
permits are obtained
In addition, the volume of treatable waste-
water may be substantially reduced during the
growing season because of evaporation. For ex-
ample, a poultry producer currently having dif-
ficulty with overflowing lagoons during wet
weather now has the option of adding con-
structed wetlands, which can be used to hold
the lagoon wastewater during the growing sea-
son. Typically the wastewater in the wetlands
will evaporate or percolate into the soil, but any
effluent can also be recycled as process waste or
as irrigation water.
Constructed wetlands consist of one or
more "cells" of wetland plants in series or par-
allel. Construction can be easily accomplished.
Excavate the area to shape the bottom of the
wetlands and build small dikes around it. Use
PVC pipe to distribute and collect wastewater
and to control water levels in the wetland.
Water levels are normally shallow about 3 to
12 inches. Uncontammated runoff can be di-
verted from the system by berms or other buff-
ers or grading.
A lagoon, detention basin, or other type of
solids trap is used in front of the constructed
wetlands to remove heavy or coarse solids
Some runoff contains high sediment loads and
decomposing organic matter that may settle in
bottom deposits. Because these deposits can
adversely affect the hydrology and life forms
in the wetland, the solids trap is particularly
important.
Most wetland systems for treating agricul-
tural related wastewaters will not be larger
than 1 or 2 acres. In general, they should not be
located in areas with steep topography, shal-
low topsoil, or limited space. They must be
properly constructed to ensure groundwater
protection. The potential for constructed wet-
lands to adequately treat agricultural waste-
waters is so great that the USDA Agricultural
Stabilization and Conservation Service has ap-
proved the development of cost-sharing for
this practice. Consult your local soil and water
conservation district for more information.
Management
Wetland plants include mixtures of cattails,
reeds, bulrushes, sedges, and grasses that are
2 CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS
-------
ALTERNATIVE
normally nabve to the area. The plants provide
the right conditions for the microorganisms
that live in the wetlands and break down the
pollutants.
Pond and wetland systems are particularly
effective because ponds can be designed to
catch th$ stonnwater and slowly release it to
the wetlands following the storm. This tech-
nique keeps the wetlands wet for longer time
periods, which can be especially important
during dry seasons.
The systems need little routine mainte-
nance but should be inspected periodically to
detect any loss of plants, leakage through the
dikes, clogging of the pipes, mosquitoes, or'
short-circuiting of the flow. These problems
and others are usually easily corrected.
Properly managed constructed wetlands
are cost effective, energy efficient, and simple
to operate. They accept varying pollutant
loads, attract a variety of wildlife, and add
beauty to the farm landscape. Above all, con-
structed wetlands can help achieve clean
water
TECHNOLOGY
Information on the design and construc-
tion of wetlands for managing wastewater is
available from USDA Soil Conservation Serv-
ice local offices.
References
Olson, R K 1993. Created and Natural Wetlands for Con-
trolling Nonpoint Source Pollution CRC Press, Boca
Raton. FL.
Schueler, TR. 1992. Design of Stormwater Wetlands Sys-
tems No. 92710. Metropolitan Washington Council of
Governments, Washington, DC
Tennessee Valley Authority. No date. Natural and Con-
structed Wetlands. Fact Sheet in cooperation with U S
Environmental Protection Agency. No place of publica-
tion
VS. Environmental Protection Agency 1990 Uses of Wet-
lands in Stormwater Management. Watershed Manage-
ment Unit, Water Division, Region 5, Chicago, IL.
U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1991. National Bulletin
No. 210-1-17. Soil Conservation Service. Washington,
DC
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects. Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material for
further distribution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone AT /1 - 6A94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS 3
-------
ALTERNAT
V E
TECHNOLOGY
FEEDING LITTER To RUMINANTS
(roller litter has long
been considered a prob-
lem by-product. It is usually applied to the
land as a fertilizer, but the concentration of the
industry in relatively small geographic areas
contributes to an oversupply of litter for this
purpose. Broiler litter that is not managed in
an environmentally sound manner may con-
tribute to surface and groundwater contamina-
tion. An alternative, and indeed a more
economical, use of broiler litter is as a source of
dietary nutrients for beef cattle and other ru-
minants, whose unique digestive system is
well able to process wastes and other by-prod-
ucts. Turkey litter and poultry manure can also
be used for this purpose.
Litter is a source of protein, energy, and
minerals. Using it as a feed ingredient helps to
conserve nutrients and to offset costs. The
plant nutrients in the litter nitrogen, phos-
phorus, and potassium and other minerals
will be redeposited on pasture land as cattle
manure. For this reason, even when the cost of
transporting the litter is factored in, feeding lit-
ter to ruminants can be an economical waste
management technique
There may be a problem with the public's
perception of litter as a cattle feed. We readily
accept and even prefer vegetables that are or-
ganically grown in fact, mushrooms go di-
rectly from the manure bed to the grocery
store but we have a hard time accepting lit-
ter as a food ingredient. Yet a cow's food is
broken down and processed much more com-
pletely than a plant assimilates food into its
tissues.
Regulations on Feeding Litter
In 1967, the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) discouraged the use of litter as a cattle
feed. But in 1980, FDA issued a statement leav-
ing it to the states to regulate this use. At least
22 states have current regulations. No state
regulates the private use or exchange of litter
for this purpose; many states, however, regu-
late this commodity on the commercial market.
Processed broiler litter offered for sale may
be required to carry warning labels about the
presence of any drugs that may be present in
the litter. To minimize the potential for any
drug residues in the cattle, all litter feeding
should be discontinued at least 15 days before
the animals are marketed for slaughter. This
responsibility for selling only wholesome ani-
mals falls on the producers, regardless of regu-
lations.
Generally, attention to safety precautions
such as the 15 day withdrawal period before
slaughter, not feeding litter to lactating cows,
and not feeding litter with high copper concen-
trations to copper-sensitive sheep are suffi-
cient to eliminate health risks Litter has in fact
been used as a feed ingredient for 35 years
without any reported adverse effects on
human or animal health.
Nutritional Value of Litter
The kind and amount of bedding material
used in a broiler house and the number of
batches housed on the litter affect the nutri-
tional value of the Utter, which should always
be tested before being used as a food product
for ruminants. The average nutrient contents
are as follows
* Moisture. The moisture content of the ma-
nure has little nutritional value; but litter
that is too dry may be unpalatable, and lit-
ter that is too wet may be difficult to handle
as a food ingredient. An acceptable range
seems to be from 12 percent to 25 percent
moisture.
-------
ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGY
* Total Digestible Nutrients. The sum of the
crude protein and crude fiber values is
used to calculate the total digestible nutri-
ents (TDN) in the litter. If the Utter has a
calculated value of 50 percent TDN, it is
comparable to hay as an energy source.
v Crude Protein. The average amount of
crude protein in broiler litter is about 24.9
percent. But about 40 percent of that
amount is probably nonprotein nitrogen or
uric acid. Young cattle cannot use this non-
protein nitrogen as easily as mature cattle
can, so broiler litter should be fed only to
cattle weighing over 450 pounds.
Bound Nitrogen. Insoluble or bound nitro-
gen occurs in litter that has been over-
heated. Bound nitrogen is less easily
digested than other nitrogen. Average litter
samples have 15 percent bound nitrogen;
overheated litter may have as much as 50
percent bound nitrogen.
Crude Fiber. The fiber source in litter
comes mainly from the bedding materials.
Ruminants, however, need long roughage,
such as hay. At least 5 percent of the litter
ration should be in the form of hay or other
long roughage.
Minerals. Excessive minerals in litter are
not usually a problem, though excessive
calcium can cause milk fever in beef cows
at calving Withdrawing the Utter from the
cows' food for 30 days overcomes this dif-
ficulty Microminerals, such as copper,
iron, and magnesium, are also present in
large amounts. Copper should not be fed
at more than 150 parts per million. It
builds up in the liver but is usually not
harmful
Ash. Ash content is an indication of litter
quality and should not exceed 28 percent.
About 12 percent of the ash is made up of
calcium, phosphorus, potassium, and trace
minerals, the rest is soil. Management tech-
niques that reduce the soil content in the Lit-
ter should be practiced.
Survey of Broiler
Litter Composition
In some, all litter to be used as a beef ration
should be analyzed tested for nutrient con-
tent. Litter used for feed should have at least
18 percent crude protein and less than 28 per-
cent ash. Not more than 25 percent of the crude
protein should be bound or insoluble.
Litter that has too much ash is not suitable
as a food ingredient If broilers are reared on
dirt floors, the litter may be contaminated with
soil during deanout.
The number of broods reared on the litter
prior to cleanout of the broiler house also af-
fects the quality of the litter; die more broods
reared (five or more), the higher the litter is in
nutrients.
Charred litter, that is, litter that has been
exposed to too much heat during storage and
has a burnt wood appearance, is only half as
digestible as litter stored in stacks that were
protected from excessive heat.
Processing and Storing
Broiler Litter
All litter, regardless of its source, should be
processed to eliminate pathogenic organisms,
such as salmonella; pesticide residues; medi-
cated poultry rations, such as antibiotics,
coccidiostats, copper, and arsenic Dead birds
may not be composted with poultry litter if the
litter is to be used as a feed ingredient
Litter can be processed by fermentation
(ensiled with other feed ingredients such as
corn or sorghum), directly acidified, or heat
treated. The easiest, most economical method
of treatment is deep stacking Deep stacking
should be done for 20 days or more at a tem-
perature of 130 "F. Most of the antibiotics ap-
proved for chickens are also approved for
cows, and deep stacking inhibits molds (myco-
toxins). Excessive heating to temperatures of
140 *F or more is cause for alarm. Therefore,
the deep stack should be covered with a poly-
ethylene tarp to exclude oxygen. Covered litter
stacks will reach a temperature high enough to
destroy pathogens but not so high that nitro-
gen digestibility is threatened.
2 FEEDING UTTER TO RUMINANTS
-------
ALTERNATIVE
TECHNOLOGY
Table 1. Suggested Rations.
RATION NUMBER
Ingredients
Broiler Litter
Cracked Com
Total Pounds
l
CRT BROOD COW
2
LACTAHNG COW
3
STOCKERS
Pounds
800
200
1,000
650
350
1,000
500
500
1,000
Suggested Rations
Table 1 indicates rations that can be fed to dry
brood cows, lactating cows, and stackers.
These rations are recommended guidelines,
not absolutes, since die nutrient levels in litter
are variable. Vitamin A should be added to all
rations. To reduce bloating, feed the animals
Botavec or Rumensin. Supplementing winter
and summer grazing for stocker cattle in-
creases the animals' weight gain and the total
beef produced.
Summary
Because of the unique ability of ruminant ani-
mals to digest forages, other fibrous materials,
and inorganic nitrogen such as urea, there is a
growing awareness worldwide that by-prod-
ucts of agriculture can serve as low-cost alter-
native feed sources for these animals The use
of broiler litter may become more widespread
as the need for economy and responsible waste
management becomes more urgent. Alabama,
for example, produces about 1.8 metric tons of
litter per year; in fact, litter is the state's most
collectible animal waste. Since management
practices on the farm affect the litter's quality,
attempts to market the litter as a feed ingredi-
ent begin with a focus on management tech-
niques.
References
McCaskey, T.A, A H Stephenson, and B G Ruffm 1990
Factors that Influence the Marketability and Use of
Broiler litter as an Alternative Feed Ingredient Pages
197-203 in Proceedings of the Sixth International Sym-
posium on Agricultural and Food Processing Wastes
American Society of Agriculture Engineers, Chicago,
IL
Ruffin, BG , and TA McCaskey. 1990 Feeding Broiler
Litter lo Beef Cattle. Circular ANR-557 Cooperative
Extension Service, Auburn University, Auburn, AL
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects. Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material for
further dislnbuton. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products thai will preserve the quality of water
for everyone AT / 2 - 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2B01
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
-------
ALTERNATIVE
TECHNOLOGY
0
HORTICULTURAL USES
OF LITTER
B
Iecause it has no un-
pleasant odors, com-
posted broiler litter can be used indoors in a
soilless potting medium. In fact, its nutrient
content makes litter an ideal fertilizer for both
indoor and outdoor gardens. It is also a good
organic material for improving soil structure
and drainage.
Soil Amendment
Gardeners can add composted htter to soils
that otherwise contain too much sand or clay
to support a garden. Work the top soil loose to
a depth of 1 foot; then, spread 3 or 4 inches of
compost on the soil. About 2 inches of compost
may suffice at a minimum, but in really poor
soils, 6 inches can be applied. Turn the soil
over after the application to incorporate the
compost
Flower and Vegetable Transplants
Annual and perennial flowers and vegetable
transplants also do well in compost-amended
settings Use a trowel to dig a hole m the new
location Remove the plant from its container
and tear a hole in the bottom of the root-ball
otherwise, the roots will continue to grow in a
tight circle before setting it into the ground.
Fill the hole with amended soil and water thor-
oughly Mulching will help the plants retain
water, thereby conserving this resource as well
Transplanting Trees and Shrubs
If you are transplanting trees or shrubs, use the
techniques listed above, but make sure that the
hole you dig for the plant is at least twice the
size of its present container. Work about 3 to 6
inches of composted litter into the soil in the
hole and place the tree or shrub therein. Keep
as much soil as possible around the root-ball
when you take it out of the container. Do, by
all means, remove the container, especially if it
is plastic, so that the new growth will have
plenty of room. The soil line on your plant
should be level with your garden. Fill in the
hole with the amended soil, and water the
plant thoroughly to remove any air pockets
that may have been in the backfill.
Potting Mix for Indoor Plants
To make your own potting medium, use equal
parts of composted litter and composted pine
bark all living things need nitrogen and car-
bon. The bark may be screened to remove large
pieces (one-half inch or larger) before mixing
Fill the new pot with 1 or 2 inches of the plant-
ing medium, spread out the roots of your
plant, and set it in the pot Remove any buds or
flowers before replanting to ensure that the
plant has time to get properly established
Transplant from one pot size to the next one
only; skip one size if you have to, but don't go
from a 1-inch pot to a 4-inch pot and expect to
succeed. Water the plants in the fall and win-
ter, fertilize them in the growing seasons
spring and summer.
Lawns
Composted broiler litter is a superior product
to use to establish new lawn areas Spread
about 2 inches of composted litter on the area
to be seeded. Then rum the soil over to a depth
of 6 inches to incorporate the material. Place
turf on the prepared soil and water it as usual.
The addition of compost to the soil helps hold
moisture and improves drainage.
-------
ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGY
Fertilizer
The nutritional analysis of composted litter
will vary, depending on conditions of waste
production and handling, among other vari-
ables. However, most composted litter will
have an analysis similar to 2-2-2 commercial
fertilizer. That is, it should have no less than 2
percent'nitrogen (N), 2 percent phosphoric
acid (PzOs), and no less than 2 percent potas-
sium (KaO). Two quarts of broiler litter com-
post can be applied monthly to your vegetable
and flowering plan:s. It should be worked into
the soil lightly at the drip line or where the
water falls naturally from the leaves.
References
Behe, B.K. 1990. Horticultural Uses of Composted Broiler
Utter. Poultry By-product Management. Horticulture
DTP Circular 11/90-012. Cooperative Extension Serv-
ice, Aubum University, Auburn, AL.
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this matenal for
further distnbuHon. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identity and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone. AT/3-6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
2 HomTcyLTVfw. uses OF UTTER
-------
I N F O R M A T I
0
POULTRY WATER QUALITY
CONSORTIUM
I he poultry industry and
three government agen-
cies have formed the Poultry Water Quality
Consortium to promote better environmental
management by the rapidly growing poultry
industry.
The Consortium encourages the use of
poultry by-products as a resource rather than
letting them become a pollution source. As the
industry grows, protecting natural resources is
becoming a major priority, demanding new
technologies in poultry by-product develop-
ment, storage, utilization, and land applica-
tion.
The Consortium is responding to this chal-
lenge by promoting cooperation and informa-
tion exchanges between government and
industry on water quality and by-product
utilization issues. By focusing on pollution
prevention, the Consortium encourages the de-
velopment and transfer of new technologies
designed to protect water quality and promote
a clean environment.
Members of the Consortium:
^ Southeastern Poultry &
Egg Association
* U.S. Department of Agriculture -
Soil Conservation Service
T Tennessee Valley Authority
T U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
Contact
Ed Schwille, Liaison
Poultry Water Quality Consortium
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street
Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel (615)751-7297
Fax. (615)751-7479
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material for
further distribution The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses ot poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone Rl /1 - 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga. TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
-------
OUR
I N
R M A T I
SOUTHEASTERN POULTRY AND
EGG ASSOCIATION
e Southeastern Poultry
and Egg Association
(Southeastern) is dedicated to the growth and
development of the poultry industry and rep-
resents the entire industry from the produc-
ers of eggs, broilers, and turkeys, to the
processors of poultry and egg products, along
with the allied companies that serve the indus-
try. The association emphasizes technology
transfer, in order to ensure that knowledge and
information are exchanged and shared. The
association's extensive and diverse programs
have been developed to help members keep
abreast of rapid changes in the poultry and egg
industry.
Services Available to
Poultry Growers
Southeastern is best known for its annual In-
ternational Poultry Exposition, held in January
in Atlanta, Georgia. The Expo features the
world's largest display of technology, equip-
ment, and supplies used to produce and pro-
cess poultry and egg products-
Continuing education is a high priority
The association's seminar program has ex-
panded into a comprehensive schedule of
workshops and clinics to keep the poultry in-
dustry informed. Twelve seminars are held
each year.
Through its government relations pro-
gram. Southeastern keeps Congress and fed-
eral agencies apprised of industry needs, and
informs members of government actions.
The association's research program returns
millions of dollars to the industry. Research
grants are used to find better ways of produc-
ing poultry and egg products. Members are
kept aware of industry developments through
the distribution of newsletters, reports, and
rrtemos.
Contact
Don Dalton, Executive Vice President
Southeastern Poultry & Egg Association
1530 Cooledge Road
Tucker, GA 30084
Tel. (404)493-9401
Fax (404)493-9257
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects. Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material tor
further distribution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone. R| 72-6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
-------
U R
I N F O R M A T I
0
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE
Agency's Commitment to the
Poultry Industry
The Soil Conservation Service (SCS), an agency
within the U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA), administers national soil and water
conservation programs with the cooperation of
landowners and operators in local soil conser-
vation districts and other government agen-
cies. It provides USDA leadership to assist
landowners and local groups to practice re-
source conservation. In this role, it protects and
enhances the nation's surface and groundwa-
ter resources and provides technical assistance
to the U.S agricultural community to help
plan, design, and implement waste manage-
ment systems and other conservation projects.
The 1990 Farm Bill focused the SCS on major
agricultural concerns including pesticides, nu-
trients, animal waste, and agricultural pollu-
tants in surface and groundwater.
Services Available to
Poultry Growers
Through its conservation practices, the SCS
provides planning, design, and construction
assistance on waste treatment lagoons, manure
and litter dry-stacking facilities, poultry mor-
tality facilities, management, and nutrient
management plans based on soils, crops, and
equipment availability. It also serves as techni-
cal representative for USDA cost-share pro-
grams to implement nutrient and poultry
mortality management systems; and, in some
cases, provides financial as well as technical
assistance in special project areas. The SCS
works closely with state regulatory agencies in
waste management.
Contact
For more information about SCS programs and
assistance, call or visit the SCS office listed in
your local telephone directory under U.S De-
partment of Agriculture.
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects. Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material for
further distribution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone. R1 / 3 - 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
-------
R M A T I
0
TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY
Agency's Commitment to the
Poultry Industry
An overall objective of the Tennessee Valley
Authority (TVA) is to develop and implement
programs and activities that will further de-
velop agriculture and agribusiness to protect
the environment. The poultry industry is an in-
tegral part of the agricultural economy. Pro-
tecting water quality is a major concern as
illustrated by TVA's ongoing projects related to
proper management and use of animal wastes.
Much of TVA's work is accomplished in co-
operation with federal and state agencies, and
universities and pnvate organizations con-
cerned with animal waste management. TVA is
in an excellent position to identify, demon-
strate, and transfer poultry by-product re-
sources technology to potential users.
Services Available to
Poultry Growers
TVA's programs and projects primarily deal
with helping prevent or reduce impacts of the
industry on the environment. This service is
accomplished through educational workshops
and demonstrations in cooperation with other
federal and state agencies to focus on prevent-
ing or reducing the environmental impacts of
by-products generated by the poultry industry.
Current project areas are composting poul-
try mortality; animal waste lagoon manage-
ment; production and marketing of poultry
litter products for use as a soil amendment,
fertilizer, and cattle feed; creating agribusiness
that will produce and market poultry by-prod-
ucts; and conducting research and demonstra-
tions that show correct use of by-products.
Contacts
Richard C. Strickland
Biotechnical Department
Tennessee Valley Authority
P.O. Box 1010
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660-1010
Tel: (205) 386-2542 Fax:(205)386-2129
Richard D. Urban
Water Management Services
Tennessee Valley Autoriry, HB-2C
1101 Market Street
Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel. (615) 751-7301 Fax. (615) 751-7479
Larry Johnson
Community Partnership
Tennessee Valley Authority, CTR 2L
PO. Box 1010
Muscle Shoals, AL 35660-1010
Tel: (205) 386-2887 Fax-(615) 386-3880
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects. Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material for
further distribution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone. Rl / 4 - 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
-------
I N F O R M A T I
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY
Agency's Commitment to the
Poultry Industry
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) is dedicated to improving and preserv-
ing the quality of the environment, both na-
tional and global, and to preventing and
reducing water pollution associated with poul-
try by-products. Historically, EPA has distin-
guished between point and nonpoint sources
of water pollution in its management pro-
grams. Under the Clean Water Act, certain
poultry processing or rendering plants are reg-
ulated and required to remove pollutants from
process wastewater.
Certain large concentrated animal feeding
operations (CAFOs) may be regulated and
may be required to obtain a discharge permit.
The new Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization
Amendments of 1990 address nonpoint source
pollution affecting coastal waters. This Coastal
Zone Act requires EPA to issue guidance on
nonpoint source management measures that
represent the best available means of reducing
nonpoint source pollution in coastal waters
Services Available to
Poultry Growers
EPA administers a variety of nonpoint source
control programs to address animal waste
problems associated with smaller operations.
Under section 319 of the Clean Water Act,
states have developed nonpoint source assess-
ment reports on the nature and extent of their
nonpoint pollution problems, including prob-
lems associated with poultry waste. In addi-
tion, section 319 requires states to develop
comprehensive management programs to miti-
gate the problems.
Currently, funds are provided under 319(h)
to states to implement their nonpoint source
management programs including, for example,
demonstrations of poultry composting facili-
ties or development of educational manuals or
regulations to address poultry by-products.
EPA provides assistance to states to implement
nonpoint source controls under other pro-
grams such as the Chesapeake Bay Program
and the Clean Lakes Program
Contacts
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
headquartered in Washington, DC, operates 10
regional offices.
U.S. EPA, Region 1
(CT, MA, ME, NH. RI, VT)
John F Kennedy Federal Building
One Congress Street
Boston, MA 02203
(617)565-3515
U.S. EPA, Region 2
(NJ. NY, PR. VI)
Water Standards and Planning Branch
26 Federal Plaza
New York City, NY 10278
(212) 264-8708
U.S. EPA, Region 3
(DC, DE, MD, PA, VA, WV)
841 Chestnut Street
Philadelphia, PA 19107
(215)597-3429
U.S. EPA. Region 4
(AL, FL. GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, TN)
345 Courtland Street, ME
Atlanta, GA 30365
(404) 347-2126
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SOUR
U.S. EPA. Region 5
(IL,IN,MI,MN, OH,WI)
Great Lakes National Programs
77 W. Jackson Boulevard
Chicago, IL 60604
(312)886-0209
U.S. EPA. Region 6
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R E S O U R
I N F O R M A T I
DIRECTORY OF
POULTRY ASSOCIATIONS
STATE, REGIONAL, AND NATIONAL
TS
he following state, re-
gional, and national or-
ganizations are listed in alphabetical order. The
organizations in most states are therefore listed
together; however, if you are looking for a par-
ticular association, please consult the entire
list. The Wilkes Area Poultry Association, for
example, is listed under W, not under North
Carolina. We hope that we have not inadver-
tently omitted or incorrectly identified any or-
ganization or its address. This material will be
updated from time to time.
ALABAMA POULTRY & EGG ASSOCIATION
One Court Square, Suite 315
Montgomery, AL 36104
TEL (205)265-2732
FAX (205)265-0008
ALASKA DIVISION OF AGRICULTURE
PO Box 949
Palmer, AK 99645
TEL (907)745-7200
FAX (907)745-7112
AMERICAN EGG BOARD
1460 Renaissance Drive
Park Ridge, IL 60068
TEL (708)296-7043
FAX (708)296-7007
AMERICAN POULTRY ASSOCIATION
26363 South Tucker Road
Estacada, OR 97023
TEL (503)630-6759
ARIZONA POULTRY IMPROVEMENT BOARD
Agricultural Saence Building, Room 328
University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ 85721
TEL (602)621-1095
ARIZONA POULTRY FEDERATION
c/o Hickman's Egg Ranch
7403 North 91st Avenue
GlendaIe,AZ 85305
TEL. (602)872-1120
FAX (602)872-9220
ARKANSAS POULTRY FEDERATION
PO Box 1446
Little Rock, AR 72203-1446
TEL (501)375-8131
FAX (501)375-5519
CALIFORNIA EGG COMMISSION
1150 North Mountain Avenue, Suite 114
Upland, CA 91786
TEL. (714)981-4923
FAX (714)946-5563
CALIFORNIA POULTRY INDUSTRY
FEDERATION
3117 A McHenry Avenue
Modesto, CA 95350
TEL (209)576-6355
FAX (209)576-6119
COLORADO POULTRY IMPROVEMENT BOARD
4S16 E Co Road, #30
Ft Collins, CO 80525
TEL (303)226-3680
CONNECTICUT POULTRY ASSOCIATION
Department of Agriculture
16 South Capitol Avenue
Ha rtford.CT 06106
TEL (203)566-5268
FAX (203)566-6576
DELAWARE POULTRY IMPROVEMENT
ASSOCIATION
RD 2, Box 48
Georgetown, DE 19947
TEL (302)856-7303
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R E S O U R
DELMARVA POULTRY INDUSTRY. INC.
RD 6, Box 47
Georgetown, DE19947
TEL: (302)856-9037
FAX. (302) 856-1845
EGG ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA
80817th Street, N.W.
Washington, DC 20006
TEL: (202)296-8248
FAX: (202)223-9569
FLORIDA POULTRY FEDERATION
4508 Oak Fair Boulevard, Suite 290
Tampa, FL 33610
TEL. (813)628-4551
FAX- (813)620-4008
GEORGIA EGG ASSOCIATION AND
COMMISSION
16 Forest Parkway
Forest Park, GA 30050
TEL. (404)363-7661
FAX: (404)363-7664
GEORGIA POULTRY FEDERATION
P.O Box 763
GainesvUle. GA 30503-0763
TEL (404)532-0473
FAX. (404)532-7543
GEORGIA POULTRY IMPROVEMENT
ASSOCIATION
PO. Box 20
Oakwood,GA 30566
TEL: (404)535-5996
FAX (404)539-1948
GEORGIA TURKEY ASSOCIATION
PO Box 127
Watkinsville, GA 30677-0127
TEL (706)769-5668
HAWAII FRYER COUNCIL
1818 Kanakaniu Street
Honolulu, HI 96819
TEL (808)841-2828
HAWAII EGG PRODDCERS ASSOCIATION
841 Bishop Street, Suite 850
Honolulu, HI 96813
TEL (808)522-5133
FAX (808)522-5144
IDAHO POULTRY INDUSTRY FEDERATION
c/o Memll Poultry Farms Inc
Rt 2, Box 2184
Paul, ID 83347
TEL (208)438-4605
FAX (208)438-8694
INFORMATION
ILLINOIS POULTRY INDUSTRY COUNCIL
324 Mumford Hall
1301 West Gregory Drive
Urbana, IL 61801
TEL (217)244-0195
FAX: (217) 244-2871
ILLINOIS STATE TURKEY GROWERS
ASSOCIATION
9193 Tampico Road
Rock Falls, [L 61071
TEL: (815)438-2580
INDIANA STATE POULTRY ASSOCIATION
Purdue University
1026 Poultry Science Building
W Lafayette, IN 47907-1026
TEL: (317)494-8517
FAX: (317)494-6349
IOWA POULTRY ASSOCIATION
535 East Lincoln Way
P.O. Box 704
Ames, IA 50010-0704
TEL: (515)232-2103
FAX: (515)232-2825
IOWA TURKEY FEDERATION
PO Box 825
Ames, IA 50010-0825
TEL. (515)232-7492
FAX. (515)232-2825
KANSAS POULTRY ASSOCIATION
AND KANSAS TURKEY FEDERATION
1816 Alabama
Manhattan, KS 66502
TEL (913)539-5441
FAX (913)532-5681
KENTUCKY POULTRY FEDERATION/EGG
COUNCIL
PO Box 21829
Lexington, KY 40522-1829
TEL (606)257-2694
KENTUCKY POULTRY IMPROVEMENT
ASSOCIATION
604 Gamgus Building
Lexington, KY 40546
TEL (606)257-7259
FAX (606)258-1027
LOUISIANA POULTRY FEDERATION
241 KnappHaU
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, LA 70803
TEL (504)388-8667
; FAX- (504)388-2478
i
2 DIRECTORY OF POULTRY ASSOCIATIONS
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M A T I O N
POULTRY INDUSTRIES OF LOUISIANA. INC.
Louisiana State University
Extension Service
221 Knapp Hall
Baton Rouge, LA 70803
TEL. (504)388-8667
FAX: (504)388-2478
MAINE POULTRY FEDERATION
PO. Box 228
Augusta, ME 043304)228
TEL. (207)622-4443
FAX: (207)623-3748
MARYLAND EGG COUNCIL, INC.
3109 Animal Science Center
University of Maryland
College Park, MD 20742
TEL: (301)405-5775
FAX: (301)314-9557
MASSACHUSETTS POULTRY ASSOCIATION
22 Kimball Place
Fitchburg, MA 01420
TEL. (508)345-4103
FAX: (508)345-7187
MICHIGAN ALLIED POULTRY INDUSTRY. INC.
PO Box 153
Stevensville, MI 49127-0153
TEL (616)465-5531
FAX (616)465-4730
MIDWEST POULTRY FEDERATION AND
MINNESOTA TURKEY GROWERS
ASSOCIATION
2380 Wycliff Street
St Paul. MN 55114
TEL (612)646-4553
FAX (612)646-4554
Mm WEST UNITED EGG PRODUCERS
PO Box 170
124 North Second Street
Eldridge, 1A 52748
TEL (319)285-9100
FAX (319)285-9109
MISSISSIPPI POULTRY ASSOCIATION. INC.
PO Box 13309
Jackson, MS 39236-3309
TEL (601)355-0248
FAX (601)353-3840
MISSOURI POULTRY FEDERATION
2100 East Broadway, Room 319
Columbia, MO 65201
TEL. (314)874-1920
FAX (314)874-1921
NATIONAL BROILER COUNCIL
The Madison Building, Suite 614
115515th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20005
TEL- (202)296-2622
FAX: (202) 293-4005
NATIONAL GOOSE COUNCIL, INC.
7 Oak Street West
PO. Box 267
Sisseton, SD 57262-0267
TEL: (605)698-7651
NATIONAL INDEPENDENT POULTRY AND
FOOD DISTRIBUTORS ASSOCIATION
604 Green Street, Suite 3
Gainesville, GA 30501
TEL: (404)535-9901
FAX: (404)535-7385
NATIONAL RENDERERS ASSOCIATION. INC.
1101 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Suite 100
Washington, DC 20036
TEL: (202)857-1136
FAX. (202)775-2625
NATIONAL TU
" FEDERATION
11319 Sunset Hills Road
Reston, VA 22090
TEL (703)435-7206
FAX (703)481-0837
NEBRASKA POULTRY IMPROVEMENT
ASSOCIATION
A103 Animal Sciences
PO Box 830908
University of Nebraska
Lincoln, ME 68583-0908
TEL. (402)472-2051
FAX (402)472-6362
NEW ENGLAND POULTRY ASSOCIATION
PO Box 725
Augusta, ME 04330
TEL (207)623-3940
FAX (207)623-3748
NEW HAMPSHIRE POULTRY GROWERS
ASSOCIATION
20 Goodhue Road
Boscawen, NH 03303
TEL (603) 796-2890
NEW YORK STATE POULTRY COORDINATED
EFFORT. INC.
26YorkAve
Saratoga Springs, NY 12866
TEL (518)584-5912
DIRECTORY OF POULTRY ASSOCIATIONS 3
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U R C
I N
O R M A T I
NORTH CAROLINA EGG ASSOCIATION
1213 Ridge Road
Raleigh, NC 27607
TEL. (919)828-8188
FAX (919)828-8189
NORTH CAROLINA POULTRY FEDERATION
AND TURKEY FEDERATION
4020 Barrett Drive, Suite 102
Raleigh, NC 27609
TEL- (919)783-8218
FAX: (919) 783-8220
NORTH DAKOTA TURKEY FEDERATION
North Dakota State Diversity
AmmaJ Science Department
Fargo, ND 58105
TEL- (701)237-7691
NORTHEAST UNITED EGG PRODUCERS
80817th Street, N.W., Suite 200
Washington, DC 20006
TEL: (202)296-8248
FAX: (202)223-9569
NORTHWEST EGG PRODUCERS
COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATION
P.O. Box 1038
1700 Cooper Point Road, S W
Suite B-3
Olympia, WA 98507-1038
TEL. (206)754-4401
FAX: (206) 754-4414
OHIO POULTRY ASSOCIATION
674 West Lane Avenue
Columbus, OH 43210
TEL (614)292-2089
FAX (614)292-7227
OKLAHOMA EGG COUNCIL
201 Animal Science Building
StiUwater, OK 74078
TEL (405)744-6058
FAX (405)744-5339
OKLAHOMA STATE POULTRY FEDERATION
PO Box 357
Hartshorne, OK 74547
TEL. (918)297-7219
OREGON BROILER GROWERS ASSOCIATION
762 Driftwood Drive
Eugene, OR 97402
TEL (503)829-9682
OREGON POULTRY COUNCIL
32914 South Haghway 213
Molalla. OR 97038
TEL- (503)829-9682
OREGON POULTRY INDUSTRIES
ASSOCIATION
P.O Box 3003
Portland, OR 97208-3003
TEL. (503)777-1320
FAX. (503)777-2373
OREGON TURKEY IMPROVEMENT
ASSOCIATION
5705 Cooper Hollow Road
Monmouth, OR 97361
TEL: (503)623-3722
OREGON TURKEY GROWERS
PO. Box 5324
Salem, OR 97302
TEL: (503)364-3323
FAX: (503)364-6142
PACIFIC EGG AND POULTRY ASSOCIATION
1620 North Carpenter Road
Building A-4
Modesto, CA 95351
TEL: (209)524-9666
FAX: (209)524-3047
PENNSYLVANIA POULTRY FEDERATION
500 North Progress Avenue
Hamsburg, PA 17109
TEL- (717)652-7530
FAX. (717)652-0230
POULTRY PRODUCERS OF RHODE ISLAND
49 HillsdaJe Road
West Kingston. Rl 02892
TEL: (401)792-2072
FAX: (401)792-4017
SOUTH CAROLINA POULTRY FEDERATION
1201 Main Street, Suite 1220
AT&T Building
Columbia, SC 29201
TEL (803)748-1283
FAX (803)748-1294
SOUTH CAROLINA TURKEY FEDERATION
930 Hawthorne Lane Ext
Rock Hill. SC 29730
TEL (803)327-6037
SOUTH DAKOTA POULTRY INDUSTRY
PO Box 2170
South Dakota State University
Brookings,SD 57007
TEL. (605)688-5165
FAX. (605)688-6170
4 owecroRY OF POUL TPY ASSOCIA news
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R E S O U R C
INFORMATION
SOUTHEASTERN POULTRY AND EGG
ASSOCIATION
1530 Cooledge Road
Tucker, GA 30084
TEL: (404)493-9401
FAX. (404)493-9257
SOUTHERN UNITED EGG PRODUCERS
P.O. Box 957253
Duluth,GA 30136
TEL. (404)476-2771
FAX- (404)476-9762
TENNESSEE EGG & POULTRY ASSOCIATION
PO Box 11082
Knoxvdle, TN 37939-1082
TEL. (615)974-7351
FAX: (615) 974-7448
TENNESSEE POULTRY IMPROVEMENT
BOARD. INC.
P.O. Box 40627, Melrose Station
Nashville, TN 37204
TEL: (615)360-0120
FAX. (615)781-5309
TEXAS POULTRY FEDERATION
8130 Bumet Road
PO Box 9589
Austin, TX 78766-9589
TEL (512)451-6816
FAX (512)454-4221
UNITED EGG ASSOCIATION
One Massachusetts Avenue, N W., Suite 800
Washington, DC 20001
TEL (202)842-2345
FAX (202)408-7763
UNITED EGG PRODUCERS
1303 Hightower Trail, Suite 200
Atlanta, GA 30350
TEL (404)587-8571
FAX (404)587-0041
USA POULTRY & EGG EXPORT COUNCIL
2300 West Park Place Boulevard, Suite 100
Stone Mountain, GA 30087
TEL (404)413-0006
FAX (404)413-0007
UTAH TURKEY MARKETING BOARD
PO Box 408
Moroni, UT 84646-0408
TEL (801)436-8365
FAX. (801)436-8280
VERMONT POULTRY IMPROVEMENT BOARD
Vermont Department of Agriculture, Food and
Markets
120 State Street
Montpelier, VT 05620
TEL (802)828-2500
FAX (802)828-2361
VIRGINIA EGG COUNCIL. INC.
911 Saddleback Court
McLean, VA 22102
TEL (703)790-1984
VIRGINIA POULTRY FEDERATION
PO Box 552
Hamsonburg, VA 22801
TEL: (703)433-2451
FAX- (703)433-3256
WASHINGTON POULTRY INDUSTRY
ASSOCIATION
1605 Fifth Street, S.W.
Puyallup,WA 98371
TEL (206)840-2040
WASHINGTON POULTRY IMPROVEMENT
ASSOCIATION
c/o Washington State University
Puyallup Center
Puyallup, WA 98371
TEL (206)840-4537
WEST COAST UNITED EGG PRODUCERS
P.O Box 1526
Rancho Cucamonga, CA 91729-1526
TEL (909)980-5114
FAX (909)945-3575
WEST VIRGINIA POULTRY ASSOCIATION
PO Box 612
Moorefield, WV 26836-0612
TEL (304)538-2725
WCLKES AREA POULTRY ASSOCIATION
PO Box 1393
North Wilkesboro, NC 28659
TEL (704)872-6227
FAX (704)872-1452
WISCONSIN POULTRY IMPROVEMENT
ASSOCIATION
260 Animal Science Building
1675 Observatory Drive
Madison, Wl 53706
TEL (608)262-9764
FAX (608)262-6005
DIRECTORY OF POUL TRY ASSOCIA TlONS 5
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Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this matenal for
further distnbution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone Rl / 6 - 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax: (615) 751-7479
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R E S O U R C
I N
R M A T I O N
OTHER SUPPORTING
USDA AGENCIES
AGRICULTURAL STABILIZATION
AND CONSERVATION SERVICE
The USDA's Agricultural Stabilization and
Conservation Service (ASCS) helps to as-
sure a continuous supply of food and fiber for
all Americans, and to promote sound resource
management systems. As part of this mandate,
ASCS works with poultry producers to share
the costs of solving erosion and water quality
problems that result from nonpoint source pol-
lution. The cost-shanng program is called the
Agricultural Conservation Program, or ACP.
Services Available to Growers
Under the ACP, ASCS has the authority to
share with producers up to 60 percent of the
cost of building facilities that handle and/or
store poultry waste Facilities include lagoons,
dry-stacks, and composting units. Producers
who have been in business for less than five
years or who have substantially enlarged their
operahons may not be eligible for this assis-
tance.
Contact
For more information about ACP and other
ASCS programs, call or visit the ASCS office
listed in your telephone directory.
COOPERATIVE EXTENSION
SERVICE
Extension Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture (ES-USDA) and the state Co-
operative Extension System (CES) link re-
search-based information and technology to
help people improve their lives through an ed-
ucational process that uses scientific knowl-
edge focused on issues and needs. Cooperative
Extension, created by the Smith-Lever Act in
1914, was designed as a partnership of the
USDA and the land-grant universities that
were established under the Morrill Acts of
1862 and 1890.
USDA and state and local agencies form a
network of Extension professionals through-
out the United States arid its territories. Offices
are located in more than 3,150 counties across
the nation, with technical and administrative
suppport for county agents located at state and
land-grant universities
Services Available to Growers
Educational programs to protect natural re-
sources and the environment, to manage waste
efficiently, and to deal with water quality are
included in the national priority initiatives of
the Cooperative Extension System
Contact
For more information about ES-USDA and the
Cooperative Extension System, call or visit the
CES office listed in your telephone directory
under local government.
-------
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this material for
further distnbuton. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone Rl / 7 - 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street « Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615}751-7479
-------
S O U R C
INFORMATION
0
DIRECTORY OF STATE
WATER QUALITY AGENCIES
ALABAMA SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
COMMITTEE
2800 Zelda Road
Suite 200-9 and 200-10
Montgomery, AL 36106-2686
TEL: (205)242-2620
ALABAMA DEPARTMENT OF
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
1751 Cong. W. L. Dickinson Drive
Montgomery, AL 36109
TEL. (205)271-7700
ALASKA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL
RESOURCES
PO Box 949
Palmer, AK 99645-0949
TEL. (907)745-7200
ALASKA DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL
CONSERVATION
P.O Box 0
410 Willoughby Avenue, Suite 105
Juneau,AK 99801-1795
TEL (907)465-5000
ARIZONA SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
AGENCY
Natural Resource Conservation Division
1616 West Adams, Room 419
Phoenix, A2 85007
TEL (602)542-4625
ARIZONA DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL
QUALITY
3033 N Central Avenue
Phoenix, AZ85012
TEL (602)207-4512
ARKANSAS SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
COMMISSION
101 E Capitol
Suite 350
Little Rock, AR 72201
TEL (501)682-1611
CALIFORNIA SOD, AND WATER
CONSERVATION AGENCY
Resources Control Board
Division of Water Quality
901P Street
Sacramento, CA 95801
TEL: (916)657-1727
CALIFORNIA STATE WATER RESOURCES
CONTROL BOARD
P.O Box 100
Sacramento, CA 95812
TEL. (916)657-2390
COLORADO STATE SOIL CONSERVATION
BOARD
1313 Sherman Street
Room 219
Denver, CO 80203
TEL- (303)866-3351
COLORADO WATER QUALITY AGENCY
Water Quality Control Division
4300 Cherry Creek South
Denver, CO 80222-1530
TEL (303)692-3500
CONNECTICUT DEPARTMENT OF
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
79 Elm Street
PO Box 5066
Hartford, CT 06102-5066
TEL (203)566-7049
DELAWARE DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL
RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL
89 Kings Highway, Box 1401
Dover, DE 19903
TEL (302)739-4860
FLORIDA DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL
REGULATION
2600 Blair Stone Road
Tallahassee, FL 32399-2400
TEL (904)488-4805
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E S
U R
GEORGIA STATE SOIL AND WATER
CONSERVATION COMMISSION
PO. Box 8024
Athens, GA 30603
TEL: (706)542X3065
GEORGIA WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
PROGRAM
7 Mardn Luther King Drive
Suite 643
Atlanta, GA 30334
TEL. (404)656-4988
HAWAn DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT
PO Box 621
Honolulu, HI 96809
TEL: (808)587-0214
HAWAII DIVISION OP ENVIRONMENTAL
PLANNING
5 Waterfront Plaza
Suite 25D
500 Ala Moana Boulevard
Honolulu, HI 96801-9984
TEL: (808)543-8337
IDAHO SOD, CONSERVATION COMMISSION
1215 W State Street
Bo.se, ID 83720-7000
TEL (208)334-0210
IDAHO DIVISION OF ENVD3ONMENTAL
QUALITY
1410 N Hilton
Boise, ID 83706
TEL (208)334-5860
ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
PO Box 19281
State Fairgrounds
Springfield, IL 62794
TEL (217)782-6297
ILLINOIS DIVISION OF WATER POLLUTION
CONTROL
Box 19276
2200 Churchill Road
Springfield, IL 62794
TEL (217)782-3362
INDIANA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL
RESOURCES
Division of Soil Conservation
402 W Washington Street, Room 265W
Indianapolis, IN 46204
TEL (317)233-3870
I N F O R M A T I
INDIANA DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT
105 S. Meridian Street
P.O Box 6015
Indianapolis, IN 46206-6015
TEL: (317)232-8603
IOWA DIVISION OF SOIL CONSERVATION
Wallace State Office Building
Des Moines.IA 50319
TEL. (515)281-6143
IOWA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL
RESOURCES
Water Quality Planning Division
East 9th and Grand Avenue
Des Moines, IA 50319-0034
TEL. (515)281-5145
KANSAS STATE CONSERVATION COMMISSION
109 S.W. Ninth Street
Suite 500
Topeka.KS 66612-1299
TEL. (913)296-3600
KANSAS DEPARTMENT OP HEALTH AND
ENVIRONMENT
Landofi State Office Building
Room 901
Topeka.KS 66612-1290
TEL (913)296-1522
KENTUCKY SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
COMMISSION
691 Teton Trail
Frankfort, KY 40601
TEL. (502)564-3080
KENTUCKY DIVISION OF WATER -
NONPOINT SOURCES
14 Reilly Road
Frankfort, KY 40601
TEL (502)564-3410
LOUISIANA DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
AND FORESTRY
Office of Soil and Water Conservation
PO Box 3554
Baton Rouge, LA 70821-3554
TEL (504)922-1270
LOUISIANA DEPARTMENT OF
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
PO Box 82263
Baton Rouge, LA 70884-2263
TEL (504)765-0741
2 DIRECTORY OF STATE WATER QUALITY AGENCIES
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R E S O U R C
INFORMATION
MAINE SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
COMMISSION
Maine Department of Agriculture, Food, and
Rural Resources
State House Station 28
Augusta, ME 04333
TEL: (207)289-2666
MAINE BUREAU OF WATER QUALITY
CONTROL
Department of Environmental Protection Agency
State House, Number 17
Augusta, ME 04333
TEL: (207)289-3901
MARYLAND STATE SOIL AND WATER
CONSERVATION COMMITTEE
Maryland Department of Agriculture
Annapolis, MD 21401
TEL: (410)841-5863
MARYLAND DEPARTMENT OF THE
ENVIRONMENT
Watershed Management Administration
2500 Broening Highway
Baltimore, MD 21224
TEL (301)631-3552
MASSACHUSETTS STATE COMMISSION FOR
THE CONSERVATION OP SOIL
100 Cambridge Street
20th Floor
Bos ton, MA 02202
TEL (617)727-1552
MASSACHUSETTS DEPARTMENT OF
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
1 Winter Street
Boston, MA 02108
TEL (617)727-0437
MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
PO Box 30017
Lansing, MI 48909
TEL (517)373-9797
MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL
RESOURCES
Surface Water Quality Division
PO Box 30273
Lansing, Ml 48909
TEL. (517)373-2867
MINNESOTA BOARD OF WATER AND SOIL
RESOURCES
155 South Wabasha Street, Suite 104
St Paul, MN 55107
TEL (612)296-3767
MINNESOTA POLLUTION CONTROL AGENCY
520 Lafayette Road
St Paul, MN 55155
TEL (612)296-6300
MISSISSIPPI SOIL AND WATER
CONSERVATION COMMISSION
P.O. Box 23005
Jackson, MS 39225-3005
TEL. (601)359-1281
MISSISSIPPI DEPARTMENT OF
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
P.O. Box 10385
Jackson, MS 39289-0385
TEL: (601)961-5171
MISSOURI DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL
RESOURCES
P.O. Box 176
Jefferson City, MO 65102
TEL: (314)751-4810
MONTANA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL
RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION
PO. Box 202301
Helena, MT 59620-2301
TEL: (406)444-6667
MONTANA DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND
ENVDtONMENTAL SCIENCES
Cogswell Building
Room A-206
Helena, MT 59620-0909
TEL: (406)444-2406
NEBRASKA NATURAL RESOURCE
COMMISSION
301 Centennial Mall South
P.O Box 94876
Lincoln, NE 68509-4876
TEL (402)471-2081
NEBRASKA DEPARTMENT OF
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
PO Box 98922
Lincoln, NE 68509
TEL (402)471-4220
NEVADA STATE DIVISION OF CONSERVATION
DISTRICTS
333 W Nye Lane, Room 126
Carson City, NV 89710
TEL (702)687-6977
NEVADA DEPARTMENT OF CONSERVATION
AND NATURAL RESOURCES
Capitol Complex
333 W Nye Lane
Carson City, NV 89710
TEL (702/687-4670
DffleCTOflY OF STATE WATER QUALITY AGENCIES 3
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U R C
NEW HAMPSHIRE DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE
PO. Box 2042
Concord, NH 03302-2042
TEL: (603)271-3551
NEW HAMPSHIRE DEPARTMENT OF
ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES
P.O. Box 95
6 Hazen Drive
Concord, NH 03302-0095
TEL: (603)271-3503
NEW JERSEY STATE SOIL CONSERVATION
COMMITTEE
New Jersey Department of Agriculture
CN 330, Room 204
Trenton, N] 08625
TEL: (609)292-5540
NEW JERSEY BUREAU OF WATER QUALITY
PLANNING
401 East State Street, CN 423
Trenton, NJ 08625-0423
TEL: (609)633-7021
NEW MEXICO SOU, AND WATER
CONSERVATION BUREAU
Energy and Forestry Resource Conservation
PO. Box 1948
Santa Fe,NM 87504-1948
TEL (505)827-5830
NEW MEXICO ENVIRONMENTAL
DEPARTMENT
NMED/Purchase Water Quality Bureau
PO Box 26110
Santa Fe, NM 87502
TEL (505)827-0187
NEW YORK STATE DEPARTMENT OF SOIL
AND WATER CONSERVATION
1 Winners Circle
AJbany, NY 12235
TEL (518)457-3738
NEW YORK DEPARTMENT OF
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION
50 Wolf Road
Room 306
Albany, NY 12233-3500
TEL (518)457-6674
NORTH CAROLINA DIVISION OF SOIL AND
WATER CONSERVATION
Department of EHNR
Box 27687
Raleigh, NC 27611-7687
TEL (919)733-2302
INFORMATION
NORTH CAROLINA DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH
AND NATURAL RESOURCES
Division of Environmental Management
P.O Box 27687
Raleigh, NC 27611
TEL: (919)733-4064
NORTH DAKOTA STATE SOIL CONSERVATION
COMMITTEE
State Capitol
600 East Boulevard Avenue
Bismarck, ND 58505-0790
TEL: (701)224-2650
NORTH DAKOTA DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH
AND CONSOLIDATED LABS
1200 Missouri Avenue
Box 5520
Bismarck, ND 58502-5520
TEL: (701)221-5210
OHIO DEPARTMENT OP NATURAL
RESOURCES
Soil and Water Conservation District
1939 Fountain Square Court
Building E-2
Columbus, OH 43224
TEL. (614)265-6637
OHIO ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
AGENCY
1800 Watermark Drive
Columbus, OH 43215
TEL: (614)644-3020
OKLAHOMA CONSERVATION COMMISSION
2800 N Lincoln Boulevard
Suite 160
Oklahoma City, OK 73105
TEL (405)521-2384
OKLAHOMA DEPARTMENT OF POLLUTION
CONTROL
PO Box 53504
Oklahoma City, OK 73152
TEL 1405)521-2384
OREGON DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Natural Resources Division
635 Capitol Street, NE
Salem, OR 97310
TEL (503)378-3810
OREGON DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL
QUALITY
811 SW 6th Avenue
Portland, OR 97204
TEL (503)229-5630
4 DIRECTORY Of STATE WATER OUAUTY AGENCIES
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E S O U
PENNSYLVANIA DEPARTMENT OF
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES
Water Quality Management
P.O. Box 2063
Hamsburg, PA 17105-2063
TEL. (717)783-3303
PUERTO RICO SOIL CONSERVATION
COMMITTEE
Department of Agriculture
P.O. Box 10163
Santurce, PR 00908-1163
TEL: (809)721-2120
PUERTO RICO ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
BOARD
1413 Fernandez Juncos Avenue
Santurce, PR 00909
TEL: (809)729-6920
RHODE ISLAND DEPARTMENT OF
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
291 Promenade Street
Providence, RI02908
TEL (401)277-3%!
SOUTH CAROLINA LAND RESOURCES
CONSERVATION COMMISSION
2221 Devine Street
Suite 222
Columbia, SC 29205
TEL (803)734-9100
SOUTH CAROLINA BUREAU OF WATER
POLLUTION CONTROL
2600 Bull Street
Columbia, SC 29201
TEL. (803)734-5228
SOUTH DAKOTA DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE
Division of Conservation
445 East Capitol
Pierre, SD 57501-3185
TEL (605)773-3258
SOUTH DAKOTA DIVISION OF WATER
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
523 E Capitol
Pierre, SD 57501
TEL (605)773-4216
TENNESSEE STATE DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture Resource Division
Ellington Center
PO Box40627
Nashville, TN 37204
TEL (615)360-0108
I N
O R M A T I
TENNESSEE DEPARTMENT OF
CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENT
401 Church Street
6th Floor L & C Annex
Nashville, TN 37243-1534
TEL: (615)532-0625
TEXAS STATE SOIL AND WATER
CONSERVATION BOARD
P.O. Box 658
Temple, TX 76503
TEL: (817)773-2250
UTAH STATE SOIL CONSERVATION
COMMISSION
Department of Agriculture
350 North Redwood Road
Salt Lake City, UT 84116
TEL: (801)538-7171
UTAH DIVISION OF WATER QUALITY
288 N. 1460 West
Salt Lake City, UT 84114-4870
TEL: (801)538-6146
VERMONT NATURAL RESOURCES
CONSERVATION COMMISSION
103 South Main Street
Waterbury, VT 05671-0301
TEL. (802)241-3601
VERMONT DEPARTMENT OF
ENVD2ONMENTAL CONSERVATION
Agency of Natural Resources
Building 10 North
103 South Main Street, 2nd Floor
Waterbury, VT 05671-0408
TEL (802)241-3770
VIRGIN ISLANDS ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
AND AGRICULTURE
Estate Lower Love
Kingshiil, VI 00850
TEL (809)778-0997
VIRGIN ISLANDS DIVISION OF
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
45A Estate Nisky Center, Suiie 231
St Thomas, VI00802
TEL. (809)774-3320
VIRGIN ISLANDS DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING
AND NATURAL RESOURCES
Nisky Center, Suite 231
St Thomas, VI00802
TEL. (809)774-3320
VIRGINIA DIVISION OF SOIL AND WATER
CONSERVATION
203 Governor Street, Suite 206
Richmond. VA 23219
TEL. (804)786-2064
D/HECTOflY OF STATE WATER QUALITY AGENCIES 5
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U R
INFO
A T I O N
STATE OF WASHINGTON CONSERVATION
COMMISSION
Mad Stop PV-11
Olympia, WA 98504-8711
TEL. (206)438-7883
WASHINGTON STATE DEPARTMENT OF
ECOLOGY
PO Box 47600
Olympia, WA 7600
TEL. (206)459-6000
WEST VIRGINIA STATE SOIL CONSERVATION
COMMISSION
1900 Kanawha Boulevard East
Charleston, WV 25305-0193
TEL- (304)558-2204
WEST VIRGINIA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL
RESOURCES
1201 Greenbner Street
Charleston, WV 25311
TEL. (304)558-2107
WISCONSIN DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL
RESOURCES
Box 7921
Madison, WI53707
TEL (608)267-7610
WYOMING DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
2219 Carey Avenue
Cheyenne, WY 82002
TEL. (307)777-6579
WYOMING WATER DEVELOPMENT
COMMISSION
Herschler Building
4th Floor
West Cheyenne, WY 82002
TEL (307)-777-7626
Other pages in this handbook contain more detailed information on these subjects Permission is hereby
granted to producers, growers, and associations serving the poultry industry to reproduce this matenal for
further distribution. The Poultry Water Quality Consortium is a cooperative effort of industry and
government to identify and adopt prudent uses of poultry by-products that will preserve the quality of water
for everyone Rl / 8 - 6/94
POULTRY WATER QUALITY CONSORTIUM
HB-2C, 1101 Market Street Chattanooga, TN 37402-2801
Tel: (615) 751-7297 Fax:(615)751-7479
6 DIRECTORY OF STATE WATER QUALITY AGENCIES
------- |