BASIC  FIELD  SAFETY
Unit 1  r Worker's-Rights and  Responsioilities
Unit 2  - Preparation for Field:Activities
Unit 3.. "•- Emergency  First Aid  for Field Activities
Unit 4  - Heat arid Cold  Stress
Unit 5  - Chemical/Hazard Recognition
Unit 6  - Toxicology.
Unit 7  - Health:
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                           UNIT 1

              WORKER RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES
                                               NOTES
Educational Objectives

     o Determine the legal basis for job
related and  safety  protection for
Federal employees.

     o Understand the responsibilities
of the Agency to its employees.

     o  Identify  the  employees'
responsibilities under the regulations.

     o Establish  the rights  of the
employees under current regulations.
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              WORKER RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES
                                               NOTES
Federal Safety and Health Legislation

     The  Federal  Government employs
approximately 2.8 million workers.   Job
descriptions run from clerical to test
pilot.  In  FY  1981, almost 200,000
civilian  employees  were injured  and
approximately 300  were killed in job-
related  injury  or  accidents.
Compensation  and medical payment  costs
arising  from injury and illness  for
Federal employees  that year  totalled
$820 million  dollars,

     The Occupational Safety and Health
Act was  written to assure, so far as
possible,  for every working man  and
woman  in the nation,  safe and healthful
working  conditions.   Specifically,
Section 19, of the Act charges  the head
of  each   Federal   Agency  with  the
responsibility to "establish  and
maintain an effective and comprehensive
occupational  safety and health program
which  is consistent with the standards"
set by OSHA 'for private  sector employees.

     Federal  employee safety and health
•were further  emphasized by Presidential
Executive Order  12196 which defines the
responsibilities of  the agencies,  and
the role of  the Secretary of Labor in
developing, implementing, and evaluating
such programs:

EPA  Occupational Health and Safety
      /7l»>jE^
     EPA hasattopted an occupational
heartHsw&ssa^ety;iprogram which includes
compliance 'frltJfc. the Executive Order,
with ;0!$gA ~.SJ.a4dards and  with safety
stnandarsgjS^yr other Federal  agencies.
They E^Br^iaogrram  has  specific
re^iaJiajjjSarits 'for  safety and health
tiaj,rung£ -respiratory protection and
   ffi"*!* janitor ing.  The EPA program
      speTls^fout employee rights and
                in detail.

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                                            -NOTES.-
     In addition to the general safety
and  health policy, EPA  has adopted
specific health and safety requirements
;^jr*(-employees  engaged  in field"
lic^vities.  EPA Order 1440.2, adopted
s^tJi'""'1"?/- 1981, establishes policy,
resjp6nsibi li ties ,  and  mandatory
requirements for occupational health and
eafejty -training and certification.   The
#rder also establishes guidelines  for
occupational medical  monitoring of
Agency employees engaged  in  field-"
activities .

     Field activities, ranging from  the
routine to the extremely hazardous,  are-
a critical part of most EPA  programs.
Since protection cannot be engineered"
into field working situations,  the"
protection of field personnel involves
establishing safe  operating procedures;
£rpper use of  appropriate  personal"
protective clothing and equipment,  and
training  employees in use  of  safe"
operating procedures and protective-
    Mghts and Responsibil ities

   i=The  EPA  program  defines  the
occupational health and safety rights
that  all EPA  employees  have.   The
program also  specifies  the  general
safety and health responsibilities of
all  employees  and the specific
responsibilities  of  supervisory
personnel,   including  the  Agenc-y
administrator.

    Employee Rights

    EPA employees are entitled  to work
under safe and healthful  conditions,
free  of  recognized  hazards.   EPA
employees  are not  expected  to take
unusual  risks or to expose themselves to
serious hazards.   If an EPA employee
encounters serious hazards in carrying
out assigned  field activities,  the"
activities should be carried out only
with appropriate safety procedures and
safety equipment.
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                                               NOTES
      If  it  is  necessary to postpone a
 scheduled activity until it can be done
 safely  and without  adverse  health
•effects,   the  activity  should  be
 postponed.  If a field employee decides
 it is necessary to postpone a scheduled
 activity  fojf safety_ and health reasons,
 it will -fee. aSnpbVtant to  inform  the
 supervisor er-teanvjiader of the details
"which weEe^fche^Sssis  for the decision.

      EPA employees are also entitled to
 have basic safety and health training
 for field" Activities, and training which
 is specific 'F6r the  hazards  to  be
 encountered in., assigned  activities.
                   s  are entitled to
           pr,p_tiective  clothing  and
 eqoipmerat,.-.tp;_era3Lyiing in selection and
 use"*of rQfgpi^aSqry" protective equipment,
 and to supervision  and assistance in
.«^ctivitie.s- enquiring  protective
           ' ' '
     All  employees  are entitled to
 participate in the occupational medical
 monitoring program if they are routinely
 engaged  in field activities  which
 present the probability of exposure to
 hazardpsjSTof1-- toxic substances, arduous
 or physical Jyn£axing activities, or work
 requiring- the  use  of  respiratory
     iEPA employees are entitled to
 report Hazardous  working conditions,
 without. any-adverse consequences, and
 they have "4vhe- right to  make the  reports
 anonymously if they wish.   Employees
•h^ve a rignt to~ expect that hazardous
 conditions reported will be inspected
 promptly.

     Employee Responsibi 1 ities

     Employees  are responsible for
 complying with the Agency's health and
 safety standards, rules, regulations,
 and  orders which are applicable to  their
 own  actions and conduct.
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                                              NOTES
     Employees  are responsible  for
reporting accidents,  injuries,  and
property damage of $100.00 or more.

     EPA  employees   also have  a
responsibility  to report  unsafe  and
unhealthful working conditions  so that
they can be corrected, or so that safe
operating  procedures can be  established
for employee protection.

     Employees  who engage in  field
activities  are responsible for having a
baseline medical  examination to confirm
their physical fitness for the stress of
the activities, and to provide a  base to
measure  any  adverse  effects  that
activities  may have.

     Employees  are responsible  for
giving their supervisor information when
requested on the extent of  their
individual health and safety training,
and the history  of their participation
in occupational medical monitoring.

     Employees  are responsible  for
notifying their supervisor  of  any
hazardous work situations,   making
suggestions for corrective measures, and
applying  the  knowledge, skills,  and
techniques  acquired through  training in
a manner that will help assure their own
health and safety and  that of  fellow
workers.

     Employees are responsible for using
the. safety  equipment,   personal
protective equipment, and other health
and safety devices provided.

     Employees  are responsible  for
following  the  safe  operating procedures
established, or other safety directions
that the  Agency deems  necessary  for
their protection.

     When  an employee reports for work,
the employee should be ready, willing,
and able  to perform assigned  duties.
For example, an employee who reported to
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               __
work without' safety equipment would not
be- ready to perform  assigned duties and
could be-placed on~ leave.  In addition,
the- conduct and  physical  or mental
condition of an employee must not create
a situation in.which the presence of the
employee will constitute an immediate
threat- to  the  general public, fellow
employees,  or Government property.

     All employees  are expected to
obs.erve   all.  rules,  signs,  and
instructions  relating to  personal
safety.  Willful non-observance of
certain safety regulations constitute
grounds for disciplinary actions.

     Some,  of the  more serious safety
violations  include:

     failure  to  report an  accident
involving injury to persons or damage to
property or equipment

     failure to  use  protective clothing
or-equipment when it  is prescribed

     endangering the  safety  of or
causing injury to  personnel  or damaging
property or equipment through negligence

     negligent  or   careless  work
performance resulting  in loss or danger
of 'loss of  life.

     penalties prescribed  for non-
compliance can range  from  a written
reprimand  or suspension to more severe
penalties if offenses are repeated.

     Supervisors' Responsibilities

     Supervisors are  responsible for the
health and safety of  their employees,
and  for furnishing  them a  place of
employment which is free from recognized
hazards that are likely to cause death
or serious  harm.

     Supervisors  are  responsible  for
complying  with  the Agency's occupational
                                   1-6

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                                             MUTES
health and  safety  standards,  and
complying with all rules, regulations,
and orders issued by the Agency with
respect to the occupational health and
safety programs.

     Supervisors  are  also responsible
for enforcing correct work practices.

     Supervisors  are responsible for
compliance with  the  Agency Order for
employee training  and certification, and
occupational  medical  monitoring
programs.  To do so they must:

     identify employees who  require
training  and  certification  and
occupational  medical monitoring

     assure  that they  receive it to
comply with provisions of the Order

     insure that these requirements are
properly  contained  in  position
descriptions at job posting.

     Administrator's Responsibilities

     The Executive Order  requires the
EPA Administrator  to establish and
operate an occupational health and
safety program in accordance with the
Occupational Safety and Health Act of
1970,  and with the basic  program
elements  issued  by the Secretary of
Labor in 29 CFR 1960.

     The  EPA  Administrator  has
designated,   in  the  Agency,  an
Occupational  Health and Safety Office to
manage and administer  the Agency's occu-
pational health and safety programs.

     EPA Occupational  Health and Safety
Program

     One goal of the program is to
assure prompt abatement of unsafe or
unhealthful  working conditions, or to
develop abatement  plans  and  interim
steps  to  protect  employees  when
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                                          NOTES
 conditions cannot be  promptly corrected.

      Procedures have  been established to
 assure that employees who file reports
 of  unsafe  or  unhealthful  working
 conditions or who participate in other
 occupational health and safety program
 activities,  are  not  subject  to
 restraint,  interference,  coercion,
 discrimination or .reprisal.   These
 procedures also are designed to assure
 the right to anonymity of those making
 the reports.

      As  part of the program,  efforts
 have been  made to assure response to
 employee reports of hazardous conditions
 and  require  inspections   within
 relatively short time limits:   24 hours
 for imminent dangers, three working days
 for potentially serious conditions,  and
 20  working days for other conditions.

      ("Imminent  danger"  means  any
 condition  or  practice  within  EPA
 organizations or workplaces  or at a
 field site that  could  reasonably  be
 expected to cause  death or serious
 physical harm either immediately or
 before the danger could be eliminated
 through  normal  administrative
 procedures.)

     The EPA Office of Occupational
 Health and Safety has an occupational
 health and safety management information
 system to provide sufficient  data  to
 identify  unsafe  and unhealthful working
 conditions, and to establish  program
 priorities.

     The Office of Occupational Health
 and Safety has been working to provide
 occupational health and safety training
 for  management  officials  and all
 employees  involved in field activities,
 including supervisors,  occupational
collateral  duty health  and safety
personnel, occupation  health and safety
committee members, and employee
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                                               NOTES
representatives.

     Training and Certification Program

     The objectives  for training and
certification are to assure that EPA
employees  are aware of the potential
hazards they may encounter during the
performance of field activities,  and  to
provide knowledge and skills necessary
to perform the  work with the  least
possible risk  to personal health and
safety.   Other objectives are to assure
that  Agency  program   goals  are
accomplished in as safe and healthful  a
manner as feasible, and to assure that
EPA employees  can safely disengage
themselves from  an  actual hazardous
situation which may occur during  field
activities.

     Employees should not be allowed  to
engage in routine field activities until
they have been trained and  certified  to
a level  commensurate with the degree  of
anticipated hazards.

     The training order describes the
requirements for  three levels of health
and safety training,  the  methods for
certification,  and  annual refresher
training.

     Basic  Level of Health and Safety
Training

     All employees  are to be provided a
minimum of  24 hours of health and safety
training prior to  becoming involved  in
normal, routine field activities. The
training is to  include,  but not  be
limited to, classroom  instruction.

     Each  person who will engage  in
field activities should,  as part of the
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                                            NOTES
 basic level of training,  also accompany
 an  employee experienced  in  field
 activities and  perform  actual  field  .
 tasks for a minimum of thirty six-hours  :b
 within a period of three months after
 classroom  instruction.

      Intermediate Level

      Additional training is -required for
 field employees who are expected to be
 required or allowed to participate in
 certain types of field activities.  The
 intermediate  level of  training  is
 required for all  inexperienced employees
 who  are  to  work  in  uncontrolled
 Hazardous Waste and Hazardous  Spill
 Investigations.   This  level of  training
 may  later  be required for  employees
 engaged in other activities which are
 determined to present  unique  hazards
 requiring additional  training.

      The  intermediate   level is  to
 include a  minimum of eight hours  of
 specified additional health and safety
 training,  as well as supervised field
 experience. Each person who will engage
 in  hazardous  waste  site  or  spill
 investigations should as part of the
 intermediate  level of  training,  also
 accompany an experienced employee and
 perform actual field tasks for a minimum
 of three days within a period of three
 months after classroom instruction.

      Advanced Level

  IT--% An advanced level  of training is
 required for all employees who manage
 monitoring, sampling, investigations,
-ahdrcleanup operations at uncontrolled
 hazardous waste sites and spill sites.
 The training is to include eight hours
 of additional health and safety  training
 and on-the-job training on topics such
 as management of  restricted and safe
 zones, rules  of handling  the press and
 VIP's, and  safe use of specialized
                                  1-10-

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                                             MOPES
     Certification

     Certification is based on employees
satisfactorily completing  these
requirements  and  a multiple-choice
examination based on the  instructional
material.

     Certification may  be  based on
evaluation of their previous  training,
education,   and  experience.
Recommendations for  this   type of
certification  should be made by the
Safety Designee  at the Reporting Unit to
the  Director  of the EPA Office of
Occupational Health and Safety.

     Certification of  safety and health
training  will  be  issued by  the
Occupational Health  and Safety Designee
at the Reporting  Unit in  which an
employee works.

     Employees  can be certified at the
next higher level by completing only
additional  training  required,  if
certification at the next lower level
has been received within the previous
one-year period.

     Refresher Training

     Employees  at  the   Basic,
Intermediate, and Advanced levels are
required to complete a minimum of eight
hours of refresher classroom instruction
annually   to  maintain  their
certification.  In addition to the
classroom instruction, employees shall
have demonstrated by having performed
actual field  tasks that they have
sufficient practical experience to
perform duties  in a safe and healthful
manner.

     Physical Examination and Medical
Monitoring Programs

     There  are  two types of physical
examinations that are part of the EPA
occupational health and safety program.
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                                               MOTES
One is required for everyone who will be
expected or allowed to use a respirator.
The other is recommended for everyone
who may be exposed  to toxic chemicals as
part  of  one's field activities.   Both
types of examination can be included in
a single comprehensive physical.

     Use of respirators and protective
clothing put additional stress on the
body,  and some people may not  be able to
handle this stress  safely.

     A health surveillance program can
be very important to an EPA employee.  A
pre-placement medical exam may reveal an
existing medical  condition  that  may
place you at a higher risk when working
around  certain hazardous substances.
Specific tests given at  different times
may indicate exposure  to hazardous
substances  and may help  prevent further
exposure problems or aid in treatment.

     The objectives for  occupational
medical  monitoring are  to detect any
adverse effects of occupational exposure
on the employee's  health, to initiate
prompt  corrective  actions  when
indicated,  to assure  that  employees
assigned to arduous or physically-taxing
jobs or  jobs requiring  unique skills,
are able to perform those ]obs without
impairing their health and safety or the
health and safety of others.
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                           UNIT 2

               PREPARATION FOR FIELD ACTIVITIES
Educational Objective

     o The student  should be able to
define criteria  for  team  member
selection.

     o The student  should be able to
complete a pre-site visit planning form.

     o The student  should be able to
recognize potential hazard areas found
on site.

     o The student  should be able to
marshal1 on-site  resources to assist
Agency personnel.
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               PREPARATION FOR FIELD ACTIVITIES
                                              NOTES
     Operating in a known environment
such as an office or factory, repeatedly
on a regular basis, quickly familiarizes
the individual with the hazards that can
be expected.  Field activities, on the
other hand, present a  wide variety of
unknowns  that must be  anticipated and
prepared for. EPA field crews can go a
long way  in preventing accidents and
hazards by  training  themselves to
devote pre-activity time to careful and
thorough  investigation of the up and
coming activity.   It is no product of
luck  that careful pre-planning and
reduced accidents go hand—in—hand.

Planning for Field Activities

     Planning  for  field activities
should  be done  as a team effort.  By
drawing on the   experience and training
of  the  team  members,  a  more
comprehensive plan can be drawn up  than
can be done by a single individual.

     Team  Member Selection

     Selecting the proper team members
is an important first step.  The first
criterion for selection should be  that
members that have visited the site or
similar  sites  before.   Experienced
individuals will be able to provide a
wealth of valuable information rather
than the guesswork that would guide a
team that  lacks actual experience.

     The second  criterion for  selection
is physical conditioning.   Inquire
whether potential team members have had
experience in the  expected site
conditions in the past and if they have
been recently acclimated to the expected
work load  or anticipated adverse weather
conditions.  Be wary of selecting
someone who would "just like to get out
of the office for awhile," if  they are
going to face heavy workloads  or severe
temperature extremes.   Make sure all
team members are physically fit.  Get a
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                                              NOTES
record  of  their  past  physical
examination and   interview them  to
discuss any limitations they may have.
In many cases the fear of heights,  or
the fear  of  small,  tight places  or
protective equipment may not show up on
physical exams, and it could  severely
limit the  effectiveness of crews during
regular work  routines  as  well  as
emergencies.   Such conditions may also
increase the likelihood of accidents.

    Select an appropriate number  of
team members to  accomplish the  job
safely.   During  heavy workloads  or
extreme weather conditions, anticipate
that work will take longer and crew
members will have to be relieved on a
regular basis  for rest and recuperation.
When hazards  are  anticipated,  never
assign  a crew  member to work alone, even
for a short period of time unless the
worker has been provided with two-way
ccnnunication.

    Team  Assessment of  Potential
Hay.arrtg

    All discussion of up and coming
activities should be done with all team
members present.  Arrange for an open
forum type of discussion.   Avoid telling
crew members  what they must do.  The
collective contributions of a carefully
selected team are  better than those of
the most experienced individual.

    Appoint  one  member  to be
responsible for summarizing in writing,
the suggestions of crew members.  The
saying "What  is the responsibility of
all is the responsibility of  none"
provides  little consolation  to crew
members who need something that has
been forgotten.

    Organize  the  discussion along  a
prearranged format.   This  helps
eliminate forgetting a crucial subject.
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                                              NOTES
     If information  is needed  that
cannot be provided by the crew members
during the discussion, assign a member
to get that information and relay it to
the member responsible for  writing the
summary.

          Discussion Format  -  Past
Experience

     Ask crew members to discuss their
past experiences at the site or  similar
sites.   If no selected crew  members has
had similar past experiences, ask other
Agency personnel to sit in briefly to
discuss their experiences.  By setting
the  stage,  crew members can make
intelligent suggestions based on known
facts.

     Ask each crew member to briefly
outline the field experiences they have
had, as well as the training they have
received.   Such  a discussion builds
confidence  in team members,  reveals
weaknesses  in past experience  and
training, and points out inexperienced
crew members who may need  special
assistance or  training.

              Site Evaluation

     Secure a map, or photographs, of
the site  to be visited.  Each member
should become thoroughly familiar with
the  site, its relative location in
regard to roads, shelters and emergency
help centers such as treatment centers
and hospitals.  Crew members should not
only know how to  reach and leave the
site, but also how to communicate that
information to emergency squads.

     Evaluation of  existing or potential
two-way communication is essential.  In
most cases, site  communication is by
telephone.  Find  exactly where  the
telephone is  located  at the site and
verify it  is working.   Secure  the
telephone numbers of emergency help in
the area.  Assign a crew  member to call
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X
                                                       NOTES
         and verify the accuracy of the numbers.
         On  sites where  extreme hazards  are
         anticipated, calls should be made to the
         local emergency centers,  informing them
         of the exact time and date the crews
         will be operating at the site.  This is
         particularly crucial at remote sites or
         at  sites  near  small  towns  where
         volunteers operate  the emergency
         equipment.  Never  assume a town  has
         emergency equipment available.  Over 50%
         of the towns  in this country have no
         immediate emergency help available; call
         and verify.

              On  sites  where  telephone
         communication is  not available,
         anticipate the use of two-way radios.
         Determine if there is a possibility that
         there may be interference with  two-way
         signals from sources of interference
         such as  transmission lines, hills or
         tall structures.   When arriving on site,
         a check should be made with emergency
         help.   If the radios  depend  on
         batteries, extra  sets of fresh batteries
         should be brought.

              Examine  the  site  for  natural
         physical hazards such as  deep  ponds,
         streams, marshes, cliffs,  lack  of
         ingress and egress,  high  winds,  poor
         visibility, tidal changes, high seas or
         rough water, wave action, poor footing,
         prevailing winds and abrupt wind
         direction changes, abrupt changes in
         weather  patterns, heavy snows,  flash
         flooding, avalanches, mud slides,  and
         ice storms.

              Where adverse  weather conditions
         are a possibility, it may be necessary
         to  carry  out  some  preliminary
         investigations about  when  past
         conditions at  the anticipated time
         Agency personnel  will  be  working at the
         site.   Local residents,  radio stations,
         and newspapers can often  provide  the
         needed information.  If  the site is to
         be visited within three days to a week,
         a long range weather forecast can be
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                                               NOTES
gotten from the  local IV, radio station.
Coast   Guard  or   the  National
Heather Bureau.  Assign a crew member to
complete this  task  and  report  this
information to the team members.

     Careful assimilation of  both  a
physical and mental picture of the site
is  invaluable in proper  preparation.
Only  by knowing all  the facts can  a
comprehensive plan be  put together with
a minimum of omissions.

     Assessing the Hazards

     Once a crew is  familiar with  the
physical layout  of the site, a unit-by-
unit  assessment of the  potential
hazards should be undertaken.  Hazards
can be categorized into the following
units:

     Transportation
     Atmospheric
     Chemical
     Fire and Explosion
     Physical and Mechanical
     Radiation
     Biological
     Heather Belated
     Drowning

     Each of these units is covered in
detail  in a separate section of  the
Basic Field Activities Safety Training
Course.  Careful  analysis of these
sections will provide  the team with
information needed for  the planning
necessary to meet the haaamHc a^gnr^j^t-cMji
with  each site. Figure 1 is an example
of  the  information that  should be
compiled and  recorded  during the
planning period.  A copy  of this  summary
along with pertinent medical records  or
information should be kept in a file and
taken along for reference in the event
of an emergency where the information
might be needed.  A second copy should
be  filed with a supervisor  before
leaving for the site.  Such information
is particularly important for visits to
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                                              NOTES
sites where crews  may be stranded or
lost.
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                                  FIGURE 2-1
               SAMPLE PLANNING GUIDELINE FDR FIELD ACTIVITIES
 Project Title:
 Location:
 EPA files exist and have been reviewed?
                         Yes
                    No
 Names and Telephone Numbers for Contacting You:
                                    Position
                                   Tel.  Number
Crew Members:
Name
Ned.
Mont.
    Training Received   Medical or
Field    Respiratory   Phy.  Restrictions
Length of Proposed Activity:
Crew Lodging Arrangements:   Motel/Hotel
Location:
                                                 Telephone t
Anticipated Hazards:
Driving distance
Hauling chemicals
Noise
                 Hauling test equipment
                 Hauling supplies	
                 Thermal hazards
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Flammable Hazards	  Moving hazards
Weather:	heat     cold     wind     rain     thunderstorms
Toxic Substances (List)  /K
Heights:
Vehicle(s) and Equipment
   Motor vehicles:	sedan	van	pickup
   Mobile laboratory	Other  (list)	
Vehicle safety check made:	yes	no
Vehicle appears okay	or needs  (list)
   Watercraft
     Boat will be used	yes	no
Boat safety check made	yes	no
Site access:
     Identification	
     Permits
     Visitors Agreement^
     Special problems
Type of Connunication needed
Figure 1 Cont'd.
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Emergency and Rescue
Is first aid available in the area?       Yes       No  Location:
                               Telephone No.
Is ambulance available?	on site	on call Tel. ft
Nearest hospital with emergency services.  Location	
	Telephone No.	
Nearest poison control center.  Location
Fire Department Telephone No.
                                      Telephone No.
Portable extinguishers available.  Location
Type    	
Heavy and special rescue services available    yes    no.
Vfcat	
Emergency Signals and Communication
Fire Signal is	
Evacuation signal is
Severe weather signal is
Toxic release signal is
Personal Protective Equipment/Clothing (Check if needed)
1.  Eyes and np*d
    Safety glasses	Type	
    Face shield	Goggles
    Hard Hat	Type
    Hearing protection	Type
    Other
Figure 1 Cont'd.
                                    2-10-

-------
2.  Body, Hands, Feet



    Coveralls
    Foul Weather gear
    Full encapsulated gear



    Safety footwear	
    Boot/shoe covers_



    Gloves
                Type
                Type
    Other special equipment/clothing
                Type
3.  Respiratory Protection



    Respirator	



    SCBA
                _Type
                _Type_
    Emergency Escape Mask
                Type
4.  Special Health and Safety Equipment



    Life belt	



    Safety line__	
    Other (list)
5.  Miscellaneous



    Extra clothing_



    Socks
    GoveralIs	



    undergannents
Shoes
Boots
Outer clothing
         Other  (list)
    Water
    Drinking
                                    2-11

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Figure 1 Gont'd.
    Flushing
    Other (list)
6.  Miscellaneous  Pope	String	Tape_
    Matches           Food              Other
                                     2-12-

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On-Site Evaluation

     No matter hew thorough and complete
the pre-site briefing is,  there  will
always be hazards  not  anticipated or
covered.  Before  launching into a work
routine, take time to aquaint the entire
crew with the on-site hazards.

     First tour  the site.  Look for
hidden hazards such as broken railings
or ladders, dangerous  or unprotected
machinery,  low or heated pipes,
discharges or outlets carrying dangerous
materials, new  construction,  open
trenches or unsafe scaffolding or any
other hazards not discussed at the
briefing.

     Second,  if  there  is  a safety
department  or knowledgeable company
employee, ask for a briefing of any
known hazards that exist at the  site.
Request information  as to evacuation
routes and  warning signals, medical
staffing or other on-site  emergency
help, and  the location and type of
protective gear that is  at the disposal
of Agency personnel.  Take a few moments
to walk the crew through the emergency
evacuation route.  Physically locate and
aquaint crew members  with the on-site,
available safety gear.  Remember, no
matter how  much  experience your  crew
members have had, they cannot possibly
know and prepare for the on-site hazards
as well  as  the people who work at the
site every day.

     Ask the company employee to alert
the  safety department,  medical or
emergency staff,  and all those in the
vicinity of where Agency personnel  will
be  working  of  the  exact  time and
location of  EPA  personnel.  This is
particularly important in confined  space
entry.   Find out  if company rules
require special  safety gear such as
steel-toed shoes or  respirators.  Do not
ignore company safety policy.  It was
undoubtedly imposed  for good reason.
                                 2-13-

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                                              NOTES
     Assign a crew member to keep a log
of any unexpected hazards encountered
during the work at the  site  and  how
these hazards were  handled.  Such
records will go a long way in helping
the  next crew prepare for similar
hazards  and  emergencies.   List  any
extra gear that is recommended to take
along that was not taken on this site
visit.

     When contemplating entry into a
confined  space or atmosphere, such as a
manhole,  in  addition  to  crew
monitoring, request information from
company employees as to past hazards or
events such as  production discharges
that  might quickly and significantly
change the degree of hazards associated
with the confined  space.   Agency
employees may not have enough time for
evacuation of a  toxic discharge catches
them unaware in a confined area.

     Whenever possible,  always send
Agency personnel in pairs.  The "buddy
system" has repeatedly been shown to
save  lives.    When entering into a
suspected hazardous environment,  one
team member should always remain behind
with  constant  visual  or  voice
communication with the second.  Buddy
teams must be taught to recognize danger
and respond  to it effectively  using
methods of rescue that have been taught
rather than headlong rush into hazardous
areas to save a fallen  team member.

     Where only one Agency person  has
been  assigned  to  a site, have that
employee request to be accompanied by an
on-site company employee knowledgeable
with the area to  be  inspected  or
sampled.

     Remember,  the buddy system is a
safety precaution only.   It  is not a
protective procedure.  Never enter
highly hazardous areas  without thorough
monitoring and protective gear.  At  its
best,  the buddy system  speeds up rescue.
                                 2-14

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                                               N'OTES
At its worst, it prevents the  loss or
injury of  one instead of two  people.
Neither is acceptable if the accident
could have been prevented at the start.

     It is estimated that  fire and
rescue  teams prepare and  train for
emergencies 40 hours for every hour they
actually are involved in an emergency.
There is no  substitute for effective
pre-planning.   Never go out on even on a
small detailed activity without devoting
a  block of  time  anticipating and
planning for hazards  and emergencies.
The National Safety Council reports that
most accidents occur around the  home or
within three miles of the home, a time
when few people anticipate an accident
and fewer prepare for it.
                                 2-15

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         UNIT 3  EMERGENCY FIRST AID FOR FIELD ACTIVITIES

Educational Objectives
     o The  student should  be able  to
list medical emergencies  that  are  life-
threatening and require  immediate  first
aid.

     o The  student should  be able  to
list the minimum first aid training a
field crew  should have.

     o The  student should  be able  to
demonstrate  the correct  first  aids
techniques   of   cardiopu1monary
resuscitation  (CPR).

     o The  student should  be able  to
define the first aid  steps  for stopped
breathing.

     o The  student should  be able  to
define the  first aid steps  for stopped
circulation.

     o The  student should  be able  to
define the  first aid steps for  excessive
bleeding.

     o The  student should  be able  to
define the  first aid steps for  traumatic
injuries  to head, neck or back.

     o The  student should  be able  to
define the  first  aid steps for shock
resulting from  injuries.

     o The  student should  be able  to
define  the  first  aid  steps   for
overexposure to heat or cold.

     o The  student should  be able  to
define the first aid steps for thermal
burns that  are  deep  or extensive.

     o The  student should  be able  to
define  the  first  aid  steps   for
inhalation  of toxic gas.

     o The  student should  be able  to
define the  first  aid steps  for chemical
contact  that  is  concentrated  or
extensive.
                             3-1

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            EMERGENCY FIRST AID  FOR FIELD ACTIVITIES
                                               NOTES
Introduction

     Every person who engages in field
activities  should be able to recognize
injuries  and exposures  which  require
immediate  emergency action.    Most
injuries  and illnesses  are  not life-
threatening,  but it  is  important  to
recognize  those that are and  be prepared
to  take  emergency  action  to  prevent
serious consequences or death.

     In many field activities,  EPA
personnel  can   receive  injuries  or
chemical  exposures  which could cause
serious  illness  or  death  unless
immediate action is taken  to  control
the  emergency.   If EPA  personnel are
remote from immediate  medical emergency
treatment,  they  will have to depend on
the  training and preparation of other
members of their  team.

     Every  EPA field  team should have
one or more  members with recent training
in first aid,  chemical  splash treatment,
and cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

     Every EPA employee engaged in  field
activities  should carry  a wallet card
with important medical  information such
as  blood  type,   allergies,  medication
being taken, and  any physical condition
which  may cause a problem  in  regular
activities or emergency situations.  The
crew leader should  know  about  any
medical conditions  which may become a
problem during field activities.

     This  unit will  describe  medical
emergencies that may  occur in  field
activities,  describe the  general course
of  action  for   any  type of medical
emergency,  and review the procedures for
treating such emergencies.

     This  unit does  not take the place
of  a first aid  course  or hands-on
training in first aid,  chemical  splash
procedures  or CPR.   This  unit  does
however,  emphasize a different range of
                              3-2

-------
                                                NOTES
emergencies than a basic Red Cross  first
aid course.

Serious  and Life-Threatening Medical
Emergencies

     Medical  emergencies  may  occur
during field activities as a  result of
accidents, work stress, individual
medical conditions, or exposure to  toxic
or corrosive chemicals.   Nine  different
conditions are  so  serious  that they are
considered life-threatening.  Three
conditions in  particular   require
immediate action  because death  will
result in minutes if no effort is made
to help the victim.

     The  three   medical emergency
conditions that require immediate action
to prevent death are listed in  the  order
of their seriousness:

     1.  Bleeding severely
     2.  Breathing stopped
     3.  Circulation stopped

     Bleeding severely from  traumatic
injuries  can  lead to  an  irreversible
state  of  shock  in  which  death  is
inevitable.

     Breathing can be stopped because of
          An obstructed airway
          Allergic reactions  to insect
            stings
          Drowning
          An electrical shock
          Exposure  to   an   oxygen-
          deficient atmosphere
          Exposure to  a toxic  gas  with
immediate paralytic effects

     Circulation can be stopped because
of
          Heart attack
          Electrical shock
          Paralysis  from  chemical
            exposure
                              3-3

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                                                NOTES
     If a victim  is  unconscious,  it is
important to determine if he has stopped
breathing,  if  the  victim's heart  has
stopped  beating and circulating  blood
throughout the body,  or if  the person is
suffering  from  some  other  life-
threatening emergency.   Always check for
an  open  airway,   breathing   and
circulation.

     Other medical emergencies which are
extremely serious,  or  which can become
life-threatening,  include:

     4.   Traumatic injuries to the head,
         neck or back
     5.   Shock resulting from injuries
     6.   Overexposure to heat or cold
     7.   Thermal burns  that are deep or
         extensive
     8.   Inhalation  of  toxic gas
     9.   Chemical  contact that  is
         concentrated or extensive

General  Emergency Procedures

     When a person is  seriously injured
or exposed to large  amounts of hazardous
chemicals,  there are  three activities
that must be carried out quickly.  These
activities  can be  carried out by  one
person,   but  if  several people  are
available  it  is much more effective if
all three activities can be carried out
at the same time:

     1.   Take charge  of the situation

     2.   Give first  aid

     3.   Summon assistance  or prepare to
         transport the  injured person

Taking Charge of the  Emergency

     Someone  must take charge of  the
situation (with full recognition  of  his
or her own limitations).  The person  who
takes  charge must direct others quickly
and clearly on exactly  what they should
do.
                              3-4

-------
                                              NOTES
     The person who  takes charge needs
to  stay  calm  and  try  to instill
confidence in the  injured  person and
others  that  the  emergency can  be
controlled.

     Some injuries  or  illnesses that
have alarming symptoms are not dangerous
to  the  victim.     (Examples include:
fainting,  convulsions,  epileptic
seizures.)

     The crew leader should be sure that
the  team  has  the  first  aid supplies
necessary for  the  season  and  the
activity.  The crew  leader should also
see that the team has a first aid manual
and directions for obtaining emergency
medical  assistance.

Giving First Aid

     Someone must administer  first aid
to  reduce  the  severity of  any  life-
threatening medical  emergency.   This
person  should have  recent  first  aid
training and practice.   If there is no
one available  with recent training, a
crew  member can  carry out  the  most
important steps  guided by a first aid
manual.   Be sure  that a good manual is
available in a  readily accessible
location.

     First aid is generally defined as
the immediate  and temporary care given
the  victim of  an  injury or sudden
illness  until medical assistance can be
obtained.   In this unit we use the term
"first aid" to  include any immediate and
temporary care, including chemical
splash  treatment and cardiopulmonary
resuscitation.   The  objectives of first
aid are  to:

      o care  for  1 ife-threatening
         conditions;

      o minimize  further  injury and
         complications,   such  as
         infection;  and
                             3-5

-------
                                               NOTES
          obtain medical assistance

Arranging for Transportation

     Someone must arrange for  medical
assistance  for further  treatment  of
serious  medical emergencies.   Medical
assistance can  be obtained in some areas
from paramedic  teams  from  local
hospitals or fire departments.  In other
areas,   medical  assistance  can  be
obtained  most readily by  taking  the
injured  person directly to a  medical
treatment facility such as a hospital.

     Find out in advance how to call for
medical  assistance, and how to reach the
emergency medical  facility.   Have  a  map
and directions readily available,  and
make  a   practice run if your field
activities are particularly hazardous.

     If  it is necessary to transport an
injured  person to a medical facility, it
should  be done so  that it  does  not
complicate  the injury or subject  the
victim to unnecessary discomfort.

     If  it is necessary to transport an
injured  or  ill  person without  the
assistance of an ambulance  team  or
specially-trained personnel, there are
some  important considerations before
starting  to  move  the  person.  If  the
medical  emergency  is one  in which
movement can cause  further injury,  be
sure  that  the move  is planned  and
carried out so that  it does  not do  the
injured person more harm than waiting
for help to  arrive.

     If  the medical  emergency is  one
that requires uninterrupted treatment,
such  as cooling  thermal  or chemical
burns,  plan the movement so that  the
emergency treatment  can be  continued.
If the medical  emergency is  the result
of  a  chemical  splash,  be  sure that
preliminary washing has  been thorough
enough  to minimize  the injury and  to
prevent  serious contamination of others.
                              3-6

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                                               NOTES
Medical  Emergency Supplies

Every vehicle  should  be  equipped
with a first aid kit with  supplies  for
emergencies which  field personnel  are
likely  to encounter.   In  cold or  wet
environments,  the team  should have
blankets  and   supplies  needed   for
treating  cold  stress,   and  in  hot
environments the team  should  have  the
water or replacement fluids needed  for
survival  and  for  prevention   and
treatment of heat stress.   If  the team
can be exposed to contact with hazardous
chemicals,  their  vehicle  should be
equipped with  a  pressurized supply of
potable water  which  can  be used  for
flushing chemicals  from  the eyes  and
body in case of splash.  The volume of
the pressurized water supply should be
at least eight  gallons.  (The water  can
also be used  for  washing skin areas
which may be contaminated during  field
operations.)

     Let's look  at the  first three  life-
threatening emergencies that can occur
during  field   activities:   severe
bleeding, stopped breathing, and stopped
circulation.

Emergency Treatment for  Severe Bleeding

     USE PRESSURE DIRECTLY  OVER  THE
WOUND

         Place   a    pad,    clean
handkerchief  or other  clean  cloth
directly over the wound  and press firmly
with one or both of your  hands.  Hold
the pad firmly in place with  a strong
bandage,  adhesive  tape,  necktie or
strips of cloth.  If a pad or bandage is
not available, close the wound with your
hand or  fingers.

     ELEVATE THE BLEEDING PART OF  THE
BODY

         Unless bones are broken,  raise
the bleeding part higher than  the rest
                            3-7

-------
                                                NOTES
of  the body.
down.
   Keep  the victim  lying
     USE OTHER METHODS TO STOP BLEEDING
IF NECESSARY

          If  direct  pressure  and
elevation do not stop the bleeding, try
to close the artery to the bleeding area
by applying pressure where the artery
passes close to  a  bone and  can  be
restricted.  Use a tourniquet only if a
victim  is bleeding profusely  and other
methods have failed  and the victim's
life is in  danger.  A tourniquet  must be
tight to stop bleeding from an artery.
     KEEP THE  VICTIM WARM
SHOCK AND LOSS  OF  BODY HEAT
               TO  PREVENT
          Use blankets,  coats,  or any
covering  available.   If the victim is
lying on the ground, use something  under
the victim to prevent  loss of body  heat.

     GIVE FLUIDS  IF POSSIBLE

          Give the victim fluids if she,
or he,  is conscious,  can  swallow and
does not  have  head  or  abdominal
injuries.   Do not give any fluids if
she,  or  he,  probably  will  require
surgery and will receive professional
help within  less than one hour.  Do not
give the victim alcoholic drinks or any
stimulants.
Emergency
Breathing
Treatment  for  Stopped
     The second  most  serious  medical
emergency  after severe bleeding is
stopped breathing.  If an injured person
is  not  breathing  for any reason,
treatment given  to other injuries will
not help.   If  a  person's breathing is
stopped for  more  than just a  few minutes
the person will, in most cases, die or
suffer brain damage from lack of oxygen.

     In 'a   serious  emergency  without
                                     Abdominal Thrust
                              3-8

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                                               NOTES
severe bleeding, the first priority is
to determine if the victim is breathing.

     1.   Look  to  see if  the  victim's
chest or abdomen is  rising and falling
regularly.

     2.   If there is no visual  evidence
of breathing,  place your ear  and the
side  of  your  face  very close  to the
victim's nose  and  mouth to  listen and
feel  for  air being exhaled by  the
victim.

     If  there is no  evidence that a
victim  is  breathing,   proceed  with
emergency treatment  for  stopped
breathing  as  quickly as you  can.   No
harm will result if the victim has not
stopped  breathing.

     Let's  go  over  some of the reasons
why breathing  may be stopped,  and some
special procedures that  may be needed.
Breathing can  be stopped because of

     Obstructed airway
     Allergic  reactions to insect stings
     Drowning
     Electrical shock
     Exposure  to  oxygen-deficient
      atmosphere
     Exposure  to  toxic  gas  with
      immediate paralytic effects

Performance Guidelines and Rationale

    ^^IHBl.^^6.  A-iE
Conscious victim
              STEP 1

Activity

     Rescuer  asks "Can you speak?"   (2-3
seconds)   Victim  may  be  using  the
"Universal Distress Signal"  of  choking:
clutching the  neck between thumb  and
index finger.
                             3-9

-------
                                               NOTES
Critical Performance

     Rescuer  must identify complete
airway obstruction by asking victim if
she, or  he,  is able to speak.

Rationale

     In   the conscious victim it  is
essential to recognize the signs of an
airway  obstruction and  take action
immediately.  If the victim is able to
speak or cough  effectively,  do  not
interfere with his or  her attempts to
expel the foreign body.

              STEP 2

Activity

     Deliver  four back  blows.   (3-5
seconds)

Critical Performance

     With the heel of your  hand, deliver
4 sharp  blows  rapidly and  forcefully
between  the  shoulder blades;  support the
victim's chest with  the other  hand on
the breastbone.

Rationale

     Continually check  for success.
This maneuver  may have the  effect _of
dislodging the  foreign  body before
forcing  it upward with the  manual thrust
maneuver.

              STEP 3

Activity

     Deliver four abdominal  thrusts or
chest thrusts.  (4-5 seconds)

Critical Performance

     ABDOMINAL THRUST:  Stand behind the
victim  and  wrap  your arms  around  the
victim's waist.  Grasp; one  fist  with
                              3-10-

-------
                                               NOTES
your other hand and place thumb side of
your fist  in the midline between the
waist  and  rib cage.   Press  fist  into
abdomen  with quick inward and  upward
thrusts.

(Repeat back blows and  manual  thrusts
until  effective or  until  the  victim
becomes unconscious.)

     CHEST  THRUST:  Stand behind victim
and  place your arms under  victim's
armpits  to encircle  the chest.   Grasp
one fist  with other hand  and place thumb           chestTTuuat
side on  the  middle of the breastbone.
Press with  quick backward thrusts.

Rationale

     The sequence of back  blows  and
abdominal or  chest thrusts is  more
effective  than either  maneuver  used
alone.

     Each back blow and  manual  thrust
should be delivered with the  intent of
relieving the obstruction.

     Chest  thrusts are more easily done
than  abdominal  thrusts   when  the
abdominal girth is  large/ as in gross
obesity or  in advanced pregnancy.

Note:  Although the  above sequence of
back blows  followed by manual  thrusts is
preferred,  the reverse  sequence  of
manual  thrusts  followed by back blows is
acceptable.

     Obstructed Airway -  Choking Victim
Who Becomes Unconscious

               STEP 1

Activity

     Position the victim and call out
for help.  Allow  4-10 seconds  if  face
down and  turning is required.
                              3-11

-------
                                                NOTES
Critical Performance

     Turn if necessary, supporting head
and neck.  Call  out "Help!"

Rationale

     The  victim   must  be properly
positioned  on  his back  in  case  CPR
becomes necessary.

     This initial  call for help  is to
alert bystanders.
Activity

     Open
ventilate.
               STEP 2
airway  and
(3-5 seconds)
attempt  to
Critical Performance
     Kneel properly.   Use head tilt-chin
lift or  head tilt-neck lift.   Attempt
ventilation.  Airway  remains obstructed.

Rationale

     Complete airway obstruction by a
foreign body is assumed present, but at
this point an attempt must be  made to
get some air into the lungs just in case
the victim's fall has jarred the foreign
body loose.

               STEP 3

Activity

     Activate EMS.  (2 seconds)

Critical Performance

     If unsuccessful  and a second person
is  available,   that  person  should
activate the EMS.
                            3-12'

-------
                                                NOTES
Rationale
may
 Advanced life
be required.
                    support capability
Activity

     Give
succession.
              STEP 4
       4  back  blows
         (4-6 seconds)
in  rapid
Critical Performance
     Roll victim toward you using your
thigh for support.  Give 4 forceful and
rapidly delivered blows to back between
shoulder  blades  with the heel  of one
hand;  keep  other hand on  the victim's
shoulder for support.

Rationale

     Continually check  for  success.
Each back blow or manual  thrust should
be  delivered  with the  intent  of
relieving the obstruction.
              STEP 5
Activity
     Give 4  abdominal  thrusts.
seconds  or  give 4 chest  thrusts
seconds)

Critical  Performance
                              (5-6
                              (5-6
     ABDOMINAL  THRUST:    Position
yourself with your  knees  close  to
victim's hips.  Place heel of one hand
in the midline between the waist and the
ribcage and second on top.  Press into
abdomen  with  quick inward and  upward
thrusts.   Never  place  hands on  the
xiphoid process or on the  lower margins
of the  ribcage.   Rescuer may  use  the
aside or astride position.

     CHEST THRUST:   Same hand position
                                                Abdominal Thrust
                                                 or Chest Thrust
                             3-13-

-------
                                               NOTES
compression.   Exert quick downward
thrust.

Rationale

     Kneeling  at victim's side gives the
rescuer greater mobility and  access to
the airway.

     Chest thrusts  are preferred in the
presence of  large  abdominal  girth
(advanced  pregnancy   or  obesity).
Downward thrusts   generate effective
airway pressure.

              STEP 6

Activity

     Check for foreign body using  finger
sweep.  (6-8 seconds)

Critical Performance

     Turn head up,  open  mouth  with jaw
lift  technique  and sweep  deeply into
mouth along cheek with hooked finger.

Rationale

     A dislodged foreign body may  now be
manually accessible if  it has not been
expelled.  Dentures may need  to be
removed to improve  finger sweep.

              STEP 7

Activity

     Reattempt to ventilate.   (3-5
seconds)

Critical Performance

     Reposition head  using the head
tilt-neck lift  or  head tilt-chin lift
maneuver.
                              3-14

-------
                                                NOTES
Rationale

     By this time another attempt must
be made to get some air  into the lungs.

               STEP 8

Activity

     Repeat sequence until successful.

Critical Performance

     Alternate the above maneuvers  in
rapid sequence:
          * back blows
          * manual  thrusts
          * finger  sweep
          * attempt to ventilate

Rational

     Persistent  attempts  are rapidly
made in sequence in order to relieve the
obstruction.

     As the victim  becomes more deprived
of oxygen, the muscles  will  relax and
maneuvers  that   were  previously
ineffective may become effective.


     Obstructed Airway - Unconscious
Victim

               STEP 1

Activity

     Establish unresponsiveness and call
out for  help.  Allow 4-10 seconds  if
face down and  turning is required.

Critical Performance

     Tap, gently shake shoulder, shout
"Are you OK?"  Call out "Help!" Turn  if
necessary,  supporting head and neck.
                             3-15

-------
                                                NOTES
Rationale

     This initial  call for help  is  to
alert bystanders.

               STEP 2

Activity

     Open   airway.     Establish
breathlessness (look,  listen and feel).
(3-5 seconds)

Critical Performance

     Kneel properly.  Head tilt with one
hand on forehead and  neck lift or chin
lift with other hand.   Ear  over mouth,
observe chest.   Adequate time.

Rationale

     None

               STEP 3

Activity

     Attempt to ventilate  (3-5 seconds)  2

Critical Performance

     Attempt  ventilation.   Airway
remains obstructed.

Rationale

     Complete  airway obstruction for a
foreign body is assumed present, but at
this  point  an  attempt  must be  made to
get some air into  the  lungs.

               STEP 4

Activity

     Reattempt  ventilation (3-5  seconds)
                              3-16-

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                                                NOTES
Critical Performance

     Reposition  head,  airway  remains
obstructed.

Rationale

     Improper head  tilt is the  most
common cause of ,airway obstruction.

              STEP 5

Activity

     Activate  the EMS

Critical Performance

     If  unsuccessful,   and a  second
person is available,  he  should  activate
EMS  system.   Know  your local  EMS or
rescue unit number.

Rationale

     Advanced life  support capability
may be required.
Activity

     Give
succession.
              STEP 6
4  back  blows  in  rapid
 (4-6 seconds)
Critical  Performance

     Roll victim toward you using your
thigh  for support.   Give 4  forceful
rapidly delivered blows  to  back between
shoulder  blades.
Rationale

     Each  back  blow or  manual thrust
should be  delivered with the intent of
relieving  the obstruction.
                              3-17

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                                               NOTES


               STEP 7
Activity
     Give  4 abdominal  thrusts  (5-6
seconds) or Give  4  chest thrusts (5-6
seconds)

Critical Performance

     ABDOMINAL THRUSTS:   Position
yourself with your knees  close  to
victim's hips.  Place heel of one hand
in the  midline between  waist  and rib
cage and second hand on top.   Press into
abdomen  with  quick  inward and upward
thrusts.  Never  place  hands  on the
xiphoid process or on the lower  margins
of the ribcage.   Maneuver  may be done
astride victim.

     CHEST  THRUSTS:   Same hand  position
as that for applying chest  compression.
Exert quick  downward thrusts.

Rationale

     Kneeling at victim's side gives the
rescuer greater mobility and access to
the airway.

     Chest  thrusts are preferred in the
presence of   large  abdominal  girth
(advanced  pregnancy   or  obesity).
Downward thrusts  generate effective
airway pressure.

               STEP 8

Activity

     Check  for  foreign body  using finger
sweep.  (6-8 seconds)

Critical  Performance

     Turn head up, open  mouth with haw
lift  technique and  sweep  deeply  into
mouth along cheek with hooked  finger.
                            3-18-

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                                                NOTES
Rationale

     A dislodged  foreign body may now be
manually accessible if  it has not been
expelled.

     Dentures  may need to be removed to
improve finger  sweep.

               STEP  9

Activity

     Reattempt  to  ventilate.   (3-5
seconds)

Critical Performance

     Reposition  head  using  head tilt-
chin  lift  or head  tilt-neck lift.
Airway remains  obstructed.

Rationale

     By this time another attempt must
be made to get  some air into  the  lungs.

               STEP 10

Activity

     Repeat  sequence until successful.

Critical Performance

     Alternate the  above maneuvers  in
rapid sequence:

     * back  blows
     * manual thrusts
     * finger sweep
     * attempt  to ventilate

Rationale

     Persistent  attempts are  rapidly
made in sequence  in order to  relieve  the
obstruction.

     As the victim becomes more deprived
of oxygen, the muscles  will relax  and
                              3-19-

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                                               NOTES
maneuvers
ineffective
 that  were   previously
may become effective.
Allergic Reactions to Insect Stings

     In some  individuals,  an insect
sting  can cause an  allergic  reaction
that  is  so severe  that  swelling can
block the victim's  airway and  stop the
individual from  breathing.  If such a
reaction  occurs,   try  to open the
victim's airway by  tipping his, or her,
head  back and  keeping  his,  or her,
tongue  from  blocking  his,  or her,
throat.

     An allergic reaction  can be so
severe that it causes anaphylactic shock
which is life-threatening.  Immediate
first  aid,  medication  and  medical
treatment will be needed.

     If  one of the crew members has had
severe allergic  reactions  previously,
she,  or he,  should have a  special
emergency kit for insect stings.  Such a
kit  will  contain  a prescription
medication  such  as  adrenaline  or
an antihistamine.  Emergency treatment
consists  of maintaining an open airway,
removing the stinger (if  the sting was
from a honeybee), using  the emergency
kit,  and seeking  medical  attention
promptly.

     If  a person has a severe  allergic
reaction to an  insect  sting but  no
emergency  kit is available, emergency
treatment  will  be  more difficult and
less  effective.    In   addition  to
maintaining an open airway and  removing
any honeybee stinger,  you can try to
reduce circulation of the insect venom.
Get the victim to lie down and keep as
calm as  possible.  If the  sting is  on an
arm or leg, it may be possible to reduce
the circulation of  the insect  venom by
placing  a construction between the sting
and  the body.   The constriction  is
somewhat like  a  tourniquet, except that
it must  be placed  immediately and it
                             3-20-

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                                               NOTES
should not cut off the flow of blood in
the arteries.  Seek medical  attention
promptly.

Drowning

     Trying  to rescue someone who is in
danger of drowning  is  difficult.    In
deep water, a drowning person may pull
the rescuer  under.  In  water below 70°F,
the drowning person may not be able to
hold on to a life preserver or rope.

     If you must  rescue a  drowning
person,  use a boat,  life  preserver,
spare tire,  rope,  long stick or other
means than swimming out to the person.
Begin mouth-to-mouth  resuscitation as
quickly as  possible,  even before  the
victim is completely out of the water.

     If the  victim is unconscious and a
neck or back injury is suspected,  try
not to move or lift  the victim until you
can keep his, or her, head and back from
twisting and possibly causing more
severe  injury.  (See  the  section on
head,  neck  and back injuries.)

     Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation must
usually be  started within a  few minutes
after a victim has stopped breathing, to
avoid serious brain injury  from lack of
oxygen.  However, people who have been
submerged  in water  colder than 70°F for
periods as long as 30 minutes have been
revived successfully without any brain
damage.   In  cold-water  drowning there is
a body reflex that  slows the  heartbeat
and reserves oxygen for the  brain  and
the heart.  Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation
and cardiac  compression must be started
as  soon  as possible, and  must  be
continued  for several hours  even though
the victim  may appear to be dead.

Electrical Shock

     Electrical shock can stop breathing
by paralyzing the respiratory  system,
and in some cases it can stop the heart
or
                             3-21'

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                                               NOTES
cause  it  to  beat  irregularly  and
ineffectively.   If  the  victim  is  in
contact with a live electrical wire or
circuit,  rescue will be necessary  before
an effort can safely be made to restore
breathing.

     If a person has stopped breathing
after being struck by lightning, you can
give  assistance immediately because the
victim is not in contact with a source
of  electrical  energy.   However,  as a
precaution  against  lightning striking a
second time  in  the same place, try to
move  the victim  to a safer  location
before you begin  resuscitation.

     If a person has stopped breathing
because he, or she, has touched a live
wire  or  faulty  electrical wiring  or
apparatus,  you  must first get the power
turned off or get  the  person out  of
contact with  the electrical wire.  Do
not touch the  victim  until  the power is
turned off  or the victim  is  removed from
contact with the  source of electricity.

     If circuit  breakers  are  quickly
accessible,  turn  off  the  individual
circuit  breaker  or open  the   main
electrical  breaker.  If circuit  breakers
are not accessible,  get  the power cut
off or the victim removed from contact
by  the  power  company  or  the  fire
department.

     Do not try to remove a person from
an electrical circuit or a power line
unless there is  absolutely  no other way
to save the victim.  Unless  you  have had
special training for this  type of  rescue
work,  you are  likely  to  receive  an
electrical shock and may also become a
victim needing rescue.   You' must use a
dry rope or a long dry stick which will
prevent you from  coming  into electrical
contact with the victim or the wire.

     As soon as the victim is  free  of
contact  with the  electrical  current,
begin mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.  If
                             3-22-

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                                               NOTES
the  victim's  heart  has  stopped,
cardiopulmonary resuscitation will be
needed.

Exposure to Oxygen-Deficient or Toxic
Atmospheres

     If  a person has stopped breathing
in any  unventilated  space which  may
contain an oxygen-deficient atmosphere
or a high concentration of toxic gas,
the first step  is  to rescue the person.

         Do not enter an unventilated
confined space or a space containing a
high  concentration of  toxic gas without
using self-contained breathing  apparatus
or air-supplied breathing apparatus.

         Be  sure there is one  other
person  equipped  with such  breathing
apparatus to assist or stand by to help.

         Move  the victim to fresh air
as quickly  as  possible  without becoming
a victim and  complicating  the rescue
problem.

         Control  the  source   of
poisonous gas, if possible.

Procedures for Restoring Breathing

     The  first  step  in restoring
breathing is to be sure that there is a
clear and open  passageway for  air  to
reach the lungs.  Often the head slumps
forward and  the tongue  blocks  the
passage of air.  The passageway for air
through the nose and mouth to the lungs
is referred  to as  the  "airway."

     1.  Lay the victim on his, or her,
back on a firm surface such as the floor
or ground.

     2.   Quickly  clear the mouth  and
airway of foreign material with  your
fingers  or a  clean cloth  wrapped around
your  fingers.
                            3-23'

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                                               NOTES
     3.   If  there does not appear to be
any  neck  injury,   gently  tilt  the
victim's head  backward  by pressure of
one hand on the person's forehead, and
by lifting the  victim's neck upward with
your other  hand.   This will  keep the
victim's tongue from falling back and
blocking the airway.

     The  second  step  in  restoring
breathing is  to force air into  the  lungs
by some means of artificial breathing or
artificial  respiration.   The  most
effective emergency method  is  to use
your exhaled breath, which contains an
adequate amount of oxygen for  the person
who is  not  breathing.   There are less
effective methods in which air is forced
out of  the  lungs by pressure on the rib
cage, and air is drawn into the lungs by
lifting  the victim's arms to lift the
rib cage.   Use of exhaled breath is
usually referred to as "mouth-to-mouth
resuscitation" even  though the  method
may have to be modified to  force the air
into the victim through  the nose  or
throat.

     Since restoring breathing  is vital,
start as soon as you possibly can.  Do
not  wait  for  help and  do  not  pay
attention to  less  important  injuries.
Continue resuscitation until the  victim
begins  breathing, or  someone else takes
over, or medical personnel  direct you to
stop.

Mouth-to-Mouth  Resuscitation

     With the victim's airway open and
the head tilted backward, you are going
to force your  breath into the victim.
If your  mouth can cover  the  victim's
mouth,  you  will  have  to pinch  the
person's nose  shut  to  force  air  into
the person's lungs.  If  you have  to
force air in through the person's nose
you will have  to seal the person's mouth
with your hand.   If  the victim breathes
through an opening or stoma in  the
throat, you may need to  seal  both the
                             3-24-

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                                               NOTES
nose and mouth so you can force air into
the  lungs through the opening  in  the
throat.

     The  initial  step  before you begin
resuscitation is to inflate  the victim's
lungs fully  and  give  a lot  of  oxygen
quickly.

     Blow your breath into  the  victim
until you see the chest rise and  repeat
these breaths four times as rapidly as
you can without allowing  the victim's
lungs to  deflate fully.

     Maintain the head tilt and again
check the victim for breathing  for
approximately five seconds.

     For  continuing resuscitation,  blow
your breath  into  the  victim until  you
see her,   or  his,  chest rise and  then
remove your  mouth and let  the  victim
exhale while you take another deep
breath.   As soon as you hear the  victim
breathe out,  replace  your  mouth  over
his, or her,  mouth or nose  and  repeat
the procedure.

     Repeat this procedure of giving one
breath and allowing the victim to exhale
about once every five  seconds or about
12 times  per  minute.

     Try  to breathe at a normal rate so
that you do   not  overbreathe   or
hyperventilate and become  light-headed
or lose consciousness.

     Hyperventilation  can  cause
unconsciousness.   Hyperventilation
causes decreased blood  flow  to the brain
by  decreasing   the  carbon  dioxide
concentration in the blood.   A decreased
blood flow  to the brain  can also  be
caused  by an  increased concentration of
oxygen.
                             3-25

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                                               NOTES
Emergency Treatment  for  Stopped
Circulation

     The third most  serious medical
emergency is loss of blood circulation.
Blood circulation can be stopped because
of a  heart attack, cardiac  arrest or
fibrillation resulting from  electrical
shock,   or cardiac  paralysis   from
exposure to high  concentrations  of a
toxic gas such  as hydrogen sulf ide.  If
blood circulation stops, breathing will
usually stop too.

     If  the victim has  no  apparent
pulse,  his, or  her,   heart  may  have
stopped or it may  be  beating  so
irregularly that it is not circulating
blood effectively.

Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation  (CPR)

     Cardiopulmonary resuscitation  (CPR)
is a basic  life-support technique used
in a medical crisis when the  victim is
not breathing  and  it  is possible that
her,  or his, heart  has stopped beating.

The technique involves:

     1.  opening  and clearing  the
victim's airway (by tilting  the  head
backward)

     2.  providing  oxygen to  the  blood
(by mouth-to-mouth resuscitation)

     3.   and restoring blood circulation
(by external cardiac compression)

     The first  two steps can  be  done
effectively with the  instructions in
this   unit.    However,  restoring
circulation   cannot  be   learned
effectively on the   spot.   Cardiac
compression  should  be  learned  and
practiced in a  classroom with qualified
instructors.    A  course in  CPR  is
strongly recommended  for every person
working in  field activities.
                             3-26

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                                                NOTES
     Cardiac compression should not be
applied when  the  heart  is beating
normally, and it should not  be continued
when the heart begins to beat  again.

     Information provided in this unit
is not designed to take the place of a
complete  course  of  instruction  and
practice  under  the  direction of  a
qualified instructor.   All  training
programs should adhere  to the standards
in JAMA "Supplement on Standards  for
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR)  and
Emergency  Cardiac  Care  (ECC),  18
February 1974, Vol.  227, Number 7.

Introduction to CPR Techniques

     Sudden death or cardiac arrest  (the
sudden,  unexpected stopping  of breathing
and circulation) may occur as the first
and only indication of  heart  disease or
heart attack.   It may also occur in
individuals with known heart disease and
especially during heart  attack.   Within
seconds  after cardiac arrest occurs, the
victim loses consciousness and breathing
stops.  If CPR is started promptly, the
person has a good chance of  surviving.

     Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation  (CPR)
is a basic,  life-saving technique for
sudden  cardiac or  respiratory  arrest
pioneered  by  the  American  Heart
Association.   CPR  involves a combination
of mouth-to-mouth breathing or other
ventilation  techniques  and  chest
compression.  This technique provides
basic emergency life support until  more
advanced  life support can  be  added.
More  important,   it  keeps oxygenated
blood flowing  to  the brain  and other
vital organs until appropriate medical
treatment can restore normal heart
action.

     Cardiopulmonary  Resuscitation is
based on three basic rescue skills, the
"ABC's of CPR."
                              3-27-

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                                               NOTES
     Airway

     The most important  action for
successful resuscitation is immediate
opening of the airway.  In  opening the
airway,  it is important to remember that
the  back of  the  tongue is  the most
common cause  of airway obstruction  in
the  unconscious  victim.   Since the
tongue is attached  to the  lower jaw,
moving the lower jaw forward lifts the
tongue from the back of the throat and
opens the airway.

     Breathing

     When  breathing stops,  the  body has
only the oxygen remaining in the  lungs
and  bloodstream.   It has  no oxygen
reserve.   Therefore,   when breathing
stops,  cardiac arrest  and death quickly
follow.  Rescue breathing by mouth-to-
mouth  resuscitation is the quickest,
most effective way to get  oxygen into
the victim's  lungs.  There is more than
enough oxygen in  the air you exhale  to
supply  the victim's  needs.   Rescue
breathing must be performed until the
victim can breathe on her,  or  his, own
or until  training professionals take
over.   Remember:   If  the victim's  heart
is beating,  you  must  (1)  maintain  an
open airway and  (2)  breathe  for the
victim at a rate of 12 times per minute
(once every 5  seconds).   If  the victim's
heart is not  beating,  you will have  to
perform  CPR   (mouth-to-mouth
resuscitation  PLUS chest compression).

     Circulation

     The third skill  of  CPR is  chest
compression  which  replaces  the
circulation (heartbeat) of  the victim.
This procedure results in the flow  of
blood  from the  heart  to  the lungs,
brain,   and   other   major   organs.
Remember,   never  perform chest
compression on a victim unless mouth-to-
mouth breathing accompanies  the attempt.
 Airway
Breathing
                              3-28

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                                               NOTES
Performance Guidelines and Rationale

     Single Rescuer CPR

              STEP 1

Activity

     Establish unresponsiveness and call
out for  help.  Position the victim  (4-10
seconds)

Critical Performance
                                     n
     Tap,  gently  shake shoulders  and
shout:  "Are you OK?"   Call out "help."
Turn if necessary, supporting head and
neck.  Take  adequate time.
Rationale

     One concern about teaching people
CPR  is  the  risk  of  unnecessary
resuscitation  and  possible  damage  from
unnecessarily  resuscitating  sleepers,
fainters,  etc.   A call for help  will
summon nearby bystanders.

     Frequently  the victim will be face
down.   Effective  CPR  can  only  be
provided with the victim  flat  on the
back.   The  head  cannot  be above  the
level  of   the  heart   or  CPR   is
ineffective.

     Accurate diagnosis  is  important.
Four to 10 seconds gives time to do that.

              STEP 2

Activity

     Establish breathlessness (look,
listen, feel).   (3-5 seconds)

Critical Performance

     Kneel  beside victim's  shoulder;
upper  hand on  forehead,  lower  hand
either under neck or lifting chin.  The
chin lift uses  the lower  hand to  lift
the chin while  the  neck  lift  uses the
                             3-29-

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                                                NOTES
lower  hand to  support the neck.  The
chin should be lifted so that the teeth
are  nearly  brought  together.    Avoid
completely closing the mouth.  Turn your
head toward the victim's  foot  with your
ear directly over and close to victim's
mouth.  Listen and feel for evidence  of
breathing.   Look for respiratory  effort
(rise and fall of the chest).

Rationale

     The  airway  must  be opened  to
establish breathlessness.   Many victims
may  be making  efforts at respiration
that  are  ineffective  because  of
obstruction by the tongue.

     Hearing and  feeling are the  only
true ways of determining  the presence  of
breathing.  If there is chest movement
but  you  cannot feel  or  hear air, the
airway is still  obstructed.

               STEP 3

Activity
      f n/0
     Four ventilations  (3-5 seconds).

Critical Performance

     Pinch off nostrils  with  thumb and
forefinger  of  upper  hand   while
maintaining  pressure  on  victim's
forehead to keep the head tilted.

     Open your mouth widely, take a deep
breath  and make  tight seal.   Breathe
into  victim's  mouth four  times with
complete refilling of your lungs  after
each breath.   Watch  victim's chest rise.

     Ventilations  must be given in rapid
succession.    These are "building
breaths"--that  is,  the victim's  lungs
should  not fully deflate  after  each
breath.
  Head Tilt—Chin Lift
or Head Tilt— Neck Lift
                              3-30

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                                               NOTES
Rationale

     When  you are  beginning rescue
breathing,  it  is  important to get  as
much oxygen as possible to the victim.
If your rescue breathing is effective,
you will:

     *  feel  air going in as  you blow
     *feel  the  resistance  of  the
       victim's lungs
     *  feel  your own lungs emptying
     *  see  the rise and  fall of the
victim's chest  and belly.
              STEP 4
Activity
                                 (5-10
     Establish  pulselessness
seconds) .

Activate the EMS System

Critical Performance
     Place 2-3 fingers on voice box just
below chin.   Slide fingers into  groove
between voice box  and  muscle, on side
next to rescuer.   Other hand maintains
head tilt.

     Palpate the carotid pulse.

     Know  your local EMS or rescue unit
telephone number.  Send second rescuer
to cal1.

Rationale

     This  activity should  take  5 to 10
seconds because it takes  time to find
the right place, and the  pulse  itself
may be slow or very weak and rapid.  The
victim's  condition must  be properly
assessed.

     Notification of  the EMS system at
this time allows  the  caller  to  give
complete  information  about the victim's
condition.
                             3-31

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                                               NOTES
               STEP 5
Activity

     Begin first cycle:  15 compressions
and 2 ventilations  (54-66 seconds).

Critical Performance

     To begin  first cycle:

     Move to  victim's  chest.   Run
fingers up lower  margin  of the rib cage
and  locate  sternal notch  with  middle
finger.  With index finger on sternum,
place heel of hand closest  to head on
sternum next to, but not covering, index
finger.   Place second  hand on  top of
first.

     Position  body:

     Weight is transmitted vertically,
elbows  should be  straight and locked,
shoulders over hands.

     Say  mnemonic at proper  rate and
ration.    (Count  aloud to establish
rhythm;  "one-and-two-and-three-and-
four-and"...)

     Compress smoothly  and evenly,
keeping fingers off victim's ribs.  The
rescuer  must apply  enough  force to
depress the sternum  1  1/2-2 inches, at a
rate of 80 compressions  per minute.

     Ventilate properly:

     After every  15 compressions,
deliver 2 rescue breaths.

Rationale

     Precise hand placement is  essential
to avoid serious injury.

     50% of compression is downward to
empty   the   heart,    50%   of
compression/relaxation is upward  to fill
the heart.  With each compression, you
                             3-32-

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                                                NOTES
want to squeeze  the  heart or increase
pressure  within the  chest  so  that blood
moves to  the vital organs.

     Adequate  oxygenation must be
maintained.

               STEP 6

Activity

     At the end of 4 cycles,  check for
return of  pulse and breathing.

Critical  Performance

     Check pulse and breathing.  If no
pulse, resume CPR.  If  there  is a pulse
but  no   breathing,   apply  rescue
breathing.

Rationale

     To establish whether there  is a
spontaneous  return  of   pulse  or
breathing.

     Now  that we have discussed the
three most serious medical emergencies
that might occur during field activi-
ties,  let's discuss  six other medical
emergencies that could  be very serious
or life-threatening.

     Traumatic  injuries  to  the  head,
neck or back
     Shock resulting from injuries
     Overexposure  to heat or cold
     Thermal  burns  that  are deep or
extensive
     Inhalation of toxic gas
     Chemical   contact  that  is
concentrated or extensive

Emergency Treatment  for Head, Neck and
Back Injuries

     Head  Injury                                   ,/>—*^

     Any  time  a person  is  found          '   ^^'
unconscious,  assume that  a head injury
                              3-33

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                                               NOTES
is  possible
accordingly.
and  treat  the  victim
     Maintain an  open airway so that the
person will  be able to breathe.  Keep
the  person   lying down,   quiet  and
comfortably  warm.   Do  not  move  the
person any more than may be  necessary to
maintain  an open  airway.

     Neck Injury

     If a person has a neck injury, it
is particularly important  to prevent the
head from moving in any  direction and
damaging  the  spinal cord.  If the person
is having difficulty breathing,  tilt the
head back slightly and very gently to
maintain  an open  airway.

     Back Injury

     Maintain an  open airway so that the
person will  be able to breathe.  Keep
the  person   lying down,   quiet  and
comfortably  warm.   Do  not  move  the
person any more than may be  necessary to
maintain  an open  airway.

Moving Persons with Head, Neck or Back
Injuries

     If it is necessary to move someone
who  has  possible  head,  neck  or  back
injuries,  it  is  important  to keep the
head from  moving  in  a   different
direction,   sideways,  backward  or
forward.   It  is  important  to keep the
back from bending in any direction.  Do
not let the victim's neck or back twist
or bend.

     If  it is necessary to  rescue  a
person with a neck or back injury, or to
move the victim  in an emergency,  take
special steps to keep the head in line
with the  body and to keep the body from
bending  or twisting.   If   an  injured
person has to be  dragged  to safety,
pull the  person in  the direction of the
length of the body  by  the armpits or by
                              3-34

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                                               NOTES
the legs.

     In some cases, a board can be used
to immobilize an injured person's neck
or back.  The board should  be  tied  to
the person's body around the forehead,
under the armpits and around the hips or
lower abdomen.

     To prevent neck injuries a towel or
newspaper can be rolled  into a  collar
about  four  inches  wide  and used  to
immobilize  the  victim's  head.  The
collar  is  wrapped around the  injured
person's neck and tied  in  place  gently
but firmly (to hold it in place without
constricting the person's throat  or
putting too much  pressure  on the
person's neck.)

     If it  is  necessary to  transport
someone with a neck or back injury to a
hospital, keep the person lying down and
try to keep the person's  head and body
in their normal position.  The person's
neck and back can be pillowed with some
soft objects such as folded  sweaters,
shirts  or newspapers.

Emergency Treatment  for  Heat and Cold
Stress

     See Heat and Cold Stress Unit.

Emergency Treatment for  Thermal Burns

     Thermal  burns   can  be  life-
threatening  if they are deep, extensive
or  located  on critical  areas  of the
body.  Burns on the hands,  feet,  face
and  genital  areas  are  especially
dangerous.

     This  section  is   limited  to  a
discussion of emergency treatment for
severe  thermal burns.   (Burns that cause
blistering  are classified as second-
degree burns, and  burns that char  or
burn through the  skin are classified  as
third-degree burns.)
                            3-35

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                                               NOTES
     Any thermal burn from hot chemicals
should  be recognized  and treated not
only as  a thermal burn,  but also as a
chemical exposure  that may  require
additional treatment  for  effects of the
chemical on the skin and in  the  body.
Chemical burns will  be discussed in a
later section of this unit.

     The objectives of emergency first
aid for serious burns are to:

     Prevent further  injury and promote
healing.

     Prevent and treat shock.

     Prevent contamination.

     Preventing Further Injury

     Thermal  burns can  cause further
injury if a person runs with  clothing
on fire,  or if no action is taken to
cool hot or burning clothing and the
burned  skin.

     Thermal burns will be serious if a
person's  clothing catches  fire,  and they
can be  fatal  if the person runs (as some
are likely to do).  It is vital to stop
a person from running if her, or his,
clothing is on fire,  and  to get her, or
him, to  drop  to the floor or ground so
that the  flames will not burn  as rapidly
and so that the person's  face is not in
the path of smoke and flames.  As soon
as  the  person is  horizontal,  try to
snuff out the  flames and cool  smoldering
clothing.  Roll the person, use a fire
blanket, use water, or even use a fire
extinguisher.   Then treat  the  person for
the thermal  burns  and for shock.

     Burns on  the  face,  nose or  mouth
may be accompanied by burns within the
airway that  will  keep the person from
breathing.  Be sure a person with such
burns is breathing.   Maintain an open
airway  and  give  mouth-to-mouth
resuscitation  if necessary.
                             3-36

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                                               NOTES
     Usually the first emergency measure
in case of serious thermal burns is to
stop further burn  injury by cooling the
burned  area.   Thermal  burns  will
continue to get worse  as  long  as hot,
smoldering  or melted  clothing is in
contact with  the  skin, and as  long as
the  skin  is  much  hotter  than  normal.
Hot  wet clothing should  be  removed
immediately.   If you try to  remove
burned  clothing  from  the  victim,  be
careful not to remove  any  of his skin
that may be sticking to  the  clothing.

     Use of ice or ice water  is not
recommended to cool third  degree burns
because it may  intensify the shock
reaction.    Use   of   water  is  not
recommended where the skin is  broken
because the water may increase the
danger of infection.

     Preventing and Treating Shock from
Burns

     Shock can complicate every  type of
burn.  A person with "burn shock" may
die  unless   she, or  he,  receives
immediate first aid.   In  "burn  shock"
there is a massive loss of fluid from
the  burned  areas.  There  may  not be
enough  blood  volume  left  to  keep the
brain,   heart,   and  other   organs
functioning normally.

     Have victim  lie  down.    Place
victim's head  and  chest a little lower
than the rest  of the body.   Elevate the
legs slightly if possible.

     If  the victim is conscious  and can
swallow, give  the  person plenty  of non-
alcoholic  liquids  to drink  (water,  tea,
coffee,  dilute salt solution).

     All thermal burns that destroy the
skin  (third  degree burns)  and  all
thermal burns that cause blistering on
large or critical  areas should  be seen
by  a medical  facility  as  soon  as
possible.
                             3-37-

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                                                NOTES
     Preventing  Contamination

     Place the cleanest available cloth
material  over all burned body areas to
exclude air and prevent contamination.
A covering for  burns should  be dry.
Clean newspaper  can be  substituted if no
clean cloth is  available.

Emergency Treatment for Shock Resulting
from Injuries

     Any serious  traumatic injury can
also  cause shock  which can be  life-
threatening.   Shock depresses  normal
body functions by causing the blood to
pool  in  the  body  core so  that
insufficient oxygen  reaches the brain
and other vital  organs.

     Shock can result  as a side effect
of all serious  injuries, from traumatic
loss of blood or other  body  fluids, and
from  too  little  oxygen reaching  the
lungs.   Shock should  be expected in
any  serious  medical emergency  during
field  activities.   First aid  for  any
life-threatening emergency should always
include prompt treatment for shock.

     Signs and  symptoms of  shock  can
include:

     Restlessness,  anxiety, unusual
thirst, weakness, unresponsiveness

     Eyes  that  look dull  and  sunken,
pupils widely dilated

     Skin  cool and clammy, or pale or
bluish

     Breathing   rapid,  shallow,
irregular

     Pulse  rapid and weak

     To treat or prevent shock:

     Keep the victim lying down.
                             3-38'

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                                                NOTES
     Keep  the airway open.

     Raise the  victim's  feet  if you can
safely do  so.

     Keep the  victim warm  enough to
prevent loss of body heat.

     Give  fluids only if  the victim does
not have head or abdominal  injuries, and
if it  will be more than one hour before
the victim can  reach a hospital.  Do not
give alcoholic  beverages or stimulants.

     Try to reassure the  victim and keep
him calm.

Emergency Treatment for Inhalation of
Toxic Gas

     The  first  step  in emergency
treatment  for inhalation  of toxic gas is
to get  the  exposed person out  of the
toxic  atmosphere exposure, without
exposing anyone else and  multiplying the
problem.   Unless  the  toxic gas exposure
was  the  result of a  sudden  localized
leak  or  a  passing  cloud  of gas  (a
transient  exposure),  rescue will require
two people equipped and trained to use
self-contained breathing apparatus.  (In
some very  unusual atmospheres  that might
exist within a chemical plant,  fully-
encapsulating suits may also be required
for  safe  rescue.   See  the unit  on
Industrial Plant  Hazards  for detailed
information  on  hydrogen  cyanide.)

     Death or  serious  injury may be
prevented  by removing the exposed person
from the exposure  area and by providing
mouth-to-mouth  resuscitation.   If there
is  an  antidote  for  the  chemical
exposure,  it  should  be available  if
there has  been adequate preparation.

     Once  a person exposed  to a  toxic
gas or vapor has  been removed from the
exposure, it  is  safe  to administer
mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.   There
                             3-39-

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                                               NOTES
will be very little gas or vapor in the
respiratory  system  of the exposed person
and  what there is will  be exhaled
gradually  (in dilute  concentrations)
only after  the  rescuer  has  forced air
into the victim and taken his mouth away
from the victim's mouth.

     Inhalation of a few breaths  of
concentrated  toxic gases or vapors  of
some chemicals is likely  to be followed
by almost  instantaneous  collapse and
cessation of  breathing  (examples are
hydrogen sulfide  and hydrogen  cyanide).
However, even  if breathing stops because
of such an  exposure,  the heart  will
usually continue  beating  for some  time.
Therefore,  immediate mouth-to-mouth
resuscitation  and emergency  medical
treatment  are very  effective  in
preventing death.

     If a person  exposed  to a toxic gas
or vapor is  not  breathing, give  mouth-
to-mouth resuscitation  (or  some other
form of artificial respiration)  until
normal  breathing  resumes or until  a
resuscitator is available.  (If a toxic
liquid  has been splashed on the victim's
face,  wash  it off  quickly  before you
begin mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.)

     Continuing emergency treatment of a
person  exposed to  a toxic gas or vapor
should  include treatment for shock and
keeping  the exposed person as quiet as
possible.   Do  not give  the exposed
person  any alcoholic beverage.

Emergency Treatment for Chemical Contact
by Splashes

     Chemicals in contact with the eyes
and  skin can cause serious or  life-
threatening emergencies that must  be
treated quickly.  One drop of corrosive
chemical in an eye can cause permanent
blindness and splashes  or  corrosive
chemicals  on  the skin can  cause
permanent  tissue  destruction.    Some
chemicals splashed  on a large portion of
                             3-40

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                                              NOTES
the body  can cause death if they are not
washed off quickly.

     Washing splashed chemicals from the
eyes  and  body is  the  most  important
emergency   treatment.    It  takes
precedence   over  seeking  medical
assistance.

     If chemicals come in contact  with
the eyes or body,  flush  the  chemicals
off  as quickly  and  as  thoroughly  as
possible.   Use  copious amounts  of
potable water and wash for at least 15
minutes.   Splashes  of hot, concentrated
or  corrosive  chemicals  will usually
require washing for a longer period,  up
to several hours.

     In case of chemical splashes in the
eyes or on more than a small area of the
skin, emergency  treatment by flushing
with water should always be followed by
medical examination.  Make sure that the
medical  facility knows as  much  as
possible about the chemicals splashed or
contacted, particularly if the chemical
may have been absorbed so that further
diagnosis and treatment are  needed.
(There have been deaths  as the result of
material  absorbed from  massive splashes
with chromates and  nitrates.)

     Emergency Treatment for Chemical
Splashes ^n the Eyes

     The   most  important   emergency
measure, if chemicals  are splashed in
the eyes, is immediate washing  of the
eyes with large  quantities  of potable
water.  To wash  the eyes and exposed
surfaces effectively, hold  the eyelids
open and try to get the injured  person
to  roll  his  eyes while  you  are
irrigating with water.   The eyes and the
inside of the  eyelids should  be washed
for  at least 15 minutes  before  any
effort is made  to go to a  medical
facility for follow-up treatment.
                            3-41

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                                                NOTES
     Immediate washing with  water is
essential,  and only a few seconds  delay
can  result in  some  permanent damage.
Washing  the  eyes thoroughly  is  more
important  than  reaching  a  medical
facility,  and  washing should  not be
delayed for any reason.  A victim should
be  transported for  medical attention
only after  a thorough washing.

     Chemical burns to the eyes may be
aggravated  by  soft  or  extended-wear
contact lenses  which can accumulate some
chemicals.   Hard  contact  lenses  may
complicate  effective  irrigation of the
eyes, even  though they may not  aggravate
a chemical  injury.

     Eyes should not be irrigated with
any neutralizing agents as an  emergency
treatment.   Any  neutralizing  solution is
less effective  than plain water, because
of the physiological  characteristics of
the  eye.   Any acid in  a  neutralizing
solution will tend to  react  with the
protein  in  the  cornea  to  form  an
insoluble  barrier which  will prevent
washing  out of any alkaline  solution
trapped  under  the  barrier.   Medical
tests  have shown that  washing  with
potable  water  is  the most  effective
emergency treatment available  in field
situations.

     Emergency  Treatment  for  Chemical
Splashes  on  the  Skin

     The  most  important  emergency
measure in case chemicals are splashed
on the skin is  immediate  washing  with
large quantities of potable water.  To
keep chemicals  splashed on  clothing from
being washed through the cloth or onto
the skin, remove splashed clothing and
wash the  chemicals  from  skin with large
quantities of water.  Speed and thorough
washing  are important  to reduce  the
extent of injury.

     If the chemical has splashed on the
victim's face or been inhaled, if will
                              3-42-

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                                               NOTES
be  important to see that there  is  an
open airway so the victim can breathe.

     Remove all contaminated  clothing
and  shoes,  and  all clothing  that  may
accumulate contaminated wash water.   In
case of a  splash on the  body,  it will
usually be  necessary to  remove  all
clothing.

     Physical  removal  of  splashed
chemicals  may be speeded up by use of a
wash cloth or by use of a detergent.   In
no case,  however, should any attempt be
made to neutralize splashed chemicals.

     Since washing chemicals  off of a
person will  dilute  and  spread  the
chemicals,  rescuers  should recognize  the
potential  spread of contamination  to
themselves   and  the  immediate
environment.  If gloves and protective
clothing  are available within  a  few
seconds, so there is very little  delay
in emergency washing,  the rescuers  may
want to wear the protection to reduce
their contact with  splashed chemicals.
After  the  victim has been washed,  the
rescuers will have to wash themselves to
prevent any  injury from the chemical
which has  been washed off the victim.

     The cold  water  from a  hose  or
safety shower  will reduce chemical
activity  and  burning during the initial
15  minute flushing.   For  prolonged
washing it will be desirable to find a
source  of  water in which the temperature
can  be adjusted to prevent traumatic
shock.

     If the area of  chemical contact is
extensive or the period of washing  has
to be prolonged, you will have  to  treat
the victim for shock.   If the  splashed
person is  conscious and can swallow,
give him plenty of non-alcoholic liquids
to drink.
                             3-43-

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          UNIT  4 HEAT AND COLD STRESS
EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES                               NOTES

     o The  student should  be able  to
recognize the causes of heat stress.

     o The  student should  be able  to
identify the symptoms of heat stroke.

     o The  student should  be able  to
 identify  the  symptoms  of  heat
exhaustion.

     o The  student should  be able  to
identify the symptoms of heat cramps.

     o The  student should  be able  to
identify the symptoms of sunburn.

     o The  student should  be able  to
list the  ways  heat  stress can  be
prevented.

     o The  student should  be able  to
summarize the medical  treatments for
various degrees of heat stress.

     o The  student should  be able  to
identify the causes of cold stress.

     o The  student should  be able  to
identify the symptoms of Hypothermia.

     o The  student should  be able  to
identify the symptoms of frostbite.

     o The  student should  be able  to
identify the symptoms of frostnip.

     o The  student should  be able  to
list the  ways  cold  stress can  be
prevented.

     o The  student should  be able  to
summarize the medical  treatments for
various degrees of cold stress.
                              4-1

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HEAT AND COLD  STRESS
NOTES
     Field  crews  often experience a
variety of problems and discomforts.  By
careful training and preparedness many
of these problems can be circumvented or
prevented.   In the  case of  adverse
weather conditions,  personnel  must rely
on careful preparation before  going out
in the field.  Early recognition of
signs of weather related health problems
and a well organized and rehearsed emer-
gency treatment program are needed.

Heat Stress

     Warm  blooded  animals such as the
human being maintain a very precise body
temperature.   A slight deviation from
the normal 98.6  internal temperature can
dramatically  alter the behavior of the
body  and  its  functions.   As external
temperatures are increased, heat due to
metabolism, increase internal  tempera-
ture, and the body responds by working
to reduce the  unwanted heat. The result
is increased  heat  rate,  body  tempera-
ture,  respiration and perspiration or
heat stress.   This  additional  burden on
the body functions can result  in a var-
iety of adverse health effects ranging
from cramps to collapse and even death.

CAUSES

     Heat stress is caused by external
heat sources  such  as  high ambient air
temperature  and direct sunlight  or
internal sources such as heavy work or
protective  gear such  as encapsulated
suits or SCBA  units.

EXTERNAL HEAT  SOURCES

     Advanced planning and preparation
will   lessen  the  chance  of adverse
health effects from high temperature.
Work which requires long    hours in the
sun  should be scheduled  if   possible
in  a  time    of    the   year  when
temperatures  are moderate.  If the work

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must  be  done during  the hot season
daily scheduling should be arranged so a
most  of the  strenuous work or work in
direct sunlight, can be accomplished in
the cooler  morning or  evening hours.

     If possible,  investigate ambient
air temperatures before scheduling work.
At  some  industrial   sites,  heat
generating  processes may shut down
during certain times of the day.

     Other  external factors such as high
humidity and altitudes may increase the
effects of  heat on the body.

INTERNAL HEAT SOURCES

     Many factors  may  affect the amount
of heat generated by  the body.   Human
factors   such  as   inadequate
acclimatization,  fatigue,  physical
condition,  the  effects  of alcohol
consumption,  cardiac and respiratory
conditions  and some medications all can
cause increased body stress under high
temperatures.  Before Agency personnel
are assigned work  requiring exposure to
some form of heat  stress,  a Preliminary
Medical  Monitoring program  should be
conducted.  Any indication of systemic
diseases  or other  physical  problems
should be carefully considered before
the employee  is  assigned to a team
working in high stress areas.

PRELIMINARY  ASSESSMENT

     The following  factors should  be
considered  before  committing Agency
personnel to an area of potential high
heat stress.
     o Normal ambient air temperatures
for the time  Agency personnel will be at
the  site.
     o  Forecast winds and humidity
     o Human factors  such  as  medical
problems,  accumulation   and  physical
condition of  the crew.
     o  Exposure to direct sunlight
     o Proximity  of  additional heat
sources such  as vats,  stacks, or pipes.
NOTES
                               4-3

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     o Required  use  of heat retaining
 equipment such as encapsulating  suits,
respiratory  gear, outer  wear such as
rain gear or  disposable suits
     o Overall work load such as lifting
and climbing
     o Amount of prior acclimatization
the crew members  have had.

EMERGENCY INFORMATION

     Once  a  site  has  been  scheduled
advanced preparations should  be made in
the event of  an emergency problem.  The
following steps should  be  taken.

     o Locate your exact  position on a
map.  Or in an industrial site.  Be sure
you  can give  adequate  directions  to
ambulance or  emergency crews.
     o Determine the exact  location of
the nearest emergency treatment  center.
In  case an  emergency vehicle  is  not
available, be sure you  know how to find
the emergency center.

     o Find  the phone numbers  of any
emergency center, emergency crew and
ambulance.
     o Locate a source  of  water  for
emergency cooling or a  room that  is air
conditioned.
     o Make sure at least one member of
the crew is  well  versed in emergency
first-aid for heat  stress victims.

ON-SITE WORK  SCHEDULES

     Plan to arrive early in the morning
while  it  is relatively cool.  Lifting
and hauling should  be done immediately.

     If work  is  to be  done during the
heat of the day in the hottest months of
the year, be  sure  to include time for
adequate rest periods.  Rest gives the
body an  opportunity to  rid itself  of
accumulated  heat,  slows production of
internal body heat, and provides greater
blood flow to the skin  for cooling.

     If  respiratory  equipment  or
                              4-4

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encapsulating suits will be worn without
cooling vests when ambient temperatures
are expected to  be over 90 degrees F,
schedule work periods  of  only 15 to 20
minutes at a time.  Factors such as the
exact type  of suit worn,  provision of
cooling devices, amount of direct sun,
and  the  amount  of physical  activity
involved will affect the maximum working
time at any ambient air temperature.

EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES

     Careful planning  in  bringing the
right equipment and supplies can not
only reduce  workloads thus generation of
internal body heat, but can also protect
against or  prevent the exposure  that
lends to heat stress.

     The  following   equipment  and
supplies should be considered when heat
stress is a  possibility:
     o A reliable air  thermometer for
continuous surveillance of ambient air
temperatures.
     o An  oral  fever  thermometer for
surveillance of internal body heat.
     o Block and tackle  for  hoisting
heavy equipment.
     o A large beach type umbrella or
tarpaulin  to protect  personnel  from
direct sunlight.
     o Protective  heat shields,
insulating or reflective materials for
intense heat areas.
     o Electric  fans,  blowers or other
ventilating  equipment.
     o Large insulated containers  of
cool  liquids both for  drinking  and
cooling.
     o Towels, blankets, sponges, and a
plastic basin  for  emergency cooling
procedures.
     o First aid kit
     o Emergency communication equipment
for use between ground crews and those
at locations such as  smoke  stacks or
pits.
     o  Body  replacement  fluids
containing salts or other electrolytes
that are lost during perspiration, 2-3
NOTES
                              4-5

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gallons  per day  per individual  of a
solution of Gatorade, ERG, Squincher, or
salt water made up of 1  teaspoon per 5
quarts of water  are required.

CLOTHING

     Clothing worn by personnel should
be  selected to reduce  heat load.   In
general clothing  should be  selected to
reduce heat load.   In general clothing
should be  light in color absorbent and
reflective.  In direct  sunlight  special
precautions should be taken to cover the
head and wear shatter proof  sun glasses.
When ambient temperatures are below 100
degrees  F, clothing should be loose-
fitting, porous and preferably made of
cotton rather than synthetics or wool.
If  ambient temperatures  exceed  100
degrees F,  loose fitting  clothing
covering all exposed skin areas should
be worn.

PREPARATIONS FOR EMERGENCY TREATMENT

     The possible  effects of heat stress
should  be  taken  as seriously  as  any
other life-threatening hazard.  Field
crews  should  be  trained  to quickly
recognize the symptoms  and react
accordingly.  Heat  stress victims should
be tended to as  quickly as possible.  If
help is more than 10 minutes away crew
members should administer first aid.

     Vital  information such  as  location
and  phone number of emergency help,
description on  crew   location  and
pertinent  medical information of crew
members should be  located in a centrally
kept place such  as  a crew vehicle.

     Evacuation   plans  should  be
discussed  with  the entire crew and, if
possible, practiced before  work  begins.
Stretchers,  harnesses,  or  block  and
tackle should not  only be brought to the
site but made readily available to crews
that might need  them.
                                                NOTES
                               4-6

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ON-GOING EVALUATION
     Ambient conditions are subject to
change during a working day.  Conditions
such as temperature, humidity and wind
should be recorded before  work begins
and throughout the day at regular pre-
determined intervals.  Two  members
should be assigned  this  task  with one
acting as a back-up  in case the first
forgets  or  is  pre-occupied.    As
monitored conditions  change  increase
vigilance for  signs of  heat stress will
be necessary.

     In situations where it  is necessary
to be on the site for more than one day
a careful evaluation of  the  need for
supplies to be replenished  and for new
equipment, due to changing  conditions,
assessed.  Remember what  is the respon-
sibility of everyone quickly becomes the
responsibility on no one.   Assign the
task of equipment  and supply evaluation
to one responsible member  of the crew.

     If possible two crew  members should
be given the  responsibility of  visually
monitoring crew members for  signs of
heat  stress.   When  one   of   the
responsible members is  in doubt,
consultation with the  other observing
member  should  be  held.  Visual checks
should  be  made and  recorded  at  pre-
determined intervals.  Crews should be
reminded of  the necessity  to  replace
lost body fluids on a regular basis.  It
if recommended that under heat stress,
personnel  should drink  every 15 minutes
to one hour depending on  the heat load.
Under  extreme heat  conditions,  oral
temperatures  should be  taken  and
recorded at breaks to detect the onset
of heat stress problems.

Recognizing the Symptoms of  Heat Stress

     Heat stress  manifests itself in
four disorders. From the most sever to
the least:
     Heat Stroke
     Heat Exhaustion
     Heat Cramps
     Sunburn
NOTES

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HEAT- STROKE
NOTES
     Heat stroke  (sometimes called sun
stroke) is the most serious of the heat
stress disorders.  In its most serious
form  it is  lethal.   It results  from
excessively high body temperature which
in turn disturbs or interferes with, the
body's own heat regulating system.

     Normally, the body sweats producing
moisture for  skin  evaporation.   As most
individuals know from standing wet in a
breeze,  evaporation is  an effective
cooling  process.   During heat  stroke
this  perspiration evaporation  cooling
process is interrupted with a resultant
quick rise in internal body temperature.

     Continuous  exposure  to  high
temperatures  for as little as  three
hours  can  produce heat stroke.   RAPID
COOLING IS URGENT  TO PREVENT DEATH.

     Symptoms of heat stroke:
     Any or all of these symptoms may be
present:
     o Body  temperature is extremely
high,  often 106 degrees and above.
   o Skin is  red,  hot and  dry.  Sweating
is absent.
     o Pulse  is rapid and  strong.
     o Possible convulsion or collapse
     o Possible delerium,  disorientation
or unconsciousness.

     If the person's body temperature is
elevated to 104  degrees  F or above
(orally)  but  sweating is occurring,  the
person is probably in a  stage  just be-
fore heat stroke.  The person should be
treated for heat stroke.

Emergency Response to Heat Stroke

     In  the   advent  of   heat  stroke,
action must be taken immediately if the
life is to be saved.
     o Call for emergency  help
     o COOL THE PERSON RAPIDLY.  Remove
the person from the heat  stress area, to
an air-conditioned room ,  vehicle, or as
                               4-8

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a minimum to a shaded area.  Remove the
person's clothing and begin to  bathe the
body continuously with water, chilled if
possible.  Fans or air currents such as
a  hand fanning  will assist in  the
cooling-evaporation  process.   If
possible submerse  the body completely in
chilled water and message continuously.
Apply cold packs  if  available.

     In the  event the victim  is in a
position such as  on  a  smoke stack where
it  is  difficult to  immerse them in
water,  remove the  clothing and  use a
sponge and basin to bathe the body until
help arrives.   Monitor the victims body
temperature.   When the back of the hand
held against  the victims  check  indicates
normal  skin  temperature, or  when the
internal  body temperature reads  101
degrees  F or  below,  discontinue  the
cooling process.  Wrap the person in a
blanket to prevent shock.   If the  person
is  conscious,  let  the person  sip
liquids.    Do not  give alcoholic
beverages or stimulants such as coffee
or tea.

     If the  person's  body temperature
begin to rise again, repeat the cooling
process.

Prevention of  Heat Stroke

     The likelihood of heat stroke can
be lessened by protecting your body from
radiant heat,  breaking the work day into
short work-rest  periods, and  drinking
enough fluids to replace those lost by
sweating.

HEAT EXHAUSTION

     Heat exhaustion  is  also  known as
heat  prostration  or heat collapse.
Although heat exhaustion is considered
less  severe  then  heat  stroke,  it is
recognized that failure to quickly treat
heat exhaustion can  lead  to heat stroke.

     Heat exhaustion  is  the result of
cardiac  insufficiency  stemming  from
      NOTES
(f
                              4-9

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failure of the circulatory system to
compensate  for  increased  blood flow
demands imposed by a need to cool the
body  and  from  dehydration  caused by
profuse sweating.

     If  recognized  and  treated
immediately,  heat  exhaustion usually
results in no  permanent damage.

     Symptoms  of Heat Exhaustion

     o Body temperature  is  normal or
slightly elevated or reduced.
     o Skin is clammy and pale, moist
profuse sweating.
     o Pulse  may be weak with low blood
pressure.
     o  The person is tired and weak.
     o The  person may  complain of
dizziness,   giddines,  fainting is
possible.
     o Possible muscle cramps
     o Possible nausea or vomiting
     o The  mental state  is generally
rational

     Emergency treatment  of  heat
exhaustion: Early  recognition of heat
exhaustion is necessary if heat  stroke
is to be prevented.

     o Move the victim into shade, or a
air-conditioned  room or  vehicle.
     o Have  the person lie down.
     o Elevate the feet 8"-12"
     o Loosen  tight fitting clothing
     o If the  victim is conscious, have
the person  sip a  glass of elecholyte
replacement solution  such as Gatorade,
ERG  or Squicher.   Repeat every 15
minutes  for  1  hour.    Stop  fluids if
vomiting occurs.

     If the symptoms persist or  return
summon medical help immediately.

Prevention of  heat exhaustion

     To  prevent  heat  exhaustion,
schedule frequent rest periods.   Replace
lost body  fluids by drinking electrolyte
liquids every  15 minutes to one hour.
NOTES
                              4-10-

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Heat Cramps
NOTES
     Agency  personnel  working prolonged
hours where  profuse sweating takes place
experience  painful  muscle  pains and
spasms known as heat cramps.  Although
not life-treating, the resultant painful
cramps  may hinder  work  or  cause  a
potential hazardous situations such as
when working at heights.

     Heat cramps are caused by the loss
of salts (electrolytes) due  to sweating
over  a  long period  of time.  Simple
replacement of lost  fluids with water
without electrolyte  may be  insufficient
to prevent heat cramps.

Symptoms  of  Heat Cramps

     o Painful  muscle cramps and spasms
     o Heavy sweating,  vomiting,  and/or
convulsions.
     o Normal,  or near normal, pulse and
blood pressure
     o Rational behavior

Emergency Treatment for Heat Cramps

     o Quiet rest in a cool  shaded area.
     o Gentle massage of affected area.
     o If the  person  is not  vomiting,
give electrolyte fluids every 15 minutes
for on hour.

Medical  Treatment of Heat Cramps

     If the  heat cramps are  not relieved
by  giving  fluids  and the  symptoms
persist,   the  victims   should  be
transported to the  nearest medical
facility.   Persistant symptoms may be
symptomatic of heat exhaustion or the
beginning of heat stroke.

Prevention of_ Heat Cramps

     o Salt food  more  heavily than
norma1
     o Drink electrolyte solutions
     o Eat salty food during heavy sweat
producing activities.  (Salt tablets are
no longer recommended for general  use.)
                             4-11

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     If you are on a low sodium  diet or
are  taking  diuretics, consult your
physician in advance of  field activities
about replacement of salts.  Be  sure to
explain any such problems to your crew
leader.

SUNBURN

     Sunburn is the least serious of the
four heat disorders although  by  far the
most common.   It  can result in painful,
red, swollen or blistered skin that may
result  in  the inability  to continue
work.   Advanced  cases  may require
medical treatment and should be viewed
as  a  precurser  to more  serious heat
disorders.

     Sunburn is usually a first-degree
burn of the epidermis or first layer of
skin.  The affects of a  sunburn may not
be noticed or felt for many hours after
exposure.

Symptoms of Sunburn

     o Skin redness
     o Pain
     o Swelling
     oln  severe  cases, blisters,
nausea, vomiting,  chills

Emergency Treatment of Sunburn

     o Put cold water on the burned area
as quickly as  possible.
     o Severe burns should  be submerged
in cold water  or soaked with wet  cloths.
     o Elevate burned limbs
     o Do not break blister that would
increase the chance of infection.

Medical Treatment  of Sunburn

     o Seek  medical help  if  pain,
chills, and vomiting persist.

Prevention of  Sunburn

     The first line of defense against
sunburn is to cover exposed parts such
NOTES
  Y
                              4-12-

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as  the  head,  arms  and legs.  Those
individuals  whose job  requires a great
deal of exposure to  the sun should take
steps to gradually  expose the skin to
the sun for  20 minute intervals per day,
extending the time as the skin builds it
own natural protection in; the form of a
tan.  If this is not  possible or as a
safe-guard  for overexposure,  sun lotions
and sun shields  should  be used.

     Lotion and ointments  come  in
various degrees of  protection.   Those
Agency personnel with fair skin or being
exposed for the first  time should use
maximum protection.   The  level  of
protection should be gradually reduced
as the skin  tans.

     Heavy  sweating   can  reduce  the
protection levels  of ointments  and
lotion in time.  Personnel  experience
heavy perspiration   should reapply
protection approximately every hour.

     It should be remembered that the
ultraviolet  rays of  the sun which cause
sunburns, can penatrate thin layers of
cloud.  Sunburn protection  should  be
worn on days that are lightly overcast.

CCLD STRESS

     EPA personnel are often  required to
perform  field  work in cold  weather.
Such  conditions  can  lead to severe
health problems  ranging from  skin injury
to loss of fingers and toes, from frost-
bite and even death  due to hypothermia.
It  is imperative  for EPA  employees'
health and safety that adequate planning
and preparation be undertaken prior to
exposure to  cold weather conditions.

Causes of Cold Stress

     The human body  functions normally
within a very narrow range of internal
body temperatures.  Although  the body is
capable of compensating for loss of body
NOTES

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heat for short period of time, a drop of
only  5  degrees  of  internal  body
temperature usually  results  in
disruption  of normal  activities.  To
prevent this  sudden  loss  of  body  heat,
Agency personnel should recognize the
ways in which  heat can be lost.

BCCY HEAT  LOSS
     o Radiation
     o .Conduction
     o Convection
     o Evaporation

RADIATION
     Radiation  is  the  loss  of  heat
through the radiation of heat from the
body.  Exposed skin areas because of the
heat  can  lose as  much as  25% of the
body's heat.  Prevention of this type of
heat loss  is primarily by insulation, in
the form of adequate clothing,  such as
hats, gloves,  thermal underwear.

CONDUCTION

     Conduction is  the loss  of  heat
when it  is   transferred  to other
objects;  ladders,  metal surfaces, wet
clothing, snow, ice,  or water   all
resulting  in  the quick loss of  heat.
Care should  be taken  to  wear  waterproof
gloves and clothes  when  near  wet
surfaces.   Gloves should always  be  left
on during  contact with highly conductive
materials.  Clothes that are  wet should
be dried or changed immediately.

CONVECTION

     The  loss  of  heat  due  to  the
movement  of air  currents is dramatic.
Winds can result  in body heat  loss with
unbelievable  speed.   In many areas
weather forecasts include  the  estimated
effect of  winds on the body with what is
called the wind  chill index.  The wind
chill index allows you to estimate the
equivalent  temperature  based  on the
thermometer reading and the wind speed
(see Figure 4-1  ).  By determining the
wind chill judgements can be made about
    NOTES
TF38
                             4-14

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   scheduling  field  activities and  the
   amount and type of clothes  to be taken.
   To  prevent   loss   of  heat  due   to
   convection  wind  proof gear  such  as
   rubber,  vinyl  or poplin should be worn.

   FIGURE  4-1
               WIHO CHIll EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURE TABLE
                     JIT III! IIMIIIIIII |T!
    It  II  II  II II  II  II  II  I   I  -I  -II  -II  -II -II  -II  -II -II  -II
                                               NOTES
- II
    n
   ii
 til n
 ii
      ii
         ii
-y
           -I
              II
             .1
             -ii
             -it
               -II
               -41
               -It
                  -I
                  -n
                  -n
                     -ii
                    -II
                    -II
                     •II
                    -If
                    -II -41
                       -II
                       •M
                       -41
                       -II
                          -it
                         -II
                          II
                            .11
                            -41
                            -ll
                            -II
                            -41
                            -II
                               -II
                               -41
                               -II
                               -II
                              -41
                              -II
                              -II
                                 -II
                                 -II
                              cxtnc
                              -n
                                    -n
                                    -41
                                    -II
                                   -41
                                   -II
                                   -II
                                      -II
                                      -II
                                      -II
                                      -II
                                      -It
                                      -It
                                      II
                                         -41
                                         -II
                                         -II
                                        •114 Jll
                                           -II
                                           -II
                                           -II
                                           •II
                                           -III
                                           -IM
                                              -II
                                              -II
                                              -II
                                              -II
                                             -III
                                             -III
                                             -ill
                                             -III
                                             •411
                                                -II
                                                -II
                                                -It
                                                -III
                                                -III
                                                -III
                                                -in
  EVAPORATION

        Evaporation  is a  very  effective
  natural cooling process.   Moisture for
  evaporation  can  come from external
  sources such as rain or snow or internal
  sources  such as  perspiration.   External
  sources can be prevented by  waterproof
  gear.  The  same  waterproof  gear  can also
  minimize heat loss due to evaporation of
  sweat.

        Evaporation of  sweat can also  be
  reduced  by  wearing highly  absorbent
  clothing next to the skin.

      HUMAN  FACTORS  CONTRIBUTING TO
                 COLD STRESS

        Before  Agency  personnel  are
  assigned to  field activities with  the
  possibility of cold  stress, an  analysis
  of  their  general  physical  condition
  should be carried out to ascertained the
  following factors that can  contribute to
  cold  stress.
        o Cardiac or respiratory  conditions
        o Fatigue or  lack of  acclimatiza-
  tion
                                 4-15

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     o Inadequate sleep, food, or water              NOTES
     o Dehydration

PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT

     Although little can be done about
the  weather,  advance  planning  and
preparations can spell the difference
between worker hardships  and reasonably
comfortable working conditions.

     Crew chief is  responsible  for
scheduling and  should access  weather
conditions carefully during the period
Agency personnel will  be at the site.
The  possibility of  high  winds,  low
temperatures,  snow, or  rain  must  be
carefully  weighed before a  site  is
scheduled.

     On-site  conditions such as  the
openness  of the work  area,  availability
of warm  shelter, warm  food and drinks
and  drinking  water  must   all   be
considered against predicted  weather
conditions.

Availability of Crew Members
     If continuous Agency  activity is
required consideration should be given
to assigning  enough crew members  to
allow alternate personnel to continue
the  activity  while  others  warm
themselves.

     Carbon  monoxide  poisoning  and
asphyxziation are always a danger when
vehicles or  heaters are  used.  Care
should be taken to ensure  adequate vent-
ilation where these  alternate  heating
sources are used.

   PREPARATION AND PLANNING  FOR COLD
             WEATHER WORK

     A great deal of unfavorable working
conditions can be avoided  by careful  and
thoughtful planning.  Check  weather con-
ditions before scheduling outdoor work
in highly exposed areas.  Plan to rotate
crews regularly.  Determine the avail-
ability of shelter and food.
                             4-16-

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Prepare a checklist  of required
clothing, supplies, and equipment needed
for anticipated conditions.   Arrange for
temporary shelter  if  none exists at the
site.   Arrange  and discuss  emergency
plans for treatment  and evacuation if
necessary.   Prepare for a change of
scheduling  if prevailing weather condi-
tions  change   during  scheduled
activities.  Carry a portable radio or
monitoring equipment to keep  informed of
predicted  or   changing  weather
conditions.   Locate  communications
equipment  such as two way  radios or
telephones.   Schedule activities to make
maximum use of the warmer daylight
hours, including equipment retrevial and
egress from  the site.  Make  allowances
in scheduling  for the extra tJir.e and
added  fatigue  heavy  clothing  adds.
Assign two  members of a team to monitor
weather on  a regular basis  and  to
evaluate the  physical condition of team
members.  Prepare supplies,  equipment,
clothing, blankets,  and food  for the
worst   possible  scenerio  of being
stranded at the  site.

     SELECTION OF CLOTHING FCP COLD
             WEATHER WOPK

     The proper selection of  clothing is
the best possible defense against cold
stress.   Clothing should be  selected
keeping  three factors in mind:
     o Insulation Value
     o Absorption ability
     o Wind resistance

     Studies  have shown that multiple
layers of clothing  have more  insulating
volume than single thick layers of equal
thickness.  Each layer traps air between
it and  the   next  layer to  provide an
effective insulation  layer.  Multiple
layers also have the  advantage of being
removable  one  at a time as weather
conditions or  work may  load dictate.
Inner layers should be  porous as  in
insulating   underwear.  Outer  layers
would be non-porous,  wind  and  water
proof.   Intermediate layers should be of
NOTES
                             4-17-

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good insulating properties such  as found
in wool.
NOTES
     In determining protective clothing,
be sure to give special consideration to
the  head,  hands, and  feet,  the three
areas of the body most  commonly  injured
by cold.

     Heat  loss  from the head  is  much
greater than the ratio of surface area
exposed  to the  rest of  the  body.   As
much as 25% of the entire body heat loss
may  come  from  the head alone.   Head
covering should be well  lined and loose
fitting with a means of protecting the
ears.  Since EPA  personnel often are in
areas exposed  to  high winds, some means
of securing the protection to the head
should  be considered.  Hard  hats  are
often  inadequate  for  heat loss
protection.   Insulating  head  protection
should be selected to accommodate hard
hats if requires.

     Protection for  hands  and  feet
should be selected  with  the same
properties  in mind as head protection.
Well  insulated  but  loosely fitting
materials should  be selected.  Fur lined
mittens with  water  resistant covering
are  the  best,  although gloves  may be
required  for  dexerity.  Fur  lined or
insulated  boots  in  a  size  larger  than
normally warn during warmer weather will
allow for  air  space  insulation  and
multiple layers  of socks.  Boots should
be of water  proof material such as
rubber or  leather, treated with water
proofing.   In  some instances  steel  toed
boots will be  required.  Soles should be
designed  for  sure  footing  on slippery
surfaces or in snow.  Always carry extra
pairs of socks and gloves.   Wet gloves
or socks quickly lose their insulation
value and can materially add  to  body
heat loss.  Wet socks or gloves should
be changed immediately.

SYMPTOMS OF COLD STRESS DISORDERS

Hypothermia
    Hypothermia  is the  progressive
                              4-18-

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 lowering of  body temperatures  with
 accompanying  rapid and progressive men-
 tal  and physical  collapse.  Hypothermia
 is the most serious of the cold  stress
 disorders and  is  responsible for  the
 largest percentage of cold  stress fatal-
 ities.

     A  number of factors can  induce or
 speed  up the  onset of  hypothermia.
 Extended  exposure  to   cold  with
 aggravating circumstances  such  as
 moisture, winds, fatigue,  hunger,  and
 inadequate  clothing or  shelter,  and
 heavy  perspiration with rapid cooling
 all  play a role in hypothermia.

     Hypothermia usually occurs between
 the  temperatures of 30 -  50 degrees F,
 temperatures that most people believe
 are  not dangerous.   Crew members  should
 be alert for symptoms of hypothermia,
 especially when temperatures  are  drop-
 ping rapidly or when they are exposed to
 rain,  snow, or ice.

     Hypothermia is extremely rapid when
 the  body is  submerged in cold  water.
 Even moderately cold water  at 65 degrees
 F  and  below  guickly robs the body  of
 vital  heat.   Unconsciousness and death
 may  occur as rapidly as thirty minutes
 after  submersion  in water temperatures
 of 32 degrees F.  Crew members that have
 been totally submerged in cold  water
 should be treated as extreme emergency
 cases.   Table  4-1  gives the comparison
 between exposure  to  water  temperatures
 and  unconsciousness.

 Table  4-1
Time of Life Expectancy in Water With No Exposure Suit
NOTES
                      »«•'

                lilt TIMMIllUlt

-------
     In the early stages of hypotermia
the body begins  to  lose heat faster than
it can produced it and it makes efforts
to stay warm by  shivering.   When the
body can  no  longer generate heat fast
enough  to overcome heat loss and when
energy reserves  are exhausted, a  second
stage  begins.   The  body  temperature
begins to drop.   This  affects  the
ability of the  brain to make rational
judgements and  may  result  in loss of
muscular  control of consciousness, as
Table 4-2  shows.
                                              NOTES
TABLE 4-2
Internal Bod}
  EFFECTS OF LOSS BODY TEMPERATURES
Temperature	Symptons
95 degress F and above
90 to 95 degress F
86 to 90 degress F
80 to 86 degress F
80 degress  F  and below
                    Person  is conscious  and alert,
                    but may  have shivering  that
                    becomes uncontrollable  as
                    temperature nears 95  degress F.
                    Respiration increases at first.

                    Person  is  conscious  but
                    disoriented  and apathethic.
                    Shivering   is   present,
                    diminishes  as  temperature
                    drops.  Below 93 degress  F,
                    respiratory  rate   gradually
                    deminishes and pupils begin  to
                    dilate.

                    Person is semi-conscious.
                    Shivering  is  replaced  by
                    muscualr  rigidity.   Pupils are
                    fully dilated at 86 degress F.

                    The person is unconscious and
                    respiration is diminished.

                    Respiration   is   barely
                    detectable or  nondetectable.
                    Death usually follows.
EMERGENCY TREATMENT
Hypothermia should be considered a major, medical emergency. All
but the very mild cases should be treated by qualified medical
personnel at  a medical facility.   The following onsite treatment
is for very mild cases or when waiting for medical  help to arrive.
                              4-20

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Mild Cases
    Move victim to shelter and warmth as
soon as possible.  Wet clothing should
be  removed;  it  drains  body  heat.
Replace  with warm dry clothing. Provide
beverages.

Severe Cases

    While waiting for medical treatment
remember that, in more severe  cases of
hypothermia the body has lost a great
deal  of internal body heat.   Heavy
clothes or blankets are only of value in
keeping heat in.   In the  case of
hypothermia it  is  necessary to get
external heat to  the body.   Clothing
only prevents this external heat from
reaching the body.  Therefore strip  the
victim  of  his clothes.   If  possible
submerge the victims body  in a bath of
105 to 110 degrees F water.  Remain with
the patient if there  is loss of mental
or physical ability or if the patient is
unconscious.  If  a bath is not possible,
warm towels should be wrapped around the
body particularly around the head,  neck,
sides,  and groin.  Keep the towels  warm.
Do not use hot water. If available use
electric blankets,  hot water bottles or
heating pads.

    Once the victim  has  been warmed,
wrap in blankets or sleeping bags with
an external source of heat if possible.
Although sleeping  bags  or  blankets
provide  no  heat  themselves,  they do
prevent any further heat loss.

    In remote locations with no other
heat source available lives have been
saved by body to body contact  with the
victim  being  sandwiched between  two
others.

    Victims of hypothermia  should be
checked for signs of  frostbite.

Frostbite

    Frostbite is  the  second  most severe
manifestion of cold stress.  Frostbite
is the  freezing of some part of the body
    NOTES
UaHilU'jJi
                           4-21

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as a  result of  exposure  to very  low
temperatures.  Frostbite  most  likely              NOTES
will  affect  hands,  feet,  ears,  and
exposed parts of the face.  As  long as
circulation  remains  good frostbite will
not occur.   The  chances  of  frostbite
occurring  increase  in  strong wind
conditions.

    There  are  three  stages  of  frostbite,
classified  according  to the  amount of
skin damage.  Severity  can range from
frostnip,  which only damages the surface
skin,  to  superficial  frostbite,  which
involves  the skin and  the tissues
immediately  beneath  it,  to deep
frostbite,  a  much more  serious injury
with  damage  that  may  effect deeper
tissue and even bone,  often  requiring
amputation.

Symptoms of  Frostbite

    Skin  first  turns red  and  later
becomes pale or waxy white.   There  may
be tingling  stinging,  or coldness  fol-
lowed  by numbness; or  the  frostbite  may
be unnoticed by the  person.

Superficial  Frostbite

    The skin  in  affected areas  turns
white or  gray-white  with  a  waxy
appearance.   The skin is  firm  to  the
touch moving easily across  the softer
tissue beneath.  There is usually little
or no  feeling  in  the area.

Deep Frostbite
    Tissue  is pale, cold  and solid to
the touch.    All sensation  is  lost.
Blisters and swelling follow thawing of
parts.

Emergency  Treatment
    Frostnip is easily reversed in  the
field by the application of body heat.
Placing the hands under  the armpits or
in other  warm parts of  the  body will
reverse  frostnip.   The  heat   of
respiration  can also help the  hands.   Do
not rub or massage affected areas; apply
heat.
                            4-22-

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   Superficial frostbite can be  reversed             NOTES
by application of  body heat  or  external
heat

Deep Frostbite
    Themost  effective  method  of
minimizing damage  due  to  severe
frostbite is by immediate application of
external  heat.   Remove the victim to
warm  shelter.    Remove gloves boots,
socks,  and other  clothing  that  will
prevent heat  from  reaching the  affected
area warm extremities  in a carefully
controlled bath of warm water  between
104 and  107 degrees  F until color and
feeling  return  to the  area.   If  warm
water  is  not available, warm packs or
towels between 100 and 112 degrees F, or
heating pads will suffice.   Radiant heat
such as that from a stove, fireplace or
heater,   should be  used  with  great
caution,  as  burns  may result before
feeling is restored. Never use snow to
thaw frostbite.  Never rub or  massage
frozen or damaged areas,   as this in-
creases the likelihood of tissue damage.

    Keep frostbitten areas  elevated.  Do
not allow victims to walk on frostbitten
feet.   Have the victim  move  or  exercise
toes or fingers as soon as  possible.

PREVENTION OF FROSTBITE

    Treatment of frostbite is a painful
experience that may result  in amputation
of the affected  part.  If  is far easier
to take the necessary steps to  prevent
frostbite.  Insist that crews  prepare
adequately I  for frostbite  with  warm
clothing,   shelter,   and  team
surveillance.
                             4-23-

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                           UNIT 5

                  CHEMICAL HAZARD RECOQJITION
Educational Objectives

     o The student  should be able  to
accurately define the chemical terms
needed to recognize potential hazards.

     o The student  should be able  to
differentiate between hazardous waste,
and hazardous materials.

     o The student  should be able  to
recognize a  material  as  a hazardous
material or hazardous waste.

     o The student  should be able  to
evaluate the effects of chemical and
physical properties.

     o The student  should be able  to
determine chemical compatibility.

     o The student should be proficient
in the  use of  health and hazard data
resources.

CHEMICAL HAZARD RECOGNITION

  Definitions

     Many very  important regulations
have been passed  in recent years,
regarding hazardous  materials and
hazardous wastes.  In response  to these
regulations, a great  many  informational
resources have been developed to assist
those affected by the regulations.
These resources can be very helpful  to
those who are involved in protecting the
health and safety of  all those coming  in
contact with  these hazardous substances
if time and effort are  spent collecting
and learning  to use these diverse and
sometimes very comprehensive aids.   In
order   to use informational resources
to recognize chemical hazards, it  is
necessary to  understand terms (or
"jargon").
                                               NOTES
                                   5-1

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                                              NOTES
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

     One  of  the earliest  efforts to
organize  the  handling of hazardous
materials  was instituted  by  the
Department of Transportation  (DOT) in
the 49 CFR 172.102 Hazardous Material
Tables.   This comprehensive guide is
still one of the most frequently used
sources of information pertaining to
hazardous materials available.   Many
other guides such as the Emergency Re-
sponse Guide  (ERG),  the Coast Guard's
Chemical  Hazard Response Information
System  (CHRIS), and  the National Fire
Prevention Association's Fire Protection
Guide on  Hazardous  Materials utilize
definitions  formulated by  DOT.   The
following are the most important  def-
initions:

Explosive A - Materials that have a mass
explosion  hazard such as TNT.

Explosive B - Materials that have a  fire
hazard such as solid rocket fuels.

Explosive C - Materials that have only a
relatively small hazard as compared to
explosives A and B.  Examples are common
fireworks.

Poison A - Poisonous gases or liquids
that are  extremely  dangerous  even in
very small amounts, such as hydrogen
cyanide.

Flammable Gas - A compressed gas is
considered flammable when either a mix-
ture of 13% or less (by volume) with air
forms a flammable mixture or the flam-
mable range with air is wider than 12%
regardless of the lower  limit.  Methane,
Propane,  and Acetylene are examples.

Nonflammable Gas - Those gases that will
not burn in any concentration of air or
oxygen.   A number  of  these  gases,
however, will support combustion.
Examples  are  anhydrous  ammonia  and
oxygen.
                                   5-2

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                                              NOTES
Flammable Liquid -  Any liquid with a
flash point  below 100  degrees  C.
Examples are benzene, toluene, xylene,
acrylonitrile.

Combustible Liquid -  Any liquid that has
a flash point above 100 degrees C and
below 200 degrees C.   Examples  are fuel
oil, and creosote.

Flammable Solid - Any  solid material
that is prone to cause fires through
friction  or  contact with water,  or
spontaneous combustion and when ignited,
burn vigorously.  Examples are calcium
carbide,  magnesium  metal,  potassium
metal, sodium metal.

Oxidizers - A  substance  such  as
chlorate, permanganate,  inorganic
peroxide, or a nitrate that yields
oxygen readily  to  stimulate  the
combustion  of  organic material.
Examples are calcium  hypochlorite (HTH),
hydrogen peroxide,  and ammonium nitrate.

Organic Peroxides -  An organic compound
which contains the bivalent -O-O- struc-
ture and which may be considered a deri-
vative of  hydrogen peroxide where one or
more of the hydrogen atoms have been
replaced by an  organic  radical.

Poison B - Those substances, liquid or
solid, other than Class A poisons  or
irritating substances,  that have been
considered toxic to  humans or are
presumed  to be toxic to  because they
fall  into any  one  of  the  following
categories when tested on laboratory
animals: (1)  oral toxicity,  (2)
inhalation toxicity,  (3)  skin absorption
toxicity.  Examples are  tetraethyl lead,
and potassium cyanide.

Irritant Materials - A  liquid or solid
substance  which upon  contact with fire
or  when  exposed to air  gives off
dangerous  or intensely irritating fumes.
                                  5-3

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                                                NOTES
Examples are brombenzyl cyanide,  chlora-
cetophenone,  and tear gas.

Infectious Substance/Etiologic Agent

- A viable microorganism or its toxin,
which causes or may cause human  disease
and is limited to those agents listed in
49  CFR 72.3  (c).  Examples are Polio
virus, enterotoxin,  or CSorynebacterium
diphtherias bacteria. Such agents may
be found in body parts, excreta,  sewage,
diagnostic specimens,   or  biological
products.

Radioactive Substances - Those products
which emit various types of radiation
that consists of particles or photons of
energy,  such as neutrons,  gamma rays, or
x-rays.  Examples are cesium, barium,
and uranium.

Corrosive Liquids - A  liquid that causes
visible destruction or irreversible al-
terations  in human skin or tissue at the
site of contact or in the case of leak
age from  its container, a  liquid that
has a severe corrosion rate on steel.
Examples are hydrochloric acid, sulfuric
acid,  and hydrofluoric acid.

Corrosive Solid - A solid that causes
visible destruction or irreversible al-
ternations in human skin tissue at the
site of contact.  Examples are potassium
hydroxide,  soda lime,  and sodium hydro-
xide.

ORM-A  - Items that are  anesthetic,
irritant,  or  noxious.    Examples are
carbon  tetrachloride, chloroform,  1,1,1
trichloroethane,  and  trichlorethylene.

ORM-B - Items which can damage vehicles
through aluminum corrosion.  Examples
are metallic-mercury,  and calcium oxide.

ORM-C - Catch all category.   An example
is asbestos.

ORM-E  -  Hazardous  waste category.

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                                          MUTES
Usually a mixture  of substances that
demonstrate one  or  more   of   the
characteristics of  ignitability,
reactivity, corrosivity, EP  toxicity.
The container or  shipping name usually
contains the abbreviation  NOS (not
otherwise specified.)

     The  recognition  of  hazardous
materials, wastes, or substances  can be
further aided  by the  use  of  lists
formulated by specific acts, regulations
or agencies.

THE RESOURCE CCNSERVATICN AND
RECOVERY ACT (RCRA)

     Under RCRA a waste is defined as
hazardous if it basically meets  any of
the following criteria:

     A.   1.      If   it  exhibits
ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity,
and/or extraction procedure toxicity.

         2.    If it is waste  from a
nonspecific  source,   or  discarded
commercial products, off-specification
products, container residues, or spill
residues.

         3.    If it is a  mixture of
solid waste and a hazardous waste,  and
exhibits one of more of  the following:
ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or
extraction procedure toxicity.

     Since there  are further criteria
for classifying  wastes as hazardous,
students should  refer  to  40  CFR Part
261, subpart A for further details.

     B.   EPA Hazardous Characteristics

         Definitions

         1.    Ignitability (I)  - A
solid waste is considered ignitable if a
representative sample of the  waste  has
any of the following properties:
                                    5-5

-------
                                               NOTES
              a.  It is a liquid other
than an aqueous solution containing less
than 24% alcohol  by volume and  has  a
flashpoint  less than 60 degrees C

              b.   It is not a  liquid
and  is  capable   under  standard
temperature and pressure, of causing
fire through friction, absorption of
moisture or spontaneous chemical changes
and, when ignited, burns so vigorously
and persistently  that it creates  a
hazard

              c.   It is an ignitable
compressed  gas

              d.  It is an oxidizer

         2.  Corrosivity  (C) - A solid
waste is considered corrosive if  a rep-
resentative sample  of  the  waste has
either of the following properties:

              a.  It is aqueous and has
a pH less than or equal to 2 or greater
than or equal to 12.5 as determined by  a
pH meter or other EPA approved method

              b.   It is a liquid and
corrodes steel at a rate of 6.35  mm per
year  at a  test temperature of 130
degrees F.

         3.  Reactivity (R) - A solid
waste is considered reactive if a repre-
sentative sample of the waste has any of
the following properties:

              a.    It  is  normally
unstable and readily  undergoes violent
change without detonating

              b.  It reacts violently
with water

              c.  It forms potentially
explosive mixtures with water

              d.   It generates  toxic
gases,  vapors, or fumes when mixed with
                                    5-6

-------
                                              NOTES
water  in sufficient  quantity  to  be
dangerous to  human or  environmental
health

              e.   It is a  cyanide  or
sulfide bearing  waste which,  when
exposed to pH conditions between 2.5 and
12.5 can generate  gases,  vapors,  or
fumes which present a danger to public
or environmental health

              f.    It  is  capable  of
detonation or  explosive reaction if it
is  subjected  to  a  strong  initiating
source  or if  heated under confinement

              g.   It is readily capable
of detonation or explosive decomposition
or reaction at STP

         4.  EP Toxicity (E) - A solid
waste  is considered EP toxic if using
the test methods set forth in Appendix
II  of  Part  261,  the extract from a
representative sample of  the  waste
contains any of the contaminants  listed
in table 1 at  a concentration equal to
or greater than the  value given in the
table.
                                  5-7

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                           TftHE£ 5-1

              Maximum concentration of contaminants
                for characteristic of EP Toxicity
EPS"    Maximum
hazardous               Contaminant                   concentration
waste number                                         (milligrams per
                                                     liter)

D004                    Arsenic                                5~70
D005                    Barium                               100.0
D006                    Cadmium                                1.0
D007                    Chromium                               5.0
0008                    Lead                                   5.0
D009                    Mercury                                0.2
D010                    Selenium                               1.0
D011                    Silver                                 5.0
D012                    Endrin (1,2,3,4,10-10-hexa-            0.02
                        chloro-1,7-epoxy -4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-
                        1,4-endo-5,6-dimeth-ano-naphtha lene.
D013                    Lindane (1,2,3,4,5,6-hexa-chlor-        0.4
                        ocyclohexane, gamma isomer.
D014                    Methoxychlor (1,1,1-Trichloro-
                          2,2-bis    (p-methoxy-phenyl ethane).
D015                    Texaphene (C10H10C12 Technical          0.5
                          chlorinated camphene 67-69%
                          chlorine).
D016                       2,4D, (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyaceticacid).10.0

D017                    2,4,5-TP, Silvex (2,4,5-Trichlo-        1.0
                          rophenoxypropionic acid).
          5.  Acute Hazardous Waste (H)
- A hazardous waste is considered acute
if  it (1) exhibits  characteristics
(ignitability,  corrosivity, reactivity,
EP toxicity),  (2) has been found to be
fatal to humans in low doses.   If human
data are unavailable the following ani-
mal toxicity will be considered an oral
LDso  (rat) of  less than 50  mg/kg,  an
inhalation LC50 (rabbit) of  less than
200  mg/kg.   It  is  also considered
acutely  hazardous  if it is otherwise
capable  of  causing  or  significantly
contributing to an increase in serious
irreversible  or   incapacitating
reversible illness, or (3) it contains
any of the toxic constituents  listed in
Appendix A, Figure 5.
                                    5-8

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                                               NOTES
          6.  Toxic Waste (T) - A waste
is considered toxic if it contains any
constituent listed in Appendix A,  Figure
4, using the test methods  listed in 40
CFR or meets the criteria which classify
it as capable of posing a substantial
present  or potential hazard to human or
environmental  health when improperly
treated, stored, transported, disposed
of, or otherwise managed.

     C.   Hazardous  Waste List  - For
specific Hazardous  Wastes List see
Appendix A, Figure 1.

CERCLA (SUFERFUND)

     A.   Scope/Purpose - CERCLA, enacted
December 11,  1980,  established broad
federal  authority to deal with releases
or  threats  of releases of  hazardous
substances from vessels and  facilities.
The Act  specifies an initial list  of 696
hazardous substances.

     The Act  requires the  person in
charge of a vessel or facility to  notify
the National  Response  Center
immediately when there is a release of a
designated hazardous substance in an
amount  equal to or  greater than the
reportable quantity for that substance.
The  main purpose of the notification
requirements is to alert governmental
officials of a  release of  hazardous
substances  that may require  rapid
response to protect  public and environ-
mental health.

     Appendix A, Figure 2,  fulfills the
requirement of Section  306 (a)  of  CERCLA
that all "hazardous  substances," as
defined  in CERCLA,  shall be listed as
hazardous materials  under the Hazardous
Materials Transportation Act.

     The  CERCLA List also  includes
substances listed in the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act, the Solid Waste
Disposal Act and the Clean  Air Act.
                                    5-9

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                                              NOTES
d£AN HATER ACT (1977)

     A.  Scope/Purpose - The Clean Water
Act   (formerly  the  Federal  Water
Pollution Control Act)  (1972/1977) set
forth comprehensive revisions  of
previously  existing water pollution
control laws.  Major provisions of the
Act,  as amended in 1972 were:

         1.   Standards  for direct
discharges into waters.

         2.  Standards for discharges
into publicly owned treatment works.

         3.  Provisions for responding
to,  preventing, and penalizing spills of
oil  and hazardous substances.

     Regarding  spills  of  oil  and
hazardous substances, EPA designated a
list of hazardous substances and defined
what constitutes  a  harmful discharge of
both oil and each hazardous  substance.

     The following  are chemicals  listed
by EPA under Section  307 (a) of the
Clean Water Act.  This  list includes any
toxic pollutant or combination of
pollutants which has been determined
hazardous due to the following criteria:

         1.  Toxicity of the pollutant

         2. Resistance  of the
pollutant

         3. Oegradability of  the
pollutant

         4. Its present or potential
toxic effects on aquatic organisms

     Each toxic  pollutant listed is
subject to  effluent  limitations
resulting from the application of the
best  available technology economically
achievable.  If determined by EPA,
effluent standards (which  may include a
prohibition) establishing requirements
                                 5-10'

-------
                                              NOTES
for   a  toxic   pollutant  can  be
promulgated.

     B.   Toxic  Pollutants List - For
specific  Toxic  Pollutants List see
Appendix A, Figure 3.

CHEMICALS  LISTED BY EPA UNDER
SECTION 112 OF THE CLEAN AIR ACT

          a.   Benzene

          b.   Mercury

          c.   Radionuc1ides

          d.   Vinyl chloride

CHEMICAL TERMINOLOGY

     Physical Properties

     The successful use of health and
safety  rescue guides,  in addition to
understanding definitions, requires
knowledge of  the chemistry  of the
material.  Chemicals by nature of  their
intended use, react in a variety  of ways
and  demonstrate  a  wide  degree  of
physical characteristics,  many of which
must  be understood if  they are to be
handled in a safe manner.  One of the
most  used information  sources,  the
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) relies
heavily on DOT  definitions and the
physical  properties  of  chemicals  to
diagnose potential hazards.

     1.   Density/Specific Gravity

          The density of a substance is
usually defined as mass per  unit volume
or in somewhat less accurate but  simpler
terms, the weight of a given substance
divided by the volume of  the container
it is being measured in.  The density of
1000  gms of water in  a  1000 cm3
container is 1000 gms/1000  cm3  or 1 gm
per cm3.

     The significance of densities can
be noted when investigating  or sampling
                                    5-11

-------
                                                   NOTES
a drum or tank with an open top.  If the
drum has been open to the accumulation
of rain water and the substance in the
drum is Benzene with a density of 0.879
gm per cm3, then the  Benzene is lighter
or has less density than water and will
float on top.  A sample taken  from the
top  will  most likely include  the
Benzene.  Since  Benzene  is  highly
flammable and very volatile, and to some
extent toxic, personnel working near the
container  must be  constantly  on guard
for explosion, fire, or asphyxia.

     If  in  the above  example   the
substance were Carbon disulf ide with a
density of 1.274 gm/cm3, it would be
heavier than water and would sink to the
bottom of the container below the water
layer.  A sampling device such as  the
Coliwasa would be needed  to take a true
representative  sample of  the container.
Little  or  no  danger from  fire,
explosion,  or  toxic fumes  would be
present.

     In sampling streams,  sewers, or
ponds, if the density of the substance
is greater  than 1.00 gm per cm3, then it
will be found on the bottom of the  water
layer.  If  the density is less  than  1.00
gm per cm3,  then it will be found on
top.   Table 5-2 is a list of some common
liquids and solids and their densities.
                                  5-12-

-------
          Densities of some common liquids and solids
                               Density                  Density
Substance                   (g/on3 at 20°C)          (Ib/ft3 at 68°F)
Acetone
Aluminum
Benzene
Carbon disulfide
Chloroform
Diethyl ether
Ethyl alcohol
Gasoline
Kerosene
Lead
Mercury
Silver
Sulfur
Turpentine
Water (4°C)
0.792
2.70
0.879
1.274
1.489
0.730
0.791
0.66-0.69
0.82
11.34
13.6
10.5
2.07
0.87
1.00
48.42
168.48
54.85
79.50
92.91
45.55
49.36
41.0-43.0
51.17
707.62
848.64
655.20
129.17
54.29
62.40
Vapor Density

     In most cases,  liquids or solid
density is compared to water.   In  the
case of vapors, density is compared to
air at standard atmospheric pressure  and
density, or if a direct comparison of
existing conditions,  of the ambient air.
If the  gas being measured is heavier
than air, it will have a tendency to
settle  to  the lowest physical point
before eventually dispersing.

     If, on the other hand the gas being
measured is  lighter than the ambient
air,  it will  rise and quickly disperse.

     Gases with densities greater than
air create three hazards.  First,  if  the
vapor displaces enough  air to reduce  the
atmospheric  concentration  of oxygen
below  16%  (21% is  normal) asphyxia
(death by  suffocation) may result.
Second,  if  the vapor  is  toxic, then
inhalation dangers are present.  Third,
if the gas is explosive, explosive
concentrations  may  accumulate  in
depressions, ditches, wet wells sewers,
etc.,  where they are often overlooked or
out of normal scrutiny.  Table 3-2 is a
                                  5-13'

-------
                                              NOTES
list of  common gases  that have been
compared to air = 1.  Normal density of
air at  Standard Pressure and Temperature
(STP) is  .0012 gm per cm3.

-------
                  Vapor densities of some common gases
Gas
Density
(g/1 at 0°C)
Vapor Density
(air = 1)
Acetylene
Ammonia
Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Chloride
Fluorine
Hydrogen
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide
Methane
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Ozone
Propane
Sulfur dioxide
1.16
0.76
1.96
1.25
3.17
1.70
1.09
1.63
1.21
1.52
0.714
1.25
1.43
2.14
1.96
2.86
0.899
0.589
1.52
0.969
2.46
1.32
0.07
1.26
0.938
1.18
0.553
0.969
1.11
1.66
1.52
2.22
Vapor Pressure

     Vapor pressure is defined  as  the
pressure  exerted by a vapor against  the
sides of  a closed container.  The vapor
pressure  of a substance is dependent on
temperature  and is  specific to that
liquid.   As temperature  rises, the vapor
pressure exerted on a closed container
increases,  increasing the  danger  of
rupture.   If the container is open,  the
vapor pressure is relieved by rapid
vaporization.  There is a direct rela-
tionship  between the lower boiling point
of  a lower  density liquid and  the
greater vapor pressure it will exert on
the container  at a given temperature.
In somewhat simpler  terms,  the  higher
the evaporation rate of  a  substance,  the
greater  the chances  of a build-up of
pressure  inside a heated container.

     Values for vapor pressure are most
often given as millimeters  of mercury
(mm Hg)  at a  specific  temperature.
Table 5-4 gives the  vapor pressure of
some common liquids.
                                    5-15

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             Vapor pressures of some CXJHIIKXI liquids
Temperature
(OC,
-10
0 4.6
10
20
30
50
75
100
Water
(mm of Kg)
2.1

9.2
17.5
31.8
92.5
289.1
760.0
Ethyl Alcohol
(mm of Hg)
5.6
12.2
23.6
43.9
78.8
222.2
666.1
1,693.3
Benzene
(mm of Hg)
15
27
45
74
118
271
643
1,360
 Boiling Point

     The  boiling  point  is  the
 temperature at which a liquid changes to
 a  vapor.   A major consideration with
 toxic substances is how they enter the
 body.  With high-boiling-point liquids,
 the most common method of entry is by
 body contact.  With low-boiling-point
 liquids, generally it is by inhalation.

 Melting Point

     The temperature at which a solid
 changes  to  a  liquid is  the  melting
 point.  This temperature is also the
 freezing point.

     A substance often exhibits marked
 differences  in properties depending on
 the  phase  it is in.   Liquids  may be
 explosive  or highly reactive,  while
 solids  may be  relatively  inert.
 Personnel dealing with substances that
 may exhibit a phase change should be
 aware of the dangers.

 Solubility

     Solubility is  defined  as  the
 ability of a solid, liquid, or gas to
dissolve in a solvent.   An insoluble
 substance can be physically mixed or
blended in a solvent for a short time,
but  is unchanged  when  it finally
separates.   The  solubility of a
substance is  independent of its density
or specific  gravity, but can be closely
                                 5-16'

-------
                                              NOTES
related to vapor pressure and boiling
point.

Solubility

     Solubility is  of  particular
importance when determining the  ability
of a substance to disperse or migrate
from one  area  to another,  and to the
ability to locate, sample, or recover
hazardous  materials.  Insoluble  liquids
for  example,  can be  located  in a
stratified layer in a container or on
the top or bottom of a lagoon.  Soluble
materials, on the other hand,  are
virtually  impossible to locate,  sample,
or recover once they have mixed with a
solvent.

     Although solubilities vary greatly,
water is  commonly referred to as the
universal  solvent  since nearly every
substance, at least to some degree, is
soluble in it.  Solubility is measured
in parts per million (ppm) 1 ppm = .0001
%, approximately 1 mg/1.

     Solubilities are often influenced
by  external   factors  such  as  pH.
Insoluble  heavy metal precipitates often
become quite soluble in water when the
pH is lowered.  In some cases,  pH can be
lowered by subsoil conditions.

Flashpoint:

     The definition of flashpoint is the
minimum liquid temperature at which a
spark or flame causes an instantaneous
flash  in  the vapor space above the
liquid.

     The   relative  flammability  of a
substance is based on its flashpoint.
An accepted relationship between  the two
is:

High flammability - Flashpoint less than
100 degrees F.

Moderate  flammability - Flashpoint
                                  5-17-

-------
                                                 NOTES

greater than 100 degrees F but  less than
200 degrees F.

Relatively inflammable  - Flashpoint
greater than 200 degrees F.

     Table 5-6 relates  the  physical
properties to the combustion  of Butyl
alcohol and Xylene.

                                TABLE 3-4

             Physical properties related to the combustion of
                         Butyl Alcohol and Xylene
Liquid
Boiling  Flash Fire   Autoignition Lower      Upper
Point    Point Point  Temperature  Expl.      Expl.
  (°F)    (Op)    (OF)      (OF)      Limit (%)  Limit  (%)
Butyl alcohol
Xylene
244
280
114
77
122
111.2
650
924
1.7
1.1
18.0
7.0
     Table 5-7 is a  list of the names of
general  compounds  and  families  that
exhibit  the  characteristics  of
flammability.

                                TABLE 5-7

                     Flammable Compounds and Elements
Flammable
Aldehydes
Ketones
Amines
Ethers
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Nitroaliphatics

Water-Reactive Flammable Solids
Potassium
Sodium
Lithium
                Flammable Solids
                Phosphorus
                Magnesium dust
                Zirconium dust
                Titanium dust
                Aluminum dust
                Zinc dust
                Flour

                Pyrophoric Liquids
                Qrganometallic compounds
                Dimethyl zinc
                Tributyl aluminum
                                    5-18

-------
                                                NOTES
Chemical Compatibility

     The term chemical compatibility/ at
least on the surface, appears to have a
relatively straight forward definition.
If  two  chemicals in contact with each
other do not react in any way,  they are
said to be compatible.   It should be
remembered however, that the speed of a
chemical  reaction is  dependent on
factors  such  as  temperature,
concentration, and physical state.
Chemicals which appear to be compatible
may in fact simply  be slow in reacting.
     In the  normal routine of Agency
personnel in field work, some  mixing of
chemicals is inevitable.  It is critical
for personnel working  with a variety of
chemicals to know the compatibility of
these chemicals.  The result of mixing
of incompatible chemicals could range
from the formation of highly toxic gas
to violent fire or explosion.  Table 5-8
illustrates some  of  the  results  of
mixing incompatible chemicals.
                               TAHEE 5-8

           Hazards due to chemical reactions (incompatibilities)
- Generation of heat - e.g.,  acid and water
- Fire - e.g., hydrogen sulfide and calcium hypochlorite
- Explosion - e.g., picric acid and sodium hydroxide
- Toxic gas or vapor production - e.g., sulfuric acid and plastic
- Flammable gas or vapor production - e.g., acid and metal
- Formation of a substance with a greater toxicity than the reactants -
  e.g., chlorine and ammonia
- Formation of shock- or friction-sensitive compounds
- Pressurization of closed vessels - fire extinguisher
- Solubilization of toxic substances - e.g.,  hydrochloric acid and chromium
- Dispersal of toxic dusts and  mists
- Violent polymerization - e.g., ammonia and acrylonitrile
     Understanding   chemical
compatibility must not  be left  to
chance.  A wide variety of  resources
has been developed  to assist field
                                    5-19-

-------
                                               NOTES
personnel  in this task.  Table 5-9 and
the  J.  T. Baker  Chemical  Company
Compatibility some of  the possible
incompatible combinations.
                           TABLZ 5-9
                    Non-compatible chemicals

                         DO NOT CONTACT

Alkali metals,  such as calcium, potassium, and sodium with water,
carbon dioxide, carbon tetrachloride,  and other chlorinated
hydrocarbons.

Acetic acid with chromic acid, nitric acid, hydroxyl containing
compounds,  ethylene  glycol,  perchloric  acid,  peroxides and
permanganates.

Acetone with concentrated sulfuric and nitric acid mixtures.

Acetylene with copper (tubing), flourine, bromine, chlorine,
iodine, silver,  mercury, or other compounds.

Ammonia, anhydrous with mercury, halogens, calcium hypochlorite or
hydrogen  flouride.

Ammonium nitrate with acids, metal powders, flammable fluids,
chlorates,  nitrates, sulphur and finely divided organics or other
combustibles.

Bromine with ammonia, acetylene, butadiene, butane, hydrogen,
sodium carbide,  turpentine or finely divided metals.

Chlorates  with ammonium  salts, acids, metal powders, sulfur,
carbon, finely divided organics or other combustibles.

Chromic acid  with acetic acid, napthalene, camphor,  alcohol,
glycerine,  turpentine, and other flammable liquids.

Chlorine   with  ammonia,  acetylene, butadiene, benzene and other
petroleum fractions, hydrogen,  sodium carbides, turpentine, and
finely divided powered metals.

Hydrogen peroxide with copper, chromium, iron, most metals or
their respective salts, flammable fluids, and other combustible
materials,  aniline, and nitro-methane.

Hydrogen  sulfide with nitric acid, or oxidizing gases.
                                  5-20

-------
Table 5-9  Cont'd.

Aniline with nitric acid,  hydrogen peroxide or other strong
oxidizing  agents.

Iodine with acetylene or ammonia.

Mercury with acetylene, fulminic acid, or hydrogen.

Nitric  acid with acetic, chromic and hydrocyanic acids,  aniline,
carbon,  hydrogen  sulfide,   flammable  fluids or  gases,  and
substances that readily become nitrated.

Oxygen wil oils, grease, hydrogen, flammable,  liquids, solids and gases.

Oxalic aicd with silver or mercury.

Perchloris acid with acetice anhydride, bismuth and its alloys, alcholol, paper,
wood and other organic materials.

Hydrocarbons, generally,  withl  fluorine,  chlorine, bromine, chromic acid or
solium peroxide.

Phosphorus perntoxide with water.

Potassium  permangante with glycerine, ethylene glycol, benzaldehyde, or sulfuric
acid.

Sodium peroxide with  any oxidizable substances, for instance:  methanol, glacial
acetic  acid, acetic anhydride, benzaldehyde,  carbon  disulfide,  glycerine,
ethylene lyol, ethyl acetate,  furfural, and so on.

Sulfuric acid with chlorates,  perchlorates,  permanganates and water.
     In the case of  unknown chemicals,
chemical analysis by a laboratory is the
only way to determine with some degree
of certainty, possible incompatibility.
Care should be exercised not to assume
the results of  a specific test  are
sufficient to determine compatibility
for an entire  site.

     Response  personnel who must
determine compatibilities should refer
to  "A  Method  for  Determining  the
Compatibility of Hazardous Wastes (EPA
600/2-80-076),"  published by EPA's
Office of Research and Development.

     Field personnel may at times find
                                   5-21

-------
                                            NCFEES
it is impossible to ascertain laboratory
compatibility tests.  In the absence of
such  tests,  as a  minimum safeguard,
simple field  tests  should be performed.
The following tests represent a  minimum
field testing for compatibility.

Water Reactivity and Solubility

      Purpose - This method is designed
as a qualitative test for the reactivity
and solubility of unknown liquid wastes
with water.

     Summary - A small volume of liquid
waste is mixed  with water and observed
for miscibility, rise in temperature,
precipitation, and gas formation.

     Sampling Procedure  - The sample
should be collected and tightly sealed
from atmospheric reaction.  Tests should
be performed as  soon as possible.

     Apparatus

          Test tube

          Liquid thermometer

          10 ml  disposable pipets

          Glass  stirring rods

     Procedure

          o  Pipet  10 ml  of water  into
test  tube.   The  test tube  should  be
clamped  securely to a stand  at a  45
degree angle to prevent splattering in
the event of a violent reaction.

          o   The temperature of the test
solution and water  should  be nearly
equal.

          o    Insert  a  thermometer and
record the temperature.
                                    5-22-

-------
                                              NOTES
         o  Slowly add 10 mis of test
sample to the  test  tube.   The liquid
should drain slowly down the inside of
the test tube  any addition should be
stopped if an immediate reaction occurs.

         o  Mix the sample with a glass
stirring rod.

         o   Observe  mixture   for
incompatibility  signs  such   as
liquid/liquid phase separation, gas or
solids  formation, color or  temperature
changes.

    Conclusion - Gases involved may be
toxic or explosive.  Temperature rise is
an indication or exothermic rise is an
indication of exothermic  activity that
might  lead to spontaneous  fire or
explosion.   Color  change or phase
separation  is  indicative of  chemical
incompatibility  that   may  have
deleterious effects.

PH

    Purpose -  To determine the  hydrogen
ion concentration pH of a solution.

    Apparatus   - Small  test  tube or
beaker  and pH range testing paper.

    Sample  Collection -  Perform test
immediately.

    Procedure

         o  Approximately 10 mis of
sample is placed in  a small beaker or
test tube.

         o The  indicator  strip  of pH
paper  (hydrion paper)  is either immersed
in the sample  or a drip of sample is
placed  on the test strip.

         o  The color developed on the
test strip  is  compared  to the  color
chart supplied with the test package.
                                   5-23-

-------
                                          NOTES
     Conclusion  -  Solution below pH 2.0
and above pH 12.5 should be handled with
care as acids and bases.

Compatibility of Liquid Waste/Liquid
Haste

     Purpose - This test is designed to
determine the compatibility of liquids
of  unknown composition at ambient
temperatures.

     Sample Handling - Samples  should be
collected in closed containers prior to
testing.

     Apparatus

          Small glass beaker

          10 ml disposable  pipets

          Liquid thermometer

          Glass stirring rods

     Procedure - Pipet 1 ml of  the first
unknown waste  into  a beaker.   Place
thermometer in  the liquid.  Record
temperature.  Add 1 ml aliquots of the
other waste to be tested, stirring after
each addition.   Note any  rise  in
temperature,  gas  bubbles,  or
precipitation of solids as each aliquot
is added.

     Conclusion - Gases evolved may be
toxic or explosive.  Temperature rise is
an indication  of exothermic  activity
that might result in spontaneous fire or
explosion.   Solid precipitation
indicates chemical  incompatibility that
may be deleterious effects.

Information Resources

     In approaching any chemical hazard,
the  single greatest danger is  the
unknown.  Safety precautions, protective
gear, and advanced planning all become a
matter of trial  and error,  or just plain
                                   5-24

-------
                                               NOTES
lucJc  if  careful  analysis  of  the
hazardous  substance is not undertaken.

     As the  result  of  public  and
regulatory  pressure for  increased
knowledge of the hazards of chemical
compounds, an abundance of informational
resources has  been developed.   EPA
field personnel should be aware of the
various  resources  available,  what
information can be  ascertained  from
them, and the format used by each.  The
uniqueness  of the format  of  many of
these resources  requires prior  exposure
and practice to utilize  them to their
fullest  advantage  in  the shortest
possible time.  The following  list
represents  some of  the  data sources
currently available.

CHRIS:   Chemical Hazard Response Information System,  developed by
the U.S. Coast  Guard.  Access  through the National  Response
Center,  telephone 800/424-8802.


"Dangerous Properties of Industrial  Materials," fourth edition
(1975),  edited by N. Irving Sax, Van Nostrand Reinhold, Co., 135
W. 50th St., New York, NY  10020.

•XTondensed Chemical Dictionary," Gessner  G. Hawley,  Van Nostrand
Reinhold Co., 135 W. 50th St., New York,  NY 10020 (10th edition,
1981)
"The Merck  Index," ninth edition  (1976), Merck and Co.,  Inc.,
Rahway,  NJ 07065.

"NIOSH/OSHA Occupational Health Guidelines for Chemical  Hazards,"
U.S. Government Printing Office,  Washington, DC 20402.

"Fire Prevention Guide on Hazardous Materials," National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA), Quincy,  MA 02269.

1984 Emergency  Response  Guidebook:   Guidebook for Hazardous
MatirTals Incidents,  1984, U.S. Department of Transportation,
Materials  Transportation Bureau, DMT-11,  Washington,  DC  20036.

"NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide  to Chemical  Hazards," U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington,  DC 20402.

Farm Chemicals Handbook,  (1984), Richard T. Meister, editorial
director,  Meister  Publishing  Co.,  37841 Euclid  Avenue,
Willoughby,  OH 44094.


                                   5-25-

-------
 Materials  Safety  Data Sheets  (MSDS);   Department  of Labor
 Standardized Material Safety Data Sheets  (MSDS).

 "Documentation  of the Threshold  Limit Values  (TLV)," fourth
 edition (1980),  ACGIH Publications Office,  6500 Glenway Avenue,
 Building D-5, Cincinnati,  OH 45221.

 Registry of  Toxic  Effects of Chemical Substances,  1980 edition,
 two volumes,  Richard  J.  Lewis,  Sr.,  and Roger  L.  Tatken,
 editors, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public
 Health Service, Center  for Disease Control, National Institute
 for Occupational  Safety  and Health,  Cincinnati, OH 45226.

Emergency  Handling  of  Hazardous  Materials in  Surface
Transportation,  1981,  Bureau of  Explosives, Association  of
American Railroads,  1920 L Street, NW, Washington,  DC 20036.

HMIS;  Hazardous Materials Information  System, developed by the
Department of Defense, Defense Logistics Agency, Defense General
Supply Center,  Richmond, VA 23297.
                                5-26-

-------
                                              NOTES
 Chemical Hazard Naming Systems

     There have been many attempts to
 expedite or summarize vital information
 found in the various data sources.  Two
 systems  that  have   gained  wide
 recognition  and acceptance are the
 system of hazardous material placarding
 and marking of large tanks and trucks,
 devised by  the  Department  of
 Transportation  (DOT) and the labeling
 system  found on smaller tanks  and
 containers,  devised by the National Fire
 Protection Association  (NFPA).

     DOT HAZARD EVAUDATICN SYSTEM

     The DOT'S  Hazardous  Materials
 Transportation  Administration, is
 responsible  for the safe transportation
 of over 1,400 chemicals.  The system is
 based  on a series  of  regulations
 summarized in  the Code  of Federal
 Regulations 40 CFR.  These regulations
 spell out in definitive language  the
 proper shipping names,  warning labels
 and placards that must be  present to
 ship a hazardous material or hazardous
 waste on the public highways.   These
 warning  devices  can prove extremely
valuable in Agency personnel work.  A
summary of  these requirements is  found
 in the  Hazardous Material Tables 49  CFR
 172.101 (see  Table 5-10 for  an example).
                                  5-27

-------
benzene  C«lt«.  thirteenth in order of  high-volume1
  chemicals produced in U.S. (1975).
                                       It
                                        IV

    Structure: I. Complete rinf showing ill elementl.
      II.  Standard nng showing double bondi only.
      111.  Simple ring without double  bondi.  with nu-
          merals indicating potilion of carbon alomi to
          which lubstituenl Horns or groups may be at-
          tached (2 a ortho. 3 = meta. 4 a para).
      IV.  Generalized structure, with enclosed circle Sug-
          gesting the resonance of this compound.
   These  structures are  also referred to as the benzene
   nucleus*
  Properties: Colorless to light-yellow, mobile, jjonpoUr.
   liquid  of highly refractive nature; aromatic odor;
   vapors burn with  smoky  flame;  b.p.  10.1'C,  rnjj-
   *<«r; «r  r o«7oa »o/4»C):  wt/tal 7.31 Ib: re-
   fractive index (n 20/O) 1.30110:TUsh point (closed
   cup) 12" F; surface tension 29 dynes/cm. Autoignition
   lemp. 1044'F. Miscible with alcohol, ether,  acetone.
   carbon letrachloride, carbon diiullide. acetic acid;
   slightly soluble in water.
  Derivation: (a) Hydrodealkylation of toluene or of
   pyrolysis gasoline (q.v.fc (b) Iransalkylaiion of iolu-
   ene by disproportionalion reaction; (c) catalytic re-
   forming oi  petroleum; (d) fractional distillation of
   coal tar.                           .  ,   • •
  Grades:  Crude; straw  color;  motor; industrial pure
   (2*C):  nitration  (I*Q; thiophene-free:  99 mole %;
   99.94 mole %; nanograde.
  Containers: Drums; tank cars; barges.            t
  Hazard: Flammable, dangerous lire  risk.  E«p)o«ive
  Jimiu in air  I,S In g»t hv volume.  Tn«ie by in«ei-
   lion,  inhalation,  and  skin absorption. Tolerance. 23
    Rpm  in air.  Safely dala iheel  available from Manu-
    icluring Chemists Assn.. Washington. D.C.
  Uses: Elhylbenzene (for slyrene monomer); dodeeyl-
   bencene (for detergents): cyclohexane  (for  nylon);
   phenol; nitrobenzene  (for aniline); maleic anhydride;
   dodecylbenzene;  ehlorobenzene; diphenyl; benzene
   hexachloride; benzene-sulfonic' acid; solvent; anil-
   knock gasoline.
  Shipping regulations: (Rail) Red label.  (Air) Flam-
   mable Liquid label.
  See also  aromatic.
   Condensed  Chemical  Dictionary,  Gessner  Hawley
                          5-28

-------
fthmantf
 'o
                                                     ITXH
                                                             Phr»cal O
                                                                             |  |
                                                                                 Own-til *"d ««rsleal  •  ,  l"eomp.i«**»i
                                                                                     •/
                                                                                           Ulffiotfand
                                                                                            MISM
                                                                                            litaM 1)
fax.
Bmot. CMoMuMans:   1 ppm ..
Coal Tat Napnlna. Pncnyl  1 ppm oaf

                     (.. otJ/11/
                                                    WOO
                                           h  lw 7*
                                           , . 8P; 1 7« '
                                              Sol- 01*4
                          VP- » mm   Blrona orttivs:
                          UP. 4} r.    BMoww. bromxa
                          WL- 1 1*   kon
                          LEL- 1  J»  ,
                                                                                                                         8*
                                           bme*4 PwmMtaJ (SM
                                            TitHJl	
                                   Bouiil


    P«p«ll protonj
    Sop mm p>omplV
10 ppm- SA/SC8A
90 ppm: SAF/SC8AF
1000 ppm- SA POJ>P.CF
NOOppnr5«F.POPP.CF
Ewnw  GMS/SC8A
                                   Inh   wn vyct,
                                                                                   '••p 1^1
Ing   siagonod gad. Bg.
Con  Isii. dvm; bone m
     depras: sbdom pa«
                                                                                                    SiMpMfh
                                                                                            •       f
                                                                                            B'tiOr  Aft nip
                                                   Stood. CNS. iuv
                                                   l^^^ fiMnav
                                                                                                   NO >
                                                    f>oclcet  Guide to  Chemical  Hazai-dS
                                            Mcnrcne.  g^iot; lycUc»liU«. . fc.H^ moi «i
                                   Till.  C 92.23%. H 7.79%.   Discovered  by P.rmdkr  Id
                                   campraaeJ oil !•• In t»IS. Obuined In the cakinf of end
                                   •nd in iKe production of lllum!nilin{  }*i Irom CTM!.  l"un.
                                   Hullon by w.,hin( tnlh w.ler: Brll.  pal. 4«J,7|| (I9ol  to
                                   Schloxn-Chemie .nd H.  Koppcn GmbH).  C.A. M, 169711
                                   (I9ol).  Lib prcnn by diuoliulion ol •nilinc. followed by
                                   reduction of the diuonium ull in  N«OII tolri u>in| tl«n-
                                   nou* chlonde:  Cillermann.Wielind. Pfaxlt dn organuchtrl
                                   CArm/Acr,(de Cruylcr. Berlin. 4Olh ed..  1961) p 247. fro-
                                   duction of pure benune:   French,  litd. Oirmut 39, 9-12
                                   (I96J).  Toaicily:  B.  Browning. Temltlif and Maabottim of
                                   t»Juitrtal Solftiio (Elievier. New York. 1945) bp 3-oS.
                                     Clear. colorleM.  nigkly ll»nin*ble liquid*: enarieleriitlc
                                   odor.   d|» 01787.  bp ML P.  SoMU+S.T.  *g  1.3010*:
                                   Thome H at. /not Cn£  dim Ami  Ed. 17. 41 1  (1943).
                                   n.th pi IO-ir.  Sol In 1430 pirli w.teri mltcible with •loo-
                                   hoi. ehlorolorm. ether, carbon diiulfide, carbon lelrcchlo-
                                   ride. lUoial  icctic acid, •celone.  oili.   Ktep In  <**!!• clmrJ
                                   roniamtn In • tool plat* and at^f /ram /ire. LDW orajly la
                                   rait (young adulli):  3.1 ml/kg. Kimura Hal. Tojiltol Ami
                                             19. 699 (1971).
                                    Sodium deriv. C.H.Na. fhrnyl lodinm.  l>repn:  Schloucr.
                                  A*tr~. Chrm. 76,  267 (1964)  Solid n»». dec by w.ler/
                                  acidi. alkalies. Sol In liquid ammonia, lelrahydrofuran.
                                    Human  To*MljK  Anu (Irom Ingeition or Inhalation):
                                  Irritation of mucous  membranes, resllesinesi. convulsions.
                                  «>cilemenl. depression. Death may follow from rapir.lory
                                  failure.  Chronic bone marrow deprosion and splaiia: rare-
                                  ly. leukemia.   Harmful amis may be absorbed through skin.
                                    UIC!  Manuf of medicinal chemicals, dyes and many other
                                  organic eompoundi.  artificial leather, linoleum,  oil cloth.
                                  airplane dopes,  varnishes, lacquers:  as lolvenl  for  waiea.
                                  resins, oils. etc.
                                    TMCSjkp CAT (vem  Destroys screwworm larvae In wounds.
                                               The  Merck  Index
                                                             5-29

-------
BENZENE. Syhs: benzol, jylteriyi hydride, coal haph-
  iha.  Clear colorless liquid. CJU.  rnw: 78.11, mp:
  5.51°.  bp: 80.0930-80.0940, Hash p:  ll't (CO, d:
  0.8794   20", SUloigrt. lemp.!  1044'F. (el: 1.3%, Del:
  7.1%, vap. press: loo rhrrl @ 26.1",  VAp. d: 2.77, ulc:
  95-100.
  THR = t'otsoninj 6cciiri most comlnonly through
    inhal of the vapor, though benzene  catl penetrate
    (he skirl, And poison iri (hat way.  Locally, benzene
    hai  5 comparalively strong irl- effect, producing
   erythema And burning, and, in hi ore severe cases,
   edema And even blistering. Exposure  to high cone
   of the vapor (3000 ppm or higher)  miy result from
   failure of equipment  bf Spillage.  Such exposure,
   while rife in industry,  may result Iri acute poison-
   ing, characterized by the narcotic aclioh of benzene
   on the  CNS.  The anesthetic  action of benzene ii
   similar to that of other anesthetic gasei. consisting
   of a preliminary stage of eXcitatioH  followed by de-
   pression and, if exposure  is continued,  death
   through  respiratory failure. The  chronic,  rather
   than the acute form, of benzene poi«ohing is im-
   portant  irt industry, tt it a recog leukemogen. [14,
   3, I, 102] There is no specific blood picture occur-
   ring in cases of chronic benzol poiiohing. The bone
   marrow may  be  hypoplastic.  normal, or hyper-
   plastic,  the  changes reflected ill  the peripheral
   blood. Anemia, teucopenia, macrocytosis, reticulo-
   cytosii,  thromocytopenia,  high color index, and
   prolonged bleeding time may be present. Case* of
   myetoid  leukemia  have been  reported,  for  the
   supervision of (he worker, repeated blood examina-
   tions are hecessary, Including hemoglobin delermi-
   halioni,  while  and red cell counts and differential
  smears. Where a worker shows a  progressive drop
  in either  red or while cells, or where  the white count
  remains  below 5,000 per cU mm or the red count
  below  4  0 million  per cu mm, ori  two successive
  monthly  examinations,  he should be immediately
  removed from  exposure, following absorption of
    benzene, elimination is  Chielly through (he lungt.
    when fresh air ii breathed. The portion that is ab-
    sorbed is oxidized, and  (he oxidation products are
    combined with Julfuric  and  glycuronic acids and
    eliminated in the Urine, this may be used as a diag-
    hostic sigri.  Benzene hai S definite cumulative ac-
    tiort,  ind  exposure (o relatively  high cone is hot
    serious from-lhe point bf view of causing damage
    to (he blood-forming system, provided (he expo-
    sure is hot repealed.  On the  other hand, daily ex-
    posure lo bone of 1 00 ppm or less  will usually cause
    damage if continued over 4 protracted period of
    lime.  \ft acute poisoning, the  worker becomes  con-
    fused  and dizzy, complains of lightening of (he leg
    muscles' and  of pressure over  the forehead,  then
   passes into a stage of excitement,  if allowed lo re-
   main irt exposure, he quickly becomes stupefied and
   lapses Into  coma1. In non-fatal cases, recovery is
   us dally complete and no permanent  disability oc-
   cUri. Irt chronic poisoning (he onset is slow, with
   (he symptoms vague; fatigue, headache, dizziness.
   hausea and loss of appetite, loss of weight and weak-
   ness are common Complaints'  in early cases. Later,
   pallor, nosebleeds, bleeding  gums, menorrhagia.
   belechiae dtid burpirra ma? develop. There is great
   individual variation irt (he sign* and symptoms of
   chronic benzehe poisoning. Behiene  is a common
   air contaminant.
 fcre Hazard: bangerous.  when exposed  lo heat or
   flame* can react  vigorously with  oxidizing mate-
   Hals,  SUch ai &rfc. d,,  CrO,,  O,NClO,, O,, O,.
  perchlorales. (AlClj 4- FClO«), (HiSO. -I- perman-
  ganates),  fciOi, (AgClO« 4  acetic  acid),  Na,Oi.
  t^Jt
Spont Healing: No.
Explosion Hazard: Mod, when !ls vapors are exposed
  lo flame. Us*e with adequate ventilation.
bisaster llazardVbangerous. highly 11am.
To Fighl Fire: foam1, COi, dry chemical.
                   Dangerous  Properties  of  ludtJstHal  MatfeHdlsj  N.  Irvi'nfl  Sax
                                                  5-30

-------
                                      BENZENfc
                               25 ppm (Approximately 80
     Benzene as an  acute posion produces narcotic effects comparable to those ot toluene. Chronic
  Intoxicatlor by  benzene  is  by far  the tnost serious disease calls' ed by (lie common hydrocarbon
  solvents. Us action is primarily on the bone hiari-ow resulting in tnitnefbus blood changes and, in
  serious cases, aplastic anemia, wilh A frequently fatal outcome, it is Unique ahlong the hydrocar-
  bons  as  a  hiyelotoxiciint,  according to  Ge'rarde(l).  Elklns(2)  stated thai more than 140 fatal
  cases  of  benzene  poisoning  had  been recorded prior to 1959. Vigllani and Salla{3) listed 26
  deaths from chronic benzene poisoning in  two provinces In Italy between i960 and  1963, Eleven
  of these cases were diagnosed as leukemia, which frequently develops several yearS after ces-
  sation of exposure to benzene.
    Many  of the  deaths  from  benzene have resulted  from exposures bf the order of 200 ppm or
  more. Bowditch  and  EIklns(4)  estimated  that of eleven  fatal cases, three resulted from concen-
  trations In  excess  of 200 ppm,  four from concentrations betweeh 100 and 200 ppm, and three
  from  concentrations judged to be  below  100 ppM (but Hoi measured). GreenbUrg et al.(5) de-
  scribed nine cases, with one death, in the rotogravure printing Industry. Of 48 air  analyses, 20
  showed less than 100 pprrt, and 15 more  than 200 ppm. Savllahti(6) found that 107 of  147 workers
  in a shoe factory revealed blood abnormalities. The source  of the benzene wag cement, and con-
  centrations were reported to have  ranged  from 3l8  to 470 ppm (these seem high for shoe cemenl-
  ing operations). One death occurred.
    Wlnslow(7), however,  reported blood changes  in  workers where concentrations of benzene
 vapor below 100 ppm were  found. Heimann and Ford(8) found  one death and three cases with blood
 changes where air  analysis  for benzene  showed a concentration of 105 ppm. Wilson(9) reported
 three fatal cases  In  a plant where the average concentration of benzene vapor was 100 ppm. Hardy
 and Elkins(lO)  recorded one  death and several cases of blood changes In a planl where repeated
 air analyses indicated benzene vapor concentrations of about 60 ppm.
    Blaney(ll) found little  evidence of benzene intoxication In a group of 90 workers regularly
 exposed to benzene for  about 13 years. Concentrations were generally low, but urinary  phenol
 measurements  indicated  some exposures of the order of 25 pphi(l2J. Pagnotto et al.(l3) found
 rubber spreaders  exposed to benzene  vapor concentrations  ranging for the most part between 6
 and  25 ppm. A limited number of blood studies showed some abnormalities but ho apparent cor-
 relation with exposure. So far as is known, none of this group  developed serious blood dyscraslas.
   A TLV of 25 ppni is believed low enough to prevent serious blood changes, but this  limit  should
 be considered a ceiling and exposure  to higher concentrations not permitted.
   Other recommendations: Cook (1945)  50 ppm;  Smyth (1956)  35 ppnri; Elkini (1959) 25 ppm;
 ANSI (1969) 10 ppm; U.S.S.n. (1967) 6 ppm; Czechoslovakia (1969) 16 ppm.;

 References:
  1. Gerarde, H.W.:  toxicology  and Biochemistry of Aromatic  Hydrocarbons, Elsevler Publish-
    ing Co., New York (1960).
  2. Elkins,  H.B.:  Chemistry  of Industrial  Toxicology, p. 103, Wiley & Song, New York (1959).
  3. VlgHanl, E.C.,  Salta, G.: New Eng. J. of Med. 271, 872 (1964).
  4. Bowdilch, M.f Elkins, H.B.: J. Ind. Hyg. & Tox. 21, 321 (1939).
  5. Greenburg,  L.,  Mayers, M.R., Goldwater, L., Smith, A.R.: J. Ind. Hyg. & Tox. 21, 395 (1939).
  6. Savilahll, M.: Arch. Gewerbepalh. u. Gewerbehyg. !£, 147  (1956).
 7. Wlnslow, C.E.A.: J. Ind. Hyg. 6, 69 (1927).
 8. Heimann, H., Ford, C.B.r N.Y.~Ind. Hyg. Bull. p.  224 (Nov. 1940).
 9. Wilson, R.H.: J. Lab. Clin. Med. 27, 151? (1942).
10. Hardy, H.L., Elkins, H.B.: J.  Ind.  Hyg.  &  Tox. 30, 196 (1948):
11.  Blaney, L.: Ind. Med. & Surg. 19, 227 (1950).'
12. Walkley, J.E., Pagnotto, L.D., Elkins, H.B".: Am.  tnd. Hyg. Assn. 3.22, 3B2 (1961)
13. J"  -otto, L.D.,  Elkins,  H.B., Brugsch, H.G., Walkley, J.E.: Am. Ind. Hyg. Assn. J. 22, 417


                                           5-31

-------
                                                                      BENZENE
         BKSSSS
         N>M> KOI muk •>
        Fir*
     Exposure
      Water
     Pollution
                   •S y&a .4d wf	•• 1 m«ik»i
                   E»n^44»iik4>nl I nl (•«• ore
                   Win «r ki h4«4CA» •• Ik.
                   CALL FO* MEDICAL AID
                   VWOC
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       I. HSPOMU TO onOUKE
                  onicMnom
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                                                                                                                                           REVISED !STO
                                                                       5-32'

-------
TABLE OF PLACARDS AND APPLICABLE RESPONSE GUIDE PAGES



        USE ONLY IF MATERIALS CANNOT BE SPECIFICALLY IDENTIFIED


              THROUGH SHIPPING PAPERS OR MARKINGS.

 --f .S°.IID. P
 u«
   \s
Guide 38
^LAMMABLE^    <  flXIDIZER )>

  Xv • • •  '        \        /
                        Guide 41
                                            \
                                             N
                       Guide 47

   ORGANIC
  PEROXIDE  '

  \
   \
  Guide 52
                                INTERNATIONAL

                                  SHIPPING

                                   ONLY
                       Guide 37
                      Guide 41
                       5-33

-------
TABLE OF PLACARDS AND APPLICABLE RESPONSE GUIDE PAGES
        USB ONLY IF MATERIALS CANNOT BE SPECIFICALLY IDENTIFIED



               THROUGH SHIPPING PAPERS OR MARKINGS.
     Guide 11
     Guide 46
Guide 16
                        5-34

-------
        TOBLE 5-10



Hazardous mntprials table
           5-35

-------
                                            NOTES
     DOT Marking and labeling

     Under DOT regulations, containers
up to 110 gallons must have one of the
1,400 proper shipping names listed in
the Hazardous Material  Tables.   In
addition, there must also be a 4" x 4"
diamond shaped label that contains a
warning of the hazards  present (see
Figure 5-1).

                        FIGURE 5-1
   DOT  Hazardous  Materials Warning Labels
                                       Waen A'-:?
                                       Export
Nolr Per use In
Mdlllen to oiher
     laoels.
     Poison
                       Export
                                 'Domestic
                                             Exoorl
                                                    Oomasiic
                                                 AIR TRANSPORT
                                                              Cirgo Attend
                                                                Only
                               5-36

-------
                          EXRMPLE  5-1
  ID  Guide
  No.  No.
                Name of Material
   ID  Guide
   No.  No.
                Name of Material
  1058  12 LIQUIFIED NONFLAMMABLE
            GAS charged  with
            NITROGEN, CARBON
            DIOXIDE or AIR
       17 MEFHYL ACETYLENE,
            mixed with 15% to 20%
            PROPADIENE, stabilized
       19  METIIYLAMINE, anhydrous
       19  MONOMETIIYLAMINE.
            anhydrous
       55  METHYL BROMIDE
       18  METHYL CHLORIDE
       18  METHYL MERCAPTAN
       12  NEON, compressed
       12  NITROGEN, compressed
       20  NITROGEN DIOXIDE
       20  NITROGEN TETROXIDE
       16  NITROSYL CHLORIDE
       14  NITROUS OXIDE
       22  OIL GAS
       14  OXYGEN, compressed
       23  OXYGEN, cryogenic liquid
       22  LIQUIFIED PETROLEUM  GAS
      22  LPG, liquified  petroleum  gas
      22 PETROLEUM  GAS,
           liquified
      13  PHOSGENE
      22 PROPYLENE
      12  REFRIGERANT GASES, n.o.3.
      16  SULFUR DIOXIDE
      12  SULFUR HEXAFLUORIDE
  1060

  1061
  1061

  1062
  1063
  1064
  1065
  1066
 1067
 1067
 1069
 1070
 1071
 1072
 1073
 1075
 1075
 1075

 1076
 1077
 1078
 1079
 1080
 1081

 1082

1083
1085
1086
1086
      17  TETRAFLUOROETHYLENE,
          inhibited
      17  TRIFLUOROCHLORO-
          ETHYLENE
      19  TRIMETIIYLAMINE, anhydrous
      60  VINYL BROMIDE
      17  MONOCHLOROETHYLENE
      17  VINYL CHLORIDE
  1087  17 VINYL  METHYL ETHER,
            inhibited
  1088  26 ACETAL
  1089  26 ACETALDEHYDE
  1090  26 ACETONE
  1091  26 ACETONE OIL
  1092  30  ACnOI.t-lN, inhibited
  1093  30  ACRYI.ONrrRH.E,  inhibited
  1095  26  ALCOHOL, denatured
       26  ALCOHOL, industrial
       28  ALLYL  ALCOHOL
       29  ALLYL  BROMIDE
       28  ALLYL  CHLORIDE
1096
1098
1099
1100
1101
      37  DIETHYLALUMINUM
           CHLORIDE
 1102  37  ALUMINUM TRIETHYL
 1103  37  ALUMINUM TRIMETHYL
 1104  26  AMYL  ACETATE
 1105  26  AMYL  ALCOHOL
 1106  29  AMYL  AMINE
 1107  26  AMYL  CHLORIDE
 1108  26  AMYLENE
 1109  26 AMYL  FORMATE
 1110  26 AMYL  METHYL KETONE
 1110  26 METHYLAMYL KETONE
 1111  28 AMYL MERCAPTAN
 1112  26 AMYL NITRATE
 1113  26 AMYL NITRITE
 1114  27 BENZENE
 1114  27 BENZOL
 1115  26 BENZINE
 1118  27 BRAKE  FLUID, HYDRAULIC
 1120  26 BUTANOL
 1120  26  BUTYL  ALCOHOL
1123  26  BUTYL  ACETATE
1125  29  BUTYLAMINE
MATERIALS IN  HOLD ORANGE  may require isolation or  evacuation from spill areas.
  Find  the material by name  in the tables immediately following the Guide pages.
                                5-37

-------
  FIRE OR EXPLOSION
         Will burn. May be ignited by heat, sparks and flames.
         Flammable vapor may spread away from spill.
         Container may explode in heat of fire.
         Vapor explosion hazard indoors, outdoors or in sewers.
         Runoff to sewer may create Fire or explosion hazard.

 HEALTH HAZARDS
         Vapors may cause dizziness or suffocation.
        Contact may irritate or bum skin and eyes.
        Fire may produce irritating or poisonous gases.
        Runoff from fire control or dilution water may cause pollution.

                      EMERGENCY ACTION

        Keep unnecessary people away.
        Stay upwind: keep out of low areas.
        Isolate hazard area and deny entry.
        Wear self-contained breathing apparatus and full protective clothing.
        Isolate for 1/2 mile in all directions if tank  or tankcar is involved In fire.
        FOR EMERGENCY ASSISTANCE CALLCHEMTREC (800) 424-9300.
          Also, in case of water pollution, call local authorities.

 FIRE
        Small Fires: Dry chemical, CO2. water spray or alcohol foam.
        Large Fires: Water spray, fog or alcohol foam.
        Move container from fire area if you can  do it  without nsk.
        Stay away from ends of tanks.
        Cool containers that are exposed to flames with water from the side until well
          after fire is out.
        For massive fire in cargo area, use unmanned hose holder or monitor nozzles.
        Withdraw immediately in case of rising sound from venting safety device or
          discoloration of tank.

SPILL OR LEAK
        No flares, smoking or flames in hazard area.
        Stop leak if you can do it without risk.
        Use water spray to reduce vapors.
        Small Spills: Take up with sand, or other noncombustibte  absorbent material,
                   then flush area with water.
        Large Spilfs: Dike far ahead of spill for later disposal.

FIRST AID
       Move victim to fresh air; call emergency medical care.
       If not breathing, give artificial respiration.
       If breathing is difficult, give oxygen.
       In case of contact with material, immediately flush skin and eyes with running
         water for at least 15 minutes.
       Remove and isolate contaminated clothing and shoes.
                              5-38

-------
                            OMIT 6

                          TOXIOQLOG?
            Objectives
     o The student should know the basic
 approaches to toxicity testing.

     o The student should  be able to
 illustrate a typical dose-response curve
 for toxicological data.

     o The student should  be able to
 define "ID50 and interpret such data.

     o The student should realize the
 difference between LD50 and DC50.

     o The  student should  be able to
 distinguish between acute and chronic
 exposures.

     o The student should be  aware of
 some of the shortcomings of U&® data.

     o The student should be  familiar
with factors  which influence  toxicity.

     o The student should know different
ways in which two different chemicals
can affect each other's toxicity  when
present in the body together.

     o Students  should  know  the
difference  in  effects caused by
carcinogens,  mutagens, and  teratogens.
                                  6-1

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                             UNIT 6
                           TOXICOLOGY
                                                NOTES
  Introduction

       Toxicology  is  the science of
  poisons.   If  is the  study  of how
  chemical and physical agents interact
  with biologic systems to produce some
  negative response  in affected organisms.
  Responses are measured and  evaluated
  according to the amount  of  substance
  administered (DOSE)  and the route of
  exposure.

      Essentially all substances are
  poisons.   The difference between a
  substance  being toxic,  non-toxic,  or
  beneficial is determined  by the  dose.
  Toxicity is a measure of a substance's
  capacity to  produce  injury  in  living
 organisms.

      It is important that response
 personnel become aware of toxicological
 data and how they  are obtained.   Route
 of entry and target organs  of chemicals
 in the  body  determine how  personnel
 should be protected  in  addition  to
 maximum exposure limits.  By knowing and
 understanding  the  fundamentals of
 toxicology, employees will  be  better
 able to determine  the hazards they are
 faced with at the work site.  Employees
 should ask themselves the following
 questions  prior to entering any
 worksite:

      - What toxic agents are present?
      - How will they enter the body?
      - How will they affect  the body?
     - How toxic are they?

 Toxicity Tests

     In order to gain imformation  on the
 human toxicity of substances, controlled
 laboratory  tests  are  run on animal
 species which, hopefully,  can be
correlated  to human  responses.   The
design of  toxicity  tests involves
                                  6-2

-------
 selection of :

      - A test organism (which can range
 from cellular material to higher order
 plants and aninals.)

      - A biological  endpoint  (observable
 or measurable response) which can  range
 form subtle physiological or behavioral
 changes to death.

      - A test period (exposure time)

      - A dose or series of doses

 Test Organisms

      Test  organisms obviously  vary
 significantly in physiology from humans.
 The proper selection of  test animals
 requires a knowledge of  which species
 most  closely  resembles  humans  with
 respect to the chemical  of interest.
 The  goal of animal toxicity tests is to
 predict chemical  effects on humans.
 Thus, the fate of a chemical in humans,
 as well as its  fate in various animal
 species,  must  be  known in order  to
 choose the  best  suited test species for
 a particular chemical.

     In addition, the endpoint of choice
 plays  a role  in determining  test
 species.    If,   for instance,  the
 carcinogenicity of a chemical is being
 tested, the test orgamisn  of choice will
 be one with a short life span.  It  would
 be  impossible  economically to study
 carcinogenic  effects in  an organism
 whose  life  span  is  twenty years.
 Valuable research time would be  lost,
 essentially wasting 20 years  worth of
human lives waiting for results from a
 single study.   Man  cannot afford to wait
 this long to determine if chemicals he
 is being exposed to  are carcinogenic or
not.   Expenses  would be prohibitive
also.
HOOKS
                                   6-3

-------
                                                 NOTES
   Mutagenic effects  can also be
   measured and extrapolated into possible
   carcinogenic effects.   In this case
   species with extremely short life spans
   can be used to measure genetic effects.

       Once  a test species has been
  chosen, individual organisms are used
  which  show as  little variation among
  themselves  as possible.  Organisms are
  chosen  of equal age,  sex/  and strain.

  They must be healthy prior to testing so
  that harmful responses can be judged
  objectively. Controls are always used
  in toxicity  tests.These  organisms are
  treated exactly like test organisms with
  the exception that  the dose administered
  does not contain  the chemical  being
  tested.  At the end  of  the testing
  period,  controls and test organisms are
  compared to see if controls remained
  healthy throughout  the  testing.   If so,
 all detramental effects observed in the
  test  animals are  attributed  to the
 chemical  tested.    There  will  be
 variation in response among  tested
 organisms.  Given identical  doses, the
 majority of organisms will  have a
 particular response, but a few will have
 little or no reaction  and a few will
 have  an  extreme reaction.

      Another consideration when choosing
 a test orgaism is population size.  It
 is imperative that a large population
 size be used for toxicity tests in order
 to ensure statistically sound  data.
 Financially,  this  limits the  species of
 choice (rabbits chosen over  dogs,  for
 example)  to  smaller,  easy to care for
 ones.

 BIOLOGICAL ENDEOmr

     The most common endpoint of choice
 in toxicity   testing  is  death. One
 reason   for  this  choice  is  its
objectiveness.  Many other endpoints,
such  as  dermatitis or liver damage,
 leave  room  for judgement  error.   In
addition,  the chosen endpoint  must be a
                                   6-4

-------
                                               NOTES
reproducible  reponse.  That is,  in test
after test, the same endpoint should be
obtainable  in response to  the same
dose(s).

     Test data are plotted on a dose-
response curve.  If is from this curve
that the dose  (generally measured  in
milligrams  (mg) of test substance  per
kilogram (Kg) of body weight of the test
organism)   which  killed  a  certain
percentage  of  test organisms  is
calculated.  This calculated amount is
called the lethal  dose.  The majority of
toxicity tests  (sometimes  called
bioassays) are designed to calculate  the
exact dose which kills 50% of the test
organisms.  This is called the median
lethal dose, or LD50 and is a relative
measure of toxicity.   For  example,  if
substance B has an LD50 =1000 mg/Kg,
and substance A has  an  ID50 - 500 mg/Kg,
given equal doses,  substance A is more
toxic  than substance B  (Figure  1).
Other lethal doses  (LD20 and LD80,  for
example) are sometimes used in addition
to the LD50 to judge  the  toxicity of
chemicals at different doses.  As seen
in Figure 2, some chemicals (D)  are very
toxic  at low doses and then,  as  the
dose increases, toxicity increases only
slowly.  The opposite can also occur,
where a chemical  has a low toxicity at
low doses,  but as  the dose increases
slightly, toxicity increases greatly
(C).
                                   6-5

-------
                          FIGURE 1
         100  -r-
 LU
 vt
 •W
 
    -o
01
>
50	9V— '
         20
                     OOSE (mg/kg)

     From this Illustration, compound C could  be  assumed to be
     more toxic than compound 0, based on LD^Q.   This  could
     be misleading because at lower doses the  situation  Is
     reversed:  at LD2Q, 0 Is more toxic than  C.
                                 6-6

-------
      When chemicals are dosed into the
 organism's environment rather  than into
 the organism itself -  as with airborne
 contaminants (for inhalation testing),
 or aquatic toxicity testing (where the
 test chemical is dosed into the water
 column), measurement  of  relative
 toxicity  is based on median  lethal
 concentration, or LC*°.

      Terms  often encounterred when
 evaluating toxicity data include:

 Median Lethal dose (LD50):   A
 calculated dose of a chemical which is
 expected to kill  50% of an entire
 defined experimental population.

      Median Lethal Concentration (LC50):
 A calculated concentration  of a
 substance in air,  water,  or  feed,
 exposure to  which,   for  a specified
 period of time, is expected to kill 50%
 of an entire defined experimental
 population.

     Lethal dose  low (LDlQ): The  lowest
 dose,  other  than  LD50, of a substance
 introduced by any route which has been
 reported to cause death in the species
 of interest.

     Toxic dose low (TD*°): The lowest
 dose  of substance introduced  by any
 route over a  given period  of time  which
 is reported to produce  any toxic effect
 in  humans  or carcinogenic,
 neoplastigenic, or teratogenic effects
 in animals or humans.

     Toxic Concentration low (TC10): The
 lowest concentration of a substance in
air, water, or feed to which humans or
animals have been exposed for a given
 time  period  which produced any toxic
effect in humans or  carcinogenic,
neoplastigenic, or teratogenic effects
in animals or humans.
                                  6-7

-------
                                               NOTES
EXPOSURE TIME

     Toxic effects are produced by acute
or chronic exposure to chemicals:

     o  Acute  exposure  -  a  single
exposure or multiple exposure occuring
within  a short time (24 hours or less).
Usually it is a large single dose.

     o Chronic  exposure - several  small
doses  over  a  longer period  of time
(usually months to years).

     Exposures  may  also  be of  an
intermediate length, termed subacute,         lOOCC
subchronic, or short term exposure:

     o Subacute  exposure - exposure
usually lasts 3 to 5 days.

     o Short  term exposure -  exposure (s)
usually lasts one to two weeks.

     o Subchronic exposure -  exposure (s)
generally lasts three months.

DOSE - DOSES

     The frequency of administration of
a chemical also adds to characterization
of its  exposure.  Generally speaking,
fractionating  the  dose reduces  the
effect.  Where a single large dose of a
substance produces  a given  severe
effect,   halving   the  dose  and
administering it  in two equal,  separate
doses may produce less than half of  the
original effect.  In addition ,  dividing
the original dose into ten doses  may
cause no ill effects at all.  This
decrease in additive effects occurs when
metabolism or excretion  takes  place
between successive doses  of the  toxic
agent, or when the injury produced is
partially  or fully  reversed  between
administrations of the agent.

     When chronic effects occur, it is  a
sign that the agent accumulates in  the
body (absorption exceeds metabolism  and
                                   6-8

-------
                                              NOTES
of excretion) or that effects caused by
the  agent   are   irreversible.
Accumulation can also be a result of the
frequency  of dosing - there many not be
time enough  for recovery between doses.

DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP

     The most fundamental concept in
toxicology  is the dose-response
relationship.  This relationship is
based on assumptions:

     o The effect (response) is a result
of the known toxicant administered.

     o The response is, indeed, related
to the dose  through this reasoning:

     1.  The  response is  a  function of
the concentration  of toxicant at a
specific site,

     2.  the  concentration of toxicant at
this specific site is a function of the
dose administered, and

     3.  therefore, response and dose are
causally related.

     It  is this correlation between the
degree of  a  chosen response of the test
organism's  biologic system  and  the
amount of  toxic substance delivered that
forms  the  basic dose-response
relationship.  .When plotted graphically,
this  relationshup  forms  the  classic
sigmoid curve time and time again (as
seen  in Figures 1  and 2) which  is
indicative of toxicity test results.

     As  stated previously, the median
lethal  dose  (LD50)  is  the  most
frequently  used endpoint  in  toxicity
testing.  This  relative toxicity is
measured for virtually every  new
chemical which is manufactured.  Mice or
rats are the most frequently used test
animals  for  such testing.
                                   6-9

-------
                                              NOTES
     The concept  of  LD50's  is  not
without  its  shortcomings.   The great
majority of  LD^O data are  calculated
based  on acute  bioassays.  Chronic
toxicity cannot  be extrapolated from
these data because nothing is known with
reqard  to distribution,  bioaccumulation,
metabolism, or excretion of the chemical
in   the   body.    For   example,
polychlorinated  biphenyls  (PCBs) were
found  to be  relatively non-toxic in
acute  toxicity  tests,  but time  has
proved  PCBs  to be highly toxic after
chronic exposure.   This lack of chronic
toxicity testing has taken it toll on
human health in the past.
     Another shortcoming of LD  data is
that there is often little information
to go on for choosing a test species
that  mimics  human  exposure.   Each
chemical affects the body differently
and  thus it is difficult  to pick a
species  which is affected similarly and
with  the  same sensitivity as humans.
For example, nearly all chemicals known
to be carcinogenic  in  man  are  also
carcinogenic in animals.  One exception,
however, is arsenic,  which, although a
human carcinogen, is not carcinogenic to
animal species.

     In  addition,  as  seen if Figure 2,
the LD50 is a single dat point and does
not  indicate  the exact  shape of the
dose-response  curve.  The interval
between a non- toxic dose and a lethal
dose  is  not  defined  without further
testing.  It would be easy to get the
wrong impression about the toxicity of a
chemical from such data.
                                  6-10-

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                            TABLE 1

                     TOXICITY BATING CHART

                  Probable Oral Lethal Dose for Humans
Toxicity Rating or Class
 Dose
For Average Adult
1. Practically nontoxic
2. Slighty toxic
3. Moderately toxic
4. Very toxic

5. Extremely toxic

6. Supertoxic
>15 g/kg
5-15 g/kg
0.5-5 g/kg
50-500 mg/kg

5-50 mg/kg

<5 mg/kg
More than 1 quart
Between pint & quart
Between ounce & pint
Between teaspoonful
  & ounce
Between 7 drops
  & teaspoonful
A taste (less than
  7 drops)
Source :  Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons, p.  12,
  second  ed., Doull, Klaassen & Amdur (eds.),  1980.

RELATIVE  INDEX OF TQXICITY
     When trying  to interpret  animal
toxicity data as  they apply to  humans,
it is  necessary  to use a  conversion
factor.  To do this, H)50's  (mg/kg) from
animal studies are multiplied by  70 kg
(the  average weight of man) to give a
rough estimate of  human toxicity.  This
conversion  is used assuming that humans
have sensitivity  to that of the test
species to  the chemical tested.

     All toxicity test data,   (i.e.,
       yield information pertaining to
the  relative   toxicity  of  tested
substances.  Some  chemicals are  capable
of  producing  death  in   microgram
quanitities while others are essentially
harmless  in   gram  quantities.
Toxicologists often classify chemicals
based on computed  LD^'s.    categorizing
chemical toxicities, makes it clearer
when the toxicologist answers  the
question, "How toxic is this  chemical?"
An example of  such a classification
scheme is  given  in Table 1.
                                    6-11-

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                                               NOTES
     The LD50 of various chemicals can
vary widely depending  on their relative
toxicities, as seen in Table 2.

                           TABLE 2

     Approximate Acute LD50 of a selected variety of chemical
                  agents (for test animals).
Agent
                       mg/kg
Toxicity Class*
ethyl alcohol
sodium choloride
ferrous sulfate
morphine sulfate
phenobarbitol sodium
DDT
Picrotoxin
Strychnine sulfate
nicotine
D-tubocurarine
Hemichol inium-3
Tetrodotoxin
Dioxin (TCDD)
Botalinus toxin
10,000
4,000
1,500
900
150
100
5
2
1
0.5
0.2
0.10
0.001
o.OOOOl
Slightly toxic
Slightly toxic
Moderately toxic
Moderately toxic
Moderately toxic
Very toxic
Extremely toxic
Extremely toxic
Extremely toxic
Extremely toxic
Supertoxic
Supertoxic
Supertoxic
Supertoxic
* There has been no conversion here from animal data to potential human
toxicity.  This column is used here to illustrate how toxicity classes
(Table     ) are related to actual LD50 data for various chemicals.

    Source:Toxicology; The Basic Science of Poisons,  second
ed, Ooull,  Klaassen & Amdur  (eds.), 1980.
FACTORS INFLUENCING TOXICITY

    Many  factors affect the  dose-
response  relationship  and  should be
considered not only  when designing
toxicity test but also when interpreting
toxicity data  in specific situations.
Some  of these factors  attribute to
differences  in the  absorption,
distribution, metabolism or excretion of
toxic substances.  These factors  can be
divided into the following categories:

    o factors related to the  toxic
substance
                                 6-12'

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                           UNIT 10

                    HAZARDS OF AIR SAMPLING
Educational Objectives

     o The  student should  know what
safety details should be discussed with
work crews before traveling to the site.

     o The student  should  be able  to
list the necessary precautions to follow
before using a  ladder.

     o The student  should  be able  to
recognize safety procedures  to protect
workers below a working platform.

     o The student  should  be able  to
describe safety precautions to prevent
crew members from falling from heights.

     o The student  should  be able  to
define precautions  and procedures for
erection of scaffolding.

     o The student  should  be able  to
list  procedures and  precautions for
hoisting equipment and  supplies, and
personnel.

     o The student  should  be able  to
recognize  safety  precautions  and
procedures due to power line, static and
lightening dischargers.

     o The student  should  be able  to
list  the  situations  requiring
communications equipment and the type  to
use for these situations.

     o The student  should  be able  to
describe the  types of safety gear a
stack sampling crew might need and the
situations where it might be  needed.
                                  10-1

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                                             NOTES
     Introduction

     Stack   sampling  and  source
inspection present some  safety and
health problems  that  may  not be
encountered  in  other  sampling
environments.  Stack sampling and source
inspection often take place in complex
industrial environments  with many
unexpected dangers,  and  sampling often
requires working at heights.   Stack
sampling operations  can also  create
hazards which  may  endanger plant
personnel as well as sampling personnel.

     This Unit will  emphasize the
hazards  of  working  at  heights,
particularly in industrial environments,
and the procedures and precautions that
can and should be followed for safety.

     Responsibilities

     As the first step for preparing to
work in an  industrial  environment,
sampling crew members need to find out
what hazards in the plant may endanger
them and what the crew can do to protect
themselves.  (Some recommendations  for
gathering  information  on  industrial
plant hazards are discussed in detail in
another Unit.)

     Many industrial plants will provide
safety and  health  information on
request, and many have taken measures to
guard and control  hazards in their
plants. However, you cannot rely upon
industrial plants to  provide safe
working  conditions  for  sampling
personnel, even though plant management
is responsible for providing a place of
employment  which  is free of recognized
hazards that are likely to cause serious
physical harm.  Sampling crews may have
to work in plant areas that are not used
by  plant  employees or   that have
unrecognized hazards, and crews may have
to work in areas that  have hazards that
are  not  controlled  or  guarded.
Therefore,  sampling crews may have to
                                  10-2

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                                              NOTES
take  more precautions  and use  more
personal protective equipment than plant
arployees do.

     Sampling crews  also  have  an
important responsibility to organize and
conduct sampling operations so that they
do not endanger crew members or plant
employees,  or cause  damage  to sampling
equipment or plant property.

     The sampling crew should provide
control of  any  hazards  that may  be
created  as   part  of  the  sampling
operation or  source  inspection,
including hazards that may  endanger
plant employees or property.  For
example,  the  sampling team  should rope
off or barricade any area where tools or
equipment may fall when they are being
hoisted or used.

     If any construction  work has to be
done to meet sampling requirements, such
as erection of a scaffold or cutting a
sampling  port in a duct, an  effort
should be  made to see that the work is
done  in ways that  make  subsequent
sampling  as  safe as  possible.  For
example, if  a railing  must be  cut  to
provide for  access of  the  sampling
probe,  the sampling organization should
provide specifications  for  guarding the
new openings  in the railing  with chain,
rope,  or strong temporary railings.  If
a  new platform must  be  built  or
scaffolding  erected,   the  new
construction should have standard height
guard  railings,  toeboards,  and other
safety features.

     If you are assigned to be a project
officer for stack sampling operations
that are done by a Federal contractor,
you will have a responsibility to see
that the sampling is done according to
the  contract.    Since all  Federal
contracts require  compliance  with
Federal safety regulations and  OSHA
Standards, part of your responsibility
is to advise the contractor informally
                                 10-3

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                                              NOTES
if safety  precautions are  not  being
followed and  the contractor does not
seem to be in compliance with Federal
safety regulations.   However,  as a
project officer you  must not  give
directions to the contractor because any
directions about contract performance
must  come  only from  EPA contract
officers (otherwise you  may become
liable for the cost of the work done at
your direction).

    Ladders and Climbing

    Since almost any source inspection
or stack sampling activity will require
crew members to  climb fixed or  portable
ladders,  this  section begins with basic
information on  inspecting  ladders for
safety.  Next is important information
on how to climb  ladders safely, and how
to place them for safe climbing.

    Inspection of Ladders

    All ladders should be in  good
repair without any cracks or damage that
will weaken the ladder.  Fixed ladders
attached to  a  structure should  be
securely fastened to the structure, and
portable ladders should be positioned
safely  for use.   All  ladder rungs  or
cleats should   be  sound,  securely
fastened to  the rails,  and evenly
spaced.

    If ladder rungs and cleats  are not
evenly spaced,  the ladder will  be
hazardous to climb.  An even climbing
rhythm depends on even spacing of  rungs.
Uneven  spacing  of rungs  may  cause a
misstep  which can result  in  loss  of
balance or grip  and the possibility of
falling.  Climbing ladders with unevenly
spaced  rungs  will  require  extra
attention to avoid injury.

    Climbing Ladders

    Persons who are  going to  climb
ladders should wear sturdy we11-fitted
                                  10-4

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gloves,  sturdy boots in good repair,  and
clothing that is snug enough so that it
is not likely to catch on the ladder.

     Climbing and descending should be
done facing the ladder.  The foot should
be placed on the rung so that the front
edge of the heel is against the rung to
prevent slipping,  particularly on wet,
oily or slippery rungs.  The hands
should firmly grasp the rungs, not  the
rails.   Gripping the rungs for climbing,
as  firefighters  are trained to  do,
provides greater control and less change
of slipping than gripping the side rails
of  a ladder;  the climbing  rhythm
followed so  that at any time one had has
a firm grip on a rung while the other is
reaching for  the next rung up or down.

     Safe climbing requires both hands
to be free for gripping the rungs of  the
ladder.  Nothing should be carried in
the hands while climbing.  If tools  and
small equipment cannot be hoisted,  they
should  be carried up ladders only in
backpacks, on  shoulder  straps, or  on
belts.  Care should be taken to prevent
tools or  equipment (in backpacks,  in
pockets, or on tool belts) from catching
on  a rung or  rail and throwing  the
climber off balance, or from becoming
dislodged  from the pack and falling  to a
lower surface.

     Portable ladders should be checked
for total weight capacity.  Never have
more than one person climbing the ladder
at one time.  Check that there are no
bows, bends, cracks, or rotted wood in
the  ladder.   Never use a  make-shift
ladder constructed on site.   Never  use
ladders as  scaffolding  or bridges  to
cross open areas.   Ladders are designed
to have part of the weight distributed
in  downward compression  on the rail
members.  Use of a ladder as a scaffold
or  bridge   may  exceed  its  design
strength.

     Use only ladders that have cleated,
non-skid feet or bottom  pads.  The
single most  frequent accident involving
                                               NOTES
                                  10-5

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                                               NOTES
portable ladders is the bottom slipping
outwards away from the vertical support
surface.  Make sure the bottom cleated
pads rest on a non-slip, level surface.
Beware  of gravel, grass,  smooth wet
concrete,  or  oily slippery surfaces.

     Before  climbing a portable ladder,
position  a crew member at  the foot of
the ladder to stabilize the bottom  while
climbing is taking place.

     Make sure the ladder is perfectly
vertical before climbing.  Never attempt
to shift or move a  ladder while still on
it.  Remove all equipment hanging from
the rungs before shifting position of
the  ladder.  When moving a ladder,
position one crew member on each side to
firmly grasp and stabilize it.  Position
the ladder with the base a safe distance
from  the vertical  surface  it  is up
against.  If the base is too close to
the  vertical surface, there is the
danger  of the weight of  the climber
causing the  ladder to fall backwards.
If the base is too far  from the surface,
there is  increased  strain on the
structural members of the  ladder  and a
tendency  for the  bottom to slip away
from the vertical surface.  Table 10-1
gives recommended distances  for given
lengths of ladders.
                                   10-6

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                       TABLE 10-1
                    PITCH OF FIXED LADDERS

Substandard Pitch  Fixed  ladders  shall be considered as  substand-
ard if they are installed within the substandard pitch range of
60 and 75 degrees  with the horizontal.  Substandard  fixed  ladders
are permitted only where it  is found necessary to  meet conditions
of installation.   This  substandard pitch range shall be  consid-
ered as a' critical range to  be avoided if possible.

Pitch Greater Than 90 Degrees  Ladders have a  pitch in excess of
90 degrees with the horizontal are prohibited.

Maintenance  All ladders shall be maintained in a sale condition.
All  ladders shall be inspected regularly, with the  intervals
between inspections being determined  by use and exposure.

               SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR SCAFFOLDING

General  Requirements for all  Scaffolding   Scaffolds shall be
erected in  accordance with  this standard  for  persons engaged in
work that cannot be done safely  from  the ground.

The anchorage for scaffolds shall be sound and capable  of car-
rying the  maximum intended.  Unstable objects  shall not  be used
to support  scaffolds.

Guardrails should all be 2 x 4  inches,  installed  no less  than 36
inches  or no more  than 42  inches high,  with a midrail, when
required, of  1 x  4  inch  lumber.   Supports  should  be at  intervals
not to exceed ten  feet.  Toeboards shall be a minimum of 4 inches
in  height.

Scaffolds shall  be capable of  supporting 4 times the maximum
intended  load.

Scaffolds  shall not be  altered  or moved horizontally while they
are  in use  of occupied.

Any  scaffold  damaged or  weakened  from any cause  shall be immed-
iately  repaired and shall  not  be used  until repairs have been
completed.

Scaffolds shall not be  loaded  in excess of the working load  for
which they  are  intended.
                               10-7

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                                              NOTES
     Make sure the length of  the  ladder
is adequate  for the job.  Reaching from
a ladder that is too short is a prelude
to disaster.

     Protecting  Areas  BElow  Work
Platforms

     Areas in the "impact zone" below
sampling  operations  and  hoisting
operations  should be roped off  or
barricaded  to keep  people out of the
area where parts or equipment  may  fall.

     Flooring of Work Platforms

     Open-grating platforms used for
stack sampling should be floored (with
plywood)  to prevent  small  tools and
parts from falling through the  grating.
(This  will  help keep all  the  gear
together, as well as  keeping  it from
falling onto  persons  or equipment
below.)  If tools, equipment or  hardware
fall from  a ladder or  platform,  the
impact can cause damage or injury.  If
solid flooring and toeboards cannot be
provided, tool belts and other devices
should  be  used  to  prevent material
falling from sampling areas.

     To minimize  tripping hazards  in
elevated locations,  the flooring  should
be flat and  level, and tape, tools, and
small objects should be stored so that
they do not  clutter the work platform.
Umbilicals and wires  should be run so
that they are kept out of the  working
path.  Tripping hazards that cannot be
eliminated  should be  minimized and
marked  to help reduce their danger.

     Toeboards

     Toeboards  should  generally  be
provided as curbs around the edges  of
working platforms to prevent equipment,
small tools, and other gear from being
pushed   or  kicked  over the  edge.
Toeboards are not  required if nothing in
use can  be dropped or if no one  can walk
                                 10-8

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                                              NOTES
under the platform or close enough to
the "impact zone" to be hurt.

     Toeboards should  generally be four
inches in height from the top edge of
the toeboard to the top of the working
surface.  Lumber that is 1" x 4" or 2" x
4" nominal is acceptable for toeboards.

     Tools

     It is important to prevent tools
and other work material from falling off
of  elevated  work platforms  both for
safety  and  for working  without
unnecessary  interruption.  Although
toeboards  and  solid flooring will  help,
other measures may be  needed.

     If tools or other equipment are
used  beyond  the edge of  the working
platform, it is advisable to  take
special precautions to prevent them from
falling.   In some situations,  it may be
desirable to tie tools to the platform
or other superstructure.   For example, a
tie line should definitely be attached
to any wrench used to  loosen a tight
plug  in a sampling port,  in case the
wrench slips and falls.

     Protection Against  Falls  from
Heights

     Working platforms and scaffolds
usually are built with standard guard
railings, but  roofs and temporary
working surfaces seldom have any sort of
railing.  This  section describes the
standards for permanent and temporary
guard railings,  where  railings are
needed,  and  situations where  safety
lines may be needed.

     Working  platforms  and elevated
walkways should have guard railings high
enough to prevent workers from falling
off the elevated surfaces.  If you find
that the height of a  guard railing is
below  your  waist level or  center  of
gravity, you will need to be aware of
                                   10-9

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                                              NOTES
that deficiency and use extra caution
while you are working on the platform.

     If you find  that  you have to work
on a scaffold or  platform that does  not
have a guard railing, you should find a
way to get  a temporary railing installed
or use some other  method to protect
yourself,  such  as  a  fall-protection
harness.

     Standards for Guard Railings

     Standard  guard  railings  are
generally required for any walking  and
working surfaces that are four feet or
more  above another level.   Standard
guard railings have a  top rail  that is
42-inches above the working surface,  and
a midrail  that  is about 21 inches above
the  working surface.   (Midrails  are
intended to prevent workers from falling
under the guard railings.)

     Guard railings should be able to
withstand a 200 pound force applied in
any direction at any point on the  top
rail,  in  order  to  provide  reliable
protection.  If a guard railing appears
too weak  to support  you  if  you fall
against it,  do  something to strengthen,
supplement  or replace the railing before
you begin work on the platform or scaf-
fold.  If you decide to test a railing
for any reason,  try NOT to do it so that
you fall if the railing fails.

     Openings in Guard  Railings

     If sections of  existing  guard
railing must be  removed to provide
access to  sampling  ports  for long
probes, there should  be some alternative
guarding of the opening in the railing.
One alternative  would be a  temporary
railing above and below the path of  the
sampling train.

     Another alternative  would be a
protective  railing  that  projects  out
beyond  the  opening  and  provides
                                  10-10-

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                                               NOTES
protection against falls.

     If you encounter an unprotected
opening in a guard railing, you should
protect yourself by making a temporary
railing with rope or other material.

     If guard railings  have openings  for
hoisting, stairs, or  ladders that  are
near areas used for sampling operations,
try to close the openings with a snap
chain, rope or other temporary barrier
to falling.

     Since  sampling  operations must
often be carried out  in locations  not
designed  for  protection  of  work
operations, existing railings may need
to be augmented and temporary protection
of openings  may need to  be added to
prevent falls.

     Temporary Guard Railings

     If there  is frequent need to walk
or work  near  the unprotected edge of
roofs  or other elevated  surfaces,  a
temporary guard railing can be installed
to prevent falls.   Such a railing can be
provided  by tightly-strung rope or cable
at 21 and 42 inches above the surface.
If rope or cable is used as a temporary
guard railing, the rope or cable should
have less than six inches of sway under
a 200 pound force and no more than three
inches of sag  between  supports.   Strong
vertical supports should be installed
(safely) at intervals that do not exceed
eight  feet, so that the rope or cable
can provide  reliable protection.

     On some  high surfaces it may be
desirable to provide a temporary guard
railing  or  rope  even  if  sampling
personnel do not plan to work near  the
edge.  If the surface slopes or is rough
or slippery, there is  need for a safety
guard railing or rope  or a safety line.
In such hazardous situations,  the  21-
inch  high  mid-rai-1  is particularly
important  to prevent someone from
                                  10-11'

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                                              NOTES
slipping or sliding under the 42-inch
high rope or guard railing.

     Alternatives to Guard Railings

     Although guard railings are usually
required  for walking  and  working
surfaces that are four  feet  or more
above another level,   there are some
situations where the risk of falling
does not seem to justify the expense and
hazards of  erecting a temporary railing.
For example,  consider a one-story flat
roof  where  sampling operations are
twelve feet  or more  from the  edge.
Although sampling personnel can walk
over to the edge,  they will usually be
working far enough away so they would
not be likely to fall from the roof.

     During   set-up   and  take-down
operations when  the crew is hoisting
equipment over the edge of the one-story
roof,  the hazard of the height is likely
to be so obvious that the crew will pay
great attention to the hazard and take
precautions to avoid  falling over the
edge.  However, if extra attention alone
does not seem to  provide great enough
safety, some  additional protection will
be needed.   If providing a temporary
railing is hazardous,   inconvenient or
expensive, or if  it  interferes with
hoisting operations, some other safety
measure may be needed.

     Under some  extreme conditions,
where guard rails  or guard ropes cannot
be provided for the work area and where
fall distances could cause  serious
injuries, personnel should wear safety
harnesses  connected  to  well-rigged
safety lines.   Safety harnesses that
provide protection against falls are the
type with  loops around the shoulders,
legs and waist.  Safety lines  for fall
interruption must be equipped with
shock-absorbing  devices to  prevent
serious or  fatal injury from the impact
of a sudden stop at the end of the rope.
Lowering
suspension
harness
C/ass/V
                                  10-12'

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                                              NOTES
     Inspection  and  Erection  of
Scaffolding

     If you are  going to  work  from
scaffolding, this section will list some
important  things to check  before you go
up on  the  scaffold.  This  section is
also  intended  to  give  you  some
specifications and recommendations if
you  are responsible  for  supervising
scaffold erection  or contracting for  it.

     Inspection of Scaffolding

     Portable  scaffolds  should  be
erected so that they are secure enough
to minimize horizontal movement and to
prevent them from tipping over due to
wind,  load,  or  working  stresses.
Scaffolds over twenty feet high should
be secured or tied off at least  at every
twenty  feet of elevation.

     Working surfaces on scaffolding
should obviously be  strong enough to
support personnel and equipment.  If the
floor of the platform  is built of boards
or sheets of plywood, they  should not
slide or fall off of  the  supports.  If
the  floor is  built of  planks  that
overlap, they should overlap  at  least 12
inches or  be  nailed  down  or  secured
against movement.   It  is important that
all  plywood  and  planking  be  secured
against wind forces which may move or
lift them.

     Before using a scaffold,  use this
safety checklist for  the  condition of
the scaffold:

     1.  Are barricades or signs needed
to  prevent the  scaffold from  being
struck by  vehicles,  and are  they
provided?
       i
     2.   Is the feel  of  the  scaffold
stable  and firm?
                                 10-13-

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                                               NOTES
     3.   Is there an access ladder that
is either built-in and continuous; or a
temporary ladder lashed firmly?

     4.   Are  all other connections made
firm, either  with pins, bolts,  or  nested
construction?

     5.   Are  there secure cross braces
to prevent the  scaffold from tipping?

     6.   Are  the scaffold platforms at
least twenty-two inches wide?

     7.    Are the  scaffold platforms
secured  against  teetering and  being
blown off by  the wind?

     8.   Do the platforms have 42-inch
high guard rails with midrails, or does
the  cross-bracing  give equivalent
protection?

     9.    Do  the   platforms  have
toeboards?

    10.   Are  the toeboards of sufficient
height (3-1/2 inches or more) to prevent
tools and equipment from falling?

Erection of Scaffolding

     Scaffolds should be cross-braced
and erected on solid footings to avoid
sinking  into the  ground or  into  the
roof.   Cross-braces serve  the  important
function of keeping the scaffold erect
by preventing  it from tipping over or
collapsing.    Most  sections   of
scaffolding should have the cross-braces
connected, and  the connections  should be
secured  to keep the braces in place.

     Scaffolds  should  be erected so the
vertical  sections are at right  angles to
each other to provide a rectangular area
for the  platform and greater strength.

     Scaffolds with built-in  ladder
sections should be erected so that all
the ladder sections  are in a  straight
                                 10-14'

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                                              NOTES
run.  This will facilitate use of the
ladder and prevent injuries which may
occur if personnel are unaware of, or
forget shifts in the position of  ladder
sections.

     If the scaffold is erected where it
may be struck by vehicles,  barricades
and signs should be installed.

     If you are responsible for erection
of scaffolding,  use the Checklist  in the
safety  booklet  as  part of  the
specifications.   The Checklist can also
be used as informal safety information
for  anyone who  may erect scaffolds
Agency personnel may have to use.

Hoisting

     Stack sampling usually necessitates
raising equipment and replacement  probes
and supplies up to sampling sites, and
lowering equipment and other material
after the tests.   Hoisting and lowering
stack sampling  equipment  safely
requires:  rope, gloves, a clear path, a
reliable  method of  stopping  or
controlling the  rate of  descent, a
pulley or block and tackle  for lifting
heavy equipment,  support for  the
hoisting device, methods of attaching
loads,  and reliable hooks  and  ropes.
This  section  will  discuss   these
requirements and the advantages provided
by block and tackle.

     Safe use of rope requires sturdy
gloves for protection of the hands and
for getting a secure grip on the rope.
Gloves which have leather palms are
effective.

     Hoisting and  lowering loads  safely
also requires communication  and
coordination between the person hoisting
the  load and  the person  guiding or
receiving  the  load.  If distances are
great and ambient noise  levels are high,
the crew may need to have both visual
and audible signals.
                                 10-15'

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                                                NOTES
 Clear Path

     Hoisting equipment up to a sampling
 site requires a clear vertical path that
 is unobstructed and wide enough for safe
 passage of the equipment that has  to be
 hoisted.  If there is no clear path that
 can be used for hoisting, it will  take a
 lot more effort to carry equipment up to
 the  sampling  site without  risk of
 damage.   As preparation for hoisting
 equipment and supplies  up the sampling
 site, find out if there is a clear path
 for hoisting  or what route will have to
be followed.  This information should be
obtained  as  soon as possible, either
during the initial visit or as  a part of
a ?re-sampling or  preliminary survey.

Hoisting Procedure

     Before lifting any loads up to the
 sampling site,  the hoisting area should
 be  roped off  or marked  to  warn
 passersby.   Access to the hoisting area
 should be limited to the crew members
 doing the hoisting or guiding  the  load,
 who should definitely be wearing hard
 hats.

     (The  rope  or  signs  should  be
 removed after  the hoisting  has been
 completed and there  is no  danger of
 tools or equipment falling, or after the
 sampling has been completed.  You may
 have to remove the signs and barricades
 around the hoisting area right after you
 complete  the hoisting if the plant needs
 to use  the  area for work or for
 traffic.)

     No one  should be  directly under  a
 load being hoisted, even if block and
 tackle are being used.

      If possible, when  loads are  lifted,
 the hoisting line should be directly
 above the  load so that the load  is
 lifted  straight  up  from its resting
 position.  Pulling a load sideways as it
 is being lifted  may cause it to swing
                                    10-16-

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                                               NOTES
and damage the load.

     To keep  loads from  swinging  or
blowing while they  are being hoisted,  a
tail line or guide  line is recommended
for control.  The  tail  line or guide
line is controlled by the crew member on
the lower level at the hoisting site.

Controlling the Rate of Descent

     Controlling the rate of descent of
a load is important to prevent damage to
the load or  injury to personnel.   If
equipment is  lowered directly on rope by
hand or over  a simple pulley, personnel
could lose their grip and drop the load
or burn their hands on the rope as the
load accelerates downward.  Although the
rate of descent can be controlled  best
by use of  a power-driven hoist or  a
block and tackle, a load can be lowered
safely on a rope if the controlling end
of the rope  is looped around a support
so  that  friction can  be used  for
braking.

     If equipment is going to be lowered
directly,  it is possible to provide
excellent control  by  looping the  rope
around a railing or post.

     Control of  the pull on the running
end of the rope can control the friction
of the rope around the railing or  post
and  make it easy  to lower the  load
gradually and safely with very little
effort.  (If a capstan or a capstan-like
device is available to loop the  rope
over, it has the advantage that a  loop
may be thrown over the capstan without
having to find the end of the rope.)

Pulleys and Block and Tackle

     Although hoisting without pulleys
has been common  in  stack sampling work,
use  of  one or  more  pulleys  is
recommended.   Using  a pulley  for
hoisting  a load will usually reduce the
strength  required for hoisting, and may
                                  10-17'

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                                               NOTES
allow the person hoisting the  load  to
work from a safer position. Pulleys and
rigging should be standard  equipment for
stack sampling crews.

     Sites  over fifty  feet  high and
those which  are sampled regularly should
have a pulley support installed.  Some
companies have installed gallows frames
and  pulleys  permanently  in  such
locations.

     The  condition  of  frames  and
supports should  be checked before using
them,    particularly  in corrosive
atmospheres.

     A block and tackle is  a combination
of rope and  two  pulleys used  to reduce
the amount of force  needed for  lifting.
If heavy loads  need  to be lifted  to
stack sampling sites,  or controlled
carefully on long lifts, the job can  be
done with less stress on the crew by use
of block and tackle.   The  reduction  of
force required to lift a load with block
and tackle  is offset by the need for
longer  rope and the  time to pull  it
through  the  pulleys.

     Rigging block and tackle is done  by
placing  the blocks  or pulleys close
together in the  same relative position
as they will be used, and threading the
end  of  the coiled  rope  through the
pulleys to the connecting point on one
of the pulleys.  Then the blocks can  be
pulled apart as  needed without  kinking
or tangling  the line.

     The recommended storage procedure
for rope used in block and tackle is  to
pull the blocks together, coil the rope,
and store the coiled rope  with  the end
on the bottom and the block and tackle
on top.  With this procedure,  the block
and  tackle  are ready  to  use without
tangling or  kinking  of the  rope.
                                  10-18-

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                                               NOTES
Hooks and Other Devices for Attaching
Loads

     Hoisting ropes should be provided
with  hooks to be  used for attaching
loads.   All hooks  used  for hoisting
should have  safety catches  to keep loads
attached to the hook until the  safety
catch is released.  The safety catch is
designed to prevent  the load attachment
or supporting eye or line from slipping
out of the eye of the hook.

     The hook used for hoisting loads
should be strong enough  to hold the load
without bending out of shape.   (As a
rule of thumb, the load  in  tons that can
be carried safely by a hook is equal to
the square of the diameter of the eye.
As a rough estimate,  a hook with a half-
inch diameter eye could safely carry a
one-quarter ton load and a hook  with a
one-inch diameter eye could carry a one
ton load safely.)

     Loads  to be  hoisted should  have
well-attached connections (such as an
eye or sturdy handle) for the hoisting
hook or the  hoisting line.

     If loads do not have connections,
the loads should be  supported in slings
or be lashed so that the load will not
shift or drop during the  hoisting and
lowering. When hoisting probes or other
equipment without a  specific attachment
point, it is safer to provide a separate
sling or binding rope  than to use the
hoisting rope to wrap or tie the load.
The most commonly used sling is composed
of two lengths of rope with a galvanized
eye spliced into each end of each rope.
To use the sling, one length is  passed
under each end of the load and the four
eyes are hooked onto the tackle hook of
the hoisting line.

     If a connecting device  such as a
shackle or clevis is used in the sling,
the safe load in tons is estimated to be
the diameter of the pin  in 1/4-inches
                                   10-19'

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squared  and  divided by  three.   For          NOTES
example a half-inch  diameter clevis pin
is two quarter-inches, and two squared
and divided  by three is  4/3  or  1-1/3
tons.

     (These  rules  of  thumb  are  not
suggested as a substitute for  accurate
tables  and  reference material  from
manufacturers  of  hooks and  connecting
devices, but they may be useful  as a
safety check  while in the  field.)

Rope

     Rope needs to be strong enough to
support the load to be lifted, and large
enough in diameter to allow a firm grip
for the load  to be lifted.  For example,
rope that is  1/4-inch in diameter is not
large enough to allow a firm grip for a
heavy   load;  1/2-inch  or  3/4-inch
diameter rope will  allow a firm  and
comfortable grip.

     The estimated safe load for manila
rope  not  larger  than  one-inch  in
diameter,  in  tons  of weight-bearing
capacity, is obtained by squaring the
diameter of  the   rope in  inches.   For
example, a one-inch rope could  safely
carry a load  of one  ton, and a  1/2-inch
rope  could  carry a load of  1/4  ton.
Sisal  rope  can carry only one-third the
afe load of manila rope.

     Care  should be taken  to avoid
kinking or dmaging rope, getting it wet,
or dragging  it in the dirt.   If  rope
gets direty,  it should be hosed off and
then  loosely coiled to dry.   If  rope
must  be  passed over sharp corners  or
edges,  the charp corners or edges should
be padded  or protected  (with  chaging
gear)  to prevent damage to the rope.

     Rope should  be  routinely inspected
for wear, breaks or other  defects either
prior to each use or after each use (to
save  time when  the rope is  needed).
Manila  and   sisl  rope  may need to  be
                            10-20'

-------
                                               NOTES
replaced every year  if used often or
wetted frequently.

     Rope that is rotten,  frayed, or
severely worn is not reliable and should
not be used.

Elevators and Manlif ts

     Elevators

     Passenger elevators  are usually
well maintained and regularly inspected
where the passenger  load and frequency
of use are great,    as  in office and
commercial buildings.  However, small
industrial elevators and  hoists  may
seldom be  used or inspected regularly
and may be poorly maintained.   Before a
hoist or small elevator is going to be
used  for  access  to   tall  stacks,  the
sampling  crew should  test the operation
of the hoist or elevator and test the
alarms and- phones to see if they work
and if someone will  respond to them.
The crew  should also check  out what
escape routes may be available if the
elevator  or  hoist stops  during  use.
(Before performing these tests, notify
plant personnel.)

     If the hoist or  elevator seems to
be unreliable, the sampling crew should
see  what  maintenance or emergency
assistance can be provided. If alarms
do not work, or phones are not reliable,
the crew should carry a radio or other
signaling device so that assistance can
be obtained if the  hoist  or elevator
stops between landings.   If there is the
possibility that the  hoist or elevator
may  stop  between landings,  find out
whether it  is possible to get out of the
car and whether there is  any safe way to
get to a ladder or other route to the
ground.

     Manlifts

     Manlifts  are vertical conveyor
belts for moving people from floor to
                                  10-2}

-------
                                               NOTES
 floor in  less space and  time  than
 required by stairs.  Manlifts are old-
 fashioned,  dangerous and not  designed to
 move equipment or freight. Do NOT use a
 manlift unless it  cannot be avoided.

     At  the top of any manlift there
 should be two  automatic safety  devices
 which  cut off  the power and  set  the
 brake if the person does  not step off
 the manlift at the top platform.   (If
 there were  no  safety devices  and you did
 not let go, you would go up over the top
 pulley  and  down  the other side!)   At the
 platform there  should  be a grab bar to
 permit  the  rider to swing free and on to
 the top landing if the  emergency stops
 fail to operate at the  top of the man-
 lift.

    Before riding a manlift, check to
  be sure that:

    1.   the emergency stop  at  the  top
of the  manlift operates,
     2.   the emergency  stop rope or rod
beside  the  manlift operates,
     3.   there  is  a  permanent  ladder
 accessible  at  the side of the manlift,
     4.   the underside  of the floors or
 platforms  and  cone-shaped  guards  to
 guide the ascending person through the
 floor opening,
     5.     there  is  sufficient
 illumination to see the platforms and
 stops,
     6.  there are instructions posted
 on each landing,
     7.  the belt has not been  spliced
 and does not show wear, and
     8.  the  top  landing has  a  sign
 designating it as  the top landing and to
 get off.

     To ride a manlift  safely:

     1.  Never carry tools  or objects in
 your hands or protruding from  your
 pockets  or belt—they  may catch in the
 floor openings.
                                  10-22'

-------
                                               NOTES
     2.  Face the belt and get ready to
grab the handhold and place your feet on
the step quickly.

     3.   Do not  leap to catch a step
that has passed the floor landing.

     4.  Hold on to the handholds firmly
with both hands.

     5.  Put both feet squarely on  the
step, quickly.

     6.  Be ready to get off quickly at
the floor level you want.

     7.  Step away quickly to make room
for  the next  person getting off  the
lift.

Electrical Hazards

     Electrical   hazards  in stack
sampling operations can come from  three
major sources:   current leakage from
line-powered  electrical  equipment,
static electricity, and lightning.

Current Leakage from Equipment

     Sampling personnel may be exposed
to  serious  shock  hazards  from line-
operated electrical equipment which does
not have a  safe  and effective grounding
connection.

     Ungrounded electrical equipment  can
be deadly because exposed metal parts
will be "hot" (at line voltage) if  the
"hot" side of  the line  has short
circuited to the case or other exposed
metal parts.  If sampling personnel were
to touch these exposed  metal parts at
the same time they touched a  grounded
metal object such as a pipe, they could
be  electrocuted.   The  hazard   is
insidious because such a short circuit
will not  necessarily keep the equipment
from operating.

     If the  metal  case or exposed  parts
                                  10-23-

-------
                                              NOTES
 are connected  to a grounding circuit,
 any internal short-circuit will trip the
 circuit  breaker rather than  injure
 someone.  If grounding circuits cannot
 be provided, or if  tests by the crew
 show  that the  grounding connection is
 not grounded,  the crew should  use  a
 portable   ground   fault   circuit
 interrupter  (GFCI).

     If any sampling  apparatus  has  a
 noise-filtering capacitor, the apparatus
 will  not operate on a circuit with  a
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI)
because  the capacitor will trip the
GFCI.   if  you  have  this  type of
apparatus,  a  grounded circuit or
connection to ground must be provided
for safety.

Static Electricity

    Sampling   personnel  may also be
 exposed to shock hazards if they are
 sampling a process stream which carries
 a  significant charge  of  static
 electricity from particulates  in the
 process stream  or from an electrostatic
 precipitator.  Sampling probes should be
 grounded to remove static electricity
 and   prevent  shocks  to  sampling
 personnel.

     Shocks  from static electricity may
 cause discomfort or  injury, or  may
 startle  sampling personnel  and cause
 them  to jump  back  and fall  from  an
 elevated platform.

 Lightning

      Sampling personnel  working  on
 stacks or other elevated structures are
 exposed to  increased  hazards  from
 lightning,  particularly if they are
 working  with grounded  electrical
 equipment.   Personnel in  such situations
 should be alert to approaching storms,
 since lightning may strike in advance of
 a storm.  Sampling operations should be
 discontinued when there is a hazard of
                                  10-24-

-------
                                             NOTES
lightning.   In order to anticipate
lightning hazards, sampling personnel
should use  a portable a.m.  radio to
monitor local weather reports and listen
for  static interference which  may
indicate lightning discharges in the
vicinity.

Communications

     There   are  three  types  of
communication that are important for
safe stack  sampling operations:
communications between members of the
sampling crew, a communications link
with plant personnel, and a portable
receiver to  monitor local stations for
weather reports and for static which may
indicate approaching storms.

     If sampling sites are in locations
where  there  may  be  flammable
concentrations of gases or vapors,
electrical equipment and radios should
not be taken in without first finding
out from  plant personnel that they are
safe or can be adapted to work safely in
hazardous atmospheres.

Communication Between Members of the
Crew

     Rapid and effective communication
is needed between members of sampling
teams for routine operations and for
emergency and safety-related messages.
Delay or confusion  in communication
during setup and breakdown or during
hoisting operations can result in damage
to equipment and injury  to personnel.
Good  communication  is especially
important  for  safe  and effective
operations that are  not routine, that
are carried  out or assisted by another
crew, or  that require close cooperation
between people who may not be used to
working together.

     Radios  are  recommended  for
communication between sampling team
members,  for carrying out  routine
                                  10-25-

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                                              NOTES
monitoring tasks, and for communicating
about safety problems that may arise.
Radio communication is effective for
conveying special directions during
setup and breakdown, and for describing
emergencies and  the type of help needed.
EPA field experience has been that FM
radios are needed,  because CB channels
are used  so much that it is difficult to
communicate   quickly  and without
interference.

     It may be possible to communicate
effectively in  sampling operations by
means of shouting,  if distances  are not
too great, winds are not too high, and
noises in the sampling  area are  not too
great.  However, voice communication is
easily interfered  with  by equipment
noise,   passing   trains  and  other
vehicles,  and concentration on the work.
Hand signals and gestures can be used
for simple messages such as "move the
probe," but usually  some audible  signal
is needed to attract attention to the
visual message.

     Inexpensive whistles, horns or
bells  can  be   used either to  call
attention  to  visual  signals  or send
audible  signals.   Where distances or
ambient noise levels are too  great for a
hand bell or mouth-powered  whistle or
horn to  carry clearly,  there are Halon-
powered hand-held horns  that can be used
effectively.

Communication Between the Crew and the
Plant

     It   is also desirable  to  have a
means of communicating with  plant
personnel in case of any emergency.  In
some cases it may be possible to borrow
a radio that is  on the plant frequency.

     If an emergency occurs in or near
the  sampling  operations (such  as
observation of lightning, or high winds,
or damage  to equipment, or injury to
personnel) sampling personnel need to
                                 10-26'

-------
                                               NOTES
have some means of communicating this
emergency and obtaining the  help that is
needed.

     In case of a plant emergency, such
as  a  fire,  tornado warning,  or
unexpected release of  toxic chemicals,
it is imperative that sampling personnel
know the  plant emergency signals and hox^
to respond promptly and correctly.

Communication for Weather Information

     It is desirable to have a portable
receiver to monitor local stations for
weather reports and for  static which may
indicate  approaching storms.

Protective and Bnergency Equipment

     Protective Equipment  for Routine
Hazards

     Stack sampling personnel  should be
sure to  have  the personal protective
equipment  that  may  be needed  for
exposures in sampling operations.   Such
equipment will  include the personal
protective and safety  equipment  for the
routine exposures expected, and it may
include emergency breathing equipment as
a special  precaution.   (See  Units
pertaining to these subjects)

     Under  some  conditions,   stack
sampling personnel  may  need  air-
purifying respirators, and  under other
conditions they may need  self-contained
breathing apparatus.

     Approved  air-purifying respirators
provide acceptable protection only,  for
exposures to irritating or  toxic gases
and vapors in concentrations that are
known to be  within  the  limits  of
protection provided by the respirators.
(See Units pertaining  to these subjects.)
                                  10-27'

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                                              NOTES
     Emergency Equipment

     Emergency equipment  should be
provided at the working elevation for
the types of emergencies which may occur
there, because there will be a delay in
emergency  response from personnel at a
different  elevation.   For example, if
corrosive chemicals can be splashed in
the  eyes or on the skin,  or if heat
stress is  severe,  a supply of emergency
water  is   needed at the  working
elevation.  Adhesive bandages may be'
needed for minor cuts, and emergency
lighting may be  needed  in case of  power
failure during night operations or
operations  inside  of windowless
buildings.

     Approved self-contained breathing
apparatus or air-line respirators must
be provided and be within  immediate
reach of the crew if there are hazards
of exposure to concentrations that are
either unknown  or beyond the limited
capacities of filter-type respirators.
Such breathing apparatus should also be
provided if there  is the possibility of
release of  high concentrations of deadly
gases such  as hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen
cyanide, or hydrofluoric acid.

     If unique hazards such as hydrogen
sulfide,   hydrogen   cyanide,   or
hydrofluoric acid may be present in high
concentrations, the sampling crew may
need  to have special  protective and
emergency medical equipment.

Weather Hazards

     Snow,  rain,  and  dust  storms are
likely to interfere with communication
and  cause  other  problems that  will
prevent safe sampling operations.  Such
storms may also reduce  visibility and
mobility and  increase hazards to the
extent that sampling operations  will
need to be  stopped.  If ladders,  stairs,
platforms and other walking and working
surfaces are covered with ice or snow,
or are icing up from a  freezing rain,
there should be  no climbing (except to
                                  10-28-

-------
                                               NOTES
"retreat") and no work at elevations.

     Weather  conditions can also affect
sampling equipment and personnel working
outside and  increase  the hazards of the
sampling operation and the needs  for
protective equipment.

     Heat   Hot  weather and direct
sunlight can contribute to  the heat load
from process equipment and from physical
activity,  so that it may be necessary to
monitor for  signs of heat  stress.  High
temperatures  may also cause  samples to
volatilize  and  to pressurize  sample
containers so that there  is risk of a
leak or spray from  the container.  Metal
in direct sunlight may become hot enough
to cause  thermal burns to unprotected
skin.  Heat stress may require special
protective  clothing,  extra  drinking
water or other fluids, and  monitoring of
personnel for  sunburn or symptoms of
heat exhaustion,, or  heatstroke.

     Cold Cold weather,  wet  clothing
and  wind  can  cause  frostbite,
hypothermia, or other adverse effects.
Low temperatures may also freeze lines
and  cause   sampling  equipment  to
malfunction.
                                    10-29-

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                       STUDENT EXERCISE I

     Examine Figure  1.   List  as many safety violations as can be
found.  (Hint:   There are at  least 10)

1.	

2.	

3.	

4.	

5.	

6.	

7.	

8.	

9.	

10..
                                      10-30

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                      STUDENT EXERCISE II

a.  Will  a  hook with an eye of 1/2" safely support a  load of
     1,000 Ibs?
b.  Will a 1/4" clevis pin safely support a load of 1,000 Ibs?
    Will a manila rope of 3/4" diameter carry a  load of 1,000
     Ibs?
                                        10-32

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                           OMIT 11

         INSPECTION SAFETY FOR WATER AND WASTEWATER PLANTS


Educational Objectives

     o Students should be able to list
the most frequent types  of accidents
that occur  at water  and  wastewater
plants.

     o  Students  should be  able  to
identify where most accidents occur in
water and wastewater plants.

     o Students should be able to list
the physical dangers of grit chambers,
screens and comminutors.

     o  Students  should be  able  to
summarize  the chemical hazards of grit
chambers, screens and comminutors.

     o  Students  should be  able  to
recognize   the  essential  safety
precautions  to be  followed prior  to
entry into grit chambers, screens and
comminutors.

     o  Students  should be  able  to
recognize the  physical  and chemical
hazards of clarification and aeration
facilities.

     o Students should be able to list
the minimum safety precautions  to be
followed before inspection of clarifiers
and aeration  tanks.

     o  Students  should be  able  to
identify the safety hazards associated
with chlorine.

     o Students should be able to list
the safety precautions to be followed
prior  to   entering  a  chlorine
disinfection  room.

     o Students should be able to list
the safety precautions to be followed
when inspecting lagoons and ponds.
                                 11-1

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                                             NOTES
     o  Students  must be  able to
recognize specific health hazards
associated with common chemical names
found in  laboratories.

     o  Students  must oe  able co
summarize safety precautions that should
be followed in a laboratory.

     o  Students should be able to
recognize and define  confined  space.

     o Students  should be able  to  list
potential hazards of  confined  spaces.

     o  Students should be able to
describe  the confined space environment
classified as Class A,  Class  B,   and
Class C.

     o Students  should be able  to  list
safety precautions to be followed for
each class of confined space environment.

     o  Students should be able to
demonstrate a  knowledge of ambient air
quality standards.

     o  Students should be aole to
recognize  the physical  hazards
associated A'lth confined space entry.

     o Students  should be able  to  list
minimum safety equipment necessary for
confined  space entry.

     o  Students should be able to
recognize  and evaluate  chemical  hazards
associated with wastewater.

     o  Students should be able to
demonstrate a knowledge of the hazards
of specific gases and vapors associated
with wastewater.

     o Students  should be able  to  list
diseases  and  symptoms  commonly
associated with wastewater.

     o  Students should be able to
summarize the  personal  protection
                                  11-2

-------
                                              NOTES
necessary to  reduce  contact  with
pathogenic organisms.

    o  Students should be  able to
describe the personal  hyriene  required
co prevent  infection.
                                  11-3

-------
                             UNIT 11

       INSPECTION SAFETY FOR WATER AND NASTENATER FACILITIES

                                                NOTES
 Introduction

      The safety and  health of  agency
 employees  entering water and wastewater
 plants can be best analyzed by examining
 the overall hazards that exist at these
 plants.   In the routine of a  thorough
 inspection of  such  plants,  agency
 personnel face, on a limited basis,  all
 the potential dangers encountered by
 daily operations personnel.

      Operational  techniques  used by
 various systems such as trickling filter
 plants or activated sludge plants pose
 unique hazards.   It is not within the
 scope of  this course to single out
 particular plant types.  The possible
 hazards  present at each of these types
 of  plants will be  handled collectively.
 As  routine inspections  will most  likely
 include  a wide variety of plant  types.
 Inspectors should  thoroughly aquaint
 themselves with all  the hazards  that may
 be encountered.

 Types of  Accidents and Frequency

     The following is a summary of the
 types and  locations of accidents and
hazards routinely reported in water and
wastewater plants  (see  Figure 11-1).
                                   11-4

-------
                                                   NOTES
                    FIGURE  11-1
Percentage (No. Injuries) Reported by Location of Accident

No. Systems Reporting: 1408           /	laboratory 1.7% (SOI
                                     /  /	etoctrfcal equipment 1.7% (51)
No. Infury Locations Reported: 3021  / / f	chemical disinfection
                                                     equipment 2.7% (182)
                                                tanks 01
                                               settling
                                             basins/cits/
                                           pondl
                                          5.8S
                                        (1751 _
                                                 pipes valves
                                          and fixtures 8.1% (1851
                  operations related
maintenance related
                                 11-5

-------
                                                   NOTES
        Table  11-1  indicates a  reversal  in
   accident  rates.   Prior to  1983,  the
   industry was recording a gradual decline
   in accident rates.  The year 1983 saw
   the rate beginning  to climb.   Statistics
   indicate that at  the  present accident
   rate,  one in every  10  workers  will
   receive an injury requiring lost work
   time.   In the last year seven fatalities
   were reported as a  result, of job related
   accidents at  water  and wastewater
   facilities.
^      CJ
WP\      V^-ui.
  1    -nv> ^
          "'Tv,^
Long Term Injury Rat* for Treatment Plants and Collection Syrtama
  100—	"
                     nts
             AnSy*tomt
             Collection Syitenw
                 inn
                 "
                                          n   i
                                                      •   •   • •  •   •   •
                                                      1   1   1   1   1   1
         I   I   I   I
      1969 1M7 196S 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973  1974  1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983
                                      11-6

-------
                         TABLE 11-1

         1983 Personnel injuries in wastewater works
U.S. and Canada (as determined from WPCF 1984 Safety Survey)
              B
H
Collection systems only
< 10 255 1175 692 846.76 32 37.79 247.2
> 10 -o 25 141 2346 676 1182.14 51 43.14 407.0
> 25 to 100 157 7654 1580 3111.58 241 77.45 3319.2
> 100 48 18503 2550 4819.24 347 72.00 4553.0
Total 601 29676 5498 9959.72 671 67.37 8526.4
Treatment plants only
< 10 341 1692 1140 2137.94 51 23.85 525.2
> 10 to 25 212 3605 1593 3281.88 79 24.07 1090.0
> 25 to 100 192 9632 3664 7303.56 294 40.25 3723.5
> 100 76 32510 6899 13806.66 769 55.70 7676.2
Total 821 47339 13296 26530.04 1193 44.97 13014.9
Others-reported only as collection and treatment
< 10 299 1116 1054 1713.18 54 31.52 488.5
> 10 to 25 70 1169 639 1264.65 45 35.58 619.5
> 25 to 100 59 2886 1468 2900.23 139 47.93 1423.0
> 100 39 31531 10295 19818.41 1007 50.51 15276.6
Total 467 36702 13456 25696.47 1245 48.45 17807.6
All systems
< 10 700 3002 2886 4697.88 137 29.16 1260.8
> 10 to 25 304 5070 2908 5728.67 175 30.56 2116.5
> 25 to 100 262 14000 6711 13316.38 674 50.62 8405.8
> 100 122 68104 19744 38444.31 2123 55.22 27505.8
Total 1408 90176 32249 62186.24 3109 49.99 39348.9
A: Population Size Group (X 10~3)*
B: Number of Reports
C: Population Served (X 10~3)*
D: Total Number of Employees
E: Total Man-hours (X HP)
F: Total Disabling Injuries
G: Injury Frequency per 106 Man-hours
H: Total Days Lost
I: Severity Rate (days lost from work per 106 man-hours)
J: Fatal Cases

291.9 0
344.3 0
1066.7 1
944.8 0
856.1 1

245.7 0
332.1 0
509.8 2
556.0 3
490.6 5

285.1 0
489.9 0
490.7 0
770.8 1
693.0 1

268.4 0
369.5 0
635.8 3
715.5 4
632.8 7










*Population served is partly composed of industrial waste population
equivalents
*Totals do not add up because of duplication in above groups


*A fatality represents 150 days lost as recommended in the National Safety
Council's "1983 Accidents Facts" manual

                                  11-7 '

-------
                                                 NOTES
      It  is  evident  from  reported
 statistics that water and wastewater
 plants  represent a  persistently
 dangerous workplace.   Table 11-  2
 summarizes   personnel  disabling
 injuries,  in 1983, wastewater works by
 U.S. EPA Region.

                           TABLE 11-2

    1983 Personnel disabling injuries in wastewater works by O.S. EPA Region
          B
H
I 96 2629 1279
II 178 12099 3513
III 153 9242 4038
IV 113 6512 3820
V 411 24836 9180
VI 77 4607 1990
VII 107 5245 1902
VIII 52 3119 934
IX 70 16880 3800
X 46 3285 1076
Total 1302 88454 31532
A: EPA Region
B: Number of Reports
C: Population Served (X 10~3)
D: Total Number of Employees
E: Total Man-hours (X 10~3)
F: Total Disabling Injuries
2519.195
6719.333
8079.715
7591.865
17888.014
3958.465
3505.581
1788.352
6871.774
2075.527
60997.821





165
342
293
368
873
238
173
69
452
79
3052





66.50
50.90
36.26
48.47
48.80
60.12
49.35
38.58
65.78
38.06
50.03





2954
3641
4517
4054
10917
2952
2058
750
5508
1207
38558





1172.6
541.9
559.1
534.0
610.3
745.7
587.1
419.4
801.5
581.5
632.1





0
0
1
2
1
1
2
0
0
0
7





G: Injury Frequency per 106 Man-hours
H: Total Days Lost

I: Severity Rate (days lost from work per
J: Fatal Cases


10~6


Man-hours)










Note:  States contained in particular regions are as follows:
I  Connecticut,  Maine,  Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont
II  New Jersey,  New York
III  Delaware, DC,  Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia
IV  Alabama,  Florida, Georgia, Kentucky,  Mississippi, North Carolina,  South
    Carolina, Tennessee
V  Illinois,  Indiana, Michigan. Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin
VI  Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico,  Oklahoma, Texas
VII  Iowa,  Kansas,  Missouri, Nebraska
VIII  Colorado,  Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah,  Wyoming
IX  Arizona,  California, Hawaii, Nevada
X  Alaska,  Idaho, Oregon, Washington
                                    11-8

-------
                                               NC7EES
     Statistics also indicate that the
 severity of injury increases as  the size
 of  the plant  increases;  even though
 studies also indicate that the larger
 the plant is, the more likely it is to
 have  safety equipment  available  and
 safety programs in place.   Increased
 personnel  and  opportunity for  accident
 are the most probable causes for this
 disparity.

     Figure  11-1 and  Table 11-3  are
 summaries of  the types of  injuries
 suffered by personnel in  the wastewater
 industry.   Since the  frequency  of
 exposure of agency personnel to some of
 these  types  of injuries is  less  than
 others, concentration will be  made on
 the following areas representing  the
 most imirediate  threats:

     1.  Grit  chambers,  screens  and
comminutors.

     2.  Clarification  and aeration
facilities.

     3. Disinfection

     4. Lagoons and ponds

     5. Sampling

     6. Laboratory

     7.   Confined spaces (digesters),
wet wells

     8.  Chemical hazards

     9.  Aerosols and microorganisms

   10.  Gases and vapors
                                  11-9

-------
                    FIGURE 11-1

Percentage (No. Injuries) Reported
No. Systems: 14O8
No. Injuries: 3118
by Type of Injury

 thermal burn 1.6% (51)
    them toJl bum 1.9% (58)
        rMpiral.;;: '•.•:'\
             N^B^^c^^  ^V^A
                                             fracture
                                           5.4% (168)
      sprain
    20.1% (627)
                    TABLE 11-3
 Incidence of disabling injury by cause of accident.
      re of Accident
                                             No.
                                          Disabling
                                           Injuries
                    Total
 Sprain strain in lifting, pulling, or pushing
   objects
 Sprains strains caused by awkward position
   or sudden twist or slip
 Struck against stationary or moving object
 Struck by falling or dying objects
 Falls on same level to working surface
 Falls to different level from platform, ladder.
   stairs, etc.
 Struck by sharp or blunt object
 Caught in, under, or between objects
 Contact with radiations, caustics, toxic, or
   noxious substances
 Occupational illness  (vaccination reaction.
   typhoid, etc.)
 Contact with temperature extremes (fire,
   frostbite, scalding, etc.)
 Rubbed or abraded
 Motor vehicle
 Animal or insect bites
 Contact with electric current
 Total	.	.	
         772

         546

         264
         259
         250
         243

         183
         169
         157

          67
          53
          51
          40
           8
         117
24.8

175

 8.5
 83
 80
 78

 59
 5.4
 5.0

 2.1

 18

 17
 1.6
 13
 0.3
                                 11-10

-------
                                               NOTES
      Grit  Chambers,  Screens  and
 Cotnninutors

      Volatile  Gases  and Oxygen
 Deficiency - Grit chambers, screens  and
 comminutors generally serve the same
 purpose  of  reducing or  removing
 objectionable  material   in  raw
 wastev/ater.   Depending  on  plant
 hydraulics and design, the devices are
 located in buildings often under ground,
 with limited ventilation.  In extensive
 collection systems  serving  large
 metropolitan areas,  wastes often  arrive
 in a septic state containing industrial
 volatiles  such as  gasoline.    The
 conditions prevailing in  the housing
 building  may be identical  to wet wells
 or  other  confined  space  entry
 structures.  The dangers and precautions
 discussed in the previous section on
 Confined Space Entry, should be followed
 in detail.

     Physical Hazards -  In addition to
 dangerous gas and  oxygen  deficiency,
 grit chambers, screens, and comminutors
 also present additional  hazards.
 Generally, these  areas remain constantly
 wet,  with large  amounts of grease and
 oil present.  The combination of oils
 and  greases  with ladders,  rails,  and
 open fast  moving  machinery present
 formidable safety hazards.

     Flammable  Liquids  -  Due to  the
 construction design of grit chamber
 inflow channels,   oils and greases  often
 accumulate  in these  areas prior  to
 entering the main plant.  In  the case of
 gasoline, fuel oil, or other flammable
 materials  that  have  been  dumped  or
 leaked  into the drains,   dangerous
 accumulations may be  present at the grit
chamber channels,  with little or  no
evidence at other parts of the plant.
Agency personnel are cautioned to be
particularly alert and observant during
these emergencies.   Flew channels are
usually designed to  decrease incoming
wastewater  velocity by  widening the
                                 11-11-

-------
                                              NOTES
 channel.  It is at  this point  that
 volatiles usually accumulate.
      Safety Precautions - As a minimum,                 O
 the  following safety precautions  and
 gear should  be  adhered  to  before
 entering  grit chambers,  screens  and
 chambers:
      1.  Confined area should be checked
 for appropriate ventilation.

      2.   Confined  area  should be
 monitored  for  explosive gases, toxic
 fumes,  oxygen deficiencies.    (See
 section on Confined Spaces Entry.)

      3.  Entry,  work,  and inspection
 areas should be  checked  for missing
 ladder  wrungs,   hand rails,   poor
 lighting,  missing  machine  guards,
 overhead conveyor belts, standing water,
 or grease.

      4.  As a minimum,  the  following
 safety gear should be  worn:

          a. Hard hat

         b. Safety splash goggles

         c. Rubber gloves

         d.  Rubber soles, steel teed
             boots

 If  conditions  warrant   further
 protections;

         e.  Close fitting slicker or
 water repellent outerwear(loose or
 floppy fitting    rain  gear  with
drawstrings should  be avoided  when
entering  areas  containing  moving
machinery)
         f.  Knee-high rubber safety
boots
                                11-12-

-------
                                               NOTES
          g.   Dust or organic  vapor
               respirator

 Clarification and Aeration Facilities

     Flammable Liquids - The open  design
 of clarifiers  and  aeration  tanks
 generally precludes the  dangers of
 confined space entry.  Flammables and
 other volatiles may, however, be present
 in sufficient quantity  to  explode or
 ignite.   Sources of  ignition  such as
 cigarettes, matches,  or  lighters  should
 be  prohibited  in  these  areas,
.particularly in times of known spills.

     Physical Hazards  - The  open  nature
 of these tanks  should  be  guarded by
 extensive hand rails.  Life  poles,  life
 jackets, and life rings should all be
 present  when entering these  areas.
 Sample collections or D.O meter reading
 in the  tank area should include the
 wearing  of  a  life vest and the presence
 of a  second person.

     Safety Precautions - As a minimum,
 the following safety equipment should be
 worn by  agency personnel entering into
 the clarifier or aeration areas:

     1.  Hard hat

     2.  Rubber gloves

     3.  Rubber soled safety boots

     4.  Splash goggles

     In the case of sampling:

     5.  Life vest

     Particular caution  should  be
 exercised  during the winter  months.
 Inclement  weather  may   result  in
 treacherous conditions on the walk-ways
 above   clarifiers  and   aerators.
 Personnel are often heavily  dressed for
 warmth during these times.  The shock of
 cold  water during a fall into a tank,


                                  11-13-

-------
coupled with the weight of wet clothes
could result  in disaster.

Disinfection

     Storage Facilities  -  The  use of
gaseous  liquids, or solid chlorine as a
disinfectant  and odor  suppressent  is
common place.   For most facilities over
cylinders containing  one  ton of chlorine
and having an accumulative weight of
3,700 Ibs.   Such large amounts  of  a
highly toxic and  reactive chemical pose
problems in  storage  and safety.  Stored
cylinders should be kept under roof away
from direct  contact with liquids.  When
chlorine  gas comes  in contact  with
moisture,  it forms  highly corrosive
hydrochloric acid.   Such acid  is not
only a  threat to the worker and the
inspector, but can accelerate the rate
of  leakage by  further eroding  the
structural integrity  of  the cylinder.

Chlorination Room Safety

     Chlorine as a gas is heavier than
air and  as a  result,  will accumulate at
floor  level  or   in   manholes  or
depressions.  Chlorination rooms should
be  separate from  other facilities.
Before  entering such  rooms,  agency
personnel should examine the exterior
for floor level ventilation and power
exhaust systems.    If windows  are
available, a visual  examination of the
interior may provide evidence  of the
yellowish appearance  of leaking chlorine
gas.  Many  facilities  have chlorine
warning  systems or instruments that can
detect chlorine at 0.5 mg/1.  Full face
respirators should  be  found near the
entrance to the chlorinator building.
Never  enter  a  chlorinator building
alone.  After satisfying oneself  that
ventilators are present, power  exhaust
systems  are working,  and no visual signs
of  chlorine  can be  seen,  one  person
should  enter  the room and  the other
remain outside for rescue purposes until
the  all-clear  has been   reported.
Exposure to even minute quantities of
chlorine generally can be detected by
smell and watering and irritation to the
eyes  and  nose.  Any such occurrence
                                 11-14-

-------
                                               NOTES
should be  cause  to exit the  room
immediately.   Minute  leaks can often be
detected visually  by  checking  for
droplets of moisture on the  underside of
connections  and valves.   Chlorine's
affinity for water usually results in
moisture accumulation near the  leak.

     Safety Precautions - At a  minimum,
after exercising  all  previously
discussed  precautions, Agency personnel
should wear the following  safety gear
when entering a cnlorinator  room:

     1.  Hard hat

     2.  Rubber gloves

     3.  Safety glasses

     4.  Ruober soled  safety shoes

     If chlorine  in any  amount  is
detected,  no entry  should be attempted.
Rescue attempts should be  made with a
full face  SCBA.

Sludge Digestion

     Anaerobic  sludge  digesters
represent a formidable  safety hazard.
During  the  normal operations of  the
digestor,  sludge is converted to,  among
other products,   methane and carbon
dioxide.  Methane,  when combined with
oxygen at a  ratio  of 5:1 to 20:1,  is
highly explosive.  Entry into an active
digestor requires specific training and
certification in confined space entry.
The scope  of  this course does not  allow
specific detailed description  of this
type of training.

lagoons and Ponds

     Physical Hazards  - Agency personnel
in  the  normal  inspection procedure,
visit the sites of lagoons and ponds.
All such ponds should  have a protective
fence surrounding the immediate  area.
Safety rings,  life  preservers,  life
                                  11-15

-------
                                               NOTES
poles and boats should be found adjacent
to these structures.  When sampling,
precautions should be taken to prevent
slipping  and  falling down  banks.
Inclement weather, animal  burrows and
other such hazards  may provide unscaoie
footing.   Wastewater  ponds  range from 4
feet  -o  10 or more  feet  deep.   Sucn
ponds represent  a   real   threat  to
drowning as  well as  che ever present
exposure  to pathogens.  When sampling is
necessary,  a second backup person should
be  present:  to  effect a  rescue  if
necessary.

     Safety Precautions - As a minimum,
agency  personnel  should  wear  the
following safety equipment:

     1.  Hard hat

     2.  Splash goggles

     3.  Rubber gloves

     4.  Knee high rubber safety boots

Laboratory Health and Safety

     Chemical Hazards - Agency personnel
involved  in water and wastewater plant
inspections will normally be required to
enter  laboratories.   Such laboratory
visits do  not normally require agency
personnel  to perform laboratory work.
Even so,  certain  hazards are present by
nature of the  presence of the inspector
in the laboratory environment.  Routine
laboratory analysis  requires a  wide
array of chemicals, many of which pose
certain hazards.  The  names  and formulas
of certain common acids should be known:

     Hydrochloric Acid - HC1

     Sulfuric Acid -
     Nitric Acid - HNO3

     Chromic Acid - H2SO4 + K2Cr2°7
                                   11-16

-------
                                              NOTES
     Phosphoric Acid - H3P04

     Not all acids  react  at the same
speed;   exposed  personnel should not
procrastinate  if an accident  occurs
Eyes exposed to acid splashes should be
rinsed in an emergency eye  wash for a
minimum of 15 minutes.  Acid splashes on
skin or clothing  should be counteracted
by  first removing  all  contaminated
clothing and  thoroughly flushing the
skin  with water.   Never attempt to
neutralize acids splashed on the oody
with bases or other chemicals.

     Bases  are  also  corrosive  and
readily react  with acids, organic
solvents,  clothing  and  skin.
Frequently, skin contact with bases is
not immediately noticed  by  the
individual until  significant damage is
done.  As with acids,  exposure of the
skin  or  eyes  to  bases  should  oe
countered with continuous flushing with
clean water.

     The names and formulas of  common
bases are listed below:

     Sodium Hydroxide NaOH

     Potassium Hydroxide KDH
     Ammonium Hydroxide
          (ammonia)
     Sodium Carbonate
          (soda ash)
     Sodium Bicarbonate NaHC03

     Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2
          (slaked lime)

     Calcium Oxide CaO
          (quick lime)

     Although there are many chemicals
that are commonly found in a water and
wastewater laboratory, only one other
group shall be discussed as representing
                                   11-17

-------
                                              NOTES
a  significant  hazard to  Agency
personnel, that of a group identified by
the family name as oxidizers.

     Oxidizers by nature react  with
organic  substances  such  as  skin,
clothing, and organic solvents.   The
speed and intensity of  the reaction
depend on the specific combination of
oxidizer and organic material, and the
physical conditions  surrounding the
site.  The reaction can be quite violent
with spontaneous combustion  or
explosions resulting.  By law, labels
must clearly identify oxidizers.  As a
rule,  oxidizers should be kept separate
from any contact with organics.

     Listed below are some of the common
names  and  formulas of   oxidizers
frequently used in water and  wastewater
analysis:

     Potassium dichromate

     Sodium Thiosulfate Na 28203

     Calcium Hypochlorite

     Chlorine Cl2

     Sodium Persulfate

     Nitric Acid HNC-3

     Sulfuric Acid H2sc-4

     Perchloric Acid HC1O4

     Physical Hazards  -  To the visitor
or  inspector,  physical   hazards to be
found in  the  laboratory  are generally
classified as chemical splashes or
contact, cuts from glassware, slips or
falls.

     Be  cautious of  liquids  in unmarked
glassware. Always assume its an acid or
other hazardous chemical.  Stay clear of
glassware such as  flasks  and test  tubes
that  are being heated.  They have a
                                  11-18-

-------
                                              NOTES
tendency to  suddenly spurt  their
contents out in the direction they are
pointed.  Assume any wet spot on a lab
surface or on the outside of a reagent
bottle to be hazardous.  Many reagents
sucn as  basses, are as slippery as soap.
3e cautious  of slipping when  laboratory
floors  are wet.   When  entering  a
laboratory, make note immediately of the
location of safety showers, eye washes
and other  safety devices.

     Safety Precautions  -  Agency
personnel  entering a  laboratory  snould,
as a minimum,  wear the following safety
equipment:

     1.  Splash goggles

     2.  Rubber soled  safety shoes

     If  the inspection will  require
close proximity to active experiments,
the  following safety gear  should be
added:

     1.  Full face splash shield

     2.  Rubber apron

     3.  Rubber gloves

For other information regarding chemical
properties and hazards,  see  units
pertaining to Chemical Hazards and  on
Chemical Safety and Evaluation.

Confined Spaces

     Definition - A "confined space" is
defined  as any enclosed or semi-enclosed
space that  has limited openings for
entry and exit, that is not intended for
continuous employee occupancy, and that
does  not  have sufficient natural  or
mechanical  ventilation to prevent the
build-up  of a  hazardous  atmosphere.
Typical  confined  spaces  in  the
wastewater industry  are manholes,
sewers,  metering stations, valve or
siphon chambers, pump stations, empty
tanks, pits, or any other area in the
system  that has direct contact with


                                  11-19-

-------
                                              NOTES
wastewater,  sludge,  or sludge gas, or
conduits carrying these substances.

     As wastewater  is  collected  and
treated, chemical and biological  process
changes take  place,  releasing  or
increasing the  concentrations of toxic
and combustible  gases.  Even  when toxic
or comcusrible gases  are not present in
concentrations  nigh  enough  to cause
physical narm,  the  biological  or
chemical changes may use up  the oxygen
in the atmosphere, creating an oxygen
deficiency which will cause asphyxiation.

     Potential Hazards - Since confined
space entry nas  resulted in  more  deaths
and injury tnat  any other source in the
wastewater industry,  it  is essential to
recognize the  dangers  and  carefully
evaluate the situation prior to entry.
The following list comprises the most
serious hazards  encountered  in  confined
space entry:

     o Explosive gases

     o Toxic gases

     o Oxygen deficiency  (asphyxiation)

     o Falling

     o Bumping into obstructions

     o Vehicular traffic

     o Suffocation

     Safety precautions exercised  before
entry  into   a  confined  space  are
dependent upon the conditions that exist
in   that  space.    Oxygen  level,
f lammability and toxicity all must be
measured before any decisions can be
intelligently made.   Over protection
limits  the type,  amount of  work,  and
time a worker may remain in the  space.
Under protection, of course, endangers
the health and  safety of the worker.
Tablell-4    describes the minimum
preparation required  for three classes
of  confined  space entry.    Where


                                 11-20

-------
                                               NOTES
information on  the table coincides with
the  actual  work  environment,  the
recommendations should be  followed
carefully.   If the  conditions  in the
space  have the  potential  to  change,
monitoring must be  done frequently and
changes  in  safety  and  health
requirements changed with the  conditions.

                         TABLE  11-4

              Confined space classification table

Parameter - Class~A

     Characteristics:

Immediately dangerous to life-rescue procedures require the entry
of more than one individual  fully equipped with life support
equipment—communication  requires an additional standby person
stationed at  the confined space

     Oxygen

16% or less
(a) 16.3  kPa  (122 mm Hg)  or  greater than 25%
(b) 25.3  kPa  (190 mm Hg)

     Flammability Characteristics

20% or greater of LEL

     Toxicity

(b) IDIH
Parameter - Class B
     Characteristics

Dangerous,  but not  immediately life  threatening—rescue
procedures require the  entry of no more than one individual  fully
equipped with life support equipment; indirect visual or auditory
communication with workers
                                   11-21-

-------
                      TABLE 11-4 COnt'd.
     Oxygen

16.1% to 19.4%
(a)  16.3-19.6 kPa  (122-147 mm Hg) or 21.5% to 25%
21.7-25.3 kPa  (163-190 mm Hg)

     Flammability Characteristics

10%-9% LEL

     Toxicity

Greater than contamination  level,  referenced  in  29 CFR Part 1910
Sub Part Z (OSHA)	less than (b) IDLH

Parameter - Class C

     Characteristics

Potential  Hazard—requires no modification of work procedures;
standard procedures; direct communication with workers from
outside the confined  space

     Oxygen

19.5% to 21.4%
(a)  19.7-21.7 kPa
(148-163 mm Hg)

     Flammability Characteristics

10% LEL or less

     Toxicity

Less than contamination level referenced in 29  CFR Part 1910 Sub
Part Z (OSHA)

(a)  Based upon a total atmospheric pressure of 100  kPa  (769 mm
     Hg) (sea level)
(b)  Immediately  Dangerous to Life or Health  (IDLH)—as referenced
    in NIOSH
    Registry of Toxic and  Chemical Substances, Manufacturing
chemists data sheets industrial  hygiene guides  or other
recognized authorities.
     Routine  often  results  in
carelessness.   Plan every confined space
entry with rescue in mind,  even if the
entry is  to be  a brief inspection.
Asphyxiation or  the effects of toxic
gases require only seconds  to render an
                                   11-22-

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                                             NOTES
inspector  unconscious.    Rescue
procedures should be designed for each
entry.   If a confined space has an A or
3 classification from Table 11-4,  there
should be a trained  standby person with
a fully  cnarged,   positive  pressure,
self-contained  breatning apparatus
(SCBA) at  hand.   Additional  duties of
the  standby  person are  to maintain
unobstructed  life   lines   and
communications to all employees within
the confined space and co summon rescue
personnel  if  needed.    Under  no
circumstances should the standby person
enter the confined space until  he is
relieved and is assured that adequate
assistance in present.

     It  is evident  that safe confined
space entry is  highly dependent on
instrument monitoring of  ambient  air
quality.  See  the unit of  this manual
which provides an overview  of  monitoring
equipment availability and function.

     All  sewers  and underground
structures should  be  considered
dangerous until  they are adequately
tested.   Tests should be  taken of  the
ambient  air  quality in  the  manhole
before removing the cover.  Most manhole
lids have small openings in the cover to
allow  an  instrument probe to  be
inserted.   The principal tests are
oxygen deficiency,  explosion range  and
toxic gases.   If Agency personnel are
to remain in the hazardous environment
for  a  prolonged  period  of  time,
continuous monitoring will  be required.
There have been instances,   such as the
arrival  of spill material,  when  the
nature of the atmosphere  has  changed
quickly  in a hazardous condition.

     If a hazardous atmosphere is found,
determination or correction  of the
source is mandatory  before entry,  or if
the  confined  space has  already been
entered,  exit  must be  undertaken
immediately.
                                 11-23-

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                                                NOTES
      Entry into a confined space should
  not be attempted when tests indicate the
  concentration of flammable gases in the
  atmosphere is greater than  25% of the
  lower flammable  limit (LFL),  such as
  found  in anaerobic digesters and  some
  sewer conditions. It  is necessary to
  determine  the  oxygen  level prior to
  measuring the range of  flammability to
  make necessary  corrections  in  the
  flammability measurements.   It is
  absolutely necessary that personnel be
  completely  familiar with the operation,
  maintenance,   calibrations,  and
  limitation  of equipment before using it
  to test life  threatening environments.

      The percentage of  oxygen for entry
 into a confined space should  be  no less
 than 19.5%  or greater  than 25%  at 100
 kPa (760 mm  Hg).   At  sea level,  the
 normal atmospheric pressure for  air
 (20.9%  02  + 78.1% N2  + 1% Ar + trace
 amounts of other gases)  is 100 kPa (14.7
 psi or 760 mm Hg) absolute.  The  partial
 pressure of oxygen (p O2)  at  sea level
 will be approximately 21.3 kPa (160 mm
 Hg); pO2 can be reduced by reducing the
 O2 level in air.

     Oxygen deficiency resulting in
 anoxia is an  insidious killer.   The
 initial   effects  result  in a
 psychological  attitude  that   is
 manifested  by the feeling of  lassitude
 and well being and that  will  generally
 result in the  inability of the victim to
 discern the  need for  help. At any
 indications of lassitude symptoms like
 those of intoxication,  or decrease in
 alertness, the victim should be removed
 from the area immediately.

     Mot all manholes are vented or have
 holes  for  probes.  In some cases,
 monitoring equipment  does  not have
 probes.  Manhole covers should  be  lifted
 with care to avoid any sparks.   When  the
cover has been removed,  further testing
of the atmosphere for combustible gases
and/or  toxic gases and oxygen deficiency
                                 11-24-

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                                              NOTES
must be made, particularly at the lower
levels where  gases with  densities
greater than air will accumulate.

     Before entering a confined space,
inspect the access ladder for  missing
rungs,  accumulations  that  will  make
footing and grasping  difficult,
obstructions that might interfere with
passage and mechanical equipment without
proper guards.  Remember, wet wells may
accumulate flammable liquids on their
surface.   Never  enter any type  of
confined space with cigarettes,  matches
or a lighter.  Be sure there  is adequate
lighting available, and,  if entering a
street manhole, that adequate traffic
control has been instituted.

     Safety Precautions

     Confined space entry is one of the
most  hazardous  priorities  to  be
encountered  in a wastewater plant.
Advanced planning and training  are
absolute prerequisites before attempting
entry.  It  is only within the scope of
this  course  to give the  basic
fundamentals of confined space entry.
Further training and certification is
required before  agency  personnel should
attempt entry.

     At a minimum the fol lowing safety
gear  should be available  for  agency
personnel :

     o Atmospheric-testing equipment to
guard  against oxygen deficiency  and
combustible  gases  and  toxic hydrogen
sulfide
     o Self-contained  air breathing
apparatus for  each person  going
underground and for the standby rescue
crew.

     o Protective clothing, including
rubber boots, gloves, rain gear,  hard
hat's with chin straps, and face shields
or goggles.
                                  11-25'

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                                               NOTES
     o Explosion-proof lights.

     o Communication equipment if the
scope of the work makes  it necessary.

     o First aid kit (including amyl-
nitrite capsules  for  H2S exposure).

     o Harness and individual life lines
for each person  going underground and
for the standby crew  above ground.

Table   11-5   is   a   summary  of
considerations  for entry in confined
spaces as described by Table  11-4.
                                 11-26'

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                           TABLE 11-5

 Check list of considerations for entry, working in, and exiting
                         confined spaces
Item
Permit
Atmospheric testing
Monitoring
Medical surveil lance
Training of personnel
Labeling and posting
Preparation
Isolate/ lockout/ tag
Purge and ventilate
Cleaning processes
Requirements for special
equipment/ too 1 s
Procedures
Initial plan
Standby 'person
Class A Class
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
0

X

X
X
Communications/observation X
Rescue
Work
Safety equipment and clothing
Head protection
Hearing protection
Hand protection
Foot protection
Body protection
Respirator/ protection
Safety belts
Life lines, harness
Rescue equipment
Recordkeeping/ exposure
X - indicates requirement
0 - indicates determination by
X
X

0
0
0
0
0
0
X
X
X
X

B Class
~~x
X
0
X
X
X

X
X
0

X

X
X
X
X
X

0
0
0
o
o
0
X
0
X
X

c
"~x
X
0
0
X
X


0


o

X
X
X
X
X

0
0
0
0
0

X

X


the qualified person
^^ ^ a 0 d r»  n ^ in ** ** f^ • • *• ™ ^* *• ••• ••• ^ ^ ^ ™~ " ^ *  —	^	
        deficiency,  explosive,  toxic,  flammable.
Class   B-Could cause injury or illness that can  be protected
        against-not immediately dangerous to life or health.
Class C-Confined space hazard requiring no work procedure modification.
                                     11-27

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       Chemical  Hazards
       Normally,  wastewater should not
  contain  any significant amounts  of
  hazardous  chemical  materials.   If
  significant levels are found,  they
  usually originate from normal industrial
  discharge,  accidental  spillage  or
  illegal dumping.

       The  types  of chemicals, chemical
  compounds and chemical mixtures that may
  be present in wastewater are endless.
  Wastewater  plants  serving  industrial
  communities  have  a  much  greater
  probability of  significant chemical
  content that do others.  As  industrial
  pretreatment standards come into effect,
  agency  personnel may increasingly be
  exposed to a host of chemicals at the
  industrial  treatment facility.  Two of
  the most common exposures are  to
  corrosive  and solvent wastes.

      Corrosive Wastes

      Pretreatment facilities that are
 treating  their  wastes  for  pH often
 receive the  wastes in  a  potentially
 harmful state of below pH  5.0 or pH
 above 9.0.  Strong chemicals such as
 hydrochloric acid  (HC1)  and sodium,
 hydroxide  (NaOH)  are  used  to  neutralize
 these  wastes.   High or low pH solutions
 are not only hazardous due to their
 corrosive  effects on human tissue, but
 also are  often  responsible for the
 release of  toxic  gases such as hydrogen
 cyanide,  ammonia  and chlorine.   The
 neutralization process  itself  is an
 exothermic  process  (gives off  heat)  and
 can result  in local eruptions  and
 splattering.

     Small  spills of  should be treated
 with a buffering  substance  such  as
 sodium bicarbonate.  Never attempt to
neutralize  an acid with a  base or vise-
versa.   The  neutralizing  is  very
exothermic  and  often  results  in
splattering.
                                  11-28

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                                               NUEES
      Solvent Wastes

      Nearly all common solvents can be
 linked to some form of health hazard.
 Chlorinated  solvents  such   as
 trichlorethylene have been identified as
 suspected carcinogens.  Highly volatile
 solvents such as xylene and acetone can
 burn,  explode,  asphyxiate,  or emit
 poisonous vapors.   In addition, most
 flammables have a defatting effect on
 the skin that  removes the  protective oil
 film  and leaves it susceptible to attack
 by weather, bacteria, or other chemical
 agents.  Before entering any confined
 space such as wet wells,  pump stations,
 grit  or comminutor rooms, a thorough
 check, of ambient air quality should be
 undertaken.    In  the  case of   the
 anticipation  of  spilled  material
 arriving at a  plant,  air monitoring
 should be continuous.

     Gases  and Vapors

     Gases and  vapors  are the normal
 products of bacterial action on waste
 products  as  well as   a result  of
 industrial  discharge of entrained gases
 into the  treatment  system.   Of
 particular concern to agency personnel
 is that of significant levels of gases
 that are found  in confined spaces, that
 exhibit  the properties of explosiveness,
 f lammability or toxicity.  Due to the
 physical design of wastewater plants
 such as  wet wells, as well as physical
 processes such as aeration, uncommonly
high  levels of these gases and vapors
 may be  found.   Table 11-6  lists  the
characteristics of gases common to the
wastewater  industry.
                                  11-29-

-------
                             TABLE 11-6

    Characteristics of gases cumpn to the vastewater industry
 Gas and chemical formula
      Ammonia NH3
 Specific gravity
      0.59
 Explosive limits - T.FT.        UEL

                     16         25
 Maximum safe 60-min exposure (% vol. in air)
      0.03
 Maximum safe 8-hr exposure (% by vol. in air)
      0.01
 Common properties
      Colorless, sharp, and pungent
 Physiological effects
      Irritates eyes and respiratory tract;  toxic at 0.01%
 Location of highest concentration
      Up high
 Most camion sources
      Sewer gas
 Simplest and safest method of testing
      Oxygen deficiency indicator;  odor

 Gas  and chemical  formula
      Carbon Dioxide CE^
 Specific gravity
      1.53
 Explosive limits  -     T.FT.       UEL

                        Nonflammable
 Maximum safe 60-min exposure  (% vol.  in air)
      4.0-6.0
 Maximum safe 8-hr exposure (% by vol. in air)
      0.5
 Common  properties
     Colorless, odorless,  nonflammable; may cause acid  taste in
      large quantities
 Physiological effects
     Acts on respiratory nerves;  10% cannot be endured  for  more
     than a few minutes
 Location of highest concentration
     Down low but may  rise if heated
 Most common  sources
     Sludge,  sewer gas, combustion carbon and its compounds
 Simplest and  safest method of testing
     Oxygen deficiency indicator

Gas and chemical  formula
     Carbon Monoxide CO
Specific gravity
     0.97

                                     11-30-

-------
 Explosive  limits -     LEL     DEL

                       12.5    74.2
 Maxijium safe 60-min. exposure  {% vol. in air)
     4.0
 Maximum safe 8-hr exposure  (% by vol. in air)
     0.005
 Common properties
     Colorless, odorless,  tasteless, non-irritating; flammable,
     explosive, poisonous
 Physiological effects
     Combines with  hemoglobin of blood causing oxygen starvation?
     fatal in  1 hr. at 0.1%; unconsciousness in 30 min. at 0.25%
     and causes headaches in a few hours at  0.02%
 Location of highest concentration
     Up high specifically if in presence of illuminating gas
 Most common sources
     Manufactured fuel gas, flue gas, combustion and fires
 Simplest and safest method of testing
     CO indicator

 Gas and chemical formula
     Chlorine C12
 Specific gravity
     2.49
 Explosive  limits -     LEL     UEL

                       Nonflammable
 Maximum safe 60-min. exposure (% vol. in air)
     0.0004
 Maximum safe 8-hr exposure (% by vol. in air)
     0.0001
 Common properties
     Yellow-green color; irritating,  pungent  odor? nonflammable
     and supports combustion
 Physiological effects
     Irritates respiratory tract, causes irritation and burning
     of the skin,  coughing and pulmonary edema in small
     concentrations
 Location of highest concentration
     Down low
 Most common sources
     Chlorine cylinder and feed line  leaks
 Simplest and safest method of testing
     Chlorine detector

Gas and chemical formula
     Ethane C2H6
 Specific gravity
     1.05
Explosive limits -     LPT.     UEL

                       3.1      15


                                     11-31-

-------
 Maximum safe 60-min.  exposure (% vol. in air)
      No limit provided oxygen percentage  (at  least 12%) is
      sufficent for life
 Common properties
      Colorless,  odorless, tasteless, flammable, explosive,  non-
      poisonous
 Physiological effects
      Acts mechanically to deprive  tissues of oxygen; does not
      support life
 Location of  highest concentration
      Down  low
 Most  common  sources
      Natural gas
 Simplest and safest method of testing
      Combustible  gas  indicator, oxygen deficiency indicator

 Gas and chemical  formula
      Gasoline
 Specific gravity
      3.0-4.0
 Explosive  limits  -     LEL     UEL

                        1.3     7
 Maximum safe 60-min.  exposure  (% vol. in air)
      0.4-0.7
 Maximum safe 8-hr exposure (% by vol. in air)
      Varies
 Common  properties
      Color,  flammable, explosive, odor noticeable at 0.03% concentration
 Physiological effects
      Symptoms of intoxication when  inhaled, difficult breathing
      and convulsions; fatal at 2.43%
 Location of  highest concentration
      Down  low
 Most  common  sources
      Service stations, storage tanks  and dry cleaning operations
 Simplest and safest method of testing
     Combustible  gas  indicator; oxygen deficiency indicator

 Gas and chemical  formula"
      Hydrogen Sulfide H2S
 Specific gravity
      1.19
 Explosive  limits  -    LEL     UEL

                       4.3     46
Maximum safe 60-mi. exposure  (% vol.  in  air)
     0.02-0.03
Maximum safe 8-hr, exposure (% by vol. in air)
      0.001
Common  properties
     Rotten  egg odor in  small  concentrations;  colorless,
     flammable and explosive
                                     11-32

-------
  Physiological effects
      Paralyzes  the  respiratory system;  lessens  the  sense  of  smell  as
      concentration increases; rapidly fatal at 0.2%
  Location of highest concentration
      Down low; can be higher if air is hot and humid
  Most common sources
      Coal gas, petroleum, sever gas and sludge gas
  Simplest and safest method of testing
      Lead acetate paper, lead acetate ampoules, H2S detector

 Gas and chemical formula
      Methane CH4
 Specific gravity
      0.55
 Explosive limits - T.TT.    UEL

                     5      15
 Maximum safe 60 min.  exposure (% vol.  in air)
      No limit providing sufficient oxygen (at  least 12%)  is  present
 Common properties
      Colorless, odorless, tasteless, explosive,  flammable, and
      non-poisonous
 Physiological  effects
      Deprives  tissues of oxygen;  does  not support  life
 Location of  highest concentration
      At top, increasing to certain depth
 Most common  sources
      Digestion of sludge
 Simplest and safest method of testing
      Combustible  gas  indicator; oxygen deficiency  indicator

 Gas  and chemical  formula
      Nitrogen  N2
 Specific gravity
      0.97
 Explosive limits -   TJTT.    UEL

                      Nonflammable
 Common  properties
     Colorless, tasteless, odorless, and nonflammable
 Physiological effects
      In very high concentrations, reduces oxygen intake;  does not
     support life
 Location of highest concentration
     Up high and sometimes in low areas
 Most common sources
     Sewer and sludge gas
 Simplest and safest method of testing
     Oxygen deficiency indicator

Gas and chemical formula
     Oxygen (in air)  02
Specific gravity
     1.11
Explosive limits -   T.PT.    UEL
                                      11-33-

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                     Nonf lamirable
Cannon properties
     Colorless,  odorless, tasteless; supports combustion
Physiological effects
     Normal  air  contains  20.93%  02.  Below 19%  considered
     deficient;  13% dangerous; below 5%-7% fatal
Location of highest concentration
     Variable at different levels
Most common sources
     Oxygen  deficiency  from poor  ventilation and  chemical
     combustion of 02
Simplest and safest method of testing
     Oxygen deficiency indicator

Gas and chemical formula
     Sludge gas
Specific gravity
     varies
Explosive limits -   LEL    UEL

                     5.3   19.3
Maximum safe 60-min. exposure (% vol.  in air)
     Varies with composition
Common properties
     Flammable,  practically odorless,  and colorless
Physiological effects
     Will not support life
Location of highest concentration
     Up high
Most common sources
     Digestion of sludge
Simplest and safest method of testing
     Combustible gas indicator, oxygen deficiency indicator
Pathogenic Hazards

     Aerosols

     Aerosols and  mists  generated at
wastewater treatment  facilities can be
responsible for the spread of a host of
diseases caused by viruses, bacteria,
(see  Tables  11-7  and  11-8)  and fungi
(see Table 11-9).
                                    11-34

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                             TABLE 11-7
             Diseases Associated with Hunan Fecal Waste
  Bacterial infections

      Typhoid  fever
      Paratyphoid  fevers
      Cholera
      Shigellosis  (bacillary dysentery)

 Viral infections

      Poliomyelitis
      Coxsackie infection
      Infectious hepatitis
      (very many other enteric viruses exist)

 Protozoal infections

      Entamoeba histolytica

 Helminthiasis

      Fish tape worm
      Beef tapeworm
      Pork tapeworm
      Pinwormv
      Roundworm
      Wnipworm
      Hookworm
                            •BIBLE 11-8
           Diseases Associated with Animal  Fecal Waste
Salmonellosis

Infection from pig intestinal protozoan
     (Balantidiura coli)

Helminthiasis

     Pig ascaris
     Animal tapeworms
     Hydatid worm
                                     11-35-

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                          TABLE 11-9
     Fungus Diseases  (Mycoses)  Associated with Solid fbstes
                      Coccidioidomycosis
                        Sporotrichosis
                        Histoplasmosis
                          Candidiasis
Workers can be  infected directly  by
inhalation or indirectly by droplets
settling  on clothing.  Sources  of
aerosols include  aeration tanks,  weirs,
and flumes,  spray and irrigation sites.
Indoor areas where aeration occurs are
likely  to  have  the  highest  aerosol
concentrations.

     Table  11-10  lists factors  that may
affect bacterial and viral survival  in
aerosols.   By  understanding  the
conditions for  increased  survival,
Agency personnel may be better able  to
protect  themselves.
                                  11-36-

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                           TABLE 1-10
  Factors that affect the survival and dispersion of bacteria and viruses
                     in wastewater aerosols
  Factor
       Remarks
 Relative  humidity
 Hind speed


 Sunlight
 Temperature
 Open air
 Bacteria and  most enteric  viruses
 survive  longer at  high  relative
 humidities, such  as  those  occuring
 during the night.   High relative
 humidity delays droplet evaporation
 and retards  organism die-off.

 Low wind speeds reduce  biological
 aerosol transmission.

 Sunlight,   through  ultraviolet
 radiation,   is  deleterious   to
 microorganisms.   The greatest
 concentration or organisms in aerosols
 from wastewater occurs  at night.

 Increased  temperature can also reduce
 the viability of organisms  in aerosols
 mainly by accentuating the effects  of
 relative humidity.    Pronounced
 temperature effects do not appear
 until a temperature of  80 degrees P
 (26 degrees C)  is reached.

 It has been observed that bacteria and
viruses are inactivated more rapidly
 when aerozolized and when the  captive
aerosols are exposed to the open air
than when held  in the  laboratory.
Much more work is needed  to clarify
this issue.
Parasitic Diseases

     Parasitic diseases such as hookworm
and  ringworm can  also be  spread by
contact with contaminated material and
ingestion  through  the  mouth, usually
while eating or smoking, or contact  with
exposed skin.

           Precautions

     Use of proper protective  equipment
such as rubber gloves and washable or
disposable coveralls will prevent
                                   11-37-

-------
                                               NU1XS
 contact with contaminated surfaces.
 Washable coveralls should not be washed
 with other non-work related clothing or
 in  the family  washer.   A  washer
 dedicated to contaminated work  clothes
 should be  made  available  at  Agency
 headquarters.   Disposable  clothing
 should be placed  in a plastic disposable
 trash bag  and  sealed before being
 disposed of.  Boots, gloves, and other
 non-disposable equipment should  be
 thoroughly  scrubbed in a strong soapy
 solution containing  a bactericide  such
 as tincture  of Roccal or Wescodine.

     Above all,  care must be taken  to
 institute a comprehensive program  of
 personal hygiene.  After contact with
 wastewater or inspection of a wastewater
 facility, agency personnel should shower
 before  leaving  for home.  Never  eat,
 drink,  or  smoke before thoroughly
 scrubbing hands.   In high aerosol areas
 wear gauze-type  respirators to  reduce
 inhalation of pathogens.  Always  launder
 reusable clothes after each  day of
contact.  Never wear disposable  clothes
 more than  once.   Dispose of  these
clothes  properly.   Report any illness or
 infection promptly to your supervisor.
Receive  medical check-ups regularly.
                                   11-38

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                       STUDENT EXERCISE 1
 Directions:

     The following exercise is broken into  four sections.   Each
 section corresponds to a specific  location in a typical wastewater
 facility.  The student  is to examine the  given information (drawings
 and descriptions)  and complete the exercise pertaining to  that
 section's information.   A list of available equipment is given at the
 beginning of the exercise.

 General Description:

     The plant to be inspected is a typical  3.0 mod activated sludge
 plant located in Eau Claire, Wisconsin.  The plant serves a small city
 of  100,000 with  a  fairly  large manufacturing base consisting  of
 electrical appliance manufacturers,  rubber tire manufacturers, leather
 product manufacturrers and breweries.   The outfall  is a large river.
 The plant was built in the  1930's, with some  improvements since.  The
 date is late February,  with a large accumulation of  snowfall but very
 little melt-off.

Available Equipment:

     30-minute airpack  (SCBA)
     Organic vapor respirator
     Full face shield
     Splash goggles
     Safety goggles
     Rubber safety boots
     Rubber soled safety shoes
     Hard hat
     Rubber gloves
     Rain gear (coat and hood)
     Disposable water resistant overalls
     Safety line and harness
     2-way  portable radio
     Totally enclosed acid suit
     H2S monitoring equipment
     02 meter
     Explosive gas monitor (LEG meter)
     First aid kit
     Flashlight
     Denim work overalls
     Leather gloves
     Disposable gauze face mask
     Leather soled work shoes
                                   11-39-

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                         STUDENT EXERCISE 2
 A.  After examining Figure 11-1,  list at least 10 safety hazards
 that can be spotted.
     10.
B.  List at least 3 hazards that may be present but cannot be seen.

      1.	

      2.	

      3.	

C.  What safety precautions would  you follow before entering an area
similar  to  the one  diagrammed?
     3.
0.  At a minimum, what safety equipment would you take before entering
into an area similar to the one diagrammed?

     1.	

     2.	

     3.	

     4.
                                    n-4o-

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I TI3C

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                      STUDENT EXERCISE 3


A.  After examining Figure 11-2, chlorine disinfection room, list at
least 10 safety hazards that can be spotted.
     5.
    10.
B.   For each of the hazards listed above, list in the corresponding
number what should be done to  eliminate the hazard.

     1.	

     2.	

     3.	

     4.	

     5.	__

     6.	

     7.	

     8.	__^_

     9.	

    10.                        	

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                        STUDENT EXERCISE 4
 A.  After examining Figure 11-3,  list at  least 10 different
 safety hazards than can be seen.
      3.
    10.
B.  Explain your actions if the  following  laboratory accidents were to
occur:

     1.  Acid is spilled on you:
     2.  A chemical gets into your eyes:
     3.  Acid is spilled on the  floor:
                                     11-44-

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                       STUDENT EXERCISE 5
Examine Figure 11-4.  An industrial site upstream is suspected of
dumping a large quantity of toxic, highly volatile, chemicals
into the sanitary sewer.

A.  Using appropriate informational  resources, determine if this
situation is a Class  A, B or  C  confined  space.
     Answer
B.  Give the rationale  for your choice in A:
C.   List 10  safety precautions that  should be taken  before
entering the manhole:
    10.
D.   List  the appropriate safety equipment that  should  be
available before entering this Class of confined space:
                                     11-47

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                             UNIT 12:  MINE SAFETY
OUTLINE                                              NOTES

1. Introduction

2. Vehicles and Machinery

3. Cave-in, Slides,  and Supports

4. Hazards of Blasting

5. Mine gases and Oxygen Deficiency

6.Protective Clothing,  Equipment and
   Respiratory Protection.

7. Mine Communications
                              12-1

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                              UNIT 12:  MINE SAFTEY
 EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES                              NOTES

      o  Students should understand  how  to
 enter and inspect surface or  undergound
 mines safely.

      o  Students  should  know how to
 inspect  mine supports  and surfaces, for
 signs of  danger.

      o  Students  should know how to  stay
 clear of  dangerous areas  or equipment.

     o  Students should  have  some
 knowledge about  mine  gases and oxygen
 deficiency.

     o  Students should know how to
 choose  and  use  protective clothing and
 equipmetn,   especially  gas masks  and
 respirators.

     o Students should be aware of mine
communication systems.
                              12-2

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	NOTES

INTRODUCTION

     Both surface and underground mines
are  regulated very strictly to assure
the  safest practical  working conditions.
EPA  personnel who  need to  enter  and
inspect a mine should have comprehensive
awareness of the  dangers, and the rules,
procedures,  and equipment that are used
to  make  this dangerous  environment
safer.

     If you know  what a well-run mine
should look like, and know how to look
for commonly occurring dangers, you will
have  a  good basis for  judgment about
whether the  mine  is operated with  safety
in mind.  If  you  have as much concern
for  the attitudes of management as for
specific environmental problems, it will
be helpful to you to know what to look
at in a mine.

     The  mine operator must inform
workers,  and  visitors of any need  for
special clothing or safety equipment and
must provide safety  orientation to tell
all visitors  (and employees) about the
mine's safety precautions.  The mine
operator  must provide the  necessary
special clothing and equipment for  the
employees.  The mine management may lend
you the clothing and equipment needed,
but the management is not required to do
so.   Ask,  in advance,  if  the mine
operator  will provide  personnel with
what is needed.  In any event, personnel
should  provide  their own  hard hat,
safety glasses,  and  safety  footwear,
even  if  the  mine  provides the  other
necessary items.

     The  hazards  in  mining  include  the
possibility of earth slides  or cave-ins,
toxic gases,  the use  of explosives,  a
possible inadequacy of oxygen, and
proximity  to  powerful  machinery,
including narrow gauge railroading,
massive  earth   moving  equipment,
elevators  and hoists.
                              12-3

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                                                 NOTES
 Moving Vehicles and Machinery

      Mining regulations stress equipment
 safety.   Moving  equipment  must have
 safety  and  warning  devices.   All
 equipment  operators  and   their
 supervisors must be trained people, and
 they  must use signals  before putting the
 equipment in motion.

      Equipment  maintenance or repaiir
 may take place only after power has been
 shut  off and  the equipment  has been
 blocked  to prevent  movement.   All
 machinery must be inspected regularly
 and   maintained  in  safe  condition.
 Loading and hauling  equipment must be
 inspected  before  each use.  Defective
 equipment or machinery may not be used
 until it hass  been repaired.

     Underground mine tunnels must serve
 both  hauling  equipment and  people.
 There  must be  at  least 30 inches of
GAe.a££H£e. between the  sides of the
Hauling equipment and the walls, or else
shelter holes  at  leasst  four feet wide,
      40 inches of  clearance  must be
         and they must be marked clearly
              reflectors,  or  luminous
 with
 provide,
 with lightss,
 paint.
     In coal  mines the shelteer holes
 must be at least  4  feet  wide,  5 feet
 deep,  and  6 feet  (or  the  height of the
 seam,  whichever  is  less) high,  and
 located every 105  feet.   The elevators
 and  hoists are inspected daily,  in
 underground coal mines, and the safety
 catches are tested  bi-monthly.

     In other  underground mines,, hoists
 and elevators  are inspected,  tested, and
 maintained systematically,  and records
 must be retained for three  yearss.

     Underground shuttle cars and mining
 equipment  must have strong canopies or
cabs  to protect  the  operators from
anything   that  might  fall.   All  air
compressors   and  boilers  must be
                             12-4

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                                               NOTES
inspected and  maintained to meet  the
national  safety  standards.  Finally,
good housekeeping  is  required  in  all
mines.   Loose  material,  garbage,  and
unneeded gear  must be kept away from
machinery and  equipment, and must  be
regarded as a  hazard  to  be kept away
from the work areas.

Hazards  from Unstable Surfaces

     A  Federal  regulation  requires  that
inspections and  testing  of mine sur-
faces, in all mines, must  occur as  often
ass necessary  to insure  safety.    The
mine operators  must examine and test
potentially dangerous surfaces before
any work may begin or any machinery be
started.  Nevertheless,  falls of rock
from unstable mine  surfaces  (face,  roof,
and  ribs)  are the primary  cause  of
injuries and deaths in mines.

     In  a  mine, the ceiling is called
the  roof  or  back.   The  walls  may  be
called  walls,  ribs,  pillars,  or  the
face.  The  face  is the  surface being
mined,   sometimes  called the working
face.  The floor is called the floor,
but it may also be the  roof of the  level
below.   In  a  coal   mine, the  roof
directly (closest)  overhead is called
the "immediate roof" and the rock bed or
beds above  that  are  the "main  roof."
The immediate  roof and the beds above
are  the  "strata"   (of  layers   of
sedimentary rock in which the material
being mined  is  found),  and the  material
above the  (coal,  ore, etc., bearing)
strata is called the "overburden."

     If  the  immediate  roof  is  not
supported,  its own  weight  (possibly
enhanced by the  weight above it) may
cause the  immediate roof  to sag, crack
or collapse.   When that happens,  methane
gas  may escape,   or  a  space  may  be
created  where  water can  collect  to
weaken the roof further.

     Coal  mines  use  three  systems  to
                              12-5

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                                               NOTES
support the roof:   bolting, in which
roof  bolts  are  the only  supports;
conventional, in which posts, timbers,
jacks, cribs,  sills, or  beams are  used
in various combinations;  and  the combi-
nations  system  which uses  roof bolts
plus other  means of  support.  Roof  con-
trol plans are required,  but we will not
take time to consider all  the possible
variations that can be employed.

     Temporary   supports   must  be
installed  before  attempting   the
installation of  permanent  supports.  No
one should go beyond a temporary support
unless  it  is within five  feet of  a
permanent  support,   and only workers
installing  temporary supports  may go
beyond the last permanent support.   Only
experienced workers should  attempt to
recover roof  supports  during retreat
mining and  pillaring,  and  roof supports
should be left in place  if there is any
sign of roof weakness.

     Visual  inspection of supports  may
reveal undue load on the supports  (and
thus  roof  weakness)  if any  of   the
following can be observed:
     o bending or
posts, or crossbars;
decayed  timbers
     o small chips or bar* broken  from
supporting  timbers;

     o roof bolts showing stress; or

     o caps squeezed down and over  many
posts.

     Other  danger  signs are:   slips,
fractures,  cleavages, or  crumbling  of
coal, rock or ore; changes in the  rock
texture; or any  moisture  appearing  in
the  roof  after  supports  have  been
installed;  or any wetness in a spot that
previously  was dry.

     The roof may be tested audibly  by
                              12-6

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                                                 NOTES
  striking it.   A solid, clear,  ringing
  tone  signals a  sound,  solid roof.   A
  drum-like sound results when rock layers
  have  separated ands the roof is loose.
  A loose thud signals  loose rock or coal,
  and reveals a very dangerous condition
  that must be corrected immediateely.

      An experienced worker will:

      o  test while  standing under  a
  supported roof;

      o be sure there is a safe  line of
 retreat;

      o never turn away from the ribs,
 but always  face them;

      o always wear goggles;

      o never assume  someone else tested
 the  roof; and

     o examine  the roof  frequently
 during the working shift.

     The most  frequent  falls  come,  not
 from roof, but from ribs or  walls,  when
 the roof pressure above causes pieces of
 coal,  ore or rock to break off and fall
 or roll.  Eternal  vigilence might be the
 best motto for the miner.  When "ground
 falls,"  or  falls  of  material from  the
 roof, are discovered,  it is obvious that
 a dangerous  situation exists.  It must
 be corrected before work can continue  in
 that part of the mine.

     In  surface  mining,  you  will
 encounter  some of the  largest  earth-
 moving  equipment developed by our race.
•Pit   design   is   an  important
 consideration.  The sides must  not be  so
 steep  that  the  walls might  slide or
 collapse,  even  in  a torrential rain
 storm.   Benches (level  areas)  may be
 incorporated  in  the  walls,  to provide
 roads on which  equipment can enter or
 leave  the pit.   If  the  movement  of
material might occur  and  present  a
                              12-7

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                                                 NOTES
 hazard, barriers should  be provided.

      Loose and unconsolidated material
 must be moved back (stripped) at  least
 10  feet from the top  of  the pit  (or
 quarry walls).  Overhanging material, or
 hazardous banks,  must be taken down so
 that nothing can fall on the workers  (or
 visitors).

      As a visitor,  avoid dangerous  banks
 or  other possible unsafe  ground, and
 don't walk between pit  walls or banks
 and pieces of  equipment—where you  might
 be trapped in  case of a fall or slide.

 Hazards from Blasting Operations

      Drilling  and blasting are hazardous
 operations.   Explosives are  used only by
 miners  who  have  been trained  to use
 them.   Explosives  must  be  packed  into
 blastholes  and  then non-combustible
 stemming  (packing) material must  be
 tamped in place.  If the charge  is not
 packed  properly, a shot may blow  out,
 and dust  or  gasses  may  ignite and
 explode—a  much larger  explosion  than
 was planned.   If the blasting material
 burns instead  of exploding,  toxic gases
 may form  and be  circulated by the
 ventilation  system.  The toxic gases may
 include

     o  carbon  monoxide (CO),  a very
 poisonous gas;  and

     o  nitric  oxide (NO),  a  toxic gas
 generated when explosives burn. When NO
 reacts  with  oxygen  (O2) in the air,
 nitrogen dioxide (N02)  is  formed,  and it
 is potentially  fatal when inhaled.

     Explosives must be kept dry, and
 the detonators  must  be  stored  well away
 from the explosives.  They all should be
 stored  in secure containers until just
before use.

     When explosives  are taken to the
site where they will be used, they are
                              12-8

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                                               NOTES
to be transported in  closed  containers
of  non-conductive  material.    In
underground coal mines,  explosives are
moved on belts,  in locomotive- or rope-
towed  cars,  in  shuttle  cars, or  in
specially designed safety equipment.  In
other underground mines and surface coal
mines,  explosives  are moved  in separate
vehicles and  are  separated from  the
detonators by at  least four inches  or
hardwood or its equivalent.

     A few words about explosives may be
helpful.  TNT (trinitrotoluene)  is  an
excellent military explosive.   It  is
powerful,  but  a  Corps of  Engineers
blasting cap  is  required  to make  it
explode.  A  common  form  consists  of
quarter-pound  blocks,  like  hard plastic
blocks.  You  can  shoot  at TNT with  a
rifle bullet going 3000 ft/sec, chop TNT
with an axe,  pound it to powder with a
hammer, burn  it  in a fire,  or explode
black powder next to it; none of these
will make it  explode.  It will  seldom
explode by accident,  Nitroglycerine,  in
contrast,  is a liquid that may explode
if you drop the vial.  Nitroglycerine
was made safer by soaking  it into saw-
dust;  that  form  is  called  dynamite.
Fresh  dynamite  is quite safe,  but  if
dynamite is stored for a long time, the
nitroglycerine may  drain to  the bottom,
and old dynamite is about as unstable as
plain nitroglycerine.  Dyanamite is used
frequently by  miners,  well  diggers,  and
some terrorists.   A new favorite explo-
sive is ammonium nitrate (Scott's Turf
Builder).   In  quantities  of  a few
pounds, it is extremely safe, unless it
is mixed with heavy  oil.  That slurry
will conform to the shape  of an uneven
blasthole,  and a blasting  cap will set
it off.  Many miners, demolition  men,
and some terrorists, use ammonium ni-
trate.  A  very  large quantity of
ammonium nitrate  can be exploded  by  a
spark, even without  the  oil, as  some
unfortunate people  found  out while
unloading fertilizer from a freighter
off  the  Texas  coast,   but  small

                              12-9

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                                               NOTES
quantities  are quite safe,  until the oil
is  mixed  in.   There are many other
explosives.  These are simple examples
that  may  aid  your understanding  of
explosives and their uses, advantages,
and dangers.

     Only explosives handlers may ride
in a vehicle carrying explosives,  and
then  only if  they are  specifically
needed.    No  other  material  may  be
carried  in  the  vehicles  that  are
carrying  explosives, and those vehicles
should be identified clearly and never
left unguarded.

     Regulations on explosives include
the following:

     o The  areas  around explosives  must
be  cleared,  guarded,  barricaded,  and
marked clearly to warn miners and mine
visitors.

     o A warning  must be  given  before
any explosive  is  detonated.

     o Smoking is prohibited within 25
feet of explosives or detonators.

     o After  blasting, searches must be
made for fires  and undetonated charges.

     Smoking  is  always prohibited  in
coal mines and gassy mines (those  with
methane).  Underground coal  mines re-
quire special  precautions:

     o Methane  tests  must be made  in
underground anthracite  mines before
blasting;  the methane  level must  be
below one percent; and

     o Combustible material must not be
used to stem  the  blastholes.

Hazards of  Mine Gases

     The presence of toxic  gases and the
absence  of sufficient oxygen are the
twin  hazards for those who breathe the
                             12-10-

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                                                 MOTES
 atmosphere  in an underground mine.

      The list  of  Dangerous Gases is
 usually headed by methane.  Methane is
 flammable in air at concentrations from
 5 to IS percent,  and  it explodes very
 readily.  Any mine in  which  methane can
 be detected is a "gassy mine," and the
 maximum allowable  concentration is one
 percent.  If methane exceeds  one percent
 in any area,  several things  must happen
 (or NOT  happen)  .

      o  No electrical equipment  may be
 energized,  operated, or taken into the
 mine.

      o No blasting is permitted.

      o No pillar recovery or  intentional
 roof  fall is permitted.

      o Ventilation must be  increased.
 Air used for ventilation  may  not contain
 more than  0.25 (one-quarter)  percent
 methane.

     o Power must  be shut down.

     Coal mine  operators must conduct
 tests for methane  three hours (or less)
 before  each shift and  at  least  once
 during each  shift,  in every work sector.

     Gassy  Mines:  As stated earlier,
 any mine in  which methane is found is a
 "gassy"  mine,  and  all coal  mines are
 considered  to  be  gassy.  Smoking is
 prohibited  in all  gassy mines.   Welding
 requires continuous  methane testing
 before  and  during  the  welding  job.
 Correct door positions  (Open  or  Closed)
 during ventilation must be identified
 clearly.  Methane monitors are requiired
 on  the  mining  equipment.  And,  all
 working areas must be tested for methane
 within three•hours before a new  work
 shift enters  the mine.

     If  the methane  concentration
exceeds one  percent  within  12 inches of

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                                                NOTES
  the back, face, or rib, work must stop;
  and  all equipment must be  shut  down
  until the  methane  concentration is
  reduced below one  percent.   If  the
  methane  concentration  reaches  1.5
  percent,  or  if  the ventilation  fans
  stop, the miners must be  evacuated from
  the area, and all  electrical power must
  be shut down.

      In coal  mines,  methane monitors on
  such  equipment as continuous  miners,
  longwall and  face cutting  equipment,  and
  loading machines must be as  close to the
 working  surface as possible,  and  they
 should  be set  to give  an automatic
 warning  if  the methane  concentration
 should reach one  percent,  and  to shut
 off the equipment automatically if  the
 methane reaches two  percent or  if  the
 monitor malfunctions.

      Other  dangerous gases may  occur:
 Carbon  monoxide   (CO)  results  from
 blasting,   fires,   or   incomplete
 combustion or oxidation.   It binds to
 hemoglobin  ands  prevents  blood from
 carrying oxygen; it produced headache,
 nausea,  v/eakness,  confusion and  death.
 It  also burns.   The  Permissible Exposure
 Limit  (PEL)  is 50 ppm.

     Nitric  Oxide   (NO) was discussed
 under blasting.   It  can be  fatal.  PEL =
 25  ppm.

     Nitrogen dioxide (N02)  comes from
 gasoline  or diesel engines,  welding,
 blasting,  or  electrical discharges.  PEL
 3 5 ppm.

     Carbon dioxide (CO2)  is formed in
 fires  and explosions,  and released  by
 the action of acid  on carbonate rocks.
 It is  mainly dangerous if itss formation
 removes too  much oxygen from  the air and
 thus causes suffocation.  The PEL = 5000
ppm.
     Hydrogen
flammable,  with
 (H2)  is  extremely
a lower explosive limit
                              12-12'

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                                               NOTES
 (LED  of  4 percent,  and  an upper
 explosive limit (UEL) of 75 percent.  It
 is released when storage batteries are
 charged, and  in  some high temperature
 reactions.

     Hydrogen  sulfide (H2)  has the smell
 of rotten eggs, and  it is very deadly.
 PEL = 20 ppm.   It also will burn.

     Welding may release, or cause the
 formation of,  toxic  metal fumes (from
 zinc),  arsenic,  or phosgene.   Good
 ventilation  is  important  to  safe
 welding.

     Oxygen deficiency is considered to
 exist  if the  oxygen drops  from  tHe
 normal value of about 21 percent in air
 to 19.5 percent or lower.   Oxygen can be
 consumed by combustion  (fires,  Iciuid
 fuel engines, &c) or can be displaced by
 various  other gasees  such as  carbon
 dioxide, methane,  or hydrogen.   Mine
 operators  are  required  to  test  for
 oxygen  frequently, and to  stop work and
 take  corrective  action  if  the
 concentration  should drop below  19.5
 percent.

 Personal Protection  involves  the use of
 propeer  clothing and  equipment,  and the
 availability of  suitable respirators  or
 masks to  permit survival  in a toxic
 atmosphere.

     Even mine  clothing is regulated  by
 Federal Law.  Hard hats are mandatory
 wherever falling objects may threaten
 the safety of  workers or  visitors.   If
deep water exists within a mine,  life
 jackets or safety  belts  must be
available.   Seat belts must be  used  if
 there is a possibility for a vehicle  to
 turn  over,  and  where  roll-over
protection is  provided.  Snug clothing
must  be  worn  around  machinery or
equipment that  moves.  Wherever  special
hazards of  radiation,  chemicals,
mechannical irritants,  or  toxic or
corrosive materials may occur,  suitable
                            12-13

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                                                NOTES
 protective clothing or equipment must be
 worn or  used.   Miners  in  underground
 mines must wear personal cap lamps and
 carry portable electric lamps.

      Respiratory  Protection  is  an
 absolute necessity  if  people are  to
 escape  from dangerous atmospheres.

      Self-rescue devices have a  filter
 that reacts with  carbon monoxide  and
 will protect  for  one hour  against  CO
 concentrations  up  to one  percent.   A
 self-rescuer will  enable a  miner  (or
 visitor)  to get out of a mine that  is
 contaminated with carbon monoxide.   It
 will not supply  oxygen nor protect
 against other toxic  gases.

      A self-contained breathing appratus
 (SCBA)  with a tank  of compressed air
 will protect against any  dangerous
 atmosphere  (but will not,   of course,
 prevent an explosion).  Another version
 is  the  self-contained  oxygen-generating
 breathing device.   It provides  a 60-
 minute supply of  oxygen.

      Abandoned  mines will,   obviously,
 present  a wide range of possibly  unsafe
 conditions.   Toxic gases  or  inadequatee
 oxygen  are  obvious  possibilities, and
 weakened roof  supports are  another
 danger.  If  you must enter an abandoned
 underground mine, take SCBA equipment,
 atmosphere  monitors,  especiially
 explosive gas  detectors, and don't go
 alone.   Proceed  with  great caution,
 while a rescue  team waits outside, or
 well  back,  to  get  you  out  if  danger
 overtakes  you.

 Mine Communications

     A mine operator  must always know
 the location of  every  miner  and visitor
 in the mine.   Every  mine  worker must be
able  to contact any, or all, of  the
others.   The surface (of an underground
 mine)  must have communication with all
parts of the mine, and  the connection(s)
                             12-14-

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                                               NOTES
 above ground must  be  attended at all
 times,  and they should be located within
 500 feet of  the mine  entrance.   The
 communication system should have its own
 power  source,   independent  of  the
 electrical system for the mine.

     Hoists and  elevators  require two
 signalling  systems;  one  must  be  a
 telephone or  speaking  tube.   Trolleys
 and railroads  may have two-way radios or
 trolley phones.   They may  need  their
 own,  independent,  power source.   Some
 mines use time clocks  or boards  to
 record  people  entering  (and their
 destination) and leaving.  Other mines
 use  two  metal  tags for each person
 entering; the worker keeps one tag and
 leaves the other  with the cage man.

     Surface mining communications needs
 are simpler, but  any miner working  in  a
 hazardous  area  must  be  able to
 communicate  with  others.   Federal
 regulations define other communication
 needs according to conditions.

     Mining  is a  dangerous  occupation,
 and  underground mines  are  danerous
 places to enter and inspect.   Use  this
 presentation  as  a  beginning  of
 understanding, and pay close attention
 to the  orientation that will explain the
 safety precautions in any mine you may
need to enter.
                             12-15-

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                        STUDENT EXERCISES

1 (a)  You are looking at the roof support  in a 5-year-old  mine
tunnel, to see if the roof is sound.   What should you look for?
1 (b)   If  the roof,  walls,  and supports look gocd, you can still
make an audible  test.   Describe that test, the possible  results,
and their meaning and significance.
                              12-16

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2.  Which  dangers of  underground mining are absent  from  surface
mining or quarrying?
3.   What do you think are the three greatest hazards of surface
mining?
                              12-17

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4.  When blast holes were drilled into a mine face,  some  methane
seeped out, but the methane monitor  was acting very  erratic,  and
the methane concentration was unknown.  The new blasting  expert,
who started work a day earlier,  said,  go on and blast, becausse
the blast  would disperse that "little bit" of methane,  and  the
ventilation system would carry it away.  Discuss this situation.
                              12-18-

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 5  (a)  In an underground coal  mine,  a gasoline-powered generator
 for  welding is running badly and making bad smells.  Monitors
 show 20  ppm of carbon monoxide and 10 ppm of nitrogen dioxide,
 measured one foot from the exhaust  pipe.  Should the welding job
 be  finished  before  the  generator  is sent  "up"  for  repair?
 Explain your answer (no  credit for a lucky  guess).
5 (b)   Can welding continue for another  half  hour if all the
workers  wear  "self-rescue" masks?  Explain why.
                              12-19

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                           ONIT 13

                      DEFENSIVE DRIVING
EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES                         NOTES

     o The  student  should be  able  to
determine whether an accident is preventable
or not.

     o The  student  should be  able  to
determine how to avoid a collision with a
vehicle ahead.

     o The  student  should be  able  to
determine how to avoid a collision with a
vehicle behind.

     o The  student  should be  able  to
determine how to avoid a collision with an
oncoming vehicle.

     o The  student  should be  able  to
determine how  to  avoid  a collision at an
intersection.

     o The  student  should be  able  to
determine how  to  avoid  a collision while
passing or being passed.

     o  The  student  should  be  able  to
determine how to avoid other common types of
collisions.
                                  13-1

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     Traffic accidents affect  the well-being
and safety of  literally every  man, woman and
child in the United States because everyone
at one time or another is a driver,  passenger
or pedestrian.

     Traffic accidents are the leading cause
of accidental death, killing nearly 50,000
persons a  year,   causing  two  million
disabling injuries and  economic  loss of
about  $20 billion  dollars.   Note  from the
accompanying table that the number of  traffic
deaths for one year is almost as many as the
number of U.  S.  Military casualties in the
entire Viet Nam war.  Here are some other
traffic accident facts:

Accident Facts:

     * Traffic  accidents are  the leading
cause of death among youths under 25 years of
age.

     * Traffic  accidents are  the leading
accident killer of U. S. workers.

     * Every 12 minutes  someone dies in an
automobile accident—five die  every hour, 129
every day.

     * Driver failure  is  a contributing
factor in an estimated  85  percent  of all
traffic  accidents.   Many  individuals and
organizations are  involved in controlling
this  tremendous human and economic waste,
including the federal government,  the
governor of  your state, the mayor of your
community, licensing authorities, your police
department,  traffic courts,  traffic
engineers, your schools and your national and
local  safety councils.  As a driver,  you too
are involved both in the problem and in the
solution.
                                                   NOTES
War
Toll!
Revolutionary War (1775-83) .
War ol 1812 (1812-15) .
Mexican War (18*6-48) •
Civil War (1861 -65)
Union Forces . .
Confederate Forces
Spanish-American War (1898)
World War 1 (1917-18)
World War II (1941-45)
Korean War (1950-53)
Viet Nam War (1961 -74)
Deaths
Total |
1.155.000t
4435
2.260
13.283
364511
133 821
2.446
116708
407316
54246
56.737
Battle
849.421
4.435
2260
1.733
140.414
74524
3BS
53.513
292 131
33629
46.397
| Others'
soe.joot
N A
N A.
1 1.550
224097
59.297
2.061
63.195
115.185
20617
10.340
Nonfalal
Wounds
1,580.000t
6 188
4.505
4.152
261.881
NA.
1 662
204002
670 846
103284
303.569
                                   13-2

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                                                   NOTES
How To Measure Safe Driving

     Safe driving can be measured in terms of
quantity and quality. A unit of driving is
the trip.   This  is measured in terms of the
distance between the point where you get into
your card,  drive to  your destination, secure
your car and leave it. The trip can be long
or short,  but it is the quality of the trip
that is important.  This, also, can  be simply
measured.  The  trip can be perfect or less
than perfect.  Perfect driving means that you
complete  every trip  without  accidents,
without traffic violations,  without vehicle
abuse,  without excessive schedule delays and
without discourtesy.

Preventability—Possible and Reasonable

     Perfect  driving involves the ability to
operate a motor vehicle in such a  manner as
to avoid being  involved in a  preventable
accident.   Most  accidents  are preventable by
one or both  of  the  drivers involved,  even
though this sometimes involves letting the
driver in the wrong have the right-of-way.

     The idea  that most  accidents  are
preventable makes it important to distinguish
between   the  possible and  reasonable
precautions  a motorist can  take  to avoid
being involved in a traffic mishap.   The most
obvious possible precaution would be not to
drive  at all, but that's  not a  reasonable
solution.

     This   course  is designed to  make you
aware of the various reasonable precautions
that relate to driving and  to teach you how
to apply them.

The Art of  Driving To Stay Alive

     Defensive driving is a key concept in
the  Driver  Improvement  Program.    It
represents an approach to the driving task
that, when applied, can lessen your chances
of  being  involved in  a   motor  vehicle
accident.   Defensive  Driving means driving so
as  to  prevent  accidents  in spite of  the
actions of  others or the presence of adverse
driving conditions.
                                   13-3

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                                                   NOTES
     Building a defensive driving technique
involves   improving  your  habits  of
Observation, Communication, Coordination,
Navigation and Consideration.  It  will
increase your ability to predict  the outcome
of  traffic  situations earlier  and  more
accurately and  thus,  to a degree, control
that outcome so that no collision results.

The Standard accident Prevention Formula

     In order to do this, you'll need to know
and apply the standard accident prevention
formula, which  involves three interrelated
steps:

     1.  See the Hazard:  Think about what is
going to happen or what might happen as far
ahead  of  encountering  a  situation  as
possible.  Never assume everything will be
"all right."

     2.  Understand the Defense:  There are
specific ways to handle specific situations.
Learn them well so you can apply them when
the need arises.

     3.  Act in Time:  Once you've seen the
hazard  and decided on the defense against  it,
act! Never take a "wait-and-see" attitude.

How to  Avoid Collision with the Vehicle  Ahead

     An  extremely frequent,  and costly
accident, in terms of liability suits, is  the
collision with the vehicle  ahead.

     There are four simple steps that will
help you avoid being  involved in a  collision
with the car ahead:

     1.  Stay alert:   Watch for signs from
the driver ahead as to what he intends  to  do.
Is his  turn signal  on?   Are his brake  lights
lit?  Has he been gradually drifting to the
right  or the left as  if  to prepare   for a
turn?

     2.  Stay ahead of the situation:  Look
beyond the driver ahead to see situations
                                    13-4

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                                                    NOTES
that may force him to act quickly and thereby
become a threat to you.   Are there vehicles
in the roadway or on the shoulder?  Are the
intersections marked or unmarked?  Are there
parked cars,  pedestrians  or  livestock
present?

     3.   Stay back:  Allow one car length for
every ten miles  of speed—more  in  adverse
weather or road conditions.  The best way to
do this is to use  the Two-Second Rule to make
sure  that  you have  the correct following
distance,  ff you stay two seconds behind the
car  in front, you will have the  correct
distance no  matter what your speed.  It works
like this:   Watch the vehicle ahead pass some
definite point on the highway, such as a tar
strip  or overpass  shadow.  Then count to
yourself "one  thousand and one, one  thousand
and two."  That's two seconds.  If you reach
the  mark before you finish  saying  those
words, you are following too closely.

     4.  Start stopping  sooner:  Slow down
and touch your brakes the instant you see a
hazard  developing that may require you to
stop or take evasive action.  Failure to do
this is known as  "delayed braking," a serious
flaw in defensive driving  technique.   A
defensive driver should rarely if ever have
to make a panic stop.

     The time it takes  you to stop depends
upon your speed, the condition of the road,
the condition of  your car, and how alert you
have been.   Expressed as a formula:

Reaction Distance + Braking Distance  =
  Total Stopping  Distance
                                   13-5

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                                                    NOTES
STOPPING ABILITY OF STANDARD
PASSENGER CARS
ON DRY, CLEAN, LEVEL PAVEMENT
Speed
mph
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
(1)
Driver
Reaction
Distance
ft.
22
28
33
39
44
50
55
61
66
72
77
83
88
(2)
Braking Distance
15-85 Percentile
Range
ft.
18-22
25-31
36-45
47-58
64-80
82-103
105-131
132-165
162-202
196-245
237-295
283-353
334-418
(3)
Total
Stopping Distance
Range
ft.
40-44
53-59
69-78
86-97
108-124
132-153
160-186
193-226
228-268
268-317
314-372
366-436
422-506
Know Accident Conditions

     Throughout  the  Defensive Driving Course
we  will  be discussing various  types  of
accidents in terms of preventability.  There
are six principle conditions that play some
role in accidents.  These are light, weather,
road, traffic, vehicle and driver.

     It is possible to think of an accident
situation  in  which  all   six  of  these
conditions are unfavorable.   Yet it  is
important to realize that  in  rrost  accidents,
all conditions  except driver condition are
favorable.   This points up the importance  of
driver condition.   Even so,  the student  of
defensive driving must become  an expert  on
all conditions and how to adjust  to them.

Light Condition

     The first requirement of safe driving is
to see and be seen.  This ability is affected
                                   13-6

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                                                   NOTES
by light condition—the presence or absence
of natural or artificial light.   You can have
too little light,  or  too  much light.   The
hazard of too little light is found in the
fact that the nighttime fatal accident rate
is more than double the daytime rate.

     Here are some things you can do  to
adjust to adverse light conditions:

     1.  Be sure all lights on your vehicle
are in good working order.

     2.  Keep headlights clean and properly
aimed.

     3.  Turn on lights promptly at  the onset
of darkness—even in midday if  it becomes so
dark that visibility is decreased.

     4.  Switch  headlights to  low  beam when
meeting another vehicle and when following
another vehicle within  300 feet.

     5.    Do  not  look  directly  into
approaching headlights.

     6.   Never  wear sunglasses for  night
driving.

     7.  Be extra watchful for pedestrians
and cyclists at night.

     8.  Always reduce speed at night.

     9.  When there is too much light,  such
as when driving directly into sun glare in
the early morning or  late  afternoon,  wear
sunglasses and use  your sun visor.  A good
pair  of sunglasses  is  also  helpful  in
preventing snow  blindness  when  snow-glare is
present.   Ask  your  eye  specialist  for
prescription sunglasses if necessary; they
are worth the investment.

    10.   Rememoer that under adverse light
conditions others also  have difficulty
seeing,  so take care that they can see you.

    11.  Never drive with only your parking
lights on.
                                    13-7

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                                                  NOTES

Weather Condition

     Bad  weather  can  affect  traction,
visibility and vehicle control.

     Rain,  snow  and ice  can  make road
surfaces  slippery.   Adverse  weather  can
obscure your vision with rain, snow, fog or
road splatter, as well as steam up glass with
interior vapor.  Other drivers find it harder
to  see you,  and  pedestrians  hide  behind
umbrellas  so they fail to  see cars
approaching.   High  winds make steering
difficult and cause vehicles to  veer to the
wrong side of the road.

     Here are several defensive actions you
can take to adjust to adverse  weather
conditions:

     1. Clean windshield and all windows of
accumulated  snow or ice if your car has been
outside.    Don't try  to see  through a
peephole.

     2.   In cold weather be sure your motor
is  warmed  up  enough  to insure  reliable
performance.  Turn on heater before you start
to avoid sudden  fogging of glass.

     3. At  the  onset of rain, fog, sleet or
snow,  adjust your speed immediately to the
changed conditions.

     4.   Be  sure  your windshield  wipers,
washers and defroster are  in good  working
condition.

     5. Turn headlights on low beam in fog,
rain, extreme cloudiness or snow storms, even
in  the daytime.

     6.   Be sure your  tail lights,  brake
lights and directional signals are working.

     7.   If ice or  snow accumulates on
windows,  windshield or lights, stop in a safe
place  to clear it off.

     8.   Sometimes  weather can  get so bad
that the best thing to do is get  completely
off the  road until conditions improve.
                                   13-8

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                                                    NOTES
That's especially vital  in heavy fog or rain.
If you have to stop on the shoulder get as
far away from the road as possible and turn
off all  exterior lights except flashers.

     9.   The early  phase of rain is most
dangerous because it raises a soapy-slick
film of oil and grease drippings. After 20
to  30 minutes of hard rain,  the slippery
residue is washed off and the pavement has
better traction.  So at the onset of rain,
slow down.

    10.  Bad weather by itself doesn't cause
accidents.  Accidents are caused by drivers
who do not take immediate measures to adjust
to the special hazards brought about by bad
weather.

Road Condition

     Road  condition refers  to  the total
roadway and the type and condition of the
road surface.   These can affect your ability
to steer,  stop  and maneuver.

     Adverse road conditions can be produced
by weather.  Conditions change from one  kind
of road to another—from a side street to a
thoroughfare,  from secondary road to a main
highway,  from  a  two-lane  road  to an
expressway.  Any trip may involve a number of
different road conditions, each requiring
adjustment in your driving.

     Here are ways to cope with adverse road
conditions:

     1.   Adjust your  speed  to road  surface
conditions.   Posted  speed  limits are  for
ideal conditions  only.

     2.   On snow or  ice you must reduce your
speed, not only to avoid skidding  but also to
make  certain your stopping distance will  be
within your clear sight distance ahead.

     3.    On slippery  surfaces,  slow down
sooner so you can use your  brake  sparingly,
start braking  sooner,  and use less power in
starting and accelerating.
                                    13-9

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                                                   NOTES
     4.  To avoid locked-wheel skids, pump
your brakes when stopping on slippery roads.
Jab and release them quickly once or twice a
second.   This gives alternate intervals of
braking and  steering control.   With disc
brakes, application should be less rapid.

     5.  If you skid, steer in the direction
the rear of the vehicle is sliding.

     6.  Wet leaves are very slippery,  so use
care.

     7.  Remember that ice forms more  quickly
on  bridges,  that  shady spots  remain icy
longer,  that concrete pavement usually ices
up faster than warmer blacktop roads, and
that "wet" ice at about  30 degrees is more
slippery that ice at zero temperature.

     8.  Experience shows that accidents due
to icy or wet streets most often occur soon
after the sudden  onset of  the hazardous
condition.  If  conditions  are bad when
drivers start  a  trip,  they usually are on
guard.  But if  the bad weather starts  during
the  trip,  drivers  try to maintain their
normal speed too long and get into trouble.

     9.    Speed,  standing  water  on  the
pavement and tires  with worn tread make a
combination that can cause hydroplaning, a
complete  loss of  steering  and reduced
traction.  A  wedge of  water  can build up
between the  front tires and  the road and
literally lift the tires from good contact
with the pavement.  Slow down in heavy rain
that leaves standing water.

    10.  When starting out on a slippery day,
test the  traction by lightly applying the
brakes at  slow  speed to get the "feel"  of the
road.

Traffic Condition

     Traffic conditions are created  by the
number of vehicles and pedestrians using the
same road  or street at the same time you are,
and to a large extent by how well the road
has been engineered to accommodate the  amount
of traffic present  at  a given time.  More
                                   13-10

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                                                    NOTES
cars mean more conflict in traffic and more
change for a collision.

     Traffic conditions  are influenced by the
tine of day, day of the week, even time of
year in the case of holiday periods,  and by
the nature  of the environment,  such as a
shopping center,  sports arena, factory or
school.

     Here are ways  to adjust  to  traffic
conditions:

     1.  Remember that  pedestrians  and
bicyclists may not always have the right of
way, but cars  must always  yield right of way
to a pedestrian.

     2. Motorcycles are undersized and often
overlooked.  Allow them  as  much road space as
you would another vehicle.

     3.  Be  ready for wind turbulence when
passing large  trucks or  campers.

     4.  Plan your driving routes to avoid
congestion as  much as possible and select the
best regulated routes.

     5.  Speed zones are often established
after observing the normal pace of most cars
on a given stretch of street or highway.  The
defensive  driver  conforms  to this pace.
Driving  faster or slower than traffic in
general  will  create  unnecessary  passing
movement, and passing  increases the  change
for mistakes.

     6. Dim your lights well in advance of
oncoming cars, and never look directly into
an approaching car's lights.  If they  are on
high beam, flick yours as a signal.   If the
driver leaves  them on high, keep yours on low
beam and look to the right edge of the road
or lane marker until  the car is past.  Never
switch on your high beam in retaliation; that
just compounds the danger.

     7.  Because  traffic conflicts  can
trigger emotional  reactions among drivers,
the  defensive driver  seeks  to influence
others by showing courtesy and consideration
                                  13-11

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                                                    NOTES
to other motorists at all times.

Vehicle Condition

     Vehicle condition affects your ability
to control your vehicle,  your ability to see
and be seen, and to communicate with other
drivers  and pedestrians.  Your chances of
staying out of an  accident  are better with a
vehicle  in tip-top condition that they are
with one that has operational defects.

     You are  the  only one who knows  when
something  isn't working right.   Only you can
spot  possible vehicle defects  and  either
repair  them  or get  them corrected  by a
qualified mechanic.

     Here  are several  points  to  remember
about vehicle condition:

     1.   Worn or poorly adjusted brakes  cause
trouble  when the driver is  faced with the
necessity for stopping quickly.

     2.   Defective turn signals  or  brake
lights can confuse other drivers about your
intentions and cause a collision.

     3.  Worn tires increase the possibility
of skidding or hydroplaning.  A blowout can
throw your car out of control.  Good tire
care is one of the  essentials of a safe  car.

     4.  A broken or burned-out  headlamp not
only cuts down your visibility,  but makes it
difficult for  other  drivers to judge the
position of your car in a lane.  Keep your
headlamps aimed correctly.

     5.  Broken windshield wipers or worn-out
wiper blades can mean the difference between
life and death on a rain-swept highway.

     6.  The horn can be  an important safety
device. . Horns should  be used sparingly, but
if you need to sound a warning  and the horn
won't work, the results can be serious.

     7.  A defective muffler and exhaust pipe
often results in  filling  the vehicle with
carbon monoxide. While the concentration may
                                    13-12

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                                                   NOTES
not be enough to cause death,  it can cause
drowsiness  and  may be  the   unseen,
undiscovered cause of many accidents.

     8.   A lap  belt  and shoulder harness
should be worn at all  times.  If safety belts
are in bad condition or stuffed behind the
seat, they are of no use to even  the  most
safety-minded occupant  in an accident.

     9.   The interior of your vehicle can
contribute to the "second collision" in the
event of a crash.  Heavy or sharp objects
stowed  on the rear shelf of  your car can
become lethal projectiles.

    10.   When renting a car or borrowing
someone else's,  take time to  get  familiar
with the vehicle,  the location of  all
controls and its operating characteristics.

Driver Condition

     Driver  condition  refers  to  your
physical, mental and  emotional fitness to
drive.  It is the most important of the six
accident conditions,  because a  driver in top
physical,  mental and emotional shape can
adjust to all the other conditions and to the
errors of other drivers as well.

     Here are some  important  points to
remember about driver  condition:

     1.  Be as objective as  possible about
your  fitness to drive, whether the trip is
long or short.  When you don't feel  up to it,
be  willing to  postpone the  trip or  have
someone else drive.

     2.   The  most  dangerous  physical
condition  is  being under  the  influence of
alcohol.  The best rule is not to drive after
drinking, but if you  must drive, do so only
if you understand how alcohol affects your
capabilities.  Know your  limit.

     3.  Age is a special driver condition
for those under  25 and over 65.  The younger
driver has good physical  condition but lacks
experience and mature judgment.   The older
driver  has experience and, hopefully, good
                                  13-13

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                                                   NOTES
judgment, but his physical and sensory
faculties  may have  deteriorated.   Each group
can compensate for  these  weaknesses by
knowing and adjusting to them.

     4.  The taking of prescription drugs, as
well as illegal drugs, can affect driving.
Medicines  taken in combination, or when  used
with alcohol,  can have a multiplying effect.
Ask  your  physician  about  the effect
prescription drugs may have on your driving
ability.   Needless to say, illegal drugs and
driving are a dangerous mixture.

     5.  Emotions such as anger and worry can
blot out the alertness needed to drive
safely.   If you are upset  and  unable to
concentrate,  don't drive.  And never allow
aggressive driving to become an outlet for
anger and  frustration.

     6.  Fatigue and sleepiness are other
dangerous  driving conditions.  When you  find
yourself dozing at  the  wheel, don't fight it.
Pull of the  road for coffee, exercise and
fresh air.  If necessary, take a  nap or let
someone else  drive.

     7. Certain physical impairments,  such
an  uncorrectable vision,  uncontrollable
epilepsy, hear disease or  diabetes, add to
driving risk.  Discuss these  with your
physician,  and have  the wisdom to forego
driving if he advises you to do so.

How to Deal with Tailgaters

     It is  sheer foolishness to take the
legalistic position that "any driver who hits  ^_
my  vehicle from behind is in the  wrong." An ^".
attitude  like that can literally break your '
neck.   You  have  a  responsibility  to the
driver following you.  You have  to  let him
know what you are  going to do in order for
him to know what to do.

     There are  four measures you can take  to
avoid being hit from  behind:

     1.  Signal your intentions. Use  your
directional  signals (or arm signals) and
brake  lights.
                                   13-14

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                                                   NOTES
     2.  Stop smoothly.  Once in a while, you
have no choice but to  jam on the brakes.
Most of the time that shouldn't be necessary.
If  you follow the  rule  for avoiding a
collision with the vehicle ahead, you will
reduce at  the  same time  the  chance for a
collision with the vehicle  following.

     3.  Keep clear of tailgaters. Don't let
a tailgater rile you.   Just slow  down.  This
will eliminate the hazard by:

         a.  Encouraging him to pass  you.

         b.    Increasing the  following
distance between your car and  the car ahead
so you won't have to brake suddenly and be
hit by the  tailgater.

         c.   Forcing him  to slow down,
thereby making it easier  for him to stop
safely when you stop.

     4.  Avoid  a rear-end  collision when
stopped.  Being struck from the rear while
stopped in  traffic accounts for 70 percent of
rear-end collisions.   This  may  happen  to  you
when you  are stopped behind  a  driver who
intends to make  a  left turn.   These
precautions are recommended to  avoid being
struck in the rear while stopped in traffic:

     * Keep foot on the brake to activate  the
brake lights.

     * Stop at  least  10 feet behind  the car
ahead to prevent any domino effect.   A good
way to do this is to stop  so you can see  the
rear tires  of the car ahead.

     * Keep lights on at dusk or in rain and
snow.

Defensive Driving:  A Matter of Attitude

     If you practice defensive driving,  it's
unlikely that you'll  find yourself involved
in  a collision  with a  vehicle following your
own.  After all, defensive driving is largely
a matter of attitude—the determination on
your part to  do everything  reasonably
possible  to  avoid  being  involved  in  a
                                   13-15

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                                                   NOTES
preventable accident, regardless of  what  the
law says,  what the other driver does,  or  the
adverse driving conditions  you encounter.

     There are a  number of attitudes that
characterize  the defensive driver.   How many
do you display?

     1.  Knowledge:  Do you know the traffic
rules and  regulations of your state?  Are  you
aware  of proper procedures  for  passing,
yielding the  right of way and other maneuvers
you'll  be  called upon to perform when you're
behind the wheel?

     2.  Alertness:  Are you aware of what's
going on around you?   Are you conscious of
traffic  conditions ahead?    Do  you
occasionally  glance from side to side, and at
the side and  rear-view mirror?

     3.  Foresight:  Do you "look ahead" when
you drive? Can you predict what is  likely to
happen?  Foresight includes both short  and
long-range predictions,  such as getting ready
to stop when you  see a traffic light ahead
and  making  a pre-trip mental inventory of
driving conditions.

     4.  Judgment:   Another word  for good
"horse  sense."  Judgment  involves knowing
what to do and doing it at the right  time—
every time.

     5.  Skill:  Do you know how to  handle
your car?   How  to start,  stop,   turn, go
forward and in reverse and how  to execute
various emergency maneuvers? Research has
shown  that skill  is not simply the  result of
practice, but the result  of training, plus
practice.

Head Restraints Reduce Whiplash

     Each year  there are an  estimated
3,800,000 rear-end vehicle crashes.  In
these,  as many as one million drivers  and
passengers claim  whiplash  injury,  one of the
most common  of crash casualties.

     Since 1969,  when  head restraints were
required as  standard equipment in new cars,
                                  13-16

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                                                    NOTES
nearly one-fifth of whiplash injuries have
been eliminated.  This despite the fact that
a large number  of adjustable head restraints
have been found to be improperly adjusted.

     Some pointers for head restraints:

     * The  padded section should be adjusted
to fit against the back of the skull, and not
against  the base of the neck.  Restraints
left in their lowest position may actually
increase certain whiplash injuries by serving
as a fulcrum over  which the head snaps in
rear-end collisions.

     * The  front seat  head restraints should
not increase the change of injury to back-
seat passengers in the event of an accident.

HOW TO AVOID A COLLISION WITH AN ONCOMING
VEHICLE

     The deadliest of all collisions is one
that occurs with an oncoming vehicle.  A
number  of  factors  contribute   to  the
fatalities  that result from such accidents.

     * In  a head-on  collision,  the cars
involved stop   almost   instantly;
unfortunately,  their occupants keep hurtling
forward—right into the windshield and
dashboard.

     * Since most head-on collisions occur
slightly off center,  one or both cars spin
and their occupants often are thrown out of
the car.   This is where safety belts are
really effective in saving lives.

Recovering  from a Pavement Dropoff

     Your efforts to steer back onto the road
after your front wheel has dropped off the
pavement can send you  swerving into the path
of  an oncoming vehicle  unless  you follow
these steps:

     1.  Don't  panic and  don't brake.

     2.  Slow down to a safe speed,  keeping
the car on  a straight course.
                                   13-17

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                                                   NOTES
     3.  Check for an opening in traffic and
steer slowing  back onto the pavement at a
sharp angle.

Coping with Curves

     The best way to take a curve is to slow
down before you enter it.   On curves to the
right,   keep  to the  right  edge of  the
pavement. On left curves, stay in the middle
of your lane.    Apply  light power  to the
wheels while in the curve.

     The  relative danger  of  a head-on
collision in  a curve depends on which
direction the curve takes.

     * On right curves.  Never allow you car
to drift into  the other lane; centrifugal
force will tend to pull it to the left toward
the center line.

     * On left  curves.  Be  alert to the other
vehicle's tendency to drift into your lane,
since centrifugal force pulls him  to the left
toward you.

Bow to Avoid an Oncoming Vehicle

     More times than one wants to  experience,
an oncoming motorist is found in your lane.
Several  things may account for  this:  the
driver may have fallen asleep, he may wrongly
have entered a one-way street, or he may have
lost  control  of his auto  trying to pass
another  driver.   Whatever  the  reason,  it
presents a truly  dangerous problem.  Several
steps should be taken:

     * Read the Road Ahead:  Be alert for an
auto or pedestrian about to enter your lane
or trying to pass in your lane.

     * Ride to  the Right:  Never drive to the
left.   The oncoming driver may decide to
swerve  right to  avoid you and hit you head-
on.

     * Reduce  Speed:  Reducing speed reduces
distance traveled and impact force.

     *  Ride   Right  Off  the   Road:   If


                                  13-18

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                                                    NOTES
necessary, veer to the right and go off the
pavement.  Give him your lane—always avoid a
head-op crash.

HOW TO AVOID AN INTERSECTION COLLISION

     One-third of  all  traffic  accidents
happen at intersections  and  about 40 percent
of all urban accidents occur there.  Unless
turns are prohibited,  there  are three things
a driver can do at an intersection:

     1.  Make a right turn.

     2.  Go straight through.

     3.  Make a left turn.

     The four general  rules  for intersection
safety are:

     1.  Know your route and plan  ahead.

     2.  Slow for intersections  and expect
the unexpected.

     3.  Show your  intentions by position and
signals.

     4.  Go with care.

Rules for  Making  a  Right Turn at  an
Intersection

     1.  Get in the extreme right lane well
in advance.

     2.  Turn on your right turn signal no
less than 100 feet before the turn.

     3.  At  the turn  position  place  your
vehicle so as to block out any vehicle that
might try to squeeze between you and the
curb.

     4.  Make sure that you have the right of
way and that there is no cross traffic.

     5.  Make your turn when it is safe  to do
so.
                                   13-19

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                                                   NOTES
Rules for Going Straight Through  an
Intersection

     1.  Be sure you have the right of way.

     2.  Slow down and be prepared to stop.

     3.  As you approach the intersection,
have your  foot off the accelerator and on the
brake pedal to give yourself that extra split
second of  reaction time you need to stop if a
vehicle or a pedestrian  tries to cross in
front of you.

     4.  Look first to the left,  then to the
right, because traffic coming from the left
is closer to you and would cross your path
first.

     5.  Accelerate through the intersection
when it is safe to do so.

Rules for  Making  a Left Turn at  an
Intersection

     1.    Get  in  the  left  lane well  in
advance.

     2.  Turn on your  left  turn signal no
less than  100 feet before the turn.

     3.  Stop and yield right of way to cross
traffic and vehicles approaching from the
opposite direction  and  close enough to
present a  hazard.

     4.  When it is safe, make your turn in
such a manner as to enter the cross street on
the right  side of the center  line in the lane
nearest to the center line.

     5.    In meeting  other vehicles  also
turning left, be sure  to pass them so that
they are on your right.

THE ART OF PASSING AND BEING PASSED

     The final two positions of the two-car
crash to be discussed are those that involve
(1) your vehicle being overtaken and passed
by another,   and (2) your  own  passing
maneuver.
                                  13-20

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                                                    NOTES
     Both  positions—passing and  being
passed—are potentially dangerous because
they  can result in head-on collisions,
sideswipes  or run-off-the-road accidents.

How to Be Passed

     There are a number of things you can do
to prevent accidents  that can happen when
other cars  pass you:

     1.   Help  the other driver pass.  Check
oncoming traffic.  Slow down if the passing
car will need more room to get back in line
in front of you.

     2.  Before you change lanes, check your
side and rear-view mirror and glance back to
make sure your blind spot is clear.  Use your
land-change signal.  Move over only when lane
is clear.

     3.   Get into  the proper lane for a turn
early.  When turning right stay close  to  the
right curb to block anyone from passing on
the right.  Use your turn signal early.

     4.  Don't nose out of a parking space to
check for oncoming traffic.   Take a good look
before  you move.  Signal your  intentions,
wait  for a break in  traffic and pull  out
slowly.

Bow to Pass

     There are a  number of  reasons why  you
may want to pass  another vehicle:  You  may
feel  it is going too slowly, you may be in a
hurry, or you may  simply want to be the front
runner.   There is  nothing wrong with passing
for the right  reason, but it isn't likely to
save you much  time. And since passing often
entails risk, the best rule  is:  When in
doubt, don't!

      In any passing maneuver,  there are 12
things to do:

      1.  Decide if the pass in  necessary.

      2.  Make  certain  you have maintained a
safe  following distance.
                                  13-21

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                                                    NOTES
     3.   Check  traffic  ahead.   If your
vehicle and an oncoming  car are both
traveling at 55  mph,  you are closing the gap
between you at  the  rate of 1.8 miles  per
minute.  Since it takes about 10 seconds to
complete a  pass,  the  oncoming car should be
at least one-half mile away.

     4.  Check the traffic behind you before
changing lanes.  First  check your  mirrors,
then your blind spot.

     5.   Signal before you change  lanes.

     6.   Move into the left lane.

     7.   Accelerate as you move  left.

     8.   Signal the vehicle you are passing
by tapping  your horn or flashing your  lights.

     9.   Signal your intention to return to
the right lane.

    10.   Return  to the  right lane  when you
can  see all of  the  passed vehicle  in  the
rear-view mirror.

    11.   Cancel your directional signal.

    12.   REsume cruising speed as  soon as you
have completed your passing maneuver.

HOW TO AVOID OTHER TYPES OF ACCIDENTS

You and the Motorcyclist

     Motorcycles are more numerous on the
nation's streets and  highways  with  each
passing year.    With them  comes  an added
responsibility on the part of the motorist.
Half of the accidents that occur between the
automobile driver and  the cyclist are the
fault of the autoist. Here are some tips to
remember regarding motorcyclists:

     Sharing the Road

     Many motorists think motorcycles  require
less space on  the road  that do other
vehicles, just because  the cycle  is smaller.
That is not true. A cyclist is  entitled to a
                                   13-22

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                                                    NOTES
full  lane, just as is any four-wheeled
vehicle.  Do not try  to crowd him in any way,
or try to force him  to the edge of the road.
Respect him as a fellow driver.

     Re-Train your Eyes

     Most cycle-auto accidents occur because
the motorist simply  doesn't see the cyclist.
Often a cycle  is hidden in  the car's blind
spot.  Outside rear-view mirrors are not
enough to rely  upon;  when changing lanes,  it
is a good policy to take a quick glance over
your shoulder.   Be alert for the presence  of
a cyclist on the outer edge of your traffic
lane, especially on  turns.  A cycle often  is
screened by another car.   Aware of his low
visibility,  the safety-conscious cyclist
often keeps his single headlight on,  even  in
daytime,  to warn you of his presence.

     Consider  the cyclist  as being less
protected  that you  are,  and watch his
driving.   He must contend with  many more
hazards than you do.  Be especially cautious
when passing a  cyclist; the buffeting created
by your windstream  may cause him  to wobble
and lose control.  The inexperienced cyclist
should be  given a wide berth.   You can
recognize him if his cycle jerks when making
gear changes, or if  he is hesitant in making
decisions in traffic. Always give him plenty
of room and be  prepared to stop if something
goes wrong.

Judging Distance

     Because a cycle is  smaller,  it may
appear to be farther away that it actually
is, and  it may seem  to  be moving  slower.
Always allow yourself more following distance
when overtaking one.   To judge your following
distance,  it is a good idea to add an extra
second to the two-second rule of  defensive
driving:  count to "one thousand and three."
But this  three-second interval is only for
ideal  conditions.   Add to  it for adverse
conditions.

Natch for Cycle Hazards

     Hazards for the cyclist can entrap the
                                   13-23

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                                                   NOTES
auto driver, too.  A cyclist ahead can lose
control of his machine when sand, gravel, wet
leaves or water  are on the  pavement.  Always
be aware of conditions that may cause him to
spill.  Give him plenty of room, and slow
down.

How to Drive on Expressways

     If you travel any distance, you'll be
using limited-access highways.  The technique
for driving on them  is different from that
used on regular roads.

     Here are driving hints for expressway
safety:

     1.  Start with a full gas tank and check
the tires.  Study the map before you start;
be sure you  know your correct exit.

     2. Entering an expressway, speed up in
the acceleration lane so you can match the
speed of through traffic and blend right in.

     3.   Never  slow  down abruptly in a
traffic lane. Stay with the pace set by the
majority.

     4.  Don't stop,  and never  back up.  If
you miss an exit, go on to the next one.  In
case of vehicle breakdown, pull as far onto
the shoulder as you can.

     5. When passing or changing lanes, use
your turn signals, check to the rear and get
into  position early.  After passing,  wait
until you can see the vehicle you've passed
in  your  mirror before  returning  to your
former lane.

     6.  Keep widely spaced.   Stay  well
behind vehicles ahead as a precaution  against
chain-reaction crashes.

     7.   Read  the  signs;  they are  all
important.   You have little  change for
second-guessing.

     8.  When leaving  the expressway, slow
down  in the deceleration lane to ramp speed.
Believe your speedometer, not your senses.
                                  13-24

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                                                   NOTES
     Watch out for  fatigue in expressway
driving, and fight monotony with a rest at
least  every two  hours.   Keep your eyes
moving, open the windows often, check  the
instruments, sing and chew gum.

     If you must make an emergency stop on an
expressway, pull completely off the road to
the farthest edge of the shoulder.  For help,
raise the hood and tie a white cloth on  the
radio antenna or traffic-side door handle.
Superhighways  tempt you to overdrive your
headlights at night.  Remember, good lights
illuminate about 450  feet.

     That is a  skimpy  margin of safety  for
any evasive action you might need to take.
In bad weather,  expressways  can be more
dangerous than ordinary roads because  of
higher speeds.  Adjust your driving to  bad
weather.

*Note:  This section contains  excerpts from
the National  Safety Council Defensive Driver
Handbook.
                                  13-25

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              UNIT 14 - OPERATIONS AND USE OF BOATS
EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

     o Students should learn the legally
required safety  equipment,  load limits,
registration,  and related inspections.

     o Students should learn about other
recommended equipment, other inspections
and precautions.

     o Students  should  learn  how to
prepare for boating.

     o Students  should  learn about
loading and boarding a small boat.

     o Students  should  learn about boat
handling.

     o  Student  should   learn  the
rudiments  of nautical rules of the road.

     o Students should become aware of
essential  emergency procedures.
                                                NOTES
                                    14-1

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BOATING SAFETY
Legal requirements
Conplimentary Inspection

     If a complimentary inspection  is
requested, a member of the Coast Guard
Auxiliary will examine  a  boat for
compliance with Federal  regulations and
any additional recommendations the local
Auxiliary many consider desirable for
safety.  If the boat passes the inspec-
tion, a decal  will be affixed,  to the
boat, to show that the boat has  passed
the examination.  If the boat fails, a
confidential  list of deficiencies  will
be provided to the boat owner.

     A Registration Number will  usually
be assigned by the state,  or occasional-
ly by the Coast Guard.  The number is a
handy identification, even  for boats
that  may be exempt from the legal
requirement.

     The Load Capacity  should be  dis-
played on a plate mounted in the boat.
A certificate of compliance for  an out-
board motorboat will  show the manufac-
turer's rating of maximum horsepower  of
an engine that can be used, safely,  on
the boat.  A  combination capacity plate
will also list the maximum number  of
persons  and  the maximum  weight  of  per-
sons that can be carried  safely,   as
well as the  maximum weight (of persons,
motor, and gear)  that  can be carried
safely by the boat.  The certificate  of
compliance and the capacity may be shown
on separate plates.

     The load carrying capacity of the
boat should not be exceeded, or the boat
may not sail well, may ride too  low  in
the water, and may take on water  over
the sides and swamp or capsize.    If
rough weather is expected,  the  boat
should be loaded more  lightly  to let  it
ride higher and make it  less  likely  to
be swamped by waves.   If samples are  to-
be collected,  their  estimated weight
should   be   included  in  the  total
NGRES
                                   14-2

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estimated weight load.                            NOTES

RECOMMENDED EQUIPMENT, INSPECTIONS,  AND
             PRECADTIGNS

     Every  motorboat should have  a  Fire
Extinguisher approved for fighting elec-
trical fires or burning liquids (e.g.,
gasoline fires).   Fire  extinguishers
must be  approved  by the  Underwriters
Laboratories or another reputable test-
ing laboratory.  A 2.5 pound dry chem-
ical extinguisher will satisfy the re-
quirement,  on boats under 26 feet long,
but a 6 pound dry  chemical extinguisher
will offer  a greater chance of putting
out a liquid fuel fire.   HaIon  extin-
guishers  are as satisfactory as the  dry
chemical  type.   An additional fire
extinguisher should be located  in  the
fueling area to put out spill fires.

Audible Signals
     Boats  from 16 to 26 feet  long must
carry a  whistle or horn  that can be
heard for at least a half  mile.  A  po-
lice whistle will meet this  requirement.
Boats from  26 to 40 feet long must carry
a bell for  use in fog, and a whistle or
horn that  can be heard for at least a
mile.  The  whistle or horn can be oper-
ated by hand or power.  Boats over 40
feet long  must have a power operated
whistle or  horn.

     The signaling  devices should be
used in  fog, or in any  other weather
condition that  obscures  normal
visibility.

     Boats  with enclosed spaces where
spilled fuel or fuel vapors  can accumu-
late must have powered ventilation to
clear  away the  fuel vapors.   This
requirement does  not normally apply to
open boats.

     Wearable Flotation Devices (life
jackets) are required for each  person
aboard the boat.   Boats  over 16 feet
long must  carry a wearable flotation
device for each person,   and also  one
throwable flotation device, for the
                                   14-3

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boat.
NOTES
     Although flotation devices of types
I, II, III,  IV, and V are approved for
EPA field activities, only types I and
II  and V are designed  to save  an
unconscious person from drowning because
those are  the only types that will turn
an unconscious person from a face down
position  in  the water.   The type I
device is  the one that provides maximum
flotation, and thus,  maximum protection
in rough water.

     The type  V device is a work vest
that will float an unconscious person
face  up.   It is designed for work
activities, but it is not approved for
use on  recreational boats and is not
available in  stores that  sell  only
recreational boating equipment.

     Float coats or exposure  suits,
approved by  the  Coast  Guard,  are
recommended for  cold water operation.
Wet suits can also be used, preferably
with an additional flotation device.

     Visual  Distress Signals are re-
quired  in boats  16 feet or  longer  (26
feet  for  sailboats), and are strongly
recommended for any boat that may need a
distress signal in any  forseeable
circumstance.

     Non-pyrotechnic  Devices are a
special flag  (for daytime use) and a
special electric signal that flashes SOS
signals four to six times a minute, for
night use.  These devices do not set
spilled  fuel  afire   if  they are
accidentally activated.

     Pyrotechnic Devices  include hand-
held  orange  smoke signals,  floating
orange smoke distress signals that last
5 to 15 minutes,  hand-held red  flares,
and  pistol-launched  parachute  red
flares.   Rocket  propelled flares are
also available for night use.  Pyrotech-
nic devices should be replaced 42 months
from  the  date of the manufacture, and
they are more common on larger boats.
                                   14-4

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                                                 NOTES
     Specified lights are required on
any boat that is out on the water in the
dark.   Boats  at anchor  must show an
anchor light: a white  light,  visible in
all directions for at least one mile.

     Vessels under  way  must show at
least three  lights:

     -A white  light  visible for  two
miles,  in all directions;  two white
lights  are  required in  international
waters, and  many boats will show two (or
more) white  lights regularly.

     -A green  light,  visible  from
directly ahead through an arc of 112.5
degrees on the starboard (right)  side.
That 112.5 degree arc marks the zone in
which your boat  must yield the right of
way to other vessels;  any vessel  that
can see your green light has the right
of way over  your  boat.

     -A red  light, visible from directly
ahead through an arc of 112.5 degrees on
the port (left) side of the boat.  Boats
that can see your red light should yield
the right  of way.

     It is important to know that,  out-
side of designated  shipping channels,
sailboats have  the right of way  over
power boats. Don't expect a sailboat to
get out of your way just  because it can
see your red light.  That boat might be
becalmed, might have tangled its  rig-
ging,  or  might have  run  its keel
aground.

     It is legal, but unwise, to expect
very large ships  (such as oil tankers)
to  yield  to small boats, and you  are
required to stay out of their way in a
shipping channel.

RECOMMENDED  ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT

     In order  to operate the boat with
reasonable safety, you will also want to
carry
                                     14-5

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     -a recent chart (or charts) of the           NOTES
area in which you will be boating
     -a compass
     -paddles or oars
     -a boat hook; and
     -a bailing bucket or bilge pump.

It is also  prudent to carry an anchor
(and anchor  rope),  a first  aid  kit, food
and water,  a radio with  weather band
reception, a flashlight, tools  and spare
parts, and a radiophone or CB radio for
emergency communications.  The anchor
rope should be seven times as long as
the  greatest water depth you will
encounter.  Many types of anchors will
work better if a three foot length of
chain is attached to the anchor,  to hold
it down in  a horizontal  position;  it
holds better that way.

PREPARATION  FOR BOATING

     More inspections:  Before  a boat is
taken out for a trip or a long job,  it
should be  inspected to assure that
everything works, that lights and motor
are likely to keep on working, and that
tools and spare parts are adequate and
accessible.  The Coast Guard Auxiliary
has many helpful publications about this
and other aspects of boating.

     Refueling Precautions;  Gasoline is
very flammable.   There are four basic
rules for handling fuel:

     -Keep all sources  of  ignition away
from fuel vapors.
     -Keep the nozzle of the fuel hose
in contact with the fuel tank opening to
avoid static sparks.
     -Never  overfill the tanks.
     -Fill portable fuel tanks OUTSIDE
the boat (never in the boat); fill them
on the dock  or at another location.

     Inboard  engines require  special
ventilation  equipment.  Use it.

Preparation  for Boating
     Plan your trip.  Get the weather
forecast;  look at the charts  and plan
                                  14-6

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your  route;  collect  and weigh  the              NOTES
passengers' personal gear, the sampling
apparatus,  and all other "stores" going
aboard.  Load the gear so that it will
not roll or slide when the boat rocks or
tosses.

     If  the weather forecast is somewhat
unfavorable,  load the boat  lightly so
that  it  will  float high in  the water.
If a storm is predicted,  postpone the
trip.   When rough weather  can capsize a
small boat, it takes quite an athlete
to swim home.

     If your  course takes you out of
sight of land,  at least one person
aboard should  know how to navigate.  At
least 2 people should know how to read
charts and located sandbars,  shallows,
rocks, rapids,  etc.

     The Coast Guard recommends that you
file a "float Plan" with someone who can
request a search if you don't return as
expected.  The float plan should give a
detailed description of the boat and its
planned  course,  to aid a search.   It
should list the people aboard, the type
and frequencies  of the emergency  radio,
and the names and phone numbers of the
Coast Guard or other  agency  personnel
who should be notified if you fail to
return as expected.

     Personal  gear should  include shoes
or boots with  anti-skid soles and foot-
wear that will be  suitable for the samp-
ling or other work to be done outside
the boat, if that is  part of the plan.
Water repellent clothing and sufficient
warm  clothing  should be taken along, and
a change of  dry clothing  is  often
needed.   If water  temperatures below 60
degrees F are  expected, take a wet suit
or other suitable protective,  immersible
clothing.

     Everyone should practice putting on
the flotation devices before you set
out.  Life jackets should be stored so
that they can  be retrieved quickly and
conveniently  if the boat capsizes  or
swamps.  This writer  once had sailing
                                   14-7

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students out in a small sailboat that
capsized.  The life  jackets were secured
under shock cord below the deck.  When
the  boat capsized,  it was  righted
immediately,  but no one could get the
wet life jackets free from the wet shock
cord!  A disaster was averted, first, by
clinging  to the boat which could not
sink, and second, by the  fact that every
student  had to pass a  swimming test
before being  admitted to the  sailing
school.   Nevertheless,   the incident
stands as an object lesson in inadequate
planning.  YOU should try to do better.

     If any passenger is a non-swimmer,
that passenger should wear a life jacket
whenever the boat is in  water deep
enough to drown in.  That  includes
shallow  water in  which holes  or
depressions may  be  found.  In a stream,
the current may undercut a sandbar so
that the  water may be 8 feet deep 18
inches from the  edge of the  sandbar.

     Plan your sampling procedures
before you get  out in the  boat.  If a
boat has two passengers, and they both
lean over the same side  to set out 50
pounds of equipment, they may  need to
demonstrate their swimming skill. Swim-
ming downstream, fully clothed,  in pur-
suit of gear that floated  away, is not a
demonstration of good sampling technique.

LOADING AND BOARDING

     When you board a small boat, try to
grasp both sides of  the  boat and then
step into the middle.   If you  put all
your  weight  on the  side nearest the
dock, you may  well  push that side under
water.  If you  step down and push the
boat away, the boat  may move away before
you get into it; you may  fall in, but at
least the boat won't capsize.  It helps
to have someone else steady (hold) the
boat  while   you  step  in,  but
understanding  the  problem helps even
more. One last caution here:  it's easy
to   jump   lightly   down   into  the
center of the    boat  — and  then drop
to the opposite   side   and tip the
NOTES
                                   14-8

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boat (and  yourself)  away from the dock.
Don't do that either.
NOTES
     When one person is in the boat, a
second person can pass gear and supplies
to the one in  the boat.   If the cargo
being passed over is heavy, watch your
(and the boat's)  balance!  Distribute
the weight evenly, and secure all cargo
so it can't move when  the boat rocks,
Remember to keep the flotation devices
accessible—or simply wear them.

BOAT HANDLING

     At least one person should know how
to handle  the boat, and that person
should instruct the others as quickly  as
possible.  A boat does  not handle like
any  land vehicle  (with the possible
exception of an ice boat).  Techniques
such as towing, going through locks  or
dams,  and handling  the boat in high
waves, like the knack of knowing when  to
stop the motor and how to come  in to a
dock without hitting it,  must be learned
by doing.  One or more  of you must get
some instruction in boat handling before
you  take the  boat out.   Reading  is
recommended, but it cannot substitute
for hands-on  experience.

     You charts will show the location
of storm warning display stations, and
your radio will carry weather bulletins.
A small craft warning means winds may
reach 38 mph (33 knots)   or conditions
dangerous  for  the  sort of  boats
generally used by EPA.  A triangular red
pennant, displayed at a  storm warning
display station,  signals a small craft
warning.

     Two triangular red flags signal a
gale warning;  winds form 39 to 54 mph
(34 to 47 knots).

     A single  square red flag with a
black  center,   displayed at a storm
warning display  station, signals a
storm warning;  winds of 55 to 73 mph  (48
to 63 knots).
                                    14-9

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     Two square red flags with black            NOTES
centers signal a hurricane or tropical
eye lone,  with winds in excess of 74 mph
(63 knots).

ROE£5 OP THE ROAD

     The first International Rules of
the road for preventing collision at sea
were established in 1889.  The USA has
adopted similar  rules for all  U.S.
waters.

     The person in command of the  boat
is expected  to know the rules for opera-
tion and navigation,  local  regulations,
and rules of the road.   The rules of the
road cover three topics: lights, signals
used to identify  course and position in
fog, and action to avoid collision  with
other vessels.
     The vessel that has the  right-of-
way is called  the "Stand On  vessel"
(formally the privileged vessel).   The
stand on vessel has a  right to maintain
its course and speed.   It has a duty to
maintain course  and speed so that the
other  vessel  can base its actions on
known conditions.    However,  if  a
collision becomes imminent, the stand by
vessel no longer has the right-of-way or
any privilege.

     The vessel that does not have the
right of way is the "give way vessel",
formerly called  the "burdened vessel."
When  the give way vessel approaches
another  closely  enough to create a
possibility  of  collision,  the give way
vessel must slow, turn, or take other
positive action to keep out of the way.

     In a Meeting Situation, two vessels
are approaching  head  on or nearly so,
and neither  has the right-of-way.  Both
must  alter  course to the  starboard
(right) so that they will pass port to
port (left side to  left side).  A vessel
will signal its intent to alter course
to  the starboard  with  a "course indica-
tion signal" of one or two short blasts
of a whistle or horn.  The other vessel
will  return the same  signal  to
                                   14-10

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indicate understanding and agreement, or           NOTES
will signal four short blasts  (danger
signal)  to  indicate  its  lack  of
understanding  or  agreement.   [In
international Waters,  no response is
required, and the danger signal  is five
short blasts.]

     In a Crossing Situation, when two
vessels approach at  an angle, the vessel
on the  right (starboard) has the right-
of-way.  Your vessel must give way to
any vessel  that approaches  from the
112.5 degree arc in which your vessel
shows  its green light at night.  The
give way  vessel must  slow  or alter
course to avoid a collision.  The stand
on vessel should maintain course and
speed.

     In an overtaking  situation,  the
overtaking vessel is burdened;  it must
give way until the overtaken vessel has
been passed safely.

     If the overtaking vessel  wishes to
alter course and pass to the starboard
of the overtaken vessel, the overtaking
(give way) vessel should give  one short
signal of whistle or horn.  The signal
to pass on the port side is two short
blasts  of whistle or horn.  The stand on
vessel  must signal agreement (one or two
short  blasts)  or  disagreement  (four
short blasts).

     If you see the white  light of
another vessel at night,  you  are
overtaking that vessel and must follow
the rules for overtaking.

     In a narrow channel,  your boat
should keep to  the  right side of the
channel. When you near a bend,  signal to
any vessel that may be  out of sight by
giving  a  long  (four to six seconds)
warning blast on a whistler or horn.  A
small vessel must yield  the right-of-way
to large, deep draft ships that  may not
be able to maneuver,  or  stop, quickly.

     In general, right-of-way  must be
given  to sailing  vessels, fishing
vessels, working vessels, and very large
                                   14-11

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vessels.                                          NOTES

     Fog signals are  required if the
visibility is obscured, day or night, by
mist, fog, rain or  snow—in order to
avoid collisions.  A power vessel must
sound  one  prolonged blast on  the
whistle,  at  least  every minute.   A
vessel anchored outside a designated
anchorage must ring its bell, or sound
its horn or whistle, rapidly for five
seconds,  at  least  once each minute.
Towing vessels underway must sound a
series of three blasts  (one long and two
short blasts)  in succession, once each
minute.

Navigation aids, on navigable waters of
the United States, consist of markers,
buoys, and lights.  They mark channels
and constructions, provide direction,
and show exact position.

     The  basic  system uses  red,
triangular buoys or  markers, with even
numbers, to mark the right side of the
channel when the vessel is moving
upstream, against the current, returning
from the  sea  ("red  right returning").
The other side of  the  channel  (on your
starboard  side going  downstream)  is
marked with black, rectangular buoys or
markers, with  odd numbers.  In the Great
Lakes region,  going west,  or to the
source  of  the lakes,  corresponds to
going upstream  from the sea.  On the
Intracoastal  Waterway and in coastal
water, "upstream" is  marked from New
Jersey going south to  Florida and west
to  Texas.   On  the  Pacific  coast,
"upstream" is  from California to Alaska.

     On the Intracoastal Waterway, buoys
and markers are  marked with a yellow
band, strip, square, or triangle.  The
yellow  band or square identifies the
buoy as being on  the Intracoastal
Waterway.

     Regulatory markers may provide
information or give warning (e.g., boat
speed restriction).

     Lightships or Texas Towers provide


                                14-12-

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warning and guidance in waters that are                NOTES
to deep for other  navigation aids.  A
Texas  is  a  large navigational buoy
that has primary and standby generators
to operate a  high intensity light, a
radio beacon, and a fog signal.   It also
monitors  meterological conditions, air
and water temperature, wind speed and
direction, and other data.   Texas Towers
are replacing  lighthouses at  major har-
bor entrances.

EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

     If your boats capsizes, or collides
with a solid object or another boat, or
if the  motor  quits,  or someone has a
medical emergency, you should call for
help.   Use your radio,  whistle,  horn, or
visual  signals.   On  the  radio,  send
"Mayday" on VHP channel 16  or 2182
kilohertz. Give this  information:
     Boat ID and call  letters;
     Location;
     Nature of distress;
     Number of persons aboard and  the
      condition of any who are injured;
     Estimated seaworthiness of the boat
      (how long you may stay afloat);
     Descriptive details of boat;
     Any other information that may help
      rescuers find you.

     If you have no radio, show visual
distress signals.

     If you hear  or see a distress
signal, give what aid  you can.  Use your
radio to  notify the Coast Guard on VHP
Channel 16, or notify  any listener on CB
Channel 9.  There is a "Good Samaritan"
clause in the Federal  Boat Safety Act of
1971 that protects from liability anyone
who provides or arranges towing, medical
treatment, or other assistance  that any
reasonably prudent  person  would provide
under the circumstance.

     If  you have  only  pyrotechnic
distress signals,  save them until there
is someone out there who can see them.

     If your boat capsizes,  stay with
it.  Boats have flotation chambers;  they
                                    14-13'

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will not sink.  If you can right the             NOTES
boat, get into it.  That may be warmer
than staying in the water.  If the water
is cold, it is important  to conserve
body heat.  Get out of the  water if you
can; if you can't;  curl up.  If several
people are in the  water,  they  should
huddle close together. Don't swim for
shore unless it is quite close or there
is no  chance of rescue.   A boat  is
easier than a  swimmer for rescuers to
find.

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                        STUDENT EXERCISES
1.   Power boats must show at least three lights when traveling at
night.   Describe those  lights and their significance.
2.  Name 10 items of equipment, other than food, that should be
carried on the boat.   (If food were allowed, 10 food items would
count as only one "item" of equipment.)
                                    14-15-

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3.  What are the four basic rules  for refuel ing/fuel handling?
4.  A storm warning display station is flying two triangular red
signal flags.  What do  they mean?
What action should you take if you have already set out for a
day's work in the  boat?
                                    14-16-

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5.  You are sailing up the  middle of  a channel/ and a cabin
cruiser is coming toward you, also in the middle of the channel.
You signal with 2 short blasts on  the  whistle.  The other vessel
replies with 4 short hoots of a horn.

(a) What does your signal mean?
 (b) What does his signal mean?
 (c) What do you think you should do?
 (d) Do  you have  a comment about  the skill  of the  two boat
 captains?
                                    14-17

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                           UNIT 15

                      USE OP AIRCRAFT
EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES                            NOTES

     o Students should understand all
passenger responsibilities in chartered
aircraft.

     o Students should be aware of pilot
responsibilities and be  able  to  monitor
pilot performance and obtain complete
pilot cooperation.

     o Students should be capable of
good advance  planning:   charter of a
suitable aircraft with a capable pilot,
knowledge of flight plan requirements,
and  ability  to acquire and prepare
suitable personal (including sampling)
gear.

     o Students should  know  how to
prepare EPA materials for shipment by
air or for  stowing  aboard  a working
aircraft.   They must know how to
approach and enter aircraft safely.

     o Students  must  be  aware' of
emergency preparations and procedures.
                                   15-1

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INTHDDOCriCN                                     NOTES

     The Environmental Protection Agency
uses aircraft frequently,  for passenger
flights, for the shipment of samples,
and  through the  use  of  chartered
aircraft to reach  remote areas,  make
observations,  including photographs,  to
collect air (or airborne) samples, or to
spread materials over areas that need
such treatment  to  remedy  environmental
damage.

     When chartered aircraft are used,
the  EPA  personnel  involved  must
understand  all aspects of  the planning,
operation,  and use of small aircraft, of
both fixed wing and helicopter types.
This part  of the  EPA Field Training
Course will provide an introduction to
the use of  aircraft.

PASSENGER KHKK MSTRTT.TTTRS

     Passenger flights  with  the
scheduled  airlines have been made so
simple  that no advice  is needed  for
flying the "friendly skies." Arranging
and participating in a charter flight in
a small  aircraft is, however,  a less
casual  affair.

     You will be the expert who decides
just what needs to be done, and if you
arrange  the charter, it will be your
responsibility  to  choose a competent
pilot and  a satisfactory  aircraft for
the EPA mission.  The next  section deals
with Pilot  responsibility,  and that will
guide you in choosing a pilot.   As the
working passenger (or one of a few), you
will need to provide the pilot with the
information needed for the flight plan
(The Federal  Aviation Administration
[FAA]  requires a flight plan.):
     -  the  number  of  passengers and
their weight;
     -  the  weight of all the equipment
and supplies to be carried;
     -  the  destination, or  the territory
to be overflown;
     -  the  time  needed at, or over, the
sampling or observations  site.
                                   15-2

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     It  will  be  your  responsibility  to
pack or supervise the packing, of the
equipment and supplies.  A subsequent
section will  discuss packing and
stowing, but this may be  the  time  to
remind  you  that  if  any hazardous
material  (small tanks  of hydrogen,
strong acids, etc.)  is to be carried,
the pilot should  be informed.

     EPA field personnel should  take:
     - Clothing suitable for the
expected  weather,  terrain  and
activities;
     - survival  gear for the weather,
terrain  and mission;
     - motion sickness medicine and any
other maintenance  medicine that any
member of the team may need.

     Your should also confirm that,  if
the flight passes over water, suitable
flotation devices are aboard, and that
the aircraft is equipped with distress
signals,   an  Emergency  Locator
Transmitter, and any other emergency
gear that could be needed.

RESPONSIBILITIES  OF THE  PILOT

     The pilot   is   responsible for
filing and choosing the flight plan(s)
and for  checking  the fuel supply, radio,
compass  and  other navigation equipment.
The pilot will also  see that cargo is
properly secured  and is  loaded to comply
with weight and balance requirements of
the  aircraft.   The  FAA requires the
completion of a weight and  balance  plan.

     Before taKe-off, the pilot should
brief all the passengers on:

     - no smoKing and  seat belt  rules;
     - location  and use of emergency
exits;
     - emergency  signals;
     - emergency procedures in case of
emergency landing or ditching;
     -the  use of emergency equipment
(life jackets,  life  rafts,  distress
signals, etc.).
NOTES
                                   15-3

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     The pilot should check the  weather              NOTES
conditions and forecast along the flight
route  and at  the  destination.   The
pilot  can  get  detailed  weather
information when  the flight plan is
filed at the FAA Flight Service Station.
The weather maps are updated frequently.
He wil 1 use the weather information to
plot  a  route  for  the flight that is
acceptable,  given the known performance
characteristics of the aircraft.

     If   weather   conditions  are
unfavorable,  the pilot  may  (and should)
decide  to postpone  the trip.   Don't
argue.   High winds  or fog  may make
flying unsafe, and charter planes are
likely to be quite small and  unable to
fly high enough to rise above a  storm.
Your flight  may also  be going into an
area or airport without all the  safety
systems  of  a modern  airport  for
scheduled airlines.  When small boats
head for port,  small planes should stay
on the ground!

     The acceptable wind and weather
conditions for helicopters are defined
by the manufacturer.  One concern of a
helicopter pilot in turbulent weather,
is the need to start and stop the main
rotor blades without having them hit the
tailboom.   As a passenger, you might
want to ask the helicopter pilot about
the  manufacturer's limitations with
respect  to  weather  conditions.   If the
pilot says "Don't  go,"  acquiesce.   If he
says "Ok to go," it can't hurt to check
to be sure he, your pilot, isn't  trying
to be a  hero  (heroine?).  Your  aim is to
choose  a pilot who is cautious,  not
intrepid.

     Helicopter operations usually are
limited  to daylight hours.

PLANNING

     Aircraft charter and choice of
pilot are the most  critical part of  your
advance  preparation.   Your  safety
depends on the skill  and judgment of the
pilot,   and  the  reliability  and
                                  15-4

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adequacy of the aircraft for the planned
mission.  If the charter company has met
the  qualifications  for  a  Federal
Aviation Regulations   (FAR) Part  135
Certificate, that certificate will be
displayed in the  company office.   It
signifies that the aircraft  have  FAA
Certification and that the pilots  have
FAA certification for  charter service.
The pilots will have at  least 1500 hours
of  flight  time,  will  have annual
training in every aircraft used by the
charter company, will have completed an
FAA check ride every  six months,  and
will be qualified on instruments if they
fly multi-engine aircraft.  The pilots
of  multi-engine aircraft  will  be
qualified to navigate under  Instrument
Flight Rules  (IFR) and Visual  Flight
Rules (VFR).  Pilots of single engine
aircraft need not be rated for  IFR
navigation.

     The  EPA  has  an inter-agency
agreement  with  the   Department  of
Interior for  flight  services.   That
department should be the  first choice
for air transport.  The second choice
would be a charter service that meets
the FAR Part 135 regulations.

     Obtaining use of aircraft through
other Federal  agencies,  or  a  flight
school,   will not   guarantee   FAA
certification  or pilot experience
equivalent to FAR Part  135.

     It  is  inadviseable to  rent an
aircraft directly from  a flight school
and hire  a  pilot  to fly it. Liability
insurance is likely to be inadequate,
and the  pilot's qualifications  could be
minimal.  FAA regulations require flight
plans  for all  flights  by certified
charter  companies;  flight plans  are
recommended but not required for private
pilots  and  non-charter (or  non-
commercial) flights.

     Flight Plans are very  important for
your safety.  The flight plan  includes
information  on  the number  of passengers
and the amount  of  fuel; that determines
NOTES
                                   15-5

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                                           NOEST
the maximum flying time.   A flight plan
is recorded on a form that is completed
(closed) after the flight arrives at its
destination.  The information includes:

     1. the type of flights;
     2. the identification of  the
          aircrafts;
     3. the type of aircrafts;
     4. the airspeed of the aircraft;
     5. the point of departure;
          (numbers refer to the flight
          plan  form)
     8. the flight route;
     9. the destination;
    10. the estimated time en route.

The reverse side of the flight plan has
a preflight check list for weather and
meteorological  information.

     The pilot  is responsible for filing
the  flight plan,  for reporting  any
change in the flight plan,  and  for
reporting arrival  at the destination,
which closes the flight plan.

     If the aircraft fails to reach its
destination within a short time after
the Estimated Time  of Arrival (ETA), the
flight plan will provide the information
necessary  to guide a search for you.  If
your  flight  makes  a  forced  landing
without being able to radio for help, a
search will be initiated  quickly.   When
your aircraft is 30 minutes overdue, the
FAA Flight Service  Station serving your
destination  will  call  the  station
serving your point of  origin  to learn
whether you returned there.  If not, the
station serving your destination will
obtain the information  from your flight
plan;  that will indicate how  far you
could have gone (if lost) and  where to
look for you.

     When  you  are 60  minutes overdue,  a
message  will  be sent to  all  Flight
Service Stations along your route to see
if you have been heard from. Airports
where  you could have  landed will  be
checked,  physically,  to see if  your
aircraft  landed but  failed to report.


                                    15-6 •

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The pilot's home will also be called to              NOTES
see if he returned home without closing
the flight plan.

     If your  aircraft  has not been
located within 90 minutes of your ETA,
search planes will fly over your route
to  look for  you!   The  search will
continue, during daylight hours.  If
your plans should change,  it is clearly
important that your pilot should notify
the nearest Flight Service Station so
that an unnecessary air search  will not
be initiated.

Personal  gear  for flights over  water or
low  levels,  should include equipment
recommended by  the Coast Guard and
Department of Interior  such as  flotation
devices  and wet suits or  other
protective clothing to protect against
hypothermia in the water, if the water
temperature  is below 60 degree F, if the
surface  air temperature  is  below 32
degrees F, or if the combined air and
water temperature readings are less than
120 F.  All  aircraft flying over water
must carry one personal flotation device
for each person aboard.   The pilot may
require the  wearing of life vest at any
tune during  the flight.

     For  low level  flights,  the
recommended equipment  includes a flight
helmet to protect the head and protect
hearing,  and a Nomex flight suit to
provide  some protection against fire.
Anyone  who  must  lean  out  of the
aircraft  (e.g.,  when taking pictures)
should use safety harness.

PREPARING AND LOADING

Packing  and  stowing  of nazardous
materials  must  conform  to  DOT
regulations  for packaging and shipping.

     Aircrafts must not  be damaged by
exposure to chemicals  or to samples
collected. Chemicals and  samples should
be put into clean  (why?)  containers,
protected by a plastic covering, and
packed to prevent (or contain) leakage.

                                    15-7 •

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                                          NOTES
Sample containers would be enclosed,
and    sampling equipment should be
decontaminated or  enclosed before  being
loaded back  into the aircraft.

     Weighing and weight distribution
have  already been  discussed.   Cargo
should be  placed wherever the pilot
designates  that it  should  go.  Do not
drop heavy objects on the floor of the
cargo area or  the lip  of the door;
costly repairs and delays  could result.

     Helicopters;  The chin section of a
helicopter  is thin plastic {in  front of
the  front  passenger's  feet).   Don't
place or drop anything there.  If is
better to  load  a helicopter when the
rotors are stopped, but under  no
circumstances should you approach the
helicopter  with  an object longer than 4
feet while  rotors  are turning.

     Approaching an Aircraft requires
the application of considerable common
sense, or  else  attention  to  several
rules:
     - Always keep out of  the way when a
plane is taxiing and  wait  for the
propellers to stop before  you approach.

     - Approach any aircraft in  view of
the pilot, or as directed  by the pilot.

     - Stay clear  of  a  plane's
propellers  or  a  helicopter's  rotors,
whether they are turning or not.

     - Stay  100 feet from  helicopters at
all times unless you must  go nearer.

     - If  you   must  approach  a
helicopter,  stay clear of the tail boom
and avoid walking  under or near the tail
rotor blades.

     - If  you must approach while the
rotors are turning, do so in full view
of the pilot and under his direction.
Approach  from the  same  level as the
helicopter; an  approach  from  a higher
level might bring you too close to the
blades.
                                    15-8

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  If you approach when the main rotor
is turning, run in a crouched position;
the main rotor blades can be blown below
their normal operating level.

     Pilots,  passengers, and  crew,
around a helicopter,   should  wear
protective helmets, hearing protection,
and goggles to protect  the eyes from
dust and grit stirred up by the rotors.

EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

     Emergencies in an aircraft can take
many  forms, as any television watcher
can attest.   If an emergency cannot be
coped with in the air, the aircraft  will
make an emergency  landing, usually
successfully.

     During a forced landing, follow the
pilot's instructions.   The pilot will
tell you when, where, and how to exit
from  the aircraft.  The pilot may  ask
you to jettison doors,  inflate flotation
equipment, don  protection gear, or
assist the injured. You may be asked to
help activate  emergency signaling
equipment.

     If the plane comes down on (in)  the
water,  life  vests can be inflated by
using a gas  cartridge,  or by blowing
into a red tube on the shoulders  of the
vest.  This type  of vest fits over your
head  and has straps  to be tightened,
securely, around your waist.

     The two cell inflatable  life  vest
should be inflated after you are in the
water, by jerking on red activating tab
(or both).   It will provide buoyancy,
but you must keep your own face  out of
the  water.   One  side can be inflated
alone, or both can be inflated.  Try it
to see how much buoyancy  you need.

     Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT)
are activated automatically in the event
of a crash.   An  ELT has  a range  of 150
miles  on  a UHF frequency  of  234.0
megahertz.
NOTES
                                  15-9

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     FAR Part 135 requires helicopters              NOTES
that  operate  offshore to carry an
inflatable  life raft with an ELT,  food,
and other survival gear such as fishing
gear and a compass.   The raft should
also have a flare kit,  day/night flares,
a strobe signal  light, a signal mirror,
marking dye, and a whistle.   A police
whistle can be heard for a half mile or
more over water.  Signaling devices are
similar to those used  in boating.  Some
produce colored smoke, and some make a
burst  of  light  that can be  seen at
night.   The dye marker is a fluorescent
powder  that can be seen,  as a bright
patch  in  the water,  from  a  great
distance away.

     Offshore  helicopters may have
inflatable  pop-out  gear  or  fixed
flotation  gear, such as pontoons.

HELICOPTER  DITCHING SURVIVAL

     Helicopter ditchings (emergency
landings into water) are rare,  but they
have  occurred as  a result of  bad
weather, lack of  fuel,  or mechanical
failure.   The  pilot will consider
several  factors:

     -  the  distance to  a  landing site on
shore,   or close to a  source  of
assistance (platform, ship, or other
aircraft);
     -  the  expected time delay before
rescue;
     -  the  condition of the helicopter;
     -  the  veather conditions;
     -  the  water and air temperatures;
and
     -availability  of  survival
equipment.

     Before ditching,  passengers  should
secure all  tool boxes, cargo, and other
loose equipment, and  they should then
fasten  seat belts,  locate the exits, and
follow  the  pilot's instructions.
     The problem when the craft hits the
water may include:
                                   15-10-

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                                           NOTES
- inrushing water that tends  to spin
 passengers around, force them into rear
corners  of   the  cabin,  and  cause
disorientation;
     - difficulty finding where the
personal flotation gear is  stowed;
     - difficulty locating latches and
opening exits.   Emergency  exit  releases
should  be located before going under
water;
     - difficulty getting to the surface
because  the water is dark  or murky; and
     - problems  that  result from damage
to the aircraft or from spilled  fuel.

     If you expect to do much  flying, by
helicopter, over water, it  would be wise
to get further information and training.
The  U.S.  Geological  Survey has  a
videotape, but  hands-on  training,  if
that can be arranged,  should  be much
better.
                                   15-11-

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                       STOCEMF EXEJdSES

1.  Define

     FAA:            	
     FAR
     IFR
     VFR
     ETA
     ELT
2. You must fly over an area where industrial fumes have killed
much vegetation, and take pictures from a height of about  300
feet.  We know you need a camera.  What other equipment should
you use to do your job safely?
                                    15-12

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3. Your ETA was 10:30 a.m., and the personnel at the FAA Plight
Service Station that serves your destination are awaiting your
aircraft.  At 11:00 a.m. your pilot has not reported in.  What
will the FAA Flight Station personnel do?
At 11:30 a.m.,  your aircraft has still not been heard from.  What
will the station people do now?
Your plane is still missing at noon.  What action will be taken
on your behalf?
                                   15-13

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                          UNIT 16

            SEUCTICN AND USE OF FIFE EXTINGUISHERS
Educational Objectives

     o  Students should understand the
classes  of fires that  they  may
encounter.

     o  Students should understand the
mechanisms by  which  fires can be
extinguished.

     o  Students should know the types of
fire extinguishers,  and how they are
identified.

     o  Students should know how to
select  the  most  suitable   fire
extinguisher for any situation, and how
to use that fire extinguisher on each
sort of fire that might occur in any
work area.

     o  Students   should  know  the
precautions to be observed before a fire
extinguisher   is  used,   and   the
precautions to observe when fighting a
fire.
                                   16-1

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                                              NOTES

Introduction

     A fire is an oxidation process.  It
requires fuel and an oxidant, usually
the oxygen in the air.  The fuel must
(usually)  be  in a gaseous state before
it will combine with oxygen to produce a
fire.  If that combustion can produce
enough heat to vaporize more  fuel, the
fire will continue  until  the fuel or
oxidizer is gone, or until some other
process intervenes.   We will be most
interested,  in this  unit, in  the
intervention equipment, procedures, and
mechanisms.

     Even if fuel and a good oxidizer
are present, a source of  ignition  energy
is  usually  required.   Spontaneous
combustion can occur,  and it will be
discussed in  the unit on chemical
hazards; this unit  is concerned with
stopping the combustion process.

     Once again, a  fire needs enough
heat to vaporize the fuel, an oxidizer
(usually oxygen in the air),  and a
source of ignition.  We can stop  a fire
if  we  cool the  fuel  below  the
vaporization point, or  if we separate
the fuel vapor from the oxidizer, which
will happen naturally if either the fuel
or the oxidizer is all  used up.

Classes of Fires

     There are four classes of fires:

Class A^ Ordinary combustible fuel such
as wood, paper, cloth, and rubber.  The
fires burn into the material, but the
solids  must  be heated to the point at
which they  vaporize  if  fire  is  to
continue.

Class Bi_  Flammable  (combustible)
liquids or gases  such as gasoline,
kitchen grease, fuel oil,  propane gas,
alcohol and  many others.  The fuel is
vaporized and burns above the surface of
a liquid, or near the  point at which a
gas escapes from confinement.
                                   16-2

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                                               NOTES
Class  C^  Electrical  equipment.    In
addition to the fire hazard, there  is
danger of an electrical  shock, until the
current  has  been  turned  off
(disconnected).

Class D:_ Combustible metals that burn
vigorously ands  react violently with
water or some other extinguishing agent.
Examples are sodium,   potassium,
magnesium, titanium, and zirconium.

Types of Eire Extinguishers

     For Class A fires,  the most common
method  of putting out the fire is  to
cool the fuel  below its vaporization
temperature.   Water works very well,
because such  a lot of heat energy  is
used up in converting liquid water  to
steam.  Steam won't (usually) burn, and
the steam  excludes oxygen,  and thus
stops combustion,  while the vaporization
of  the water cools  the  fuel.   Dry
chemicals such as Halon 1211 or baking
soda can also put out the fire, but they
are less effective than water as cooling
agents.

     Solid fuel may come in  large  chunks
that get quite hot, and  even if the
surface is cooled and the fire goes out,
heat from within may reheat  the surface,
evaporate any water, and reignite the
fuel.  Fire departments  soak Class A
fires thoroughly, and firemen often stay
in a burned house for many hours,  to put
out any fire that may reignite.

     Unskilled, or careless,  firemen
sometimes soak  a burned house and leave
— and such houses have been known  to
reignite and burn a second time.

     Class B  fires  burn  above  the
surface of a  liquid, or near the point
at  which a  gas escapes.  They  are
extinguished by excluding oxygen from
the surface  of a liquid  fuel,  or by
interrupting the jet of gas.  Water may
not work on  burning liquid.   If  the
                                    16-3

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                                              NOTES
liquid is lighter than water, it will
float on top of the water and continue
to burn.  The water may  only serve to
spread (float or splash) the fuel  over a
larger area.  Compressed carbon dioxide,
dry chemicals, foam,  Halon 1301 and
Halon 1211 often work well.  In the case
of a burning jet of gas, even a hard
blast of air may disperse and cool the
fuel  long enough to  stop the fire.
However,  if the  fire  has  heated any
nearby surface,  that hot surface may
reignite  the fuel again.

     These are probably the  sort  of
fires that  inspired the rule:  Never
turn your back on a fire  that has just
gone out.  This writer once watched a
safety supervisor  (who was conducting a
fire  school)  turn his back  after
extinguishing some gasoline burning in a
metal  pan.   The pan stayed hot;  the
gasoline reignited; and the instructor
made an impressive standing  broad jump
to get his overheated backside away from
the  fire.   Many flammable  liquids
release flammable vapors constantly at
normal  temperature and pressure.

     A Class C  (electrical) fire results
when the  electric energy is converted to
heat (thermal) energy, and when that
heat vaporizes and ignites any handy
fuel.  The first step  is turn off the
electricity,  unless the fire,  short
circuit, etc.,  has already melted the
wires.  In any event, you should turn
off the  current to avoid  touching a
"live  wire" capable of producing a dead
person.

     Your next concern should be the
fact that much electrical  equipment is
massive, and it can get very hot and
stay  hot for  a  long time.    Metal
transmits heat very well,  so the mass of
overheated equipment may be quite large.
These fires can be fought by excluding
oxygen,  by  interrupting  the  flame
reaction,   or  by  cooling  the hot
equipment, preferably with agents that
                                  16-4

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                                              NOTES
don't  conduct  electricity.   Dry
chemicals, C02 gas under pressure, Halon
1301, and Halon 1211 have all been used
successfully.

     If you are sure the current is  off,
you  can use water to  cool the  hot
equipment, but remember that water may
cause further problems when it is time
to turn the  electricity back on!  Think
before  you act.

     Class 0 (burning  metal)  fires
should  not be doused with water;  that is
likely  to make matters very much worse.
The agents to be used are called  "dry
powders" (NOT dry chemicals, which are
different).   Dry powders  may include
graphite, sodium chloride, or special
materials, all treated to make them  free
flowing.  You will need  to  know the
combustion  characteristics of  the
burning agent  and have  the  proper
extinguishing agent available.  The use
of water might cause an explosion, and
the use of C02 maY accelerate the rate
of combustion.

     If no proper extinguishing agent is
available, try to isolate  the fire and
let it  burn itself out.

Fire Extinguisher Identification

     Unfortunately,  there  are  two
systems  in  use  to   mark  fire
extinguishers. You may find either one
when you look at  the equipment.

     The old system uses the letters, A,
B, .C, or D,  to indicate  which type of
fire the extinguisher is intended to put
out, but there is more than that.

     Class  A  will have  "A" in  a
triangle, and the color green, with the
words  "ordinary combustibles" written
just below the symbol.

     The new  system uses  pictographs.  A
Class   AFire  is  fought  with an
                                   16-5

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                                              NOTES
extinguisher  showing  a  burning
wastebasket and a bonfire.

     From now on, we  will simply say
"New:"   to  indicate  the pictograph
system, and "Old:"  to  indicate the old
system.  Because the old system uses the
same  letter as the type  of  fire for
which the extinguisher is intended, we
need only specify the  old system, and
you will  know what sort of fire it's
good for.

     Like  this:

          Old:    Class  A,  triangle,
green,  "ordinary combustibles."

New:  Burning wastebasket and bonfire.

              OK?

          Old:   Class  B, square,  red,
"flammable liquids."

New:  Container pouring liquid, and a
fire.

          Old:   Class  C, circle, blue,
"electrical equipment."

New:  Electrical plug and a receptacle
with flames.

          Old:   Class  D, star, yellow,
"combustible metals."

New:  No pictograph.

     The pictograph (new)  system  will
show the  types  of  fires on which the
extinguisher  should  not be used by
showing the  pictograph with  a  red,
diagonal  slash  through  it:  forbidden,
just like the pictograph for "no  left
turn."

     Fire  extinguishers  may have
multiple  ratings.   A  carbon dioxide
(CO2) extinguisher carries both "B" and
"C" ratings; it can be used safely on
                                  16-6

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                                               NOTES
both types of fire.

     Please remember that any one type
of Class D  extinguisher is not suitable
for all  the different Class  D  fires.
Choose the fire extinguisher for an area
where a burning metal fire might occur
with care and intelligence,  and use it
only for those metal fires for which it
is recommended.

Precautions  for Fighting Fires

     Before  you  start to extinguish  any
fire,  you should warn others so that  the
area can be evacuated.  You must also
call the local fire department;  if  you
go ahead on  your own, and then find that
you can't put the  fire  out with  the
equipment on hand,  it may then  be  too
late for the local  fire department to
save the situation.

     The third precaution is  that  you
should judge the situation and  decide
whether you can fight the fire without
endangering  yourself.   The fourth
precaution  is that you may be wiser to
first  contain the  fire;  prevent  its
spread, and then see if you  can  put it
out completely.  At least it won't  (we
hope)  be out of control when the firemen
arrive.

     How  can  you  accomplish   these
things?  You warn  others  by shouting,
turning in an alarm, or both.

     You call the fire  department,
usually,  with a telephone call.  In many
areas, that will be a  911 call.  When
you reach the  fire  department, you will
need  to  tell  them where  the  fire  is;
think about that.

     If you  are driven away by smoke and
heat, shut the doors behind you as  you
retreat. Don't try to go back!

     If you believe you can  fight  the
fire  safely,   these are  some  safety
                                    16-7

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                                              NOTES
considerations:

     o The  fire extinguisher should have
the rating and size for the  fire.  An
extinguisher  that's suitable for a
wastebasket won't help much if two whole
rooms are on fire.

     o Have  someone with  a  second
extinguisher back you up, in case you
get into  trouble.

     o Don't  enter a burning building
unless you are wearing fire repellent
clothing and self-contained breathing
apparatus.  Of course,  you  will  need
some back-up protection there if you get
in trouble.

Selection and USE of a Fire Extinguisher

     You  are  facing a fire.  What sort
of fire is  it, wood — paper — trash?
Then it's Class A.  Find that class of
fire extinguisher, by Class  A label or
pictograph.  If the closest extinguisher
is the wrong type, keep looking.

     You  have now found  the right sort
of fire extinguisher.  Take  it off the
hook, or out of the cabinet.  As you
approach  the  fire, get the extinguisher
ready for use:   There should be a
locking  pin near  the  head of the
extinguisher;  pull out  the  pin.  If
there is  a  simple nozzle, aim it at the
base of the fire.  If there  is a  hose
(or tubing) in a holder,  take it out of
the holder and aim the nozzle or horn at
the base of  the fire.   If there  is a
horn on a tube, raise it and then  aim it
at the base of the fire.

     Squeeze the release trigger  once
before you get too close,  to see how
much extinguishing material comes out,
and how far it may shoot. If the fire
extinguisher doesn't work, go look for
one that does.   If the  fire has now
grown too big, you should leave,  closing
doors behind  you.   Let the firemen
                                    16-8

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                                              NOTES
handle the big jobs.

     If you have an ordinary Fire Hose,
the stream of water should reach about
30 feet.   You can stand well back and
aim the water at the base of the fire.
If you get too close, the force of the
stream might scatter the fire and  spread
it.   A pressurized water extinguisher is
a smaller version of the same sort of
fire fighting method. You may be able
to shoot  intermittent jets of water by
vrorking the trigger.

     If you have  an old soda-acid type
of extinguisher,  turn it  upside-down to
mix  the chemicals and  start  it
squirting.    It will  tend to  keep
shooting  out its stream until  it is
exhausted.  If you tip it back up, it
may stop, eventually.

     With a  small,  aqueous charged,
extinguisher, if it is not too powerful,
as the fire grows smaller, you may be
able  to use your finger to spread the
stream into a fan shaped fine spray.

     Dry  Chemical Extinguishers eject a
fine powder at high speed.  The powder
may be as simple as sodium bicarbonate
which gives  off  C02  when it gets hot.
The  dry  powder  has  much  more  fire-
fighting capacity than the compressed
(liquid)  carbon dioxide that is often
used in small fire extinguishers.  Dry
chemical  extinguishers are usually
painted red (except for the label), and
they should have a hose and  nozzle, and
may  have a  gauge on the top — or a
cartridge cover on the side.   They will
be pressurized.   The pressure is  needed
to  push  out the high-speed spray of
powder.  Dry  chemical extinguishers are
usually rated "B" and "C," but some are
rated "A,"  "B,"  and "C."   Shoot your
powder at the base of the fire, using a
sweeping motion,  from side to side.
Cover a Class A fire with powder.   Start
spraying  a  Class B  fire at the side
closest to you and work  away until the
                                    16-9

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                                              NOTES
fire is out, then watch for possible
reignition (backflash).   Don't get too
close;  you might  splash the  liquid
around  with the force  of your high-
velocity spray.

     Liquid CC>2 Extinguishers discharge
gaseous  carbon dioxide at low velocity.
Expanding gas gets cold, and you may
have  some  artificial  snow in  the
discharge, too.  The flow of cold gas
past the nozzle or horn  will generate
static  electricity.   It may also get
cold enough to freeze your hand; hold
the insulated handle and keep your hands
off the  cold part.

     The discharge has an  effective
range of only two to four feet; you will
have to get close.  Don't use it on a
BIG fire.

     A Foam type of Extinguisher will
use a cartridge and will mix in air to
discharge  an  aqueous foam  that will
cover the surface of solvent fires to
suppress vapors and keep away the air.
It is effective on Class B or A fires.
They use lots of foam at airports if a
plane catches fire.   Foam works well on
fairly large fires.

More Precautions

     These rules  and methods  should
sound simple and  obvious as you read
this.   When you are choking on smoke,
and being  blistered  by  heat, and the
fire keeps  reigniting as  fast as  you put
it  out,   it's  hard to keep  cool
(figuratively  and literally).  You
really  need  to  practice  with  the
different kinds of fire  extinguishers.
Take advantage of every  opportunity to
get some  practical experience before
you fight  your first real,  unplanned
fire.

     Review   all   the  previous
precautions, then note  these too:
                                 16-10

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      1.   If you  are fighting a fire
 outdoors, keep the wind at your back;
 let it carry the smoke away from you and
 carry the fire-fighting substance to the
 fire.  Inside a building, there still
 may  be a draft.  If  moving air is
 carrying the fire toward you,  inside or
 out,  get out of there — FAST!

      2.  When  you approach a fire,  be
 sure you can retreat  rapidly,  in a
 straight  line,  if  the need arises.
 Don't climb obstacles in your intrepid
 eagerness to get close to the fire; they
 may slow your retreat.  As they always
 say,  "Don't make an ash of yourself."

      3.  Never  turn your back on a fire,
 nor on  the  place where the fire just
 was.  It might  reignite.

     4.   Remember, never use  water on
 combustible metals, flammable liquids,
 or on electrical fires while the current
 is on.

     He  who fights fire from far away
     May fight fire  again some other
      day.

     The best fire fighting strategy is
fire prevention, but if you must fight a
fire, do it safely.
                                  16-11-

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 1.  List and define the 4 classes of fires, and give 2 examples
 of typical fuel for each type.
2.  When you discover a fire, you should keep 4 precautions in
mind.  List them.
                                  16-12-

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 3.  When you call  the fire department to report a fire, you will
 be  asked for the location of the fire,   fa a visitor to the site,
 you may not  know just where  you are!  What do you think you could
 do, or  should have done?
4.  The wrong action  is usually worse than no action in fighting
a fire.  List three wrong actions that we mentioned,  or that you
think we should have mentioned.
                                     16-13

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                           CHIT 17     	
   HAZARDS OF FUMOHUB OR EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPHERES OR MAXBRIMS

Educational Objectives

     o The student should be recognize
and list the observations which indicate
possible fire explosion or atmospheric
hazards.

     o The student  should  be able to
determine the degree  of hazard
represented by on-site  investigations

     o The student  should  know what,
when and how to use basic atmospheric
monitoring equipment.

     o The student  should  be able to
recognize chemical names and groups that
have  serious  potential  for fire or
explosion.

     o The student  should  be able to
list the steps to follow to prevent or
limit the  probability of fire  or
explosion.

     o The student  should  define the
emergency procedures  to follow in the
event of fire or explosion.
                                   17-1

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                           DNIT 17

HAZARDS OP ELAMABtZ OR EXPLOSIVE A3MDSEHERES OR MATERIAIS
     Fire, Explosion, and Atmospheric
     Fire, explosion  and atmospheric
hazards such as asphyxiation are risks
which are encountered in many EPA field
activities.   To understand and react
appropriately to these risks it is
necessary to be able to; recognize the
risk and the  degree of hazard  it
represents;  respond;  control  and if
possible prevent an emergency  from
occurring.

Recognition

     The  single greatest danger faced by
any  agency personnel  is  the unknown.
Before entering a confined  space  or
hazardous  environment take the time to
carefully evaluate the  dangers  that
might possibly exist.

     First attempt to find our what
substance you  will  be  handling.
Shipping  invoices, safety data sheets,
labels, manifests, company employees,
marking  and  place  cards  are all
extremely useful in determining the name
of the product.  Once the name is known
refer to hazard reference sources such
as those discussed in  the unit  on
chemical recognition.   These reference
sources offer an abundance of  safety
information.  Always check these sources
before handling materials.  Names such
as benzene  and benzidine  sound very
similar but have distinctly different
hazards and degrees of hazards. Never
try to simply  recall hazards.  Check and
confirm.

Be sure that all personnel understand
the  information that  is  given  in  the
hazard reference source.  The Chemical
Hazard Recognition Unit on  the Chemistry
of Hazardous  Materials  should  be
                                 17-2

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                                              NOTES
reviewed to relate vapor pressure/ flash
point,  combustible material and
flammable material to the data obtained
on the hazardous material to be handled.

Degree of Hazard

     Informational resources such as the
Coast Guard's Chemical Response
Information  System  (CHRIS) provide
valuable information on possible hazards
of chemicals.  These  systems however
cannot define  the  specific degree  of
danger  present  at the individual site.
That evaluation must be done by agency
personnel, using impartial observations.

     Substances may change  their degree
of hazard according to the state they
are in.  Kerosene  and diesel fuel  in
bulk quantities such as a drum are not
readily ignited by an  ordinary ignition
source such  as a spark,  match  or
cigarette.   These same  substances
volatialized,  vaporized,  sprayed  or
spread over a  large area such as  might
be found in a  spill can be come highly
flammable or explosive.  As the surface
area  of the  substance is exposed  to
greater quantities  of oxygen, the
ability to ignite increases.  Seemingly
harmless substances such as flour, coal,
or even the metals; aluminum  and iron
become  highly  explosive when  small
particles are heavily  dispersed in air.
Sites such as coal handling facilities
and flour mills have  a  potential for
devastating explosions.  Solvents such
as 1,1,1 trichloroethane which  is
normally considered   inflammable
becomes flammable when  sprayed as a fine
mist.

     The same effect as spraying can be
achieved by applying the material to a
cloth or rag.   Although kerosene in a
drum will not readily ignite, clothing
covered with  kerosene will  easily
ignite.  If a material is combustible,
there is a  excellent  chance that its
flammablity   will increase  as its
                                  17-3

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                                               NOTES
surface area exposed to oxygen  increases.

     Flashpoint is discussed in the unit
on  chemical hazards  of hazardous
materials.  To  review;  the flashpoint of
a liquid is the temperature at  which it
will give  off enough vapor to allow a
flame to travel or propagate through the
vapor-air mixture.

     The flashpoints  of a material is
important as an immediate indication of
the potential hazard of a material for
producing  a  flammable  concentration.
The lower the flashpoint or the higher
the immediate ambient temperature the
more hazardous the material.

     Kerosene has a flashpoint of 100 F
while gasoline has a flashpoint of 45 F.
Normally we think of gasoline  as being
much more hazardous than kerosene.  In
ambient temperature of 100 F and above,
they  both represent  high  fire  or
explosion hazards.

     Ignition temperature  at which a
substance at its flashpoint will ignite/
is another factor to  consider.  While
these  temperatures vary considerably
from switches, motors, cigarettes,  and
matches all  have  sufficiently high
temperatures  to  ignite most common
materials at   their   flashpoint.

     The following  table represents the
more common flammable materials found a
field  work.Another factor contribution
to the degree  of hazard is concentration
of oxygen and the concentration of the
flammable material  present  in  an
atmosphere.
                           TABLE 1
                      FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
Flammable Liquids
Aldehydes
Ketones
                                    17-4

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Amines
Ethers
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Alcohols
Ni troa1iphatics

Flammable Solids
Phosphorus
Magnesium dust
Zirconium dust
Titanium dust
Aluminum dust
Zinc dust

Water-Reactive Flammable Solids
Potassium
Sodium
Lithium

Pyrophoric Liquids
Qrganometallic compounds
Dimethyl zinc
Tributyl aluminum

     It is necessary to have  a proper
fuel-to-air  (oxygen) ratio (%  fuel in
air) to allow combustion.   There is a
range of  fuel concentrations  in  air,
at which each material  can be ignited
and sustain combustion.  This is called
the Flammable or Explosive Range.  The
lowest  concentration of fuel  in this
range is the  Lower  Flammable Limit(LFL)
or  Lower Explosive  Limit  (LEL).
Concentrations less than the  LEL are not
flammable because  there is too little
fuel to support combustion.   The highest
ratio that is flammable or explosive is
the Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) or Upper
Explosive Limit (UEL), concentrations
greater than the UEL are not flammable
or explosive because there is  too much
fuel displacing the oxygen or  simply
there is  not enough oxygen  to  support
combustion.  Fuel concentrations between
the LEL and UEL are optimum for starting
and  sustaining fire.   The  LEL  for
benzene is 1.3%  (13000ppm).  The UEL is
7.1 (71000 ppm), thus if an atmosphere
contains  a  benzene  concentration  as
monitored by  a explosion meter,  between
1.3 and  7.1% fire  or  explosion is  a
possibility. Concentrations below 1.3%
do not represent and immediate threat
                                    17-5

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                                                NOTES
  due of fire or explosion. Concentrations
  above 7.1% do not represent an immediate
  fire or explosion hazard, but they could
  possibly  represent a  danger  of
  asphyxiation due to the deficiency of
  oxygen.

  Atmospheric Monitoring Instruments

      Several field  instruments are used
  to  analyze ambient air.   Due to  the
  limit of  the scope of  the Basic Field
  Activities Course,  only a  few basic
  monitoring instruments  will  be
  discussed.   A greater variety of instru-
  ments will be covered in greater depth
  in the intermediate and advanced safety
  courses.  At no time should EPA field
  personnel attempt  to use or rely on a
  reading  taken from  an instrument unless
  sufficient  training and practice have
 been completed.
 Combustible
 Explosifneters
Gas  Indicators  or
      The combustible  gas indicator
 should be one of the first instruments
 used when  attempting  to  analyze the
 danger of fire a explosion.   It measures
 the concentration of flammable vapor or
 gas in the air, indicating the results
 as  percent of the Lower  Explosive Limit
 (LEL) of the calibration, gas or vapor.
 To  get accurate results it is not only
 necessary to calibrate this  instrument
 before use,   but also to correctly
 interpret the results against the chart
 of  the calibration gas measured and the
 gas present  in  the atmosphere.

     Depending on the manufacturer and
 model, the meter needle indicator of 1.0
 or 100%  reveals that the  test atmosphere
 contains a concentration of flammable
 material-in the air at  the  LEL.  This
 environment could ignite or explode in
 the presence of an ignition source.  A
 meter reading of 0.5 or 50% indicates
 that the air contains approximately  one
half  of  the  LEL.   Generally  any
                                    17-6

-------
                                               NOTES
concentrations in excess of 0.25 or 25%
of the TKT. are considered dangerous.  In
addition,  the needle can climb to 1.0
(100%) pass it and then fall to zero or
below.  This does not  indicate the
monitoring device  is malfunctioning or
that the atmosphere  contains no vapors.
It indicates that the concentration  of
vapor  a  gas-in-air exceeds the  Upper
Explosive Limit  (UEL) of the calibration
gas.  Such a situation calls for rapid
evaluation due to explosion danger or
the lack of oxygen.   (See Figure 1.)

                           FIGURE  1
            IOO
    %LEL
                             too
%LEL
                                            100
LEL
     If the needle swings to 1.0  (100%)
and remains in that position, it means
the Explosive limit is between TiEL and
UEL.   This is  the  optimum condition for
explosion or fire and great care must be
exercised to evacuate the area.

Oxygen Meters

     Explosimeters and oxygen  meters
should be used in  conjunction with each
other.                Explosive  meter
readings  are  based on the  assumption
there is the normal 21% oxygen  present.
Greater or lesser amounts can change the
LEL and UEL of many gases,  making the
meaning of the reading  on the explosive
meter questionable.  If possible utilize
and explosemeter/02  meter combination
that integrates the two readings.  Never
enter  an atmosphere  with  02  reading
below  19.5%.   Table 2 illustrates the
results of oxygens deficiency.
                                    17-7

-------
                           TABLE 2

           EHXSIQL3GICAL EFFECT OF OXW3JN DEFICIENCY
% Oxygen  (by volume)

   At Sea Level                     Effects


          21             Nothing abnormal.

       16-12             Increased breathing volume.
                         Accelerated heartbeat. Impaired
                         coordination.

       14-10             Very faulty judgment. Very poor
                         muscular coordination. Muscular
                         exertion brings on rapid fatigue
                         that may cause permanent heart
                         damage. Intermittent  respiration.

          <6             Spasmatic breathing. Convulsive
                         movements.  Death  in minutes.
Direct-Reading Co lor ime trie Indicator
Tables

     Quick,   relatively  accurate
quantitative measurements of organic
vapor and gas can be ascertained by use
of  devices  using a  color-change
principle.    Glass  tubes  filled  with
colormetric 'substances  are used  to
interpret ppm or %  concentrations of a
variety of  substance.

     Colormetric  indicators  tubes
consist of a glass tube impregnated with
an indicating chemical.   The tube is
connected to  a piston  cylinder  or
bellows.   A  measured volume  of
contaminated  air is drained into the
tube, producing a  color  change whose
length  is  proportioned  to   the
contaminant's concentration.  The tubes
used are specific to the contaminant to
be tested and have a printed shelf  life.
Care must  be exercised to keep tubes
current and  use  the  correct tube.
Accuracy of the colormetric tubes may
vary from 35% to 1 to 5 times depending
on the concentration.   See Appendix E
for the types of tubes available.
                                    17-8

-------
                                               NOTES
Qxidizers

     Most combustion must be supported
by  sufficient oxygen.   Glowing or
smoldering  may continue  with oxygen
reaching concentrations  as low as 8-10%.
In some chemical  combinations however,
atmospheric  oxygen may be completely
absent and combustion is still supported
by substance known as oxidizers.  Such
chemical substances are able to supply
oxygen  chemically or  to supplement
oxygen with other  substances to support
combustion.   In many  instances
combustion  is spontaneous, rapid and
often explosive.   Agency personnel
should  be  particularly careful  when
handling substances that are identified
or known to be strong oxidizers.  Fires
supported  by oxidizers  are  often
extremely difficult  to control or
extinguish.  Of particular concern are
mixtures of oxidizers and  organic
compounds.   In    these situations,
combustion  is usually  spontaneous or
requires no ignition source to ignite.
Table 3  is a  list of common oxidizers.

                           TABLE 3

                       OCMGN GKIDIZERS
Nitrates
Perchloiates
Permanganates
Peroxides
Dichromates
Nitric Acid
Chlorine
Persulfates
Hypochlorites
Thiosulfates
Sulfuric Acid
Perchloric Acid
Prevention and Hazard Reduction

     Prevention,  and reduction of fire
and explosion hazards can be accomplished by:

   Control of ignition sources, and
   Control of quantities & concentrations
                                    17-9

-------
                                                NOXE5

  Ccntrol of Ignition Sources

      Where you  cannot  control  fuel
  sources,  you need to control ignition
  sources as much as possible.  Since many
  chemicals and petrochemicals  are highly
  flammable, ignition sources should be
  excluded  or carefully controlled during
  sampling and when handling  flammable
  samples.

      Sources of ignition include matches
 and cigarette lighters,  electrical
 switches,  electrical  equipment, welding
 sparks,  engines, catalytic converters on
 motor vehicles, and static electricity.

      If you will be  working  in an
 industrial  plant/ it is important  to
 find out if there  are areas where  there
 may be flammable concentrations of gases
 or vapors  and where sources of ignition
 are not  permitted.  (Many plants do not
 allow employees  or visitors to carry
 matches  or lighters into the  plant.)

 Instruments and Equipment for Hazardous
 Locations

     There  are   some  particularly
 important fire safety  requirements for
 any electrically-powered equipment which
 is to be used in atmospheres which may
 contain  flammable concentrations of
 dusts, vapors, or gases.   In order to
 prevent ignition and explosion, heating
 elements,  sparking motors or other
 ignition sources must  be protected from
 contact  by the flammable atmosphere.
 All electrical equipment,  sampling
 apparatus,  portable  instruments,  and
 other possible sources of  ignition  must
 be safe for use in  such atmospheres.

     The EPA and  OSHA standard for  a
 hazardous atmosphere, based on  extensive
 industrial  experience,  is  one  that
contains  a concentration of combustible
gas, vapor or dust greater than 25% of
 the lower explosive  limit  of   the
material.   Do not  take any  ignition
source into any area  where  there  is a
                                    17-10

-------
                                              NOTES
concentration  of flammable vapors
greater than 25% of T.FT..

     Most  EPA  field equipment  and
instrumentation that is battery - or
line-powered  is not safe for use in
flammable atmospheres because  the
electrical elements are not protected
from exposure to flammable vapors or
gases or combustible dusts.  Only the
instruments used to  test  for flammable
concentrations of gases or vapors are
safe  to use  in  certain  flammable
atmospheres.

     To determine whether  there is a
need to take special steps to prevent
ignition of flammable vapors, gases, or
dusts  in  hazardous  locations  or
atmospheres,  see if the plant  being
visited has identified hazardous areas
and specified precautions.   If not, an
assessment of the hazards must be made
and a  decision  reached as  to  whether
ignition sources need to be protected or
kept out.  In some situations, a test of
the atmosphere is necessary to find out
if ignition sources must be excluded.

     Hazardous locations for ordinary
electrical equipment are those in which
fire or explosion hazards may exist due
to concentrations of flammable gases,
vapors, or dusts.  Hazardous locations
are classified by the type of material
present, and by the likelihood that a
combustible concentration is present.

Enclosure and Ventilation

     Since most EPA electrically-powered
field sampling equipment is not safe to
use in  hazardous atmospheres (whether it
is  powered by  batteries or by  line
voltage), the equipment  will have to be
enclosed and  ventilated as  explained
below.  To  provide enclosure  and
ventilation for sampling  equipment,
first   identify  all  points  where
electrical connection, switches, motors,
heaters, or other devices may provide

-------
                                              NOTES
sufficient energy to ignite flammable
mixtures of  the  material that may be
present.   Next  provide, around  the
ignition sources,  a relatively tight
enclosure which can be ventilated with
fresh air or purged with inert gas to
prevent any  flammable mixture from
reaching the  ignition sources.

     Finally  provide  fresh  air
ventilation  or inert gas  purge,  and
interlock  the  equipment's  source  of
electrical supply with the ventilation
or purging flow so that if the flow is
interrupted the equipment will be  de-
energized.

Equipment Approval

     Electrical  equipment which has been
manufactured to be  safe for use  in
hazardous locations  will have attached a
label specifying the Class and Group of
atmospheres in  which the  equipment  can
safely be used.  Electrical equipment
which has been tested and approved by
Underwriters Laboratories  or Factory
Mutual Laboratories will be listed in
their publications of   approved
equipment.  Each listing is specific,
and equipment cannot safely be used in
atmospheres   for which it  is not rated.

Control of Static Electricity

since static electricity can provide
sufficient ignition energy  to set fire
to flammable  concentrations of gases or
vapors, it is  important  to recognize
activities that can  generate  static
electricity and  to  know what can be
done to  prevent  accumulation  and
discharge of this energy.

     Static electricity is generated by
contact and  separation of  materials,
such as particulates  moving though a
stack, gas issuing from a nozzle at high
velocity, pouring or spraying of non-
conducting liquids or solids.  Static
electricity is  also  generated when
materials  flow  through pipes, hoses,  or
ducts, when a belt runs over a pulley,
                                   17-12

-------
                                              NOTES
and when a person walks across a floor.

     Static  electricity accumulates
higher voltages in atmospheres with  low
humidity and  during dry weather.

     As examples of the hazards that  can
be  caused by  development  of  static
electricity,  pouring solvents can (under
some  circumstances)  generate  enough
charge  to ignite the vapors present,
and a  person can accumulate a static
charge (by walking or by working near a
process   that  generates  static
electricity) with sufficient energy to
ignite flammable vapors and gases.   (A
person can easily build up a charge of
100,000 volts, which could release more
than  40 times  the energy  needed  to
ignite hydrocarbon gases and vapors,  and
more  than 1000  times the  energy  to
ignite acetylene and hydrogen.

     Practical  measures to prevent
accumulation or discharge  of  static
electricity in field activities include:

 -grounding all probes used for stack
sampling;

 - providing a  bonding connection
between metal containers when flammable
gases  or  liquids are transferred  or
poured;  and

 - wearing footwear which has adequate
conductivity  for   the hazardous
conditions.

    Conductivity is more critical  in
atmospheres which can easily be ignited,
such   as  those  with  flammable
concentrations of acetylene, hydrogen,
ethyl  ether,  or hexane.   If you  are
going  to be working  in  such atmospheres,
try to find out more about the hazards
and  the  precautions needed.   For
example, rubber-soled footwear may allow
the wearer to build up  to great a charge
of static  electricity.
                                 17-13-

-------
                                               NOTES

Emergency Procedures and Responses

     In any field activity where there
is a possibility of a fire, you should
be prepared to deal with the emergency
to protect yourself and other members of
your crew.  You need to know what to do
in case of a clothing fire,  and when and
how to get quickly out of or away from
an area  where there may be a  serious
fire hazard or where a fire may endanger
you.  If the site you are visiting has
an emergency plan and procedures and an
alarm signal,  find out  before you begin
work what the alarm  signal  sounds like
and what emergency procedures to follow.

     Everyone  should know the emergency
procedure to follow  in case  of  a
clothing  fire.   The procedure  is
recommended by  the  National  Fire
Protection Association:

      1.  Stop  (do NOT run).

          Stopping prevents a person
from  fanning  the  flames and making
injuries  much  more  serious.

      2.  Drop  (to  the floor or other
horizontal surface).

          Dropping gets a person's face
and nose  out of the path of smoke and
hot gases,  and prevents the flames from
spreading rapidly upward. Dropping will
lessen (but not prevent) injury from a
clothing  fire.

     3.  Roll  (to smother the fire).

          Rolling helps snuff  out the
flames and cool the burning clothing.

     Try to prevent anyone  from running
while on fire, or from going to a  fire
blanket  or safety  shower.  If a  fire
blanket  is available,  bring it to the
victim.

     If  there is  an emergency shower
nearby,  use it only after the clothing
                                   17-u

-------

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                                                                  17-16

-------
                   HAZARDS  OF FIELD SAMPLING
Educational Objectives

     o The student  should be  able  to
determine  if equipment is  packed safely.

     o The student  should be  able  to
handle heavy equipment safely.

     o The  student  should  know  the
correct  handling  techniques  for
compressed gas cylinders.

     o The student  should be  able  to
determine if electrical  equipment is
safe from  electrical shock.

     o The student  should be  able  to
determine if  sampling  equipment  is
approved for  certain  industrial
environments.

     o The student  should be  able  to
determine the  proper  electrical  cord
size for particular needs.

     o  The  student should be  able to
determine  safe practices for sampling.

     o The student should know how to
pack and  transport samples and sampling
reagents.
                             18-1

-------
                   HAZARDS OF FIELD  SAMPLING
                                                NOTES
Introduction

     Field sampling  represents  one of
the  largest  responsibilities  of  EPA
field crews.   As  such, the probability of
facing a hazardous condition  is large.
The diversity  of environments,  equipment
used, p;personnel  awareness  and  training
all  to a  large  extent,  play a  role in
the type  and severity of the hazard.

     It is not possible to prepare field
personnel  for  every eventuality.   Crews
must depend on alertness, planning and
common sense for  the  unexpected.

     This  unit  will help  sharpen  the
backgrounds of personnel  to  enable them
to  have  confidence  in  preparing  and
preventing accidents while sampling.
Two major  areas will  be covered:

     1.    Physical  Hazards  of  the
Sampling  Environment

     2.  Hazards  of Sampling

     The  specific topic of  sampling
drums is covered  in  the  unit  on
Hazardous  Waste Sites.
Physical  Hazards
Environment
of  the Sampling
     Sampling  Equipment Instructions

     Sampling  equipment  is  manufactured
in  an  endless  variety  of sizes  and
shapes.  In some  cases,  equipment has
been modified or  even built by Agency
personnel.  The Coliwasa has  for many
years  been  the mainstay for  sampling
liquids.  Yet until a few years ago,
there were no  commercial  manufacturers
of  the  Coliwasa  and  units had  to  be
built in-house.

     Manufactured  equipment  usually
comes  with  precise instructions as to
procedures  for  safe   set   up  and
operation.   It should  become  common
                               18-2

-------
                                               NOTES
practice to  thoroughly read these
instructions before attempting to  use
the equipment.  Instructions should be
placed  in  clear plastic  covers  to
protect  them  from inclement  weather,
chemicals,  dirt  and wear.  If  possible,
the  sheets should  be taped to the
inside covers of the  carrying cases or
if  in multiple  sheets  or booklet,
attached to  the equipment  by  a  light
chain or  durable string.

     In  the event of modifications to
manufactured  equipment, special use  for
which the equipment was not  originally
designed  or in-house designed equipment,
Standard Operating  Procedures (SOP)
should be developed before the equipment
is authorized for field use.   Copies of
the SOP  should be protected and attached
to the equipment or carrying case.  SOP
should also  be  sent  to all  personnel
that  may have use for the  ^equipment.
The  SOP  should   make  special note  of
limitations or hazards that might exist.
In  some  obvious  cases,  special note
should be  made  on the outside  of  the
carrying  case to alert the  individual of
important hazards.  Examples of these
hazards are:

     1.   The  carrying case contains
hazardous chemicals.

     2.   There exists  breakable parts or
containers inside.

     3.   There is the  danger  of shock or
explosion if used  improperly or  in
certain  hazardous  conditions   or
atmospheres.

     4.   Improper use or mixing  may
generate  a dangerous condition.

     Carrying Equipment

     Injuries  to  the back and abdominal
muscles  from  lifting heavy loads is  one
of the most common  injuries reported.
Such injuries  can  range from relatively
                             18-3

-------
                                               NOTES
mild  strains  to  major  permanently
disabling injuries.   Lifting  heavy
equipment  should  be approached  with
though as to:

     1.   Overall weight

     2.   Distribution of weight

     3.   Unwieldiness or awkwardness

     4.   Distance to be carried

     5.   Obstacles to be negotiated such
as slippery  banks,   rocking boats  and
ladders.

     6.   Conditions such as wind, snow,
ice and  slippery surfaces.

     7.   Visibility

     Whenever  possible,   assign  two
individuals to  carry  equipment.   Simply
the weight alone should not be the only
consideration.  A large sheet of plywood
may not  be  particularly  heavy  but is
awkward, blocks the view of the person
carrying it,  and  can be extremely
hazardous in high,  gusty  winds.   Two
individuals carrying two sheets together
is a  much  safer  practice  than  two
individuals  each  carrying one  sheet
apiece.  The incidence  of individuals
being  blown from roofs and  ladders while
carrying large  sheets  is all  too
frequent.

     Before lifting a case,  check to see
if equipment  stored inside  is secure.  A
sudden shift in weight while the case is
being carried may throw the individual
off balance and result  in a dangerous
fall.

     Experimentally lift a  corner of the
equipment to be carried to determine
its approximate weight.  Check to see if
carrying handles are fastened securely
to  the  container   and  are  in good
condition.   Check  to see that  tops,
                               18-4 >

-------
                                               NOTES
drawers,  etc.,  are  securely fastened
closed.    Never  lift  equipment  by
makeshift strings  or  ropes.   If
equipment  seems heavy,  request help
before  lifting.  Strains and hernias  are
usually caused during the initial strain
of lifting.  If passing a heavy piece of
equipment  to another individual, warm
them of the approximate weight  before
handing them the equipment.  Strains  and
hernias are often caused  by improper
position  or stance,  rather  than by
sheer weight.

     Heavy  equipment  should be lifted by
using  the  power of  the  leg muscles,
rather than the back, stomach,  or  arm
muscles.  Approach the container so as
to have it  evenly balanced.  Never bend
over when lifting.   The back should be
kept  straight  and   the  arms  nearly
vertical  with  the  body.   The knees
should be  bent to  grasp  the  load.
Lifting should be by straightening  the
legs,  with the back remaining in a
nearly  vertical  position.   Setting down
the load is the reverse of lifting.

     Never  climb ladders  while  carrying
a heavy load.   Ladders require  the  use
of both hands.  Loads  not only tie up  the
hands,  but unbalance the body.   Loads
should  be  lifted by winch or pulley.

     Never attempt to lift a heavy load
from a small boat with only one person.
The unstability of the boat  along with
the shifting weight, may result in  the
boat tipping over or a severe strain of
the bodies  of the lifters.

     Likewise, never attempt to lift a
heavy  weight  over a dock  down  into a
boat.  Not only is  the strain  severe,
but  the uneven weight may  cause  the
individual  to  fall  headlong into  the
boat or water.   Heavy equipment should
be set on  the side of the dock  within
reach  of  personnel  in  the boat.   Two
individuals in the  boat should grasp  the
equipment  while  steadying the boat.  Be
                              18-5

-------
                                               NOTES
sure the boat is securely tied at both
ends to prevent  the  boat from pushing
away from  the dock while equipment is
being lifted.

     Compressed Gas Cylinders

     Compressed  gas  cylinders  are
frequently  used for analytical equipment
or for  recharging SCBA air tanks.  These
tanks represent  a multitude of  hazards.
The empty tanks themselves are extremely
heavy and due to their elongated shape,
easily tipped  over.   Tanks should be
carried on  special dollys designed to
hold cylinders.   These dollys  have  a
saddle  to  hold the  tanks  and  an
adjustable  strap to  prevent  the  tank
from tipping forward when the dolly is
lifted  upright.

     Never  move or  transport  a  tank
without the protective threaded cap or
top being  in place.   When full,  the
tanks  are  u'nder  extreme  pressure,
striking the valve  at the top  of the
tank may shear off the valve assembly,
venting  the pressurized gas.   In
addition to the  potential of  fire or
explosion, the velocity  of  the
existing  gas may  propel  the cylinder at
extremely hazardous speeds.

     When transporting the tank or when
setting the  tank  up  for  use,  securely
chain or fasten the tank in an upright
position  to prevent shifting or  falling
over.  In some cases such as acetylene,
it is dangerous to lay the tank on its
side.   Such a practice  may  cause  a
separation  of  the acetone, acetylene
mixture.
-Ct
     Always  check  tanks for pitting and
rusting.   Any  sign  of  deterioration
should be reported immediately and the
tank removed  from service.  Never assume
that the color of the tank indicates the
contents.  Color schemes are  strictly
the  preogative  of  the company  that
moves the cylinders.
                               18-6

-------
                                                NOTES
     Never  add adaptors or other gear to
a regulator to make equipment fit. Often
special  threads  and sizes  are  put on
regulators  to   forewarn  or prevent
certain  types of equipment from being
used or  attached to the tanks.   These
precautions shoulds  be  carefully heeded
by field  personnel.

     Threads  on tanks are often reversed
from  the normal directions used in
common equipment.  Never atempt to
force  threads  or nuts.   If  a  thread
won't  give, stop and analyze  the
direction you are attempting to turn the
nut.  In most cases,  the threads  will
turn off  in the opposite direction.

     Never  store  tanks   in  direct
sunlight or near excessive heat.  Non-
flammable gas such as carbon dioxide may
rupture with a force equal to or greater
than that of  flammable gases.

The Sampling  Environment

     Before setting   up  and  using
sampling  equipment, attempt to determine
the type of environment you will be
testing.    In many  cases, this  is  best
done  by    contacting   a   plant
representative such as a safety  officer.
Explain fully the nature of  the test and
exactly the type  of sampling equipment
to  be  used.  Make sure the type of
equipment  is  approved  for   the
environment  that you will  be  in.   In
most   cases,  electrical  sampling
equipment is approved  for certain types
of environments.

     Certification

     National   groups   such   as
Underwriters  Laboratories  (UL),  Factory
Mutual (FM), and  the American National
Standards  Institute  (ANSI), together
with NFPA,  developed  test protocols for
certifying   explosion-proof,
intrinsically safe, or purged devices to
meet minimum  standards of acceptance.
                                18-7

-------
     An electrical device  certified
under one  of these  test methods carries
a permanently affixed plate showing  the
logo of  the laboratory  granting
certification  and  the Class(es),
Division(s), and  Group(s) it  was tested
against.

     Certification means  that if  a
device is  certified  as  explosion-proof,
intrinsically  safe, or  purged for  a
given Class,  Division,  and  Group, and is
used, maintained,  and serviced according
to the manufacturer's  instructions,  it
will  not  contribute to  ignition.   The
device is not, however, certified  for
use  in  atmospheres other than those
indicated.

     Three methods  exist  to prevent  a
potential  ignition source from  igniting
a flammable  atmosphere:

     o Explosion-proof:  Encase  the
ignition  source in a rigidly built
container.    "Explosion-proof"
instruments  allow  the  flammable
atmosphere to enter. If and when an  arc
is generated, the ensuing  explosion is
contained within the specially designed
and  built enclosure.   Within   it,   any
flames or hot gases  are cooled prior to
exiting  into  the  ambient  flammable
atmosphere  so that  the  explosion does
not spread into the environment.

     o Intrinsically Safe:  Reduce  the
potential  for arcing among  components by
encasing  them in  a solid  insulating
material.     Also,  reducing  the
instrument's  operational  current  and
voltage below the energy  level necessary
for ignition of the flammable atmosphere
provides   equal   protection.   An
"intrinsically  safe" device,  as defined
by  the  National   Electrical  Code,   is
incapable  "of  releasing  sufficent
electrical   or thermal energy under
normal or abnormal conditions  to cause
ignition  of  a   specific  hazardous
atmospheric  mixture in its most easily
ignited  concentration.  Abnormal
conditions   shall  include  accidental
damage  to  any... wiring,  failure of
                             18-8

-------
electrical components,  application of
over-vo 11age ,   adjustment  and
maintenance operations and other similar
conditions."

     o Purged:   Buffer  the arcing or
flame-producing  device  from  the
flammable atmosphere with an inert gas.
In a pressurized  or  "purged" system, a
steady stream  of,  for example,  nitrogen
or helium  is  passed by the potential
arcing device, keeping  the flammable
atmosphere from  the ignition  source.
This type of control, however,  does not
satisfactorily  control  analytical
devices that  use a  flame or heat for
analysis  such as a combustible gas
indicator  (CGI)   or  gas  chromatograph
(GO .

     There are six possible environments
in which a hazardous atmosphere can be
generated.   However, not every type of
control will  prevent an  ignition in
every  environment.   To  adequately
describe the characteristics of those
environments and what controls can be
used,  the National Electrical  Code
defines each characteristic:

     o Class  is  a category describing
the  type  of  flammable  material  that
produces the hazardous atmosphere:

          * Class  I is flammable vapors
and  gases,  such  as gasoline,  and
hydrogen.   Class  I  is further divided
into groups A, B, C,  and D on the basis
of similar flammability characteristics
(see Table 1).

          *  Class   II   consists  of
combustible dusts  like coal or grain and
is divided into groups E, F, and G.

          *  Class  III   is  ignitable
fibers  such  as  produced by  cotton
milling.

     o Division is the term describing
the "location"  of  generation and release
of the flammable material.

          * Division 1  is  a  location
where the  generation and release are
                              18-9

-------
                                               NOTES
continuous, intermittent,  or  periodic
into  an  open,  unconfined area  under
normal conditions.

          *  Division  2  is a location
where the generation and release are  in
closed systems  or  containers  and only
from ruptures,  leaks, or other  failures.

     Using  this system,  a hazardous
atmosphere  can  be  routinely and
adequately defined.  As an example,  a
spray-painting operation using acetone
carrier would be classified as a Class
I, Division 1, Group  0 environment.
Additionally, an abandoned waste site
containing intact closed drums of methyl
ethyl ketone,  toluene,  and  xylene would
be considered  a Class I,   Division  2,
Group D  environment.   Once  the
containers begin to leak and produce a
hazardous atmosphere, the  environment
changes to Class I,  Division 1,  Group  D.
                              18-10

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                             TABU! 1

                   Class I Chemicals By Groups
Group A Atnospheres

     Acetylene

Group B Atmospheres

     Acrolein (inhibited)
     Arsine
     Butadiene
     Ethylene oxide

     Hydrogen
     Manufacturer gases containing
       more than 30% hydrogen
       (by volume)
     Propylene oxide
     Propylnitrate


Group C Atnospheres

     Acetaldehyde
     Allyl alcohol
     n-Butyraldehyde
     Carbon monoxide
     Crotonaldehyde
     Cyclopropane
     Diethyl ether
     Diethylamine
     Epichlorohydrin
     Ethylene
     Ethyleneimine
     Ethyl mercaptan
     Ethyl sulfide
     Hydrogen cyanide
     Hydrogen sulfide
     Morpholine
     2-Nitropropane
     Tetrahydrofuran
     Unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine
     (UDMH, 1-, 1-dimethyl hydrazine)
   Group D Atmospheres

   Acetic Acid (glacial)
   Acetone
   Acrylonitrile
   Annonia
   Benzene
   Butane
   1-Butanol  (butyl alcohol)
    2-Butanol  (secondary
   butyl alcohol)
   n-Butyl acetate
   Isobutyl acetate
   di-Isobutylene
   Ethane
   Ethanol  (ethyl  alcohol)
   Ethyl acetate
   Ethylacrylate
    (inhibited)
   Ethyl diamine
   Ethylene dichloride
   Ethylene glycol
   monomethyl  ether
   Gasoline
   Heptanes
   Hexanes
   Isoprene
   Isopropyl ether
   Mesityl oxide
   Methane  (natural gas)
   Methanol  (methyl alcohol)
3-Methyl-l-butanol
   (isoamyl alcohol)
   Methyl ethyl ketone
   Methyl isobutyl ketone
   2-Methyl-l-propanol
    (isobutyl alcohol)
   2-Methy1-2-propano1
    (tertiary butyl alcohol)
   Octanes
   Petroleum naphtha1
   Pentanes
   1-Pentanol  (aiayl alcohol)
   Propane
   1-Propano Kpropy 1
   alcohol)
   2-Propanol  (isopropyl
   alcohol)
   Propylene
   Pyridine
                                      18-n

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                        TABLE 1 Gont'd.
                                      Group 0 Atmospheres
                                      Styrene
                                      Toluene
                                      Vinyl acetate
                                      Vinyl chloride
                                      Xylenes

Source:National  Electrical  Code,  Vol.  70,  Table  500-2.
National Fire Protection  Association,  470 Atlantic Avenue,
Boston, MA 02210  (1981).

*A saturated hydrocarbon  mixture boiling in the range 20° - 135°C
(680  - 275°F).   Also  known by the synonyms enzine,  ligroin,
petroleum ether,  or naphtha.

Electrical Hazards

     Sampling often requires Agency
personnel  to  reach remote  or
inaccessible places.    In many cases
such areas may contain electrical wires
or transformers.  Great caution should
be  exercised in  these  areas.  Where
practical, power  should be cut to remove
the danger.   Where this is not possible,
highly conductive equipment such as
aluminum ladders, metal probes,  and
other  metal sampling gear should be
avoided  if  possible.    Electrical
insulating protective gear such as hard
hats and gloves should be worn.

     Of particular danger are overhead
wires.   Before raising or  carrying
ladders,  check to see that equipment
will  clear.   If there  is danger Of
contact,  do not  attempt to enter tha
area.

     A great deal of sampling  equipment
requires a source  of electrical power to
operate it.    It  some  cases,  an
electrical  power outlet may be some
distance away.  If possible,  arrange for
the company to provide  power.   Long
extension  cords  may  be a source  of
potential overheating and fire if  a
proper cord  size is not selected.
                                   18-12'

-------
                                                NOTES
                    .
Extension  Cords

     If  an extension cord is needed  to
bring power to field sampling equipment
or   lights,   there  are   important
guidelines for  selecting a  cord that
will  be   safe   and   serviceable.
Extension  cords should have three wires,
two  for power and  one to  provide a
separate grounding circuit  for  safety.
The  wires  need to  be  large enough  in
diameter to carry the needed power over
the  length of  the cord  without  either
significant voltage drop or overheating.

     A long extension cord  should have
large enough diameter  wires  so that
resistance in the  cord will not lower
the voltage more than 3 percent  over the
length of  the  extension  cord.   If the
voltage  supplied by the cord is  too low,
your  analytical  results  may  not  be
accurate  and your equipment  may not
operate  safety.   Motors can burn out if
the supplied  voltage drops too low.

     The other important requirement for
wires is that they be of adequate  size
to  carry   the  current  drawn  by your
equipment, so that the  cord does not
overheat,  damage  the insulation,  and
possibly start a  fire.    (The  current
required   by  your  equipment  could
overload the  current-carrying  capacity
of an extension cord  having wires  of
inadequate diameter without tripping the
circuit  breaker  to which your  cord  is
connected.   In such a  case the circuit
breaker  will  not protect the extension
cord from  damage.)

     Localized  overheating can also
occur if there is  too  small an  area  of
contact  between any  plug blade and  its
socket connection.  The effectiveness  of
surface  contact areas can be estimated
by  use  of a device  with  tests  the
tension  provided  by the  contact  blades
within an  outlet.
                              18-13

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                                                 NOTES
     The  procedure  for  selecting  an
extension cord  will  depend on  whether
you  will  use  a  cord  that  is  available,
or  whether you  are going to  have an
extension cord made  up for  a  particular
sampling activity.

     In both cases  you will need to know
how much  power  is required  by  the
equipment you will be  using,  what the
voltage will be at the power source, and
how far your equipment will  be  from a
power outlet.

     The  basic  steps  for  assessing or
specifying  an extension cord are  as
follows:

     1.  First find the total  number of
watts required for all of  the  equipment
and  lights that you  plan  to  connect to
the extension cord.

     2.   Find the lowest line.voltage
that can  be expected  at  the outlet to
which the cord will be connected during
the  time personnel  will  be  working.
Personnel can inquire,  test the voltage,
or make a rough estimate.

     If there is  no data and the actual
voltage cannot be measured  on a line
with a  nominal voltage of  110  or 115,
use  the  value  of 100  volts for  the
calculation  of the amperage  the  wires
must carry.

     3.   Next, find out how many amperes
the cord  will have to  carry by  dividing
the  total  number  of  watts  of  the
equipment to be used by the  line voltage
expected  at  the  outlet.   Watts divided
by volts equals the number of amperes of
current to be carried by the cord.

     4.  Find out how  long an extension
cord will be  needed  to reach from  an
available outlet to the  location of the
equipment.   Be  sure  to  allow enough
length  so that the cord can  go over or
around  obstructions or passageways.
                              18-14

-------
                                                NOTES
Precautions  for  Use  of  Electrical
Equipment

     If  personnel  will  be  using  any
electrically-powered equipment,  there
are two precautions  you should follow.
The  first  is  to see that  there  is  no
damage to  the  electrical insulation of
the  equipment  or  its  cord,  and  the
second is  to  be sure that  you cannot
touch  uninsulated electrical  conductors
or metal  parts  which may  be  "hot" or
energized.

     There   are   four  important
requirements for electrical cords.   The
first  is that  electrical  cords  should
have  no breaks  in the insulation.

     Cords  should  be  inspected
periodically, with the cord  disconnected
from  the power source.

     Electrical  cords should  have plugs
which  keep  the  terminals insulated and
which  assure safe connection of wires to
the terminals.

     The  fourth important  requirement
for electrical  cords is continuity of
the grounding wire.

     If equipment with  a grounding wire
and  a  workable  three-prong  plug is
connected to a two-wire extension cord,
the grounding  wire  cannot  perform its
safety function.

     Portable Electrical Equipment

     With portable  electrical equipment
there  are three  practical steps  that can
be taken  to prevent touching  "hot"  or
energized metal  parts.  Any one of these
steps  will provide  protection  against
electrical  shock from the equipment:

     1.  Be sure that all exposed  metal
parts  of  electrical  equipment  are
connected to  an effective  grounding
circuit, or
                              18-15

-------
                                                NOTES
     2.  Provide a Ground  Fault  Circuit
Interrupter in the line,  or

     3.  Use  power  tools  which  are
"Double  Insulated"  to prevent  any
exposed metal  surface from  providing
contact with a "hot"  wire.

     Grounding  Exposed  Metal  Parts of
Electrical Equipment

     If personnel connect electrical
equipment  to an  effective grounding
circuit, they  must be sure they they are
grounding all  exposed metal parts.

     Ungrounded  electrical  equipment
with  only a  two-wire  electrical  cord
will usually continue  to operate even
if the hot wire  comes into  contact with
the metal  shell or exposed metal parts.
If such  equipment is held  by  a  person
who is also in contact with the earth or
some   grounded   metal  object,   the
individual could  be   shocked seriously
and perhaps fatally.

     If  a  hot  wire  in  a  piece  of
electrical  equipment  touches  metal
parts  that are grounded (by connection
to the green grounding wire), there  will
be  a  direct  short circuit which  will
trip the circuit breaker and de-energize
the electrical  equipment.   Electrical
equipment  will not continue to operate
if there  is  a  short circuit  from the hot
wire to metal  parts that are grounded.

     To assure that exposed metal parts
of electrically-powered equipment  cannot
become electrically "hot" as  a  result of
damage to  the insulation  of  the  hot
wire,  it is necessary to have a separate
connection between exposed metal parts
and  the   ground.   This  is  usually
accomplished  by using equipment  which
has a  third  wire  connecting the metal
shell  through the  cord to  a  grounding
connection in the  electrical outlet.   As
an  extra  precaution you  can  check
electrical  equipment  for  leakage
                              18-16

-------
                                                NOTES
currents between the  metal  parts  and  a
grounded conductor.

     In addition to  having  all of  the
equipment provided with a connection to
the grounding wire,  personnel must have
a  three-wire  cord  with a  three-prong
plug.   It  is  also  necessary that  the
grounding connection  in the  electrical
outlet be attached to a ground.  Outlets
should  be  tested  before  use  to  see
whether they  do  have  an  effective
connection  to  ground  or whether an
alternative grounding method must be
used.

     Ground  Fault Circuit Interrupters

     If it is not  possible  to provide
effective  grounding   for  portable
electrical  equipment,,  Ground  Fault
Circuit Interrupters can prevent injury
if someone  makes contact with a hot wire
and the ground.   When  the device detects
unbalanced current in  a circuit, it  will
interrupt the  current  flow within  a  few
milliseconds and prevent further flow of
an injurious amount of current.

     Portable ground  fault  circuiit
interrupters  (GFCI) are  available  for
field  use.    They  are  recommended
particularly in wet  locations where  the
hazard of current flow to the ground is
great.     (Ground  fault  circuit
interrupters do  have  the drawback that
they  will interfere  with operation of
any  apparatus  which uses  a capacitor
across the  line as a noise filter.)

     Double  Insulated Electrical Tools

     Electrically-powered  tools  are
available  with  "Double  Insulation"
designed to  prevent  any exposed  metal
part from  becoming  energized  and causing
a shock to  the user.

     E1ectrica 11y-p o w ered  tools
identified by  the manufacturer  as  being
"Double  Insulated"   are considered
                              18-17

-------
                                                NOTES
reasonably safe  to  use in  locations
where  the user may contact either  the
ground or grounded equipment.  Such
tools  should be in  good condition  with
undamaged parts.   As  an  additional
precaution,  such equipment should  be
checked to see that use  or repairs have
not  damaged  insulation and   allowed
exposed metal parts  to come into contact
with hot wires.

     If personnel  ever have to  work  on
or enter electrically-powered equipment,
be sure the  power  is  shut off  and  the
shutoff switch is  locked so that no  one
can inadvertently  turn  the power on.

Sampling

     Never open  containers,  tanks,
mixers, etc.,  without first seeking  the
advice or  approval  of  plant personnel.
In many cases such containers  may  be
under  pressure   or   have  extreme
temperatures.

     Drums should be  moved only after
careful observation  of their condition.
A normal filled drum weighs close to  500
pounds.  Steel-toed  shoes should  be worn
and equipment such  as  dollys,  or  fork
lifts  used to lift or tote barrels.   A
barrel  tipped on  its  edge is highly
unstable  and difficult to control.   A
shift   in  its  contents  may  cause  the
barrel  to go  out  of  control  causing
personal injury  and increasing   the  risk
of leaks,  fire or  explosion.   Never
stand  or  walk on containers to reach
remote  containers.   If containers  that
must be sampled are not accessible, have
company employees clear a path  or move
barrels.

Sample Size

     Generally laboratories require very-
small  quantities of  samples.  Take  only
the amount of sample needed to complete
analysis.     Containers  of   samples
represent hazards.   The  larger   the
                               18-18

-------
                                                 NOTES
sample size,  the  greater the hazard.

     Sample containers must be  checked
for  compatibility  with  the   material
sampled.   Flammable liquids, corrosives
and  other highly  hazardous  materials
should not be placed in glass containers
unless  the  containers   have  special
coatings  to   prevent  shattering.
Bakelite or PVC  tops should be used in
place of metal  tops.  Before the samples
are removed  from  the  sampling site,  a
check should be  made to insure the tops
are  correctly  and securely  fastened.
Decontaminate  the  outside of the sample
container thoroughly before  packing for
transit.   Never carry sample containers
in Agency vehicles  without securing them
from  rolling  or  bumping.    A   case
designed  for this purpose  or  a  stout
container  filled  with  an  inert  packing
absorbent such  as  vermiculite  will
prevent breakage, bumping  or rolling
about while in  transit.  If the  material
is to be  shipped,  special precautions
must be exercised.   (See unit  on Sample
Labeling and  Shipping.)

     Sampling procedures often require
chemical reagents.    Reagent  bottles
should  be  packed  in  absorbent,
cushioning material to  prevent  bumping
and leakage.   Labels for reagents should
be of indelible  material and  care taken
to separate incompatible chemicals.  In
many cases,   the  reagent  chemicals
themselves represent a  more  serious
threat  of harm than the  materials
sampled.  SOP's outling test procedures,
as well  as sampling hazards and chemical
incompatibilities  should be   included
with testing  chemicals.  In cases  where
reagents must be  measured  out,  equipment
contamination such  as  pipettes  must  be
solved by disposables or decontaminating
solutions.

     Reagents such as concentrated acids
and  bases are  hygroscopic  (attract
water).    Small  drops on  the outside  of
bottles  will  quickly  dilute,   running
                             18-19

-------
                                              NOTES
become diluted, running down the sides
of bottles and pooling  at  the bottom.
Such pools can lead to unknowing skin
contamination or eye burns.
                                   18-20

-------
«
t
I

I

-------
Exercise II

     A piece of electrical sampling equipment draws 120 volts and
uses 280 watts.  The electrical source is 90' away.  What size
wire is needed?
Exercise III

     Sampling is to be done in a closed environment that normally
contains acetone.  What type of approval  must the equipment have
to be safe in this type of environment?
     Is the following Instrument approved for this environment?
             AA5A
             Combustible Gas and 02 Alarm
                               model 260 part m. 449900
                            allbritri for!  Pentane7

                 tatrimkafly Scit for *M M huw*M toMtoM .OmLIMjWoii I.
                 •M C w4 b «rf Nanlnc»MM tar «.to Om_L OhWdii Ift^t *.
               MUST BE OPERAHD III ACCORDANCE WITH INSTRUCTIONS
                      MPO. av
                      MINE SAFETY APPLIANCES COMPANY
                      nTTSaURGH PtNMVLVMU. Ill A, 19308
            nit nv i   u MT. m imjn rannra a CM*M im	mm
                                    18-22

-------
                  UNIT 19 NATURAL HAZARDS
Educational Objectives

     o The  student should  be able to
recognize poison ivy and poison oak.

     o The  student should  be able to
define the treatment  for  poison ivy  and
poison oak.

     o The  student should  be able to
recognize the common poisonous insects.

     o The  student should  be able to
recognize the various poisonous snakes.

     o The  student should  be able to
recognize the characteristics of rabid
animals.
                                      19-1

-------
                        NATURAL HAZARDS
                                              NOTES
     EPA responsibilities  require Agency
personnel to  enter  remote,  seldom
visited,  locations.  Such  places are the
natural habitat of a variety of plants
and animals, some of which pose a threat
to personnel.  It  is  the objective of
this unit to familiarize personnel  with
these threats so that steps may be taken
to avoid,  as much as possible,  contact
with  these hazards.  In  some  cases a
limited  remedial  action  will be
discussed.

Plants

     There are  very  few types of plants
that pose a threat to field personnel.
Unfortunately,  the ones that do are very
common.

     Poison Ivy and Poison Oak

     Poison ivy is a vine that can be
recognized by  its  three shiny green
leaves and at certain times of the year,
by clusters of white berries.  It can be
found growing up the sides of trees or
building or as  a dense ground cover 18"
- 24' high. During the winter time the
plant loses its leaves but the vines, if
broken, may still  pose a hazard.   For
highly sensitive people, smoke from the
burning  plants may  be sufficient to
trigger  a reaction,

     Medical  tests  indicate  all
individuals are allergic to poison ivy
to some degree.   If personnel have
knowledge or suspicion of  contact with
poison ivy or poison oak, they should
wash  with strong soap within  two to
three hours of  contact.  The  infecting
agent in poison ivy is suspended in an
oil base found on the leaves.  Scrubbing
with  strong  soap will  eliminate or
reduce the severity or spread.

     If  the  blisters  and  itching,
characteristic of poison ivy  appear,
medical  attention  should be  sought.
Secondary infection may be more  serious
                                    19-2

-------
                                              NOTES
than the poison ivy itself.

Animals

     Ticks

     The  natural habitat  of  the wood
tick is bushes 18-36" in height.  This
parasitic insect usually burrows into
the skin of its victim and sucks  blood.
Ticks  are carriers  of  a number of
diseases including the sometimes fatal
disease of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever.
Personnel leaving a tick infested area
should  institute a search  of themselves
as well as other crew members.  Ticks
found burrowing under  the skin should be
removed by rubbing the area with rubbing
alcohol.   (Using a  lighted cigarette or
a hot needle is highly discouraged.)  If
the insect  fails to be removed, or if
the  head of the  insect  breaks off,
medical help should be sought.   If fever
or infection should set in, medical  help
should  be obtained.

     Snakes

     Nearly every section of the country
has  a  variety  of poisonous snakes.
Water  Moccasons,   rattle  snakes,
copperheads, and coral snakes all have
potent venom  that  can be  fatal.  Most
snake bites occur on  the ankle or hand.
When when  enter an area known to have
poisonous snakes, knee  high boots,
leather  gloves,  and  snake bite kits
should be  considered  an  absolute
necessity.

     Most snakes are  timid animals  that
strike  only in defense.  When  suprising
a snake,  slowly back off  and  give the
animal a  chance  to escape.   Never
attempt  to kill,  capture or  molest a
cornered  snake.  Never assume the  snake
is harmless.

     If the snake does strike, have the
victim rest quietly.  Ice  packed  in the
area will reduce circulation, slowing
                                    19-3

-------
the spreading  of the venom.   If  a
pressure point can be located,  cut or
slow the circulation to the affected
area.  Get the victim  to help as quickly
as  possible.    If   a  snake  kit  is
available it should be used with care.
The practice of cutting the wound with a
knife and sucking the venom out is no
longer recommended.

     Spiders

     There are only three types  of
dangerously poisonous spiders  in  the
United States:  the brown recluse, the
black widow and the tarantula.   The
tarantula  is  generally  found  in  the
desert  southwest.  It  is  a large (2-4"),
slowing moving spider characterized by
its size and hairy body.   The tarantula
seldom bites  unless provoked.  Its bite
is painful but seldom  serious.  Bites
should be treated by  medical personnel
as quickly  as possible.

     The brown recluse is a  small  (1")
brown spider found generally west of the
Mississippi.   It is  secretive  and
prefers dark secluded areas.  Although
generally not fatal,  its bite is quite
serious,   requires  a  long painful
treatment,  and often  results  in
permanent scars.

     The black  widow  is a fairly common
spider  of  the mid-eastern   and
southeastern  United States.   It is
easily identified by its 1-1/2" shiny
black body, with a characteristic red
hour-glass  spot on the underside of the
abdomen.   It  is a  secretive creature
that is often  found  in  dark secluded
places and  under wood piles and barrels.
The black widow bite is  generally not
fatal  to  adults,  but  the wound is
painful, and medical attention should be
sought immediately.

     Bees-Wasps

     Bees and wasps can be found nesting
in a variety of habitats from rafters,
NOTES
                                   19-4

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                                              NOTES
bushes,  insides of  barrels ,andunder
ground.  Agency personnel with  known
reactions to bee/wasp stings should let
it be known that they are affected by
stings, they should carry an emergency
bee  sting kit.   In the  absence  of
immediate  help,  the  victim should be
kept  quiet,  the  stinger removed  if
possible,  and  the area of the  sting
packed with ice.  For individuals that
are highly allergic,  bee stings may be
fatal.   Help  should  be  summoned
immediately.  If unconsciousness occurs,
nearby individuals should stand  ready to
administer  CPR  (see unit on First Aid).

     Scorpions

     In both  the southeast  and  the
southwest,  scorpions represent  a  threat
to field personnel.  Scropions usually
are found under rocks, barrels, trash,
etc.  Care should be exercised before
reaching under these  areas.  While few
scorpion  stings are fatal  to adult
humans, the  sting  can  result  in a
painful disabling  injury.   Poison
similar to that found in ants and bees
is  injected  under  the  skin.   For
individuals allergic to insect stings, a
scorpion sting may  be  fatal  if  not
treated immediately.  Individuals that
suffer  from allergic reactions to in-
sects should warn other team members of
this  problem  and carry an anti-sting
kit.   If an allergic  individual  is
stung,  medical help should be sought
immediately.   If unconsciousness  occurs
before  help  arrives,   CPR  may  be
necessary (see unit on First Aid).

     Fire Ants

     Fire  ants have  become a  serious
problem in  the  southeastern  part of the
United States.  Fire ants are identified
by their characteristic 6-12" mound of
dirt.  The  ants are small,
-------
                                              NOTES
stinging substance  (Formic  Acid).
Those individuals known to be allergic
should be rushed to a medical  center for
treatment.  If unconsciousness occurs
before help arrives, CPR may be required
(see unit on First Aid).

     Rabid Animals

     Prior to the early 1980's,  rabies
was seldom encountered.  Rabies vaccines
for pets have virtually eliminated the
threat  in  domesticated  animals.
Recently however, there has been an
alarming upsurge in  the number  of
reported cases  of  rabies  in wild
animals.  Rabies  can  infect  any warm
blooded animal, from  racoons to bats.
Agency personnel  should be  alert  for
wild animals  that show a lack of  fear or
a  certain  aggressiveness.   Other
characteristics are drooping head,  a
peculiar trotting gait,  or  any other
unusual  behavior.

     If a victim is bitten and the skin
is broken,  you  should seek medical
attention immediately.   Without medical
attention, the mortality rate  for rabies
is nearly 100%.
                                   19-6

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               PROTECTIVE CLOTHING AND  EQUIPMENT
Educational  Objectives

     o The student  should know how  to
select protective  clothing  for  chemical
resistance.

     o The student  should know how  to
select protective  clothing  based on  the
need for  strength.

     o The student  should know how  to
select  protective  clothing  based  on
thermal  units.

     o The student should  know how  to
select equipment  based on  the  need  for
decontamination.

     o The student should know the role
of economy in  selecting equipment.

     o The  student  should  be able  to
list the performance standards  for  hard
hats.

     o The  student  should  be able  to
define the safety  standards  for eye  and
face protection.

     o The  student  should  be able  to
determine appropriate  standards for
proper foot  protection.

     o The  student  should  be able  to
list the  types of  ear protection.

     o The  student  should  oe able  to
determine correct  hand protection.
                               20-1

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                PROTECTIVE CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT
                                                NOTES
     Protective clothing is a collective
term that  includes  all outerwear worn
for the purpose of protecting the head,
eyes,  ears,  torso,   and feet.  In the
normal  demands of  field  work,  Agency
employees  will  face a wide variety of
hostile  environments  and  situations.
The opportunity  for  injury ranging from
minor  cuts  and  abrasions  to  major
chemical burns, are  numerous.  It  should
be evident  that taking  steps to evaluate
these hazards  and  provide for protection
against them  is  in  the  very  best
interest  of  EPA and the  employee.
Department,  of  Labor  statistics indicate
that  over  604 of  the  work  related
injuries  occur  during  routine  job
assignments.   In many of these injuries,
lack of enforcement by supervisors and
lack  of concern  by  the  individual
resulted in accidents  that either could
have been  avoided or minimized by the
wearing of correct protective clothrng
or equipment.

     Selection of_  Protective Clothing

     Agency employees faced  with  the
necessity  to  select proper protective
equipment  can be quickly overwhelmed
with  the  vast variety of equipment
available.  Unlike  some  areas  of  the
work environment, protective equipment
has  few regulations   or  standard's  by
which  accurate  judgement can be made.
It is up to the individual to exercise
caution,  good  sense,  and proper
judgement in making final determinations
of worker protection.

     Rationale  for Selection

     Personnel  protection  must never be
left to  guesswork.    It  is  imperative
that  the  hazards   to be  faced  are
evaluated in every way  possible.  A wide
variety  of safety data  sheets,  CHRIS
Manuals  and the  like are available to
assist  personnel  in  selecting equipment.
However, they  all  depend on know'ing what
hazards  the wearer  is to face.   It is
                              20-2

-------
  equipment.  However,  they all depend on
  knowing what hazards the wearer is to
  face.   It  is  the  unknown  or  the
  unexpected that can  pose  the greatest
  threat.

      In all  cases,  review histories,
  talk  to experienced personnel, check
  shipping papers, and test the testing or
  monitoring equipment  to  help select
  proper equipment.  When facing an
  unknown, always prepare for the worst
  possible situation.

     Before leaving for a field site,
 check the available inventories to be
 sure the correct type of equipment can
 be procured.  A last minute substitution
 of proper equipment can leave  personnel
 unprotected for the hazards at  hand.  If
 the proper equipment is not in Agency
 stock,  attempt to  borrow the equipment
 from another Region or office.  If the
 proper equipment  cannot be  obtained,
 cancel the  field  activity until  the
 proper gear can be  found.

     Have all crew members fit  tested
 before  leaving for the  activity.
 Equipment or  clothing that  is too large
 or too small will  not only make work
 difficult or uncomfortable,  but may
 neutralize  the protection of  the
 equipment or be dangerous.

     Criteria for Selection

     Before a rational decision  can  be
 made as  to  the type of protective
 clothing needed, certain criteria must
 be considered.

     1.   Chemical Resistance - Before
 any other criteria can  be considered,  an
 analysis must be made of  the type of
 material that will  resist the chemical
 effects of the substance to be handled.
Consideration  must be  given to  the
 ability of the material  to protact the-
 wearer during  splashes  or contact
without   losing  structural integrity.
                                   20-3

-------
                                                NUKES*
Consider the expected extent of exposure
to the chemical.  Sampling usually will
result  in small splashes  or spills,
whereas      cleanup      may
result in a longer and  larger exposure.
Many types of  materials can withstand
chemical contact for short periods, but
fail over  longer periods of time (see
Table 18-1).

                            THELB 18-1
JscxecuvE
<"*n»m j ' '

Generic Class
Alcohols
Aldehydes
Amines
Esters
Ethers
Fuels
Halogenated

Hy?r vv nfp^n s
Inorganic
acids
Inorganic bases
and salts
Ketones
Natural fats
and oils
Organic acids
(l) E - Excellent
G - Good
mess ox ETOT

Butyl
rubber
E
E-G
E-F
G-F
G-F
F-P
fl—D
\af r
P— IS
r r
G-F

E
E

G-F
E
F - Fair
P - Poor
BCCXVe IBd
n fttv Gfff\

Poiyvinyl
chloride
E
G-F
G-F
P
G
G-P
f*_B
G— r

E

E
P

G
E

ory-ia ia on
ri** ^*jj^ipp

Neoprei
E
E-<3
E-G
G
E-G
E-G
/"_»
G— r
/•_«
va— r
E-G

E
G-F

E-G
E

axnsr:

Natural
ne rubber
E
E-F
G-F
F-P
G-F
F-P
FB
-P
P_o
— r
F-P

E
E-F

G-F
E

                                  20-4

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                                               NOTES
     Protective gear should be checked
routinely  for  signs of  softening,
brittleness, swelling,  or  permeation.
If such  conditions are noticed, a record
of the effective  duration of  protection
should be  made  for future reliability of
the product.

     Chemical resistance may also depend
on  factors  other  than the type  of
material  used   to  make   the gear.
Permeability is directly related to the
thickness of the  material.   Increased
thickness  is  in turn related  to the loss
of  flexibility and dexterity.   it  is
obvious a  compromise  must be  made
between  protection  from permeability of
chemicals  and  ability  to  work
effectively and efficiently in  the
protective gear.

     Another? factor to consider in the
overall chemical  penetrability of the
gear is  its construction.   Irregardless
of  the  permeability  of  the  material,
button holes, zippers, cuffs, rips and
punctures,  unprotected  stitches  and
seams all  may  compromise  the overall
protection provided by the gear.  Before
selecting  protective clothing,, consider
the  task  to  be performed  and  the
likelihood of contamination.   Have crews
familiarize  themselves with  gear before
going out in the  field.  Literature and
pictures may conceal  drawbacks that can
be  quickly  spotted  with a  pre-field
review.   Such factors  as  drawstring
cuffs around the  wrists  requiring two
hands free of protective gloves may be a
real disadvantage  when the strings come
untied while working  in a contaminated
environment.

     2-    SUf-HSJrll  ~ Tne  ability  of
protective gear to withstand  the rigors
of field activities must be considered
in  the  overall  selection  process.
Materials  with  outstanding  permeability
characteristics  such  as Viton may have
                              20-5

-------
  very little  ability to resist tears or
  punctures.   In some cases,  double layers
  of  material  must be worn to resist
  permeability,  as well  as  wear and tear.

       Particular attention should be  made
  of areas such as knees and  elbows  where
  excess  wear  usually  occurs.   In  some
  protective  clothing, extra  protection is
  provided in these areas.

       Disposable clothing meant   for
  single  use  before being thrown  away are.
  usually designed  as  light-weight
  protection.   Vigorous  physical  activity
  may quickly exceed the design  strength
  of  the  material.  Manufacturers of  such
  disposable  clothing have provided a  wide
  selection of materials from  paper coated
  with vinyl, reinforced cloth or paper-
  cloth combinations  to light-weight  VPC
  material.   Although the economics of
  such material  varies  appr opr i te 1 y ,
  selection   of  the  material should be
  based on the overall protective and  use
  expected. •
                 -        l  ~  Protective
 clothing must also be  selected for its
 thermal properties.  In some materials,
 the protection factor is lost  instantly
 if the material comes in contact with a
 hot surface.   In  others,  exposure  to
 cold may render the material brittle and
 subject to  cracking.  Since there are  at
 present  no  uniform  manufacturing
 standards for  protective clothing,  it  is
 up to  Agency personnel  to experiment  or
 research the effectiveness of protective
 clothing in weather extremes  or under
 conditions where  there may be contact
 with hot surfaces.

     The  comfort  and  health  of  the
 wearer  of protective  clothing must  also
 be considered.  When temperatures drop
 to freezing   or   above  70  degrees
 Farenheit,  personnel are subjected to
 extreme discomfort  which  may  be
 hazardous to their health or detrimental
 to their overall efficiency.  (See Unit
on Heat and Cold  Stress.)   Generally,
        NOTES

Comparative physical characteristics
Key: E—excellent; G—good; F—fair; P—poor
Characteristic
Tensile strength
Elongation
Tear resistance
Abrasion resistance
Ozone resistance
Sunlight aging
Shelf-life aging*
Neoprene
G
E
F
G
E
E
F
Natural
latex or
rubber
G
E
G
G
F
F
E
Milled
nitrite
F
G
F
E
P
G
E
Butyl
G
G
G
G
E
E
E
                               20-6

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                                               NOTES
the higher the protection  factor,  the
more temperature  stress  can be expected
on the wearer.  Many  manufacturers have
made  modifications  to  help  regulate
internal  temperatures.    Such
modifications  as  ventilation holes must
be carefully investigated as to possible
compromise of protection.

     In  the   case  of  encapsulating
suites,  cooling  vests  may be worn to
help prevent heat  stress and increase
the overall efficiency  of  the wearer.
Where such suits  are  required for vapor
or splash protection and cooling vests
are not available, short work periods
with corresponding periods of rest are
recommended.

     4.   Decontamination

     Protective gear selection must also
be based on ease of decontamination or
cleaning.  Such cleaning may involve A
risk factor to personnel.  It may also
be  expensive  to  thoroughly  clean  the
gear  than to select  gear  which  is
disposable.

     Prolonged   contact   with  the
hazardous chemical may  result  in
absorption into the material  itself.  In
such cases, decontamination  is virtually
impossible.

     5.   EHHUP.IDX ~ Protective clothing
may  cost from a  few dollars to many
hundreds of dollars.   Selection of such
gear must be  made with all of the above
factors considered, as well as  the
overall  cost.  Although cost is  never
considered before safety,  getting the
most  versatile,  cost-effective gear
available  is  in the  best  interest of
all.     Life   expectancy,   repair,
maintenance and  frequency  of use must
all   be  considered   before   final
selections are made.
                               20-7

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                                               NOTES
     Types of Protective Clothing

     The types  of protective gear that
Agency field personnel  should wear  is
based  on anticipated  hazards   to  be
faced.  It  is  important to stress that
most  accidents  occur in  routine  work
when  the individual  least expects it.
Whatever gear  is  selected, it should  be
worn  as  a  part  of daily  dress.   Like
seat  belts  in an  automobile,   habits
should be developed  which when  broken
leave the individual with a feeling  of
insecurity.

     It  is  no  chance of fate that most
accidents  occur  to individuals not
wearing  the  proper safety gear.

     1,   Head Protection -  Hard hats (or
safety helmets) are  designed to  provide
protection against  impact,  flying
particles and electrical shock,  and  to
provide  shielding against the sun.   Most
hard  hats  provided  for  EPA   field
personnel will withstand an impact of  40
foot  pounds,  as  well  as insulation
against electrical shock from voltages
up  to 2200.  Hard  hat  standards  of
performance are  set by the  American
National Standards on hard hats  Z89.1-
1981 and are  tested by SEI  or  Safety
Equipment Institute.

     Hard hats should  be used  during
field activities whenever there  is the
possibility of  impact from falling
objects or  contact  of  the  head  with
stationary  objects  such  as pipes  or
overhangs.  It should be  remembered that
hard hats provide  limited protection.
There can be no substitute for the pre-
caution  of  staying out  from under areas
where work  is going on overhead.

     A great  deal of  the protection
afforded by  the hard  hat comes from the
separation  of  the head  from the
underside of  the  hard hat.   The  head
band  or suspension strap  should  be
adjusted so  that  when  worn there  is
about one inch separating the head and


                              20-8

-------
                                               NOTES
the hat.   The  one-inch  provides cushion
from impacts  with the hat.  Hard hats
can also  be  equipped  with insulating
liners  for protection from  the cold and
chin strap to  prevent wind  from blowing
off hats or when leaning over.

     The common practice of  carrying the
hard hat in the back window of a vehicle
can be a detriment  to  the  strength of
the hard  hat.  Plastic material  may
become  brittle if  allowed to be exposed
to  the sun  for long periods  of  time.
Store the hard  hat out of  the  direct
rays of the sun.

     2.  Eye and Face  Protection  - Eye
and face protection should be  worn in
all field activities  where there  is
danger  from  flying or  falling particles
or chemical splashes.  Such  eye and face
protection should meet the  standards set
by  OSHA   Z87.1-1981  and the American
National  Standards  for industrial eye
protection.  These  vigorous standards
preclude standard glasses as a  form of
protection-.

     Although  all  prescription glasses
sold in recent years are required by FDA
standards  to resist some impact, glasses
made to those standards  will not provide
the impact resistance  or thickness
requirements  of   the   standards  for
industrial eye protection established by
ANSI and required by OSHA.

     Where eye glasses are required by
Agency  personnel, safety goggles or face
shields covering the glasses or lenses
placed in the  goggles,  or  prescription
safety glasses meeting OSHA standards
should  be  attained.

     Safety glasses and eye protection
which meet ANSI standards for industrial
eye protection  will also  have frames
designed  to  hold the  lens in place
against impact.  If the frames are not
metal,  the  material  will  be slow-
burning.   New safety glasses will  have
the lenses and frames  marked with the
'*.' •
                              20-9

-------
                                                NOTES
standard number to show compliance with
the ANSI standard.

     Contact lenses have sometimes been
considered a safety hazard in activities
where  chemical dusts,  vapors  or  gases
may be  encountered; however,  the only
Federal  prohibition is that they must
not  be  worn  under any  type  of
respiratory protection.

     Hard  contact  lenses  are ££_t
considered to provide acceptable  eye
protection against impact.  Hard contact
lenses  do not seem to aggravate chemical
splash  injuries according to information
published in the  Journal o_f Occupational
Medicine.

     Soft contact lenses are susceptible
to  absorption   of vapors  and may
aggravate  some  chemical  exposures,
particularly if  they  are worn  for
extended periods.   Manufacturers of soft
lenses generally recommend they not be
used in certain atmospheres.

     3>    l£P.i  ££.£iec£_i on   ~  Foot
protection should be selected  with the
type  of   protection  in  mind.    The
following  types of  protection should be
considered:

     o  toe or foot damage due to impact
     o   penetration of  nails or  other
        shop objects
     o  contamination by chemicals
     o  ankle twists and sprains
     o  slippery surfaces
     o  cold
     o  static electricity

Toe or Foot Damage Due  to Impact

     Impact  resistant  footwear,  such as
safety  shoes  or  safety  boots  are
recommended  for  any field  activity in
which heavy  objects (such  as drums)  may
drop on  the  foot or  injure  the  toes.
Such safety  shoes, may be required  to
enter industrial  plants.
                             20-10

-------
                                               NOTES
     Safety  shoes  or  boots  provide
impact resistance by the steel cap built
into  the toe of  the  footwear.  The
footwear can be  ordered  in various
degrees  of protection depending  on
expected  hazards.

Penetration  of  Nails  or  other  Sharp
Objects

     Normal street  shoes provide very
little protection from  penetration  of
the  soles by nails and other  sharp
objects.   Construction sites,  landfills,
and many  industrial  sites  have  a wide
variety  of  foot  hazards.   Agency
personnel should  never enter  sites
without proper  foot  protection.   Most
industrial work boots  have reinforced
soles or heavy  rubber  soles  that will
resist penetration of sharp  objects.  If
such  sharp objects  do penetrate the
foot,  medical attention  should be sought
at once.

Contamination by Chemicals

     The  type  of   footwear  and the
material  it is made  of  must  be selected
based on anticipated chemical hazards.
No  other portion  of  the  body  is  as
likely to  be contaminated with chemicals
as  are the feet.  Although leather  is
the most common  material  in the
manufacture of footwear, it  is the least
desirable where  there is danger  of
chemical  contact.  Leather, due to its
absorption   capacity,   is  almost
impossible to cleanse or decontaminate
and most likely  the  footwear will have
to be disposed of.

     If there is an  obvious  chance  of
contamination, footwear  worn over safety
shoes should be  selected.  Such footwear
includes pull-over boots,  shoe covers,
booties, or safety pull-on boots.  Keep
in  mind  that  penetration  of footwear
with  a  contaminated object  such as a
nail,  may lead  to  rapid  and  serious
health effects.
                              20-11'

-------
                                                NOTES
Ankle Twists and Sprains

     One  of the most  common  injuries
involving the feet are ankle twists and
sprains.    When Agency  personnel  are
required to work on hazardous  footing
such as  are  found in construction sites
or  landfills,  hightop industrial  work
shoes  should be chosen.  This  type  of
shoe laces  up the ankle providing extra
support  while  walking.   Such  shoes,
while  not attractive, provide  support.
low top or street shoes do not give.

Slippery Surfaces

     No  other   industrial  accident  is
more   frequent or  results   in  more
disabling accidents than slipping  and
falling.   Sprains,  dislocations,  broken
bones,  contact  with dangerous  machinery
and drowning all are often attributed to
unsure footing.  On many wet or slippery
surfaces,  leather or  smooth soles  are
treacherous.   Material  and design  of
soles   should  be  selected  with
anticipated hazardous  surfaces  in mind.
It is  rare indeed when shoes appropriate
to office wear  are  appropriate for field
work.
     Non-skid soles made of substances
such as reinforced rubber  are  generally
the  best  choice.   Where  particularly
hazardous  surfaces,  such as those coated
with ice are encountered, clamp-on ice
spikes may be used.

Cold

     EPA  field  personnel  are  often
required  to spend  long hours  in the
field during cold  weather.   Footwear for
this type  of work  should  be  selected
with  high  insulation  ratings  and
somewhat  over-sized  (1/2  size)  to
provide room for heavy thermal  socks.
Cold weather is usually associated  ice,
snow and  wind.   Outer  surfaces  of
footwear should be made of  winter-proof
materials  or  treated to make the
material impervious  to  water.   Wet, cold
                              20-12-

-------
                                                NOTES
feet can  quickly lead  to  frost bite.
Frost  bite  of  the  toes is  a  serious
condition and  can result in disabling
injuries.   (See  Unit  on Cold and Heat
Stress.)

Static  Electricity

     Due to various conditions such as
low humidity,  ribbing  clothing, contact
with certain   surfaces,  the body  may
build  r mounts of  static electricity.
Voltage in  excess of  10,000 volts are
not uncommon.   Such high voltage results
in the  shock common  on cold, dry winter
days.   Such  high  voltage  may  also
provide the  energy to trigger explosions
or fires in areas where these  dangers
exist.   Rubber soled shoes  act  as an
insulator  preventing  the  static
electricity build up  in the body from
escaping   into  the  floor.    When
conducting surfaces are touched, such as
the rim of a metal  barrel,  a discharge
of electricity in the form of a spark is
generated.   In the right  conditions,
such sparks  could be disastrous.

     Special non-insulating shoes  are
manufactured to prevent static  buildup.
Devices that  attach  to the  leg  and
special soles  worn over rubber  soles
shoes also prevent static buildup.  In
some industrial settings such  as  the
manufacture of explosives, these shoes
are required before entry is  permitted.

Ear Protection

     Hearing protection may be necessary
at some field sites to  prevent temporary
loss of hearing.  Long-term  exposure to
high levels  of sound  can cause permanent
loss of hearing in many frequency ranges
as a result of nerve damage, and short
exposures can cause temporary loss.

     A  simple  test  you can  make to see
if you  need  hearing protection is to try
speaking to a  person  standing  beside
you.    If  you  have  to  shout  to
communicate, you  need hearing protection
                             20-13

-------
                                                 NOTES
to reduce the amount of sound  reaching
your ears.   Although hearing protectors
reduce the  sound  level in many frequency
ranges, they can  actually improve speech
communication under noisy conditions  by
reducing the interference  caused by the
noise.

     Earmuff   hearing  protectors
generally  provide  the  most effective
protection.  If  glasses,  sideburns  or
long  hair prevent  effective use  of
earmuff protectors,   the  next  best
protection  is a  set  of earplugs.

     Earplugs provide varying degrees  of
sound attentuation.   The  most  effective
earplugs  are   custom-molded  to  an
individual  user,  and the least effective
consist  of a small wad  of synthetic
fibers which is  shaped as it  is  inserted
into the ear canal.  The effectiveness
of ear protectors is reduced  by  loose
fit  and  work activities which allow
leakage  of sound.   Actual  protection
seldom  matches  the rated  protection
recorded  under test  conditions.

Hand Protection

     The second most  common  area  of
probable  chemical contamination next  to
the feet and the most probable  area for
injury are  the hands.

     A wide variety of glove types are
manufactured  that  provide  protection
against injury.    When glove selection  is
to  be  made,  the  following  list  of
considerations should be consulted:

     o Injury due to abrasion,  bruises,
lacerations,   splinters  and  other
mechanical  hazards

     o Chilling,  freezing or  burns

     o chemical  and   biological
       contaminants

     o Dirt, grease, oil
                            20-14-

-------
     o Electrical shock

     When  a  variety  of conditions
exists, it may be necessary to select
more  than one pair of gloves to wear
together.   Viton  for  example,  is
relatively impervious to polychlorinated
biphenyls but tears easily.  A second
pair of highly durable gloves may be
worn over the Viton gloves to provide
mechanical protection.  Illustration 1
presents  a few of  the available  types.
Table 2 provides information for the
type of  material  needed  to resist
chemical absorption.
                              20-15-

-------
                                  mOSTRATICN 18-1
   DISPOSABLE GLOVES
       TtlMOUCH AMBI
       ALi-wKPOsi VINYI  	
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      Note Carota SO }!»»«>, .0017V
.0017V
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                tOO
GENERAL PURPOSE
GLOVES
 KSR VtNn COATED/KNIT UNO)

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                                                                 10*
                                               CJuH oMlom. knM vrMt TO oc
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  ADVANCE PCRMATEX*
          QLOVES
           HYCXON NBR COATED
            NOM oootino O)MV wovMr
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                                                20-16'

-------
                                         TABLE 18-2
Glove Selector Chart

Determine the chemical or physical
requirements of your job. Example:
Nitric 10%, or abrasion resistance and
flexibility. Then in the proper chart,
chemical or physical, select the glove
that is listed as best for your particular
needs.

eHHilCAL RESISTANCE SELECTOR CHART PHYSICAL PROPERTIES SELECTOR CHART

ALCOHOLS
M*tn*nol/Bulyl/Alcohol/
Glycarlno/Elhwiol/
lioarooenol
CAUSTICS
Ammonium Hydraild* 38%/
Sodium Hydroildo S0%/
Poleealum Hydreald* 30%
CHLORINATED SOLVENTS
Carbon Telraeniorlda/
Porchlorelhylene/
Trlchlorofhylone
KETONES
Methyl Elhyl Kelone/
Melnyl laebulyl Kelone/
Acetone
PETROLEUM SOLVENTS
Whit* Guoline/Nuhini/
Miner*! Thlnner/Keroaene
ORGANIC AGIOS
Cllrlc/Formle/
Tannle/ Acetic
INORGANIC ACIDS
Hydrocntoric 3B%/
Hydrochloric 10%/
Sulohurle <0%/
Nitric I0%/
Chromic
Sulohurle «%/
Nlinc 70%
HYDROCARBONS
Stoddard Solvent/
Toluene/Benien*/
Xylone
Coel Tar Olillllale
Slyreno
MISCELLANEOUS
Lacouer Thinner
Culling OH
Battery Acid
Ptienol
Iniecllcldet
Printing Ink
Dyeenilla
Pent*
Formaldehyde
Vegetable OH
Animal F*l
Acrylonllrlle
Sleem
Aniline
Hydraulic Fluid
Turoenllne
Llnaeed OH
Soy* Bean OH
Carbon Oliulllde
Crooaote
Piini 4 vemiah Remover
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                                                       20-17'

-------
                                               NOTES
     Gloves  should also be selected
according to  how  they  fit and  the
dexterity needed to do the job.  It may
be necessary to buy a  variety of gloves
to meet the needs of a field operation
or to replace those with  tears or that
have become contaminated.

Donning and Doffing Protective Clothing

     Realizing complete benefits  from
protective  clothing  depends on  the
techniques  used  for  donning and doffing
the clothing.  In general, care must be
taken to avoid tearing or puncturing the
materials particularly when using gear
such as  SCBA  units  and  avoiding
contaminating  the   inside  of  the
garments.

     One of  the basic precautions for
donning protective clothing  is to keep
the  inside  of  the clothing  clean and
uncontaminated  before  putting  the
garment on and while it  is being put on.
If protective clothing or equipment is
stored where  it can become contaminated,
it may contaminate rather than protect
personnel.   It  is  a  common  habit  to
store all  contaminated  equipment in one
place,  allowing  cross-contamination
between,  for example,  boots  and  the
inside of an  encapsulated  suit.

     In  a  similar  fashion,  if  the
clothing  or  equipment  becomes
contaminated in the process of putting
the equipment on,  personnel wearing the
gear may be  in  contact  with  the
contamination  all  the time  they  are
wearing or using the equipment.

     Minimizing   penetration   of
contamination  into  your protective
clothing can  be accomplished by a number
of techniques.   It is  recommended that
the pants of  the protective clothing be
pulled down over the boots and taped or
a  rubber band  be placed around  the
bottom.   This  procedure  reduces  the
chance of contaminants falling into the
tops of the  boots.  Likewise,  sleeves
                             20-18-

-------
                                                NOTES
should be tucked  into  cuffs of gloves
and taped or pulled down over the wrists
and taped.   This prevents liquids from
dribbling down  the open  sleeve when the
arms are raised or falling into the tops
o'f the gloves.

     Always  have  at least  one assistant
to help don the  clothes.   Not  only do
they help in the actual work, but they
can inspect the suit and gear to quickly
spot rips and tears.  Complex and bulky
gear,  a  hot, sticky perspiring body, add
up to a  great deal  of stress and strain
on the individual  and equipment  which
can lead to unforseen damage that may
endanger  the  worker  or  abort  the
mission.
     Using and Removing Gloves

     Before  putting  on protective
gloves,  remove any  jewelry that  may
puncture  the material of the  gloves.

     If the  material  of  the gloves is
fragile, it may be important  to  trim
your fingernails to avoid  puncturing the
gloves while you  are  putting them on,
using them or taking them off.

     If you are going to be dealing with
known hazardous materials, try to obtain
and use gloves made of a  material  that
will provide  predictable  resistance to
damage or permeation  by  the hazardous
material.

     If you are going to be dealing with
unknown  hazardous  materials,  try  to
obtain and use gloves that will resist
damage or permeation by a wide range of
materials and consider using two pairs
of gloves with  different  qualities.   It
may also help to don gloves if the hands
or  gloves  are sprinkled with  talcum
powder.

     Removing Gloves

     Removing   gloves   without
contaminating  the   hands takes  a
                             20-19-

-------
                                               NOTES
technique  that can easily  be learned
with a little  practice.

     1.   Loosen both gloves by pulling
lightly  on  each fingertip of the gloves.

     2.   Be sure not to  touch  your skin
with the outside  of either glove.

     3.   Remove  the first glove either
by  pulling on  the fingertips  or by
grasping it just below  the  cuff on the
palm side and rolling the glove off the
fingers.

     4.   Remove the  second  glove by
inserting  the ungloved fingers inside
the  cuff  on   the  palm side without
touching the  outside  of the glove and
pushing  or rolling the glove off the
fingers.

     Using  and Removing  Boots

     Before putting on protective  boots
over  shoes-,  be  sure  the shoes do not
have   any sharp  spots  or  adhering
material which may puncture  or abrade
the protective boots.

     If  only known hazardous materials
are to be handled,  try to obtain and use
boots  made of a material that  will
provide  predictable resistance  to damage
or  permeation by   the  hazardous
materials.

     If   there is  the possibility of
dealing   with  H£lJSIl£^Il  hazardous
materials,  try to  obtain and  use boots
that will resist  damage or permeation by
a wide  range  of materials.  Consider
using protective  boot covers or a  second
pair of  boots  over the first.

     Removing   boots  without
contaminating  the hands  or feet requires
an  easily-learned  technique  which is
similar to  that  used  for  removing
gloves.

     1.   Gloves are  needed  to  'avoid
                               20-20'

-------
                                                NOTES
contaminating the hands unless the boots
are very loose.

     2.   Loosen  the boots  by pulling
them lightly with  the g.loved hands.

     3.   Be  sure not to touch bare skin
with the outside of  either glove.

     4.   Remove the  first boot either  by
pulling  on the toe,  or by grasping it  at
the heel and pulling it  off the foot
with a gloved hand or a bootjack.

     5.   Remove the second boot  in the
same way or by inserting the ungloved
fingers  inside the  boot and pushing  it
off without  touching the  outside  of the
boot.
              ..        -           .
Encapsulating  Suits

     In atmospheres  where  there is  a
need for complete protection of the body
from splashes or contact by vapors or
gases,  it is necessary to wear a fully-
encapsulating suit over  self-contained
breathing  apparatus.   Use  of  fully-
encapsulating suits  requires special
preparation  for donning and  doffing  and
special precautions for safe  use of  the
suits and  breathing apparatus.

     Safe  use  of   full  protective
equipment requires a team of persons  who
are physically  fit and who are trained
and practiced in use of self-contained
breathing apparatus  and  use  of  the
complete  suits.

     The  team  must  include  standby
personnel  who  are equipped and prepared:
     1.   to  carry  out  an
rescue if necessary, as well
emergency
as
     2.   to assist the wearers get into
the breathing apparatus and the  suits.

The team must also be prepared:
                              20-21'

-------
                                               NOTES
     3.   to decontaminate the outside of
the suit before it is removed, so that
wearers  are not exposed while they are
getting  out  of.the equipment.

Finally,  the  standby team mu'st be  ready:

     4.   to  assist the wearers get out
of the suits, both routinely and in an
emergency  such  as  running  low  on
breathing air.

     In  preparation for  sue of  fully-
encapsulating  suits,   all  of  the
necessary gear  should  be  assembled in a
clean change  area.   In  addition  to
trained  personnel to assist, and observe,
use  of   fully-encapsulating   suits
requires:

     1.   SCBA for the  suit wearers and
the standby personnel

     2.   Fully-encapsulating suits for
the team  entering the hazardous area

     3.   Extra protective  clothing and
equipment for the team, and

     4.    Protective clothing for  the
standby  personnel, such as gloves, boots
and disposable  suits or coveralls.

     Each suit and breathing apparatus
should  be  thoroughly  inspected  and
checked  to  see that  everything  is  in
operating order.   Any suit  which  has
holes, rips, malfunctioning closures,
cracked  masks or other deficiency must
not be used.

     Since use  of an encapsulating suit,
use  of   self-contained  breathing
apparatus,  and gathering  samples  all
require  physical  exertion, the  person
wearing  the  equipment usually  should
strip down to a minimum of clothing to
reduce   heat   stress.    This   is
particularly  important if  the sampling
takes place in  the  sun or near  hot
equipment,  or  during  warm weather or
                              20-22'

-------
                                                NOTES
under high ambient  temperatures  within
an industrial  plant.  A  light weight
suit of cotton should be worn to absorb
the sweat and increase the surface  area
that  evaporation can take place on,  thus
increasing natural  cooling.   The  cotton
garment  also  prevents  chaffing and
clinging of the  protective gear.   A
thorough dusting of talcum powder  will
assist the donning operation  and  reduce
possible damage to protective clothing.

Procedure for  Donning Full Protective
Gear

     Donning a fully-encapsulated  suit
is a  complex procedure  requiring the
coordination  and assistance of a team  of
individuals.   The   following  brief
summary does not take the  place of  more
advanced  training  required  for
certification.

     1.   Before attempting  to don  a
fully-encapsulated suit, a review should
be made of what,  equipment  is needed.
The equipment should be laid  out  within
quick  and easy reach  of  the  team.   A
check  list and practice  will  assist  a
team in preparing  for  an actual event.

          Cotton undergarments
          Encapsulating suit
          Antifog  spray
          Boots
          Tape
          Talcum powder
          Stool
          Plastic  clean sheet
          Plastic bags for disposal  or
            storage
          Brushes  for  decontaminating
          Sprayer  for  decontaminating
          Knife  or other device for
            emergency  opening of suit
          Intrinsic  Communication System
          Lifel me
          SCBA  Units
          Buckets  for decontaminating
            solutions
                             20-23-

-------
EROCHXJRE FCR OCNNING FQCZi PROTECTIVE G2AR
                       20-24'

-------
PCS. DOMING FULL PROTECTIVE QSAR (Gcnt'd.)
                   20-25'

-------
                                                NOTES
tables.  Boots will track contaminants
to auto, office and home.   Contaminated
pencils  and clipboards  will  transfer
materials  to  unprotected  hands,
clothing, steering wheels, friends and
family.

     It is obvious that the magnitude of
the problem can be immense.  It should
also   be obvious  that  control  of
contamination  requires careful  thought
and planning.

Controlling the Spread of Contaminants

     The first step in controlling the
spread of contaminants is  to carefully
plan and practice the field activities
that   can  lead  to  contact  with
contaminants.  Lay out activities such
as sampling in a manner that will reduce
or keep to a minimum,  contact  with
contaminated  surfaces.   Part  of  this
technique depends on  planning  your
activities  to  limit the number of ob-
jects  you have to  touch,  and part de-
pends  on setting aside specific  areas
for activities such as packaging samples
and changing out of  protective clothing.

     The degree of  effort necessary to
set up "clean areas," and dirty change
or contaminated area  is a function or
result of the  amount of work or contact
with the contaminants  and  the degree of
hazard of the  expected contaminants.

     In the  more advanced field  training
courses offered  by  EPA,  detailed
techniques will be covered which cover
all situations that might be faced by
Agency personnel.  In this unit a basic
program as  would  be needed for sampling
will  be covered.

     To convey the basic principles of
preventing  contaminants from leaving  a
work   site  and  entering  an  Agency
vehicle,  consider  what would  be
necessary to prevent  mud covered  work
overalls and boots from soiling  a clean,
                             20-26-

-------
                                                NOTES
new  automobile.   It  is  quite obvious
that just removing  boots or gloves would
be insufficient.  Nor would taking off
outerwear and boots while standing in
mud solve the  problem.

     A better  plan would be to find a
clean, dry area free of mud and remove
all gloves, outerwear,  and boots that
have  been exposed  to mud.   Locate  a
pathway from this clean, dry area to the
automobile  that   does   not   require
exposing the  clean  clothes  and  footwear
to mud.  Prevent covering  the trunk or
back  seat with  mud from  the  removed
outerwear by  cleansing  the  gear.   A
second  alternative would  be  to cover
them or place them  in a bag or container
that will isolate them from their clean
surroundings.   A last  precaution; hands
must be  thoroughly scrubbed to remove
mud  and a visual  inspection  made  of
likely areas of contamination such as
knees,  shoes, seat of the  plants, elbows
to ensure accidental contact  has  not
been  made.   This activity would also
extend to any  passengers  that intend to
ride in the vehicle.

     While chemical contaminants may not
be so obvious as mud, the procedure for
preventing spread of these  chemicals is
based on the same procedures.

Basic Steps to  Prevent Contamination
     1.   Place  a
closely adjacent
work area.
clean plastic  sheet
to the  contaminated
     2.   Notify crew members  or  post
warning signs as to  the  intent of the
plastic  change area.

     3.    Clearly  establish  "dirty"
pathways  from the  plastic change  or
transition area to  the work area, and
"clean" pathways from the  plastic change
area to  the outside.

     4.   To minimize traffic to  the
change area, carefully plan and  equip
                             20-27-

-------
                                               NOTES
the  area  with   tools,   samplers,
containers, decontamination equipment,
safety  gear,  and  disposal  containers
before  work begins.   Arrange  to have
clean equipment  set on  tables to  lessen
the  chance  of contamination  while
cleaning or decontamination is taking
place.    If  decontamination is  to  be
accomplished by  sprayers,  set the clean
equipment table up wind of  the area to
be used  for spraying.    Make  plans  to
collect  decontamination  solutions  so
they do  not run into  the clean area.
All decontamination solutions and gear,
such as brushes and buckets, should be
regarded as hazardous waste and either
disposed of on  site or disposed of in
the proper manner as a hazardous waste.

     Decontamination solutions should be
designed to react  with and neutralize
the  specific,  potential  contaminants
known  to be  at  the  site.   In  many
instances,  a  s.trong  solution of  hot
soapy  water  is all around the  best
decontamination solution.

     If however,  the contaminants are
unknown,  it may  be necessary  to  use
decontamination   solutions that  are
effective for a variety of  substances.
Several of these general purpose decon-
tamination solutions are listed  below:

     DECON  SOLUTION  A -  A solution
containing 5% sodium carbonate (Na2 003)
and 5%  trisodium phosphate (Na^  P04).

     DECON  SOLUTION  B - A solution
containing  10%  calcium  hypochlorite  (Ca
(C10)2)•

     DECON  SOLUTION  C -  A solution
containing 5% trisodium phosphate (Na3
PO4).   This  solution can also be used as
a general purpose  rinse.

     DECON   SOLUTION  D  - A  dilute
solution of  hydrochloric acid (HC1).
                              20-28-

-------
                                               NOTES

Cleaning or Disposing of Protective Gear

     In  instances  where  protective gear
is of the disposable type, large double
thickness plastic bags  should be used to
contain  the gear.  The  bags  should be
sealed with tape and a hazardous waste
warning  sticker  applied.   These extra
precautions will  discourage scavenging
of contaminated  gear  that  is  awaiting
disposal.

     Gear that is to be cleaned should
be  done  so  immediately   before
contaminants dry or soak into equipment.
Always clean the gear with the thought
that the next person using the gear is
trusting   their  health   to   the
effectiveness of your work.

     In  most  instances,  hot soapy water
is  best for  cleansing of  protective
gear.   Never  use solvents  or  other
solutions without consulting equipment
manufacture date for directions.  Many
manufacturers  sell   disinfectants
specifically for their equipment.

     Before packing equipment  away,
allow the equipment  to thoroughly air
dry.  Wet  equipment  not only  may be
damaged  by  being  stored  while wet, such
conditions also can lead to unsanitary
or  unpleasant  conditions such  as  the
growth of molds or fungus.

Storage  of Equipment

     Everyone has experienced  the
frustrating task  of putting  something
back into its  original  package.   In the
case of  expensive protective gear,  the
investment in  time and frustration of
storing gear properly will undoubtedly
result   in  longer  life,   reduced
maintenance and increased availability
of critical gear.   In many cases,  proper
storage eliminates   the  stress  of
handling and  transporting gear,  reduces
the change of  cross-contamination with
contaminated  gear, and punctures  and
tears from gear stored near  by.


                            20-29-

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                        STUDENT EXERCISE

     Using tables,  illustrations, and data included  in  this Unit,
select the proper protective clothing for the job described.

     A series of 55-gallon barrels  have  mysteriously shown up at
a sanitary landfill.  They were  uncovered by heavy  equipment
leveling  a pile of trash.  Some  of the barrels may  have been
damaged.   Workmen report the  following names on  the barrels:
Freon, Methyl Acetate, and Benzyl  Alcohol.   All work has stopped
until the wastes can be sampled and the hazards of  the contents
can be ascertained.   Weather  conditions are sleet mixed with
rain;  temperature at  32°F;  winds at 5-10 mph.

Body Protection	
Rationale
Head Protection
Rationale
Hand Protection
Rationale
Foot Protection
Rationale
Eye and Face Protection
Rationale
                              20-30-

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	—	—•                NODS
DECON SOLUTION D  - A  dilute
solution of hydrochloric acid  (HC1).

Cleaning or Disposing of Protective Gear

     In instances where protective gear
is of the  disposable  type,  large double
thickness plastic bags should be used to
contain the gear. The bags  should be
sealed with tape and a hazardous waste
warning sticker applied.   These extra
precautions will discourage scavenging
of contaminated gear that is awaiting
disposal.

     Gear  should   be  cleaned
immediately, before contaminants dry or
soak into  the equipment.  Always clean
the gear with the thought  that the next
person using the gear is  trusting her
(or his) health to the effectiveness of
your work.

     In most instances,  hot soapy water
is  best for  cleansing of protective
gear.  Never use solvents  or  other
solutions without  consulting  the
equipment manufacturer's  data  for
directions.  Many manufacturers sell
disinfectants  specifically  for their
equipment.

     Before packing equipment away,
allow the equipment to thoroughly air
dry.  Wet  equipment not only  may be
damaged by being stored while wet, but
such conditions also can  lead  to
unsanitary or unpleasant conditions such
as the growth of molds  or fungus.

Storage of Equipment

     Everyone  has  experienced  the
frustrating task of  putting something
back into  its original package.  In the
case of expensive protective gear, the
investment in time and frustration of
storing gear properly will undoubtedly
result  in  longer  life,  reduced
maintenance and increased  availability
of critical gear.  In many cases, proper
storage  eliminates  the stress  of
handling and transporting gear,   reduces
                                   20-31

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                                                NOTES
the chance of cross-contamination with
contaminated gear, and avoid punctures
and tears from gear stored near by.
                                   20-32-

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                        STUDENT
      Using tables,  illustrations, and data included  in this Unit,
 select the proper protective clothing for the job described.

      Several 55-gallon barrels have mysteriously shown up at a
 sanitary landfill.  They were uncovered by heavy equipment
 leveling a  pile of trash.  Some of the barrels may have been
 damaged. Workmen report the  following names on  the barrels:
 Freon,  Methyl Acetate,  and Benzyl Alcohol.  All work has  stopped
 until the wastes can be sampled and the hazards  of  the contents
 can be ascertained.   Weather conditions are sleet mixed with
 rain; temperature at 32°F; winds at 5-10 mph.
 Body Protection
 Rationale
 Head Protection
 Rationale
Hand Protection
Rationale
Foot Protection
Rationale
Eye and Face  Protection
Rationale
                                     2-33

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                            OMIT 21

                      RESPIEAICR PROTECTION
 Educational Objectives

      o The student should  be able to
 recognize  potentially  hazardous
 atmospheres  that may require respirator
 protection.

      o The student should  be able to
 define  and  apply  to  respirator
 selection, the terms Threshold Limit
 Value (TLV) and Immediately Dangerous to
 Life and  Health  (IDLH).

      o The student should  be able to
 define OSHA regulations  for  respirator
 use.

      o The student should  be able to
 define EPA policy on respirator use.

      o The student should be  able to
 recognize the  markings  of approval on
 respirator equipment.

      o The student should be  able to
 calculate _the relationship  between
 protection' factor (PF)  and  allowable
 concentrations  of contaminants.

     o The student should be  able  to
 list  the steps  to proper  fit  testing.

     o The student should be able  to
 define the  types of  air-purifying
 respirators.

     o The student  should be able  to
 evaluate  and  select the proper  air
 purifying  respirator and  cartridge.

     o The student 'should be  able  to
define the  types of air-supplying
 respirators.

     o The student should be  able to
describe the  proper steps to cleaning,
inspection, and storage of respirators.

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                      RESPIRATOR PROTBCTICN
                                               NOTES
 Introduction

      In the day-to-day field  activities
 under EPA jurisdiction, Agency employees
 are confronted with a vast variety of
 varying  and  sometimes  hostile
 condition-s.   Few conditions  are so
 immediately or potentially dangerous as
 hazardous atmospheres.  While it is the
 policy of EPA to  avoid sending personnel
 into life-threatening  conditions,  there
 are times when  such  danger  cannot be
 anticipated  or avoided.   It is  the
 objective of this unit to prepare Agency
 personnel  with  the basic information
 needed to make intelligent decisions as
 to  when,  where  and  how to  use
 respiratory protective devices.   The
 knowledge conveyed in the  following unit
 does not take the  place of  the more
 comprehensive  units given in  the
 intermediate  or advanced levels of
 training, which must be taken to work in
 certain anticipated  hazardous
 conditions..

 Recognizing  Potentially Hazardous
 Atmospheres

     Respiratory protection is needed if
 personnel must enter any  area in which
 there  may be  either  a deficiency of
 oxygen or a  high  concentration of
 hazardous material in  the air.  In such
 atmospheres, life or health may depend
 on using respiratory equipment which can
 provide a supply of breathing air.

     Respiratory hazards may exist at
 spill   scenes,   in  the  vicinity  of
discharge or  emission sites, within
 industrial plants,  and  at  hazardous
 waste  sites.   EPA policies require
respiratory protection when there has
been a release of toxic gases or vapors,
when there is  a  high  potential  for a
sudden  release  of  such material, or when
 it is necessary to enter an environment
where  toxic airborne contaminants are
either  known to be present or are likely
                                    21-1

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                                               NOTES

to be present.

     Not all dangerous atmospheres are
obvious.   Some  toxic gases have no odor
nor visible  sign of their presence.  The
need for respiratory protection may not
be apparent.

     The behavior of others  may not be a
good indication  of   the need  for
respiratory  protection.   For example, if
you make a walk-through inspection of a
plant, do you need to wear a respirator
if the company representative does not
wear one?   The company representative
who guides the Agency personnel  may or
may not be a good example to follow.  He
or she may  not be aware of or believe
there  are hazards  that   require
respiratory protection,  or may  not be
willing  to  acknowledge that  there are
dangerous  concentration of  toxic
materials in the air.

     Even if hazards are  recognized,  if
personnel plan to spend considerable
time in the plant  taking samples  or
making  observations,  they  may need
respiratory  protection where others are
not wearing  it.

     Some employees may have developed a
tolerance to irritating  materials,  and
others may have developed allergies and
been transferred  to other  work areas.
The  reaction  of  EPA  personnel  to a
particular atmosphere may be different
from the reaction of employees who work
there regularly.

     Agency  personnel   may also  need
respiratory  protection because  the areas
where  they  will be  working  may  have
higher concentrations of  airborne toxic
material than areas where employees worx
routinely.

     Personnel in the sampling routine
may  be required to  visit  many  different
variety of toxic materials  than someone
                                    21-2

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                                               MOTES
 who works in only one place.

 Respiratory Hazards

     Oxygen Deficiency

          When it is necessary to enter
 a confined space/  one of  the most
 important considerations  is whether
 there is  sufficient oxygen  in  the
 atmosphere to  enter  and work safely in
 the space.   An oxygen deficiency  and
 high  concentration  of hazardous
 materials may occur  in unventilated  and
 confined spaces such as the  interiors of
 tanks, vats,  pits,  trailers, sewers,
 grain elevators,  unventilated  rooms  and
 abandoned buildings.

     Oxygen  deficiency can occur  if
 vapors or gases displace  part of the  air
 in  pits  and open tanks,  or  in other
 types  of confined  spaces.   Oxygen
deficient atmospheres can occur when  air
 is  displaced  by  gases and vapors,  or
where the oxygen is removed by oxidation
processes such as fire,  rusting,  or
aerobic microbial action.   The effects
of oxygen deficiency on a person can
range from minor to extremely serious.
 (Table 19-1)
                                     21-3

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                           TABLE 19-1
            Physiological effect of oxygen deficiency
 % Oxygen  (by volume)
    At sea Level                  Effects
        21                       Nothing abnormal.

      16-12                       Increased breathing volume.
                                 Accelerated heartbeat.  Impaired
                                 attention and thinking.  Impaired
                                 coordination.

      14-10                       Very faulty judgment.  Very poor
                                 muscular coordination.  Muscular
                                 exertion brings on rapid fatigue
                                 that may cause permanent heart
                                 damage.  Intermittent respiration.

      10-6                        Nausea.  Vomiting.   Inability to
                                 perform vigorous movement,  or loss
                                 of all  movement.  Unconsciousness,
                                 followed by death.

       <6                        Spasmatic breathing.  Convulsive
                                 movements.  Death in minutes.
                                                NOTES
     Physiological  effects  of oxygen
deficiency are not apparent until the
concentration decreases  to  16%.   The
various  regulations and standards
dealing with respirator use  recommend
that percentages ranging from  16-19.5%
be considered indicative of an oxygen
deficiency.   Such  numbers  take  into
account  individual physiological
responses, errors  in measurement, and
other safety considerations.   for
hazardous response  operations,  19.5%
oxygen ifTajj: is_  the figure that decI3es
between air-purifying and atmosphere-
supplying respirators.   EPA  standards
require special  respiratory  protection
for entry in any  atmosphere containing
less than  19.5% oxygen.
                                      21-4

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                                               NOTES

     Aerosols

         Aerosol is  a term  used to
describe fine  participates (solid or
liquid)  suspended in air.  Particulates
include dust and other minute particles
such as found  with coal an asbestos,
mists, fogs, smoke  fumes,  and sprays.
The  effect of aerosols range  from
irritation and  inflammation to  systemic
poisons.

     Gaseous or Toxic Materials

         Gases or  vapors  containing
toxic materials may have immediate or
delayed  health   affects   on   the
individual.  Inhalation of certain  toxic
gases may  have  acute and deadly effects
with as little as a few short  breaths.
No danger is more immediate, nor effect
more  persistent,  than the action of
toxic materials that enter by way of the
respiratory tract.   The following list
gives the chemical  classification of
dangerous  toxic substances  that may
enter through the respiratory track:

     Chemical Classification

         o Acidic:   substances that are
 acids or react with water to form acids.

         o Alkaline:   substances that
are bases or react with water to form
bases.

         o Organic:  carbon compounds
which may range   from  methane  to
chlorinated organic  solvents.

         o Organometal1ic:    organic
compounds containing metals.

         o Hydrides: compounds in  which
hydrogen is bonded to another metal.
         o  Inert:     no   chemical
reactivity.
                                   21-5

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                                               NOTES
 Groups, of these substances,  based  on
 phjysiological (toxicological) activity
 include:

          o  Irritants:   corrosive
 substances which  injure and inflame
 tissue.
          o Asphyxiants:  substances
 which displace oxygen or prevent the use
 of oxygen in the body.

          o Anesthetics:  substances
 which depress  the  central  nervous
 system, causing intoxication or a loss
 of sensation.

          o  Systemic   poisons:
 substances which can cause pathology in
 various organ  systems.

     Measurements of Respiratory Hazards

          Two values   are used to
 describe respiratory hazards.  The
 first,  the Threshold Limit Value (TLV),
 is a time-weighted average concentration
 for a particular substance.  Almost all
 workers can be exposed to this  level 40
 hours a week without suffering adverse
health  effects.  The TLV is  recommended
by the   A.merican  Conference  of
Governmental Industrial  Hygienists
 (ACGIH).   Table 19-2  illustrates   a
summary  of  TLV's  of  some  common
hazardous  materials.
                                     21-6

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                       TABLE 19-2
                SELECTED IDLH & 1984-G5 TLV VALUES
 Comfiound
 acetaldehyde
 acetic acid
 acetic anhydride
 acetone
 acryloni trile
 ammoni a
 arsine
 benzene
 benzyl  chloride
 bromine
 2-butanone  (MEK)
 carbon dioxide
 carbon disulfide
 carbon monoxide
 carbon tetrachloride
 chlorine
 •fluorine
 formic acid
 hexane
 hydrazine
 hydrogen chloride
 hydrogen cyanide
 hydrogen fluoride
 hydrogen peroxide
 hydrogen sul-fide
 isoamyl acetate
 isopropyl alcohol
 liquified petroleum gas  (LPG)
 methyl alcohol
 methylene chloride
 naphthalene
 nitric acid
 pentaborane
 pentane
 phenol
 phosgene
phosphorous trichloride
 propane
styrene
 toluene
toluene-2,4-dii socyanate
 trichloroethylene
turpentine
>:yl ene
IDLH
ppm
10000
1000
1000
2O0OO
4000
500
6
2000
10
10
3000
50000
500
1500
300
25
25
100
5000
SO
100
50
20
75
300
3000
2OOOO
19000
25000
5000
500
100
w
5000
100
^
50
20000
5OOO
2000
2000
1000
1900
100QO
JLV^TWA
ppm
100
10
5 C
750
2 skin
25
0.05
10 (A2)
1
0. 1
200
5000
10 skin
50
5 skin
1
1
5
50
0.1 ski
5 C
10 C ski
3
1
10
100
400
1000
200 skin
100
10
i
0.005
600
5 skin
0. 1
0.2
- E
50
100
0.005
50
100
100






(A2)










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 IDLH can be based not only on toxicity,
 but also on other characteristics such
 as f lammability.  An atmosphere which is
 within the flammable or explosive limit
 of the contaminant is  also considered
 IDIH.

      EPA  has  further defined or
 simplified th meaning of IDLH as:

           "Any atmosphere that poses an
 immediate hazard to life or produces
 immediate irreversible effects on health
 that will be debilitating."

     Respirator Use

          The Occupational  Safety and
 Health Administration  (OSHA)  is the
 policy formulating  regulatory agency
 for  worker respiratory protection.  The
 source of OSHA's  policy is  found  in 29
 CFR Part  1910.134 and is summarized as
 follows:

     1.    Written standard operating
 procedures governing the selection and
 use of respirators shall  be established.

     2.   Respirators  shall  be selected
 on the basis of hazards to which the
 worker is exposed.

     3.    The user shall be  instructed
 and  trained in  the  proper  use of
 respirators and their limitations.

     4.     Where  practical,   the
 respirators  should be  assigned to
 individual workers  for their exclusive
 use.

     5.    Respirators shall be cleaned
 and disinfected regularly.  Those issued
 for the  exclusive use  of one worker
 should be cleaned  after each day's use,
or more often if  necessary.  Those used
by more  than one worker   shall be
cleaned and disinfected thoroughly after
each use.
                                     21-8

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                                              NOTES
     6.   Respirators shall be stored in
a convenient, clean, and sanitary location.

     7.    Respirators used  routinely
shall  be inspected  during  cleaning.
Worn  or  deteriorated parts  shall  be
replaced.  Respirators for emergency use
such as self-contained devices shall be
thoroughly inspected  at  least  once a
month and after each use.

     8.   Appropriate surveillance of
v/ork  area  conditions  and degree  of
employee exposure  or stress shall be
maintained.

     9.    There  shall  be  regular
inspection and evaluation to  determine
the  continued  effectiveness  of the
program.

    10.   Persons should not be assigned
to tasks requiring use of respirators
unless it has been determined  that they
are physically able to perform the work
and  use  the  equipment.   The  local
physician shall determine what health
and physical conditions are pertinent.
The respirator  user's medical  status
should be reviewed periodically (for
instance, annually).

     It  is  EPA policy  to  provide
appropriate  respiratory protective
devices  for  EPA employees, and  to
require use of such protective devices
whenever they are necessary to protect
employee  health.   Employees are entitled
to wear respiratory protection if they
are  irritated by  any material  even
though the concentrations of  material
may not be expected to cause any adverse
health effects, ands  even thcugh the
concentrations do net seem  to  effect
others nearby in a similar way.

     EPA policy requires  use  of
respiratory protection  in  four
situations:

     1.   When there is a high  potential
                                   21-9

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                                               NOTES
 for a sudden release of toxic gases or
 vapors or there has been such a release.

      2.    When  preparing  to  enter
 hazardous environments or locations such
 as waste or  spill sites, where it is
 known, or there is a reasonable belief,
 that  toxic airborne contaminants are
 present.

      3.    When  preparing  to  enter
 confined spaces, such as manholes and
 unventilated buildings where there may
 be an ox>-jen  deficiency.

      4.   During infrequent  but routine
 operations where it is not feasible to
 limit concentrations of toxic material
 to safe levels by engineering controls.

      Respirator Selection

          Before selecting a respirator
 for use,  check to ensure it has  been
 approved  by a recognized  agency such as
 the   Mine  Safety  and   Health
 Administration (MSHA) or the National
 Institute for Occupational  Safety and
 Health  Administration.   (NIOSH).
 Approvals for respirators are based on
 tests  conducted at the  National
 Institute for Occupational  Safety  and
 Health  (NIOSH)  Testing Laboratory.

     All respirators built to the same
 specifications will have an approval
 designation displayed on the  respirator
 or its container.  The designation will
 consist of the letters TC (for Testing
 and Certification)  and two groups of
 numbers which  indicate  the type of
 equipment and the specific  approval.
 The approval label  will  also include  the
 names of the certifying agencies.

     Respirators that meet Federal
design and test standards will have an
approval  designation  showing joint
approval by the Mine Safety and Health
Administration  (MSHA)  and NIOSH, and the
respirators will  be  included in the
                                   21-10

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                                               NOTES
  NIOSH Certified Equipment List.

      If a respirator is approved  and
  listed for protection against  organic
  vapors, remember that the approval is
  only for organic vapors with adequate
  warning properties.

      Recently-approved cartridges  and
 canisters will show MSHA and NIOSH  on
 the approval label.

      (Note  to Instructor:  Older
 respirators  may show  the  Mining
 Enforcement and Safety Administration
 (MESA)  or the  Bureau  of  Mines as  the
 approval agency.)

     A   listing  of  all   approved
 respirators and respirator components is
 available in  the NIOSH  Certified
 Equipment  List.    Editions  and
 supplements are issued periodically.
 Chemical  cartridge or  canister
 respirators  do not provide  reliable
 protection  against  organic  vapors
 without adequate warning properties, and
 such respirators must not be used for
 protection against such vapors.

     The only organic vapors for which
 an air purifying respirator  is approved
 or acceptable are those which provide a
 reliable odor or a noticeable irritation
 at  a concentration  which is  at  or
 slightly below  the permissible exposure
 limit.   Organic vapors are  not
 considered  to  have adequate warning
 properties if  they cause  olfactory
 fatigue, or if  they cannot be detected
 until their concentration exceeds the
 permissible exposure  limit.  They are
 also not considered to have adequate
 warning properties  if they can be
detected  at   extremely   low
concentrations,  so   that  they  are
detected long before their concentration
presents any hazard.

     Periodically, NIOSH  publishes a
list of all approved  respiratbrs  and
                                 21-11

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                                              NOTES
respirator  components.   The  list is
entitled the NIOSH Certified Equipment
List.   Respiratory apparatus  can be
divided into two general types:

     Air-purifying -  those that filter
out contaminants.

     Air-supplying -  those that supply
air by means of a cylinder of  compressed
gas or oxygen or by an air-line.

     All respirators are composed of two
main components, the facepiece and the
device which supplies or  purifies air.
The  facepiece  comes   in  three
configurations  which relate to  the
amount  of protection the  respirator
affords:

     o Quarter Mask (Type B -  Half Mask)
fits  from nose to top  of  chin  and
utilizes two-or four-point suspension.

     o Half  Mask (Type A  -  Half Mask)
fits under chin and over the nose and
must have  four-point suspension.

     o Full  Facepiece - covers all of
the face  from under the chin to  the
forehead.    It provides  the best
protection because it is more easily
fitted on  the face.

     Respirator Fit-testing

         One  of the most  important
requirements of respiratory  protection
is proper fit-testing of respirators.
Not all respirators  fit  everyone,  so
each  individual  must find  out which
facepiece fits best.  To be approved, a
respirator must be  fit-tested utilizing
accepted fit-test media and procedures.

     There are two  types of fit-tests,
quantitative and  qualitative.   The
quantitative test is an analytical  test
which measures the  concentrations
outside and inside  the facepiece.   The
relative  difference   between
                                    21-12.

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                                                NOTES
concentrations,  termed the Protection
Factor (PF), is used in conjunction with
the accepted Threshold Limit Value  (TLV)
to determine the  maximum concentration
the user may be exposed to while wearing
the tested respirator.

     Table  19-3  lists  all  types of
respirators  and the PF's.
                                  21-n

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                               TAEC£ 19-3

                  Selected respirator pro Lection factors

Type of Respirator                         PF (Qualitative Test)
Air-purifying
     quarter-mask                                   f-"
     Half-mask                                      10
Air-line
     quarter-mask                                   ^"
     half-mask                                      10
Hose mask
     full facepiece                                  1U
SCBA, demand
     quarter-mask                                   *~
     half-mask                                      10
Air-purifying
     full fao
Air-line, demand
full facepiece                                 10°
     full facepiece                                 10°
SCBA, demand
     full facepiece                                 1CO

Air-line, pressure-demand,
with escape provision
     full facepiece  (no test required)             10,000+
SCBA, pressure-demand or
positive pressure
     full facepiece  (no test required)             10,000+


     The  following  example  using PF
information indicates  the  degree of
difference between half-face masks and
full-face masks:

     If  a  respirator  passes  the
qualitative test,  it can be worn in
concentrations  determined by  the
assigned Protection Factor  (PF).  The
maximum concentration is calculated by
multiplying the TLV  of the contaminant
by  its  PF.   PF's for cartridge and
canister respirators are:

     o HaIf-face mask, 10X

     o Full-face mask, 100X

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                                               NOTES
 Example:  Protection  (ppm)  =  PF x TLV

                          =  10 x 10

                          =  100 ppm

 Thus, for substance x with a TLV of 10,
 the half-mask  respirator provides
 protection up to concentration of 100
 ppm of  the substance.

 Pitting a Respirator and Testing the
 Seal

     Each person  who  may be  expected to
 wear an air purifying respirator (or a
 demand  type of air supplying  respirator)
 for any field activity should  have an
 opportunity before going  into  a field
 situation  to  find a facepiece  that
 provides a good tight seal with his or
 her face.  This requires  trying  on
 facepieces  to find  one that seems  to
 fit, and  then testing the seal to  be
 sure the fit is adequate.

    Fitting a Respirator

         Not  all sizes  and shapes  of
 faces can be fitted with a  respirator
 facepiece that will  provide the tight
 seal necessary for  protection.  Each
 person  should be allowed to  choose the
 most comfortable facepiece that provides
 a satisfactory fit.  Respirators should
 be assigned  to individual  employees  for
 their exclusive use,  if possible.   It a
 person cannot  find a facepiece that  fits
 tightly, the only  way  to get respiratory
 protection is to  use  equipment which
 provides a continuous flow of air or a
 positive pressure.

    Each  time a  person puts on an air
purifyiung respirator, the fit of the
 facepiece should be checked  to be sure
 that the  seal will  provide as  much
protection as  possible.
TLV(X)
PF
10 ppm
10
     A  tight seal  is difficult  or
impossible  to  achieve  if there  is

-------
 anything  which  gets  between  the
 facepiece and the skin, such as parts of
 eyeglass  frames,  long  hair,  long
 sideburns,  a beard or beard stubble.
 (In  one  EPA  operation,  standard
 procedures specified that male employees
 shaveevery   day  to assure  optimum fit
 of the facepiece.)  A tight  seal  is also
 difficult to achieve if a person chews
 gum  or tobacco,  or is  missing one or
 both dentures!

     Testing  the  Seal

         Testing  the  fit of  the
 facepiece  seal  is required  with  all
 negative-pressure respirators every time
 they are  used.   Negative-pressure
 respirators  include all air purifying
 respirators  except  those that  are
 powered.  Any air supplying respirator
 that  is  operated  in  the demand mode
 should be tested  for fit each time it is
 used.  Three tests should be used to get
 maximum protection from a respirator.

     Either the negative pressure test
 or  the  positive  pressure  test  is
 required  every  time a  negative-pressure
 respirator  is used.  The qualitative fit
 test is required only before the initial
 use of each different  type  of  negative-
 pressure  respirator and again annually.

     To prepare for testing  the fit of a
 respirator, place  the respirator over
 the face and  draw up the straps, one at
a time, beginning first with the bottom
 straps.  The straps are drawn up so that
 the facepiece  fits securely, without
being  so  tight  that   it causes
discomfort.

     Negative Pressure  Test

         The purpose  of the  negative
pressure  test is to see if the facepiece
 is tight  enough to maintain a negative
pressure  without  leakage.
                                    21-16

-------
                                                 NOTES
      Close off  the cartridge or canister
 inlet with the  palm of your hand.

      Inhale gently for about ten seconds
 so that the facepiece is drawn against
 your face.

      If you feel a flow of air along the
 edge of the facepiece,  the  inward air
 flow indicates  leakage.

      If you have leakage,  tighten the
 straps and try  the test again.

      If the  leakage  continues, get
 another type of facepiece or another
 type of respirator.

      If you are testing the  fit  of  an
 air supplying  respirator, such  as  an
 SCBA,  close off the facepiece hose with
 the palm of your hand before you connect
 the hose  to the  regulator.   Inhale
 gently to  feel if there are any leaks  of
 air into the facepiece along its edges.
 This test  is optional if the apparatus
 will  be  operated  in  the  positive
 pressure-demand mode.

     Positive Pressure Test

          The positive pressure   test
 will determine  whether the facepiece  is
 tight  enough to maintain  a positive
 pressure.

     Take a breath and hold it briefly
 while you take the  next step.

     Close  off the exhalation valve with
 the palm of your hand.

     Exhale gently for about ten seconds
 to build a  positive pressure within the
 facepiece.

     If a positive pressure cannot be
built up and there is an outward flow of
air, there  is  leahace.
                                     21-17-

-------
                                                NUXE5
      If  you have  leakage,  you  can
 tighten  the straps  and try  the  test
 again.

     If the  leakage  continues,   get
 another  type of facepiece or another
 type of respirator.

      On an  air purifying  respirator,
 such as this one,  the exhalation valve
 is usually the bottom valve.   It opens
 when you  exhale.  The upper valve is the
 inhalation valve, which closes when you
 exhale into  the  facepiece.

      Qualitative Fit Test

          The qualitative  fit  test
 determines  whether the fit  is tight
 enough  to  prevent  leakage of a
 detectable odor in through the seal.
 Respirators with particulate filters are
 tested by exposure to an irritant such
 as smoke,  and  those  with chemical
 sorbent  filters  by  exposure to an
 odorant such as  isoamyl acetate (banana
 oil) .

     The test material  is released close
 to the edges of the sealing surfaces of
 the facepiece, to find out if the wearer
 is able to detect any  odor.  First the
 leakage  is  tested with  the wearer
 remaining sedentary for about a minute;
 then the wearer  performs head and face
 movements that might occur naturally.

     If leakage is detected,  tighten the
 straps and retest.

     If the  leakage continues,   get
 another type of facepiece or  another
 type of respirator.

     A variation of the qualitative  test
uses a  test  chamber,  consisting of a
special plastic  bag or tent-like hood
which can be filled with a concentration
of the test material, and into which  the
wearer can insert her or his head while
wearing the  respirator.   Leakage is
                                    21-18

-------
                                               NLUfcSa
  tested first with the wearer  remaining
  sedentary for about a minute; then the
  wearer performs  exercises simulating
  work,  such as  bending over and running
  in place.

      Qualitative  fit  tests  are
  recommended annually and whenever EPA
  employees are going to be entering or
  working in particularly  hazardous
  exposures .

 RESPIRATOR TYPES

      Air-Purifying Respirators

 I .    Introduction

      Any respirator is used because  the

 concentration  of a contaminant is high
 enough to cause  some  type of health
 effect. This may range from respiratory
 irritation through systemic damage to
 death.  The guidelines used to decide
 the need for  a respirator are  the
 Threshold Limit Values.  A concentration
 greater  than  the TLV requires
 respiratory   protection.   If  the
concen tra tion  use limits oF an  air-
purifying respirator, then that type may
be  used.   rf _it LS^ greater,  then an
atmosphere supplying apparatus must be
worn.

     Air-purifying respirators can be
used only  under  the  following
circumstances :

     o The identity and concentration of
the contaminant are known.

     o The oxygen content in air is at
Least 19.5%.

     o The contaminant has  adequate
warning  properties.

     o Approved canisters  for  the
contaminant and  concentration  are
                                    21-19-

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                                               NC7EE5
  available.

      o The concentration does not exceed
  the IDLH.

      Individuals who use air-purifying
  respirators must wear a  respirator which
  has been  successfully  fitted  to their
  faces.   Host individual  respirators will
  fit only 60% of the working population.
  But with the variety  of respirators
  available, at least one type should be
  found   to fit  an  individual.   An
  improperly fitted respirator delivers
  little  of the protection promised.

  II.   Requirements  for  respirator
 selection.

     A.   Identification and Measurement

     Before the appropriate  air-
 purifying device can be selected,  the
 contaminant must  be identified and
 measured.  This  requires sampling and
 analysis.   Selection of a device  is
 based   on  the  highest  possible
 concentration of  the contaminant.

     Once a respirator has been selected
 and  worn  in  the  contaminated
 environment,  the atmosphere  must be
 monitored periodically.   Otherwise,
 increased contaminant levels may present
 a hazard the respirator is not capable
 of  handling.

     B.   Oxygen Content

     The  normal atmosphere contains
 approximately  21%  oxygen.   The
 physiological effects of reduced oxygen
 begin to be evident at 16%.  Without
 regard  to contaminants, the atmosphere
 must contain a minimum of 19.5% oxygen
 to  permit use  of an air-purifying
 respirator.  This  is a legal requirement
of 30 CFB Part 11 and a recommendation
of  ANSI Z88.2  - 1980.   BElow  19.5%
oxygen, atmosphere-supplying respirators
must be  used instead.
                                     21-20

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                                                NOTES

      C.  Warning Properties

      A warning property is a sign that a
 cartridge  or  canister  in use  is
 beginning to lose its effectiveness.  At
 the first such signal,  the old cartridge
 or canister  must be exhanged for a fresh
 one.   Without a warning property,
 respirator  efficiency may drop without
 the knowledge of the wearer, ultimately
 causing a health hazard.

      A warning property can be detected
 as an odor,  tasts, or irritation.  Most
 substances have warning  properties at
 some concentration.  A warning property
 detected  only at  dangerous levels —
 that  is,  greater than TLV — is not
 considered adequate.  An odor, taste, or
 irritation detected atr extremely low
 concentrations  is also  not adequate
 because the  warning is being given all
 the time or  long before  the  filter
 begins to lose its effectiveness.  En
 this case,  the wearer  woulds  never
 realize when the filter actually becomes
 ineffective.

     The best concentration  for  a
 warning property to be detectable is
 around the TLV.  Table 19-4 lists odor
 thrsholds for a number of substances and
 their  respective TLV's  (shown under the
 "adopted  values  TWA column).    For
 example, toluene diisocsccyanate has a
 TLV of 0.005 ppm.  The  odor threshold,
 2.14 ppm,  is over 400 times the  TLV,
 obviously not an  adequate warning
 property.   An odor threshold of 4.68 ppm
 for benzene, versus a TLV of 10 ppn, is
 an  adequate  warning  property.
 Dimethuylformamide  has  a TLV of 10  ppm
 and an odor  threshold  of  100 ppm.   An
 odor threshold  10 times  greater than the
 TLV is not adequate.

     If a  substance  causes  olfactory
 fatigue (that is, the sense of smell  is
 no longer effective),  its odor is not an
adequate warning property.  For example,
upon entering  an atmosphere containing
hydsrogen  sulfide,  the odor is quita
                                    21-21-

-------
                                                NOTES
noticeable.   After a  short period of
time, it is no longer detectable.
                                     21-22

-------
                                   TABLE  19-4
                   Odor Thresholds In Air as Compared to Threshold Limit Values (1979)
Compound
Acataldahyde
Acatic acid
Acetone
Aeroletn
Acrylonitrile
Ally! Chloride
Amirie dimethyl
Aminei rttonomethyl
Amine. Trimathyl
Ammonia
Aniline
Benzene
wyl chloride
.
-------
                                         TAHIZ  13-4 Cont'd.
                    Odor Threshold* in Air as Compaied to Threshold Limit Values (1979Mccn't>
npound
Octdr betcrtption
    Adopted
     Values
      TWA
ppm       mo/m'
                                                                                                       Tt ntalive
                                                                                                        Values
                                                                                                        5TEL
                                                                                                  ppm       mg/m?
•ncJ
ugenej
itphine
.dine
rene (inhibited)
fene (uninhibited)
lur dichtoride
'ur dio'ide
jcnelfrom eofce)
jene (from petroleum)
''en« diisocvanate
"•Moroelhylene
0047
1.0
0021
0021
01
0047
O.OO1
047
a da
2.14
2.14
il 4
•Madicina,
MaV-'iW
dniony. mustard
burnt, pungent, diamine
Solventy. rubbery
Solventy. rubbery, plesticy
SulfWy

Floral, pungent, solvemv
Moth bells, rubbery
Medicated bandage, pungent
iSoiWnly
5
0.1
0.3
S

50
—
2
100
—
0005
50
19
04
04
15

215
—
S
375
—
004
270
10
—
1
10

100
—
5
ISO
—
002
ISO
38
—
1
30

OS
—
15
560
—
0 IS
SOS
-Jijm»n eercinooen* Substenee reeogniied to rieve carcinogenic potential without in assigned TLV
:sein teal subste nee suspected of Inducing cancer be ted on either (I) limited epidemiologie evidence, oelusiveol clinical reoort of single caset
ft (2) demonstration of carcinogenesis in one or more animal species by appropriate methods
^ is eipecied lhal Ihis tubitance will soon be1 classified in category (bl above
                                                        21-24

-------
                                              NOTES
      D.    Li/nits  of  Cartirdges  or
 Canisters

      Cartridges  or canisters used to
 clean breathing  air do not remove the
 contaminant efficiently  forever.
 Eventually, they will no  longer filter
 or sorb the contaminants.  The higher
 the concentration,  the faster the
 cartridge is  used up.  To avoid quick
 wearing out and afford longer service,
 cartridges are assigned a maximum use
 concentration above which they should
 not be used.

     E.  IDLH

     An air-purifying respirator can be
 worn  in  atmospheres  up  to  the
 concentration  limits placed on its
 cartridge.  This remains true as long as
 the maximum use concentration is not
 immediately dangerous to life  or health
 (IDLH)  — that  is,  one  that causes
 irreversible damage to life or health
 within 30 minutes by toxic action.  An
 atmosphere which is within the  flammable
 or explosive limits of the contaminant
 is  also  considered  IDLH.   If  the
 concentration is at an IDLH level for
 any reason, and  still within the use
 limits approved  for the cartridge,  no
 air purifying respirator can be  worn.
 Only an approved positive pressure self-
 contained  breathing  apparatus  is
 allowed.

 III.  Types of Air-Fur ifying Devices

    Basically,  respiratory hazards can
be  broken down  into two  classes:
particulates,   and vapors and  gases.
 Particulates are filtered by mechanical
means, while  vapors and gases are
removed  by  sorbents  that react
chemically with them.  Respirators using
a combination of mechanical filter and
chemical sorbent will effectively remove
both hazards.
                                    21-25

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                                               NOTES
     A.  Particulate-Removing Filters

     Particulates can occur as dusts,
fumes, or mists.  The particle size can
range  from  macroscopic to microscopic,
and "their toxico logical  effects range
from  severe or innocuous.  The hazard
posed by a particulate can be determined
by its TLV.  A nuisance particulate will
have a TLV of 10 mg/ ml,  while a toxic
particulate  may~have TLV well below 0.05
mg/rn^
     Mechanical  filters  are classified
according to the protection for which
they are approved under schedule 21C of
30  CFR Part  II.   Most  particulate
filters  are approved  only for dusts
and /or  mists  with  TLV's equal  to  or
greater than 0.05 mg/mL  These duest
are usually  considered  to  produce
pneumoconiosis* and fibrosis but  are not
toxic.   Such filters have  an efficiency
of  80-90%  for  0.6 millimeter  (mm)
particles .
* (chronic fibrous reaction)

     Respirators  approved for fumes are
more efficient,  removing  90-99%  for 0.6
mm  particles.  This type of respirator
is approved for dusts,  fumes and mists
with TLV's equal  to or greater  than 0.05
mg/m^.

     Finally there is a high efficiency
filter,  which is  99.7% effective against
particles 0.3 microns in diameter.  It
is approved for dusts,  mists, and fumes
with a  TLV less than 0.05  mg/m-3.

     Mechanical  filters  load  up  with
particulates as they are  used.  As they
do they become  more  efficient,  but also
become more  difficult  to  breathe
through.  When a mechanical filter
becomes difficult to breathe through,  it
should  be replaced.

     B.    Vapor-  or  Gas -Removing
Cartridges
                                     21-26

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                                              NOTES
     Sorbents are manufactured to remove
a  specific  chemical  or  group  of
chemicals.  In contrast, particulate-
removing  filters remove particulates
regardless  of  their  composition.
Sorbents are  available  to remove
specific organic vapors, acid gases, and
ammonia,  among others.  Each sorbent has
a maximum concentration use limit for
that  specific  contaminant.  Once a
sorbent has  been filled up  with the
contaminant, it will "breakthrough" —
that is,  it will allow  the full ambient
concentration of the contaminant to
enter  the   facepiece.   Again,  in
contrast, particulate-removing filters
become more  efficient (but harder to
breathe through)  as they fill up.   There
is no breakthrough.

     Chemical sorbents  also  vary in
their ability to  remove  contaminants
(Table  19-5).    For example, vinyl
chloride takes only 3.8  minutes to  reach
a 1%% breakthrough — that is,  for  1% of
the ambient concentration to enter the
facepiece.  In comparison,  it  takes 107
minutes for chlorobenzene to reach 1%
breakthrough.  Thus, chlorobenzene is
removed much more efficiently than  vinyl
chloride.  Cartridge efficiencies  (Table
19-5) should also  be  considered  when
selecting air-purifying respirators.
Studies of cartridge efficiencies are
referenced in the Appendix.
                                  21-27

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                           TRHIZ 19-5                       ,
  Effect of Solvent Vapor on Respirator Cartrid^s Efficiency*

	Time to Reach 1% Breakthrough (iu ppmj
Solvent                               Minutes2


Aromatics
     Benzene                            73
     Toluene                            94
     Ethyl benzene                      84
     m-Xylene                           99
     Cumene                             81
     Mesitylene                         86

Alcohols3
     Methanol                            0.2
     Ethanol                            28
     Isopropanol                        54
     Allyl alcohol                      66
     n-Propanol                         70
     sec-Butanol                        96
     Butanol                           115
     2-Methoxyethanol                  116
     Isoamyl alcohol                    97
     4-Methyl-2-pentanol                75
     2-Ethoxyethanol                    77
     Amyl alcohol                      107
     2-Ethyl-l-butanol                  76.5

Moncchlorides3
     Methyl chloride                     0.05
     Vinyl chloride                      3.8
     Ethyl chloride                      5.6
     Allyl chloride                     31
     l-<2iloropropane                    25
     1-Chlorobutane                     75
     Chlorocyclopentane                 78
     Chlorobenzene                     107
     1-Chlorohexane                     77
     o-Chlorotoluene                   102
     1-Chloroheptane                    82
     3-(Chloromethyl heptane)           63

Dichlorides3
     Dichloromethane                    10
     trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene         33
     1,l-Dichloroethane                 23
     cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene           30
     1,2-Dichloroethane                 54
     1,2-Dichloropropane                65
     1,4-Dichlorobutane                108
     o-Dichlorobenzene                 109
                                         21-28

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                       TABEE 19-5 Cont'd


 Solvent
Time to Reach 1% Breakthrough (10 ppm)
            Minutes 2
Trichlorides3
     Chloroform                         33
     Methyl chloroform                  40
     Trichloroethylene                  55
     1,1,2-Trichloroethane              72
     1,2,3-Trichloropropane            111

Tetra- and Pentachlorides3
     Carbon tetrachloride               77
     Perchloroethylene                 107
     1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane         104
     Pentachloroethane                  93

Acetates

     Methyl acetate                     33
     Vinyl acetate                      55
     Ethyl acetate                      67
     Isopropyl acetate                  65
     Isopropenyl acetate                83
     Propyl acetate                     79
     Allyl acetate                      76
     sec-Butyl acetate                  83
     Butyl acetate                      77
     Isopentyl acetate                  71
     2-Methoxyethyl acetate             93
     1,3-DimethyIbutyl acetate          61
     Amyl acetate                       73
     3-Ethoxyethyl acetate              80
     Hexyl acetate                      67

Ketones  4

     Acetone                            37
     2-Butanone                         82
     2-Pentanone                       104
     3-Pentanone                        94
     4-Methyl-2-pentanone               96
     Mesityl oxide                     122
     Cyclopentanone                    141
     3-Heptanone                        91
     2-Heptanone                       101
     Cyclohexanone                     126
     5-Methyl-3-heptanone               86
     3-«ethylcyclohexanone              101
     Diisobutyl ketone                  71
     4-Methylcyclohexanone              111
                                        21-29

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                        TABLE 19-5 Ccnt'd.
                         Time to Reach  1% Breakthrough (10 ?pm)
 Solvent                            in  Minutes2
 Alkanes4
      Pentane                      61
      Hexane                       52
      Methylcyclopentane           62
      Cyclohexane                   69
      2,2,4-Trimethylpentane        68
      Heptane                      78
      Methylcyclohexane             69
      5-Ethylidene-2-norbornene     87
      Nonane                       76
      Decane                       71

Amines4
      Methyl amine                  12
      Ethyl  amine                   40
      Isopropyl amine               66
      Propyl amine                  90
      Die thy 1 amine                 88
      Butyl  amine                  110
      Triethy1 amine                81
      Dipropyl amine                93
      Diisopropyl amine             77
      Cyclohexyl amine             112
      Dibutyl amine                 76

Miscellaneous materials
      Acrylonitrile                 49
      Pyridine                     119
      1-Nitropropane               143
      Methyl  iodide                 12
      Dibromomethane                82
      1,2-Dibromoethane            141
      Acetic anhydride             124
      Bromobenzene                 142
1Nelson,G.O.,and  C.A.Harder.Respirator  Cartridge
 ffficiency Studies, University of California,  Livermore.  1976.
   Cartridge pairs tested at 1000 ppm, 50% relative humidity, 22°
C, and  53.3 liters/minute  (equivalent to a moderately heavy work
rte).  Pair cartridges preconditioned  at room  temperature and 50%
relative humidity for at least 24 hours prior  to testing.
3  Mine Safety Appliances Cartridges.
4  American Optical Cartridges.
                                   21-30

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                                                         NOTES
      Chemical  sorbent  cartridges  and
 canisters have  an expiration date.   They
 may be used up  to that  date  as long as
 they were not opened previously.  Once
 opened,  they begin to  sorb  humidity and
 air contaminants whether or not they are
 in use, and their efficiency and service
 life decrease.   A cartridge should be
discarded after  it is used.

      Cartridges  are  selected for  the
particular  chemical  they remove by a
color coding system outlined in 29 CFR
19.0.135, Table  19-6.

                              TABLE 15-6
           Xfmotpfterfe contaminant* to be protected
          Otc*nia T»pon _______ ....
                                          . White.
                                            W*H« wlU» 'A-lncb fellow ««P«
                                                   UM cknlstcr ne«r tfc» bcttom.
                                            Block.
          Carbon monoxide.-.. -_. -------------- — Blue.
                                              K                (
                                              wound th* canister o««r UIB bottom.
          Add |ue*, or«Knle npon. and •ounonl*
           |uaft«
          lUdloietl** BMtMftl* neapttnc trltltun >od Purple (Magenta,}.
                        .       oittu. foct. «
                  tn e«nbln.tloo «ltH «nT of tt«   «oo»«. with %-ineh
                                              a«und tb« e»nl«ier a«ar the top.
                                            Bed with  K-lneh  gr., .trip* «n,pletely
                                              •round tb« etnlster near toe top.
           •Oray (bait not bo aolpiMl M tb. oiaia color lor t eaouter d*H«n«d to wmo»« acids or
          vipon.
           Won: Ormni* thalt bo wH M • eamplrU body, of §titp» color to represent (asci not
          included la this table. Tto user will need to refer to U»e ewilstw-label to dttermlae lb«
          decree of proteetlon tbo eaalatar wtll afford.
                                      21-31

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                                              NOTES

 IV.  Respirator Construction

      The facepiece  is one of two major
 components  of an air-purifying
 respirator  (the air-purifying  devide
 being  the  other).   Essentially  four
 types of f acepieces and devices may be
 used:

          -Half-mask  with  twin
 cartridges,

          - Full-face mask  with twin
 cartridges,

          - Full-face mask with chin-
 mounted canister, and

          -  Full-face mask with harness-
 mounted canister  (gas mask).

     The  facepiece is  the  means of
 sealing the respirator to the wearer.
 Attached  to the  facepiece is the lens
 (in the case of the full-facepiece) and
 the suspension for holding  the mask to
 the face.  An adapter is attached  to the
 cartridge or canister.  With the adapter
 and  the mask is an inhalation  check
 valve,  which prevents exhaled breath
 from coming back through the cartridge
 or  canister.   An  exhalation  valve
 permits  the  xhaled breath  to  be
 exhausted and prevents air from entering
 it during inhalation.  Some  respirators
 provide an  integral speaking diaphragm
 which is air-tight.   Each respirator has
 different  ways of assembling  and
 attaching  parts.   This   prevents
 hybridizing  two  different  makes into
 one,  which immediately  voids  its
 approval.

     The recommended facepiece to  use
 with cartridges  or  canisters is  the
 fu 11-facepiece.   It  provides eye
 protection,  is easier to fit, and has a
 Protection Factor of 100X.   The  half-
 mask has  a  Protection Factor of LOX.
Cartridges   and  canisters  used  in
conjunction with the  ful 1-f acepiece vary
 mainly  in   the  sorbents  and  the
                                    21-32

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                                                 NOTES
 concentration of atmospheric contaminant
 that can be removed.  (See Tables 19-7a
 and 19-7b.)

      Organic vapors can be removed by
 appropriate  cartridges, chin canisters,
 or the larger harness-mounted canisters.
 Cartridges  are approved  for use  in
 atmospheres up to 1,000 ppm  (0.1%)  of
 organic vapors, chin style canisters up
 to 5,000  ppm (O.Si),  and harness-mounted
 canisters up to 20,000 ppm  (2.0%).  Keep
 in mind that no air-purifying device is
 permitted in IDLH atmospheres.   Using a
 cartridge   or canister  at  lower
 concentrations effectively increases its
 service life.

     The  wearer should be familiar with
 the respirator to be used.  The  parts
 should  be  easily identified by function,
 which  also is important in  maintenance
 and cleaning.

     Selection and Use

          Approved   respiratory
 protective equipment  must be selected  to
 provide protection against the hazards
 to which the user may be exposed.

     If possible,  respirators should  be
 assigned  to  individual  employees for
 their exclusive use.   This will be
 important particularly for air purifying
 respirators in which  a good tight fit of
 the facepiece has a  greater effect on
 the protection factor  than it does for
 air supplying respirators whichh operate
 in  the continuous   flow or positive
 pressure-demand mode.

     Hazardous conditions in the work
 area must  be kept under surveillance,
 and the degree of employee exposure or
 stress  must  be observed and kept  to
 saf fe levels. When work areas have or
 may have an oxygen deficiency or other
exposure which  is immediately danerous
 to life or health, EPA policy and other
Federal standards  require  standby
                                  21-33

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                                              NOTES
personnel.on the scene who are trained
and  equipped  to carry out a  rescue
immediately.   Surveillance and ready
assistance are also  necessary if EPA
personnel are using air purifying
respirators  in areas  which contain
concentrations of hazardous  material
above the Permissible Exposure Limits
(PEL).  Close observation of employees
working  in  hazardous  conditions is
important for limiting their exposure to
hazardous materials by skin contact and
for minimizing any adverse effects of
heat stress.

     Standard operating procedures for
typical   field  activities  must  be
developed by each  working group.  These
procedures for selection and  use  of
respiratory protective equipment  must be
in written form and must  be  implemented
so  that EPA  employees  will  have
effective protection from respiratory
hazards.   Standard operating procedures
are needed particularly for  entry of
atmospheres  which are  immediately
dangerous to life or health.

     Work in  dangerous  atmospheres
requires  development of a standard
operating procedure  that  will  be
understood and used by everyone entering
or working  in atmospheres which are
dangerous to life or health.   Working
safely  in such atmospheres also requires
thorough  training, and the presence of a
buddy and a backup.  It is important to
recognize that the actual duration of
protection provided  by  the breathing
apparatus may be considerably less than
the  rated capacity because  of heat
stress, work rate, body weight and the
wearer's  training and ability to control
his or  her breathing rate.

     Selection of adequate espiratory
protection for  field activities depends
on the:

     nature of  the hazardous operation
or process;
                                  21-34'

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                                              NOTES
     contaminant,   type  of hazard,
concentration, and effects on the body
activities to  be  conducted in the
hazardous area;

     length of time that  respiratory
protection will be needed;

     time required  to  get out of the
hazardous area  to  the  nearest area
having respirable air; and

     specific  characteristics of the
respiratory protective  devices that are
available within the  Agency or than can
be purchased.

     The initial  step  in  selecting
adequate rspiratory protection  for a
particular activity  is to consider the
nature of the activity and the type of
respiratory hazard  that will exist or
that  is  likely to  exist.  There are
three basic types of hazards for  which
respiratory protection is needed:

     Oxygen deficiency

     Flammable  concentrations of
combustible  gas,   liquid or  dust
contaminants  in  concentrations
immediately dangerous to  life or health
(IDLH),  and  concentrations  above
Permissible Exposure Limits and  below
IDLH.   The choice of respirators is very
limited if the working atmosphere is
oxygen  deficient or contains  a
concentration of contaminants that are
flammable or  otherwise immediately
dangerous  to  life or  health.   If an
oxygen deficiency exists or is possible,
the choice of  adequate respiratory
protection is limited to:

     Self-contained breathing apparatus,
or

     Air-line respirator with an
auxiliary self-contained air  supply.

     Flammable  Gas, Liquid or Dust
                                  21-35

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                                               NOTES
     It  is  EPA  policy  to  measure
flammable concentrations of gases and
vapors before entering an area  where
such maerial may be present in hazardous
amounts,  and not to enter any area which
has in excess of  25 percent of the lower
explosive limit of any material  present.
However,  unexpected spills or leaks may
make  entry  of  such  hazardous  areas
necessary for rescue or  other emergency
reasons.

     If  it  is  every  necessary  to
approach  or  enter  areas in which
flammable vapors  or gases are present or
possible in high concentrations,  the
respiratory protection must be either:

     Self-contained breathing  apparatus,
or an

     Air-line respirator with  an
auxiliary self-contained air supply.

     Toxic Contaminant Exposures

     Exposure to  toxic contaminants can
be divided into three  broad categories,
depending on the degree of  hazard:

     These three degrees of hazard are
related to the concentrations of toxic
materials which are present:

     those immediately dangerous to life
or health (IDLH),

     those above Permissible Exposure
Limits (but below IDLH),

     those below Permissible Exposure
Limits.

     Selection of respiratory proection
depends initially on which category of
toxic  hazard  is  present  or   is
anticipated.

     Concentrations  Inmediately
Dangerous to  Life or Health
                                   21-36'

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                                              NOTES
     There are several  definitions  of
what  atmospheres  are  considered
"Immediately Dangerous  to Life  or
Health."  The NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide  to
Chemical  Hazards describes  IDLH as a
concentration from which one could not
endure for 30  minutes without any
irreversible health effects.

     The  Federal standard on  rspiratory
protection defines IDLH  as  conditions
that pose an immediate threat  to life  or
health   or  severe  exposure   to
contaminants which are likely to have
adverse cumulative or delayed  effects  on
health.

     EPA  has defined "immediately
dangerous  to life or health" as:

          "Any atmosphere that poses  an
immedite  hazard to life or produces
immediate irreversible effects on health
that will be debilitating."

     If an atmosphere is or may become
"immeditely  dangerous  to  life   or
health,"  the choice of  adequate
respiratory protection is limited to:

     self-contained breathing  apparatus,
or

     air-line  respirators  with   an
auxiliary self-contained air supply.

     Concentrations above Permissible
Exposure Limits but below IDLH

         Approved   respiratory
protection is requirred for exposures  to
hazardous  materials in  airborne
concentrations which are above  the
Permissible  Exposure Limits.   The
Permissible  Exposure Limit  for  a
hazardous material  is the maximum
concentration believed to  cause   no
adverse effect in most people  if inhaled
during  regular five-day work weeks.
                                   21-37'

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                                               NODES
      Respiratory protection  is  also
 required for  exposure  to hazardous
 materials in concentrations which may be
 expected  to cause chronic  toxic effects
 afer repeated exposure, or acute adverse
 physiological symptoms after prolonged
 exposure.

      Concentrations below Permissible
 Exposure Limits (and below IDLH)

          When  concentrations of
 hazardous  material  are below  the
 Permissible Exposure Limits or judged to
 be at concentrations below  such  limits,
 respiratory protection is not required.
 However, respiratory protection may be
 needed  or desired to prevent physical
 discomfort,  irritation, sensitization,
 or other adverse health effects.

      Respiratory  Proection  for
 Concentrations Not Immediately Dangerous

          Since   air  purifying
 respirators are lighter, less cumbersome
 and less expensive to use  than air
 supplying respirators, air purifying
 respirators will usually be considered
 first for protection against hazrdous
 material concentrations not immediately
 dangerous to life or health.   If there
 is  no approved  air purifying respirator
 that will  provide the protection needed,
 it  will be necessary to  use  an  air
 supplying  respirator.

     Selection of  an  air purifying
 respirator for protection  against
 hazardous atmospheres is  limited to
 those  in which   the identity  and
concentration of material are known to
be within  the purification limits of the
respirators.   For  safety  and health
reasons the concentration  must be
determined before and during use  of the
type  of  respirator.   This   basic
 limitation is EPA policy as well as a
Federal  standard.

     The first  steps in selection of
                                   21-38

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                                               NOTES
  air purifying respirators are to:

      1.  Identify the contaminant  or
  contaminants which are present,

      2.  Determine the  Permissible
  Exposure Limit, warning properties and
  whether the  wrning properties are
  adequate,

      3.   Determine   the  maximum
 concentration present in the working
 area.

     The next steps in the selection of
 a  respirator  are  based  on  the
 concentration and warning properties of
 the contaminants  present:

     4.  If the concentration is below
 the  Permissible Exposure  Limit
 respirator use  is optional;

     5.  If the concentration is above
 the  Permissible Exposure  Limit
 respirator use  is required;

     6.  If the contaminant has adequate
 warning properties, an  approved air
 purifying  respirator  may be  worn.
 Select a respirator with a ffiltration
 system  which will  provide adequate
 protection  and  time   for  the
 concentration measured in the working
 atmosphere.

     7. If the material has no warning
 properties or inadequate properties, an
 air supplying respirator is required.

     8.   If the concentration is  above
 the level  considered  IDLH, a self-
 contained  breathing  apparatus is
 strongly recommended.

    Summary of Factors for Selection of
 Type of Respiratory Protection

    Air Purifying Respirators

         Air purifying respirators may
be used  under the  following conditions:
                                   21-39

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                                               NOTES
     1.  the concentration of oxygen in
the hazardous  atmosphere is known to be
19.5 percent or more (but not more than
25 percent); and

     2.  the concentration  of airborne
toxic material is not immediately
dangerous  to life or health;  and

     3.  the concentration  of airborne
toxic  material  does  not  exceed  the
capacity   of  the   filter  or
cartridge/canister unit as marked on the
unit or  the respirator  approval; and

     4.   the  airborne toxic  material
does have adequate warning properties
HrFitation or odor) to  signal failure
of  the  cartridge/canister or  filter
unit.   Some materials  which do  have
adequate warning properties are ammonia,
chlorine and sulfur dioxide.

Air Supply Respirators

     Atmosphere-Supplying Respirators

     Atmosphere-supplying respirators
provide from  five minutes  to several
hours of breathing air.  The amount of
protection  provided  is based on  two
factors:   the  tupe of  facepiece and its
mode of operation. The  full-face  mask
provides the best protection.  Of the
three modes of operation,  continuous,
demand,  and pressure-demand,   the
pressure-demand  mode  provides the best
proection.

     On  the basis of construction,  there
are four types of atmosphere-supplying
respirators:  oxygen-generating,  hose
mask,  airline,  and  self-contained
breathing apparatus.

     Modes of Operation

     a.  Continuous

          In the continuous mode,  air is
constantly flowing to the  respirator.
Model
Pressure
Demand
Air Mask
                                   21-40'

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                                                NOTES
  user, usually from an air compressor or
  compressed air tank.  The flow must be
  regulated so that  the  user gets as much
  air as he needs.

      b.   Demand

           In the demand mode, a negative
  pressure  is required inside the
  facepiece to open a valve and permit air
  to enter the respirator. The negative
  pressure  may draw  contaminated air
  through any gaps in the facepiece-to-
  face seal.  This mode  uses less air than
  the continuous mode.

      c.   Pressure-demand

          The pressure-demand  mode
 establishes a positive pressure inside
 the facepiece.  Any  leaks  around the
 facepiece allow good air to enter from
 the tank.   It continues to flow until a
 high positive pressure is built up by
 exhaling.  When the internal pressure
 drops, more good air is admitted.  Some
 positive  pressure  is always  present
 inside the 'facepiece.   This  mode also
 conserves air because with a  proper seal
 only  the  air  that   is exhaled  is
 replaced.

     Types of Devides

     a. Oxygen-generating

          The oldest respirator  is the
 oxygen-generating  respirator,  which
 utilizes  a canister  of  potassium
 superoxide.  The chemical reacts with
 exhaled C02 and water vapor  to produce
 oxygen.  Oxygen-generating respirators
 have been used in the  military and for
 escape purposes in mines.

     b.  Hose mask

          The hose mask uses  a maximum
 75-foot long,  large-diameter hose to
 transport  clean air  from a remote area.
The user breathes the  air in, or it is
                                   21-41

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                                               NOTES
 forced in by a blower.  The  user  can
 over-breathe this source.

     Airline Respirators

          The airline  respirator is
 similar to the hose mask,  except that
 the  air  is  compressed. The  mode of
 operation  may be any one of three
 previously described.   The air source
 must not be  depletable.  No more than
 300 feet of airline is  allowed.

     Self-contained Breathing Apparatus

          The self-contained breathing
 apparatus (SCBA) allows the wearer to
 carry  a  cylinder of compressed air or
 oxygen without the restriction of a hose
 or airline.

     Depending upon the source of air,
 the SCBA can be either open or closed-
 circuit.   Closed-circuit devices  mix
 pure oxygen from a small cylinder with
 exhaled breath (COj removed) to provide
 breathing air.  This  type of  device,
 also  referred to  as  a rebreather,  is
 approved  only  as  demand-type
 respirators.

     Open-circuit SCBA's are approved as
 either demand or pressure  demand.
 Demand SCBA's are being phased out of
 production  because  of the  greater
 protection afforded by pressure-demand
 apparatus.

     An escape SCBA must have  at least
 five minutes of breathing air stored in
 a small  cylinder  or  coiled stainless
 steel tube.   Some devices on the market
 have 15 minute air  supplies.

     Under no circumstances are escape
devices  to  be  used  for entry into
hazardous atmospheres.
                                     21-42'

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                                              NOTES
     Modes of Operation

     A.  Demand

         In the demand mode, a negative
pressure is created inside the facepiece
and  breathing  tubes when  the  wearer
inhales.  This negative pressure draws
down a diaphragm in the regulator in an
SCBA. The diaphragm depresses and opens
the admision valves,  allowing air to be
inhaled.   As  long  as  the  negative
prssure  remains,  air  flows  to  the
facepiece.

     The problem  with demand operation
is  that  the wearer  can  inhale
contaminated air through any gaps in the
facepiece-to-face  sealing surface.
Hence, demand apparatus is assigned a
Protection Factor  of  only  100, the same
as  for a  full-face  air-purifying
respirator.

     B.  Pressure-Demand

         An  SCBA operating in  the
pressure-demand  mode maintains  a
positive pressure inside the facepiece
at all times.  The system is designed so
that the admission valve remains open
until enough pressure  is  built up to
close it.   The  pressure builds  up
because air is prevented from leaving
the  system until  the wearer exhales.
Less pressure is required to close the
admission valve  than is  required to
openm the spring-loaded exhalation
valve.

     At all times, the pressure in the
facepiece is greather than the ambient
pressure outside the  facepiece.  If any
leakage occurs, it is outward from the
facepiece.    Because  of  this,   the
pressure-demand SCBA has been assigned a
Protection Factor of  10,000.
                                     21-43

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                                              NOTES
TYPES OF APPARATUS

     A.  Closed-Circuit

          The  closed-circuit SCBA,
commonly called the  rebreather,  was
developed  especially  for  oxygen-
deficient  situations.   Because it
recycles exhaled breath and carries  only
a small oxygen supply, the service  time
can  be considerable  greater  than an
open-circuit device, which must carry
all of its breathing air.

     The air for breathing is mixed  in a
flexible breathing bag.   This air is
inhaled, def latring the breathing  bag.
The deflation depresses the admission
valve, allowing the oxygen to enter the
bag.   There  it mixes with  exhaled
breath,  from which carbon dioxide has
just been removed.

     Most rebreathers  operate in  the
demand mode.   Several rebreathers are
designed to  provide a positive  pressure
in the facepiece. The approval  schedule
13F under 30  CFR Part 11 for closed-
circuit  SCBA  makes no provisions  for
testing  "demand" or "pressure-demand"
rebreathers.   The approval  schedule was
set up to certify only rebreathers  that
happen to operate in the demand mode.
Thus,  rebreathers designed to operate in
the pressure-demand mode can be  approved
strictly as closed-circuit apparatus.
Since regulations make no distinction,
and  selection is based  on approval
criteris,  rebreathers  designed to
maintain a positive pressure can only be
considered as a demand-type apparatus.

     Rebreathers use either compressed
oxygen or liquid oxygen. To assure the
good quality of air to be breathed, the
oxygen must be at least medical grade
breathing   air  which  meets   the
requirements  set  by   the  "U.S.
Pharmacopeia."

-------
                                                 NOTES
      B.  Open-Circuit

           The open-circuit SCBA requires
 a supply of 21% oxygen and 78% nitrogen
 breathing air.  The user  simply inhales
 and  exhales.    The  exhaled  air  is
 exhausted from  the system.  Because the
 air is not recycled,  the wearer  must
 carry the full air supply, which limits
 a unit to  the amount of air that the
 wearer  can carry easily.  Available
 SCBA's can last  from five  to 60 minutes.
 Units which have  5-to-lS minute air
 supplies are only applicable  to escape
 situations.  The wearer must have at
 least 30  minutes  of  air  to  enter  a
 hazardous atmosphere.

     The air  used in  open-circuit
 apparatus must meet the requirements in
 the  Compressed Gas  Association's
 Pamphlet G-7.1,  which calls for at  least
 "Grade D."   Grade D air  must contain
 19.5 to  23.5% oxygen  with the balance
 being predominantly nitrogen.  Condensed
 hydrocarbons are  limited to  5 mg/m  ,
 carbon monoxide to 20  parts per  million
 (ppm) and carbon  dioxide  to 1,000  ppm.
 An  undesirable odor is also prohibited.
 Air quality can  be checked  using an
 oxygen meter, carbon monoxide meter, and
 detector tubes.

 Mien to Use SCBA

     Air supplying respirators must be
 used to be sure of adequate proection "U
 any one of these five special conditions
 exists or may reasonably be expected to
 exist:

     1. the concentration of oxygen in
 the hazardous atrmosphere  may have  been
 ree  fom the normal concentration of
about 21%  to 19.5% or less; or

     2.  the concentration of airborne
toxic material exceeds a concentration
which would be  immediately dangerous to
 life or health;  or

-------
      3.   the concentration of airborne
 toxic material exceeds the limited
 ability  of   the   filter   or
 cartridge/canister unit, as marked onthe
 unit or  the respirator approval or

      4.   the concentration of airborne
 toxic material is not known  to be less
 than the limited ability of  the filter
 or cartridge/canister unit, as marked on
 the unit  or the respirator approval; or

      5.   the airborne  toxic material
 does not have  adequate   warning
 properties (irritation or odor)  to
 signal failure of the cartridge/canister
 or filter unit.   Some  examples  of
 materials which do not have  adequiate
 warning properties are methyl bromide,
 dimethylformamide and phosgene.

 Cleaning, Inspection and Storage  of
 Respirators

     Obtaining  dependable protection
 from respirators requires cleaning,
 inspection and storage to maintain them
 and prevent damage or deterioration.

     Respirators  must be cleaned and
 disinfected  after each day's use and
 more  often if necessary.  They must be
 cleaned and disinfected before they re
 used by another person.

     In general,  the  cleaning  procedure
 is  to disassemble  the respirator
 (without  using  tools),  wash  the
 facepiece and breathing hoses in cleaner
 and sanitizer  solution  mixed in  warm
 water, rinse  completely and  dry in a
clean area.

     Most respirator manufacturers
distribute cleaner-sanitizer material
 for cleaning their equipment.  A  mild
detergent  will usually do a satisfactory
 job,  either  with  or without a  mild
bactericidal agent.
                                               NOTES
     Part  of  the  maintenance
respirators is regular inspection.
of
                                    21-^6-

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	NOTES
     Respirators must  be inspected
during  cleaning,   and  v/orn   or
deteriorated parts must be replaced.
Each person using a respirator should
inspect the respirator before each use
to  be sure that  it is  in working
condition.

     Respirators for emergency use must
be  inspected after each use,   and  at
least once a month between uses.

     Storage for respirators must be in
a convenient,  clean,  and sanitary
location, or in a container which will
keep them clean.  If  they are packaged
in tight  plastic bags  and transported on
field trips, protect the  bag from being
abraded or punctured.  The respirators
should   also  be  protected against
temperature extremes and  exposure  to
direct sunlight  for prolonged periods.

Training Requirements for Respiratory
Protective Equipment

     EPA  standards require six hours  of
initial  training  for  users   of
respirators, and two to four additional
hours  annually  after  the  initial
training.  Records of training and  fit
testing  of employees  are  to   be
maintained by the  supervisor.

     Safe use of respiratory protective
equipment depends on  thorough training.
Every employee who may use  a respirator
needs to  know:   when it is needed, which
type is needed,  and the capabilities  and
the  limitations of the  equipment  for
specific  exposures.

     Every user  of  respiratory
protective equipment needs to learn how
to put on the equipment to be used, how
to adjust it for a comfortable fit, and
how to  test  the  seal between the
facepiece and the face to see that  the
equipment fits  thightly  enough  to
provide needed protection.

     In addition, every  user needs  to
have  the  opportunity  to wear the
                                  21-47

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                                                         NOTES
equipment in normal  air  for a  period  of
familiarization,  and  then  to wear the
equipment in a  test atmosphere.

      The  final  selection of rrespirator
type  is based  on  a number of  factors
including  the  protection  factor  (PF),
the Threshold  Limit  Value  (TLV),  the
Immediate  Danger  to  Life  and  Health
(IDLH)  and  Agency  policy.  The  following
condensed  charts  will  provide  some
assistance  in helping field crews select
the proper  respirator type.

                               TABLE 19-7a
                              Selection of Respirator) for Emergency or Short-Term Use
                   on (he Basis of Hazard and Expected Concentration (Gases and Vapors)
Toxfeity

Low
Moderate
High
Expected Concentrations of Cases or Vapors
Two to five
times TLV or
up to 1 000 ppm
No respirator,
or chemical
cartridge needed
Chemical car-
tridge
Canister gas
mask
Five to ten
times TLV or
1000-5000
ppm
Canister gas
mask
Canister gas
mask or air-
line respirator
Air- line res-
pirator
'Above ten
times TLV or
5000-20.000
ppm
Canister gas
mask or air-
line respirator
Air-line or
self-contained
air or oxygen
Self-contained
air or oxygen
Oxygen defi-
ciency! emer-
gency or above
20,000 ppm
Self-contained
air or oxygen
Self-contained
air or oxygen
Self-contained
air or oxygen
               Nora:
               (!) TLV refers to (he Threshold Limit Values for a number of substances published by
                  the American Conference of Govemmeniai Industrial Hygienins (see Section I and
                  wction 12).
               (2) See Sections I and 2 for a discussion of toxkity ratings and (heir relation to TLV.
               (3) When unavoidable conditions necessitate using respirators for longer periods (above
                  I hour), use equipment in a higher protective category than shown above.
               (4) Subject to limitiaiions (Table II). hose-type respirators may be used in place of air
                  line.
                                              21-48

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                            TRBLE  J5-7b
                     Selection or Respirators for Emergency or Short-Term Use
          on (he Basis of Hazard and Expected Concentration (Particuiates)
    Toxieity
Expected Concentrations of Particulate Matter
         (Dusts, Fumes and Mists)




Low


Moderate
or High (lox-
icity no
greater
than lead)

Extremely
High (toxicity
greater
than lead)
Two to five
times TLV


Respirator not
usually needed

Filter





Filter or air-
line respirator


Five to twenty
times TLV


Filter


Filler or air-
line respirator




Air-line res-
pirator


Above twenty
times TLV


Filter or air-
line respirator

Air-line or
self-contained
air or oxygen



Self-contained
lir or oxygen


Oxygen defi-
cient, crner*
gency. highly
corrosive
Where expo-
sure is to
extremely
corrosive
dusts or to
dusts in an
oxygen defi-
cient atmos-
phere, a self-
contained air
or oxygen
respirator
must be used.
(I) TLV refers to the Threshold Limit Values for • number of substances published by (he
    American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienisfs (Sections I, 12).
(2) See Sections I and 2 for a discussion of loxktty ratings and their relation to TLV's.
(3) Expected concentrations of paniculate matter have been thown only as multiples of the
    threshold limit values, Where these values are not available, the following concentrations
    may be used as a guide:
                            Mineral Ousts
        2 to  5 (TLV)      up to  90 mppcf•
        S to 20 (TLV)      SO to 1000 mppcf*
     Above 20 (TLV)     above 1000 mppcf*
(4) When unavoidable conditions necessitate using respirators Tor longer periods (above I
    hour), use equipment in a Richer protective category than shown above.
(5) Subject  to limitations (Table 2.1). hose-type respirators may be used in place of sir line.

• Mppcf -  millions of particles per cubic foot.
                     Other Ousts. Fumes, and Mists
                   Up to 0.S milligrams per cubic meter
                   OJ 10 10 milligrams per  cubic meter
                   Above 10 milligrams per  cubic meter
                                        21-49

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                        STUDENT EXERCISES

     The  following exercise has  been developed to  provide
practical  experience for  field crew selection  of  respirator and
cartridge type.  Students  should refer to charts and tables found
in the unit.

     An EPA crew has been sent to a  now defunct solvent recycling
company.  A number of samples from a variety of  environments must
be  taken.   Determine  the respirator  type,  cartridge  if
applicable, and rationale  used for each selection.

I.  Building A

     Building  A  was  used  for  storage  and  recyling of  the
nonchlorinated solvent acetone. Air monitoring indicates the
oxygen level to be 20.1%,  with the LEL for acetone  at .30 or 30%.

     A.  Air-purifying  type respirator (rationale)	
     B.  Cartridge type (rationale)
     C.  Expected breakthrough  time  (rationale)
     D.  PF of type selected^
     E.  Maximum ppm this  respirator is good for_

         Calc.              	
     F.  Degree of warning properties - odor_
     G.  Air-supplyuing respirator (rationale)
II.  Building B

     Air monitoring indicates ammonia to be present at 50 ppm,
oxygen to be 19.8%.

     A.	

     B.	

     C.                                      	
                                   21-50

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     D.	

     E.	,

     F.	

     G.	

     H.	

II.  Building C
     Air monitoring indicates  perchlorothylene  at 93 ppm, oxygen
at 19.0%.
     H.
                                   21-51

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                           OMIT 22

               SAMPLING AT HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES
Educational Objectives

     o The student  should  be able to
list  the  essential  steps in planning
sampling at a hazardous waste site.

     o The student  should  be able to
list the conditions for each level of
personnel  protection  (A, Bf C).

     o The student  should  be able to
describe  a   hazardous  waste  site
decontamination plan.

     o The student  should  be able to
define the preliminary steps necessary
for a site survey.

     o The student  should  be able to
list equipment included in each level of
personnel protection.

     o The student  should  be able to
select  the  necessary  personnel
protection  for a  known and unknown
waste.

     o The student  should  be able to
define terms used in  sampling drums.

     o The student  should  be able to
describe  the various  methods of  opening
drums safely and when to use each.

     o The student  should  be able to
describe  the procedure for sampling a
drum.

     o The student  should  be able to
list  the steps  in cleaning  and
decontaminating a coliwasa.

     o The student should know the
hazards involved with sampling ponds and
lagoons.

     o The student should know the
hazards involved with the sampling of
waste piles.
                                    22-1

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                            UNIT 22         	
                SAMPLING AT HAZARDOUS WASTE SUES
     It  is the opinion of many  that
 sampling  at  a hazardous waste  site
 represents   the  most  dangerous
 environment faced  by field crews.  Often
 crews  are faced  with a  multitude of
 unknowns, in various physical states,
 often in highly concentrated amounts and
 in a variety of containers in dubious or
 poor condition.

     Such combinations of threats and
 unknowns must  be met  with proper
 planning, training and practice.

     It is fitting  to  say that nearly
 every unit in the Basic Field Training
 Course can be  put  to use when  preparing
 to enter and sample a  hazardous waste
 site.

 Planning and Preparation

     Planning and preparation for  an
 investigation at a hazardous waste site
 may  in some cases take more  time  than
 the  investigation  itself.  There  are
 three essential activities in  planning
work at a site.

     Three essential  activities  in
 planning work at a site are to:

     *  Obtain  information  about hazards
at the  site.

     *  Decide on the personal protection
needed  in different areas.

     *   Define  the  boundaries  of
contaminated and decontamination areas.

     As preparation for  an  investigation
of a hazardous waste  site, personnel
need to:

     *  Prepare safety  procedures and
     ierjt.

     * Gather all needed equipment
                                   22-2

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                                               NOTES
     * Provide  training and practice  in
use of equipment and procedures.

     * Conduct a preliminary survey  to
get more detailed information.

     The number of  field personnel  that
should be assigned  to a hazardous waste
site investigation depends on the number
needed  for  safe  use  of protective
equipment,  the  length of  time  each
person  can work under the particular
stresses of the  job,  and on the  time
available for the investigation.

     For example,  a team of at least
three people is required  for safe and
effective use of  respiratory protection
and a team of  five persons for use  of
encapsulating  suits,  because  of the
requirements for teamwork and stand-by
assistance.  Working in air supplying
respirators will require a compressed
air supply,  and extra cylinders  or a
special  compressor.  Rest periods are
also required to reduce fatigue and  heat
stress  that are generated by the work
and  by  the  use  of  the protective
equipment and clothing.  The amount  of
working time is also  limited by the
activities of  getting into and out  of
protective equipment and decontaminating
it.

Obtaining Information

     The first step in a waste  site
investigation is obtaining information
about the hazard expected at the  site
and about off-site sources  of emergency
assistance and supplies.

Information About  Site Hazards  and
Conditions

     Planning begins with gathering  as
much information as possible about the
materials dumped at a site.  The effort
may  include a long  search  through
records, and  interviews  with  former
employees and  people  living near the
                                    22-3

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  site.  After information is  gathered on
  the identity of materials dumped, it may
  be necessary to find out what is known
  or suspected about the characteristics
  and hazards of those materials.

      Information about  physical
  conditions at the  site should include
  geologic and topographic maps,  road
  maps,  and aerial  photographs  if
  available.   Data on the  prevailing  wind
  and weather conditions expected at the
  site can be very important for carrying
 out the investigation safely.

      Information should also be gathered
 about conditions, at the  site, which may
 present safety and sampling problems,
 such as soft or marshy areas,  large or
 unstable piles, and heaps of building
 materials or large  pieces of reinforced
 concrete.

 Off-Site Emergency  Assistance  and
     Obtain information concerning off-
 site emergency assistance and resources
 at a hazardous waste site before the
 investigation begins.

     Find out if  emergency medical
 assistance is available,  such as  an
 ambulance service or a fire  department
 paramedic team.  Find out how  to request
 assistance and how to  identify  your
 location.

     Find out which nearby  hospital has
 Emergency Room service, and whether
 there are laboratories nearby that can
 perform  useful tests  in case of a
 chemical exposure emergency.

     If there is any possibility of fire
at  the  site,  find  out which fire
department will respond (if  any),  how  to
contact the fire department  that will
respond, and how to identify the site  so
that they  know where to respond.

     Call  all emergency numbers to  find
if they are  accurate and up-to-date,
                                   22-4

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                                              NOTES
since hazardous waste sites are often
remote from usual sources of supplies
and protective equipment.  Find a source
of replacement supplies near the site or
take  extra supplies.   If there  are
supplies  that will be expended in great
quantity at  the site,  try  to find a
company that  stocks the  items that will
be needed.

     Routine  replacement of compressed
breathing  air  should be arranged by
finding a  fire department  or company
that can provide a reliable supply.  If
possible, get a sample of the air that
can be supplied and have it tested for
quality.

Deciding on Levels of Protection

     Deciding on levels of protection to
be used at  a hazardous waste site is an
important but difficult process based on
assessment of  the known  or suspected
hazards at  the site.  For the purpose of
choosing protective equipment,  the
hazards  can be  grouped  in three
categories:   unknown  or  severe
respiratory hazards plus severe  skin
exposure hazards; severe respiratory
hazards without severe skin exposure
hazards;  and  moderate  respiratory
hazards with skin exposure unlikely.

     Several categories of hazards and
the protection needed for each are as
follows;

     For convenient reference, special
groupings of protective equipment have
been designated as different  "levels of
protecion."   EPA  guidelines  for
evaluating  hazards  and  selecting
protective equipment are described in
detail  later in this unit.
  AIR
  *IF
RESPt0VTb8!
                                   22-5

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                             TABLE 1

                            Civil        Protection Needed
Unknown or Severe Hazards       A      SCBA + Encapsulating Suits
   Respiratory and
  Skin Contact Hazards

     Unknown or severe hazards which include respiratory and skin
contact hazards,  require  Level A  protection which consists
essentially of SCBA and fully-encapsulating suits.

Unknown or Severe Hazards       B      SCBA + Protective Clothing
   Respiratory Hazards
   Little or no skin hazard

     Unknown or severe hazards which include respiratory hazards
but little or no skin hazard,  require Level B protection which
consists essentially of SCBA and protective clothing.

Moderate Hazards                C      Air-Purifying Respirators
   Respiratory Hazards                 + Protective Clothing
   Skin exposure unlikely

     Moderate hazards  which include  limited  respiratory hazards
but skin exposure is highly unlikely, require Level C protection
which consists  of air  purifying respirators and protective
clothing.

     For ordinary work environments which do not have any unusual
chemical hazards.  Level D protection consists  of  ordinary work
clothing.
                                      22-6

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 Defining  Special  Areas  for
 Gontamiiiation Control

     An important part of planning an
 investigation and  the  protective
 equipment needed is defining special
 areas for contamination control.  This
 requires defining the boundaries of the
 contaminatd site and the  location of the
 decontamination area.  For safety and
 convenience,  only one level  of
 protection should be required in each
 special  area.   Unprotected  personnel
 should be excluded from these  areas, by
 procedure,  by marking the areas or by
 erection of a fence.

 Preparation

     Preparation   should   include
 developing special  operating safety
 procedures, 'gathering necessary safety
 and protective equipment, and  training
 personnel  in use of  protective
 equipment•

     Getting in  and  out of  bulky
 protective  equipment, using  it while
 collecting  samples, and following
 emergency procedures  should be  practiced
 in advance  of  actual  work.   Practice
 will make it easier  to carry out tasks
 in the  limited time provided by special
 breathing apparatus.  Practice will  also
 make it easier to work  in  special
 protective equipment, with less stress.

     If  the  planned  sampling activities
 require field personnel to carry out
 operations that are  not  familiar, the
operations  should be  rehearsed,
 particularly if they are hazardous or
critical.

Conducting a Preliminary Survey

     Before an investigation begins at a
hazardous waste site,  before collecting
hazardous waste samples or working at
 the site, a preliminary survey should be
conducted   to  get  the  detailed
 information needed for developing
                                  22-7

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                                               NOTES
 specific safety and health plans and for
 completing preparations. As one  part
 of  the survey,  it is  important  to
 observe physical hazards,  measure
 atmospheric  concentrations  of
 contaminants   and  gather  other
 information which can  be used for
 selecting the levels of protection that
 will be required for subsequent sampling
 and investigation.

 Assessing Riysical Ha^c^rip

      A  preliminary survey should include
 a thorough inspecton to assess physical
 hazards at the site and make efforts to
 identify hazardous  materials  from
 container markings.

      Look for and record problems such
 as rough terrain,  open waste ponds or
 lagoons, unstable piles,  bulged or
 leaking drums,  confined spaces,  dead
 vegetation, discolored soil, or standing
 water.

 Monitoring the Atmosphere

     Part of  the preliminary survey is
 monitoring the atmosphere at the site
 for concentrations of the contaminants
 known,  or likely, to be present in the
 air  at  the site.  If the contaminants
 are not known, samples should be taken
 for  laboratory analysis.

     Measure the  concentrations of
organic  vapors,  including concentrations
of combustible  gases  and  vapors,  and
 measure any ionizing radiation.  Wind
 speed and direction  should also be
monitored.

     Concentrations of organic vapors
can be measured by a combination of  two
 field instruments, an  organic vapor
analyzer and a photoionizer.   The
organic  vapor analyzer  is a portable
hydrocarbon  analyzer  with  optional
capabilities for  gas chromatography.  It
can  be   used for  monitoring  total

                                  22-8

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                                               NOT£S
 concentrations of hydrocarbons.

      The response time of the  organic
 vapor analyzer is relatively long.  It
 does not respond fast enough to detect
 vapors  at  a rapid walking  speed.
 Personnel using  the analyzer  and not
 walking slowly, could walk into a high
 concentration of vapors before the meter
 could respond.

      The  photoionizer has  a  wide
 detection range,  but it too has a
 relatively long response time, and it is
 highly directional and must be  held
 close to a source before detection is
 possible.   High humidity and wind can
 cause the photoionizer to give  false
 readings.

      In   the  absence  of  other
 information,   the   total  vapor
 concentrations measured during  the
 initial survey can be used to decide the
 level of personal protection needed at a
 hazardous  waste site and  in  the
 decontamination area.

     If the total vapor concentrations
 are unexpectedly high in areas outside
 of that tentatively designated as the
 contaminated area, the boundaries may
 need to be enlarged.

 Measuring Wind Speed  and  Direction

     Wind speed and direction should be
 measured during the  initial survey and
 during  subsequent activities  at a
 hazardous  waste  site.   The  wind
 indicator  should  be visible from all
 points in the contaminated area at which
 there may be  leaks, so that personnel on
 site can see which way to evacuate in
 case there is a leak of vapor or gas.
 If there are buildings or large piles of
 waste on  the  site,   there may  be
 microenvironments in which the wind does
 not blow in  the  same direction as it
does  on most of the site.
                                 22-9

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                                                NOTES

 Levels of Protection

      Protecting personnel from contact
 with, or exposure to, chemicals  at a
 hazardous waste site depends to a large
 extent on  protective clothing  and
 equipment.  Crew members should select
 and use  the combination of equipment
 that will provide adequate protection,
 without encumbering them any more  than
 necessary.

      Definitions of how much protective
 equipment is "necessary" are likely to
 vary subjectively from "everything" by
 an overly cautious  person,  to "very
 little" by someone who is not concerned
 about  either  immediate or  delayed
 consequences of exposure.

 Personal Protective Equipment  for
 Hazardous Waste Sites

     The  personal  protective equipment
 recommended  for work at hazardous waste
 sites'consists  of  several types of
 protective equipment or clothing:

     1.  Respiratory  Protection, either
 Air supplying or Air purifying.

     2.  Protective  Clothing for Body
 Protection.

     3.  Gloves and Boots for Hand and
 Foot Protection.

     4.  Eye  and Face Protection.

     5.  Head Protection.

     6.  Communication Equipment.

     The major difference in the level
of protection recommended for different
degrees of hazard is in the  selection of
respiratory  protection and protective
clothing.

     The maximum  level of protection
available  is called  Level  A,  and  it
includes:
                                    22-10-

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                                                NODES
 SCBA that operates in the Positive
 Pressure-Demand mode.

      Fully-Encapsulating Suit with
 Gloves and boots attached.

      Second Set of Gloves.

      Second Set of Boots.

      Two-Way Radio.

 The  conditions  requiring  Level A
 protection include the following:

      Unknown Concentrations of Hazardous
 Material.

      Vapor Concentrations from 500 to
 1000  ppm.

      Concentrations   Immediately
 Dangerous to Life  or Health (IDLH).

      Material that Could  Affect Skin or
 Eyes.

     Toxic Amounts of   Material that
 Could be  Absorbed.

     An Oxygen Deficiency.

     Necessity to Enter Confined
 Spaces or a Hazardous  Environment

 The next lower  level of  protection is
 called Level B, and it includes:

     SCBA operating  in  the  Positive
 Pressure-Demand Mode.

     Hooded  Suit  that  is Chemical
Resistant.

     Gloves and Boots.

     Second Set of Gloves.

     Second Set of Boots.

     Two-Way Radio.
                                   22-11

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                                                NOTES
 The conditions  requiring  Level  B
 protection include:

      Unknown Concentrations with a Skin
 Risk that is Slight.

      Vapor  Concentrations from  5-500
 ppm.

      Concentrations  Immediately
 Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH).

      Concentrations Too High for an  Air
 Purifying Respirator.

      Toxic Amounts  that Could NOT Be
 Absorbed  Through Skin.

      Oxygen Deficiency.

      Confined  Spaces  or Hazardous
 Environment.

 The  minimum  acceptable  level  of
 protection at a hazardous waste site is
 Level C, and it includes:

     Air  Purifying Respirator with a
 Pull-Face Mask.

     Escape Mask.

     Fire Resistant Coveralls.

     Gloves (optional).

     Cover Boots Over Shoes  or Boots.

     Eye Protection if  for any reason a
 full-face mask is not used.

 Conditions requiring  Level C protection
 include  vapor concentrations of  less
 than 5 ppm,  in which an air purifying
 respirator is acceptable.

     Remember that  the term "Level  of
 Protection" describes  a combination  of
equipment and clothing that  should
provide protection against a particular
group of  hazards.    The   levels of
                                   22-12

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                                             NOTES
protection provided should change  if
hazards change.  It is appropriate  to
increase the  level  of  protection
required in an area  if the hazards
increase after a level of protection has
been chosen for work in that area.

Known Materials and  Known Concentrations

     Selection  of   appropriate
protective equipment to prevent contact
with or inhalation of excessive amounts
of toxic chemicals is relatively easy  if
personnel know what chemicals they will
be  exposed  to   and   at  what
concentrations.   Then it  is possible  to
pick a respirator which will  protect
against the inhalation hazard and the
clothing which will  protect against skin
contact.

     However,   simply  selecting
protective equipment  for a  known
exposure  concentration may  lead  to
problems.  Concentrations can change.
Containers can rupture or  leak and
release more  material,  the wind can
shift or change velocity and the sun can
increase the pressure within containers
and increse evaporation from  exposed
liquids.   Using equipment with very
little  margin for safety or  with
protection  against only a limited range
of materials could  lead  to trouble  if
concentrations increase  or if other
materials should be released  into the
immediate environment.

Unknown Materials  or Unknown
Concentrations

     It is much more difficult to select
an appropriate  level of  protection  if
the potential exposures are to unknown
hazardous materials,  or to  unknown
concentrations. To prepare for these
situations,  EPA has  developed  some
guidelines for  judging the hazards and
selecting protective equipment.

     At  a  waste  site,  the basic
presumption is  that  there  can  be
                                  22-13

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                                                NOTES
  exposure to hazardous materials and that
  protective clothing and equipment must
  be used.   (Any assumption  otherwise
  should be made only if there is strong
  evidence that  there is no  hazard  of
  adverse exposures  to the  respiratory
  system, skin or eyes.)

      If the potental exposure includes
  both  inhalation  and  skin  contact
  hazards, the basic protection required
  is SCBA and fully-encapsulating suits,
  which are  designed  to  prevent
  penetration even of vapors and  gases.
  SCBA and fully-encapsulating suits are
  part of Level A protection.

      If the  potential exposure hazard is
  limited to inhalation hazards  only, the
  basic  protection required is self-
  contained breathing apparatus (SCBA),
  which is part of Level B protection.

  Special Hazardous Areas

      Level A or B protection is required
 for entry into special hazardous areas
 such  as confined  spaces,  oxygen-
 deficient  atmospheres,   and
 concentrations of toxic materials that
 are Immediately Dangerous  to Life or
 Health.

 Vapor Concentration!!

      IE organic vaporn nf.  unknown
  identity   are  present  in  total
 concentrations greater than 5 ppm, Level
 A or B protection is required.  Level B
 protection   is  required   for
 concentrations  from 5 to 500 ppm, and
 Level A protection is required if the
 total organic vapor concentration  is
 over 500 ppm.

     Experience  with use of  portable
that vapor concentrations around 5 ppm
result when the measurements are taken
close to a main source of contamination,
                                  22-U-

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                                               NOTES
and  that the concentration will  not
routinely  approach or exceed 500  ppm
except  inside a closed building or
in a contaminant spill area.

Protection  for Preliminary Sirveys

     The minimum protection recommended
for a preliminary survey of a hazardous
waste site is self-contained breathing
apparatus and Level  B protection.   This
assumes that exposure of areas of the
skin unprotected by Level B  protective
clothing  is expected to  be  either
unlikely or not hazardous.  If materials
are  present  which are  likely  to be
absorbed through the skin,  Level  A
protection  is recommended.

     The only conditions where limited
protective  clothing (Level  C)  may be
acceptable  at a  hazardous  waste site
are:

     1.  Taking environmental  samples or
making environmental measurements in the
vicinity of  the site, but out of areas
likely to be highly contaminated.

     2.   Making preliminary surveys
where the hazards of the waste are known
and  there  is not  likely  to  be any
significant contact because the  material
is confined,  ventilated by the wind, or
does   not  release  hazardous
concentrations  under conditions at the
time of  the survey.

Work Limitations in Protective Equipment

     In  assigning work and assesing its
effects,   keep in  mind  the work
limitations in  protective  equipment.
Wearing any protective clothing or
equipment increases  the weight carried,
the breathing effort and the heat load.
The incrased heat load from  working in
an encapsulating suit is great enough to
require  careful  attention  to prevent
severe heat stress effects.   (Guidelines
for  assessing   environmental  and
physiological  factors and  managing  heat
                                   22-15'

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                                               NOTES
 stress are provided in the unit on heat
 and cold stress.)

     Using protective equipment may make
 it  necessary  to reduce  the  maximum
 working period between breaks and the
 total working time per day.  The working
 time for which  it is  safe to allow a
 person to wear protective equipment
 depends on the physical work load and on
 the  heat  load.    Under "normal"
 conditions,  it is  recommended  that
 personnel  work in  respirators and
 protective suits for no more than about
 three hours  in one day.   Under hot
 conditions, the on-site working time may
 be as little as 20 minutes at one time,
 and as little as 2 hours in one working
 day.

 Contamination Control  Areas

     One means of simplifying the choice
 of  personal  protective equipment
 required at a hazardous waste site is to
 establish clearly-marked contamination
 control  areas  in which contamination
 levels will be considered uniform.  If
 these areas  are  defined and  used
 correctly, only one level of protection
will be required in each area.

     The  first  special  area  to be
 established is  the contaminated area.
 If the hazardous waste and exposure to
 the waste can be kept within a fenced
area, defined  as the contaminated area,
 protective equipment for that exposure
hazard will  not need to be used  outside
of the fence.

     Since walking, sampling and working
 in the contaminated area of a hazardous
waste site  can contaminate  shoes,
sampling equipment and other equipment,
 there should be a decontamination area
 to reduce the  spread of hazardous waste
beyond the boundaries  of the controlled
areas.

     One of  the important reasons for


                                   22-16

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                                               NOTES
 marking   the  boundaries   of  the
 contaminated  area and controlling entry
 and egress is to prevent tracking and
 transfer  of  hazardous material  into
 areas  that are cleaner.

     The third special area that needs
 to be designated  for work at a  hazardous
 waste site is the clean  area, or the
 support  area,   which  can  be  kept
 uncontaminated  for storage of supplies
 and for communication  and  control
 activities.

 Contaminated Area

     There will be a  problem of setting
 boundaries when the site includes waste
 containers which, if opened, can release
 hazardous  vapors.   If  space  is
 available,  the contaminated area can be
 made large enough to provide  adequate
 distance  for vapors to dissipate.  If
 space  is limited, sampling activities
 will have to be conducted  in a  way that
 will minimize  evaporation.

     Boundaries of the contaminated area
 may have to be changed if more hazardous
 waste  is  uncovered at the site or  if
 operations  begin  to spread contamination
 beyond the  boundaries.

     Access to the contaminated area
 should be limited to  one or two points
 at which protective equipment will  be
 put on when entering and removed when
 leaving.  Part of the  access area should
 be reserved for clean  equipment  and part
 for decontamination.

 Decontamination Area

     A  decontamination area should be
 set up at  the  point of entrance to and
 exit from the  contaminated area, so that
everything  coming  out  of   the
contaminated  area can be cleaned to
prevent spread of contamination.
                                   22-17-

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                                               NOTES

  Support Area

      Supplies, showers, generator and
  other equipment for work at the waste
  site should be in a support area located
  where it will remain uncontaminated and
  "clean."  No protective clothing should
  be needed in the clean area.

      The support area should be located
  where  it  is  accessible   to  the
  decontamination area and where it can be
  reached  from a road.  Generally,   the
  support  area  should be upwind and uphill
  from the contaminated area.

 Control  and Comnunication Area

      In  the clean  support area there
 needs   to be  a   location  that is
 identified  and equipped  for
 communication  and for control of
 activities at the hazardous waste site.
 (This location is  sometimes referred to
 as  the Command Post.)

 Decontamination

     An important  but difficult task at
 a waste site  is preventing or reducing
 the spread,  of hazardous material, by
 sampling and other activities at the
 site.  Ideally, all contamination that
 is  picked  up on  samples,  sampling
 apparatus,  protective  equipment  and
 other items used at  the site is  removed
 at the site and left there.

     Decontamination is difficult even
 if  the contaminants  are  known  and
 effective  cleaning  materials  are
 available.   Protective clothing,  gloves,
 and  boots can  sometimes absorb  and
 retain   contamination,  making
 decontamination difficult or impossible.
 If  this  is  a  problem,  disposable
 protective  clothing or  protective
coverings  are recommended.

     While it would be ideal  if  all
contamination could be  removed  within
 the decontamination area at the waste
                                  22-18

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                                                NOTES
  site, it may only be possible to remove
  major contamination or to reduce the
  contamination  to  a  level  that  is
  reasonably  safe.  Equipment can be
  packaged for  subsequent  testing and
  decontamination.

      Since it is virtually impossible to
  prevent  transfer of contaminants from
  protective clothing to the wearer,  even
  though careful  techniques are used, one
  of  the important ways of protecting
  personnel is  to decontaminate  the
  protective  clothing  before  it  is
  removed.  This  difficult task requires
  protectiwe equipment for the personnel
  who assist, and it requires speed if a
  person in a fully-encapsulating suit has
  little breathing air  left.

      Unless the  contamination is severe,
  the level of protection required  for
 helpers working in the  Decontamination
 Area will probably be Level C with air
 purifying respirators.

     If  the  waste at  a  site  is
 considered extremely toxic, personnel
 should have an opportunity to wash and
 shower, preferably at the site.

     Decontamination generally consists
 of washing the contaminated  item,
 followed  by  rinsing or a  series  of
 rinsings.  The washing should be done
 with a cleaning material which will most
 effectively remove the contamination.
 If the contaminant is known,  the
 cleaning  solution should be one  which
 will   dissolve  or  react   with  the
 contaminant  to  change   its   form,
 composition  or solubility (without
 destroying the protective material).   If
 the contaminant is unknown,  the solution
 will probably have to be detergent and
water.
                                  22-19'

-------
                                               NOTES
 Contaminated Solutions and Equipment

     The appropriate steps  for  handling
 contaminated solutions and equipment are
 to collect them  for proper disposal,
 store them within the contaminated area,
 and decontaminate or package  them for
 later decontamination.

     Decontaminating solutions should be
 collected fo proper disposal.

     The solutions and supplies such as
 brushes and sponges can be stored within
 the contaminated area (if it is  fenced).

     Protective equipment can be cleaned
 in the  decontamination area,  and
 cleaning solutions can be collected and
 disposed of properly.

     It  is generally appropriate  to
 leave the decontaminating solutions and
 supplies in the contaminated area at the
 waste  site since   the quantity  of
 hazardous  waste  at the site  is not
 changed significantly by  doing  so.   If,
 however, the decontaminating solutions
 are  solvents which  when used become
 hazardous waste, they must be disposed
 of as  required by  the  Resource
 Conservation and  Recovery Act.  (This
 should be planned for in  advance so that
 the waste can be packaged and disposed
 of safely and conveniently.)

     Equipment  which  cannot  be
 decontaminated  or which  has  been
 contaminated  with extremely toxic
 material may have  to be packaged at the
 site  and decontaminated later under
 controlled  conditions.

 Collection  of Samples

     Generally,  the  most intermittent
and  immediate exposure to  hazardous
chemicals  comes during  the process of
 sample collection.  Both the immediate
dangers of  fire,  explosion,  injury or
 splash, and of contamination are highest
at  this  point.    Personnel  should
                                  22-20

-------
  carefully plan  the collection activity
  to minimize danger  as well  as contact.
  A carefully thought out and practiced
  procedure will  insure  proper equipment,
  and help  foresee  difficulties and
  hazards.

      Not all  sampling  situations can be
  foreseen or discussed. This Unit will
  concentrate or. the  most frequent and
  most hazardous situations normally
  encountered by  EPA personnel.

  Drums

      The 55-gallon drum  has become
  synonymous  with  hazardous  waste
 disposal.  It  is the  most frequently
 used container for disposal.   Because of
 the  drum's frequent  appearance  at
 hazardous waste dump  sites and  the
 number of problems associated  with
 sampling it, special  precautions  and
 techniques must  be followed.

 Safety

      Safety considerations  for these
 operations must be considered.  During
 puncturing and  sampling, the operator
 must be protected from accidents.  The
 following safety equipment  is  a mind mum
 requirement:    rubber  boots,  rubber
 gloves, safety glasses,  and a  hard hat.

     Equipment for puncturing has been
 designed  to remove the operators from
 the puncturing area to a distance of at
 least 50 feet, where they may be
 protected by  barriers.     Material
 handling  equipment  —  backhoes,  fork
 lift trucks,  tractors,  etc., should be
 shielded to protect the operators from
 any spraying or spillage of the chemical
 in the drum.

 Equipment

     All tools  used  for drum opening
should be  of non-sparking construction,
i.e.,  drum hand wrench,   and air  or
                                 22-21

-------
                                              NOTES
hydraulic operated tools.  A trade-off
was made  on the drum plungers described
elsewhere in the Unit.  Stainless steel
was chosen instead of bronze because  it
is more durable.  However,  stainless
steel is more  capable of generating a
spark,  and for  that reason, the minimum
recommended distance  for operators  from
the  plunger  during  operations  is
greater.

     Air and  hydraulic equipment  should
have   hoses of such a  length  as  to
remove the operators  to  a  safe area.

     All  drum  handling  equipment  —
backhoes, fork trucks,  tractors, etc.,
should have  polycarbonate or comparable
shields to prevent operators from being
injured by a release.  The drum handling
equipment would be more efficient if a
utility type  irdustrial  tractor were
used.  These tractors  can be designed
to be  equipped with  the following
attachments:   backhoe, a drum handling
attachment with the ability to invert a
drum,   a  front-end bucket, and an
attachment  for the  front-end bucket
which would allow the use of forks fcr
equipment  loading and unloading.

     Operators  shall wear prescribed
safety equipment  when  opening or
sampling  drums ,  as  described  in an
earlier section of this  Unit.

Layout

     The drums  at the  site should be
placed in  a marshaling area cr arranged
in a manner which will allow sampling
personnel to  work  at  the task of
sampling without  moving the drums.
Rows, usually  two drums  deep with an
aisle space between,  are adequate.

     Drums that can be opened  with  hand
tools should be opened and sampled in
place.
                                   22-22

-------
                                                NCOES
      Those drums that cannot be opened
  with hand tools must be opened with a
  puncturing device.

      At. no time should an operator work
  alone  in an  area where sampling  or
  puncturing is  being performed.

      Only the  large bung will be removed
  for sampling.

      Drums  are to be arranged in  a
 vertical  position for puncturing and
 sampling.

 Definitions

      Structurally Sound Drum - A drum
 which can be  handled wit.h mechanized
 equipment without  rupturing  or
 puncturing.

      Structurally Unsound Drum - High
 risk drum which is  capable of being
 handled but with extreme- caution,  and is
 in one of the followirrg categories:

          a. A drum which has a bulged
 head which is most likely due  to
 internal gas pressure.

          b.  A dru/n which is bulged on
 the side or bottom most likely due to
 freezing and expansion of the contents.

          c.   A drum which has been
 deformed due to mishandling.

    Drum with No Structural  Integrity  -
 A drum widen has corroded  tc  the extent
 that only portions of the drum rs-main
 or with the drum liner exposed.

     Marking -  A system of marking the
 drum and the sample collected frcir the
 drum fcr later  reference.

     Identification Marking - A system
of marking  the drum which identifies the
contents of the drum, to assist in the
 task of consolidation.
                                   22-23-

-------
                                                 NOTES
  Small Drum Site - A disposal site
  with one  to 300 drums that does not
  warrant the use of a mechanized sampling
  system.

      Medium  Drum  Site - A disposal site
  of 300  to  700 drums that warrants the
  use of  mechanized equipment,  but not so
  large as to require a production type of
  operation.

      Large Drum Site - A disposal  of
  over 700 drums  which will require the
  use of  production type of puncturing
  procedures.

      Controlled Area - Designated area
  where drums can be sampled and/or
  punctured while;

          a.   limiting access  to  only
 personnel  involved with sampling or
 puncturing,

          b.   providing  for the ability
 to  recover the  contents  if  the  drum
 should rupture, and

          c.  providing  adequate fjre
 and saf&ly  precautions for personnel as
 prescibed by the site manager.

 Puncturing Methods

     All of the methods listed below are
 designed to r era we the operators from
 the equipment area  for maximum safety.

     Remote Drum Conveyor Method - The
 remote  drum  conveyor  method  is
 recommended for large drum sites (see
 Figure 1),   It is net recommended tbct
 drums be adjacent  to each other during
 puncturing  in case  fire or explosion
 should occur.  A pan is included with a
 drain to recover any liquid spilled from
 a  ruptured  dzt:jp.  The per- should be
 emptied after  each  spillage.

     Backhoe Method - The  bachhoe method
 is a modification of the standard single
drum grabber  rr.echani;.nf>.   A hydraulic
cylinder (see Figure 2} has been added
                                   22-24

-------
                                              NCJEES
with a franse  to  provide  a  plunger to
puncture the top of  the drum.   The
backhoe v/ould grab a drum, relocate it
over  a  spill containment,  pan  an
-------
ro
to
  55 GAL. DRUM
  CONVEYOR
  DRAIN TO VACUUM TRUCK,
  WASTE RECOVERY SYSTEM
  OR TANK	
— FIG. I —
                                                     REMOTE
                                                     LOCATION
            NEEDLE VALVE

            3 WAY VALVE

APPROX. 50FL OF HOSE

AIR/HYDRAULIC CYLINDER
                         H

SPLASH PLATE              °J

REPLACEABLE. 316 STAINLESS
STEEL CONICAL PLUNGER
(3 IN. DIA. X 4 IN. LG.}
DOORS C 2 SIDES)
SPILL CONTAINMENT PAN &,
SUPPORT FRAME (75 GAL CAPACITY)

BELT CONVEYOR
FORK LIFT SLOTS
           REMOTE   DRUM  PLUNGER ARRANGEMENT
                  AND CONTAINMENT BOOTH

-------
Nl
to
I
ro
BACKHOE
ARM (REP.)
   HYDRAULIC LINES
    ADAPTER BRACKET
    DRAIN TO VACUUM TRUCK,
    WASTE RECOVERY SYSTEM
    OR TANK	
                                                    HYDRAULIC CYL.
                                                    WITH 6 IN. STROKE
                                                    SPLASH PLATE
                                                    REPLACEABLE 316
                                                    STAINLESS STEEL
                                                    CONICAL PLUNGER
                                                    (3IN.DIA.X 4IN.LG.)
STANDARD SINGLE
DRUM GRABBER
                                                     55 GALLON DRUM
                                                                     M
— J*t
^^
, 1
L_ L
LL


^
__j
ASLOPE J_
™«B
SPILL C
PAN (P<
75 GAL
                            - FIG. 2 -

         BACKHOE  DRUM  PLUNGER  ARRANGEMENT

-------
                                               NOTES
     Portable Drum Opening Method - The
portable drum opener can be attached to
the  top lip  of a drum  if it  has  not
corroded away/  or  it  can be  banded
arourd the drun? as shewn in Figure 3.
This method should be used only if the
drums  are structurally sound,  or are in
an area where a spill  due to  rupture
could  be  controlled easily  and
recovered.   If puncturing occurs in  the
field,  all personnel must, be notified
and  cleared  from  t.he area  before
puncturing.   The  hoses for t-he portable
opener should be at least SO  feet long
to remove the personnel from the dnim to
be opened.  Other drums  should not  be
relied  upon to  shield personnel.
                                 22-28

-------
                      FIGURE 3
SOFT. MINIMUM
H
    AIR/HYDRAULIC
    CYLINDER WITH
    6 IN. STROKE
  ADJUSTABLE
  SLIDE
             REMOTE
             LOCATION
                                       •A
       V
DRUM LIP
CLAMP
               ^^f
               I
                                                  3 WAY
                                                  VALVE \
                NEEDLE
                VALVE
                                                      -J
CHAIN BAND
ATTACHMENT
(USE WHEN DRUM
LIP CLAMP WON'T
HOLD DUE TO
LIP CORROSION}
           SPLASH PLATE

           REPLACEABLE 316
           STAINLESS STEE
           CONICAL PLUNGE!
           (3 IN. DIA.X 4IN.L<
           ADJUSTABLE
           TENSIONER
           CLAMP
                     — FIG.3  —
           PORTABLE DRUM  PLUNGER
                         22-29-

-------
                                                 NOTES
       Assessment of Each Drum - Fach drum
  should be checked fcr bulges, buckling,
  deformations,  and corrosion.  If a drum
  has  beer,  subjected  to  any  of  the
  aforementioned abuses, the drum will be
  classified  as  a  high  risk  drum.
  Treatment of the high risk drums will be
  addressed later.  All other drums can be
  classified as structurally sound druirs.

       Structurally Sound Drums  -  These
  drums present the least amount of risk
  of rupture during mechanical handling.
  A  responsible member of  the  sampling
  party should determine whether the drums
  can be opened or punctured and sampled
  in place. This dec: si en will be based
  on the extent of clean-up  in  case of
  rupture,  the  danger  involved  in a
  rupture and o<:hf-r factors such as the
  size of site and di-um spacing.  Whenever
  possible, it is safest to puncture or
  sample in a controlled area.

      Opening the Drum - The first step
 is to use the manual  hand wrench.  Only
 the  large  bung  should  have  to  be
 re-moved.   Caution must be t&>f>n to avoid
 causing a spark  which would detonate an
 explosive gas mixture-, in the drum.
 SJcwly lc-f:«;n the bung to allow  ar.y gas
 pressure  to escape.   Om-.e the bur.g  is
 removed, f;he drum  is ready  to be
 sampled.   If the bung cannot be remt.-ved,
 the drum will nave to be punctured.

     Sampling the Drum -  See the  section
 cm  Scinipling Procedures.
     Puncturing and  Sampling  in the
Field  - After it has  been determined"
that the- bung cannot be opened, the drum
will have to be punctured.   The metlxtfs
for puncturing are listed below toeed on
site size.

     Small Drum Site - If the number of
drums  js snail, the methcd most ccst
effective would be the potable plunger
method (see Figt.re !•).  This mechanism
can be attached tc the top 
-------
                                                NOTES
 approximately 50  feet  long enable the
 operator  to stand clear  of  the drum
 during puncturing.    (All personnel
 should evacuate the  area during this
 operation due to the  possibility of an
 explosion.)   After puncturing,  the
 is ready to be f-
      Medium Drum Site - When the number
 of drums is between 300-700, the bsckhoe
 method wil]  be  the  most effective
 ipethod.  With the  backhce- iceMiocl .ihov-n
 :.n Ficure  2, the. pu.-.cturing can be done
 with the drum sitting  in a pan to catch
 any liquid if the drum ruptures.  Care
 must  be  taken  to  insure  that  no
 personnel are  in  the  area during
 puncturing.  After  puncturing, the drum
 can be situated for the sampling team to
 complete the sampling procedure.

     Large Drum Site -  If  the number of
 drums is large, a  mechanized conveyor
 method is recommended for puncturing
 drums  (see Figure 1).  With the conveyor
 method, drums should not be adjacent to
 each  other while being punctured  for
 safety reasons in case of an explosion
 or  Sire.

     Structurally Unsound Drums - These
 drums are high risk drums;  that is, they
 could  rupture during mechanical
 handling.  Therefore,  extreme caution
 and safety methods should be used when
 sampling these drums.  Due to the high
 risk nature, all of these drums should
 be punctured and sampled in a controlled
 area.   The controlled area should be
 away from any other drums in case of an
 explosion or fire,  it should  have
 limited access both for personnel and
 traffic and  it should have stringent
 fire and safety precautions.  Puncturing
of high risk drums should be done in a
catch pan for safety and ease of clean-
up  in  case of a drum rupture.   The
methods of puncturing are the same as
for the structurally sound drums.
                                 22-31

-------
	•                            NOTES
     Drums With No Structural Integrity
- These are drums which have little of
the drum shell left due to corrosion or
punctures.   These drums may have liners
which are easily ruptured.  The use of a
vacuum system to remove a sample and the
contents  of the drum  is  the optimum
method of handling  these drums.   In
preparation for this,  if  there is any
room around the drum,  dig a  "moat" to
contain the  contents of the drum.  If
the drum ruptures during the attempt to
get  a  sample,  the  sample can  be
obtained  from  the  moat,  and  the
remaining liquid can be pumped into a
new drum.

     Sampling  Procedures  - Wear
necessary  protective clothing and gear.

     Choose  the  plastic  or glass
COLIWASA  for the liquid  waste  to  be
sampled,  and assemble the sampler as
shown in Figure 4.

     Make  sure that  the  sampler  is
relatively clean.  Any solids  should be
removed  and  the  sampler  drained  to
prevent   reactions  before   further
sampling  is attempted.

     Check to make sure the sampler is
functioning  properly.   Adjust,  if
necessary, the locking mechanism to make
sure  the  neoprene  rubber   stopper
provides a  tight closure.

     Put   the sampler  in  the open
position  by placing the  stopper  rod
handle  in  the T-position and pushing the
rod down until the handle sits against
the sampler's locking block.

     Slowly lower the sampler into the
liquid waste.  Lower the sampler at a
rate which permits  the levels of  the
liquid inside and outside  the sampler
tube to be about the same.  If  the level
of the liquid in the sampler tube  is
lower than that outside the  sampler,  the
sampling  rate is  too  fast  and  a
nonrepresentative  sample  will be
obtained.

                                  22-32

-------
TAPERED
STOPPER
-11
T-HANOLE^^f
|

* — A-















V
^
i
i
i
I
'1
|i

1 9
\.
l|
i
!
ii
1
i
1
l
3 •









L5
6.35 CM (2^ x
>/
LOCK ING '
BLOCK




»2 M (5-0")













—2.86 CM (|gl

\
17.8 CM (7")
1 /
4 10.2 CM (4*)
1 t
• 0


["^—STOPPER ROD, PVC
0.95 CM (1") O.D.
1 6
1
^— _^ gC ••
— -PIPE, PVC, 4.13 CM (||) I.D.
1 7«« tt
, 4.26 CM (lilO.D.
1 rl
|l
ll
l|
I .-STOPPER, NEOPRENE, *9 WITH
» S |MS.S. OR PVC NUT AND
                                      WASHER
  SAMPLING POSITION
CLOSE POSITION
                          FIG.4
      COMPOSITE LIQUID WASTE SAMPLER  (CQLIWASA^

-------
                                               NOTES
     When the sampler stopper hits the
 bottom of the waste container, push the
 sampler  tube downward  against  the
 stopper to close the sampler.  Lock the
 sampler  in the  closed  position  by
 turning the T-handle until  it is upright
 and one end tightly rests on the locking
 block.   (It should  be  noted that this
 sampler will not sample the botton one-
 two inches of the  drummed  material,  nor
 will it sample solids.)

     Slowly withdraw the  sampler from
 the waste container with one hand while
 wiping  the  sampler tube with  a
 disposable cloth or rag with the other
 hand.    Place the cloth into  an
 appropriate container.

     Carefully discharge the sample into
 a suitable container by slowly opening
 the sampler.   This is done by slowly
 pulling the lower end  of  the T-handle
 away from the  locking  block while  the
 lower end of sampler is in the sample
 container.

     Sample Container -  Be sure  the
 sample container has a wide-mouth large
 enough  for the  Coliwasa to  fit into  and
 the container size is sufficient to hold
 the volume contained in the Coliwasa.
 Also be  sure  the  sample container
 material  and its cap are compatible with
 the collected waste.   Polyvinyl chloride
 sample bottles  should be used for acids
 and bases and other  water  soluble
 materials.  Glass,  preferably with a
 safety  plastic coat, should be used  for
 hydrocarbons and  solvents.  Bakelite
 tops with Teflon  seals should be used
 with glass bottles.

     After the sample bottle has been
 securely closed,  invert   the sample
bottle  a  few times to check for leaks.

     Regardless of whether visible leaks
are detectable or not, wipe the bottles
with rags to remove any wastes on the
outside.  The rags should be disposed of
at the site,   as  are other hazardous
                                  22-34

-------
                                                NOTES
  wastes.   All  sample bottles should be
  thoroughly decontaminated in the proper
  area before being shipped off site.

      Marking the Sample and Drum - After
  the sample has  been  taken,  cap  the
  sample container, attach the label,  and
  mark the  drum with paint or other
  indelible  marking  system.  The marking
  system should correspond to the proposed
  laboratory sample marking protocol.  Put
  a  plastic cap  over  the  drum,  or
  reinstall the bung, to prevent any
  liquid (rain,  etc.) from entering.  Do
  not mark the cover as it may be blown
  off by wind.

      Sampler - Although the Coliwasa and
  its improved  models remain  the  most
  frequently used sampler  for liquids, the
 problem of  cleaning and decontamination
 have yet to find simple solutions.

     Court cases and Agency enforcement
 actions  are highly dependent on the
 integrity of  the  sample,  hence the
 sampling procedure and the cleanliness
 of  the  equipment  used  are  very
 important.   Furthermore,  subsequent
 handlers of sampling equipment seldom
 have protective gloves on during the
 initial  handling,   storing,  and
 transporting of  equipment.  Agency  crew
 members should take care to  practice
 Coliwasa  decontamination procedures
 before entering a site.  The following
 steps  are  recommended between each
 sampling and before leaving the site:

     I.  Select the  type of body tube
 that is compatible with the suspected
 material to be  sampled.   PVC  tubes are
 best for acids, bases, or other water-
 based substances.  Glass  is  best for
 hydrocarbons such  as solvents.   The
 Coliwasa   tube  is  designed  to be
 economical enough  for  disposal if
cleaning and decontamination prove to be
difficult or impractical.  Always take
extra tubes with the sampler.
                                 22-35

-------
                                                NOTES
  2.   While raising  the  filled
  Coliwasa from  the barrel,  wipe  the
  excess  from the outside with a
  disposable  rag.   Hold a  rag  under  the
  tube  as it is  lifted to  the sample
  container.

      3.   Secure the sample  bottle from
  tipping over.   Slowly release the
 Coliwasa  T-handle  to  prevent  the
 contents from splashing.

      4.   Using a  long-handled brush,
 rags,  and a solvent, clean the tube both
 inside and out.

      5.   Using a  separate brush and
 rags, wash with soap  and water,  then
 rinse  with clean water.

      6.   Before sampling again, inspect
 the  tube  for signs  of  deterioration due
 to chemical incompatibility.

     7.   All wash materials must  be
 decontaminated or disposed of on site as
 a hazardous waste.

 Ponds and Lagoons

     The  threat from ponds and lagoons
 comes from both chemical hazards and
 physical hazards  such as  drowning.
 Representative sampling procedures
 usually require five or  six samples  that
 include both the aqueous phase  and  the
 bottom sludge material.   During the
 sampling, it is common  practice to  lean
 or reach  as far away from the bank as
 possible,  increasing  the  danger of
 slipping or falling into the pond.  The
 following safety precautions should be
 observed:

     1.   Wear protective gear including
boots,  gloves, and splash goggles.

     2.  Always sample with  two people
present.

     3.    Wear  a  life preserver or  a
safety line held by  an assistant.
                                  22-36

-------
                                                NQHES
      4.   Remember, a sample container
 when full, particularly at the end of a
 long pole,  will weigh considerably  more
 that when empty.   Such an unanticipated
 strain may cause the sample taken  to
 over-balance  and fall  into  the pond.
 If possible, lift samples straight up,
 using the power of the legs rather  than
 the back  or  arms.

      If the  sampling is being  done  over
 the side  of a boat, the added weight of
 a full sampler  may be  sufficient to
 cause the  boat to  tip  or  rock
 dangerously.  Notify other passengers in
 the boat  when you are about to lift the
 full sampler.  Such warnings will allow
 passengers to prepare to  counterbalance
 the affects of the  weighted sample being
 lifted.

     Samplers  should be emptied into
 sample containers in  a  spill pan to
 catch  spillage, drippings,  or  overflow.
 Such  pans  facilitate  cleanup  and
 decontamination.  Gear such as samplers
 and sampler lines, should be stored in
 the pans, rather than the bottom of the
 boat where decontamination and cleanup
 are  difficult.

 Haste Piles

     Hazardous materials stored in waste
 piles are  frequently of a small granular
 size,  such  as sand  and  dust.   The
 particles  frequently are easily blown,
 as dust, when the hazardous materials
 are disturbed, or dropped  into  the tops
 of open boots or shoes.  Agency crews
 should wear, as a  minimum, protective
 gear  including air   purifying,
 particulate  removing,  respirators;
 protective coveralls; boots  that can be
 laced up and  taped  inside of pant  legs;
gloves, and protective  eye gear.

     Waste piles  should be approached
 from up wind.  Large  piles,  or piles
near or inside of  buildings with open
sides,  are  prone to whirlpool  or
                                22-37

-------
                                             NOTES
multiple-direction gusts.   Efforts
should be made to disturb the pile as
little as possible,  minimizing  the
amount of dust.

     While you are in the vicinity of
pile, clothing, boots,  and other gear
contaminated  with the  dust  should be
thoroughly rinsed down to remove dust.
                                22-38

-------
                        STUDENT EXERCISES


     For  sampling  at  the  following  hazardous  waste  sites,
describe the type of  protective gear  and the rationale used for
the selection.

     A.   1.   Known Waste -  Hydrogen Cyanide

         2.   Vapor Concentration - 3 ppm

         3.   Oxygen  -  21*

         4.   Wind  -  20 mph

         5.   Site  - Open  Field

         6.   Containers - Drums

    Rationale
    Protective Gear
    Level
   B.   1.  Unknown

        2.  Vapor Concentration - 25 ppm

        3.  Oxygen - 18.1%

        4.  Wind - 0

        5.  Site - Building

        6.  Containers - Drums
                                  22-39

-------
      Rationale
      Protective Gear
Level
     C.  1.  Known Haste - Trichloroethane
         2.  Vapor Concentration - 4 ppm
         3.  Oxygen - 21%
         4.  Wind - 10-15 mph
         5.  Site - Open
         6.  Containers - Tank
     Rationale
    Protective Gear
    Level	

                                   22-40

-------
 D.   1.   Known Waste  - Chloroacetic Acid
      2.   Vapor Concentration  - 0
      3.   Oxygen - 21.1%
      4.   Wind - 5-10 mph
      5.   Site - Open
      6.   Containers - Drums
 Rationale
 Protective Gear
Level
If all of the above were represented at  the  same site:
Rationale
Protective Gear
                               22-41'

-------
Level
                             22-42

-------
                            UNIT 23

         SHIPPING REGULATIONS FOR CHEMICALS AND SAMPLES


Educational Objectives

     o The student  should know how to
use the Hazardous Material Tables.

     o The student  should know how to
label a Hazardous Material Sample.

     o The student should know the
definitions needed  to ship a hazardous
material  properly.

     o The student  should know how to
ship Environmental Samples.

     o The student should know the Rules
for Placarding.

     o The student should know  the DOT
Hazard Label Priority.

     o The student should know the rules
prohibiting certain  types of hazardous
materials.
                                    23-1

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                           UNIT 23

         SHIPPING REGULATIONS FOR CHEMICALS AND SAMPLES

                                              NOTES

Introduction

     Preventing  spills,  fires  and
explosions of hazardous materials during
transportation  is a  major goal  of the
U.S.  Department of Transportation (DOT).
In order to protect the environment, the
public,  and  transportation employees
from such  incidents,   the DOT has
developed and adopted rigorous standards
for packaging and identifying hazardous
materials that are shipped by any  mode
of transportation.

     The DOT  standards must be followed
if  you  ship  hazardous  chemicals or
samples by any  means of  transportation
other than an EPA vehicle.  DOT stan-
dards  must  also be  followed for any
chemical, sample or hazardous material
you may take with you (or check in your
baggage) on  a  flight by scheduled or
chartered aircraft.   Some materials
(such as nitric acid) are considered so
hazardous   that  they  are  totally
prohibited from being shipped or carried
on aircraft.

     The DOT standards can serve  as a
useful guide  for  handling field  samples
and the chemicals and solvents  needed
for field activities.   Familiarity  witti
the principles of the regulations can
help you package  and  identify hazardous
materials for your protection even if
they are not regulated by  DOT.

     There is another use  that  can be
made of information  in  the  DOT
standards.  If personnel ever have to
respond  to a transportation spill of
hazardous materials, they can  obtain
important information about  the identity
of the materials carried in the vehicle
from the DOT-required shipping papers,
placards and identification numbers.
New DOT regulations require cargo tanks
and tank trucks to be  marked on all  four
sides  with  a  four-digit  number
                                   23-2

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                                               NOTES
identifying the specific material  being
carried, and  the  DOT has published a
list of the numbers and corresponding
hazardous  materials.

     This  unit will outline the general
requirements of DOT regulations that may
apply  to   Agency  personnel:
classification of hazards, packaging,
marking and labeling,  shipping papers,
and  loading and placarding  vehicles.
This unit  will also describe how EPA has
interpreted the regulations for handling
environmental samples  and hazardous
waste samples.

General Requirements

     DOT regulations  specify that no
person  may offer a hazardous material
for  transportation by any commercial
carrier within the  United States unless
that material  meets a series of specific
safety requirements.

     The  regulations list materials
which must not be  shipped by or carried
on  aircraft, and some that are so
sensitive  to explosion that they cannot
be   shipped  by   any  mode  of
transportation.

     Shipments of  hazardous  material
must first be properly classified for
their  hazards.   The  DOT regulations
require that  "each person who offers a
hazardous material for transportation
shall describe the  hazardous material on
the  shipping  paper,"  and shall  include
details on  the  classification of the
material.  Hazardous  materials must be
prepared and packaged safely  for  ship-
ment,  and the  packages and shipping
containers must be marked and labeled to
show the hazards of the contents.

     The DOT  regulations also  include
requirements  for  loading vehicles and
for marking  vehicles with  warning
placards  and  material identification
numbers.
                                    23-3

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                                              NOTES
The  DOT  has  established specific
definitions of  Hazardous Materials, and
has recently broadened its regulations
to  define  and  regulate Hazardous
Substances and Hazardous Waste.   DOT
regulations for hazardous materials that
are shipped in low concentrations or
small quantities are not as restrictive
as  the regulations for commercial
concentrations or quantities.

     "Hazardous material"  is defined as
a substance or material which has been
determined to be capable of posing an
unreasonable risk  to health, safety, and
property when transported in commerce,
and which has  been  so designated by the
Secretary  of Transportation.

     "Hazardous substance" is a category
that has been  added  to the   DOT
regulations  in cooperation with the
Environmental Protection  Agency.
Substances which have  long term health
effects in the environment,  such as
PCB's,  have  been added to the  DOT
regulations.  Such substances  are
identified in DOT  tables by an E, and
their reportable  quantities in case of
spill have been listed.

     "Hazardous waste" is defined as any
material subject to the  hazardous waste
manifest  requirements  of   EPA
regulations,  or  any  that would  be
subject to those requirements if there
were  no interim  authorization  to  a
state.

     "Passenger-carrying aircraft" is
defined as an aircraft that carries any
person other than  a  crewmember, company
employee, an authorized  representative
of  the United States  or  a person
accompanying the shipment.

     "Cargo-only aircraft" is defined as
an aircraft that  is used to transport
cargo and is  not engaged in  carrying
passengers.
                                  23-4

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                                               NOTES
"Vessel" includes every description of
watercraft used or capable of being used
as a  means of transportation on  the
water.

     "STC" or single-trip container is a
container that may not be refilled and
reshipped after having been previously
emptied,  except  as  provided in  DOT
regulations.

     "NRC"  or non-reusable container is
a container whose reuse is restricted in
accordance with  the provisions of DOT
regulations.

     "Carrier"  means any person, group
or company engaged in the transportation
of passengers or property  by civil
aircraft,  or  by  land  or  water,  as a
common, contract or private carrier.

Classification of Hazards

     Safe shipment of hazardous material
depends on packaging and handling which
provide  protection for  the  specific
hazards  of the material.  In  order to
provide  appropriate protection, it is
necessary to identify the hazards.

     Samples which must be transported
for  laboratory analysis may,  if a
reasonable  doubt exists as to the hazard
class  and labeling requirements, be
given a  tentative classification based
upon the:

     o definitions of hazards in the DOT
regulations

     o   highest   ranked   hazard
classifications  in which  it fits, and
the

     o   shipper's knowledge of  the
material.

     Although the DOT  regulations list
and define twenty different hazard
classifications, all of them fit within
two broad categories:
                                   23-5

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                                               NOTES
     Fire and explosion hazards,
     Health hazards,

     Fire and explosion hazards include
the following classes of material:

         Explosives,

         Radioactive materials  that
could be explosive,

         Flammable  gases,  liquids,  and
solids  (including those that   are
spontaneously  combustible or water-
reactive) ,

         Pyrophoric liquids,

         Combustible liquids,

         Oxidizers  and  organic
peroxides, and

         Compressed gas cylinders.

     Health hazards include  the following
classes of material:

         Poisonous materials (gases,
1iquids, so1ids),

         Etiologic agents  (disease
microorganisms  or toxins),

         Radioactive materials,

         Corrosive materials,  and

          Irritating materials.

     The DOT regulations  define  each
classifications of hazardous  materials
and provide convenient Tables listing
the classifications for many commonly-
used  materials.    However,   the
regulations apply to all materials which
meet any of  the specific definitions,
whether or not they are listed in the
Tables.  In preparing to ship a material
which  may be hazardous, first look to
see if it is  listed in the Tables; if it
                                  23-6

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                                               NOTES
is not, then determine whether it  is
hazardous by any DOT definition.

     In order  to classify  the major
hazard, or hazards,  of materials which
are not listed in the Tables,  the DOT
regulations establish a  priority order
of hazards.  The  classification  of
hazards is listed here in a  tabulation
with the more serious hazards having the
lower numbers.

     The   highest  DOT   hazard
classification is explosive material,
material that is designed to  function by
explosion.

     Since EPA should not be  shipping
any military  ordnance,  the  listing
starts with  Radioactive  Material,
followed by (READ LIST):

     DOT Classification  of  Hazards  of_
Materials

         1.  Radioactive  material

         2.  Poison A

         3.  Flammable Gas

         4.  Non-flammable Gas

         5.  Flammable Liquid

         6.  Oxidizer

         7.  Flammable Solid

         8.  Corrosive material that is
             liquid

         9.  Poison B

        10.  Corrosive material that is
             solid

        11.  Irritating  materials

        12. Combustible liquid  in
             containers  exceeding 110
                                    23-7

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                                              NOTES
             galIons

(DOT has  additional classifications but
they include  materials of  types and
quantities not likely to be shipped by
EPA, such as organic peroxides and
etiologic agents.)

     Following are  instructions to
explain how this information could be
used.   For  example,  if  personnel
determine that a material not listed in
the Tables matches the definitions for
Poison A, Oxidizer,  and Corrosive
Liquid, how  souId they  classify it?
Because    Poison  A  appears  on  the
priority  list before  the other  two
hazards, they must classify the material
as Poison A.  (See section on Labeling)

     These twelve classes of hazards can
be grouped  into five broad categories:

         Radioactive  Material

         Poisonous,  Corrosive  and
Irritating Materials

         Flammable  Gas  and   Non-
flammable Gas

         Flammable Liquid,  Flammable
Solid,  and Combustible Liquid

         Oxidizer.

     Consider  the definitions  for
materials  in  the  three categories of
radioactive  material;  poisonous,
corrosive  and  irritating materials; and
oxidizers.  (Flammable and combustible
materials are discussed in the unit on
Fire and  Explosion  Hazards.)

     Radioactive Material

     Agency personnel  are not  likely to
be shipping any  radioactive material
unless they encounter it in an unusual
environmental or hazardous waste site
sample.   Based  on DOT regulations, a
                                   23-8

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                                              NOTES
sample  would  not  be classified    as
Radioactive Material if the estimated
specific activity is not greater than
0.002 microcurie per gram of material,
and if the radioactivity is essentially
uniformly  distributed through  the
material.

     If  the   estimated   specific
radioactivity  is greater  than 0.002
microcurie per gram, or not distributed
uniformly,  the sample  should  be
classified as Radioactive Material and
packaged and labeled accordingly.   If
personnel   expect  to   encounter
radioactivity in their field work, and
take samples that will be classified as
radioactive material, they should plan
to  take  to the field  the special
equipment needed  to identify the hazard
and  the packaging  required for  the
sample.

     Poisonous  Materials and Corrosive
Material

     There are four classifications of
hazard  in  the  grouping of poisonous
materials and corrosive material.

     Poisonous  materials are divided
into three groups, according to their
hazard in transportation.  The mutually
exclusive groups,  in descending order of
hazard, are:   Poison A,  Poison B,  and
Irritating material (known previously as
Poison C).

         Poison A Materials -  Materials
classified as Poison A  (or extremely
dangerous poisons) must be labeled as
Poison  Gas.  Poison A materials  are
defined as "poisonous gases or liquids
of such  nature that a very small amount
of the  gas,  or  vapor of  the liquid,
mixed with air,  is dangerous to life."

     Ten materials are  listed  in  the
text of the  DOT regulations and  ten
others are listed in the Tables.   The
ten examples given in the text of  the
regulations  include  bromoacetone,
                                  23-9

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                                               NOTES
cyanogen,  cyanogen chloride, hydrocyanic
acid,  phosgene,  and nitrogen tetroxide-
nitric oxide mixtures containing up to
33.2 percent of nitric oxide by weight.
Most of the ten materials have uses in
organic syntheses;  several are reported
elsewhere as military poison gases.  The
ten other  materials classed in  the
Tables  as Poison  Gas  include arsine,
germane,  nitric oxide, phosphine  and
several  insecticides,  including  two
liquids  shipped in  combination with
compressed gas.

          Poison B Materials - Materials
classified  as  Poison B are liquids or
solids which "are known to be so  toxic
to man as to afford a hazard  to health
during  transportation" or  which  are
presumed  to be toxic to man because of
the toxic effects shown when tested on
laboratory animals.

     If you  have to decide whether a
hazardous  material must be  classified as
a Poison  B  material, you  can do  so by
comparing the toxicity  information
reported in the NIOSH Registry of Toxic
Effects of Chemical  Substances with  the
DOT criteria  for  Poison B  material.
(Test data and the DOT definitions  may
differ slightly.)

     There are  three tests which define
a Poison  B material:  oral  toxicity,
inhalation toxicity, and skin absorption
toxicity.

          Oral  Toxicity;   A material is
classified as a Poison B material  if in
the oral  toxicity tests, a single dose
of 50  milligrams or less  per kilogram of
body weight, administered orally, causes
death within 48 hours in  half or more
than half  of a  group of 10  or more white
laboratory rats weighing 200 to  300
grams.

          Inhalation  Toxicity:    A
material  is classified as a  Poison B
material if a continuous exposure of one
hour  or  less,  at  a concentration of
                                  23-10

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                                              NOTES
vapor, mist or dust of 2 milligrams or
less per  liter, produces death within 48
hours in half or  more  than half of a
group of 10 or  more  white laboratory
rats weighing 200 to 300 grams.

         Skin Absorption Toxicity;  A
material is also classed as a Poison B
material  if, in skin absorption toxicity
tests, a dosage of 200 milligrams or
less  per kilogram  of body weight,
administered by  continuous  contact with
the bare skin  for 24  hours or  less,
produces death within 48 hours in half
or more  than half of a group of 10 or
more rabbits.

     There  is  an exception that if
experience shows that the  physical
characteristics of a material, or the
probable hazards  to  humans, will not
cause serious sickness or death,  the
material  does not  need to be classified
as a  Poison B  material,  even if test
data  would  otherwise  require such a
classification.

     Examples of  materials which are
classified as Poison B include:  aldrin,
mecuric chloride, methyl bromide, sodium
cyanide,  and almost all  pesticides.

     The  only materials classified as
Irritating Material  are tear gas and
four compounds described as being usable
as tear gas.

         Corrosive Material

         A  corrosive  material  is a
liquid or  solid  that  causes visible
destruction or alteration of human  skin
tissue at the site of contact, or that
has a severe corrosion rate on steel.  A
material is considered to be  corrosive
if  specified  tests on rabbit  skin
destroy, or irreversibly change tissue
at the site of contact after an exposure
period of  4  hours or  less,  or if the
corrosion rate on  steel  exceeds 1/4-inch
per year in  a  specified test.
                                    23-11

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                                              NOTES
     Examples of corrosive  materials
include hydrochloric acid, nitric acid
in a concentration of 40 percent  or
less, sodium  hydroxide,  and sulfuric
acid.

     Nitric acid in a concentration of
more than 40 percent is also  classified
as an Oxidizer, and is required to be
labeled  as  both  an Oxidizer  and
Corrosive.

          Oxidizer

          DOT  defines "oxidizer"  or
"oxidizing material" as one which yields
oxygen readily to  stimulate  combustion
of organic materials.

     Examples of materials classified as
oxidizers  by DOT are  chlorates,
permanganates, nitrates, and inorganic
peroxides.

     DOT  classifies as  "organic
peroxide"  any organic   compound
containing a bivalent oxygen structure
which  is  considered  a derivative  of
hydrogen  peroxide.   However,   the
classification excludes some peroxides.

     Examples of materials classified as
organic  peroxides  by DOT are  acetyl
peroxide  solutions containing not over
25% peroxide,  benzoyl  peroxide,  lauryl
peroxide, and  methyl ethyl ketone
peroxide solution containing not over 9%
active  oxygen.   (DOT prohibits shipment
of acetyl  peroxide  solutions  containing
over 25% active oxygen, and methyl ethyl
ketone  peroxide  solutions  containing
more than 9% active oxygen.)

Packaging of Hazardous  Materials

     "Packaging"  is  defined as  the
assembly of one or  more containers and
any other  components necessary to assure
compliance with the minimum packaging
requirements of  DOT  regulations.
Packaging, as defined by DOT, includes
                                  23-12-

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                                             NOTES
containers, portable tanks,  cargo tanks,
and  tank  cars  including  tanks with
multiple compartments.

     DOT specification  for  packaging to
be  used  for  shipping  hazardous
materials, is required to be designed
and constructed, and to have  contents
limited,  so  that  under  normal
transportation conditions:

     There will  be  no  significant
release of the hazardous materials to
the environment,

     The effectiveness  of the  packaging
will not be substantially reduced, and

     There will be no mixture of gases
or vapors, in the  package  which could
rupture the packaging.

     The  DOT  regulations  contain
elaborate and detailed specifications
for  hundreds  of  different  types  of
containers, ranging from bottles to tank
cars to barges. Although  many of  the
specifications include  details that
Agency personnel do  not need to  be
familiar with, such as the quality of
lumber,   thickness  of  steel,  and
container construction  features, there
are some  general requirements that  may
apply to shipment of field samples.

     Closures  must be adequate  to
prevent inadvertent  leakage of the
contents  under  normal conditions  of
transportation.  Gasket  closures must be
fitted  with  gaskets  of  efficient
material which  will not deteriorate  in
contact  with  the contents  of  the
container.

     Polyethylene  used  for containers
must be compatible with the  material
placed within the  container,  and must
not be so permeable that  a  hazardous
condition could  be  caused during
transportation and  handling.

     In  order  to  prevent  rupture  of
                                 23-13

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                                               NOTES
containers of liquids due  to thermal
expansion,  DOT regulations  specify that
packagings  must  not be  completely
filled.  The  regulations specify that
sufficient expansion space, or outage,
must be provided within the container so
that it will not be liquid full at 55°C
(130°F).

     All containers must  be  tightly and
securely closed, and inside containers
must be cushioned to prevent breakage or
leakage.   Samples  generally  can  be
shipped in non-specification containers,
if the quantities are limited to about
one  pint,  and  if  the containers are
tightly closed and  securely cushioned to
prevent breakage.

Marking and labeling

     Marking  and labeling regulations
require that each person who offers, for
transportation a hazardous material in a
package having  a rated capacity of 110
gallons or less  shall mark and label the
package to meet  DOT requirements.

     The required marking must include:

          1.   the proper  shipping name
of the material, and

          2.   the  identification number
assigned to the  material.

     It must also include:

          3.   the EPA-required markings
if the material is a hazardous waste,
and

          4.   special markings if the
package contains liquid materials.

     Required  marking must include:

          5.   the required hazard label
or labels,  and

          6.   the  Cargo  Aircraft Only
label, if  required  because the shipment
                                   23-14

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                                              NOTES
is not permitted aboard passenger-
carrying aircraft.

Proper Shipping Name

     The  "proper shipping name" for a
hazardous material is the name which has
been  assigned  and listed  in the DOT
regulations. The proper shipping name
is usually the technical name for the
material, but there are some exceptions.
It is necessary to check the DOT listing
and use the name specified there.

     If the  proper shipping name for a
mixture or solution that is a hazardous
substance  does  not  identify the
constituents making  it a hazardous
substance,  the  name  or names of such
hazardous constituents must be entered
with  the proper shipping name shown on
each package.

Identification Number

     The package is to  include the four-
digit identification number  listed in
the  DOT Hazardous Materials Tables,
preceded by UN  or NA  as  appropriate.
(The  numbers   preceded  by UN  are
associated with  descriptions considered
appropriate for  both  international and
domestic shipments, and those preceded
by NA are associated with descriptions
appropriate for  shipments within the
United States and Canada.)

Hazardous Materials Tables

     See the Hazardous Materials Table
in Sect-ion 172.101 (or  Appendix A, Table
2);  this  is the  basic reference for
using the  DOT shipping regulations.

     Column   1  has  four   coded
designations, the most significant of
which is the letter E  which identifies
materials  which are   subject  to the
requirements pertaining to  hazardous
substances if the concentration of the
                                   23-15

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                                             NOTES
material  10%, or a lower concentration,
depending on the quantity.

     Column 2 lists the proper shipping
name of  materials  designated  as
hazardous materials.

     Column 3 contains a designation of
the hazard class corresponding to each
proper shipping name.  A material for
which the entry in this  column  is
"Forbidden,"  is prohibited  from being
offered or accepted for transportation
unless  the  materials  are diluted,
stabilized, or otherwise modified  to
reduce the hazards to an  acceptable
level.

     Column 3A  lists the identification
numbers assigned to hazardous materials.

     Column  4  specifies  the  label
required to be applied to each package.

     Column 5 references  the applicable
packaging  section  of  the  DOT
regulations.   Exceptions are noted in
Column 5A, and reference  to  specific
packaging requirements and  certain
additional exceptions  are noted  in
Column 5B.

     Column 6A specifies the  maximum net
quantity permitted in one package, for
transportation by passenger-carrying
aircraft, and Column 6B specifies the
maximum quantity permitted  in one
package, for transportation by cargo-
only aircraft.  Notice that the quantity
allowed in  cargo-only  aircraft  is
greater.

     Look  now  at   the  specific
information  for  acetone,  the  eighth
entry on the part  of the page shown.

     In Column 2 it can be seen that the
proper shipping  name for  acetone  is
acetone.

     In  Column 3  it can  be seen that
                                23-16

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                                              NOTES
acetone is classified as a flammable
liquid. The identification number for
acetone is UN1090.  The required label
is Flammable Liquid.  The  packaging
exceptions are listed, and it is seen
that the maximum net quantity of acetone
allowed in one package in a passenger-
carrying  aircraft  is one quart.   If
personnel had to ship a large quantity
of acetone to a field site, they would
be permitted to ship  up to ten gallons
in one container in  an aircraft that
carried cargo only.

Marking for Hazardous  Liquids

     Liquid hazardous  materials must be
packed with  closures upward and the
outside package must be legibly  marked
"THIS SIDE UP" or "THIS END UP" to indicate the upward position of the
inside packaging.  (There is a limited
exemption  from  this  requirement for
ground transportation of  packages
containing Class 1C  flammable  liquids in
containers of one quart or  less.)

Hazard Warning Labels

     Each  package must  be  clearly
labeled with the  required diamond-shaped
hazard warning label. Labels generally
must be placed on  the surface  of the
package near  the  proper shipping name.
(Labels may  be  placed on a  securely
attached  tag,  or  affixed by  other
suitable  means to  compressed  gas
cylinders,  to   packages with  very
irregular surfaces that would prevent
affixing a  label, and  to packages which
have dimensions less  than those of the
required  label  and  which contain no
radioactive material.)

     When  labeling  is required,  labels
must be displayed on at least two sides
or two ends of, each  package containing
radioactive material,  and each package
having a  volume of  64 cubic feet or
more.
                                   23-17

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                                              NOTES
     Warning  labels are usually required
for only one hazard.

     Although most hazardous material
packages are required to be labeled to
signal only one class of hazard, there
are some materials with more than one
hazard, which require labeling of two
classes of hazard.

     For example, any material that is
classed as Explosive  A,  Poison  A or
Radioactive  and  that  meets  the
definition of  another class as well,
must be  labeled as required for each
class.

     Any  material classed as Poison B
material  that also  meets  the definition
of a Flammable Liquid must be labeled as
both:   POISON B and FLAMMABLE LIQUID.

     Any material classed as Oxidizer or
Flammable Solid that also meets the
definition of a Poison B material must
be labeled for both hazards.

     OXIDIZER         and    POISON
     FLAMMABLE SOLID  and    POISON

     A material classed as a Flammable
Solid,  that also meets the definition of
a water reactive material, must have two
labels attached:

     FLAMMABLE  SOLID and  DANGEROUS WHEN
WET

     Since July 1,  1983,  there are five
other  combinations  of  hazards  that
require packages to bear two different
classes of warning labels:
CORROSIVE
POISON
FLAMMABLE
LIQUID
FLAMMABLE
SOLID
OXIDIZER
and
and

and

and
and
POISON
CORROSIVE

CORROSIVE

CORROSIVE
CORROSIVE
                                   23-18'

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                                               NOTES
     Here are four examples of some of
the materials currently required to have
two labels:

     Fluorine, which  is  in the hazard
class of nonflammable gas, is required
to be labeled with Poison and Oxidizer
hazard labels.

     Germane  is  required  to  have the
Poison Gas and the Flammable Gas hazard
labels.

     Nitric acid  with a  concentration
over   40%,   which  is classed  as  a
corrosive  liquid, has to be labeled as
an Oxidizer and as a Corrosive.

     Fuming   nitric  acid has to  be
labeled as  an Oxidizer and as a  Poison.
Material
         TART.R 1

 Class of Hazard
        Required Labels
Fluorine

Germane
Nbnf lammable Gas    POISON  and  OXIDIZER
Poison A
POISON GAS and FLAMMABLE
                GAS
Nitric acid,
  over 40%

Nitric acid,
  fuming
Corrosive Liquid    OXIDIZER and CORROSIVE
Oxidizer
OXIDIZER and POISON
Shipping Papers

     Each person who offers  a  hazardous
material  for  transportation  must
describe the hazardous material on the
shipping paper in an exact and specific
manner.

     The shipping  paper must  include:

     o    proper shipping name  for the
material
                                   23-19-

-------
                                              NOTES
     o    identification number  for the
material (2  letters and 4 digits),  and

     o   hazard  class  (unless  the
hazard is included in the shipping  name)

     If any  solid or liquid material in
a package  meets  the  definition  of a
poisonous  material, notwithstanding the
class to which the  material is assigned
by DOT regulations, the word "Poison"
must be entered on the shipping paper in
association  with   the  shipping
description.

     If the  hazardous material is  to be
offered for transportation by air, and
the regulations prohibit transportation
aboard passenger-carrying aircraft, the
words "Cargo Aircraft Only" (or Cargo-
Only Aircraft) must be entered on the
shipping   paper  after   the basic
description  of the material.

     The shipping paper must show the
total quantity of  the hazardous material
being shipping.

     The shipping paper  must  also
include a  certification that  the
hazardous materials listed on the  ship-
ping  paper  are  properly  classified,
described, packaged, marked  and  labeled,
and   in  proper  condition   for
transportation  according  to DOT
regulations.

     The shipping paper must include the
shipper's signature.

     See Figure 1  for an example of a
commercially-available shipping paper.
On shipping  papers, hazardous materials
must  be given prominent  attention,
usually be being entered first, or
possibly in a contrasting color, or by
an X  in a  special column for noting
hazardous  materials.  The second column
on this shipping paper with the HM is
for noting Hazardous Materials.
                                  23-20

-------
                                               NOTES
      See Figure 2 for another example of
 a shipping paper with the second column
 for hazardous materials highlighted in
 red.  There  is a reminder in the third
 column to be sure to enter the proper
 shipping  name  for  any  hazardous
 material.   The next column is for  the
 hazard class, and the last column shown
 is  for  the identification  number
 required.

 Placarding of Vehicles

      DOT regulations require shippers to
 provide, and carriers to use, placards
 for vehicles  transporting more than 1000
 pounds of  hazardous  material  in one
 load.  Placards are required on both
 sides and  both ends  of vehicles and
 railcars  carrying more than 1000 pounds
 of hazardous  materials.

     Placards  on railroad cars can
 provide  important  information,
 particularly  if the car  has  been
derailed.

     Cargo tanks and  tank cars are
required to have the contents identified
with a four-digit hazard identification
number.  The numbers  may be  placed
within the placard,  except for Poison
Gas,  Radioactive  Material,  and
Explosives.   If  the numbers  are not
 placed within the placard, they are to
 be 4 inches high on an orange background
 located below the placard.

     The  DOT  has published  an Emergency
 Response  Guidebook  for  Hazardous
 Materials, which is available through
 the Government Printing Office and book
 stores.    The Guidebook  lists the
 materials  alphabetically with their
 identification numbers, and also lists
 all  numbers in numerical order  to
 provide  a  cross-reference   to  the
 shipping  names of materials.
                                  23-21

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                                              NOTES
Loading of Vehicles

     DOT  regulations  for  loading
vehicles can be used as guidelines for
EPA field activities.  Any container or
package of hazardous material placed in
a  vehicle  should  be secured against
movement within the vehicle in which it
is  being transported,  and should be
braced or secured to prevent movement
against other containers of hazardous
material.

     Reasonable care should be taken to
prevent undue  rise in temperature of
containers  and their contents during
transit.

     All reasonable  precautions must be
taken to prevent dropping of containers,
or batteries,  containing corrosive
liquids.  Storage batteries containing
any electrolyte should be loaded so they
are  protected  against, other  material
falling onto or against them.

Shipping Samples

     DOT regulations were not intended
to cover shipment of samples collected
by Agency  personnel.   However, the
Agency has deemed it prudent to comply
with the regulations for shipment of all
samples which may be hazardous.

     The designation of  samples as
"hazardous"  is based on judgement of the
conditions where the sample is  taken and
the possibility that the sample may be
hazardous ,  in  transportation , or to
personnel receiving the samples in the
laboratory.    If  a sample  can be
hazardous in transportation, as defined
by the DOT regulations, it  must  be
packaged and identified according to the
regulations.

     If the sample does not  meet  DOT
definitions but may, nonetheless, be
hazardous  to  personnel  handling  and
receiving it,  it should be  packaged and
                                  23-22

-------
                                               NOTES
identified to the same standards.

Environmental Samples

     In general, "environmental samples"
are those that are not expected to be
grossly contaminated with high levels of
toxic or  hazardous materials.   Examples
of environmental samples  are those taken
from streams, ponds, or  wells and from
the ambient air.

     Environmental  samples that are
preserved with hazardous  materials such
as nitric acid or sulfuric  acid  will in
most  cases   have such  dilute
concentrations of the preservative that
the sample will not have to be handled
as a hazardous sample.

     Environmental  samples  should be
packaged just as securely  as hazardous
samples, mainly to protect  the integrity
of the sample.  However,  no DOT labeling
should be used, no DOT shipping papers
are required,   and there  are  no
restrictions   on  the  mode  of
transportation  (unless dry ice is used
for preservation).

Hazardous Samples

     "Hazardous samples"  are  those that
are taken where high concentrations of
hazardous materials are  likely.  For
example,  soil or water at spill sites or
hazardous waste sites, samples from
drums or  tanks, leachates from hazardous
waste sites,  and water sources that are
likely to be highly contaminated such as
pits, ponds,  lagoons  and  sampling wells.

     Samples of hazardous materials must
first be  classified  into  the  DOT
categories of hazards. Then the samples
must be  packaged,  and  marked and
labeled.  Finally, the samples must be
shipped as specified in DOT regulations.

     If the material in the sample is
known, or can be identified in the
                                  23-23

-------
                                              NOTES
field, determination of the DOT hazard
class and required labeling can be done
simply  by  reference  to the DOT
regulations.  If, however, the specific
hazards of a sample cannot be determined
with certainty in the field, informed
judgement must be used.

Procedure to  Judge Hazard Class  of
Unknown Suspected Hazardous Material

     There are several  steps which
should be taken to judge the appropriate
DOT  class  of  a material  that  is
suspected of being hazardous.  The
following is a generalized procedure for
classification of hazards,  including the
simplified steps that  can be  used  by
agreement between EPA and DOT.

     This procedure  should be used only
when  reliable  identification of the
material cannot  be  made in the field.
The purposes of using this procedure are
to meet  DOT regulations as well as  to
provide  protection  for field and
laboratory personnel.  If a material
fits  within  the definition  for  a
particular class of  hazard, the sample
should be classified accordingly and
subsequent handling,  packaging, labeling
and shipment  should comply with the
corresponding DOT regulations for that
class.

     Here is a simple  outline of the
order  of judgement or determination
necessary to classify the hazard of a
sample:

     If the material is likely to be an
Explosive, it is   classified as  an
Explosive.

     If it  is not, is it a radioactive
material?   If  it  is,  classify  it
accordingly.

     If not, is the material likely  to
be a compressed gas which  may fall into
the  category  of   a  Poison Gas,   a
                                  23-24

-------
                                              NOTES
Flammable Gas, or a Non-flammable Gas?

     If a material does not fit into any
of these classes of hazard,  a  field
sample can  be classified  as a Flammable
Liquid, by agreement between EPA and
DOT.

     Use of  the flammable liquid
classification avoids the need for field
testing,  which might  be  almost
impossible  in some situations.   The
packaging  that is  required for  a
Flammable Liquid will provide all of the
protection required for any material
with a  lesser  hazard.   Using  the
flammable liquid  label is acceptable for
samples which have no greater hazard.
However,  frequent use of the  flammable
liquid hazard label  for materials which
are not flammable liquids may eventually
create problems in the laboratory if the
label  comes   to  be  considered
meaningless.

Classification of Hazards

     1.  Is the material  likely to be an
Explosive?

     If the sample has been taken from
the waste stream  or effluent  of a plant
manufacturing explosives, it would be
prudent to  handle, package and ship the
sample as  if it were  an Explosive
Material.

     2.   Is the  material likely to be
Radioactive?

     If the sample has been taken from
an  area  known to  be  naturally
radioactive,  or to be contaminated with
radioactive waste,  and  it is  not
possible  to  make  radiation
measurements,  it would be prudent to
handle,  package,  and ship the sample is
if it were  a Radioactive  Material.

     3.   Is  the material likely to be a
Poison  Gas,  or  a Poison  Liquid  in a
                                  23-25

-------
                                             NOTES
pressurized container?

     Most of the materials classified as
Poison A are gases,  or liquids packaged
under compressed gas, or liquids with
very  low  boiling  points.  Poison A
materials are usually  shipped  in
cylinders, rather than in drums or drum-
type containers.

     If the material is in  a compressed
gas cylinder, or  is  for  any reason
suspected of being in the class  of
Poison Gas,  precautions must be taken
before sampling to prevent release of
any of the extremely dangerous material.
Protection must be provided for  the
person taking  the samples and  for
everyone else who may be exposed if the
poisonous material  is released while a
sample is being taken.

     Samples of materials  known to be,
or suspected of being,  in  the class of
Poison Gas  must  be  packaged in  a
compressed gas cylinder for handling and
shipment.

     4.  Is the material likely to be a
compressed  gas,,  which  could be  a
Flammable  Gas or a Non-flammable
Compressed Gas?

     If the   material  is not  in  a
compressed  gas cylinder  or  other
pressurized container, the material is
not likely to be a  compressed  gas  in
either hazard class.  If the material
is likely to be a compressed gas, judge
whether it is  a  Flammable Gas or a Non-
flammable Gas, and handle, package and
ship it as required for a material in
that hazard class.

     For samples containing unknown
materials which may be hazardous  but
which do not fall  into any of  the
previously listed classes, EPA generally
will classify, package and  ship them as
a Flammable Liquid.
                                  23-26

-------
                                              NOTES
     5.  Is there any way to be certain
that the material  is not a Flammable
Liquid.

     If  you can afford  the time,  we
recommend  that you try to use the
labeling that will, in your judgement,
most accurately describe the hazard of
the sample,  if it can be determined not
to be a flammable  liquid.   Use of a
hazard  label  that  is  reasonably
descriptive of the  expected hazards of
the samples  will assist in safe handling
of the sample in  the laboratory and will
avoid encouraging  a disregard of the
Flammable Liquid hazard label.

     You can be reasonably  sure  that a
sample  is  not a flammable liquid by
testing the material carefully with an
explosimeter or other meter  which gives
readings  in Percent  of  L.E.L.   (lower
explosive  limit).

     You may be able to make a judgement
that a material to be sampled from a
container or source  that has been  open to
the atmosphere  for some time  is not
likely to be a flammable liquid,   based
on the  likelihood  that  any flammable
liquid  in  the  material would have
evaporated  during  the time  that the
material was exposed to the atmosphere.

     6.  If the material is considered
hazardous,  but  has  none  of  the
previously  listed hazards,  it  should be
packaged as flammable liquid,  but it
should be classified in one of the other
DOT hazard classes:

     o Oxidizer
     o Flammable  Solid
     o Corrosive  liquid
     o Poison B
     o Corrosive  solid
     o Irritating material
     o Combustible liquid
                                  23-27

-------
                                             NOTES
Communication about Hazards of Samples

     For  protection  of  both field and
laboratory personnel we believe  it is
important  for  every person taking a
sample to notify  others about the
hazards of the sample.   DOT labels do
not  give enough  information about
combinations  of  hazards or  unique
characteristics of field  samples.
Therefore, we recommend  the  use of
several channels of communication  about
unusual  or particularly hazardous
samples:  Precautionary information such
as a written  note  accompanying the
sample or information  written on the
outer container holding the sample, a
phone call to the laboratory which will
receive the sample,  or  use of a hazard
signal system.

Samples and Hazardous Materials  to be
Shipped or Taken on Aircraft

     Samples and chemicals to be shipped
or taken on aircraft deserve  special
attention.  DOT regulations prohibit
shipment of certain hazardous materials,
and Federal law  forbids  the carriage of
hazardous materials aboard aircraft in
your  luggage  or   on  your  person.
Violations can result  in   severe
penalties, up to $25,000 and five  years
imprisonment.

     Hazardous materials  include
explosives, compressed gases, flammable
liquids and solids,  oxidizers,  poisons,
corrosives and  radioactive materials.
There are exceptions  for  small
quantities of  medicinal  and  toilet
articles carried in your  luggage and
certain smoking materials carried on
your  person.   If  you need  further
information,  contact your airline
representative.

     Dry  Ice,  or solid carbon dioxide,
has a limited hazard classification if
used  to  preserve  samples shipped by
aircraft.  Packaging must be marked with
                               23-28

-------
                                              NOTES
the designation ORM-A and arrangements
to ship dry ice must be made in advance
with the  carrier.

     Any chemicals or solvents that need
to be transported to  or  from a field
site rapidly can be shipped by aircraft
only if you can  comply fully with DOT
regulations. Samples and materials that
cannot be  shipped by any passenger-
carrying aircraft can,  in many cases, be
shipped by cargo-only aircraft.

     Although  there are many companies
that ship  air freight  on cargo-only
aircraft,  shipment may depend  on
available space, and delivery time may
not be predictable.   If you select a
shipping company that specializes in
rapid shipment  and  delivery of small
packages,  be  sure  you know what
limitations they have  for  accepting
hazardous materla1s.

Reconmendations

     Taking solvents and analytical
chemicals to  the  field,  and bringing
samples back to  the  laboratory,  entails
the risk of having a container break or
leak during the trip.  If this occurs
there can be loss of material,  risk of
injury to personnel, and contamination
of equipment and the environment.

     Packaging hazardous materials to
prevent  spills  or  leakage  is  as
important for  protection  of Agency
personnel  as  it  is  for  carrier
employees.    Marking  and  labeling
packages and  containers of  hazardous
materials  should be routine within EPA,
even for  materials which may never be
shipped by a carrier.

     It is believed  that  it  would be
appropriate for every EPA vehicle which
carries hazardous materials or hazardous
samples  to have a  list  of  hazardous
materials  being  carried in the vehicle.
In case of an accident, the list would
                                  23-29

-------
                                          NOTES
provide  information on  hazardous
materials  in the vehicle,  just as
shipping papers are used for information
on hazardous materials involved in large
transportation incidents.
                                  23-30-

-------
                      STUDENT EXERCISES

     The following  samples are  to be  shipped.   Answer  the
following questions concerning each.

1.   What is  the proper hazardous material  label for 40% nitric
acid?
2.  If a material is a flammable liquid as well as a Poison B,
what is its proper hazard  label?
3.  If a substance is both a corrosive and a flammable liquid,
what is its proper label?
4.  Environmental samples do not require what three things for
shipping?
5.   If  a substance  is unknown,  but is  not believed  to  be
explosive, corrosive,  or poisonous,  what is its DOT hazard class?
                                  23-31

-------
                   APPENDICES TABLE OF  CONTENTS

 Appendix A Figure 1
      Hazardous  Materials  From Non-specific Sources Pages, 3-7
 Appendix A Figure 2
      CERCLA List,  Page  9-13
 Appendix A Figure 3
      Toxic Pollutants,  Page  15
 Appendix A Figure 4
      Basis  for  Listing  Hazardous Waste, Page 17
 Appendix A Figure  5
      Hazardous  Constituents,  Page 19-23
 Appendix B
     Guide  to Compatibility of Chemicals,  Page 25-38
Appendix C
     Material Safety Data Sheet, Page 40-41

-------
             APPENDIX A FIGURE 1
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS FROM NON-SPECIFIC SOURCES

-------
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                    Sot»*n< waWoa and Hudgaa, ci
                     •k^Baa feofla cteafwM kAa and •9^mcf4 uaad ki
                     PVixnla. dnanx aaipa. and MaMUara canunng dm
                                                     at

                                                     nd
                                               gl Ink km
                                       i and k«l
                    C«c*nU( lank IM itudga kom eolHng opai
                                                       Hsu**)
m

01

(C.1)

01
01


Ol

01


Ol

01
                                                       01
                                                       01
(46 FR 4818. Jut. 16. Uai. M amended at 48 PR 27416-21417. May 20.10811
12(1.3)  Discarded  commercial chemical
    product*, off-speclflcatlon species, con-
    U4ner  rctiduce.  and  aplll  rcilduce
    thereof.
  The following material* or Items are
hiurdoiu wulei If and when they are
discarded or Intended to be discarded:
  (a) Any commercial chemical prod-
uct, or manufacturing chemical Inter-
mediate   having  the  generic  name
listed In paragraph (e) or (f) of this
section.
  (b) Any off-specification commercial
chemical  product  or  manufacturing
chemical Intermediate which. If It met
specifications, would have the generic
 name listed  In paragraph  (e) or (f) of
 this section.
   (c) Any residue remaining In  a con-
 tainer or an Inner liner removed from
 a container that has held any commer-
 cial chemical  product or  manufactur-
 ing chemical Intermediate having  the
 generic name listed In paragraph (e) of
 this section,  unless the  container  Is
 empty  as defined  In  I 26l.1(b)(3> of
 this chapter.
 (Comnunf Unlcu the residue li being, bene-
 ficially tued or reuaed. or leglllintuly recy-
 cled or reclaimed: or being  accumulated.
 tiored. iruuporlcd or treated prior u> luch
 uic. re-uac.  recycling or reclamation.  EPA
 corulder      -eildue to be Intended for dls-
                       would be where the reildue remains la the
                       container and the container Is used to bold
                       the  tame conunerlcal chemical  product or
                       manufacturing chemical product or manu-
                       facturing chemical Intermediate  It previous-
                       ly held. An eiample of the discard of the
                       residue would be where the drum Is sent to
                       a drum recondltloner who reconditions the
                       drum but discards the resldut.l

                        (d) Any residue or contaminated soil.
                       water or  other  debris  resulting from
                       the  cleanup of a splU Into  or  on  any
                       land or  water  of  any  commercial
                       chemical   product  or  manufacturing
                       chemical  Intermediate  having  the  ge-
                       neric name listed In paragraph (e) or
                       (f)  of this section,  or  any  residue or
                       contaminated  soil,  water  or other
                       debris resulting from the cleanup of  a
                       spill. Into or on any land or water, of
                       any off-spectflcalton chemical  product
                       and manufacturing chemical Interme-
                       diate  which.  If It met specifications.
                       would have the generic name listed In
                       paragraph (e) or (I) of this section.

                        f Comment The phraae "commercial chemi-
                       cal product or manufacturing  chemical In-
                        termediate having the generic name luted
                        In    .  ."  rcfcri  to a chemical lubatancc
                        which U  manufactured or formulated for
                        commercial or manufacturing uic which
                        coiuUU of the commercially pure grade  of
                        the chemical, any technical grades o'.
la the  aole active Ingredient.  It docs not
refer to a material, such as a manufacturing
proceie waate. that contains any of the aub-
itances  listed  In paragraphs 
                   Ajlrkan*
                   BMUBC|«
Ho-CMofOplMnittlNauiaa
3-Oloiapioplanlrita
Coppoi cyandai
                      add.     N-ldmevcar-
                                                                                              B*ni«
                                                             HaptatMai
                                                             IJJ.4.IO.I»HaacMac»e.T apoiy
                                                              l.4.4a.l.S./.S.Sa-«aah|dn>ande.and»

-------
    H|O>og«A mind*
    J42H) iiouiokMM. 1 (wnnorMOnO-
UtiMn*. UBinro- |H)
UMlKMINQl. HCftKMO-
4.1 U.intna- iH-lnJMM.
  ucnitt»
tinhorn*
                        1.4.1 0.1 0 |VtM»-
                                                                                     HU
                                                                                     WtitaNo.
                                                                                    UOM
                                                                                    UOU.
                                                                                 U2or_
                                                                                 0021.
                                                                                 0234_
                                                                                 uoai..
                                                                                 uaoa.
                                                                                 UI20.
                                                  S*«Cftnde
                                    U022-
                                    Ullf.
                                    uon.
                                    UOSO
                                                                                               Samoa. \JI-t
                                                                                                              wiH-pn
                                                                                               Banana. It-manitattirt-10
                                                                                               Bannna. MO-0.1)
                                                                                               Baniana. MMacNofe*
                                                                                               Baraana. panlacMOfO4WQ»
                                                                                               8«u«nmuloma add cNonde |CJQ
                                                                                                                             UIM.
                                                                                                                             UOM.
                                                                                                                             UOM.
                                                                                                                             UIM.
                                               Banian* I J.4 S-UmcMoie-
                                               Bmm^ (ncMoniiMCitO-AKD
                                               Bwutn*. I J.VMraH» Ml)
                                                                                                                                 U2iO.
                                                                                                                                 UOU.
                                                                                                1 J
                                                                                                 »n«n»
                                                                                                                 «. l.l
                                                                                UOM.
                                                                                UMI.
                                                                                uua.
                                                  Sum
              indMM
             i t
I SuyclMiw Mid MM
                                            uon.
                                            UMI.
                                            UOM.
                                            U024 .
                                                                                                    ak
                                                                                                          iicAn
                                                                                         UIM.
                                                                                         uaat.
                                                                                            2.1- BIOUIM 0.1)
                                                                                            (l.f
                                                                                            (I.I- BoiMnUM 4--4tamw. l.T
                                                                                            U.r-B«iiMn)lH.4--4M»4
                                             I IIWIK onta
    I Nllog-HIV) e»d4
                                               lluttunU) wlmi*
                                             1 1htiun(l) tultw
    I N M>io«mui|t»«iuii*i4>
    I s.Non>cnMn»2.1-dnMilunal.
     r-OitUCyOall a I IIM«Un»I ]-Ou>UU)lc
	J PiMnH. 2-c*don>n>-4 iVOnln-
           I 4-O
    1 Pfwnai 1 4-anu»4>|i
                                                   IncMaranMUUMOMll
                   -. •rnnonu* M« |RI
                                               IMC CfUMM
                                               IMC phownwM |R 1)
      Pnotgcn*
      Pnaipnanc  «•». OMII>|| p-rauopfMnil tilo
                                  S-{2-
                    •on.
        »IM
      PnaxmaouwK   too.
                               O|p-rau»

      PnatgnoioUMc tail. O O- of this section.
are  Identified  aa   toxic  wastes   (T)
unless otherwise designated  and  are
subject to the small quantity exclusion
defined  In | 261.5 (al and (f).

(Comment: For the convenience ol the rcfu-
lucd  community,  the primary hazardoui
properties ol Iheic materials have been Indl-
r.l.,l h« Ihr Irllrn T (TnilrllVl  R (HcaC-
                                                                                  U04t
                                                                                  UOM
                                                                                  IJOM
^
                                                Clwomc MM. uldun ul
                                                dwvMnri

-------
           1JE
           £•>««•. I.I.IJJ.14M
           Clwn*.
           EIMK.MM I. It
           f VMAft l.t.U IM
                  I.IJJ lil
           EIUMMMHIM
           EtUttt.     I.I.I.-
            EMMA*. l-cNa
            Eton*. l.l-M* (W.H
                                                           4 u«t>|t.t««iunan* Q
                                                                                                             I PnptMk l»««i|> (LT)
                                                             IMMPII wmiOMfll-I I I.IB-Unii|«»
              H|OI*WM 
-------

-------
APPENDIX A FIGURE 2
    CERCLA LIST

-------
             CERCLA LIST

  NOTE Th* following lining fulfill* iho i«-
qulrcmcnl of Section 106t*> ol the Conpre-
hentlvB EnvlronmenUl Rcjponie. Coropen-
ikllon. Mid Liability Act (CERCLA). thai all
••haxardou* lubttuice*." t*  defined In thai
Act. shall be  lUtcd a* haurdoua material*
under the Hazardou* Material* Traruporta-
lion Act.  Thai  definition Include*  iob-
itance* lilted under Section lll(bM2MAI ot
the  Federal  Water Pollution  Control Act
(pWPCAI. Thoae  material* have already
been lUlcd a* hazardou* lubalance*  In the
Haxa/doua Material* Table of  IhU icctlon.
ind (hat luting I* not repeated here. Tho
definition  of   "hazardou*   lubatance"  In
CERCLA alio  Include* lubttancc* designat-
ed  under Section 107(a) of  the FWPCA.
Section  1001  of Ihe  Solid  Waste Disposal
Act. and Section 112  of the Clean Air Act.
The following  listing  conalsu of material*
designated under those authorities. Malerl-
tls indicated In the listing by an asterisk C)
ire  also listed In  the Hazardou* Material*
Table as hazardous substances. With respccl
to other materials In  the  following  listing.
those  thai are not forbidden material* or
 fill within a hazard class are not subject to
Ihe requirement* of this Subchapier.
  It should be noted  thai Section JOfllbt ot
CERCLA provide* that common and con-
 tract carrier* may be held liable under thai
 Act 'or the  release  of  a  "hazardou* sub-
 iiance" a* defined In that Act. after the ef-
 fective date  of Ihe listing ot thai substanco
 is a hazardous material under the Hazard-
 oui Material* Transportation Act.
         SPECIFIC CHEMICAL WASTES
                                    SPECIFIC CHEMICAL WASTES—Continued     Snore CHEMICAL WASTES—Continued
                                                                              SPECIFIC CHEMICAL WASTES—Continued
    IP*
   MIKIMu*
   .MM NO.
  U09I-.
  OM« -
  Ullf.
  UOOI..
  Dill-
  on*  •
  Uil<-
  0001  -
  UOOI..
  U004
  UOOI  .
  u004
  uoal
  uuo*
  ouol
  UiM

  ton
            Sub4IMC4>
        N |4
AC4UIMI4I N IH-feOKA.1 +.

ACtUC ICd Ml»|l «!4f II)
•AC.W UU KM «•«
AOUC ttut IR4IWB |Q 4»
M.IOn* |l|

ACMCAMl |l I)
    iyi Couni* |C H.O
   IUMX
*tr,i* Ud (II
                                    EPA
                                  lUIHdOUt
                                  •••I* NOL
                                                  r.T3.4»(MiBo.a-«)*»oii i.f-
                                              KluntnocMtxMVXuvlmMtVl.
                                              • .1 «J I **.BMiman«di»«i«MiM
                                         Ml
                                         B-MO
              •euMMCMMriOTiO i*»u*d»
                                                                                      Ba4l-*et|eMiM pnuui4M
                                                                                      Bramn* cimO*
                                                                                      bomUani
                                                                                      H.amonnn.1 pM
                                                                                                   irfi
                                  ulU.
                                  Ulll.
                                  UOIt
                                  uoi».
                                  UIM.
                                  U01B.
                                  UMB.
                                                         4 4<«tx»*n>l«n«Bi.U
  pnwt^tioiu^yiinuv. cin^ MM
SWUM*. l-fe>an-
                               U	iBtftnac 400. 4-IBull•
1.1 84Ai4n«kca>to«v*c tod, dclhyl 4U«

IJ aini*n«tc«Miivke tod. 4CMoio-
                                             *B4
 B«u*M4t4laMC ton cMona* |C.M|
 BMUHW. 114 VTuMMarav
 B4MMM. |KKiuaranMin«Q-|Cn.n
ttniant
11 B*nuMiniuoikvl-on«. l.l-i
B*niolLk| IkjaMM
B«nial«lp|i«M
1 4 B«nio0Di*n«
                                              BMUOUKMOKII* (C B T|
                                              11 BMUpfMAMUtliMM
                                              >•> Hln...«. II n
                                                                                                        lZX4.1XMMcnai»
                                                                                         EllMIML I.I.I 1.1.1-IMUCnOfO-
                                                                                         EUUM.    l.f
                                                                              UIII
                                                                              0014
                                                                              01*4
                                                                              UJO«
                                                                   n n
                                                        I ElMIMl l.r-CWV(M>«l)
                                                        I EUUM. I.V-lut«u ll-cNOHf
                                                        1 £«•«•. p««ucMOf»
                                                        1 Euun* I I 11 UHICMOIO.

-------
SPECIFIC CHEMICAL WASTES-ConUnuad
                                          SPECIFIC CHEMICAL WASTES—Continued
Spec* ic CHEMICAL WASTES-CondnuMl
                                                                                                                            SPECIFIC CHEMICAL WASTES—Conilnuad
       fawn* U>-|nMOMMiina|H»
                                                                                                                          UIU
                                                                                                                          UI03
                                                                                                                          UIM
                                                                                                                          UIM
                                                   LUaunac wd IC.TI
                                         UIM
                                         UIM
                                         UIU
                                         UIU
                                         UIM
                                         UOtl
                                                                                  UIM
                                                                                  UIM
                                                                                  Ultl
                                                                                  UIU
                                                                                  UIM
                                          UIM
                                          uur
                                          UIM
                                          Ultl
                                          UIM
                                          uoti
                                          UIM
                                          ui?a
                                          uiri
                                          UIII
                                           UII4
                                           UIII
                                           UIM
                                           UIIJ
                                           UIII

-------
 SPECIFIC CHEMICAL WAJTSS—Continued
Specific CHEMICAL WASTES—Continued
Specific CHEMICAL WASTES-Cofttmued
SPECIFIC CHEMICAL WASTES—Continued
                                                                                                                                                          TIM
                                                                                                         The
                                                                                                          «nu.
                                                          lao^anc and. ma«V
                                                          Uarocy Umuu |A I)
                                                          Uainana Hytjiiailai o>
                                                          Maluna. l«ktnk»iR|
                                                          UaKanano
                                                           •I I Mattano-tH-aiaanaJ.I ll.lt-
                                                           •NiiiHjan aauta
                                                                     da
                                                                                                           MIl^MMCMXie KKi. b*U*OI|4 Mid
                                                             HcucNoia cyckc •>«••
                                                           OwfMMi liknd*
                                                           T-OulHciclalll.il
                                                                                                           IhttM*, I 0»pMlM>MT|i.
                                                            •Paiainan
                                                            Plumft.2-0
          •Plwnot J4
          Plunot J 4-OttkO-4VM« luloOMiWMt  I on inn
           fuiirww: ted. awcko V) "• M.D
                                                                                                             kKIIHMMn»lMI«, IMtt|WM CKHnO*, I.I.I
           •I 1 1 4 10 1»ti»KMai»4 1 *pa«r
               4* i • 1 » t
             I 1 4 l«m«MnaiM«Mi
            I I 1 4 10 10-tMWCKUlA-t I
             n«>«» I « 4* > « r I *c«cun(«o-«naa
                                                                   aiNaia MM O-O-cum* (Kpinanit
                                                                                                              O*UMM    onnaacNa praoou* muaia
                                                                                                            ptttneb.inuudo.at.
                                                                                                          SpM« ainpunt  and cUattn
                                                                                                            kon tlKMapUMg ooMakona MAM* cyan
                                                                                                            Ida* M* uaad b at* Bfocua (wc*«l lo
                                                                                                            aiaooua nMal* aMCioplaant apMM ainj
                                                                                                            pmg and cMM>ng tain aotukanal.
                                                                                                          Quancnng ban aludo* kon Ml bad* kM
                                                                                                            maul KM! kukno, BBMikom BUM* cya>
                                                                                                            IOH at* uaad hi nt> uooat* (»c*0t h
                                                                                                            Baaaua  matato hcavkaaang  OMnclw
                                                                                                            btlMkidaaak
                                                                                                                c«and*  atfuam kom  la* k«m 01
                                                                                                                                                              ikona |a>caei Iw Maaoua
                                                                                                                                                              •aiang apanl cyarad* ukjaona
                                                           QuanctMQ  voaMoaut  koMOMM  akjdg

                                                             cyandaa M* uaad n «• piocaia law
                                                             tar piaaaiia maim AH! katang oxaoclk
                                                                                                                                                             Seam ctantoa  tan aoViaona kon mm
                                                                                                                                                              ol tmUBawn kom mod piavaning pn
                                                                                                                                                              laaaa Mai waa ciaoaoM anwoi pamacii
POM
                                                                                                             OuCkcn ol mXyOdala Vang* m>-ioii
                                                                                                            \Mttl*»M< UaanaM MuOOja kon na
                                                                                                             Oucuon ol uie taMM P^OMM*.
                                                                                                            Wiaia»aiM kaamaM ikid«a kom kM

-------
  SPECIFIC CHEMICAL WASTES—Continued
                                                  SPECVIC CHE
                                                                      MASTES—Conilnuad
                                                                                                -pECif ic CHIUICAL WASTES—ConnnuMl
            MUMIM kaatonerd ik4aa km *e pro-
            eulakMiydi «om «ifi|terM.
                      kam I*
MI4-

MU_

KOIt-

KOII-


MIO-

Mll-

KOM.


Koai.

MU.

un.
            the aiooucaon aj aayaraMa.

            column to IM  eraducaan el •oyteraMa.
            M  banana km IM aiMiiion  el banql
           HM• w««amwl* ealunm kt
                                                            cwy ul PIOGM* ki cMann*
                                                                          MfUM n It* poducun
                                                            al USU* mtf ctcmMa «tt.
                                               WMI.
            •in* enlanda or oductoA.
                             ttcNa
           HM«|f (not kaim IM aawiiaa al «*>|l *•
             (Monte m MV adoiW* aunonMi fnadue-
                                                KM7.
             pnttMie innirdrtdi kam iMpniMtona.
          pMMadan keom Ian kom IM mduGoM al

                                           al

                                           el

                                           •I
            eniuie timidnd* km enno-iytan*.
            iMdakaa taoamt kam  IM  praducaor* at
            ptMIMla anhydridi kam enne-iylerM.
            Mauian baoariM kam  IM  araducOM el
            nafeDaraana k»  IM najatan al karaarm,
          •wapmg tai ua> kam  IM  eraduGBM el
            kern IM eMomaHn al (yrtn0ama*«
                               al kUtyerMamana
                                                 KA4I.

                                                 KOM.
              WMari
             iamhkM
              kamnk
                          kern anKM uvacaan kom
                          al anana.
                                ika
                                  pro
              kam IM aroduooA
•041


KOU

IIOII
                                                               •aueltua ukung Induaky.
                                                             •lea el imynaa laldt kam IM aamam
                                                                 UCMKOM bunaM rtiantng dude* Ham
                                                             API mmnni Ojda* kam IM «i»uln«« »
                                                             Tana
                                                              laknng mduaiy.
                                                                    camral a.ai»m«iaa kam IM a«-
                                                                   aiaducaan  al  MM! to  IIICTM Iw-
              piaduct .>mng n«a in IM Bfeounan at
UU	 Tank taMmi QiiHH
          I  faftrana, toduaiy.
noil	IfnluM cannl »~U
          I  KM» lajuai  ken
          1  nan*.
                                                                           i kam itoa) amaMng ap«-

-------
L3

-------
APPENDIX A FIGURE 3
 TOXIC POLLUTANTS
        14

-------
 TABLE 1.—SECTION 307—TOXIC POLLUTANTS
 Acenaphlhene
 Acrolei ft
 Acryloniirile
 Aldrfn/Dieldrin
 Antimony and compounds*
 Arsenic and compounds
 Asbestos
 Benzene
 Benzidine
 Beryllium and compounds
 Cadmium and compounds
 Carbon tetrachloride
 Chlordane (technical mixture and  metabolites)
 Chlorinated benzenes (other than dichlorobenzenes)
 Chlorinated   ethanes   (including  1,2-dichioroethane,
   l.l.l-lrichloroelhane. and hexachloroethane)
 Chloroalkyl  ethers   (chloromethyl.  chloroethyl.  and
   mixed ethers)
 Chlorinated naphthalene
 Chlorinated phenols (other than (hose listed elsewhere:
   includes trichlorophenols and chlorinated cresols)
 CItlurvfurni
 2-chiorophenol
 Chromium and compounds
 Copper and compounds
 Qanides
 DOT and metabolites
 Dichlorobenzenes (I.2-. IJ-. and  1.4-dichlorobenzenes)
 Dichlorobenzidine

 Dcchforoethylenes (I.I- and 1,2-dichloroethylene)
 2.4-dichlorophenol
 Dichloropropane and dichloropropene
 2.4-dimethylphenol
 Dinitroioluene
 Oipnenylhydrazine
 Endosuffan and metabolites
 Endrin and metabolites
Ethytbenzene
Fluoranchene
   Haloethers (other than (hose listed elsewhere: includes
     chlorophenylphenyl ethers, bromophenylphenyl ether.
     bis(dischloroisopropyl)    ether,    bis-(chloroethoxy)
     methane and polychlortnated diphenyf ethers)
   Halomelhnnes (other than those listed elsewhere: in-
     cludes  methylene  chJorid  methylchloride.  rnelhyl-
     bromide.  bromoform.   dichlorobromomethane.  ln-
     chlororiuoromethane. dichlorodifluoromeihane)
   Heptachlor and metabolites
   Hexachlorobutadiene
   Hexachtorocyclohexane (all isomers)
   Hexachlorocyclopeniadiene
   Isophorone
  Lead and compounds
  Mercury and compounds
  Naphthalene
  Nickel and compounds
  Nitrobenzene
  Nitrophenols  (Including   2.4-dinitropheno')   dinilro-
   cresof)
  Nilrosaminej
  Pentachlorophenol
  Phenol
  Phthalate esters
  Polychlorinated  biphenyls (PCSs)
  Polymiclear aromatrc hydrocarbons (including benzan-
   lluacenes. benzop> rencs. bcnro.Taors'ihsnc.  cfirj-
   senes. dibenzanthracenes.  and mdenopyrenes)
 Selenium and compounds
 SiNer and compounds
 2J.7.a- Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxm (TCDO)
 Tetrachloroethylene
 Thallium and compounds
 Toluene
 Toxaphene
 Trichloroelhylene
 Vinyl chloride
 Zinc and compounds
  • The term "compound! ' thalt include orfante jnd mor^jnic com.
roundi.
                                                     15

-------
       APPENDIX A FIGURE 4
BASIS FOR LISTING HAZARDOUS HASTE
               16

-------
                               BASIS TOR LISTIMO    HAZARDOUS WASTT
 EPA naurrJM
   •UMNO.
                               HIM
                                                                         X020.I
                Muaraaut comma*** «* •"*" MIM


             , £lhf^tll9  (JCrtOniJll.  1
 FOOI.
                                 t.t.l-incMoroiouM.
                 careon tairaeniond*.  cMonruicd duoro-
                                                                            f            .    .-
                                                                           t.t.2-(ncnioro«niM.  i«rae»o»ea0>an«i
                                                                           (l.l.2.Mi»aeniore«inan« and i l.i 2-if
                                                                                                         '«•
                                 i.i.i-inenioromnin*.
                               1.1.2-lnentoro.l 2.2-O
                               uumxfcinotdfjirain*.
FOBS.
ron .
not.
foot.
PO tO-
.
. TokuM. ncinyl «T* kwen*. cvMn «•«•
   M*. imlMinal. pyiiffln*.
   **m*n.  h*i*«tl«U
   eyinM (eompi«*d).
. Cymd* (Miut
. Cymd* (unit.
. Cvmd* (uitsl.
. Cr«n«J« (Mini.
                                                                                      Anamanr. anon Mvicniend*. c«oroio«".
                                                                                       M.I
                                                                                       i.!«cMvo«inin«.
                                                                                        Mryi emamM.
K030.
                        i '• 2.M«««enioro«in«n«.
               yMMOCMOnd*.
KOOJ.
K003-
K004.
KOOS.
KOOS.
KOOf.

KOM.
K009-
 KOIO.
 KOI1
 K013
                 urn. irad
  HnivtMnt cnromum. Had.
     •VIM* cnromun.
 , HcuvaMm avamum l«*dL
         M cnremm
                                                                                                                     tod
                ind pnownafoinac Kid tum
               nownwotfinoe and owcnowmoe tod
                mm.
 . Cymd*
    (A
 , M«i»»«J»n» c
 , CNvolorm.
                and onoienerain
                                                                                            acid «'••»
                                *. 0vaW«nyd
K041
K042.
                                                                         K043
 . CMorolerm. lenntlMiivM. nwoiytww oiio-
    nd4). mwnyi emond*. owiMWifO* 'erme
             PMniic mnyondi imM« ixnydnd*
                                                                         «*»
                                                                        KOSl
                                                                        r«iiO*iy corroiMriv or 'lacowrr
                                                          17

-------
  APPENDIX A FIGURE 5
HAZARDOUS CONSTITUENTS
         18

-------
                                  HAZAXOOOS
                                                   COKSTITTIEWTS
  Aeetonltrile (Ethanenitrlle)
  Acetophenone (Ethanone. l-phenyl)
  3-Acetonylbenzyl>-4-
    hydroxycoumartn and salts (Warfarin)
  2-Acetylunlnofluorene  (Acetamlde. N-<9H-
    nuoren-I-yl>-)
  Acetyl chloride (Ethanoyl chloride)
  l-Acetyl-2-lhfourea  (Aceumide.  N-(amln-
    othloxomethylM
  Aerolein (2-Propenal)
  AcrylamJde (2-Propenamide)
  AerylonitrUe (2-PropenenllrUe)
  A/latoxina
  AJdrtn            (1.2.3.4.10.10-Rexachloro-
    1.4,4a.J.8.Sa,Sb-hexahydrc-endo.exo-
    l.4:S.8-Dlmethanonaphthalene>
  Allyl alcohol (2-Propen-l-ol)
  Aluminum phosphide
  4-Amlnobiphenyl methylM.la.2.a.8a.8b-
  hexahydrc-8amethoxy-S-methy • >
 9-->  4-Amlnopyrl-
  dine (4-Pyridlnamlne)
 Amltrole UH.l.2.4-Trlazol-3-amlne>
 Aniline (Benzenamlne)
 Antimony and compounds. N.O.S.'
 Aramlte  (Sulfurous acid.  I-chioroethyl-. 2-
  C4-( l.l-dlmethylethyl)phenoxy )• I-
  Riethylethy! ester)
 Arsenic and compounds. H.O.S."
 Arsenic acid (Orthoarsenlc acid)
 Arsenic pentoxlde (Arsenic (V) oxide)
 Arsenic trtoxlde (Arsenic (III) oxide)
 Auramlne       (Benzenamlne.       4.1'-
  carbonlmldoylbls(Njr-O(methyl-.   mono-
  hydrochlortde)
 Azaaerine (L-Serlne. dlaeoaceute (ester))
 Barium and compounds. ff.O.S.*
 Barium cyanide
 Benztelacrtdlne (3.4-Benzacrldlne)
 Benzfalanthracene (1.2-Benzanlhracene)
 Benzene (Cyclohexatrlene)
 Bencenearsonlc acid (Anonlc acid, phenyl-)
 Benzene, dlchloromethyl- (Benzal chloride)
 Benzenethlol (Thlophenol)
 Benzidlne((l.r-Blphenyll-4.fdlamlne>
 Benzo(binuoranthene <2.3-Benaonuoranth-
  ene)
 BenzoCJinuoranthene (7.8-Ben2o(1uoranth-
  ene)
3enzo(alpyrene (3.4-Beacopyrene)
p-Benzoqulnone (1.4-Cyelohexadlenedlone)
Beneotrichloride (Benzene, trichloromethyl-
  )
Benzyl chloride (Benzene, lehloromethyl)-)
Beryllium and compounds. N.O.S.*
Bls(2-chloroethoxy)methane (Ethane.  1.1'-
  Cmethylenebls(oxy>]bis(2-ehloro-])
Sls(2-chioroethyl>   ether   (Ethane.   1.1'-
  oxybu(2-chloro-)>
KJf-Bl3(2-chloro«hylJ-2-naphthylamlne
  (Chlomaphazlne)
Bls(2-chloroisapropyl> ether (Propane.  2.2"•
  oxybi3(2-chloro-l)
Bts(ehloromethyl)     ether    (Methane.
  oxybu(ehloro-l)
Bls<2-ethylhexyl>      phthalate      (1.2-
  Benzenedlcarboxyllc   acid.   bls(2-ethyl-
  hexyl) ester)
  Bromoacetone <2-Propanone. l-bromo->
  Bromomethane (Methyl bromide)
  4-Sromophenyl phenyl ether (Benzene. 1-
   bromo-4-phenoxy-)
  Bruclne (Strychiiiduvio-one. 2.3-dlmethoxy-
   >
  2-Buunone peroxide (Methyl ethyl ketone.
   peroxide)
  Butyl     benzyl      phthalate      (1.2-
   Benzenedlcarboxyllc acid,  butyl  phenyl-
   methyl ester)

  2-see-8utyM.8Hilnttrophenol       (ONBP)
   (Phenol. 2.4-dlnliro-«-( 1-methylpropyD-i
  Cadmium and compounds. N.O.S.*
  Calcium chromate  (Chromic acid, calcium
   salt)
  Calcium cyanide
  Carbon dlsulflde (Carbon  bisulfide)
  Carbon oxyfluorlde (Carbonyl nuorldeJ
  Chloral (Acetaldehyde. trtchloro-)
  Chtorambuclt   (Butanolc  acid.   4-(bis<2-
   chloroethy I )aminolbenzene-)
  Chlordane (alpha and camma Isomen) M.7-
   Methanolndan.   1.2.4.3.4. T.B.S-oetachloro-
   3.4.I.Ta-tetrahydro-) (alpha and fa/mna
   Isomen)
 Chlorinated benzenes. N.O.S."
 Chlorinated ethane.  N.O.S.*
 Chlorinated nuorocarbons. N.O.S.'
 Chlorinated naphthalene. tt.O S.'
 Chlorinated phenol.  N.O.S'
 Chloroacetaldehyde  (Acetaldehyde. chloroo
 Chlorealkyl ethers. N.O.S.'
 p-Chloraanlllne (Benzenamine. 4-chloro-t
 Chlorobenzene (Benzene, chloro-)
 Chlorobenzllate  (Benzeneacetlc   acid.  4-
   chloro-alpha-(4azo I-)
 Coal tars
 Copper cyanide
 Creosote (Creosote, wood)
 Cresols (Cresyllc acid) (Phenol, methyl-)
 Crotonaldehyde (2-Butenal)
 Cyanides  (soluble salts   and  comolexesJ.
  N.O.S.*
Cyanoten (Ethanedlnllnle)
Cyanocen bromide (Bromine cyanide)
Cyanoien chlonde (Chlorine cyanide)
Cycasin (beta-O-Clucopyranoside.  (methyl-
  ONN-azoxy)methyl->
2 Cyclohexyl-4.8-dinurophenol  (Phenol.  :•
  cyclohexyl-4.8-dtnitro-)
Cyciochojphamide   (2H-1.3.2. Oxazaphos-
  Chorine.  (bts(2-chloroethyl!aminol-cetra-
  hydro-. 2-oxide)
                                               19

-------
   tlpha-Wyxe-hexopyranosyl)oxyJ-7.8.9.10.
   telrahydro-6.8.1l-irihydroxy-l-inethoxy-)
 ODD     (Dichlorodlphenyldlchloroethane)
   (Ethane.      I.i-dlchloro-2.2-bls(p-chloro-
   phenyl)-)
 DDE (Ethylene. U-dlchloro-M-blsU-chlor-
   ophenyl)-)
 DDT    (Dlchlorodlphenyltrichloroethane)
   (Ethane.    l.l.Mriehloro-2.2-bls(p-chloro-

 DlaHate               (S<2.3-dlchloroallyl)
   dllsopropylthloearbamate)
 Dlbenz(aJiIacrldlne (1 A9.S-Dlbenzacrldlne>
 Dlben(aJlacridlne U.2.7.S-Dlbenzacrldlne)
 Dlbenz(a.hJanthracene (1.2.9.S-Dlb«nzanth.
   neene)
 TH-Dlbenzofc.«-Jcarbazole (3.4.9.8-Dlbenzear-
   bazole)
 Dlbenzo(a.e]pyrene (1.2.4.9-Dlbenzpyrene)
 DlbenzoCaJilpyrene (1.2.9.8-Dlbenzpyrene>
 DlbenzoCaJlpyrene (1.2.7.8-Dlbenzpyrene)
 1.2-Dtbromo-3-«hloropropane (Propane. 1.2-
  dlbromo-3-chloro-)
 1.2-Dlbromoethane (Ethylene dlbromlde)
 Dlbromomethane (Methylene bromide)
 Dl-n-butyl          phthalate         (IJ-
  Benzenedlcarboxylle acid, dlbutyl eater)
 o-Dlchlorobenzene (Benzene. 1.2-dlchloro->
 m-Dlehlorobenzene (Benzene. 14-dlchloro-)
 p-Dlchlorobenzene (Benzene. 1.4-dlehJoro-)
 Dlehlorobenzene. N.O.3.' (Benzene.
  dlchloro-. N.O-S.')
 3.3'-Dlchlorabenzldlne   ((l.r-Blphenyl M.4'-
  dlamine. 3.3'-dlchloro-)
 1.4-Dlchloro-2-butene   (2-Butene.  1.4-dlch-
  loro-)
 DlehlorodUluoromethane  (Methane,  dlch-
  lorodlfluoro-)
 1.1-Dlchloroethane (Ethyltdene dlehlorlde)
 1.2-Dlehloroethane (Ethylene dlehJorlde)
 trans- 1.2-Dlehloroethene (1.2-Olehloroethy-
  lene)
 Dlehioroethylene.  tf.OJS.' (Ethene.  dleh-
  loro-. N.OJS.'l
 l.l-Dlehloroethylene (Ethene.  1.1-dlchloro-)
 Dlehloromethane (Methylene chloride)
 2.4-Dlchlorophenol (Phenol. 2.4-dlchloro-)
 2.8-Dlchlorophenol (Phenol. 2.8-dlchloro-)
 2.4-Dlehlorophenoxyaeetle acid (2.4-D). salts
  and esters (Acetic acid. 2.4-dlehlorophen-
  oxy-. salts and eaten)
 Olchlorophenylanine  (Phenyl  dlehloroar-
  sine)
 Dlchloropropane. N.O.S.* (Propane,  dlch-
  loro-. N.O.S.')
 1.2-Dlchloropropane (Propylene dlehlorlde)
 Otchloropropanol. N.O.S.* (Propanol. dlch-
  loro-. N.O.S.')
Olchloropropene. N.O.S.* (Propene.  dich-
  loro-. N.O.3.*)
 1.3-Olchloropropene  (1-Propene.   1.3-dlch-
  lore-)
Dleldrtn  (1.2.3.4.10.10-hexacnloro-4.7-epoxy-
  l.t.la.S.8.7.8.8a-octa-hydro-«ndo-.exo-
  1.4:9.8-Oimethanonaphthalene)
 1.2:3.<-Olepoxybutane (2.r- Bloxirane)
Olethylaraine (Anine. dlethyl-)

 N.N-Dlethylhydrulne   (Hydnzine.    1.2-
   dlethyl)
 O.O-Olethyl S-methyl  ester of phosohore-
   dlthlole   acid  (Phoaphorodlthlole   acid.
   O.O-dlethyl S-methyl eater
 O.O-Olethylphoaohorlc  acid.    O-p-nltro-
   phenyl ester (Phosphoric acid,  dlethyl p-
   nltrophenyl ester)
 Olethyl phthalate  (1.2-Benzenedlearboxylle
   acid, dlethyl ester)
 O.O-Olethyl  O-2-pvrazlnyl   phosphoroth-
   loate (Phosphorothlole acid. O.O-dlethyl
   O-pyrazlnyl ester
                                             20
  Dlethylstllbesterol       (4.4<-Stllbenedlol.
    alpha.alpha-dlethyL bls(dlhydroien phos-
    phate. (£)•)
  Dlhydrosa/role  (Benzene.   U-methylene-
    dloxy-4-propyl-)
  3.4-Olhydroxx-alphsHmethylamlne)methyl
    benzyl alcohol (1.2-Benzenedlol. 4-Cl-hy-
    droxy-2-dnethylaraino)ethyl)->
  Dllsopropylfluoraphosphate  (OFP)  (Phos-
    phorofluortdle   acid,  blstl-methylethyl)
    ester)
  Dlmethoate (Fhosphorodlthlole acid.  O.O-
    dlmethyl  3-(2--2-butanone. O-
    ((methylamlno)  earbonylloxune   (Thio-
    fanox)
  alpha.alpha-DlmethyIphenethylamine (Eth-
   anamine. l.l-dlmethyl-2-phenyl-)
  2.4-Olmethytphenol (Phenol. 2.4-dlmethyl-)
  Dimethyl          phthalate          (1.2-
   Benzenedlearboxylle acid, dimethyl eater)
  Dimethyl sul/ate (Sulfurie acid,  dimethyl
   ester)
  Dtnltrobenzene. M.O.S.* (Benzene,  dlnitro-.
   W.OA-)
 4.8-Dlnllro-o-cresol  and salts  (Phenol.  2.4-
   dlnltro-«-methyl-. and salts)
 2.4-Dlmtrophenol (Phenol. 2.4-dlmtro-)
 2.4-Dlmtrotoluene  (Benzene,  l-methyl-2.4-
  dlnitro-)
 2.9-Dlnitrotoluene  (Benzene,  l-methyl-2.8-
  dlnltro-)
 Dt-n-octyl          phthalate          (1.2-
  Benzenedlearboxylle acid, dloctyl ester)
 M-Dloxane (1.4-Olethylene oxide)
 Diphenytamine (Benzenamme. N-phenyl-)
 1.2-Dlphenylhydrazme   (Hydrazine.   1.2-dl-
  phenyl-)
 Dl-n-propylnltrosamlne  (N-Nltroso-dl-n-pro-
  pylamine)
 DlsuUoton        (O.O-dlethyl        S-(2-
  (ethylthlo>ethyll phosphorodlthloate)
 2.4-Dlthlobluret  (Thlolmidodlcarbonlc  dla-
  mlde)
 Endosulfan (3-Norbomene.  2.3-dlmethanol.
  1.4.9.4.7.7.hexachloro-. cyclic sulflte)
 Endrln and metabolites (1.2.3.4.10.lO-hex-
  achloro-«.7-epoxy-l.4.4a.S.6.7.8.8a-
  octahydro-endo.endo-l. 4:9.8-
  dlmethanonaphthalene. and metabolites)
 Ethyl carbamate (Urethan) (Carbamie acid.
  ethyl ester)
 Ethyl cyanide (propanenltrile)
 Ethyleneblsdlthlocarbamle  acid,  salts and
  esters  (1.2-Cthanedlylblscarbamodlthlolc
  acid, salts and esters
 Ethyleneimine (Azihdlne)
 Ethylene oxide (Oxlrane)
 Ethylenethlourea(2-(midazolldlnethlone)
 Ethyl  methacrylate (2-Propenote acid.  2-
  methyl-, ethyl ester)
 Ethyl  methanesulfonate (Methanesulfonlc
  acid,  ethyl ester)
Fluoranthene (Benzo(J.kinuorene)
Fluorine

-------
2-Fluoroacetamide (Acetamlde. 2-fluoro-)
Fluoroacetlc acid, sodium salt (Acetic acid.
  fluoro-. sodium salt)
Formaldehyde (Methylene oxide)
Formic acid (Methanolc acid)
Clycldylaldehyde < l-Propanol-2.3-epoxy>
Halomethane. N.O.S.'
Heptachlor       (4.7-Methano-tH-lndene.
  l.4.3.8.7.8.8-heptachlorc-3a.4.7.7a-
  tetrahydro-)
Heptachlor  epoxlde  (alpha,  beta,   and
  gamma Isomers) (4.7-Methano-lH-mdene.
  l.4.3.6.7.8.8-heptachloro-2.3-epoxy-3a.4.7.7-
  tetrahydro-. alpha, beta, and gamma Iso-
  men)
Hexachlorobenzene (Benzene, hexachloro-)
Rexachlorobutadlene       (1.3-Butadiene.
  1.1.3.3.4.4-hexachloro-)
Kexaehlorocyelohexane (all  Isomers)  (Lin-
  dane and Isomers)
Hexachlorocyclopentadlene   (l.3-Cyclopen-
  tadlene. l.2.3.4.5.3-hexachloro->
Hexachloroethane (Ethane.  1.1.1.2.2.2-hex-
  achloro-)
1.2.3.4.l0.10-Hexachloro-1.4.4a.S.8.8a-
  hexahydro- l.4:3.8-endo.endo-
  dlmethanonaphthalene
  (Hexachlorohexahydro-endo.endo-
  dlraethanonaphthalene >
HexacrUoraphene   (2.r-Methylenebls(3.4.6-
  triehlorophenol))
Hexachloropropene  (1-Propene.  1.1.2.3.3.3-
  hexaehloro-)
Hexaethyl   telraphosphate   (Tetraphos-
  phortc acid, hexaethyl ester)
Hydrazlne (Olamlne)
Hydrocyanic acid (Hydrogen cyanide)
Hydrofluoric acid (Hydrogen fluoride)
Hydrogen sulflde (Sulfur hydnde)

Hydroxydlmethylarslne   oxide   (Cacodyllc
  acid)
tndeno<1.2.3-cdipyrene            (1.HM1.2-
  phenyleneipyrene)
lodomethane (Methyl Iodide)
Iron dextran (Ferric dextran)
Isoeyanlc acid,  methyl ester (Methyl Iso-
  cyanate)
Isobutyl  alcohol (1-Propanol. 2-methyl-)
Isosafrole  (Benzene. l.2-methylenedloxy-4-
  allyl-)
Kepone   (Decachlorooctahydre-1.3.4-Meth-
  ano-2H-cyclobula(cdlpentalen-2-one>
Lasiocarplne (2-Butenolc acid. 2-methyl-.  7-
  C(2.3-dlhydroicy-2-(l-meihoxyeihyl>-3-
  methyl-l-oxobuloxy)melhyll-2.3.5.7a-
  tetrahydro-lH-pyrrollzln-1-yl ester)
Lead and compounds. N.O.S.'
Lead acetate (Acetic  acid, lead saJt)
Lead phosphate (Phosphoric acid, lead salt)
Lead    subacetate   (Lead.   bts(acetatc-
  O)tetrahydroxytrl->
MaJelc anhydride (2.S-Furandlone>
Malelc hydrazide (1.2-Dlhydro-3.S-pyrldazln-
  edlone)
Malononltrile (Propanedlnltrile)
Melphalan      (Alanlne.       3-(p-bls(2-
  chloroethyDamlnolphenyl-. L-)
Mercury  fulminate (Fulmlnlc  acid, mercury
  vti.".'
Merrarr and wsnponntfs. X.OS-*
 Methacrylonltnle   (2-Propenemtrtle.   2-
  methyl-)
 Methanethlol (Thiomethanol)
 Methapyrllene       (Pyrldlne.       2-((2-
  dlmethylamino>ethyl]-2-Chenylamlno-)
 Metholmyl     (Acetunldlc     acid.     N-
   ((methy Icarbamoyl >oxy Ithlo-.     methyl
   ester
 Methoxyehlor  (Ethane,  l.l.l-trlehloro-2.2'-
   b!s(p-methoxyphenyl)->
 2-Methylazlndlne (1.2-Propylenlmlne)
 3-Methylcholanthrene
   (Benz(j}aceanthrylene.      1.2-dlhydro-3-
   methyl-)
 Methyl chlorocarbonate  (Carbonochloridle
   acid, methyl ester)
 4.4--Methy lenebls( 2-chloroanlllne ) ( Benzen-
   amlne. 4.4>-methylenebls-(2-ch!oro->
 Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) (2-Butanone)
 Methyl hydrazlne (Hydraztne. methyl-)
 2-MethyUactonltrlle  (FTopanenltrile.  2-hy-
   droxy-2-meihyl-)                    _.  „
 Methyl nethacrylate (2-Propenolc acid.  2-
   methyl-, methyl ester)
 Methyl methanesulfonate (Methanesulfonlc
   acid, methyl ester)
 2-Methyl-2-
 Mustard gas(SuUlde.  bis(2-chloroethyl)->
 Naphthalene
 1.4-Naphthoqulnone     ( 1.4-Naphthalene-
  'dlone)
 I.Naphlhylamlne(alpha-NKphthylamlne)
 2-Naohthylamme(beta-Naphthylamine)
 l-Naphthyl-2-lhlourea (Thlourea. 1-naphth-
   alenyl-)
 Nickel and compounds. N.O 5.*
 Nickel carbonyl (Nickel tetracarbonyl)
 Nickel cyanide (Nickel (II) cyanide)
 Nicotine  and  salts   (Pyrldlne.  (S)-3-(l-
   methyl-2-pyrrolldlnyl)-. and salts)
 Nltnc oxide (Nitrogen (II) oxide)
 p.Nltroinillne (Benzenamme. 4-nllro-l
 Nltrobenzine (Benzene, nitre-)
 Nitrogen dioxide (Nitrogen (IV) oxide)
 Nitrogen mustard and  hydrochlorlde  salt
  (Ethanamme. 2-chloro-. N-(2-chloroethyl)-
  N-methyl-. and hydrochlonde salt)
 Nitrogen mustard N-Oxide and hydrochlo-
  rlde salt  (Ethanamme.  2-chloro-.  N-<2-
  chloroethyl)-N-meihyl-.  and  hydrochlo-
  rlde salt)
 Nitroglycerine   (1.2.3-Propanetrlol.  trinl-
  trate)
 4-Nltrophenol (Phenol. 4-nltro-)
 4-Nltroqulnollne-l-oxlde (Qulnollne. 4-nltro-
  1 -oxide-)
 Nltrosamlne. N O S.*
 N-Nltrosodl-n-butylamme   ( 1-Butanamme.
  N-butyl-N-mtroso-)
 N-Nltrosodlethanolamlne  (Elhanol.   2.2
  (mtrosoimino)bis-)
 N-Nltrosodlethylamme   (Ethanamme.   N-
  ethyl-N-mtroso-)
 N-Nltrosodtmechylamtne (Olmethylmtrosa-
  mine)
N-Nltroso-N-ethylurea  (Carbamide.  N-ethyl-
  N-nitroso->
N-Nltrosomethylethylamme  ( Ethanamme.
  N-methyl-N-nitroso-)
N-Nltroso-N-methylurea  (Carbamide.  S-
  acid, methylnitroso-. eihyl ester)
 N-Nltrosomethylvtnylamme   (Ethenamme.
  N-methyl-N-mtroso-)
 N-Nltrosomorphollne   (Morphollne.   N-ni-
  troso-l
 N-Nltrosonornlcotlne (Nomteotlne. N-
  nitroso-)
 N-Nltrosopiperidlne (Pyndlne. hexahydro-
  N- nitroso-)
 Nltrosopyrrolldlne  (Pyrrole, tetrahydro-. N-
  nitroso-)
 N-Nltrososareostne (Sarcosme. N-nitroso-i
                                              21

-------
 S-NKro-o-toiuldine (Berttenamlne. 2-methyl-

 Octamethylpyrophosphoramlde   (Dlphos-
  phoramide. octaraethyl-)
 Osmium tetroxlde (Osmium (VIII) oxide)
 7.0xabicyclo(2.2.1Jheptane-2.3-dIcarboxyllc
  acid (Endothal)
 Paraldehyde   (1.3.5-Trtoxane.    2.4.«-trt-
  methyl-)
 Parathlon  (Phosphorothlole   acid.  O.O-
  dlethyl O-phenyl) ester
 PenUctilorobemene (Benzene, pentachloro-
  )
 Pentachloroethane (Ethane, pentachloro-)
 Pentachloronltrobenzene (PCMB) (Benzene.
  pentachloronltro-)
 Pentaehlorophenol (Phenol, pentaehlora-)
 Phenacetln    (Acetamlde.    N-<4-ethoxy-
  phenyl)-)
 Phenol (Benzene, hydroxy-)
 Phenylenedlamlne (Benzenedlamlne)
 Pheny(mercury aeeute (Mercury, acetato-
  phenyl-)
 N-Phenylthlourea (Thlourea. phenyl-)
 Phosgene (Carbonyl chloride)
 Phosphlne (Hydroten phosphide)
 Phoaphorodlthlole  acid.  O.O-dlethyl  3-
  ((ethylthlo)methyll ester (Phorate)
 Phosphorothlole  acid. O.O-dlmethyl O-tp-
  «dlmethylamlno)sulfonyl>phenyll    eater
  (Fmmphur)
 Phthalle acid eaters. N.O.S.* (Benzene. 1.3-
  dlCBrboxylle add. eaters, M.OA')
 Phthalle          anhydride          (1.2-
  Benzenedlcmrboxyllc acid anhydride)
 2-P!collne(Pyridlne. 2-methyl-)
 Polychlorinated blphenyL N.OJ3.*
 Potassium cyanide
 Potassium silver cyanide (Anentatetl-). dl-
  cyano-. potassium)
 Prenamlde  (3.5-Olehloro-N-
Strontium sulflde
 Strychnine  and  salts (Strychnidln-10-one.
  and salts)
 1.2.4.5-Tetnchlorobenzene       (Benzene.
  1.2.1.9-tetrachloro-)
 2.3.7.8-Tetrachlorodlbenzo-p-dloxln (TCDD)
  (Dlbenzo-p-dloxln. 2.3.7.8-tetrachloro-)
Tetrachloroethane.  N.OS."  (Ethane,  te-
  trachloro-. N.O.S.*)

 1.1.1.2-Tetrachlorethane (Ethane. 1.1.1.2-te-
  trachloro-)
 1.1.2.2-Tetrachlorethane (Ethane. l.l.2.2-te-
  trachloro-)
 Tetraehloroethane (Ethene. 1.1.2.2-tetraeh-
  lore-1
 Tetrachloromethane (Carbon tetrachlorlde)
 2.3.4.a.-Tetnchlorophenol (Phenol. 2.3.4.8-
   tetrachlora-)
 Tetraethyldlthlopyrephosphate (Olthlopyr-
   ophosphoric acid, tetraethyl-ester)
 Tetrmethyl lead (Plumbane. tetraethyl-)
 Tetraethylpyrophosphate (Pyrophoaphorlc
   acide. tetraethyl ester)
 Tetranltromethane (Methane, tetranltro-)
 Thallium and compounds. N.QJ3.*
 Thalllc oxide (Thallium (III) oxide)
 Thallium (I) acetate (Acetic acid, thallium
   (I) salt)
 Thallium (I) carbonate (Carbonic acid, dlth-
   aUlum (I) salt)
 Thallium (I) chloride
 Thallium (I) nitrate (Nitric acid, thallium
   (I) salt)
 Thallium selenlte
 Thallium (I) sulfate (Sulfuric acid, thallium
   (I) salt)
 Thioacetamide (Ethanethloamlde)
 Thlosemlcarbazlde
   (Hydnzlnecarbothloamide)
 Thlourea (Carbamide thlo-)
 Thluram (BWdlmethylthlocarbamoyl) dl-
   sulflde)
 Toluene (Benzene, methyl-)
 Toluenedlamlne (Dlamlno toluene)
 o-Toluidlne hydroehloride (Benzenamine. 2-
   methyl-, hydroehloride)
 Tolylene dllsoeyanate (Benzene.  1.3-dllso-
   cyanatomethyl-)
 Toxaphene (Camphene. oetachloro-)
 Tribromomethane (Bromoform)
 1.2.4-Trlchlorobenzene (Benzene. 1.2.4-trich-
   lore»)
 1.1.1-Trichloroethane (Methyl chloroform)
 1.1.2-Trichloroethane  (Ethane.  1.1.2-trieh-
   lore-)
 Trichloroethene (Trichloroethylene)
 Trichloromethanethlol      (Methanethiol.
   trichloro-)
 Trichioromononuoromethane    (Methane.
   trtchlorofluoro-)
 2.4.S-Trichloropheno!  (Phenol.  2.4.5-trich-
   loro-)
 2.4.a-Trichlorophenal  (Phenol.  2.4.8-trteh-
   loro-)
 14.9-Triehlorophenoxyacetle  acid  (2.4.3-T)
  (Acetic acid. 2.4.a-trichlorophenoxy->
 2.4.9-Triehlorophenoxyproplonic acid (2.4.5-
  TP) (Sllvex)  (Proplonoie  acid.  2-( 2.4.5-
  trichlorophenoxy)-)
 Trichlorapropane. M.O^.*  (Propane, trieh-
  lore-. N.OA*)
 1.2.3-Trichlorapropane (Propane. 1.2.3-trlch-
  lore-)
 O.O.O-Triethyl  phosphorothloate  (Ptios-
  phorothiolc acid. O.O.O-triethyl eater)

 synvTrlnltrobenzene  (Benzene.  1.3.5-trlnl-
   tro->
 Trisd-azrldlnyl)  phosphlne lulflde (Phos-
  phlne sulflde. irtwl-aztrldlnyl-)
 Trls(2.3-dlbramooropyl)  phosphate (1-Pra-
  panol. 2.3-dlbromo-. phosphate)
 Trypan   blue   (2.7-Naphthalenedlsulfonlc
  acid.    3.3M(3.3--dlmethyl( l.f-blphenyl>-
  4.4'-dlyl)bls(azo)lbls(5-amlno-4-hydroxy-.
  tetrasodlum salt)
 Uraell    mustard     (Urmcll     5-(bis(2-
  ehloroethyl lamtno I-)
 Vanadlc acid, ammonium salt (ammonium
  vanadate)
 Vanadium pentoxlde (Vanadium (V) oxldei
 Vinyl chloride (Ethene. chloro-)
 Zinc cyanide
 Zinc phosphide
 (46 PR 27477. May 20. 1981: 48 PR 29708.
June 3.19811
                                               22

-------
23

-------
            APPENDIX B
GUIDE TO COMPATIBILITY OF CHEMICALS
                24

-------
                 GUIDE TO COMPATIBILITY OF CHEMICALS

      The Guide is based in part upon information provided to (he Coast Guard by
  the National Academy of Sciences - U.S. Coast Guard Advisory Committee on
  Hazardous Materials and represents the latest information available to (he Coast
  Guard on chemical compatibility.

      The accidental mixing of one chemical cargo with another can in some cases
  be expected to result in a vigorous and hazardous chemical reaction. The genern-
  tion of toxic gases, the heating, overflow, and rupture of cargo tanks, and Tire nnd
  explosion are possible consequences of such reactions.

     The purpose  of  the Compatibility Chart is to show chemical combinations
 believed to be dangerously reactive in the case of accidental mixing. It should be
 recognized, however, that  the Chart provides a broad grouping of chemicals with
 an extensive variety of possible binary combinations. Although one group, gener-
 ally speaking,  can  be considered dangerously reactive with another group where
 an "X" appears on the Chart, there may exist between the groups some combina-
 tions which would not dangerously react.  The Chart should therefore not be used
 as an infallible guide. It is  offered as  an aid in the safe loading of bulk chemical
 cargoes, with  the  recommendation that  proper safeguards be  taken  to  avoid
 accidental mixing of binary mixtures  for which an  "X" appears on the Chart
 Proper  safeguards would include consideration of such factors as avoidance of the
 use of  common cargo and vent lines and carriage  in  adjacent tanks having  a
 common bulkhead.

     The following procedure explains how the Guide should be used in dctcnnm-
 ing compatibility information:

     (I)  Determine the reactivity group of a particular product by referring
          to the alphabetical list in Table 7.1.

     (2)  Enter the Chart with the reactivity group. Proceed across (he page
          An "X" indicates a reactivity group that forms an unsafe combina-
          tion with the product in question.

     For example, crotonaJdehyde is listed in Table 7.1 as belonging in Group  19
(Aldehydes).  The Chart shows that chemicals in this group should be segregated
from sulfuric and nitric acids, caustics, ammonia, and all types of amines (aliphatic.
alkanol, and aromatic). According to note A. crotonaJdehyde is also incompatible
with non-oxidizing mineral acids.
                                   25

-------
     It is recognized there are wide variations in the reaction rates of individual
chemicals within the broad groupings shown reactive by the Compatibility Chart.
Some individual materials in  one group will react violently with some  of the
materials in another group and cause great hazard; others will react slowly, or not
at all. Accordingly, a useful addition to the Guide would be the identification of
specific binary combinations which are found not to be dangerously reactive, even
though  an "X'" appears  on   the chart for those two  chemicals. A  few such
combinations are listed in Table 7.3; other safe combinations  will be  listed in
subsequent revisions.
                                   26

-------
COMPATIBILITY CHART
M
e
a
o
at
L
It
;o cnours *
aM'OXIOIIIMO MIMIMAl ACIOI
JirUAlC AGIO
ITAIC ACID
itCAMic ACIOS
AUITICS
MMONIA
llANOkAMINCf
«O«*AriC AMIMd
wiOCi
IIQAMIC AMMVOftiOIS
iOCTANAltS
IWL *CI TACC
IATCS
•IIWTIO AV.ITUI
l«VLCM( OXIOCS
riCHiaMOHYOftl*
E 'O**C S
kco»ois. CLVCOIS
MINOVS. cncsois
AfnOLACTAM lOLUrtOM

LtflNS









•kvcav (Txias




•ttert refer to notes on following atye}
1. NON-OXIOlIINC I
MIMf MAL ACIOf 1
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X


X


1


















1
1. UM. runic ACIO 1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X


X
X
X

X



X

6



X




I
X NITRIC AGIO I


X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X


X

I
I
*
X









3
4. OMCANIC ACiOl 1


X
X
X
e






I


f


















4
V
5
X
X


X







I


X
X
X







M





I


t
t. AMMONIA I
' X
X




X


X


X


















c


1
u
to
4
z
ti

X







X
X
X
I

X
X
X
X







1

X



X


7
• ALKANOLAMMIS 1

X
x






X
X
X
i

•












X



1


1
». AMOM A TIC AMIMIS 1

e





























E


i
10 AMIOtS 1



X












X

t















10
II. OMCAMIC I
AMMVOHlOfS 1


X
X
X
X




























i
tl. ISOCVAMATfl 1

X
y
X
X
X
X
X




a



X

X











X


!

2
11 VINVL ACfTATC I

X

X
X





























1
14. ACMVLATtf 1

X


X





























•
IS. SUBCTIIUICO 1
AIL VI. I 1

X


X



0

























•
II. ALKVLf Mf OXIOf S 1
X
X
s
1
X
I





























1
I NllfOAMOVQllOIJI *(!
X
I
I
I
X





























7
II. KCTOMIS I




1





























1
M
a
>
a
j
4
•
A

X
X
X
X













•














t
10 ALCOMOtf. CIVCOII 1
-i-
f
X





X

























70
s
L
H
e
i
M


X



X



























1
11 CAPMOLACIAU
1OLU1ION


X





X

























11




































          27

-------
                     NOTES TO COMPATIBILITY CHART:
         REACTIVITY DIFFERENCES (DEVIATIONS) WITHIN CHEMICAL GROUPS
A    Acrolein (19),  Crotonaldehyde (19), and 2-Ethyl-3-propyl
     acrolein (19)  are not compatible with Group  1,  Non-Oxi-
     dizing  Mineral  Acids.

B    Isophorone  (18),  and Mesityl Oxide (18) are  not  compatible
     with  Group  8,  Alkanolamlnes.

C    Acrylic  Acid  (4)  is not compatible with Group 9, Aromatic
     Amines.

D    Allyl Alcohol  (15)  is not compatible with Group  12,  Iso-
     cyanates.

E    Furfuryl Alcohol  (20)  is  not compatible with Group  1,
     Non-oxidizing Mineral  Acids.

F    Furfuryl Alcohol  (20)  is  not compatible with Group  4,
     Organic  Acids.

G    Dichloroethyl Ether  (36)  is  not  compatible with Group 2,
     Sulfuric Acid.

H    Trichloroethylene  (36)  is  not  compatible  with Group 5,
     Caustics.

I    Ethyienediamine (7)  is  not compatible  with Ethylene Di-
    chlorlde (36).
                          28

-------
                  ALPHABETICAL LISTING OF COMPOUNDS
     Name

Acctaldehydfe
Acetic Acid
Acetic Anhydride
Acetone
Acetonitrile
Acrolein (inhibited)
Acrylic Acid  (inhibited)
Acrylonitrile
 (inhibited)
Adiponitrile
Allyl Alcohol
Allyl Chloride
Aninoethylethanolanine
Ammonia, Anhydrous
Ammonium Hydroxide
 (282 or less)
Ammonium Nitrate,  Urea,
 Water Solutions
 (containing  Ammonia)
Ammonium Nitrate,  Urea,
 Water Solutions  (not
 containing Ammonia)
Amyl Acetate
Amyl Alcohol
Amyl Tallate
Aniline
Asphalt
Asphalt Blending  Stocks:
  Roofers  Flux
  Straight Run  Residue
B e n z e.n e
Benzene, Toluene
 Xylene  (crude)
Butadiene  (inhibited)
Butane
Butyl Acrylate
 (inhibited)
Butyl Acetate
Butyl Alcohol
Butylamine
Group
 No.

 19
  4
 11
 18
 37
 19
  4

 15
 37
 15
 15
  8
  6
                                       Name
             Phthalate
 43
 34
 20
 34
  9
 33

 33
 33
 32

 32
 30
 31

 14
 34
 20
  7
Butyl Benzyl
Butylene
1,3-Butylene Glycol
Butylene Oxide
Butyl Ether
Butyl Methacrylate
 (Inhibited)
Butyraldehyde
Butyric Acid


Camphor Oil (light)
Caprolactam Solution
Carbolic Oil
Carbon DisuLfide
Carbon Tetrachloride
Caustic Potash Solution
Caustic Soda Solution
Chlorine
Chlo robenzene
Chloroform
Chlorosulfonic Acid
Corn Syrup
Creosote,  Coal Tar
Cresols
Cresylate  Spent Caustic
 Solution
Crotonaldehyde
Cumene
Cycloaliphatic Resins
Cyclohexane
Cyclohexanol
Cyclohexanone
Cyclohexylamine
Cymene
Decaldehyde
Oecane
Decene
Decyl Alcohol
Decyl Acrylate
 (inhibited)
34
30
20
16
41

14
19
 4
                         18
                         22
                         21
                         38
                         36
                          5
                          5
                          *
                         36
                         36
                          *
                         43
                         21
                         21

                          5
                         19
                         32
                         31
                         31
                         20
                         18
                          7
                         32
                         19
                         31
                         30
                         20

                         14
                                29

-------
            ALPHABETICAL LISTING OF COMPOUNDS (Continued)
 Decylbenzene              32
 Dextrose  Solution         43
 Diacetone  Alcohol         20
 Dibutylamlne               7
 Dlbutyl Phthalate         34
 Diehlorobenzene           36
 Dichlorodifluoromethane   36
 1,1-Dichloroethane        36
 Dichloroethyl  Ether       41
 Diehloromethane           36
 1,1-Dichloropropane       36
 1,2-Dlchloropropane       36
 1,3-Dichloropropene       15
 Dicyclopentadiene         30
 Diethanolamine             8
 Diethylamine               7
 Diethylbenzene            32
 Diethylene Glycol         40
 Diethylene Clycol Mono-
 butyl Ether              40
 Diethylene Glycol Mono-
 butyl Ether Acetate      34
 Diethylene Glycol Mono-
 ethyl Ether              40
 Diethylene Glycol Mono-
 methyl Either             40
 Diethylenetriamine         7
 Diethylethanolamine        8
 Diheptyl Phthalate        34
 Diisobutylene             30
 Diisobutyl Carbinol       20
 Diisobutyl Ketone         18
 Diisode-cyl Phthalate      34
 Diisopropanolaraine         8
 Dlisopropylamine           7
 Dimethylamine              7
Dimethylethanolamine       8
Dimethylformamide         10
Dinonyl Phthalate         34
Dioctyl Phthalate         34
 1,4-Dioxane               41
 Diphenyl-Diphenyl Oxide   33
 DiphenyImethane  Diiso-
  cyanate                  12
 Di-n-propyIamine          7
 Dipropylene Glycol        40
Distillates:
   Straight Run
   Flashed Feed  Stocks
Diundecyl Phthalate
Dodecane
Dodecanol
Dodecene
Dodecylbenzene
Epiehlorohvdrin
Ethane
Ethano Iamine
Ethoxylated Alcohols
Ethoxy Triglycol
Ethyl Acetate
Ethyl Alcohol
Ethyl A^crylate
 (inhibited)
Ethylamine
Ethyl Benzene
Ethyl Butanol
Ethyl Chloride
Ethylene
Ethylene Chlorohydrin
Ethylene Cyanohydrin
Ethylened iamine
Ethylene Dibromide
Ethylene Dichloride
Ethylene Glycol
Ethylene Glycol Mono-
 butyl Ether
Ethylene Glycol Mono-
 butyl Ether Acetate
Ethylene Glycol Mono-
 ethyl Ether
Ethylene Clycol Mono-
 ethyl Ether Acetate
Ethylene Glycol Mono-
 methyl Ether
Ethylene Oxide
Ethyl Ether
Ethylhexaldehyde
2-Ethyl Hexanol
2-Ethylhexyl Acrylate
 (inhibited)
 33
 33
 34
 31
 20
 30
 32
 17
 31
  8

 60
 40
 34
 20

 14
  7
 32
 20
 36
 30
 20
 20
  7
 36
 36
 20

 40

 34

 40

34

40
 *
41
 l"»
 20
                          30

-------
           ALPHABETICAL LISTING OF COMPOUNDS (Continued)
 Ethyl  Hexyl  Tallate      34
 Ethyl  Methacrylate
  (inhibited)              14
 2-Ethyl-3-Propyl
  Acrole in                 19
 Formaldehyde  Solution
  (37-502)                 19
 Formic  Acid                4
 Furfural                  19
 Fur£uryl Alcohol         20
                                  Jet Fuels:
                                    JP-1  (Kerosene)        33
                                    JP-3                   33
                                    JP-4                   33
                                    JP-5  (Kerosene, Heavy) 33
                                  Kerosene                 33
                                  Latex, Liquid Synthetic  43
                   Stocks:
              (natural)
              (containing
              grams  lead
Gas Oil:
  Cracked
Gasoline Blending
  Alkylates
  Re fo rma t es
Gasolines :
  Cas ingh ead
  Automot1ve
   over 4.23
   per gallon)
  Aviation  (containing
   not over 4 . 8*"6  grams
   lead per gallon)
  Polyme r
  Straight  Run
Glutaraldehyde  Solution
Glycerine
Glycol Diacetate
Glyoxal Solution
Heptane
Hexame^thyleneimine
He xa n e
Hexano1
He xene
Hexylene Glycol
Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrofluoric Acid
Iso.phorone
Isoprene (inhibited)
33

33
33

33
                          33
                          33
                          33
                          33
                          19
                          20
                          34
                          19
                          31
                           7
                          31
                          20
                          30
                          20
                           1
                           1
                          18
                          30
Hesityl Oxide             18
Methane                   31
Methyl Acetate            34
Methyl Acetylene, Pro-
 padiene Mixture
 (Stabilized)             30
Methyl Acrylate
 (inhibited)-             14
Methyl Alcohol            20
Methyl Amyl  Acetate       34
Methyl Amyl  Alcohol       20
Methyl Bromide            36
3-Methyl Butyra 1 dehyde    19
Methyl Chloride           36
Methyl Ethyl Ketone       18
2-Methyl-5-Ethyl
 Pyridine     "            9
Methyl Formal (Dimethyl
 Formal)                  41
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone    18
Methyl Isobutyl Carbinol  20
Methyl Methacrylate
 (inhibited)              14
(alpha-) Methyl Styrene
 (inhibited)              30
Mineral Spirits           33
Monochlorodifluoro-
 methane                  36
Morpholine                7
Motor Fuel Antiknock Com-
 pounds Containing Lead
 Alkyls                   *
                                 31

-------
            ALPHABETICAL LISTING OF COMPOUNDS (Continued)
Naphtha:
  Coal Tar
  Solvent
  Stoddard Solvent
  Varnish Markers'
                   and
   Painters' (75Z)
Naphthalene (molten)
Nitric Acid (70Z or
 less)
Nitric Acid (95Z)
Nitrobenzene
1- or 2-Nitropropane
Nitrotoluene
Nonane
Nonene
Nonyl Alcohol
Nonyl Phenol
Nonyl Phenol
 (ethoxylated)
Octane
Octene
Octyl Alcohol
Octyl Aldehyde
Octyl Epoxytallate
Oils:
  Clarified
  Coal Oil
  Crude Oil
  Diesel Oil
Fuel Oils:
      1 (Kerosene)
      1-D
      2
      2-D
      4
      5
      6
  No
  No
  No
  No
  No
  No
  No
  Residual
  Road
  Transformer
Edible Oils,
  Castor
  Coconut
  Cotton Seed
  Fish
             including:
33
33
33

33
32
                         43
                         43
                         43
                         31
                         30
                         20
                         21

                         40
31
30
20
19
34

33
33
33
33

33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33

34
34
34
34
  Lard
  Olive
  Palm
  Peanut
  Safflower
  Soya Bean
  Tucum •
  Vegetable
Miscellaneous Oils,
 including:
  Absorpt ion
  Aromatic
  Coal Tar
  Heartcut Distillate
  Linseed
  Lubricating
  Mineral
  Mineral Seal
  Motor
  Neatsfoot
  Penetrating
  Range
  Resin
  Resinous
  Rosin
  Sperm
  Spindle
  Spray
  Tall
  Tanner ' s
  Turbine
Oleum
Pen tadecanol
Pentane
Pent ene
Pentyl Aldehyde
Perchloroethylene
Petrolatum
Petroleum Naphtha
Phenol
Pentachloroethane
Phosphoric Acid
Phosphorus
Phthalic Anhydride
 (molten) •
                                            Pet roleum
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
34
33
33
 *
22
31
30
19
36
33
33
21
36
 1
 *

11
                          32

-------
            ALPHABETICAL LISTING OF COMPOUNDS (Continued)
Polybutene                30
Polyethylene  Glycols     40
Polymethy'l.ene  Polyphenyl-
 isocyana t e               12
Polypropylene             30
Polypropylene  Glycol
 Methyl Ether             40
Polypropylene  Glycols     40
Propane                   31
Propanolaraine              8
Propionaldehyde           19
Propionic Acid             4
Propionic Anhydride       11
Propyl Acetate            3*
Propyl Alcohol            20
Propylamine                7
Propylene                 30
Propylene Butylene
 Polymer                  30
Propylene Glycol          20
Propylene Oxide           16
Propylene Tetramer        30
Propyl Ether              41
Pyridine                   9
Sodium Hydrosulfide
 Solution  (45Z^or  less)    5
Sorbitol                  20
Styrene (inhibited)       30
Sulfolane                 39
Sulfur (molten)            *
Sulfuric Acid              2
Sulfuric Acid,  Spent       2
Tallow                    3^
Tallow Fatty Alcohol      20
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloro-
 ethane                   36
Te t radecano1
Tetradecene
Tetradecylbenzene
Tetraethylene Clycol
Tetraethylenepentamine
Tetrahydrofuran
Tetrahydronaphthalene
Tetrasodiura Salt of
 EDTA Solution
Toluene
Toluene Diisocyanate
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
Trichloroethylene
Tridecano1
Tridecene
Tridecylbenzene
Tr iethanolaraine
Triethylamine
Triethyl Benzene
Triethylene Glycol
Triethylenetetramine
Tripropylene Glycol
Turpen t ine
Undecano1
Undecene
Undecy Ibenzene
Valeraldehyde
Vinyl Acetate
 (inhibited)
Vinyl Chloride
 (inhibited)
Vinylidene Chloride
 (inhibited)
Vinyl Toluene
 (inhibited)
                                  Xylene
;o
30
32
40
 7
41
32

43
32
12
36
36
20
30
32
 8
 7
32
40
 7
40
30
20
30
32
19

13

35

35

30


32
  Because of very  high  reactivity  or unusual  conditions  of
  carriage, this  product  is  not  Included  In  the  Compatibility
  Chart.  If compatibility  information  is  needed  for  a  ship-
  ment, contact   Commandant  (C-MHM-1/83),  U.S.  Coast  Guard,
  400 Seventh Street,  S.W.,  Washington,  D.  C.   20590.
                                33

-------
                            REACTIVITY GROUPS
 1.  Non-Oxidizing Mineral Acids

 Hydrochloric Acid
 Hydrofluoric Acid
 Phosphoric Acid
 2.   Sulfuric Acids

 Spent Sulfuric Acid
 Sulfuric Acid (98Z or less)
 3.   Nitric Acid

 Nitric  Acid (70Z or  less)


 4.   Organic Acids

 Acetic  Acid
 Butyric Acid
 Formic  Acid
 Propionlc  Acid
 Acrylic Acid (inhibited)
    v.


 5.   Caustics

 Caustic Potash Solution
 Caustic Soda Solution
 Cresylate  Spent Caustic Solution
 Sodium  Hydrosulfide Solution
  (45Z  or  less)


 6.  Ammonia

Ammonia, Anhydrous
Ammonium Hydroxide (287. or less)
Ammonium Nitrate, Urea, Water
  Solutions  (containing Ammonia)
 7.  Aliphatic Amines

 Butylamlne
 Cyclohexylaraine
 Dibutylamlne
 Dlethylamine
 Diethylenetrlamine
 Diisopropylamine
 Oimethylamine
 Di-n-propylamine
 Ethylamine
 Ethylenediamine
 Hexatnethyleneimine
 Methylamlne
 Morpholine
 Propylamine
 Tetraethylenepentamine
 Triethylamine
 Triethylenetetramine
8.  Alkanolamines

Aminoethylethanolamine
Diethanolamine
Diethylethanolamine
Diisopropanolamine
Dimethylethanolamine
Ethanolamine
Propanolamine
Triethanolamlne
9.  Aromatic Amines

Aniline
Pyridine
2-Methyl-5-Ethylpyridine
10.  Amides

DIme t hy1formam ide
                        34

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                        REACTIVITY GROUPS (Continued)
 11.   Organic  Anhydrides

 Acetic Anhydride
 Phthalic Anhydride
 Propionic  Anhydride
12.   Isocyanates

Diphenylmethane Diisocyanate
Polyphenyl Polymethylene-
  isocyanate
Toluene Diisocyanate
13.  Vinyl Acetate

Vinyl Acetate  (inhibited)


14.  Acrylates

Butyl Acrylate  (inhibited)
Butyl Methacrylate  (inhibited)
Decyl Acrylate  (inhibited)
Ethyl Acrylate  (inhibited)
2-Ethylhexyl Acrylate  (inhibited)
Ethyl Methacrylate  (inhibited)
Methyl Acrylate  (inhibited)
Methyl Methacrylate  (inhibited)


15.  Substituted Allyls

Acrylonitrile  (inhibited)
Allyl Alcohol
Allyl Chloride
1,3-Diphloropropene


16.  Alkvlene Oxides

Propylene Oxide
Butylene Oxide
 17.  Epichlorohydrin

 Epichlorohydrin


 18.  Ketones

 Acetone
 Camphor Oil
 Cyclohexanone
 Diisobutyl Ketone
 Isophorone
 Mesityl Oxide
 Methyl Ethyl Ketone
 Methyl Isobutyl Ketone


 19.  Aldehydes

 Acetaldehyde
 Acrolein (inhibited)
 Butyraldehyde
 Decaldehyde
 Ethylhexaldehyde
 Formaldehyde
 Glutaraldehyde Solution
 Clyoxal Solution
Methylbutyraldehyde
Octyl Aldehyde
Pentyl Aldehyde
Propionaldehyde
Valeraldehyde


 20.  Alcohols.  Glycols

A/nyl Alcohol
Butyl Alcohol
1,3-Butylene Clycol
Cyclohexanol
Decyl Alcohol
Diacetone Alcohol
Diisobutyl Carbinol
Dodecanol
Ethanol
Ethoxylated Alcohols

  Circi5
                                     35

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                        REACTIVITY GROUPS (Continued)
 Ethyl Alcohol
 Ethylbutanol
 Ethylene Chlorohydrln
 Ethylene Cyanohydrin
 Ethylene Glycol
 2-Ethyl Hexanol
 Furfuryl Alcohol
 Glycerin
 Hexanol
 Hexylene Glycol
 Methanol
 Methyl  Alcohol
 Methylamyl Alcohol
 Methylisobutyl Carbinol
 Octyl Alcohol
 Nonyl Alcohol
 Pentadecanol
 Propyl  Alcohol
 Propylene Glycol
 Sor<ol
 Tallow  Fatty Alcohol
 Tetradecanol
 Tridecanol
 Undecanol
21.  Phen&ls and Cresols

Carbolic Oil
Creosote, Coal Tar
Cresols
Nonyl Phenol
Phenol

22.  Caprolactam Solution

Caprolactam Solution

23 - 29.  Unassigned

30.  Olefins

Butadiene (inhibited)
Butene
 Butylene
 Decene
 Dicyclopentadiene
 Diisobutylene
 Oodecene
 Ethylene
 Hexene
 Isoprene (inhibited)
 Methyl Acetylene, Propadiene
  Mixture (stabilized)
 (alpha-) Methyl Styrene
  (inhibited)
 Nonene
 Octene
 Pentene
 Polybutene
 Polypropylene
 Propylene
 Propylene Butylene Polymer
 Propylene Tetramer
 Styrene (inhibited)
 Vinyl  Toluene (inhibited)
 Tetradecene
 Tridecene
 Turpentine
 Undecene
31.  Paraffins

Butane
Cycloaliphatic Resins
Cyclohexane
Decane
Dodecane
Ethane
Heptane
Hexane
Methane
Nonane
Octane
Pentane
Propane
                             36

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                        REACTIVITY GROUPS (Continued)
32.  Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Benzene
Benzene, Toluene, Xylene  (crude)
Cumene
Cymene
Oecylbenzene
DieChylbenzene
Dodecylbenzene
Ethylbenzene
Naphthalene
Tetradecylbenzene
Tetrahydronaphthalene
Toluene
Tridecylbenzene
Triethylbenzene
Undecylbenzene
Xylene
33.  Misc. Hydrocarbon  Mixtures

Asphalt
Asphalt Blending Stocks
Diphenyl - Diphenyl Oxide
Distillates
Gas Oil, Cracked ^
Gasoline Blending Stocks
Gasolines
Jet Fuels
Kerosene
Mineral Spirits
Naphtha
Oils, "Crude -
Oils, Diesel
Oils, Coal
Oils, Fuel
Oils,
Oils,
           (No
      Residual
	 Road
Oils, "Transformer
Petrolatum „
Petroleum Naphtha
1 thru No. 6)
34.  Esters

Amyl Acetate
                                          Amyl Tallate
                                          Butyl Acetate
                                          Butyl Benzyl Phthalate
                                          Castor Oil
                                          Coconut Oil
                                          Cottonseed Oil
                                          Dibutyl Phthalate
                                          Diethylene Glycol Monobutyl
                                           Ether Acetate
                                          Diheptyl Phthalate
                                          Diisodecyl Phthalate
                                          Dinonyl Phthalate
                                          Dioctyl Phthalate
                                          Diundecyl Phthalate
                                          Ethyl Acetate
                                          Ethylene Glycol Monobutyl
                                           Ether Acetate
                                          Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl
                                           Ether Acetate
                                          tthylhexyl Tallate
                                          Fish Oil
                                          Glycol Diacetate
                                          Lard
                                          Methyl Acetate
                                          Methyl Amyl Acetate
                                          Octyl Epoxy Tallate
                                          Olive Oil
                                          Palm Oil
                                          Peanut Oil
                                          Propyl Acetate
                                          Safflower Oil
                                          Soybean Oil
                                          Tallow
                                          Tucum Oil
                                          Vegetable Oil
                          35.  Vinvl Halides

                          Vinyl Chloride  (inhibited)
                          Vinylidene Chloride  (inhibited)


                          36.  Halogenated  Hydrocarbons

                          Carbon Tetrachloride
                          Chlorobenzene
                                     37

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                     REACTIVITY GROUPS (Continued)
 Chloroform
 Dichlorobenzene
 1,1-Dichloroethane
 Dichloroethyl Ether
 Dlchloromethane
 1,1-Dichloropropane
 1,2-Dichloropropane
 Ethyl Chloride
 Ethylene Dibromide
 Ethylene Dlchloride
 Methyl Bromide
 Methyl Chloride
 Pentachloroethane
 Perchloroethylene
 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane
 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
 Trichloroethylene
 37.   Nitriles

 Acetonitrile
 Adiponitrlle
-38.  Carbon  Disulfide
39.  Sulfolane
 Ethylene Glycol Monomethyl
  Ether
 Nonylphenol, Ethoxylated
 Polyethylene Glycols
 Polypropylene Glycols
 Polypropylene Glycol Methyl
  Ether
 Soybean Oil', Epoxidized
 Tetraethylene Glycol
 Triethylene Glycol
 Tripropylene Glycol
 41.   Ethers

 Butyl Ether
 1,4-Dioxane
 Ethyl Ether
 Methyl Formal  (Dimethyl
  Formal)
 Propyl Ether
 Tetrahydrofuran
 42.  Nitrocpropounds

 (mono-) Nitrobenzene
 1- or 2-Nitropropane
 Nitrotoluene
40.  Glycol Ethers

Diethylend Glycol
Diethylene Glycol Monobutyl
 Ether
Diethylene Glycol Monoethyl
 Ether
Diethylene Glycol Monomethyl
 Ether
Dipropylene Glycol
Ethoxy Triglycol
Ethylene Glycol Monobutyl
 Ether
Ethylene Glycol Monethyl
 Ether
43.  Miscellaneous Water Solutions

Ammonium Nitrate, Urea, Water
 Solutions (not containing
 Ammonia)
Corn Syrup
Dextrose Solution
Latex Solutions
Tetrasodium Salt of EDTA
 Solution
                                    38

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        APPENDIX C"
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET
            39

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  Environmental Protection Agency

                  BASIC FIELD ACTIVITIES SAFETY TRAINING

                                 Post Test


  1-1.   The   basic level  of field training consists of all  the  following
  except:

        a.     24  hours  of classroom training
        b.     36  hours  of field training with  experienced employee
        c.     8 hours of  respiratory and protective gear training
        d.     Al1  of the  above

  1-2.   Employee    reports   of   hazardous    work   conditions  must  be
  investigated  within:

        a.     ?4  hours  for ..imminent dangers
        b.    One  v/eek  if  potentially  serious
        c.     30 days for  other conditions
        d.    None  of the  above

 2-1.   Which   is   the best procedure when preparing,, to  visit a site for
 the first time:

        a,    Let   the highest ranking person take charge; others listen
             and  obey.
       b.    Ltet  the person with the most experience at similar sites
             take charge; others listen and obey.
       c.    Let  one person record every team member's suggestions.
             Then consider the task as a team and make your plans
             jointly.


 3-1.  Treat  third degree burns and "burn shock" by 	
 and other  appropriate  procedures)

       a.     Use -of ice
       b.  -   Giving fluids to drink (if patient is  conscious)
       c.     Removing all  burned, hot clothing, with any adhering skin
      -d.     Al 1  of the above

 3-2.   Which  CPR  technique should not  be practiced  on  a  classroom
 volunteer?

       a.     Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation
       b.     opening and  clearing'the  airway
       c.     Feeling for  pulse  at the  carotid  artery
      d.     Cardiac compression

                                                          p
4-1.  Your   team   will   be  working   in  the   sun,  in  95' F heat, in
encapsulating  suites,  without cooling vests.  Work periods should last
not  longer than:

      a.     15 minutes              c,  60 minutes
      b.     30 minutes              d.  2 hours

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  4-2.  Normal  activities will be disrupted if the internal  temperature
  drops only 	.

        a.    2 degrees F
        b.    5 degrees F
        c.    10 degrees F
        d.    19.6 degrees to 80 degrees F

  4-3.   Heat cramps are caused by

        a.    Insufficient sweating
        b.    Loss of electrolytes
        c.    Erratic blood  pressure  and pulse
        d.    Hard work in hot sun

 4-4.   When  heat  stress is  anticipated,  which  fluids are recommended1:

        a.     White  wine
        b.     Gatorade
        c.     Weak salt  solution
        d..    Sweetened, hot coffee
        e.     b and  c
        f.    !a"and  d

 5-1.   A  spilled substance with a specific gravity of 0.80 and ,a vap.or
 pressure of 600 mm/hg at ambient air temperature 	•

       a.     Wou'ld evaporate readily
       b.     Sink to the bottom of a pond
       c.     Be found'in high concentration .in  low lying areas
       d'.     Would likely be very flammable f

 5-2.   Which  of   the  following is not  a characteristic of aa hazardous
 waste?

       a.     combustible liquid
       b.     Corrosivity
       c.     Reactivity
       d.     E.P.  toxicity
       e.     None  of the above

6-1.   Acute  dosage  tests  are preferred  to chronic tests because:

      a.     They are cheaper
      b.     The are faster
      c.     They have an easily recognizable endpoln.t
      d.    None of the above
      e.    a, b, c

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  6-2.  The potency of a poison is determined by

        a.    A select committee of OSHA
        b.    The design of the experiments used to determine, it
        c.    The use of standard white mice
        d.    Al1 of the above
        e.    None of the above

  6-3.   The  common  mechanism linking cancer,  mutation,  and teratogenic
  effects  is  	.

        a.     Modification  of  MDA
        b.     Modification  of  tRNA
        c..{ ,,   Modification  of  mRHA
        d.     Sister  chromatid exchange

  7-1.   An  allergy  is 	.
       a.    A kind of chronic  toxic effect.
       b..   A kind of acute  toxic effect.
       c.    A malfunction of the immune system.
       d.    A product of the imagination, without physical cause.

 7-2.  The site of action of a  toxic chemical is

       a.    The geographic location where the chemical gets loose.
       b.    The identity of the chemical process for which-the ;
             chemical  was intended to be used.
       c.    The't'arget organ or'systern, within an animal.,
       d.    The  molecular structure to which the chemical -attaches bo
             effect its detrimental  action


 7-3.   Chronic   use of  alcohol  results  in increased biosynthesis of
 liver  alcohol  dehydrogenase.   This  is  an 'example of!    	

       a.     Target organ damage.
       b.     Drug addiction.
       c.     An adaptive  mechanism.
       d.     An immune  reaction.

8-1.   OSIIA defines PELs,  which  are 	.
      a.    Protective environmental  limits
      b.    Permissible 'exposure  limitsi
      c.    Probably endangered lives
      d.    Protective environmental  laws

8-2.  TLV-STEL levels are the concentration to which a worker 	.

      a.    May never be exposed to
      b.    May be exposed to over 40 hours
      c.    May be exposed continuously for 15 minutes without harm
      d.    May be exposed to for  a shot term of less than 8 hours

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  8-3.   In   which  of  the following areas are toxic  chemicals most easily
  absorbed:

        a.    Hands                   c.    Face
        b.    Feet                    d.    Arms

  9-i.   Many  hazards  are   invisible.    Which   jet  or  stream  of high
  pressure gas is easiest to see:

        a.    Carbon dioxide,  from a  liquid  CO   fire extinguisher
                                              2
        b.    600 psig heated  steam
        C".    "1*00 psi la'ir

  10-1.  You   are  preparing   to  climb   a  30  foot ladder, and when you
  finish  climbing,  you  will  need  a  hammer, chisel, screwdriver,-and'
  vice-grip  wrench. Which is best?

        a.     Pat them in your pockets or tool vest to keep your hands
              free
        b..    Put them in a  tool box to be carried in one hand
        c.     Put them in a  back pack
        d.     Put  them in a closed container that will be  hoisted  up to
              you after you  climb the ladder.


 10-2.  Scaffolds  should be  secured  at least  every  	 feet of
 elevation

       a.     8                       b.    12
       c.     20                      d.    30

 10-3.  Standard''guard' rails  have  top- and mid-rails how  high?

       a.     54  and' 27 inches        c.    36  and  18  inches
       b.'     42,  and1 2i; inches        d.    30  and  IB inches

 11-1.  Grit.  .clfanD'eifs,  digesters,  and wet wells are places where which
 hazard  may.  e'xist?,

       a.     'insufficient oxygen-
       b.    ,Slippery spills of water, grease and oil1
      c.    .Flammable liquids or vapors
      >d.     All  of the above
             i           i .

 11-2.  In    these  plants, 'the  on-sit.e  locations  with1  the   highest
 percentages  of,accidents are 	.

      a.     51ud,ge"haiidl ing and I manholes
      b.     Main'tenarice'shop and-preliminary treatment-
      c.     Pump st'atlo'h's,  and"wet or dry'wells
      d.     Settling  tanks  and laboratory
11-3. When chlorine  gas  leaks out and combines  with  water,  it  forms

                                    4

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         *»     Hydrogen peroxide
         b.     Sodium hypochlorite
         c.     Hydrochloric acid
         d.     Polychlorinated biphenyls

  12-1.  The  list of  dangerous gases  in a mine is usually headed by '

         a.     Methane
         b.     Propane
        c.     Hydrogen
        d.     Hydrogen sulfide

  13-1.  If  a car going 40 mph can stop  in 65  feet on dry concrete, what
  is the estimated stopping distance at  40 mph  in snow?

        •a.    85 feet                c.   275  feet
        b.    200 feet               d.   400 feet

  13-2.  I'f"  a  car   going  25  mph can stop in 40 fee.t, .ai,t?r";l:he brakes-
  have-been  applied,  a car going 50 mph can stop in about ,   .  ..

        a.     65 feet                c.   120 feet
        b:'    80 feet                d.   160 feet


  13-3.'_  The distance  between  your  car and the one in  front is'	.
       a.    Separation              c.    Maneuvering space
       b.    Interval                d.    Reaction space


 14-1.  A  storm  warning  center is  displaying  a  single  square  red-flag
 with  a  black  center,  and  -the radio  says there  is a .stojrm  warning.
 What should you do?

       a.     Proceed cautiously, but not  get out  of  sight  01 snore, in,
             case a small craft warning is issued.
       1i>. '    Go' shore and stay ashore until the weather c.^earp.. ,
       c.     Proceed with your mission, but radio the Coast .Gua,rd. to.
             let them where you are.
       d.     Don life jackets, but  continue sailing if y,ou, know how to
             navigate with a compass.

14-2.  You   are   using  a 20-foot cabin cruiser, and ,therp-£d aj fishing,
boat ''trawling  for  fish,  on a course that may take it .acr'oss your  b'ow,'
but .< a^i'co'l lisioit >  seems   likely,,% or   else  you-may ge,t,'your 'prppeHer
fouled in his net.   You  should
      a.    Sound your horn repeatedly  to ;teM  the  flshenman  to 'get •
            out of your way, because you are  on government  fcjusine'ss.
      b.    Get on the CB radio'and try to contact  th,e ot,her  boat.-
      c.    Yield the right of way.
      d.    Make him yield the right of way,  because your boat is
            better.

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  15-1.  You   have  collected 12 liquid samples of hazardous materials/in
  glass   jars.    For  your  return  flight  with  the  samples,  in your
  chartered   aircraft,  what  packing and stowing precautions should •you
  observe?

        a.    'ftqne,  that's why you used a chartered aircraft.
        b.    'Ericlose bottles in plastic bags to contain spills.
        c,.    -Observe (b)  and stow the case of bottles so it can't
              slide' or overturn.
        d.    Observe (b)  and (c)  and stow, as directed by the pilot to
              maintain proper balance in the aircraft

  15-2.  You', have., ti.led   a, ,  flight  plan,   and now your chartered plane
  develops" engine tr'duble.' l  The pilot glides in,  roughly but safely, on1
  a   meadow  in  a  wilderness area.   The  radio is dead.   Your ,e.stimated ,
  time   of ..iarrivaT  'is' -'11tOOa.m.  When will  a search  for your plane be'
  initiated?

        a.    at ll:30a.m.
        b..    at noon
        c.    at 12:30p.m.
        d.    When your wife, or boss, or someone  else misses  you and
              starts phoning the airport from which you  left.
        e.    Never, unless you took out air search insurance.


 16-1. A  fire   extinguisher has these pictures on it:  a flaming waste
 basket '  ah'd'l!a'  bonfire'; a container pouring liquid and'a fire,  and an-'
 electrical   plug   and  receptacle  with a red slash running diagonally
 through  them.j .That extinguisher  can be used on which fires?

       a.     Types  A,  B,  and  C
       by    Type's^ 'B' and  C'
       c.     Types A  and  B
       d.    ;T,ypes 'A''arid*C '

 16-2.  You  open the door  to  see what's  in  the room,  and you discover*a
 brisk  fire burning.   You  should 	.

       a.     First sound  (or  shout) the alarm,  then call  the fire  depb
       b..    .Soufid thet' alarm, and use  the nearest  fire  extinguisher
       c.     Grab the  biggest of the  3 fire extinguishers  on the wall-./
             and try to put out  the fire.'

 17-1. The .flas'hpo'lrifc' of a flammable s'ubstance is 	.
      a.     The point of ignition"1
      b.     The temperature'at which enough vapor'is released to
             aHow a flame to propagate in the vapor-air mixture.
      c.    '-'A* "xju'ide ' in choc's ing a fire extinguisher.

17-2. The UFL  is the
      a.,     Upper  flammable'limit
      b.    .Unidentified flammability level
      c.     Unrequited flaming love
      d.     Unignited  flammable liquid

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   17-3. The LEL is the
               Least explosive level
               Lowest environmental  liability
               Lower explosive limit
               Lowest explosive level


  17-4. Faulty  judgement,   poor  coordination,  and rapid fatigue occurs
  at what percentage of oxygen?

        a.    <6%                    c.16 -  18%
        b,?    10 -  14%               d.19 -  23%

  18-1. Coliwasa stands for
        at.,    Surface water  (wasa) contaminated with fecal, Escherichia
         !•    coll                                           "         "
        b*    Collected, integrated, waste sampler
        c.    Composite liquid waste sampler  •
        d.    Collected liquid waste saver
  18-2.  A  GFCI  is  a
       a.     Genera]  Fire Containing Inclosure
       b.     General  Flammable Chemical  Index
       c.     Gas  Flame  Caused  Implosion
       d..    Ground Fault Circuit  Interrupter

 18-3. Combustible  dusts of   coal,  grain,   etc.,  are what  "Claaa" of1
 flammable
       a.    I        b. II        c.   Ill

 19-1. Rocky  Mountain Spotted Fever is caused by bacteria >  (rJLcketfsia)
 and transmitted by _ .

       a.    ticks                  c.  lice
       b.    mosquitoes             d.  sewage

 19-2.  Another   creature  that  can  cause  a life-threatening^ allergic
 reaction is  the,'      .                      .                         '
          rm 1  III ••^•••^•••B

       a.     S.ttfi'pefl bass           c.   Rattlesnake
       b.     Rabid 'fox              d.   Hasp or bee

 19-3.  The most  poisonous spider  venom in  the U,,S.( comes. from. the 
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  2C-2.  What  material  has   the  greatest -.resistance to degradation by_
  fuels?

         a.     Butyl rubber                  c.  Neoprene.                     .£
         b.     Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)      d.  Natural rubber

  20-3.  According  to  Dephv  of-  .Labor   statq,  what..  _%..of^Kork
                  4uring routine  job assigrimeri€s?
                   ;                    c.   60%
        rb/  -*  73V*                    d..   45%
 20-4.  What material  has the greatest  resistance to mineral acids'1?3* ^ 'l

        a.    Euty!"~"r«Sb~aT        . ,         c. -Neoprene-
        b.    Polyvinyl  chloride  ifevt)^     d.'   fcatur-ai-^ubtfer
                                               is  1DLH'  you
        b.     A SCBA
        c.     An airline  respirator with auxiliary self-contained air
              supply
        d.     a, b, or c
 2i-2. lttT"tt«Wf 'tiA^r car.  be detected^yl
a.
b.    Odor
              Slight .cal.or...Qf~.visible haze
               ,         »r       .      •••
              Odor —- -         •>  -
       e. •   -Woire-o*~W*e-aboye.


 22-1.'About  30" "uirsourrd -trrwms-r  -wofe-tly-_with_Ji  fltry ct oryl_in fee gri ty,
 are   sittinq   clpse  togethef-^ outsit?,  in tfisr  Je,rly jpows..  There ~
 no  laJ^l'^5|^*jM^ii^a^..^'*M<;'6hould  you  sample
       a.   s^o^;e-W^-ar'l*i5i^^/V;iyV JSiS?  *  MrWe, .tiafl J
         .   r~H^P.?-n^ area-'.and puncture^lVer catcii basins.
       b.    Empty "the drums with a vacuum system, after digging moats
             to catch  splile                                  "     .-
       c.    .Puncture  and sampje the drums in  place,  wearing  Class is
             protection. -
       d.    Leave  them alone.
22-2.  cC3A and Pirp^cfci.yei'Clpthlng-^re^i^i^cETt^^

       a.     A     b.   fe        c.  C              C  •

23-i.*  The  proper "shlppirtg ttaln'e! ftti^^Stardous -mater la 1' is f obn.d Jin :
      b.     Beilste^n;
      C *.   lTFl.ei.-ACS "pf'f icial	
      d.     The NIOSH~ Regis'tr/of Hazar"a<5\lB "Haterials

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                                   SECTION Vt. REACTIVITY DATA
   STABILITY.
                                  STABLE
                                                          Can'react vigorously with oxidizing material.
   INCOMPATABILITY (materials to avoid)

       Carbonates; Hydroxides; many oxides and phosphates, ate.
   HAZARDOUS DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS
HAZARDOUS
POLYMERIZATION
MAY OCCUR
WILL NOT OCCUR

X
CONDITIONS TO AVOID • --- .

                       SECTION VII  ; SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEni lOPc
   SPILLS

       Eliminata all sources of Ignition. Cover contaminated surfaces with soda ash or sodium bicarbonate. Mix and add
       water if necessary. Scoop up slurry and wash neutral (make litmus test) waste dtf*tt'd»ein with excejs Y»«tef.
       if local environmental regulations permit.

  DISPOSAL                                                                            "   •—      IT


      Dispose through a. waste treatment plant if local environmental regulations permit.
SECTION VIII
  RESPIRATORY-1
                                                   ECTION INFORMATION
                                             _ .Self-contained breathing apparatus
VENTILATION
LOCAL
X
- MECHANICAL (general)
X
PROTECTIVE-GLOVES
Rubber gloves
SPECIAL
OTHER
EYE PROTECTION T7_ —
FHftiMeld
  OTHER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
                                               Approved working elotrTeV
                  SECTION IK. HANDLING AND STORAGE PRECAUTION*
  STORAGE & H/
     Keep away from heat and open flame. Keep in tighdy closed container, at a temperatuf* «bo»e -175C.
     (63"F.J. If frozen, thaw by moving closed container to warm area. Loosen closure cautiously.
     Do not get liquid or vapor in ayes, on skin, on clothing. Avoid breathing vapor. Wash thor
                                                                                              ating.
 Dale Issued*
6-20
 Revision No A Date issued'

 Th« inlormallon provided in this Material Safely Data Sheet has been compiled from our eiperltfnee and data presented 
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 J.T.
                  MATERIAL SAFETY  DATA SHEET
CHEMICALS h-^t  Baker Chemical Co., 222 Red School Lane, Pliilllpsburg. N.J. 08865
  CHEMICAL NAME

   Acttfe Add. Glacial
                       SECTION I . IDENTIFICATION OF PRO
                 FORMULA

                  CHjCOOH
 SYNONYM OR CROSS REFERENCE

   Methane carboxylfe aetd; Ethanofa Add
                CAS NO:

                EPA NO:
                        SECTION II. HAZARDOUS INGREDIENTS
 MATERIAL
                   NATURE OF HAZARD
                            •".	I   -
                             SECTION lit. PHYSICAL DATA
 BOILING POINT
                       24CTC.
                MELTING POINT  .
                                     F.P. 8?F.
 VAPOR PRESSURE
                  • 20*C. 11.3 mm
                SPECIFIC GRAVITY
                                     1.05

 VAPOR DENSITY (AIR-1)
                       2.07
               "PERCENT VOLATILE BY VOLUME (%)
 WATER SOLUBILITY*
                       SoJublt
                EVAPORATION RATE
 APPEARANCE..  „
                       Clear, eolorl ' 'liquid with strong pungent odor of vinegar.
                                                           a
                  SECTION IV . f IRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA
                                              •r.
^^PBB^BBBBiaBBllBBBBBHaBlBBBBBBBBBlMBlBBBBBBBBMi^BBBBBBaVBlBBBBBBBl

 FLASH POINT (method used)
                              10TF. (ce)
                FLAMMABLE LIMITS
                 « zir
—4-  Lower

  I   5.4*
'Upper
                                                                                 16%
 FIRE EXTINGUISHING

 MEDIA
Water spray, dry chemical o'r carbon dipiiide. __
 SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES
UNUSUAL FIRE ANb EXPLOSION HAZAR9-
                                     Gives off flammable vapor above itt flash point.
                            SECTION V. HEALTH HAZARD
 THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE      .   .
                               10 ppm orl.rat LD90 : 3310 mq/kg
HEALTH HAZARDS
                 Cjuset severe burns, PO.ISON May b« fatalJf,siivallpyved.BHarmfuljf inhaled..
FIRST AID PROCEDURES
                                                                                   6rl9
   Call a physician. If swallowed. 
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