ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT GUIDELI*
FOR NEW SOURCE PETROLEUM REFINERIES
Research & Consulting in Pollution Control
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Contract No. 68-01-4157 4 August 1978
Project No. 613F
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT GUIDELINES
FOR NEW SOURCE PETROLEUM REFINERIES
DRAFT REPORT
FOR
REVIEW
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Federal Activities
Washington, D.C.
Mr. John Meagher, Project Monitor
Prepared by:
WAPORA, Inc.
6900 Wisconsin Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20015
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
I. OVERVIEW OF THE PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY ........... 3
I. A. SUBCATEGORIZATION ...................... 3
I.E. PROCESSES ............... . .......... 4
I.B.I. Crude Oil Distillation ............... n
I.B.2. Catalytic Reforming ................. 14
I.B.3. Catalytic Cracking ................. 14
I.B.4. Hydrocracking .................... 15
I.B.5. Thermal Cracking .................. !6
I.E. 6. Hydrotreating .................... 17
I.E. 7. Gas Concentration .................. 17
I.E. 8. Alkylaton. ........... .......... lg
I.C. TRENDS ................... ........ 18
I.C.I. Locational Changes ............ .....18
I.C. 2. Raw Materials .............. ^ ..... 19
I.C. 3. Processes. . . ................... 25
I.C. 3. a. Storage and Transportation ........ 26
I.C.3.b. Crude Oil Desalting ............ 31
I.C.3.C. Crude Oil Fractionation .......... 31
I.C.S.d. Cracking Operations ............ 31
I.C.3.e. Hydrocarbon Rebuilding .......... 32
I.C.3.f. Hydrocarbon Rearrangements ........ 33
I.C.3.g. Solvent Refining ............. 34
I.C.3.h. Hydrotreating ....... , ....... 34
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I.C.3.1. Grease Manufacturing 35
I.C.3.J. Product Finishing 35
I.C.3.k. Auxiliary Activities 37
I.C.4. Pollution Control 38
I.C.5. Environmental Impact 40
I.D. MARKETS AND DEMANDS .42
I.D.I. Refinery Capacity 42
I.D.2. Incentives . 44
I.D.3. Changes in Refinery Configuration 45
I.E. SIGNIFICANT ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 48
I.E.I. Location 48
I.E.2. Raw Materials 48
I.E.3. Process Wastes .... ........ 50
I.E.3.a. Free Oil 52
I.E.3.b. Emulsions of Oil 53
I.E.3.C. Condensate Waters 54
I.E.3.d. Acid Wastes .- 54
I.E.S.e. Waste Caustics . 55
I.E.S.f, Alkaline Waters 55
I.E.S.g. Special Chemicals. 55
I.E.3.h. Waste Gases. 56
I.E.S.i. Sludges and Solids 57
I.E.3.J. Cooling Water 58
I.E.3.k. Sanitary Wastes 59
I.E.4. Pollution Control 59
I.F. REGULATIONS . . 60
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I.F.I. Water Pollution Standards of Performance , .... 60
I.F.2. Air Pollution Performance Standards 73
I.F.3. Land Disposal of Wastes 81
II. IMPACT IDENTIFICATION 84
II.A. PROCESS WASTES (EFFLUENTS) 84
II.A.I. Sources and Quantities of Process-Related Wastes 84
II.A.2. Sources and Quantities of Wastewater from
Transportation Activities 88
II.B. PROCESS WASTES (AIR EMISSIONS) 90
II.C. PROCESS WASTES (SOLID WASTES) 92
II.D. TOXICITY AND POTENTIAL FOR ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE FROM
SELECTED POLLUTANTS 98
II.D.I. Human Health Impacts 98
II. D.I. a. Carcinogens 100
II.D.l.b. Sulfur Dioxide, Hydrogen Sulfide,
and Mercaptans 100
II.D.I.e. Nitrogen Compounds 100
II.D.l.d. Hydrocarbons 102
II.D.I.e. Carbon Monoxide - 102
II.D.l.f. Ammonia 102
II.D.l.g. Trace Metals , .102
II.D.2. Biological Impacts 103
II.E. OTHER IMPACTS 104
II.E.I. Raw Materials Extraction and Transportation . . .104
II.E.2. Site Preparation and Refinery Construction. . . .105
II.F. MODELING OF IMPACTS. 110
III. POLLUTION CONTROL . .112
III.A. STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY: IN-PROCESS
CONTROLS - WATER, AIR, SOLID WASTES . 112
iii
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III.A.I. Cooling System 114
III.A.2. In-Process Physical/Chemical Pretreatment . . 114
III.B. STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY: END-OF-PROCESS
CONTROL (WATER STREAMS) 115
III.C. STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY: END-OF-PROCESS
CONTROL (AIR STREAMS) 119
III.D. STATE OF THE ART TECHNOLOGY: END-OF-PROCESS CONTROLS
(SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL) 124
III.D.I. Landfilling 125
III.D.2. Landspreading 126
III.D.3. Lagoons, Ponds, Sumps, and Open Pits 127
III.D.4. Leaded Gasoline Sludge Treatment and Disposal 128
III.D.5. Incineration 129
III.D.6. Deep Well Disposal 130
III.D.7. Ocean Disposal 130
III.D.8. Special Treatment and/or Disposal Practices . 131
III.E. TECHNOLOGIES FOR CONTROL OF POLLUTION FROM CONSTRUCTION
SITES 132
IV. OTHER CONTROLLABLE IMPACTS 134
IV.A. AESTHETICS 134
IV.B. NOISE 135
IV.C. SOCIOECONOMIC 136
IV.D. ENERGY SUPPLY 139
IV.E. IMPACT AREAS NOT SPECIFIC TO PETROLEUM REFINERIES ... 140
V. EVALUATION OF AVAILABLE ALTERNATIVES 141
V.A. SITE ALTERNATIVES 141
V.B. PROCESS ALTERNATIVES 144
V.C. NO-BUILD ALTERNATIVE 145
VI. REGULATIONS OTHER THAN POLLUTION CONTROL 146
VII. REFERENCES 148
iv
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LIST OF TABLES
Table
1 Subcategorization of the petroleum refining industry . 5
2 Numerical distribution of petroleum refineries ......... 6
3 Projected geographical distribution of new, expanded, or
reactivated U.S. refining capacity 20
4 Examples of typical compositions of representative crude oils. . 24
5 Estimate percentage of petroleum refineries using various
manufacturing processes . 27
6 Estimated percentage of petroleum refineries using various
wastewater treatment processes . 41
7 Example of the application of the size and process configuration
factors 63
8 Standards of performance for new sources applicable to the five
subcategories of references , , 65
9 Applicable Federal ambient air quality standards 77
10 Nondeterioration increments for particulate matter and for S02
by area air quality classifications 79
11 Qualitative evaluation of wastewater flow and characteristics
by fundamental refinery processes, , , . , , , , , , 87
12 Estimated waste loadings and volumes per unit of fundamental
process throughout for older, typical, and newer process
technologies ,....,.... 89
13 Types and magnitude of tanker casualties worldwide ,,,..., 91
14 Major air pollutants emitted from various refinery sources . , . 93
15 Categorization of representative solid wastes from various
petroleum refining sources . ......... 94
16 Factors affecting the composition and quantity of specific
solid waste streams 95
17 Summary of pollutant sources and projected pollutant concen-
trations , . , , 99
18 Possible health problems associated with trace metals. . , , , , 101
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LIST OF TABLES
continued
19 Outline of potential environmental impacts and relevant
pollutants resulting from site preparation and construction
practices ..,,,. 106
20 Efficiency of oil refinery waste treatment practices based
on effluent quality 118
21 Summary of emission control technologies currently in use
for various air pollutants generated from refinery processes, 123
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1 Processing plan for typical minimal refinery 8
2 Processing plan for typical intermediate refinery . 9
3 Processing plan for typical complete refinery 10
4 Geographical locations of Petroleum Administration for Defense
Districts 21
5 Numbers of petroleum refineries within EPA regional juris-
dictions 22
6 Typical wastes produced in a complete petroleum refinery ... 51
7 Sequence/substitute diagram of various wastewater treatment
system 117
8 Typical flare installation. , .120
9 Simplistic£Low diagram for typical scrubbing system for
emission control from air-blown asphalt stills , . ,121
v±i
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INTRODUCTION
The Clean Water Act requires that EPA establish standards of performance for
categories of new source industrial wastewater dischargers. Before the dis-
charge of any pollutant to the navigable waters of the United States from a
new source in an industrial category for which performance standards have been
proposed, a new source National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
permit must be obtained from either EPA or the State (whichever is the admin-
istering authority for the State in which the discharge is proposed). The
Clean Water Act also requires that the issuance of a permit by EPA for a new
source discharge be subject to the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA),
which may require preparation of an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) on
the new source. The procedure established by EPA regulations (40 CFR 6 Sub-
part I) for applying NEPA to the issuance of new source NPDES permits may
require preparation of an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) by the permit
applicant. Each EIA is submitted to EPA and reviewed to determine if there
are potentially significant effects on the quality of the human environment
resulting from construction and operation of the new source. If there are,
EPA publishes an EIS on the action of issuing the permit.
The purpose of these guidelines is to provide industry-specific guidance to
EPA personnel responsible for determining the scope and content of EIA's and
for reviewing them after submission to EPA. It is to serve as supplementary
information to EPA's previously published document, Environmental Impact
Assessment Guidelines for Selected New Source Industries, which includes the
general format for an EIA and those impact assessment considerations common
to all or most industries. Both that document and these guidelines should be
used for development of an EIA for a new source petroleum refinery.
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These guidelines provide the reader with an indication of the nature of the
potential impacts on the environmental and the surrounding region from construc-
tion and operation of petroleum refineries. In this capacity, the volume is
intended to assist EPA personnel in the identification of these impact areas
that should be addressed in an EIA. In addition, the guidelines present (in
Chapter I) a description of the industry, its principal processes, environmental
problems, and recent trends in location, raw materials, processes, pollution
control and the demand for industry output. This "Overview of the Industry" is
included to familiarize EPA staff with existing conditions in the industry.
Although this document may be transmitted to an applicant for informational
purposes, it should not be construed as representing the procedural requirements
for obtaining an NPDES permit or as representing the applicant's total responsi-
bilities relating to the new source EIS program. In addition, the content of
an EIA for a specific new source applicant is determined by EPA in accordance
with Section 6.908(b) of the Code of Federal Regulations and this document does
not supersede any directive received by the applicant from EPA's official
responsible for implementing that regulation.
The appendix is divided into sJbc sections. Section I is the "Overview of the
Industry," described above. Section II, "Impact Identification," discussed
process-related wastes and the impacts that may occur during construction and
operation of the facility. Section III, "Pollution Control," describes the
technology for controlling environmental impacts. Section IV discusses other
impacts that can be mitigated through design considerations and proper site
and facility planning. Section V, "Evaluation of Alternatives," discusses the
consideration and impact assessment of possible alternatives to the proposed
action. Section VI, descrbes regulations other than pollution control that
apply to the industry.
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I. OVERVIEW OF THE PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Code 2911 defines a petroleum refinery
as a complex combination of interdependent operations engaged in the separation
of crude oil by molecular cracking, molecular rebuilding, and solvent finishing
to produce a varied list of intermediate and finished products including gaso-
line, jet fuel, fuel oil, lube oil, grease, asphalt, coke, wax, and others.
About 120 companies are engaged in petroleum refining in the United States.
As of January 1977 a total of 213 operating refineries existed with a daily
production capacity of approximately 15.9 million barrels per calendar day
(B/CD). Refineries vary in size according to production capacity and may range
from 150 barrels to 445,000 B/CD. About one-third of U.S. refineries have a
capacity of less than 10,000 barrels per day but these refineries represent in
aggregate only 2.5% of the total capacity of the industry. Refineries with a
rated daily capacity greater than 150,000 barrels, which represent about 9% of
the total number of U.S. refineries, account for about 43% of the total industry
capacity. Total annual employment for the industry numbers approximately
140,000 and total industry-wide sales for domestically consumed petroleum
products were estimated to be $30 billion in 1974. The State of Texas has the
highest concentration of refineries, with a total of 40 facilities representing
16.2% of the national total. California has 34 refineries and Louisiana,
Illinois, Kansas, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, and Wyoming each have 10 or more.
Refining capacity of individual states roughly parallels the number of facilities.
About 58% of all U.S. refineries or a total of 158 refineries were constructed
between the years 1944 and 1970.
I.A. SUBCATEGORIZATION
The subcategorization of the petroleum refining industry for purposes of
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establishing effluent limitations and new source performance standards is
process oriented. Because all refinery wastes are almost equally amenable
to treatment, separate subcategories were established on the basis of raw
waste load characteristics as a function of process complexity. A description
of the subcategorization scheme and a numerical distribution of petroleum
refineries by subcategory (1976 data) are presented in Tables 1 and 2,
respectively.
I.E. PROCESSES
As an aid to developing a better understanding of the complexities of oil
industry operations, this section describes the key components of various
refinery processes and their capabilities. Simple process flow diagrams also
are provided, particularly for use by those unfamiliar with the different
levels of sophistication in refinery processes.
Although petroleum refineries are individually unique, they share a series of
processes which generally perform thr.ee basic procedures:
Separation of various components by boiling point
(distillation, fractionation)
Conversion of large molecules into smaller ones
(cracking)
Reconstruction of molecules (hydrogenation, alkylation).
Crude oil refining separates crude oil into gases, gasoline, kerosene, middle
distillates (diesel fuel), fuel oil, and heavy bottoms. During separation,
initial fractions seldom conform to product demand or qualitative requirements.
Less desirable fractions are converted to saleable products by molecular
splitting, uniting, or rearranging. Products then are treated to remove or
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Table 1. Subcategorization of the petroleum refining industry.
Subcategory
Topping
Cracking
Petrochemical
Lube
Integrated
Basic Refinery Operations Included
Topping and catalytic reforming whether or not the facility
includes any other process in addition to topping and
catalytic reforming. This subcategory is not applicable to
facilities which include thermal processes (coking, vis-
breaking, etc.) or catalytic cracking.
Topping and cracking whether or not the facility includes
any processes in addition to topping and cracking, unless
specified in one of the subcategories listed below.
Topping, cracking, and petrochemical operations^ whether
or not the facility includes any process in addition to
topping, cracking, and petrochemical operations except lube
oil manufacturing operations.
Topping, cracking, and lube oil manufacturing processes
whether or not the facility includes any process in addition
to topping, cracking, and lube oil manufacturing processes
except petrochemical and integrated operations.
Topping, cracking, lube oil manufacturing, and petrochemical
operations whether or not the facility includes any processes
in addition to topping, cracking, lube oil manufacturing,
and petrochemical operations.
The term "petrochemical operations" means the production of second generation
petrochemicals, i.e., alcohols, ketones, cumene, styrene, etc., or first
generation petrochemicals and isoraerization products, i.e., BTX, olefins,
cyclohexane, etc., when 15% or more of refinery production is as first generation
petrochemicals and isomerization products. Owing to the diversity and complex-
ity of the petrochemical processes and associated Impacts, this subcategory
will be the subject of a separate appendix. It is included here because it is
an official subcategory of the petroleum refining industry.
Source: U.S. EPA. 1977. Interim final supplement for pretreatment to the
development document for the petroleum refining industry. Existing
point source category EPA 440/1-76/083A.
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Table 2. Numerical distribution of petroleum refineries by subcategory
(data from 1976).
Subcategory Indirect Dischargers Total Industry
A - Topping
B - Cracking
C - Petrochemical
D - Lube
E - Integrated
Sources: Contrell, Aileen. 1976. Annual refining survey. The Oil and Gas
Journal, 29 March, pp. 125-152.
National Commission on Water Quality. 1975. Petroleum refining
industry, technology and costs of wastewater control. Prepared by
Engineering Science, Inc.
f
10
13
2
0
1
% of total
38
50
8
0
4
#
96
111
19
22
8
% of total
38
43
7
9
3
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inhibit undesirable components. Lastly, refined base stocks, blended with each
other and with various additives, are developed into useful products.
Crude oil capacity and process sophistication differ widely. Simple refineries
perform crude separation and limited treating (Figure 1). Intermediate refin-
eries use catalytic or thermal cracking, catalytic reforming, additional
treating, and also manufacture heavy products, such as lube oils and asphalt
(Figure 2). Complete large refineries include crude distillation, cracking,
treating, gas processing, and manufacture of lube oils, asphalts, and waxes.
Also included are catalytic reforming, alkylation, and isomerization, which
are gasoline upgrading processes (Figure 3).
To make refinery operations easily comprehensible, the following process de-
scriptions focus only on the production of fuels. Operations for the manufac-
ture of lubricating oils, waxes, solvents, road oils, asphalt, petrochemicals,
and other nonfuel products are omitted.
The basic unit processes for the manufacture of fuel products in the refinery
industry usually include:
Crude distillation
Catalytic reforming
Catalytic cracking
Catalytic hydrocracking
Thermal cracking
Hydrotreating
Based on U.S. refinery practice; outside the U.S., the use of gasoline-
creating processes, e.g., catalytic cracking, alkylation, and catalytic
hydrocracking in refineries, is less common.
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00
Crude oil
Gas
c
3
a*
'a.
a.
o
o
-------
Crude oil
a>
ex
o
o
a.
o
E
Wet gas
Straight run
naphtha
Heavy naphtha
Raw kerosine
Fuel gas
-*- LPG
Gas plant
>~\ Alkylot
ion
Alkylate
SR. gasoline
Catalytic reformer
Reformate
H.
Middle distillate
Hydrotreating plant
Heavy gas oil
Catalytic cracker
Vac gas oil
Reduced
crude
5.
ex
Lube stocks
Residuum
Crocked gaso.
a> o
_e~5.
ss
o
-»- Motor gas
-» Aviation gasoline
Catalytic gasoline
*_ Kerosine
»~ Light fuel oil
and
diesel fuel
Light fuel oil
Heavy fuel
Lube processing
-[Asphalt
stills
-»_ Lube stocks
-*- Wax stocks
-*- Asphalt
Heavy fuel oil
Source: U.S. EPA. 1972. Evaluation of waste waters from petroleum and coal
processing. Office of Research and Monitoring. R2-72-001. Washington DC.
Figure 2. Processing plan for typical intermediate refinery.
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Crude oil
Wet gas
Light naphtha
Heavy naphtha
Raw kerosine
Middle ditillates
Heavy gas oil
V
^
Vac gas
crude
r
Catalytic
- crocking
unit
crocke
1
Lube distillates
Residuum
Dry gos
I
->-JPoly plont]
gosoline
-*-JAIkylotion | Alkylote
Straight run gasoline
lUght hydroaacked gasoline
Refotmate
.Hvy hydro-
I crocked
gasoline
Hydrogen
sulfide
Gasoline^
Gasoline 1
treater
Catalytic gasoline
Light fuel
gasoline
' Fuel gas
LPG
Moto' gosolme
->- Aviation
Olefms to
chemical
Light fuel oil
Diesel fuel
Sulfur
. Lubes
Waxes
Greases
Heavy fuel oil
Asphalt
-*- Coke
Source: U.S. EPA. 1972. Evaluation of waste waters from petroleum and coal
processing. Office of Research and Monitoring. R2-72-001. Washington DC.
Figure 3. Processing plan for typical complete refinery.
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Gas concentration
Alkylation.
Petroleum refineries also use many auxiliary systems, e.g., treating units to
purify both liquid and gas streams, waste management and pollution control
systems, cooling water systems, units to recover hydrogen sulfide (H S) from
gas streams and to convert it into elemental sulfur or sulfuric acid,
electric power support stations, steam-producing facilities, and provisions
for storage and handling of crude oil and byproducts.
The descriptions of the major processes that follow focus on the relationships
between and basic functions of the aforementioned process units.
I.B.I. Crude Oil Distillation
To minimize corrosion of refining equipment, a crude oil distillation unit
generally is preceded by a desalter, which reduces the inorganic salt content
of raw crudes. Salt concentrations vary widely (from nearly zero to several
hundred pounds, expressed as NaCl/1,000 bbl). The crude unit functions to
separate the crude oil physically, by fractional distillation, into components
of such boiling range that they can be processed appropriately in subsequent
equipment to make specified products.
Although the boiling ranges of these components (or fractions) vary between
refineries, a typical crude unit will resolve the crude into the following
fractions:
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By distillation at atmospheric pressure
A light straight-run fraction, primarily consisting
of C and C, hydrocarbons but also containing C, and
lighter gaseous hydrocarbons dissolved in the crude
A naphtha fraction having a nominal boiling range of
93-204 C (200-400 F)
--A light distillate with boiling range of 204-343 C
(400-650 F)
By vacuum flushing
Heavy gas oil having a boiling range of 343-566 C
(650-1050 F)
A nondistillable residual pitch.
In the atmospheric pressure distillation section of the unit, the crude oil
is heated to a temperature at which it is partially vaporized and then intro-
duced near, but at some distance above, the bottom of a distillation column.
This cylindrical vessel is equipped with numerous trays through which hydro-
carbon vapors can pass in an upward direction. Each tray contains a layer
of liquid through which the vapors can bubble and the liquid can flow contin-
uously by gravity in a downward direction from one tray to the next one below.
As the vapors pass upward through the succession of trays, they become lighter
(lower in molecular weight and more volatile) and the liquid flowing downward
becomes progressively heavier (higher in molecular weight and less volatile).
The countercurrent action results in fractional distillation or separation
of hydrocarbons based on their boiling points. A liquid can be withdrawn
from any preselected tray as a net product, the lighter liquids, e.g., naphtha,
from trays near the top of the column, and.the heavier liquids, e.g., diesel
oil, from the trays near the bottom. The boiling range of the net product
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liquid depends on the tray from which it is taken. Vapors which contain the
C, and lighter hydrocarbons are withdrawn from the top of the column as a net
product and a liquid stream with a temperature of about 343 C (650 F) is re-
moved from the bottom of the crude distillation column.
This bottom liquid stream, called the atmospheric residue, is heated further
and introduced into a vacuum column operated at an absolute pressure close
to 50 mm Hg maintained by the use of steam ejectors. In this vacuum column,
a flash separation is made to produce the heavy gas oil and the nondistillable
pitch products previously described. Although the vacuum column contains
certain internal hardware to minimize the entrainment of pitch in the rising
vapors and to aid in heat transfer between vapor and liquid, it is more nearly
a chamber in which vapor and liquid are separated by a single-stage flash
than a fractional-distillation column.
The crude oil and atmospheric residue are brought to their desired temperatures
in tubular heaters. Oil is pumped through the inside of the tubes contained
in a refractory combustion chamber fired with oil or fuel gas in such manner
that heat is transferred through the tube wall in part by convection from hot
combustion gases and in part by radiation from the incandescent refractory
surfaces.
The light straight-run gasoline fraction generally contains all hydrocarbons
lighter than C7 in the crude and primarily consists of the native Cc and C,
i JO
families. This light fraction is stabilized to remove the C and lighter
hydrocarbons which are routed to a central gas-concentration unit for further
resolution. The stabilized C^/Cg blend usually contains odorous mercaptans,
which normally are treated for odor improvement before delivery to the
refinery gasoline pool.
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Of the components in modern gasoline pools, the light straight-run fraction
f\
has the lowest octane number^ (antiknock rating). Its unleaded octane number,
in a typical case, will be just under 70 and the unleaded octane number for
the entire refinery pool (on a U.S. average basis) will be about 89. The light
straight-run fraction has a good octane-number response to the additions of
lead alkyls. Isomerization also can be used to improve its octane rating.
I.E.2. Catalytic Reforming
The chemical composition of the naphtha fraction, and therefore its octane
number, varies with the crude source, but normally it will range from 40 to 50
octane. To become a suitable component for blending into finished gasoline
pools, its octane number must be raised by changing its chemical composition.
Most refineries accomplish this change by catalytic reforming.
Practically all naphtha feedstocks to catalytic reforming units are hydrotreated
first to prolong the processing life of the reforming catalyst. An important
byproduct of catalytic reforming is hydrogen, which is used in hydrotreating
and whatever hydrocracking may be practiced in the refinery. At times,
supplementary hydrogen is produced by the steam reforming of natural gas or
light naphtha cuts.
I.B.3. Catalytic Cracking
The primary function of catalytic cracking is to convert into gasoline those
fractions having boiling ranges higher than that of gasoline. An important
secondary function is to create light olefins, such as propylene and butylenes,
to be used as feedstocks for motor-fuel alkylation and petrochemical production.
2
In this description, Research Method octane numbers are used.
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Isobutane, a necessary reactant for the alkylation process, also is an important
product of catalytic cracking.
Although the principal feedstock is the gas oil separated from the crude by
distillation, this feed often is supplemented with light distillates and with
distillate fractions which result from thermal coking operations.
For practical reasons, the conversion of distillate feedstocks to lighter
materials is not carried to completion. The remaining, uncracked distillates
(cycle oils) are used as components for domestic heating fuels (generally after
hydrotreating) and to blend with residual fractions to reduce their viscosity
to make acceptable heavy fuel oil. In some refineries, cycle oils are hydro-
cracked to complete their conversion to gasoline.
Unleaded octane numbers are catalytically cracked gasolines which range in
octane number from 89 to 93. After treatment for odor control, they are blended
directly into the refinery gasoline pool.
I.E.A. Hydrocracking
In a sense, hydrocracking is complementary and supplementary to catalytic
cracking because hydrocracking occurs over a catalyst in a hydrogen environment
with heavy distillates and, in some cases, cycle oils which are impractical to
convert completely in catalytic cracking units. The process also takes place
at lower temperatures and higher pressures than fluid catalytic cracking.
The primary product is gasoline or jet fuels and other light distillates. An
important secondary product is isobutane.
Generally, the C5/Cg fraction is blended into the gasoline pool and occasionally
the heavier portion of the gasoline also is blended into the gasoline pool;
15
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otherwise this portion may be reformed first, to improve its octane number.
Figure 3 shows only heavy gas oil as a feedstock and the entire liquid product
as gasoline is routed directly to the refinery gasoline pool even though the
aforementioned options are performed widely in various combinations.
I.B.5. Thermal Cracking
The pitch, as produced by most vacuum-flashing units, is too viscous to be
marketed as a heavy fuel oil without further treatment. In some refineries
the pitch is processed further in a thermal cracking unit (visbreaking) under
relatively mild conditions to reduce its viscosity sufficiently and additional
viscosity reduction is obtained by blending in a required amount of catalytic
cycle oil to produce marketable residual fuel oil.
In certain situations it is more economical to process the pitch in a thermal
coking unit from which the main products are gasoline, distillates, and coke.
The gasoline from a coking unit is handled as previously described. The coke
can be used, after calcination, for electrode manufacture where it meets
certain purity specifications but the coke is used principally as a metallurgical
coke or as fuel. Distillates from thermal coking operations may be used as
feedstock for catalytic cracking or the lighter distillates may be routed to
the refinery distillate product pool after hydrotreatment.
A few refiners obtain additonal feedstock for catalytic cracking or hydrocracking
operations by solvent extraction of the vacuum pitch, usually with propane as
the solvent. The extract is relatively free of organometallic compounds and
highly condensed aromatic structured hydrocarbons. Thus, the extract is suit-
able for handling by catalytic units. Extracted pitch is processed subsequently
in thermal units or converted to asphalts.
16
-------
The small amount of thermal gasoline which is made as a byproduct is routed after"
treatment to the gasoline pool or to catalytic reforming through a hydrotreating
unit because its octane number is relatively low.
I.E.6. Hydrotreating
As a processing tool, hydrotreating.has numerous applications in a refinery,
where its principal function is to purify and improve the quality of the feed-
stock. The process employs hydrogen and a catalyst. The use of hydrotreating
for pretreating naphthas prior to catalytic reforming has been already mentioned.
Figure 3 shows hydrotreatment of the crude light distillate and the net catalytic
cycle oil in a single block before being routed to the refinery light distillate
pool. Occasionally the light distillate in the crude may be sufficiently low
in sulfur content to bypass hydrotreating; however, usually part of the stream
is hydrotreateated to remove native sulfur compounds. Some refineries hydro-
treat parts of their catalytic cracking feeds, particularly if they originate
from thermal operations or if they are inordinately high in sulfur content.
Desulfurization also is an objective in the production of low sulfur residual
fuel oils. Sulfur content of reduced crudes (>4%) can be reduced to about 1%
by vacuum flashing, hydrodesulfurizing the overhead vacuum-distilled gas oil,
and blending the gas oil of low sulfur content with the untreated pitch to
obtain a reconstituted low sulfur fuel oil.
I.E.7. Gas Concentration
The gas concentration system (Figure 3) collects gaseous product streams from
various processing units and physically separates the components to provide,
usually, a C-/C, stream as a feedstock for alkylation and a G£ and lighter
17
-------
stream that largely is used to supply process heat requirements for the refinery.
Hydrogen sulfide is removed from gas streams in which it occurs by selective
absorption in liquid solutions (usually organic amines). The H^S released
from the rich solution is converted by further processing into elemental
sulfur or l^SO, .
I.E.8. Alkylation
In motor fuel refineries the alkylation units produce a high quality paraffinic
gasoline by the chemical combination of isobutane with propylene and/or
butylenes. A small amount of pentenes also is alkylated. The alkylation is
accomplished with the catalytic aid of hydrofluoric (HF) or sulfur acid (I^SO^)
to produce a gasoline with octane numbers that range from 93 to 95.
Propane and n-butane associated with the olefins in the feedstocks are withdrawn
from alkylation units as byproducts. Part of the n-butane is routed to the
gasoline pool to adjust the vapor pressure of the gasoline to a level which
permits prompt and easy starting of engines. The remainder of the n-butane
and the propane is available for liquified petroleum gas (LPG), a clean fuel
that easily is distributed as bottled gas for heating purposes.
I.C. TRENDS
I.C.I. Locational Changes
U.S. refineries are concentrated largely in areas of major crude production
(California, Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Kansas) and in major population
areas (Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Texas, and California) (US-EPA
1973). Projected geographic growth patterns of new refineries by Petroleum
18
-------
Administration for Defense (PAD) Districts through 1981, shown in Table ,
indicate little change in this locational pattern.
The majority of 1977 growth was in PAD District III. Most of this growth occurred
in Texas and Louisiana. The next largest growth was in PAD District V where
California accounted for the largest increase in new and expanded capacity.
Alaska, however, had one new and one expanded refinery. Texas and Louisiana
continue to lead the growth trends through 1981. Outside those states a new
175,000 bbl/day facility in Portsmouth, Virginia, in 1980 and a 250,000 bbl/day
refinery in Eastport, Maine, in 1981 are the largest planned capacity additions.
Large new projects not reflected in Table 3 which are in early or uncertain
stages of planning include (FEA 1977):
200,000 bbl/day at Baltimore, Maryland
250,000 bbl/day at Sanford, Maine
200,000 bbl/day at Oswego, New York
400,000 bbl/day at Sagbrook, Connecticut
/
PAD Districts are anachronisms relating to the old Petroleum Administration for
Defense which ceased to exist many years ago. The districts are shown geographi-
cally in Figure 4. Figure 5 presents the concentrations of petroleum refinery
operations by EPA regional office jurisdictions.
In short, the consensus among industry representatives is that little or no
significant change is expected to occur in locational patterns unless substantial
quantities of oil are discovered and produced offshore on the East Coast
(Interview, Mr. Eugene Peer, Office of Oil and Gas, DOE, 18 April 1978).
I.C.2. Raw Materials
Crude oil is by far the most important raw material used by the refining industry,
19
-------
Table 3 . Projected geographical distribution
of new, expanded, or reactivated U.S. refining capacity
by PAD District (thousands of bbl/day, crude distillation).
Total New, Expanded, or
Reactivated Capacity 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981
PAD
PAD
PAD
PAD
PAD
Region
Region
Region
Region
Region
I
II
III
IV
V
-
2.
478.
24.
84.
5
2
5
1
12
36
117
9
41
.0
.0
.0
.4
.0
24.
101.
181.
8.
32.
0
0
0
0
0
199.
61.
284.
8.
32.
0
0
0
0
0
274.0
52.0
84.0
8.0
32.0
Source: Peer, E. L., et al. 1977. Trends in refinery capacity and utilization.
Federal Energy Administration, FEA/G-77/281. June.
20
-------
Figure 4. Geographical locations
of Petroleum Administration for Defense (PAD) Districts.
(Incl. Alaska
and Hawaii)
Source: Peer, E. L., et al. 1977. Trends in refinery capacity and utilization.
Federal Energy Administration, FEA/G-77/281. June.
21
-------
Regional Offices
r\
NJ
S3
' cS^
oitf a m ** I
IPUERTO
R'CO
Source:
U.S. EPA. 1976. Assessment of hazardous waste practices in the petroleum refining industry,
Prepared by Jacobs Engineering Company. NTIS PB-259-097. Springfield VA.
Figure 5. Numbers of petroleum refineries within EPA regional jurisdictions
(Arabic numbers indicate number of refineries in each region).
-------
Natural gasoline, a liquid product of the natural gas industry, furnishes about
5% of refinery intakes. Butanes contribute about 1.5% of refinery intake. No
other significant raw materials exist. As of 1976, about 73% of the industry's
raw material was of domestic origin; 27% was imported. Recent statistics
indicate that 1978 will mark the first time since 1970 that crude oil imports
have dropped, permitting a temporary decrease in U.S. dependence on foreign
sources. The volume of crude imports anticipated in 1978 is the combined result
of slower growth in oil demand and increased domestic crude production (Oil and
Gas Journal 1978). The composition of crude oil is becoming increasingly
important because of its effects on air quality and industry economics.
However, changes in the composition of crude oil supplies have shown a trend
toward higher sufur crudes. Table 4 presents examples of typical compositions
of several representative crude oils. (For a detailed analysis of crude oils
see McKinney, et al. 1966 and McKinney and Shelton 1967.)
In 1975 OPEC sour crude reserves were 5.5 times greater than sweet crudes
(<.5% sulfur). In addition, the reserves to production ratio of sour crudes
(>.5% sulfur content) was 49 versus 33 for sweet crudes, indicating that
currently sweet crude reserves are being used at a higher rate than sour crude
reserves. This trend accelerated significantly through 1977 and is expected to
continue for the near future (US-DOE 1977).
More dramatic changes have occurred in the United States than in OPEC countries
concerning reserves of sweet and sour crudes. In 1964, 64% of all U.S. crude
oil reserves were in the sweet crude category. In the same year 66% of the
production was sweet crude. The discovery of the Prudhoe Bay field in Alaska
has resulted in only 42% of 1975 crude oil reserves being categorized as sweet.
23
-------
Table 4. Examples of typical compositions of representative
crude oils.
Viscosity Gasoline Kerosine
Saybolt, at Carbon Anonaphtha Distillation
California
Brea Olinoa
Elk Hills
Torrance
guisiana
Black Bay
Grand Isle
West Delta
klahoma
Bradley
Golden Trend
Sho-Ven-Tu
exas
Conroe
East Texas
Walnut Bend
ibya
nd ones la
ran
rag
audi Arabia
enezuela
Gravity
GAP i
24.0
22.8
23.8
30.0
36.4
27.0
35.0
42.1
29.1
37.0
37.4
46.0
39.2
36.8
34.6
36.6
33.6
14.7
Sulfur
Wt.%
0.75
0.68
1.84
0.27
0.18
0.33
0.22
0.11
1.36
0.10
0.25
0.23
0.33
0.10
1.43
1.93
1.66
2.62
100°F,
seconds
135
135
160
57
40
92
56
39
87
36
42
38
40
35
46
42
49
3,310
residuum
Wt.%
14.2
4.6
13.2
6.3
3.7
5.7
6.7
2.7
10.1
4.9
6.1
3.3
7.6
3.8
9.1
14.6
11.3
9.6
Vol.
%
17.4
11.1
17.9
15.2
25.8
9.5
24.3
34.6
21.2
32.8
33.9
38.3
36.6
37.1
28.8
35.5
27.8
5.7
Gravity
°API
51.3
49.9
52.5
54.2
54.7
50.9
57.4
62.9
59.5
48.8
58.2
64.5
59.9
52.5
60.8
63.7
62.3
45.6
Vol.
%
-
5.5
15.0
4.7
15.6
17.1
4.3
5.0
16.5
12.2
-
10.2
9.8
9.9
Gravity
°API
-
42.1
11.7
40.0
43.0
42.8
42.8
42.8
43.4
43.4
-
43.2
44.5
44.7
_
ource: McKinney, et al. 1966. Analyses of crude oils from 546 important oil fields
in the United States. Prepared for US-DOI. Bureau of Mines Report of
Investigations 6819. Available US-GPO, Washington, D.C.
24
-------
In 1978, production in the U.S. is showing a significant increased percentage
of sour crude. Another factor giving impetus to this shift will be improved
sulfur recovery processes. In California this is reflected in more production
of heavy, high sulfur crude oils.
Short of any unforessen large discoveries, it is expected that the world's
refineries will rely increasingly on sour crude supplies.
Despite the proportionately greater reserves and the production of sour crudes,
the U.S. continues to rely heavily on sweet crude imports. During the period
from 1969 through 1977, the percentage of crude oil imports that is sweet
has ranged from a high of 66.95% (1972) to a low of 54.7% (1977). During the
same period crude oil imports increased from 2.2 million barrels per day to
6.6 million barrels per day. Although the percentage of sweet crude has
dropped, the actual volume of sweet crude imports is increasing each year
(US-DOE 1977).
Recently the increased sweet crude imports have originated primarily in OPEC
sources. During 1969, the U.S. imported only 5% of OPEC's sweet crude pro-
duction; however, in 1976 the percentage increased to 37.5 and during the
first quarter of 1977 it increased to 42%. By contrast, during the same 4-
month period in 1977, the U.S. imported only 12.4% of OPEC's sour crude pro-
duction (US-DOE 1977).
I.C.3 Processes
As in most industries, trends in process change are likely to be closely tied
to or motivated by pollution control requirements. This is true because few
industrial processes can be altered significantly without introducing some
25
-------
effect on waste generation. If a process change improves efficiency, cost-
effectiveness, and does not adversely effect waste generation, it normally
has high use potential. In contrast there must be significant tradeoffs in
process change efficiency and economy to tolerate generation of additional
or more complex wastes, since the treatment or control of these wastes would
tend to offset other factors. Commonly, process change is effected because
its improved efficiency and economy lie not in its own. performance per se,
but in reduced waste generation. Therefore trends in internal pollution
control are addressed concomitantly with trends in process change. Trends in
external pollution treatment, control, and disposal methods are discussed in
Section I.C.4.
To assist in the projection of process trends a historical perspective of
degrees of application or use of the various processes and subprocesses is
meaningful. A comprehensive survey of every process in every refinery would
be beyond the scope of this study; therefore, based on a review of the
literature this analysis was done only for the major processes and suhpro-
cess alternatives. The percent use of these basic processes and major sub-
processes by U.S. refineries is presented in Table 5.
The discussions of current and future process trends which follow are largely
based on recent literature (U.S. EPA 1973; U.S. EPA 1976; FEA 1977; DOE 1977)
and on conversations with key individuals knowledgeable of changes in the
petroleum refining industry.
I.C.3.a. Storage and Transportation
Crude oil and product storage
Many refineries already had installed equipment to minimize the release of
hydrocarbons from crude and product storage areas to the atmosphere before
26
-------
Table 5. Estimate percentage of petroleum refineries
using various manufacturing processes.
Process
Crude oil desalting
-Chemical desalting
-electrostatic desalting
Crude distillation
-Atmospheric fractionator
-Vacuum fractionator
-Vacuum flasher
Thermal cracking
-Thermal cracking
-Delayed coking
-Visbreaking
-Fluid coking
Catalytic cracking
-Fluid catalytic cracking
-Thermofor catalytic
cracking
-Houdriflow
Hydrocracking
-Isomax
-Unicracking
-H-G hydrocracking
-H-oil
Reforming
-Platforming
-Catalytic reforming-
Englehard
-Powerforming
-Ultraforming
Polymerization
-Bulk acid polymerization
-Solid phosphoric acid
condensation
-Sulfuric acid polymerization
-Thermal polymerization
Alkylation
-Sulfuric acid alkylation
-HF alkylation
-DIP alkylation
-Thermal alkylation
Percentage Use by Year
1950
100%
100
59
25
0
1963
100%
5
95
100
100
60
48
28
12
13
2
51
39
13
3
2
0.3
62
37
5
1
6
1967
100%
2
97
100
100
64
45
18
14
16
2
56
45
12
3
8
4
2
0.8
0.4
67
40
9
2
6
1972
100%
0
100
100
100
70
40
8
16
18
4
60
50
10
2
25
11
8
3
1
74
44
11
3
7
1977
100%
0
100
100
100
75
35
2
19
22
6
65
60
6
0
34
15
12
3
1
79
47
12
3
8
25
10
42
33
38
22
16
0.4
47
26
21
26
54
32
22
62
38
25
Technological
Status1
0
T,N
O.T.N
0,T,N
0
T,N
T,N
T,N
T,N
0
0
N
N
N
N
0,T,N
0,T
T,N
T,N
T,N
T
0
T,N
0,T,N
N
0
27
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Table 5. Estimate percentage of petroleum refineries
using various manufacturing processes (continued).
Technological
'. Percentage Use by Year Status ^
1950 1963 1967 1972 1977
Isomerization 5% 7% 10% 15%
-Isomerate 1 1.5 3 6 N
-Liquid-Phase Isomerization 2345 N
-Butamer 1122 N
-Penex 0.7 .112 N
Solvent Refining 25 29 30 32
-Furfural Refining 14 15 16 16 0,T,N
-Duo-Sol 2 3 33 T,N
-Phenol Extraction 10 10 11 11 0,T,N
-Udex 3588 T,N
Dewaxing 11 11 H n
-Solvent Dewaxing (MEK) 8899 0,T,N
-Propane Dewaxing 2 2 2 2 0,T
-Pressing and Sweating 110 0 0
Hydrotreating 47 56 70 80
-Unifining 22 23 30 35 T,N
-Hydrof ining 3 3 5 8 T,N
-Trickle Hydrodesulfurization 0.3 2 45 T,N
-Ultrafining 3 5 8 10 T,N
Deasphalting 20 23 25 27
-Propane Deasphalting and 15 is 20 21 0,T,N
Franctionation
-Solvent Decarbonizing 4 5 5 5 T,N
Drying and Sweetening 80 80 80 80
-Copper Sweetening 0,T
-Doctor Sweetening 0
-Merox N
-Girbotal 0,T,N
Wax Finishing 11 n n n
-Wax Fractionation 10 9 6 5 0 T
-Wax Manufacturing, MIBX 1 i i i 0,T,
-Hydrotreating 1 45 N
Grease Manufacture 12 12 10 10 0 T N
Lube Oil Finishing 19 19 20 20
-Perculation Filtration 11 7 52 0,T
-Continuous Contract Filtration 6 7 7 7 0 T
-Hydrotreating 2 5 8 11 N
28
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Table 5. Estimate percentage of petroleum refineries
using various manufacturing processes (concluded).
Technological
Percentage Use by Year Status-*-
1950 1950 1963 1967 1972 1977
Hydrogen Manufacture 2 8 25 34
-Hydrogen Partial Oxidation 1 3 10 12 N
-Hydrogen, Steam Reforming 1 5 15 22
Total No. of Refineries 346 293 261 236 211
0 = Older - Refineries which use relatively inefficient and/or obsolescent
processes and subprocesses
T - Typical - Refineries which use those processes and subprocesses that are
most common today
N = Newer - Refineries which use all or most of the advanced processes and sub-
processes available
Source: US-DOI. 1967. The cost of clean water. Volume III Industrial Waste
Profile No. 5: Petroleum Refining. Prepared for FWPCA. Available from
US-GPO, Washington, DC.
29
-------
the storage regulations discussed in Section I.D.2 were promulgated. Doubt-
less some motivation was provided by Rule 66 of the Los Angeles Air Pollution
Control District, which regulates photochemical oxidants and other state and
local regulations patterned after Rule 66. Refinieries also were motivated
by the economics of product loss verus vapor recovery.
Storage regulations now require the use of alternative technologies-floating-
roof covers, pressurized tansk, and/or connections to vapor recovery systems
so the trend in this direction should accelerate. Although floating-roof
covers can add to the wastewater flow from storage tanks, strict refinery
specifications on the characteristics of crude oil supplies will minimize
wastewater from modern crude storage facilities. A factor which will tend to
reduce quantities of wastewater from finished product storage is the trend
toward increased use of dehydration or drying processes ahead of produce
finishing (US-EPA 1973).
Crude oil and product transportation
The trend in tanker use for shipping intermediate and final products is to
larger and larger vessels which arrive at the refinery in ballast and must
discharge wastewaters from up to 30% of their capacity. If the discharge is
sent directly to the wastewater treatment system, a shock load could result.
Thus, the use of larger ballast water storage tanks or holding ponds will be
necessary to control the flow into the. treatment system. The discharge of
ballast wastewater directly into ocean or estuarine areas without treatment
is expected to be eliminated completely (US-EPA 1973).
30
-------
I.C.3.b. Crude Oil Desalting
The current trend is toward increased use of electrostatic desalting and less
use of chemical processes to remove inorganic salts and suspended solids from
crude oil prior to fractionation. In the future, chemical methods are
expected to be used only as a supplement where the crude has a high salt
content. A two-stage electrical desalting process is expected to be used as
"dirtier" crude feedstocks are processed. The growth in capacity of desalting
units will be proportionate to the growth in crude oil capacity.
I.C.3.C Crude Oil Fractionation
The trend is toward large and more complex combinations of atmospheric and
vacuum towers with more individual sidestream products. New refineries also
can be expected to install surface condensers to significantly reduce waste-
water loads from vacuum operations.
I.C.3.d. Cracking Operations
Thermal cracking
Regular thermal cracking, which was an important proceess before the develop-
ment of catalytic cracking, is being phased out. Visbreaking and coking units
are still installed, but at a slower rate than before, because of product
sulfur restrictions. Whereas the current trends are toward dirtier crudes
with higher sulfur content, hydrocracking, and propane deasphalting are
expected to receive more attention to recover salable products with low
sulfur content from the residuum.
Catalytic cracking
31
-------
Recycle rates have been declining since 1968 and the trend is expected to
continue because of the development of higher activity catalysts (molecular
sieve catalysts, instead of high surface area silica-alumina catalysts).
Large fluidized catalytic cracking processes, in which the finely-powered
catalyst is handled as a fluid, largely have replaced the fixed-bed and
moving-bed processes, that use a beaded or pelleted catalyst.
Hydrocracking
This process continues to be an efficient, low to moderate temperature,
catalytic method for conversion of refractory middle boiling or heavy feed-
stock into high-octane gasoline, reformer charger stock, jet fuel and/or
high grade fuel oil. Hydrocracking still possesses considerable flexibility
(relative to catalytic cracking) in adjusting operations to meet changing
product demands. At one time, hydrocracking was a rapidly growing refinery
process; however, its growth rate is now stable (about 1.5 percent/year)
because of high investment costs and the large quantities of expensive hydro-
gen that are required for operation. Primary catalysts which currently are
used in hydrocracking include tungsten sulfide-silica alumina, and nickel-
silica alumina.
I.C.S.e. Hydrocarbon Rebuilding
Polymerization
This process currently is used by only a small number of refineries because
the product octane is not sufficiently higher than that of the basic gasoline
blending stocks to significantly upgrade the overall motor fuel pool. Also
alkylation yields per unit of olefin feed are much better than polymerization
yields. Consequently, the current polymerization downtrend is expected to
32
-------
continue. The primarly catalysts used Include copper pyrophosphate and
phosphoric acid.
Alkylation
Alkylation is the reaction of an isoparaffin* usually iso-butane and an olefin
(propylene, butylene, etc.), in the presence of a catalyst to produce a high
octane alkylate, which is one of the most important components of automotive
fuels. Sulfuric acid is the most widely used catalyst, although hydrofluoric
acid and aluminum chloride also are used. Alkylation process capacity is
expected to increase (after a slow decline) in response to the demand for
high octane low lead, gasoline.
I.C.S.f. Hydrocarbon Rearrangements
Isomerization
This is a molecular rearrangement process which is similar to reforming. The
charge stocks generally are lighter and more specific (normal butane, pentane,
and hexane). The catalysts currently used are aluminum chloride, antimony
chloride, bauxite, cobalt molybdate, hydrochloric acid, and silica-alumnia.
The desired products are isobutane for alkylation feed-stocks and high
octane isomers for the original feed materials for motor fuel. Reforming
capacity in the U.S. currently is expanding at about the same rate as total
crude capacity. This growth rate should continue to increase as the demand
for motor fuel grows.
Reforming
This is another process of molecular rearrangement to convert low-octane
feedstocks to high octane gasoline blending stock, or to produce aromatics
33
-------
for petrochemical uses. Multireactor, fixed-bed, catalytic processes have
almost completely replaced the older thermal process. There are many varia-
tions, but the essential difference is the composition of the catalyst
involved. The types of catalyst commonly used in this process are alumina,
cobalt molybdate and oxide, molybdenum, platinum, and silica-alumina. No
significant changes are expected.
I.C.3.g. Solvent Refining
The major contact solvent processes include solvent deasphalting, solvent
dewaxing, lube oil solvent refining, aromatic extraction, and butadiene
extraction. Generally solvent extraction capacities are expected to increase
slowly as quality requirements for all refinery products become more stringent,
as the demand for the lube oils grows, and as the petrochemical industry
continues to require increased quantities of aromatics.
I.C.S.h. Hydrotreating
This process removes sulfur compounds, odor, color, gum-forming materials,
and other impurities from a variety of petroleum fractions by catalytic action
in the presence of hydrogen. The principal hydrotreating subprocesses now
being used include (1) pretreatment of catalytic reformer feedstock, (2)
naphtha desulfurizatioi?, (3) lube oil polishing, (4) pretreatment of catalytic
cracking feedstock, (5) heavy gas-oil and residual desulfurization, and (6)
naphtha saturation. In most subprocesses, the feedstock is mixed with
hydrogen, heated, and charged to the catalytic reactor. The reactor products
are cooled, and the hydrogen, impurities, and high grade product are separated.
Hydrotreating was first used primarily on lighter feedstocks, however, with
more operating experience and improved catalysts, hydrotreating has been
34
-------
applied to heavier fractions such as lube oils and waxes. It has been one
of the most rapidly growing refinery processes. It should continue to
increase at a greater rate than crude capacity because the process can be
applied to most sour feedstocks, it is flexible, and it also eliminates contami-
nants of concern to the refining industry from an operating standpoint and
to the general public from an aesthetic standpoint. Among the catalysts
most commonly used in hydrotreating are alumina, cobalt molybdate, nickel
sulfide platinum, silica alumina, and tungsten nickel sulfide.
I.C.S.i. Grease Manufacturing
This process begins with preparation of a soap base from an alkali earth
hydroxide and a fatty acid. This solution then is mixed with oil and special
additives to form the various lubricating greases. The major equipment at
present consists of an oil circulation heater, a high-dispersion contractor,
a scraper kettle, and a grease polisher. Because of developments in sealed
grease fittings and longer lasting greases, grease production generally is
expected to decline.
I.C.3.J. Product Finishing
Drying and sweetening
Drying is a process concerned primarily with removal of sulfur compounds,
water, and other impurities from gasoline, kerosene, jet fuels, domestic
heating oils, and other middle distillate products. "Sweetening" is the
removal from these products of hydrogen sulfide, mercaptans, and elemental
sulfur, which impart a foul odor and/or decrease the tetraethyl lead suscep-
tibility of gasoline: the major sweetening operations now in use are oxidation
35
-------
of hydrogen sulfide to disulfides, removal of mercaptans, and destruction and
removal of all sulfur compounds, including elemental sulfur. Drying currently
is accomplished by salt filters or adsorptive clay beds. Electric fields are
sometimes used to facilitate separation of product from treating solution.
Air quality regulatory agencies are expected to increase their efforts to
control emissions of sulfur. Therefore restrictions which govern sulfur
contents in fuels are expected to become stricter. This will generate a
trend toward replacement of the sweetening processes by hydrotreating
(desulfurization), because hydrotreating removes most sulfur compounds and
not just hydrogen sulfide, mercaptans, and elemental sulfur. Nevertheless,
efficacy and economics will ensure the use of sweetening processes for certain
feedstocks, excepting those processes which produce high waste loads.
Lube oil finishing
This process is used in further refinement of solvent-refined and dewaxed
lube oil stocks. Historically it has involved clay or acid treatment to
remove color-reforming and other undesirable materials. The two methods
most widely used by industry are: (1) continuous contact filtration in which
an oil-clay slurry is heated and the oil removed by vacuum filtration; and
(2) percolation filtration, in which the oil is filtered through clay beds.
Percolation also involves naphtha washing and kiln-burning of spent clay to
remove carbon deposits and other impurities. It is expected that acid and
clay treatment of lube oils eventually will be replaced by hydrotreating
techniques. Acid treatment already has been significantly reduced.
Blending and packaging
36
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Blending is the final step in the production of finished petroleum products
to meet quality specifications and market demands. The largest volume opera-
tion is the blending of various gasoline stocks, including alkylates and
other high-octane components, with anti-knock such as tetraethyl lead, anti-
rust, anti-icing, and other additives. Diesel, fuels, lube oils, waxes, and
asphalts are other refinery products which normally require blending of
various components and/or of additives. Packaging at refineries generally is
highly automated and restricted to high volume, consumer-oriented products
such as motor oils.
It is expected that there will be increased use of automated proportioning
facilities for the blending of products with a trend toward contracting out
of packaging of lower-volume products that are less suitable to highly-auto-
mated operation.
I.C.S.k. Auxiliary Activities
Hydrogen manufacture
Past and present growth in hydrotreating and hydrocracking processes will
result in a continued demand by new refineries for hydrogen, to a level beyond
that obtained as a byproduct of reforming and other refinery processes. The
demand for hydrogen as a feedstock for the manufacture of ammonia and methanol
also is expected to continue. Currently the most widely used subprocess
steam reforming, in which desulfurized refinery gases are converted to hydrogen,
carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide in a catalytic reaction; this generally
requires the use of an additional shift converter to convert carbon monoxide
to carbon dioxide. No significant changes are expected.
37
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I. C. 4 Pollution Control
Because of crude supply limitations, new refinery capacity will be designed to
process higher sulfur crudes which means a corresponding increase in desulfuri-
zation capacity. The increased use of sour (higher sulfur) crude feedstock
from outside the U.S. will require changes in processing equipment, in-plant
wastewater control, and treatment operations. There are refineries that
consume sweet crude stock, but do not employ strippers to remove minimal
amounts of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide from their wastewaters. Increases
in sour crude processing within these refineries, will require sour water
strippers to be used prior to discharge of the wastewaters to biological
wastewater treatment facilities. Generally, more highly sophisticated pollu-
tion control techniques will continue to replace older techniques. These
techniques include use of incinerators to destroy trace organic discharges,
use of reactor ekhausts as furnace air to reduce gaseous organic discharges,
improved treatment of sour heavy bottoms, more effective control of emissions
of sour gases, and increased emphasis on wastewater reuse/recirculation
techniques such as:
The use of catalytic cracker accumulator wastewaters rich in
H2S (sour waters) for makeup to crude desalters
The use of blowdown condensate from high-pressure boilers
for makeup to low-pressure boilers
The reuse of waters that have been treated for closed cooling
systems, fire mains, and everyday washing operations
Stonnwater use for routine water applications
Blowdown waters from cooling towers for use as water seals on
high-temperature pumps
38
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The recirculation of steam condensate
The recycling of cooling waters
Good maintenance practices can effectively reduce waste streams. More
emphasis is being placed on:
The recovery of oil spills and hydrocarbons with vacuum trucks
to reduce emissions and water effluents
Reduction of leaks and accidents through preventive maintenance
The separation of hazardous wastes, concentrated wastes, and
other process wastes from general effluents for more effective
treatment
The diking of process unit areas to control and treat spills,
oily stormwater runoff, or periodic washes
The reduction of shock pollutant loads on treatment facilities
through the periodic flushing of process sewers to prevent con-
taminant build-up
Specialized programs for handling hazardous wastes, sludges,
washwaters, and other effluents
Systems to minimize wastes from monitoring stations
Personnel awareness that the waste treatment is initiated at the
process unit.
Actual process modifications often reduce waste streams signficantly while
returning a recovery value. Technology changes that reduce pollution may not
be as cost effective during process cycles, but may prove to be highly bene-
ficial when waste treatment costs have been reduced. Depending on the
feasibility and suitability of a particular project, such process technology
changes are expected to include:
39
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Catalyst switching to one of longer life and greater activity
reducing regeneration rates
Reduction in cooling water usage through the implementation of
air-fin coolers
Reduction in spent caustic and sulfides loadings by including
hydrocracking and hydrotreating processes
Inclusion of process control instrumentation to employ emer-
gency shut-downs or control upset conditions.
Minimization of filter solids, water washes, and spent caustics
and acids through the optimization of drying, sweetening, and
finishing processes.
Concerning wastewater streams, the trend is toward higher removal of organics
and residual solids. The removal of heavy metals from catalyst systems and
specific toxic organics also is being stressed. Front end treatment systems
to remove heavy metals and organics (i.e., precipitation, ion exchange, phenol
removal by solvent extraction), settling and filtration techniques to
remove suspended solids and physical systems to remove specific organics are
now becoming common practice,
Table 6 presents historical trends (1950 to 1977) in the use of various waste
water treatment methods by oil refineries.
I.C.5. Environmental Impact
Federal and State regulations for water and air pollutants (Clean Water and
Air Act Amendments of 1977) and solid waste generation and disposal (Toxic
Substances Control Act; Resource Conservation and Recovery Act) have resulted
in improvements in the technological design and efficiency of pollution control
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Table 6. Estimated percentage of petroleum refineries
using various wastewater treatment processes.
Processes and Subprocess 1950 1963 1967 1972 1977
API Separators
Earthen Basin Separators
Evaporation
Air Flotation
Neutralization (total wastewater)
Chemical Coagulation and Precipitation
Activated Sludge
Aerated Lagoons
Trickling Filters
Oxidation Ponds
Activated Carbon
Ozonation
Ballast Water Treatment (Physical)
Ballast Water Treatment (Chemical)
Slop Oil-Vacuum Filtration
Slop Oil-Centrifugation
Slop Oil-Separation
Sour Water-Stream Stripping
Flue Gas Strippers 60 70 85 90 90
Natural Gas
Sour Water-Air Oxidation 0 3 3-5 7 10
Sour Water-Vaporization 1 1-2 100
Sour Water-Incineration3 35-40 40 50 30 20
Neutralization of Spent Caustics
Flue gas 20 30 35 20 20
Spent acid (including springing
40%
60
0-1
0-1
0-1
1-5
0
0
1-2
10
0
0
9
1
0
0
100
50%
50
0-1
10
0-1
1-5
5
5
7
25
0.5
1
9
1
5
2
93
60%
40
1
15
0-1
5-10
10
10
10
25
0.5
1
8
2
7
3
90
70%
30
1-2
18
0-1
10-15
40
25
10
25
3
3
5
5
12
10
80
80%
20
2-5
20
0-1
10-15
55
30
10
20
5
5
5
5
15
15
70
and stripping)
Oxidation
Incineration61
15
0
25
25
3
40
30
5
50
25
5
20
20
5
15
Incineration includes flaring, boiler furnaces, and separate incinerators used
only in conjunction with stripping and vaporization.
Source: US-DOI. 1967. The cost of clean water, Volume III, Industrial Waste
Profiles no. 5 - petroleum refinering. FWPCA, Washington, DC.
41
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methods. More attention is being given to the siting of major new industrial
facilities in recognition of the increased emphasis on State, regional, and
local land use planning. Also, owing to the ratification of the National
Environmental Policy Act and other non-regulatory legislation, government
decision making is more exposed to public scrutiny and to a more objective,
complete environmental review process. Thus, refineries which have become
operational since the early 1970's generally can be expected to have less waste
stream-related impacts than those built a decade or two ago. Although this
trend is expected to continue the projected growth of small refineries
(<10,000 B/CD) because of incentives provided in Federal entitlement programs,
and increased overall industrial activity, more consideration will be given
to the assessment of cumulative and secondary impacts from siting new
refinery facilties.
I.D. MARKETS AND DEMANDS^
I.D.I. Refinery Capacity
During the period from 1 January 1960 to 1 January 1977, U.S. refinery
operation capcity increased about 7.0 million barrels per calender day (9.5
million B/CD to 16.5 million B/CD). This increase represents an average
compounded growth rate of about 3.5 percent per year; however, this growth
has not been equal in all PAD districts. The highest growth during this
period occurred in PAD district III, whereas the lowest occurred in PAD
district I (see Figure 4 for the geographical distribution of PAD districts)
(FEA 1977a, 1977b) . Future trends show total operable capacity to rise to:
17.0 million B/CD in 1978
^ This draft discussion will be revised and expanded to reflect a new longer
range forecast to 1990, recently projected by DOE. The new data will be included
in the final report. Growth projections also will be made by PAD districts.
42
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17.3 million B/CD in 1979
e 17.6 million B/CD in 1980
18.2 million B/CD in 1981
18.6 million B/CD in 1982
and actual crude runs through 1981 are estimated (by Bureau of Mines) to be
about 90 percent of the above total operable capacities, or 15.3 million
B/CD in 1978; 15.5 million B/CD in 1979; 15.8 million B/CD in 1980; and 16.4
million B/CD in 1981.
Discrepencies do exist, however, among authorities for crude capacity pro-
jections. For example, Oil and Gas Journal figures (Lange 1978) for crude
runs during 1977 and 1978 are lower than those determined by the Bureau of
Mines and the Office of Oil and Gas (FEA 1977a) as indicated below:
1977 1978
(million B/D) (million B/D)
0 & G Journal 14.6 14.9
BM/OOG 14.9 15.4
Under the President's proposed National Energy Plan (NEP), the petroleum
product demand is expected to rise only slightly, but U.S. refinery output
is expected to increase at a greater rate owing to a decline in product
imports forced by a sharp decrease in residual fuel oil demand. Nevertheless,
the required increase in refinery output is less than that capacity currently
planned. Capacity additions are expected to total 2.1 million barrels per
day between 1977 and 1982. Even if some of the projects scheduled to come on
stream between 1977 and 1982 fail to materialize, the addition of as little
as 1.0 million barrels per day is expected to meet future demand (1985) at
reasonable upper limits of refinery utilization. Because there probably will
be some growth in petroleum product demand between 1985 and 1990, some added
43
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capacity beyond the 1.0 million barrels per day would be needed during that
period.
One very significant impact of the President's NEP is the substantial reduc-
tion in residual fuel oil demand which drops from 3.5 million barrels per
day in the base case to 2.0 million barrels per day under the program.
Whereas U.S. refineries in the 50 States already are capable of producing 2.0
million barrels per day of residual fuel oil, it would appear that all export
refineries in the Bahamas/Caribbean area would be shut down. In reality, some
of these U.S.-owned Caribbean refineries probably would continue operations
while U.S. refineries would tend to minimize residual fuel oil production
to the extent possible, while still maintaining operations to produce other
necessary products.
The base case, for petroleum product demand which represents anticipated 1985
and 1990 demand without the President's program was also developed. The
requirement for new refinery capacity would be 3.6 million barrels per day by
1985 for the base case as compared with 1.9 million barrels per day of planned
"firm11 projects (FEA 1977b) .
I.D.2. Incentives
Currently the primary incentive to refine domestically (as opposed to abroad)
is the Federal entitlements program. A secondary incentive is the import fee
system which has been active since April 1973. Under the entitlements program,
because of price controls, the average refiner pays less for his crude oil than
other countries pay for foreign crude oil. This large advantage endangered
U.S.-owned refinery operations in the Bahamas and Caribbean with the result
that partial entitlements were given to residual fuel oil importers.
44
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With the application of the crude equalization tax under the NEP, the
advantage offered by the entitlements system will disappear, and leave
import fees as the last significant element to encourage domestic refining.
Other factors for consideration include increased investment tax credits and
accelerated depreciation on new facilities or modification to existing
facilities. The NEP also will affect refinery operations through the user's
tax which is to be paid on liquid fuels burned in the refinery. Current
technology does not permit the burning of coal in process furnaces. If the
cost of the tax can be passed through or exceptions granted, it will not
affect refineries. According to the NEP Macro Economic Effects, one-third
of the crude oil equalization tax will have to be absorbed by refineries
which may nullify the protection of the product import fee.
I.D.3. Changes in Refinery Configuration
Although the general trend has been toward fewer, but larger refineries this
trend appears to be reversing. The capacities of the 256 refineries operating
as of 1 January 1976, ranged from 32 m3/day (200 B/D) to 69,000 m3/day
(434,000 B/D). Refineries unit capacities over 15,900 m3/day (100,000 B/D)
represented only 11.5% of total refineries in 1967, but accounted for 48% of
the refining capacity. By 1972, 16.6% of all refineries exceeded this size
and represented 58% of total capacity. However, more recent information
indicates that most new refinery construction utilizing fluid catalytic
cracking units will range from 25,000 to 50,000 B/D (US-EPA 1976).
Although larger refineries are able to take advantage of continuous processing
units, the number of small refineries (under 10,000 B/D), both new and
reactivated, is increasing. In part, this is because of the small refiner
45
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bias in the Federal entitlements program which provides special allocations
of petroleum feedstocks to small refineries at a substantial price advantage
(FEA 1977). In point of fact, the smaller the refiner, the greater dollar
per barrel advantage. For example, a refinery with 80,000 B/D capacity
receives only one-tenth of the benefits of a 10,000 B/D facility (Peer and
Marsik 1977).
Most of the small refineries being built or planned are of simple design that
often consists only of crude distillation towers and storage tanks; therefore,
they are less able to respond to changing market demands or to produce more
sophisticated products (FEA 1977a).
In contrast, the larger refineries have instituted improvements in technology
which have resulted in more sophisticated processing techniques such as fluid-
bed catalytic cracking instead of static-bed catalytic cracking, catalytic
reforming, and advanced hydrotreating.
Trends in the construction of larger petroleum refineries will be dictated
primarily by market demand. This effect was evidenced by the considerable
buildup during the 1960's in processes which provided higher octane gasoline.
Recently, although there as been a significant reduction in the octane numbers
required, the necessity to achieve specific octanes without the addition of
lead again has modified petroleum processing. Moreover, the market for low
sulfur fuel oil has generated the construction of desulfurization facilities.
The rate of refinery expansion or construction will be influenced by the
relative contribution of oil-derived products to the total energy demand. The
share supplied by oil is projected to drop from 46% in 1975 to 42% in 1990
(Denman 1978).
46
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Other factors that are expected to influence refinery configurations include:
Uncertainty created by unstable government programs
Threat of legislation to force divestiture by refineries of
production and marketing
Cost and composition of crude oils
Inflation rates
e Construction costs, pollution control regulations, and
equipment costs
Environmental restrictions and opposition.
The above summary discussion represents an overview. A detailed analysis of
markets and demands for the petroleum refining industry is outside the
scope of these guidelines. For the reviewer who seeks more detailed analyses
of this subject see: FEA 1977a; FEA 1977b; DOE 1977.
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I.E. SIGNIFICANT ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
I.E.I. Location
Petroleum refinery operations generally are large installations, which can
occupy considerable acreage. Naturally the areal extent varies with the
capacity of the refinery and the extent of ancillary support facilities
planned. Most refinery facilities are located either in rural areas or on the
periphery of an urban center in the oil producing regions. Because the siting
of new source petroleum refineries can involve a significant change in land
use, particularly in rural areas, direct and indirect social and ecological
impacts may occur. Direct impacts are primarily a function of the type and
size of the facility proposed, the composition of the crude oil to be refined,
and characteristics of the site (e.g., wetlands versus upland). The extent
and significance of secondary or indirect impacts such as induced growth,
infrastructure changes, and demographic changes depends largely on the local
economy, existing infrastructure, numbers and characteristics of construction
workers (e.g., local or nonlocal, size of worker's family) and other related
factors. Long term secondary impacts are seldom significant unless the
refinery, because of its size, processing methods, and location, employs a
sufficent number of workers to result in spin-off developments (commercial,
industrial, and residential). A discussion of secondary impact assessment is
contained in the existing EPA document, Environmental Impact Assessment Guide-
lines for Selected New Source Industries, pages III-11-12.
I.E.2. Raw Materials
The most significant environmental problems associated with raw materials
result from the transport, handling, and storage of the crude oil (oil
-------
exploration, development and production activities are not included in this
report). Also the composition and nature of the feedstock is of particular
consequence with respect to potential environmental impacts.
During handling, transportation and storage of crude oil and products,
residues can impact waste streams through spills and leaks, tank-cleaning
operations, and ballast waters from tankers, which in turn, can affect
environmental quality. Oil, finished product, water and other residues on
storage tank bottoms (i.e., product, intermediate, and crude storage tanks)
are potential sources of wastewaters. Filters and filter media also can
contribute to waste streams.
Relative to crude oil constituents, sulfur and sulfur compounds constitute the
most significant contaminants in crude oil fractions. Oxygen compounds,
nitrogen compounds and metal compounds of vanadium, nickel, iron, calcium,
mangesium, aluminum, copper, sodium, potassium, arsenic, and zinc are other
foreign materials which was present treating problems and potential environ-
mental degradation. Of the metals, vanadium, nickel and iron are the most
significant because they shorten the life of hydrodesulfurization catalysts.
The sulfur content of crude oils appears to be related to the density of the
crude oil which in turn depends on the distribution of hydrocarbon types in
the crude oil.
Further, the sulfur content of crude oil is not distributed uniformly
throughout the boiling range of the oil, but is progressively concentrated
in the higher boiling fractions. The types of sulfur compounds present in
crude oils also vary. Over one hundred sulfur compounds have been identified
through analyses of only three crude oils (Rail, et al. 1962). During the
-------
past three or four years, however, increasingly severe environmental restric-
tions have been placed on sulfur recovery units themselves (Glaus process) in
terms of emission controls, therefore, the severity of potential environmental
impacts should be controllable to an extent.
4
I.E. 3. Process Wastes
Figure 6 shows basic oil refinery operations and the general character of
their respective wastes; the diagram includes operations typical of a complete
refinery (i.e., a refinery that manufactures motor fuels, burning oils,
lubricating oils and greases, waxes, asphalts and speciality products).
Because a multiplicity of potential pollutants may be generated from a complete
refinery operation, for these guidelines, they have been categorized generally
as follows:
Free oil Special chemicals
Emulsified oil Waste gases
Condensate waters Sludges and other solids
Acid wastes Clean cooling water
Waste caustics Sanitary wastes
Alkaline waters
The various wastes that may pollute the environment usually originate in small
quantities from a large number of sources which are distributed widely through-
out the refinery. The sources and characteristics of the various types of
wastes that have potential to significantly effect the environment are described
below:
summary discussion is based largely on the following more detailed source
documents: US-EPA 1976; 1967 Ind. Waste Treatment, TJS-EPA 1973.
50
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Source: Rudolfs, W. Ed. 1953. Industrial Wastes: Their Disposal and
Treatment. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. New York, N.Y.
Figure 6. Typical wastes produced in a complete petroleum refinery,
51
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I.E.3.a. Free Oil
Depending on the efficiency of pollution control measures used, large complete
refineries may be expected to have varying amounts of their crude oil charge
escape to the sewers in the form of free oil. In large refineries this oil
originates in small quantities from numerous sources such as individual
sampling taps, pump gland leaks, valve and pipeline leaks, losses and spills
at times of unit shutdown and equipment repair, accidental spills and over-
flows, tank bottom drawoffs and other miscellaneous sources.
The presence of light ends creates a potential explosion hazard in the sewers.
For this reason precaution should be taken in the design of the sewerage
system to adequately trap all sewer inlets.
Oil exists in the wastewater in two fractions:
Suspended fraction (small droplets, small solids-oil
agglomerates, oil in water emulsion)
Floating fraction (water in oil emulsion or free oil)
In practically all cases gravity differential oil-water separates are pro-
vided to recover floating oil and to treat the waste. In the process of
separating oil from water, oil rises to the surface, sediment settles to the
bottom and relatively small concentrations of oil and suspended solids pass
through the separator. Some solid matter rises to the surface with the oil
and some oil settles to the bottom with the solids. It also should be noted
that gravity differential oil-water separators cannot remove oil in the form
of oil in water emulsions or in the form of oil-suspended solids agglomerates
with specific gravities approximately that of the water.
52
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I.E.3.b. Emulsions of Oil
The presence of oil that cannot be separated from waste waters by conventional
gravity differential means can significantly impact the environment, however,
it also is of considerable economic importance to the refiner because of the
loss of valuable product and the need for costly facilities to treat the
effluent from his oil recovery separators.
An oil in water emulsion has turbidity as its chief characteristic and
usually has a milky or pearly-gray appearance. This type of emulsion is not
removed in the gravity type oil separator, and when it is discharged into a
large stream or body of water, it usually breaks as a result of dilution and
the oil rises to the surface of the water.
Emulsions also may be formed in the sewerage system as a result of intimate
contact between oil, water, and emulsifying agents or may originate directly
as process byproducts.
The occurrence of coke, clay, sanitary sewage, water treating plant sludges
and other flocculent and fibrous solids appears to increase the concentration
of nonseparable oil. The presence of tars, asphalts, petroleum sludges, soaps
and numerous solvent and treating chemicals also increases the nonseparable
oil content of waste waters. The pumping of wastewater is especially conducive
to the formation of emulsions.
The direct formation of emulsions may result from the chemical treatment of
lubricating oils, waxes and burning oils, from distillate separators, from
barometric condensers, tank drawoffs, desalting operations, pump gland leak-
age, special chemical manufacturing, acid sludge recovery processing, wax
53
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deoiling, barrel and truck washing, machine shops and other sources.
I.E.S.c. Condensate Waters
Condensate waters, as referred to herein, originate from distillate separators,
running tanks and barometric condensers. It has been reported (league 1950)
that condensate waters from distillate separators may contain one or more of
such compounds as organic and inorganic sulfides, normal or acid sulfites and
sulfates, sulfonic acids and their salts, mercaptans, amines, amides, quina-
lines and pyridines, naphthenic acids, phenols, etc. They also may contain
chemicals used for corrosion prevention such as ammonia, caustic soda, calcium
hydroxide, etc. Not all these substances will be found in a specific waste-
water at the same time. Waste of this type also may contain suspended matter
such as coke, iron sulfide, silica, metallic oxides, soaps, emulsions, sulfonic
and naphthenic acids, insoluble mercaptides and other suspended solids
(Teague 1950).
I.E.3.d. Acid Wastes
Sulfuric acid is used extensively in the petroleum industry both as a treating
agent and a catalyst. Other acids and acid salts also used as catalysts
include hydrofluoric acid, phosphoric acid, aluminum chloride and zinc
chloride. Acid bearing wastes originate form the acid treatment of gasoline,
white oils, lubricating oils and waxes; from the handling of acid sludges
and the recovery or manufacture of acid; from the alkylation of motor fuel
stocks; from the use of acidic catalysts; and from special chemical manufac-
turing. The wastes occur as rinse waters, scrubber discharges, spent catalyst,
sludges, condensate waters, and miscellaneous discharges resulting from
sampling procedures, leaks and spills and shutdowns.
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I.E.3.6. Waste Caustics
Waste caustics as referred to herein originate from the caustic washing of
light oils to remove mercaptans, hydrogen sulfide, and other acidic materials
that occur naturally in crude oil or any of its fractions or may be produced
by a variety of processing methods.
The quantity of waste caustic produced will vary greatly depending on the
characteristics of the crude and the methods of processing.
The constituents of waste caustics responsible for their potent pollution
characteristics include mercaptans, thiophenol, thiocresols, phenols, cresols,
disulfides, alkylsulfides, the sodium salts of any one of a number of saturated
mono acids, naphthenic acids or sulfonic acids and other materials (Weston
1944).
I.E.S.f. Alkaline Waters
Alkaline waters, as differentiated from alkaline condensate waters and waste
caustics, may originate from the washings of neutralized acid treated oils,
the washings of caustic treated oils, the dehydration of treated light oils,
the aqueous tank bottoms of stored caustic treated and washed gasolines,
vessel and tower washings at times of shutdowns and miscellaneous sources.
I.E.3.g. Special Chemicals
This category of wastes includes the special solvents and extraction solutions
utilized in selective solvent refining, gas purification, light oil treating,
etc. Such special chemicals utilized in petroleum processing may include
phenol, creosols, furfural, salts of isobutyric acid, nitrobenzene, acetone,
55
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methyl ethyl ketone, B.B. dichlorethyl ether, ethylene dichloride, benzol,
tannin, fatty acids, diethanol amine, methanol, toluol sodium hypochlorite,
tri-sodium phosphate, lead sulfide, copper chloride and others. These
special chemicals may create serious waste control problems. The water
soluble organics, for example, can add tremendously to the oxygen demand
characteristics of the plant wastes if allowed to discharge into the sewers.
Others listed are emulsifying agents and would adversely affect separator
operation if allowed to mix with other refinery wastes. Frequently, the
value of these materials is sufficient to justify the use of collection and
recovery systems. Drainage from leaks, spills, pumps, valves, sampling,
routine maintenance activities, etc., often is recovered to keep losses to
a minimum.
I.E.3.h. Waste Gases
The waste gases from petroleum refining are stack gases from furnances and
reactors, hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide. Except that stack gases may
be used in waste treatment processes or may be scrubbed with water for solids
removal they do not enter into water pollution control problems.
The acid gases (hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide), however, may cause
water pollution control problems. Hydrogen sulfide as produced from the
distillation of crude and other processing is a contaminant to other refinery
gases (i.e., methane, ethane, etc.). The removal of hydrogen sulfide from
liquid and gaseous hydrocarbon stream creates wastewaters of highly obnoxious
characteristics. These wastes were discussed briefly in section I.E.3.e.
Waste Caustics.
56
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Sulfur dioxide is produced from stack gases, sulfuric acid concentrators,
liquid sulfur dioxide refining units and sulfuric acid treating units. Nor-
mally sulfur dioxide wastes are discharged to the atmosphere. However, not
infrequently atmospheric pollution problems must be corrected and the
corrective measures may create water pollution problems. The utilization
of sulfur dioxide for the recovery of sulfur offers the best long term solu-
tion to the problem of pollution abatement. In addition to the formation
of S09 during the combustion of sulfur-containing liquid refinery fuels,
NOx formation can be enhanced if those fuels also contain nitrogen compounds.
This NOx, as well as the small amount of 863 formed from sulfur compounds
in the fuel, tend to be the principal cause of stack plumes from refinery
furnances.
Carbon monoxide and particulate emissions also occur, however, they largely
are confined to flue gases from catalytic cracker regenerators and fluid
cokers (unless coal or coke are used as fuel).
I.E.S.i. Sludges and Solids
Sludges may accumulate at the bottom of various crude or product storage
tanks; as the result of various treatment processes; at the bottom of
cooling towers and as the result of process and wastewater treatment.
Solids may include coke, waste catalysts, filtering clays, slag, tank
bottoms, etc.
Disposal of sludges and solids to the plant sewers is highly objectionable
because of the effect of solids on oil separation.
57
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Tank bottom sludges vary greatly in their characteristics, e.g., from an
easily pumpahle fluid to a set solid. In general these wastes may be treated
for oil recovery or burned as fuel. Sometimes for the purpose of tank clean-
ing it is advantageous to flush these materials from the tanks using water.
In some cases water flushing will create emulsions and suspensions that will
produce unsatisfactory waste water effluents. The use of water flushing
should be avoided as much as possible.
One of the major sources of sludge of high pollutional characteristics is
the acid treatment of refinery stocks (See Section I.E.3.d. Acid Wastes).
Sludge accumulating at the bottom of cooling towers generally is adaptable
to disposal as fill. However, the removal of the sludge from the tower basin
and the transfer of the material to the point of final disposal can pose
numerous problems.
Sludge from the clarification of water for process use create the same type
of problem as that of cooling tower sludge.
Sludge from the softening of water may be utilized, in some cases, for the
neutralization of acidulous waters or as a coagulant aide in wastewater
treatment.
I.E.3.J. Cooling Water
Cooling water makes up nearly the entire volume of wastewater from petroleum
refining operations. Because these wastes may become oil-contaminated, owing
to equipment failure, it is necessary to provide oil separation facilities
to prevent accidental pollution. Consequently, uncontarainated cooling water
generally is turned into a common oil carrying sewerage system. However,
58
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when wastewater quality standards necessitate additional treatment the
separate collection and disposal of cooling waters which are subject to
periodic pollution has been undertaken at some refineries. The size of
effluent treatment facilities has been reduced substantially by reducing the
quantity of wastewater through the use of recirculating cooling systems.
The use of dirty water cooling tower systems and the elimination of barometric
condensers and jet vacuum pumps have also served to keep sizes of treatment
facilities at a minimum.
I.E.3.K.. Sanitary Wastes
Sanitary wastes offer minimal opportunity for waste utilization. The wastes
may be discharged to refinery or municipal sewerage systems or to separate
sewerage and disposal facilities. Generally, discharge to refinery sewerage
systems is not in agreement with good public health practice and may interfere
with efficient oil separation. If adequate pretreatraent methods are employed
the impacts associated with these wastes usually are insignificant.
I.E.4. Pollution Control
Pollution control measures on waste streams can effectively reduce adverse
impacts that result when control is absent; however, the same control mea-
sures can create other kinds of impacts. The equipment used to control
various waste streams in oil refining facilities also can generate solid and
liquid residual wastes which must be treated and disposed of properly. For
example, pollution control processes to remove acid components in the gas
stream (HoS) may leave sulfur-based compounds in the exhaust gases. Waste
treatment measures for aqueous streams likewise may not be adequate to treat
all of the complex organic compounds which are discharged from a petroleum
59
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refinery. Therefore, all proposed pollution abatement devices should be
well-designed, well-operated, and properly maintained to minimize other
pollutant impacts which may result from unnecessary residual waste products.
I.F. REGULATIONS
Federal water pollution regulations are covered primarily by the Standards of
Performance for New Sources (SPNS) for the petroleum refining point source
category, in Section 40 CFR 419. Control is through the NPDES permit process.
Administration and enforcement rest either with US-EPA or with those States
with approved NPDES permit programs.
Air pollution control standards are enumerated by Federal New Source Perfor-
mance Standards (NSPS) as described in 40 CFR Parts 50 and 60 and by State
and local air pollution regulations. "Usually control is through the State
regulatory function of licensing the construction of the oil refinery.
Other applicable pollution control regulations include the Federal Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 and the various state regulations re-
garding disposal of solid wastes.
I.F.I. Water Pollution Standards of Performance
The effluents of new or expanded petroleum refineries are subject to standards
of performance for new sources (SPNS) and pretreatment standards for new
sources established under Public Law 92-500, the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act, as amended. These standards have been subjected to court
challenge, but currently are in effect. The regulations govern conventional
pollutants, as they are termed in Section 304(a)(4) of the Clean Water Act
of 1977 (P.L. 95-217), and others as follows;
60
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BOD-
TSS
COD
Oil and grease
Phenolic compounds
Ammonia as N
Sulfide
Total chromium
Hexavalent chromium
pH
Additional SPNS and pretreamtnet standards for toxic polluants applicable to
the subcategories of this industry also are being developed. These are
required for a specific list of substances by the Consent Decree resulting
from the recent litigation, Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., et al.
v. Russell E. Train (Civil Action No. 2153-73 U.S. District Court for the
District of Columbia) and from the Clean Water Act of 1977. The list appended
to the Decree and referenced in the Act, includes a number of exotic organics
and heavy metals of potential concern to refiners. The toxic SP.NS and pre-
treatment standards will be effective immediately upon promulgation.
EPA may revise the list from time to time, adding substances to it and
removing others. Thus, after determining the toxic effluents already subject
to standards, new source NPDES applicants should obtain the latest version of
the list in order to identify other types of effluents whii.h will become the
subject of toxic SPNS and pretreatment standards.
-------
The srNS applicable to the five subcategories of refineries are complex.
The subcategories are further broken down by the use of two factors based on
size of plant (1000 barrels of feedstock) and process configuration. The
product of these two factors is a number by which a spec ificed base SPNS
value for each waste parameter for each of the five subcategories is multi-
plied to obtain a value for a specific plant. Plant size is broken down into
seven ranges, giving seven size factors. The process factor is broken down
into 22 increments, each of which produces a different process factor. An
example of the application of the factors was promulgated (40 CFR, Part 419,
Subpart D (d)(3)) and is shown in Table 7 for a refinery in the lube subcate-
gory. The SPNS for the five subcategories topping, cracking, petrochemical,
lube,and integrated are shown in Table 8.
From review of effluent limitations that reflect the best available treatment
economically achievable (BATEA), which were remanded by the courts, EPA is
expected to eliminate the size factor and simplify the regulations. Similar
action on the NSPS also can be expected.
The pretreatment standards for new source petroleum refineries are nearly
identical to the SPNS for each subceategory as presented in Table 8 provided
that:
The SPNS value will be reduced correspondingly when the publicly-
owned treatment works receiving the discharge is committed in its
NPDES perrait to remove a specified percentage of an incompatible
pollutant
The following wastes are not introduced into the publicly-owned
treatment works:
62
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Table 7 . Example of the application of the size and process configuration
factors.
Process
category
Calculation of the Process Configuration
Processes included
Weighting
factor
Crude
Cracking
and coking
Lube
Asphalt
Atm. crude distillation.
Vacuum crude distillation.
Desalting.
Fluid cat. cracking.
Vis-breaking.
Thermal cracking.
Moving bed cat. cracking.
Hydrocracking.
Fluid coking.
Delayed coking.
Less than 12% of the
feedstock throughput
Asphalt production.
Asphalt oxidation.
Asphalt emulsifying.
13
12
EXAMPLE.Lube refinery 125,000 bbl per stream day throughout
Process
Crude:
Atm
Vacuum
Desalting
Total
Cracking-FCC
Hydrocracking
Total
Lubes
Total
Asphalt
Capacity
relative to
throughput
.48
Capacity
(1,000 bbl per
stream day)
125
60
125
41
20
5.3
4.0
4.9
4.0
Refinery process configuration
Weighting
factor
Processing
configuration
2.48
.328
.160
.488
.042
.032
.039
.113
0.032
X
X
X
X
1
6
13
12
2.48
2.93
1.47
.38
7.26
NOTES: Process factor =0.88
Size factor = 0.93
To calculate the limits for each parameter, multiply the applicable
limit by both the process factor and size factor. The limits for
the lube subcategory are as follows:
63
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Table 7. Example of the application of the size
and process configuration factors (Concluded).
Effluent limitations
kg/1000 raj (lb/1000 bbl) of feedstock
Average of daily
values for thirty
Effluent Maximum for consecutive days
characteristics any one day shall not exceed
BOD 50.6 (17.9) 25.8 (9.1)
ITS 35.6 (12.5) 22.7 (8.0)
COD"- 360 (127) 187 (66)
Oil and grease 16.2 (5.7) 8.5 (3.0)
Phenolic compounds .38 (.133) .184 (.065)
Ammonia as N 23.4 (8.3) 1056 (3.8)
Sulfide .33 (.118) .10 (.053)
Total chromium .77 (2.73) .45 (.160)
Hexavalen't chromium .068 (.024) .030 (.011)
pH Within the range
6.0 to 9.0
BOD5 limit (max. for any one day) = 17.9 X 0.88 X 0.93 - 14.6 lb/1000 bbl of
feedstock.
64
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Table 8. Standards of performance for new sources
applicable to the five subcategories of references
TOPPING SUBCATEGORY
Effluent Limitations
kg/1000 m3 (lb/1000 bbl) of feedstock
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily
values for 30
consecutive days
shall not exceed
BOD5
TSS
COD1
Oil and grease
Phenolic compounds
Ammonia as N
Sulfide
Total chromium
Hexavalent chromium
11.8
8.3
61
3.6
.088
2.8
.078
.18
.015
(4.2)
(3.0)
(21.7)
(1.3)
(.031)
(1.0)
(.027)
(.064)
(.0052)
6.3
4.9
32
1.9
.043
1.3
.035
.105
.0068
(2.2)
(1.9)
(11.2)
(.70)
(.016)
(.45)
(.012)
(.037)
(.0025)
PH
Within the range 6.0 to 9.0
In any case in which the applicant
concentration in the effluent exceeds
Administrator may substitute TOC as a
limitations for TOC shall be based on
lating TOC to BOD5.
If in the judgment of the Regional
data are not available, the effluent
lished at a ratio of 2.2 to 1 to the
can demonstrate that the chloride ion
1,000 mg/1 (1,000 ppm), the Regional
parameter in lieu of COD. Effluent
effluent data from the plant corre-
Administrator, adequate correlation
limitations for TOC shall be estab-
applicable effluent limitations on BOD5,
65
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Table 8. Standards of performance for new sources applicable to the five
subcategories of references (Continued).
Size factor.
* Size
1,000 bbl of feedstock per stream day: factor
Less than 24.9 1.02
25.0 to 49.9 1.06
50.0 to 74.9 1.16
75.0 to 99.9 1.26
100.0 to 124.9 1.38
125.0 to 149.9 1.50
150.0 or greater 1.57
Process factor.
Process
Process Configuration factor
Less than 24.9 0.62
2.5 to 3.49 0.67
3.5 to 4.49 0.80
4.5 to 5.49 0.95
5.5 to 5.99 1-07.
6.0 to 6.49 1-17
6.5 to 6.99 1.27
7.0 to 7.49 1-39
7.5 to 7.99 1.51
8.0 to 8.49 1.64
8c »._ o oo i 7Q
^ ^ £Q O*«7.7' ~*~"~*J JJn -» __ j^ ^ f ~j
9.0 to 9.49 1-95
9.5 to 9.99 2.12
10.0 to 10.49 2.31
10.5 to 10.99 2.51
11.0 to 11.49 2.73
11.5 to 11.99 2.98
T2.5 to 12.99 3.53
13.0 to 13.49 3.84
13.5 to 13.99 4.18
14.0 or greater 4.36
(a) Runoff
The allocation allowed for storm runoff flow, as kg/cu m
(Ib/Mgal), shall be based solely on that storm flow (process area runoff)
which is treated in the main treatment system. All additional storm runoff
(from tankfields and non-process areas), that has been segregated from
the main waste stream for discharge, shall not exceed a concentration of.
35mg/l of TOG or 15 mb/1 of oil and grease when discharged. The following
allocations for runoff are in addition to the process discharge allowed by
the above limitations:
66
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Table 8. Standards of performance for new sources applicable to the five
subcategories of references (Continued).
(a) Runoff continued
Effluent Limitations
kg/1000 m3 (lb/1000 gal) of flow
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily
values for 30
consecutive days
shall not exceed
BOD5
TSS
COD1
Oil and grease
0.048
.033
.37
.015
(0.40)
(.27)
(3.1)
(.126)
pH Within the range 6.0 to 9.0
(b) Ballast
0.026
.021
.19
.0080
(.01)
(.17)
(1.6)
(.067)
The allocation allowed for ballast water flow, as kg/cu m (Ib/M
gal), shall be based on those ballast waters treated at the refinery. The
following allocations are in addition to the process and runoff limitations:
Effluent Limitations
kg/1000 m3 (lb/1000 gal) of flow
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily
values for 30
consecutive days
shall not exceed
BOD5
TSS
COD1
Oil and grease
0.048
.033
.47
.15
pH Within the range 6.0 to 9.0
(c) Cooling water
(.40)
(.27)
(3.9)
(.126)
0.026
.021
.24
.008
(-21)
(.17)
(2.0)
(.067)
Once through cooling water may be discharged with a total organic
carbon concentration not to exceed 5 mg/1.
The above provisions relating to runoff, ballast, and once through
cooling water also are applicable to the cracking, petrochemical, lube,
integrated subcategories.
67
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Table 8. Standards of performance for new sources applicable to the five
subcategories of references (Continued)
CRACKING SUBCATEGORY
Effluent Limitations
kg/1000 m3 (lb/1000 bbl) of feedstock
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily
values for 30
consecutive days
shall not exceed
16.3 (5.8)
TSS 11.3 (4.0)
COD1 118 (41.5)
Oil and grease 4.8 (1.7)
Phenolic compounds .119 (.042)
Ammonia as N 18.8 (6.6)
Sulfide .105 (.037)
Total chromium .24 (.084)
Hexavalent chromium .020 (.0072)
pH Within the range 6.0 to 9.0
Size Factor,
1,000 bbl of feestock per stream day:
8.7
7.2
61
2.6
.058
8.6
.048
.14
.0088
(3.1)
(2.5)
(21.0)
(.93)
(.020)
(3.0)
(0.17)
(.049)
(.0032)
Size
factor
Less than 24.9 0.91
25.0 to 49.9 0.95
50.0 to 74.9 1.04
75.0 to 99.9 1.13
100.0 to 124.9 1-23
125.0 to 149.9 1-35
150.0 or greater 1-41
Process Factor. Process
Proce..^ ronfcLguratiani factor
Less than 24.9 0.58
2.5 to 3.49 0.63
3.5 to 4.49 0.74
4.5 to 5.49 0.88
5.5 to 5.99 1.00
6.0 to 6.49 1.09
6.5 to 6.99 1.19
7.0 to 7.49 1.29
7.5 to 7.99 1.41
B'.S to 8.*99 1-67
9.0 to 9.49 1.82
9J> .or greater 1.89
68
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Table 8. Standards of performance for new sources applicable to the five
subcategories of references (Continued).
PETROCHEMICAL SUBCATEGORY
Effluent Limitations
kg/1000 m3 (lb/1000 bbl) of feedstock
Maximum
any one
BOD5 21.8
TSS 14.9
COD1 133
Oil and grease 6.6
Phenolic compounds .158
Ammonia as N 23.4
Sulfide .140
Total chromium .32
Hexavalent chromium .025
pH Within the range 6.0 to 9.0
Size factor.
1.000 bbl of feedstock per stream
Less than 24. y
25.0 to 49. y -
50.0 to /4.y
/xo to yy.y
150.0 or greater
Process factor.
Process configuration:
4C t-r, ^ /Q
. .> to .>.sy -
5C »._ C QQ __
60 t-n ft AQ ., . ..
65 «-<-> fi QQ
7c .._ 7 on
. U to o.ny
j to o.yy
.u Co y.ny
for
day
(7.7)
(5.2)
(47.0)
(2.4)
(.056)
(8.3)
(.050)
(.116)
(.0096)
day:
Average of daily
values for 30
consecutive days
shall not exceed
11.6 (4.1)
9.5 (3.3)
69 (24.0)
3.5 (1.3)
.077 (.027)
10.7 (3.8)
.063 (.022)
.19 (.068)
.012 (.0044)
Size
factor
0 73
_ _ 0 76
Ocj^
_ _ 0 91
1H8
_ 1.13
Process
factor
0 73
0 80
0 91
0 99
1 OR
1.07
1 28
- - - 1 39
1 51
_ 1 65
1.72
69
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Table 8. Standards of performance for new sources applicable to the five
subcategories of references (Continued.)
LUBE SUBCATEGORY
Effluent Limitations
kg/1000 m3 (lb/1000 bbl) of feedstock
Maximum for
any one day
Average of daily
values for 30
consecutive days
shall not exceed
BOD5
TSS
CODl
Oil and grease
Phenolic compounds
Ammonia as N
Sulfide
Total chromium
Hexavalent chromium
pH Within the range 6.0 to 9.0
Size factor.
Less than 49.9
50.0 to 74.9
75.0 to 99.9
100.0 to 124
125.0 to 149
150.0 to 174
175.0 to 199.9
200.0 or greater
Process factor
34.6
23.4
245.0
10.5
.25
23.4
.220
.52
.046
(12.2)
(8.3)
(87.0)
(3.8)
(.088)
(8.3)
(.078)
(.180)
(.022)
18.4
14.9
126.0
5.6
.12
10.7
.10
.31
.021
(6.5)
(5.3)
(45.0)
(2.0)
(.043)
(3.8)
(.035)
(.105)
(.0072)
ick per stream day:
9__MM
9«. .___ . -
Size
factor
071
OO7
1 1 Q
Process configuration:
Less than 6.49 ~
. _> to /.Ay
9C *._ Q QQ ______________
in n t-r\ in AQ _____ _____.
Ur\ */-> 11 /. Q ________________
19 n i-^, 19 /. Q
Process
factor
1 1 Q
19Q
1 A1
1^1
i fi7
1 09
n QQ
9 1 s
12.
to 12.99 2.
13.0 or greater
2.44
70
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Table 8. Standards of performance for new sources applicable to the five
subcategories of references (Concluded).
INTEGRATED SUBCATEGORY
Effluent Limitations
kg/1000 m3 (lb/1000 bbl) of feedstock
Average of daily
values for 30
Maximum for consecutive days
any one day shall not exceed
BOD5
TSS
COD1
Oil and grease
Phenolic compounds
Ammonia as N
Sulfide
Total chromium
Hexavalent
41.6
28.1
295
12.6
.30
23.4
.26
.64
.052
(14.7)
(9.9)
(104.0)
(4.5)
(.105)
(8.3)
(093)
(.220)
(.019)
22.1
17.9
152
6.7
.14
10.7
.12
.37
.024
PH Within the range 6.0 to 9.0
Size factor.
1,000 bbl of feedstock per stream day;
(7.8)
(6.3)
(54.0)
(2.4)
(.051)
(3.8)
(0.42)
(.13)
(.0084)
Size
factor
Less than 124.9 0.73
125.0 to 149.9 0]76
150.0 to 174.9 0*83
175.0 to 199.9 -. 0'91
200.0 to 224.9 0!99
225 or greater 1.04
Process factor.
Process
Process configuration: factor
Less than 6.49 Q 75
6.5 to 7.49 0;82
7.5 to 7.99 0 92
8.0 to 8.49 ^
8.5 to 8.99 Iao
9.0 to 9.49 1>2Q
9.5 to 9.99 1*30
10.0 to 10.49 !*42
10.5 to 10.99 i'54
11.0 to 11.49 1.68
11.5 to 11.99 i.83
12.0 to 12.49 l.*99
12.5 to 12.99 2.17
13.0 or greater 2.26
71
-------
wastes that create a fire or explosion hazard
wastes that will cause corrosive structural damage to
treatment works, but in no case wastes with a pH lower
than 5.0, unless the works is designated to accommodate
such wastes
solid or viscous wastes in amounts that would cause
obstruction to the flow in sewers or other interference
with the proper operation of the publicly owned treatment
works
wastes at a flow rate and/or pollutant discharge rate that
is excessive over relatively short time periods so that
there is a treatment process upset and subsequent loss of
treatment efficiency
These prohibitions are taken from the more general pretreatment standards
set forth in 40 CFR Part 128 which are applicable as amended by the specific
Pretreatment standards for each point source category.
NPDES permits also impose special conditions beyond the effluent limitations
stipulated, such as schedules of compliance and treatment standards. Once
refineries are constructed in conformance with all applicable standards of
Performance, however, they are relieved by Section 306 (d) of P.L. 92-500 from
^^eting any more stringent standards of performance for 10 years or during
the period of depreciation or amortization, whichever ends first. This
guarantee does not extend to toxic standards adopted under Section 207 (a) ,
which can be added to the refinery's NPDES permit when they are promulgated.
States have qualified, as permitted by Public Law 92-500, to administer
their own NPDES permit programs. The major difference in obtaining an NPDES
72
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permit through approved State programs vis-a-vis the Federal NPDES permit
system is that the FWPCA Amendments of 1972 do not extend the NEPA environ-
mental impact review requirements to State programs. As of April 1976,
however, 26 States had enacted NEPA-type legislation and others plan to do
so. Thus it is likely that new refineries or major expansions of existing
refineries will come under increased environmental review in the future.
Because the scope of the implementing regulations varies considerably,
current information on prevailing requirements should be obtained early in
the planning process from permitting authorities in the appropriate
jurisdiction.
I.F.2 Air Pollution Performance Standards
Air pollution regulations specify both the amount of various pollutants that
can be emitted from a source and standards for pollution of ambient air.
The paragraphs which follow discuss these regulations.
New source performance standards (NSPS) applicable to several sources of
air pollution from petroleum refineries are promulgated in 40 CFR 60, sub-
part J and K. Subpart J imposes emission limitations on fluid catalytic
cracking unit catalyst regenerators, fuel gas combustion devices, and all
Claus sulfur recovery plants (except recovery plants of 20 long tons per day
or less) associated with a small refinery. Subpart J regulates the storage
of petroleum, condensate, and finished or intermediate products (with the
exception of most fuel oils) in order to control hydrocarbon emissions.
The storage NSPS only apply to storage vessles of greater than 151,412 liters
(40,000 gal.) except:
73
-------
Pressure vessels designed to operate in excess of 6.8kg (15 Ib) per
cm^ (±i\ ) gauge without emissions except under emergency conditions;
Subsurface caverns or reservoirs; or
Underground tanks if the total volume added to and taken from a tank
annually does not exceed twice the volume of the tank.
In contrast to other NSPS, the standards for storage vessels do not place
specific limitations on hydrocarbon emissions, and instead require the
installation and use of specified equipment. A floating roof, vapor
recovery system, or equivalent is required for storage vessels when the true
vapor pressure of the liquid stored is equal to or greater than 78 mm Hg
(1.5 psia) but not greater than 570 mm Hg (11.1 psia). A vapor recovery
system or equivalent is required when the vapor pressure exceeds the latter
value. Some gasolines and gasoline feedstocks, for example, would fall in
this category. The applicant should not that any device capable of providing
comparable hydrocarbon emission control that may be substituted for the
specified device. These regulations currently are undergoing review to
determine whether or not revisions are needed.
The sulfur dioxide NSPS for fuel gas combustion systems in refineries limits
S02 emissions to the atmosphere by specifying that the fuel gas combusted
shall contain no more than 230 milligrams per dry standard cubic meter
(mg/dscm) (0.10 grain per dry standard cubic foot) (gr/dscf) of hydrogen
sulfide. Compliance with the standard also will be permitted by effectively
removing S02 from the stack gases instead of removing H£S from the fuel gas.
Fuel gas is defined as any gas produced by a process unit and combusted
except process upset gas.
74
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SOo standards applicable to Glaus sulfur recovery plants, which process
gases produced within a petroleum refinery regardless of whether the plant
is physically located within the refinery, are as follows:
0.025% by volume of sulfur dioxide at 0% oxygen on a dry basis if
emissions are controlled by an oxidation control system, or a
reduction control system followed by incineration; or
0.030% by volume of reduced sulfur compounds and 0.0010% by
volume of hydrogen sulfide calculated as sulfur dioxide at
0% oxygen on a dry basis if emissions are controlled by a
reduction control system not followed by incineration.
Particulate matter emitted from fluid catalytic cracking unit catalyst
regenerators is limited to 1.0 kilogram (kg)1000 kg (1.0 lb/1000 Ib) of coke
burnoff. When the gases from the regenerator pass through an incinerator or
waste heat boiler in which oil or coal is burned as an auxiliary fuel, this
limitation may be exceeded except that the incremental rate of emissions may
not exceed 43.0 gram (g)/MS (0.10 Ib/million Btu) of heat input attributable
to the auxiliary fuel.
The opacity of catalyst regenerator gases is limited to less than 30% except
for six minutes in any one hour or when greater opacity is due to the presence
of uncombined water. The opacity standard is a backup means to ensure that
control equipment always is maintained and operated properly. The NSPS limit
on the CO content of the regenerator emission is 0.050% by volume.
Screening studies preliminary to establishing NSPS are being completed on
vacuum distillation and other miscellaneous sources (e.g., leaks) in
refineries. Projections on future NSPS action on these sources currently are
not available.
75
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The above NSPS for air applicable to new source refineries have undergone
several revisions, which indicates that these regulations are far from
static. Applicants, therefore, should determine the most recent status of
the various air regulations, early in the planning process.
Applicants also should be current on the status of national emission standards
for hazardous air pollutants (NESHAP) promulgated under Section 112 of the
Clean Air Act. To date only five materials have been declared as hazardous
pollutants: asbestos, beryllium, mercury, polyvinyl chloride, and benzene.
EPA is examining other substances for possible inclusion in this classifica-
tion. Also, although present standards only apply to specific processes
which generate concentrated emissions of these pollutants, EPA is emphasizing
control of trace toxic emissions.
The effects of the national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) on con-
struction or expansion of refinery capacity also should be ascertained.
Although standards of this type are nonenforceable goals for acceptable air
quality, they may exert a strong influence on the siting of new facilities.
The primary and secondary standards designed to protect public health and
welfare respectively are shown in Table 9 . NAAQS for sulfur dioxide and
particulates assume an especial importance in both pristine areas where the
air quality is cleaner than the levels of these standards and in areas where
the standards are being exceeded.
In 1974, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued regulations for
the prevention of significant deterioration of air quality (PDS) under the
1970 version of the Clean Air Act (Public Law 90-604). These regulations
established a plan for protecting areas that possess air quality which is
76
-------
Table 9 Applicable Federal ambient air quality standards
Standard*
Emission
Primary
Secondary
Sulfur dioxide
Particulate matter
Nitrogen dioxide**
Photochemical oxidants
Carbon monoxide
o
80 ug/mj annual
arithmetic mean
365 ug/m3 maximum
24-hour concentration
3
75 ug/m annual
geometric mean
o
260 yg/m maximum
24-hour concentration
100 ug/m3 annual
arithmetic mean
160 ng/m3 (0.08 ppm)
maximum 1-hour
concentration
10 mg/m3 (9 ppm)
maximum 8-hour
concentration
40 mg/m3 (35 ppm)
maximum 1-hour
concentration
1,300 yg/m maximum
3-hour concentration
150 ug/m maximum
24-hour concentration
o
60 ug/m annual geometric mean
as guide in asses5;im',
implementation plants
100 ug/m annual
arltlimetic mean
160 ug/m3 (0.08 ppm)
maximum 1-hour
concentration
-5
10 mg/m (9 ppm)
maximum 8-hour
concentration
40 mg/m3 (35 ppm)
maximum 1-hour
concentration
*For any standard other than annual, the maximum allowable concentration may be exceeded for the
prescribed period once each year.
**Within one year after the date of the enactment of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 (PL 95-95)
the US-EPA Administrator shall promulgate a national primary ambient air quality standard for NOo
concentrations over a period of not more than 3 hours unless, based on the criteria issued under
Section 108(c), he finds that there is no significant evidence that such a standard for such a period
is requisite to protect public health.
Source: 40 CFR 50
-------
cleaner than the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). Under EPA's
regulatory plan, clean air areas of the Nation could be designated as one of
three "Classes." The plan permitted specified numerical "increments" of air
pollution increases from major stationary sources for each class, up to a
level considered to be "significant" for that area. Class I provided extra-
ordinary protection for air quality deterioration and permitted only minor
increases in air pollution levels. Under this concept, virtually any
increase in air pollution in the above pristine areas would be considered
significant. Class II increments permitted increases in air pollution levels
such as would usually accompany well-controlled growth. Class III increments
permitted increases in air pollution levels up to the NAAQS.
Sections 160-169 were added to the Act by the Clean Air Act Amendments of
1977. These amendments adopt the basic concept of the above administratively
developed procedure of allowing incremental increases in air pollutants by
class. Through these amendments, Congress also provided a mechanism to apply
a practical adverse impact test which did not exist in the EPA regulations.
The PSD requirements of 1974 applied only to two pollutants: total suspended
particulates (TSP) and sulfur dioxide (S02) (See Table 10 ). However, Section
166 requires EPA to promulgate PSD regulations by 7 August 1980 addressing
nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and photochemical oxidants
utilizing increments or other effective control strategies. For these
additional pollutants, States may adopt non-increment control strategies
which, if taken as a whole, accomplish the purposes of PSD policy set forth
in Section 160.
Whereas the earlier EPA regulatory process had not resulted in the Class I
designation of any Federal lands, the 1977 Amendments designated certain
78
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Table 10. Nondeterioration increments for particulate matter
and for S02 by area air quality classifications
Class I Class II Class III Class I* increment
Pollutant* _ (Ug/m3) (yg/m3) (yg/m3).
Particulate matter:
Annual geometric mean 5 19 37 19
24-hour maximum 10 37 75 37
Sulfur dioxide:
Annual arithmetic mean 2 20 40 20
24-hour maximum 5** 91 182 91
3-hour maximum 25** 512 700 325
*0ther pollutants for which PSD regulations will be promulgated
are to include hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, photochemical
oxidants, and nitrogen oxides.
**A variance may be allowed to exceed each of these increments
on 18 days per year, subject to limiting 24-hour increments of
36 yg/m3 for low terrain and 62 yg/m3 for high terrain and 3-hour
increments of 130 yg/m3 for low terrain and 221 yg/m3 for high
terrain. To obtain such a variance both State and Federal
approval is required.
Source: Public Law 95-95. 1977. Clean Air Act Amendments of
1977, Part C, Subpart 1, Section 163 CPassed August 1977).
79
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Federal lands Class I. All international parks, national memorial parks
and national parks exceeding 6,000 acres, are designated Class I. These 158
areas may not be redesignated to another class through State or administra-
tive action. The remaining areas of the county are intially designated
Class II. Within this Class II category, certain national primitive areas,
national wild and scenic rivers, national wildlife refuges, national sea-
shores and lakeshores, and new national park and wilderness areas which are
established after 7 August 1977, if over 10,000 acres in size are Class II
"floor areas" and are ineligible for redesignation to Class III.
Although the earlier EPA regulatory process allowed redesignation by the
Federal land manager, the 1977 amendments place the general redesignation
responsibility with the States. The Federal land manager only has an
advisory role in the redesignation process, and may recommend redesignation
to the appropriate State or to Congress.
In order for Congress to redesignate areas, proposed legislation would be
introduced. Once proposed, this would probably follow the normal legisla-
tive process of committee hearings, floor debate, and action. In order for
a State to redesignate areas, the detailed process outlined in Section 164(b)
would be followed. This would include an analysis of the health, environ-
mental, economic, social, and energy effects of the proposed redesignation
to be followed by a public hearing.
Class I status provides protection to areas by requiring any new major
emitting facility (generally a large point source of air pollutionsee
Section 169(1) for definition) in the vicinity to be built in such a way and
place as to insure no adverse impact on the Class I air quality related
values.
80
-------
The permit may be issued if the Class I increment will not be exceeded,
unless the Federal land manager demonstrates to the satisfaction of the
State that the facility will have an adverse impact on the Class I air
quality related values.
The permit must be denied if the Class I increment will be exceeded, unless
the applicant receives certification from the Federal land manager that the
facility will not adversely affect Class I air quality related values.
The permit may be issued even though the Class I increment will be
exceeded (Up to the Class I* increment see table 10).
I.F.3 Land Disposal of Wastes
The disposal of hazardous and non-hazardous wastes on land will be regulated
under the Federal Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA)
(P.L. 94-580), either by EPA or by a State with an approved state program.
EPA is in the process of drafting regulations to implement the various pro-
visions of the Act, including guidelines and minimum requirements for state
programs.
Disposal of non-hazardous wastes on land will require the use of sanitary
landfills because disposal sites classified as open dumps are prohibited.
A site can be classified as a santiary landfill only if disposal of wastes
at the site would pose no reasonable probability of adverse effects on health
or the environment;.
Criteria for classifying sites were proposed by EPA in the Federal Register
on 6 February 1978. Before designing an on-site disposal area for non-
hazardous wastes or contracting with another party for disposal, all appli-
cants should ascertain that status of the criteria and be guided by the
81
-------
minimum standards imposed. Applicants also should keep in mind that states
are free to establish more stringent state or site-specific (situational)
standards or criteria and should determine the location, design, construction,
operation, maintenance, and performance standards currently applicable to
specific sites.
Disposal of wastes deemed to be hazardous under Subtitle C of RCRA will be a
much more complex procedure for refinery operators. A number of refining
wastes will qualify as hazardous as discussed in Section II-D and will he
subject to standards applicable to generators, transporters, treators,
storers, and disposers of hazardous wastes.
As a future generator of hazardous wastes API separator and other sludges,
leaded tank bottoms, and slop oil emulsion among many others the applicant
will be required to notify EPA of the location and general description of any
proposed hazardous waste-generating activities and indicate those wastes
identified by EPA to be hazardous.
Hazardous waste standards which apply to generators (to be promulgated soon)
will further require the applicant-generator to:
e Maintain records that identify the quantities of hazardous
wastes generated, the constituents which are significant in
quantity or in potential harm to human health or the environ-
ment, and the disposition of such wastes;
Label containers used for the storage, transport, or disposal
of hazardous waste in a manner which will accurately identify
the waste;
Use appropriate containers;
82
-------
Furnish information on the general chemical composition of the
waste to persons transporting, treating, storing, and disposing
of such wastes;
Use of manifest system to ensure that all hazardous waste
generated is designated for treatment, storage, or disposal
facilities (other than on-site facilities) for which a permit
has been issued.
The applicant also may qualify as a transporter, treater, storer, or disposer
of hazardous wastes depending upon the practices in which he plans to engage
and then may become subject to the standards established for those activities.
They will be similar to, or a follow-up to, the generator standards. To
determine which standards are applicable to his operations, the applicant
should understand that EPA considers incineration to be a treatment process
rather than a disposal practice.
It also is important to be aware that disposal of hazardous wastes on-site
requires a permit under Section 3005 of RCRA. To obtain such a permit, the
disposal site must conform to the standards applicable to public or commerical
sites, required by Section 3004 of RCRA. Draft regulations (published in
Federal Register on 1 February 1978) indicate that it is very unlikely that
EPA will approve any state program that does not require a permit or license.
Because none of the regulations to implement RCRA ha been promulgated,
the permit applicant should determine their status and applicability early in
the planning stages.
83
-------
II. IMPACT IDENTIFICATION
A variety of impacts may result from waste streams generated by typical
petroleum refinery operations. These process operations were described in
some detail in Section I.B and I.C. The sections that follow outline the major
waste streams (water, air, solid waste), pollutant sources, pollutant loads and
the potential environmental impacts that should be addressed in the EIA for a
new source oil refinery.
II.A. PROCESS WASTES (EFFLUENTS)
In general refineries are substantial dischargers of wastewaters. Further,
these wastewaters generally have high concentrations of tars, oils and dissolved
organics. Frequently a large fraction of the dissolved organics are not readily
biodegradable. Spent catalysts, containing large amounts of heavy metals may
create serious problems for waste treatment systems and the environment. A
substantial number of chemicals which may be found in refinery effluents such
as styrene, benzene, anthracene and phenol are believed to be toxic. Therefore,
it is necessary for the permit applicant to include factual data for at least
the following:
All effluent streams (sources, quantities, flow composition)
Frequency and duration of wasteflows and variations in composition
c Potential toxic chemicals
Biological/chemical characteristics of all receiving waters and
their use patterns
II.A.I. Sources and Quantities of Process-Related Wastes
The permit applicant should identify all sources of process wastes, preferably
-------
by means of a schematic or flow diagram. The checklist that follows indicates
the major process operations and the associated wastewater streams that should
receive a careful, systematic analysis in the EIA.
Crude Desalting
- Desalter wastewater
Crude Oil Fractionation
- Wastewater from overhead accumulators
- Oil sampling lines
- Barometric condensers
Cracking
- Overhead accumulator wastewater Cthermal cracking)
- Wastewaters from steam strippers and overhead accumulators on
fractionators (catalytic)
Hydrocarbon Rebuilding
- Wastewater from polymerization process
- Alkylation wastewater streams resulting from the neutralization
of hydrocarbon streams leaving the sulfuric acid alkylation
reactor
- Wastewater from overhead accumulator
- Wastewaters from hydrofluoric acid alkylation rerun-unit
Hydrocarbon Rearrangements-
- Wastewater from overhead accumulator
Solvent Refining
- Fractionation tower bottoms
Hydrotreating
Wastewater from hydrotreatment unit
85
-------
Grease Manufacturing
- Wastewater from grease manufacturing unit
Asphalt Production
Wastewater from asphalt-blowing operations
Product Finishing
- Wastewater from drying and sweetening (H2S removal) process
Lubricating oil finishing wastes (acid-bearing wastes, rinse
waters, sludges and discharges resulting from acid treatment
of lubricating oils)
- Wastewaters from blending and finishing operations
- Washing of railroad tank cars or tankers prior to loading
- Tetraethyl and tetramethyl lead additives. These anti-knock
compounds are extremely toxic and can gain entrance to waste-
waters via two avenues: (1) TEL and TML are separated from
other compounds by a steam distillation and purification process.
Water is then contaminated by the condensing steam; (2) TEL
and TML are present in tank bottom sludges and contaminate
waters through washings and other maintenance.
Auxiliary Activities
- Process wastes from hydrogen manufacture
- Utilities functions (steam and cooling water systems)
- Slowdowns from closed-loop recirculating systems
Table 11 presents a qualitative matrix showing the relative contributions of
pollutants from various refinery operations.
86
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Table 11- Qualitative evaluation of wastewater flow
and characteristics by fundamental refinery processes
oo
Fundamental
Processes
Crude Oil and
Product Storage
Crude Oil Desalting
Crude Oil
Distillation
Thermal Cracking
Catalytic Cracking
Hydrocracking
Reforming
Polymerization
Alkylation
Isomerization
Solvent Refining
Dewaxing
Hydro treating
Drying and
Sweetening
Flow
XX
XX
XXX
X
XXX
X
X
X
XX
X
X
X
X
XXX
BOD
X
XX
X
X
XX
0
X
X
XXX
X
XXX
COD Phenol Sulfide
XXX
XX
X
X
XX
0
X
X
X
XXX
X
X
X
XX
X
XXX
X
0
0
X
X
XX
XXX
XXX
X
XXX
XX
X
X
XX
0
0
XX
0
Emulsified
- Oil Oil pH Temp. Ammonia Chlorides
XXX
X
XX
X
X
X
X
X
X
0
XX
XXX
XXX
X
_
0
0
0
-~~
X
0
0
X
0
X
X
XX
XXX
~~
0
X
XX
»
X
XX
XX
0
XXX
XX
XX
XX
XX
X
X
X
0
~-
""^'
0
0
XX
XXX
X
XXX
^0-
X
X
X
""~
0
X
XXX
X
X
X
X
XX
0
Susp.
Acidity Alkalinity Solids
0
0
0
0
0
XX
0
1 r\
(J
X
X
X
XX
XXX
0
X
X
w
XX
XXX
X
X
n
u
XX
n
u
XX
Legend
XXX - Major contribution
XX - Moderate contribution
X - Minor contribution
0 - No Problem
- No data
Source: US-DOI. 1967. The cost of clean water. Volume III, Industrial Waste Profile No. 5:
FWPCA Publication No. I.W.P.-5. Available from US-GPO. Washington, DC.
Petroleum Refining.
-------
The estimated wastewater pollutant loadings and volumes per unit for the major
refinery processes are present in Table 12. Also the table makes a distinction
between process technologies (old, typical, new) and the waste loads that can
be expected from each.
II.A.2. Sources and Quantities of Wastewater from Transportation Activities
One of the most unpredictable sources of wastewaters from oil refineries are
those associated with the transportation of feedstock and product to and from
refineries. Although some of the discharges are associated with the accidental
spillage from transport lines and tanker washings, the major concern is
associated with tanker accidents and the spillage from a major tanker breakup.
The applicant must consider several key factors to predict the occurrence of
and impact from tanker accidents. These include:
Characteristics of the waterways to and from the unloading location
(e.g., narrow passageways with frequent fog and inclement weather
conditions, high tides and severe wave action will necessarily
have a higher incidence of accidents)
Nature of the navigational controls and guides available in
harbors and passages
The sophistication and availability of cleanup equipment
Environmental sensitivity and value of ecosystems within the
transport corridor
Historical record of occurrences of tanker accidents under
similar conditions
To assess adequately the potential impacts from an accidental oil spill, one
approach could be to develop and evaluate a range of scenarios involving
88
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Table 12. Estimated waste loadings and volumes per unit of fundamental process throughput for older, typical, and newer process technologies
Older Technology
Typical Technology
Newer Technology
Fundamental Process
Flow
(gal/bbl)
Crude Oil and Product Storage 4
Crude Desalting
Crude Fractionation
Thermal Cracking
Catalytic Cracking
Hydrocracfcing
Reforming
Polymerization
Alkylation
Isomerization
Solvent Refining
Dewaxing
Hydrotreating
2
100
66
85
not
9
300
173
not
8
247
1
Mercaptans
BOD Phenol StSulfides
(Ib/bbl) (Ib/bbl) (Ib/bbl)
0.001
0.002 0.20
0.020 3.0
0.001 7.0
0.062 50.0
in this technology
tr 0.7
0.003 1.4
0.001 0.1
in this technology
3
0.52 2
0.002 0.6
__
0.002
0.001
0.002
0.03
tr
0.22
0.005
tr
tr
0.007
Flow BOD
(gal/bbl) (Ib/bbl)
4
2
50
2
30
6
140
60
8
23
1
0.001
0.002
0.0002
0.001
0.010
not in this
tr
0.003
0.001
not in this
_
0.50
0.002
Mercaptans
Phenol SSulfides
(Ib/bbl) (Ib/bbl)
_
0.10
1.0
0.2
20
technology
0.7
0.4
0.1
technology
3
1.5
0.01
_
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.003
0.001
0.010
0.010
tr
tr
0.002
Flow BOD
(gal/bbl) (Ib/bbl)
4
2
10
1.5
5
5
6
not
20
~
8
20
8
0.001
0.002
0.0002
0.001
0.010
tr
in this
0.001
-
0.25
0.002
Phenol
(Ib/bbl)
-
0.05
1.0
0.2
5
0.7
technology
0.1
3
1.5
0.01
Mercaptans
SSulfides
(Ib/bbl)
-
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.003
0.001
0.020
tr
tr
0.002
Deasphalting
Drying and Sweetening
Wax Finishing
Grease Manufacture
Lube Oil Finishing
Hydrogen Manufacture
Blending and Packaging
100
0.10
10
40
0.05
10
40
0.05
10
not in this technology
not in this technology
- Data not available for reasonable estimate.
tr = trace
Source: US-DOI. 1967. The cost of clean water.
Available from US-GPO, Washington, DC.
Volume III, Industrial Waste Profile No. 5: Petroleum Refining. FWPCA Publication No. I.W.P.-5.
-------
potential tanker accidents of various magnitudes in high probability areas.
From this, a projection of ecological consequences could be made for purposes
of inclusion in the EIA. Table 13 presents a generalized summary of the types
and magnitude of tanker accidents throughout the world. It gives an indication
of the types and sizes of accidents tha-t historically have been most frequent
and significant.
II.B. PROCESS WASTES (AIR EMISSIONS)
Sources of air emissions and air pollutants differ considerably among refineries
which largely is a function of:
Size of refinery
Type of crude oil feedstock
o Product mix (which dictates the type and complexity of processes
employed)
« Pollution control measures
Because of the wide variations possible in the above factors, new refineries
normally must be assessed on an individual basis. There are, however, certain
types of emissions which must be addressed in an emission assessment of any
refinery, and there are certain major sources of emissions which must be
evaluated if they" are part of the refinery's process scheme.
Specifically the EIA should identify, describe (quantitatively), and evaluate
all such refinery air emissions. Interim heat releases, start-up, shut-down,
safety valve releases, leaks and any other potential sources of emissions
should be documented in the EIA. Major sources of air waste streams from a
petroleum refinery include:
90
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Table 13. Types and magnitude of tanker casualties worldwide.
Percent of Percent of
Type of Casualty Polluting Incidents Pollution Resulting
Structural Failures 19 49
Groundings 26 29
Collisions 31 8
Explosions 6 8
Hammings 8 1
Fires 7 1
Breakdowns and Other 2 4
Percent of Total
Range-Barrels Percent of Incidents Oil Released
1 to 1,000 63.47 5.75
1,001 to 3,500 22.37 11.29
3,501 to 20,000 10.05 16.07
20,001 to 100,000 3.65 37.74
> 100,000 0.46 39.15
Source: US-EPA. 1975. Environmental impact assessment guidelines for
selected new source industries. Office of Federal Activities,
Washington, DC.
91
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Storage tanks
Catalyst regeneration units
Pipeline valves and flanges
Pressure relief valves
Pumps and compressors
Compressor engines
Acid treating
Wastewater separators and
process drains
Cooling towers
Loading facilities
e Slowdown systems
Pipeline blind-flange changing
». Boilers and process heaters
Vacuum jets
Sampling
Air blowing
The principal types of air pollutants from various emission sources are shown
in Table 14.
II.C.
PROCESS WASTES (SOLID WASTES)
Typical solid wastes generated at a refinery include process sludges, spent
catalysts, waste materials and various sediments. The applicant should identify
all solid waste streams and provide a flow diagram which quantitatively and
qualitatively describes their characteristics.
Refinery solids wastes are grouped into three general categories:
Process solids
Effluent treatment solids
General wastes (scrap materials, etc.)
Table 15 presents sources, descriptions, and characteristics of various
categories of solid wastes generated from refinery operations. Table 16 lists
the range of factors that can affect the composition and quantity of solid
waste streams. Such factors should be considered by a new source applicant
92
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Table 14. Major air pollutants emitted from
various refinery sources.
Pollutant
Oxides of Sulfur
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of Nitrogen
Particulate Matter
Aldehydes
Ammonia
Odors
Carbon Monoxide
Boilers, process heaters, catalytic cracking unit
regenerators, treating units, H2S flares, decoking
operations
Loading facilities, turnarounds, sampling, storage
tanks, wastewater separators, blow-down systems,
catalyst regenerators, pumps, valves, blind changing,
cooling towers, vacuum jets, barometric condensers,
air-blowing, high pressure equipment handling
volatile hydrocarbons, process heaters, boilers,
compressor engines
Process heaters, boilers, compressor engines, catalyst
regenerators, flares
Catalyst regenerators, boilers, process heaters,
decoking operations, incinerators
Catalyst regenerators
Catalyst regenerators
Treating units (air-blowing, steam-blowing), drains,
tanks vents, barometric condenser sumps, wastewater
separators
Catalyst regeneration, decoking, compressor engines,
incinerators
Source: US-DHEW. 1960. Atmospheric emissions from petroleum refineries.
Public Health Service Publication No. 763, Washington, DC.
93
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Table 15. Categorization of representative solid wastes from various petroleum refining sources.
Waste Category
Process Solids
Waste Sources
Crude oil storage, desalter
Catalytic cracking
Coker
Alkylatlon
Lube oil treatment
Drying and sweetening
Storage tanks
Slop oil treatment
Waste Description
Waste Characteristic
Basic sediment and water
Catalyst fines
Coker fines
Spent sludges
Spent clay sludges, press dumps
Copper sweetening residues
Tank bottoms (crude, leaded,
non-leaded)
Precoat vacuum filter sludges
Iron rust, iron sulfides, clay, sand, water
oil
Inert solids, catalyst particles, carbon
Carbon particles, hydrocarbons
Calcium flouride, bauxite, aluminum chloride
Clay, acid sludges, oil
Copper compounds, sulfides, hydrocarbons
Oil, water, solids
Oil, dlatomaceous earth, solids
Effluent Treatment
Solids
API separator
Chemical treatment
Air flotation
Biological treatment
Separator sludge
Flocculant aided precipitates
Scums or froth
Waste sludges
Oil, sand and various process solids
Aluminum or ferric hydroxides, calcium carbonate
Oil, solids, flocculants(if used)
Water, biological solids, inerts
General Waste
Water treatment plant
Office
Cafeteria
Shipping and receiving
Boiler plant
Laboratory
Plant expansion
Maintenance
Water treatment sludges
Waste paper
Food wastes (garbage)
Packaging materials, strapping
pallets, cartons, returned
products, cans, drums
Ashes, dust
Used samples, bottles, cans
Construction and demolition
General refuse
Calcium carbonate, alumina, ferric oxide, silica
Paper, cardboard
Putresclble matter, paper
Paper, wood, some metal, wire
Inert solids
Glass, metals, waste products
Dirt, building materials, insulation, scrap metal
Insulation, dirt, scrapped materials-valves,
hoses, pipe
Source: US-EPA. 1975. Environmental impact assessment guidelines for selected new source industries. Office of Federal Activities, Washington, DC.
-------
Table 16. Factors affecting the composition and
quantity of specific solid waste streams.
Solid Waste
Crude tank bottoms
Leaded tank bottoms
Non-leaded tank bottoms
API separator sludge
Neutralized HF
all. .:ition sludge
Spent filter clays
Once-through cooling
water sludge
Potential Factors
Type of crude
Treatment given to crude prior to storage
Slop oil processing method
Refinery size
Mixing, if any
Storage time
Degree, if any, of sludge emulsion breaking
Type and quantity of chemical additives
Plant and tank metallurgy
Type of product treatment used
Type of processes used in producing gasoline and/or
other products
Refinery size
Type and quantity of chemical additives
Plant and tank metallurgy
Type of product treatment used
Type of processes used in producing gasoline and/or
other products
Refinery size
Composition and quantity of process wastewater
Composition and quantity of spills and leaks
Composition and quantities blowdowns
Refinery housekeeping
Refinery size and age
Segregation of refinery sewers
Composition of fresh HF acid
Composition of lime
Feedstock composition
Process operating conditions
HF alkylation process metallury
Size of HF alkylation unit
Type and number of clay treatment processes used
Type and number of products treated
Composition and quantity of products treated
Type and amount of clay used
Refinery size
Composition and quantity of raw water
Cooling system metallurgy
Size and nature of process leaks
Refinery size and complexity
95
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Table 16. Factors affecting the composition and quantity of specific solid
waste streams (continued).
Solid Waste
DAF float
Slop oil emulsions
solids
Spent lime from boiler
feedwater treatment
Cooling tower sludge
Exchanger bundle
cleaning sludge
Waste bio-sludge
Stormwater silt
Potential Factors
Same factors as API separator sludge plus:
Residence time
Amount and time of flocculating chemical used
Efficiency of API separator
Composition and quantity of individual oil spills
and oil leakage .
Composition of wastewater emulsions
Nature of emulsion breaking treatment and degree of
success
Refinery size and complexity
Quantity of oil in wastewater and degree of removal
Composition of raw water
Degree of hardness removed
Type of treatment (hot or cold)
Refinery size
Boiler blowdown rates
Percent condensate recovered and returned to boilers
Make-up water composition
Type of chemical treatments employed
Metallurgy of cooling water system
Nature of contaminants introduced by process leaks
Blowdown rate
Make-up water rate
Quantity of treatment chemicals used
Composition of shell and tubeside fluids
Equipment metallurgy
Effectiveness of desalter
Refinery size and complexity
Effectiveness of corrosion inhibitor systems
Composition and quantity of wastewater treated
Type of biological treatment
Efficiency of prior treatment units
Operating conditions and practice
Dewatering and/or treatment
Plant housekeeping
Amount of rain
Amount of refinery area paved
Segregation of surface drainage
96
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Table 16. Factors affecting the composition and quantity of specific solid
waste streams (concluded).
Solid Waste Potential Factors
FCC catalyst fines Catalyst compositon
Oil composition
Type of process
Process operating conditions (temperature, percent
conversion, recycle feed rate)
Catalyst make-up rate
Process metallurgy
Oil feed rate
Number of cyclones
Use of precipitators
Use of elutriators
Coke fines Oil composition
Type of process
Operating condition (temperature, pressure, time)
Process metallurgy
Method of coke removal
Method of handling and shipping
Number of cyclone stages
Oil feed rate
Source: US-EPA. 1976. Assessment of hazardous waste practices in the
petroleum refining industry. Prepared by Jacobs Engineering
Company. NTIS Publication PB-259 097, Washington, DC.
97
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in designing control measures for solid waste generation and disposal.
Many solids may contain significant amounts of leachable heavy metals and
organics which could contaminate the environment if not treated and disposed
of properly. Therefore, to evaluate the potential impacts from solid wastes,
the applicant should provide at least the following information in the EIA:
Source and quantity of solid wastes generated
Composition of solid wastes generated (quantitative)
Composition of possible hazardous leachates from solid wastes
(quantitative)
Proposed measures to handle and dispose of solid wastes and the
ecological sensitivity of all proposed deposition areas
To summarize impact sources of a refinery operation, Table 17 presents a
consolidation of pollutants by source. Pollutants are listed per 1,000 barrels
of crude oil processed. In this manner total emissions and effluents
quantities can be approximated (although often the existing data base was
unsuitable for projecting certain pollutant levels).
II.D. TOXICITY AND POTENTIAL FOR ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE FROM SELECTED
POLLUTANTS
II.D.I. Human Health Impacts
Airborne and waterborne emissions from petroleum refineries may contain sub-
stances which could seriously affect human health. Both heavy metals and a
variety of complex hydrocarbons are emitted from refinery operations. The
following paragraphs describe briefly the major health-related effects of
selected pollutants.
98
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Table 17. Summary of pollutant sources and projected pollutant concentrations.
\o
Source of Pollutant BOD
Transport
Crude or product
Pipeline
Tankers
Supertankers
Barges
Tank Trucks
Tank Cars
Processing
Crude desalting
Crude fractionation
Cracking
Hydrocarbon rebuilding
Hydrocarbon rearrangement
Solvent refining
Hydrotreating
Grease manufacturing
Asphalt production
Storage
Crude .45(1)
Product
Pollutant Levels kg/1000 bbl.(Ibs./lOOO bbl.).
COD Particulates EOx SOx Hydrocarbons
--
-
-
-
-
.45
.09 CO. 2)
6.8(15)
5.4(12)
43.1(95)
-
-
-
-
-
-
2.27(5)
8.16(18)
64.41(142)
18.14(40)
45.36(100)
14.51(32)
.86(1-9)
.18(04)
.19 (.042)
15.42(34)
3.17(7)
6.35(14)
0(0)
1.04(2.3)
7.71(17)
3.17(7)
2.27(5)
2.27(5)
2.72(6)
24.94(55)
17.27C38)
17.27(38)
10.90(24)
95.26(210)
19.50(43)
0(0)
12.25(27)
46.27(102)
50.80(112)
65.32(144)
22.68(50)
31.75(70)
Solids
1.81C40)
2.63(5.8)
2.63(5.8)
11.79(26)
6.80(15)
16.78(37)
0(0)
.045(0.1)
136.08(300)
.045(0.1)
2.50(5.5)
.09(0.2)
.09(0.2)
7.26(16)
9.53(21)
13.15(29)
0(0)
15.42(34)
19.96(44)
34.92(Ti)
.023(0.05) 15.72(34)
40.82(90)
54.43(120)
10.43(23)
.090(0.2) 15.88(35)
0(0)
21.77(48)
0
28.12(62)
9.53(21)
Source: US-EPA. 1974. Environmental impacts, efficiency and cost of energy supply and end use.
Final Report. Prepared by Hittman Associates, Washington, DC.
Volume 1
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II.D.I.a. Carcinogens. During various refinery operations a worker may be
explosed to such suspected carcinogens as arsenic, benzene, cadmium, chromium,
cobalt, lead, vanadium, and certain organics. These and other trace metals
along with their potential health problems are presented in Table 18; references
to detailed research studies also are provided.
II.D.l.b. Sulfur Dioxide, Hydrogen Sulfide, and Mercaptans. The impact of
high concentrations of sulfur dioxide and sulfates (especially in the presence
of particulates), has been well documented (US-EPA 1970). Normally emissions
of sulfur dioxide from petroleum refineries would not produce concentrations
that would exceed national ambient air quality standards. However, even SC>2
levels below national ambient air quality standards may produce some adverse
impacts upon sensitive receptors. The formation of sulfates at very low con-
centrations of sulfur dioxide may produce signficant eye and respiratory pro-
blems, (Science Applications, Inc. 1975) as well as damage to vegetation and to
certain materials (metal surfaces).
Likewise hydrogen sulfide is strongly irritating to the respiratory organs.
At high concentrations (1,000 mg/ra^), hydrogen sulfide is. extremely toxic and
may paralyze the brain center that controls respiratory movements (Cavanaugh
1975).
H.D.I.e. Nitrogen Compounds. Nitrogen oxides are pulmonary irritants and may
impair the ability of the lungs to clear inhaled infectious organisms. Exposure
to nitrogen dioxide also can be corrosive to the mucous lining of the lungs.
At high concentrations, it may cause pulmonary edema and even death, while
chronic exposure may produce emphysema, polyeythamia, and leukocytosis. Further,
nitrogen oxides have been shown to contribute to the formation of photochemical
smog (XJS-EPA 1971).
100
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Table 18. Possible health problems associated with trace metals
Metal or metal compounds
Aluminum, arsenic,
cadmium, cobalt,
copper, iron, lead,
and zinc oxides
Nickel
Cadmium
Chromium and compounds
Arsenic
Cobalt
Lead and compounds
Mercury and compounds
Vanadium
Zinc
Health problems
Enzymatic inference
Fume fever
Nasal cancers
Prostate cancer
Enzymatic interference
Carcinogenesis
Cancer of the skin
Poisoning
Carcinogenesis
Nasal cancers
Kidney damage
Mutagenic and
teratongenic effects
Inhibition of lipid
formation; eye and
respiratory irritant;
carcinogenic
Gastrointestinal
irritation
Reference
(Waldbott 1973)
(Potts 1965)
(Oilman and
Ruckerbauer 1963)
(Kipling and
Waterhouse 1967)
(Hueper 1961)
(Wickstrom 1972)
(Lee and Fraumeni
1969)
(Oilman and
Ruckerbauer 1963)
(Zawirsica and
Medras 1968)
(Zollinger 1953)
(D'ltri 1972)
(Stokinger 1963)
101
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II.D.l.d. Hydrocarbons. Apart from their potential carcinogenic activity,
hydrocarbons play a vital role in the formation of photochemical smog (US-
EPA 1971).
II.B.I.e. Carbon Monoxide. The toxicity of carbon monoxide is associated
with its reactions with hemoproteins. Generally one can .anticipate that there
will be no increase of ambient concentrations of CO beyond national ambient
air standards as a result of refinery emissions.
II.D.l.f. Ammonia. Ammonia is a highly irritating gas with a strong, pungent
odor. It forms ammonium hydroxide when it comes in contact with the moisture
of the throat and bronchi. Ammonium hydroxide is caustic, but it is not a
threat the human health. Extremely high concentrations, however, (1,700-
4,500 mg/m^) can produce pulmonary edema (Waldbott 1973).
II.D.l.g. Trace Metals. Among the possible health problems associated with
trace metals are those shown in Table 18. The appropriate references should
be reviewed by the permit applicant to ascertain the significance of the impact
as associated with trace metal emissions from the proposed petroleum refining
facility.
To adequately evaluate potential impacts to human health, the applicant should
include at least the following information in the EIA:
Analysis of crude oil to be used in the refining process
Projection of emissions of potentially toxic substances (volumes,
frequencies, and duration)
Analysis of sensitive receptors (by use of isopleths or other suit-
able technique)
102
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Projection of ground level maximum concentrations of. potentially
hazardous substances
Description of proposed measures to avoid or reduce potential
adverse effects from toxic materials.
II.D. 2. Biological. Impacts
The biological environment also may be affected by certain pollutants especially
heavy metals which are toxic to many terrestrial and aquatic organisms, both
complex and simple.
The potential impcts on terrestrial and aquatic biota may be categorized by
the following waste streams and pollutants:
Air pollutants - emissions of heavy metals, sulfur compounds,
particulates, and hydrocarbons
Wastewater discharges - water pollutants such as heavy metals
and toxic organics from process wastes, leachate from solid
waste residues.
Solid wastes - stockpiling and disposal of process sludges and
other solid wastes (spent catalysts, sediments)
At a minimum the following factors should be described in the EIA to assess
adequately the extent and significance of impacts to biological resources:
o Discharges and sinks for specific toxic materials such as heavy
metals and organics (include information on volume, duration, and
time of discharges)
Characteristics of the aquatic and terrestrial biota of the impact
area (species composition, diversity, abundance, densities, impor-
tance values)
103
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Determination of tolerance or sensitivity thresholds for selected
species of plants and animals in the impact area
Proposed measures to avoid or reduce adverse impacts to biological
communities.
II.E. OTHER IMPACTS
II.E.1. Raw Materials Extraction and Transportation
The EIA should include examination of the extraction, transportation, and
handling of crude oil raw materials as part of the refining impact assessment.
The proposed refinery complex also may include integral support or ancillary
facilities as deepwater ports, submerged pipelines, marine terminals, overland
pipelines, bulk storage areas, and loading areas.
When appropriate, such facilities should be fully described and analyzed in the
EIA.
By way of guidance, the degree of detail given to impact evaluations for these
facilities could be directly proportional to the degree to which such facilities
are directly owned, operated, or supported by the proposed refinery. In cases
where the proposed refinery will construct its own marine facility, or deepwater
port, for example, the impact investigation would be tantamount to that for the
refinery itself. This would apply to cases where a substantial part of the
deepwaster port or marine facility would be leased to other industry. If,
however, the port facilities are being expanded to meet the new refinery
demands by some independent or non-affiliated party, the degree of detail
might be different. In short, the permit applicant should consult with EPA
officials as to the required information and detail.
10 A
-------
Because the impact assessment information developed in this guidance document
has focused principally on the oil refinery proper, we refer the applicant to
the existing EPA document, Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines for
Selected New Source Industries; Appendix B (US-EPA 1975) for guidance on
ancillary facilities and their associated impacts.
II.E.2. Site Preparation and Refinery Construction
The environmental effects of site preparation and construction of new oil
refinery facilities are common to most major land disturbing activities.
Although erosion, dust, noise, vehicular traffic and emissions, and some loss
i
of wildlife habitats are expected, the applicant has a number of mitigative
measures available by which adverse impacts can be reduced. At present, how-
ever, neither the quantities of the various pollutants resulting from site
preparation and construction nor their effects on the integrity of aquatic
and terrestrial ecosystems has been studied sufficiently to permit broad
generalizations. Therefore in addition to the impact assessment framework
provided in the EPA document, Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines for
jelected New Source Industries, a suggested checklist of important study
items is presented in Table 19 for further guidance to the applicant. The
basic components of site preparation and plant construction outlined in the
table include preconstruction, site work, permanent facilities, and ancillary
facilities. At this time only potentially significant areas of impact are
presented in the checklist, but a system of importance values should be
assigned to the checklist items after sufficient quantitative data have been
acquired at an individual site or for a region. The permit applicant also
should tailor all proposed conservation practices to the specific site(s)
being considered in order to account for and to protect certain site-specific
105
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Table 19 . Outline of potential environmental impacts
and relevant pollutants resulting from site prepa-
ration and construction practices.
Construction
practice
Potential environmental
impacts
Primary
pollutants
Preconstruction
a. Site inventory
(1) Vehicular traffic
(2) Test pits
b. Environmental
monitoring
c. Temporary controls
(1) Sedimentation
ponds
(2) Dikes and berms
(3) Vegetation
(4) Dust control
Site Work
a. Clearing and
demolition
(1) Clearing
(2) Demolition
Temporary
facilities
(1) Shops and storage
sheds
(2) Access roads and
parking lots
Short term and nominal
Dust, sediment, tree injury
Tree root injury, sediment
Negligible if properly done
Short term and nominal
Vegetation destroyed, water
quality improved
Vegetation destroyed, water
quality improved
Fertilizers in excess
Negligible if properly done
Short term
Decreased area of protective
tree, shrub, ground covers;
stripping of topsoil; in-
creased soil erosion, sedi-
mentation, stormwater runoff;
increased stream water tem-
peratures; modification of
stream banks and channels,
water quality
Increased dust, noise, solid
wastes
Long term
Increased surface areas impervious
to water infiltration, increased
water runoff, petroleum products
Increased surface areas impervious
to water infiltration, increased
water runoff, generation of dust
on unpaved areas
Dust, noise, sediment
Visual
Sediment spoil, nutri-
ents, solid waste
Dust, sediment, noise
solid wastes, wood
wastes
Gases, odors, fumes
particulates, dust,
deicing chemicals,
noise, petroleum
products, waste-
water, solid wastes,
aerosols, pesticides
(continued on next page)
106
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Construction
practice
Table 19. Outline of potential environmental impacts
and relevant pollutants resulting from site prepa-
ration and construction practices (Continued).
Potential environmental
impacts
Primary
pollutants
(3) Utility trenches
and backfills
(4) Sanitary facili-
ties
(5) Fences
(6) Laydown areas
(7) Concrete batch
plant
(8) Temporary and
permanent pest
control (ter-
mites, weeds,
insects)
c. Earthwork
(1) Excavation
(2) Grading
(3) Trenching
(4) Soil treatment
d. Site drainage
(1) Foundation
drainage
(2) Dewatering
(3) Well points
(4) Stream channel
relocation
e. Landscaping
(1) Temporary seeding
(2) Permanent seeding
and sodding
Increased visual impacts, soil
erosion, sedimentation for
short periods
Increased visual impacts, solid
wastes
Barriers to animal migration
Visual impacts, increased runoff
Increased visual impacts; dispo-
sal of wastewater, increased
dust and noise
Nondegradable or slowly degradable
pesticides are accumulated by
plants and animals, then passed
up the food chain to man. De-
gradable pesticides having short
biological half-lives are pre-
ferred for use
Long term
Stripping, soil stockpiling,
and site grading; increased
erosion, sedimentation, and
runoff; soil compaction; in-
creased in-soil levels of
potentially hazardous materials;
side effects on living plants
and animals, and the incorpora-
tion of decomposition products
into food chains, water quality
Long term
Decreased volume of underground
water for short and long time
periods, increased stream flow
volumes and velocities, down-
stream damages, water quality
Decreased soil erosion and over-
land flow of stormwater,
stabilization of exposed cut
and fill slopes, increased
water infiltration and under-
ground storage of water,
minimized visual impacts
Dust, noise, sediment,
debris, wood wastes,
solid wastes, pesti-
cides, particulates,
bituminous products,
soil conditioner
chemicals
Sediment
Nutrients, pesticides
(continued on next page)
107
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Table 19. Outline of potential environmental impacts
and relevant pollutants resulting from site prepa-
ration and construction practices (Continued).
Construction
practice
Potential environmental
impacts
Primary
pollutants
3. Permanent facilities
a. Petroleum refinery
and heavy traffic
areas
(1) Parking lots
(2) Marine terminal
b. Other buildings
(1) Warehouses
(2) Sanitary waste
treatment
c. Possible ancillary
facilities
(1) Intake and dis-
charge channel
(2)
Water supply and
treatment
(3) Stormwater drain-
age
(4) Wastewater treat-
ment
(5) Dams and
impoundments
(6) Breakwaters, jet-
ties, etc.
(7) Fuel handling
equipment
(8) Waste storage
areas
(9) Overland or
underground pipe-
lines, bulk storage
storage areas,
loading areas
(10) Conveying systems
(cranes, hoists,
chutes)
(11) Cooling lakes and
ponds
Long term
Stormwater runoff, petroluem
products
Visual impacts, sediment, runoff
Long term
Impervious surfaces, Stormwater
runoff, solid wastes, spillages
Odors, discharges, bacteria,
viruses
Long term
Shoreline changes, bottom topog-
raphy changes, fish migration,
benthic fauna changes
Waste discharges, water quality
Sediment, water quality
Sediment, water quality
Dredging, shoreline erosion
Circulation patterns in the
waterway
Spillages, fire, and visual
impacts
Visual impacts, waste
discharges
Sediment runoff and erosion,
landscape alteration,
waste discharges, visual
impacts
Visual impacts
Sediment, dust, noise,
particulates
Solid wastes
Sediment, trace ele-
ments, noise,
caustic chemical
wastes, spoil, floc-
culants, particulates,
fumes, solid wastes,
nutrients.
Conversion of terrestrial and free
flowing stream environment to a
lake environmenta(land use trade-
offs); hydrological changes,
habitat changes, sedimentation,
water quality
(continued on next page)
108
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Table 19 . Outline of potential environmental impacts
and relevant pollutants resulting from site prepa-
ration and construction practices (Concluded).
Construction Potential environmental Primary
practice impacts pollutants
(12) Solid waste Noise, visual impacts Particulates, dust,
handling equipment solid wastes
Cincinerators,
trash compactors)
d. Security fencing Long term - Sediments, wood
(1) Access road Increased runoff wastes
(2) Fencing Barriers to animal movements
Source: Modified from Hittman Associates, Inc. 1974. General environmental guide-
lines for evaluating and reporting the effects of nuclear power plant site
preparation, plant and transmission facility construction. Modified from:
Atomic Industrial Forum, Inc. Washington, DC.
109
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features that warrant special attention (e.g., critical habitats of imperiled
species, archaeological/historical sites, high quality streams, wetlands, or
other sensitive areas on the site). All mitigating conservation measures
which are proposed to avoid or reduce adverse impacts from preparation of the
site and construction activities should be described in the EIA.
II.F. MODELING OF IMPACTS
The ability to forecast environmental impacts accurately often is improved
by the use of mathematical modeling of the dispersion and dissipation of air
and water pollutants as well as the effects of storm runoff.
Two of the most widely used and accepted models are:
DOSAG (and its modifications)
The QUAL series of models developed by the Texas Water Development
Board and modified by Water Resources Engineers, Inc.
Some of the parameters that these models simulate are:
Dissolved oxygen
BOD
Temperature
pH
Solids
In addition, there are many available water quality models that were developed
in association with NPDES activity and the need for optimization of waste load
schemes for an entire river basin.
110
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There also are available mathematical models that may be used for air pollution
studies and solid waste management optimization:
For short term dispersion modeling of point sources, EPA's PTMAX,
PTDIS, and PTMTP models may be employed.
For modeling of long term concentrations over larger areas, the
EPA's Climatological Dispersion Model, AQDM and CRSTER, may
be used for point and area sources.
In general, the use of mathematical models is indicated when arithmetic
calculations are too repetitious or too complex. Their use also simplifies
analysis of systems with intricate interaction of variables. Models thus
offer a convenient way of describing the behavior of environmental systems,
but their use and applicability should be determined on a case by case basis.
(For a more detailed discussion of modeling techniques see section II.E.,
Modeling of Impacts, in Guidelines for the preparation of an environmental
impact assessment report for new source fossil-fueled steam electric generating
station, US-EPA, to be published in 1978).
Ill
-------
III. POLLUTION CONTROL
III.A. STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY: IN-PROCESS CONTROLS - WATER,
AIR, SOLID WASTES
There are a number of pollution control measures which can be taken to effec-
tively reduce refinery waste streams and their associated impacts. Many of
these steps also will reduce operation and capital costs and/or increase
production. The EIA should contain a discussion of the applicability of these
steps to the particular installation. Discussions of pollution control should
consider reduction of effluents and emissions at the source (design planning,
etc.). Further, reuse and recycling options should be investigated and may
include:
r
Use of catalytic cracker accumulator wastewaters rich in l^S
for makeup to crude desalters
ft Use of blowdown condensate from high pressure boilers for makeup
to low pressure boilers
Reuse of waters that have been treated for closed cooling systems,
fire mains and everyday washing operations
Stormwater use for routine water applicators
Blowdown waters from cooling towers for use as water seals on
high temperature pumps
Recirculation of steam condensate
Recycling of cooling waters
Effective maintenance measures also can reduce waste streams. The applicant
should describe all proposed maintenance activities in the EIA. They may
include:
112
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Recovery of oil spills and hydrocarbons with vacuum trucks to
reduce emission and water effluents
Reduction of leaks and accidents through preventive maintenance
(pump seals, valve stems, etc.)
Separation of hazardous wastes, concentrated wastes, and other
process wastes from general effluents from more effective treatment
Diking of process unit areas to control and treat spills, oily
stormwater runoff, or periodic washes
Reduction of shock pollution loads on treatment facilities
through the periodic flushing of process sewers of prevent
contaminant buildup
Development of a specialized program for handling hazardous
wastes, sludges, washwaters and other effluents
Development of a system to minimize wastes from monitoring
stations
o Improvement of personnel awareness that waste treatment is
initiated at the process unit.
Acutal process changes often can reduce pollution significantly while return-
ing a value through recovery. Technology changes that reduce pollution may
not be as cost-effective during process cycles, but may prove to be highly
beneficial when waste treatment costs have been reduced. Depending on the
feasibility and suitability of a particular project, such process technology
changes may include:
Catalyst switching to a longlife catalyst with greater activity
to reduce regeneration frequency
113
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Replacement of barometric condensers (direct-contact condensers)
with surface condensers (indirect-contact condensers) or air-fin
coolers
III.A.I. Cooling System
A description of the cooling system is necessary including possible alterna-
tives, i.e., nonevaporative devices. The evaporating cooling systems include
spray ponds, mechanical-draft cooling towers, atmospheric cooling towers, and
natural-draft cooling towers. Treated wastewater should be considered for
makeup purposes. The cooling water blowdown composition is dependent on the
composition of the original water used, the operation methods, and cooling
water treatment. Chromates, zinc, polyphosphates, dust, microorganisms and
other corrosion inhibitors are constituents of the cooling treatment waste-
waters. A discussion of alternate treatment methods, process operations and
piping materials also should be discussed. Dry cooling systems of air-fins
to dissipate the undesired heat directly to the atmosphere should be discussed,
III.A.2. In-Process Physical/Chemical Pretreatment
The applicant should discuss the following important pretreatment steps in
the EIA:
Flow equalization neutralization of spent acid and spent caustic
wastewaters
Oil separators and slop oil recovery systems
Clarifiers to separate sediments using chemical coagulations as
needed
114
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III.B. STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY: END-OF-PROCESS CONTROL (WATER
STREAMS)
Table 6 (page 41}' identifies and estimates the various wastewater treatment
processes used by petroleum refineries. It illustrates the impact of the recent
environmental considerations on the increased usage of wastewater pollution
control devices.
Depending on refinery location, refinery plant size, the refining process
(degree of crude finishing), and wastewater characteristics, the wastewater
treatment facilities are designed based on the processes in Table 6. Table
12 (presented earlier in Section II.A.) shows wastewater characteristics and
quantities for the various petroleum unit operation.
The EIA should demonstrate that the applicant has given adequate attention to
Implementation of new technology for abatement of water pollution. The EIA
should include an understandable, but complete description of the proposed
wastewater treatment system. A process flow diagram also should be provided
to illustrate each step of treatment scheme. Generally most refineries use
the following basis treatment approach:
Pretreatment to remove phenols, sulfides, mercaptans, ammonia and
adjust ph (processes utilized are steam stripping, flue gas strip-
ping, oxidation and neutralization)
Removal of free oil and suspended solids by gravity
e Removal of emulsified oil, suspended solids, colloids and solids
by coagulation and settling, sand filtration and gas flotation
Biological treatment to remove dissolved organics
115
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Tertiary treatment to remove dissolved organics and inorganics
color, odor and taste with foam fractionation, activated carbon,
Ion exchange, electrodlalysis or ultrafiltration
Disposal of high organic containing liquids or solids by combus-
tion (incineration)
Sludge arising from biological systems and solids separation
processes are dewatered with the use of sand filtration, vacuum
filtration or centrifugation; sludge is then disposed of by land-
fill or incineration
Figure 7 shows the diverse combinations of waste treatment processes that can
be used to treat refinery wastewater streams. In addition, Table 20 estimates
efficiencies of the various treatment practices on refinery effluent streams.
By viewing Figure 7 and Table 20 collectively, one can obtain a first order
estimation of treatment efficiency for a particular oil refining facility.
To determine the optimum wastewater treatment system, there are a number of key
factors which should be considered. Specifically, the applicant should demon-
strate in the EIA, the analysis and selection method(s) used to arrive at the
proposed wastewater treatment design. At least the following information should
be presented:
Systematic consideration and analysis of all alternative wastewater
treatment approaches
Waste loadings from various process systems
Efficiency of alternative waste treatment sequences (system's
reliability and susceptibility to upset)
Energy and material demands of various treatment systems
Margin for system expansion
116
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Process
Miscellaneous
Secondary Treatment
Terrlary Treatment
Sludge Dewatering
Sludge Disposal
Dissolved
Oroanlcs
Dissolves Orgam'cs
Color, Taste, Odor
Sludge From
(2) 8 (4)
Emulsified Oil
SS, Collold.SoSds
Dissolved
Inorganics
S , Phenol, PH,
NH,,RSH
-- - -J
Dewatered
Sludge
Solid, Liquid, or
Gaseous Wastes
Waste
Stream
Trickling
Filter
» Sand Beds-i
General
OH Wastes
Activated
Sludge
»Ion Exchange
Oxidation or
Polishing Ponds
Steam
Stripping
Flue Gas
Stripping
Aerated
Lagoon
I Centrifuge
Gas Hydrotion
Ultrafiltratfon
Neutralization
Gaseous Effluent
, Phenols
j Spent
Coustlc
Heating
Coagulation
Precoot
Filtration
Centrifugation
Flow
Equalization
To Primary or
Secondary Refinery
Treatment Processe
Source: US-DOI. 1967. The cost of clean water. Volume III, Industrial Waste Profile No. 5: Petroleum Refining. FWPCA
Publication No. I.W.P.-5. Available from US-GPO, Washington, DC.
Figure 7. Sequence/substitute diagram of various wastewater treatment systems.
-------
Table 20. Efficiency of oil refinery waste treatment practices based on effluent quality
Eraul-
Sus-
00
Physical Treatment
API separators
Earthern separators
Evaporation
Air flotation
without chemicals
Chemical Treatment
Air flotation with
chemicals
Chemical coagulation
and precipitation
Biological Treatment
Activated sludge
Aerated lagoons
Trickling filters
Oxidation ponds
Activated carbon
Ozonation
Process
Influent3
Raw waste
Raw vaste
API
effluent
API
effluent
API
effluent
API
effluent
API
effluent
API
effluent
API
effluent
API
effluent
Secondary0
effluent
Secondary
effuent
Separable sified
BOD
5-35b
5-50
100
5-25
10-60
10-70
70-95
50-90
50-90
40-80
50-90
50-90
COD
5-30b
5-40
100
5-20
10-50
10-50
30-70
25-60
25-60
20-50
50-90
50-90
Oil
60-99
50-99
n.a.
70-95
75-95
60-95
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
Oil
n.a.
n.a.
100
10-40
50-90
50-90
50-80
50-80
50-80
40-70
50-90
Phenol
Reduced
Reduced
100
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
65-99
65-99
65-99
65-99
80-99
80-99
Sulflde
S
n.a.
n.a.
100
10-40
Reduced
Reduced
n.a.
90-99
90-99
80-99
70-90
80-99
80-99
peuded
Solids
10-50
10-85
100
n.a.
10-40
50-90
50-90
60-85
0-40
60-85
20-70
n.a.
n.a.
Chloride
n.a.
n.a.
100
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a .
n.a.
Ammonia
n.a.
n.a.
100
n.a.
Reduced
n.a.
50-95
0-45
50-99
20-90
10-30
10-30
Cyanide
n.a.
n.a.
100
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
65-99
65-99
65-99
65-99
80-99
80-99
pH
n.a .
n.a.
n.a.
n.a .
n.a .
Altered
Altered
Altered
Altered
Altered
n.a.
n.a.
Toxic ity
n.a.
n.a .
n.a .
n.a .
n.a .
n.a .
Reduced
Reduced
Reduced
Reduced
Reduced
Reduced
Temp.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
11 . a .
n.a .
10-60
10-90
10-60
10-90
n.a.
n.a.
aHost probable process influent-indicates the kino1 or extent of prior treat-meni- ri>n,,1rtJ fnr t*tt\rli*nt ..t-4H,^t- j»« ~f >!. ~~tt,~ : .._.i._
- * --- ---------- -a ~- ~-«- .. -.«- ,fc*_n. u t, j. iA^tn, .tun vi. i. tic
consideration.
bBOD and COD from separable oil not included.
cChemical or biological treatment.
LEGEND: API - American Petroleum Institute, n.a. « Not Applicable
Source: US-DOI. 1967. The cost of clean water. Volume III, Industrial Waste Profile No. 5: Petroluera Refining. FWPCA
Available from US-GPO, Washington, DC.
process under
Publication No. I.W P -5
-------
Ability to meet receiving water quality standards
III.C. STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY: END-OF-PROCESS CONTROL (AIR
STREAMS)
Refinery operations result in emission of sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides,
particulate matter, CO and various hydrocarbons. Other emissions which
lately have earned considerable interest are trace elements such as asbestos,
mercury benzene, etc. The US EPA has enacted New Source Performance Standards
petroleum refineries. State and local air quality and emission standards also
may be imposed. To comply with these regulations, the operator of a new
source refinery has available various air pollution control devices and
techniques to reduce emissions to within allowable levels. At a minimum, the
following air pollution control measures for each pollutant should be con-
sidered and described in the EIA:
Hydrocarbon emissions can be limited through the use of floating-
roof tops; manifolding purge lines to a recovery system (condenser
or carbon adsorber) or to a flare (see Figure 8); vapor recovery
systems on loading facilities; preventive maintenance; enclosed
waste treatment plant; mechanical seals on compressors and pumps,
and trained and cognizant personnel. A typical scrubbing system
for emissions from air-blown asphalt stills is shown in Figure 9.
Particulates can be controlled with the use of wet scrubbers and
high-efficiency mechanical collectors (cyclones, bag houses);
electrostatic precipitators on catalyst regenerators and power
plant stacks; controlled combustion to reduce smoke; controlled
119
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FROM K.O.
DRUM
-A
. TO FLARE
S-IACK
©,£ (£ ij
(&l
. jjyj, fc ^"T" AITFRMATF
1 1 (WATER
FROM RELIEF SLOPE TOWARD VFWT
OR VENT PWM jy"
HEADER i » i-, (TU I
SYSTEM ] T * 1
STEAM f-» =±-\ --.,-X"^v--v,' *
KNOCK-OUT DRUM I rTEVj
TO OIL RECOVERY
ILY *ATER SEWER
I'TO SOJR WiTER SYSTEM IF
LAROt QUANTITIES OF H,S
A"5E FLARED z
CONTINUOUSLY)
MOL SEA
SEALING METHOD PU>iSE SAS
SEAL)
FLOW
SLOPE TOWARD MEASURING
DRUM ELEMENT ~)
_i ^Jr
h
"4.
'-*»-
^a
^
*
J
nun ( FLARE S7AC>t
MOUNTED yRATIO
^.IGNITER LINE
_ STEAM TO NOZZLE MANIFOLD
FOR SMOKELESS BURNING
tPOWER SUPPLY FOR
T """"'SPARK ISNITER
FLAME FRONT f~.
GENERATOR QPJ)
P*T . T < AIR SUPPLY
1 TP i i « FUEL SAS
*' frTVreiWTy10 PIU)TS
1*1C/ *
I"""! Y ~U " JSILAMFOH
LH 1 1 T SMOKELESS
* STEAM DRIVEN PUMP
B ELECTRICALLY
DRIVEN SPARE
Source: API. 1973. Hydrocarbon emissions from refineries. Publication 0.928,
Washington, D.C.
Figure 8. Typical flare installation.
Note: This represents an operable system arrangement and its components.
Arrangement of the system will vary with the performance required. Corres-
pondingly, the selection of types and quantities of components, as well as
their applications, must match the needs of the particular plant and its
specifications.
120
-------
AIR BLOWN
ASPHALT STILLS
(BATCH OPERATIONS)
FUME
SCRUBBER
KNOCK-
OUT
DRUM
T
WATER
EXHAUST
GASES '
TO
ATMOSPHERE
STEAM
BLANKET
MIST
ELIMINATOR
COVERED SEPARATOR
CONDENSATE
TO STORAGE I
nSKIMMER
1-ibKIMMtK .-.
T- J;«^d3 r-^;
' --'^ f'-fcl v-':.->'--J
3L.i.t*A'g^fl iii/Vy'^%V«il^Mi^^Jil
SKIMMED OIL
TO STORAGE
EFFLUENT WATER
TO COVERED
SEPARATOR
Source: API. 1973. Hydrocarbon emissions from refineries. Publication 0.928
Washington, B.C.
Figure 9. Simplistic low diagram for typical scrubbing system for emission
control from air-blown asphalt stills.
121
-------
stack and flame temperatures, and improved burner and incinerator
design.
Carbon monoxide emissions can be controlled at the catalytic
cracker and fluid coker units with a CO boiler and at other sites
through proper furnace and burner design.
Odor controls include a good preventive maintenance program;
the treatment of I^S-rich wastewater streams from the catalytic
crackers; gas-processing units and vacuum distillation towers;
and the flaring of I^S, mercaptans, other sulfides and other odor-
producing compounds.
Sulfur dioxide emissions can be controlled primarily through the
burning of low-sulfur fuels in furnaces and boilers, the wet
scrubbing of high-sulfur dioxide flue gases, and the desulfurization
of fuels before use.
Nitrogen oxide emissions can be controlled through an improved
combustion process (i.e., lower flame temperature, less excess
air), low nitrogen fuel burning, and good stack dispersion.
Table 21 presents a summary of the principal emission control devices currently
employed at oil refinery facilities.
Other emission control technologies that currently are not used widely com-
mercially, but are emerging include:
Amine scrubbing
Hot potassium carbonate process
Sulfnol process (Shell Oil Co.)
Seaboard and vacuum carbonate process (Koppers Co.)
Phosphate process (Shell Development Co.)
122
-------
fO
UJ
PROCESS
Catalyst
Regeneration
Fluidized
Coking
Boilers/
Process Heaters
Sulfur
Recovery
Storage
Tanks
Loading
Facilities
Incineration
Light Ends
Table 21
EMISSION
Particulates
S0x
CO
Particulates
SCbc
Particulates
S02/H2S
Hydrocarbon
Hydrocarbon
Particulates
Hydrogen
Methane
Summary of emission control technologies currently in use
for various air pollutants generated from refinery processes.
UNCONTROLLED LEVEL
90-350 Lb/103 BBL Fresh Feed
310-525 Lb/103 BBL Fresh Feed
13,700
520
Essentially all fuel sulfur is
emitted as SOX
0.1-10 Lb/103 Lb Fuel Burned
5-10% of Sulfur Input
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
APPROX. CONTROL
EFFICIENCY
Cyclones 65-85%
Multiple Cyclones 70-90%
Electrostatic Precipitation > 95%
Wet Scrubber (high
energy venturi) > 90%
Wet Scrubber (high
energy venturi) > 80%
Waste Heat Boiler > 99%
Cyclones 65-85%
Multiple Cyclones 70-90%
Electrostatic Precipitation > 95%
Fuel Blending/Switching
Electro. Precip.
> 95%
Additional Glaus Stages Total Process
Achieves S Removal
of 97%
Tail Gas Scrubbing
Tail Gas Recovery (IFF,
Beagon, Cleanair)
1-10 Lb/day/103 gallons throughput Floating Roof
Pressurized Tanks
Vapor Recovery
1-12 Lb/103 Gallons Transferred Submerged Loading
> 90%
> 90%
99%
90-95%
50-70%
Variable
Variable
Cyclones 65-85%
Multiple Cyclones . 70-90%
Wet Scrubber - Packed Tower >90%
Venturi >90%
Flare
-------
Wet iron box process
Thylox process
Dolomite acceptor process
III.C. STATE OF THE ART TECHNOLOGY: END-OF-PROCESS CONTROLS (SOLID WASTE
DISPOSAL)
Petroleum refineries generate an estimated 625,000 metric tons per year of
waste (dry weight) in the course of distilling crude petroleum and processing
of petroleum products (US-EPA 1976). The volume of waste generated as well
as the economics of material recovery are determined to a large degree by
the type, age, and condition of process units and the market for product
"mix." Further, refineries in different geographic areas encounter widely
varying requirements and problems associated with their individual solid
waste streams. Treatment and disposal methods used in oil refineries are con-
tingent upon the nature, concentration, and quantities of waste generated, as
well as upon the potential tdxicity or hazardousness of these materials.
Pollution control methods are further affected by geographic conditions, trans-
portation distances, disposal site hydrogeological characteristics, and regu-
latory agency requirements.
(Much of the material wasted by refineries only 20 to 25 years ago has either
been eliminated by process changes, is now processed into marketable products,
is recycled for reprocessing, or is sold to secondary material processors for
extraction of valuable constituents. Noble metal catalysts, caustic solutions
containing recoverable quantities of phenolic compounds, and some alkylation
sludges reprocessed for sulfuric acid are examples of such waste streams.)
The types of wastes requiring disposal have been listed and described in Sec-
tion II.C. of this report.
124
-------
The paragraphs that follow discuss the primary treatment and disposal techni-
ques for handling solid wastes from refineries. These and any other developing
technologies should be considered by the permit applicant prior to selection
of the proposed disposal method.
III.D.I. Landfilling
Landfilling is presently the most widely used method for disposing of all
types of petroleum refinery waste products. The environmental adequacy of this
method is contingent not only upon the types and characteristics of generated
wastes, but also upon methods of operation and on specific site geologic and
climatologic conditions. Of all the land disposal methods used by the refining
industry, perhaps the greatest variations in operations and in site suitability
are experienced with landfills. Landfilling operations range from open dumping
of construction and refinery debris to controlled disposal in secure landfills
in certain western states.
The environmental adequacy of a refinery waste landfill is affected by the
following operational and management practices:
The extent of segregation of wastes to prevent mixing of incompa-
tible compounds, such as solids containing heavy metals with acids,
or solutions with other wastes which together produce explosions,
heat, or noxious gases
The extent to which liquid or semi-liquid wastes are blended with
soil or refuse materials to suitably absorb their moisture content
and reduce their fluid mobility within the landfill
The extent to which acids or caustic sludges are neutralized to
minimize their reactivity
125
-------
Selection of sites in which the active fill area is large enough
to allow efficient truck discharging operations, as well as to
assure that blended wastes may be spread, compacted, and covered
daily with approximately six inches of cover soil; A site operated
in this manner is called a sanitary landfill
The routing of ground and surface waters around the landfill site
and sloping of cover soil to avoid on-site runoff and erosion
III.D.2. l.andspreading
Landspreading is a relatively inexpensive method of disposal of petroleum
refinery wastes, which is being used by a growing number of refineries. The
success of landspreading in the warm Southwestern states has prompted many
U.S. refineries in colder climates to experiment with this method of disposal.
Many refineries, however, which employ landspreading have done so for only
about one to three years; only a few have a working experience with this pro-
cess for a longer period of time.
Historically, refineries have been concerned largely with possible oil con-
tamination of ground and surface waters which may result from landspreading.
Few refineries have considered other environmental effects which may result
from this operation. The real concern is not only the recognized short-term
oil problem and incomplete treatment of organic acids and other intermediate
byproducts, but the long-term implications of trace metal accumulation in the
soil over long periods of operation. The problem posed by disposal of heavy
metals on or in land largely is the same for all treatment and disposal tech-
nologies. The major difference is a quantitative one, with repeated applica-
tions of oily wastes to the same land areas potentially producing greater
concentrations of heavy metals than result from other disposal methods, In
126
-------
a confined secure disposal area, these heavy metals and other hazardous organic
acids or degradation products do not pose the same level of hazard to the
environment. Therefore, landspreading may be emerging as an important method
for disposal of certain refinery wastes and should be carefully assessed during
the EIA process.
III.D.3. Lagoons, Ponds, Sumps, and Open Pits
Lagoons, ponds, sumps and open pits have been used for many decades by the
petroleum refining industry for the disposal of liquid and semi-solid waste.
The expediency of past disposal by simply dumping wastes into lagoons or sumps
has turned into a major disposal problem in many parts of the country (Oil
and Gas Journal 1972). The demand for elimination of these unsightly sumps
has been prompted by many factors, among which, are the following:
The need for addtional land for refinery expansion
Increasing land values which demand that land be put to a
higher and more profitable use
a The envelopment of these lands by urban areas, and the
resulting increased potential dangers to people
Increasingly stringent regulatory agency requirements
The desire to eliminate potentially catastrophic situations
which may arise as a result of flooding rivers carrying
large amounts of petroleum sludge with them
Action is now being taken by a number of states (California, Oklahoma, Texas,
and Pennsylvania), to phase out the use of sumps and lagoons as permanent
disposal methods, allowing them to be used only as temporary retention or
treatment ponds. They are thus being relegated to use wastewater treat-
127
-------
ment units, such as primary and secondary clarifiers, biostabilization or
oxidation ponds, or thickening basins. Other uses included evaporation
ponds or emergency diversion basins. As wastewater treatment requirements
have become more stringent, many simple facultative and anaerobic lagoons
have been converted into aeration basins by the addition of mechanical aera-
tors. Because of their simplicity and ease of construction, many of the
newer refineries make considerable use of earthen or lined lagoons as primary
or secondary sedimentation chambers, aeration basins, oxidation ponds, storm
runoff ponds, and emergency oil spill retention basins.
The environmental acceptability of lagoons for any of the prescribed purposes
is very much dependent upon the method and materials of construction, specific
local hydrogeologic conditions, and the types of waste which are handled.
The potential for significant contamination of underlying water aquifers from
many inadequately lined lagoons, both old and new, is appreciable because of
improper location and inadequate safeguards. Although many of the units are
acceptable, the applicant should ascertain that adequate design and construc-
tion practices are followed in areas with high water tables, porous soils,
or other environmental constraints.
III.D.4. Leaded Gasoline Sludge Treatment and Disposal
Because organic lead vapors are known to be toxic at very low concentrations
(approximately 0.075 to 0.15 mg/ra-^, depending on lead compound), special
procedures have been developed exclusively for the treatment and disposal
of leaded gasoline sludges which accumulate in aviation and motor gasoline
storage tanks.
128
-------
Two basic procedures exist for the disposal of leaded-gasoline sludge from
gasoline product storage tanks. The first'procedure is the older of the two
and largely has been superseded by an improved method which ensures faster
and more complete degradation. Both procedures basically involve the con-
struction of a dike surrounding the tank to be cleaned. After the tank con-
tents (except sludge) is pumped to another tank, the remaining sludge is
either pumped into the dike for weathering and degradation or is transported
to a weathering pad elsewhere within the refinery. It subsequently is roto-
disked into the soil or buried on refinery property. The volume of leaded-
gasoline sludge generated is quite small and the frequency of cleaning is
subsequently low - on the order of every one to ten years. Even then, the
frequency of tank cleaning is dictated more by required tank maintenance than
by need fpr sludge removal.
III.D.5. Incineration
Incineration of semi-solid and solid organic and inorganic refinery-generated
wastes requires a special type of system which provides adequate detention
times, stable combustion temperatures, sufficient mixing, and high heat trans-
fer efficiency. A fluidized bed is one of the few systems which can satisfy
all these criteria. In addition, the fluidized bed of heated solids serves
as a heat sink to ignite volatilized hydrocarbons, thereby reducing or elimi-
nating the possibility of creating an extremely dangerous explosive mixture
of unburned gaseous hydrocarbons and air. The material to be incinerated
can be injected either into the fluidized bed or immediately above it.
Refinery wastes known to be incinerated by such systems include spent caustic
solutions, API separator bottoms, DAP float, waste bio sludge, and slop oil
129
-------
emulsion solids. Experience has shown that the reaction is self-sustaining
if the thermal content of the total wastes Incinerated exceeds about
29,000 BTU per gallon. Normal range of operating temperature is from 1300
to 1500 F. Loss of fluidization and plugging of the bed is still a major
problem in the operation of these units.
III.D.6. Deep Well Disposal
Subsurface or deep well injection is an ultimate disposal method which ori-
ginated with the oil and gas extraction industry. Connate brines, separated
from the extracted gas and oil, are pumped back into the formations from
which the fluid is originally taken, thus restoring the formation pressure
and facilitating the extraction of additional gas and oil. Gradually the
injection practice has been extended to include a multitude of wastes which
would be difficult to dispose of by any other means.
Several refineries in the Southern California area are known to inject waste
brines into deep wells. Deep well injection capital and operating costs can
be considerable. The future of deep well injection has been clouded by recent
legal and regulatory agency decisions (Ricci 1974; Ruckelshaus 1973).
III.D.7. J3cean Disposa1
The 1971 Dillingham report (Smith and Brown 1971) for the EPA on ocean disposal
of barge-delivered liquid and solid wastes reported that approximately 500,000 tons
of refinery wastes have been dumped into the ocean. The Marine Protection
Act of 1972 (PL 92-532) has transferred regulation and control of all ocean
dumping from the district office of the U.S. Corps of Engineers to the
Environmental Protection Agency. Ocean disposal of certain prescribed
130
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hazardous wastes is prohibited, although permits for other less
hazardous wastes are becoming increasingly difficult to obtain as alternative
methods of ultimate disposal become available. Present trends indicate that
ocean disposal will be gradually eliminated.
III.D.8. Special Treatment and/or Disposal Practices
A procedure for reducing the volume of crude tank bottoms is the use of
polyelectrolytes. The process is performed prior to cleaning the tanks, at
which time any crude oil remaining in the tank is pumped out to the sludge
layer and replaced with approximately 5,000 to 6,000 barrels of "Canadian
Condensate" or "off-gas" from field wells. The material in the tank is heated
with steam and mixed with the crude tank bottoms to a temperature of approxi-
mately 130 F.
-Tor
Another special practice that may be observed treatment of both liquid and
solid wastes is that of chemical fixation. Among the chemical fixation
methods which are in use in the petroleum refining industry are the following:
Use of chemical coagulants to create an insoluble precipitate.
Often the one waste stream that is deliberately treated to pro-
duce a chemically inert precipitate is the routing of cooling
tower blowdown containing hexavalent chromium through the API
separator where available sulfides bring about the reduction
of hexavalent chromium to trivalent chromium. From the API
separator, reduced chromium ion is routed through the spent lime
slurry tank where it is further precipitated by lime to chromium
hydroxide. The lime sludge containing the precipitated hydroxide
usually is removed by vacuum truck.
Sorption of solvent-like hydrocarbons on imbiber beads
131
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The use of a variety of chemical systems have been devised to
overcome the fluidity of certain petroleum wastes. These chemical
systems react with various components of the waste to form a
semi-solid material which effectively encapsulates or otherwise
ties up the harmful constituents. The majority of these methods
tend to isolate the material from the environment by either iso-
lating the waste component as a solid mass, drying out the liquid,
or achieving some form of chemical bonding or sorption. Chemical
fixation or solidification is used by a few refineries to solve
specific disposal problems, such as the permanent disposal of
environmentally unacceptable lagoons filled with API separator
bottoms or crude tank bottoms. The Chemfix Process is an
example of such a chemical system. It consists of adding metered
quantities of reactants to 300 to 500 gallons of waste slurry at
intervals of one minute, and mixing to obtain homogeneity. The
volume of reactant added to the waste is usually less than ten
percent and often below five percent by volume. If cement were
used to solidify the same waste, a volume increase of about 100%
would typically be required to obtain a solid waste containing
the entire liquid portion. The process is continuous and occurs
at ambient temperature and pressure.
III.E. TECHNOLOGIES FOR CONTROL OF POLLUTION FROM CONSTRUCTION SITES
The major pollutant at a construction site is loosened soil that finds its
way into the adjacent water bodies and becomes "sediment." This potential
problem of erosion and sedimentation is not unique to refinery construction,
but applies widely to all major land disturbing activities. Common remedial
132
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measures include, but are not limited to, proper planning at all stages of
development and application of modern control technology to minimize the pro-
duction of huge loads of sediment. Specific control measures include:
The use of paved channels or pipelines to prevent surface erosion
Staging or phasing of clearing, grubbing, and excavation activities
to avoid high rainfall periods
The use of storage ponds to serve as sediment traps, where the over-
flow may be carefully controlled
The use of mulch or seeding immediately following disturbance
If the applicant chooses to establish temporary or permanent ground cover,
grasses normally are more valuable than shrubs or trees because of their
extensive root systems that entrap soil. Grasses may be seeded by sodding,
plugging, or sprigging. During early growth, grasses should be supplemented
with mulches of wood chips, straw, and jute mats. Wood fiber mulch has also
been used as an antierosion technique. The mulch, prepared commercially from
waste wood products, is applied with water in a hydroseeder.
The extent of control technologies used will be determined, in part, by the
quantity of soil removed because there is a range in unit cost per acre.
The acreage involved from refinery will vary to some degree with capacity and
site layout plans, therefore, the applicant should determine the most suitable
control measures on a case by case basis.
133
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IV. OTHER CONTROLLABLE IMPACTS
IV.A. AESTHETICS
New source petroleum refineries may be large and complex facilities occupying
an area of up to several hundred acres. Cooling towers, air emission stacks,
material storage and handling areas, and other plant components may detract
considerably from the surrounding landscape. Particularly in rural and sub-
urban areas, this configuration may represent a significant intrusion on the
landscape; existing industrial areas would be less affected. Measures to
minimize the impact on the environment should be developed primarily during
site selection and design. The applicant should consider, as applicable, the
following factors to reduce potential aesthetic impacts:
Existing Nature of the AreaThe topography and major land uses
in the area of the candidate sites can be important aesthetic
considerations. Natural topographic conditions perhaps could serve
to screen the refinery from public view. A lack of topographic
relief will require other means of minimizing impact, such as
regrading or establishing (or leaving) vegetation buffers. Analy-
sis of major land uses may be useful to assist in the design and
appearance of the facility. Design of the refinery should reflect
the nature of the area in which it is to be placed (i.e., the
structures should blend into the existing environment as much as
possible). The use of artists' conceptions, preferably in color,
will be most useful in determining the visual impact and appro-
priate mitigation measures and should be included in the EIA.
Proximity of Sites to Parks and Other Areas Where People Congre-
gate for Recreation and Other Activities The location of these
areas should be mapped and presented in the EIA. Representative
134
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views of the plant (site) from observation points and the visual
effects on these areas should be described in the EIA in order
to develop the appropriate mitigation measures.
Pipeline and Transportation System The visual impact of new
pipelines, access roads, railroad lines, barge loading/unloading
facilities, etc. on the landscape should be considered. Specific
locations, construction methods and materials, maintenance activi-
ties and mitigation plans should be specified.
Creation of Aesthetically Pleasing AreasIn some cases, the
development of a refinery will create aesthetically pleasing areas.
Screening the facility by vegetation or using the natural topography
may improve the appearance of an area. Creation of open space and
development of recreational facilities also can improve the area.
Such positive impacts should be described in the EIA.
IV.B. NOISE
Oil refineries may have a significant impact on ambient noise levels at the
fence line. Among the major sources of noise in a refinery are the following:
Compressors
Pumps and motors
Flares
In addition construction activities also generate substantial noise levels.
The applicant should undertake a site ambient noise survey prior to construc-
tion. This survey should be undertaken according to standard procedures
(Miller 1976). Then fence line noise levels should be projected during
construction and operation using estimates based on active noise levels of
various equipment as determined from other refineries and from equipment
135
-------
suppliers.
Noise levels can be reduced by:
Use of quieter equipment
e Shielding equipment
Good maintenance
Shielding the plant with a noise barrier
To evaluate noise generated from a proposed site, the applicant should follow
the sequence listed below:
Identify all noise-sensitive land uses and activities adjoining
the site
Identify existing noise sources, such as traffic, aircraft flyover,
and other industry, in the study area as defined
Identify all applicable State and/or local noise regulations
Estimate the noise level of the refinery during construction and
operation and compare with the existing community noise levels
and the applicable noise regulations
Calculate the change in community noise levels resulting from
construction of the refinery
Assess the noise impact of the refinery operational noise and
construction noise, and, if required, determine noise abatement
measures to minimize the impact
IV. C. SOCIOECONOMIC
Introduction of a large oil refining facility into a community may cause
economic and social changes. Therefore, it is necessary for an applicant
to understand the types of impacts or changes that may occur so that they
can be evaluated adequately in the EIA. The importance of these changes
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usually depends on the nature of the area where the refinery is located
(e.g., size of existing community, existing infrastructure). Normally,
however, the significance of the changes caused by a refinery of a given size
will be greater in a small, rural community than in a large, urban area.
This is primarily because a small, rural community is likely to have a non-
manufacturing economic base and a lower per capita income, fewer social groups,
a more limited socioeconomic infrastructure, and fewer leisure pursuits than
a large, urban area. There are situations, however, in which the changes may
not be significant in a small community and, conversely, in which they may
be considerable in an urban area. For example, a small community may have
had a manufacturing (or natural resource) economic base that has declined.
As a result, such a community may have a high incidence of unemployment in a
skilled labor force and a surplus of housing. Conversely, a rapidly growing
urban area may be severely strained if a new oil refinery is located there.
The rate at which the changes occur (regardless of the circumstances) also
is an important determinant of the significance of the changes. The applicant
should distinguish clearly between those changes occasioned by the construction
of the plant and those resulting from its operation. The former changes
could be substantial but usually are temporary; the latter may or may not
be substantial but normally are more permanent in nature.
During the construction phase, the impact usually will be greater if the pro-
ject requires large numbers of construction workers to be brought in from
outside the community than if local, unemployed workers are available. The
impacts are well known and include:
Creation of social tension
Demand for increased housing, police and fire protection, public
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utilities, medical facilities, recreational facilities, and other
public services
Strained economic budget in the community where existing infra-
structure becomes inadequate
Various methods of reducing the strain on the budget of the local community
during the construction phase should be explored. For example, the company
itself may build the housing and recreation facilities and provide the services
and medical facilities for its imported construction force. Or the company
may prepay taxes and the community may agree to a corresponding reduction in
the property taxes paid later. Alternatively, the community may float a bond
issue, taking advantage of its tax-exempt status, and the company may agree
to reimburse the community as payments of principal and interest becomes due.
During refinery operation, the more extreme adverse changes of the construction
phase are likely to disappear. Longer run changes may be profound, but less
extreme, because they evolve over a longer period of time and may be both
beneficial and harmful.
The permit applicant should document fully in the EIA, the range of potential
impacts that are expected and demonstrate how possible adverse changes will
be handled. For example, an increased tax base generally is regarded as a
positive impact. The revenue from it usually is adequate to support the
additional infrastructure required as the operating employees and their
families move into the community. The spending and responding of the earnings
of these employees has a multiplier effect on the local economy, as do the
interindustry links created by the new refinery. Socially, the community
may benefit as the increased tax base permits the provision of more diverse
and higher quality services and the variety of its interests increases with
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growth in population. Contrastingly, the transformation of a small, quiet
community into a larger, busier community may be regarded as an adverse change
by some of the residents, who chose to live in the community, as well as by
those who grew up there and stayed, because of its amenities. The applicant
also should consider the economic repercussions if, for example, the quality
of the air and water declines as a result of various waste streams from the
new source oil refinery and its ancillary facilities.
In brief, the applicant's framework for analyzing the primary and secondary
socioeconomic impacts of constructing and operating a refinery must be com-
prehensive. Most of the changes described should be measured to assess fully
the potential costs and benefits. The applicant should distinguish clearly
between the short term (construction) and long term (operation) changes,
although some changes may be common to both (e.g., the provision of infra-
structure) because the significance of the changes depends not only on their
absolute magnitude, but on the rate at which they occur.
The applicant should develop and maintain close coordination with State,
regional, and local planning and zoning authorities to ensure full under-
standing of all existing and/or proposed land use plans and other related
regulations.
IV.D. ENERGY SUPPLY
The impact of a petroleum refinery on local energy supplies will depend largely
on the type of processes proposed and the ancillary facilities. The applicant
should evaluate the energy efficiencies of all processes considered during
project planning and then consider the alternatives. Feasible design modifi-
cations also should be considered in order to reduce energy consumption.
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At a minimum, the applicant should provide the following information:
Total external energy demand for operation of the refinery
Total energy available on site
Energy demands by type
» Proposed measures to reduce energy demand and increase plant
efficiency
IV.E. IMPACT AREAS NOT SPECIFIC TO PETROLEUM REFINERIES
The intent of the preceding sections was to provide guidance to new source
NPDES permit applicants on those impact areas that are specific to or repre-
sentative of new source refinery operations. It is recognized that many im-
pacts resulting from the construction and operation of an oil refinery are
similar to impacts associated with many other new sources industries; there-
fore, no effort has been made to discuss these types of impacts, but instead,
to reference other more general guideline documents. For example, general
guidelines for developing a comprehensive inventory of baseline data (preproject
conditions) and a general methodology for impact evaluation are contained
in Chapters 1 and 2 of the EPA document, Environmental Impact Assessment
Guidelines for Selected New Source Industries. Although broad in scope, this
document and other appropriate guidance materials should be used by the appli-
cant for assistance in evaluating impacts which are not unique to petroleum
refineries.
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V. EVALUATION OF AVAILABLE ALTERNATIVES
V.A. SITE ALTERNATIVES
As with most industries, the petroleum refinery industry locates plants on the
basis of market demand for specific products, convenience to raw materials,
an adequate labor force and water supply, proximity to energy supplies and
transportation, minimization of environmental problems, and other factors.
Preliminary site selection activities should occur before the EIA document
is prepared. A variety of candidate sites initially should be considered and,
following a detailed analysis of each one, a preferred site should be selected
that best satisfies project objectives and that is expected to result in the
least adverse environmental impact.
The factors considered in selecting each site, and especially those that
influenced a positive or negative decision on its suitability, should be
documented carefully in the permit applicant's EIA. Adequate information on
the feasible alternatives to the proposed site is a necessary consideration
in issuing, conditioning, or denial of an NPDES permit (see 40 CRR, Part
6.924).
Specifically the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative site must
be catalogued with due regard to preserving natural features such as wetlands
and other sensitive ecosystems and to minimizing significant adverse environ-
mental impacts. The applicant should ascertain that all impacts are evaluated
as to their significance, magnitude, frequency of occurrence, cumulative effects,
reversibility, secondary or induced effects, and duration of impacts. If site
selection could influence accidents or spills of hazardous or toxic substances,
it should be discussed fully in the EIA.
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In the EIA the applicant also should display the alternative site locations
on maps, charts, etc., that show the refinery layout, environmental conditions,
and other relevant site information. (A consistent identification system for
the alternative sites should be established and retained on all graphic and
text material*) Pertinent and useful information night include, but is not
limited to:
All candidate areas and sites considered by the applicant
Major centers of population density (urban, high, medium, low
density, or similar scale)
9 Water bodies suitable for use in cooling system and/or in other
systems
Railways, highways (existing and planned), and waterways suitable
fox the transportation of fuels, wastes, raw materials, products,
and byproducts
Important topographic/geological features (mountains, marshes,
rock outcroppings)
Dedicated land use areas (parks, historic sites, wilderness areas,
testing grounds, airports, etc.)
o Other sensitive environmental areas (wetlands, prime agricultural
lands, critical wildlife habitat, etc.)
Major interconnections with power suppliers
o Other industrial complexes, significant mineral deposits, and
mineral industries
Quantification, although desirable, may not be possible for all factors because
of lack of adequate data. Under such circumstances, qualitative and general
comparative statements, supported by documentation, may be used. Where possible,
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experience derived from operation of other refineries at the same site,
or at an environmentally similar site, may be helpful in appraising the nature
of expected environmental impacts.
Economic estimates should be based at least on a preliminary conceptual design
that considers how construction costs are affected by such site-related factors
as topography, geology, and tectonics; distance from water supply source; and
cooling tower configuration as determined by meteorological factors.
Once a specific site for location of the refinery is proposed it may receive
considerable opposition locally, statewide or even nationally. Such opposition
may derive from the fact that the proposed refinery would significantly impact
a unique recreational, archaeological, or other important natural or manmade
resource. It may destroy the rural or pristine character of an area or con-
flict with planned development for the area. It may have significant geological
and hydrological constraints. It may be subject to periodic flooding, hurri-
canes, earthquakes, or other natural disasters.
Therefore, if the proposed site location proves undesirable, then alternative
sites from among those originally considered should be reevaluated or new sites
should be identified and evaluated. Expansion or technological changes at
an existing plant site may be a possible alternative. Therefore, it is
critical that a permit applicant systematically identify and assess all
feasible alternative site locations as early in the planning process as possible.
Several different agencies may be able to assist the applicant in evaluating
potential areas for location of the new source industry. Those include;
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State, regional, county, or local zoning or planning commissions
can describe their land use programs and where variances would be
required. Federal lands are under the authority of the appropriate
Federal land management agency (Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Forest
Service, National Park Service, etc.)
State or regional water resource agencies can provide information
relative to water appropriations and water rights
c Air pollution control agencies can provide assistance relative
to air quality allotments and other air-related standards and
regulations
The Soil Conservation Service and State Geological Surveys can
provide data and consultation on soil conditions and geologic
characteristics
If the State has an industry siting law, the requirements also should be cited
and any applicable constraints described.
V.B. PROCESS ALTERNATIVES
Typically, when the decision is made to expand refining capacityeither
through a new refinery or an addition to an existing onethe type of facility
to be constructed is already fixed; that is, the demand for any given product
which initiated the decision would have dictated the type of process to be
used. The limitation on process alternatives is not as severe as it once was
because of improved process versatility and the development of new process
technologies.
In addition to demand, process alternatives should be selected on the basis
of economics, engineering, and environmental considerations. The applicant
-------
should present clearly and systematically in the EIA, the methodology used
to identify, evaluate, and select the preferred process alternative. All
process alternatives that appear practical should be evaluated on the basis
of criteria such as:
Land requirements, fuel storage facility requirements, and waste
storage facility requirements
Release to air of CO, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen
sulfide or other potential pollutants, subject to Federal, State,
or local limitations
Releases to water of heat, chemicals, and trace metals, etc. subject
to Federal, State, and local regulations
Water consumption rate
Fuel consumption and the generation of wastes with associated waste
treatment and disposal problems
Economics
Aesthetic considerations for each alternative process
e Reliability and energy efficiency of process
A tabular or matrix form of display often is helpful to compare costs and bene-
fits of feasible process alternatives. Processes which are not feasible should
be dismissed with an objective explanation for rejection.
V.C. NO-BUILD ALTERNATIVE
In all proposals for industrial development, the applicant must consider and
evaluate the alternative of not constructing the proposed new source facility.
Because this analysis is not unique to the development of petroleum refineries,
no specific guidance is provided as part of this document. The permit appli-
cant, therefore, is referred to Chapter IV (Alternatives to the Proposed New
Source) in the EPA document, Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines for
Selected New Sources Industries, which was published in October 1975.
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VI. REGULATIONS OTHER THAN POLLUTION CONTROL
The applicant should be aware that various regulations other than pollution
control may apply to the siting and operation of new petroleum refineries.
The applicant should consult with the appropriate EPA Regional Administrator
regarding applicability of such regulations to the proposed new source.
Some Federal Regulations than my be pertinent to a proposed facility are:
o Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (16 USC 1451 et seq.)
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1974 (16 USC 661-666)
National Environmental Policy Act If 1969 (42 USC 4321 et seq.)
USDA Agriculture Conservation Service Watershed Memorandum
108 (1971)
Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1969 (16 USC 1274 et seq.)
Flood Control Act of 1944
e Federal-Aid Highway Act, as amended (1970)
Wilderness Act of 1964
Endangered Species Preservation Act, as amended (1973)
(16 USC 1531 et seq.)
National Historical Preservation Act If 1974 (16 USC 470 et seq.)
Executive Order 11593
Archaeological and Historic Preservation Act of 1974 (16 USC 469
et seq.)
Procedures of the Council on Historic Preservation (1973)
Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970
In connection with these regulations, the applicant should place particular
emphasis on obtaining the services of a recognized archaeologist to determine
the potential for disturbance of an archaeological site, such as an early
146
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Indian settlement or a prehistoric site. The National Register of Historic
Places also should be consulted for historic sites such as battlefields.
The applicant should consult the appropriate wildlife agency (State and
Federal) to ascertain that the natural habitat of a threatened or endangered
species will not be affected adversely.
From a health and safety standpoint, most industrial operations involve a
variety of potential hazards and to the extent that these hazards could
affect the health of plant employees, they may be characterized as potential
environmental impacts. All refinery operators should emphasize that no
phase of operation or administration is of greater importance than safety
and accident prevention. Company policy should provide and maintain safe and
healthful conditions for its employees and establish operating practices that
will result in safe working conditions and efficient operation.
The refinery must be designed and operated in compliance with the standards of
the U.S. Department of Labor, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration,
and the appropriate State statutes relative to industrial safety. The applicant
also should coordinate closely with local and/or regional planning and zoning
commissions to determine possible building codes and restrictions.
147
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