EPA-520/4-78-003
RADIATION
PROTECTION ACTIVITIES
1977
THE UNITED STATES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RADIATION PROGRAMS
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RADIATION PROTECTION ACTIVITIES
1977
An Annual Report Prepared By
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Radiation Programs
Washington, D.C. 20460
August 1978
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UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
To Readers of Radiation Protection Activities:
Since 1974 EPA has published this report to consolidate information about radiation protection activities,
which take place in several dozen Federal agencies and cover a spectrum from nuclear power to medical x rays.
This report is in keeping with EPA's charge to "advise the President with respect to radiation matters, directly
or indirectly affecting health, including guidance to Federal agencies in the formulation of radiation standards."
We hope it will be useful to those who want an understanding of the full sweep of Federal activities; as in
previous years, it will be made available to Congress, key administrative officials, States and the public.
We have established a generic outline to be used every year, so readers may more easily compare activities
from one report to the next. Under each source of radiation exposure, substantive areas (such as wastes under
nuclear power) are divided into kinds of action — guidance, environmental impact statements, education,
enforcement, research. Selected activities, which will vary from year to year, are then discussed briefly under
each category.
Rather than presenting an exhaustive examination of each item, we have identified the responsible agency so
that people who want more detailed information will know where to find it. Among the most useful sources are
the annual reports of other agencies; while none of them catalogs the overall Federal effort like this report, they
do provide more detailed data on their own activities. Another good source for further information is the
expanded publications list for 1977, Appendix B. It should be noted that this document serves as EPA's own
annual report as well as being a comprehensive overview of other Federal agencies, so EPA's activities are
necessarily presented in more detail tthan others'.The chapters make no attempt to represent accurately the
breakdown of programs or funding in a particular area among the various agencies. Rather, they sample many
efforts and show the diversity and scope of Federal involvement.
Each year we attempt to focus the report more clearly and to respond to the comments we receive about it. If
you would like to see it modified, or if you have found errors or omissions, please let us hear from you.
W. D. Rowe, Ph.D.
Deputy Assistant Administrator
for Radiation Programs
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Ill
OUTLINE
Page
I. INTRODUCTION !
1. Congressional Activities 1
Clean Air Act Amendments
Radiation Health and Safety Oversight
Department of Energy
Nuclear Power Issues
2. Executive Branch 3
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)
Department of Energy (DOE)
Bureau of Radiological Health (BRH)
Multi-Agency Responsibilities
Occupational Exposure
Nuclear Export Licensing Policy
Radioactive Materials Transportation
Consumer Products
Emergency Response Planning
3. Federal/State Jurisdiction 7
II. NATURALLY OCCURRING RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS 8
1. Introduction and Summary 8
2. Executive Activities by Source of Radiation 9
a. Uranium Mining and Milling Tailings
•Environmental Impact Statements
NRC's Generic Statement
EPA Reviews
•Studies
Uranium Solution Mining Impacts
Uranium Mill Effluents
Joint Engineering Assessment
b. Coal 11
NRC Studies
Assessment of the Radiological Impact of Western Coal
c. Phosphate Mining and Milling 12
•Studies
d. Water 13
•Guidance
Radioactivity in Drinking Water
e. Other Sources 14
Radioactive Waste Regulation
III. MEDICAL RADIATION EXPOSURE 15
1. Introduction and Summary , 15
2. Executive Activities 17
a. Comprehensive Activities 17
•Guidance
X-Rays in Federal Health Care Facilities
Exemption Procedures for Government Used Electronic Products
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IV
•Education and Quality Control
Participation in BENT
Film Processor Conference
National Radiation Control Network
•Studies
Radiation Treatment of Benign Disease
b. Diagnostic X-Ray Systems 19
•Guidance 19
Amendments to X-Ray Standard
Recommendations on Diagnostic Radiology Doses
Mammography Recommendations Suggested
•Education and Quality Assurance 20
Medicai X-Ray Operator Job Performance
Radiologic Technologists Self Assessment
New X-Ray Quality Assurance Materials
Breast Exposure: Nationwide Trends Training
Quality Assurance Catalog
PHS Quality Assurance Program
X-Ray Film/Screen Imaging Characteristics
Workshops on Scintillation Camera Quality Control
•Compliance 21
State Contract for X-Ray Compliance
Compliance Test Manual Revised
X-Ray Assembler Fine
•Studies 22
Evaluation of Somatic Doses
Skull X-Ray Selection Criteria
Instrument to Analyze Neutron Contamination
Problems of Computed Tomography Scanners
c. Nuclear Medicine 23
•Guidance
Safety Program for Radiation Therapy Equipment
Nuclear Medicine Thyroid Study Techniques
Teletherapy Machines
Licensing
•Education and Quality Assurance
Workshops on Radiopharmaceutical Quality Assurance
In Vitro Nuclear Medicine Workshops
NRC Role in Medical Uses of Radioisotopes
Radiological Physics Centers
•Studies
Teletherapy Calibration Study
Thyroid Imaging Agents Studies
Possible Delayed Effects of Therapeutic lodine-131
Radiation and Breast Cancer
Repeat Examinations in Nuclear Medicine
d. Ultrasound 26
•Education and Quality Assurance
Ultrasound Therapy Measurement Device
•Studies
Fetal Exposure to Ultrasound
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IV. NUCLEAR POWER 27
1. Introduction 27
a. Industry Status
b. Presidential Action
2. Selected Major Judicial Activities 29
Uranium Fuel Cycle Rule
Energy Conservation Issues
Transportation Litigation
Constitutionality of the Price Anderson Act
Wastes
North Anna Plant
3. Summary 31
4. Executive Activities 33
a. Comprehensive Activities 33
•Guidance 33
EPA/ORP Environmental Analysis of Carbon-14
Appendix I
Fuel Cycle Standard
•Study Review 34
•Environmental Impact Statements 34
Mixed Oxide Fuel
Portsmouth Gaseous Diffusion Plant Expansion
Floating Nuclear Power Plants
• Enforcement 37
Inspection Types
Action Taken
Revised Inspection Program
• Quality Assurance 38
• EPA Studies 38
Operational Analysis Program
Gaseous Effluents from Reactors
EPA/ORP Radiation Studies at Nuclear Facilities
Liver Cancer Risk
•NRC Studies and Reviews
NRC Advisory Committee
Environmental Review
Environmental Dispersion
Ecological Impact
Socioeconomic and Regional Studies
• DOE Studies 41
Environmental Studies
Environmental Control Systems Analysis
Physical and Technological Studies
b. Wastes 42
• Guidance 42
EPA Criteria and Standard
Spent Fuel Storage
Waste Classification
High Level Waste
Performance Criteria for Solidified Reprocessing Wastes
Decontamination and Decommissioning
Low Level Wastes
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VI
•Education 45
NRC Workshop
•Study Review 45
Impacts of Reprocessing and Waste
• Environmental Impact Statements 46
Waste Management Operations at Savannah River Plant
Oak Ridge Intermediate Wastes
Brookhaven National Laboratory
Waste Management Operations at Idaho National Laboratory
•Studies 47
EPA/ORP Research on Burial Sites
Maxey Flats Radiological Measurements
West Valley
NRC Radioactive Waste Disposal Classification Study
Panel of Earth Scientists
c. Spent Fuel 49
•Environmental Impact Statement
d. Transportation 49
•Administration
•Studies
Report on Transportation Accidents at Sea
•Enforcement
Abnormal Occurrences
e. Emergency Response Planning 51
• Guidance to States
• Protective Action Guides
• Protective Actions
• Instrumentation for Radiological Emergencies
•Training Programs
• Interagency Activities
• International Activities
• DOE Activities
V. OTHER NUCLEAR SOURCES 54
1. Nuclear Weapons Testing 54
•Responses
Tests During 1977
Tests During 1976
Federal Responses to Nuclear Detonations
•Environmental Impact Statement
Nevada Test Site
•Studies
Aircrew Performance
Atomic Bomb Survivors
2. Defense Wastes 57
•Environmental Impact Statement
Rocky Fiats Plant Sites
3. U.S. Nuclear Navy 58
Radiological Surveys of Ports
4. Consumer Products 58
•Education and Quality Assurance
•Studies
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VII
VI. PROTECTION FROM NONIONIZING RADIATION 59
1. Introduction and Summary 59
2. Executive Activities 63
a. Comprehensive Activities 63
b. Radiofrequency and Microwave 63
• Guidance 63
Draft Standard for Microwave Diathermy Products
• Compliance 63
Monitoring Reports by TV Receiver Manufacturers
Sunlamps with Faulty Timers
UV Hazard Monitor
• EPA Studies 64
Urban Environmental Measurements
Length of Gestation
Animal Studies on Behavioral Effects
In Vitro Studies
UV Radiation and Skin Cancer
Analysis of Thermal Considerations
Environmental Impact Analysis of Radar Systems
• BRH Studies 66
Review of Research Programs
Microwave Diathermy Applicators
Microwave-Induced Behavioral Changes
Miniature Electromagnetic Probe
• National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Studies
•Department of Defense Studies
c. Light Products and Devices 68
•Guidance
Standard for Mercury Vapor Lamps
Proposed Standard for Sunlamps
• Education and Quality Assurance
Mercury Vapor Lamp Hazards
d. High Voltage Transmission Lines 69
e. Lasers and Laser Products 69
• Guidance
Variance for Laser Product
VII. OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE 70
1. Introduction and Summary 70
2. Environmental Protection Agency 72
• Guidance
Petition to Reduce Occupational Exposure Limits
•Studies
Annual Occupational Exposure Statistics
3. Nuclear Regulatory Commission 73
•Guidance
Respiratory Protection
Medical Institutions
Health Protection at Uranium Mills
Dosimeters
Overexposures of Radiographers
Exposures at Nuclear Power Stations
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VIII
•Studies
Airport Workers
Dosimetry Models
4. Department of Energy 77
5. Mining Enforcement and Safety Administration 79
6. Occupational Safety and Health Administration 81
7. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 81
VIII. COMPREHENSIVE EXECUTIVE ACTIVITIES 83
•Guidance 83
Transuranium Contamination
EPA/ORP's Standards for the Uranium Fuel Cycle
Ocean Dumping
Effluents with International Implications
Radioactivity in the Great Lakes
Interagency Cooperation
Review of Proposed Transportation Regulations
•Quality Assurance 86
•Studies 87
EPA/ORP's Research Committee
Dose Assessment Program
ERAMS
Radiological Quality of the Environment
Facility Data Analysis Project
Radioactive Air Emissions Studies
Polish/American Glacier Pollution Study
Health Effects of Transuranics
Lung Cancer and Radon Exposure
Long Term Effects of Coal and Nuclear Power Generation
Radon Health Effects Modeling
Computer Code for Risk Analysis
Ocean Disposal Studies
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INTRODUCTION
Americans get most of their exposure to
radiation from naturally-occurring sources
like cosmic rays and soils. Although we can
affect it by where we choose to live, whether
we travel by air, or how we decide to vacation,
a certain amount of exposure is inescapable
for each individual.
The purpose of radiation protection is to
limit:
— the dose to individuals which is added to
the relatively unavoidable amount,
— the total population dose, which is the
sum of all doses to individuals over the time
period that a radioactive material might
reasonably be expected to be available for
interaction with people.
Setting Federal policy about how much and
what kind of protection the public should
have from any one particular source of
radiation is certainly complex, since risks and
benefits are often uncertain. In terms of
exposure to individuals, the major source
which almost everyone agrees could be cut
down safely and substantially arises from
diagnostic x-ray procedures. The possible
reduction in individual or even total popula-
tion exposure by controlling most other
sources — the nuclear fuel cycle, consumer
products containing naturally-occurring radio-
active materials, naval reactors, and so on — is
comparatively small because doses are small.
However, the nuclear fuel cycle and some
mining and fossil fuel sources are important
because they can produce radioactive materi-
als which, if discharged, persist in the
environment for hundreds of years and
longer, possibly exposing large population
groups. Likewise, such operations produce
waste materials that could result in varying
degrees of hazard to different population
groups for very long time periods, depending
on the amount of control or isolation involved.
This report is designed to survey in some
detail the activities of several Federal agencies
involved in radiation protection — such as
controlling medical x-ray exposures, managing
nuclear power plant effluents, protecting
workers exposed to radiation, and monitoring
fallout. In addition, some of the less obvious
activities are referred to, to give readers a
sense of the scope of Federal involvement.
This introduction will focus on how the
jurisdictionai pie is sliced in Congress, among
Federal agencies, and between Federal and
State authorities.
1. Congressional Activities
As will be seen below, many Congressional
Committees are involved in radiation protec-
tion issues. They are covered both by the
Committees with jurisdiction over substantive
areas like health or the environment, and by
the Appropriations Subcommittees for each
agency involved. Enumerating the responsibil-
ities of each Committee would not be helpful
to people seeking pertinent hearings, since
virtually every Committee could have some
reason for being interested in radiation
protection: transportation, consumer pro-
ducts, occupational safety, small business,
international affairs, executive branch jurisdic-
tion, and so on. Involvement depends on
whether Members of a particular Committee
are interested in radiation protection. Below
are some highlights of pertinent Congressional
activities in 1977.
Clean Air Act Amendments
EPA/ORP was given major new responsibili-
ties under the Clean Air Act Amendments,
passed in August 1977. They expanded the
Agency's mandate to include all radioactive air
emissions, covering source, special nuclear
and by-product material as defined in the
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Atomic Energy Act. Under the timetable
established by the Amendments for carrying
out the new responsibilities, EPA/ORP will
determine by August 1979 which, if any,
airborne radioactive pollutants should be
regulated because of significant health effects.
Various possible modes of regulation and
other actions are prescribed by the Amend-
ments, depending on the initial findings.
Radiation Health and Safety Oversight
Comprehensive Radiation Health and Safety
oversight hearings were held by the Senate
Committee on Commerce, Science and
Transportation in June 1977 (Serial 95-49). In
addition to covering implementation of the
Radiation Control for Health and Safety Act,
the Committee addressed the work of 32
different Federal agencies. The purposes were
to define how to coordinate or clarify the
many and sometimes overlapping or conflict-
ing responsibilities, and to assess the adequacy
of current efforts. The Committee heard not
only from many of the Executive agencies
involved, but also from private, scientific, and
medical societies, standards setting organiza-
tions, and individual scientists.
As part of its examination of health and
safety regulation, the Senate Governmental
Affairs Committee released a report on
radiation safety functions of the Federal
government. It recommends that legislative
action be taken to grant EPA powers similar to
the ones it has over toxic substances,
centralizing into one agency all the authority
presently diffused among eight executive
departments, two independent commissions
and five other units.
Department of Energy
The Department of Energy was authorized
in Public Law 95-91, signed by President Carter
on August 4,1977. The^briginal legislation was
transmitted on March 1,1977 to bring together
the many fragmented energy programs and
offices in the Federal Government. DOE owns
and operates many nuclear facilities, and is
responsible for relevant radiation protection.
When it was activated on October 1, DOE
consolidated all functions of the Federal
Energy Administration, the Federal Power
Commission, the Energy Research and Devel-
opment Administration, and certain authori-
ties from:
— the Department of Interior, including
setting of economic terms for leasing public
land for energy development, and gathering
data on fuel supplies, R&D on mining
technology and coal preparation analysis.
— the Department of Defense, over Naval
oil reserves and shale reserves.
— the Interstate Commerce Commission,
over transportation of oil by pipeline.
— the Department of Commerce, over
industrial energy conservation.
— the Department of Commerce, over
industrial energy conservation.
— the Department of Housing and Urban
Development, over energy conservation stand-
ards for new buildings.
Programs requiring large budget outlays
include conservation and solar applications,
resource applications, energy technology,
environment, energy research, and defense
programs.
Nuclear Power Issues
There was more legislative activity with
respect to nuclear wastes than any other single
radiation protection issue. Proposals included
a wide variety of provisions touching on the
State role in siting storage facilities, how mill
tailings should be provided for, ocean
dumping of radioactive wastes, and transpor-
tation through densely populated areas. There
were three major sets of hearings during the
year.
First, the Subcommittee on Energy and
Environment of the House Interior Committee
held Oversight Hearings on Nuclear Waste
Management. Testimony was heard from
ERDA, NRC and EPA on the scope of the waste
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problem and the Federal response to it, as well
as on the adequacy of the Congressional
mandates. A representative of the General
Accounting Office summarized findings on
Federal waste management practices and the
division of responsibility among the agencies.
For outside views, both the industry and the
public interest community were represented.
Also important was a hearing on High Level
Nuclear Waste before the Subcommittee on
Environment, Energy and Natural Resources of
the House Government Operations Commit-
tee. Held in Richland, Washington, the focus
of the hearing was the waste facility located
there, with testimony by the regional EPA,
ERDA, and USGS officials as well as by the
industry. Subjects covered were the manage-
ment of high level defense wastes — including
their origins, makeup, quantities and locations
— and the research and development work
conducted by contractors on the commercial
nuclear power wastes.
Finally, on July 29 and August 1, hearings on
Nuclear Waste Management and Disposal
were held before the House Commerce
Committee's Subcommittee on Oversight and
Investigations. Many concerned companies
testified, along with ERDA, NRC and one
public interest group. A major purpose of the
hearings was to hear about the problems of
operating utilities which are beginning to run
low on storage pool space for spent fuel
elements. Short and long term options were
explored, with discussion of the possibility of
suspending licensing, financing of new facili-
ties, foreign spent fuel, and other policy issues.
Throughout 1977, there was controversy
over development of the breeder reactor, a
plutonium powered nuclear plant which
breeds more plutonium than it consumes. The
President announced his opposition to the
reactor in his nuclear power policy statement
April 7, on the basis that it would involve an
increased risk of further proliferation of
nuclear weapons. A number of Congressional
Committees held hearings on the subject,
including the Subcommittee on Fossil and
Nuclear Energy Research, Development and
Demonstration of the House Science and
Technology Committee. The President vetoed
an energy research authorization bill which
included the breeder (S. 1811), and the
controversy was still unresolved at the end of
the year.
The broad issue of exports and proliferation
was addressed in a number of bills, including
the amendments and variations of three
Senate Committees: Governmental Affairs,
Energy and Natural Resources, and Foreign
Relations. The basic concept was to define U.S.
nonproliferation policies within an international
framework of nuclear cooperation and safe-
guards, and to establish effective Federal
nuclear export controls. The House Interna-
tional Relations Committee held hearings to
clarify Federal agencies' various responsibili-
ties in the field, to provide revised licensing
criteria, and to specify U.S. policies on
international cooperation (Nuclear Antiproli-
feration Act of 7977, April 4, May 19,26, July 27,
29, August 1, 2, 1977).
Major reform of the process by which
nuclear reactors are licensed, now a very
lengthy and complex system, was also
considered. Some streamlining suggestions
were made, and the Administration intended
to propose new legislation to that effect in
1978.
2. Executive Branch
Nearly everything the Federal government
does in radiation protection is accomplished
by the Environmental Protection Agency's
Office of Radiation Programs (EPA/ORP), the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), FDA's
Bureau of Radiological Health (BRH) and
Bureau of Drugs, the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), the
Department of Defense (DOD), or the
Department of Energy (DOE).
The remaining activities and responsibilities
are scattered among many agencies, including
the National Bureau of Standards, the
Occupational Safety and Health Administra-
tion, the Office of Telecommunications Policy,
the National Cancer Institute, and the Central
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Intelligence Agency. While the discussion
which follows is by no means complete, it does
show the division of jurisdiction among four of
the major agencies involved, and the way a
number of multi-agency functions are handled.
Originally, nearly all authority pertinent to
radiation protection was or is derived from the
Atomic Energy Act and the Public Health
Service Act. These basic statutes have been
amended many times over and supplemented
by Executive Orders; additional relevant laws
have been passed, such as the Medical Device
Amendments and the Consumer Product
Safety Act.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
When EPA was formed in 1970 (by
Reorganization Plan No. 3), its new jurisdiction
included that of:
— the Federal Radiation Council, a
Presidentially appointed, Cabinet level group
formed "to advise the President with respect
to radiation matters, directly or indirectly
affecting health, including guidance to Federal
agencies in the formulation of radiation
standards ..." (73 Stat 690).
— radiation protection activities of the
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
covered under the_P_u_blic Health Service Act,
except "insofar as the functions.. .pertain to
(A) regulation of radiation from consumer
products, including electronic product radia-
tion, (B) radiation as used in the healing arts,
(C) occupational exposures to radiation, and
(D) research, technical assistance, and training
related to clauses (A), (B), and (C)" (Reorgani-
zation Plan No. 3 of 1970, Section 2). Other
functions under the PHS Act involve research
and investigation, national health surveys and
studies, and Federal/State cooperation in
public health.
— the Division of Radiation Protection
Standards in the Atomic Energy Commission,
"to the extent that such functions of the
Commission consist of establishing generally
applicable environmental standards for the
protection of the general environment from
radioactive material. As used herein,standards
mean limits on radiation exposure or levels, or
concentrations or quantities of radioactive
material, in the general environment outside
the boundaries of locations under the control
of persons possessing or using radioactive
material" (Ibid.).
Since 1970, EPA's radiation protection
authority has been extensively supplemented.
The major area of jurisdictional conflict
resulting from the additional legislation has
been implementation of water quality effluent
limitations under the Water Quality Control
Act of 1972. The Supreme Court found on June
1, 1976 that EPA is not required to regulate
radioactive effluents in discharge permits for
nuclear power plants. Before that decision, in
January 1976 a new and updated Memoran-
dum of Understanding became effective
between EPA and NRC on the preparation and
evaluation of environmental impact state-
ments. For all activities covered under the
Water Quality Act of 1972:
1. NRC serves as the "lead agency" for
preparation of environmental statements.
2. NRC and EPA work together to identify
environmental information needed to evalu-
ate the impact on water quality and biota.
3. EPA evaluates such impacts as far as
possible in advance of the issuance of NRC's
Final Environmental Impact Statement.
4. EPA endeavors to issue, where appropri-
ate, a complete Section 402 permit under the
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination Sys-
tem (NPDES) as far as possible in advance of
the NRC licensing action (construction permit,
operating license, or early site approval).
5. EPA and NRC consider the feasibility of
holding combined or concurrent hearings on
EPA's proposed Section 402 permits and NRC's
proposed licensing actions.
The range of other additional legislation is
extremely broad, since almost all of the major
bills affecting EPA can include radiation
protection in one way or another. Below are
some of the most important:
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— Toxic Substances Control Act, regulat-
ing all aspects of hazardous chemical substan-
ces and mixtures, including premarket review.
— Resource Conservat/on and Recovery
Act, identifying and listing hazardous wastes,
applying standards to their generators and
transporters, issuing permits for treatment,
storage or disposal.
— Solid Waste Disposal Act, publishing
guidelines for solid waste systems, consulting
with agencies which issue disposal licenses or
permits.
— Safe Drinking Water Act, promulgating
drinking water regulations, acting on an
emergency basis to protect public health
under certain conditions.
— Clean Air Act, publishing a list of air
pollutants and issuing air quality criteria and
standards for each pollutant listed, publishing
categories of stationary sources and regulating
them, publishing hazardous air pollutants and
prescribing emission standards. Also, see
above for a discussion of the 1977 Amend-
ments.
— Marine Protection, Research and Sanctu-
aries Act, allowing permits to be issued for
ocean dumping of radioactive substances
under certain conditions.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)
Broadly speaking, the Atomic Energy Com-
mission was split into its development (ERDA)
and regulatory (NRC) parts by the Energy
Reorganization Act of 1974 (88 Stat 1233, PL 93-
438). NRC became responsible for the
"licensing and regulatory functions" relating
to commercial nuclear facilities, and to some
facilities of the development arm (formerly
ERDA, now DOE). Therefore, NRC must
implement radiation protection standards,
both by defining specific requirements in the
licenses of individual plants and by enforcing
them.
The other major area of NRC responsibility
is the regulation of:
—"source material," meaning uranium or
thorium, or ores of a certain concentration of
either or both;
— "by-product material," meaning any
radioactive material (except below) yielded in,
or made radioactive by, producing or using
special nuclear material;
— "special nuclear material," meaning
plutonium, uranium-233, uranium enriched in
the isotope 233 or 235, any material enriched
by the foregoing, and any other material
designated by the NRC. Much of the
regulating of these materials is actually carried
out by the States rather than by the NRC itself.
Department of Energy (DOE)
DOE performs the great bulk of research on
the biomedical, environmental, physical and
safety aspects of nuclear and other kinds of
energy. It is also responsible for radiation
health and safety and environmental protec-
tion at DOE facilities, as part of their
construction, operation and decommission-
ing.
Bureau of Radiological Health (BRH)
The Food and Drug Administration's BRH
has many general public health responsibilities
associated with radiation protection. It con-
ducts an electronic product radiation control
program, including the development and
administration of performance standards. As
the agency primarily responsible for radiation
used in the healing arts, the Bureau develops
criteria, recommendations, and standards
relative to radiation equipment use and
exposure, as well as developing improved
techniques, procedures and users' qualifica-
tions for reducing unnecessary exposure. BRH
also provides advice to the Bureau of Foods
and the Bureau of Drugs on the control of
radioactive materials and radiation in food and
drugs. Other functions include research,
technical assistance and training in occupa-
tional radiation exposure; research on health
effects of radiation exposure; and participation
in the development of model state codes and
recommendations.
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Multi-Agency Responsibilities
Occupational Exposure
As part of its inheritance from the Federal
Radiation Council, EPA is responsible for
general Federal guidance for occupational ex-
posure. NRC and DOE establish implementing
standards for workers (including medical
licensees) covered under the Atomic Energy
Act; for uranium, phosphate and other miners,
the Mining Health and Safety Administration
in the Department of Interior performs the
same function. BRH has traditionally provided
implementing recommendations to the States
for workers in the health professions. The
Occupational Safety and Health Administra-
tion (OSHA) establishes regulations for work-
ers who are exposed to radiation and not
already protected by another agency's
standards.
Nuclear Export Licensing Policy
While NRC has responsibility for final
decisions about licensing export of nuclear
materials and equipment, a 1976 Executive
Order (E.G. 11902, February 2,1976) defines
procedures for involving other agencies. They
apply to specific export license applications,
general licenses for export, and proposed
exemptions from the requirement for a
license. To produce an executive branch
position on the effect on the common defense
and security, the Secretary of State is to consult
with the Secretaries of Defense and Com-
merce, the DOE, and the Director of the Arms
Control and Disarmament Agency.
Radioactive Materials Transportation
NRC, the Department of Transportation
(DOT), the U.S. Postal Service, and the States
all have a part in regulating the safety of
commercial shipments of nuclear material.
NRC regulations apply to its licensee's and
generally specify procedures and standards for
packages and shipments. DOT regulates
certain types of packaging, labeling and
. conditions of carriage. Since DOT and NRC
jurisdictions overlap, the agencies operate
under a Memorandum of Understanding in
order to provide consistent, comprehensive
and effective regulation without duplication.
The Postal Service regulates shipments of
nuclear materials by mail, and the States have
regulatory authority over intrastate transport
of nuclear materials.
Consumer Products
Jurisdiction over consumer products
containing radioactive material is incomplete
and extremely complex. Five different Acts
may be used to regulate risks associated with
products: the Occupational Safety and Health
Act (by OSHA), the Atomic Energy Act of 1954
(by NRC or Agreement States, discussed
below), the Clean Air Act (by EPA), or the
Radiation Control for Health and Safety Act
(by BRH).
If none of these can adequately reduce or
eliminate the risk — and if the radioactive
substance involved is not regulated by NRC —
the Consumer Product Safety Commission
may act. It can require appropriate branding
and labelling of products containing radioac-
tive substances, as long as it determines that
the material is sufficiently hazardous to
warrant control.
Emergency Response Planning
The Federal effort to develop and improve
emergency response planning for radiological
incidents includes provisions for assistance to
State and local governments in making plans
for fixed facilities and transportation. Led by
the NRC, agencies involved include EPA, DOE,
DOT, HEW, the Defense Civil Preparedness
Agency, and the Federal Disaster Assistance
Administration. Responsibilities among them
are assigned by the Federal Preparedness
Agency of the General Services Administra-
tion; the current division of labor was
published in the Federal Register on Decem-
ber 24,1975.
-------
3. Federal/State Jurisdiction
While the States may not regulate, control or
restrict any NRC activities (except in light of
the 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments), they can
and generally do regulate x-ray facilities and
use, as well as radioactive materials not
controlled by NRC. Forty-eight States and
Puerto Rico have their own enabling acts for
radiation protection, and 21 have specific
statutes to control nonionizing radiation. In
addition, although Federal radiation control
authorities dominate the field and generally
preempt States, many statutes include provi-
sions permitting Federal authority to be
delegated to States through individual agree-
ments. Two of the most important laws with
such provisions are the Atomic Energy Act and
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
(FWPCA).
The Atomic Energy Act (as amended by
Section 274) authorizes NRC to relinquish to a
State its regulatory authority over by-product,
source and special nuclear materials not
sufficient to form a critical mass. As of the end
of 1977, there were 25 Agreement States
exercising regulatory jurisdiction over
approximately 10,700 "agreement material"
licenses, as compared to about 8,500 such
licenses administered directly by the NRC. As
required by the Act, NRC conducts an annual
formal review of State programs to assure
continuing compatibility. NRC also provides
training courses; exchanges current informa-
tion on regulations, licensing, inspection and
enforcement; and consults with State off icials.
Similarly, EPA has agreements with 27
"permitting States" under FWPCA. They were
contacted in March 1976 by the National
Governors' Conference to promote early
cooperation with NRC in licensing nuclear
power plants and related facilities. Suggesting
that States might enter into agreements
modeled after the principles of the NRC/EPA
Memorandum of Understanding, the
Conference stimulated favorable response
from nine States.
To help make State programs compatible
and to some degree uniform, the Council of
State Governments published Suggested State
Regulations for the Control of Radiation in
cooperation with Federal agencies. Those
responsible for helping with periodic revision
and updating are NRC, BRH, EPA, and
particularly the Conference of Radiation
Control Program Directors.
On June 10, 1977, the NRC distributed for
public comment a draft report entitled
"Improving Regulatory Effectiveness in
Federal/State Siting Actions" (NUREG—0195).
This report was the culmination of some nine
months of intensive study by the NRC staff in
cooperation with State representatives and
other groups.
The study team identified a broad concept
of an effective regulatory system, in which the
Federal role is primarily to determine the
effect of proposed actions and in which States
have an increasing role in determining the
acceptability of actions within their purview.
The role of States would include determining
the acceptability of actions which affect local
affairs and which require matching of State
and local services to the needs of large
projects. By early involvement of States in the
planning process and by cooperative use of
the technical resources of the Federal
government, meaningful regulatory reform
would provide for early identification of
suitable sites, for increasing the assurance that
utilities can proceed with needed facilities,
and for greater public participation in the
process.
-------
8
II. NATURALLY-OCCURRING RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
1. Introduction and Summary
Most Americans are exposed to about the
same magnitude of radioactivity from
naturally-occurring sources, including cosmic
rays, materials originating beneath the earth's
crust, and a small amount from radioactive
gases in the air. However, there are significant
variations in exposure because of high
concentrations of uranium, thoron and their
decay products in soil; also, cosmic radiation
varies considerably with land elevation and
altitude above sea level. Exposure may also
differ in accordance with individual lifestyles
— because of more air travel, for instance.
One of the important naturally-
occurring sources of exposure is mined and
processed ores originating in strata containing
significant concentrations of uranium, thorium
and their daughter products. As long as they
are confined deep in the earth, the ores have
little impact on people because of the ground
cover. However, when they are mined,
separated, processed into consumer products
and distributed, potential exposure to the
population is increased. While people of
course do not cause the natural radioactivity in
the ores, they can increase and concentrate it
by technological processes. Some of the
industries where this takes place are phosphate,
rare earth and several other mining concerns,
as well as newer and less developed processes
such as geothermal power production.
Radioactive substances can affect people
and their environment through four basic
pathways:
— as gases and particulates which are
released to the air, becoming available for
possible human inhalation and lowering the
overall air quality.
— as materials in ores or the associated
byproducts which may enter ground and
surface waters by effluent discharges, land
runoff, and leaching from waste piles.
— from close contact between workers
and radioactive materials throughout mining
and processing.
— from radioactive materials that have
entered the food chain.
Because naturally-occurring radioactive ma-
terials have the potential for exposing large
portions of the population, Federal agencies
are extensively involved in identifying and
assessing the public health and environmental
problems associated with its various sources.
Substantial problems have emerged, and
analyses of new technologies are only
beginning.
Following are highlights of executive branch
activities, arranged by source of radiation:
— Uranium mining and milling tailings:
NRC proceeded with development of a
Generic Environmental Impact Statement
covering uranium milling, with particular
emphasis on mill tailings. EPA reviewed several
Statements on uranium mining and milling
facilities, and investigated the new solution
mining process. Results were published of
engineering assessments by EPA and DOE of 23
tailings piles, and EPA/ORP and NRC began a
joint study of uranium mill effluents. EPA/
ORP's Las Vegas Facility completed several
surveys at individual sites.
— Coal: NRC undertook several new stud-
ies on the impacts of using coal for generating
electricity, and published the results of an
Argonne National Laboratory study on
environmental effects. EPA and DOE cospon-
sored an evaluation of the radioactive
emissions from coal fired plants using Western
coal.
— Mineral extraction industry: Along with
the State of Florida, EPA/ORP evaluated
representative homes built on reclaimed and
mineralized phosphate lands. Proposed final
recommendations on construction were drafted
as well as a technical analysis. EPA/ORP also
supported a contract to assess the radiological
-------
impact of uranium recovery from phosphoric
acid.
— Water: The National Interim Primary
Drinking Water Regulations became effective
on June 24, 1977, restricting the levels of
natural and manmade radionuclides in com-
munity water systems.
— Other sources: EPA/ORP began imple-
menting relevant portions of the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act, which pro-
vides for regulation of the management of
hazardous wastes. Radium-226 was selected as
the first nuclide for which criteria will be
developed under the Act.
2. Executive Activities by
Source of Radiation
a. Uranium Mining and Milling Tailings
The uranium in the ore extracted by mining
is separated and concentrated in milling
operations, which result in the accumulation
of large quantities of waste product material
called tailings. Composed primarily of ore
residues, they contain almost all of the
radioactivity that was originally present in the
ore. Tailings are a waste management problem
because of the large quantities involved, and
because of the long half-life of the radionu-
clides.
As an indication of quantity, a typical mill
may generate 1,800 metric tons per day of
tailings solids slurried in 2,500 metric tons of
waste milling solutions. Over the lifetime of
the mill, 100 to 200 acres may be permanently
committed to store this material. The tailings
piles will have a radiological impact on the
environment (1) through the air pathway by
continuous discharge of radon-222 gas (a
daughter of radium-226), (2) through gamma
rays given off by radium-226, radon-222 and
daughters as they undergo radioactive decay,
and (3) finally through air and water pathways,
if radioactive particulates are blown off the
pile by wind or radionuclides are leached from
the pile due to water seepage.
Solids are being stored at mills by construct-
ing a dike and filling the diked area with
slurried tailings. Some of the older mills and all
new mills use a clay-core retention dam and
various kinds of seepage return systems to
control seepage from the tailings ponds.
However, in addition to creating a pile which is
difficult and costly to stabilize, the dikes are
subject to the possibility of structural failures
such as the one at the United Nuclear
Homestake Partners Mill in New Mexico in
1976.
Uranium mill tailings piles contain long
halflife radioactive wastes, and therefore
require long-term care. This should include
fencing, posting, monitoring, inspection and
continual maintenance to assure integrity of
the stabilizing cover.
As of December 1977,18 uranium mills were
in operation, all located in Western States. (See
Table 2.1.) The various active mill sites already
contain over 100 million tons of tailings. There
are also a number of new mills presently under
construction or in the planning stage.
In non-Agreement States, NRC evaluates
uranium milling operations and the conditions
of mill tailings piles. This activity includes
reviews of uranium mill licenses to evaluate
the adequacy of the supporting information in
the license files; on-site visits to determine the
adequacy of uranium mill inspections; obser-
vation of the condition of stabilized and
unstabilized mill tailings piles; and reviews of
the licensees' environmental surveillance
programs.
After an operating license is terminated and
a site has been reclaimed, NRC performance
objectives include the concept that surety
arrangements should be provided to complete
the full reclamation plan. These should
ultimately eliminate the need for an ongoing
monitoring and maintenance program. Speci-
fically, the radon emanation rate from the
impoundment area should not exceed about
twice that of the surrounding area, and direct
gamma radiation should be reduced essential-
ly to natural background levels. (These
objectives are not legally binding.)
-------
TABLE 2.1 STATUS OF ACTIVE URANIUM SITES IN THE UNITED STATES AS OF DECEMBER 1977
(18 active— -3 active standby)
State
*Colorado
*New Mexico
South Dakota
*Texas
Utah
*Washington
Wyoming
Location
Rifle
Canon City
Uravan
Ambrosia Lake
Blue Water
Grants
Moquino
Churchrock
Edgemont (e)
Falls City
La Sal
Moab
Ford
Gas Hills
Gas Hills
Gas .Hills
Jeffrey City
Powder River Basin
Shirley Basin r.}
Shirley Basin ^ '
Bear Creek
Name and/or Owner
Union Carbide
Cotter Corporation
Union Carbide Corp.
Kerr-McGee Nuclear
Anaconda Company
United Nuclear-Homestake Partners
Sohio
United Nuclear
TVA (Mine-Development, Inc.)(e'
Conoco 6 Pioneer Nuclear, Inc.
Rio Algom Corporation
Atlas Corporation
Dawn Mining Company
Federal American Partners
Utah International, Inc.
Union Carbide Corporation
Western Nuclear, Inc.
Highland Mill, Exxon, U.S.A.
Petrotomics Company (g)
Utah International, Inc.
Rocky Mountain Energy
Year
Mill
Started
1958-1972
1977
1958
1950(a)
1958
1953
1958
1976
1977
1956
1971
1972
1956
1957
1959
1956
1960
1957
1972
1962
1971
1977
Nominal
Mill
Capacity
(Tons Ore
per Day
700
150-450
0-1300
3600-7000
3000
1650-3500
3000
250-500
220-1750
500
800-1500
0-400
500-950
750-1200
1000
400-1200
2000
525-1500
1200
1000
Tons of
Tailings
(In
millions)
2.7
1.1
7.0
25.4(b)
15.3(b)
2.000
2.600
.74
7.8
1.9
5.5
4.0
3.0
2.2
4.5
1.8 (b)
Reported
Size of
Tailings
Pile
(Acres)
32
35
200(c)
250fc)
82
200
45
120
100
100
135
61
60
250
50
250
(a) Ore processed at the Vanadium facility for the Manhattan project in 1943.
(b) Estimated.
(c) Estimated from topographic map of site.
(d) Includes 1,200,000 tons from salvaged Homestake-New Mexico Partners Mill that was located on the present active site.
(e) Although the site license is still active, there is no present milling activity.
(f) Designated impoundment area.
(g) Mill will reopen January 1, 1978, and handle about 1,600 tons per day.
*Agreement States which have responsibility for licensing the mills. All others are licensed by NRC.
-------
10
Environmental Impact Statement
NRC's Generic Statement
Because of questions raised concerning the
potential effects of expanding uranium milling
operations on the environment, the NRC
decided in 1976 to prepare a generic
environmental impact statement (GEIS) cover-
ing uranium milling, with particular emphasis
on mill tailings. In the GEIS, the local, regional
and national environmental impacts of milling
operations to the year 2000 will be assessed
and, if warranted, regulatory changes to
enhance environmental- protection will be
recommended.
Work on the GEIS went forward during fiscal
year 1977. Its scope and outline were
published in the Federal Register in March
1977 for public comment. Over 20 letters of
comment were received from the public,
industry and other Government agencies. The
staff has taken these comments into account in
developing the study.
A draft of the GEIS is expected to be issued
for public comment in August 1978. NRC's
intent is also to publish for public comment
proposed rules or legislative changes related
to uranium milling no later than the time of
publication of the final GEIS.
During preparation of the GEIS on uranium
milling, the staff is requiring mill operators to
commit themselves to a definite plan for
tailings management and final disposal. As a
prerequisite for receiving a license, each mill
operator must also make financial arrange-
ments which assure that sufficient funds will
be available to complete disposal of the
tailings according to the approved plan. The
plan and the financial arrangements are made
license conditions.
EPA Reviews
EPA/ORP reviewed several Environmental
Statements on uranium mining and milling
facilities in 1977. Because of the President's
'"cision against reprocessing, the natural
supplies of uranium and means of extracting
them have come under much closer scrutiny.
In its reviews, EPA/ORP has emphasized the
need for a good stabilization program for
tailings, and, in the case of open pit mines, for
adequate reclamation plans and capacities.
Studies
Uranium Solution Mining Impacts
EPA/ORP began investigating the environ-
mental impacts of a new process of producing
uranium. In 1977, air data were collected, and
groundwater will be studied by NRC in 1978.
The process, solution mining, will enable
industry to mine deposits with ore grades
considered too small for the conventional
process with less surface disruption than
formerly. It also has the advantage of making
some low assay ores profitable to mine for the
first time. After a hole is drilled into the de-
posit, a solution which dissolves uranium is
pumped in and extracted, and the uranium is
then removed from solution in a surface plant.
Uranium Mill Effluents
In 1977, EPA, NRC and the State of New
Mexico began a joint study with the industry of
uranium mill effluents, first examining the
Grants, New Mexico mill. Three categories of
effluents will be studied to characterize and
measure the radionuclides involved: releases
from mill vents and stacks; ore, concentrates
and waste products: and release rates from ore
and tailings piles. The Argonne National
Laboratory, acting on NRC's behalf, is
characterizing the ore, concentrates and waste
products, while EPA has initial responsibility
for airborne particulate measurements.
Joint Engineering Assessment
Reports were published in 1977 of the
engineering assessments of 23 inactive ura-
nium mill tailings piles listed in Table 2.2, in the
second phase of a joint comprehensive study
by EPA and DOE. Each report assesses the
magnitude of the hazard associated with each
site, estimates health effects (mostly from
radon), identifies reasonable remedial action
-------
11
options and evaluates their costs. The costs
range from less than $50,000 to as high as $30
million per site; the high figure represents the
cost of removing a tailings pile to another
location for permanent stabilization. DOE will
work with the Congress, the States involved,
EPA and other appropriate authorities to
determine what action should ultimately be
taken.
In June 1977, EPA/ORP's Las Vegas Facility
published the results of a study, "Radiological
Survey at the Inactive Uranium Mill Site Near
Riverton, Wyoming" (EPA Technical Note
ORP/LV-77-2, June 1977). Conducted at the
request of the State, the survey was primarily
designed to delineate areas which are
contaminated by windblown material from
the tailings pile. About 460 acres were found to
be contaminated above background levels.
Secondary purposes were to collect water
samples from local wells, and to collect indoor
radon progeny (working level) samples in
structures near the site, to identify any major
radiation exposures which may be occurring
through those pathways. None of the limited
number of samples taken exceeded the
applicable current guidance.
Another survey undertaken by the Las Vegas
Facility was also published in 1977, "Outdoor
Radon Study (1975-1975): An Evaluation of
Ambient Radon-222 Concentrations in Grand
Junction, Colorado" (EPA Technical Note
ORP/LV 77-1). As a joint venture with the
Colorado Department of Health, the survey
updated a 1967 Public Health Service study.
The major conclusions were:
— The mean annual radon concentration
measured above the tailings pile after
stabilization is three times higher than before
stabilization, probably because the soil con-
taining radium is now buried below a
protective layer and is therefore dryer. Before
stabilization, water in the soil helped to
contain the radon.
— Radon levels are elevated to a distance
of about one and one-half miles from the
center of the tailings pile, not one-half mile as
concluded in the 1967 study.
b. Coal
Radioactivity in coal used for power
generation has received more attention since
utilities have increased their use of Western
coals, some of which contain more uranium
than Eastern ones. The concentration of
radium-226, one of the critical radionuclides,
varies with ash content and many other
factors; it generally averages about one pCi/g,
although specific coal beds may contain a
much higher concentration.1
Extensive surveys by the U.S. Geological
Survey have shown that concentrations of
uranium range as high as .1 percent in some
mineralized lignite beds of North and South
Dakota.2 For unmineralized deposits, concen-
trations were similar to those found in Eastern
coal types. In general, bituminous and lignite
deposits contain more uranium than anthracite.
A well run coal-fired power plan releases a
small fraction of the coal's total radioactivity in
the form of airborne fly ash, with some of the
remaining ash handled in ways that could
expose the public.3 NRC has sponsored a
generic study to collect available data and
assess the public health and safety impacts of
the coal fuel cycle.
NRC Studies
On January 25,1977, an Atomic Safety and
Licensing Appeal Board rendered a decision
(Hartsville Nuclear Plant) which essentially
directed that the NRC staff examine environ-
1Jaworowski, A.; Bilkiewica, J.; Kownacka, L; and S.WIodek.
"Artificial Sources of Natural Radionuclides in the Environment,
Natural Radiation Environment II." In Proceedings oftheSecond
International Symposium on Natural Radiation Environment
(August 1972).
2Swanson, V.E.; Huffman, C, Jr.; and J.C. Hamilton. "Composi-
tion and Trace-Element Content of Coal, Northern Great Plains
Area." U.S. Department of Interior Open-File Report (February
1974).
3Martin, J.E./'Comparative Population Radiation Dose Commit-
ments of Nuclear and Fossil Fuel Electric Power Cycles." In
Proceedings, 8th Midyear Topical Symposium of the Health
Physics Society. U.S. Department of Interior Open-File Report:
CONF-741018, pp. 317-326 (1976).
-------
Table 2.2
STATUS OF IN SITU SOLUTION MINING OF URANIUM IN THE U.S.
Docket
No.
40-8434
40-7869
40-6622
40-8348
40-8380
40-8064
40-8511
40-8200
40-8304
State, Location
Colorado
Weld County
Texas (See Next Page)
Utah
LaSalle, San Juan City
Hankavllle, Garfleld City
Wyoming
Shirley Basin
Sweetwater County
Bear Creek, Converse City
Nine Mile Lake, Converse City
Highland Mill Site, Converse City
Charlie Site, Johnson City
No. Rolling Draw Site, Campbell Cty.
Irigaray Site, Johnson City
Applications in, Actions Fending
4CT-8566 Campbell City
40-8663 Powder River Basin, Crook City
40-8586 Double Eagle, Carbon City
40-8102 Highland Mill Site, Converse City
40-8502 Irigaray Site, Johnson City
40-8636 Sweetwater City
Name and/or
Owner
Wyoming Mineral Co.
Homestake Mining
Plateau Resources
Utah International
Minerals Exploration
Rocky Mountain Energy
Haliburton
Exxon Minerals USA
Cotter Corporation
Cleveland Cliffs Iron Co.
Wyoming Minerals Corp.
Cleveland Cliffs Iron Co.
Nuclear Dynamics
Kerr McGee Nuclear
Exxon Minerals
Wyoming Mineral Corp.
Wold Nuclear Co.
Type of Opera-
tion
R+D
Pilot/
Commercial
Pilot
Pilot
Pilot
Pilot
Pilot
Pilot
Pilot
Pilot
Pilot
Pilot
Commercial
Commercial
Pilot
Year
Started
1977
1975
1970
1966-1969
1974
1976
1975
1976
1970
1976
1974
1974
Type of *
Leachant
(Lixiviant)
Basic
Acid
Basic
Basic
Acid
Acid
Basic
Basic
Basic
Basic
Basic
Basic
Basic
Basic
Basic
Acid
Possession
Limit (pounds)
(Maximum)
1,000
30,000
20,000 -
500 -'
6,600
6,600
50,OOp
1,000
500
1,000
2,000
5,000
5,000
300,000
500,000
3,0000
if Uranium recovery from mlnewater expired 12/31/1976
2J No longer in operation, terminated 1969
3/ 2 Sites: One in 1974; one in 1976
* Acid indicate HgSO, toxidant e.g. H20_ 0 0
Basic indicates M H^-tt^COyfOxidant K2°2 °2°2
-------
Table 2.3
Commercial Uranium Solution Mining Operations in Texas
1977
Licensee
ARCO
Cheveron U.S.A.
Conoco-Conquis t a
Mobil
Solution Engineering, Inc.
Union Carbide
U.S. Steel
Wyoming Minerals Corp.
Location
George West
Fanna Maria
Falls City
Bruni
Falls City
Benevides
Live Oak County
Bruni
Status
Large in situ operation
and djryer. (1,200,000 Ib.)
Open pit mining being
considered.
Mill & mine operation appli-
cation submitted June 1977,
license issued Oct 28, 1977.
Mill operation of about
2500 tons/day. Mill under
expansion for Exxon ores.
In situ plant (300,000 Ibs)
Extracting U from tailings
ponds of old SW Mill
(300,000 Ibs.)
In situ mining proj ect
(200,000 Ibs.)
In situ production(250,000
Ibs.)
In situ mining project
(1,200,000 Ibs.)
-------
12
mental effects, including health effects on
human and animal life, of the emissions from
coal plants, and do so to the same degree that
they have for nuclear plants. It also recom-
mended that the staff accord more nearly
equal treatment to all environmental consid-
erations, rather than focusing mainly on
economic factors. Although identical treat-
ment in every aspect of the environmental
comparison may not be required, this kind of
critical comparison goes to the heart of NRC's
duty under NEPA, since coal and nuclear
power. As a result, the NRC staff prepared
alternatives to oil as sources of electrical
power. As a result the NRC staff prepared
testimony comparing the health effects of coal
and nuclear plants for both hearings then
under way and as part of the environmental
statements being prepared. In the testimony—
and in the draft of NUREG-0332, "Health Effects
Attributable to Coal and Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Alternatives"—mortality and morbidity rates
were estimated according to current knowl-
edge of the health effects of contemporary
component designs and current operation of
fuel cycle facilities, and in anticipation of
emission rates and occupational exposures for
facilities expected to go into operation
between the present and 1985. Although it was
shown that the coal fuel cycle alternative has a
greater adverse effect on human health than
the uranium fuel cycle, the increased risk of
adverse health effects for either fuel cycle
option represents a very small increase in risk
to the health of the average individual in the
public sector.
In order to evaluate such effects for the
future, the NRC supported a study at Argonne
National Laboratory. The results of the study
have been published in "The Environmental
Effects of Using Coal for Generating Electricity"
(NUREG-0252). The NRC also initiated several
other studies during fiscal year 1977 to provide
further details and greater accuracy in the
analytical evaluation of the adverse health
effects associated with various fuel cycle
alternatives. Among these are the study
entitled "Impacts of the Coal Fuel Cycle/' and
a study initiated at the Argonne National
Laboratory of "Projection Models for Health
Effects Assessment." Completion of these
tasks may provide a basis for further
improvement in the health effects compari-
sons for both fuel cycles.
Assessment of the Radiological Impact
of Western Coal
DOE completed the first phase of an
EPA-cosponsored study to determine whether
there is a potential environmental problem
due to radioactive emissions from coal-fired
power plants using Western coal. Preliminary
indications are that the primary part of the
small radiological impact is from wastes due to
combustion rather than from other stages in
the energy production process. To test that
hypothesis, Phase II will include an examina-
tion of the entire cycle from mining to wastes,
characterizing the distribution of radioactivity
and its impacts throughout. Among the
pathways of concern are radium contamina-
tion of water supplies, particulates from waste
piles, radon emanation and the use of wastes
in construction materials. This effort is being
coordinated with the current Clean Air Act
assessment of fossil fuel utilization to avoid
duplication.
c. Phosphate Mining & Milling
As long as naturally-occurring radioactive
materials remain in the depths of the earth,
they have little effect on people and the
surface environment because of many feet of
soil and rock. However, numerous industries
mine, bring to the surface, and process raw
materials containing significant concentra-
tions of uranium, thorium and their daughter
products.
The phosphate mining and manufacturing
industry provides an example of the problems
that can result from redistribution of
radioactive material in the surface environ-
ment. In central Florida alone, about 37 million
tons of phosphate rock are processed each
year (about 80% of U.S. production). The
radiological impact is considerable, as shown
in Table 2.3. It presents the results of
EPA/ORP's analytic determinations of radium-
-------
Table 2.4
RADIUM - 226, URAMUM AIND THORIUM CONCENTRATIONS IN FLORIDA
PHOSPHATE MINE PRODUCTS AND WASTES (20)
MATERIAL
MARKETABLE
ROCK
SLIMES
SAND
TAILINGS
RADIUM - 226
(pCi/GRAM)
42
45
7.5
URANIUM (pCi/GRAM)
234
41
42
5.2
235
1.9
2.6
0.38
238
41
44
5.3
THORIUM (pCi/GRAM)
227
2.0
2.3
228
0.61
1.2
230
42.3
48
42
232
0.44
1.4
89
Table 2.5
RADIUM - 226, URANIUM AND THORIUM IN WET PROCESS
PHOSPHORIC ACID PLANT PRODUCTS AND BYPRODUCTS
MATERIAL
GYPSUM
NORMAL SUPER-
PHOSPHATE .
DIAMMONIUM
PHOSPHATE (DAP)
TRIPLE SUPER-
PHOSPHATE (TSP)
MONOAMMONIUM
PHOSPHATE (MAP)
SODIUM
FLOUROSILICATE
ANIMAL FEED
PHOSPHORIC ACID
RADIUM - 226
(pCi/gm)
33
21
5.6
21
5.0
0.28
5.5
<1
URANIUM (pCi/gm)
234
6.2
63
58
55
235
0.32
3.0
2.8
2.9
238
6.0
20
63
58
55
N.D.
25
THORIUM (pCi/gm)
227
0.97
1.6
1.2
228
1.4
0.8
0.9
230
13
18
65
48
50
N.D.
28
232
0.27
0.6
0.4
1.3
1.7
N.D.
3.1
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13
226, uranium, and thorium concentrations in
Florida's phosphate products and wastes.
One set of environmental and health
impacts results from the production of
phosphoric acid from marketable rock. The
usual wet process method — used in 1974 to
produce about five million tons of acid from 20
million tons of rock — involves the discharge
of radium in liquid effluents, as well as
significant concentrations of radium and
thorium in products and by-products. (See
Table 2.4 for details.)
Other problems stem from the fact that
phosphate manufacture involves the accumu-
lation of massive gypsum piles (30-100 feet in
height) and the maintenance of large cooling
ponds of waste (often about 500 acres). The
production of elemental phosphorus results
in radioactive air effluents from the thermal
milling process, although most of the
radioactivity originally in the phosphate ore
can be found in the by-product slag.
Studies
Another cause for concern is that reclaimed
mining and mineralized phosphate areas—
where the soils contain substantially more
radium than normal soil—are used extensively
for residential and agricultural purposes.
EPA/ORP worked to address these concerns
by assisting the State of Florida in
implementing a radiological survey of
representative homes built on reclaimed and
mineralized land. Data collection was
continued until a full year's exposure was
available for study. Pending that data and
formulation of final recommendations,
EPA/ORP made these suggestions to Florida in
1975:
External Gamma
Radiation Level
= or greater
than 0.01 mR/hr
Less than
0.01 mR/hr
Recommendation
Construction should be
delayed pending study or
acceptable control tech-
nology should be insti-
tuted to preclude indoor
radon daughter problems.
Construction may be
initiated.
Proposed final recommendations and a
technical analysis were drafted in 1977, and are
expected to be published for comment in 1978
along with the technical support document.
Also slated for publication are the results of a
survey of fruits and vegetables grown on
reclaimed land.
In addition, EPA/ORP supported a contract
to assess the radiological impact of uranium
recovery from phosphoric acid, an innovative
technique which isnowbeingcommercialized
to extract uranium from the phosphoric acid
process stream. It holds great promise not only
as a source of uranium, but also as a measure to
reduce the amount of uranium released to the
environment through fertilizers and other
phosphate products and wastes.
Although the phosphate mining and milling
industry was the first selected for concentrated
effort by EPA/ORP, other mineral extraction
industries also have a potential for
contributing to occupational and public
radiation exposure. Ores such as copper,
titanium and beryllium, depending upon mine
location, have shown uranium concentrations
high enough to be commercially extractable,
especially as the price of uranium rises.
d. Water
Guidance
Radioactivity in Drinking Water
The National Interim Primary Drinking
Water Regulations, which became effective on
June 24, 1977, restrict levels of natural and
manmade radionuclides in community water
systems, which includes any public water
system serving at least 15 service connections
used by year round residents or regularly
serves at least 25 year round residents. These
regulations, promulgated on December 24,
1975, ih accordance with the Safe Drinking
Water Act, limit the ingestion of radium-226to
five picocuries per liter and gross alpha
particle activity to 15 picocuries per liter. They
also restrict the amount of any manmade
radionuclides that can be present in community
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14
drinking water systems. The total annual dose
equivalent from all manmade radionuclides
combined cannot exceed four millirems per
year. For alpha contaminants, the Regulations
provide that initial compliance sampling will
begin within two years of the effective date,
and will be completed within an additional
year. Thereafter, monitoring shall be
conducted not less than once every four years.
Gross alpha particle activity measurements are
used as a screen to determine the need for
specific radium isotopic analyses. When the
gross alpha particle activity exceeds five
picocuries per liter, analysis for radium-226 is
required, and also for radium-228 if the
radium-226 activity exceeds three picocuries
per liter.
Systems serving more than 100,000 persons
from surface water supplies, and any other
systems designated by the State, are required
to analyze for gross beta activity, tritium and
strontium-90 within two years of the effective
date, and at four year intervals thereafter.
When the gross beta activity exceeds 50
picocuries per liter, the major constituents
must be determined for calculation of organ
and total body doses. Analysis for iodine-131
and other reactor wastes is required if the
supply is liable to be contaminated by
effluents from nuclear facilities. The State may
accept environmental surveillance data
obtained from nuclear facility monitoring
programs which are conducted in conjunction
with State programs.
Primary enforcement responsibility will rest
with the State unless it is refused, in which case
it reverts to EPA. For radioactivity, all analyses
must be made by laboratories approved by the
enforcing authority. The principal radiological
laboratory for each analysis in a State would be
certified by a regional EPA team, supple-
mented by the Quality Assurance Branch of
EPA's Environmental Monitoring and Support
Laboratory, Las Vegas, Nevada.
e. Other Sources
Radioactive Waste Regulation
The Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act (RCRA), signed into law on October 21,
1976, provides for regulation of the manage-
ment of hazardous wastes. Radioactive waste
which NRC does not regulate under the
Atomic Energy Act is to be regulated by EPA
under RCRA, and EPA/ORP has been given
the responsibility of developing Section 3001
and 3004 criteria and standards. Section 3001
provides that, within 18 months of enactment,
EPA should promulgate criteria identifying the
characteristics of hazardous waste; accord-
ingly, radium-226 was selected as the first
nuclide for which criteria are to be developed,
with scientific and technical rationales tenta-
tively planned for issuance by mid-1978. Other
naturally occurring materials may be selected
under Section 3001 at a later time; possible
choices include thorium-230, lead-210, polo-
nium-210, thorium 228, and radium-228. Ac-
cording to the provisions of the Section, the
determination must take into account "toxicity,
persistence, and degradibility in nature, po-
tential for accumulation in tissue, and other
related factors such as flammability, corrosive-
ness, and other hazardous characteristics,"
The Agency is also initiating preparation of a
background document for Section 3004 regu-
lations covering management of waste con-
taining radium-226. Pertaining to owners and
operators of treatment, storage and disposal
facilities, this Section mandates the develop-
ment of standards within 18 months on such
matters as siting, compliance with permit
requirements, record-keeping for all hazard-
ous wastes, and satisfactory implementation of
a manifest system.
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15
III. MEDICAL RADIATION EXPOSURE
1. Introduction and Summary
Medical exposure to ionizing radiation can
and should be significantly cut without reduc-
ing quality of care, according to experts in the
scientific community. As matters stand, over
half of the U.S. population receives at least one
radiographic examination annually, and medi-
cal exposures account for at least 90 percent of
the total manmade dose to individuals.1
— There was a 22 percent increase in the
number of x-ray examinations performed,
from 174 million in 1964 to 212 million in 1970.
— There was a 30 percent increase in the
number of films exposed, from 506 million in
1964 to 661 million in 1970.
— The average number of films per radio-
graphic examination increased from 2.2 in
1964 to 2.4 in 1970.
TABLE 3.1 TRENDS IN RADIOGRAPHIC DIAGNOSTICS
PERSONS X-RAYED
1964
1970
108 MILLION
130 MILLION
X-RAY EXAMINATIONS
1964
1970
173 MILLION
212 MILLION
FILMS EXPOSED
1964
1970
506 MILLION
661 MILLION
The problem of unnecessary risks associated
with medical exposure is compounded by the
marked increase in the number of diagnostic
examinations performed over the last decade,
estimated to range from one to four percent
per capita annually. Some significant changes
were revealed in surveys of diagnostic x-ray
exposures in 1964 and 1970:2
— There was a 20 percent increase in the
number of persons receiving one or more x-
ray procedures, from 108 million in 1964 to 130
million in 1970. The population increased only
seven percent during this period.
irhe Effects on Population of Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing
Radiation (BEIR Report). National Academy of Sciences—
National Research Council (November 1972), p. 50.
These trends have probably continued since
1970, especially the increase in film usage.
In 1971 the National Conference of Radia-
tion Control Program Directors initiated the
Nationwide Evaluation of X-Ray Trends (NEXT)
to assess patient exposure from specific rou-
tine radiographic examinations. Analysis of
data from this program indicates that the
weighted mean exposure for nine of the 12
radiographic projections surveyed increased
between 1973 and 1975.3
Among the scientific bodies who have
reviewed diagnostic exposure issues is the Bio-
logical Effects of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR)
Committee of the National Academy of Scien-
ces. In its 1972 report, the Committee con-
cluded that as much as 30 percent of patient
^'Population Exposure to X-Rays." BRH:FDA 73-8047 (Novem-
ber 1973).
^"National Evaluation of X-Ray Trends." BRH:FDA 76-8052
(1976). HEW (FDA) 78-8056.
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16
exposure is due to the use of less than optimal
techniques, and that nearly ten percent of all
exposure can be attributed to retake examina-
tions. The Committee further expressed the
view that "medical radiation exposure can and
should be reduced considerably by limiting its
use to clinically indicated procedures utilizing
efficient exposure techniques and optimal
operation of radiation equipment. Considera-
tion should be given to the following:
1. Restriction of the use of radiation for
public health survey purposes, unless there is a
reasonable probability of significant detection
of disease.
2. Inspection and licensing of radiation and
ancillary equipment.
3. Appropriate training and certification of
involved personnel. Gonad shielding (espe-
cially shielding the testes) is strongly recom-
mended as a simple and highly efficient way to
reduce the Genetically Significant Dose."
The Report also stated "that experts esti-
mate that it appears reasonable that as much as
a 50 percent reduction in the genetically sig-
nificant dose (GSD) from medical radiology
might be possible through improved technical
and educational methods."4 A study5 by FDA's
Bureau of Radiological Health (BRH) indicates
that in 1970 the genetically significant dose was
approximately 20 millirems per American;
using the BEIR risk estimate, this could cause
up to 543 serious health effects (genetically
related). It appears that half of these, or 272,
would be due to poor radiological practice.
Summary
Comprehensive Activities
The President approved recommendations
which brought medical uses of radiation
under specific Federal radiation protection
«B£/R Report, p. 55.
5"Gonad Doses and Genetically Significant Dose from
Diagnostic Radiology: U.S. 1964 and 1970." BRH:FDA 76-8034
(1976). GPO 017-015-00100-8, $1 JO.
guidance for the first time. The guidance was
jointly recommended to the President by the
EPA Administrator and the Surgeon General of
the Public Health Service after careful consid-
eration by affected Federal agencies.
A final BRH rule on procedures for exempt-
ing electronic products intended for U.S.
government use from radiation safety perfor-
mance standards was issued.
The Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air
Force and the Indian Health Service agreed to
participate in the mammography quality assu-
rance program known as BENT (Breast Expo-
sure: Nationwide Trends), at the invitation of
BRH.
A National Academy of Sciences Committee
completed an in-depth review of the present
uses of ionizing radiation for the treatment of
benign disease.
Diagnostic X-Ray Systems
A number of amendments were made to the
BRH radiation safety performance standard for
diagnostic x-ray systems; among them is one
which will encourage the improvement of
older systems by reducing the cost of upgrad-
ing them.
BRH was advised by one of its Advisory
Committees to initiate development of rec-
ommendations for the proper application of
mammography to various age groups of
women.
Concerning personnel who work with diag-
nostic x-ray systems, BRH funded a followup of
its pilot project to analyze factors affecting the
performance of equipment operators, and
cosponsored implementation of self assess-
ment and competency assurance education
program for technologists.
In the area of quality assurance and educa-
tion, a quality assurance test kit is being evalu-
ated by BRH; two new manuals are under
development; a Diagnostic Radiology Quality
Assurance Catalog was published; and a spe-
cial program is being implemented in Public
Health Service hospitals and clinics.
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17
BRH awarded five more contracts to State
radiation control agencies to inspect and
gather test data on certified diagnostic x-ray
equipment, bringing the number of States par-
ticipating in the program to 22. The Bureau
also informed manufacturers that it consi-
dered the industry's present rate of noncom-
pliance with its standard unacceptable, and
fined an x-ray assembler.
Among the relevant studies were an evalua-
tion of somatic doses, skull x-ray selection
criteria, development of an instrument to ana-
lyze neutron contamination, and problems of
computed tomography scanners.
Nuclear Medicine
BRH is considering the development of
safety performance standards and/or recom-
mendations for ionizing radiation equipment
used primarily for the treatment of cancer.
Voluntary recommendations may be issued on
the use of nuclear medicine techniques for the
evaluation of diseases of the thyroid gland.
NRC proposed an amendment establishing
specific guidelines for the calibration of tele-
therapy machines, and has changed its licens-
ing policies to require that byproduct material
licenses be issued to medical institutions
rather than to the individual physicians using
it.
Educational activities included workshops
on radiopharmaceutical quality assurance,
and in vitro nuclear medicine, as well as an
examination of the NRC role in regulating the
medical uses of radioisotopes. Radiological
Physics Centers continued to provide primary
physics services to hospitals, especially to
approximately 300 who are part of the National
Cancer Institute's Cancer Control Program.
Studies covered teletherapy calibration,
thyroid imaging agents, possible delayed
effects of therapeutic iodine-131, radiation
and breast cancer, and repeat examinations in
nuclear medicine.
Ultrasound
A U.S. patent was granted on a portable radi-
ometer developed by BRH to measure the out-
put of medical ultrasound therapy equipment,
and a study was begun on the effects of fetal
exposure to ultrasound in later life.
2. Executive Activities
a, Comprehensive Activities
Guidance
X-Rays in Federal Health Care Facilities
Editor's note:
While this report is generally confined to
1977 activities, it would be misleading not to
mention that on January 26,1978, the President
approved recommendations which brought
medical uses of diagnostic x-rays under spe-
cific Federal radiation protection guidance for
the first time. The guidance, directed to Fed-
eral agencies, is designed to reduce exposure
by eliminating clinically unnecessary uses and
requiring that the best available techniques
and equipment be used (43 F.R. 4377). It was
jointly recommended to the President by the
EPA Administrator and the Assistant Secretary
for Health, HEW, after careful consideration by
affected Federal agencies.
Developed under EPA's authority to advise
the President on radiation matters which may
affect health (formerly exercised by the now
defunct Federal Radiation Council), the guid-
ance applies to hospitals and clinics of the
military services, the Public Health Service,
and the Veterans Administration, among
others. Minimizing exposure and maximizing
the usefulness of diagnostic x-rays must be
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18
considered in both prescription and perform-
ance of x-ray examinations. For prescription,
the guidance specifies that x-ray studies should
be ordered only by licensable physicians—or
in certain exceptional cases by others under
their direct supervision—and that such studies
should generally be used only for the purpose
of obtaining diagnostic information. Most
routine or screening examinations are pro-
hibited unless they have been justified as
yielding greater medical benefit than the
radiation health risks and the costs involved.
For example, many chest and lower back x-rays
will not be performed, except on a case by case
basis after a physician's examination, and
mammography screening examinations for
asymptomatic women under age fifty will not
be performed unless justified.
Guides for the performance of examinations
require that operators of equipment have
demonstrated proficiency to obtain diagnostic
radiographs with minimum exposure, that
special consideration be given to pregnant or
possibly pregnant patients, that protocols be
established for inspection and maintenance of
equipment and for quality control, and that
appropriate shielding and collimation be used
to protect patients. The recommendations also
include numerical exposure guides for ten non-
specialty x-ray examinations. Meeting these
exposure guidelines and the equipment and
technique goals is expected to reduce sub-
stantially the exposure received by patients for
necessary diagnostic x-rays.
Exemption Procedures for Government-
Used Electronic Products
A final BRH rule on procedures for exempt-
ing electronic products intended for U.S.
government use from radiation safety perform-
ance standards was issued in the September 2
Federal Register. Its aim is to facilitate federal
procurement or construction of needed elec-
tronic products that differ in design and
application from those used by the general
public.
An exempted product still will be required
to "meet the terms of the applicable federal
performance standard to the extent appro-
priate for its intended application.*
This and much of the following information
was provided by BRH in its Bulletins and
Quarterly Reports.
Education and Quality Control
Participation in BENT
At the invitation of BRH, the Departments of
the Army, Navy, and Air Force and the Indian
Health Service agreed to participate in the
mammography quality assurance program
known as BENT (Breast Exposure: Nationwide
Trends). BENT is an exposure and image qual-
ity assessment program designed to identify
mammography facilities where the exposures
appear unnecessarily high or unusually low
for the type of image receptor being used.
Clinical personnel at the facilities then are
advised of corrections that can be made in
procedures to reduce unproductive patient
exposure and improve image quality.
Film Processor Conference
A conference funded by BRH addressed the
problem associated with film processing in
diagnostic radiology—a matter of concern
because of the poor image quality and unpro-
ductive patient exposure that may result when
diagnostic x-ray films are not properly deve-
loped. Some 70 invited specialists stressed the
value of a daily quality control program for
automatic radiographic film processors. Among
the participants were representatives of the
radiology, radiologic technology, and medical
physics professions, industry, and government
agencies.
National Radiation Control Network
BRH loaned equipment to FDA regional and
State radiological health offices which lacked
the facilities for playback of Bureau-produced
videotape instructional programs. The equip-
ment is part of a National Radiation Control
Network, to be used for disseminating techni-
cal information for training purposes. In addi-
tion, if it is needed, the Network allows for
rapid, uniform, national communication of
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19
information related to high priority radiation
control problems.
Studies
Radiation Treatment of Benign Disease
A Committee of the National Academy of
Sciences conducted a review for BRH, the
results of which were published by the Bureau
in November 1977 in a report titled "A Review
of the Use of Ionizing Radiation for the Treat-
ment of Benign Diseases" (HEW publication
FDA 78-8043). The report identifies the major
uses of ionizing radiation for therapy of
benign conditions, describes the historical
background relating to studies of the asso-
ciated risks, presents current medical and radi-
obiological information pertinent to this
subject, and summarizes the committee's
recommendations.
Information from this report will be used by
the Agency in preparing a Federal Register
notice of intent to develop recommendations
relating to the use of ionizing radiation for the
treatment of benign diseases.
b. Diagnostic X-Ray Systems
Guidance
Amendments to X-Ray Standard
In the November 8, 1977 Federal Register,
BRH issued, an amendment to the radiation
safety performance standard for diagnostic x-
ray systems, which is designed to encourage
the improvement of older systems by reducing
the cost of upgrading them. The amendment
permits the installation of certified beam-
limiting devices that do not provide positive
beam limitation on stationary general purpose
x-ray systems containing certain uncertified
components. The standard originally required
that, whenever a certified beam limiting
device was installed on a stationary general
purpose system, the device had to provide
postive beam limitation—regardless of
whether the system contained any certified
components.
Five other amendments to the x-ray
standard were published in the September 2,
1977 Federal Register, they would (1) change
the applicability of the standard to include
image receptor supports for mammographic
systems and add a definition of these compo-
nents, (2) establish a limit on the transmission
of the x-ray beam through the image receptor
support on mammographic systems, (3) revise
the x-ray beam through the image receptor
support on mammographic systems, (4) revise
the x-ray field limitation and alignment
requirements for mammographic systems and
attachments, (5) allow alternative ways of lim-
iting and aligning the x-ray field for certain
special purpose x-ray systems, and (6) modify
the test method for measuring exposure
reproducibility.
Earlier in the year, in the February 25,1977
Federal Register, amendments were pub-
lished in the final form to revise the list of
major components to which the standard
applies; to add alternative certification and
labeling procedures for products marketed as
a combination of two or more components;
to strengthen the requirements for fluoros-
copic x-ray high-level controls; and to clarify
several definitions, performance require-
ments and methods for determining compli-
ance.
Recommendations on Diagnostic
Radiology Doses
In response to a resolution by its Medical
Radiation Advisory Committee, BRH is plan-
ning a study of the feasibility of developing
recommendations concerning ranges of skin
exposure or other organ doses per exposure
for diagnostic radiology. The issues were dis-
cussed in detail by the Subcommittee on the
Division of Training and Medical Applications,
which examined some proposed questions
and offered several suggestions regarding their
scope. In the dental x-ray area the BRH has
already found it advantageous to develop
recommendecf exposure ranges for various
techniques. In mammography quality
assurance, exposure ranges for various image
receptor systems have also evolved. They
have found it useful in determining when
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20
patient exposure is excessive and radio-
graphic quality less than optimal. It is felt that
similar efforts may be useful for other medical
x-ray procedures.
Mammography Recommendations
Suggested
The BRH Medical Radiation Advisory Com-
mittee advised the Bureau to initiate develop-
ment of recommendations for the proper
application of mammography to various age
groups of women and publish a Federal Regis-
ter notice to that effect. Although the tech-
nique has been in use for a number of years,
controversy concerning its efficacy as a
screening tool for the detection of breast
cancer in asymptomatic women under 50 has
not been resolved.
Education and Quality Assurance
Medical X-Ray Operator Job
Performance
BRH is funding a followup of its pilot project
to analyze the background and environmental
factors affecting the performance of medical
x-ray equipment operators. The pilot project,
also conducted under contract, included the
design and testing of a methodology for
obtaining information from x-ray equipment
operators in hospitals, clinics and private offi-
ces in the Baltimore-Washington-Richmond
area. The followup study will provide informa-
tion on a more representative sample of x-ray
operators, and will include direct measure-
ments of on-the-job performance.
Radiologic Technologists Self
Assessment
Along with the Bureau of Health Manpower
of the Health Resources Administration, BRH
is sponsoring nationwide implementation of a
self assessment and competency assurance
education program for technologists working
in the field of diagnostic radiology. The
American Society of Radiologic Technologists
(ASRT). is under contract to review and revise a
test developed earlier, and administer it to
volunteer practitioners. Based on the results,
ASRT will prepare national, regional, and indi-
vidual profiles of practitioner strengths and
weaknesses.
ASRT also will develop educational pack-
ages that address the needs identified in the
profile, design a program for making the pack-
ages available, and develop a plan for integrat-
ing the packages with or relating them to
current education in diagnostic radiologic
technology, such as the ASRT's Evidence of
Continuing Education Program.
New X-Ray Quality Assurance Materials
BRH has continued its efforts to provide
readily available information on techniques
for effective quality assurance programs in
diagnostic radiology. A two volume manual on
processing quality assurance techniques was
distributed widely and a contract has been
awarded to the University of Colorado to
develop two additional manuals. The new
manuals, one for radiographic and fluoro-
scopic x-ray units and the other for image
intensifies and assorted equipment, will des-
cribe a set of effective tests which can be con-
ducted to monitor the performance of this
equipment.
The development of the manuals is only part
of the BRH effort to provide assistance to diag-
nostic radiology facilities seeking to establish
or improve a quality assurance program. The
BRH also published a Diagnostic Radiology
Quality Assurance Catalog to provide a list of
quality assurance devices, training, services,
and publications available to facilities.
Cooperative programs with professional
organizations are intended to provide further
assistance to facilities. For example, BRH sup-
ported the Task Group of the Diagnostic Radi-
ology Committee of the American Asso-
ciation of Physicists in Medicine in the efforts
which climaxed with publication of a manual
entitled "Basic Quality Control in Diagnostic
Radiology." BRH is currently conducting a
field evaluation test of the American College
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21
of Radiology Quality Assurance kit. Other
cooperative programs have been conducted
with government medical facilities. The BRH
has assisted several Public Health Service hos-
pitals in establishing quality assurance pro-
grams and will be providing similar assistance
to Indian Health Service medical facilities.
Breast Exposure: Nationwide Trends
(BENT) Training
BRH conducted training sessions in mam-
mographic quality assurance and provided
State radiation control agencies with dosimeters
as part of its effort to make the BENT program
available on a nationwide basis. (As noted
above, BENT is a state-based exposure and
image quality assessment program designed to
assist radiological health officials in identifying
mammography facilities whose exposures ap-
pear unnecessarily high or unusually low for
the type of image receptor being used, and
then correcting such situations through con-
sultations with practitioners.)
X-Ray Film/Screen
Imaging Characteristics
BRH initiated an automated system for
measuring the characteristics of the many
commercially available combinations of x-ray
films and image-intensifying screens. (Screens
result in less patient exposure because they
provide higher efficiency of x-ray detection
than film alone). The automated system is
designed to simplify the task of making
repeated measurements on the numerous
possible combinations of films and screens. It
will be used to generate data for a handbook,
which will be distributed to users and
manufacturers to permit intercomparison of
film/screen properties.
A new generation of rare earth phosphors—
offering a significantly higher radiation utiliza-
tion rate than conventional screens—has been
introduced. The dose-reduction potential of
these screens, however, is not presently being
realized. This is because of confusion from the
diversity of film/screen systems on the market
and the wide disparity of information conc~.fi-
ing their use. The handbook is intended to
allow comparison of present-day systems,
provide guidance for their proper use, and
point the way to future improvements in
film/screen technology.
Workshops on Scintillation Camera
Quality Control
BRH is collaborating with the Technologist
Section of the Society of Nuclear Medicine to
continue the promotion, arrangement, and
presentation of workshops for quality control
of scintillation cameras. They will increase
opportunities for training in quality control
procedures, ultimately reducing unnecessary
exposures to patients undergoing diagnostic
nuclear medicine examinations.
Compliance
State Contract for X-Ray Compliance
BRH awarded five more contracts to State
radiation control agencies to inspect and
gather test data on certified diagnostic x-ray
equipment, bringing the number of States
participating in the program to 22. In addition
to the compliance inspections, ten of the 22
contract States will collect data on image
receptors and automatic film processors for
use in BRH's effort to identify specific areas
that should be addressed by quality assurance
programs. Eight States will also gather data on
radiographic units equipped with automatic
exposure control systems to provide informa-
tion that can be used in evaluating the
performance of these devices.
Manufacturers' Noncompliance Problem
Over the past three years, BRH's field tests of
new medical and dental diagnostic x-ray
equipment have'indicated a high rate of non-
compliance with the federal performance
standard. The test data show the noncompli-
ances are caused by improper equipment
design, inadequate factory quality control and
testing programs, and/or improper assembly
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22
of components. Although only about 15
percent of all certified x-ray machines have
been tested to date, the trend has been a
matter of growing concern because of the
probability of a similar noncompliance rate in
the certified units that have not yet been
tested.
In August 1977, BRH wrote to manufactuers,
informing them of the problem and the need
for remedial action. The letter stated that the
Agency considered the industry's present rate
of noncompliance unacceptable. It empha-
sized that manufacturers will be responsible
for correcting any noncompliances found in
the future through BRH's testing program.
Manufacturers were advised to take steps to
assure that all previously installed products
comply with the standard and to inform the
BRH of any actions taken to reduce and
eventually eliminate future cases of noncom-
pliance. The letter also indicated that BRH
would continue to analyze the field test data
and initiate enforcement actions, as appro-
priate.
Compliance Test Manual Revised
The Manual on "BRH Routine Compliance
Testing for Diagnostic X-Ray Systems" has
been revised and reissued. Copies were
distributed to all State radiation control
agencies, members of the Conference of
Radiation Control Program Directors, af well
as FDA Regional Radiological Health Repre-
sentatives, Radiation Control Officers, and
Consumer Safety Officers. The new edition
replaces the version published and distributed
in 1975. Intended primarily for use by State and
Federal personnel responsible for enforcing
the Federal diagnostic x-ray performance
standard, the manual describes the test
procedures and equipment to be used in
screening certified x-ray systems for evidence
of compliance.
X-Ray Assembler Fine
A dental supply corporation in Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, and two of its employees, the
Branch Manager and Service Manager, signed
a consent decree to pay $10,000 fine for failure
to certify and report the assembly of diagnostic
x-ray systems, as required by the federal
diagnostic x-ray performance standard.
The civil penalty was recommended by
FDA's Philadelphia District Office and the
Agency after an investigation revealed numer-
ous incidents in which the firm had violated
the standard.
This is the second time a civil penalty has
been levied for failure to comply with the
reporting requirements of the x-ray standard.
In December 1976, another Pennsylvania firm
engaged in the assembly of diagnostic x-ray
equipment was fined $2,000 for two incidents
of failure to submit the required reports.
Studies
Evaluation of Somatic Doses
Under a BRH contract, an investigator at
Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania
has begun to evaluate the impact of somatic
doses from diagnostic radiology procedures.
The project will combine a previously
developed Agency method for computing
organ doses with data on medical practice to
determine the relative somatic health impact
of diagnostic x-ray procedures. The data will
be used to: (1) expand the present knowledge
of the variation in somatic doses for x-ray
examinations, based on observed variations in
x-ray techniques; (2) identify the most
significant x-ray examinations from the stand-
point of somatic dose to an individual or
population; and (3) convert the technical
considerations affecting somatic doses from x-
ray examinations into practical information for
dissemination to patients and medical prac-
titioners.
Skull X-Ray Selection Criteria
A BRH-sponsored study of the use of
specified patient selection criteria for ordering
skull x-rays in trauma cases was begun at a
second medical facility. The first study,
conducted at the University of Washington
Hospital in Seattle, demonstrated that when
skull x-rays were performed only on patients
exhibiting specific symptoms, there was a 40
percent reduction in emergency department
skull radiography with no adverse effects on
patient care.
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The second study will be conducted at the
Harborview Medical Center in Seattle. This
hospital has had no formal policy for guiding
physicians on this matter and it served as a
control in the first study. The results showed
that skull radiography at the University of
Washington Hospital decreased by 40 percent
following implementation of the policy, while
skull radiography at the Harborview Medical
Center increased by 64 percent during the
same time period.
It is expected that study results will provide
an indication of whether this policy should be
recommended for all medical facilities
nationwide.
Instrument to Analyze
Neutron Contamination
BRH's Division of Electronic Products
worked on developing a portable instrument
for assessing the neutron component of x-ray
therapy beams from high energy medical
linear accelerators (linacs). Although such
accelerators are designed to produce high-
energy x-rays for tumor irradiation, they also
produce neutrons. Neutrons contamination is
of concern for two reasons. First, neutrons
may contribute a significant whole body dose
of a patient undergoing therapy. Second, even
though the neutron dose may be small
compared to the prescribed dose, its biologi-
cal effect can be several times greater. The
significance of the new instrument is that it
will be portable, providing a way to measure
neutron spectra and dose rates under actual
clinical conditions.
Problems of Computed
Tomography Scanners
BRH's Task Force on Computed Tomogra-
phy (CT) and its working groups were active in
three primary areas in 1977. First, they
investigated the fundamental problem of
making uniform, meaningful measurements
of radiation dose. Second, they worked
toward correcting inadequacies and inconsis-
tencies in the diagnostic x-ray standard as it
applies to CT systems. A document outlining
the conceptual bases for possible future
amendments has been drafted and circulated
to users and manufacturers for preliminary
comment. The third area of activity is an
attempt to define CT performance and use
problems and to determine current practices
in quality assurance and training.
c. Nuclear Medicine
Guidance
Safety Program for Radiation
Therapy Equipment
BRH is considering the development of
safety performance standards and/or recom-
mendations for ionizing radiation equipment
used primarily for the treatment of cancer. A
notice in the March 22 Federal Register
announced the Agency's plans to take steps to
assure the safe and effective use of this
equipment and invited interested persons to
submit opinions on the appropriate course of
action.
Nuclear Medicine Thyroid
Study Techniques
Partly as a result of a new task force report,
"The Developing Role of Short-Lived
Radionuclides in Nuclear Medicine," BRH is
considering the issuance of voluntary
recommendations on the use of nuclear
medicine techniques for the evaluation of
diseases of the thyroid gland. The report
summarized the history of the development
and use of short-lived accelerator-produced
radionuclides, and provides specific
recommendations on techniques that lower
radiation dose in thyroid studies without
compromising clinical information. Comments
were invited in the October 18,1977 Federal
Register regarding recommendations which
would specify the diagnostic procedures where
radioiodine should not be used, as well as the
conditions where it is most appropriate. The
recommendations would also describe
circumstances where technetium-99m is a
suitable substitute for iodine-123, or
iodine-133, and suggest appropriate
instrumentation and dosages for each radio-
pharmaceutical.
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Teletherapy Machines
Therapeutic techniques include the use of
radioactive drugs internally (for example, in
the treatment of thyroid cancer), the use of
radioactive devices both as implants and on
the surface of the body (termed "brachy-
therapy," or "therapy from a short distance")
and the use of radioactive devices external to
the body (termed "teletherapy," or "therapy
from a distance").
A proposed amendment to 10 CFR 35.13,
issued May 19, 1977, establishes specific
guidelines for the calibration of teletherapy
machines. The NRC staff worked closely with
the American Association of Physicists in
Medicine in developing the technical require-
ments in the rule. It would require teletherapy
licensees to:
•Have a qualified expert perform full cali-
bration measurements on each teletherapy
unit at least once each year.
•Perform spot-check measurements on the
output of their units at least monthly.
•Report to the NRC any radiation doses that
differ from prescribed doses by more than 10
percent.
The proposed amendment is designed to
ensure that patients receive correct radiation
doses.
Licensing
On August 15, 1977, 10 CFR 35.12 was
amended to require that NRC issue byproduct
material licenses to medical institutions rather
than to the individual physicians using the
material. This rule will clearly place the
responsibility for radiation safety with the
institution and eliminate the disruption of
medical service which can occur when a
physician holding a private practice license
leaves an institution. It will also simplify NRC's
regulatory efforts by confining responsibility
to the hospital and eliminating the extra cost of
maintaining multiple licenses at the same
institution.
Education and Quality Assurance
Workshops on Radiopharmaceutical
Quality Assurance
BRH is presenting a series of workshops for
nuclear medicine technologists on "Radionu-
clide Handling and Radiopharmaceutical
Quality Assurance." The workshops are being
held in selected locations as a preliminary step
to promoting them nationwide.
Course materials for the one-day workshops
were developed by the University of Colorado
under an FDA contract. The lectures cover
radionuclide generators, quality control tests
for radiopharmaceuticals and dose calibration
equipment, handling of xenon isotopes, and
radiation safety in the laboratory. The
laboratory sessions are designed to give
"hands-on" experience in each of these areas.
In Vitro Nuclear Medicine Workshops
BRH awarded a contract to the University of
Tennessee for the development of training
materials for a "Quality Control for In Vitro
Nuclear Medicine Procedures Workshops."
Areas to be covered include the history and
background of in vitro tests, the extent and
potential of these tests, establishment of
normal values and ranges, quality control of
appropriate counting systems and ancillary
equipment, new product evaluation, and
radiation safety in wet laboratory procedures.
NRC Role in Medical Uses
Of Radioisotopes
In May 1977, the NRC held meetings both
with the public and with its Advisory
Committee on the Medical Use of Isotopes to
consider the extent to which the NRC should
be involved in regulating the medical uses of
radioisotopes. Approximately 90 members of
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25
the public attended these two meetings. The
34 oral and written comments received will be
considered by the NRC staff in the preparation
of a comprehensive policy statement on this
matter.
Radiological Physics Centers
Six Radiological Physics Centers across the
country continued to provide primary physics
services to hospitals, especially to approxima-
tely 300 who are part of the National Cancer
Institute's Cancer Control Program. As their
major emphases, the Centers provide calibra-
tion sevices, review physics protocols for
various activities, and seek ways to reduce
radiation dose in diagnostic procedures.
Studies
Teletherapy Calibration Study
Under an interagency agreement between
BRH and the National Bureau of Standards, a
study of cobalt-60 teletherapy units in medical
facilities was extended. The first phase,
completed in spring 1977, was designed to
survey the approximately 1,000 U.S. facilities
licensed to administer therapy with cobalt-60
sources. Dosimeters were used to evaluate the
variation between a specified dose and the
dose actually delivered. In the followup study,
selected facilities were resurveyed, especially
those whose dosimeter readings differed
substantially from the specified value.
Thyroid Imaging Agents Studies
BRH initiated a contract with the Michael
Reese Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois to
conduct a comparative study of the efficacy of
iodine-123 as sodium iodide and technetium-
99m as sodium pertechnetate for thyroid
imaging. Diagnostic uncertainty results from
apparent discrepancies noted in the ability of
thyroid nodules to concentrate these two
agents.
Possible Delayed Effects of
Therapeutic lodine-131
BRH awarded a contract to the Mayo Clinic
to conduct a followup study of persons treated
for hyperthyroidism with therapeutic doses of
radioactive iodine-131 surgery, lodine-131 is
now considered the treatment of choice in
most U.S. hospitals for hyperthyroidism.
However, the possibility exists that persons
exposed to therapeutic levels of iodine-131 in
the past may develop adverse health effects
after a latent period of many years. Most
studies to date have not demonstrated a
connection between exposure to iodine-131
and delayed effects, but the sample sizes have
been too small or the followup period too
short to provide definitive information.
Radiation and Breast Cancer
The National Cancer Institute refined the
estimation of breast doses and breast cancer
risk, by following up women exposed to
multiple fluoroscopic chest examinations. The
analysis reaffirmed that repeated relatively low
radiation doses pose some future risk of breast
cancer, that the risk may be cumulative, and
that multiple radiation doses may convey the
same breast cancer risk as a single exposure of
the same total dose. Also, a recent analysis has
suggested that proliferating breast tissue is
especially sensitive to the carcinogenic effects
of ionizing radiation. A case study of breast
cancer following radiotherapy (for metastatic
Wilms' tumor) suggested that genetic factors
may predispose individuals to radiogenic
cancer. In a related project, the Institute
launched a collaborative effort with the
Harvard School of Public Health to evaluate
the risk of cancer among patients treated with
large doses of radiation for cervical cancer.
Repeat Examinations in
Nuclear Medicine
Under contract between BRH and the Small
Business Administration in Dallas, Texas, a
retrospective survey was begun of repeat
examinations in nuclear medicine performed
in two hospitals. The survey will be limited to
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in vivo nuclear medicine procedures and will
provide data on the frequency and types of
procedures performed. The resulting informa-
tion will be used to determine the causes of
repeated procedures and to formulate ways of
reducing their frequency.
d. Ultrasound
Education and Quality Assurance
Ultrasound Therapy Measurement
Device
A U.S. patent was granted on a portable
radiometer developed by BRH to measure the
output of medical ultrasound therapy equip-
ment. It was devised to fill the need for a
portable instrument that could be used in the
field to determine the ultrasonic power
emitted by therapeutic units, and provides a
previously unavailable capability for accurate-
ly calibrating the output of such units once
they are in use in medical facilities.
Studies
Fetal Exposure to Ultrasound
BRH contracted with the University of
Colorado to perform a study to determine
whether children at 8 to 10 years of age who
were exposed to diagnostic ultrasound in utero
are different with respect to general health,
growth, physical, and intellectual develop-
ment, and neurological function as compared
to an unexposed but otherwise similar group
of children.
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IV. NUCLEAR POWER
1. Introduction
Nuclear power is by far the most contro-
versial source of manmade radiation. While it
accounts for only a small percentage of the
average American's exposure, nearly all
scientists agree that any dose of radiation from
any source may involve some degree of risk,
and that it is prudent for radiation protection
purposes to assume that it does. The long term
environmental burden must be considered as
well as the risks to individuals, since many
radioactive substances have half-lives of
hundreds or thousands of years.
The basic controversy is how much risk
people are willing to assume — for themselves,
the world environment, and future popula-
tions — to gain the benefits of nuclear power.
There is widespread and violent disagreement
about nearly all the factors in the risk/benefit
equation: what the effects of low level
radiation are, how much nuclear power will
cost relative to the alternatives in ten years,
what the danger of an accident is, if and how
wastes can be contained for milennia, and so
on almost ad infinitum.
Emissions from nuclear power plants can be
reduced to virtually any level with appropriate
controls — but the costs of each increment of
reduction must be weighed against preventing
risks whose significance is still in debate. The
above considerations alone would make
policy decisions complex and difficult; a
further complication is the threat of nuclear
proliferation, particularly when combined
with the possibility of terrorist diversion of
nuclear materials.
This chapter deals only with the radiation
protection aspect of these issues, including
limited material on preventing accidents whose
aftermath would require protection activities.
a. Industry Status
As background to that discussion, the status
of the nuclear power industry in 1977 is
described partially by Figure 4.1, showing that,
for the third straight year, orders for new
reactors were dramatically below the expected
numbers.
As of September 30, 1977, there were 230
nuclear power units either in operation, being
built or being planned, representing a total
capacity of 230,000 net megawatts electric
(MWe). Of these 230 units, 202 had entered the
NRC licensing process, as follows:
•65 licensed to operate, with a total capacity
of 47,000 MWe.
•78 with construction permits, representing
83,000 MWe capacity.
•59 under review for construction permits,
representing 66,000 MWe capacity. (Initial
construction work was proceeding on 15 of
these under limited work authorizations.)
Of the remaining 28 units — those which
had not entered the NRC licensing process —
13 had been ordered and 15 publicly
announced. These and other NRC data below
were extracted from the NRC annual report
for FY 1977.
b. Presidential Action
In 1976 EPA was asked to participate in a
Nuclear Policy Review under President Ford,
and continued its participation when an Ad
Hoc Group on Non-Proliferation was estab-
lished early in 1977 underthe National Security
Council to review current U.S. policies. The
Group, along with others both inside and
outside government, reported its findings
during the year. On April 7, 1977, President
Carter announced his nuclear energy policy,
in which the foremost consideration is non-
proliferation of nuclear weapons. This policy
statement included decisions to defer indefi-
nitely the commercial reprocessing and
recycling of plutonium in the U.S., to
accelerate research into alternative nuclear
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Figure 4.1
" ~7—
351- +*
30 H • / \
/ \
251- J I
o • * 1
/I
£ 20h / i
/ i
•
\
ioh- / *
/ i
•^ i
•'•
I 15h- . *
I I I I I I I I
66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77
Years
U.S. REACTOR ORDERS EACH YEAR
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29
fuel cycles, to restructure the breeder
program, and to increase U.S. enrichment
capacity. It also included decisions on a
number of activities related to the import and
export of nuclear facilities, materials and
equipment.. Similar messages were conveyed
in President Carter's Energy Address to
Congress on April 20,1977, and his Message to
Congress of April 27,1977, which transmitted a
draft Nuclear Non-Proliferation Policy Act.
Among the President's specific energy
policy proposals was that an International
Nuclear Fuel Cycle Evaluation be undertaken.
It is now underway in 45 countries, with the
International Atomic Energy Agency serving as
Secretariat. As a major part of the U.S.
contribution, the Department of Energy
established a Non-Proliferation Alternative
Systems Assessment Program to evaluate
alternative nuclear energy systems and to
devise a system for assessing their proliferation
potential.
EPA's representation in the Ad Hoc Group
on Non-Proliferation has been effective in
seeing that concern for the environment was
not overlooked while that Group and the
other efforts were focusing on potential areas
of conflict between non-proliferation and
domestic and foreign energy needs. Under the
Ad Hoc Group, EPA is, in addition, a
participant at the technical level, in the
Working Group on Spent Fuel Disposition and
the Interagency Group on LDC Energy
Cooperation. The International Nuclear Fuel
Cycle Evaluation also has eight working
groups, with EPA participating in the U.S.
support working groups on spent fuel
management, waste management and dis-
posal, and advanced fuel cycle concepts. It
may be viewed as a measure of success that
appropriate concern for the environment was
included in the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act
which passed the House of Representatives in
1977 and became law early in 1978.
2. Selected Major Judicial Activities
Uranium Fuel Rule
Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., et al.
v. NRC, et a/. (D.C. Cir., Nos. 74-1385,74-1586).
Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Corp. v.
NRDC (Sup. Ct., No. 76-149).
Baltimore Gas & Electric Company, et al. v.
NRDC, et al. (Sup., Ct., No. 76-653).
The Court of Appeals for the District of
Columbia Circuit, by its July 21,1976 decision
in this consolidated case, set aside the waste
management and reprocessing portions of the
Commission's uranium fuel cycle rule ("Table
S-3"). That rule had assigned numerical limits
to the environmental effects acceptable as a
consequence of the licensing of a nuclear
power plant and was intended, for purposes of
making an environmental assessment under
NEPA, to quantify the additional environ-
mental impact of licensing a particular reactor,
insofar as the fuel cycle was concerned.
Without Table S-3 in place, the Commission's
analysis of the environmental effects of the
proposed Vermont Yankee plant was found to
be inadequate, and the Vermont Yankee
operating license was remanded to the
Commission for further consideration pend-
ing an adequate assessment of the fuel cycle
issues. On February 22, 1977, the Supreme
Court granted Vermont Yankee's certiorari
petition and consolidated it with the Aeschliman
case, discussed below. The Supreme Court has
decided to hold the Baltimore Gas case in
abeyance pending its decision in Vermont
Yankee.
Energy Conservation Issues
Nelson Aeschliman, et al. v. AEC, et al. (D.C.
Cir., No. 73-1776).
Saginaw Valley Nuclear Study Group, eta/, v.
AEC, et al. (D.C. Cir., No. 73-1867).
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Consumers Power Company v. Nelson
Aeschliman, et a/. (Sup. Ct., No. 76-528).
On review of the construction permits
issued for Consumer Power Company's
Midland (Michigan) facility, the Court of
Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit
disapproved the Commission's treatment of
energy conservation issues, ruling that the
Commission had placed too stringent an
evidentiary burden on groups seeking Com-
mission consideration of energy conservation
issues. The court also held that Advisory
Committee on Reactor Safeguards (ACRS)
reports must be sufficiently explicit to inform
the public of all identified hazards of reactor
operation and that licensing boards have the
obligation to return cryptic reports to the
ACRS for further elaboration. The court
remanded the case to the Commission for the
purpose of restriking the NEPA cost/benefit
balance, including an assessment of unad-
dressed fuel cycle issues. On February 22,1977,
the Supreme Court granted certiorari and
consolidated this case with the Vermont
Yankee fuel cycle case. These cases were
argued on November 28,1977.
Transportation Litigation
New York State filed suit against the NRC
and six other Federal agencies in the Federal
District Court of New York City in May 1975 to
ban transportation by air, and related connect-
ing transportation, of plutonium and other
special nuclear materials to, from, in and over
the City and State of New York and the United
States and its territories. In September 1975 the
district court denied a motion for a prelim-
inary injunction, which was sustained on
appeal to the Second Circuit Court of Appeals.
The disposition of the case awaits considera-
tion of the NRC environmental statement
(NUREG-0170) issued in December 1977. (In
the meantime, air transportation of plutonium
is stayed by Public Law 94-79.)
New York City passed a health ordinance in
September 1975 which requires city approval
for the transportation of certain types and
amounts of radioactive material within its
borders. The NRC presented testimony at
hearings on this matter in opposition to the
ordinance and the Justice Department chal-
lenged the legality of the action in a suit
against the City of New York. In January 1976,
the district court denied a motion by the U.S.
Attorney for a preliminary injunction agj:nst
the virtual ban on transportation through the
city. The Secretary of Transportation is
considering the compatibility of the ordinance
with Federal regulations. A public hearing on
this matter was held by the Department of
Transportation in New York during November
1977.
Several proceedings on rail transportation
of spent fuel and radioactive wastes were
initiated before the Interstate Commerce
Commmission (ICC) in which railroad organi-
zations have proposed tariffs that would
severely restrict such transportation. The NRC
entered a contention that, insofar as the
proceedings involve issues of radiological
safety in the transportation of radioactive
materials, those concerns should be addressed
to the NRC and/or the DOT and not to the
ICC. The ICC issued an environmental impact
statement on these matters in August 1977.
NRC provided some technical assistance to
ICC in this task. The ICC Administrative Law
Judge then ruled that the risks of transport
were not great enough to justify certain
railroads' refusal to carry spent nuclear fuel as
common carriers. The ICC later decided in
favor of the position that radioactive material
transportation safety issues should be left to
NRC and DOT. The railroad organizations
have requested that the full ICC review the
matter.
Constitutionality of the
Price-Anderson Act
On March 31,1977, the U.S. District Court
for the Western District of North Carolina
issued a memorandum of decision declaring
that the Price-Anderson Act's provision
limiting liability from a nuclear plant accident
to $560 million was unconstitutional. This
decision generally supported the position of
the plaintiffs, the Carolina Environmental
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Study Group, Inc. and its individual members.
The NRC and Duke Power Company, who are
co-defendants in this case, have both filed
notices of appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court.
In November 1977, the Supreme Court
indicated it would review the decision.
Wastes
Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., v.
NRC (2d Cir., No. 77-4157).
On August 25,1977, the Natural Resources
Defense Council filed a petition to review the
Commission order denying NRDC's request
that a rule-making proceeding be initiated to
determine whether radioactive wastes gen-
erated in nuclear reactors can be safely
disposed of and to suspend licensing of plants
pending such a determination. The case was
pending before the Second Circuit at the close
of the report period.
North Anna Plant
Virginia Electric and Power Company v.
NRC (4th Cir., No. 76-2215).
North Anna Environmental Coalition v.
NRC (4th Cir., No. 76-2331).
VEPCO and the North Anna Environmental
Coalition petitioned the Fourth Circuit to
review the Commission's North Anna opinion,
which imposed a $32,500 fine on the utility for
false statements concerning geologic faulting
at the site.
The Fourth Circuit consolidated the cases
and permitted the Commonwealth of Virginia
to intervene. Basically, NRC argues that the
$32,500 civil penalty assessed against VEPCO
was proper; that an intent to deceive is not a
necessary element of an actionable false
statement; that the materiality of the state-
ment must be judged from the point of view of
an NRC employee reviewing the utility's
application for a power plant license, not the
lay public's understanding; and that omission
of information can constitute a false state-
ment. The case was argued on December 6,
1977 and was awaiting decision at the end of
1977.
3. Summary
President Carter's announced nuclear ener-
gy policy, in which the foremost consideration
is non-proliferation of nuclear weapons,
caused several new decisions concerning
reprocessing and other matters.
A few of the major judicial areas addressed
were the uranium fuel cycle rule, energy
conservation issues, transportation, the Price-
Anderson Act, wastes, and the North Anna
plant.
Comprehensive
EPA/ORP continued to evaluate the environ-
mental impact of carbon-14 discharges from
normal operations of the uranium fuel cycle
facilities, with a view to a possible amendment
of current regulations.
NRC staff proceeded with development of
radiological effluent Standard Technical Spec-
ifications to meet the requirements of the as
low as practicable rule. They also began to
work out the details of implementing the EPA
uranium fuel cycle standard.
EPA/ORP continued to question the ERDA
sponsored Reactor Safety Study's treatment of
health effects following a reactor accident.
Among the more important Environmental
Impact Statements dealt with during the year
were those on mixed oxide fuel, expansion of
the Portsmouth Gaseous Diffusion Plant, and
Floating Nuclear Power Plants.
EPA/ORP conducted a number of relevant
studies, including its operational analysis
program, a report on gaseous effluents from
reactors, and radiation studies at nuclear
facilities, as well as a review of liver cancer risk
due to certain actinide radionuclides. NRC
studies and reviews included environmental
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dispersion, ecological imoact, and socioeco-
nomic and regional fields. DOE also covered a
wide spectrum of concerns, including pro-
grams to investigate the potential of the
nuclear fuel cycles for contaminating the
environment and to analyze environmental
control systems, in addition to research on
mechanisms to radiation interaction with
living cells.
Wastes
EPA/ORP launched its effort to develop
criteria expressing the basic philosophy that
should pervade all agencies' waste standards,
by holding two open public workshops. Three
ongoing contracts were initiated as part of
developing the high level waste standard the
President directed EPA to issue in 1978.
NRC worked on a revision to a Guide on the
design of storage facilities at reactors, waste
classification criteria, proposed regulations
regarding high level waste repositories,
performance criteria for solidified reprocess-
ing wastes, and technical studies of decontam-
ination and decommissioning of nuclear
installations. Low level wastes were also the
focus of a number of programs, including
standards and criteria development and an
examination of alternatives to shallow land
burial.
EPA/ORP reviewed NRC's responses to the
comments EPA submitted on the Commis-
sion's "Environmental Survey of the Reproces-
sing and Waste Management Portions of the
LWR Fuel Cycle," and a number of Environ-
mental impact Statements covering waste
management operations at Savannah River
Plant, Oak Ridge intermediate wastes, Brook-
haven National Laboratory, and waste man-
agement operations at Idaho National
Laboratory.
EPA/ORP also worked to determine the
impact of ground disposal of wastes by
conducting studies at operating commercial
burial studies; specific programs include one
to characterize reactor-generated low level
radwastes and an inventory and projections of
low level radwastes for burial at commercial
facilities. "Radiological Measurements at the
Maxey Flats Radioactive Waste Burial Site—
1974 to 1975" was published in January 1977.
NRC began a special study on the adequacy
of high-level waste storage at West Valley,
New York.
In support of its efforts to develop standards
for high level radioactive waste management,
EPA initiated a contract to evaluate the
adequacy of the state of knowledge in the
earth sciences for estimating the environ-
mental impacts from deep geological disposal.
Spent Fuel
NRC completed a draft environmental
statement on spent fuel for internal review,
concluding that no modification of current
regulations summarizing environmental con-
siderations for the uranium fuel cycle appears
necessary.
Transportation
NRC issued a report defining regulatory and
other responsibilities of different parties
involved in dealing with transportation acci-
dents involving radioactive materials. In
collaboration with the Department of Trans-
portation, a study was begun on the adequacy
of existing requirements for the shipment of
material containing a low level of radioactivity.
A draft environmental statement was prepared
to assess the impacts associated with transpor-
tation of all radioactive materials. EPA/ORP
reviewed a more specialized, DOE sponsored
report on transoceanic shipping of spent fuel
and plutonium.
Abnormal occurrences numbered 19 in
1977, accordingto NRC's major interim criteria
defining them.
Emergency Response Planning
EPA continued development of its manual
for state and local governments on Protective
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Action Guides and protective actions for
nuclear incidents. Protective Action Guides
have been developed for three accident
phases, each requiring a different type of
response. Guidance on instrumentation for
radiological emergencies was developed by an
Interagency Task Force, and other interagency
activities were also initiated. DOE expanded its
computer technique to project dose on the
basis of environmental data collected follow-
ing a release. Both EPA and NRC participated
in an international effort to develop guidance
on response plans for major radiological
accidents.
4. Executive Activities
Comprehensive Activities
Guidance
EPA/ORP Environmental Analysis
of Carbon-14
EPA/ORP continued to evaluate the envi-
ronmental impact of 14C discharges from
normal operations of uranium fuel cycle
facilities. Upon completion of this study, a
decision will be made on the need for an
amendment to 40 CFR 190 (the uranium fuel
cycle standard) for 14C. The results of the
Agency's evaluation are expected to be
available in 1978.
Discharges of 14C from the nuclear power
industry are of particular concern partly
because 14C is a very long-lived radionuclide.
Also, it becomes part of the carbon cycle, so it
moves from the atmosphere and water to
chemical structures of all life forms and back
again. The anticipated maximum dose equiva-
lent commitment to any single individual from
14C discharges from uranium fuel cycle
facilities is very small. The primary concern
may be the cumulative risk to the world
population over long periods of time.
Specifically, in 1977:
— EPA/ORP continued to study 14C
sources and control systems for light-water
reactor facilities.
— EPA/ORP continued to evaluate the
population dose commitment due to 14C
discharges to the atmosphere. The Agency
assessment used a diffusion-type model of the
global carbon cycle developed in 1977 by G.G.
Killough at Oak Ridge National Laboratory
(available as ORNL-5269 from the National
Technical Information Service).
— Science Applications, Inc., completed a
contract report to EPA in 1977 which assessed
14C control technology and cost for the light-
water reactor fuel cycle. The major conclusion
is that caustic scrubbing is the best way to
remove 14C from waste gas streams and to
leave it in a form compatible with permanent
disposal conditions. (See Bray, Gary R.; Miller,
Charles L; Nguyen, Tien D., and John W.
Rieke, "Assessment of Carbon-14 Control
Technology and Costs for the LWR Fuel
Cycle," Final Report for Contract 69-01-1954,
EPA-520/4-77-013 (1977).
Appendix I
Since the adoption of Appendix I, which sets
design criteria for nuclear reactors so that
radioactive emissions are as low as practica-
ble, the NRC staff has been developing
radiological effluent Standard Technical Spec-
ifications to meet the requirements of the rule.
These specifications provide monitoring,
sampling, analytical and reporting require-
ments and are being prepared in the format of
Appendix A (radiological safety), Standard
Technical Specifications. Following approval
by the Regulatory Requirements Review
Committee, these specifications will be
forwarded to all applicants for operating
licenses for- inclusion in the Final Safety
Analysis Reports and to all licensees with
operating licenses. Licensees will be requested
to submit site-specific technical specifications
as amendments to their operating licenses on a
schedule to be determined by the NRC staff.
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Fuel Cycle Standard
On December 28,1976, Federal Regulation
40 CFR Part 190 was promulgated by the
Environmental Protection Agency. This standard,
entitled "Environmental Radiation Protection
Standards for Nuclear Power Operations,"
requires that operations covered by the
standard be conducted so that there is
reasonable assurance that the annual dose
equivalent to a member of the public exposed
to planned discharges of radioactive materials
and to radiation from the operation does not
exceed a value of 25 millirems to the whole
body. The standard also sets a thyroid and
organ dose limit and provide curie-release
limits for several specific radioisotopes. The
standard is to be effective by December 1,
1979, except for two of the isotope release
limits.
The NRC is responsible for implementing
the EPA standard, which is somewhat less
restrictive for a single reactor plant than the
annual dose equivalents corresponding to the
design objectives of Appendix I to 10 CFR Part
50. NRC has established a task force to work
out the details of implementation, and it is
considering such matters as the technical
issues for implementation in licensing actions
for all types of anticipated nuclear fuel cycle
facilities, including sites having more than one
reactor and sites having more than one type of
facility. Need for amending existing NRC
regulations is also being considered by the task
force, as is the need to modify regulatory
guides, standard review plans, technical
specifications, and inspection procedures.
Study Review
Following up on its earlier reviews, EPA/
ORP continued to question the ERDA
sponsored Reactor Safety Study's treatment of
health effects following a reactor accident.
The methods used to estimate both early and
late somatic effects were questioned: more
documentation was seen as heeded in the acute
effects estimates, as they seem to differ from
several published reports by responsible
groups and investigators. EPA/ORP also
objected to the Study's use of 30 year plateau
absolute risk estimates from the BEIR report,
because they are minimum estimates and may
be out of date in several respects. These
comments had a number of implications for
the Study's calculations, and at the end of the
year the agencies were still discussing their
differences.
Environmental Impact Statements
While many agencies — often several dozen
— comment on Environmental Impact State-
ments, EPA has primary responsibility. There-
fore, and because of space limitations, only
EPA/ORP responses are summarized here.
Mixed Oxide Fuel
Under a November 1975 policy statement of
the Commission (40 FR 53056), the NRC began
public hearings to help resolve the issue of
whether and under what conditions uranium
and plutonium might be recovered from spent
light water nuclear reactor fuel and recycled in
fresh mixed oxide fuel.
The hearings used as a basis the "Final
Generic Environmental Statement on the Use
of Recycled Plutonium in Mixed Oxide Fuel jn
Light-water Cooled Reactors—Health, Safety
and Environment," publication number NUREG-
0002, referred to as GESMO. Under the same
November 1975 policy statement, the NRC
also continued to process license applications
for the construction, operation, and modifica-
tion of facilities to reprocess spent fuel,
fabricate mixed oxide fuel, and perform
related functions. The U.S. Court of Appeals
for the Second Circuit held, however, that the
Commission could not issue such licenses for
commercial-scale activities until it had com-
pleted the GESMO proceedings. Following
the President's April 7 policy statement, NRC
invited comments on its GESMO proceedings.
In light of the comments and other events, the
Commission decided at public meetings in
December 1977:
(1) To terminate the GESMO proceeding.
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Table 4.2
Standards for Normal Operations
of the Uranium Fuel Cycle
A. Individual Dose Limits
1. Whole body
2. Thyroid
3. Other organs*
B. Limits for Long-Lived Radionuclides
1. Krypton-85
2. lodine-129
3. Transuranics**
C. Variances
25 millirems/year
75 millirems/year
25 millirems/year
50,000 curies/gigawatt-year
5 millicuries/gigawatt-year
0.5 millicuries/gigawatt-year
At the discretion of the regulatory agency (licensor) for
temporary and unusual operating circumstances to insure orderly
delivery of electrical power.
D. Effective Dates
1. Two years, except
2. 1983 for krypton-85 and iodine-129.
*any human organ except the dermis, epidermis, or cornea.
"limited to alpha-emitters with half-lives greater than one year.
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36
(2) To terminate the proceedings on
pending or future plutonium recycle-related
license applications, except for (a) proceedings
on licenses for the fabrication or use of small
quantities of mixed oxide fuel for experimental
purposes, and (b) those portions of proceed-
ings which involve only spent fuel storage,
disposal of existing waste, or decontamination
of existing plants.
(3) To re-examine the above matters after
the completion of the ongoing alternative fuel
cycle studies, now expected to take about two
years.
(4) To publish the draft safeguards supple-
ment to the GESMO document as a staff
technical report.
Portsmouth Gaseous Diffusion
Plant Expansion
Description: ERDA prepared a Draft Envi-
ronmental Statement in November 1976 to
assess the Portsmouth Gaseous Diffusion Plant
Expansion. To accommodate U.S. needs for
nuclear fuel as well as those of foreign
customers, ERDA concluded that an additional
plant would be required to ensure an
adequate supply after 1985, and chose the
Portsmouth site. While the Statement was
being reviewed by EPA/ORP, the importance
of the proposed action was enhanced as the
new Administration put increasing emphasis
on expanding enrichment capacity to achieve
nonproliferation goals.
EPA/ORP Response and Status: EPA/ORP
questioned whether possible alternatives had
been given adequate consideration, and
suggested that an expansion facility could be
built at a later date if actually needed, using
energy- and water-saving centrifuge techno-
logy rather than diffusion. Also, the Agency
contended that analysis of the regional impact
was insufficient.
President Carter then announced that the
expansion facility would use centrifuge
technology. Rather than issuing a new Draft
Statement to deal with the greatly different
system to be used, ERDA published a Final
Statement the day before it became a part of
DOE. It again stressed the diffusion process,
referring to the "proposed facility" as a
diffusion plant; the centrifuge technology
which had been decided on was treated only
as an alternative. Therefore, the discussion of
its attributes and possible impacts was far less
complete than it would have been had a full
Statement been prepared, taking the Carter
decision into account.
EPA/ORP submitted comments to ERDA
and the Council on Environmental Quality to
put the Agency on record as officially
disapproving of the approach used in the Final
Statement.
Floating Nuclear Power Plants
Description: An NRC staff Draft Environ-
mental Statement was published in December
1975, covering the generic issues pertaining to
the proposed siting of floating nuclear plants
in the coastal regions of the Atlantic Ocean
and the Gulf of Mexico (NUREG-75/113). The
floating nuclear plant was conceived by the
electric power industry some years ago as an
alternative to land siting; its potential advan-
tages include freedom from earthquake
motions, an abundance of cooling water, and a
relative isolation from populated areas.
EPA/ORP Response and Status: EPA/ORP
rated the NRC generic Statement on siting and
operation of FNPs inadequate, and presented
its criticisms in testimony before the House
Subcommittee on Energy and the Environment
on July 27,1976. Deficiencies cited were: (1)
inadequate treatment of inshore siting options,
(2) inadequate treatment of siting criteria, (3)
lack of discussion of long term and cumulative
impacts of a projected industry, and (4) lack of
justification of eight plants for the first
increment of production.
EPA/ORP also rated a subsequent Statement
on the impacts of radioactive materials from
accidents as inadequate. When the Final
Environmental Statement on siting and opera-
tion of FNP was issued by NRC on October 1,
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37
1976, EPA/ORP found it unresponsive to the
comments and so informed the NRC and
Council on Environmental Quality. The State-
ment on accidents has not been reissued, and
resolution of EPA/ORP's concerns was under-
way at the end of the year.
Enforcement
Inspection Types
Planned NRC inspections are based on a
defined program expressed in detailed inspec-
tion procedures, and are accomplished at
prescribed intervals by NRC regional inspec-
tors. Their principal objective is to provide
reasonable assurance that licensed activities
are conducted safely and in compliance with
NRC requirements. This objective is met
through selective examination of systems and
functions, both administrative and physical,
that have an impact on the safety and protec-
tion provided by each licensee.
Reactive NRC inspections respond to partic-
ular conditions or events which may affect the
public's health and safety. Information on such
conditions or events comes to NRC through
notification by an applicant, licensee, contrac-
tor or supplier, or as a result of allegations by a
member of the public. Each licensee is
required to report any abnormal condition or
event to the Commission, thus providing for
continuous NRC monitoring of licensee oper-
ations. Compliance with these reporting
requirements is examined during the planned
on-site NRC inspections.
Action Taken
Several threshold levels of NRC action are
provided to allow flexibility in the enforce-
ment action response to reports of noncom-
pliance:
— Written "notices of violation" are pro-
vided for a spectrum of matters where severity
and punitive considerations are below the
threshold of orders and civil penalties.
— Civil monetary penalties are provided
as an incentive for licensees to assure com-
pliance on a continuing basis. They are consid-
ered for licensees with chronic, deliberate,
or repetitive items of noncompliance, gener-
erally where a "notice of violation" has not
been effective. Civil penalties may also be
imposed for certain first of a kind violations.
— Order to "cease and desist" operations,
or for modification, suspension, or revocation
of licenses are used to deal rapidly and
conclusively with licensees who do not
respond to civil penalties or to deal with
violations that constitute a significant threat to
public health and safety or to the common
defense and security.
During FY 1977, a total of 15 civil monetary
penalties were imposed upon licensees by
NRC in order to enforce compliance with NRC
rules and regulations.
Revised Inspection Program
During 1977, the Commission authorized
the Office of Inspection and Enforcement to
proceed with a revised inspection program
that will place NRC resident inspectors full
time onsite at power reactors and at major fuel
cycle facilities. This program includes three
major elements: (1) resident inspectors; (2)
performance appraisal teams that will provide
national (as opposed to regional) perspective
on licensee performance and the effectiveness
of the inspection program; and (3) expanded
direct measurement of licensee activities and
increased observation of licensee operations.
This revised program preserves the under-
lying philosophy that the licensee is respon-
sible for all safety, safeguards and environ-
mental measures necessary to protect the
public. None of the additional observations,
tests or measurements performed by NRC will
replace any of those performed by the
licensee but will serve to verify the licensee's
ability to accurately conduct these tests.
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Quality Assurance
Each NRC licensee is held responsible for
assuring that his nuclear power plants are built
and operated safely and in conformance with
the NRC regulations. In addition, the NRC has
several specific quality assurance (QA) respon-
sibilities. First, it has a responsibility for
developing the criteria and guides for judging
the acceptability of nuclear power plant QA
programs. Second, it has a responsibility for
reviewing the QA programs of each licensee
and his principal contractors to assure that
sufficient management and program controls
exist. Finally, NRC inspects selected activities
to determine that the QA programs are being
implemented effectively.
In order to assess independently the
adequacy of NRC's regulatory practices in the
area of quality assurance, the NRC contracted
with Sandia Laboratories to do a comprehen-
sive study on th is topic. The results of this study
were published in August 1977, generally
endorsing current practices, while suggesting
additional measures and potential improve-
ments for NRC consideration. Some of these
recommendations are being implemented,
and others are being evaluated.
EPA Studies
Operational Analysis Program
EPA continued its program of operational
analysis of nuclear facilities, publishing three
new reports. Results of studies conducted
under this program are used for a number of
purposes:
— in reviewing environmental impact
statements of nuclear power plants, particular-
ly older ones,
— to improve predictive models,
— to provide additional data for use in
EPA's program to develop environmental
radiation protection criteria and standards for
radioactive waste management,
— to assess actual performance against
predictions in Environmental Impact State-
ments, and
— to review the adequacy of generally
applicable radiation standards for the uranium
fuel cycle.
In June 1977, EPA/ORP issued a report
entitled "Summary of Radioactivity Released
in Effluents from Nuclear Power Plants from
1972 through 1975" (EPA-520/3-77-006). The
Summary is planned as an annual report,
derived from a data file maintained on all
significant radionuclides in LWR effluents (air,
water and solid).
In addition to being used in the technology
assessment of current waste management
processes, the Summary will be useful in
identifying sources with inadequate controls
and in assessing compliance with Agency
radiation standards, guides, and criteria. A
follow up report covering 1973 to 1976 (EPA-
520/3-77-012) is now available, although the
earlier one is out of print.
A third major publication, in November
1977, was "An Analysis of Low-Level Solid
Radioactive Waste from LWRs through 1975"
(ORP/TAD 77-2). The study was undertaken to
assess the volume and total radioactivity of the
solid waste produced by an average reference
LWR in a year. Both the volume and
radioactivity were investigated, and an analysis
was undertaken of the relative composition
with respect to major radionuclides.
Gaseous Effluents from Reactors
In September 1977, EPA/ORP completed a
draft report on its study of "Population Doses
Resulting from Light-Water-Cooled Nuclear
Power Plant Airborne Effluents." Differences
were compared in the degree of environmen-
tal contamination that can be expected from
the operation of boiling water reactors
(BWR's) and pressurized water reactors
(PWR's). The study also examined trends
during 1970-74 in the release of mixed fission
and activation products, noble gases, halogens
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39
and participates, and tritium; BWR releases
were higher than the PWR for all releases
except tritium. The study is expected to be
published in 1978.
. EPA/ORP Radiation Studies
at Nuclear Facilities
EPA/ORP continued its special field studies
at selected typical nuclear facilities. In addition
to helping develop measurement techniques
and validate dose computational models, the
studies are useful in characterizing effluents
and determining whether technology to
control nuclear wastes can meet design
specifications. Some of the studies completed
or in progress in 1977 were:
— Quad Cities Nuclear Power Station: A
draft report was prepared during 1976 of a
continuing joint EPA/NRC study of the iodine-
131 to milk pathway at a boiling water reactor.
Measurements included release rates and
concentrations of iodine-131 in air, grass and
milk. The draft report was reviewed and
commented on during 1977, and the resulting
changes were incorporated in the final
document, which will be published in 1978.
— G.E. Fuel Fabrication Plant: EPA/ORP
completed a study to characterize the stack
effluents of a fuel fabrication facility, and to
learn about types of radionuclides discharged
and about significant environmental exposure
pathways. As stated in a draft report, these data
will be used to validate dose models for use in
future estimates of individual and population
doses. The final report will be issued in spring
of 1978.
— Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant:
Design and evaluation of an ambient radiation
monitoring program was the major objective
of a joint study begun by EPA/ORP, the
Alabama Division of Radiological Health, the
Tennessee Valley Authority and others. Only
background data was gathered before the
plant was shut down temporarily. The
background data collected up to fall 1977 are
being analyzed, and a report is in preparation.
The EPA study resumed when the plant went
back into service in fall 1977; a report on the
data collected for the next year will be
forthcoming in 1979.
Liver Cancer Risk
EPA/ORP developed a model to estimate
the risk of liver cancer due to certain actinide
radionuclides, based on data from patients
treated with Thorotrast. Used medically, it has
produced a pattern of biological effects similar
to those expected from alpha-emitting radio-
nuclides in the nuclear reactor fuel cycle.
Because children's sensitivity to exposure is
uncertain, and the model showed it could
affect estimates more dramatically than other
factors, EPA/ORP concluded that the Thoro-
trast data should be analyzed to provide age-
specific information on cancer risks. Of
particular importance is the need to make all
Thorotrast studies consistent so data may be
compared. (See Nelson, N.S., Ellett, W.H.,
Cook, J.R., and F.A. Hodge, "Estimated Risk of
Liver Cancer Due to Alpha Emitters and Beta-
Alpha Emitting Parent-Daughter Chains; An
Application of Thorotrast Data," to be
published, Environmental Research (1978).)
NRC Studies and Reviews
NRC Advisory Committee
The Advisory Committee on Reactor Safe-
guards is a panel of independent advisors
established by law to review and report to the
NRC on safety studies and license applications
for nuclear power reactors and other major
nuclear facilities, such as spent fuel processing
plants. The Committee also provides advice to
the Commission on a wide range of safety-
related matters, such as the adequacy of
proposed reactor safety standards, reactor
safety research, specific technical issues of a
topical nature, and the safety of operating
reactors.
In its review of proposed facilities during the
report period, the Committee gave special
emphasis to the following safety-related
matters:
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40
•Analysis of systems interactions in nuclear
power plants, including the physical configu-
ration of safety systems and interrelated
functions and actions.
•Innovative safety features, such as the
upper head injection system and ice condenser
containment system.
•Methodology applied to the seismic
evaluation of nuclear power plant sites
and structures.
•Physical protection of nuclear facilities and
safeguards for special nuclear material.
•Reliability of safety-related systems, such as
the DC power supply in nuclear power plants.
The Committee has also given considerable
attention to the following subjects at the
specific request of the NRC:
•Packages for air shipment of plutonium
and transporation of other radioactive ma-
terials.
•Long-term waste management for high-
level and low-level wastes.
•Specific reactor safety issues which have
been raised by members of the NRC technical
staff.
The Committee's advice was also requested
by the NRC on the environmental survey of
the waste management portions of the light-
water-reactor fuel cycle, and a report was
provided to the Commission in early 1977. This
action represented the first time the Com-
mittee had become involved in the review of
environmental matters, though future efforts
in this area are expected.
Environmental Review
The NRC environmental review process
under NEPA provides for the establishment of
operating limitations and monitoring require-
ments for each nuclear plant. Their purpose is
to assure that the plant meets design
specifications and to verify anticipated en-
vironmental impacts. Control measures are
incorporated into operating licenses by means
of Environmental Technical Specifications
(ETS), which specify appropriate limiting
conditions for operation and provide detailed
procedural requirements for conducting the
monitoring programs. Significant progress has
been made in our understanding of the
environmental issues involving power plants
since the program was initiated in 1971. A
frequent practice in early monitoring pro-
grams was to place general requirements on
licensees, which resulted in the generation of
large amounts of data, much of which proved
to be extraneous. Recently ETS have become
more streamlined, focusing directly on those
issues of environmental concern that are
identified in environmental impact statements.
Another improvement in the licensing
process is a recently initiated program to
establish conformity in the ETS process. This is
being accomplished by selecting representa-
tive power plants at the operating license stage
and developing ETS for them in a format
readily applicable to other plants. Details will
vary from plant to plant, but the underlying
principles and objectives will be consistent for
all.
Environmental Dispersion
A unified transport model was developed by
NRC for use in coordinated thermal, chemical,
radioisotope and plume entrainment analyses
to provide a reliable method for predicting
dispersion of power plant discharges to lakes,
rivers, estuaries and other waters. Levels of
radioiodine, carbon and tritium in the vicinity
of the Quad Cities nuclear station in Illinois
were measured as part of a study to identify the
species of radioiodine in reactor effluents and
to confirm environmental assessments and
predictions made in connection with power
plant licensing.
Ecological Impact
A series of studies has been undertaken by
NRC to assess, confirm or improve methods
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41
for predicting the potential impacts of the
nuclear industry on important species, eco-
logical systems and physical environments.
Studies in progress to develop and test
methodologies for predicting the impact on
populations of important fish include recent
modeling and measurement studies to assess
the impact of nuclear power stations at Indian
Point, N.Y. on the population dynamics of
striped bass in the Hudson River. Other studies
have modeled and measured the dilution,
distribution and effects of chemical antifouling
agents in reactor cooling water discharges.
Socioeconomic and Regional Studies
NRC studies of secondary socioeconomic
impacts associated with construction and
operation of nuclear power stations at
Plymouth, Mass., and Waterford, Conn., were
undertaken in connection with environmental
impact statements associated with power plant
licensing. Work also continued during the
1977 on the study of future electricity demand
in individual States. At the end of the period,
the projected demands in 15 states had been
examined, and the results were being used in
analyzing the need for power in the cases of
the Marble Hill and Erie nuclear stations. The
Energy Facilities Siting Council of the Com-
monwealth of Massachusetts and NRC initi-
ated a joint project to develop a methodology
for assessing energy facility siting on a regional
basis.
DOE Studies
Environmental Studies
DOE continued programs to investigate the
potential of nuclear fuel cycles for contam-
inating the environment with effluents con-
taining transuranic and fission product radio-
nuclides. Little information is available on the
behavior some deposited effluents exhibit
under agricultural conditions and in natural
ecosystems, and there are no reliable estimates
of the persistence of transuranium elements in
our environment. Another gap in our
understanding is the composition and be-
havior of energy and weapons related
pollutants in the stratosphere, and how they
are affected by natural processes.
DOE's research program encompasses stud-
ies to address these issues in many different
ways. Transuranic element mobility is being
assessed from the results of laboratory
experiments and field studies where detecta-
ble levels of elements such as plutonium are
known to exist: the Great Lakes, Ohio
River/Mississippi River Basins, Atlantic Coastal
Plain, Western desert regions, U.S. coastal
regions, the Irish Sea and the North Pacific. In
1977, the role of microbiological activity was
studied in soils and sediment, and showed that
small amounts of plutonium and other acti-
nides are incorporated as organic complexes.
Such organically incorporated substances
pose a much greater hazard to people by
ingestion.
Transuranium elements are also being
evaluated in terms of their persistence as a
potential hazard, and their transport from the
environment to the human population.
Among the specific studies conducted in 1977
are:
— For the Miami/Ohio River, Hudson
River and Savannah River, results indicated
that almost all of the transport of transuranium
elements was associated with sediment move-
ment.
— A program on baseline concentrations
and the fate of transuranic elements was
initiated in the Clinch River to determine what
has been released from Oak Ridge and
retained in sediments nearby.
— Additional information was collected
on the depositions of transuranium elements
during harvesting of agricultural food crops.
— Losses of radioactivity from bottom
sediments in North Pacific Gyre were esti-
mated as part of a study to identify acceptable
future waste disposal sites of high level wastes.
— Thorium and uranium studies were
begun in the laboratory and the field to
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42
determine their transport, fate, and effects in
the environment.
— To address the problem of pollutants in
the stratosphere, a high altitude sampling
program is operated in the Northern Hemi-
sphere to document the concentrations of
selected aerosols and gases as a function of
latitude, altitude and season. In 1977, more
samples were collected, and NASA contractors
developed a new sampler to provide greater
detail at less expense.
Environmental Control
Systems Analysis
DOE conducted an analysis of systems and
technology for controlling radiological and
chemical effluents from alternative light water
reactor fuel cycles. The adequacy of these
systems in terms of present and proposed
effluent limits will be evaluated. Fuel cycle
options considered were limited to those
related to nonproliferation, but eventually
other possibilities such as the High Temper-
ature Gas Reactor fuel cycle will also be
assessed. In a related area, DOE is conducting a
program of analysis and testing to affirm the
adequacy of fuel and waste containment casks
used throughout the fuel cycle. Technical
information is being collected to:
— maintain the existing transportation
accident data bank,
— collect and publish statistics and data on
DOE's own transportation operations pro-
gram, and
— develop films, booklets, and exhibits on
the environmental and safety aspects of the
transportation of fuels and wastes.
Physical and Technological Studies
DOE conducts research on mechanisms of
radiation interaction with living cells and
formulates descriptive models predicting
biological effects. Improved dose-effect
models were used in 1977 for health
protection and radiation therapy application.
Basic reseach was continued on new materials,
detector concepts and electronics improve-
ments, with emphasis on development and
evaluation of field instruments. Prototype in-
situ monitors were completed for detecting
low levels of uranium and transuranium
isotopes in soils.
Guidance
b. Wastes
EPA Criteria and Standard
In September 1976, the President directed
EPA to prepare specific numerical standards
for environmental protection from high level
radioactive wastes. They will apply to both
defense and commercial wastes in any form.
While the President's decision against repro-
cessing changes predictions about how much
of what kind of waste there will be, a standard
is needed in any case to apply to existing
wastes. EPA decided to begin developing the
standard simultaneously with formulating
general criteria, because of the urgency of the
issue.
The criteria, to be completed in 1978, will
express the basic philosophy that should
pervade all agencies' waste standards, includ-
ing EPA's, and will outline the kinds of
considerations which should be taken into
account in formulating them. The criteria will
apply to all types of radioactive wastes.
EPA/ORP launched the criteria develop-
ment process with two open public workshops
held in Albuquerque, N.M. and Reston, Va.
(near Washington, D.C.). The purpose was to
listen to the public's views 'on policy and
technical issues pertinent to developing
criteria—what factors should be considered
and how they should be weighed. Participants
divided into smaller working groups to
address more specific topics, and then wrote
reports on the issues they saw as important.
Among the questions discussed were:
— whether wastes should be retrievable in
any way
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43
— whether and in what way accidents and
unplanned events should be taken into
account
— what information the public should
have to make decisions about radioactive
wastes
— how risks from different wastes should
be taken into account in developing criteria
applicable to all wastes
— what our responsibilities are to future
generations
— for how long isolation should be
assured for surface burial
— what controls should be imposed to
minimize the radiological impact to the
populations.
A surprising degree of consensus emerged
from the groups, which varied greatly in
background and viewpoint. Some basic
guiding principles emerged, such as the idea
that future generations should not be
subjected to greater risks than present ones
and that retrievability should be considered
only when safety will not be compromised. As
a next step, the EPA staff developed initial
formulations of proposed criteria, and plan-
ned to hold a 1978 Public Forum to enable the
public to provide the agency with detailed,
written comments from working groups.
Three ongoing contracts were initiated in
1977 as part of developing the high level waste
standard the President has directed EPA to
issue during 1978. The first contract will
produce a technical document discussing (a)
sources and total quantities of waste existing
and expected, (b) engineering barriers, such as
the glass matrices in which wastes may be
solidified, (c) transportation pathways from
the wastes' resting place to biosphere and
people, and (d) the risk of various kinds of
accidents and their possible consequences. In
compliance with National Environmental
Policy Act, a second contractor is assisting in
the preparation of a draft Environmental
Impact Statement examining alternative means
of disposal, such as seabed and outer space,
the cost/benefit aspect of risk reduction, the
long term commitment of resources, and
related issues. Third, the National Academy of
Sciences formed a panel at EPA's request to
investigate whether reasonable means exist to
provide assurance that the standard could be
implemented by the Department of Energy
and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. It
will look into matters like how compliance
with the standard can be demonstrated.
Spent Fuel Storage
The problem of dealing with the growing
inventory of spent reactor fuel,which is being
addressed by the NRC, involved standards
support in both regulations and guides. There
is a need both for increased storage capacity at
existing reactor storage pools and for storage
facilities at sites other than reactors. A revision
to Guide 1.13, on the design of storage
facilities at reactors, is under development.
Work continues also on a proposed rule for
licensing independent spent fuel storage
installations and on guides for license
application, facility siting, design require-
ments, and plant proposed rule for licensing
independent spent fuel storage installations
and on guides for license application, facility
siting, design requirements, and plant protec-
tion for such facilities.
Waste Classification
One of NRC's programs is aimed at
classifying wastes according to the degree of
confinement necessary to ensure their con-
tainment until they decay to some acceptable
low-risk level. Criteria will be developed to
specify what wastes: (1) require isolation in a
Federal repository—probably high-level re-
processing wastes, spent fuel, and transuranic
contaminated wastes: (2) require confine-
ment in a commercially operated waste
disposal facility (shallow land burial)—proba-
bly operating reactor wastes other than fuel,
structural materials from decontaminated
reactors and radioactive medical wastes; or (3)
can be dispersed to the environment. The
criteria will, among other things,specify the
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44
highest permissible transuranic content of
wastes which can be disposed of by shallow
land burial.
High Level Waste
NRC's proposed regulations regarding HLW
repositories are scheduled to be published for
public comment in the fall of 1978. These
regulations will address:
(1) Performance criteria for HLW solids, i.e.,
what form wastes must take in a HLW
repository.
(2) Site suitability criteria, i.e., what consti-
tutes an acceptable site for a repository.
(3) Repository design criteria, i.e., what
constraints must be placed on construc-
tion and operations of a repository.
(4) Licensing procedures, i.e., what me-
chanisms will be used to review
proposed facilities to determine if they
meet the criteria.
The waste form criteria, site suitability
criteria and respository design criteria will
specify how the wastes, the site and the
respository should perform. The NRC staff is
also developing methods for predicting how a
proposed HLW repository will act and whether
the predicted actions will meet minimum
performance requirements.
NRC recognizes that the States have a
significant interest in, and can make a
substantial contribution to, the development
of HLW regulations, particularly with respect
to site suitability criteria. Accordingly, three
regional workshops were held in September
1977 to facilitate State review of preliminary
drafts of proposed site suitability criteria.
Information developed at the workshops will
be considered in preparing the draft environ-
mental impact statement in support of the
criteria. Proposed site suitability criteria and
the draft impact statement will be published
for public comment early in 1978.
Performance Criteria for Solidified
Reprocessing Wastes
The NRC staff is using a system-analysis
model to evaluate the various situations which
could lead to release of radioactive materials
during handling, storage, transportation, and
disposal of high-level solid waste from
reprocessing. A similar systems analysis ap-
proach will be used to develop performace
criteria for spent fuel disposal in deep
geological structures.
The three basic mechanisms that control the
release of radioactive materials are volatiliza-
tion, dispersion of particulates and leaching by
water. The performance criteria will require
control of each of these mechanisms and will
be based on an analysis of the possible
pathways to waste release, the state of
technology for controlling each mechanism,
and a balancing of the cost of control against
the benefits achieved by reducing the risks to
individuals and populations.
The results obtained to date indicate that the
hazards present before the waste is placed
underground may be more important in
determining the proper solid waste form than
those encountered after the waste is placed
underground.
Decontamination and Decommissioning
An important aspect of the waste manage-
ment program is the decontamination and
decommissioning of nuclear installations once
they have completed their useful lives.
Technical studies for NRC are continuing at
the Batelle-Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PLN)
to develop decontamination and decommis-
sioning criteria for light water reactors and
fuel cycle facilities. These will be used in
developing appropriate regulations and guides.
A PNL report on the decommissioning of fuel
reprocessing plants (NUREG-0278) was pub-
blished in October 1977.
Low Level Wastes
As part of the NRC's continuing reexamina-
tion of the technical and regulatory bases for
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45
the management of radioactive wastes, and in
response to Congressional concerns, an "NRC
Task Force Report on Review of the Federal/
State Program for Regulation of Commercial
Low-Level Radioactive Waste Burial Grounds"
(NUREG-0217) was published in March 1977.
In developing its recommendations, the task
force was concerned with the objectives of the
low-level waste management program which
include establishing a regulatory structure,
assuring adequate waste disposal capacity
without a proliferation of sites, assuring long-
term care without placing a disproportionate
burden on a few States, providing for
appropriate Federal and State participation
and examining alternative disposal methods.
Based in part on this report and on 33 public
comments received on it, the Commission
announced a program in December 1977
which included the following major elements:
• The NRC staff will accelerate develop-
ment of a comprehensive set of standards
and criteria for disposal of low level waste
and will examine alternatives to shallow
land burial, the only method used at
present. This work will be done in
cooperation with State governments and
with other Federal agencies, including
the Department of Energy, the U.S.
Geological Survey, and the Environmen-
tal Protection Agency.
• Any new land disposal sites will have to be
fully justified on the basis of need.
Additional capacity may be needed
because of regional needs, equipment
limitations, costs and other factors. NRC
will be working closely with the States to
which it has transferred licensing author-
ity to assure that applications are treated
in a similar manner whether under NRC
or State licensing jurisdiction.
Education
NRC Workshop
In January 1977, a workshop on Reactor
Radwaste Management, organized and con-
ducted by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory
(ORNL) and NRC, was held in New Orleans,
La. The workshop was intended to provide
information needed to update four generic
reports (under preparation by ORNL for the
NRC) and to provide an opportunity for those
in the field of radioactive waste management
to assess process equipment performance
under actual operating conditions. The work-
shop was attended by 190 persons, including
representatives for various Federal and State
agencies, utilities, nuclear steam supply
vendors, architect-engineers, and radwaste
equipment vendors.
NRC also sponsored, along with EPA, DOE,
USGS and ASME, a Symposium on Manage-
ment of Low-Level Radioactive Waste in
Atlanta, Georgia on May 23-27,1977. Problems
and issues were discussed by officials at
different levels of government as well as the
private sector.
Study Review
Impacts of Reprocessing and Waste
EPA/ORP reviewed NRC's responses to the
comments EPA submitted on its "Environ-
mental Survey of the Reprocessing and Waste
Management Portions of the LWR Fuel Cycle"
(NUREG-0116). Supplement II to the initial
survey, in addition to dealing with comments,
provided additional information on the
environmental impacts associated with the
management of nuclear fuels and wastes. The
Supplement was reviewed in terms of the
adequacy of its reaction to EPA's comments on
the original document. In general, the Agency
concluded that its concerns were not ad-
dressed. Among the most important of these
were the use of certain estimates and models
which were developed for the Reactor Safety
Study, the presentation of environmental
impacts from radiological releases, problems
associated with disposal of low-level wastes,
failure to incorporate an assessment of impacts
from mining and milling wastes, and the
frequent reference to information from the
Environmental Impact Statement for the
uncompleted GESMO hearings.
At the end of the year EPA/ORP was
preparing to testify before the NRC Hearing
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46
Board which has been convened by the
Commission to assess the adequacy of the
staff's reports.
Environmental Impact Statements
Waste Management Operations at
Savannah River Plant
Description: ERDA issued a Draft Environ-
mental Statement on "Waste Management
Operations at Savannah River Plant, Aiken,
South Carolina" (ERDA-1537) in October 1976.
It presented a history of earlier practices as
well as projecting and analyzing the actual and
potential environmental effects of future
operations.
EPA/ORP Response and Status: EPA/ORP
expressed grave concerns about the possible
impact of bedrock storage of wastes, which
would involve injecting them below the
Tuscaloosa aquifer, the principal water supply
for most of southeastern South Carolina and
Georgia. The governor of Georgia joined EPA
in opposing the planned bedrock storage, and
it was abandoned at least for the time being.
EPA/ORP also suggested that, in the future,
the impacts of decommissioning nuclear
facilities and radioactive waste disposal sites
should be assessed prior to approval for
operation, simultaneous with approval of
plans for the funding needed for decommis-
sioning and subsequent caretaking. The Final
Environmental Statement was issued in
September 1977, including a response to EPA's
comments. The Agency reviewed the responses
and decided not to make further formal
comment.
Oak Ridge Intermediate Wastes
Description: ERDA issued a Draft Environ-
mental Statement for the Management of
Intermediate Level Radioactive Waste at the
Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee
(ERDA-1533-D) in January 1977, and a final
version in September 1977. It was prepared to
support an administrative action to select a
preferred technique for the management of
intermediate level radioactive waste, and the
construction and operation of a facility to
implement the technique. Three alternative
techniques were assessed in terms of their
environmental impacts: hydrofracture, shale-
cement fixation, and glass fixation.
EPA/ORP Response and Status: EPA op-
poses emplacement of materials by subsurface
injection without strict controls and a clear
demonstration that it will not, among other
things, damage the environment. In addition,
the Agency concluded that more hydrogeolo-
gical information was needed, all reasonably
achievable precautions should be taken, safe
drinking water limits should be considered,
and the intent of the EPA proposed Regula-
tions for State Underground Injection Control
Programs (41 F.R. 36730) should not be
violated. It was also suggested that the
forthcoming criteria for radioactive waste
management should be considered in the
ERDA plan. ERDA responded to these points in
its Final Statement, which EPA reviewed and
concluded that it would make no further
formal comments to ERDA.
Brookhaven National Laboratory
Description: The Final Environmental State-
ment ERDA issued in July 1977 covered its
Brookhaven National Laboratory site opera-
tions at Upton, N.Y. The Statement covered
environmental and monitoring data, past
laboratory operations and environmental
effects with respect to off-site consequences.
EPA/ORP Response and Status: EPA/ORP
found that the Final Statement was responsive
to the concerns it expressed with regard to the
Draft Statement.
Waste Management Operations at
Idaho National Laboratory
Description: The Final Environmental State-
ment ERDA issued in September 1977 dis-
cussed the current waste management opera-
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47
tions at the Idaho National Engineering
Laboratory and the impacts associated with
continuing the programs of converting the
stored high-level wastes to solids using
calcination. Alternatives included additional
treatment, transfer of wastes off-site and
continued operation.
EPA/ORP Response and Status: The Final
Environmental Statement was responsive to
the concerns EPA/ORP voiced regarding the
Draft, so no further comments were submitted
to ERDA.
Studies
EPA/ORP Research on Burial Sites
EPA/ORP is working to determine the
impact of ground disposal of radioactive
wastes on a practical, field-oriented basis by
conducting studies at operating commercial
burial facilities. Thus far, studies have been
conducted, in close cooperation with the
States of New York and Kentucky and the U.S.
Geological Survey, at the Maxey Flats, Ken-
tucky and West Valley, New York burial sites.
At Maxey Flats, preliminary environmental
pathways and evaporator effluent studies have
already been completed, and preliminary
hydrogeological and radiological studies are
in process; at West Valley, EPA/ORP has fin-
ished a preliminary radioactivity migration
study and is continuing a four-year detailed
environmental pathways study scheduled for
completion in 1979. Also, as a result of the
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977, EPA is now
planning a program to assess the nature and
magnitude of radioactive air emissions from
low level wastes in shallow land burial sites.
In addition, EPA/ORP is conducting or
sponsoring several smaller studies aimed at
specific segments of the land burial problem,
such as determining what wastes are buried in
the burial grounds; factors which affect the
retention of radionuclides by soil; potential
improvements in site engineering, operations
and water management; and development of
criteria for selection of a burial site.
Specifics on sample programs follow:
— Characterization of reactor-generated
low level radwastes: EPA/ORP funded a study
investigating the radionuclide makeup of light
water reactor radioactive wastes presently
being consigned to shallow land burial. Chem-
ical analyses were made of spent ion exchange
resins, evaporator concentrates, and filter
sludges for specific radionuclides. Waste sam-
ples from four reactors were analyzed to
determine a number of radionuclide concen-
trations. A report was issued, "Characteriza-
tion of Selected Low-Level Radioactive Waste
Generated by Four Commercial Light-Water
Reactors" (Technical Note ORP/TAD-77-3,
December 77).
— Environmental survey of packaging for
solidified low level radwastes: EPA/ORP is
funding a study to analyze packaging methods
and techniques for solidified low level rad-
waste, simulating environmental conditions
present in shallow land burial and deep ocean
disposal. Considerations will include physical,
chemical and radioactive properties which
affect the durability of the packages, and prac-
tices currently followed both in the U.S. and in
other countries. A report will be issued in 1978.
— Inventory and projections of low level
radwastes for burial at commercial facilities:
EPA/ORP prepared a report of the inventory
(through 1976) of low level radioactive wastes
buried at the six commercial facilities. These
data update a 1974 report and were compiled
through arrangements with various State regu-
latory agencies. A projection or prediction of
future waste volumes for comparison with
existing capacity was included. (The report was
issued in Nuclear Safety, Volume 19, No. 1,
January-February 1978.)
Maxey Flats Radiological
Measurement
In January 1977, EPA/ORP's Eastern Environ-
mental Radiation Facility (EERF) published
"Radiological Measurements at the Maxey
Flats Radioactive Waste Burial Site—1974 to
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48
1975" (EPA-520/5-76/020). It discusses mea-
surements made in support of EPA's program
to obtain data on the principles and processes
of land burial, and on the actual impact on the
environment of presently operating commer-
cial burial facilities. The measurements were
obtained in cooperation with the Kentucky
Department for Human Resources, and fur-
nished technical support requested by the
State.
The information obtained indicates that
radioactivity has been detected in the unre-
stricted environment, outside the burial
trenches and off-site. However, the quantities
are sufficiently low that they do not appear to
be a significant hazard to the environment or
to public health in the Maxey Flats area at the
present time. On the other hand, because
Maxey Flats has been operational for only a
relatively short time, EPA is not in a position to
assess conclusively whether or not any future
movement of radioactivity will be greater or
less than the small amount of leakage
observed to date. Thus EPA believes additional
efforts are needed to develop and implement
acceptable environmental protection assur-
ances for permanent disposal options.
EPA also believes that shallow land burial
will probably remain an important manage-
ment method for at least a few more years, and
it is important to improve present practices as
much as possible.
As part of EPA/ORP's implementation of the
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977, general
protocols were drafted to evaluate radioactive
gaseous emissions and resuspension from four
commercial shallow land burial sites. The stud-
ies would be conducted by EPA/ORP's two
field laboratories, Eastern Environmental Radi-
ation Facility at Montgomery, Alabama, and
Las Vegas Facility at Las Vegas, Nevada. The
resulting data would be used to evaluate
which radioactive air pollutants should be
controlled.
Although no new field studies were under-
taken in 1977, EPA/ORP began an in-house
study evaluating a number of models for risk
assessment of the shallow land burial sites. By
examining each model's features, staff will
determine if (a) any single existing model can
be used to evaluate specific sites, (b) if com-
bining several of the models will be adequate,
or (c) if new attributes or models are required.
West Valley
Following the announcement by Nuclear
Fuel Services, Inc. that it was withdrawing from
the fuel reprocessing business, the NRC staff
began a special study on the adequacy of high-
level waste storage at the company's West Val-
ley, N.Y., site. While ultimate responsibility for
the site remains an open question, the staff has
continued to follow conditions at the site. Spe-
cifically, in June the staff issued an interim
safety evaluation on the current reduced
operations at West Valley. The staff concluded
that these operations presented no undue risk
to the health and safety of the public or of
employees.
The staff has continued to conduct confirm-
atory studies of the effects of natural phenom-
ena on the dormant plant. It also has
requested support from the DOE in develop-
ing a scheme for the safe, practical disposal of
the high-level waste stored there.
NRC Radioactive Waste Disposal
Classification Study
EPA/ORP was represented on a Technical
Advisory Panel to the NRC Radioactive Waste
Disposal Classification Study. As part of its
activities, EPA reviewed several reports by a
contractor: "Determination of Radioactive
Waste Classification System," and "Compila-
tion of the Radioactive Waste Disposal Classifi-
cation System Data Base." EPA suggested that
the Study should take into account its forth-
coming criteria for radioactive wastes, and
should calculate environmental dose commit-
ments from the radioactive waste manage-
ment options considered.
Panel of Earth Scientists
To support its efforts to develop environ-
mental standards for high level radioactive
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49
waste management, EPA initiated a contract in
1977 to evaluate the adequacy of the state of
knowledge in the earth sciences for estimating
the environmental impacts from deep geolog-
ical disposal of high level radioactive waste.
The final report, which will be available early
in 1978; will be an important part of the techni-
cal basis for the standards. EPA is using state of
the art techniques to estimate possible impacts
from waste repositories, including those
located in deep geological formations.
However, the Agency recognizes that there
may be significant uncertainties and contro-
versy regarding knowledge of rock properties,
hydrogeology, and other factors, especially as
they relate to the ability to provide long term
containment of radioactive wastes. Therefore,
EPA directed its contractor to convene an
independent Panel of Earth Scientists to advise
the Agency of the range of uncertainty of esti-
mates of environmental impacts. The panel
consists of recognized experts in basic earth
sciences, who have had little or no prior in-
volvement with radioactive waste programs.
Its evaluation is to be performed independ-
ently of EPA, its contractors, or other govern-
ment agencies.
c. Spent Fuel
Environmnental impact Statements
In a Federal Register notice on September
16, 1975, NRC directed its staff to prepare a
"Generic Environmental Impact Statement on
Handling and Storage of Spent Light Water
Power Reactor Fuel." During fiscal year 1977, a
draft environmental statement was completed
for internal review and was to be issued for
public comment in March 1978. In the draft
statement, the staff estimates that some 95,000
metric tons of spent fuel maybe discharged
from light water reactors through the year
2000. In order to arrive at an estimate of the
maximum environmental effect, it is assumed
that none of this spent fuel will have been
reprocessed or permanently stored by the year
2000. The statement examines the ability of tra-
ditionally designed reactor pools to accom-
modate this discharge and the impacts of
providing and not providingadequatestorage.
The staff's analysis in the draft statements
shows that the spent fuel which will be gener-
ated through the year 2000 can be accommo-
dated by modification of present storage
arrangements at each nuclear reactor and by
providing storage space at locations away from
the reactors. The staff found that this solution
is both environmentally and economically less
costly than its alternatives.
The draft statement reaches two conclusions
based on these findings:
1. No modification of 10 CFR 51.20(e)—the
summary of environmental considera-
tions for the uranium fuel cycle—appears
necessary.
2. The NRC should publish a rule and asso-
ciated regulatory guides to regulate the
anticipated growth in away-from-reactor
storage.
In keeping with the second conclusion, a
proposed rule for away-from-reactor storage,
10 CFR Part 72, and a revised Regulatory Guide
3.24, "Guidance on the License Application.
Siting Design and Plant Protection for an Inde-
pendent Spent Fuel Storage Installation," will
be issued in 1978 for public comment.
d. Transportation
Administration
In June 1977, the NRC issued a topical
report—"Regulatory and Other Responsibili-
ties as Related to Transportation Accidents"
(NUREG-0179)—to clarify the regulatory and
other responsibilities of the different parties
involved in dealing with those few transporta-
tion accidents involving radioactive materials
that may be expected to occur each year. Any
further changes in responsibilities will be
covered in appropriate procedural docu-
ments, including the Memorandum of Under-
standing between NRC and DOT, or by
rulemaking.
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50
Studies
NRC and the Department of Transportation
have begun a study of the adequacy of existing
requirements for the shipment of material
containing a low level of radioactivity. The
study was undertaken following a truck acci-
dent in September 1977 in which a shipment of
uranium concentrate (yellow cake) was spilled
onto a highway near Springfield, Colo. Key
subjects in the study will include an analysis of
current packaging requirements to seek ways
to make packaging more accident resistant;
emergency planning; routing of shipments;
and State and Federal licensing requirements.
With the technical assistance of Sandia
Laboratories, an NRC environmental impact
statement was prepared to assess the impacts
associated with the transportation of radioac-
tive materials, including relative costs and
benefits of alternative modes of transporta-
tion. Information derived from research into
the accident-resistant properties of packages
used for shipping plutonium and from the
NRCs 1975 Radioactive Material Shipments
Survey were used in preparing the statement.
The draft statement (NUREG-0034) was made
available for public comment in March 1976.
About 30 letters of comment were received.
The final statement (NUREG-0170) was re-
leased to the public in December 1977^
The study indicates that transportation of
radioactive materials is being conducted
under the present regulatory system in an ade-
quately safe manner. For example, radioactive
shipments may be expected to add only one
latent cancer fatality per year from routine
shipments and one case per 200 years from
accidents, assuming 1975 accident and ship-
ping rates. By 1985, it is expected that these
estimates might increase three-fold as a result
of an increased volume of shipments. These
rates compare to a nationwide total of 300,000
cancer deaths per year from all causes.
The NRC continued a study, initiated in May
1976, which will lead to a generic environmen-
tal impact statement on transportation of
radioactive materials in urban areas. Informa-
tion produced by the study, being performed
with the assistance of Sandia Laboratories, will
be used to assess current regulations with
respect to the special problems posed by
urban environments. An interim report, de-
scribing progress to date in the modeling and
data collection efforts on this study, was
released to the public in April 1977.
Report on Transportation
Accidents at Sea
EPA/ORP reviewed a DOE sponsored report
on "Consequences of Postulated Losses of
LWR Spent Fuel and Plutonium Shipping Pack-
ages at Sea" (PNL-2093, UC-71, October 1977).
Praising the report as the first effort to deal
with transoceanic shipping of spent fuel and
plutonium, EPA questioned the dose equiva-
lent calculations and several aspects of pack-
aging. For example, the report assumed that a
ship would be carrying only one plutonium
package or cask, and EPA/ORP believed that
the possibility of multiple package loss should
be considered.
Enforcement
Abnormal Occurrences
Under Section 208 of the Energy Reorgani-
zation Act of 1974, NRC is required to
". . . submit to the Congress each quarter a
report listing for that period any abnormal
occurrences at or associated with any facility
which is licensed or otherwise regulated pur-
suant to the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as
amended, or pursuant to this Act. For the pur-
poses of this section, an abnormal occurrence
is an unscheduled incident or event which the
Commission determines is significant from the
standpoint of public health or safety. . . ."
NRC has developed two major interim crite-
ria, according to which abnormal occurrences
are: (1) events involving an actual loss of the
protection provided for the health or safety of
the public; and (2) events involving major
reduction in the degree of protection
provided.
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51
During fiscal year 1977, a total of 19 events
fell into this category. Nine of them involved
accidents with radiographers using radioactive
materials for medical, educational and indus-
trial purposes. Failure to shield sources
brought about several of the incidents. At fuel
cycle facilities, reported occurrences resulted
from a loss of electrical power, defective steam
generator tubes, nuclear material discrepan-
cies, feedwater nozzle cracking, and other
causes.
e. Emergency Response Planning
EPA, along with other Federal agencies, is
responsible for providing assistance and train-
ing to State and local governments in the
development of their radiological emergency
response plans to protect the public from the
consequences of possible radiation accidents.
As defined in the Federal Register of
December 24,1975, EPA's responsibilities are
the development of guidance for the States in
the areas of Protective Action Guides, protec-
tive action, and instrumentation for radiologi-
cal emergencies.
Guidance to States
EPA provides, for the guidance of State and
local governments, a "Manual of Protective
Action Guides and Protective Actions for
Nuclear Incidents" (EPA 520/1-75-001). It con-
tains practical guidance on criteria to use in
planning for radiological emergencies that
could present a hazard to the public, and guid-
ance for planning and implementing protec-
tive actions. The Manual is only partially
complete, and finished portions have been
issued for use. One appendix, which is under
development, will provide technical bases
used for calculating projected doses from air-
borne releases. It was drafted and circulated
for review- by States, industry, and Federal
agencies during 1976. Comments have been
incorporated as appropriate, and it will be
issued in final form in 1978, along with another
appendix titled "Planner's Evaluation Guide."
During 1977 a Manual Chapter on planning for
response to transportation accidents involving
radioactive materials was drafted by EPA/
ORP's Las Vegas Facility, and will be incorpo-
rated into the Manual in 1978.
The responsibility for direct assistance to
States for development and testing of their
plans was transferred to EPA's Regional Of-
fices. EPA's representatives participated with
other agencies in reviewing State plans to per-
mit Federal concurrence, and helped review
exercises of the plans. In 1977, NRC concurred
in four plans for the States of New Jersey, Con-
necticut, Washington and South Carolina. In
another interagency activity, the final report
will be published in 1978 of a task force NRC
and EPA formed to identify the type of acci-
dents States should plan to respond to.
Protective Action Guides
EPA/ORP continues to develop separate
Protective Action Guides (PAG's) for three
accident phases:
1. The plume exposure phase, when quick
decisions and actions would be required to
protect the public from whole-body external
and inhalation exposure. These guides, origi-
nally issued as EPA/ORP guidance only, estab-
lish a dose range for both the whole-body and
the thyroid. Technical support documents
with the rationale for the PAGs are being pre-
pared for submission to the President and pro-
mulgation as Federal Guidance. If approved,
the Guidance will be mandatory for all Federal
agencies in the development and implemen-
tation of their emergency plans.
2. Ingestion phase, when principal con-
cerns would be for ingestion of contaminated
food and water. EPA/ORP reviewed and com-
mented on a draft DHEW/FDA report to be
used as the basis for new ingestion PAG's
slated for publication in 1979.
3. Long-term or recovery phase, when low-
level direct radiation and contaminated food
would be the critical exposure pathways.
PAG's for this phase will be based on cost/risk
analyses resulting from studies currently being
conducted by a contract to be finished in 1978.
They cover the cost-effectiveness of control
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52
methodologies (protective actions) for expo-
sure from contaminated property and equip-
ment.
Protective Actions
Protective actions to be considered for
plume exposure pathways are evacuation,
shelter, and iodine blockage. Contract studies
comparing the relative effectiveness of evac-
uation and shelter have been completed and
reviewed by Federal agencies, resulting in two
technical reports to be published in 1978. Guid-
ance based on the two reports was drafted in
1977, and will be circulated for review by Fed-
eral and State agencies. It is scheduled for pub-
lication as an Appendix to the EPA Manual in
1978.
The NCRP completed a study and published
a report (NCRP #55, August 1,1977) on the use
of prophylactic iodine to protect the thyroid
from radioactive iodine. The Food and Drug
Administration is currently evaluating the
feasibility of making the iodine available in the
form of tablets, which might be available dur-
ing an emergency on a nonprescription basis.
If those actions are approved, EPA will develop
application recommendations as a protective
action.
Instrumentation for Radiological
Emergencies
The Federal Interagency Task Force on Off-
site Emergency Instrumentation Systems,
formed in 1974, continued to develop gui-
dance to State and local officials on off-site
radiation detection systems and associated
instrumentation. The Task Force is evaluating a
portable, field operated monitor which can
measure elemental and organic forms of air-
borne radioiodine in the presence of noble
gases; initial tests appear favorable. Also in
1977, the Task Force completed a revised draft
report, "Guidance on Off-site Emergency
Radiation Measurement Systems, Phase I—
Airborne Releases."
Training Programs
EPA participates in an Interagency Task Force
on training and exercises which has the overall
responsibility for identifying and guiding the
development of training programs for plan-
ning and responding to radiation accidents by
State and local officials. Two courses dealing
with response to radiation accidents were pro-
vided in 1977, and an existing course on
planning was updated. EPA is responsible for
development and coordination of presenta-
tions for one of the training programs,
designed for State radiological emergency
response coordinators and their staffs. Course
material was developed for the plume expo-
sure phase of the accident. By the end of 1977,
this training was presented to selected officials
in 36 States with major nuclear facilities in
operation or nearing completion. The second
response course, "First at the Scene," was
developed by NRC for State and local officials
and conducted by a contractor seven times in
1977.
EPA's Region IV conducted a workshop of
State, Federal, and industry representatives on
testing emergency response plans, resulting in
a draft report outlining the steps necessary to
plan and conduct a test.
Interagency Activities
A major action to enhance Federal coopera-
tion was taken in 1977, when interagency
agreements were made with both DOE and
NRC to provide for prompt notification of EPA
when there is a radiological incident at a DOE
or NRC licensed facility. Specifically, under
the agreement with NRC, EPA will be notified
in a timely manner of releases of radiological
effluents resulting from specified situations.
The agreement with DOE has similar
provisions, under which EPA will be notified of
accidental radioactive releases to the
environment which must be reported to DOE
headquarters.
EPA maintained emergency response team
capability at headquarters and at the labora-
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53
tories in Montgomery, Alabama, and Las
Vegas, Nevada. Similar arrangements have
been made by BRH, both at headquarters and
field facilities, and by DOE at their major
nuclear laboratories. The teams would provide
technical and laboratory services on request to
State agencies responding to an accident, as
set forth in the Interagency Radiological
Assistance Plan.
International Activities
During 1977 EPA and NRC participated in an
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
effort to develop international guidance on
plans for response to major radiological acci-
dents. This effort is continuing, and a draft
report from IAEA should be available in 1978.
DOE Activities
DOE expanded the Atmospheric Release
Advisory Capability, a computer technique
which projects dose on the basis of environ-
mental data collected following a release. The
Capability achieved operational status during
working hours and was used to evaluate the
potential consequences of a railroad accident
near Rockingham, N.C. Although the acci-
dent, which involved some nuclear material,
did not result in any releases to the
atmosphere, the test proved the responsive-
ness of the system.
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54
V. OTHER NUCLEAR SOURCES
• Nuclear Weapons Testing
The Treaty on the Limitation of Under-
ground Nuclear Weapon Tests, commonly
known as the Threshold Test Ban Treaty, and
its companion Treaty on Underground Nu-
clear Explosions for Peaceful Purposes have
been signed and introduced to the U.S. Senate
for ratification. These treaties limit individual
underground nuclear tests to 150 KT. In the
interim, pending their entry into force, the
United States has announced its intention to
abide by the yield limits of the treaties. How-
ever, the capability to conduct larger nuclear
tests at the Nevada Test Site (NTS) remains
unchanged.
Since the 1963 Limited lest Ban Treaty,
DOE and its predecessors (the Atomic Energy
Commission and ERDA) have conducted
underground nuclear tests to support (1) na-
tional laboratories' development of weapons
In response to Department of Defense re-
quirements, and, in previous years, (2) DOE's
development of explosives for peaceful appli-
cations.
Each test is reviewed in advance by a Con-
tainment Evaluation Panel of experts drawn
from the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, the
Department of Defense, the U.S. Geological
Survey, the Sandia Laboratories, and the
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory. The Panel
considers many factors which could con-
tribute to atmospheric discharges, such as
device yield, hydrology, closure methods, and
drilling and construction histories.
During the test itself and on the day before
the test, a Test Controller's Advisory Panel is
convened to advise on possible effects.
Mobile monitors are sent to areas downwind
of the detonation to monitor possible releases,
and aerial surveillance is conducted above the
site itself to track any radioactive clouds.
Announced U.S. nuclear detonations during
1977 are shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1
ANNOUNCED U.S. NUCLEAR DETONATIONS
1977
Marsilly
Bulkhead
Crewline
Strake
Scantling
Ebbtide
Coulommiers
Bobstay
Hyola Gold
Sand reef
Seamount
Farallones
Date (GOT) (D/M/Y)
5/4/77
27/4/77
25/5/77
4/8/77
19/8/77
15/9/77
27/9/77
26/10/77
01/11/77
09/11/77
17/11/77
14/12/77
TYPE
Underground
Underground
Underground
Underground
Underground
Underground
Underground
Underground
Underground
Underground
Underground
Underground
YIELD
20 — 150
20—150
20 — 150
20—150
20 — 150
20 — 150
20—150
Less than
Less than
20—150
Less than
20—150
Kilotons
Kilotons
Kilotons
Kilotons
Kilotons
Kilotons
Kilotons
20 Kilotons
20 Kilotons
Kilotons
20 Kilotons
Kilotons
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55
Tests During 1977
On September 17, 1977, the People's
Republic of China detonated a nuclear device
with an estimated yield of less than 20,000 tons
of TNT equivalent, at the Lop Nor test in
northwest China. Since the test was above
ground, large amounts of radioactive materials
were dispersed into the atmosphere. The con-
taminated air mass passed over U.S. territory
during the week of September 18.
Before the air mass reached the U.S., EPA/
ORP activated 45 additional standby air partic-
ulate and precipitation sampling stations, as
well as increasing sampling frequencies for the
22 air sampling stations normally operated.
They are part of the Environmental Radiation
Ambient Monitoring System (ERAMS). The air
paniculate samples were used to estimate the
potential inhalation dose to the U.S. popula-
tion, and precipitation samples were collected
to indicate rainout of radioactive materials.
Particular emphasis was placed on sampling
pasteurized milk, since the most critical path-
way for potential exposures to fallout con-
tamination is due to deposition of iodine-131
and strontium-89 on pasture grass and
ingestion by cows. Iodine is of special concern
because it concentrates in human thyroids.
EPA/ORP's special monitoring of the con-
centrations of radioactivity in air particulates,
precipitation, and milk continued until the
concentrations returned to normal in Novem-
ber. The program included the collection of
472 pasteurized milk samples, 1119 air particu-
late samples, and 97 precipitation samples. As a
result, over 3000 radiation measurements were
made at EPA's Eastern Environmental Radia-
tion Facility in Montgomery, Alabama.
ERAMS data indicated that peak radioactiv-
ity concentrations in both air and milk were
lower than those encountered after the two
1976 Chinese detonations. However, elevated
concentrations were more widespread geo-
graphically and continued for a longer time.
They were first observed in air on September
25, and continued to be reported through
September 29. The first indications of iodine-
131 in pasteurized milk were in samples col-
lected September 23; the concentrations
generally increased through the weeks of
October 3 and 10, and then decreased until
reaching nearly normal values in the week of
October 31. An assessment report of the 1977
fallout is in preparation. It will provide a
description of EPA's monitoring system, its
response to the fallout situation, monitoring
program results, and estimates of population
radiation dose and potential health effects.
During the fallout period, EPA issued fifteen
news releases, first forecasting the trajectory of
radioactive debris in the atmosphere and
announcing activation of ERAMS, then later
interpreting the results of its monitoring pro-
grams. Much of the information, particularly
for the earlier news releases, was provided by
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad-
ministration and DOE.
Tests During 1976
Following up on the September 26 and
November 17, 1976, Chinese tests, an assess-
ment of the resulting fallout was published in
August 1977. The 131l-milk-thyroid pathway
was reported as most important, since others
produced less dose by a factor of at least 7.5.
(See Strong, A.B., Smith, J.M., and R.H. John-
son, "EPA Assessment of Fallout in the U.S.
from Atmospheric Nuclear Testing on Sep-
tember 26 and November 17, 1976 by the
People's Republic of China," EPA: EPA 5207
5-77-002 (August 1977).) The other pathway
evaluations included nuclides other than131! in
milk, direct radiation from the air and ground
deposition, inhalation of contaminated air,
and ingestion of contaminated water.
Radiation levels following the November
detonation were too low for meaningful
calculation of health effects.
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56
Federal Responses to
Nuclear Detonations
EPA/ORP took the lead in developing a
Memorandum of Understanding to assure
coordination among Federal agencies in the
collection and dissemination of information
regarding potential radioactive contamination
from foreign nuclear detonations. The Memo-
randum identifies and establishes responsi-
bilities and interactions of the seven Federal
agencies concerned with monitoring radio-
active contamination and protecting the
public from adverse effects. The Memoran-
dum deals with two types of response
conditions: the first concerns the movement
of contaminated air masses over the United
States and possible effects at ground level due
to dry fallout or rainout of radioactive debris.
The second type concerns civil aircraft flights
which may pass through contaminated air
masses at various altitudes. Although the
Memorandum has not been finalized and
signed, all operational elements are in place
and functioning.
emergency or accident circumstances. It was
suggested that the Final Statement include the
rationale or basis for ERDA's test criteria, a
much more detailed evaluation of the
potential doses resulting from test accidents,
and an assessment of the likelihood of the
accidents themselves.
Studies
Aircrew Performance
The Air Force conducts a research program
to define aircrew performance problems and
exposure limits to ionizing radiation predicted
to be received during air operations in a
nuclear war. The Army program's objective is
to develop a chemical means of protecting
against the effects of ionizing radiation, using
studies on synthesis of appropriate structures
and human tolerance to them. In addition, the
usefulness of chemical protection was investi-
gated, and ad hoc committees looked at
different aspects of the therapy of radiation
injury.
Environmental Impact Statement
Nevada Test Site
Description: ERDA prepared a Draft En-
vironmental Statement on the continuation of
its underground testing program and other
activities at the Nevada Test Site for Fiscal Year
1978 and beyond (ERDA-1551-D). It addresses
environmental consequences that may not
have been fully evaluated when the first basic
Statement was issued in 1975, and serves as a
base for evaluating the impact of future
actions in relation to the existing environment.
EPA/ORP Response and Status: Given the
requirement for testing, EPA/ORP concluded
that the proposed program can be conducted
with an acceptable environmental impact, and
that the Draft adequately evaluates it. In that
context, additional information on the radia-
tion guidance used for the site was requested,
especially with respect to off-site populations
under normal operating conditions, as well as
Atomic Bomb Survivors
The National Cancer Institute continued to
analyze information concerning the survivors
of the 1945 A-bomb explosions. New cancers
(lymphomas and cancers of the esophagus,
stomach, and urinary tract) were added to the
list of those known to be caused by ionizing
radiation from the explosions, and solid
tumors were found to outweigh leukemia in
terms of absolute risk. The data do not support
a non-specific aging effect; cancer is clearly
the major late effect; Studies of breast cancer
revealed a dose response relationship that was
approximately linear (i.e. response was in
direct proportion to dose) at low doses, with
an effect at doses as low as 17 rad. Latency for
both breast and lung cancer was unaffected by
dose, while leukemia tended to occur earlier
in the heavily exposed groups. However, the
mechanisms for inducing leukemia may be
fundamentally different from carcinogenesis
generally.
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57
2. Defense Wastes
Preparatory to the issuance of environ-
mental impact statements, ERDA compiled
technical Defense Waste Documents (DWD's)
on alternative methods for long-term manage-
ment of high-level radioactive wastes gen-
erated as part of the defense program at three
ERDA sites. They describe the current tech-
nological status and anticipated costs and risks
of all reasonably available waste forms and
storage modes for the Hanford Reservation
near Richland, Washington; the Savannah
River Plant near Aiken, S.C.; and the Idaho
National Engineering Laboratory (INEL) near
Idaho Falls, Idaho. These documents will serve
as pertinent background information for Draft
Environmental Impact Statements for dealing
with the wastes at the three sites.
EPA/ORP expressed strong objections to
"Alternatives for Long-Term Management of
Defense High-Level Radioactive Waste at the
Savannah River Plant, Aiken, S.C." (ERDA
77-41/1,2). The Agency noted that there are
serious uncertainties about the potential
impact of disposing of high-level waste in
bedrock, a method involved in three of the
eight alternatives ERDA considered in detail.
The Agency reiterated the problems dis-
cussed in its comments on the Savannah
River Draft Environmental Statement, which
are detailed above under Wastes in the
Nuclear Power chapter.
EPA/ORP reviewed ERDA's Defense Waste
Document entitled "Alternatives for Long-
Term Management of Defense High-Level
Radioactive Waste, Hanford Reservation,
Richland, Washington." It presents pertinent
background information for preparing a Draft
Environmental Statement relating to establish-
ing an environmentally acceptable mode of
disposal for the Hanford wastes. Four basic
alternatives with variations are discussed,
ranging from continuing the storage as salt
cake and sludge in tanks (the "no action"
alternative) to conversion of the waste to a
glass form and shipping it to a Federal reposi-
tory. In EPA's view, several of the alternatives
are not ultimate disposal options, but should
be considered at best to be interim storage.
The Agency also felt that the 50-year dose
commitment (see glossary) used in the docu-
ment is not acceptable to describe the impact
of the activity on future generations.
The comparable document for the Idaho
National Engineering Laboratory was also re-
viewed by EPA/ORP, with similar conclusions.
(See "Alternatives for Long-Term Manage-
ment of Defense High-Level Radioactive
Waste, Idaho Chemical Processing Plant,
Idaho Falls, Idaho," ERDA 77-43.) While some
of the alternatives examined in the report
included ultimate disposition, the Agency did
not feel it adequately covered the relationship
between long-term management or storage
and ultimate disposition, or the timing of the
change from storage to disposal phase. Also,
the use of 50-year dose commitment was not
considered acceptable to describe the impact
of the activity on future generations. A thor-
pugh examination of the objectives of the
program was suggested, along with considera-
tion of the forthcoming EPA criteria.
Environmental Impact Statement
Rocky Flats Plant Sites
Description: ERDA's Draft Environmental
Statement on the "Rocky Flats Plant Site,
Golden, Colorado," was issued as ERDA-
1545-D. The facility of greatest concern on the
site is a plutonium plant used for nuclear
weapons production, located about 16 miles
from Denver. In its Statement, ERDA ad-
dressed a broad range of possible effects of the
operation, but focused primarily on the radia-
tion impacts.
EPA Response and Status: EPA rated the
Draft environmental reservations/insufficient
information. Among the major criticisms was
t'hat the Draft considered whole-body dose
instead of internal exposures, which are more
significant in terms of the kind of materials
handled at Rocky Flats. EPA/ORP also
commented that the decontamination costs
were greatly overestimated of complying with
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58
the Colorado State Department of Health
standard regarding plutonium soil contamina-
tion. In addition, the estimates of public health
impacts did not treat local impacts adequately.
They should have included calculation of
maximum individual dose, population dose,
and environmental dose commitment.
3. United States Nuclear Navy
1977. The purposes were to locate, identify,
and measure any radionuclides present in the
port and environs from nuclear ship activity,
and to assess the significance of any exposure
to the general population in the vicinity. While
pursuing these goals, the study also evaluated
the adequacy of the Navy radiological controls
and monitoring program. Reports on both of
these evaluations are in preparation and
should be completed in 1978.
At the end of 1976, the Navy was operating
107 nuclear submarines and 8 nuclear-
powered surface ships. Support facilities
involved in construction, maintenance, over-
haul and refueling of these vessels include 9
shipyards, 13 tenders, and 2 submarine bases.
Within 12 miles of shore, less than 0.002
curies of long-lived gamma radioactivity were
released annually by the nuclear Navy from
1972 to 1976. (This figure includes all nuclear-
powered ships and the ports they visited, as
well as supporting facilities.) Most tritium
released was beyond 12 miles from shore, a
total of less than 200 curies. Not including
tritium, the radioactivity released at sea was
about 0.4 curies in 1976. Solid radioactive
wastes from the Navy are packaged and
shipped to licensed burial sites in compliance
with NRC and Department of Transportation
standards. In 1976, about 53,000 cubic feet and
about 92 curies were disposed of.
The Navy concluded in their annual envi-
ronmental report that radioactivity associated
with their nuclear program has had no signif-
icant or discernible effect on the quality of the
environment. (See "Environmental Monitor-
ing and Disposal of Radioactive Wastes from
U.S. Naval Nuclear Powered Ships and Their
Support Facilities," Naval Sea Systems Com-
mand Report NT-78-1 (February 1978).)
Radiological Surveys of Ports
EPA's Eastern Environmental Radiation Facil-
ity, in cooperation with the U.S. Naval Ship
Systems Command, conducted a study of the
Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in the summer of
4. Consumer Products
Education and Quality Assurance
BRH, EPA, and NRC cosponsored an inter-
national Symposium on Radioactivity in Con-
sumer Products in February 1977 at the
Georgia Institute of Technology. It included
over 100 representatives of the scientific com-
munity, State and Federal agencies, domestic
and foreign industries, and consumer groups.
The Symposium provided a forum for the ex-
change of information, and reviewed the type
and extent of radioactive material used in con-
sumer products, the potential health hazards
associated with their manufacture and use,
and governmental activities in the area.
Studies
A variety of articles containing small quan-
tities of byproduct and source materials are
distributed to the public. Recently, there has
been a rapid growth in the distribution of ioni-
zation-type smoke detectors containing amer-
icium 241 and backlit digital watches contain-
ing tritium. Such products are distributed in
accordance with criteria published in 1965. Be-
cause Federal statutory responsibilities (i.e.,
NEPA) have changed since these criteria were
established, the NRC is initiating a two-year
study to determine the environmental impact
of the distribution of consumer products con-
taining radioactive materials and whether
changes are necessary in the criteria. A generic
environmental impact statement will be issued
at the conclusion of the study.
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59
VI. PROTECTION FROM NONIONIZING RADIATION
1. Introduction and Summary
Although environmental levels of nonioniz-
ing radiation were negligible before the
1930's, virtually every American is now
exposed. Sources have proliferated in number
as well as power; in the ranges of primary
interest, the radiofrequency (10 MHz to 300
MHz) and microwave (300 MHz to 300 GHz)
frequencies, the environmentally significant
sources include:
— radio and television broadcast stations
— radars
— satellite communications system earth
terminals
— point to point microwave communica-
tions
— mobile communications systems
— microwave ovens
— industrial heating equipment.
Other nonionizing radiation sources are lasers
that produce radiation ranging in frequency
from the ultraviolet through the far infrared
and overhead extra-high voltage power lines.
Quantum energies associated with micro-
wave radiation at its extreme of 300 GHz are
about 8000 times less than is needed to destroy
cells by ionization; however, radiofrequency
and microwave radiation do get absorbed by
tissue and do interact with biological systems.
The electromagnetic energy is transformed
into increased kinetic energy of the absorbing
molecules, and results in tissue heating. The
process of absorption and distribution in ir-
radiated tissue depends on the radiation wave-
length and its relationship to the physical
shape, size and distribution of a nonuniform
system of tissues, the electrical characteristics
of tissue at specific frequencies, and the
intensity of the radiation.1 2 A complex tissue
structure such as the human body absorbs
energy differently in specific parts, so that
localized heating or nonuniform absorption
may result.
Two kinds of effects on humans due to
exposure to radiofrequency and microwave
frequency radiation are usually discussed:
thermal effects from high-level exposures, and
possible low-level or "nonthermal" effects.
Thermal effects, resulting from irradiation
with power densities above 10,000 microwatts/
square centimeter (abbreviated as fj. W/cm2,
and equivalent to ten milliwatts/cm2 or
mW/cm2), involve tissue heating with the pos-
sibility of thermal damage. They may include
increased body temperature and resulting
heat stress, cataract formation, cardiovascular
effects, testicular effects, and brainwave pat-
tern changes.3
Low-level effects are a subject of contro-
versy. Effects of exposure to 1,000 JLL W/cm2
(one mW/cm2) or less have not been well doc-
umented; in fact, all U.S. scientists do not even
agree that they exist. Some Russian and Czech
scientists believe that they occur, but not as a
result of increased tissue temperature (hence
"nonthermal" effects). Their views are based
on animal research and statistical studies of
workers' exposure histories and medical rec-
ords. Considered to be mainly central nervous
system effects, symptoms attributed to low-
level exposure include headache, weariness,
dizziness, irritability, emotional instability,
partial loss of memory, loss of appetite, cardio-
vascular effects, electroencephalogram changes,
blood chemistry changes, changes in respira-
tion, and possible genetic effects.4
1. Gandhi, O.P. and K. Sedigh, "Biological Phantom Materials
for Simulating Man at Different Frequencies." Presented at
the USNC/URSI 1976 Annual Meeting, Amherst, MA
(October 10-15,1976).
2. Wallace, J.E. and A.W. Guy, "Experimental Heating Patterns
in Bi-Layered Biological Tissue Circular Aperture Sources."
Presented at the USNC/URSI 1976 Annual Meeting,
. Amherst, MA (October 10-15,1976).
3. Cleary, Stephen F., "Uncertainties in the Evaluation of the
Biological Effects of Microwave and Radiofrequency Radia-
tion." Health Physics 25:387-404 (October 1973).
4. Pressman, A.S., "Electromagnetic Fields and Life." Plenum
Press, New York (1970).
-------
TABLE 6.1
NONIONIZING RADIATION
c
Ul
H
UJ
P
UJ
o
UJ
c
0
10
cc
u
Q.
J
5
z
HI
cc
X
UJ
830
160
100
60
25
13.0
10.0
6.0
1.0
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.02
0.01
0.001
EFFECTS
PAIN THRESHOLD IN HUMANS
(3GHZ>3 MINUTES)
CATARACTOGENIC THRESHOLD IN RABBITS
PARTIAL BODY DIATHERMY TREATMENTS
WARMTH SENSATION THRESHOLD IN HUMANS
(3GH2/ 1 SECOND)
- WEAK AVERSIVE REACTION IN RATS
WARMTH SENSATION THRESHOLD IN HUMANS
(10GHZ, 4 SECONDS)
THERMAL EFFECTS
DOMINATE
L
AREA OF UNCER-
TAINITY FOR TRANSIENT
BEHAVIORAL CHANGES
NONTHERMAL EFFECTS
PREDOMINATE
AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOR IN RATS
- EVOKED AUDITORY RESPONSE THRESHOLD IN HUMANS
- EVOKED AUDITORY RESPONSE THRESHOLD IN CATS
STANDARDS
OSHA STANDARD FOR
OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE
FDA STANDARD FOR
- MICROWAVE OVEN
LEAKAGE
USSR STANDARD FOR OCCU-
PATIONAL EXPOSURE {20 WIN. LIMIT)
USSR STANDARD FOR OCCU-
PATIONAL EXPOSURE (2 HR. LIMIT)
USSR STANDARD FOR OCCU-
(UNLIMITED DURATIONS)
USSR STANDARD FOR NON-OCCU-
PATIONAL EXPOSURE
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61
While American scientists are skeptical of
behavioral data and the conclusions of the
Eastern European experts, there has been little
research conducted in the U.S. involving long
term exposures to low-level microwave and
radiofrequency radiation intensities, even in
animal experimentation. Some U.S. scientists
believe that the effects observed, if real, could
result from non-uniform energy distributions
and very small localized temperature changes
in the body, where the structure of certain
molecular systems may be changed in some
minor, reversible way.
The exposure limits in protective standards
differ widely among various countries. In East-
ern Europe, they are geared to protect against
"non-thermal effects" of long term exposure
to low intensity radiation. On the other hand,
in the U.S. and most Western European coun-
tries, standards were designed with high level
exposures and possible thermal effects in
mind. Below are summarized both occupa-
tional and environmental exposure limits for
the USSR, Czechoslovakia, Poland and the U.S.
in simplified form.
The occupational exposure standards of the
world generally fall into three groups on the
basis of their exposure limits. The most con-
servative group includes the USSR and
Czechoslovakia, with limits in the range of tens
of jit W/cm2. In the middle group are the
standards of Poland, Sweden, the Bell Tele-
phone Company, and the N.V. Phillips Com-
pany (Netherlands), with limits in the range of
hundreds of /i W/cm2 up to about 1000 ]LtW/
cm2. The U.S. and most of Western Europe
have standards in the most permissive group.
In the U.S. the principal occupational stand-
ard is the American National Standards Insti-
tute's (ANSI), which was reaffirmed with minor
changes in 1974. The Defense Department has
hadasimilarstandardsinceabout1953; the Air
Force recently adopted a value of 50 mW/cm2,
or 50,000 W/cm2, for frequencies between one
kHz and ten MHz, where previously there had
been no standards. In 1971 the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration adopted the
1966 version of the ANSI standard as a national
consensus standard. It recommends allowable
limits of 10,000 jU.W/cm2 for periods of 0.1
hours or more for frequencies from ten MHz
to 100 GHz, with more intense exposures
being allowed for shorter time periods. (See
C.F.R., Title 29—Labor, Part 1910.97.) Accord-
ing to a December 31,1975 decision, the OSHA
standard is considered to be advisory rather
than mandatory. In contrast, the USSR occupa-
tional exposures allowed for the 300 MHz-300
GHz frequency range cannot exceed 10
/LtW/cm2 for the duration of a working day,
although greater exposures are allowed for
short periods of time.
NONIONIZING RADIATION STANDARDS (SIMPLIFIED)
Occupational Exposure (/iW/cm2)
USSR Czech. Poland U.S. ANSI
(advisory)
Above 300 MHz
30-300 MHz
Above 300 MHz
30-300 MHz
10
6
25
25
200
106
10,000
10,000
Environmental Exposure (/j.W/cm2)
USSR Czech. Poland U.S.
2.5
.25
10
13
(none)
(none)
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62
There are no general public health or envi-
ronmental standards for microwaves in the
U.S. (Other countries have typically set such
levels about a factor of ten more restrictive
than their occupational standards.) However,
the U.S. does have a microwave oven perform-
ance standard, which limits the permissible
microwave radiation leakage from the device
itself, rather than the maximum level to which
an individual might be exposed. The limit for
new ovens is 1000 p. W/cm2, measured at any
point five centimeters from the surface of the
oven. Ovens in service may degrade to levels
no greater than 5000 /iW/cm2 at the same
distance. Although not directly comparable to
the exposure standard, the microwave oven
limits should probably be considered with the
most restrictive group.
Summary
Comprehensive
Before it was reorganized, the Office of
Telecommunciations Policy coordinated, over-
viewed, and provided a central focus for the
Federal Government program concerned with
research, regulatory and other activities in-
volving the biological effects of nonionizing
radiation.
Radiofrequency and Microwave
BRH solicited comments on the clinical
implications of a draft performance standard
for microwave diathermy equipment, imple-
mented streamlined procedures for monitor-
ing reports submitted by television manufac-
turers, and reviewed future plans to assure the
radiation safety of sunlamps. Ultraviolet radia-
tion hazard monitors were also being devel-
oped as prototypes.
EPA studies included urban environmental
measurements, and investigations of the ef-
ects of irradiation on length of gestation,
behavior, and other factors in animals; the re-
lationship between ultraviolet radiation and
skin cancer was also researched, as well as
thermal considerations. Analyses were made
of the environmental impacts of the Pave Paws
radar systems.
BRH conducted a review of its research
programs, which included a study of micro-
wave diathermy applicators and microwave-
induced behavioral changes. A patent was
assigned for an ultraviolet radiant energy
monitor, and a miniature electromagnetic
probe system was developed by BRH engi-
neers.
The National Institute of Environmental
Health Sciences conducted studies to develop
systems with well characterized microwave
fields, and instruments and techniques which
can measure energy deposited in a system
accurately and without disturbing it.
The Department of Defense has an extensive
research program, pursuant to a comprehen-
sive Tri-Service plan. The Army's emphasis has
been establishing the existence of bioeffects
of microwave radiation and understanding the
biological mechanisms on which they are
based, while the Navy program has stressed
criteria to help establish standards to protect
people in the naval environment. The Air
Force's efforts are directed at describing how
radiofrequency radiation is distributed in
biological organisms.
Light Products and Devices
BRH began developing a standard for mer-
cury vapor lamps, and sent warning notices
concerning them to 68,000 consumers and de-
signers. A proposed standard for sunlamps was
published in the Federal Register.
High Voltage Transmission Lines
A contract was awarded by EPA to sum-
marize comments received on health and en-
vironmental effects of EHV power transmission.
Lasers
BRH granted the first variance from the
Federal laser product performance standard
for a laser system designed for surveying appli-
cations. The Army conducted a number of rel-
evant animal studies.
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63
Executive Activities
a. Comprehensive
As part of its responsibilities, the Office of
Telecommunications Policy (OTP) in the Exec-
utive Office of the President coordinated,
overviewed and provided a central focus for
the Federal Government program concerned
with the biological effects of nonionizing
radio-frequency and microwave radiation
(0-300 GHz). The program includes individually
funded efforts of agencies with relevant re-
sponsibilities for radio-frequency and micro-
wave use, regulation, research, and/or health
and the environment. A principal objective is
to develop a sound scientific basis for assessing
effects and for developing rational guidelines
or regulations to ensure the safe and effective
use of the radio and microwave spectrum in
the full public interest.
With the advice of the Electromagnetic
Radiation Management Advisory Council
(ERMAC), an expert panel which recom-
mended the Federal program in 1971, and the
assistance of an interagency working group for
intragovernmental coordination, OTP re-
viewed progress and ongoing efforts and pro-
vided general guidance and recommendations.
During 1977 OTP/ERMAC continued to
conduct technical seminars in key research
areas. A principal undertaking was a series of
comprehensive reviews of Agency programs
over the past 5 years, to evaluate current status,
fund ing/resources, research highlights and
future plans as a basis for assessing progress
and determining future research and funding
requirements. These activities were open to all
interested parties and were widely attended
by the government and scientific communi-
ties. Summaries are available and additional
information can be found in previous OTP re-
ports on the Federal program in this area. OTP
continued to update and make available a
comprehensive, full-text computerized in-
formation system of relevant world literature.
Information can be remotely accessed via tele-
phone lines from any compatible terminal. (A
digest containing abstracts of this literature
and other information on this subject is pub-
lished quarterly in hard copy form and is avail-
able through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Department of Commerce.)
As a result of Reorganization Plan No. 1 of
1977, OTP was abolished in early 1978 and the
majority of its responsibilities, including this
function, were reassigned to a new entity, the
National Telecommunications and Informa-
tion Administration, established within the
Department of Commerce.
Radiofrequency and Microwave
Guidance
Draft Standard for
Microwave Diathermy Products
BRH convened a public meeting to solicit
comments on the clinical implications of the
draft performance standard for microwave
diathermy equipment. Attendees indicated
their general acceptance of the present draft,
but suggested a change that would restate the
requirement concerning the heating ability of
the applicator. The Agency concurred with the
proposed change and is studying ways of in-
corporating the requirements into the draft
and integrating it with the specified leakage
limit. Once the standard has been redrafted to
incorporate the suggested change, it will be
published in the Federal Register as a pro-
posed rule.
Compliance
Monitoring Reports by TV
Receiver Manufacturers
BRH has implemented streamlined proce-
dures for monitoring reports submitted by
television manufacturers in accordance with
Radiation Control Act requirements. These
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64
have improved the Agency's capability for
handling large numbers of reports and identi-
fying potential cases of non-compliance with
the television performance standard. The pro-
cedures, in addition to establishing priorities
for report review, are designed to assure that
no report goes unaddressed for more than 60
days, thus holding the backlog of reports to a
minimum. During the past 15 months the
number of reports reviewed has increased 570
percent and the backlog has been cut in half.
To provide further assurance of compliance
with the standard, report review activities are
combined with inspections of manufacturing
plants and laboratory testing.
Sunlamps with Faulty Timers
The General Electric Company recalled all
model RSK6 "Time-a-Tan Suntanner" kits
manufactured between January and March
1977, because faulty timers in some units could
fail to switch off the sunlamp at the preset time.
Production and distribution were suspended,
and BRH revised future plans to assure the ra-
diation safety of the sunlamps.
UV Hazard Monitor
BRH has awarded a contract for the devel-
opment, construction, and testing of three
ultraviolet radiation hazard monitors. The units
are to serve as prototypes for production mod-
els of a portable, easy-to-operate, relatively
inexpensive instrument that can provide a di-
rect readout of the health hazards from various
sources of ultraviolet radiation, such as sun-
lamps, laser pump sources, germicidal lamps,
and high-pressure gas-discharge lamps.
EPA Studies
Urban Environmental Measurements
As part of its program to determine the need
for standards to control environmental non-
ionizing radiation exposure, EPA/ORP began
measuring urban area environmental radio-
frequency (RF) and microwave radiation levels
in Boston and Atlanta in 1975. The study con-
tinued in 1976 with the completion of
measurements in Miami, Philadelphia, New
York, Chicago, and Washington, D.C. Three
new cities were added in 1977, Las Vegas, San
Diego and Portland, Oregon, bringing the
total population covered to about 30 million.
Cumulative exposure from all the cities stud-
ied was .0656 /iW/cm2, with an extreme
high value of 152 ju,W/cm2 in a residential
neighborhood.
Length of Gestation
EPA is investigating the effects of chronic ir-
radiation of mice at 2450 MHz on the length of
gestation, si nee a pilot study indicated a signif-
icant lengthening of the duration of preg-
nancy. Also, a large number of mouse litters
have been examined for teratological changes
after daily irradiation in utero at 2450 MHz.
Three exposure levels (3500; 14,000 and 28,000
/* W/cm2) were used, and a total of seven en-
cephaloceles (hernias of the brain) were found
in approximately 300 litters (3000 animals); no
such anomalies were found in a similar num-
ber of controls. The normal incidence of this
anomaly is three in 10,000. The significance of
the results is being evaluated.
Animal Studies on Behavioral Effects
Several EPA behavioral studies are in prog-
ress for both acute and chronic irradiation of
rats or squirrel monkeys. Subjects being inves-
tigated include changes in social behavior, in
stress-related biochemical substances, EEC
parameters, and performance after operant
conditioning. Results from one such 1976 study
show that rats irradiated (15,000 and 20,000
/tW/cm2, 2450 MHz) for 15 hours display at
least a 40% decrease in task performance
whereas one hour exposures show no
decrease. Lower powers did not produce sta-
tistically significant decreases in behavior after
15 hours of exposure, but the trend toward
lowered performance was seen at power
densities as low as five mW/cm2.
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65
These types of studies were continued in
1977, to quantify more precisely the relative ef-
fects of different densities and environmental
temperatures during exposure, in terms of be-
havioral changes measured after termination
of exposure. The conclusion concerns schedule-
contrQlled behavior for food reinforcement
which decreases after microwave exposure. It
was found to decrease even more when higher
air temperatures existed during exposure,
over a range common in the environment.
A chronic study of behavioral effects is
being performed at Stanford Research Insti-
tute. Pregnant squirrel monkeys are being ex-
posed throughout gestation to 2450 MHz radi-
ation, three hours per day, five days per week.
Infants will be exposed on the same schedule
to 12 months after birth. (Exposure levels are
100; 1000 and 10,000 At W/cm2.) |n addition to
behavioral responses, biochemical and immu-
nological parameters are being investigated.
Exposures have been completed, as well as
autopsies on some animals in the higher ex-
posure level groups who died unexpectedly.
Results from both are being evaluated.
In Vitro Studies
EPA's in vitro work in progress is concentrat-
ing on the study of amplitude modulated mi-
crowave radiation on the normal processes of
enzyme systems, bacterial and mammalian
cells, and brain tissue. Among the specific
studies is one in which enzyme systems have
been irradiated in an exposure system where
enzyme activity was measured during irradia-
tion. No statistically significant differences in
enzyme activities were observed between ir-
radiated and control samples at any modula-
tion frequency. In another study, exposure of
isolated rat gut did not produce a measurable
effect on the spontaneous contraction rate of
smooth muscle. No significant changes were
observed in mice repeatedly exposed to 2450
megahertz when they were investigated for ef-
fects on hematologyand lymphocyte function.
EPA also verified and extended reports in
the literature of changes in calcium binding to
the surface of the brain during exposure to
nonionizing electromagnetic radiation. It was
found that the effect appeared at some fre-
quencies and power densities while not at
others.
UV Radiation and Skin Cancer
Along with the National Cancer Institute,
EPA initiated a study to clarify the role of solar
UV radiation in the development of non-
melanoma skin cancer, by means of a demo-
graphic survey using SEER tumor registries
around the country, and a case-control study
to clarify the influence of various host and en-
vironmental factors.
Analysis of Thermal Considerations
EPA conducted an analysis of existing radio-
frequency and microwave radiation absorp-
tion data to examine the frequency-dependent
phenomenon of biological tissue heating. Re-
stricted to thermal considerations, the analysis
examined the exposure field intensities asso-
ciated with various levels of thermal loading
on the body as a whole and on specific, selec-
tively absorbing tissues in adult humans and
infants. When the final report is published in
1978, it will discuss the results in terms of their
implications for existing U.S. and Soviet safety
standards and for typically encountered expo-
sures in the United States.
Environmental Impact Analysis
of Radar Systems
In response to a Congressional request,
EPA/ORP conducted analyses of the environ-
mental impacts of the Pave Paws radar systems
on the basis of microwave radiation alone.
Both systems were designed to detect and
track sea launched ballistic missiles. For the
proposed facility near Yuba City, California,
EPA found that Air Force calculations of envi-
ronmental microwave exposure levels were
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66
based on very conservative assumptions. It
appeared unlikely to the Agency that expo-
sures produced beyond the base boundaries
could cause health effects. The other facility, at
Otis Air Force Base, Massachusetts, was as-
sessed with similar results; however, the pub-
lic would have access to the base through a
road that might be constructed in the future,
and there is a possibility that peak field inten-
sities there have the potential of interfering
with heart pacemakers.
than with the conventional spaced ones pres-
ently in general clinical use. The older applica-
tors can cause scattered as well as radiated
energy to impinge on the operator and on un-
prescribed patient tissue. One way of minimiz-
ing the hazard is to use appropriate shielding,
but that is a rather cumbersome method. The
new models minimize the possibility of scat-
tered radiation because they are applied di-
rectly to the patient's skin.
BRH Studies
Review of Research Programs
The Agency's current in-house and extra-
mural activities in the area of microwave and
radiofrequency research were reviewed at a
Bureau-sponsored symposium, February 16-18,
in Rockville. More than 120 persons, including
representatives of federal and state agencies,
industry, and the news media attended.
The purpose of the meeting was to bring to-
gether bureau contractors, grantees, and head-
quarters personnel to exchange information
on their research and to review the status of
ongoing projects. Among the topics discussed
were the biological effects of animal exposure
to various levels of microwave radiation, mea-
surement instrumentation and techniques,
and the health implications of occupational
exposure.
The symposium was the second in a series
being convened by the Bureau to review its
major program areas. The first, which covered
the biological effects and measurement of
light sources, was held in March 1976.
Microwave Diathermy Applicators
A BRH conducted study of microwave dia-
thermy applicators has shown that unnecessary
radiation exposure can be more easily con-
trolled with the new direct-contract applicators
Microwave-Induced Behavioral Changes
A BRH study has demonstrated, under cer-
tain conditions, that exposure to microwave
radiation may alter the behavior of laboratory
animals. In three separate experiments, scien-
tists investigated (1) the behavioral changes in-
duced by the interaction of microwaves and a
neuroactive drug, (2) the stimulus properties*
of microwaves as a conditioning agent to pro-
duce an acquired taste aversion, and (3) the
possibility of using microwaves as a condition-
ing agent to produce an acquired taste aversion.
Prototype UV Hazard Monitor
A patent has been.assigned for an ultraviolet
radiant energy monitor that can give a direct
readout of the health hazards from sources of
incoherent, broadband optical radiation. The
device was designed by BRH scientists to fill
the need for a portable, simple, and relatively
inexpensive instrument that can be used for
field measurements of emissions from such
light-emitting products as sunlamps, germici-
dal lamps, laser pump sources, and high-
pressure gas-discharge lamps.
Miniature Electromagnetic Probe
To meet the needs of researchers investigat-
ing the biological effects of electronic product
emissions in the range of 0.2 to 12 gigahertz,
BRH engineers have developed a miniature
electromagnetic probe system. Its accuracy,
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67
small size, and fiber optic telemetry system
make it a valuable tool for laboratory measure-
ments where present probes are not appropri-
ate because of their physical size or hard-wired
readout. The Bureau has already used the
probe to study scattering and field distribu-
tions near Plexiglass animal holders during mi-
crowave bioeffects experiments.
National Institute of Environmental
Health Sciences (NIEHS) Studies
The objectives of the NIEHS nonionizirig
radiation research program are:
— to develop microwave exposure systems
for bioeffects research
— to develop and test techniques for mea-
suring microwave energy absorption
— to determine the effect of microwaves
on isolated nerve preparations
— to determine how 2450 MHz microwave
radiation interacts with biological systems at all
levels
— to study the effect of long-term expo-
sure of experimental animals to 915 MHz and
2450MHz microwave radiation on their central
nervous system and behavior
— to ascertain the effect of 60 Hz fields
from high voltage transmission lines to the
central nervous system of mammals.
The Institute has conducted a number of
studies to fulfill these objectives. Specificially,
because it is important to know the dose of the
exposure in order to correlate the incident ex-
posure to the absorbed energy, NIEHS scien-
tists have developed systems with well charac-
terized microwave fields. A refinement of the
system is that the biological specimen is lo-
cated inside environmental chambers which
allow control of temperature and humidity
during irradiation, so electromagnetic field
effects can be separated from gross heating of
the specimens. In order to correlate any bio-
logical effect with absorbed microwave en-
ergy, it is important to characterize correctly
the amount of energy that the biological sys-
tem is exposed to. NIEHS has developed in-
struments and techniques which can measure
energy deposited in a system accurately and
without disturbing it.
DOD Studies
The Department of Defense has an extensive
research program on nonionizing radiation,
pursuant to a comprehensive Tri-Service plan
developed in 1974-76. The Army's activities
have been concerned primarily with establish-
ing the existence of bioeffects of microwave
radiation, and the elaboration of the biologic
mechanisms on which they are based, so that
rational safety standards can be established.
The general strategy is first to identify effects
and their limits, examine biological mecha-
nisms, and determine the medical hazard rep-
resented. Five program blocks have resulted
from the strategy: energy distribution and
measurement, biophysical actions of micro-
waves, bioeffects of pulsed radiation, behav-
ioral and other studies, and the extramural
program. Program accomplishments to date
include:
— development of a rational management
strategy for research to determine potential
microwave hazards,
— establishment of methods to measure
tissue microwave properties,
— development of methods for precise,
continuous measurement of temperature
changes in the organs of exposed subject
animals,
— establishment of the feasibility of non-
surgical methods for measuring microwave
energy deposition by complex computer anal-
ysis, with further development in process,
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68
— demonstration of microwave effects on
basic biological processes,
— reports of the unique hazards of expo-
sure to pulsed microwave radiation, as com-
pared to continuous microwave exposure of
the same frequency and average power,
— identification of behavioral effects of
exposure,
— demonstration of the importance of
antenna-like properties of animals and their
organs,
— conclusion that there is no unique asso-
ciation between occupational microwave ex-
posure and cataract formation, and
— identification of new potentially bene-
ficial applications of microwaves.
The Navy program concerns both micro-
waves and the extremely low frequency area.
In the latter, research has explored a wide
range of fields, including physiology, behavior,
biological rhythms and human performance.
The goal of the microwave program is to de-
velop criteria for use in the establishment of
standards, limitations and design guidelines
intended to protect personnel in the naval en-
vironment and the relevant public. Funda-
mental research is continuing to determine
whether other than thermal mechanisms can
account for observed effects. Simultaneously,
a pragmatic approach has been taken to five
separate areas of concern:
— central nervous system, including histo-
logical changes, alternations in the blood brain
barrier, and changes in other parameters,
— behavior, particularly cognitive, per-
ceptual motor, and vigilance performance,
— immunology/ hematology,
— dosimetry and energy distribution, cov-
ering the influence of peak powers and pulse
shapes, and the influence of electric versus
magnetic fields in contributing to observed
effects.
The Air Force's efforts are directed at a series
of studies to describe how radiofrequency
radiation is distributed in biological organisms.
They show conclusively that the effect of RF
radiation on biological systems is dependent
not only on the magnitude of the exposure
level but also on the frequency of the radiated
energy, as wel I as on the size and orientation of
the organisms in relation to the emitter. A ma-
jor project has been developing and updating
a dosimetry handbook for the use of all investi-
gators, which has been distributed both in the
U.S. and in Europe to a very favorable initial re-
sponse. Additional test data were actively so-
licited for inclusion in the second edition, pub-
lished in early 1978. Continuing studies are
being made of the effects on the central nerv-
ous system, immune system, and behavior.
c. Light Products and Devices
Guidance
Standard for Mercury Vapor Lamps
BRH began development of a radiation safety
performance standard for mercury vapor
lamps, which would permit the manufacture
of two types of lamps. The first would have an
extinguishing device that causes shut off within
a specified time after the outer bulb is broken;
the other would be accompanied by a warning
that it should be used only in areas where hu-
man exposure is unlikely to occur or in fixtures
that provide protection against ultraviolet ra-
diation.
Proposed Standard for Sunlamps
FDA has proposed a safety performance
standard for sunlamps to reduce the possibility
of injuries resulting from overexposure to sun-
lamp radiation. The proposal was published in
the December 30 Federal Register.
Sunlamps are widely used in the United
States, with about 1,000,000 being sold each
year. Based on Consumer Product Safety Com-
missin data, some 10,000 sunlamp injuries re-
quiring emergency room treatment were
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69
reported in 1974, and that number increased
to 12,000 in 1975. Many of the injuries, such as
severe sunburn and eye irritation, resulted
from acute overexposure to ultraviolet radia-
tion when users fell asleep under sunlamps
that did not shut off automatically. The stand-
ard is. being issued in an effort to reduce the
number of such injuries.
The proposed standard would: (1) require
that each sunlamp have a timer that shuts off
the lamp within 10 minutes or less; (2) prohibit
sunlamps from emitting excessive amounts of
shorter wavelength radiation, which is particu-
larly hazardous and not necessary for skin
tanning; (3) require that sunlamps be sold with
protective eyewear; (4) require warning labels
and instructions stating that ultraviolet radia-
tion, as with natural sunlight, may cause pre-
mature skin aging and skin cancer and recom-
mending that people taking medication or
with light-sensitive skin consult a physician be-
fore using a sunlamp; and (5) require that sun-
lamps be manufactured so they will fit only
into special light fixtures equipped with ap-
propriate timers, controls, and warning labels.
It was proposed that the standard become ef-
fective 30 days after a final regulation is
published. In the interim, FDA is urging man-
ufacturers to take volunteer steps to prevent
sunlamp injuries by equipping their products
with such safety accessories as timers and pro-
tective eyewear and by providing purchasers
with adequate instructions for safe use.
Education and Quality Assurance
Mercury Vapor Lamp Hazards
To alert the public to the potential health
hazards associated with exposure to damaged
mercury vapor and metal halide lamps, BRH
sent warning notices to some 68,000 lighting
designers, purchasers and users, environmen-
tal safety personnel, members of consumer
groups, and Federal properties maintenance
personnel. The notices explain that when the
outer bulb is broken, intense ultraviolet radia-
tion can escape and cause skin burns around
the face and shoulders and severe eye irrita-
tion. They also list steps that can be taken to
minimize the possibility of injuries.
d. High Voltage Transmission Lines
Private citizens, public interest groups, and
State agencies have expressed concern about
the potential adverse effects of electic power
at extra-high voltages (EHV), i.e., voltages at or
above 345 kilovolts. Because of these concerns,
EPA published a notice in the Federal Register
on July 31,1975, requesting data and informa-
tion on health and environmental effects of
EHV power transmission. Over 50 replies total-
ing over 6000 pages were received, and in 1977
a contract was awarded to the Illinois Institute
of Technology Research to extract and sum-
marize the relevant comments. A draft had
been prepared by the end of the year.
e. Lasers and Laser Products
Guidance
Variance for Laser Product
BRH granted the first variance from the Fed-
eral laser product performance standard, for a
laser system designed for surveying applica-
tions. In applying for the variance, the manu-
facturer contended that, to be effective for its
intended purpose, the system must emit light
power in excess of the specified limits. BRH
concluded that several safety features and
additional precautions would suffice in pro-
viding radiation protection in accordance with
Radiation Control Act regulations.
Department of Defense Studies
The Army conducted a number of studies
.using laboratory animals, phantom models or
animal tissue, and will use the data generated
to extrapolate human health effects of laser
radiation. Specifically, the studies concern
ocular and behavioral effects, and effects on
skin and cutaneous tissue.
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VII. OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE
1. Introduction and Summary
People who are exposed to radiation on the
job add a certain amount to the dose received
by the general public — whether they are phy-
sicians, x-ray technicians, nuclear power plant
operators, uranium miners, or fire alarm mak-
ers. Because such workers are usually subject
to higher doses than the general population, it
is important to know how many are exposed to
how much radiation, and what effects it has on
them, if any. Data collected on occupationally
exposed people can be useful in assessing po-
tential effects on the general public.
An initial problem is defining who a radiation
worker is. As the partial list below shows,
sources of occupational exposure to ionizing
radiation are by no means confined to medical
and nuclear fuel cycle activities. Industrial ex-
posures include not only obvious sources like
thickness gauges and radiographic equipment,
but also incidental sources like klystron tubes
and radar tube testing operations.
Since there is so much room for dispute
about who a radiation worker is, the number
of workers exposed is uncertain. The Special
Studies Group estimated in a 1972 EPA report
that there were 772,000 such employees in
1969-70, "using reported numbers of workers
[from the Atomic Energy Commission, other
agencies, and medical and dental sources] and
judicious estimates in nonreported ones [such
as nonreporting Agreement States and AEC li-
censees]/'1 The total man-rem from occupa-
tional exposure was calculated at 164,000, with
a mean annual dose of 210 mrem/worker.
Information about exposure is needed not
only to insure compliance with applicable reg-
ulations but also to provide a data base for stud-
ies of health effects. Since cancer is the main
known effect of ionizing radiation exposure,
and since it may arise from any of many
sources, continuing epidemiological studies
of workers are especially informative.
According to EPA's Office of Radiation
Programs' (EPA/ORP) May 1976 Radiological
Quality of the Environment, "there is no re-
quirement for uniformity in collecting and
reporting occupational exposures. There are
considerable variations in the terminology
used by reporting agencies. For example, re-
sults of personnel monitoring data are re-
ported as exposures (R), absorbed doses (rad)
or dose equivalents (rem)."2The Federal Gov-
ernment maintains several registries which
cover occupational exposure information, in-
cluding DOE's voluntary Transuranium
Registry and BRH's Radiation Incidents Regis-
try as well as those maintained by the Armed
Services and NRC.
Occupational exposure to nonionizing radi-
ation is also surprisingly widespread. Lasers,
for example, are used in the construction in-
dustry as reference lines — and in drilling,
communications, holography, and surgery.
(They are extremely hazardous to the worker's
eye because of the intense concentration of
light on the retina.) Microwaves, which are
widely used in medical diathermy and other
fields as well as in ovens, can affect eyes, and
may have a health impact at low levels over a
long period of time. For those who work out of
doors, sunlight is a major source of ultraviolet
light which may cause cancer, and certainly has
irritating and damaging effects on the eye.
Federal responsibilities and selected activi-
ties related to radiation exposure are discussed
below, categorized by agency. The informa-
tion presented is far from exhaustive, but we
hope that it will provide a sense of the diversity
of occupational exposure and of the activities
of Federal agencies which regulate it.
1. Estimates of Ionizing Radiation Doses in the U.S., 1960-2000.
EPA: ORP/CSD 72-1 (1972), page 147.
2. Radiological Quality of the Environment. EPA; EPA-520/1-
76-010(1976), page 151.
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71
Summary
Activities in this chapter are arranged by
agency, as follows:
EPA
— continued reviewing and updating the
current Federal radiation protection guidance
for occupational exposures to ionizing radia-
tion.
— asked the National Academy of Sciences'
BEIR Committee to consider the findings of
the "Mancuso study" in its analysis of radia-
tion risks under a current contract, in response
to a Natural Resources Defense Council pe-
tition.
— continued a contract to review methods
for obtaining reliable statistical data on annual
occupational exposures to ionizing radiation
in the United States.
NRC
— began research under contract to de-
velop acceptable performance criteria for air-
purifying respirators to protect against airborne
radioiodines, and to measure the amount of
protection they provide.
— provided medical institutions with guid-
ance on their design and operation to protect
workers.
_.— initiated development of a regulatory
guide on acceptable health physics programs
for uranium mills.
— completed a final environmental state-
ment on personnel neutron dosimeters con-
taining thorium.
— developed an action plan to reduce
overexposures of industrial radiographers.
— issued for comment a revision of aGuide
concerning occupational exposures at nuclear
power stations.
DOE
— conducted a range of studies to assess
the possible effects of fusion power workers'
occupational environment.
— completed the first phase of a multilab-
oratory intercomparison of in vivo plutonium
lung counting.
— conducted workshops to define re-
search needs in transuranic, tritium and neu-
tron radiobiology.
— continued to collect data on human
morbidity and mortality associated with occu-
pational or accidental exposures.
MESA
— increased its radiation and other types
of personal exposure monitoring.
— completed a special radiation exposure
and recordkeeping audit which was launched
in 1975, and as a result proposed more strin-
gent sampling and recordkeeping standards.
OSHA
— continued to inspect workplaces for
compliance with many standards, of which
radiation is only one.
NIOSH
— completed a three volume report sum-
marizing the current knowledge of radiation-
induced carcinogenesis.
— provided technical assistance in ad-
dressing problems from radiation generating
equipment.
— initiated an epidemiologic study of
workers at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard.
— studied current trends in survivorship of
radiologists.
— updated an extensive bibliography on
• bioeffects of radiofrequency and microwave
radiation, and conducted relevant studies.
— funded studies on exposure of airport
workers and dosimetry models.
— continued a wide variety of assessments
of possible hazards and standards.
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72
2. Environmental Protection
Agency
Guidance
EPA/ORP continued its work on reviewing
and updating the current Federal radiation
protection guidance for occupational expo-
sures to ionizing radiation. The current guid-
ance used by agencies in preparing standards
and regulations for their respective areas of
authority was established by the Federal Radi-
ation Council in 1960. The Interagency Com-
mittee on Occupational Exposures to Ionizing
Radiation, formed by EPA/ORP in 1974, is con-
sulted by EPA in reviewing and updating this
guidance. It is anticipated that the proposed
new guidance will be published in the Federal
Register in 1978 for public comment.
The guidance will reflect current knowledge
on the relationship between radiation dose
and effects on health, existing and foreseen
national needs for occupational radiation ex-
posure, and recent recommendations by the
National Academy of Sciences, International
Commission on Radiation Protection, and Na-
tional Council on Radiation Protection and
Measurements. Radiation protection guidance
will eventually be specified for individuals in a
variety of occupational categories, through (1)
a set of annual Radiation Protection Guides
(RPG's) for irradiation of the whole body and
individual organs or tissues, (2) qualitative
guidance which specifies proper application
of the RPG's, and (3) secondary guidance which
provides practical means for implementation.
The technical support document for the new
recommended guidance will address the so-
matic and genetic risks associated with the rec-
ommended limitations, the rationale for the
guide values chosen, the "as low as is reason-
ably achievable" principle, the influence of
prior exposures on an individual's radiation
protection status, and guidance for special
categories of workers such as occupationally
exposed pregnant women and women of
reproductive capacity, minors, students and
trainees, itinerant and transient workers, as
well as for visitors.
The appropriateness of the current age-
related accumulated dose rule is also being re-
viewed. Under it, the accumulated dose
(whole-body) of radiation workers is not to ex-
ceed 5 (N-18) rems where N is the person's age
in years. Current guidance also limits the
whole-body dose to three rems per quarter;
thus, a radiation worker could receive up to 12
rems in a single year if his or her "dose ac-
count" under the 5 (N-18) rule permitted it.
The rule is being examined to determine
whether it should be retained.
Petition to Reduce Occupational
Exposure Limits
The Natural Resources Defense Council, a
nonprofit public interest group, petitioned
EPA and NRC to reduce occupational
exposure limits by a factor of 10 because of
findings of the "Mancuso study." This study of
death certificates for former radiation workers
has caused considerable controversy in the
scientific community, because preliminary
results show an apparent increased cancer
mortality in workers exposed at the Hanford
nuclear facility. If valid, the results would indi-
cate that current estimates of the risks due to
chronic radiation are too small.
It is difficult to compare these results with
other studies of radiation risks to humans,
since this is the only study involving thou-
sands of normally healthy people chronically
exposed to low doses. The study, which now
includes about 4,000 certified deaths, was
started by the Atomic Energy Commission,
later ERDA and now DOE. Performed until
recently on contract by Dr. T.F. Mancuso, a
respected professor at the University of Pitts-
burgh, its purpose is a long-term epidemio-
logical review of radiation workers in selected
major facilities. The focus has been on workers
exposed since 1943 at the Hanford nuclear
facility.
In response to concerns raised by the
Mancuso study and the NRDC petition,
EPA/ORP has asked the National Academy of
Sciences' BEIR Committee to consider the
study in its analysis of radiation risks under a
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73
current contract. It should be noted that the
study is presented by its authors as a prelimi-
nary report, and it is too soon to make good
judgments about what the final results will
yield. A number of epidemiological centers
are examining the data, and EPA/ORP will take
their evaluations into account in makinga final
decision on the NRDC petition.
Studies
Annual Occupational
Exposure Statistics
In 1975, EPA/ORP initiated a contract to
review methods for obtaining reliable statis-
tical data on annual occupational exposures to
ionizing radiation in the United States. The
Agency is considering establishing a program
for routinely compiling national statistics on
annual occupational exposures. The data
collected would serve as the continuing sur-
veillance of national occupational exposure
trends, and would also be used to review and
update Federal occupational radiation protec-
tion guidance. The present contract, slated for
completion in mid-1978, is designed to
provide:
— a thorough investigation and evalua-
tion of actual and potential sources of input
data,
— determination of the availability of the
types of data considered necessary,
— development (on the basis of findings)
of a set of effective and economical alterna-
tive means for carrying out the program, and
estimating their annual cost and manpower
requirements, and
— testing of the alternative means se-
lected by EPA.
3. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
The NRC requires that external and internal
radiation doses to persons employed in occu-
pations involving potential exposure to
radiation shall be controlled within strict
limits. The NRC standards define the permis-
sible occupational dose in rems-per-calendar-
quarter (a rem is a measure of the biological
effect of ionizing radiation, being equivalent
to the effect of one roentgen of x-radiation).
These allowable limits are set forth in 10 CFR
Part 20.
The NRC collects, on a calendar year basis,
occupational radiation exposure information
from the four categories of licensees consid-
ered to have the greatest potential for signifi-
cant personnel exposures: operating nuclear
power reactor licensees, industrial radiogra-
phers, fuel fabricators and processors, and
commercial processors and distributors of
specified quantities of byproduct materials.
The annual reports collected from these 450
licensees disclosed that some 92,800 individ-
uals were monitored during 1976 and that
nearly half of these persons received expo-
sures that were too small to be detected by
personnel radiation monitoring devices. Only
three exposures exceeded the maximum
annual limit of 12 rems established by Federal
regulations. The cumulative exposures re-
ceived by all 92,800 individuals was 33,000
"man-rems"—an average exposure of 0.36
rem per person. This is the same average
exposure as reported for 1975 (see 1976 NRC
Annual Report, page 108). Most of these expo-
sures occurred at the 62 nuclear power plants
operating during 1976, where 66,800 persons
accumulated a total of 26,555 man-rems (see
NUREG-0322).
Exposure information is also collected from
these licensees by way of employee termina-
tion reports submitted to the NRC whenever
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Table 7.1
DISTRIBUTION OF ANNUAL WHOLE BODY EXPOSURES BY LICENSEE CATEGORY
1976
Exposure Ranges (Rems)
Covered
Categories
of NRC
Licensees
POWER REACTORS
No. of Indiv.
Percent of Total
INDUSTRIAL
RADIOGRAPHY
No. of Indiv.
Percent of Total
FUEL PROCESSING
& FABRICATION
No. of Indiv.
Percent of Total
MANUFACTURING &
DISTRIBUTION
No. of Indiv.
Percent of Total
TOTALS
Number
Percent
Total No.
Monitored
66,800
100%
11,245
100%
11,227
100%
3,501
100%
92,773
100%
Less Than Measurable 0.10-
Measurable
30,085
45%
5,023
45%
5,942
53%
1,525
44%
42,575
46%
<0.10
13,859
21%
2,184
19%
2,815
25%
906
26%
19,764
21%
0.25
5,277
8%
V08
11%
959
9%
413
12%
7,857
8%
0.25- 0.50-
0.50 0.75
4,192 2,537
6% 4%
887 544
8% 5%
580 307
5% 3%
170 94
5% 3%
5,829 3,482
6% 4%
0.75-
1.00
2,036
3%
353
3%
221
2%
53
2%
2,663
3%
1-2
4,882
7%
660
6%
237
2%
148
4%
5,927
6%
2-3
2,355
4%
210
2%
, 77
1%
77
2%
2,719
3%
3-4
789
1%
100
1%
47
51
1%
987
1%
4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-1010-1111-12
487 188 70 26 11 5 1 0
1%
41 15 10 3 202 0
25 17 0 0 000 0
31 16 10 5 200 0
1%
584 236 90 34 15 5 3 0
1%
12
0
3
0
0
3
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75
an individual completes his employment or
work assignment with one of them. These re-
ports revealed that more than 32,000 persons
terminated employment with these four cate-
gories of licensed facilities during 1976, and
that 14,200 of these workers did so more than
once. A continuing increase in these figures, at
a rate of more than 20 percent each year, indi-
cates a trend toward a greater use of short-term
workers in nuclear power plant maintenance.
Medical Institutions
Regulatory Guide 8.18 and an accompany-
ing report (NUREG-0267) were issued in
December 1977 to provide medical institu-
tions with guidance on actions that should be
taken in the design and operation of medical
facilities to ensure that workers are adequately
protected from the harmful effects of ionizing
radiation.
Guidance
Respiratory Protection
The NRC's rule change that included new
requirements governing the use of respiratory
protective equipment (respirators) to protect
workers against airborne radioactive materials
was published in November 1976 and became
effective in December 1976. Licensees had
until December 1977 to achieve full compli-
ance with the new requirements. Guide 8.15,
on acceptable practices for respiratory protec-
tion, and an associated manual on respiratory
protection (NUREG-0041) were issued in
October 1976.
Research work was begun under contract
with Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL)
to develop acceptable performance criteria
for air-purifying respirators to protect against
airborne radioiodines.
LASL also provided measurements of the
amount of protection provided by respirators.
This information will be used for revising and
updating guidance to licensees on the
amount of allowance that may be made for the
protection that is provided when respirators
are used to limit the internal radiation doses to
workers who are exposed to airborne radioac-
tive materials. All approved airline respirators
were scheduled for testing this year. A revised
informal report {LA-NUREG-6612 MS) with
recommendations on the protection afforded
by air-supplied hoods and helmets was com-
pleted in July 1977. The information will be
used in providing additional and updated
guidance to licensees on the acceptable use of
these resoirators.
Health Protection at Uranium Mills
Progress was made in evaluating the hazards
associated with the inhalation of uranium ore
dust by uranium mill workers. The principal
hazard arises from thorium-230, a decay
product of natural uranium, which is retained
in the lungs and lymph nodes for long periods
of time. Measurements made to date,
however, indicate that many airborne parti-
cles of uranium ore dust are too large to be
deposited in the lungs, so that thorium-230
may be less of a problem than had been
supposed.
A regulatory guide on acceptable health
physics programs for uranium mills is being
developed. It will set forth the NRC staff
position regarding health physics measure-
ments that should be performed at mills and
will take into account the importance of the
chemical toxicity to the kidney of "yellow-
cake/' the final product of a mill. The guide
will draw heavily on preliminary measure-
ments from studies of the inhalation of
uranium-ore dust.
Dosimeters
To provide the regulatory environment for
widespread use of personnel neutron dosi-
meters containing thorium, the NRC exempted
the dosimeters from licensing requirements in
February 1977. The final environmental state-
ment (NUREG-0137) prepared in connection
with the exemption was the first one issued for
a consumer product. The statement con-
cluded that, in order to protect the environ-
ment, manufacture of the dosimeters can take
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76
Table 7.2
SUMMARY OF ANNUAL WHOLE BODY EXPOSURES
FOR COVERED LICENSEES
1968-1976
Total Number Percent of Exposures Percent of Exposures Number of Annual Exposures
Year Monitored <2 Rems >5 Rems >12 Rems
1968 36,836 97.2% 0.5% 3
1969 31,176 96.5% 0.5% 7
1970 36,164 96.1% 0.6% 0
1971 36311 95.3% 0.7% 1
1972 44,690 95.7% 0.5% 8
1973 67,862 95.0% 0.5% 1
1974 85,097 96.4% 0.3% 1
1975 78713 94.8% 0.5% 1
1976 92773 95.0% 0.4% 3
Table 7.3
LENGTH OF EMPLOYMENT FOR INDIVIDUALS TERMINATING EACH YEAR
Calendar 1-89 90-180 180-365 1-2 2-4 4-6 >6
Year Days Days Days Years Years Years Years
Total Number 1976 1669 699 682 1015 970 358 1507
Total Cum. Dose
Equivalent (Rem) 253.25 57.77 113.60 597.02 761.94 372.09 3972.86
Avg. Cum. Dose
Equivalent (Rem) .15 .08 .17 .59 .79 1.04 2.64
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77
place only when authorized by a license
issued by the NRC or an Agreement State, and
each dosimeter must contain no more than 50
milligrams of thorium.
Overexposures of Radiographers
Overexposures of industrial radiographers
to radiation have continued to be of concern
to NRC. During fiscal year 1977 the staff devel-
oped an action plan to reduce such overexpo-
sures. The plan would improve safety in
radiography through licensing and standards
measures that would require improvement of
radiography instruments, better training for
radiographers, and adequate detection and
alarm systems to warn them of radiation
exposure.
Exposures at Nuclear Power Stations
In March 1977, the NRC issued for comment
a revision of Guide 8.8. It provides consid-
erably more detailed guidance on planning,
designing, constructing and operating a light-
water reactor nuclear power station to meet
the objective that exposures of station person-
nel to radiation during routine operation must
be as low as is reasonably achievable.
Studies
Airport Workers
The NRC issued in March 1977 a report,
"Exposure of Airport Workers to Radiation
from Shipments of Radioactive Materials"
(NUREG-0154), reviewing studies conducted
at six major U.S. airports. These studies
showed that most of the monitored cargo
workers receive annual radiation doses of less
than 0.1 rem from handling such shipments. (A
dose of 0.1 rem is equal to the average amount
of radiation that a person would receive in one
year from natural background sources.)
They also indicated that some of the
exposures received by the cargo workers were
attributable to unnecessary contact with the
packages of radioactive material. Manuals and
posters to instruct cargo workers on ways to
avoid these unnecessary contacts were pre-
pared during fiscal year 1977 and will be issued
jointly by NRC and DOT in 1978.
Dosimetry Models
During FY 1977, a project was initated to
improve the data base for predicting adverse
health effects which might result from expo-
sure to radioactive materials in a serious
accident. Results achieved in fiscal year 1977
contributed to improvements in the dosimetry
models—published in 10 CFR Part 50, Appen-
dix I—for keeping exposure to levels as low as
reasonably achievable. In addition, measure-
ments were made at four operating nuclear
power stations where new construction is
under way as part of an effort to determine the
sources and levels of radiation to which site
construction workers might be exposed. New
measurements also are being made of ambient
levels of radium and uranium particulates
present in uranium mills in order to better
assess the occupational exposure at those
facilities.
4. Department of Energy
DOE conducted a range of studies to assess
the possible effects of fusion power workers'
occupational environment. Research on the
mutagenic and carcinogenic risk from neu-
trons resulting from nuclear fission applies to
fusion technology, and to other studies on
radiation effects. In the environmental field,
studies were continued on the determination
of tritium concentrations in the atmosphere
and the oceans, the transport of tritium in
rivers, estuaries and the Atlantic Ocean, and
movement of tritium in soils and biota. Global
inventories of tritium and tritiated water were
updated. Relevant physical and technological
research included a review of the health
physics aspects of fusion power and a study of
the chemical interactions of tritiated
molecules.
-------
78
As part of its programs, DOE completed the
first phase of a multilaboratory intercompari-
son of in wvo plutonium lung counting. This
technique is used to measure the amount of
plutonium inhaled and retained by radiation
workers. Also completed were development
and initial testing of systems to monitor alpha
aerosols in effluent streams, working areas and
the external environment. Aerosols were
characterized in working areas of nuclear
facilities and uranium mines. To assist other
groups, specific internal dose calculations
were provided to standard setting bodies and
regulatory agencies.
In 1977, DOE conducted workshops with
leading scientists to define research needs in
transuranic, tritium and neutron radiobiology.
It was found that research is required on
potential health effects of plutonium, high
specific activity uranium and other trans-
uranic radionuclides for several fuel cycles.
Studies are being conducted with rodents and
dogs, and are primarily concerned with dose-
response relationships for lung and bone
tumors in life span studies. The information
developed in experimental animals for the
assessment of the effects of low levels of
external radiation can be correlated to some
degree with the evidence of human exposure
to determine risk for workers and for the gen-
eral population. Relatively large numbers of
animals must be exposed to low levels of
gamma and neutron radiation over long
periods of time. Specific activities include an
evaluation of the hazards of iodine-129 in
weanling rats and beagles, showing that each
tenfold increase iodine intake means a three-
fold decrease in thyroid uptake.
In keeping with its plan to collect data on
human morbidity and mortality associated
with occupational or accidental exposure to
radiation, DOE proceeded in 1977 with several
Table 7.4
WHOLE-BODY EXPOSURE HISTORY OF AEC/ERDA AND
AEC/ERDA CONTRACTOR EMPLOYEES
(Percent of employees with dose
equivalent greater than)
Year
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1 rem (Number)
4.85 (6254)
5.07 (6854)
4.65 (6410)
6.11 (6622)
4.43 (4780)
4.17 (4293)
4.63 (4476)
3.90 (3675)
3.78 (3383)
3.16 (2906)
3.26 (2548)
3.36 (2974)
2.47 (2231)
2 rem (Number)
2.07 (2671)
1.99 (2696)
1.96 (2704)
2.23 (2415)
1.83 (1981)
1.69 (1739)
1.84 (1778)
1.37 (1295)
1.40 (1253)
1.05 ( 962)
1.13 ( 881)
1.28 (1128)
0.60 ( 552)
Total
Man rem*
13411
14818
14173
13715
9877
8707
9137
5395
6170
5623
4935
5813
3984
Total
Monitored
128965
135214
137932
108386
107986
102918
96661
94315
89460
91977
78232
88425
90200
•This table reflects the trend in high exposures since individuals with dose equivalents of less than 1 rem have
been excluded. The total cumulative dose equivalent has been estimated by using the midpoint of each
dose equivalent range shown in Table 1.
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79
studies which are to continue for some years.
More people exposed to plutonium at six DOE
facilities were identified, along with others
who may serve as controls. To help confirm
estimates of body burden, urine samples were
collected and analyzed for plutonium content.
Records were abstracted for use in mortality
and morbidity studies, and DOE examined the
feasibility of studying genetic effects of plu-
tonium exposure. The Transuranium Registry
continued as a means of following workers
exposed to transuranium elements, with in-
creased voluntary participation by DOE con-
tractors and NRC licensees. Improved methods
were developed for handling and preparation
of autopsy tissues.
The Center for Human Radiobiology at
Argonne National Laboratory continued to
record and analyze biomedical data on
humans who have acquired internally de-
posited radionuclides. Specifically, a report
was completed on mortality among early
radium watch-dial workers, including consid-
eration of the amount of radium ingested;
preliminary analyses of the fertility of female
workers were finished. In addition, a study of
morbidity and mortality among 4.500 former
thorium workers continues. Mortality among
male workers was compared to male U.S.
death rates, and medical examinations and
thorium burden estimates were obtained on
about 50 long term male workers. Health ques-
tionnaires are also being collected.
5. Mining Enforcement and
Safety Administration (MESA)
MESA generally increased its radiation and
other types of personal exposure monitoring
efforts during 1977, in terms of number of
samples, inspections, and mines inspected.
Inspectors collected 1,857 radon daughter
samples during 219 inspections at 153 uranium
mines (comparable 1976 figures were 1,180
samples, 191 inspections and 142 mines), and
915 radiation samples during 188 inspections at
163 nonuranium mines (comparable 1976
figures were 1,071 samples, 187 inspections
and 154 mines). Table 7.5 summarizes Federal
radiation sampling results in 1977. Average
concentrations of radon daughters have
steadily decreased in both uranium and
nonuranium mines. The uranium mine average
decreased from 0.71 WL (Working Levels) in
1975 to 0.58 WL in 1976 to 0.51 WL in 1977; the
nonuranium mine average decreased from
0.31 WL in 1975 to 0.22 WL in 1976 to0.12 WL in
1977.
Table 7.5 also provides a summary of radia-
tion exposure data compiled from uranium
mining company records. These records show
that, like MESA sampling results, the average
uranium miner exposure has steadily de-
creased—from 1.07 WLM (Working Level
Months) in 1975 to 0.99 WLM in 1976 to 0.91
WLM in 1977. However, there continued to be
an apparent discrepancy between Federal
inspection results and company records. Pro-
jections from Federal samples indicated an
average exposure of 5.68 WLM in 1975, 4.64
WLM in 1976, and 4.08 WLM in 1977.
Because of these apparent discrepancies, a
special radiation exposure and recordkeeping
audit was begun in 1975, continued in 1976,
and completed in 1977. Twenty underground
uranium mines employing 1,604 miners were
visted by MESA auditing teams. Table 7.5
shows the results of the audit, which con-
firmed that uranium miner exposure was
significantly greater than indicated by opera-
tors' records. In fact, the audit data led to
exactly the same projection as did the 1976
Federal inspection data—an average exposure
of 4.64 WLM based on an average concentra-
tion of 0.58 WL.
In light of the compelling evidence that
operators' procedures for estimating miner
radiation exposure were inadequate, more
stringent sampling and recordkeeping stand-
ards were proposed by all interested parties
during public hearings held in the summer of
1977, and a favorable recommendation by the
Administrative Law Judge was imminent at the
end of the year.
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80
Table 7.5
RADON DAUGHTER CONCENTRATIONS, 1977
Type of mine
Uranium mines
Nonuranium mines
Total
number
of samples
1,857
915
Average
concen-
trations
0.51 WL
0.12 WL
Maximum
concen-
trations
20.90 WL
6.20 WL
Number of samples in designated
range
0^-0.3
WL
1,037
787
0.3-0.6
WL
396
91
0.6-1.0
WL
221
32
1.0-2.0
WL
112
2
>2.0
WL
91
3
1977 URANIUM MINE EXPOSURE
Total
employment
5,315
Average
exposure
.91 WLM
Miners having exposure in indicated
intervals, percent
0.1 WLM
61.8
1-2 WLM
21.7
2-3 WLM
12.4
3-4 WLM
3.8
>4WLM
0.2
RADIATION RECORDKEEPING AUDIT, 1976-77
Total number
of samples
1,882
Average
concentrations
0.58 WL
Maximum
concentrations
24.0 WL
Number and percent of samples in
designated range
0.0-0.3
WL
653
34.7%
0.3-0.6
WL
473
25.1%
0.6-1.0
WL
329
17.5%
1.0-2.0
WL
291
15.5%
>2.0
WL
136
7.2%
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81
6. Occupational Safety
and Health Administration
Simply put, the Department of Labor's
Occupational Safety and Health Administra-
tion (OSHA) hasjurisdiction over workers who
are exposed to radiation but not covered by
other agencies. OSHA inspects workplaces
(where there is even one employee) for com-
pliance with dozens of standards—of which
radiation is only one. Therefore, there are no
definite figures on the number of workplaces
or workers that OSHA is responsible for, in
terms of radiation protection alone.
The breadth of situations involved is
enormous, from electron microscope workers
to pipefitters. Although the Occupational
Safety and Health Act covers Federal contrac-
tors as a matter of form, in practice the agen-
cies contracting with them are responsible for
enforcement. Federal employees, while not
covered under the Act, are to be protected by
a comparable agency plan.
7. National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health
NIOSH has several vital functions related to
protecting workers from workplace hazards,
including ionizing and nonionizing radiation.
These include the conduct of research
programs, the performance of hazard evalua-
tions, field studies, morbidity and mortality
studies, the development of recommended
standards, and the provision of technical
assistance.
The development of criteria documents as a
basis for standards for the occupational expo-
sure to chemical and physical hazards is a
continuing activity of NIOSH. These criteria
documents are prepared for the purpose of
recommending occupational health and safety
standards to the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) and recom-
mending health standards for mines to the
Mine Safety and Health Administration
(MSHA). Both of these agencies within the
Department of Labor are responsible for
setting and enforcing standards to protect
workers. It is the goal of the Institute to iden-
tify the health effects produced by a substance
or process and to recommend methods to
evaluate and control the hazard. Before the
documents are transmitted they undergo
extensive internal and external review by man-
agement and trade associations, organized
labor, academia, State and Federal agencies,
and professional societies.
One of NIOSH's major efforts mandated by
Congress is the study of industrial carcinogens.
NIOSH has completed a three volume report
summarizing the current knowledge of
radiation-induced carcinogenesis. The infor-
mation will assist Federal and State agencies in
estimating the potential carcinogenicity of the
various types of ionizing and nonionizing
radiation and will help to update the National
Academy of Sciences 1972 BEIR Report.
For the past decade, NIOSH and its
predecessor organizations have been gather-
ing, analyzing, and publishing epidemiologic
data on the hazards to workers from radon
daughter products present in the uranium
mining and milling operations. At this time a
cohort of miners exposed to low concentra-
tions of radon daughters is still being followed
to identify if there is an excess lung cancer risk
in this specific group.
NIOSH has provided technical assistance in
addressing problems from radiation-generating
equipment. For example, because of em-
ployee concern for the possibility of excessive
ionizing radiation exposure, the Federal Avia-
tion Administration (FAA) and the Air
Transport Association (ATA) requested NIOSH
to evaluate the potential radiation hazards to
airport personnel working with baggage X-ray
inspection units. NIOSH concluded that the
doses received by airport personnel were well
below the OSHA exposure standard and that
the radiation hazard was minimal.
NIOSH is initiating an epidemiologic study
of workers on nuclear propulsion ships and
other workers at the Portsmouth Naval Ship-
yard. The study will attempt to evaluate the
workers' exposure to low-level radiation and
to other possible health hazards to determine
-------
82
whether there is increased incidence of cancer
among the workers, and if this is associated
with radiation or other exposures. If appropri-
ate, the study may be expanded to other ship-
yards involved with nuclear propulsion ships.
Work proceeded on a NIOSH funded Johns
Hopkins University study of current trends in
survivorship of radiologists, designed to deter-
mine whether they are still subject to a greater
risk of cancer than other doctors, despite the
decreased dose of radiation to which they
have been exposed in recent years. In addition
the research will try to identify dose levels of
radiation and other toxic agents to which
various medical specialty groups are exposed,
and to relate these data to cause-specific
mortality.
In the nonionizing area, NIOSH updated an
extensive bibliography of world literature of
the bioeffects of radiofrequency and micro-
wave radiation. A retrospective epidemiologic
study has been started to determine whether
TACAN radar system repairmen exhibit an
increased incidence of cancer of the pancreas
and other carcinomas.
Under an interagency agreement with the
National Bureau of Standards, RF detection
equipment was developed to measure the
electric and magnetic components in the
near-field (10-300 MHz), which encompass
NIOSH-studied worker exposure situations.
NBS also developed a unique RF exposure and
calibration facility, which has been used to
evaluate commercial monitoring instrumenta-
tion which manufacturers claim to be usable
from 10 to 300 MHz.
In a NIOSH field study, 75 percent of the
sources used for RF sealing and heating were
found to exceed the present American Na-
tional Standards Institute (ANSI) occupational
exposure standard for RF radiation. A majority
of the workers around this equipment were
women of child-bearing age. Because recent
literature indicates that exposure of pregnant
animals to RF radiation may harm the fetus,
animal studies were begun to determine
threshold levels for teratogenic effects from
RF exposure.
To deal with the possible ultraviolet (UV)
hazard, portable monitors were developed
and underwent initial testing and evaluation.
NBS cooperated with NIOSH in developing a
UV transfer standard and in establishing an
appropriate calibration facility. To determine
whether the recommended standard for UV
radiation should be updated, a review was
undertaken of recently published bioeffects
data.
Other data being developed to support an
exposure standard are the result of ongoing
animal studies to assess the eye damage result-
ing from near-infrared radiation. NIOSH staff
assisted the World Health Organization in
writing an infrared radiation occupational
guideline.
Additional NIOSH projects involve an
integrated approach to evaluating optical
radiation hazards, including ultraviolet, visi-
ble, and infrared spectral regions. For ex-
ample, an examination of the hazards of the
welding process was completed in conjunc-
tion with the American Welding Society, and
surveys of radiation emissions from equip-
ment in newspaper composition rooms were
conducted at the request of the Newspaper
Guild. Assistance in evaluating optical hazards
is provided by a calibration and testing facility
with several standard sources and detectors
for the calibration of laboratory and field
instruments. A quality assurance program is
also being conducted to perform long term
studies on the stability, accuracy, and repro-
ducibility of the instruments. It should also be
noted that NIOSH is evaluating industrial
hygiene monitoring instruments and personal
protective equipment, including welder's
filter plates, that will protect workers from
optical radiation exposure.
As part of its responsibilities for personnel
development, NIOSH presents short-term
training courses in occupational safety and
health; two of the specialty courses address
the problems associated with ionizing and
nonionizing radiations.
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83
VIII. COMPREHENSIVE EXECUTIVE ACTIVITIES
This Chapter covers activities which cross
the boundaries established in the others, such
as regulations on ocean dumping of many
kinds of radioactive waste, and research on
low level radiation effects.
Guidance
Transuranium Contamination
Under its authority to provide guidance to
Federal agencies, EPA proposed limits on the
dose that individuals may receive from trans-
uranium elements present in the environment
as a result of existing or possible future
unplanned contamination. The proposed
guidance was published in the November 30,
1977, Federal Register (42 F.R. 60956). A 90 day
public comment period was provided, to end
February 28,1978. The guidance is based on an
integrated approach, using models incorpo-
rating current information on environmental
transport mechanisms, human uptake and
dosimetry, and risk conversion factors.
When the guidance is finalized, it will be
applicable to all Federal facilities and be advi-
sory to the States.
The primary criteria used in deriving the
proposed guidance were that any added risk
to an individual from exposure to the trans-
uranium elements be very small, and that any
actions required by implementation of the
guidance be practical in terms of overall eco-
nomic requirements. The risk at the proposed
guidance level is estimated to be less than one
chance in a million per year, and less than ten
chances per hundred thousand in a lifetime,
that an individual would develop a cancer
from continuous exposure at the stated dose
rates. In practice, very few, if any, individuals
are expected to be subjected to the recom-
mended guidance limits, and the total number
of individuals exposed above levels of world-
wide fallout will be small.
Specifically, the proposed guidance states
that:
1. The annual alpha radiation dose rate to
members of the critical segment of the
exposed population as the result of exposure
to transuranium elements in the general envi-
ronment should not exceed either:
a. 1 millirad per year to the pulmonary lung,
or
b. 3 millirad per year to the bone.
2. For newly contaminated areas, control
measures should be taken to minimize both
residual levels and radiation exposures of the
general public. The control measures are
expected to result in levels well below those
specified in paragraph one. Compliance with
the guidance recommendations should be
achieved within a reasonable period of time.
3. The recommendations are to be used
only for guidance on possible remedial actions
for the protection of the public health in
instances of presently existing contamination
or of possible future unplanned releases of
transuranium elements. They are not to be
used by Federal agencies as limits for planned
releases of transuranium elements into the
general environment.
EPA/ORP's Standards for the
Uranium Fuel Cycle
As detailed in last year's report, EPA/ORP
published new final radiation protection
standards for planned releases from the ura-
nium fuel cycle on January 13,1977 (42 F.R.
2858). NRC began developing implementa-
tion plans, since it is responsible for carrying
out the standards. As part of its normal licens-
ing process, NRC issues detailed technical
specifications and regulations for radioactive
effluents from each of the specific facilities
-------
84
involved in the fuel cycle. In this connection,
EPA/ORP has concluded that the guidance
issued in 1976 by NRC for control of effluents
from individual light-water-cooled reactors
will provide appropriate implementation of
the standards at most existing reactor sites.
Passage of the Clean Air Act Amendments
raised questions about how the new require-
ments of that Act will be integrated into the
EPA standard, and NRC and EPA/ORP are
jointly working to resolve the issue.
Ocean Dumping
_ EPA/ORP continued development in 1977
under PL 92-532, the Marine Protection,
Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972, of
packaging requirements, site selection criteria,
and monitoring requirements for the ocean
disposal of low-level radioactive wastes.
From August 28 through September 2,1977,
EPA/ORP conducted the first phase of a com-
prehensive Farallon Islands radioactive waste
disposal site survey at 900m and 1700m depths.
The ship used for this operations phase was the
Velero IV. Scientists on board were specialists
in the fields of marine zoology, radiochemistry
and geology.
The major objectives were met:
(1) to obtain undisturbed sediment cores at
selected positions within and outside the site
area; to analyze them for the presence of
radionuclides, with emphasis on cesium and
plutonium, and for the biological populations
within the sediments, as well as the chemical-
geological properties which determine the
distribution of released radioactive materials
on the ocean bottom;
(2) to conduct trawls at bottom and mid-
water depths, to characterize thoroughly the
site area's biological populations and to radio-
analyze selected samples;
(3) to obtain large-volume water samples,
to be analyzed for salinity, temperature, and
the presence of radionuclides;
(4) to map bottom depths throughout the
site area;
(5) to document these oceanographic op-
erations photographically.
Between October 10 and October 20,1977,
the second phase of the comprehensive sur-
vey was implemented. The objectives of drum
recovery and current meter emplacement
were met, using the Velero IV, the submersible
PISCES VI and mother ship Pandora.
Following the 1976 EPA recovery of a low-
level radioactive waste container in the
Atlantic, the same program task was per-
formed at the 900m Farallon Islands radio-
active waste disposal site. The container was
recovered in order to determine long-term
corrosion processes in the deep ocean. EPA's
Ocean Dumping Regulations, issued January
11, 1977, require that low-level radioactive
wastes be contained and isolated from the
marine environment to prevent their direct
dispersion or dilution in ocean waters. Also,
the containerized wastes must radiodecay to
innocuous materials within the life expectancy
of the container and/or its inert matrix. Yet to
be studied is the effect of specifically
identified environmental conditions on the
reduction or acceleration of the corrosion
process.
In addition to drum recovery, the following
tasks were successfully performed:
(1) emplace current measurement systems
in and around the dumpsite to look at the cur-
rent vectors and subsequently the radio-
nuclide transport potential;
(2) obtain precisely positioned sediment
cores around waste containers, to be analyzed
for radionuclides present;
-------
85
(3) obtain selected biological samples, and
study bottom topographic features and physi-
cal evidence of sediment transport;
(4) to document the operations photo-
graphically.
The drum, and all sediments, biological and
Water samples collected during the two phases
of EPA's 1977 radioactive waste disposal site
survey are being analyzed in contractor
laboratories. At-sea scientific and technical
support for the program came from govern-
ment, university, and private sectors.
Effluents with International
Implications
EPA/ORP chaired an the Expert Group of
the Committee on Radiation Protection of the
Nuclear Energy Agency, which is part of the
international Organization for Economic Co-
operation and Development. The Group's
purpose is to develop recommendations on
control of radioactive effluents with inter-
national implications. In 1977, the Group
selected four nuclides for study: tritium,
carbon-14, krypton-85, and iodine-129; their
recommendations will be based on an exami-
nation of all aspects of the management of the
radionuclides, from production through waste
disposal. The results are expected to be
especially important because the membership
of the Nuclear Energy Agency includes all
nations which are significant national users of
nuclear power. Complete environmental dose
commitments and control costs are among the
factors being calculated, and they should be
completed in 1978.
Radioactivity in the Great Lakes
As provided in the 1972 U.S.-Canadian
Agreement on the Great Lakes, EPA forwarded
to the State Department the "Refined Radio-
activity Objective for the Great Lakes." It has
undergone interagency review, and the State
Department has accepted it as a basis for
further negotiations with Canada.
The Refined Objective represents the joint
recommendations of U.S. and Canadian advi-
sory groups on preserving the water quality of
the Great Lakes. The recommended level of
radioactivity is that which results in a whole-
body dose equivalent not exceeding one
millirem. In addition, the release of the radio-
active materials should be as low as reasonably
achievable, and controlled by specified
actions at defined levels.
EPA will assist in implementation of the Ob-
jective by analyzing both water and fish
samples, with the major effort directed toward
the ambient wastes of the Lakes and other
areas not covered by the jurisdiction.
Interagency Cooperation
On August 2, 1977, the heads of the EPA,
Consumer Product Safety Commission, Occu-
pational Safety and Health Administration,
and Food and Drug Administration issued a
joint memorandum on interagency coopera-
tion. They established working groups to look
at the common requirements and functions
involved in regulating hazards to public health
and the environment. EPA/ORP has partici-
pated in the working group on radiation pro-
tection of the Interagency Liaison Regulations
Group. It was agreed that the major emphasis
would be in areas where two or more of the
four agencies are involved and have major
roles: medical exposure, nonionizing radia-
tion, occupational exposure, and consumer
products.
Review of Proposed
Transportation Regulations
EPA/ORP commented on two sets of regula-
tions proposed by the Department of Trans-
portation (DOT) regarding transportation of
radioactive materials. The first would have
changed the method of radionuclide classifi-
cation from treating each like the most re-
stricted radionuclide in its class, to treating it
on an individual basis. This change would
make U.S. regulations consistent with Inter-
national Atomic Energy Agency regulations,
-------
86
and pertains only to imported packages of
radioactive materials. In its review of this DOT
proposal, EPA/ORP objected that no compre-
hensive assessment had been made of the
appropriate minimization of long-term impact
on populations or individuals. Further, EPA
recommended that in the future, new propo-
sals for regulations should be accompanied by
analyses of environmental dose commitments
for normal and accident situations, and full
consideration of the cost-effectiveness of
available control alternatives for dose
reduction.
In the second action, DOT proposed
changes in requirements for carrying radio-
active materials aboard commercial aircraft.
EPA/ORP pointed out that they were incon-
sistent with current Federal radiation protec-
tion guidance in that the proposed levels were
not, in EPA's view, as low as reasonably achiev-
able; in fact, the exposure limit was four times
EPA's recommendation of 0.5 mrem/hr at the
passenger seat level. Another problem with
the proposed regulations was that they
depended on the placement of packages in
the hold to maintain the dose limit, rather than
on more effective shielding of packages.
Quality Assurance
Because EPA/ORP's dose assessment pro-
gram relies heavily on surveillance data
reported by other agencies and groups, the
validity of the data must be confirmed. EPA/
ORP therefore operates a Radiation Quality
Assurance Program through its Environmental
Monitoring and Support Laboratory in Las
Vegas. The two major activities of the program
are the distribution of calibrated radionuclide
solutions, and laboratory intercomparisonsfor
the analysis of radionuclides in environmental
media. This program is available to all Federal,
State, local, and private laboratories. More
laboratories of NRC licensees or their contrac-
tors are now analyzing intercomparison
samples from EPA's Quality Assurance pro-
gram, as a result of the 1976 EPA-NRC Inter-
agency Agreement for participation of such
laboratories in the Program.
A significant addition, radium-228, has been
made to the list of calibrated radionuclide
solutions. Its availability is important in the
analysis for naturally-occurring radioactive
nuclides in various media, in particular for
water analyses under the Safe Drinking Water
Act. The calibrated radium-228 solution was
prepared for EPA by the National Bureau of
Standards.
Extensive laboratory intercomparison stud-
ies involving various environmental media
containing a number of radionuclides were
conducted to help environmental radiation
laboratories improve their measurements.
Radionuclide concentrations in these media
were generally at or somewhat above current
ambient radionuclide concentrations. The
kinds of intercomparison analyses, their fre-
quency, and the number of laboratories par-
ticipating are presented in Table 8.1. Analysis
of strontium-89/90 in water has also been
added to the intercomparison list this year.
On-site evaluation of radioanalytical labora-
tories for certification under the Safe Drinking
Water Act has begun. Most evaluations have
been made by personnel of the Quality Assur-
ance Branch, Las Vegas, at the request of
Regional Administrators. The evaluations are
primarily for drinking water analyses, but
improvements in laboratory performance for
all media can be expected.
Several reports were issued in 1977 describ-
ing activities of the Quality Assurance Pro-
gram, including:
— The Status and Quality of Radiation
Measurements for Air. EPA Environmental
Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Office of
Research and. Development: EPA-600/4-77-
043 (October 1977).
— Status and Quality of Radiation Meas-
urement: Food and Human Urine, EPA
Environmental Monitoring and Support Lab-
oratory, Office of Research and Development:
EPA-600/4-77-047 (October 1977).
-------
Table 8.1
ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVITY INTERCOMPARISON PROGRAM - 1977
Type of cross-check Number per year Laboratories participating
Gamma* in water 6 86
Tritium in water 6 95
Nuclides** in milk 6 68
Gross alpha and gross
beta in water 6 85
Radium-226 in water 4 47
Nuclides*** on air filters 4 72
Nuclides in diet 4 28
Tritium in urine 4 19
Krypton-85 in air 3 19
*60Co> 106RUj 134CSj 51Cr> 65Zn
**89Sr, 9<>Sr, 131I§ 140Ba> 137CSj and 40Kj
***Gross alpha, gross beta, ^Sr,
-------
87
— Quality Control for Environmental
Measurement Using Gamma-Ray Spectrom-
etry: Interagency Energy Environment Re-
search and Development Program Report,
EPA Environmental Monitoring and Support
Laboratory, Office of Research and Develop-
ment: EPA-600/7-77-144 (December 1977).
— Environmental Radioactivity Laboratory
Intercomparison Studies Program FY 7977, EPA
Environmental Monitoring and Support 'lab-
oratory, Office of Research and Development-
EPA-600/4-77-001 (January 1977).
— Handbook for Analytical Quality Con-
trol in Radioanalytical Laboratories: Inter-
agency Energy Environment Research and
Development Program Report, EPA Office of
Research and Development: EPA-600/7-77-
088 (August 1977).
Studies
EPA/ORP's Research Committee
The EPA/ORP Research Committee empha-
sizes needs related to emerging future issues
rather than continuing or completing well
established, ongoing projects. Following the
process of identifying needs and deciding
which are most important, the Committee acts
as an advocate for pursuing them in agencies
with appropriate research responsibilities.
Initially, EPA/ORP identifies particular radi-
ation problems in four major areas: nuclear
energy, naturally-occurring radionuclides,
medical and industrial uses of radiation, and
nonionizing radiation. Information needs are
then determined with respect to health
effects, ecological process and effects, meas-
urement technique development, and opera-
tional study.
A few general areas identified in 1977 as
needing further study are transuranic toxicol-
ogy and pathways; nonionizing, radiation.
toxocology; emission, measurement and toxi-
city of radon and its daughters; age sensitivity
to ionizing radiation; control of uranium mill
tailings piles; and various issues relating to
waste and uranium mining by new methods.
Dose Assessment Program
Since 1975, EPA/ORP has been conducting a
nationwide dose assessment program to
analyze trends, identify problems and provide
support for establishing (and evaluating the
implementation of) environmental radiation
standards and guides. Major objectives of the
program are to:
— uetermine the status of U.S. environ-
mental radiation data,
— analyze the available data in terms of
individual and population doses,
— develop guidance for improving the
collection, interpretation and reporting of the
data, and
— provide information to guide EPA/ORP.
The general approach of the program is to
maximize the use of extensive effluent and
environmental monitoring data reported by
other State and Federal agencies, including
DOE and NRC, and individual nuclear facili-
ties. These data will be complemented as
needed by data acquired from EPA/ORP's
Environmental Radiation Ambient Monitoring
System (ERAMS), radiation source-related
field studies, and dose computational model-
ing. Only EPA/ORP gathers such a compre-
hensive data base for radiation dose
assessment.
Radiological Quality of the
Environment
As part of EPA's dose assessment program,
the Office of Radiation Programs initiated an
annual evaluation of the radiological quality of
the environment. The first report, in 1976,
summarized individual and population dose
data for both ionizing and nonionizing radia-
tion, with primary emphasis on identifying
-------
Table 8.2
Summary of dose data from all sources, United States
External
Source
Ambient ionizing radiation
Cosmic radiation
Ionizing component
Neutron component
Worldwide radioactivity
Tritium
Carbon-14
Krypton-85
Terrestrial radiation
Potassium-40
Tritium
Carbon-14
Rubidium-87
Uranium-238 series
Thorium-232 series
Individual
dose
(mrem/y)
_
41-45
28-35
0.33-6.8
-
_
a.035*
30-95
17
-
-
-
13
25
Population
dose
( person- rem/y)
/•
9.7x10°
9.2x10°
4.9X105
-
*.
-
-
_
-
_
_
_
_
Internal
Individual
dose
(mrem/y)
_
_
—
-
0.04
1
18-25
16 0
4x1 O-3
1
0.6
2-6*
7*
Population
dose
(person-rem/y)
V
^,
_
-
9.2xl03
_
-
_
_
-
_
_
_
Technologically enhanced natural radiation
Ore mining and milling
Inactive uranium mill tailings piles
Phosphate mining & processing (occupational)
Fertilizer
Thorium mining and milling
Radon in potable water supplies
Radon in natural gas
Radon in liquefied petroleum gas
Radon in "health" mines
Radon daughter exposure in natural caves
Radon and geothermal energy production
Radioactivity in construction material
Airplane travel
Jet (cosmic), per trip over Atlantic
SST (cosmic), per trip over Atlantic
Coal-fired electric generating station
Oil-fired electric generating station
10-300*
1.7*
100,000*
b140-14000
b6,000*
2.73x1O6
C2.5-70000
b4,000(dl,250)*
b!5-54 2.73xl06
1 -4 30000
2.6(500-crew)*
2.0(l,000-crew)*
5-70*
0.04*
0.12-2xl06*
15*
-------
Summary of dose data from all sources, United States
External
Source
Fallout
Uranium fuel cycle
Mining and milling
Fuel enrichment
Fuel fabrication
Power reactors BWR
PWR
Research reactors
Transportation - Nuclear power industry
Radioisotopes
Reprocessing and spent fuel storage
Radioactive waste disposal
Federal Facilities
ERDA
Department of Defense.
Accelerators
Radiopharmaceuticals
Medical radiation
X radiation
Cardiac pacemakers
Occupational and industrial radiation
BWR
PWR
Individual
dose
(mrem/y)
O /•>
*V t
9<0~1
76 max
k4 max
_
P6 "
k<0. 1-258
<0.01
k0.04-4
-
t!03
-
"1230
U1080
Population
dose
(person-rem/y)
-
2014
m!564
m21
_
n 100-9600
P23 °
q480
0.4-65
r<0.1
14.8xl06
-
-
Internal
Individual
dose
(mrem/y)
-
^4.5xlO'2
^0.3
J2xlO'4
-
P! 4-257
-
-
-
<5000
-
Population
dose
(person-rem/y)
-
.2.5
1.0.64
J0.66
_
-
-
S3.3xl06
-
-
-
All occupations
V0.80
28,400
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Table 8.2 cont. Summary of dose data from all sources, United States
External
Source
Individual
dose
(mrem/y)
Population
dose
(person-rem/y)
Internal
IndividualPopulation
dose dose
(mrem/y) (person-rem/y)
Consumer products
Timepieces
Smoke detectors
Artificial teeth
TV
*<0.5*
Z0.007*
.025-0.043
K6100
0.001*
aa!40-1390*
Nonionizing electromagnetic radiation
Broadcast towers and airport radars
All sources
Individual exposure
10
0.1-1
•Maximum individual dose to skin surface
cTrachea-bronchial dose
dl_ung-rem/y
eStomach dose
f 50-year dose commitment divided by 50
Average individual lung dose within 30 km
^Maximum potential exposure per facility
•Maximum potential exposure
Cumulative exposure per facility within
. 80 km radius
^Estimated bone dose within 80 km
Fence line boundary dose
within a radius of 80 km
"Estimated for the year 1973
NFS Reprocessing Plant, West Valley, N.Y.
M1965 data
Based upon data from 5 institutions
^Estimated 1980 dose
Estimated mean active bone marrow dose to adults-
mrad/y
Average occupational exposure/y
Average exposure for all occupations & 3.7
• radiation workers/1000 persons in United States
From digital watches
^From timepieces containing tritium or radium-
activated dials
Estimated
bbDose to the superficial layer of tissue
5 cm from TV set; units of mR/h
- No dose data available
indicates new or revised information
-------
source categories of ionizing radiation (EPA-
520/1-76-010). Sources in that category
include ambient environment, technologically
enhanced natural radiation, fallout, uranium
fuel cycle, Federal facilities, medical, occupa-
tional, and others. The nonionizing radiation
category is mainly concerned with environ-
mental sources.
Literature searches have been conducted
for each of those sources, with data organized
to provide: general information about each
source category and availability of data, data
base description, status of data base analyses,
summary of dose data for each source, com-
parison of reported dose data with estimates
from previous publications, and discussion
and conclusions.
Table 8.2 summarizes the individual and
population doses in the United States from
each category of radiation source discussed in
the report. The information is divided accord-
ing to the primary mode of exposure:
external—which results in a radiation dose to
the whole body, or internal—when radioac-
tive materials are inhaled, ingested, or occa-
sionally absorbed through the skin, often
resulting in a radiation dose to particular
organs of the body.
Population doses from the different source
categories can generally be added together to
gain a perspective on overall impact. How-
ever, doses to individuals vary greatly, so it can
be misleading to total individual doses. For this
reason, the data show totals only for popula-
tion doses, not individual doses, in the various
source categories.
Facility Data Analysis Project
One object of EPA/ORP's dose assessment
program is improving the quality of surveil-
lance data. For this purpose, a facility data
analysis project was developed to evaluate the
rationale for surveillance programs and to
examine their components. Early phases of the
project have dealt with criteria for summariz-
ing and using ambient data, development of
data analysis techniques, dose conversion
criteria, and the development of a manual on
sampling methodology.
Information from these initial phases will be
used to evaluate surveillance programs at
several commercial and Federal nuclear facili-
ties. These reviews will aid in developing
criteria for the evaluation of surveillance
programs and later will lead to an updating of
EPA/ORP's Environmental Radiation Surveil-
lance Guide (ORD/SID 72-2).
Environmental Radiation Ambient
Monitoring System (ERAMS)
ERAMS is an EPA/ORP program for continu-
ing surveillance of radioactivity levelsthrough-
out the U.S. and its territories. Over 7,000
individual analyses are performed annually on
samples of air, airborne particulates, deposi-
tion, surface and drinking water, and milk.
In 1978, ERAMS will be expanded to include
measurements atthe21 continuously monitor-
ing air sampling sites for ambient gamma
radiation by means of thermoluminescent
detectors.
After samples are collected by State and
local health agencies, they are analyzed at
EPA/ORP's Eastern Environmental Radiation
Facility (EERF) at Montgomery, Alabama. The
present ERAMS emphasis is towards identify-
ing trends in the accumulation of long-lived
radionuclides in the environment. Therefore,
specific analyses are made for uranium-234,
uranium-238, plutonium-239, carbon-14, tri-
tium, strontium-90, and krypton-85. Measure-
ments are also made for gross alpha and beta
activity, and the gamma emitters iodine-131,
cesium-137, barium-140, and potassium-40.
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A quarterly summary of raw ERAMS data,
which includes a limited amount of surveil-
lance data from States, is reported in Environ-
mental Radiation Data (available from EPA,
Eastern Environmental Radiation Facility, P.O.
Box 3009, Montgomery, AL 36109). These quar-
terlies consist mainly of data tabulations
without interpretation or discussion, and are
reviewed annually in EPA/ORP's report on the
Radiological Quality of the Environment. An
in-depth analysis of ERAMS is being carried
out to determine annual averages, to identify
trends, to characterize the statistical distribu-
tions of data sets, to estimate individual and
population doses, and to evaluate error terms
for each of these determinations.
Radioactive Air Emissions Studies
EPA/ORP began gathering information on
characterizing the types, levels and effects of
radioactive air emissions to determine
whether they should be controlled. The stud-
ies are the outcome of EPA's being given major
new responsibilities under the Clean Air Act as
amended in August 1977. While the original
Act did not include radioactive materials, the
recent amendments expanded the Agency's
mandate to cover all radioactive emissions
including source, special nuclear, and by-
product material (defined in the Atomic
Energy Act). Initially, EPA/ORP is responsible
for studying the effects on public health of
radioactive air pollutants which are or will be
present in the ambient air. By August 1979, the
Administrator must decide which emissions
should be controlled, and follow a course of
possible actions prescribed by the Amend-
ments. The initial studies, begun in 1977,
include previously unregulated natural
sources; self regulated sources, such as
Department of Energy and Department of
Defense sources; and sources licensed by the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
Polish/American Glacier
Pollution Study
In July EPA/ORP supported a Polish/
American glacier pollution study on Mt.
McKinley, conducted by a team of five Polish
expert alpinists and scientists, and one
EPA/ORP and one U.S. Geological Survey
scientist. The purpose of the Alaskan expedi-
tion was to collect glacier ice samples, which
represent historical records of atmospheric
depositions of naturally-occurring radionu-
cludes and heavy metals. It was the last in a
series of seven expeditions on four continents
to assess the long distance effects of industrial
operations.
The ice samples will be analyzed to deter-
mine the significance of build-up in the
environment of long-lived radionuclides (ura-
nium, thorium, and daughters) and stable
elements (cadmium, mercury, vanadium, and
lead). Contemporary and ancient people are
being compared in terms of certain nuclides
and stable elements present in samples of
human bones and other tissues. The samples
have been taken from Poland, the USSR, and
Egypt.
Health Effects of Transuranics
To develop an accurate estimate of potential
health effects due to plutonium intheenviron-
ment, the Agency developed new assessments
of the dose due to the inhalation and ingestion
of transuranics. These dosimetric models dif-
fered from those previously used to establish
Federal guidance in three ways. First, they
provided information on the dose as a func-
tion of time from chronic exposure, so that the
variation of the annual dose throughout a life-
time could be considered. They also took
account of the increased dose due to daughter
radionuclides in transuranic decay schemes,
and were based on the new ICRP task group
lung model rather than the 1959 ICRP dose
models currently used in most Federal
regulations.
Health effects due to plutonium and ofher
transuranics were based on new studies of
human groups exposed to alpha emitters. One
new source of data was German patients
treated with radium-224, a bone seeker similar
to plutonium. Data from these patients pro-
vided a better estimate of the bone cancer
risks due to transuranics than were previously
available. The risk of liver cancer was
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Supplies were flown i-n for the four week Polish-American
glacier polution study on Kahiltna Glacier, Mt. McKinley,
Alaska.
Flags represent scientists and alpinists from Poland and the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency participating in a glacier
pollution study on Mt. McKinley, Alaska.
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90
estimated from clinical experience following
the use of thorotrast in diagnostic radiography.
(See Nelson, N.S., Ellett, W.H., Cook, J.R., and
F.A. Hodge, "Estimated Risk of Liver Cancer
Due to Alpha Emitters and Beta-Alpha Emit-
ting Parent-Daughter Chains; an Application
of Thorotrast Data," to be published, Environ-
mental Research (1978).) Risk coefficients esti-
mated from these data and the dosimetry
information described above were used in a
life table analysis that provides estimates of the
hypothetical increased cancer risk to a cohort
of 100,000 persons residing in a contaminated
area at the proposed dose limits. The maxi-
mum lifetime risk of early death due to inhala-
tion of transuranics at these limits is eight per
100,000 exposed, while that due to ingestion is
five per 100,000 persons.
Lung Cancer and Radon Exposure
EPA/ORP reviewed new information rele-
vant to estimates of the potential increase in
lung cancer due to radioactive radon gas in
residential structures. This review took into
account recent health effects data from a num-
ber of different countries on underground
uranium miners exposed to relatively low
levels of radon daughters. Observed results
are consistent with a linear association be-
tween radon exposure and lung cancer (i.e.,
the number of cancers is in direct proportion
to the dose).
Using a linear relationship, EPA estimates
that lung cancer mortality might be increased
from two to five percent for each cumulative
working month of exposures to radon
daughter products. This method of estima-
tion suggests that about four to eight percent
of the current incidence of lung cancer in the
general population could be associated with
inhalation of the radon daughters which are
part of natural background radiation. These
estimates are highly uncertain, and additional
ones are expected as part of the current
National Academy of Sciences BEIR review.
(See Ellett, William H., "Exposure to Radon
Daughters and the Incidence of Lung Cancer,"
presented at the American Nuclear Society
Meeting, San Francisco, CA (December 1,
1977).)
Long Term Effects of Coal and
Nuclear Power Generation
At the Seminar on Nuclear Power in Oslo,
Norway, EPA/ORP presented the results of a
study comparing radiological health risks asso-
ciated with coal and nuclear generated
electrical power. (See Mills, W.A. and W.H.
Ellett, "Long Term Effects of Low Level Radio-
active Materials in the Environment" (Decem-
ber 5-7,1977).) Major conclusions of the study
were:
1. Both the combustion of coal and the
fission of uranium for electric power genera-
tion result in the release of long half-life radio-
active materials into the environment. In
either case these effluents can be retained if
sufficient effort is made to do so.
2. Assessed in terms of risk of cancer deaths
for individuals living in the vicinity of such
power plants, the radiological impacts are very
nearly the same and of the order of one in a
million over a lifetime.
3. A distinct difference between the dose
commitments of coal and nuclear is that much
of nuclear's impact is a result of worldwide
distribution, while coal's impact is more local.
The major portion of the worldwide commit-
ment from nuclear power generation arises
from the releases of radon and carbon-14.
4. Only the planned release of radioactive
materials was considered in this comparison;
before complete comparisons can be made,
consideration must also be given to nonradio-
active pollutants from fossil fuels and long
term waste retention for the nuclear fuel cycle.
Large scale accidents should also be included.
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5. For coal combustion, the risks due to
nonradioactive pollutants may outweigh those
due to the radioactive pollutants, but informa-
tion on this is still incomplete.
Radon Health Effects Modeling
. EPA/ORP participated in a Radon Workshop
held at the ERDA Health and Safety Laboratory
in February 1977, and presented both the
results on radon and lung cancer discussed
above and a paper on health effects modeling.
The EPA/ORP presentation outlined some of
the parameters which relate exposure to radio-
isotope, the concentration of aerosol particles
of respirable size, the relative humidity or
degree of water saturation, the relative rate of
movement of the atmosphere, and the
temporal pattern of changes. It also showed
how collection of these data would improve
health effects modeling for exposure to radon
and radon daughters. (See Nelson, Neal S.,
"Atmospheric Characteristics Essential for
Health Effects Modeling," presented at the
Radon Workshop, ERDA Health and Safety
Laboratory, Ne%" Y^u. ^ew York, (February
1977).)
Computer Code for Risk Analysis
EPA/ORP developed a computer code for
use in risk analysis, called Cohort Analysis of
Increased Risks of Death (CAIRO). It can be
used to calculate estimates of the health
effects in a hypothetical population due to
exposure to incremental risks such as exposure
to radiation, and takes into account the age
distribution of both the normal death rate and
that of the added risk. In the case of radiation,
the most serious somatic risk is death from a
radiation induced cancer. Since these cancers
do not generally develop until many years
after exposure, other causes of death may
intervene and take the lives of those otherwise
destined to die from cancer. These two consid-
erations, the temporal distribution of induced
cancers and competing risks of death, are
accounted for in the code. CAIRO generates a
life table modified on the basis of the incre-
mental probabilities of death associated with
an increased risk; a comparison with an appro-
priate reference table yields measurements of
the incremental risk's impact on the subject
population.
Ocean Disposal Studies
DOE began to investigate the possibilities of
disposing of high level waste by emplacing it
under the ocean floor in a geologically stable,
biologically inactive region. Among other
aspects, detailed assessments were conducted
of deep ocean sediments, and deep ocean and
bottom dwelling biological communities were
characterized to determine biological effects
and possible concentration mechanisms and
transport pathways.
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APPENDIX A
SUMMARY OF LAWS ENACTED BY STATES DURING 1976
The following is a summary of laws relating to the nuclear regulatory program which were enacted by
the States during the 1976 legislative session, compiled by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
ENERGY AGENCY
ARKANSAS H-286. Creates a State Energy Conservation and Policy Office to carry out energy-related
activities, including developing supply and demand projections, monitoring
existing policies, recommending legislation, and carrying out energy-related
Federal programs. (Signed by Governor 2/7/77)
MINNESOTA H-522. Extends the life of the Energy Agency to June 30,1983; and includes "any
nuclear fuel processing or nuclear waste storage or disposal facility" in the
definition of large energy facility. (Signed by Governor 6/2/77)
Nf BRASKA H-232. Creates a State Energy Office which will serve as the central agency for the collec-
tion of energy data within the State; and the discharge of various energy-related
functions, including a continuing assessment of the trends in the development of all
forms of energy. (Signed by Governor 5/16/77)
NEW JERSEY S-3179. Abolishes the Department of Public Utilities and transfers its duties to the Board
of Public Utilities within the Department of Energy (DOE). Gives the State DOE juris-
diction coextensive with that of all State agencies on the siting of an energy facility.
Establishes an Energy Facility Review Board to settle differences among State
agencies with respect to granting permits for the construction or location of an
energy facility. (Signed by Governor 7/11/77)
NEW MEXICO H-12. A comprehensive bill consolidating the State's energy, coal, oil, mining, and
geological functions and agencies into a single, unified Energy and Minerals
Department. The Public Service Commission will be administratively attached to
the Department. The Department's responsibilities will include the administration
of State laws governing extractive resources, such as uranium, and the formulation
and maintenance of a statewide plan for the siting, production, and processing of
fuel and power. (Signed by Governor 4/7/77)
NORTH CAROLINA H-150. Transfers the Energy Division and the Energy Policy Council from the
Department of Military Affairs to the Department of Commerce. (Ratified 2/22/77)
TEXAS S-1172. Creates the Texas Energy Advisory Council to formulate, continually reassess and
modify a State energy policy for recommendation to the legislature and governor.
(Signed by Governor 6/16/77)
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SITING
ARKANSAS H-664. Amends the 1973 Act to require, among other things, that an application for a
certificate of environmental compatibility and public need for the construction of a
major utility facility include an environmental impact statement, an analysis of the
economic or financial impact on the applicant and local community, and the
estimated costs to the consumer. (Signed by Governor 3/30/77)
IDAHO HCR-31. A House Concurrent Resolution requesting the Public Utilities Commission to
report by June 1,1977 its findings concerning minimum environmental criteria for
potential power plant sites, to rank the existing 21 potential sites which it already has
on file. Thereafter, any new sites, as well as changes in standards or guidelines, will
be reported at the beginning of each legislative session. (Adopted 3/18/77)
LOUISIANA SCR-82. A Senate resolution memorializing the U.S. Congress to request NRC to inform
the Governors of States within the affected radius of a proposed nuclear facility
prior to the issuance of a license authorizing its construction. (Adopted 7/11/77)
MAINE H-1388. Prohibits construction of nuclear power plants within the State unless the PUC finds
that the "U.S. Government, through its authorized agency, has identified and
approved a demonstrable technology or means for the disposal of high-level
nuclear waste" and that adequate facilities will be in operation at the time they are
needed. Other governmental entities which grant permits, licenses, approvals or
authorizations for construction of nuclear power plants may process the
applications, subject to the PUC's granting of certification. (Signed by Governor
6/22/77)
MINNESOTA S-896. Amends Minnesota statutes relating to power plant site and transmission line
route selection authority, which is vested in the Environmental Quality Board.
Requires the Board to publish an inventory of acceptable future power plant sites.
Applications for construction of power plants have to contain at least two
alternative sites. (Signed by Governor 6/2/77)
MONTANA H-542. Amends the current Major Facility Siting Act to allow a potential applicant for a
siting certificate to file a notice of intent at least one year prior to the actual filing of
the application. This will entitle the applicant to a 5% reduction in the filing fee.
(Signed by Governor 3/29/77)
WASHINGTON S-2970. Provides that the Chairman of the Energy Facility Siting Council be ap-
pointed by the Governor for a term paralleling the Governor's. Empowers the
Council to develop and apply environmental and ecological guidelines in the con-
struction and operation of energy facilities. Governor Ray vetoed several sections,
including local control over land use for energy facilities and prohibition of State
preemptions in this area. (Signed by Governor 7/15/77)
WYOMING H-424. Requires a certificate of convenience and necessity, issued by the Public Service
Commission, before a public utility may begin construction of a power line, plant or
system. (Signed by Governor 2/28/77)
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WYOMING 5-29. Before a siting permit may be issued by the Industrial Siting Council, the State
engineer must prepare an opinion as to the quantity of water available for the
proposed facility. His opinion is binding upon the Siting Council for the purposes of
issuing an industrial siting permit, and must be reviewed by the PSC prior to its
issuance of a certificate of public convenience and necessity. Designates the
Department of Environmental Quality as the agency to monitor the operations of all
facilities which have been granted State siting permits to ensure compliance with
the conditions of the permit. (Signed by Governor 2/23/77)
STUDIES
ARKANSAS HR-46. Requests a legislative study of the feasibility of creating a Utility Facility Finance
Authority (as proposed in H-827) and its possible impact on the conservation, costs
and supply of energy in the State. (Adopted 3/10/77)
CALIFORNIA A-77. Authorizes the allocation of up to one million dollars for the California Energy
Commission to conduct research on undergrounding and berm containment of
nuclear reactors. (Signed by Governor 5/18/77)
CALIFORNIA A-1852. Amends A-2820, one of the three nuclear laws enacted last year, which
imposed a moratorium on nuclear plant construction until the Energy Commission
found that adequate technology and facilities exist to reprocess spent fuel. This law
requires the Energy Commission by January 16,1978, to transmit to the legislature a
determination as to whether the findings required by A-2820 can be made at that
time. In the event that the findings cannot be made, the Commission is to include a
recommendation as to whether existing applications for facilities should be exempt
from the requirement. (Signed by Governor 9/28/77)
GEORGIA SR-99. Creates a Power Plant Siting Study Committee to develop legislation to streamline
the State's laws and regulations. A report is due to the legislature prior to the con-
vening of its 1978 session. (Adopted 3/4/77)
LOUISIANA SCR-84. A resolution requesting the State Senate and House Committees on Natural
Resources to review the results of a study, conducted by the State Division of Radia-
tion Control, "relative to the facts and circumstances surrounding the construction
and use of nuclear reactors" in Louisiana. A report is due prior to the convening of
the 1978 session. (Adopted 7/11/77)
MASSACHUSETTS S-1803. Extends until January 25,1978, the special legislative committee which
is studying power and its health and safety effects. (Adopted 6/20/77)
NEW MEXICO HJM-7. Directs the Energy Resources Board to compare the State energy-related
licensing and permit fee systems with the cost of State regulation of energy and
make recommendations for changes in the licensing and permit structures and fees
to the legislature by 12/1/77. (Signed by Governor 3/18/77)
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NEW MEXICO H-10. Abolishes the State agencies relating to health and the environment, including
the health and social services department and the environmental improvement
agency; and establishes a Health and Environment Department to exercise the
functions formerly vested in those agencies. (Signed by Governor 4/7/77)
NEW MEXICO H-218. Creates a Federal Lands Action Group to "review the impact of Federal land
ownership and Federal land policies on energy development in New Mexico, con-
sidering, in particular, the implications of the Federal statutes ... upon uranium
development in the State." A progress report is due to the legislature by 12/1/77.
(Signed by Governor 4/7/77)
NEW MEXICO S-164. Directs the Environmental Improvement Agency to study the impact of ura-
nium mine spoils, stock piles and mill tailings; and report its findings to the legisla-
ture by 12/1/77. (Signed by Governor 4/8/77)
OKLAHOMA HJR-1013. Commissions the State Department of Energy to conduct a study of alterna-
tive and supplemental energy sources, such as nuclear, for possible use by the State
government. The study is to be completed by September 30, 1978. (Signed by
Governor 6/14/77)
SOUTH DAKOTA SCR-17. Directs the Department of Environmental Protection to coordinate a
review of the present statutory authority of concerned State agencies and submit
legislative recommendations to control the mining of uranium in a manner con-
sistent with public welfare. (Adopted 3/18/77)
VIRCINIA SJR-136. Establishes a joint subcommittee of the legislature to study licensing proceed-
ings relating to the safety and security of nuclear power plants, and to determine
whether any action by the General Assembly is appropriate or necessary. The
report is due no later than November 1,1977. (Adopted 2/28/77)
TRANSPORTATION
ARKANSAS 5-327. Authorizes the Arkansas Department of Transportation to promulgate additional
rules and regulations governing the transport of hazardous materials within the
State, including labeling of containers, prior notification and emergency proce-
dures. (Signed by Governor 3/15/77)
CONNECTICUT H-5358. Amends the State statutes regarding permits required for radioactive ma-
terial to include "any shipment of radioactive material or waste which is carried by
commercial carrier and which is required in 10 CFR or 49 CFR to have a placard."
(Signed by Governor 5/19/77)
ILLINOIS 5-245. Authorizes the Illinois Department of Transportation to regulate the transport of
hazardous materials over the State's highways. (Signed by Governor 8/26/77)
MARYLAND 5-577. Alters certain bonding requirements as a condition to the issuance of a permit
for those engaged in the transportation and disposal of hazardous materials.
(Signed by Governor 4/29/77)
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NEBRASKA H-332. Requires the transporters of hazardous materials to carry liability insurance, and
specifies the amount of the coverage. (Signed by Governor 3/21/77)
NORTH CAROLINA H-1431. Prohibits the transport of spent nuclear fuel over highways in North
Carolina unless the transporter notifies the State Highway Patrol in advance.
(Signed by Governor 6/30/77)
RADIATION CONTROL
MONTANA 5-269. Amends State law to give the Board of Health and Environmental Sciences pri-
mary enforcement responsibility under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act.
Expands the definition of "pollution" and "wastes" to include, among other things,
radioactive material. (Signed by Governor 5/11/77)
NEW JERSEY A-1953. Amends the State Radiation Protection Act to require a "certificate of handling"
of radioactive materials from the Department of Environmental Protection before
anyone can transport, store, hold or detain radioactive materials, exceeding 20
curies, within the State. In addition, allows the DEP to recover the costs it incurs
from those persons responsible for the radioactive material in the event of a threat
or a discharge of radioactivity. (Signed by Governor 9/26/77)
RHODE ISLAND H-5555. Amends the State law to include a chapter entitled "Hazardous Substances
Act." Prescribes the actions to be taken (such as packaging and labeling) to mini-
mize dangers from all hazardous substances, including radioactive materials.
(Signed by Governor 5/6/77)
VERMONT H-80. Amends the current radiation control law to define radioactive material and non-
ionizing radiation and to include that material in the State permit system. (Signed
by Governor 4/27/77)
WASTE MANAGEMENT
CALIFORNIA A-1593. Revises the State code to require the State Department of Health to issue
regulations and permits governing the transport, handling, processing, storage or
disposal of hazardous wastes. (Signed by Governor 9/22/77)
COLORADO SM-3. Memorializes the U.S. Congress, the President and ERDA to exclude Colorado
from consideration as a potential site for a high-level radioactive waste repository.
(Adopted 6/3/77)
HAWAII H-199. Requires a permit for release of wastes and pollutants, which include radioactive
material, into the air or water. (Signed by Governor 5/31/77)
ILLINOIS H-1739. Authorizes the Public Health Department to assess fees for radioactive waste
disposal, with the proceeds going into a trust fund for the perpetual care of the
sites. (Signed by Governor 9/20/77)
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KANSAS H-2559. Amends the Kansas Solid Waste Act to include the regulation of hazardous wastes.
The Department of Health and Environment is authorized to adopt rules and regu-
lations governing hazardous wastes "stored, collected, transported, processed,
treated, recovered or disposed" within the State. (Signed by Governor 4/5/77)
LOUISIANA H-14. Prohibits the use of salt domes in Louisiana as temporary or permanent disposal
sites for radioactive wastes. Requires prior notification of the House and Senate
Natural Resources Committees and the Department of Natural Resources for suita-
bility testing of salt domes and subsequent notification of the results of the studies
so they can "determine the advisability of removing, continuing, or extending the
prohibitions and limitations." (Signed by Governor 7/5/77)
LOUISIANA SO?-83. A Senate resolution memorializing the U.S. Congress to enact Federal legisla-
tion "to require the proper Federal agency to notify both the governor and the leg-
islature of any State of the agency's intention to search for radioactive waste dis-
posal sites within that State." (Adopted 7/11/77)
MINNESOTA H-1215. Prohibits the construction or operation of a "radioactive waste management
facility" within Minnesota unless authorized by the legislature. Prohibits the trans-
port of wastes into the State for disposal or storage unless authorized by the legisla-
ture, except that "radioactive wastes may be transported into the State for tem-
porary storage for up to 12 months pending transportation out of the State." The act
is effective immediately. (Signed by Governor 6/2/77)
MONTANA H-254. Prohibits the disposal in Montana of large quantities of radioactive materials
produced in other States. (Signed by Governor 3/21/77)
NEVADA 5-38. Transfers responsibility to the Department of Human Resources for the acquisition
and maintenance of sites for the disposal of low-level radioactive materials.
Authorizes the State Board of Health to establish licensing fee requirements for
users of these sites. (Signed by Governor 3/20/77)
NEW HAMPSHIRE H-542. Establishes a State-wide solid waste management program. (Signed by
Governor 7/18/77)
NEW MEXICO 5-55. Bans until March 31,1978, the import of radioactive materials for storage or dis-
posal within the State. Charges the Environmental Improvement Agency with
responsibility in various areas, including radiation control and radioactive material
disposal. (Signed by Governor 3/31/77)
OREGON 5-272. Bans the establishment or operation of radioactive material waste disposal facilities
within the State. The previous ban would have expired January 1,1978. (Signed by
Governor 7/27/77)
SOUTH DAKOTA H-822. Bans the "containment, disposal or deposit of high-level nuclear wastes,
radioactive substances or radioactively contaminated materials or the processing
of high-level nuclear wastes" within the State unless prior approval is granted by
the legislature. Exempts uranium ore and mill tailings from the provisions of the act.
(Signed by Governor 4/16/77)
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TEXAS H-7560. Authorizes the Texas Water Quality Board to regulate the discharge of waste or pol-
lutants into any water within the State; however, no permits shall be issued author-
izing the discharge of "any radiological, chemical, or biological warfare agent or
high-level radioactive waste." (Signed by Governor 6/15/77)
VERMONT H-261. Bans the construction or establishment of a high-level radioactive waste reposi-
tory within Vermont, unless the General Assembly approves it, through either a bill
or a joint resolution. (Signed by Governor 4/26/77)
RESOLUTIONS
COLORADO HJR-1032. Memorializes the U.S. Congress to accelerate and broaden the research and
development of nuclear fusion, and to increase the development of existing fossil
and nuclear fuel technologies to bridge the time gap until fusion energy comes on
line. (Adopted 5/25/77)
HAWAII SR-272. A Senate resolution citing delays up to six months on the part of physicians in
Hawaii in obtaining license amendments from NRC, and requesting the Governor
to petition NRC for a rule change to give priority to medical licensees, and to lessen
the "extensive and repetitious paperwork" involved in seeking a license
amendment. (Adopted 4/5/77)
MARYLAND HJR-80. Memorializes the U.S. Congress to foster the development of controlled
nuclear fusion technology. (Signed by Governor 5/17/77)
NEVADA AJR-16. Memorializes the President against the premature closing of the Nevada test site;
and requests the Federal Government to present a plan for conversion of the test
site to another use to counterbalance the economic loss to Nevada. (Adopted 2/7/77)
PENNSYLVANIA HR-54. Urges the President and the U.S. Congress to restore funds for the develop-
ment of the fast breeder reactor and nuclear fusion power. (Adopted 4/26/77)
TENNESSEE HJR-84. A House Joint Resolution stating that the General Assembly and Governor
firmly support the continuation of the Clinch River Breeder Reactor project.
(Adopted 4/7/77)
UTAH SCR-1. A Senate Concurrent Resolution, outlining the State's energy policy, which encour-
ages the development of alternative energy sources, such as solar, geothermal,
wind, and hydroelectric power. The development of nuclear resources will, at
present, be confined to uranium mining, processing and waste disposal. (Signed by
Governor 3/22/77)
URANIUM
MONTANA 5-268. Suspends action on solution extraction of uranium from in-place deposits until
April 1,1978, unless the Board of Health and Environmental Sciences adopts rules
regulating the process before that date. (Signed by Governor 5/10/77)
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NEW MEXICO 5-737. Imposes a severance tax on uranium on a sliding scale related to its price per
pound, and sets a surtax on uranium ore having a value of $50 or more per pound.
(Signed by Governor 3/31/77)
NEW MEXICO S-447. Amends the State Radiation Protection Act to give the Environmental Im-
provement Agency the power to add a 10-cent a pound fee to the first 100,000
pounds of yellowcake milled at each uranium mill. The money would be placed in a
fund to continue monitoring and clean-up operations after the mills ceased opera-
tions. (Signed by Governor 4/7/77)
OHIO HJR-34. Memorializes the U.S. Congress to fulfill the commitments of two previous Presi-
dents by authorizing the funding recommended to complete the expansion of the
Portsmouth uranium enrichment facility. (Adopted 4/27/77)
TEXAS 5-360. Prohibits electric facility "participating entities" from exercising the power of eminent
domain to acquire land for the purpose of mining uranium and coal, drilling for oil
and gas, etc. (Signed by Governor 4/29/77)
WYOMING H-187 & H-279. These laws increase the present State excise tax from 2% to 5.5% of the
assessed valuation of the ore as it is mined. The new taxes are effective immediately,
that is, they will be assessed against 1976 uranium production. (Signed by Gov-
ernor 3/14/77)
MISCELLANEOUS
KANSAS 5-752. Permits two or more cities to create a municipal energy agency to enter into agree-
ments to purchase electricity. (Signed by Governor 4/21/77)
WASHINGTON H-852. Allows a State "operating agency" to amend a contract previously let for the
construction of a nuclear plant in order to comply with applicable changes in State
or Federal regulations or standards to improve the safety or feasibility of the project
and expedite its completion. (Signed by Governor 5/16/77)
LEGEND
AB — Assembly Bill
HB — House Bill
SB — Senate Bill
HR — House Resolution
SR — Senate Resolution
HJR — House Joint Resolution
HCR — House Concurrent Resolution
SCR — Senate Concurrent Resolution
SJR — Senate Joint Resolution
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APPENDIX B
LIST OF RADIATION PROTECTION PUBLICATIONS - 1977
EPA PUBLICATIONS
EPA Technical Reports
520/5-77-001
520/5-77-002
520/4-77-003
520/4-77-005
520/3-77-006
520/1-77-009
520/6-77-010
520/3-77-012
520/4-77-013
520/4-77-015
520/4-77-016
600/7-77-082
902/4-77-010
Radiological Survey Of Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, Bremerton, Washington
And Environs PB 271 660
EPA Assessment of Fallout In The United States From Atmospheric Nuclear Testing
On September 26 And November 17,1976 By The People's Republic of China
Considerations Of Health Benefit-Cost Analysis For Activities Involving Ionizing
Radiation Exposure And Alternatives (Beir II Report)
Radiation Protection Activities 1976 PB 273 469/AS
Summary Of Radioactivity Released In Effluents From Nuclear Power Plants From
1972 Through 1975
Radiological Quality Of The Environment In The United States 1977 PB 274 229/AS
Effects Of Phosphate Mineralization And The Phosphate Industry On Radium-226
In Ground Water Of Central Florida
Summary Of Radioactivity Released In Effluents From Nuclear Power Plants From
1973 Through 1976
Assessment Of Carbon-14 Control Technology And Costs For The LWR Fuel Cycle
Natural Radioactivity Contamination Problems
Proposed Guidance On Dose Limits For Persons Exposed To Transuranium Ele-
ments In The General Environment
Potential Radioactive Pollutants Resulting From Expanded Energy Programs
Summary Report On The Low-Level Radioactive Waste Burial Site, West Valley,
New York (1963-1975)
EPA Technical Notes
ORP/CSD-77-1 Proceedings: A Workshop On Issues Pertinent To The Development Of Environ-
mental Protection Criteria For Radioactive Wastes
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ORP/CSD-77-2 Proceedings: A Workshop On Policy And Technical Issues Pertinent To The Devel-
opment Of Environmental Protection Criteria For Radioactive Wastes
ORP/CSD-77-4 Plutonium Inhalation Dose (PAID) A Code For Calculating Organ Doses Due To
The Inhalation And Ingestion Of Radioactive Aerosols
ORP/EAD 76-5 Environmental Radio-Frequency Field Strengths: Miami, Florida
ORP/EAD 76-7 Field Strength Measurements Of Microwave Oven Leakage At 915 MHz
ORP/EAD 77-2 An Investigation Of Broadcast Radiation Intensities At Mt. Wilson, California
PB 275 040/AS
ORP/EAD 77-3 An Analysis Of Radar Exposure In The San Francisco Area PB 273 188/AS
ORP/LV 77-1 Outdoor Radon Study (1974-1975): An Evaluation of Ambient Radon-222 Con-
centrations In Grand Junction, Colorado PB 266 297
ORP/LV-77-2 Radiological Survey At The Inactive Uranium Mill Site Near Riverton, Wyoming
ORP/LV 77-3 Radiological Surveys Of Idaho Phosphate Ore Processing—The Thermal Process
Plant
ORP/LV 77-4 Generalized Model Of The Time Dependent Weathering Half-Life Of The Re-
suspension Factor
ORP/TAD 77-1 Evaluation Of Tritium Recycle And Buildup In A Pressurized Water Reactor
ORP/TAD 77-2 An Analysis Of Low-Level Solid Radioactive Waste From LWRs Through 1975
ORP/TAD 77-3 Characterization Of Selected Low-Level Radioactive Waste Generated By Four
Commercial Light-Water Reactors
Environmental Radiation Data
Four quarterly reports of monitoring data are available from EPA's Eastern Environmental Radia-
tion Facility, Montgomery, Alabama 36109,
BRH TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS
FDA 77-8013 The Mean Active Bone Marrow Dose to the Adult Population of the United States
from Diagnostic Radiology (GPO 017-015-00119-9, $1.05) (PB 262 909/AS, mf only).
FDA 77-8015 Progress in Radiation Protection 1975.
FDA 77-8017 Nationwide Evaluation of X-Ray Trends: Organ Dose Index System - Radiographic
Field Survey Procedures Handbook (GPO 017-015-00121-1, $0.80, $1.00).
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FDA 77-8018
FDA 77-8020
FDA 77-8021
FDA 77-8023
FDA 77-8025
FDA 77-8026
FDA 77-8027
FDA 77-8028
FDA 77-8029
FDA 77-8030
FDA 77-8031
FDA 77-8032
FDA 77-8033
FDA 77-8034
FDA 77-8035
FDA 77-8036
Photographic Quality Assurance in Diagnostic Radiology, Nuclear Medicine, and
Radiation Therapy. Volume II - Photographic Processing, Quality Assurance and
The Evaluation of Photographic Materials (GPO 017-015-00123-7, $2.20) (PB 267
498/AS, mf only).
Patient Exposure from Diagnostic X-Rays: An Analysis of 1972-1974 NEXT Data
(PB 267 741/AS, $4.00).
8th Annual National Conference on Radiation Control: Radiation Benefits and
Risks: Facts, Issues, and Options (GPO 017-015-00126-1, $5.50) (PB 267 317/AS,
mf only).
Radiological Health Training Resources - 1977 (supersedes FDA 75-8027).
Guides for Naturally Occurring and Accelerator-Produced Radioactive Materials
(NARM) (GOP 017-015-00140-7, $2.20) (PB 272 303/AS, mf only).
Symposium on Biological Effects and Measurement of Radio Frequency/Micro-
waves. (GPO 017-015-00137-7, $5.25) (PB 272 906/AS, mf only).
Directory of Personnel Responsible for Radiological Health Programs (supersedes
FDA 77-8016).
Diagnostic Radiology Quality Assurance Catalog (GPO 017-015-00127-0, $4.00)
(PB 271 248/AS, mf only).
Course Manual for Machine Sources of X-Rays (GS-461) (GPO 017-015-00131-8,
$4.00) (PB 272 011/AS, mf only) (supersedes FDA 73-8026).
Course Manual for X-Ray Measurements (GS-462) (GPO 017-015-00130-0, $3.50)
(PB 272 012/AS, mf only) (supersedes FDA 73-8027).
Course Manual for X-Ray Applications (GS-463) (GPO 017-015-00132-6, $3.00) (PB
272 010/AS, mf only) (supersedes FDA 73-8028).
The Bureau of Radiological Health ... A Look at FDA's Program to Protect the
American Consumer from Radiation (GPO 017-015-00128-8, $1.20) (PB 272 8697
AS, mf only).
BRH Publications Index (GPO 017-015-00129-6, $4.25) (PB 271 734/AS, mf only).
Report of State and Local Radiological Health .Programs, FY1976 (PB 273 392/AS,
$5.25).
The Developing Role of Short-Lived Radionuclides in Nuclear Medicine (GPO
017-015-00139-3, $2.00) (PB 272 298/AS, mf only).
Second Image Receptor Conference: Radiologic Film Processing (GPO 017-015-
00134-2, $3.00).
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FDA 77-8039
FDA 77-8042
FDA 78-8015
FDA 78-8043
FDA 78-8045
FDA 78-8048
1977 Annual
Exposure and Processing Guides for Dental Radiography (GPO 017-015-00135-1,
$1.20).
CSU-FDA Collaborative Radiological Health Laboratory Annual Report 1976
(PB 273 560/AS, $6.50).
Progress in Radiation Protection 1976.
A Review of the Use of Ionizing Radiation for the Treatment of Benign Diseases
(GPO 017-015-00141-5, $2.10) (PB 274 032/AS, mf only).
Radiation Protection During Medical X-Ray Examinations - Part 6, Quality Control
for the Automatic Film Processor.
Symposium on Biological Effects and Characterizations of Ultrasound Sources.
Report on Administration of the Radiation Control for Health and Safety Act of 1968
Public Law 90-602 April 1,1978
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DOE PUBLICATIONS
DOE Technical Reports
ERDA 77-1 A NATIONAL PLAN FOR ENERGY RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT AND DEMON-
STRATION. June 1977 GPO $2.00
ERDA 77-10 REPORT OF THE NUCLEAR WEAPON TRANSPORTATION SAFETY HAZARDS
EVALUATION GROUP (CLASSIFIED)
ERDA 77-12 [THE TENNESSEE VALLEY REGION—A YEAR 2000 PROFILE and THE TENNESSEE
VALLEY REGION STUDY: POTENTIAL YEAR 2000 RADIOLOGICAL DOSE TO POP-
ULATION RESULTING FROM NUCLEAR FACILITY OPERATION.]
ERDA 77-17 BENEFICIAL USE OF WASTE NUCLEAR ISOTOPES: 137 CESIUM IRRADIATION
TREATMENT OF MUNICIPAL SLUDGE AND COMPOST. An Executive Summary
Report. Jan. 1977 NTIS
ERDA 77-24 A GUIDE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOLOGICAL SURVEILLANCE AT ERDA
INSTALLATIONS. Mar. 1977 NTIS
ERDA 77-29 EIGHTH ANNUAL REPORT OF RADIATION EXPOSURES FOR ERDA AND ERDA
CONTRACTOR EMPLOYEES—1975. Apr. 1977 NTIS
ERDA 77-34 JOINT ERDA-NRC TASK FORCE ON SAFEGUARDS. FINAL REPORT, JULY 1976.
[NUREG 0095] (Unclassified Version) Feb. 1977 NTIS
ERDA 77-41/9 ERDA HEADQUARTERS REPORTS: JANUARY 1975-SEPTEMBER 1977. Sep. 1977
ERDA 77-43 ALTERNATIVES FOR LONG-TERM MANAGEMENT OF DEFENSE HIGH-LEVEL
RADIOACTIVE WASTE. Idaho Chemical Processing Plant, Idaho Falls, Idaho
ERDA 77-44 ALTERNATIVES FOR LONG-TERM MANAGEMENT OF DEFENSE HIGH-LEVEL
RADIOACTIVE WASTE. Hanford Reservation, Richland, Washington
ERDA 77-46 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES URANIUM MARKETING ACTIVITY. May 1977 NTIS
INVENTORY OF FEDERAL ENERGY-RELATED ENVIRONMENT AND SAFETY
RESEARCH FOR FY 1976.
ERDA 77-50/1 Vol. 1 — Executive Summary
ERDA 77-50/2 Vol. 2 — Catalog of Biomedical & Environmental Research Projects (2 parts)
ERDA 77-50/3 Vol. 3 — Catalog of Environmental Control Technology Research Projects
ERDA 77-50/4 Vol. 4 — Catalog of Operational Safety Research Projects. Apr. 1977 NTIS
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ERDA 77-59
ERDA 77-79
ERDA 77-90
ERDA 77-91
ERDA 77-102
ERDA 77-104
ERDA 77-123
ERDA-1557D
105
SURVEY OF URANIUM INDUSTRY VIEWS CONCERNING U.S. URANIUM
RESOURCES AND U.S. URANIUM PRODUCTION. Apr. 1977 NTIS
MANAGING THE SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS OF ENERGY DEVELOPMENT: A
GUIDE FOR THE SMALL COMMUNITY. Sep. 1977 GPO
ASSISTANCE FROM ENERGY DEVELOPERS: A NEGOTIATING GUIDE FOR
COMMUNITIES
MODELS AND METHODOLOGIES FOR ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF ENERGY
DEVELOPMENT
NUCLEAR ENGINEERING ENROLLMENTS AND DEGREES, 1976. July 1977 NTIS
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AT MAJOR U.S. ERDA CONTRACTOR SITES.
Calendar Year 1976 (2 vols.)
MATERIALS SCIENCES PROGRAMS — FY 1977
DRAFT ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT: COAL RESEARCH, DEVELOP-
MENT AND DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM
ERHQ-0018 ANALYSIS OF ENERGY FUTURES FOR THE UNITED STATES
NRC PUBLICATIONS
NUREG-0020.
NUREG-0025.
NUREG-0030.
NUREG-0040.
NUREG-0090-5.
NUREG-0090-6.
NUREG-0090-7.
NUREG-0090-8.
Operating Units Status Report (Gray Book). Office of Management Information
and Program Control. Monthly. NTIS
Monthly Inspection Summary Report. Office of Inspection and Enforcement.
Monthly NTIS
Construction Status Report of Nuclear Power Plants (Yellow Book).Office of Man-
agement Information and Program Control. Monthly. NTIS
Licensee Contractor and Vendor Inspection Status Report (White Book). Office of
Inspection and Enforcement. Quarterly. NTIS
Report to Congress on Abnormal Occurrences. Office of Management Informa-
tion and Program Control. Mar. 1977. 24 p. NTIS
Report to Congress on Abnormal Occurrences: October - December 1976. Office
of Management Information and Program Control. June 1977. 32 pp. NTIS
Report to Congress on Abnormal Occurrences: January - March 1977. Office of
Management Information and Programs Control. June 1977. 20 pp. NTIS
Report to Congress on Abnormal Occurrences: April - June 1977. Office of Man-
agement Information and Program Control. Sept. 1977. 28 pp. NTIS
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106
NUREG-0090-9. Report to Congress on Abnormal Occurrences: July - September 1977. Office of
Management Information and Program Control. November 1977. NTIS
NUREG-0135, Vol. 4, No. 6. Water Reactor Safety Research Status Summary Report (Buff Book).
Office of Management Information and Program Control. Bimonthly. NTIS
NUREG-0141.
NUREG-0148.
NUREG-0150.
An Assessment of Some Safeguards Evaluation Techniques. Gref, L. G. and
Rosengren, J. W. Prepared for USNRC Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research
(Safeguards, Fuel Cycle and Environmental Research) by R&D Associates. Con-
tract No. A3043. Feb. 1977. 164 p. NTIS
LMFBR Fuel Analysis, Task C: Reliability Aspects of LMFBRs, Final Report for the
Period July 1, 1975 - September 30, 1976. Kastenberg, W. E., et a/. Prepared for
USNRC Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation (Project Management) by University
of California at Los Angeles, Energy and Kinetics Department. Contract AT(49-24)-
0159. Jan. 1977. 144 p. NTIS
Socioeconomic Impacts: Nuclear Power Station Siting. Prepared for USNRC Office
of Nuclear Regulatory Research (Safeguards, Fuel Cycle and Environmental
Research) by Policy. Research Associates. Contract AT(49-24)-0361. June 1977.
148 pp. NTIS
Exposure of Airport Workers to Radiation from Shipments of Radioactive Materials
— A Review of Studies Conducted at Six Major Airports. Prepared for USNRC Office
of Standards Development (Engineering Standards) by Shapiro, J. Contract No. DR-
75-1505. Jan. 1977. 32 p. NTIS
The White-Collar Challenge to Nuclear Safeguards. Edelhertz, H. and Walsh, M.
Prepared for USNRC Off ice of Nuclear Regulatory Research (Safeguards, Fuel Cycle
and Environmental Research) by Battelle Human Affairs Research Center. Contract
No. NRC FIN B2082. Jan. 1977. 84 p. NTIS
NUREG-0170, Vol. 1. Final Environmental Statement on the Transportation of Radioactive Material
by Air and Other Modes. Office of Standards Development (Engineering Stand-
ards). Dec. 1977. 351 pp. NTIS
NUREG-0154.
NUREG-0156.
NUREG-0172.
NUREG-0179.
NUREG-0180.
NUREG-0185.
Age-Specific Radiation Dose Commitment Factors for a One-Year Chronic Intake.
G. R. Hoenes and J. K. Soldat. Prepared for USNRC Office of Standards Develop-
ment (Siting, Health and Safeguards Standards) by Battelle Pacific Northwest
Laboratories. Contract B21446. November 1977. 112 pp. NTIS
Regulatory and Other Responsibilities as Related to Transportation Accidents.
Barker, R. F. Office of Standards Development (Engineering Standards). June 1977.
15 pp. NTIS
Early Site Reviews for Nuclear Power Facilities. Office of Nuclear Reactor Regula-
tion (Site Safety and Environmental Analysis). May 1977. 48 pp. NTIS
Annual Report of Contract Research for the Metallurgy and Materials Research
Branch, Division of Reactor Safety Research, FY 76. Office of Nuclear Regulatory
Research (Reactor Safety Research). Jan. 1977. 232 p. NTIS
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NUREG-0192-1. First Annual Progress Report on Analytical and Experimental Studies of Nonlinear
System Modeling and Scaling. Masri, S. F. Prepared for USNRC Office of Nuclear
Regulatory Research (Reactor Safety Research) by University of Southern Califor-
nia. Contract No. AT(49-24)-9262. Feb. 1977. 280 p. NTIS
NUREG-0194.
NUREG-0195.
NUREG-0197.
NUREG-0199.
NUREG-0200.
NUREG-0201.
NUREG-0202.
NUREG-0203.
NUREG-0207.
NUREG-0217.
NUREG-0217.
Calculations of Radiological Consequences from Sabotage of Shipping Casks for
Spent Fuel and High-level Waste. Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards
(Fuel Cycle and Material Safety). May 1977. 24 pp. NTIS
Improving Regulatory Effectiveness in Federal/State Siting Actions. Office of State
Programs. June 1977. 192 pp. NTIS
State Regulatory Activity Involved in Need for Power: Final Report. Nassikas, J. N.
Prepared for USNRC Office of State Programs by Cox, Langford and Brown. Con-
tract DR-77-0219. June 1977. 60 pp. NTIS
Environmental Planning and the Siting of Nuclear Facilities: The Integration of
Water, Air, Coastal, and Comprehensive Planning into the Nuclear Siting Process:
Final Report. Noble, J. B., et a/. Prepared for USNRC Office of State Programs by
Center for Natural Areas. Contract DR-77-0539. June 1977. 224 pp. NTIS
Federal/State Regulatory Permitting Actions in Selected Power Station Licensing
Cases. Prepared for USNRC Office of State Programs by the Energy Program of the
National Governors' Conference, J. Baroff, Principal Investigator. Contract AT(49-
24)-0327. Sept. 1977. 128 pp. NTIS
Water Supplies and the Nuclear Licensing Process. Davenport, F. S. Prepared for
USNRC Office of State Programs by U.S. Water Resources Council. Contract NRC-
06-77-068. July 1977. 148 pp. NTIS
Nuclear Power Plant Licensing: A New England Perspective: Final Report. Clark,
P. B., et a/. Prepared for USNRC Office of State Programs by Center for Energy
Policy, Inc. Contract DR-77-0543. June 1977. 84 pp. NTIS
State and Local Planning Procedures Dealing with Social and Economic Impacts
from Nuclear Power Plants: Final Report. Curry, M., et a/. Prepared for USNRC
Office of State Programs by Battelle Memorial Institute. Contract 189 No.
300A01046. June 1977. 272 pp. NTIS
Interim Format and Content for a Physical Security Plan for Nuclear Power Plants.
Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation (Operating Reactors). April 1977. 52 p. Avail.
at NRC
NRC Task Force Report on Review of the Federal/State Program for Regulation of
the Commercial Low-Level Radioactive Waste Burial Grounds. Office of Nuclear
Material Safety and Safeguards and Office of State Programs. Mar. 1977. 69 p. NTIS
Supp. 1. Analysis of Public'Comments: NRC Task Force Report on Review of the
Federal/State Program for Regulation of Commercial Low-Level Radioactive
Waste Burial Grounds. Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards and Office
of State Programs. March 1977. 20 pp. NTIS
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108
NUREG-0218.
NUREG-0227.
NUREG-0240.
NUREG-0252.
NUREG-0267.
Radioactive Materials Released from Nuclear Power Plants —1975. Office of Man-
agement Information and Program Control. Mar. 1977.168 p. NTIS
Nuclear Power Plant Operating Experience, 1974-1975. Office of Management
Information and Program Control. April 1977. 508 p. NTIS
The NRC Low-Level/Waste Management Program. Office of Nuclear Material
Safety and Safeguards. November 1977. 36 pp. NTIS
The Environmental Effects of Using Coal for Generating Electricity. Dvorak, A. J.,
et a/. Prepared for USNRC Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation (Site Safety and
Environmental Analysis) by Argonne National Laboratory, Division of Environ-
mental Impact Studies. ERDA Contract W-31-109-ENG-38. June 1977. 232 pp. NTIS
Principles and Practices for Keeping Occupational Radiation Exposures at Medical
Institutions as Low as Reasonably Achievable. Office of Standards Development
(Siting, Health, and Safeguards Standards) Dec. 1977. 56 pp. Available from NRC
NUREG-0278, Vol. 1. Technology, Safety and Costs of Decommissioning a Reference Nuclear Fuel
Reprocessing Plant. Schneider, K. J., Jenkins, C. E., and others. Prepared for
USNRC Office of Standards Development (Engineering Standards) by Battelle
Pacific Northwest Laboratory. Contract EY-76-C-06-1830. October 1977.270 p. NTIS
NUREG-0292.
NUREG-0301.
NUREG-0302.
Nuclear Power Plant.Licensing: Opportunities for Improvement: Study Group
Report. Denton, H. R. Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation (Site Safety and Envi-
ronmental Analysis). June 1977. 116 pp. NTIS
Regulation of Naturally Occurring and Accelerator-Produced Radioactive Mate-
rials: A Task Force Review. Nussbaumer, D. A., and others. Office of Nuclear Mate-
rial Safety and Safeguards/Office of State Programs. July 1977. 76 pp. NTIS
Public Regional Meetings to Discuss Regulations (10 CFR Part 21) for Reporting of
Defects and Noncompliance, July 12-26, 1977. Office of Inspection and Enforce-
ment (Reactor Construction Inspection). July 1977. 40 pp.
NUREG-0302, Rev. 1. Remarks Presented at Public Regional Meetings to Discuss Regulations
(10 CFR Part 21) for Reporting of Defects and Noncompliance. Office of Inspection
and Enforcement. October 1977. 168 pp. NTIS
NUREG-0317, Vol. 1. VISA: A Method for Evaluating the Performance of Integrated Safeguards Sys-
tems at Nuclear Facilities. Donnelly, H., and others. Prepared for USNRC Office of
Nuclear Regulatory Research (Safeguards/Fuel Cycle and Environmental Research)
by Science Applications, Inc. Contract AT(49-24)-0332. August 1977. 132 pp. NTIS
NUREG-0317, Vol. 2. VISA: A Method for Evaluating the Performance of Integrated Safeguards Sys-
tems at Nuclear Facilities. Donnelly, H., and others. Prepared for USNRC Office of
Nuclear Regulatory Research (Safeguards/Fuel Cycle and Environmental Research)
by Science Applications, Inc. Contract AT(49-24)-0332. August 1977. 152 pp. NTIS
NUREG-0321.
A Study of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission Quality Assurance Program. Pre-
pared for USNRC Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation (Project Management) by
Sandia Laboratories. ERDA Contract AT(29-1)-789. August 1977. 124 pp. NTIS
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NUREG-0322.
NUREG-0325.
NUREG-0326.
NUREG-0330.
NUREG-0332.
NUREG-0334.
NUREG-0335.
NUREG-0370.
NUREG-0392.
NUREG-0394.
Ninth Annual Occupational Radiation Exposure Report, 1976. Brooks, B. G. Office
of Management Information and Program Control. October 1977. 48 pp. NTIS
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Functional Organization Charts. Office of
Administration (Technical Information and Document Control). August 1977.
44 pp. NTIS
Workshop Material for State Review of NRC Site Suitability Criteria for High-level
Waste Repositories. Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards (Fuel Cycle
and Material Safety). Sept. 1977. 36 pp. NTIS
Advanced Reactor Safety Research Status (Buff Book I). Office of Management
Information and Program Control. Bimonthly. NTIS
Health Effects Attributable to Coal and Nuclear Fuel Cycle Alternatives. Gotchy,
R. L. Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation (Site Safety and Environmental Analysis).
30 pp. November 1977. Available at NRC
Executive Summary of Safeguards Systems Concepts for Nuclear Material Transpor-
tation. Baldonado, O. C, and others. Prepared for USNRC Office of Nuclear Regu-
latory Research (Safeguards, Fuel Cycle and Environmental Research) by System
Development Corporation. Contract AT(49-24)-0333. October 1977. 16 p. NTIS
Safeguards System Concepts for Nuclear Material Transportation. Baldonado,
O. C., and others. Prepared for USNRC Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research
(Safeguards, Fuel Cycle and Environmental Research) by System Development
Corporation. Contract AT(49-24)-0333. October 1977. 252 p. NTIS
NRC Testimony Before the Subcommittee on Nuclear Regulation of the Committee
on Environment and Public Works, U.S. Senate. USRNC. October 1977. 48 pp. NTIS
Review and Evaluation of the NRC Safety Research Program. Advisory Committee
on Reactor Safeguards. Dec. 1977. 84 pp. NTIS
Impact of Offshore Nuclear Generating Stations on Recreational Behavior. Pre-
pared for USNRC Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research (Safeguards/Fuel Cycle
and Environmental Research) by Florida State University. Contract AT(49-24)-0320.
Dec. 1977. 145 pp. NTIS
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WHERE TO WRITE FOR INFORMATION
Publications with a GPO number may be ordered from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402; those with an NTIS number may be ordered
from the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va. 22161. Some, as noted, are available
in microfilm or microfiche (mf). Publications with neither a GPO nor an NTIS number may be ordered
directly from the agencies which publish them, at the address below:
Bureau of Radiological Health
BRH Technical Information
5600 Fishers Lane
Rockville, Maryland 20857
Department of Energy
Office of Public Affairs
20 Massachusetts Ave., NW
Washington, D.C. 20545
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Radiation Programs
(AW-460)
401 M Street, SW
Washington, D.C. 20460
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Document Control
Washington, D.C. 20555
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APPENDIX C
NON-GOVERNMENT STANDARDS SETTING BODIES
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
ANSI acts as a clearinghouse to coordinate standards development in the private sector by about 20
pertinent professional and technical societies. The actual drafting of standards is done by experts
sitting on society sponsored panels. Since 1975, the responsibility of the ANSI Secretariat for the Main
Committee on Radiation Protection has been assumed by the Health Physics Society {see below).
There are presently twelve ANSI Standards in force. These include standards for administrative prac-
tices in radiation monitoring, specification of standards source terms for nuclear power plants for
environmental dose design calculations, guides for radiation protection in uranium mines, air
sampling criteria, and performance specifications for instrumentation. Copies of these Standards are
available from the American National Standards Institute, 1430 Broadway, New York, New York 10018.
In addition, about twenty other standards are in various stages of development. These include
standards on performance specifications for thermoluminescent dosimeters, monitoring of occupa-
tional exposure, several standards in the field of environmental contamination, and others dealing
with contamination of equipment and facilities. A series of standards is also underway dealing with
environmental radiation surveillance. Finally, a number of standards on internal dosimetry tech-
niques are being prepared with respect to occupational exposures to activation and fission products,
tritium, uranium, and plutonium. For further information, see M.E. Wrenn's paper "The U.S. Na-
tional VoluntaPy Consensus Nuclear Standards Program in Radiation Protection (ANSI N-13)/' pre-
sented at the International Radiation Protection Association, Paris, April 24-30,1977.
National Council on Radiation Protection & Measurements (NCRP)
Six new reports were issued in 1977:
— "Radiation Protection Design Guidelines for 0.1-100 MeV Particle Accelerator Facilities" (51)
— "Cesium-137 from the Environment to Man: Metabolism and Dose" (52)
— "Review of NCRP Radiation Dose Limit for Embryo and Fetus in Occupationally Exposed
Women" (53)
— "Medical Radiation Exposure of Pregnant and Potentially Pregnant Women" (54)
— "Protection of the Thyroid Gland in the Event of Releases of Radioiodine" (55)
— "Radiation Exposure from Consumer Products and Miscellaneous Sources" (56)
Any of these may be ordered from NCRP at 7910 Woodmont Avenue, Washington, D.C. 20014.
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112
International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)
The Commission submitted the following material on its 1977 activities, beginning with four
reports which were published as numbers 1-4 of Volume 1 of the ICRP Annals:
— Radiation Protection in Uranium and other Mines. (ICRP Publication 24)
This report is concerned with the principles of monitoring and limitation of radiation exposure in
uranium mines, taking accountof the currently recommended limits. While the main intention of the
report is to outline the protective measures necessary in uranium mines, much of the material in the
report will necessarily be applicable also to other mines in which radon is found.
The report is divided into sections dealing with the operational limits of exposure, both for external
and internal exposure, and for appropriate methods of monitoring these; with control measures and
protective equipment; and with special operational decisions and medical surveillance.
The report includes three appendices in which there are detailed discussions, about the physical
characteristics and behavior of radon and its daughters in a mine, suggested methods for measuring
and the use of high efficiency respirators.
— The handling, storage, use and disposal of unsealed radionuclides in hospitals and medical re-
search establishments. (ICRP Publication 25)
This report is a revision of the material previously issued in 1964 as ICRP Publication 5 — The
handling and disposal of radioactive materials in hospitals and medical research establishments. The
new report replaces the previous recommendations of the Commission given in ICRP Publication 5,
and is primarily directed towards the competent national authorities. However, the information
given in the report can also be used by the local medical and research institutions, and to some extent
be applicable to other types of laboratories where radioactive substances are used. The report is con-
cerned with the problems that arise owing to the use of unsealed radioactive substances in therapy,
diagnosis and research. (Recommendations on the use of sealed sources have been given in ICRP
Publications 15 and 21, now published as one volume.) Points considered include the following:
protection of workers, patients, members,of the public and in medical research; control of contami-
nation and waste; monitoring; storage and transport; methods for dealing with leakage and various
types of emergency. There are three appendices and ten tables.
— Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. (ICRP Pub-
lication 26)
The report supersedes the Commission's basic recommendations that appeared in 1966 as ICRP
Publication 9. During the past decade new information has emerged which has necessitated a review
of the Commission's recommendations; the report results from the examination of such new infor-
mation by the Commission and by its committees and task groups.
In the new recommendations the Commission emphasizes its system of dose limitation, the main
features of which are that:
a. no practice shall be adopted unless its introduction produces a positive net benefit;
b. all exposures shall be kept as low as reasonably achieveable, economic and social factors being
taken into account; and
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113
c. the dose equivalent to individuals shall not exceed the limits recommended for the appropri-
ate circumstances by the Commission.
The report begins with a short section on the objectives of radiation protection, followed by a discus-
sion of some basic concepts of radiation protection, including the definition of terms used such as
detriment, dose equivalent, and various forms of collective dose. Next, there is an extensive section
on the radiobiological considerations underlying the Commission's recommendations; this includes
consideration of dose-response relationships and a detailed quantitative review of the risk factors
applicable to the various organs and tissues of the body. The Commission's system of dose limitation
is then described in detail, and the recommended dose-equivalent limits for workers and members
of the public are given. The report concludes with sections outlining the general principles of opera-
tional radiation protection and their application to the different types of exposure.
— Problems involved in developing an index of harm. (ICRP Publication 27)
In order to recommend appropriate limits for occupational or other exposure to radiation it isde-
sirable to estimate the types and frequencies of harmful effects that may result. Moreover, in com-
paring the safety of an occupation involving exposure to radiation with the safety of other occupa-
tions, it is important to compare the total harm that may be caused by the radiation, both in those
exposed and in their descendants, with the total harm involved in other occupations, whether by
fatal or minor injury, occupational disease or the effects of mutagens in the environment.
This report, prepared for the International Commission on Radiological Protection by Sir Edward
Pochin, discusses the difficulties of making an appropriate comparison of radiation and other effects.
What is required is a quantitative index, and the report suggests one that takes account of the length
of life lost as a result of occupational causes. The proposed index is expressed as the number of man-
years lost per thousand man-years employed.
Calculations are presented to indicate that occupational radiation exposure at about 0.6 rem per
year, which is commonly found among many groups of radiation workers, would yield a harm index
comparable with that of many factory workers in the United Kingdom. Continual annual exposure of
every worker at the ICRP limit of 5 rem per year would yield an index comparable with that applicable
to construction work or coal-mining in many countries.
Others
Other private organizations which have set standards bearing on radiation protection in 1977 are
the American Nuclear Society, the American Society for Testing and Materials, the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, the Health Physics Society, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engi-
neers, the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, the Institute of Nuclear Materials Management,
the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements, the National Fire Protection
Association, and the Underwriters Laboratories.
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APPENDIX D
Charts of Organization
Figure 1 Summary Diagram of Major Federal Radiation Protection Functions
Figure 2 Environmental Protection Agency
Figure 3 Energy Research and Development Administration
Figure 4 Bureau of Radiological Health
Figure 5 Nuclear Regulatory Commission
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SUMMARY DIAGRAM OF MAJOR FEDERAL RADIATION PROTECTION FUNCTIONS
ENVIRONMENTAL FROTECTIOH ACEHCT
Advil* the President on radiation sutters
Including guidance fur til Federal •gtnciei
1* th« formulation of radiation standards
«id program* of cooperation with State*.
NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION
1. Regulate po**e«slon, us*, and production
of source, byproduct, and special nuclear
material.
2. Consider environmental impact of high
voltage transmission line* thtt originate
at nuclear generating plant!.
DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR
Regulate exposure of uranium! miner* to
radon and radon daughter* in mines.
DEPA1TKEMT OF EHERCT
1. Responsible (or the radiation health and
•afaty and tftvlrouental protection at
DOE owned end operated and DOE-contractor
operated fee Hit lei.
2. Eogaiti in and support* envireoMntal,
bloMdical, phyalcal, and eafety research
related to the development of energy
meurcea and utilisation technologies.
DEFARTMDrr OF HEALTH. EDUCATION, i UELFAKE
1. Regulate radioactive material* in food
and drugs, and the use of radlophar-
mac*utlcal .
2. Performanc standard* for radiation
emission* rom lectronlc product*;
rnear h,
tralnl g r
eal aailitanci, and
to regulation of radla-
echn
late
onaumer products*
Igatlons, Btudles.
on, technical a*slstai
Otlon as us*d In the healing art*
ccupattonal eipoaures to radiation.
DEPARTMENT OF TUHSPORTATIOK
Ictulite for *mf* tr«A«portatlon of radioactive
Hterlali by all wdis of transport, highway,
rail, or water, and by all acani (poctal ihtp-
Mnts are regulated by the U.S. Poatal Service).
ENVlltOMHEHTAL PROTECT10K ACEHa
1. Generally applicable environmental atandardt.
2. Water quality criteria; effluent limitations;
discharge perailta^ di«clurgea of haiardcwe
•ubatancei.
3. Solid wait* diipotal guldallnei; national
hfliflrdoua vaitti dlipoaal altei plan.
4. National prtMry and secondary drinking water
regulitions; underground Injection control
regulation*; emergency protection of drinking
water,
3. Air quality crltarta; new aourca perforauince
•tandardaj cvlaalon standards for hatardoua
air pollutant*; urner-Rcttcy control of air
pollution; review and publiah coewenta on
environmental Impact of proposed legislation,
major Federal action*, and proposed regula-
tions.
6. Keiciircht Investigations, atudlta, public
Information, grand and contract*, technical
aaslatance to States, aurveys. training, and
emergency Hslstnnce for any radiation area
except (a) reRutntlon of radiation from con-
sumer product*, (b) radiation *• uard In the
healing arts, nnd (c) occupational otpoitirci
to radiation,
7. With respect to anvlronmpntal pollutitm at
Federal facllltlea; provide technical naal*-
tancc; review compliance; provide Federnl-
Stat* llnlK>ni mediate Fvdcrvil-State conflicts;
ltaut> regulations and ijuldelliici far Fedtr.nl
facility covpHancc; report to the President
on Federal aganry Implementation.
8. leaue permits for dumping of radioactive
materlala Into ocean waters.
\
COHSUMER PRODUCT SAFETY CONMISSlOll
1. Conduct research, studies. InveatI**lion
on safety of cnnaumer product*; teat con-
sumer proJutti.
2. Prnmulfritc consumer product safety
iL.iml.irdfl.
J. Dec
h.ii
S.
6. AJm
Act.
i tunaiMcr product a banned
i product.
:t(nn AR.ilnat nn l*Ml»cnl
h.i« rdoun conaumer product.
• product certification and labeling.
Federal Itat.irdou* Sub«tancc»
\
FEDERAL AGENCIES WITH JURISDICTION
OR SPECIAL EXPERTISE
Comment on envlrttnnent.il Impact •
uf all Federal Agency recoauKnd.it
reports on proposal* for left glut
other major Federal action* sign!
aftectinR the quality of the hu«e
environment.
Icantly
OEFARTHEKT OF LABOft
Establish occupa
proouigate scand
training,; coope
Applicable to ma
Regulatory COM!
onol safety and health program^
Is.; enforcement; research;
ve program* with State*; (not
lal* controlled by the Hue 1ear
Ion).
FEDtRAL OMtUNICATIOKS COmiSSTOM
Rcgulnte civilian radlofreiocncy and Microwave
•tiurees used In communlcatlona (OffUe of
Telecomminlretlonji Policy regulates government
*ourc«»).
FEDERAL POWER COW ISS ION
Regulate high voltaRe transmUnton line*
(limited to sufh lines from hydroelectric
FIGURE 1
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EPA ADMINISTRATOR
ASSISTANT ADMINISTRATOR
FOR AIR AND
WASTE MANAGEMENT
OFFICE OF RADIATION PROGRAMS
DEPUTY ASSISTANT ADMINISTRATOR
FOR RADIATION PROGRAMS
PROGRAM MANAGEMENT
OFFICE
CRITERIA & STANDARDS
DIVISION
ENVIRONMENTAL
STANDARDS BRANCH
FEDERAL GUIDANCE
BRANCH
BIOEFFECTS ANALYSIS
BRANCH
ECONOMICS AND
STATISTICAL
EVALUATION BRANCH
TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT
DIVISION
ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS
DIVISION
ENERGY SYSTEMS
ANALYSIS BRANCH
SURVEILLANCE
BRANCH
RADIATION SOURCE
ANALYSIS BRANCH
PROTECTIVE
ACTION
BRANCH
ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION ANALYSIS
BRANCH
EASTERN ENVIRONMENTAL
RADIATION FACILITY
OFFICE OF RADIATION
PROGRAMS - LAS VEGAS
TECHNICAL SERVICES
BRANCH
FIELD STUDIES
BRANCH
MONITORING
ANALYTICAL
SUPPORT BRANCH
EVALUATION
BRANCH
ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES BRANCH
FIGURE 2
RADIOCHEMISTRY &
NUCLEAR ENGINEERING
BRANCH
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DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY
-------
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION AND WELFARE
ASSISTANT SECRETARY FOR HEALTH
FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION
COMMISSIONER
DEPUTY COMMISSIONER
BUREAU OF RADIOLOGICAL HEALTH
OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR
OFFICE OF
MEDICAL AFFAIRS
DIVISION OF
COMPLIANCE
DIVISION OF
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
OFFICE OF THE
ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR
FOR ADMINISTRATION
DIVISION OF
ELECTRONIC
PRODUCTS
DIVISION OF
RADIOACTIVE
MATERIALS AND
NUCLEAR MEDICINE
DIVISION OF
TRAINING
AND-MEDICAL
APPLICATIONS
FIGURE 4
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NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION
THE COMMISSION
5 MEMBERS
EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR FOR
OPERATIONS
OFFICE OF
STANDARDS DEVELOPMENT
1 1
DIVISION OF
ENGINEERING
STANDARDS
DIVISION OF
SITING, HEALTH
AND
SAFEGUARDS
STANDARDS
OFFICE OF NUCLEAR MATERIALS
SAFETY AND SAFEGUARDS
OFFICE OF NUCLEAR
REACTOR REGULATION
1,1 1
DIVISION OF
SAFEGUARDS
DIVISION OF
FUEL CYCLE
AND MATERI-
ALS SAFETY
OFFICE OF
INSPECTION
AND ENFORCEMENT
1 L 1
DIVISION OF DIVISION OF
OPERATING SITE SAFETY
REACTORS AND ENVIRON-
MENTAL
ANALYSIS
DIVISION OF
PROJECT
MANAGE-
MENT
DIVISION OF
SYSTEMS
SAFETY
DIVISION OF
MATERIALS
INSPECTION
PROGRAMS
1 1
DIVISION OF DIVISION OF
REACTOR HELD
INSPECTION OPERATIONS
PROGRAMS
FIGURE 5
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APPENDIX E
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS GLOSSARY
AEC Atomic Energy Commission
ANSI American National Standards Institute
BEIR Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation
BRH Bureau of Radiological Health, Food and Drug Administration
CT Computered Tomographic
DoD Department of Defense
Do I Department of I nterior
DoT Department of Transportation
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EPA/ORP Environmental Protection Agency/Office of Radiation Programs
ERAMS Environmental Radiological Ambient Monitoring System
ERDA Energy Research and Development Administration
FDA Food and Drug Administration
FNP Floating Nuclear Plant
F.R. Federal Register
FWPCA Federal Water Pollution Control Act
CAO General Accounting Office, U .5. Congress
GEIS Generic Environmental Impact Statement
GHz Gigahertz, a unit of frequency (1,000 MHz)
GSD Genetically Significant Dose
HEW Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
-------
HTGR High Temperature Gas Reactor
Hz Hertz, basic unit of frequency
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
ICRP International Commission on Radiation Protection
LMFBR Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor
LOCA Loss of Coolant Accident
LOFT Loss of Fluid Test
LWR Light Water Reactor
MESA Mining Enforcement and Safety Administration, Department of Interior
MHz Megahertz, a unit of frequency (1,000,000 hertz)
Microcuries A unit of activity, abbreviated »C\ (one-millionth of a curie)
Mrem Millirem, a special unit of dose equivalent (1 /1,000 rem)
mW Milliwatt, a unit of power (1 /1,000 watt)
NARM Naturally-Occurring or Accelerator Produced Material
MAS National Academy of Sciences
NASA National Aeronautics and Space-Administration
NBS National Bureau of Standards
NEPA National Environmental Policy Act
NIOSH National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission
NRDC Natural Resources Defense Council
ORP Office of Radiation Programs, Environmental Protection Agency
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration
OTP Office of Telecommunications Policy
PAG Protective Action Guide
pCi Picocurie, a unit of activity (one millionth of a microcurie)
-------
ppm Parts Per Thousand
Rad A u n it of absorbed dose
Rem A special unit of dose equivalent
RF Radiofrequency
TLD Thermoluminescent Dosimeter
USGS U.S. Geological Survey
WL(M) Working Level (Month), a unit of concentration based on one liter of air (one WL is any
combination of short-lived decay products of radon that will result in emission of a certain
amount of alpha ray energy)
* U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1978 O -J74-868/6485
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