EPA-600/2-76-069
March 1976
Environmental Protection Technology Series
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT PERSPECTIVES
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports.of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into five series. These five broad
categories were established to facilitate further development and application of
environmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
TECHNOLOGY series. This series describes research performed to develop and
demonstrate instrumentation, equipment, and methodology to repair or prevent
environmental degradation from point and non-point sources of pollution. This
work provides the new or improved technology required for the control and
treatment of pollution sources to meet environmental quality standards.
EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, and approved for publication. Approval
does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the
views and policy of the Agency, nor does mention of trade
names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/2-76-069
March 1976
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
PERSPECTIVES
by
P. F. Fennelly, D. F. Durocher, A.S. Werner, M. T. Mills,
S.M. Weinstein, A.M. Castaline, and C. Young
GCA Corporation
GCA/Technology Division
Bedford, Massachusetts 01730
Contract No. 68-02-1316, Task 13
ROAP No. AAU-004
Program Element No. EHB-525
EPA Task Officer: Ronald A. Venezia
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Prepared for
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Research and Development
Washington, DC 20460
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ABSTRACT
The report: (1) defines environmental assessment (EA) programs and their
role in energy system development; (2) indicates data requirements of an
EA; (3) outlines exemplary methodologies for acquiring the necessary data;
(4) serves as a technology transfer vehicle by providing background infor-
mation on environmental monitoring and modeling, which can be used in EAs;
(5) summarizes the extent, quality, applications, and location of existing
information resources which can be used in the planning of EAs; and (6)
summarizes existing or proposed standards and criteria for evaluating air,
water, and land based pollution. The report includes: waste stream char-
acterization and pollution identification, indirect pollution associated
with energy system development, estimating the sphere of influence of an
energy system, evaluation of environmental impact, methodology for conduct-
ing source tests, use of dispersion models, available data banks and infor-
mation sources, and existing and proposed environmental regulations. Each
topic is explored to the degree necessary to acquaint the user with current
standards, sampling and analytical techniques, and environmental models.
General discussions are supplemented where possible with specific examples
in order to clarify some of the concepts presented.
iii
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CONTENTS
Page
Abstract iii
List of Figures xi
List of Tables xiii
Acknowledgments xv
Sections
I Introduction 1
Purpose of the Document 1
Potential Uses of Environmental Assessment Reports 2
Organization of the Document 2
Limitations of the Document 3
References 5
II Integration of Environmental Assessment Activities with
Energy System Development 7
Framework for Energy System Development 7
Definition of an Environmental Assessment Program 9
Difference Between "Environmental Assessment"
and "Environmental Impact Statement" 11
Importance of Feedback Loops 12
The Levels of Effort Required for an Environmental
Assessment 12
iv
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CONTENTS (continued)
Sections
Goals Within an Environmental Assessment Program 15
Outline of a Sample Environmental Assessment 15
Environmental Assessment Reports 18
References 19
III Process Characterization and Waste Stream Analysis 21
Introduction 21
Methodology for Process Evaluation 22
Unit Operations Analysis 26
A Sample Unit Operations Scheme 27
Determination of Emission Rates 30
Inventory of ReacLants and Products 30
Identify Conceivable Pollutants 32
Determination of Emission Rates 35
Other Process Characteristics of Interest 39
References 40
IV Estimate Pollution from Associated Development 43
Introduction 43
Methodology for Projecting Induced Growth 44
General Approach 44
Elements of Assessment Process 45
Constraints Upon Assessment 48
Discussion of Individual Assessment Elements 49
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CONTENTS (continued)
Sections Pag
Methodology for Evaluating Environmental Effects 55
General Approach 55
Air Quality Impacts 58
Water Quality Impacts 60
Land Impacts 62
Noise Impacts 63
Other 64
References 65
V Estimating the Sphere of Environmental Influence 67
Introduction 67
Methodology for Estimating the Sphere of Influence 68
Process Emission Characteristics 68
Survey of Pathways for Pollutant Transport 72
Survey of Site-Related Data 74
Modeling Techniques 80
References 84
VI Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Energy Systems 87
Introduction 87
Methodology for Evaluating Environmental Impacts 88
Phase I Evaluation 90
Phase II Evaluation 90
Analysis of Measures for Control or Reduction 92
vi
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CONTENTS (continued)
Sections gage
Evaluation Criteria 93
Laws 94
Scientific Judgments 95
Social Criteria 98
Impact Identification 99
Examples of Possible Decisions 100
Assessing the Environmental Impact of Systems at
Different Stages of Development 102
Bench Scale or Conceptual Models 102
Pilot Plant 103
Demonstration Plant 103
References 104
Appendices
A Source and Ambient Testing as Part of an Environmental
Assessment Program 107
Introduction 107
Source Tests: Sampling and Analysis 108
Presampling Survey 108
Sampling 109
Analytical Techniques 121
Ambient Tests
Introduction
Ambient Monitor Siting 127
vii
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CONTENTS (continued)
Appendices
Sampling and Analysis with Respect to Ambient
Testing Programs 129
Identifying Source Background Contaminants 134
Development of Quality Control Program 136
Introduction 136
Major Features of a Quality Control Program 136
Decisions Based on Quality Control Tests 139
Reporting Error 141
Cost of Reducing Errors 141
References 142
B Dispersion Models 147
Introduction 147
Atmospheric Transport Models 147
Basic Concepts and Formulations 148
Description of Atmospheric Transport Models
of Interest 154
Pollutant Transport Models for Water 160
Modeling Pollutant Transport in Soils 162
Models for Heat Transport 165
Unified Approach to Transport Modeling 168
Example Model Application 169
References 174
viii
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CONTENTS (continued)
Appendices Page
C Data Retrieval and Information Systems Applicable to
Environmental Assessments 179
Introduction 179
References 181
D Pollution Legislation and Future Perspectives 205
Introduction 205
Existing Standards 212
Air 212
Water 212
Solid Waste 216
Pending Standards 216
Air 216
Water 216
The Future 221
Air 221
Water 221
References 221
E Bibliography 223
Section II. Integration of Environmental Assess-
ment Activities with Energy System Development 223
Section III. Process Characterization and Waste
Stream Analysis 224
ix
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CONTENTS (continued)
Appendices Page
Section IV. Estimate Pollution From Associated
Development 224
General Environmental Issues and Analyses 224
Environmental Quality Guidelines 225
Land Resources and Environmental Impacts 225
Water Resources and Environmental Impacts 225
Air Impacts 226
Noise Impacts 227
Other Environmental Impacts 227
Section V. Estimating the Sphere of Environmental
Influence 228
Section VI. Assessing the Environmental Impacts
of Energy Systems 228
Appendix A. Source and Ambient Testing as Part
of an Environmental Assessment Program 230
Air 230
Water 23^
Miscellaneous 236
Appendix B. Dispersion Models 236
Appendix C. Data Retrieval and Information Systems
Applicable to Environmental Assessments 237
Appendix D. Pollutant Legislation and Future
Perspectives
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FIGURES
No. Page
1 Interrelationships Between Various Sections of
the Document 4
2 Flow Chart for Energy System Development 8
3 Flow Diagram for a Comprehensive Environmental
Assessment Program 10
4 Methodology for Process Evaluation 23
5 Simplified Scheme for Unit Operations of an
Energy System 28
6 Schematic Diagram of an Atmospheric Pressure
Fluidized Bed Combustion System 29
7 Classification for Hazardous Materials Generated
in the Extraction and Processing of Coal and Oil 34
8 Ranking Scheme of the Hazardous Classes of Pollutants
in Effluent Streams in a Petroleum Refinery 36
9 Diagram Summarizing the Types of Basic Stream Data to
be Collected for Environmental Assessments 37
10 Methodology for Projections of Induced Growth and
Development 46
11 Methodology for Growth Allocation and Impact Evaluation 47
12 Methodology for Assessing Environmental Effects as a
Result of Induced Growth 56
13 Methodology for Predicting the Sphere of Influence 69
14 Pollutant Emissions and Transport Pathways 73
xi
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FIGURES (continued)
No. Pa8e.
15 Material Balance Within a Three-Component
Compartmental Model 82
16 Flow Diagram for Decisions Based on Environmental
Assessments 89
17 Diagram Summarizing the Types of Basic Stream Data to
be Collected for Environmental Assessments 125
18 Illustrative Chemical Analysis Strategy for
Environmental Assessments 126
19 Illustration of Pollutant Roses for S02 135
20 Quality Assurance Elements and Responsibilities 137
21 Vertical Dispersion Coefficient as a Function of
Downwind Distance from the Source
22 Series of Trajectories Generated by the ARL Model 159
23 Pollutant Material Balance for Water and Sediment
Phases of a Stream
24 Computer Simulation of Mercury Transport During a
Stream Tagging Experiment; Data Taken at 10, 20, 40,
70, and 100 Meters Downstream from Injection Point 163
25 The Cation Concentration Profiles X(z,t) and Y(z,t)
in Liquid and Solid Phases
26 Calculated 14-Year Fly Ash Deposition Pattern in
the Vicinity of a Coal-Fired Power Plant 172
xii
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TABLES
No.
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Matrix Relating Various Assessment
of System Development
Partial List of Material Flows frc:
Pressure Fluidized Bed Combustion
Principal Environmental Assessment
to be Considered in the Impact Eva.
Pollutant Source
Examples of Process-Related Decisic
Encountered in an Environmental ASL-
Examples of Site-Related Decisions
Encountered in an Environmental Asr
A Selection from EPA's Recommended
Sampling and Preservation of Water
Preservatives for Water Samples
Primary and Secondary Leachate Para
Measured
Criteria for Selection of Analytics
Background Concentrations for Air I
Observed Mean Positive Trace Metal
Calculated Concentration Ratios in
to 0.01 g/cm2 Total Fly Ash Fallout
Data Handling and Information Syste:
Federal Level
.i'.s to Stages
..tiao spheric
?is Factors
n of a
. hich May be
: ch May be
suient
:edures for
"les
s to be
:• thods
utants
."ues by Basin
.1 Corresponding
at the
Page
14
31
91
100
101
115
117
121
122
131
133
173
183
xiii
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TABLES (continued)
14 Federal Data Retrieval and Information Systems - Air 185
15 Federal Data Retrieval and Information Systems - Water 189
16 Federal Data Retrieval and Information Systems -
Solid Waste
17 Federal Data Retrieval and Information Systems - Noise 195
18 Federal Data Retrieval and Information Systems -
Toxicological -Substances
19 Federal Data Retrieval Systems - Total Environment 199
20 Federal Legislation Concerning Environmental
Assessment Activities 207
21 Ambient Air Standards 213
22 Summary of Hazardous Air Pollutant Standards 214
23 Summary of Air Emission Standards for New or
Substantially Modified Sources 215
24 Wastewater Effluent Guidelines and Standards -
Steam Electric Generating Point Source Category 217
25 Summary of Federal Guidelines and State Regulations
for Solid Waste Disposal Practices 218
26 Sources for Which Standards Have Been Proposed and
Review Initiated 219
27 National Interim Primary Drinking Water Standards 220
xiv
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge helpful discussions with: Dr. Ronald
Venezia, Dr. Dale Denny, Mr. Robert Hangebrauck, Dr. Gene Tucker, Dr. Max
Samfield, Mr. Joe McSorley, Mr. James Dorsey, Mr. Robert M. Statnick,
Mr. L. D. Johnson, Mr. D. Bruce Henschel, Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina; Mr. D. J. von Lehmden, Environmental Monitoring and
Support Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina; Mr. Clyde Dial,
Mr. Guy Nelson, Mr. Victor Jelen, EPA, National Environmental Research
Center, Cincinnati, Ohio; Mr. Don Gilmore, EPA, Environmental Monitoring
and Support Laboratories, Las Vegas, Nevada; Mr. D. J. Canon, Mr. B. A.
Tichenor, EPA, Environmental Research Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon.
Members of the GCA/Technology Division Staff who provided assistance were:
Mr. Mark I. Bornstein, Mr. James W. Carroll, Mr. Reed Cass, Dr. Douglas
W. Cooper, Mr. Gordon Deane, Ms. Becky Sue Epstein, Mr. Lawrence Gordon,
Mr. David Lynn, Mr. Manuel Rei, Ms. Josephine Silvestro, Mr. Richard Wang,
Mr. Norman F. Surprenant, and Dr. Leonard M. Seale.
The authors would also like to express their appreciation to Mr. Morris M.
Penny, Dr. Sidney V. Bourgeois, Dr. John H. McDermit, Dr. D. Richard Sears,
and Dr. Michael G. Klett of the Huntsville Research and Engineering Center,
Lockheed Missile and Space Company, Huntsville, Alabama; and Mr. R. W.
Barnes, Dow Chemical U.S.A., Midland, Michigan, and Mr. P. E. Muhlberg and
Mr. B. P. Shepherd, Dow Chemical U.S.A., Freeport, Texas, for their cri-
tiques of an earlier draft of this document. Many of their suggestions
have been incorporated in the final version.
xv
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SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE OF THE DOCUMENT
Over the last several years, increased environmental consciousness and
economic and raw material constraints have forced a more systematic ap-
proach to energy system development. As the need for critical choices
between various technologies becomes imminent, the value of systematic
evaluation is increasing. To provide information on the environmental
aspects of these systems, activities known as "environmental assessments"
are evolving. The purpose of this document is to define the environ-
mental assessment process in relation to energy system development.
To meet this objective, this document is designed to:
• Define environmental assessment programs and their role
in energy system development
• Indicate the data requirements of an environmental
assessment
• Outline exemplary methodologies for acquiring the
necessary data
• Serve as a technology transfer vehicle by providing
background information on both conventional and state-
of-the-art techniques in environmental monitoring and
modeling which can be used in environmental assessments
• Summarize the extent, quality, applicability, and location
of existing information resources
• Summarize existing or proposed standards and criteria
for evaluating air, water, and land based pollution.
-------
Because the initiation of technology transfer between a wide variety of
disciplines is one of the primary purposes of this document, the technical
discussion is very general. Wherever possible, references are made to
more detailed articles, reviews, or annotated bibliographies. The aim is
to assist specialists in certain areas to become familiar with the tech-
nical problems and the information resources in related disciplines.
POTENTIAL USES OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT REPORTS
The importance of rapid and efficient technology transfer to proper energy
and environmental policy decisions cannot be overestimated. Listed below
are some of the areas in which environmental assessment data will be of
significant benefit:
• Identification of potential environmental impact of
energy systems
• Energy system design
• Development of source performance standards for specific
pollutants
• Development of improved control technology
• Developrae.it of improved environmental monitoring
technology
• Design of toxicological studies
• Design of ecological field tests
• Discovery of "unanticipated" pollutants
• Natural resource management
• Land use planning.
ORGANIZATION OF THE DOCUMENT
This document consists of five major sections and four appendices. Each
section addresses a basic task of an environmental assessment program,
-------
and each appendix provides background information for the various tasks.
The interrelationships between the various sections and appendices are
shown in Figure 1. In some situations, it may not be feasible or neces-
sary to execute some of the assessment tasks; accordingly, each section
can be used independently. To gain the proper perspective on environ-
mental assessment programs, however, one should become familiar with the
content of all the sections and appendices.
LIMITATIONS OF THE DOCUMENT
This document is aimed primarily at defining the scope of an environmental
assessment program; it is not intended to provide a unique or preferred
way to conduct such a program. Environmental assessments are discussed
primarily in the context of the interaction between an energy or fuel-
generating system and its adjacent surroundings. Potential environmental
impacts from the use of the products or by-products of a system have not
been included. For example, if one is dealing with a coal-liquefaction
plant, the,discussion here is applicable primarily in describing methods
by which an assessment can be made of the manner in which the plant itself
may interact with its surroundings. The discussion does not deal to any
significant extent with the manner in which the utilization of the coal-
liquefaction products in other industries may affect the environment.
Such an assessment of the potential environmental consequences of using
various products or by-products may require its own distinct methodology.
Furthermore, this document is not designed for the preparation of environ-
*
mental impact statements, although it may be helpful in this regard.
Economic and sociological factors have not been considered to any signif-
icant extent; time restrictions prevented extensive coverage. It is
The Council on Environmental Quality has recently released a comprehensive
report entitled "Energy Alternatives - A Comparative Analysis" which is
aimed specifically at assisting in the preparation of environmental impact
statements for energy systems (U.S. Government Printing Office Stock
Number 041-001-00025-4).
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SECTION It
INTEGRATE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
WITH SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
• GOALS
• PRIORITIES
• LEVEL OF EFFORT
SECTION Jtt
SYSTEM CHARACTERIZATION AND
WASTE STHEAM ANALYSIS
• UNIT OPERATIONS
• POLLUTANT IDENTIFICATION
• EMISSION RATES
v
JL
SECTION IX
ESTIMATE POLLUTION FROM
ASSOCIATED DEVELOPMENT
• LAND DEVELOPMENT
• CONSTRUCTION
• TRANSPORTATION
t
SECTION I
ESTIMATE THE SPHERE OF INFLUENCE
• PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION
• PREDICTIVE MODELS
• CLIMATOLOGY
• HYDROLOGY
• TOPOGRAPHY
SECTION 3Z1
ASSESS ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
• EVALUATION CRITERIA
• EVALUATION METHODOLOGY
- -I -I
APPENDIX A
SOURCE
TESTS
APPENDIX 8
DISPERSION
MODELS
I
*
APPENDIX C
INFORMATION
RESOURCES
APPENDIX 0
ENVIRONMENTAL
STANDARDS AND
REGULATIONS
Figure 1. Interrelationships between various sections of the document
-------
recognized that these factors may often be crucial to the success or
failure of new energy systems. Their omission is not meant to under-
emphasize their importance. Problems in these areas are sufficiently
complex to warrant separate treatment.
In general, problems which are unique to nuclear systems have not been
covered. These are discussed in detail in guidelines from nuclear
!>2
regulatory agencies.
REFERENCES
1. Atomic Energy Commission. Environmental Survey of the Uranium Cycle.
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1974.
2. Council of Environmental Quality. The Nuclear Energy-Fission Resource
System, Chapter 6. In;. Energy Alternatives - A Comparative Analysis.
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1975.
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SECTION II
INTEGRATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
WITH ENERGY SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
FRAMEWORK FOR ENERGY SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
Energy system development generally proceeds along the pathways shown
"in Figure 2. The first step in system development is to define the
appropriate energy needs, and one deals here with three basic sectors:
electric power generation, 'specific industrial/commercial needs, or
individual residential requirements. Energy needs can be defined on a
national, regional, state, or local basis, depending on the task at hand.
Once the requirements are determined, the possible technological options
can be investigated. Options can range from available and proven systems
(e.g., coal-fired boilers) to those still at the conceptual stage of
development (i.e., little or no hardware available — e.g., use of ocean
thermal gradients).
Both environmental and economic assessments should be conducted to deter-
mine the relative advantages and disadvantages of each option. Based on
these evaluations, an optimum system is chosen. To satisfy existing legal
requirements, an environmental impact statement must be prepared for the
chosen system. Construction begins when the impact statement is accepted
by the appropriate federal, state, or local regulatory agencies. Once the
system is operational, field tests can be performed to insure the environ-
mental impact is within the predicted bounds.
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DETERMINE
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
ELECTRIC POWER
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES )
RESIDENTIAL
IDENTIFY
TECHNOLOGICAL OPTIONS
SYSTEM
A
SYSTEM
B
SYSTEM
C
SYSTEM
N
ENVIRONMENTAL
ASSESSMENT
CHOOSE
OPTIMUM SYSTEM
PREPARATION AND APPROVAL
OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
STATEMENT
CONSTRUCT
SYSTEM
ENVIRONMENTAL
COMPLIANCE TESTING
Figure 2. Flow chart for energy system development
8
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This document is concerned primarily with the environmental assessment
step in Figure 2 and its role in energy system development. A number
of reports and papers discussing some of the other areas in Figure 2
are listed in the Bibliography in Appendix E.
DEFINITION OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT PROGRAM
An environmental assessment may be defined as follows:
*
An environmental assessment of an energy system (or an in-
dustrial process) consists of a comprehensive physical, chemi-
cal and bioassay characterization of its waste streams, and
calculations of estimated incremental loadings to ambient air,
water and land. The assessment further includes an analysis
of the impact of the incremental loadings on human health and
ecological systems— insofar as such knowledge can be readily
quantified with present knowledge of health and ecological
effects (i.e., without specific studies to determine such
effects). The goal of-an environmental assessment is to
determine whether a system is environmentally acceptable. If
there is insufficient information available to make this deter-
mination, the identification and the acquisition of the data
which are needed to make such a determination become primary
goals. This information is essential for establishing research
and development priorities in areas such as waste control tech-
nology or ecological studies. In cases where comparative
assessments are being made of two or more processes, an ad-
ditional goal may be to determine which one(s) are environ-
mentally preferable.
An environmental assessment is aimed at uncovering potential pollution
problems as early in the development cycle as possible. The advantage is
obvious — the sooner a possible problem is discovered, the more time
available for its evaluation and solution.
Figure 3 provides a schematic representation of a comprehensive environ-
mental assessment program. Because the level of effort will often depend
Based on definition in Environmental Assessment Guideline Document,
Draft, May 1975, prepared by W. G. Tucker et al., Industrial Environ-
mental Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
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TYPE OF SYSTCU
LOCATION
fNTEGRATE
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
WITH SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION
AND
WASTE STREAM ANALYSIS
ESTIMATE POLLUTION
FROM
ASSOCIATED DEVELOPMENT
DESCRIBE UVT OPLRAT;C.N
AND RELATED ACTIVITIES
PROCESS
SITE
SIZE
PROCESS DESUGStNS
CN-STREAM OPERATION
START-UP, SHUT-OOWN
ACCIDENTS
IDENTIFY:
•PLANNING RESPONSES
• ABATEMENT STP^ITEGY
•PROCESS CrfANSES
•WORE RSD
ESTIMATE
SPHERE OF INFLUENCE
IDENTIFY PATHWAYS
FOR
POUUTAN: TRANSPORT
USE MODELS TO PREDICT
AMSiENT CONCENTRATION
ASSESS
ENVIROSVENTAL IMPACT
IDENTIFY SOJ1CE/RECEPIOR
RCIATIONSHIPS
EVALUATE
CNVinCNMtSTAi. CO^JSECUENCES
DECISION ON
FURTHFR ACTION
ACCEPTABLE AS IS
MODIFY PROCESS
MORE RSO
ABANDON
DOCUMLNT PROCEDURE
Figure 3. Flow diagram for a comprehensive
environmental assessment program
10
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on the development status of the energy system, the performance of tasks
in Figure 3 can be tailored to suit individual needs. For example, sophis-
ticated pollutant dispersion estimates are probably unwarranted for experi-
ments conducted in a small pilot plant. (Guidance as to which activities
are most appropriate at the various development stages of an energy system
is discussed later in this section.)
Difference Between "Environmental Assessment" and "Environmental
Impact Statement"
The terms "Environmental Impact Statement" and "Environmental Assessment"
are related but they are not synonomous, and it is important to emphasize
the differences between them. An "Environmental Impact Statement," in
general, is prepared to obtain approval from a regulatory agency in order
to build a specific structure or technological system. In essenc-e, it is
a legal document. The impact statement is usually formulated to argue the
case as to whether or not a specific facility can be constructed and
operated in an environmentally acceptable manner at some preselected site.
The Council of Environmental Quality (CEQ) has presented detailed dis-
cussions on the role of Environmental Impact Statements1 and has also
9
presented guidelines for their preparation. *-
An "Environmental Assessment" is concerned with the general question:
is a proposed system (i.e., its effluent streams and any related con-
struction and development activities) sufficiently well characterized
that one can confidently predict its environmental impact? Contrary
to an impact statement, which is usually aimed at fulfilling statutory
regulations, an "environmental assessment" is more of a design or plan-
ning tool. Its aim is to highlight technical areas needing additional
research and to provide adequate lead time for developing related tech-
nology (e.g., pollution control equipment). It is not necessarily
There are exceptions; for instance, many federal agencies are now re-
quired to prepare impact statements which establish the manner in which
their regulatory policies will affect the environment.
11
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limited to already existing systems; an environmental assessment can be
performed on systems still at the conceptual stage of development (i.e.,
those in which technical feasibility is being theoretically explored
without any hardware necessarily available). It is not restricted to
specific geographic location; in fact, an environmental assessment could
have as on-e of its goals site selection.
Importance of Feedback Loops
Because of the multidisciplinary nature of environmental assessment pro-
grains, effective feedback loops are essential. Their major purpose is to
ensure that data are transferred rapidly and efficiently between experts
in the various scientific and engineering disciplines involved in the
energy system design and analysis. Figure 3 highlights areas where feed-
back is important.
THE LEVELS OF EFFORT REQUIRED FOR AN ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
Basically, the assessment parallels the physical processes associated
with any pollutant source: emitted pollutants are identified and quan-
tified (if possible); the transport (and conversion) of the pollutants
is investigated to indicate the sphere of influence; and the projected
sphere of influence is examined to determine the potential impact.
The major tasks in an environmental assessment are summarized below:
• Integrate Environmental Assessment with System Development -
The first step is to define the scope of the environmental
assessment, and this obviously depends on the stage to which
the system has developed. The technical literature must be
reviewed to determine the state-of-the-art understanding of
the system. Various options in which the system may be used
should be identified. Goals for the assessment program
should be established.
• Process Characterization and Waste Stream Analysis - All
potential pollutants from the process should be identified.
On the basis of source tests, available pilot plant data,
12
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materials and energy balances, or theoretical calculations,
the effluent streams from an operation should be character-
ized to indicate where and in what quantities potentially
hazardous compounds could be discharged.
Estimate Pollution From Associated Development - In many
cases, the pollution from the actual construction of an
energy facility or the land development associated with
its existence can cause substantial environmental prob-
lems — sometimes more severe than those produced from
the effluent streams of the energy facility. These in-
direct pollution effects need to be evaluated.
Estimate the Sphere of Influence - Either real or hypo-
thetical sites can be used to estimate the sphere of
influence of the energy system. Each site should be
characterized as to its topography, hydrology, and
climatology. Federal and state data banks can be con-
sulted to determine the prevailing ambient concentra-
tions of pollutants of interest. Based on this infor-
mation, scaled emission rates can be combined with
dispersion models to predict changes in ambient
concentrations.
Assess Environmental Impact - Within the estimated sphere
of influence for each proposed site, the potential pollu-
tant impact should be established using state-of-the-art
information on both biological and materials effects of
pollutants.
The level of effort expended on each of the tasks will vary with the
stage of development of the energy system. For example, in studying
a system still at the pilot plant stage, process characterization and
waste stream analysis would probably be the predominant task. Estimat-
ing pollution from associated development and estimating the overall
sphere of influence might be conducted only to the extent of identify-
ing potential problems as opposed to providing quantitative estimates
of the problems.
The correspondence between assessment tasks and the various stages of
energy system development are summarized in Table 1.
13
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Table 1. MATRIX RELATING VARIOUS ASSESSMENT TASKS TO STAGES OF SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
\
\Jate»«»eat
\ t a* It*
\
\
\
Stage of\
developzeotV
\
Conceptual
• taje
Laboratory
bench
apparatus
Pilot plint
Desonstrat loo
plant
Tull ic*l*
coanercial
plant
with ty&tem development
Identify
goal*
o
0
o
0
0
Identify
opt ion*
O
0
0
o
A
Send*
Among
Option*
A
A
O
O
A
vaite stream analysis
Unit
operation*
and
related
actlviclea
O
o
o
o
0
Identify
conceivable
pollutant*
O
o
0
o
o
Deternina
etaiBblon
ratea
A
A
O
O
O
Etitlra.ite pollution froii
associated development
Develop
regional
data
A
A
A
O
O
Growth
projec-
A
A
A
O
O
Identify
pollution
A
A
A
0
O
Eitlnate ipher* of influence
Describe
existing
envlron-
A
A
A
0
0
Identify
pathway!
for
pollutant
A
A
O
O
O
Use
model*
to
predict
ambient
concen-
A
A
O
O
0
Aabient
A
A
A
O
O
Avficat
erwlronoenxal Inpacta
Identify
source/
receptor
relatloa-
•Mp«
A
A
0
O
O
Evaluate
envlron-
cental
ror.»e-
quence*
A
A
O
O
O
HT*i O • Indicate* taik which uaoally *pplle*.
A • Indicate* taak which •*/ only apply la COM c**».
-------
GOALS WITHIN AN ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT PROGRAM
An environmental assessment is primarily a planning tool. Its purpose,
in many respects, is to uncover unexpected problems at the earliest pos-
sible time within the development program. In many cases, environmental
assessments will be conducted on energy systems for which commerical ap-
plication is still many years away; therefore, the assessment will provide
maximum benefit if the goals or objectives within the program are estab-
lished with a futuristic perspective. In many cases, this may involve
making assumptions about future environmental regulations or source per-
formance standards. The better the coordination between design engineers,
public health specialists, regulatory agencies, land use planners, etc.,
the more useful will be the assumptions used in designing and executing
environmental assessment programs.
The following are a few suggestions for the types of objectives one should
consider for an environmental assessment program:
• Assist in the development of new source performance
standards.-*
• Identify potential (perhaps unexpected) pollutants via
screening tests of effluent streams.
• Identify control measures (either process modifications
or add-on technology) which could reduce concentrations
of potential pollutants.
• Design tests to determine the consequences of trans-
ferring a pollutant from one medium to another.
• Predict acceptable limits for emission rates using
scenarios based on known or assumed pollution impact.
Outline of a Sample Environmental Assessment
The following provides an example of a relatively small-scale environ-
mental assessment program. The project is designed primarily as a paper
15
-------
study which will be used to lay the groundwork for a much more compre-
hensive assessment.
Preliminary Environmental Assessment of Coal-Fired
Fluidized Bed Combustion Process
Objectives and Scope of the Project
The objective of this project is to conduct a preliminary evalua-
tion of the potential pollutants in all variations of the coal-
fired fluidized bed combustion process. This will include:
(1) identifying all conceivable pollutants which could be emitted
from the fluidized bed combustion process; (2) providing an
estimate of the concentration levels at which these pollutants
could be emitted plus an evaluation of their relative environ-
mental hazard; and, (3) identifying means which could potentially
be used to control any pollutants formed at undesirably high"
levels.
The project can be divided into three tasks each of which is
described in more detail below.
1. Identify Conceivable Pollutants - The technical objectives
here are twofold:
a. To review all fluidized bed combustion programs being
conducted by either government agencies or private
corporations. The aim here is to identify, for each
process, key parameters (temperature, flow rate, particle
size) which could influence the generation of pollutants.
b. To identify all pollutants which could be emitted from
fluidized bed boilers. Based on the materials involved
(coal, bed material, combustion air) and the important
process parameters, a list of conceivable pollutants can
be generated for each major process. The location of the
pollutants (i.e., air, water, solid waste effluent streams)
should also be identified.
Based on work underway in the Advanced Process Branch of the
Energy Assessment and Control Division, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Industrial and Environmental Research
Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
16
-------
2. Specify Important Pollutants - This would involve a more
•detailed analysis of the fluidized bed process — including
calculations and application of data where available — to
provide some basis for determining the levels at which the
potential pollutants listed in (1) could be emitted from
various types of fluidized bed combustion processes.
The concern here is with factors such as fluidizing velocity,
particle size, turbulence, bed inhomogeneity, etc., and the
manner in which they will affect phenomena such as vaporiza-
tion, microscopic catalysis, thermadytiamic equilibria,
solubility, etc. The object is to use the above types of in-
formation (and whatever assumptions are necessary), to provide
at least an order of magnitude estimate of the concentrations
of various pollutants in the process effluent streams (air,
water, and solid waste).
3. Suggest Possible Control Measures - The technical objective of
this task is to suggest means for reducing emissions of all
important pollutants in effluent streams from fluidized
bed combustion processes. .
The first step is to identify what concentration levels of
the various pollutants are required to make the effluent
streams acceptable. This will include a review of existing
and proposed source performance standards and state-of-the-art
pollution impact investigations. Various plant sizes will also
be considered. Once this is completed, a survey of currently
existing and proposed control techniques can be made to assess
their compatibility with fluidized bed combustion processes.
Control techniques which may be considered include: material
pretreatment, process modifications or add-on processes. A
ranking system can then be developed to cover the range of
"most" to "least" compatible control techniques.
As mentioned previously, the above outline of a sample energy system
assessment is a preliminary project aimed at providing the groundwork for
a more comprehensive investigation. In addition to updating work in the
preliminary assessment, the comprehensive program would likely include
tasks such as the following:
17
-------
• Identification of missing information and the design of a
program to acquire such information
• Design and execution of source sampling and ambient monitoring
program(s)
• Review and analysis of existing fluidized-bed combustion (FBC)
process engineering and cost data
• Determination of emission goals for FBC processes
• Analysis of control efficiency and cost of varying levels of
control efficiency
• General program support:
- Maintenance of a system for storage and retrieval of
assessment data
- Technical review and evaluation of related projects
- Preparation of reports as required
- Participation in future program planning.
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT REPORTS
Because rapid and efficient technology transfer will be one of the primary
benefits of environmental assessments, the reporting of information is an
important aspect of the overall effort. A unique and rigorous format for
all reports is unwarranted; however, each report, at a minimum, should
include the following major topics:
• An introduction to provide perspective on the project
• An explicit statement of the project's goals
• A summary of conclusions and recommendations
• An overview of the activities in the project (including a
listing of all value judgments used in making conclusions
and recommendations)
• A presentation of the data compiled in the project.
18
-------
REFERENCES
1. Council on Environmental Quality. Statements on Proposed Federal
Actions Affecting the Environment. Fed Reg. 36:1398, January 28,
1971; also, Fed Reg. 36:7724, April 23, 1971.
2. Council on Environmental Quality. Preparation of Environmental
Impact Statements, Guidelines. Fed Reg. 38:20550, August 1, 1973.
3. Cuffe, S. T. Development of Federal Standards of Performance. Office
of Air Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina. Presented at U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency Stationary Source Combustion Symposium, Atlanta,
Georgia. September 19, 1975.
19
-------
SECTION III
PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION AND WASTE STREAM ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
The estimation or compilation of process emissions is usually one of
the most important tasks of any environmental assessment. To evaluate
the effects of an energy system on the environment, the physical and
chemical form of pollutants and the nature of the waste streams (air,
water or solid) must be categorized. The purpose of this section is to
discuss methodologies and necessary background information that can be
utilized to develop a comprehensive understanding of process emissions.
The emission rates of pollutants from the various unit operations are
crucial for estimating the sphere of influence of the energy system and
for evaluating its potential environmental impact (as discussed in
Sections V and VI respectively). Potential emission rates should be
determined in the initial stages of development of an energy system
because they will often serve as criteria for implementing research and
development programs related to the process itself, developing new con-
trol technologies, or undertaking environmental health studies to fill
data gaps.
The degree to which process emissions studies are pursued is dependent
upon the goals of the assessment, which may vary from system to system.
In conventional systems, for example, where much data and technical
expertise is available, comprehensive assessments can be successfully
21
-------
carried out. Assessments of advanced systems, on the other hand, may
require more modest goals which are defined by the availability and
reliability of data and/or existing technology.
Regardless of the system complexity, the stage of development, or the
projected level-of-effort, all assessments will require the application
of a definite methodology based on sound engineering and scientific
principles for determining system emissions. This section discusses the
activities necessary to develop such an inventory. The intent is to
familiarize the reader with principles and techniques necessary to char-
acterize processes and to measure or estimate waste stream compositions.
This section is divided into the following subsections:
• Methodology for Process Evaluation
• Description of Emission Sources in Terms of Unit
Operations
• Methods for Determining Emission Rates
• The Influence of Abnormal Operating Conditions.
The activities discussed here must not be performed in isolation; they
must relate to the other tasks in the assessment (e.g., the information
developed on waste stream compositions should be in a form which is
compatible with siting decisions, needs for further control devices,
and scale-up projections).
METHODOLOGY FOR PROCESS EVALUATION
The flow chart in Figure 4 outlines a methodology which can be used to
gather information on source emissions. The methodology should be appli-
cable to systems at any stage of development. Listed below are brief
summaries of the tasks outlined in Figure 4.
22
-------
[ DEFINE SITE AND PROCESS |
ANALYZE PROCESS IN TERMS OF UNIT OPERATIONS
IDENTIFY POLLUTANTS IN EACH UNIT OPERATION
IDENTIFY MEDIA OF EACH POLLUTANT
DETERMINE
RA\V MATERIAL INPUT
DETERMINE POLLUTANT LOADINGS
•4-
ASSESS
INFLUENCE
OF FUGITIVE
SOURCES
ASSESS
EFFECTS OF
CHANGES IN
OPERATING
PARAMETERS
CHANGE FORM
OF POLLUTANT
ASSESS
EFFECT OF
CONTROL
DEVICES
CHANGE MEDIA
OF POLLUTANT
ASSESS
COMBINED
EFFECTS
ASSESS
CROSS-MEDIA
EFFECTS
assess
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONVERSION
PFIOCESS
LIST POSSIBLE POLLUTANTS AND EXPECTED LOADINGS
Figure 4. Methodology for process evaluation
-------
Define Site and Process? - In defining the process, topics
to be covered include purpose of the system (e.g., space
heating, electric power, etc.), materials requirements,
development schedule, potential sites, etc. In the early
stages of system development, site selection will often be
of low priority; relevant geographic features inherently
associated with a specific technology, such as proximity
to water, can probably suffice to define the site.
Analyze Process in Terms of Unit: Operations - The analysis
of a system in terms of basic unit operations insures that
the similarities and differences between systems are high-
lighted. Process breakdowns in terms of unit operations
are the core of any process characterization and, therefore,
must be thoroughly developed at any level of assessment.
Identify Potential Pollutants - Based on the chemical com-
position of the raw materials and pertinent process param-
eters (temperature, pressure, etc.), a list of conceivable
pollutants can be developed. Once these have been identi-
fied, engineering and scientific evaluations can be made
to determine at what concentration levels these chemicals
could exist in various effluent streams.
Identify Media of Each Pollutant - The eventual destination
of the pollutants must be identified. Some compounds may
form as vapors in one unit operation but condense in another
and hence leave the system with the solid waste.
Determine Pollutant Loadings - Pollutant emissions and their
initial destination can usually be derived directly from the
process breakdown, although the means used to determine emis-
sion factors will vary from system to system, as well as
with the current stage of development. Emission estimates
for processes at the conceptual level will necessarily be
compiled from calculations or from analogies with unit oper-
ations appearing in well-characterized energy systems. For
systems at the pilot plant or commercial stage of development,
source tests can be performed to accurately measure pollutant
loadings. However, even with source test data, estimates may
have to be used to predict changes in emission rates result-
ing from variations in operating conditions. Methods for
estimating emissions are discussed in later subsections.
Assess Influence of Fugitive Sources - Fugitive emissions are
sources of pollutants which cannot easily be controlled.
These emissions in general are not directly related to pro-
cess operating conditions (e.g., dust from coal piles or oil
shale crushing).
24
-------
Assess Changes in Operating Parameters - Changes in
operating parameters can modify the pollutant output,
thus requiring a retesting of the effluent stream for
changes in concentration, or for the appearance of new
pollutants. For instance, in fossil fuel combustion,
the NOX emissions are dependent on both the operating
temperature and excess air. Therefore, if the flame
temperature or amount of excess air supplied to the
flame is altered, the stack gases should be resampled
for changes in NOX concentration.
Assess Effects of Control Devices - Control devices can
change both the media of a pollutant and its toxicity
level. The systems planner should be aware of the trade-
offs involved in transferring a pollutant from one medium
to another. For example, sulfur oxides can be scrubbed
from stacks by a lime or limestone slurry to form a
sludge. By utilizing limestone scrubbing, the plant gen-
erates approximately three times the solid waste it would
produce without scrubbing. Hence, reduced gaseous emis-
sions are traded off for an increase in solid waste.
Assess Combined Effects - Combined effects arise when
several different unit operations discharge into one
effluent stream. In general, combined effects are more
important in waste water than in air because wastewater
sinks are smaller; hence dangerous concentration levels
can build up faster. For example, boiler blovdown,
process water, and simple drainage frequently collect
in a common water settling pond. Less commonly, plumes
from two stacks can combine in the air, depending upon
prevailing wind conditions. Combined effects can either
have a beneficial or a negative impact in terms of envi-
ronmental interactions. An example of a beneficial
impact would be the combination of alkaline and acidic
process wastes to produce a neutral effluent. An example
of a negative impact would be the accelerated photochem-
ical oxidation of S0? in the presence of hydrocarbons.
Assess Cross-Media Effects - Cross-media effects arise from
a pollutant in one media being deposited in the same or
modified form in a second media. An example of cross-media
effects on a site is the water runoff from a coal pile.
The media crossed in this case would be solid to water, and
the pollutants could be particulates, or dissolved inorganic
or organic chemicals washed from the coal.
25
-------
• Assess Environmental Conversion Processes - Environmental
conversion processes occur when a pollutant reacts in some
manner in the outside environment. Thus, care must be
taken to differentiate between primary emissions and sec-
ondary products. An example is the conversion of gaseous
S(>2 to solid sulfate particulates after oxidation in the
atmosphere. Other chemicals prone to conversion are NOX,
hydrocarbons, NH3, and sometimes free metals.
The environmental impact includes not only emissions to the environment,
but also the effect of resources removed from the immediate surroundings.
Factors such as cooling water utilization (with attendant lowering of
water levels); on-site mining of coal, oil shale, etc.; or tapping of
geothermal wells (resulting in possible seismic and geochemical altera-
tions), are also of environmental concern. As discussed earlier (page 3),
this document is primarily concerned with on-site operations; those activ-
ities occurring for example at remote mining or waste dumping sites are
not discussed at length. However, Sections IV and V discuss, to a limited
extent, some of the problems involved with resource utilization due to
direct (process dependent) and indirect (related to associated develop-
ment) causes.
UNIT OPERATIONS ANALYSIS
The first step in the analysis of any energy system is a systems break-
down into the basic unit operations. The unit operations concept in
chemical engineering is based upon the principle that widely disparate
processes can be reduced to a series of simple physical or chemical
operations which are based upon the same engineering practices, regard-
1 2
less of the overall process. ' Common unit operations found in energy
systems include but are not necessarily limited to:
• Transportation of gases, liquids, and solids
• Heat transfer
• Chemical reaction
26
-------
• Screening
• Drying
• Distillation
• Grinding
• Extraction.
The breakdown of processes into their unit operations is common engineer-
ing practice. A simplified and limited scheme for classification of unit
operations encountered in energy systems is shown in Figure 5 in order to
facilitate discussions on the remainder of this Section. The flow chart
in Figure 5 is limited to usual on-site activity and hence does not in-
clude unit operations for mining or product utilization. However, for
processes in which these activities may occur on site (e.g., low Btu
gasification may involve on-site product utilization), the on-site flow
diagram must be arranged accordingly.
A Sample Unit Operations Scheme
A unit operations flow chart for coal-fired fluidized bed combustion is
provided in Figure 6 to illustrate the complexity of a typical system.
The numbering scheme identifies the mass flows within the system. Each
operation and control unit must be analyzed in terms of input and output
streams and operating conditions. The use of unit operations allows
a complex process to be described in terms of a series of relatively
simple operations, thus focusing attention on the effluent streams from
each operation. By tracing emissions to the unit operations, decisions
as to where pollution control devices may be needed are simplified.
27
-------
00
RAW MATERIALS
STORAGE
,, , it
If
TRANSPORTATION
"'"' W
PREPARATION
C RAIL CARS J
HOPPERS
( GRINDING )
CONVEYERS ) ( PRETREATMENT
CONVERSION /COMBUSTION
BY-PRODUCTS
JSTION J (pESULFUfll2ATION\
PRODUCTS/ BY-PRODUCTS
]
PRODUCT I -
UPGRADING . H
h» .«• —p- «— M--I lll«l 1.1 II. '• .!-.— -.•.••
fwETHANATION J C PIPELINES J
rHYOROGENATIONJ ( TANKS J
AUXILARY FACILITIES
- UNIT OPERATIONS
- EXAMPLES
Figure 5. Simplified scheme for unit operations of an energy system
-------
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Figure 6. Schematic diagram of an atmospheric pressure fluidized bed combustion system
(reference 3)
-------
DETERMINATION OF EMISSION RATES
Inventory of Reactants and Products
Mass balances through each unit operation, as well as through the entire
facility, should be made to ensure that the fate of all raw material feed
constituents can be identified. To evaluate the overall emission rates
of pollutants from a facility, each unit operation must be analyzed in
terms of input feed rate and composition, operating conditions (tempera-
ture, pressure, physical reaction parameters), and destination of output
streams.
To illustrate the type of information needed for preparing mass balances,
Table 2 is a partial listing of a waste and input stream inventory which
can be compiled for some of the mass flows in the fluidized bed combus-
tion unit shown in Figure 6. For the total inventory, Table 2 would in-
clude data for each of the 57 streams shown in Figure 6. In Table 2, all
quantities are normalized to the input coal feed. A compilation of this
sort, listing solid, liquid, and gaseous mass loading and temperature of
each transfer system in the process, is a natural outgrowth of the de-
tailed unit operations flow chart. This information will usually be
available from engineering studies and/or measurements already conducted
during process feasibility and operating studies. In addition to stream
composition outflow, raw material loadings and chemical composition must
be ascertained to complete the process mass balance. This process stream
characterization is the foundation on which the "inventory" phase of the
assessment is built.
So far, the activities required to characterize the process have been
those which encompass a standard engineering evaluation and thus are
normally carried out before, and perhaps independently of, an environ-
mental assessment. Other tasks involved in an assessment program, such
30
-------
Table 2. PARTIAL LIST OF MATERIAL FLOWS FROM AN ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION SYSTEM''1
Input/outflow stream
1. Coal feed to bedsb
2. Limestone feed to beds
3. Coal storage
4. Air emissions from coal
storage
5. Coal pile drainage
6. Coal feed to dryer
7. Air emissions from coal
dryer before primary
control
Material
Total
1.0000
0.2709
1940
0.0008
0.0004
1.0
O.ni
Carbon
0.7120
1390
0.0005
0.712
0.0071
Ash
0.085
160
0.0006
0.085
0.00085
Sulfur
0.043
84
0.0004
0.000003-
0.0006
0.043
0.00043
Gas
-
-
-
_d
-
-
1.2
Liquid
-
-
-
. -
0.078
-
™"
Temp . ,
oF
. 80
80
80
80
80
80
160
This information was generated from data in reference 3.
All mass flows are in Ibs material/lb coal. A 30 MW FBC facility requires
28,000 Ibs coal/hr.
c
Storage capacity is not a material flow.
Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons from spontaneous combustion - amount unknown.
-------
as thermal efficiency calculations and mass balances on certain chemical
species, may also be carried out during the technical development phase.
In addition to mass balances, heat balances should be performed for se-
lected process steps because they are environmentally important in deter-
mining which unit operations will generate thermal emissions affecting
.the ambient surroundings.
The reasons for preparing detailed material balance and heat balance
tables are threefold. First, they are a succinct way of presenting
process parameters for each unit operation. Secondly, the analysis of
input and output streams of each unit operation allows computation of
the elemental composition of the effluent streams. Finally, they pro-
vide a method of assuring that no significant sources of emissions are
overlooked.
Identify Conceivable Pollutants
Various federal, state, and local lavs regulate the discharge of specific
pollutants to ambient water and air. In addition to these emission lim-
itations, ambient air and water standards have been enacted to protect
the integrity of these media. The temporal requirements include limits
on hourly, daily, and annual average concentrations and, in some cases,
a certain permitted frequency of violation. These regulations are
frequently updated and eventually new species v^ill be added to the list
of pollutants to be monitored. (Relevant regulations are summarized in
Appendix D.)
An environmental assessment should go beyond merely insuring compliance
with present legal requirements. It is important to anticipate the
influence of future laws and regulations which could limit certain
emissions.
32
-------
Decisions about the relative importance of various process emissions
must be based-upon their respective concentrations and upon state-of-
the-art scientific information about their potential environmental im-
pact. Although specific quantitative source/receptor relationships must
be investigated for each system, generalizations based upon experience
with operational systems can alert the user to potentially important
emissions. The use of other environmental assessments and environmental
impact statements on related systems or similar sites can provide valu-
able sources of information and should always be consulted for background
information. (A useful series of preliminary environmental assessments
is provided in references 4-10.)
In conceptual, bench scale, and pilot plant assessments where limited
waste stream data are available, decisions must be made regarding poten-
tially important emissions and the need for appropriate control devices
and/or process modifications to control such emissions. In these cases
some knowledge of expected pollutants is necessary to facilitate process
acceptability and planning judgments. In assessments of systems at
later stages of development, in which comprehensive source test pro-
grams can be carried out, knowledge of potential pollutants provides a
checklist to insure that no crucial effluents remain undetected.
Figure 7, which is based on a classification scheme for hazardous mate-
rials generated in the extraction and processing of coal and oil, illus-
trates the diversity of conceivable pollutants which could result either
directly or indirectly from energy system emissions. Compounds such
as carbonyl compounds, hydrocarbons, or phenols, if found, are likely to
occur within the various process streams of energy systems. Compounds
such as hydroperoxides, nitrosamines, lactones, or halocarbons could
form via reactions of process effluents in the ambient environment.
A methodology has been developed for classifying process streams accord-
ing to their potential for generating harmful chemicals. For each
33
-------
ACIDS a ANHYDRIDES
O
-C-OH
LACTONES
ALCOHOLS
AMINES
R-OH
R -
INORGANIC SALTS
M-X
CARBONYL COMPOUNDS
*
•— Q «™
COMBUSTION GASES
eq. co; scx ; NOX
EPOXIDES
ETHERS
0 - R
HALOCARBONS
R—X
HETEROCYCLIC
HYDROCARBONS
R - H
HYDROPEROXIDES
OH
I
R— C- 0- 0- C-R
I I
OH
I
-C-C-C-0-
L_0-l
NITROCOMPOUNDS
R - NO,
NITROSAMINES
OZONIOES
PEROXIDE
N- N = 0
-A-
0-0
O O
II II
R-C-0 -0-C-R
PHENOLS
POLYCHLORINATED-POLYNUCLEAR
AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS
POLYNUCLEAR AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS
SULFUR COMPOUNDS
TRACE ELEMENTS
ORGANOMETALLICS
R -Me
PARTICULATES (INCLUDING SIZE
DISTRIBUTION)
CYANIDES
-C = N
Figure 7. Classification for hazardous materials generated
in the extraction and processing of coal and oil
34
-------
stream, potential pollutants such as those shown in Figure 7 are cate-
gorized as: known hazardous (KH), suspected hazardous (SH), known
present (KP), and suspected present (SP).
These ratings are then combined for each effluent stream in descending
order of importance, as KP-KH, KP-SH, SP-KH. A grid is prepared, listing
the waste stream from each unit operation versus the pollutant class.
The grid is then filled in with the pollutant rating for each waste
stream as shown in Figure 8. The results of this analysis provide a
convenient display of the potential pollutant emissions for each unit
operation. This allows the system planner an easy means of identifying
both the type and source of potential pollutants.
Determination of Emission Rates
Source Tests - Source tests involve the actual measurement of the chemi-
cal composition and flow parameters of effluent streams. They are an
essential part of any overall environmental assessment program because
they are the only means of providing definitive answers to the question
of which pollutants are being emitted at what rates from which sources.
A methodology for conducting source tests on an energy system is outlined
on the diagram shown in Figure 9. This methodology can be applied to any
unit operation of an energy system. The two major aspects of this method-
ology are sampling and analysis. Appendix A contains a general discussion
of the approach which should be followed in utilizing the sampling and
analysis techniques which are presently used in source testing.
The level of effort which is needed to adequately characterize a process
and its effluent streams will depend on both the developmental status of
the system and the goals of the assessment.
Estimates - Although comprehensive source tests for specific effluents
are the most definitive way of compiling an emissions inventory, in many
35
-------
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8ASIC STREAM DATA
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CKARACTEIUZATIO.V
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SEXI-Q'JA:;TITATIVS
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:iFIC IDENTIFICATION OR
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J OF THE TRUE COIICF.SIRATIOS.
(k> QUA-VTITATIVT TO WITiliN A FACTOR OF
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Figure 9. Diagram summarizing the types of basic stream data to be collected for environmental
assessments (taken from reference 12)
-------
cases, selective measurements, theoretical calculations, and "engineering
experience" will suffice for technologies in early stages of development.
Even for systems upon which extensive source tests are made, engineering
estimates must be used to predict changes in emissions caused by modifi-
cations in operating conditions, alternate raw materials, start-up, shut-
down, and system abnormalities.
A decision must always be made whether to attempt a calculation of the
pollutant emission concentration or to measure it experimentally. Fre-
quently, conditions encountered in functioning systems are so complex
that measurement, rather than calculation, will be more cost-effective.
However, even if it is decided that pollutant emissions will be deter-
mined by source testing, it is still necessary to estimate pollutant
loadings to provide background information needed in determining sampling
requirements. If emission rates are calculated, instead of actually mea-
sured, the calculations should build from a simple base and proceed
through more complex tasks only as necessary.
Worst Case Analysis - Emission factors and emissions compilations exist
. 13
for only a limited number of pollutants, unit operations and systems.
In cases where emission factors are unavailable and the need for source
tests is questionable, worst case analyses can be used.
In worst case analyses, it is assumed that the entire amount of the ele-
ment or chemical of interest will be released to the environment. The
impact of this maximum emission is then compared to some arbitrary stan-
dard (legal, scientific, social — see Section VI). If the impact of the
worst case is shown to be environmentally acceptable for the pollutant
of concern, then it is not necessary to apply more complex estimation
procedures.
Two examples of the use of worst case analysis will prove useful. The
first step in a worst case analysis of mercury emissions from a fluidized
38
-------
bed coal combustion apparatus is to calculate the maximum concentration
of mercury in the lowest heating value coal. This will determine the
maximum flow of mercury into the combustor per unit of heat output. It
is then assumed that all the mercury is vaporized and emitted from the
stack. Knowing the flow rate of flue gas, an emission rate for mercury
can be calculated. This rate is then compared to the maximum allowed
emission rate (if one exists). It can also be used in simple atmospheric
diffusion models to predict an ambient concentration which can then be
compared with some standard.
Worst case analysis can also be used when a trace element may form sev-
eral different compounds, each having a different level of toxicity and,
hence, environmental concern. Here the compound having the highest level
of toxicity should always be assumed and the emission rate compared to
the appropriate standard. Analyses of this type can often eliminate the
need to perform expensive and time consuming measurements.
OTHER PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS OF INTEREST
The preceding discussion has been concerned with the normal operating
conditions of the system. However, an environmental assessment must
determine the effects of abnormal conditions, such as start up/shut down,
load swings, and accidents.
Emissions during these conditions must be compared with normal system
emissions to determine their relative importance. The possibility of
producing new pollutants under abnormal operating conditions must also
be considered. For example, one might expect that emissions of poly-
nuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, the result of incomplete combustion, will
be higher during start up or shut down than during normal operating con-
ditions of a combustion system. However, it must be determined whether
the conditions of start up or shut down are long or frequent enough to
39
-------
generate significant levels of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. This
consideration will be of more concern in an energy generating facility
used for swing loads than in a base load facility.
As abnormal operating conditions are quite system dependent, it is impos-
sible to discuss all possible abnormal events and their consequences in
a general document such as this. The most economical way to insure that
all operating conditions have been considered is through the use of check-
lists which itemize various possible operating modes and the process
parameters which may change in switching from mode to mode.
REFERENCES
1. McCabe, W.L., and J.C. Smith. Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering
2nd ed. McGraw-Hill. N.Y. 1967.
2. Foust, A.S. Principles of Unit Operations. John Wiley and Sons.
N.Y. 1960.
3. Pope, Evans, and Robbins, Inc. Multicell Fluidized-Bed Boiler:
Design Construction and Test Programs. Office of Coal Research,
U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. Report Number
OCR-90-INT-1. August 1974.
4. Cowherd, C., M. Marcus, C.M. Guenther and J.L. Spigarelli. Hazardous
Emissions Characteristics of Utility Boilers. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Raleigh, N.C. Publication Number EPA-650/2-75-066*
July 1975.
5. Magee, E.M., C.E. Jahnig, and H. Shaw. Evaluation of Pollution Con-
trol in Fossil Fuel Conversion Processes: Koppers-Totzek Process.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Raleigh, North Carolina.
Publication Number EPA-650/2-74-009-a. January 1974.
6. Evaluation of Pollution Control in Fossil Fuel Conversion Processes:
Synthane Process. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Raleigh,
North Carolina. Publication Number EPA-650/2-74-009-b. June 1974.
7. Evaluation of Pollution Control in Fossil Fuel Conversion Processes:
Lurgi Process. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Raleigh, North
Carolina. Publication Number EPA-650/2-74-009-C. July 1974.
40
-------
8. Evaluation of Pollution Control in Fossil Fuel Conversion Processes:
COn Acceptor Process. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Raleigh,
North Carolina. Publication Number KPA-650/2-74-009-d. December 1974.
9. Evaluation of Pollution Control in Fossil Fuel Processes: Bi-Gas
Process. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Raleigh, North
Carolina. Publication Number EPA-650/2-74-009-g. May 1975.
10. Bombaugh, K.J. E.G. Cavanaugh (Radian Corporation), and A. Jefcoat
(EPA). A Systematic Approach to the Problem of Characterizing the
Emission Potential of Energy. Conversion Processes. (Presented at
The 80th National Meeting of the AICHE. Boston, Massachusetts.
September, 1975.)
11. Cavanaugh, E.G., C.E. Burklin, J.C. Mckerman, H.E. Lebowitz, S.S. Tarn,
and G.R. Smithson. Potentially Hazardous Emissions from Extraction
and Processing of Coal and Oil. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Raleigh, N.C. Publication Number EPA-650/2-75-038. 1975.
12. Tucker, W.G., S.T. Bunas, J.A. Dorsey, J.A. HcSorley and M. Samfield.
Environmental Assessment Guideline Document. Draft Document. Indus-
trial and Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. May 1975.
13. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. Second Edition.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Publication Number AP-42.
April 1973.
41
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SECTION IV
ESTIMATE POLLUTION FROM ASSOCIATED DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
The development of an energy system at a particular location can poten-
tially induce changes in population, economic activity, land usage, and
life style. These changes can produce identifiable environmental effects
which should be included in any overall assessment. The manner in which
the new facility can influence the extent of secondary growth that may
occur, as well as the timing of such growth, is the subject of this sec-
tion. The section has two major objectives:
• To formulate a methodology for projecting the magnitude
of the induced changes in population and economic activity
resulting from a major energy project
• To formulate a methodology for evaluating the environmental
affects associated with these changes.
The overall influence of these activities on the environment is labeled
"indirect pollution."
The methodology for projecting the magnitude of induced changes in popula-
tion and economic activity has three major elements:
• Identification of development patterns that are most
likely to occur
• Formulation of employment and population multipliers
to be used in growth projection
43
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e Projection of natural resource requirements (e.g., land
and water resources) and human resource requirements (e.g.,
public.services) that are associated with the identified
growth and development patterns.
The methodology for evaluating potential environmental effects is aimed
at developing indicators of environmental impact and measures of quali-
tative change. In some cases, it will be possible to project emissions
or effluents that are likely to result directly from induced growth.
Where this is possible, the information can then be used as input into
an air or water predictive model and an actual change in ambient quality
can be identified. In other cases, however, the impact will not be so
straightforward and must be defined in terms of affected animals, land,
or water resource use, per se. This second category of impact provides
an indication of additional environmental effects that could occur under
certain conditions. For example, land-use alteration resulting in changes
in water runoff patterns could affect ground or surface waters, or dis-
ruption of vegetation may increase fugitive dust emissions from bared
soil.
METHODOLOGY FOR PROJECTING INDUCED GROWTH
General Approach
Each energy project is viewed as causing growth directly and indirectly in
employment and population within the project area. Growth will generally
be associated with at least three major phases of the project: the con-
struction phase, the prototype plant operation stage, and the mature in-
dustry phase. Induced growth will require the commitment of land' and
water resources to housing, transportation, and public services for the
new and expanded residential, commercial, and industrial sectors. At a
minimum, it is desirable to identify the major spatial patterns or areas
in which growth is likely to occur.
44
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The environmental effects associated with induced growth will impact
across air, water, and land as effluents and emissions are generated,
and as existing resources are committed for alternative uses.
Elements of Assessment Process
The process described above can be viewed in terms of six major elements
which together comprise a methodology for assessing indirect pollution
associated with advanced energy development. These elements are:
• Establishment of a regional data base
• Identification of key developmental phases of the project
• Formulation of alternative growth projections, including
- Projection of direct employment associated with
each developmental phase
- Projection of indirect or induced employment
associated with each development phase
- Projection of total population increase asso-
ciated with direct and induced employment in
each developmental phase
• Identification of alternative spatial allocations in
which induced growth is most likely to occur
• Identification of growth in support facilities, services
and associated land and water resource requirements
• Evaluation of environmental impacts upon air, water, land,
and noise associated with alternative projections of phased,
spatially allocated growth.
This six-element assessment process is depicted in Figures 10 and 11.
Figure 10 illustrates the first three elements in which alternative
regional projections of induced growth are formulated. Figure 11 uses
the data from Figure 10 as input into a growth allocation and impact
evaluation process.
45
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LAND USE
POPULATION
ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
TRANSPORTATION
NATURAL RESOURCE BASE
METEOROLOGY
LOCATION
REGIONAL
DATA
BASE
CONSTRUCTION
PHASE
PROTOTYPE PLANT
OPERATION PHASE
V
V
MATURE INDUSTRY
PHASE
DIRECT
EMPLOYMENT
DEVELOPMENT
PHASES
V
INDIRECT OR INDUCED
EMPLOYMENT
SERVICE EMPLOYMENT
eg'-CONSTRUCTION
RETAIL
SELECTED SERVICES
PUBLIC SERVICE
INDUCED INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
eg: INPUT-SUPPLYING INDUSTRIES
REFINING INDUSTRIES
ENERGY-INTENSIVE INDUSTRIES
BY-PRODUCT USING INDUSTRIES
WASTE HEAT USERS
WASTE RECOVERY INDUSTRIES
GROWTH
'PROJECTIONS
Figure 10. Methodology for projections of induced growth and development
-------
REGIONAL
DATA BASE
POPULATION
PROJECTION
INDUSTRY ACTIVITY
'PROJECTION
ALTERNATIVE SPATIAL ALLOCATIONS
OF INDUCED GROWTH
(SAMPLE)
CONCENTRATED
MULTI -CLUSTERED
GROWTH SUPPORT FACILITIES
AND SERVICES
- HOUSING
- INDUSTRY
- CONVERGE
- TRANSPORTATION
— PUBLIC FACILITIES
• SCHOOLS,HEALTH,
GOVERNMENT,
« SOLID V/ASTE
. WATER
» OTHER
LAND RESOURCES
HLOUIRED
-RESIDENTIAL
— CC\'?/ERCiAL
— INDUSTRIAL
— PUBLIC SERVICES
WATER RESOURCES
REQUIRED
— RESIDENTIAL
— INDUSTRIAL
— COMMERCIAL
— PUBLIC SERVICES
\/
DISPERSED
SPATIAL
ALLOCATIONS
\/
OTHER REQUIREMENTS
— ENERGY
— SOLID WASTE
— SEWAGE
— TRANSPORTATION
\y
SUPPORT
FACILITIES ANO
RESOURCE
REQUIREMENTS
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
IMPACT
ASSESSMENT
Figure 11. Methodology for growth allocation and impact evaluation
-------
Constraints Upon Assessment
In view of the extensive amount of information necessary to evaluate
indirect pollution and the uncertain reliability of the projected growth
and spatial allocation estimates, an extensive analysis of indirect pol-
lution should be conducted only in certain situations, including the
following:
• Projects resulting in a rapid and/or fluctuating
increase in population
• An influx of population sufficient to severely
burden existing natural and human resources or
service systems
• Key resources in the ambient environment are either
highly sensitive to growth or already under stress
• A project is likely to induce growth in industries
that are associated with high pollution discharges
or with major landform disturbance.
In the following section the six major elements are described, and key
questions to be addressed in the assessment are identified. It should
be noted that analytical techniques for evaluating indirect pollution
effects are in initial stages of development and may require refinement
for application to a specific environmental assessr.ent project. Thus,
for certain of the elements, an analytical approach may be suggested
but not fully developed. In other cases, growth projection may require
extensive, often unavailable, data as input for the analysis. In cases
where input data is unavailable, it may be desirable to formulate a
number of alternate scenarios based on expert opinion. This alternate
scenario formulation permits analysis to take place in the face of con-
siderable uncertainty. One overall purpose of secondary pollution effect
assessments should be to identify situations in which the indirect effect
can reasonably be anticipated to violate an environmental law or regula-
tion. In anticipation of such situations, action may be taken to mitigafc
48
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effects through such measures as improved land use planning, improved
construction and land management practices, and phased expansion of
public services.
Discussion of Individual Assessment Elements
In this section the six elements of the secondary effect measurement
process are reviewed. The key questions requiring analysis are posed,
and methods applicable for use in analysis are discussed.
Establishment of a Regional Data Base - To evaluate the potential for
induced industrial development in an area in which an energy system may
be located, one must first know the baseline socioeconomic conditions.
Key factors which will affect the potential for induced development and
for which data should be obtained include: proximity to raw materials
and other inputs, transportation and transmission considerations, dis-
tance from existing population centers, proximity to market, sociopolit-
ical and legal considerations, federal policy, and existing land use
controls. For many of these factors data will be available to evaluate
the induced industrial development potential of the area.
Identification of Key Project Development Phases - Each energy system is
viewed as possessing at least three distinct developmental phases within
which induced population and economic growth are likely to occur.
• Construction Phase - characterized chiefly by the
Influx of construction workers; by additional employ-
ment in service industries linked to the increase in
construction activity; by increased population (e.g.,
families) associated with the influx of new workers;
and by land, water, transportation, and other public
service requirements associated with the increase in
population.
• Prototype Plant Operation Phase - normal operation
o^ThTe^^coi-rpTeteJ plant will occur here, characterized
by a relatively stable population associated with
plant and plant-induced employment, and by relatively
stable land, water, and service requirements.
49
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Mature Industry Phase - in which national policy,
technological advancement, and relative prices and
supplies of alternative energy sources foster the
growth of the energy system in question. This phase
is the most difficult to characterize. It is ex-
pected that a mature energy industry will have the
greatest potential for attracting associated indus-
tries. However, when or where such growth will
occur is difficult to ascertain.
The duration of each phase should be estimated, and the manpower require-
ments for each phase identified by the project developer. These estimate
can be based on previous experience, if available, or on analogies with
similar industries. In addition to aiding in projections for induced
growth, these estimates may also help identify the phase which produces
maximum environmental stress, thus allowing for proper planning to mini-
mize the environmental impact.
Alternative Growth Projections - In view of the uncertainties involved
in projecting growth in population and economic activity, it will be
desirable to pose alternate scenarios concerning the extent and type of
growth that may occur. Growth projection consists of a three-step
process: estimation of direct employment, projection of induced employ-
ment, and total population projection. These steps are discussed sepa-
rately below. In all areas, it may be desirable to pose a range of
growth estimates: low growth, based on low employment and population
multiplier effects; moderate growth; and extensive growth, based on
large multiplier effects.
Estimation of direct employment - Estimation of the manpower requirements
for project construction and operation should be obtained from the devel-
oper. It will be valuable for the direct employment estimation to be
based upon a plant construction and operation schedule in order to ascer-
tain whether employment will be relatively fixed or fluctuating in total
magnitude. The temporal nature of the direct employment increase has
50
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implications concerning such factors as whether employees will bring
their families; where they will live (e.g., mobile homes or newly con-
structed housing in the immediate vicinity of a project or in a nearby
urban center, etc.); and whether increased public service burdens will
be temporary or permanent in nature. Similarly, the nature of the in-
crease is indicative of whether or not population-support facilities
and services will be provided, and of the extent to which service employ-
ment will be generated. It is also necessary to ascertain what percent-
age of direct employment may be recruited from within the resident popu-
lation, and what percentage may be due to the immigration of new workers.
Projection of indirect employment - The major categories within which
indirect employment will be generated are:
• Service industries that are created to support the
operations of the energy system. This includes
equipment repair and servicing, as well as other
special, skilled operations.
• Other primary manufacturing industries that could be
attracted by the presence of a new market for the
specialized products which serve as energy system in-
puts, by industries using or refining energy system
by-products, by materials-recovery plants, by plants
utilizing waste heat, or by plants using the energy
produced on-site.
• Secondary employment in population-support services
and activities including housing construction, retail
and selected services, and government.
It will be necessary to ascertain how much additional employment is
likely to be generated within the project area as. a result of plant
construction and operation. Traditional planning techniques, such as
economic base theory and input-output analysis, have been utilized in
many studies to derive multipliers for estimating induced service
employment.
51
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Because both export base and input-output analysis are based on histori-
cal relationships within the local economy, consideration must be given
to the fact that they may fail to adequately consider more dramatic
changes in the local economy. Thus, it may be necessary to define base
year conditions according to economic relationships observable within a
multi-county area or region. Similarly, it may be necessary to define
alternate scenarios of future industrial growth based on expert opinion
given the many constraints involved in analysis.
Projection of total population - The direct and induced employment gen-
erated by the energy project will result in an increase in total popula-
tion as workers move into the project area with their families. A typica
approach used in estimating population increase is to assume that each ne
worker constitutes a new household containing "x" persons per household.
Alternative Spatial Allocations of Growth - It will be necessary to
identify alternative patterns or major areas within which population
growth and/or economic activity may be concentrated. As discussed
earlier, certain of the location-related factors which entered into the
decision-making process for the energy project itself are likely to be
significant considerations for attracting other uses or industries.
For example, significant factors influencing residential development
within local areas in the vicinity of the project will include: proximi
to the proposed plant site (in trip time) thus reflecting the existing
transportation network, presently existing public services and facilitie
characteristics of existing housing stock, availability of land suitable
for development, land costs, and amenity considerations. Such factors
should be used in formulating a general approach for defining local cap-
ture rates applicable in calculating increases in local populations.
A major difficulty involved in assessing industrial development potential
is that the bulk of industrial development is more likely to be. associate
52
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with a mature energy industry. Thus, to a great extent, industrial de-
velopment potential-is related to the potential for expansion within the
energy industry itself.
Where the energy project being assessed is only one of a number of such
projects being proposed within the same region or multi-county area, it
may be necessary to consider the synergistic effect that more than one
project will have upon induced growth patterns.
Support Facilities and Resource Requirements - The support facilities
which will be needed to serve the increased population caused by indus-
trial growth include housing, industrial and commercial buildings, trans-
portation systems, and various public agencies such as schools, solid
waste and water treatment, health care, etc. Some of the resource re-
quirements needed to support these facilities are summarized briefly
below.
Land - A gross estimation of land area required for the induced growth
may be obtained by relating land area to population size. Classical
planning studies which have examined the relation between population and
land devoted to different uses are given in references 1-3.
Water - A gross estimate of the water requirements associated with the
induced growth may be obtained by projecting water consumption for dif-
ferent components of the induced development (i.e., residential, indus-
trial, commercial, institutional, and public). An alternate method
of estimation as to obtain a local per capita water consumption figure,
and then multiply per capita use by the projected increase in population.
In the absence of a local per capita estimate, the national municipal
per capita average could be applied or modified as appropriate to the
region.
53
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Sewage - An estimate should be made of the amount of municipal sewage
that will be generated by the induced growth. This is usually done by
taking a percentage of water demand, although alternative methods are
also possible. The capacity and level of treatment of existing sewage
systems should be assessed, and additional system requirements estimated
Solid waste - The municipal solid waste generation resulting from the
induced growth should be estimated, and compared to the capacity of
existing solid waste facilities in order to estimate additional service
requirements.
Transportation systems - Gross estimation of the number and distribution
of trips should be made. One minimal approach would be to obtain the
local per capita trip factor and apply it to the projected increase in
population. The alternative spatial allocation projections and the
existing transportation network capacity should also be evaluated in
order to identify additional roadways or linkages that nay be required.
An additional reason for evaluating the projected allocations and the
existing network is to assess whether projected patterns will serve to
maximize or minimize the need for automobile travel.
Energy - The gross energy requirements of the induced growth should be
estimated in order to determine if additional energy sources will be
required to serve projected local and regional demand. One approach
would be to obtain estimates of average local energy usage for residen-
tial usage, and to apply Standard Industrial Classification energy con-
sumption coefficients for commercial and industrial land uses.
Environmental Impact Assessment - Once the growth projections have been
made, the next step is to evaluate the environmental impact which this
growth may cause. This involves measuring or estimating pollutant emis-
sions from various sources, aggregating these emissions to generate a
54
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"burden projection." Based on these "burden projections," potential
changes in environmental quality can be assessed. This methodology
for evaluating environmental effects is discussed below in more detail.
METHODOLOGY FOR EVALUATING ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
General Approach
This section will first introduce and briefly summarize the methodology
for the evaluation and assessment of potential environmental effects
from associated development. A more general discussion of environmental
assessment methodologies appears in Section VI. The methodology pre-
sented here has been generalized to be applicable to analysis of air,
water, land, and other environmental impacts. Each of these impacts is
then discussed in greater detail following the general methodology. The
methodology for assessing environmental effects is diagrammed in Figure 12.
Input includes the regional data base (population, land use, environmental
quality, economic activity, etc.), growth and development projections, and
alternative land use plans. As a first step, a "burden projection" should
be determined utilizing the input data base, new source inventory, and
established burden factors. This "burden projection" estimates the upper
limit of assumed emissions, effluents, or land usage.
The source inventory identifies the potential major new contributors to
the overall burden. Burden factors are generally the rates at which par-
ticular types of sources have historically contributed or are projected
to contribute emissions or effluents to the environment. This first
step thus identifies the pollutant-related substances, the sources of
such substances, the rates at which they are produced, and the total
burden produced of each substance. A total burden should be determined
for the three previously identified phases of development: construction,
prototype plant operation, and mature industry.
55
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BURDEN FACTORS
REGIONAL DATA BASE
I
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
PROJECTIONS
LAND USE PLANS
BURDEN PROJECTION
_V
ALLOCATION
ASSESS CHANGES
IN ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
FINAL EVALUATION
NEW SOURCE
INVENTORY
Figure 12. Methodology for assessing environmental effects
as a result of induced growth
56
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Burden projections are then allocated within the project area. A quali-
tative assessment follows, using analytical models designed to yield
projections of concentrations and distributions of the key pollutants or
Q
pollution-related substances. A wide variety of modeling techniques are
available. Selection would be based primarily on data availability and
level of accuracy required.
The following discussion provides a simplified example of the use of this
methodology. (Detailed descriptive guidelines for analysis of each indi-
vidual environmental impact follow this brief example.) The purpose in
this example is to predict the induced increase in the use of highway
vehicles (mobile sources) as a result of system construction. Establish-
ing 1975 as the base year, and 1977 as the year for projection, the
scenario for a simple hydrocarbon air quality assessment is tabulated as
follows:
Hydrocarbon Vehicle miles Hydrocarbon
emission factor, traveled, emission burden,
Year grams/mile9 VMT kilograms
1975
1977
6.4
4.7
1,000
2,000
6.4
9.4
The daily VMT, within some defined boundary, is projected to double by
the end of the 2-year period because of the construction activity asso-
ciated with a new energy system. The total emission burden allocated
to this area increases from 6.4 kilograms per day in 1975, to 9.4 kilo-
grams per day for the 1977 projection, despite the fact that hydrocarbon
emission factors have actually decreased. Assuming that existing hydro-
carbon concentrations have been measured or estimated, and that other
basic data is known, a simple proportional model would be capable of
estimating the impact of the hydrocarbon concentration, which is mainly
in forming photochemical oxidants. The use of these simple proportional
57
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models has been recently reviewed, and the reader is referred to this
reference for a more detailed discussion of their application. Although
the accuracy of proportional modeling is limited, its use is recommended
as an indicator of trends in air quality in areas now maintaining Nationa
Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). If preliminary analysis indicates
the possibility of a violation, a more extensive analysis must be under-
taken. In this case, the hydrocarbon concentration in 1977 would equal
9.4/6.4 times the 1975 concentration. The evaluation would determine if
the estimated concentration is or is not acceptable.
Air Quality Impacts
In many cases, energy projects are being proposed for rural locations
which are not now violating air quality standards, and where continued
growth at pre-energy project levels would not exceed standards. Rather
than undertake an extensive air quality assessment for all projects, a
preliminary screening procedure is recommended. The objective of the
screening procedure would be to identify areas in which existing laws,
regulations, standards, or plans are likely to be violated as a result
of energy project-induced growth. For projects in which secondary effects
include large population increases and extensive development patterns
(both normally associated with large increases in VMT, and thereupon high
projected burdens of CO and HC), a more extensive analysis would be
required.
Based on preliminary emissions burden projections, various air quality
models could be selected for assessment of impacts, ranging from simple
proportional modeling to complex diffusion procedures. Proportional
modeling would be a useful screening tool, and would be applicable to
areas where sophisticated techniques could not be used due to the lack
of required data. More extensive modeling efforts would be indicated
if violation of standards appeared likely.
58
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A step-by-stcp outline for the evaluation and assessment of air quality
impacts follows:
1. Collect basic data. Data requirements for the assess-
ment of air quality consists of the following:
• Air Quality Data
• Meteorology
• Vehicular Use Characteristics
• Stationary Source Inventory.
2. Identify future sources of emissions from growth and
development projections and land use plans. The major
sources could be classified by the following categories:
• Industrial Process - consisting chiefly of new
industrial point sources in high-emission asso-
ciated industries
• Fuel Combustion - emissions from both point and
area sources due to the direct combustion of
fuels, including new residential space heating
e Transportation - emissions contributed directly
from transport vehicles, including automobiles,
based largely on projected motor vehicle activity
and VMT
• Incineration - emissions resulting from waste
disposal methods
• Miscellaneous - sources characterized by inter-
mittent emissions which at certain times may be
significant, and which are frequently regional
or highly unique.
3. Develop and apply regionally-specific emission factors
to each source category.
4. Utilizing data and parameters identified in steps 1-3,
determine emissions burden projections. Projections
need not be completed for all pollutants if ambient
levels are presently well below standards and projected
source rates are minimal. Projections should be com-
pleted for each growth phase as determined previously.
59
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5. Input emissions burden for each pollutant into air
quality diffusion models. Evaluate for impacts and
compare pollutant concentrations with acceptable air
quality standards.
Water Quality Impacts
Water is considered polluted if it is no longer suitable for its intende
use (domestic, industrial, or other). Federal guidelines have been esta'
lished to enable the states to maintain the use and quality of surface
waters.11 These standards include limitations on effluents from newly
constructed industries, pretreatnient standards for discharge into munic-
ipal treatment plants and discharge standards for toxic substances. A
further discussion of water standards can be found in Appendix D.
The following is a step-by-step guide for the evaluation and assessment
of water integrity impacts:
1. Collect basic data. This information, primarily an
inventory of the natural environment, is required for
a comprehensive analysis of present and projected
water quality conditions and impacts.
• Geologic Features and Characteristics
• Topography
• Climatology and Meteorology
• Hydrology - surface and subsurface
• Vegetation and Wildlife.
2. Identify future sources of effluent substances from
growth and development projections and land use plans.
The major sources can be classified by the following
eight categories:*•*
• Municipal Wastes - include all wastes that are
collected and transmitted through community
systems of sanitary sewers. Both commercial
and domestic sanitary wastes, and the wastes
discharged by manufacturing plants to public
sewer systems, fall into this category
60
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Other Urban Wastes - include the waterborne
residues of urban activity that do not rou-
tinely enter the system of sanitary sewers.
Direct runoff from urban areas, overflows,
and bypass of waste treatment plants caused
by combined storm and sanitary sewers, and
the unassimilated drainage of septic tanks
comprise the major elements of the category.
In addition, runoff from parking lots and
highways falls into this category13
Industrial Wastes - include the separately
discharged wastes of manufacturing. Both
process waters and manufacturers' cooling
waters fall under this heading
Electrical Generation Wastes - include the
discharge of heated cooling waters of thermal
power generating stations, the presence of
radioactivity from nuclear-fueled power plants,
and the particulate fallout and acidity asso-
ciated with fossil-fueled power plants
Agriculture - includes the effects of runoff on
siltation of streams, organic and nutrient load-
ings originating with livestock, concentrations
of pesticides and herbicides from the runoff of
agricultural lands, and salinity that occurs with
leaching and evapo-transpiration in the irrigation
process
Mining - includes siltation from scarred lands,
acid drainage from reaction of water with exposed
mineral seams, pumping of brine deposits, and
introduction of undesirable minerals and ions
Spills - include the deposit in water of any pol-
luting or toxic material as the result of accident
Other - includes water management in the highly
regulated streams of the west, and the promotion
of sedimentation by construction and the effects
of transportation (principally navigation), in-
cluding stream dredging.
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3. Develop and apply regionally-specific effluent factors
to each source category. However, it is the goal of
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 to
eliminate discharge of pollutants into navigable waters.
4. Utilizing the data and parameters identified in steps 1-3,
determine effluent projections. These projections need
not be completed for all parameters listed in step 3.
Selection criteria are based upon a determination of ex-
isting and proposed conditions for the local surroundings.
Projections should be determined for each phase of the
energy system development, as defined previously. Impacts
should be clearly separated as groundwater or surface water
effects. In addition, the effluent projection should be
allocated among surface water and groundwater.
5. Insert effluent projections into water quality model to
estimate water quality. Evaluate impacts and compare
pollutant concentrations with acceptable water quality
standards and goals from such sources as the "Federal
Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972."
(See Appendix D.)
Land Impacts
An influx of people and industries into an area as a consequence of en-
ergy system development would cause a significant increase in developed
land density and an accompanying impact on land use. Increased land
usage includes schools, roads, commercial buildings, housing, and ser-
vices. Acreage for vegetation and wildlife habitat would decrease,
solid waste generation and disposal problems would be aggravated, vis-
ual effects degradation would be associated with development, and topo-
graphic alterations - caused by development - would occur. In addition,
these land impacts can accelerate degradation of other environmental
sectors.
The following presentation is a step-by-step guide for the evaluation
and assessment of land impacts caused by the induced effects of energy
system development:
62
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1. Collect basic data. This information, generally in
the form of a'comprehensive land use inventory, will
provide a base for analysis of land use changes and
impacts.
2. Identify future users of developed land from growth
and development projections and land use plans. The
users of the land will be the source of land burden.
(Land demand requirements were discussed in an earlier
section.)
3. Develop and apply regionally-specific burden factors
to each source category. These factors will identify
land changes and impacts with respect to the following:
• Solid waste generation
• Alteration of topography (degradation of
natural features)
• Visual effects (degradation of scenic
quality)
• Disruption of vegetation and wildlife
habitat.
4. Utilizing data and parameters identified in steps 1-3,
determine total land burden projection. Projections
should be measured for each growth phase. A comparison
between the burden measurements of the four topics
listed in step 3 and the total land resources committed
for development will be a useful evaluation tool.
5. Evaluation of land impacts appears difficult due to the
subjective nature of criteria. At best, an indication
of the extent of land impacts can result. Some distin- .
guishable land effects which result in, for instance,
alterations of topography, will cause measurable impacts
on water or air. These effects are to be treated in the
consideration of the affected medium.
Noise Impacts
Noise effects are dependent upon intensity and frequency; the impact is
a function of the duration of occurrence and the distance from the source.
63
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The following presentation is a step-by-step guide for the evaluation
and assessment of noise impacts:
1. Collect basic data. This information is used to
determine the ambient noise level. The ambient
noise level is the composite of airborne sound
from the many sources associated with a given
environment. Additionally, intrusive noise levels,
those which are superimposed on the ambient noise
(typically a high-level, short-term phenomena),
are also to be determined.
2. Identify major noise sources from growth and devel-
opment projections and land use plans. The sources
of intrusive noise levels can be classified as either
mobile or site-related. These sources collectively
produce the ambient background noise levels.
3. Develop and apply regionally-specific noise factors
to each source category. These factors would be
defined in terms of intensity, duration, distance,
and frequency.
4. Combine data and parameters identified in steps 1-3
to determine ambient and intrusive noise levels.
Projections should be completed for each growth
phase as defined previously. Projections should be
allocated among potential receptors.
5. Insert noise level projections into a quality assess-
ment model to estimate noise intensity. Intensities
at potential ieceptors are evaluated for overall
assessment of impact. Intensities are compared with
designated use at receptor site for compatibility.
Other
The same general approach would be applicable in examining other environ-
mental effects, such as heat and radiation effects. In view of the simi-
larity of approach, these effects have not been discussed separately.
The reader is referred to Appendix E for a bibliography covering general
environmental issues and analyses.
64
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REFERENCES
1. Bartholomew, H. Land Uses in American Cities. Cambridge, Massachu-
setts, Harvard University Press, 1955.
2. Manuel, Allan D. Trends in the Value of Real Estate and Land, 1956-
66. Manuel, Allan D. Land Use in 106 Large Cities. Gustafson, R.H.
and R.B. Welch. Estimating California Land Values from Independent
Statistical Indicators. In: Three Land Use Research Studies. Pre-
pared for National Commission on Urban Problems, Washington, B.C.
Report Number 12. 1968.
3. Niedercorn and Hearle. Recent Land Use Trends in 48 Large American
Cities. In: Internal Structure of the City, Bourne (ed.). New
York, Oxford University Press, 1971.
4. Forecasting Municipal Water Requirements. Hittman Associates, Inc.,
Columbia, Maryland. NTIS Publication Number PB-190275. 1969.
5. Porges, R. Factors Influencing Per Capita Water Consumption.
Water and Sewage Works.' Vol. 104:199-204, May 1957.
6. Linnaweaver, P.P., Jr., J.C. Geyer, and J.B. Wolff. A Study of
Residential Water Use. Study Prepared for the Federal Housing
Administration. Washington, B.C. U.S. Government Printing
Office. 1967.
7. Macon County Solid Waste Management System Analysis. Roy F. Weston,
Inc., Project No. 40.00 for State of Illinois, Illinois Institute
for Environmental Quality. April 1974.
8. Ott, W., J.F. Clarke, and G. Ozolins. Calculating Future Carbon
Monoxide Emissions and Concentrations from Urban Traffic Data.
U.S. Public Health Services, Publication Number 999-AP-41,
Cincinnati. 1967.
9. Compilation of Air Pollution Emission Factors. Office of Air and
Water Quality Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Re-
search Triangle Park, N.C. Publication AP-42. September 1973.
10. Patterson, R.M., D.A. Bryant, and A.H. Castaline. Photochemical
Oxidant Modeling Techniques Applicable to Highway Systems Evalua-
tion, Final Report, Volume I. Prepared by GCA/Technology Division,
Bedford, Massachusetts. For: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Contract No. 68-02-1367, Task Order No. 14. July 1975.
65
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11. Proposed Criteria for Water Quality - Volume I. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. Washington, D.C. October 1973.
12. Reitze, A.W., Jr. Environmental Law. 2nd Edition. North American
International Press. 1972. p. 47.
13. Pitt, R.E. and G. Amy. Toxic Materials Analysis of Street Surface
Contaminants.- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Publication
Number EPA-R2-73-283. 1973.
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SECTION V
ESTIMATING THE SPHERE OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE
INTRODUCTION
Comprehensive environmental assessments of energy systems will require
that the information obtained from the process characterization, waste
stream analysis, and evaluation of indirect development be combined
with site characteristics to provide an estimate of the extent to which a
particular facility will influence the surrounding area. The reliability
of the estimate of the sphere of environmental influence will depend upon
the accuracy with which the data collected under the procedures outlined
in Sections III and IV can be quantitatively related to emission rates,
operating characteristics, and source locations. An equally important
activity is the selection of relevant site parameters which describe the
meteorological, hydrological, and topographical characteristics which play
a significant role in pollutant transport processes. Finally, a model
must be found or developed which relates both source and site data to
predicted ambient concentration levels. This section presents a method-
ology for estimating the sphere of influence in four steps:
• Obtain process emission characteristics
• Identify pathways for pollutant transport
• Survey site characteristics
• Use predictive models.
67
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METHODOLOGY FOR ESTIMATING THE SPHERE OF INFLUENCE
Figure 13 provides a flow diagram depicting a methodology for predicting
the sphere of influence of an energy system. The methodology parallels
the physical processes which influence pollutant dispersion. One must
first understand the traits of the emission source — emission rates, tem-
peratures, types of chemicals, etc. This information is necessary for
the next step which is to identify pathways for pollutant transport.
Details regarding the climatology, topography, etc. of the site are next
needed to assess the relative importance of various pathways and to pro-
vide input data for predictive models. The last step is to select appro-
priate models which can predict the resultant changes in ambient concen-
trations. Each of the steps is discussed in more detail below.
Process Emission Characteristics
The determination of the environmental sphere of influence for a particu-
lar energy system begins with the designation of those unit operations
that emit pollutants. For fossil-fueled power plants, operations such as
fuel handling, storage, and combustion are of primary concern. If the
effects of induced growth are of paramount interest, a particular aspect
of this growth, such as road construction or residential heating, may be
singled out for special study. Once this designation has been made, the
process characteristics associated with the given unit operation should
be investigated to ascertain those factors which exert a controlling in-
fluence upon pollutant disposal. This description includes flow rates,
temperatures, emission factors, and waste stream configurations. Com-
pletion of this step in the methodology provides the set of emission
rates for all pollutants of interest, including heat and noise, to each
sector of the environment (air, water, and land). The process character-
ization should also be constructed to provide information regarding the
chemical activity and physical nature of the pollutant in question. This
data will be crucial in the later studies of pollutant transport.
68
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OBTAIN PROCESS EMISSION
CHARACTERISTICS
PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF
PATHWAYS FOR
POLLUTANT TRANSPORT
SURVEY OF
SITE- RELATED DATA
SELECTION OF
MODELING TECHNIQUES
\/
PREDICTION OF
AMBIENT CONCENTRATION
O FLOW RATES
O TEMPERATURES
O WASTE STREAM
CONFIGURATION
© CHEMICAL
REACTIVITY
O AIR
O V/ATER
O LAND
© METEOROLOGY
© HYDROLOGY
O TOPOGRAPHY
O COMPARTMENTAL
O DIFFUSION
Figure 13. Methodology for predicting the sphere of influence
69
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Source Configuration - The first step in the characterization of pollutant
emissions is the specification of the actual physical configuration of the
source. For atmospheric point source emissions, the most significant phys-
ical parameters are the stack height, stack diameter, gas exit velocity,
and gas temperature. These parameters, together with the ambient tempera-
ture, are used in the calculation of buoyant plume rise, which is respon-
sible for a greater degree of plume dilution due to an increased effective
stack height. These plume rise parameters are also required in the char-
acterization of vapor and water droplet emissions from cooling towers.
Other required source characteristics arc the locations of each point
source and the location and spatial extent of each area source. It is
important to study the relationship of each source to nearby structures
in the area because of its possible influence in the process of plume
rise retardation or downwash.
Source configuration is also a prime factor in the analysis of pollutant
release to a body of water. For instance, waste material may be intro-
duced, after some degree of purification, to a fast moving stream where it
would be adequately diluted after some distance dovn the stream. Alter-
natively, a pollutant could be discharged to a large pond where suspended
solids could settle to the bottom before the effluent is allowed to flow
into a neighboring body of water. The geometrical configuration of
release points is especially critical in the assessment of thermal pol-
lution impacts.*
Cross media transport can play an important role in pollutant dispersion.
A pollutant emitted into one sector of the environment may indirectly find
its way to another. A substance originally emitted into the atmosphere
may reach a lake by means of wet or dry deposition through the air-water
interface. Even if deposition takes place on the ground, the material
may still reach the water by means of overland flow or erosion. The
burial of solid wastes can cause water pollution problems due to ground
70
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water contamination. In some cases, gaseous substances may be emitted
from the water surface to the atmosphere because of chemical reactions
of primary pollutants; this often happens in many settling ponds.
Emission Rates - The determination of the emission rate is based upon an
emission factor for a particular process obtained from actual tests or
engineering estimates. The emission factor for area sources is only a
representative value and may actually be a strong function of other vari-
ables such as windspeed. For example, surface mining activities in sup-
port of new energy systems or the storage and disposal of raw materials
or solid wastes could add to fugitive dust problems. Other parameters
important in the fugitive dust emission process include soil moisture,
surface roughness, vegetative cover, and soil texture. A wide range of
pollutant emission factors are available through EPA Publication AP-42.
An emission rate may represent an average over a number of different time
periods depending upon the type of assessment being undertaken. For ex-
ample, if a given sector of the population is sensitive to short-term
episodes of elevated concentrations, an hourly distribution of emission
rates would be of interest, whereas long-term effects, such as wet and
dry deposition of pollutants in the vicinity of a source, would require
only average annual emission values. For particulate emissions, it may
be necessary to specify separate emission rates for different particle
size classes due to their different deposition properties and the strong
functional dependence between respiratory impact and particle size.
In the specification of emission rates, care should be exercised to insure
that the resultant emissions data possess an adequate degree of spatial
resolution. While this condition presents no problem for point source
emissions, significant errors may result if area source boundaries are not
properly delineated. In the EPA National Emissions Data System (NEDS),
*This could be of importance, for instance, in energy systems used pri-
marily for peak loading.
71
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area source emissions from industrial, commercial, residential, and trans-
portation sectors are specified on a county-wide basis. Since county-wide
totals do not give the necessary resolution for model application, these
emission rates must be allocated to subcounty areas according to criteria
such as population, employment, and vehicle miles traveled. Area sources
associated with a particular facility, such as materials storage, should
be characterized in even more detail.
Physical and Chemical Properties of Emissions - Once the emission rate for
a pollutant has been calculated, an effort must be made to characterize
the physical and chemical properties of the emitted substance. The phys-
ical state of the pollutant (solid, liquid, or gas) will exert considerable
influence upon its subsequent transport properties. An even more important
consideration is the chemical behavior of a substance in the air, water,
and land sectors. While a complete chemical characterization of a pollu-
tant is not always required, standard properties such as density, solu-
bility, and potential chemical reactivity should always be noted.
Survey of Pathways for Pollutant Transport
When all relevant source data have been gathered, a preliminary survey of
pollutant transport pathways should be conducted. This survey will deter-
mine the focus of subsequent site-data collection activities (see Fig-
ure 14). For example, there is no need to construct an extensive meteoro-
logical data base for the area in question if pollutant releases are made
exclusively to water systems. Similarly, if water quality problems are
projected to be of only secondary importance (resulting, for example, from
atmospheric deposition of particulates and gases), then hydrological param-
eters can be specified in much less detail than meteorological variables.
In a characterization of the sphere of environmental influence, it is
necessary to consider all the avenues of pollutant transport through the
72
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//'7/ •'/'/ WASHOUT
• ,, •'
POINT
SOURCE
FUGITIVE
EMISSIONS
OVERLAND FLOW
SOIL WATER
GROUNDWATER
STREAM FLOW
LINE SOURCE
SEDIMENT
TRANSPORT
Figure 14. Pollutant emissions and transport pathways
-------
environment. Although the- rate of movement of a particular constituent
through one sector of the environment might be relatively small, over a
long period of time, the net effect of this process could be considerable.
A total environmental assessment will require the analysis of a wide range
of transport times and distances. Predictions of atmospheric transport
must be carried out on a scale of tens of kilometers over a time span of
minutes or hours. On the other hand, an estimate of pollutant migration
through the soil involves distances on the order of feet and transport
times of months or even years.
jurvey of Site-Related Data
Once the potential impact areas have been delineated through the prelimi-
nary survey, the gathering of site data should begin. These site reports
will provide a determination of the general characteristics of the area,
including average wind speed, watershed drainage patterns, and the rela-
tionship between both source location and dimension to that of nearby
topographical features.
This section outlines some of the more significant site characteristics
which play a role in the transport of pollutants. These factors will be
grouped into the following categories: topography and vegetative cover,
climatology, hydrology, and potential for chemical and biological
transformation.
Topography and Vegetative Cover - The general nature of the landscape will
exert a significant influence upon the transport of pollutants within the
air, water, and land sectors. The channeling of atmospheric pollutants by
topographical features such as ridges and valleys is a well known phe-
nomenon. Areas having a greater elevation than the base of a stack will
usually be exposed to higher pollutant concentrations than those parallel
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to the base. Mountainous or hilly terrain may also result in a higher
degree of plume depletion due to dry deposition. This is particularly
true in heavily forested regions. (Other meteorological phenomena asso-
ciated with different types of topography will be mentioned in the treat-
ment of climatological effects.)
Topographical characteristics of watershed systems will play a significant
role in any water pollution assessment. In this'connection some of the
parameters of interest are the slope and geometrical cross section of the
stream channel and the slope of the land immediately adjacent to the
stream. These factors, in combination with other hydrological parameters
to be discussed later, can be used to estimate stream flow rates of dif-
ferent rain storm events. The dilution factor associated with a given
stream will be directly related to these flow rates. The slope of the
terrain near a stream or lake will strongly influence the degree to which
erosion will add suspended matter to the water. This factor will be of
prime importance in an assessment of environmental effects associated with
surface mining. In the discussion of topographical effects in water pol-
lution a watershed system is used as an example. However, a comprehensive
analysis must include methods for treating other features such as dams,
lakes, estuaries, and bays. For these systems, information should be
obtained concerning circulation patterns, tides, and thermal and density
stratification.
The type and degree of vegetative cover has implications for pollutant
transport in the air, land, and water sectors. In addition to the im-
portant role played by vegetative cover in the transport of material
pollutants, vegetative cover also has a significant effect upon the
adsorption of noise and the stabilization of topsoil. ' The primary
influences of vegetation on atmospheric dispersion are its effect upon
the wind profile and its tendency to increase the dry depositon rate
for most airborne substances. Material deposited on foliage will
75
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eventually find its way to the forest floor where it may remain for an
extended period of time. 'Under the action of precipitation, this deposited
material may eventually work its way down to the soil and groundwater, but
the degree to which this occurs will be a strong function of the chemistry
of the substance involved. Vegetation acts as an obstacle to the trans-
fer of incoming precipitation and associated pollution to the ground and
stream water. Some of the incident rainfall is trapped by the vegetation
and returned to the atmosphere by evaporation. Further moisture loss
from the soil can occur through the process of evapotranspiration. Except
for the periods of heaviest rainfall, the presence of vegetative cover
will prevent the overland flow of moisture and pollutants in a lateral
direction. Lateral transport of pollutants is significant for regions
with a large amount of impervious area such as rock outcroppings or street
pavement (in urban areas).
Climatology - The effect of climatological variables on pollutant transport
has been briefly mentioned in connection with the role of rainfall in
stream flow, erosion, and pollutant deposition. Although the most obvious
use of climatological variables is in the determination of atmospheric
transport, these factors are also important in other environmental sectors.
The following is a list of these variables and their application: ' '
• Wind Speed - used primarily to calculate plu.ne dilution
and atmospheric stability. Phenomena sensitive to the
wind speed include dry deposition, plume rise, fugitive
dust emission, evapotranspiration, and lake circulation.
Magnitude of the wind speed increases with altitude
according to the stability of the atmosphere. Exceptions
to this rule may occur for very rough terrain or under
special meteorological conditions such as downslope flow.
• Wind Direction - determines which areas are exposed to
elevated concentrations of pollutants. Wind direction
can be affected by the local topographical conditions
especially during periods of light winds. Wind direc-
tion will also show a shift with altitude; the magni-
tude of the shift will depend upon the atmospheric
stability condition.
76
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Cloud Cover - an important parameter in the determination of
atmospheric stability. Increased cloud cover is associated
with more stable conditions which in turn lead to a lesser
degree of vertical and horizontal plume dispersal.
Solar Radiation Intensity - will depend upon the local
latitude, time of day, and time of year. This parameter
is used in conjunction with the cloud cover and wind speed
to estimate the atmospheric stability. The radiation in-
tensity may also be used to calculate certain photochemical
reaction rates.
Mixing Depth - the atmospheric boundary layer near the
earth's surface in which the turbulent diffusion mech-
anisms predominate. In response to daytime heating of
the land, the depth of this layer may be several kilo-
meters, but will be considerably reduced during the night
hours. The top of this layer, marked by a discontinuity
in the potential temperature profile, acts as a barrier to
the vertical migration of material released within the
layer. During clear, dry, calm nights, a temperature in-
version may form in which the temperature increases with
height up to several hundred feet. A low level inversion
may also form under the influence of a sea or lake breeze.
Temperature - an important parameter in the determination
of chemical and biological reaction and exchange rates in
the air, water, and land; it also influences the transport
of the pollutants. The ambient temperature is employed in
the calculation of buoyant plume rise.
Humidity - used in conjunction with the wind speed and
solar radiation intensity to estimate evapotranspiration
rates. Also important in secondary particulate formation
via atmospheric chemical reactions.
If one is dealing with only the long-term aspects of pollutant transport,
it is usually sufficient to use annual or seasonal frequency distributions
for these meteorological variables. In some cases, however, it may be
necessary to analyze the effect of meteorological variables upon elevated
short-term pollutant concentrations. This type of analysis would be ap-
propriate for those pollutants for which short-term concentrations have
an adverse impact. Even pollutant transport in a stream is sensitive to
short-term meteorological events such as a heavy rainstorm. In terras of
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air pollution this would mean that an inversion breakup, a lake or sea
breeze or a stagnation situation should be studied in much more detail.
To illustrate how meteorological effects may result in a short episode of
high pollutant concentrations, consider the fumigation process associated
with an elevated point source located at the bottom of a valley. Over-
night radiational cooling under clear skies and light winds will produce
extremely stable atmospheric conditions, which in turn will result in very
little vertical dispersion of the plume. After sunrise, heating of the
valley floor will cause a breakup of the inversion to proceed from the
ground upward to the plume axis. This can result in an elevated con-
centration of pollutant being brought down to the valley floor, a conditios
which is likely to persist until the inversion breakup moves well past the
location of the plume.
Hydrology - The transport of pollutants through the land and water seg-
ments of the environment is directly related to the movement of water it-
self. Some of the precipitation falling upon a watershed is intercepted
by the vegetation and subsequently returned to the atmosphere through
evaporation. The remainder of the precipitation which reaches the land
surface either reaches the stream after falling upon impervious areas or
infiltrates below the ground surface. During a storm some of this in-
filtrated water can reach the stream by migration through the topmost
layer of soil. The rest percolates through the unsaturated region of the
soil eventually reaching the water table. The ground water found beneath
the water table may be separated into active and inactive components. The
active ground water is responsible for base stream flow during dry con-
ditions while inactive ground water represents the amount of water diverted
from or gained by the watershed as a result of deep seepage. Consumptive
water loss due to transpiration from plant surfaces may occur from all soil
compartments except for inactive ground water. The partition of water to
these various compartments will depend upon soil conductivity and previous
moisture content. Once the water finally arrives at the stream channel,
78
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its flow rate will be governed by the geometry of the stream cross sec-
tion, longitudinal slope, and the roughness of the bottom and sides of the
stream bed.
Chemical and Biological Characteristics - In addition to a thorough under-
standing of the climatology and hydrology of an area, a knowledge of the
chemical and biological exchange mechanisms specific to the pollutant
under study are necessary in .the analysis of pollutant transport.
Once a pollutant is deposited on the ground, its future transport through
the various soil layers will depend upon its chemical properties. In
some cases a substance may be bound so tightly to the upper layer of soil
particles that the only means by which it can arrive at the stream is
through erosion during heavy rainfall. Pollutants residing in the top
layer of soil are also subject to biological transformation under the
action of oxidizing or reducing microorganisms. For example, the trans-
formation of elemental mercury to the more biologically toxic substance
methyl mercury occurs primarily from the action of soil bacteria. Actual
physical pollutant transport in the vertical direction can occur through
the action of other organisms, such as earthworms. The depth that a pol-
lutant reaches in the soil is a function of the exchange distribution
coefficient, which is a ratio of the equilibrium ion concentration per
unit mass of soil to the equilibrium ion concentration per unit volume of
water. The value of the distribution coefficient will depend upon the
mineral composition of the soil, chemical properties of the pollutant, and
the pH of the water. For some substances a soil particle surface is likely
to exhibit a highly specific chemical attraction far above what would be
expected, based solely upon the basic electrostatic attraction. The
calculation of the concentration profile in the soil is usually carried
out by specifying a number of soil exchange plates within which equilibrium
concentrations exist between the soil particle and in the water phase.
Plate concentrations are recalculated after each new volume of water passes
through the plate.
79
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After the pollutant enters a stream or lake, either from the land surface
or by direct emission, it is still subject to chemical and biological ex-
change mechanisms. Chemical exchange may take place with either suspended
or bottom sediments. In addition to the equilibrium distribution coef-
ficient mentioned earlier, it is necessary to knovr a rate constant for the
exchange process, both for sediments and vegetation present in the body of
water. (A number of models which incorporate these chemical and biologi-
cal characteristics are discussed in Appendix B.)
A wide range of parameters is required to provide a quantitative descrip-
tion of the processes just mentioned. These parameters are usually
tailored for input into one or more hydrological simulation models. While
the.treatment of each of these quantities is beyond the scope of this
present discussion, a description of models and associated input variables
may be found in a number of texts devoted to the subject of watershed
. , . 16,17,18,19
hydrology. ' ' *
Clearly, these parametric representations of watershed hydrological
processes are not adequate for the treatment of special hydrological char-
acteristics, such as conduit transport in karstic areas or sediment trans-
port in arid regions due to flash floods. To adequately deal with these
special conditions, the hydrologic models could be suitably modified or
special techniques employed based upon studies of the area in question.
Modeling Techniques
The models which could be employed in environmental assessment fall into
two general categories: (1) compartmental models, and (2) dispersion
models. Both are discussed below.
Compartmental Models - A compartmental modeling approach may be applied
when the variables of interest are considered to be uniform within a given
80
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region or volume. This technique has been applied extensively in the
analysis of constituent transport between different ecosystem components.
An example of one such compartmental system is illustrated in Figure 15
where we have schematically indicated the transfer rate coefficients (a. .)
i>3
between the three compartments and the decay coefficients (a. .) associated
1» 1
with each. The time rate of change of concentration for each compartment
is then described by the following expression:
dC
- = S + > (a. . C. - a. . C.) - a. . C. (1)
dt i Z—t i,j J J-1 ! i.1
J = !
where C = concentration associated with compartment i
i
5. = source strength for compartment i
a- . = rate constants
ai i = decay constants.
Once the initial concentrations and source terms have been specified,
values for C ma\ be calculated using matrix methods. Unless used in con-
i
junction with other techniques, this modeling procedure is only useful for
gross estimates of the pollutant accumulated in specific sectors, or for
transfer between various sectors. Its primary limitation is its failure
to account for areawide transport processes. The user should decide if
the simple approach is adequate for his purposes. If compartmental
methods are inadequate, dispersion modeling must be used to predict the
sphere of environmental influence of a source.
Dispersion Models - The principles of dispersion models are quite similar
whether they are designed for an air, water, or land system. Within the
model, the transport process may be characterized by terms dealing with
81
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OB
Figure 15. Material balance within a three-component compartmental model
-------
pollutant emission, advection, diffusion, transformation, and depiction.
This description may be illustrated by means of a material balance equa-
tion for transport in one dimension:
f£ = D ^-f - U || - a C + S(x,t) (2)
3x
where C = pollutant concentration
D = diffusion constant
U = velocity of the medium (air or water)
a = depletion rate constant
S(x,t) = source term.
The transport relationship expressed in Equation (2) may be applied with
a variety of boundary conditions corresponding to a number of different
physical systems (stream, airshed, or soil-water column). The depletion
parameters, a, given in Equation (2) will have a different physical mean-
ing depending upon the type of application. For instance, in the calcu-
lation of atmospheric transport, a may describe the processes of dry
deposition or washout, while in the analysis of aqueous transport, it may
be related to pollutant adsorption by vegetation or bottom sediments.
The solution of Equation (2) may be developed for either steady state or
time dependent mode. In many cases a simple analytic solution to the
transport equation is all that is required to estimate the degree and
extent of the environmental impact. For applications involving complex
boundary conditions, variations in model parameters, or special chemical
kinetics, the transport equation must be solved numerically.
After a decision is made concerning which modeling techniques are to be
employed, it is important to insure that the data collected are compat-
ible with the requirements of the selected dispersion models. Some
input parameters, such as temperature and rainfall rate, are used in
83
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pollutant transport calculations for "all sectors of the environment.
If, during the course of the site-data collection, it is found that
some portion of the model input parameters cannot be obtained with the
desired accuracy or resolution, the investigator should consider the
application of a less sophisticated model. This avoids the needless
expenditure of resources in the implementation of large computer pro-
grams that will produce results which are no more reliable than the
results of simple calculations carried out with the aid of a desk
calculator.
t
A detailed discussion of pollutant dispersion models, including examples
of their application in different sectors of the environment, is pre-
sented in Appendix B.
The final product of the modeling exercise will be a determination of
the ambient concentration and the long-distance range of a given pollu-
tant within each sector of the environment. This assessment should be
carried out for a variety of ambient concentration averaging times and
emission scenarios ranging from routine operation to an accident situa-
tion. The utility of modeling arises because one does not necessarily
need a specific site to perform the activities just outlined, but could
use an assumed site and still provide a realistic assessment.
REFERENCES
1. Briggs, G. A. Plume Rise. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Report
Number TID-25075. 1969.
2. Cooling Tover Environment-1974. Proceedings of a Symposium Held at
the University of Maryland Adult Education Center. March 4-6, 1974,
NTIS Number CONF-740302.
3. Halitsky, J. Gas Diffusion Near Buildings. Chapter 5-5 In:
Meteorology and Atomic Energy 1968, Slade, D. (ed.). U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission Report Number TID-24190. 1968.
84
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4. Shirazi, M. A. and L. R. Davis. Workbook of Thermal Plume
Prediction. Volume 2, Surface Discharge. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency Publication Number EPA-R2-72-0056. May 1974.
5. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors. Second Edition.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Publication Number AP-42.
April 1973.
6. Hosker, R. P., Jr. Estimates of Dry Deposition and Plume Depletion
Over Forests and Grasslands. Atmospheric Turbulence and Diffusion
Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830. Contribution File No. 85.
November 1973.
7. Huff, D. C. and P. Kruger. Simulation of the Hydrologic Transport of
Radioactive Aerosols. Advances in Chemistry Series 93. American
Chemical Society (1970).
8. Chepil, W. S. Equilibrium of Soil Grains at the Threshold of
Movement by Wind. Soil Sci Soc Am Proc. Vol. 23, No. 6, November-
December 1959. p. 422-428.
9. Gillette, D. A., I. H. Blifford, Jr., and C. R. Fenster. Measure-
ments of Aerosol Size Distributions and Vertical Fluxes of Aerosols
on Land Subject to Wind Erosion. J Appl Meteorol. Vol. 11, 1972.
p. 977.
10. Dutt, G. R., M. J. Shaffer, and W. F. Moore. Computer Simulation
Model of Dynamic Bio-Physiochemical Processes in Soils. University
of Arizona, Tucson. Technical Bulletin 196. October 1972.
11. Murphy, C. E., Jr. and K. R. Knoerr. Modeling the Energy Balance
Processes of Natural Ecosystems. Duke University. For: Eastern
Deciduous Forest Biome - International Biological Program. Report
Number 7240. November 1972.
12. Gifford, F. A., Jr. An Outline of Theories of Diffusion in the Lower
Layers of the Atmosphere. Chapter 3, Meteorology and Atomic Energy
1968, Slade, D. (ed.). U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Report Number
TID-24190. 1968.
13 Turner, D. B. Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates'. Public
Health'service Publication Number 999-AP-26. U.S. Department of
Health, Education and Welfare, Consumer Protection and Environmental
Health Service, National Air Pollution Control Administration,
Cincinnati, Ohio. Revised, 1969.
14. Holzvorth, G. C. Mixing Heights, Wind Speeds, and Potential for
Urbin Air Pollution Throughout the Contiguous United States. Office
of Air Programs Publication Number AP-101. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. 1972.
85
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15. Carpenter, S. B., T. L. Montgomery, J. M. Leavitt, W. C. Colbaugh,
and F. W. Thomas. Principal Plume Dispersion Models: TVA Power
Plants. J Air Pollut Control Assoc. Vol. 21, No. 8, August 197L.
16. Crawford, N. H. and R. K. Linsley. Digital Simulation in Hydrology:
Stanford Watershed Model IV. Stanford University Technical Report
Number 39. 1966.
17. Kazmann, R. G. Modern Hydrology. New York, Harper and Row, 1965.
18. Linsley, R. K., Jr., M. A. Kohler, and L. H. Paulhus. Hydrology for
Engineers. McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1958.
19. Veihmeyer, F. J. Evapotranspiration. In: Handbook of Applied
Hydrology, Chow, V. T. (ed.). New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
1964.
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SECTION VI
ASSESSING THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF ENERGY SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
In the preceding sections the source has been defined, techniques for
quantifying effluents have been discussed, and methodologies for deter-
mining indirect pollutant sources and evaluating the sphere of influence
of the energy system have been presented. This section presents a method-
ology for evaluating the interaction of the source with the environment.
This methodology includes evaluation criteria which can be used to iden-
tify impacts, and provides feedback loops for the modification of the
goals of the assessment or of the process itself.
The approach used in this section closely parallels that used in Refer-
ence 1. A number of other methodologies for evaluating environmental
2
impacts have been recently reviewed and may also prove helpful. In ad-
dition, guidelines for formally preparing environmental impact assess-
ments for selected new industrial sources have been recently prepared
3
and should be consulted.
The information presented in this section can be applied to all stages
of system development. In this way, maximum use of the environmental
assessment as a planning tool can be achieved.
When determining environmental effects, equal emphasis must be placed on
long-term effects as well as on effects which are immediately apparent.
87
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Therefore, it is necessary to project possible environmental impacts of
an energy system over a period at least as long as the useful life of
the system (generally considered to be 10 or 15 years).
METHODOLOGY FOR EVALUATING ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
There is no universal methodology for evaluating environmental impacts.
In all cases, one must ultimately rely on value judgments, which are
difficult to quantify and can vary on a case-to-case basis. Any value
judgments or assumptions used in evaluating an impact must be explicitly
stated; the usefulness of the assessment methodology can then be judged
on the basis of its:
• Accuracy - Ability to portray comprehensively and
fairly all impacts
* Replicability - Ability to be used by different
investigators of the same subject with equivalent
results
• Economy - Reasonableness of demands upon the ana-
lyzer for time and for sophisticated computational
techniques
• Understandability - Ability to be understood by
persons of different backgrounds.
The flow chart in Figure 16 outlines a methodology in which evaluative
criteria are employed to judge environmental impacts. These judgments
provide feedback to the assessment indicating where system modifications
must be made or where further information may be required.
The first two steps in the methodology, namely, the evaluation of pro-
cess emissions and the evaluation of indirect pollution effects, are
the end products of previous tasks in the overall environmental assess-
ment process (Sections III and IV, respectively). In the next step —
analysis of measures for control or reduction — methods of reducing
88
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EVALUATION OF
PROCESS EMISSIONS
FINAL
IDENTIFICATION
OF IMPACT
YES
EVALUATION OF
INDIRECT POLLUTION
EFFECTS
ANALYSIS OF MEASURES
FOR CONTROL OR REDUCTION
V
APPLICATION OF EVALUATION
CRITERIA
oLAWS
• SCIENTIFIC JUDGMENT
« SOCIAL JUDGMENT
IMPACT IDENTIFICATION
_V
DECISION ON
ACCEPTABILITY
NO
Figure 16. Flow diagram for decisions based on
environmental assessments
89
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potentially harmful omissions and/or environmental degradation must be
considered. These can range from add-on control technology to extensive
modifications of process operating procedures. The possible effects of
the emissions must then be evaluated using appropriate criteria. Based
on these evaluations, impacts are identified and decisions on accept-
ability can be made.
The impact assessment methodology, in some cases, can best be performed
in two phases as described below.
Phase I Evaluation
The first pass through the steps outlined in Figure 16 could be used to
identify all potential pollutant impacts and to determine any additional
data requirements necessary for their evaluation. An additional goal of
Phase I, however, is the immediate recognition of legal requirements and
the determination of the information necessary to insure compliance of
the system with the laws.
The information generated in Phase I is basic to the assessment because
it provides the first overview of the environmental acceptability of the
system. Phase I analysis will play a major role in initial decisions
concerning site and technological alternatives.
Phase II Evaluation
In Phase II any required ambient data is collected and data gaps in the
process summaries (identified in Phase I) are filled. Phase II analysis
can range from literature searches, to analyses of 'worst case' emissions
(for systems in the early stages of development), to ambient and source
tests of emissions from commercial facilities. Table 3 illustrates the
breadth of data which may be needed for a complete Phase II analysis.
90
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Table 3. PRINCIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT ANALYSIS
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE IMPACT
EVALUATION OF A POLLUTANT SOURCE
Properties of Energy System Pollutants
- Concentration in ambient atmosphere
- Chemical composition of pollutants
- Physical state of pollutants
- Gases
Aerosols (liquid or solid)
- Solid or liquid
- Physical energy (heat, noise1)
- Sources and/or formation mechanisms
- Rate of transfer to receptor domain
- Persistence ar.d sinks
- Pollutant mobility and movement
Analysis of Pollutant Behavior in the Environment
- Environmental media characterization
- Meteorology and climatology
Hydrology.
Geology and geochemistry
Topography
Intermedia cycles and interactions
Exposure Parameters
Concentration
- Duration
Concc-itant conditions
- Temperature
Pressure
Humidity
Characteristics of Receptors
- Characterization of receptor population (human, flora,
fauna, materials, property)
Fhvsical characteristics (spatial distribution)
Individual susceptibility
State of health
Rate and site of transfer to receptor
Receptor Responses
Effects on health (diapnosable effects, latent effects, and
effects predisposing the organism to disease)
Hurran health
AniMl health
Plant health
Effects on human comfort, satisfaction
Soiling and other objectionable surface deposition
Cerro-jioii and deterioration of rule rials
Effects un atmospheric properties
- ?;ffects on r.idi^tion properties
Ecological system influences
Species extinction
91
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Much information required in Phase II can be gathered from data compila-
tions (Appendix C) and previous environmental assessments or impact
statements.
The flow chart in Figure 16 is constructed in such a way that evaluations
and decisions, based on information generated in previous tasks in the
environmental assessment, are considered first. More complex evaluations
and decisions can be made after existing data gaps are filled.
As shown in Figure 16, feedback loops should result in generating only
necessary data. This should keep the assessment procedures frora balloon-
ing to unmanageable proportions; it also insures that the data require-
ments of each judgment are recognized.
ANALYSIS OF MEASURES FOR CONTROL OR REDUCTION
Control measures can range from application of specific control tech-
nology systems to process codifications to changes in raw material re-
quirements. Other options for reducing the impact of emissions could
include selection of alternate sites, restricted operation schedules,
etc. In analyzing control measures, it is essential to consider the
tradeoffs which could be involved in transferring pollutants from one
media to another. For example, removal of toxic metals from various
process water streams can create concentrated sludges requiring special
disposal operations.
Because there are feedback loops in the methodology, the simplest con-
trol measures, including the impact of no control, should be considered
first. More complicated measures can be analyzed as needed.
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EVALUATION CRITERIA
To evaluate the impacts of an energy system on the environment, criteria
are needed to determine which pollutants and what concentration levels
may be considered harmful or undesirable. Criteria are also required to
evaluate the impacts of the resources consumed by the operation of the
system; e.g., land use, water use, raw materials extraction. These cri-
teria fall into one of three general categories:
• Legal requirements
• Judgment of scientific experts
• Social values (i.e., public acceptability of
the effects of an energy system).
The first priority in assessing the impact of an energy system is to
insure that any existing or proposed environmental legal requirements
can be met. Obviously, a system which cannot meet these requirements
has little chance of successful development. Legal requirements are the
most stringent of the above criteria and usually involve the least sub-
jective analysis.
In some cases, legal requirements will not exist for certain pollutants,
yet a considerable body of knowledge may exist which indicates that sig-
nificant environmental impact could result from their release. Examples
are air emissions of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons and trace metals
such as cadmium and nickel. To evaluate the impact under these circum-
stances, one can rely on the judgment of scientific experts. This judg-
ment may be obtained via a collection of separate opinions or via the
convocation of a select committee. Although the results could be contro-
versial, the compilation of expert opinions at least provides a benchmark
against which decisions can be evaluated.
93
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Although scientific opinion raay judge a process environmentally accept-
able, social values could ultimately render it unacceptable. Accord-
ingly, in the evaluation process, one must also devise a systematic
manner of judging the public acceptability of an energy system. This
can be obtained via public hearings, surveys, polls, committee reports,
etc.
Each of these evaluation criteria is discussed in more detail below.
Laws
The primary criteria that must be satisfied are the federal, state,
and local laws that regulate the flow of pollutants fror. the system.
Compliance with present legal requirements is considered a baseline
activity in the environmental assessment of energy systems. Emissions
estimates (Section III) should be used initially to judge compliance.
If compliance cannot be demonstrated because of lack of data, collec-
tion of this data should be considered first priority in the Phase II
analysis. Legal requirements (discussed in more depth in Appendix D)
can be broken down into two groups:
• Laws regulating pollutant emissions at the source
(e.g., new source performance standards). Failure
to comply with these regulations will require sys-
tem modifications (e.g., particulate control de-
vices, SC>2 scrubbers, etc.) or changes in process
parameters (e.g., changes in combustion temperature,
changes in input feed).
• Laws regulating ambient concentration of pollutants
(e.g., ambient air quality standards). Failure to
comply with these regulations may require cither
system or site modification. Determining compli-
ance with ar.bient standards requires more informa-
tion on site characteristics than docs determining
compliance with source standards.
94
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Analyzing additive and synergistic effects requires that the system
planner know the background concentration of pollutants at the site.
In cases -where pollutant emissions cannot be shown to be clearly below
ambient standards, complicated pollutant dispersion modeling may be re-
quired to demonstrate projected compliance with legal requirements.
Each of these steps requires more and more information about the site
and the system and greater degrees of computational complexity.
When using laws as evaluative criteria, compliance with promulgated or
future laws must always be considered. These are discussed in Appendix D.
A system that may presently be economically and technically feasible may
become unacceptable if stricter emission standards are enacted.
Scientific Judgments
Scientific judgments are required to evaluate impacts of pollutant emis-
sions that are not regulated by legal requirements. The use of scientific
judgments as evaluative criteria provides a less clear cut indicator of
system acceptability than does the use of legal requirements. The ques-
tion that scientific judgment must answer is: Will the pollutants from
a system harm the ambient ecology in any significant way? The important
point here is that a judgment must be made as to what is significant.
A situation such as the threatening of an endangered species or the emis-
sion of known carcinogens could be accepted as a significant impact. A
complete analysis of the impacts of an energy system would require, at
a minimum, a thorough knowledge of the parameters given previously in
Table 3.
Scientific judgment of the impact of the pollutants on the environment
is based on three quantities: source/receptor relationships; ambient
pollutant concentration levels; and exposed receptor populations.
95
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Sourco/Rocoptor (S/R) K.e]ationships_ - S/R relationships express the effect
of a particular pollutant concentration level on a specific receptor (ani-
mal, plant, etc.) in the environment. S/R relationships are generally re-
ported as a concentration level at which a specified effect occurs (i.e.,
a threshold limit value, {TLV}), or as a concentration that, if maintained
for a specified time period, will prove lethal to a certain portion of a
specified receptor population (i.e., a lethal dose for 50 percent of the
population, {LD }). S/R relations are specific to a medium and stand as
a body of knowledge independent of the site and the energy system (see
references 4 to 8). The particular system determines the pollutants, and
the site determines the receptor population and, to some extent, the pol-
lutant medium and concentration level. S/R relationships are the analyti-
cal tool which measures the impacts of an energy system. (Data compila-
tions for toxicological properties of pollutants are listed in Appendix C.)
Ambient Concentration Levels - Three dimensions of ambient pollutant con-
centrations are important for a quantitative impact assessment of pollu-
tants on receptor populations: (1) pollutant concentration, (2) exposure
duration, and (3) trend over time. This information is important in
quantifying adverse effects where S/R relations are known, and also for
characterizing the severity of potential pollutants in terms of their
persistence, general emission trends, and potential geographic scales of
influence. The response of a receptor is determined for exposures lasting
for a specified time. For example, occupational standards are usually
determined for an 8-hour exposure period. Generally, environmental stan-
dards are expressed as 3-hour, 24-hour, 96-hour, or annual average.
Considerable discretion must be used in interpreting the effect of pollu-
tants in the environment when extrapolating source/receptor relationships
for exposure over a time period different from that for which they were
measured.
Exposed Receptor Population Inventory and Characterization - The third
basic parameter for assessing system pollutant effects is a measure of
96
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the population of exposed receptors. Receptor populations are defined
in a broad context here to mean people, vegetation, animals, materials,
and other elements of the physical environment for which effects criteria
have been defined. An inventory of receptor populations requires a re-
gional breakdown consistent with relevant pollutant monitoring capabili-
ties, and characterization along categories consistent with toxicity data
(e.g., classification of populations by sensitivity groupings - people,
plant species, etc.) and energy system site characteristics.
Guidance on receptor population characterization is limited by available
data bases to assist such inventories. Even for major receptor cate-
gories, such as humans, animals and plants, quantitative measures t'or
impact calculation are incomplete at the present time. Thus, although
general guidelines can be presented for performing evaluations based on
scientific judgments, the quantification of the impacts of an energy sys-
tem on the environment requires the use of a multidisciplinary team of
expert evaluators. This will insure the proper recognition of problem
areas and their correct interpretation.
Generally, the spatial extent over which receptor populations must be
considered is limited by the sphere of influence of the source and the
minimum concentration level of the pollutant capable of producing an
effect.
The use of scientific judgments as evaluative criteria will depend on
the goals of the assessment and the depth to which the assessment is
completed. A Phase I assessment may just determine if legal require-
ments can be met. However, for Phase II assessments, the salient fea-
tures of pollutant impact on the environment must be explored. These
will include:
97
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The long-term effect of pollutants over at least the
life of the system
The ability of pollutants to accumulate in natural
s inks
The effect of pollutants on special receptor groups
(e.g., endangered species, migratory species)
Additive or synergistic interactions of pollutants
in the environment
Climatological features that can alter the sphere
of influence (e.g., acid rain).
Literature sources and previous environmental assessments or environ-
mental impact statements for similar systems or sites can prove to be
invaluable aids in this part of the assessment and should be consulted.
In addition, there are, at present, methodologies for rank ordering pol-
9-16
lutants according to their potential for harming the environment.
These schemes focus attention on pollutant emissions having the greatest
potential for harm and are of potential use. However, they do require
large amounts of input information, and their use is recommended only
for very comprehensive assessments.
Social Criteria
Social criteria, or public acceptability, may determine if the siting of
the system will be allowed. Social criteria are also the most difficult
to quantify, but should be included in any assessment. They are some-
times the last evaluative judgments to be satisfied, but they are not
necessarily the least important. They should be included in any assess-
ment of systems beyond the pilot plant stage of development.
Social criteria have been touched on in Section IV. Some cx.imples are:
98
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• Aesthetics
• Recreational use of waterways
• Noise
• Land use
• Materials and property damage.
In certain cases, social criteria may be the most important criteria.
This is true for systems which generate few waste products (e.g., fuel
cells or solar power) or for systems for which the effect of accidents,
however remote, may be widespread (e.g., nuclear power systems).
IMPACT IDENTIFICATION
The previous evaluation criteria can be applied to several types of
impact. Basically, these are included in categories such as those
T
listed below. Using the previous evaluation criteria, priorities can
be assigned to each of these impacts. The priorities are usually best
assigned by a rnultidisciplinary team of experts.
• Significance versus Magnitude - Magnitude is measur-
able by some physical property (e.g., pounds of or-
ganic carbon); significance is measured by a subjec-
tive weighting factor which indicates the benefit or
detriment of the impact
• Inevitable versus Possible Impacts - Inevitable im-
pacts are readily measured (e.g., flow of a river,
concentration of Hg); possible impacts may not occur
but could be very significant if they do (e.g., an
oil spill)
• Cumulative Impacts^ - The sum of individual impacts
must be considered
• Lonr,-Term versus ghort-Tcrm Impacts - The persistence
of an impact must be evaluated
• Reversabilitv_ - The extent to which the impact can be
nullified by natural processes must be considered.
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EXAMPLES OF POSSIBLE DECISIONS
Many federal agencies and divisions within federal agencies are devel-
oping guidelines to assist in the decision-making process. Tables 4
and 5 are taken from a recent set of guidelines for environmental impact
3.
assessment for selected-industries. They are used simply to illustrate
some of the decisions one may encounter in an environmental assessment
program.
Table 4. EXAMPLES OF PROCESS-RELATED DECISIONS WHICH MAY BE
ENCOUNTERED IN AN ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT3
No.
Criteria.- Process Related
Option
The proposed process is likely to be
controversial for environmental or
public health reasons.
Process technology for the industry in ques-
tion is rapidly developing or expanding.
3 j Pollution control technology is rapidly
expanding for some critical or costly
facet of the industry.
4 j Renovation/expansion of existing facilities
would eliminate the need to develop natural
areas.
The proposed project will rely upon rela-
tively unproven technology.
The proposed project utilizes scarce or
rapidly diminishing resources (e.g.,
natural gas).
The proposed project has several raw
materials options.
Consider at least one
other process option.
Consider postponement
of the project.
Consider postponement
of the project.
Consider renovation/
expansion.
Consider at least one
other process option.
Consider at least one
other process using
other resources.
Consider all raw
material options and
determine one causing
lowest pollution load.
100
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Table 5. EXAMPLES OF SITE-RELATED DECISIONS WHICH MAY BE
ENCOUNTERED IN AN ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT'-*
No.
Criteria - Site Related
Option
The proposed new source location is likely to
be controversial.
The proposed new source and/or associated
facilities would infringe upon scientifically
valuable areas, as determined by site unique-
ness, primitiveness, amenability to study or
observation. Such sites may be defined by
local universities, colleges, research organi-
zations, etc.
The proposed new source and related facilities
would directly or indirectly infringe upon
recreational lands, wildlife refuge lands,
etc.
The proposed new source and related facilities
would either directly or indirectly accelerate
change in rural, pristine, or agricultural
land areas.
The proposed new source and related facilities
would induce secondary residential, industrial,
and/or commercial growth in the coir-, unity which
could not be supported by existing community
services and financial capabilities.
The proposed new source and related facilities
would cause traffic congestion in the vicinity
of the proposed site.
The proposed site is prone to flooding,
hurricane, earthquake, or other natural
disasters.
The proposed nex-: source and related facilities
would infringe directly or indirectly upon
endangered species or their habitat, or upon
well anas, (ir.cluai ng fresh-water wetlands),
upon wild and scenic rivers, or sensitive or
unique ecosystems.
The nronosed new source and related facilities
I would infringe directly or indirectly upon
hisLcL-ical sites currently included or pro-
posed for inclusion within the National Reg-
istry of Historical Landmarks. Archaeologi-
cally important sites are likewise covered by
I this criterion.
Consider at least one
additional site.
Consider at least one
additional site.
Consider at least one
additional site.
Consider at least one
additional site.
Consider at least one
iadditional site.
Consider at least one
additional site.
j Consider at least one
additional site.
Consider at least one
!additional site.
! Consider at least one
additional site.
101
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ASSESSING THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF SYSTEMS AT DIFFERENT
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
In terms of the system breakdowns presented in Section II, the following
general observations can be made regarding the evaluation of energy sys-
tem impacts.
Bench Scale or Conceptual Models
There is, in general, no ambient data available for bench scale models
as no site is chosen. However, in certain cases, site selection may be
constrained by the inherent requirements of the system (e.g., mine mouth
or residential use). In these instances, 'worst case' analyses can be
used to determine if, even at this early stage of system development,
the system will produce any significant impact.
*
Similarly, data systems such as MERES (see Appendix C) can be used to
predict pollutant loadings by analogies with similar systems. Potential
raw material requirements can be calculated and the impact of their ex-
traction determined. It is important, at this stage of system develop-
ment, to acknowledge the effect on system development of future laws
that may be in effect when the system goes on line.
The most important aspect of using the approach shown in Figure 16 on a
bench scale system is in determining the information required from the
next step of system development — the pilot plant. By recognizing data
needs early, the environmental assessment can be used as an efficient
data gathering vehicle.
*
MERES — Matrix of Environmental Residuals of Energy Systems,
A compilation of projected source emissions.^
102
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Pilot Plant
The major advantage in determining environmental impacts at the pilot
plant level is the flexibility which is available at this stage of
development. If potential environmental problems are identified, sys-
tem design or operating parameters can be modified comparatively easily
to investigate changes in pollutant loadings. One potential drawback
in evaluating environmental impacts at the pilot plant level, however,
is that the size of the plant may be much smaller than projected full-
scale facilities. Caution should be exercised in extrapolating data
from pilot plants which are significantly smaller (e.g., an order of
magnitude) than the size of the proposed commercial installations.
Potential environmental impacts, recognized at the pilot plant stage,
can be minimized by proper planning and construction in the next stage
of system development — the demonstration plant. Demonstration plants
are usually at least half the size of the projected full-scale facility.
Recognizing data needs will also make planning of the. demonstration
plant and subsequent ambient monitoring facilities much more efficient.
Demonstration Plant
Determination of the environmental impacts at a demonstration plant
will provide three main benefits. First, by identifying data gaps and
requirements, it will make ambient data collection efficient. Second,
it will determine what pollution control, if any, is required, and to
what degree pollution control must be practiced. Finally, as a plan-
ning device, it can be used to identify future legal requirements on
pollutant emissions and allow adequate lead time for the necessary
planning and Implementation of control technology.
103
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REFERENCES
1. Energy Alternative.'?: A Comparative Analysis. Prepared for Council
on Environmental Quality by the Science and Public Policy Program,
University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma. U.S. Government Printing
Office. Stock Number 041-011-00025-4. May 1975.
2. Warner, M. L. and E. N. Preston. Review of Environmental Impact
Assessment Methodologies. Battcllc Columbus Laboratories, Columbus,
Ohio. Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Publica-
tion Number EPA-600/5-74-002. April 1974.
3. Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines for Selected New Source
Industries. Draft Report. Office of Eederal Activities, U.S. En-
vironmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. August 1975.
4. Kemp, II. T. et al. (literature to 1968). Water Quality Criteria
Data Book - Effects of Chemicals on Aquatic Life. Volume III.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. May 1971. And: Kemp, H. T.,
R. L. Little, V. L. Iloloman, and R. L. Darby (literature 1968-1972).
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. September 1973.
5. Christcnscn, E. E. and T. T. Luginbyhl (cds.). The Toxic Substances
List. 1974 Edition. U.S. Public Health Service, Center for Disease
Control, Rockville, Maryland. 1974.
6. Epstein, S. S. Toxicologic and Epidemiologic Bases for Air Quality
Criteria. (FR-8 Committee of Air Pollution Control Association,
Chairman. 1969.)
7. Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents
in the Workroom Environment With intended Changes for 1974. Ameri-
can Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. Cincinnati,
Ohio. Copyright 1974.
8. Schindler, A. and Max Samfield. Estimation of Permissible Concen-
trations of Pollutants for Continuous Exposure. Part I: Permissible
Air Concentrations. Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Environmental Research Center, by Research Triangle Insti-
tute, Industrial and Environmental Research Laboratory, under
Contract No. 68-02-1325, Task Order No. 34. September 1975.
9. Arthur D. Little, Inc. Final Report Relating to the. Present Status
and Requirements for Occupational Safety Research. Prepared for
the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. 1972.
10. lloscy, A. I). Priorities in Developing Criteria for Breathing Air
Standards. Journal of Occupational Medicine, 12(2):43-46. Febru-
ary 1970.
104
-------
11. The President's Report on Occupational Safety and Health. U.S.
Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Washingt'on, D.C.
U.S. Government: Printing Office. December .1.973. p. 105-106.
12. Reiquam, H., N. Dee, and P. Choi. Final Report on Development of
Cross-Media Evaluation Methodology. Volume II. Battclle Research
Laboratories. Report to the Council on Environmental Quality and
Environmental Protection Agency. January 15, 1974.
13. Reiquam, H. Establishing Priorities Among Environmental Stresses.
Indicators of Environmental Quality. W. A. Thomas (ed.). New York,
Plenum Press, 1972. p. 71-82.
14. Norbert, D. ct al. Environmental Evaluation System for Water Re-
Source Planning. Battelle Columbus Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio.
January 1972.
15. Klee, A. J. Models for the Evaluation of Hazardous Wastes.
National Environmental Research Center, U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
16. Carroll, J. W. Formulation and Assessment of Air Pollutant Abate-
ment Strategies and Priorities, Task 1.0 Air Pollutant Prioritiza-
tion Methodology. GCA/Technology Division, Bedford, Massachusetts.
September 1974.
105
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APPENDIX A
SOURCE AND AMBTEuT TESTING AS PART OF AN
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT PROGRAM
INTRODUCTION
The necessity of sampling and analyzing pollutants both at the source
and in the ambient environment was discussed in Sections III and V.
Because this report deals with the assessment of systems at all stages
of development, sampling and analysis efforts can range frora simple
grab samples to complete on-line monitoring programs.
A complete description of all sampling and analysis procedures is out-
side the scope of this document. This appendix mainly addresses sam-
pling strategy, along with a brief description of appropriate analytical
considerations. The information presented here is not intended to be
complete or exhaustive. Rather, it is presented to give an overview of
an extensive field of knowledge that will be of use in the planning and
implementation of an environmental assessment.
The discussion is organized into the following general areas:
• Source Tests: Sampling and Analysis
- Air
• Federally recommended methods
• Gases
• Participates
107
-------
• Source Tests: Sampling and Analysis (continued)
— Water
• Federally recommended methods
o Dissolved species
• Suspended solids
• Organic compounds
— Solid Waste
• Waste piles
• Leachates
• Fugitive dust and runoff
« Ambient Tests
— Sampling strategy
— Analytical requirements
• Quality control in sampling and analysis.
SOURCE TESTS: SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS
Prcsampling Survey
Source testing programs should be undertaken only after careful and de-
tailed planning to ensure sampling completeness, appropriate scheduling,
and maximum efficiency of personnel and hardware.
The information necessary to plan source testing adequately can best
be obtained through site visits; i.e., "presurvey" trips. The major
functions of the presurvey are to:
• Evaluate specific sampling sites and determine the
frequency and method of sample collection
• Determine basic conditions of each stream to be sampled
(flow rate, temperature, pressure, major components)
• Arrange for necessary monitoring of process parameters
• Acquire a sample of each major type of process and
effluent material for preliminary testing.
108
-------
Snmp \i nj>
^n_tro£luc_t_loin - No analytical result, regardless of the accuracy and
precision of the procedure, can be any better than the quality of the
sample submitted for analysis. The primary tasks involved in source
tents on an energy system involve sampling effluent streams such as
stack venting systems, cooling towers, or water discharge streams.
The identification of pollutants discussed in Section III and the dis-
cussion of data requirements in Section V provide the necessary input
for deciding when, where, and what to sample. It is essential that the
first steps in any sampling and analysis program are the. determination
of the compounds of interest and the decision on where in the process
stream samples arc to be taken. Therefore, it is necessary that the
assessment provide at least' an initial estimate of the identities and
quantities of pollutants generated by the energy system and the phase
(i.e., solid, liquid, gas) in which these pollutants are emitted.
The initial sampling objective should be to characterize comprehensively
the effluent stream of interest and establish acceptable sample sizes.
The "physical" properties of the stream must also be measured (i.e.,
average velocity, velocity gradients, temperature, pressure, extent of
turbulence, etc.). Changes in stream velocity will alter the emission
rate. Velocity gradients and turbulence will affect the extent of mix-
ing which in turn can alter the chemistry of the stream.
For processes involving cyclic operating conditions, it may be necessary
to sample at the same, point during several cycles to accumulate the re-
quired amount of sample for analysis. In this vein, the sensitivity of
the particular analysis procedures must be known in advance in order to
determine the minimum sample size needed. A thorough knowledge of analy-
sis requirements avoids the expenditure of more time and effort than are
necessary to achieve the required effluent: stream characterisation.
109
-------
Sample col.lcc.tion times must bo long enough to collect sufficient quan-
tities for analysis, yet short enough to observe changes in effluent
concentrations due to changes in operating conditions. Assessment of
a source which has substantial variations with respect to process param-
eters (for example, the use of an MUD power generator to meet peak load
requirements) requires an emissions-weighted average using the frequency
of occurrence of the various process combinations. If this proves im-
practical, a "typical" situation for detailed analysis can be chosen.
Sampling points should be selected as close as possible to the actual
ejection port of tho stream, so that the sample reflects more closely
the emissions from the system. In cases where control devices exist
or are planned, samples are taken upstream and downstream from the con-
trol device. Samples are not taken near obstructions or bends in the
duct since atypical concentration or flow gradients are usually present
at such places.
Sampling variations such as traversing or proportional sampling should
always be performed at the outset of any testing program to characterize
the effluent stream. Once the effluent stream has been well character-
ized, prudent judgment will determine the degree of sophistication re-
quired in subsequent tests. In the simplest case of a stack which has
a constant average duct velocity (volume flow rate) and a constant pol-
lutant gas concentration, it is only necessary to sample at one point
at a constant sampling rate.
The following subsections provide brief summaries of sampling techniques
commonly used for air, water, and solid waste source tests. It is not
an exhaustive review of the subject, but is aimed primarily at providing
background information and familiarity with current practices. Where
appropriate, reference is made to monitoring handbooks or literature
reviews.
110
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A_lr Samp 1. Ing - Air sampling includes the collection of both gaseous and
pnrticulatc species. Kach will be discussed separately, although in some
instances the same considerations or precautions apply to both categories.
Federally recommended air sampling methods - For the six criteria air
*
pollutants — SO , NO , suspended participates, CO, hydrocarbons, and
*. X
total oxidant (as 0 ) — Federal Reference sampling and analytical pro-
1234
cedures have been established and updated. ' ' '
Use of the Federal Reference techniques is not required in all situations;
however, they are strongly recommended for compliance testing. If an al-
ternate method is used, the rationale for use should he explained.
Gaseous sampling - Discussing, in any detailed manner, the proper sam-
pling procedures for all possible source types and related gases en-
countered in an assessment program requires an unwarranted degree of
effort. The approach taken here is to describe conventional sampling
methods, indicate the advantages and disadvantages of each, and fina.lly,
show how they are applied in some specific field applications.
a Grab Sampling - A representative gas sample is collected
in a suitable container such as an aluminized bag, a stain-
less steel vessel, or a glass bulb. A typical example is
the EPA Grab Sample Train used for measuring NOX in stack
gases. The sample collector consists of a sealed evacuated
flask containing an absorbing solution. Particulate matter
is removed by a glass wool filter at the inlet to the flask.
When the seal on the flask is broken, the sample fills the
bulb which is then stoppered and transported to the labora-
tory for analysis. A similar technique, using aluminized
Scotchpak bags, usually fitted with Roberts valves,- has
been used for sampling hydrocarbons.
Convenience and ease of handling are the advantages of grab
sampling. A disadvantage of this method is the frequent
difficulty in maintaining the extracted sample .in the orig-
inal source condition. For instance, in sampling a high
temperature process stream, the sample can cool considerably
As designated in the Clean Air Act of 1970 (sec Appendix D).
Ill
-------
before it is finally analyzed, thus introducing the possi-
bility of significant error due to condensation.
Grab sampling is never .suitable for analyzing reactive gas
mixtures such as Cl2 and Nii^ which react rapidly to form
solid NH^Cl. Grab sampling may also reduce the selectivity
of analytical techniques. For example, sulfuric acid mist
is sometimes measured by collecting the sample on a suitable
filter media for subsequent analysis by flame photometry.
With this mode of sampling, solid sulfate salts are also
collected, leading to erroneously high estimates for sul-
fur ic acid concentrations. In grab sampling, the pollu-
tants are not preconcentrated.
* Integrated Flow Sampling - In integrated flow sampling, a
continuous flow of sample is pulled through Che sampling
train. In the sampling train the sample is bubbled through
special solutions. The component of interest can either be
selectively dissolved or precipitated out of solution. The
sampling train consists of gas meters, pumps, filters, ab-
sorption columns, etc. A typical example is the EPA Absorp-
tion Train for determining sulfur dioxide in stack gases.
A pump draws the gas sample through the system and a filter
is used to remove particulate matter prior to gas scrubbing
with the absorbing solution. The scrubbing solution is then
analyzed for S02- One of the major difficulties of this
type of sampling is incomplete absorption of the gaseous
species. Interfering factors can also result from changes
in pH caused by the solvation of other gases and from tur-
bidity caused by precipitate formation.
• Tn-Situ Analysj-S - Recently developed in-situ measuring
techniques involve no sample extraction. An example is
the Correlation Spectrometer^ in which an ultraviolet
light beam is projected into a stack and then reflected
back to a sensor. The absorption spectrum of the light
beam is then compared with standard spectra to determine
concentrations of species of interest. The technique is
presently applicable to NO, NH3, S02, and halogens and
shows considerable promise for other materials. Another
type of in-situ monitoring is the remote sensing of either
ambient or plume concentration levels by Lidar Spcctroscopy.
The following general precautions are necessary to provide proper sampling
of gaseous species:
112
-------
J^ll'?rJ_.Al?.!ll!JLrJL'L!:lil2lJ'la^rrJ-Jlis. ~ TllG sampling system must
he constructed t rom materials that will not react with
the species of interest , nor provide sites for selective
adsorption of these species.
~~ T"e temperature drop during transport from
the sampled environment, such as a stack, to an analytical
instrument must not be so large as to cause condensation,
increased wall adsorption, or shifts in equilibrium
concentrations.
Prof Uterine, for Part Iculatc Matter - When sampling for
trace gaseous substances it is often desirable to prefiltcr
the gas to remove particulate matter. There are two reasons
why prcfilteriug may be necessary: (1) the particulate
matter itself may contain substances which will react with
the chemicals used for analysis and (2) the particulate matter
may form blockages in the collection equipment, especially
those using small critical orifices for gas metering, which
will contribute to errors in the volume measurement of gases
sampled.
LJ±lL9-cL1^. " When handling trace concentrations of
gases, it should always be recognized that adsorption onto
sampling containers or lines can cause significant error.
For example, nitrogen oxides are adsorbed very strongly on
to glass surfaces, requiring the rinsing of glass used in
the sampling train with Saltzman's reagent to obtain precise
results .
• j>,i.f.f"s_ion Losses - The use of plastic containers for storage
oi gaseous samples may result in substantial errors in
apparent sample concentrations due to selective diffusion
losses through the plastic. Thus, the interval between col-
lection and analysis should be kept at a minimum. Similarly,
plastic tubing used for sampling or analysis equipment should
be as short as possible.
• Mechanical Defects - Leaks are the most common source of
error in ambient and source sampling. Leaks often occur at
seals and valves and are not always readily detectable by
simple visual inspection of equipment.
Particulatc .sampling - Particulate sampling presents unique sampling
problems becaur.e particles arc often distributed nonuniformly at pipe
bends or obstructions. In particle sampling, the gas from the effluent
stream is drawn through a probe and the particles are deposited on a
113
-------
suitable substrate such as a filter or a sticky surface. The best re-
sults arc usually obtained when the flow velocity into the probe is the
same as that in the stack (referred to as 'isokinetic1 sampling).
Because of the mass gradients mentioned above, traversing probes are
often used with isokinetic sampling conditions.
Common problems in particle sampling "are losses via agglomeration (es-
pecially important in. particle size measurements), losses by deposition
on surfaces, and losses via electrostatic interactions with walls or pro-
trusions. Not only are losses encountered when sampling for particulate,
but positive errors may result from extraneous contributions due to ab-
sorbed water or other vapors, or the formation of particulates from cata-
lytic reactions on the surfaces of particle collectors.
Water Sampling - Water is sampled for dissolved substances, organic com-
pounds, inorganic compounds, suspended solids, pit, temperature, etc.
In water sampling, grab samples, integrated flow-sampling, or in-situ
analysis can be used. Monitoring performed at the outfall, the point
where the effluent stream from the facility meets the receiving water seg-
ment, can be used to determine total plant effluents. In addition, each
tributary to the cverall waste system should be sampled to determine when
and where pollutants originate. To determine the source of pollutants, a
complete path of the plant's drainage system should be mapped, keeping in
mind that wastewater effects are not necessarily limited to physically
connected waterways. For example, leachates from solid waste disposal
sites can contaminate underground water streams. (Leaching will be dis-
cussed further in the section on solid waste disposal.)
Federally recommended methods - A sample of the types of recommended pro-
cedures for sample preservation and sample holding time, taken from EPA's
Q
Methods for Chemical Analvsis of Water and Wastes, is shown in Table 6.
114
-------
Table 6. A SELECTION FROM EPA'S RECOMMENDED PROCEDURES FOR SAMPLING
AND PRESERVATION OF WATER SAMPLES8
Measurement
Acidity
Alkalinity
Metals
Dissolved
Suspended
Total
Organic carbon
Organic
compounds
PH
Volume
required,
ml
100
100
200
100
25
min 1000
25
Container
P,G
P,G
P,G
P,G
Gw/Teflon
liners
P,G
Preservative
Cool, 4°C
Cool, 4°C
Filter on site
12-103 to PH 2
Filter on site
IINO 3 to pH 2
Cool, 4°C
II2S04 to pH 2
Refrigerate
Cool, 4°C
Determined on
site
Holding
time
24 hours
24 hours
6 months
6 months
6 months
24 hours
Extract ASAP
6 hours
115
-------
Those procedures are not mandatory, but they have been developed as
a rosult of wide experience in the field of wastewuter sampling. A
supporting rationale should be supplied if alternative techniques are
used.
Sampling dissolved species - In-situ analysis by -ion-specific electrodes
is often used to great advantage in monitoring dissolved species. If
grab samples or sequential sampling techniques are used, the selection of
a glass or plastic sample container is determined by the potential for
leaching of ions to or from the container. Because significant quantities
of soluble species such as metals can bo contained in suspended solids,
reported concentrations for these species determined from analysis of
soluble components must be considered lower limits.
Sample preservation techniques using chemical additives "fix" the species
of interest in a stable form in solution. Cooling of samples to 4°C is
also generally rocommended to maintain sample quality. Again, however,
the secondary effects of temperature change and the presence of preserva-
tive must be taken into account when processing samples. For instance, an
acid preservative cannot be used on a sample which will be tested for pH,
nor can a HgCl2 preservative be used on a sample to be tested for mercury
content or total chloride. Table 7 lists some commonly used preserva-
tives and their function with respect to "fixing" soluble species. The
importance of preservation has been demonstrated by a study of Hg losses
from creek water during storage. Losses ranged as high as 60 percent for
a water sample without added preservatives after only minutes of storage
Q
in a polyethylene bottle.
Sampling suspended solids - In some cases, in-situ analysis can be made
on suspended solids via light scattering techniques; however, because
bubbles and turbulence will cause interference, grab samples are generally
116
-------
Table 7. PRESERVATIVES FOR WATER SAMPLES
8
Preservative
Action
Applicable to
HgCl2
Acid (UNO™)
Acid (II2S04)
Alkali (NaOH)
Refrigeration
Bacterial inhibitor
Metals solvent, pre-
vents precipitation
Bacterial inhibitor
Salt formation with
organic bases
Salt formation with
volatile compounds
Bacterial inhibitor
Nitrogen forms
Metals
Organic samples
(COD, oil and grease,
organic carbon)
Ammonia, amines
Cyanides, organic
acids
Acidity-alkalinity,
organic materials,
BOD, color, odor,
organic P, organic
N, carbon, etc.,
biological organism
(coliform, etc.)
117
-------
preferred. If only turbidity measurements are important, light scatter-
ing techniques will usualJy suffice. If chemical analysis of the sus-
pended solids is required, the solids can be separated by filtration,
centrifugation or evaporation and then be separately analyzed. If
evaporation is used, care should be exercised to insure that the solids
themselves are not volatile and hence subject to loss during evaporation.
Sampling and preparation of organic compounds - To prevent reactions
between organic compounds and other water stream contaminants, organics
should be extracted from the water effluent stream during or immediately
after sampling. Chloroform is suggested as the most suitable extracting
9
solvent, particularly for those compounds to be analyzed by gas chroma-
tography-mass spectronetry. After extraction, samples should be frozen
until analysis.
Water sampling precautions - Unique problems encountered in water sam-
pling are:
a Dissolved Cases and Temperature Effects - In sampling,
special care must be given to tests for dissolved gases.
Changes in temperature of the sample can rapidly and
drastically alter pH and concentrations of dissolved
gas. This, in turn, may cause some chemicals to pre-
cipitate, thus causing a change in total hardness,
salinity, etc. Therefore, monitoring of variables
such as pH, temperature, and concentration of dissolved
gases should always be performed in the field.
• Extraneous Sour_ces_ - Source tests may or may not be
influenced by extraneous pollution sources, depending
on the construction of the effluent disposal system.
For instance, if the storm sewers of a plant and the
waste water from a boiler blowdown operation drain to
the same effluent stream, then sampling the stream
after the junction point would measure the cumulative
effect of blowdown and runoff.
118
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Sol. ifl_ _W.-!s;tq__Rarnp.l ijijj - Solid waste sampling may be divided Into three
general areas: the pile itself, leachatcs, and fugitive dust and run-
off. Solid wastes can originate in many sections of an energy facility
(e.g., ash from boilers, participates from settling ponds, etc.); they
are almost always disposed of as landfill.
Waste piles - The most reliable results for waste pile analysis are de-
rived from a systematic grid approach to sampling. Because the com-
position of solid waste piles changes very slowly, these piles need only
be sampled on a monthly or even less frequent basis. However, solid
waste piles should be sampled whenever their composition may suddenly
change (e.g., an ash pile should be sampled whenever the composition of
the process coal changes radically).
Solid samples are usually taken from piles with the use of an auger or
borer. In this fashion, cumulative or stratified sample sections can be
attained. Samples are. prepared for analysis by drying, grinding or pul-
verizing, and mixing. The end product should be so homogenized that
even a small sample (100-200 mg) can be accurately considered representa-
tive of the entire sample.
Leachates - Leachates are defined as the liquid produced when water
passes through solid waste and flushes out decomposition products.
Leachates should be sampled in subsurface strata and In any underground
or surface water segment out to those distances from the source at which
, . 11
background concentrations are reached.
It is very difficult to project when to sample leachates since they
travel slowly and unprcdictably. Typical leachate migration rates can
range from 0.5 to 30 m/year.11 Soil column experiments give, at best,
an accuracy of ± 1 year in terms of the migration rate when compared
with field tests.
119
-------
In addition, leaching rates can vary with time. Therefore, Icachates
should lie tested often enough to insure that any erratic behavior or
rapid rise in leaching rate is detected.
In new facilities, sludges and solid wastes are stored on impervious
liners. These liners are designed to prevent leachates from entering
the soil. However, the surrounding soil should occasionally be tested
for any leachates which might escape through rips in the liner, runoff,
or disposal pond overflow. Recent work on the use of these liners is
summarized in reference 12.
Leachates are collected by using wells or piezometers placed in drilled
holes. A piezometer consists of a small section of pipe covered at one
end by a wire screen and connected to the end of a long rod. The rod is
placed in a boring, and the, water obtained in the pipe sections is rep-
resentative of the leachate at the bottom of the boring. By adjusting
the length of the open section of pipe, samples representative of large
vertical distances of soil can be obtained. Pore water samples above
the grouudwater table are taken with suction lysiometers. Leachate
samples should be cleared of suspended solids by sedimentation and not
filtration, as the latter may remove significant amounts of heavy metals
and phosphates.
Most leachates are formed under anaerobic conditions and will suffer
significant sample deterioration when exposed to the air. Therefore,
leachate samples should be placed in stoppered bottles and analyzed
immediately. Suspended solids, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, and pH
readings are dependent on the time between collection and analysis.
After collection, leachates arc treated in the same manner as water
samples. The main parameters of interest arc summarized in Table 8.
120
-------
Table 8. PIU MARY AND SKCONDAKY LKACHATK PARAMKTKRS TO BK MKASUKKD
.,,13
Primary
Parameter
Conductivity
Absorbance
at 400 |im
PH
Reason
for
measurement
Function of salts and
volatile free fatty
acid concentration
Iron and other inor-
ganic concentrations
Low pll indicates pres-
ence of volatile free
fatty acids
Secondary
Parameter
COD
(Chemical Ox-
ygen Demand)
TS
(Total Solids)
Reason
for
measurement
Concentration of
organics
Presence of or-
ganics and in-
organics
Fugitive dust and runoff - Runoff and overflow from piles or sludge ponds
should be treated as fugitive sources and be sampled when and where they
occur. For runoff or overflow the receiving water segment should be
sampled immediately to assess the effect of the added pollutant loading.
Fugitive dust samples are in the form of particulates and are treated in
the same manner as discussed in the section on air sampling. Samples are
collected with Hi-Vol samplers or dustfall buckets. These devices can
trap total suspended particulates (TSP) or all particles below a certain
critical size. Therefore, the fugitive dust can be sampled for size as
well as for chemical composition.
Analytical Techniques
Introduction - A plethora of techniques exist which can be used in the
analysis of waste stream samples. The decision involved in selecting
the appropriate analytical methods for any situation must be based upon
the criteria delineated in Table 9. A further consideration to those
listed is the necessity to compare results obtained using different
techniques. For instance, in determining trace element emissions to air
121
-------
Table 9. CKITKRTA. FOR SELECTION OF ANALYTICAL METHODS
Requirement
Sensitivity
Specificity
Precision
Accuracy
Range of
analysis
Stability
Ease of
handling
Response
tine
Cost
Availability
ol equipment
Definition
iV.r.ouut of r,,Ttorl:il that
gives a spc-ci.fi.cd response.
Ability to measui'e only the
eliminating interferences.
Srror of the method (often
expressed as the coeffici~
t-nt of variation) estab-
lished by tLe ana ly s Is of
P3ny samples containing
c q u t v .1 1 L- :u a r.o u n t s of th fi
specie s of lute re st.
Ability to deteminc the
true value.
Confer, traticn ran^;e In
v f ; i c h reliable results con
be obtained .
Ability of tho rc-iterlals
to rc~a in intact over a
period of cime .
Skills required to prepare
analytical i^t-thcds.
Tire required to analyze
one sample co-plc tcly .
Ac tu.il ;rone t.irv er.pcndi.ture
for r.-iterials, c^uip^c-nt ,
and per sunr.el needod .
Ability to purchase the
required ef;uljn.cr.t ar.d
t-Jterials needed for an
analysis.
R<* l.i live impor la nee
in qn.illt.ntJ.ve on.ilyr.is
Ut^h - lx?lru* able "t_o sec" Any
substance on first analysis
c ;) n s ;! v u c o n s i d r r «i b 1 e t i me i n
later testing
Low - Detecting even n "hint"
01 a spec tes ir. import on t In
Rcreenli:£. Later tests can
provide confirmation.
Hirh - Lnck of precision can
m.ikc a test useless*
l.i'v - An or^er of n;.Tr,nitude
accuracy would be ficequjte.
ILUlil " Ideally, a ranf;e which
spans 10~ 'J to 10" g-mole//
is desirable.
Hfj^h - Const s tr'ncy Is ippor-
tiint in screen in?, tests;
precision.
Mc-iK'TMte - Convrnience and
ing tests . >'ia!u)d?3 requiring
one rvccds easily
avhliublc supplies.
Relative import -mcc
In quatitl tntivc analysis
\(irh - Must be able "to fice" at
l-'tjst down to Ic/wcst Ivvcl of
concern.
H ti'h - Interfere rice can cause
erroneous data interpretation.
Hir.H * Lnck of precision can
r.-iK.c a tct>t useless.
Hh h - Should be ^ood to within
i'l'j;. dt parts per billion; 507.
at p.irts per nilllon.
T.i"..' - Screening t c r, t. s should
aLltw one to preselect uptlnura
r in c of in t trust; ln:nce llexl-
M~Ur,";tr - One will often have
option of selecting optlmun
ti:: '-• 1'ur anal-/;, ii ; he ace prob-
lur-.s of instability nay be
avoided .
y 5rl '••r.i to - Hie Importance of
tlie level of effort.
H'jJcr.ite - Same as In quali-
tative.
Cost can vary with the impor-
tance of the result .
M.^L'r.itc. • Most important
s'lTplrs can receive fcpcclsl
priority.
122
-------
and water streams it is important to select techniques of comparable
sensitivity; otherwise erroneous conclusions may bo drawn as to the
media distribution of the element of interest.
The criteria in Table 9 will be weighted differently for qualitative
and quantitative analyses. Although the same instrumentation cart often
be used for both types of analyses, in the former, sensitivity, speed,
and ease of performance are crucial, while for the latter, precision,
accuracy, and specificity are needed.
For criteria pollutants (see Appendix D) specific analytical techniques
- the Federal Reference Methods - have been established and should be
used.
Air, water, and solid samples can often be analyzed by the same technique.
For example, techniques such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
(GCMS) , atomic, absorption analysis (AA) , and infrared spectroscopy (IR)
can be applied to samples from any medium.
The cost of using an analytical technique is important. Generally, the
greater the accuracy of a technique, the higher the cost per analysis.
Analysis cost per sample can generally be reduced by analyzing many
samples by the same technique. Therefore, analytical techniques should
14 L5
be chosen with the broadest possible applications in mind. '
Methodologies for planning and fabricating a high efficiency analysis
campaign are available. These are based on the analytical resources
available and a priority ranking for measuring hazardous emissions.
These methodologies should be consulted at the beginning of any analytical
16,17,18
program.
123
-------
Figure 17 presents a flow chart of the steps required for collecting
waste stream data in an environmental assessment for one such methodology,
The extent to which the tasks in Figure 17 arc 'employed will depend on
both the goals of the assessment and the cost of the analyses. For
assessments including comprehensive source tests, it is suggested that
the main tasks in Figure 17 (physical, chemical, biological, and energy
characterisation) receive equal priority. Figure 18 suggests techniques
which can be employed in waste stream analysis. For each category It
is suggested that a minimum of two samples should be comprehensively
characterized for each waste stream and each different, but significant,
operating condition of the system.
AMBIENT TESTS
Introduction.
The purpose of an ambient testing program is to measure the concentra-
tions of pollutants in the air, water, or soil in the vicinity of a pollu-
tant source. (In the context of an environmental assessment of energy
systems, ambient refers to those sectors of the environment beyond the
actual site of the system.) Ambient tests are essential since they are
the only definitive means of determining the chemical and physical com-
position of effluents in the environment. Ambient tests are also a
necessary adjunct to source tests and dispersion models since the data
from the two sets of experiments can be used to identify the modes of
pollutant transport and conversion,
Ambient testing differs from source testing in several significant ways:
(1) the logistics in an ambient program are generally more complicated
(more monitoring situs, instrumentation, personnel, etc.), (2) the in-
fluence of factors such as terrain and weather conditions must be taken
into account, (3) the concentration levels are often small enough (part
per billion or part per trillion) to dictate special sauip.Ling and
124
-------
• : ''" . >:T:(".r> AT TIV.2 OF SAILING
:v.= v ••:; '.:r.c !V.T.\ (I.E.. DATA
c.-: •.!'.•:. i if !v:.T:;:v-L5 05 SEMI-
TE :•:; •-•• c v.r.\CTi.s;;r:cs. A.-.D
c ••:-<:T:J'.J CF T.iis A.N3 SIMILAR
U.c.. r?.?- E?A. STATE i uiouj
SAV.'!.?.5
(S»SEOL'S. i:3;;ia. 03 SOLID)
NJ
r^2_rY . - • -.:
*.••;-. ' ., 'jr ,,'- ::c:.".;
:?.'.-..>: •: r r -::<;s (E.G..
(«> CV.VTTTATI'.T TO U1T,'TS A FACTOR 0?
2 CF ~'S T-v- c:;-:c".. ?A'. ;.'-;;.
(» ;-.v_'."::"AT;1.: TO •.•;-•.:•> > FACTOR OF
10 07 7!:i T^I CO:.CLNT>.\T!W.
(E.G., roll Nv'. NO",
so;, ex , P'-;. s_)
SMI-Q'J.VJVIT.MIVE (a)
<'<:.:' :c
srt.iliS
ii)>.r:r:ir> AMP
SK>H-T.'A*.T;K":.» ;b)
f.Y rptf.K'.T ANALYTICAL
v;c::so!.r.'.;v (E.G., BY
OC-X.S. i.KMS, tV>
SIC'-OCICA1. H^F'CTS I
CIL\SACTIR:ZAT;OS I
j I
rr?. rxA.'"'.r;
• Slssiili CEAT COSTEfT
• FILL l.-.L-'.T.
• E:._".-.CY Fr;i.".u3 TO
T;.^-,T iY VA-:r,j5
CO.V.'koL ALTiR-SiTHIS
• Si:O..T-TF.P.V BIPASSAYS
- CYTOT.IX'.C'.TTi
• PATiiOCENIC iACTfRIAL/
VIR;S TESTS
rir:c T?L',T;HCA::,N' OR
|:CM!-Ql'A'.T I HC'.ATI liN {b)
Figure 17. Diagram summarizing the types of basic stream data to be collected for environmental
assessments (taken from reference 19)
-------
SCREENING
ST-PS
STEPS
N)
Microiccptc
Analysts
(c.g . , to Idcnti fy
flirt Is or for.-.ation P
Mstorv ofjarticles)
Waste JtrcM^Ji
or Ambient
Sa-ale
Mass Sprctrcsccpy
Blcissa/s
| trsctic-ur.O". i
i i
(S^I'.S) A-.ion Anlysis high i'.csoi uticn G,;s <.!rc . _ i.-,ri,...y
(for 70 clcror.ts. (e.g.. SO,, :C3. !i03, N02. Kass Spcctrcsccpy CR Xass S;c:tr:scs?y
1,^ r.v-inUntitves, CN 7 S . CO,-) (:jr-"'S) (GS-".S)
as r.'.'cdci)
I
]
' — — — Analysis. or etc.
HH."5
SS..I
ESCA
scanning electron microscopy
electron spcctrcsccpy for chemical analysis
atc.-.i1c ats;r?tion spectroscopy
x-ray fluorescence
neutron activation analysis
HP-IS
IV
IS
WR
LC
hljh-resolutlon -oss spcctrOSCOjy
ultraviolet spcctrosccpy
Ir.frarei spcctroscopy
nuclear siagr.etic rescr.ir.ee
Figure 18. Illustrative chemical analysis strategy for environmental assessments (reference 19)
-------
analytical techniques, and, (4) the pollutants of interest can be differ-
ent In source and ambient tests. This latter point is important. For
example, elemental mercury emitted by a source may be biologically trans-
formed into more toxic methyl and phenyl mercury by marine organisms.
Also, photochemical reactions in the atmosphere of species such as hydro-
carbons can form new pollutants such as peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) or
oxygenated hydrocarbons.
Ambient Monitor Siting
Presented below are several examples which qualitatively illustrate the
manner in which variables related to the site and the. pollutant can affect
the design of an ambient monitoring program.
0 Climatology - An understanding of the climatology of a
particular area is essential for the development of a
monitoring program. This is especially important for
the measurement of air pollutants whose dispersion de-
pends on local, olimntological features such as inversions,
sea breezes, and inversion breakups. Meteorological
variables such as wind speed and ambient temperature de-
termine buoyant plume rise. A frequency distribution of
wind direction is used as an aid in the placement of mon-
itors. The choice of radial distances from the stack
for monitor placement is complex and depends upon vari-
ables such as effective stack height, wind speed, and
atmospheric stability.
The percentage of time rainfall occurs and the average
rainfall rate will give some indication of the amount
of wet deposition which takes place over a period of
time and the detectability of the corresponding pollutant
enrichment factor in the top layers of soil by standard
measurement techniques. The clJmatologlcal parameters
of seasonal rainfall distribution and average windspeed
are important considerations in the design of any system
to monitor fugitive dust from natural or man-made sources.
• Hvdrolorv - Since the flow of water is one of the major
mechanisms for pollutant transport, a study of the hydro-
logical characteristics in the vicinity of an energy
system should In- conducted lu'iorc the design of a moni-
toring system. The first phase of such a study would be
127
-------
an analysis of: (1) the various pathways by which precip-
itation within a watershed finds its way to a receiving
body of water such as a stream or Lake; and (2) the rela-
tive importance, of each of these pathways for the area in
question. A second phase of the hydrological survey would
be a characterisation of water bodies in the area as to
their geometry, flow rates, and relationship to one another.
Information gained from this survey is valuable in the se-
lection of water monitoring locations. Estimates of stream
flow and turbulent diffusi.vity arc utilized to insure that
a monitoring site is situated far enough downstream from
the point of effluent input so that the pollutant concen-
trations are relatively uniform over the stream cross
section.
Topography - The nature of the topography of a site will
exert obvious constraints upon the design of a sampling
program. In mountainous or hilly terrain the placement
of air samplers must be representative of the actual fea-
tures of the local terrain so that no measurement site is
cut off fro^ any direct impact of pollutant emissions.
The density of monitoring sites in a given direction should
reflect the nature oi the prevailing winds in the area,
which is in turn affected by topographical features.
Chemical and Biological Characteristics - One of the most
important characteristics of a given pollutant in regard
to the development of a monitoring system is its behavior
under the processes of chemical and biological transfor-
mation. For example, suppose that a network to measure
sulfate (S0/t=) levels in the vicinity of an energy system
were to be set up. Since the oxidation of the primary
pollutant SC>2 to the secondary pollutant (S04=) will pro-
ceed according to some finite reaction rate, the placement
of monitors downwind from a point source would necessarily
be different than those for nonreactive pollutant concen-
tration measurements. The. distance between S02 and (S04=)
ground level air concentration maxima will be functions not
only of the chemical transformation rate but also the source
height, wind speed, stability, and deposition rate. The
possibility of pollutant transformation in the environment
must always be considered.
128
-------
K0'M":ct' t.° Ambient Test: in;'. Programs
l£il|j?JliS'±l ~ An ambient test program involves multiple monitoring sites,
thus special attention should be devoted to the logistics of monitor
placement. Prior to actual site selections, surveys should be conducted
with mobile monitoring stations to assist in site selection. Mobile
monitoring stations should always be used to complement any pre-existing
permanent stations.
In many cases, traversing rugged terrain may be a necessary aspect of a
test program. Small, rugged, and portable instrumentation then becomes
desirable. Under such conditions, particularly durable sampling materials
may be required. In some cases the use of heavy duty materials (e.g,,
metal containers versus glass) although providing increased ease of han-
dling may introduce added sampling errors. Such a situation calls for at
least a crude cost/analysis (e.g., can the added error be tolerated in
view of the fact that the data can be gathered more readily) .
Transporting samples back to a central laboratory is often troublesome.
The option of using a mobile analytical laboratory should be considered.
The analytical techniques may be unsophisticated, but the reduction of
sample deterioration can sometimes counterbalance any advantage gained
from more sophisticated analysis. For instance, in some water pollution
analyses, the use of a series of specific ion electrodes may be adequate
for any elemental analyses.
A judicious degree of uniformity is necessary in an ambient test program.
Obviously, this applies to the types of instrumentation and equipment
used. For example, using different techniques to measure S09 at differ-
ent monitoring silos is inappropriate. Uniformity should extend to the
whole monitoring campaign including the height at which air samples are
taken (or the depth for water samplers), the frequency of maintenance or
calibration checks, the time de-Lay between sampling and actual analysis.
129
-------
Cone cut ration Levels - The ambient concentration of many pollutants is
extremely small; parts per billion (ppb) and parts per trillion (ppt)
are common,, Consequently, either simple concentration techniques or sen-
sitive analytical techniques are required for an adequate monitoring
program. If in some cases a sample cannot be concentrated, techniques
such as the stiindard additions method, which can effectively extend the
lower detection limit of the analytical technique, are required.
Tables 10 and 11 provide some it\dication oC the concentration levels of
various chemicals which are encountered in ambient testing. Table 10 is
a useful benchmark, as it provides examples of ambient air pollutant levels
which have been measured in various geographic areas. Table 11 provides
similar data for water pollutants.
In reviewing these tables one significant fact becomes apparent - the pre-
vailing levels of pollutants vary considerably from region to region.
For example, the concentration of ethylcne in downtown Washington is a
factor of 20 greater than that in a rural area. The ambient level of
strontium in the Tennessee River is 47 ug/^j but in the Colorado River
it is 647 ug/,2. Having at least an estimate of the expected baseline
concentrations can help considerably in setting analytical requirements
(at the ppb level, an order of magnitude increase in sensitivity can be
very costly).
Monitoring Techniques - The discussion concerning sampling and analysis
with respect to source tests also applies to ambient tests; i.e., the
remarks concerning presampling surveys, sampling precautions, use of
qualitative versus quantitative analytical techniques, etc,, are equally
valid here. Excellent texts describing analytical and instrumental
methods for ambient pollutant analysis are available; for air, ref-
erences 3, 29, 31, 40 to A5; for water, references 13, 14, 32, 33,
130
-------
T.iblu 10. ISACKflROUN!) CON'CKNTItATIONS FOR ATR POLLUTANTS
Pollutant
Anbie
nt concentration
Co--..-?.cnt
C.vses:
CO
Hydrocarbons:
Methane
local hydrocarbon
Kon::e thane
Ethylene
Hydrogen sulfide
Nitrogen oxides
Oxidants
Ozone
20 Ms/n (0.03 ppn)
1 to 75 uC/m3 (0.002-0.1 ppm)
6-17 ns/n (5-15 ppa)
1.3-2.6
ppm)
0.3-0.9 irs/n (1.2-1.4 ppa)
3-5 ppra
(^.1.5-2.5 ppn)
6 PS/n (<5 ppb)
45-800 ng/a3 (39-700 ppb)
0-55 ^g/a (0-40 ppb)
0.4 - 7.5 nS/n (~0.2-4 ppb)
0.2 rns/a (~0.1 ppra)
20 - 100 nfi/n3 (10-50 ppb)
20-140 ni:/:.i (10-70 ppb
lintional avcrjgc
National range
Typical urban CO
concentration
Urban concentra-
tions based on
data taken in
Los Angeles
Rural concen-
tr,-. lion
Dov.-ntov.-n Los
Angeles
Downtov.T» Los
Angeles
Rural areas
Outside snd in-
side Wasbinaton,
D.C.
National range
Rural areas
Large cities
Background con-
cvntration as
hourly average
K.ir.il area \);>winti
oi urSan source
Rof.
20
21
22
22
22
22
23
23
24
21
21
131
-------
Table 10 (continued). JiACKClHJUM!) COMCKNTRATfONS I'OR AIM 1'OI.LUTANTS
I'ol lut.mc
PAN
Sulfur dioxide
Aerosols:
Acid aist;
sulfuric acid
Arsenic
Hydrocarbons ;
Benzo (n) Pyrcne
Mercury
Total suspended
part iculatcs
A.T.b 1 ont concontr.it ion
200-1000 tig/ci3 (100-500 ppb)
10-41 pg/rn3 (23-9.6 ppb)
130 ng/n3 (30 ppb)
65 j.tg/n (< 15 ppb)
2-113 tag/in (0.3-43 ppci)
3
^ • 5 j.1 g/ia
0.1 to 1.0 ng/m
O.C023 ng/m3
O.OC335 u.g/m
-------
Table 11. OBSERVED MEAN POSITIVE TRACE METAL VALUES BY BASIN
32
It
u
/Ji
t
1
If
ro
ff
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\,
c»
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Ml
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-------
35 to 39; for solids, references 8, 11, 34. These references provide
information on sampling and analysis requirements find precautions, and
should be consulted in the preparation of any ambient monitoring
program.
Identifying Source. Background Contaminants
A primary requisite for a monitoring program associated with energy
system development and operation is the capability of separating the in-
fluence of background sources in air, solid, and water quality measure-
ments. One way in which this objective can be realized is to carry out
a measurement program before the initial construction phase of the energy
system. This procedure may not be applicable in the case of atmospheric
transport, however, because the background concentrations during this
measurement period may not be representative due to variations in mete-
orological conditions or the growth of new emission sources in the area.
A more useful technique for air pollution measurements would be the
construction of a "pollutant rose" based upon measurements taken during
the operation of the energy system. This method of analysis involves the
construction of a frequency distribution of wind directions and pollutant
concentrations for a number of monitoring stations ii the area. Figure 19
gives a graphical representation of this type of distribution for sev-
eral SO,, monitoring stations. The length of each barb is proportional to
the mean of concentrations measured when the wind direction is in the di-
rection toward which the barb is pointing. The length of the barb can be
converted to concentration by means of the scale at the right of the fig-
ure. The radius of the circle represents the mean of all concentrations
measured at the station during the time period of interest. The example
chosen shows a significant amount of background not attributable to
the power station. The longest barbs would point toward the power
station if the highest or second highest hourly SO concentrations were
134
-------
POWER
PLANT
SCALES
I 1
0.01 0.02 0.03
ppm
0.5
miles
Figure 19. Illustration of pollutant roses for S0r
-------
displayed, instead of the geometric menu. In the case of suspended p.ir-
ticulatus, another method Cor the separation of .source and background con-
tributions is through a .source/receptor characterization study in which
material collected at sampling locations would be categori/.ed according to
parameters such as size distributions, physical shape, and chemical compo-
sition and could be related to corresponding omission characteristics
obtained from source testing.
DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY CONTROL PROGRAM
Introduction
In view of the preceding discussion of the technology involved in both
sampling and analyzing waste streams, it is important to outline steps
which should be taken to insure adequate quality control of the data.
Any numerical value is virtually useless unless some measure of its re-
liability is available.
Figure 20 presents an outline of the tasks and responsibilities of a
46
data quality control program in the form of a "quality assurance wheel."
The wheel illustrates the requirements of a quality assurance system and
groups quality assurance elements according to the organizational level
to which responsibility is normally assigned,, This section outlines
briefly some of the more important tasks in Figure 20. For a comprehen-
sive discussion of the requirements of a quality assurance program,
reference 46 should be consulted.
Major Features of a Quality Control Program
Planning is essential for insuring data quality; in general, the larger
the environmental assessment program, the more detailed the planning
should be.
136
-------
Supervisor and
lfry
Coordinator
SctUstlcal Analysts
of DaC*
Proc urrben t
Qu«lIty Control
'•"«£/*•"*
Figure 20. Qual.ity nsr.iirance elomentH nnd responsibilities
(the quality assurance wheel - reference 46)
137
-------
The aim here is only tu provide highlights of those features which should
be included in any quality control program. For further de-tail, the u.c;er
should consult the various EPA Handbooks on Quality Control. 'Hie
major elements which are essential for quality control are:
• Organisation - In all cases, a clear outline of the proj-
ect's organization and the lines of responsibility should
be provided.
• Document Control - Procedures used in sample collection,
sample analysis, calibration, etc., should be placed under
document control and a record of distribution maintained
so that whenever changes in procedure are required, all
concerned participants will receive copies.
• Sample Collection - Detailed written procedures for sam-
ple handling and storage should be provided for each type
of measurement in the program.
• S amp 1 e An a ly s is - Detailed written procedures for analyti-
cal techniques should also be provided for each measurement
in the program.
* D'ita Reporting - Procedures must be established for re-
porting data. In general, preprinted data forms are pre-
ferred. Supplementary information which should be reported
includes experimental parameters such as flow rates, tem-
peratures, 'weather conditions (if appropriate), time of
measurement, etc. The reported data should also be con-
sistent as to wii.cn averages, means, medians, etc. are
reported. In all cases, the number of samples, precision
and best estimate of error should be supplied at the time
of measurement,
* Data Validation - Specific criteria for validation of data
must be provided. This can include limits for precision,
accuracy (compared with knovn values) and experimental
parameters (flow rates, temperature, etc.). Included here
should also be the specification of those actions that
should be taken if data seem invalid (e.g., rejection,
repetition of measurements, inclusion with special nota-
tion, etc.).
• Andj ting Procedural - Detailed plans for audits should be
specified; this Includes idc>uUifying the critical charac-
teristics of the measurement which should be audited, the
sir.c and frequency oi the audit, the manner in which indi-
vidual auditing checks will be performed, and the control
limits for passing the audit (usually within 3 times the
138
-------
standard deviation from the calculated average value). The
major difficulty here is setting the audit size. Seven
percent of the total has been suggested as a reasonable
criterion, hut in many cases this will be subject to
cost constraints.
* C'llibr/ytion - The types of calibration standards to be
used and a recommended schedule for calibration should
be established. This is one of the most crucial as-
pects of the quality control program. In general, cal-
ibration standards should have about 10 times the
accuracy of the measurement equipment being rested.
Whenever possible, U.S. National Bureau cf Standards (NBS)
Standard Reference Materials (SUM) should be used.
Reference 49 provides useful background information
for calibration procedures.
• Preventivc Maintcnnnce - A recommended schedule for main-
tenance checks should be provided.
a
Interlabor^.tory Tests - Any planned or anticipated parti-
cipation in intcrlaboratory tests should be indicated.
• Reports - Indicate the type of information planned for
the reports and the frequency of reporting.
Decisions Rased on Quality Control Tests
The crucial phase of the quality control effort will be the decision as
to which data are to be included in the assessment program. The decision-
making domain encompasses two general areas: that which is related to
the so-called "new" data (i.e., data generated during the course of the
program), and that related to "old" data (i.e., that which is already
available before the initiation of the program, as one might encounter,
for example, in a preliminary environmental assessment).
New Data - If simple quality control tests are passed (i.e., the data in-
dicate negligible trends, acceptable variations in precision, etc.), the
results can be considered valid and incorporated in the report. If the
simple tests arc not passed, more sophisticated analyses should be employed
139
-------
to determine the cause of the variation. Assuming the cause for rojeetion
can be idcntifiecl, a decision must be. made as to whether new .measurements
should be taken or whether the uncertainty should be incorporated in the
data and appropriate error limits cited. Criteria on which such a deci-
sion would be based include: (1) the availability of relevant monitoring
technology, (2) the cost of performing new measurements, and (3) the rela-
tive importance of the data under consideration. For example, if there
is an unexplained trend in data obtained from NO measurements in a
' x
stack using chemiluminescence detection techniques, it is a relatively
easy matter to perform similar measurements using colorimctric devices
which may provide better data. On the other hand, if there is some un-
explained trend in data obtained from ground level measurements of the dis-
persion of NO_ from a stack, the cost of repeating the measurements
x
could prohibit further experiments and the data would be used with appro-
priate error limits cited.
Old__p_a_ta - Whenever old data is to be used, it must first be assessed in
terns of its susceptibility to error. In making this decision, important
questions to consider include: (1) were proper techniques used in ob-
taining the data (e.g., was the measurement technique vulnerable to po-
tentially interfering species knovrn to be present in the sample, or was
the measurement technique sensitive enough for the concentration range
of interest); (2) were proper procedures followed in obtaining the data
(e.g., use of proper calibration standards, reliable sampling systems,
use of sensible time scales to prevent sample degradation, etc.). Old
data which prove suspicious simply on the basis of techniques employed
or procedures followed should not be used. Old data deemed acceptable
for further evaluation would then be subjected to spot checks using the
simple quality control tests previously described. If the data passes
these tests it can be incorporated into the report. If it does not pass
these tests there is, once more, the choice of repeating the measurements
or simply incorporating the data in the report with tlio appropriate error
assessment discussed.
1-'*0
-------
in Frror
A common manner of. expressing the error which may be inherent in a set
of measurements is to quote the standard deviation of the results.
It is;, however, more important to estimate error limits which, in the
estimation of program personnel, are unlikely to be exceeded. This,
of course, will include an appropriate discussion of the rationale
used in estimating the limits. Typical features entering into such
a discussion arc: (1) identification of the major source of error
(e.g., systematic versus random); (2) appraisal of the short-term and
long-term possibilities for obtaining improved values; and (3) identi-
fication of situations where unusual caution is required in using re-
ported values.
Cost of Reducing Errors
In practice, cost constraints limit the effort which may be expanded to
reduce errors in any program. Ideally, a detailed cost/benefit analysis
would be applied to any situation calling for a decision as to whether
or not further error reduction is required. A lengthy explanation of
cost/benefit analysis is beyond the scope of the project. However, a
simple example may convey the main thrust of a cost/benefit analysis. If
a hundred data points exist and it is assumed that only random error is
*
present, the resulting precision is 10 percent. To improve the preci-
sion to 1 percent under the same conditions would require 9,900 more
data points. Assuming the cost of each data point is equal, one gains
a factor of 10 in precision but only by increasing the cost a factor of
100. In many cases this extra cost may not be justified.
Precision - (lAjN) x 100 where N is the number of data points.
141
-------
REFERENCES
1. Standards of Performance for New Stationary Sources. Federal Register,
36-247, December 23, 1971.
2. Standards of Performance for New Stationary Sources. Code of Federal
Regulations, 40 CFR, Part 60, May 23, 1975.
3. Methods of Air Sampling and Analysis. American Public Health
Association. Washington, D.C. 1972.
4. llauiil, II.F. and D.E. Camann. Collaborative Study of Method for the
Determination of Sulfur Dioxide Emissions from Stationary Sources
(Fossil-Fuel-Fired Steam Generators). U.S. Jinvironmcnt.il Protection
Agency, Raleigh, N.C. Publication Number EPA 650/4-74-024. South-
west Research Institute, December 1973.
5. Epstein, R.F.. Field Evaluation of an SO'; Tn-Stack Correlation Spec-
trometer, G5th Annual Air Pollution Control Association Meeting,
Miami Beach, Florida, 1972.
6. Zaromb, S. et al. Proceedings of the Second International Clean Ait-
Congress. Berry, W. T. and H. M. Englund (eds.)- Academic Press,
1971.
7. Smith, F. , and C. Nelson, Jr. Guidelines for Development: of a Qua.l Lty
Assurance Program - Reference Method for Determination of Suspended
Particulate in the Atmosphere (Hi-Vol Method). U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle institute, Research Triangle
Park, N.C., report for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,' Publica-
tion No. EPA-RA-73-0286, June 1973.
8. Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes. Methods Develop-
ment and Quality Assurance Research Laboratory, National Environmental
Research Center, USEPA Office of Technology Transfer. Publication
Number EPA-623/6-74-003. 1974.
9. Keith, L. H. USEPA, Southeast, Environmental Research Laboratory,
Athens, Georgia. (private communication).
10. Gcswcin, A. J. Liners for Land Disposal Sites, An Assessment.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Raleigh, N.C. Publication
Number EPA/530 SW-137. 1975.
11. Edward, S. K. Chian, and Eoppo B. DeWollc. Compilation of Methodology
Used for Measuring Pollution Parameters of Sanitary Landfill Leachnte.
Preliminary Report. Environmental Engineering Section, Department of
Civil Engineering,, University of Illinois, Urbana. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development. 1974.
142
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12. Ilazo, II. E. , and R. M. White. Ma tree on Inc. Evaluation of Liner
Materials Exposed to Leachate. First Interim Report. U.S. Environ-
mental. Protection Agency, Raleigh, N.C. Contract Number EPA
68-03-2134, 1974.
13. Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes. Methods Develop-
ment and Quality Assurance Research Laboratory, National Environ-
mental Research Center, USEPA Office of Technology Transfer.
Publication Number EPA-625/6-74-003. 1974.
14. Survey of Various Approaches to the Chemical Analysis of Environ-
mentally Important Materials. U.S. National Bureau of Standards.
Publication Number COM-74-10469. Environmental Protection Agency,
Raleigh, N.C., July 1973.
15. Yen, T. F. The Role of Trace Metals in Petroleum. Ann Arbor,
Michigan, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., 1975.
16. Bombaugh, K. J., E. C. Cavanaugh, (Radian Corporation), and
A. Jefcoat (EPA). A Systematic Approach to the Problem of
Characterizing the Emission Potential of Energy Conversion
Processes. (Presented at the 80th National Meeting of the
AICHE. Boston, Massachusetts. September, 1975.)
17. Cavanaugh, E. C., C. E. Burklin, J. C. Dickerman, H. E. Lebowitz,
S. S. Tarn, and G. R. Sniithson. Potentially Hazardous Emissions from
Extraction and Processing of Coal and Oil. Battelle Columbus
Laboratories report for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Raleigh, N.C. Publication Number EPA 650/2-75-038, 1975.
18. Bombaugh, K. J. , E. C. Cavanaugh, J. C. Dic'ierman, S. L. Keil,
T. P. Nelson, M. L. Owen and D. D. Rosebrook. Sampling and
Analytical Strategies for Compounds in Petroleur Refinery Streams.
Radian Corp., report for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Raleigh, N.C. Publication Number EPA 68-02-1882, September, 1975.
19. Tucker, W. G., S. J. Bunas, J. A. Dorsey, J. A. McSorley and
M. Sair,field. Environmental Assessment Guideline Document.
Draft Report, May 1975. Industrial and Environmental Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, N.C.
20. Miner, Sydney. Preliminary Air Pollution Survey of Ammonia - A
Literature Review. Litton Systers, Inc. Environmental Systems
Division, report for National Air Pollution Control Administration,
Publication Number Al'TD 69-25. U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, October 1969.
21. Rerry, R. S. and P. A. Lehman. Aeroehemistry of Air Pollution.
Annual Review oi' Physical Clu-iitis try. 22:47-84, 1971.
143
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22. Altshullcr, A. P., W. A. Lonricman, and S. L. Kopc^ynr.ki. Konmcthane
Hydrocarbon Air Quality Measurements. JAPCA. 2J(7):597-599.
July 1973.
23. Abcles, F. B., and II. E. Ucggestad. Ethylene: An Urban Air Pollutant.
JAPCA. 23(6):517-521.
24. Forrest, J., and L. Newman. Ambient Air Monitoring for Sulfur
Compounds - A Critical Review. JAPCA. 23(9); September 1973.
25. Corn, M., R. W. Dunlap, L. A. Goldinuntz, and L. II. Rogers. Photo-
chemical Oxidants: Sources, Sinks and Strategies'. JAPCA.
25(1):1G-18. January 1975.
26. Thompson, C. R., E. G. Henscl, and G. Kats. Outdoor-Indoor Levels
of Six Air Pollutants. JAPCA. 23, 1973.
27. Megannell, W. H. Atmospheric Sulfur Dioxide in the United States.
JAPCA. 25(1):9-15. January 1975.
28. Saririgelli, F. P., and K. A. Rchme. Determination of Atmospheric
Concentrations of Sulfuric Acid Aerosol by Spectrophotometry,
Coulornctry, and Flame Photometry. Anal Chem. 41(6): 107. 1969.
29. Sittig, M. Pollution Detection and Monitoring Handbook - 1974.
McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc. New York.
30. Federal Register, 38(66):S820-8850, April 6, 1973.
31. Instrumentation for Environmental Monitoring - Air, LBL-1. Volume 1.
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley.
December 1973.
32. Instrumentation for Environmental Monitoring - Water, LBL-1.
Volume 2. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California,
Berkeley. December 1973.
33. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastcwater.
Prepared and published jointly by: American Public Health
Association, American Water Works AssociatLon, and Water
Pollution Control Federation. Thirteenth Edition. 1971.
34. Bender, D. F., M. L. Peterson and II. Stierli (eds.). Physical,
Chemical, and Microbiological Methods of Solid Waste Testing.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Publication Number EPA-6700-73-01. May 1973.
35. Handbook for Monitoring Industrial Wastewater. Associated Water
and Air Resources Engineers, Inc. Nashville, Tennessee. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Raleigh, N.C. August 1973.
144
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36. Wcbcr, C. I. (cd.). Biological Field and Laboratory Methods for
Measuring the Quality of Surface Waters and Effluents. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio. Publication
Number ErA-670/4-73-001. July 1973.
37. Manual for Evaluating Public Drinking Water Supplies - A Manual of
Practice. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water
and Hazardous Substances. Former Publication Number PUS 1820.
1974.
38. Brown, E., M. W. Skongstad and M. J. Fishman. Methods for Collection
and Analysis of Water Samples for Dissolved Minerals and Gases, Book 5.
In: Chapter Al of Techniques of Water Resources Investigations of
the U.S. Geological Survey, 1974. Government Printing Office, 1972.
39. Goerli, D. F. and E. Brown, Book 5. Methods for Analysis of Organic
Substances in Water. In: Chapter A3 of Techniques of Water Re-
sources Investigations of the U.S. Geological Survey, 1972.
40. Smith, F., D. E. Wagoner, and A. C. Nelson Jr. Guidelines for
Development of a Quality Assurance Program. In: Volume I,
Determination of Stack Gas Velocity and Volumetric Flow Rate (Type
S-Pitot tube). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Quality
Assurance and Environmental Monitoring Laboratory, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Publication Number EPA-650/4-74-005a.
February 1974.
41. Smith, F. D. E. Wagoner, and A. C. Nelson, Jr. Guidelines for
Development of a Quality Assurance Program. In: Volume II, Gas
Analysis for Carbon Dioxide, Excess Air, and Dry Molecular Weight.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Report EPA-650/4-74-0056,
Quality Assurance and Environmental Monitoring Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, N.C., February 1974.
42. Nader, J. S., F. Jaye, and W. Couner. Performance Specifications
for Stationary-Source Monitoring Systems for Gases and Visible
Emissions. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Environ-
mental Research Center, Research Triangle Park, N.C. Publication
Number EPA-650/2-74-013. January 1974.
43. Devorkin, H. R. L. Chass, and A. P. Fudurich. Air Pollution Source
Testing Manual. Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District. 1972.
44. Sclmlte, K. A., D. J. Larsen, R. W. Harming, and J. V. Crable.
Report on Analytical Methods Used in Coke Oven Effluent Study.
Report No. NJOSll-74-105. National Institute of Occupational
Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio. May 1974.
45. Crablf, J. B. and D. G. Taylor. NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods.
Report No. NT.OSH-75-121. National Institute of Occupational Safety
and HeaUh, Cincinnati, Ohio. 1974.
145
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46. Quality Assurance Handbook for Air Pollution Measurement Systems.
Volume I, Principles. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Kiiviron-
mentul Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Quality Assurance Branch,
Research Triangle Park, N.C. 27711.
47. Handbook for Quality Control in Water and Wastewater Laboratories.
Analytical Quality Control Laboratory, National Environmental
Research Center, Cincinnati, Ohio. June 1972.
48. Smith, F., and A. G. Nelson, Jr. Guidelines for Development of Quality
Assurance Programs and Procedures. Final Report. Environmental
Protection Agency, Durham, N.C. Contract Number EPA 68-02-0598.
August 1973.
49. Precision Measurement and Calibration. In: National Bureau of
Standards Handbook 77. Three Volumes, 1971. National Bureau of
Standards, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
146
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APPENDIX B
DISPERSION MODELS
INTRODUCTION
Section V discussed the manner in which certain emission and site charac-
teristics could be used in estimating the environmental sphere of influ-
ence associated with energy system development and operation. The role
which dispersion models played in this task was briefly discussed. This
Appendix discusses some of the models available for these analyses. In
this discussion, for the most part, models for air, water, and land sec-
tors are dealt with separately. However, a unified approach in which
transport processes in all sectors have been incorporated into a single
model is also discussed. Finally, an example is presented iti which a
modeling approach is used in one aspect of an environmental assessment.
ATMOSPHERIC TRANSPORT MODELS
Most atmospheric transport models fall into one of two categories. The
first type of model is based upon the steady state gaussian plume approach
in which emissions from a point or area source may be analytically re-
lated to concentrations at downwind receptor points. The second type of
model of atmospheric transport involves a numerical solution of the equa-
tions of turbulent diffusion over a system of grid cells. Both the steady
state and;grid model may be modified to include plume rise, boundary layer
effects, chemical transformation, and deposition. Some of the underlying
concepts behind both steady state and grid modeling are discussed and
some of the common models currently in use are briefly described.
147
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Basic Concepts and Formulations
Steady State Model - The basic expression for the evaluation of steady
state pollutant concentrations downwind of a point source is the gaussian
1,2
plume equation.
/
Q (x)exp
2;r ' i» /• iv /• X1N
v;here x = distance along plume axis (m)
y = horizontal distance from plume axis (m)
z = distance above surface (m)
X; (Xjy,z) = concentration of pollutant i (g/m )
Qj_(x) - effective emission rate of pollutant i for downwind
distance x (g/sec)
°"v(x)> °"z^x^ ~ hori7.cr.tal and vertical dispersion coefficients for
a particular atmospheric stability (AjBjC.DjE,?)
u = v.'ind speed at source height (in/sec)
h(x) = effective emission height at distance x (m).
The variation of o and c with x for each of the six stability classi-
y z ^
fications (A to F) has been determined from a number of experiments based
upon low level releases of tracer material and does not strictly apply to
elevated sources or downwind distances greater than about 5 km. The usual
procedure, however, is to assume that these results are approximately true
for greater source heights and that they may be extrapolated to longer
distances. An example of the variation of oz with distance for stabili-
o
ties A through F is given in Figure 21. The choice of a given stability
will depend upon wind speed, cloud cover, and sun elevation. The second
exponential term in brackets on the right side of Equation (1) is an
"image" point source contribution which is required to meet the zero
flux boundary condition at the ground surface (z = 0). The effective
148
-------
1,000
; 100
•
••
k
t J
b
H
1.0
»'\ f
::::;:::::.:.:.: :..;-...:._ ;,!...;:/..!...;. :_..: ...I...;....;., ..r .-- - ., ,—
.:..,..-.» 1.._J_.......:.......^.. . ..i.-..,)....;....! , I..., ., /. ......1 -....; -..Ul..
.-.!.-..: /•••• :.,..-,. • - /•- r-.-i- -•!-{-.-
:
'.j'
• '..
/
• .-•' ':
',
x' •
: "i---!:ii
X : : "i---!:ii
x • ";-;•; '~ '"r~
| , I t 1 ^, (
— T-l-l-t-f-
: : :
O.I
i 10
DISTANCE DOWNWIND, km
100
Figure 21. Vertical dispersion coefficient as a function
of downwind distance from the source
149
-------
source strength Q^(x) will be different than the strength Q;(0) at the
point of emission due to wet deposition, dry fallout, and chemical trans-
formation. The effective stack height h(x) will be greater than the
4
actual stack height h due to the buoyancy of the plume. The expression
for h(x) for stabilities A through D is given by
h(x) = h0 + Ah, (2)
where A h = 1.6F1/3 u"1 X2/3 for x £ 3.5x*
Ah- 1.6F173 u"1 (3.5x*)2/3 for x > 3.5x*
x* = 14F5/8 when F < 55 m4/sec3
x* = 34F2/5 when F > 55 m4/sec3
T " T
F -
e
g = gravitational acceleration (m/sec^)
w = stack gas ejection velocity (m/sec)
r = radius of stack (ra)
Ts = stack gas temperature (°K)
Te = air temperature (°K).
For stability classes E and F the plume rise becomes
1/3
Ah = 2. 9 | (3)
/F \
= 2.91—}
(us)
where s - -
e
~ ---- 0.02 °K/n for stability E
~ - 0.035 °K/ra for stability F.
150
-------
The windspecd (u) at source height (h ) may be related to the wind
speed (u ) measured at a standard distance (h^) above ground level
according to the following power law:
u = u (r—I (4)
mVw
where the exponent (p) depends upon the stability class.
The presence of the mixing boundary may be accounted for by the incorpo-
ration of multiple image sources as was done to satisfy the zero flux
condition at ground level.
In practice only several image terms need be taken since the contribution
of additional terms will be negligible. For distances greater than
2 x^ , where x^ is given by c (>r ) = 0.47L, Equation (1) may be approx-
Ll Ll 12 Ll
imated by
,.2
Qi (x)
X (x,y,z) = — i * '- x>2xr (5)
J 2*
-------
ThG depiction of the source strength Q(x) per unit distance is then
given by
3Q,
(7)
>i<*> (
-7.— = - / (A),-
3x / !•
Solving for Qi(x) the following expression is obtained:'
Qi<^) = Qi(0) exp
(9)
The expressions developed during the preceding discussions are only appli-
cable to steady state conditions under which the average values of the
meteorological variables will remain constant in time. This means that
the gaussian plune approach is only realistic lor periods of several
hours. For intervals larger than these, parameters such as windspeed,
stability, plume rise, and mixing height can be expected to change to a
significant degree especially during the morning and evening hours. In
addition, there is no provision within the framework of the model for
treating variations in topography except, possibly, by adjusting the
effective stack height for each receptor site to account for difference
in elevation between source and receptor locations.
Numerical Models - The gaussian plume model we have just discussed is
only an approximate solution of the more general material balance
7
equation:
152
-------
D. + R, (Xr X2, . . .
i & x2 l l
= L J = J (10)
O
where X^ = concentration of ith species (g/m )
u. = jth component of the windspeed (ra/sec)
D. = molecular diffusivity of the ith species (m2/sec) (may be
ignored for most applications)
R. = production rate of ith species due to chemical reactions
(g/sec)
Si = source term for ith species at (x^^.x-j) (g/sec)
t = time (sec),
By separation of the concentrations (X.) and windspeeds (u.) into
average (, ) and stochastic components (X.',u.'), and by
assuming that the term can be linearly related to the gradient
of the average concentration, the equation of turbulent diffusion is
obtained:
\—»
E
. . ,
-------
The expression given by Equation (1) represents the steady state solution
to Equation (11).
Basically the numerical methods for solving Equation (11) fall into two
categories. The first technique requires that a parcel of air be followed
along a calculated trajectory for which time-dependent emissions arc
specified. In solutions of this type the lateral eddy diffusion is
ignored so that the transport problem requires a solution to the diffusion
equation in the vertical dimension only. Although this scheme is rela-
tively simple, it allows the air quality to be predicted only along cer-
tain trajectories. The fixed coordinate solution to the transport-
kinetics problem will give a determination of air quality over the entire
urban area at a particular instant of time, but requires large amounts
of computer storage and time.
3 < X. >
The advection term —— which was eliminated in the trajectory
J \
method, may result in "numerical diffusion" for long simulation times
due to truncation errors in the finite difference procedure. There is
also a difficulty in specifying realistic initial grid concentrations
and boundary conditions.
Both the trajectory and grid models are primarily employed in the analysis
of pollutant transport within an urban area, but could also be applied to
an industrial complex surrounding a new or proposed energy system. For
monitor siting application, the gaussian models would probably be suffi-
cient unless a complex chemical kinetics scheme had to be incorporated.
Description of Atmospheric Transport Models of Interest
The most commonly applied atmospheric transport model.fi, especially the
gaussian plume variety, differ mainly in certain bookkeeping aspects
such as the ability to handle different source-receptor configurations
154
-------
or concentration averaging times. As an example of the wide range of
gaussian models available for different applications we shall consider
O
the EPA UNAMAP system.
The User Network for Applied Modeling of Air Pollution (UNAMAP) is a
collection of models which cover a wide range of source types, source
configurations, and averaging times. The basis for each of the models
is a steady state gaussian plume approach augmented by treatment of
other variables such as plume rise and mixing depth. The following
models are available in the UNAMAP system.
9
• APRAC-la - The APRAC-la model will compute hourly concen-
trations of CO, based upon both vehicular travel on primary
and secondary traffic links and meteorological input data
for windspeed, wind direction, and cloud cover. The pro-
gram employs the standard gaussian pLurne formulation with
concentrations becoming uniform in the vertical direction
at a given distance downwind from the source due to the
presence of an inversion layer. The depth of the mixing
layer is obtained from temperature sounding carried out
twice a day. There is provision in the model for an
emissions adjustment due to various average vehicle speeds
on different road types. The program also has the capa-
bility of considering the effect of buildings upon street
level concentrations of CO.
• HIWAY - This model calculates short-term CO concentrations
in the vicinity of a roadway by means of a line integration
of the gaussian plume formula using emission rates for several
different lanes of traffic. Other inputs to the program in-
clude roadway and receptor coordinates and hourly wind speeds
and stabilities.
• COM - The Climatological Dispersion Model calculates
long-term average ground level air concentrations for one
or two pollutants emitted from an array of point and area
sources. Area source emissions are given as g/sec for a
grid square of known size aud effective emission height
above the ground. For point sources the effective source
height is calculated in terms of the actual stack height,
stack diameter, gas exit velocity, and temperature (for
both the st.ick gas and the ambient air).
155
-------
The basic meteorological input to the COM is a joint fre-
quency function
-------
the receptor and the base of the stack in question.
The option is also available for printing out the
individual contribution of each point source to the
total concentration calculated for each receptor.
In addition to the gaussian models just discussed there are also
11 12
models ' available for the prediction of wet and dry deposition in
a water shed system. Models similar to those of the UNAMAP system have
13
been developed by the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) for application
to power plants during special meteorological conditions such as trapping
and inversion breakup.
At the present time there is no widely accepted modeling technique for the
prediction of long range transport of pollutants such as sulfatcs, but-
work is currently in progress toward that objective. One such model
currently being applied and.tested is a regional-continental scale
14
transport, diffusion, and deposition model recently developed by the
Air Resources Laboratories (ARL). This long range transport model con-
sists of two submodels, the first of which calculates air parcel trajec-
tories while the second determines pollutant concentrations and deposition
rates.
The basic input to the trajectory generation program consists of pilot
balloon observations of wind speed, wind direction, height, and pressure
for standard and significant levels. The wind vector used in the trajec-
tory calculation is based upon an average of wind velocity through the
transport layer weighted by the height of the observation above the bottom
of the layer. The bottom of the transport layer is considered to be
300 meters above the average terrain elevation to eliminate the influence
of surface frictionnl effects, which may cause the average transport speed
to be underestimated. The terrain elevations used in the model are ob-
tained from data tapes giving the average terrain elevations for each
1-dcgrce square over the world. The top of the transport layer is
approximated by the average seasonal depth of the afternoon mixing layer
157
-------
for the area in question. Data from several upper air stations is fur-
ther weighted according to functions of the distance from the segment
origin to the measurement site and the angle between the site wind vector
and the line joining the segment origin and the measurement site. A
number of sample trajectories generated in this manner are shown in
14
Figure 22. Ground level air concentrations along the trajectory are
given by:
2
L
a
y
X = - 2 - _ _3L_ (12)
TT a a u ^ 0 2
z 2 a
3
where x = ground level air concentration (g/m )
Q = emission rate (g/sec)
a = cross wind standard deviation of the plume concentration
. distribution (ra)
~ = vortical standard deviation of the plumo concentration
2
distribution (m)
"u = nean wind speed along the trajectory (m/sec)
y = cross wind distance from trajectory segment (m) .
To apply the clima tological model, a large number of trajectories, start-
ing at a given source point, are generated at specific time intervals
(e.g., 4 hours) for the averaging period of interest (monthly, seasonally,
annually) . Trajectories are printed on a gridded map, with grid spacing
and area coverage selected by the user. Ground level air concentration
and deposition amounts are calculated for each grid box along and normal
to each trajectory segment. The calculation normal to the trajectory is
terminated at the 4 a distance. Calculated concentrations from all
trajectories are accumulated in each grid box and averaged over the
chosen time period.
158
-------
IflOIVlOUAl 7RAJCCT0.1US
J
•£
II
Figure 22. Series of trajectories generated by the ARL'model
-------
Pollutant Transport Models for Water
Mathematical models for pollutant transport in an aqueous system are
similar in some respects to the atmospheric models just discussed. In
each case the mathematical formulation must account for phenomena such
as advection, diffusion, and chemical transformation. A transport model
for water, however, must be tailored according to the physical and geo-
metrical characteristics of the particular body of water under study.
In spite of this drawback some of the more common features of the water
transport models can be understood by considering in some detail an
example calculation. A model was chosen which was originally designed
to predict the transport of radionuclides in a stream system, but
could just as easily be applied to the transport of other types of
pollutants.
The mathematical description of pollutant transport is based upon a mass-
balance equation for a segment of the stream including the associated
bottom sediments. A vegetative sorption-desorption process could be in-
corporated into the model in much the same manner as wore the bottom
sediments. The material balance for the stream and sediment is shown in
Figure 23. In the limit of Ax the balance equations given in Figure 23
reduce to the following two expressions:
x
^ = kx (KsC - m) (14)
Values for k and K may be estimated from the results of laboratory
i. S
adsorption-dcsorption experiments using actual stream bed materials. The
difCusivity D and flow velocity U can he taken from field observations.
For most flow regimes of interest D has a power law dependence upon the
X
flow velocity.
160
-------
WATER PHASE
SEDIMENT PHASE!
Ci-i
[4)-
•i+l
Material balance for the vnter phase
iC
Q (emission rate)
** u c , (advection rate into cell i, u = scream velocity)
U C (advection rate out of cell i)
D (C — C )
x 1-1 _ i (diffusion into cell i, Dx = longitudinal diffu-
Ax sivity, Ax = cell spacing)
(diffusion out of cell i)
Ax
1 s i x (adsorption in bottom sediments, k. » reaction rate
Ha k - distribution coefficient, H - stream depth,
as= cross sectional area of the core sample)
©
1 1 (denorption from botren sediments, ra = quantity of
Ha substr.'icc in the soil core)
Hatrrlnl bnlaticp for the sediment rbase_
kl Ks Cl
kl ""I
Figure 23. Pollutant material balance for water and
sediment phases of a stream
161
-------
A general solution of Equations (13) and (14) , which allows for nonuniforin
stream characteristics, may be obtained through a finite difference pro-
cedure. The results of one such concentration calculation at downstream
water sampling stations as a function of time is shown in Figure 24 for
a finite pollutant release time. The most obvious feature seen in these
curves is increasing width at greater distances downstream due to the
effect of longitudinal turbulent diffusivity. The bottom sediments have
a capacitive function in that they retain adsorbed pollutants which are
then slowly released to the water after the passage of the main water con-
centration peak.
Modeling Pollutant Transport in Soils
To illustrate the application of a mathematical model for the prediction
of pollutant transport in the soil, an analytical technique can be used
1 ft
which was developed by J.J. Jurinak and co-workers for EPA to simulate
cation transport in saturated soils. While this particular model is only
one example of a pollutant transport calculation for the soil, the general
procedures apply to most other similar models. Repeated runs of this
model could be carried out to determine the variation of pollutant migra-
tion rates within the soil as a function of various soil characteristics
such as pore velocity and dispersion coefficient.
+2
By considering the mass balance for a cation such as Ca within an ele-
ment of soil of depth dz, the following expression may be derived which
relates the amount of cation in aqueous solution to that adsorbed on the
soil particles:
3z
where D - dispersion coefficient
o
V = pore velocity
162
-------
a
-
(4.5mCi OF iS7Hg(N03)2 RELEASED IN 19 min ]
(SOLID LINES ARE COMPUTER SIMULATIONS )
40 50 60
TIME (min)
100
Figure 24. Computer simulation of mercury transport during a stream tagging experiment;
data taken at 10, 20, 40, 70, and 100 meters downstream from injection point
-------
P = bulk density
c = pore fraction
q = amount of material adsorbed
C = concentration oE material in solution.
The concentrations in the solid and liquid phases, q and C, may be non-
dimcnsionalized by dividing by the cation absorption capacity (Q) and the
initial total concentration in solution (C ):
o
X - f- (16)
o
(17)
These nondimensionalized concentrations are usually related to one another
through an adsorption function or adsorption isotherm:
Y = f (X) (18)
With the transformations indicated in Equations (16) through (18) the
material balance equation given by Equation (15) may be rewritten as
follows:
D (X) i-| - V (X) || = |f (19)
3
where
D(X) - (20)
1 f cCo dX
eCo dX
164
-------
Equation (19) may be solved by a finite difference procedure by applica-
tion of the following boundary conditions:
X (z,0) =0 0 <_ z <_ L (22)
X (XQ,t) =1.0 t > 0 (23)
J\ V
~ (L,t) =0 t > 0 (24)
oZ
where L is the length of the soil column under study.
The results of one of these calculations are shown in Figure 25 which
illustrates a number of different concentration profiles with depth as
a function of time.
An analysis of ion exchange processes in unsaturated soil is more com-
plicated because the flow of water itself through the soil must be deter-
mined in addition to the sorption-desorption. A complete solution for
flow through porous media will require an equation of continuity of the
fluid, an equation of continuity of the solid, an equation of motion of
the fluid, a consolidation equation for the medium, and an equation of
state for the compressibility of water. Because a detailed exposition
of this technique is beyond the scope of this document, the reader is
19,20,21,22
referred to a number of references on the subject.
Models for Heat Transport
Waste heat may be released to the atmosphere by means of cooling towers
or by direct discharge of cooling water into a nearby body of water.
Other cooling systems- include artificial cooling lakes, floating spray
devices and dry cooling towers. A large fraction of the heat released
to the atmosphere by cooling towers is in the form of latent heat which
is released once condensation occurs. Aside from some rather local
165
-------
X (LIQUID PHASE)
Y (SOLID PHASE)
o
X
DEPTH , cm
Figure 25. The cation concentration profiles X(z,t) and Y(z,t)
in liquid and solid phases-'--'
-------
weather modification effects associated with artificially generated pre-
cipitation, the primary impacts of cooling tower operation are consump-
tive water loss and the temporary reduction in visibility due to downwash
of the condensing plume. Techniques for calculation of plume rise from
cooling towers are similar to those mentioned earlier in connection with
the gaussian plume models for atmospheric pollutant dispersion, except
that for saturated plumes the latent heat of vaporization must enter into
on 9 t 9 c
the buoyancy calculation. ' ' Variables such as temperature, poten-
tial temperature gradient, specific humidity profile, and initial flux
of buoyancy can be used to arrive at estimates of heights above the ground
for plume condensation.
The disposal of waste heat to a water system can be carried out in a
number of different ways. One method is simply to discharge cooling
water to the surface of a river or lake to maximize the transfer of heat
to the atmosphere. Due to water quality standards requiring a consider-
able dilution of incoming heated water within a given distance from the
point of discharge, this surface disposal technique is being abandoned
in favor of a system of submerged diffuser nozzles, a method long em-
ployed for the dilution of municipal sewage. Buoyant jets of hot water
which rise from each of the diffusers become rapidly mixed with ambient
water in a manner similar to that which occurs during the rise of a hot
plume emitted from a stack. The effectiveness of such a procedure will
depend upon physical parameters such as injection velocity, water depth,
nozzle diameter, nozzle spacing, and stream velocity. A. numerical simu-
lation of this process is a sizable undertaking which should be carried
out in parallel with a laboratory or field program to aid in model vali-
datiqn. In spite of the complexity of this subject, there are a number
91 97 28 29
of references ' *" ' ' which can provide a general understanding of
the modeling procedures.
167
-------
Urd_fjed_j\pj)roac.h to Transport Modeling
Up to this point we have examined modeling techniques specific to indi-
vidual sectors of the environment such as air, water, and land. Recently
several efforts have been underway to develop a unified modeling approach
to the analysis of pollutant transport. A model of this type is currently
in its final stages of development under National Science Foundation spon-
30
sorship. The original motivation behind the development of this tech-
nique was the desire to have a comprehensive analytical procedure to fol-
low the movement of trace metals such as cadmium and lead through the
various sectors of the environment, but the model could just as easily
be applied to the transport analysis of pollutants associated with the
different phases of energy system development.
The model is basically a merger of an adaptation of the Stanford V.'atershed
31
Model and an atmospheric transport and deposition submodel similar to
those discussed earlier in this appendix. The Stanford Watershed Model
apportions different amounts of incoming precipitation to various compart-
ments of a watershed system according to the soil and vegetative charac-
teristics of the area and the current moisture content of the various
compartments. In heavily forested regions, rainiall incident upon a
watershed is subject to detention, storage and evaporation. Moisture
reaching the ground surface may either percolate into the soil and ground-
water compartments or move laterally toward a stream as overland flow or
interflow through the top layer of saturated soil. Loss of water through
transpiration is also provided for in the calculation scheme. The flow
rate for water once it reaches the stream channel is taken to be a func-
tion of the channel depth, geometry, and roughness. The Stanford Water-
32
shed Model was generalized by D.D. Huff to handle the transport of
trace constituents through a watershed in addition to the actual flow
of water itself. This adaptation, known as the Wisconsin Ilydrologic
Transport Model, accepts trace element Inputs in the form of both dry
168
-------
and wet deposition rates. The transport of these trace elements through
the soil is mathematically simulated in terms of theoretical soil plate
thicknesses and an equilibrium distribution coefficient which determines
the fraction of each constituent in solution and the fraction adsorbed
on soil particle surfaces. The amount of soil erosion on exposed sur-
faces adjacent to a stream is calculated for each rainfall event, thereby
giving the rate of trace substance input to the stream for that fraction
adsorbed in the exposed top soil layer. The most recent modification to
this model has been the incorporation of an atmospheric transport submodel
for the prediction of wet and dry deposition rates based upon emissions
from a collection of point, area, and fugitive sources in the vicinity.
Other improvements to the model included a technique for handling sediment
transport and ion exchange in the stream system, a more realistic mecha-
nism for the calculation of moisture and solute transport within the soil,
and a method for calculation of pollutant dispersal resulting from direct
injection of effluent into the stream channel.
A unified modeling approach similar to the one we have just described
could, in principle, aid in the siting and operation of ambient concen-
tration monitors, particularly with respect to the range and rate of the
various transport processes. The basic difficulties in the application
of this technique are the extensive input requirements of the component
submodels. Since a survey of environmental characteristics affecting
pollutant transport has been proposed (Section V) as an early step in
the impact evaluation procedure, only a minor amount of additional work
would be necessary to quantify these characteristics in a format compati-
ble with the input requirements of the unified model.
_Exnmple Model Application
To illustrate the role of modeling in an environmental assessment, an
example of how a model may be used to estimate pollutant concentration
169
-------
levels within one sector of the environment is presented. Determination
of the accumulation of trace metals in the soil clue to fly ash emissions
from a coal-fired power plant is the objective. The expression for the
deposition rate given by Equation (6) may be generalized in the following
manner to describe an average annual deposition rate over a 22 1/2-degree
arc at a distance x from the power plant:
Ms Mw F (6) \
>(x,6) =£ £ ~^n—<2.453AW Q (x)o (x)
' •—* o v.xju x i w pr p
p=l r=l p r / i r
+ 2.032vW,.exp
-h
(25)
w
Q = Q exp
pr xo
X V . /]
"u~ ~rgp(x)
. r r ^ J
(26)
0 =0 exp
pr o
(27)
gp(x) =
dx'exp
-h
(28)
where F (9) = fraction of time during which the wind blows from
Pr direction sector 6, with wind speed class r, and
stability class p
u(x,0) = deposition rate (g/m /sec) in direction 0 ,
at a distance x from the source
W - washout weight (fraction of time both washout and
w
fallout are occurring)
W = f.illout weight (fraction of time in which only
fallout occurs)
170
-------
v = dcpositLon velocity (m/sec)
A = washout coefficient (sec )
Q = emission rate measured at the source (g/sec).
The y-dcpendcnce has been removed from Equation (25) by distributing the
integrated concentration in the y direction uniformly over a 22 1/2-degree
arc. Tabulations of F (8) may be obtained from the National Climatic
Center, Ashville, North Carolina. A 14-year deposition pattern, calcu-
lated by use of these relationships, is shown in Figure 26, along with
33
the model inputs used in the calculation.
Assuming that the deposited fly ash is uniformly mixed to a given depth
within the soil, the following relationship exists between trace metal
concentrations in the fly ash and in the soil:
C,M, + C.M
C = f/ . * S (29)
x M- + M
where C = concentration in the soil doped with fly ash
X
C = concentration in the fly ash
C = initial concentration in the soil
M = mass of fly ash
M = mass of soil.
s
Equation (29) may be rewritten as:
C. M
JU-
C.
,:
L (30)
M
171
-------
J--O.I
= 0.05 g/crn2
3=^0.01 q/cm2
2 micron PARTICLES
07o PREC1FITATC3 EFFICIENCY
WASHOUT COEFFICIENT =0.5*10~4
WASHOUT WEIGHT =0.04
EMISSION RATE = 3.2 X I03g/sec
STACK HEIGHT = 122 m
VOLUME FLUX - 378 m3/$ec
DEPOSITION VELOCITY - 0.01 m/sec
Figure 26. Calculated 14-year fly ash deposition pattern
in the vicinity of a coal-fired power plant'"
172
-------
which relates the trace metal enrichment factor in fly ash
to the
enrichment factor in the contaminated soil. In Table .12, we have calcu-
lated these enrichment factors for a number of different soil mixing
2
depths assuming an integrated deposition of 0.01 g/cra and a density of
3
soil of 2.5 g/cra . Based upon this calculation, a considerable enrich-
ment (at least 2 or 3 orders of magnitude) in the fly ash would be re-
quired before any real increase of concentration could be seen in the
soil. The estimates given in Table 12 are actually high because they
do not reflect the effect of erosion over the time period in question.
Table 12. CALCULATED CONCENTRATION RATIOS IN
SOIL CORRESPONDING TO 0.01 g/cm2
TOTAL FLY ASH FALLOUT
1
M
M
s
c
f
Ci
1
5
10
100
1000
cm
0.004
C
X
Ci
1
1.C2
1.04
1.39
4.98
3 cm
M,
f
M
s
c
f
C.
l
1
5
10
100
1000
0.00133
C
X
Ci
1
1.01
1.01
1.13
2.33
10
Mr
-£ = o
M
s
C.
t
Ci
1
5
10
100
1000
cm
.0004
C
X
Ci
1
1.00
1.00
1.04
1.40
173
-------
RKFERKNCMS
1. Pasquill, F. Atmospheric Diffusion. London, D. Van Nostrand
Company, Ltd. 1962.
2. Gifford, F. A., Jr. An Outline of Theories of Diffusion in the
Lower Layers of the Atmosphere. In: Meteorology and Atomic
Energy 1968, Chapter 3. D. Slade (ed.). United States Atomic
Energy Commission.
3. Turner, D. B. Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates.
U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Consumer Protec-
tion and Environmental Health Service, National Air Pollution Con-
trol Administration, Cincinnati, Ohio. Public Health Service
Publication No. 999-AP-26. Revised, 1969.
4. Briggs, G. A. Plu^e Rise. AEC Critical Review Series. United
States Atomic Energy Commission. Report No. TID-25075. 1969.
5. Busse, A. D. and J. R. Zimmerman. User's Guide for the Climate-
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Raleigh, N. C. Publication No. EPA R-4-73-024. December 1973.
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Advances in Chemistry Series, 113. American Chemical Society,
Washington, D. C. 1972.
8. A tape containing the UN'AMAP programs and test uata may be obtained
from the National Technical Information Service. U.S. Department
of Commerce, Springfield, Virginia 22151. NTIS Accession No.
PB 229771. 1974.
9. Mancuso, R. L. and F. L. Ludwig. User's Manual for the APRAC-la
Urban Diffusion Model Computer Program. Stanford Research Institute,
Menlo Park, California. Contract No. CAPA-3-6S(l-69). 1972. p. 119.
10. Zimmerman, J. R. and R. S. Thompson. User's Cui.de for HIWAY,
A Highway Air Pollution Model. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Raleigh, N. C. Publication No. EPA-650/4-74-008.
February 1975.
174
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11. Ilanna, S. R. Dry Deposition and Prec:fpi ta t ion Scavenging In the
ATDL CompuUer Model for Dispersion Lroni Multiple Point and Area
Sources. Box K, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Atmospheric Trubulence
and Diffusion Laboratory Report No. 71. 15 p.
12. Mills, M. T. and M. Reeves. A Multi-Source Atmospheric Transport
Model for Deposition of Trace Contaminants. Computer Sciences
Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830.
ORNL-NSF-EATC-2. October 1973.
13. Carpenter, S. B., T. L. Montgomery, J. M. Leavitt, W. C. Colbaugh,
and F. U. Thomas. Principal Plume Dispersion Models: TVA Power
Plants. J Air Pollu Control Assoc. 21(8). August 1971.
14. Heffter, J. L., A. D. Taylor, and G. J. Ferber. A Regional-
Continental Scale Transport, Diffusion, and Deposition Model.
Air Resources Laboratories, Silver Springs, Maryland. NOAA Tech-
nical Memorandum ERL ARL-50. June 1975.
15. Smith, S. M., H. W. Mcnard, and G. Sharmin. World Wide Ocean Depth
and Land Elevations Averaged for One Degree Squares of Latitude and
Longitude. Scripps Institute of Oceanography, La Jolla, California.
(Available from National Oceanic Data Center, Navy Yard Annex,
Washington, D. C.). 1966.
16. Holzworth, G. C. Mixing Heights, Wind Speeds, and Potential for
Urban Air Pollution Throughout the Contiguous United States.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Programs,
Research Triangle Park, N. C. EPA Publication No. AP-101. Janu-
ary 1972.
17. Shih, C. S. and E. F. Gloyna. Radioactivity Transport in Water:
Mathematical Model for the Transport of Radionuclides. Technical
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6702, CRWR-18. 1967.
18. Jurinak, J. J., S. H. Lai, and J. J. Hassett. Cation Transport
in Soils and Factors Affecting Soil Carbonate Solubility. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Publication No. EPA-R-2-73-235.
May 1973.
19. Freeze, R. A. Three-dimensioned Transient, Saturated-Unsaturated
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p. 347.
20. Reeves, M. and J. 0. Duguid. A Soil and Ground-Water Pollutant
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-------
21. Dutt, 0. R. , M. J. Shaffer, and W. J. Moore. Computer Simulation
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of Arizona. October 1973.
22. Begovich, C. L. and D. R. Jackson. Documentation and Application
of SCEHM, A Model for Soil Chemical Exchange of Heavy Metals. Oak
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177
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APPENDIX C
DATA RETRIEVAL AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS APPLICABLE
TO ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENTS
INTRODUCTION
This Appendix is intended to provide Che reader with a reference listing
of available data retrieval and information systems pertaining to environ-
mental quality and to environmental effects of potential energy system
effluents. The majority of the information systems have been compiled by
the federal government and include monitoring data, environmental liter-
ature, and results of research and development programs. Federal data
handling and information systems are sponsored and operated by the U.S.
Environmental Protect ion Agency, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of the Interior,
and others. Table 13 lists data handling system names, content, and
sponsoring agency.
The systems outlined above are expanded in the remainder of the Appendix
(Tables 14 through 19). The following detailed information is reported
for each program:
• Name of System and Sponsor
• Brief Description
• Scope
• Input Data Sources
• Access to System
• Availablo User's Guide
179
-------
• Form of Da til Output
• Use Restrictions
The listing provides the reader with an introduction to the available
information services. The user is given an overview of the type of
information available and is provided with the means for further inves-
tigation and use of specific programs. In some cases it is not certain
whether a particular system is on-line, revised, or obsolete; this type
of information is noted in the tables when available.
A great deal of information at the state level is available from federal
retrieval systems. State air and water quality data are stored in such
systems as SAROAD and ST011ET in keeping with requirements of the Clean
Air Act of 1970 and the Water Pollution Control Act of 1972. The states
are required to monitor, compile, and analyze data on ambient air and
water quality and submit this data to the EPA on a quarterly, semi-annual,
or annual basis. These reporting systems provide the basis for operation
of the EPA's more comprehensive information handling systems.
180
-------
REFERENCES
The following references are useful in identifying data retrieval and
information sources at the federal, regional, state, and local levels.
A. A Directory of Information Resources in the United States. Revised
Edition. Science and Technology Division, National Referral Center.
Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 1974.
The National Referral Center functions as an intermediary, directing
scientific and technical inquiries to organizations or individuals who
have specialized knowledge. The document is a listing of information
resources including professional societies, university research bureaus
and institutes, federal and state agencies, industrial laboratories,
museum specimen libraries, information and document centers, and abstract-
ing and indexing services.
B. Encyclopedia of Information Systems and Services. Second Interna-
tional Edition. Published by Anthony T. Krozas Associates. 1974.
An international guide to information storage and retrieval systems,
computerized data bases, SDI services, data bas3 publishers, clearing
houses and information centers, library and information networks, data
collection and analysis centers, micrographic systems and services,.
and consulting, research, and coordinating agencies.
C. Environmental Information Systems Directory. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Planning and Management, Office of
Administration, Management Information and Data Systems Division.
August 1973.
A listing of all information systems activities, both automated and
manual, in the EPA. Information from the inventory is available to
EPA and other federal organizations performing environment-related
work.
181
-------
D. Where to Find State Plans to Clean the Air. U.S. EnvLronmr.nt.il
Protection Agency. U.S. Government Printing Office. Publication
Number 732-531/439. 1974.
The Clean Air Act requires each state to develop plans to achieve and
maintain the clean air standards set by the EPA to protect public health
and welfare. The implementation plans contain state guidelines for
reducing air pollution emissions to acceptable levels. Included are
regulations and other administrative requirements that the state places
on individual pollutant sources.
Each state is required to maintain an up-to-date version of its imple-
mentation plan in each air quality region.
This booklet is a list of locations, established by the States, where
the files are kept for public review.
E. Bosch, John C., Jr. Aeroinetric and Emissions Reporting System.
February 1975.
This recent document outlines the complete AEROS system sponsored by the
Environmental Protection Agency. The purpose and scope of each subsystem
is defined along with an explanation of the correlation between the
specific subsystem and the overall AEROS program.
F. Environment Reporter. Bureau of National Affairs, Inc.,
1231 25th Street H.W., Washington, D.C. 20037.
A weekly review of pollution control and related environmental manage-
ment problems.
132
-------
Table 13. DATA HANDLING AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS AT THE FEDERAL LEVEL
Sponsor
U.S. Cavironaenta!
protection Agency
I'.S. National
Oceanic and
At=w*?h*r Ic
Administration
U.S. Geological
U.S. r*?arto*nt of
the Interior
Air
E3CS - A»rc- rtrlc and
EM* <; loui Report-
In.; Sysitfns
El»S - Notional Fmia-
Syli-'o
Svtr Ifvjt of
Af-r rm«'i r Ic Pn«
'.V.I^ • Qua', ity of
A- ro i- trie
D.l^A
SCTDVT • Fiv.rce T«-*t Data
SC'-r^e
HATkEMS - H.wjrJo.iS and
lir Qnal Ity
P.llA
lilt "t-l i'l.lt IPR
Kt-tr icv.il
f.n-Lino
CTSr - Cm ft .1 Point
So.-rce HI*
NEI - ;;.itlon-il
Lstuarln*
Iiwontocy
Water (jualicy Standard*
ENDCX - Envtronmt-ntel
D<«ta Inrtt-K
DatA Sfrvlc«
IWDC - Of lie.- of
U.itrr Dnta
Coot
-------
Table 13 (continued). DATA HANDLING AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS AT THE FEDERAL LEVEL
S ponsor
Witcr
Solid v»it*
Toxic substance!
KoU.
Environ.
Cat.
00
Oik «:d5« sxiorul
Laboratory
D.S. fubllc Ht.lth
Service
B.rti-1'.e MeaorUl
Institute
T~e Center for
Ccoloiy Foruo. Inc.
Follutloa Ab»tr«ct«,
Inc.
EISO - Kn.lronr.cntal
Inf >rr-it ion jy» •
ti n 0! I let
TMIC - Toxic Matrrlcli
IMcrtr.it Ion Center
EMIC - Environ -,-n:,-.l
H-.i,^n Information
r- i'[. r
TIRC - 'Tutlcolocy In.'or-
NIOiH
N it ioti il I:,vtltut«
ot 0. < up itl'm il
£.r!c tv .in.; lloj] in,
Ti-rjinlcjl Inforaia-
t Ion Si tvli.-a
N1EIIS - Kit:»:ul Ir.acltut*
I'.-.il r ii Sc Ur.cos -
I'll !>r-i.it Ion
CHtKLTOE - ni.-nical Dittlon»ry
Oi-I.lr.L-
TOXLINE - Tn«iccl,,^y Infor-
ir.it i,,n 1'ronrn-r. (TIP)
ElAC - Eilvir'ji.t.-ntil Inful-
trit ton Anjlys is
COI.HT
EIC - Po.
HKHES • M.Tlri< oi Knviron-
Z'if r^y Sy-tc-ms
United Nations Environment
• Enwiror.rvjnt•! Infor*
nit ion Center
Pollution Abstract*
-------
Table 14. FEDERAL DATA RETRIEVAL AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS - AIR
•rd r-cisor
U.S. Enviicr.-*f\t*l
Protection Agency
Air Politico Office
HaCioful Air 3ata
ftrar.ctt (NA2&)
SAX3AD
U.S. Environmental
Protect Ion Agency
1'ieri Network for
Applied M3delini of
Air Pollution
Collection, analysis, and pu-
blication ot c-il*y way oi two
COT putcr aystf-s:
1, r-ril't - .Njtlun.il E-nlmiona
v.il o'. Ai-rc.i--t.iic
Data
r:»\.'V>? provides access to •
Tictw.irlt of air pollution
e* -Jcls ami associated tvtvo-
rolo\;\u.MJ i ite
aunujl ly,
Al:;o rcU-r to
Volunc 111 of
n,,n«-l.
.\n Inventory
of noi^r- \x and
will be :nacJe
a/nilable eo
usi-rs can »e*
Icct appro-
Vt lace
model*.
Form of
data output
K"! IS: Point ant! area
source «.^rly
cy ^i.-.;i il.utl.n;
>i.-jrly r> ,'Jtt ty
^ s, n u u . t; .
C'-.i^f o.^-lino witli the
r.ot^jr*, tiic usc-r can
svlocc ai.y a*'(i«;l, tlaia
babe, and test Jekircd
control strategies.
Sc-r^Iccs ire j.-ilable
restrict Ltr.i , t>.cvir.ge
4ircu;r«;nt» ar« ivallaila
for Otr.^c or :;jn ii At i c-i*
vith ic-« r**it ictiona
oo data available.
The «yst<-« is avail-
able to EPA per-
tor.r.ei and a variety
of other eligible *>»«re.
oo
-------
Table 14 (continued). FEDERAL DATA RETRIEVAL AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS - AIR
N«T« of syitee
rrcttcllon Ajcncy
AISCB
Aeronetrlc end
toltllon. Rc-porUnj
"*
U.S. Environ=cnt«I
Froteetlon Ajency
QAM1S - CuaUty of
of AcrocctcLc Oat*
(»** AtfcOG)
Brief Ho.icr Iptlon
Ar?'"S I* cT^rtird of li^"t
f o*".s , prtfcfil'tri'i , pror,r *TI* ,
f i !«•«:, cnj rep >rti established
V-y tli-? F.r«\ to collect, ralntain,
and report inf or<.-.it Ion d< scrib-
ing .1 1 r qual ity an«l fi| ss Icrii
b \.. f J ur j ^ri v ^ e
CW.!<;, SCT^AT, HA1R!>'J>. SIPS,
LT*i, and RATS as described
l-»;lc*. .
QA.VIi is ar intiTm s/stca,
tor c\alu.ttipp the quality
I'.ic ^.ita. a-iii Itnally iubir.it
the d*t* Into SAaa\D.
Tncro arc n«? plans to up>I«t«
Cr'^IS as 1C will cither b«
Scopo
Av'.R\>i nllo«s for:
1. Evalti.it ion of state
iipl. -.iit.il l«n (-1.HH
i. Kv.il-ial I'M, of L •!• -Moris
f (,i (!«• w 'n'l'iiv. •-" « source
3. Siv.-M'i t o( . nloi. r n.-nt
ci S VA ft- .-•il.il to. is and
and I r i"uls it, a I r ; ol lu-
t ii-n tor r* (c-ti.'. At\d
proi'd-ss t-vnl "nt f ^n
aivl -ival l.»iii 1 it >
6. r :•••:.- irt !i fit " -:-itor fci((
uf -, ..urcc-i in.J .i-Ji lent
air .or n, iJcl Ipj;
QVlI i con MI ts i'f tlirf e
r.corJ fllis: .i.-.i-nry.
loV Jtdtv t y. atlj sUC .
In (•••"v i .il, i-.it ii f ili; ron-
t r-il ri;i «t lonn.uti i
s-jl If itu-J Sy i:f\ f n>B»
ri ; r, ^n.l .it i vi'3 or .-oth
oi tit • tliroc «,'.j*. ity
TiK-rc is the cacaMlity to
*',; ra*io" the pt r tor-^nncc of
Input
or.!^
nur t.ifp R.-n-
i-iJi.-J (ro^t
mittfl to I PA
i.y lh« ««lo.
t • * .i i a
Quest !on-i,llfVS
rnrplcnc' bv
a.;c nc '. cs .itiJ
l.:l or.it or i"s
r.-sniLs i Lie
I^r «cT.!rliiS
d Jt A lor input
i 'jiial it/ con-
trol act i vie U1
of t nese group
Acrsi to
system
All Ar,M'\
r4'';"'rrs c^n
•t.'irf he oVit M i noil
J 1 r t L t 1 y f r om
1. v Njt IWlMkl
Air [i,.t.i
P-ri.nt.li. Tlic
ol.JfCHvi- is
ft: 11 Int.T-
art 1 vc .inJ
romatv b-tch
ni.e oi AtKOS
by «1 1 regional
offices.
N/A
I
1
i
available
The Af.it 06
manual
i
H/A
form of
data output
Ace ^r^i r% ;o i. ser
rt ivi irc-Tc-r.ti, various
IT .ttiOt: .- 1 leal CtC^.-
for oatn re'luction
and output of Eiie-
raw data 1 i ^t in^s
The followir^ infor*
IT a t Ion is «-. .n 1*M*
on a nationwide o?
at«(e basis .
2. Suce-poll'Jtant
Inforcut Ion
3. Agency inforiaation
lie rcatrlctlona
Sicilar to t*--at
d«teii.b*d abov*
This i y*ce~ it vi ;c(J
rainiy by Z?A ;rrsam-.el
far tr.e ir.jrj-.e-cnt of
th« SAtvCrO ^at4 t«««.
00
-------
Table U (continued). FEDERAL DATA RETRIEVAL AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS - AIR
Na-« of system
• nd *j»DP.«or
I
scrrtxi
Source T«st 0«t*
Star*t«
HATȣMS
Systcv
I'.S. rnvlron»rnt«l
s:?
SC«C« Implementation
ri»os
Srtif description
f o rranc c of point sourc* pol-
Vutvnt colsslon tests.
anmisl .—.Is* or; of sources of
nctficrltrrift elluCnnts. ItVTREMS
t ion hierarchy li phirc, point
The systiw scores the full text
plan regulations and subsequent
revision*
Scope
c In iri c al protrssc!!, miniT fll
pr od'ic t * li»J vi s t rio«t fo«d
vtc .
«\r j- in* in.it el y SOO •lourco
tt-sts were input, to SOillAT
us of Kobruar/. l'J/5.
to bo 300-500 io-irce ti-scs
from r?A »nd other or^^nl-
zaclons.
paint anJ «rc« SOMVK 9 .
A gri>at Jf-il o( JatJ
t«-*t Is in t?if fin.il rt*sc*
prn,',r.Tn dvs tr,n.
71>c fllr n<.,
tfi.l l^-l .i/.-li-
n.-'ij p • 'Hi , i» n-
si.lt *.ai i, an
in-.tal'u't ion
liU-nt if i*d
tlir-»..,;h info -
f.,it i..n rotr 1 vod
j'ro-n fit- .VtJS
pu int source
( iK-.
li-.-:i. AK-4? Jid
CCA '.Mi/.'-n-
l.n:, pMs; ion
s (-nt.fi, will
b.- ..*<,
opeitclonil
Access Is
through
;,ADa
Vs<"-« K.^lde
ma.vjal
nvailr.hle
(r.cnx.T)
?:.•» i -Mi.i I Air
Ii.ita Ilrar.ch -
Men itnr i n^ end
M\ ision
A»«i.dcf 1973
by J.It. Suther-
land
W,M. Varavuk
of E.J. Dale &
j.h. Turner,
Sysun
Sc icnccs ,
inc.
development
Form of
po!luc*ru; SCC codes;
or by n*3w Jtnd address
of sourc*.
Two Outp'.it) are
dvalljble:
of each r i r, ' 1 * t i o n
«s It apr I ic» ra onr
U'cr.l Iiyin; eoJ-»
(e.g.) so
-------
Table 14 (continued). FEDERAL DATA RETRIEVAL AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS - AIR
CO
oo
NJM of «yitf«
srd • pcr.ior
EOS
U.S. Er.vlrorwntal
Protection Agency
C orai ss Ion
Cuwlativt FTC*
Far* t? B*ta Systtv
U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
Air rolKtion Tech-
blcal Information
Center
• U energy-related «ir quality
data ptvicntiy In EPA1* ?arly
fivir t-acl. tawi-r plant Kf.iter
bMl«-r wltMn cacV, plant U
• s> icn jrf applicable MLo plant
ft.-d j-Jint l-V-nttCleat i'.'n coJo
r.r.J SCC ciJcs. 7:iC KPC-67
S\stt- i» corpU-t* ly cor.palibl*
with NLC.S anJ is acc«s<;iMe by
a n- iT.be r or NLUS retrieval
packages.
Collects and d I&kc-nin«*c5 «U
dir,stic *t^d Orri^n technical
*. r mt'ily absiracls
b. liti-mrurc starches
c. rrs;m.c tt> Inquiries concern
ir./. [fit dissemination of fed-
erally produced «lr pol lutlon
«rnt«.
d. preparation of *ir pollution
blbUu£r«.->hics.
1
S.oj-c
^('^ 1 -TI\ .nui ( m I f ttinu-i; t ion
fvu-1 '..unuu- sourc.-i. rr,:-
w I i I i Lc« t -
!,(,'»: air 'i>.al lly
d.t; ^ In v U i.ilty nl \m cr
p-w»r rlA-.ls.
Ififor^.H I'JO incl'i-los nnr.thly
j,vl «,,„•,,,; Cu.-l u^e !•>•
t)'-tai',-«I lirt-A't dvtwns of
f n /I ron n.-iit.) I ccint rol s/s-
tcir.i ^nii costs,
form 67 Includes 400 subject
icons and la completed t*y
opptosU.it* Vy 600 plane*.
Air pollution vffcctat
atmosplivrlc inter-
^0,000 technical document*.
hard copy and »lcrofLl«.
lnj.,it
Mi cnnr(-;y
ival l^^lc in
.iWr (-.1^ dtta
ITC /cm 67
rj'u-st ionitnire
2*. MV c«;.j?tty.
}"?A receives
c jdcJ u'aLa on
m.;^nt;t tc copca .
;to-f -t tc «nd
fou'lsi sorUls,
n i ( n\ soc iety
;..ipcrs , proceed -
liii^s, and U.S.
Ca/cnvftenc
reports.
Accesj to
System not yet
A til"! S 1 * i
.icilla^lr
l1. 10 .,:*i hAUS,
uf M'C-n? H.ita
on rrlcr')! Ul.e
.•r t>i'. tli-
origin.!! tPC
-, .. -.t loiir.J iff t.
,\ crojs rv'f-
rri.<'ve t.Tile
., t wot-n Ni"!5
D flint Ki'-J
r|snt 11) Allows
for >5=e of KLlJS
n-Lr ic v.il coJes .
At i. ss iblc by
t i- U ; ..on.- to
t ivi TechniCMl
^ otoi8-.it ion
.;< ntcr, Rcr:t«rc!
;rldr.t;lc Park,
Sort'i Carolina^
i^i: 54*-&4U
Users guide
manual
tivaliablt
Tl.c AERf^S M«-
ul Volum.:
HI - Suofttty
race No.
,b-C2-137fc
jrpc*mb*:r, 197S
.jnknowa
Torni of !
data output
Output will be tn a.
The co-n.iUtf TPC-67
c art ho m.idc by r.cJ*
f;r*?hic area, NtDS
plant I.D.. K£:>S
point I.D.. scc co<;«.
or f-el type.
1 cciir. ica! documents
in hard cover on
Ciicro/ortn
Air ?uHot'.3r. Abstracts
nvn i Va vie ^r.7nt r. ly £ r 39
the Sijper inter, Jcr.t of
Dicur^nts , I'.S. Cov-
Lrf.-nt:nt printir.j Cfficc
Wachin^con, D.C. 20^02
Vie r
-------
Table 15. FEDERAL DATA RETRIEVAL AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS - WATER
Na-» of lyse-rat
• rstcn utilizing die Co-»-,'uter
T!.r prir^iry input In environ-
Triual literature and data
Denial r.onitorlnjt »nJ surveil-
lance network!.
Data collection and
In multiple ticliii of
lr»rwi
l-.'.nrJ f.T
f .-.'.Til . ••! '•«'.
1. V.-ls. :.tor.rjȣi,rV .J'7-i )>"!**-.
Inj-ut frr^ ac-
^./'•l,"0
wriit.il lual ley
sui vi 1 lUncc
Arc'-T1* to
vis ti1 1 i-pUonc
Li.-ruun.ils In
1^0 lo.-.-.tious
oi (' ires and
Tf{iLn^ in
',0 ;iaitf
I !'A .is.:rt by
tl.rtiiii-,1 out the
irr-iliol s with
Ll'. ,l> I'.: corrc-
S|'Diuloncc cr
AtiLII cotlc*
Lor cii.-litic
"I,l'u«l
Form of
4 a ou pi
*ct
and local lev* IB.
ta* .t l^ro-.gh Inf sr-
W(J • • •
oo
vo
-------
Table 15 (continued). FEDERAL DATA RETRIEVAL AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS - WATER
crsr
File
KE!
Inventory
Vat«r Quality
oitrofiche for analyaca and
dUtiiAiYx ti.ita C'ni'! it li>n>.
,,l«C p.,r.,,.tcrs lor ^
and Oo% ii-.n a spec 1 1 ic
out put iurniHt .
wi th ^nt r«-.-.-.rd for i t s
9in£ n.-.-.l*. C»>i.?J»t.» Mc-K-
200 ntll Ion ll.-tr.a .
including runner leal und
to tpcclfy utrcaci uttr
dat.i t-otirtLS
,'. l (vrd tran.
lz< J syt.-M
.lit. r .t|>j-riiprl-
* -dUini;.
(dut loii c r it rr I*
,.l.-..-..E. ..^-.tc
onJ u si jn.t*iri]
pr lot fcfT.nt is
dr= tr-i -J.
M- n ;.!' -IS fll C
, -it;.M !S!,L 1 by
th.- -it.Ui-1, and
r..vl.-w. d (or ^
off Ice . i'l'On
a.-LL-.il.inco, they
he a!r(..jrtf.-»
for ioi-n^tt ln«
Dii.l t;Urol Uh Ing.
•
Ultra guide
ava a 1*
d a" °
a p
Uacr can deilgn
hti own output
foruat.
A standard pr int
ibil ity in data
proc«*s inj.
•iccofiln U aent to
H
VO
O
-------
Table 15 (continued). FEDERAL DATA RETRIEVAL AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS - WATER
Ha?* of svstem
*
Kit lonal Water
Data Syacce
(NVDS)
St>r*«y Water
tlon Center (WKS1C)
U.S. I>*p«Tt«eftC of
the UUrior
Tbe NUDS was established to
vUlos statistical data and
In the future. NU'DS will
i ) t ,> '-I-**! . i -*i.!. J i t*t r leval
of pert inert 1 it*1 future.
Wf*j;c con :i 411 of 3 infor-
K-'cjt* J .it I'nlv. of
U ist. Ltn:. ;n, Cornell I'nlv.,
and Nor lit Carolina State
rmpttrr f.-cUttUs at the
L'ciiw . of txijiuM-j R.^scitrch
•crvlc«, and library
atate reflona.
™
chemistry; ?edimrnt;
and Inurulatlon ttappint.
p..n..llon; on ti.t.-rtlUcl-
pllnAry cov*frafte of th*
natural, pliyalcdl, and
te water r«Murc«a.
Input
c
9,000 strramflou
C.TII'. ing stations
6,0:1,' untrr qu.l-
Ity m-aiiirliiij
JO, 000 Kround-
v.itt r bhicrv.*
r Jon wt-1 Is
Dm 4 bnck to
1BVO
^'ir!'1,'.'"
••ui {.iJ.'King
si-rvicrs .
Pr t>ury Input
M-ircti In.lndo
WUf. If auf.jt.irtcd
CO.,:,, U«Cr "
tlir- SJ w.:l, r
sca.ch inst i-
}',ri.nt i L-4 and
contractors of
Oft ice of Water
• c-{fi<\ ai>J other
Acccai to
Uacri guide
Catalog of
lr.for
-------
Table 15 (continued). FEDERAL DATA RETRIEVAL AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS - WATER
K*3# of system
U.S. NCAA
Agency)
Xod«x (E.N2EX)
U.S. KOAA
Cnvlronocntal Data
S«rvlc* (EDS)
National Oceanog-
rapMc Data Ccnttr
Data Coordination
(vVX)
U.S. Geological
Survey * V*C«r
fc«***cc«* Olvltiea
Brief description
NfTC acqiiret, process*-*, ex-
glo'-illy oriented pV/s:ml,
cV< :r :cal , ar.J bi3lo*ic.il data
rr'.at.-d to ocoano^i a,-'1/- NC1DC
pro.-:J»s <^ata c.->T?i lt.t ions
alcm' with evaluations of data
tlin; an! r*rS'arch into KSDEX
( see a1, ovc) .
notvnr it ; «nJ f st.iM l
-------
Table 15 (continued). FEDERAL DATA RETRIEVAL AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS - WATER
\o
W*-« o! ivjtet)
t.S. *JtIOT.ll
Oceanic 4-J
At = ci?r,er ic
Aca. nutrition,
>**. .0^*1 Ocean
Survey. L*««
Survey Center
University of
California.
Vjtcr leaourcea
Center
Reilon 5 - Chicago
tloa System
Brief description
L**e Survey Center stwitos
the Gre^', l.Aes ««-d their
out E lew rlvtrs, LJ«O Chap-
lain. New \or> Ct-te 3jrg«
Cjn.il. ..ttvi thf !',i:in#*Ut4-
0:--ijri-) 3utdrr ;.***->. It
corbie* and publisfiej
c^.-itls and rcljtt-d rvitertal.
the Crejt tj*r§ and iiiu<»
t) cs* djt* in the fora of
reports.
W?C serves State of
California an-) the Weat
by iuntiin^. coorJtnjtlng
t-ti A 1 « S«*T injt InE '!ata
tf t-l* <-r *»>• r.c ira aurf
mjlntairf*-d which are col-
Ucclt,n« rcl-tin? to all
their-.*! pollution froa
St<.'p«?
llydru&r.iphic aur-
vcy* , clurts tind
cdrto,-,r^p;iy. wjt«r
level* , rut ion
dtui r Ivor i lo«,
wjtct chjr^cLcr-
(btica »nd hydro-
.ogy , and limno-
Etiglnecrlnj;. eco-
nomic . aoc 1*1 *nj
lf&*l asjx-ct* of
Wilor; witrr aa a
and ind-tuCridl
j^.otuii'd ^nvtron-
cor.crtn*.
cl PI-WIT pi jnta
t it.»t ion uf ro-
prlority, ti*tc» of
operation, and 7
ye*r average Clow.
Inpt.t
Flclil o'-scrvj-
t ion* , survey
drnwinj"; . ai*r-
i«il ;Mioro(-r.i[>hs.
f.utfltOi.>l< S, COfl-
pm j( ln'ii,
bou-i'! ir r,-* . pub*
li,:,,-J Uirrj-
Vf*j.oK -i>d
ficl>1 p.uttoa,
pjprr mid T-ato-
r.ct ic t.ipe.
punch carJ* and
pr intuuCs.
Report* jr.d In-
forr^t too rc-
celvcd Iron a
variety of pub-
plants located
ACCCHI to
•yaicm
T'»c Center
ui,tn a Xerox >
D«ta Syatcnu
Sirica 3 Con-
put L-r.
Contact
Uii ivcrslty
of Califor-
nia, Water
Crnier ,
l>avls,
CalllornU
9S6I6
P.-^t r I'l.mt
Pi u/,r «ii Mon-
(urfMi i^n
SVT.IHI.. tPA
H.-rion S.
^ m S.»'t!t
iH-^iboin.
Cnic n;o,
Illinois
60CCU
UiL-i s giiide
ir.jn...il
avalliM*
A H.t o( tech-
nical publica-
l ions »nd
clijft s , jnJ a
j.-jidt- l o order-
i fj-. p.''j i Ua-
t l''H> JC«
av^l-'^U-
n.tuN.-h tlie
Sii;.«-i Int finli-at
ol iK'Ci. .tnts.
moat Printing
Of I Ice, V'a^h-
int;tJ". D.C. or
from tlic DUtri-
butlon Gffic*
in Detroit,
Hichi^an.
Form of
data outj.it
Annual D^tj S'i~T-jr its ,
Field Activities
Reports, wn-J Ir.dtxe*
Of AH.J Covpr.i^i?
Surveys iTc t>sw^J .
Kicroiotn ec'pif* o£
coiryutLT holJ iap»
are *v«ildl»le. Data
listing* *nJ tibllo-
graphick generated by
literature searching
The Center Issues
rciC.irrh roporti,
pun.jjhlctS , Con-
f r re n c e reports,
and bibliot,r«?hi*«.
lectlona ar*
avalUbU.
User c.n a*k the
Utlci, give Liaitt
and extract data.
without restrictions.
Services available to all
vlthoMt restriction.
Services arc provided
priMrlly for ETA u*e.
-------
Table 16. FEDERAL DATA RETRIEVAL AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS - SOLID WASTE
U.S. Envlrcnr^n-
Agcncy
Of(lc« of Sc-Ud
froirar*
•at ion Retrieval
Sy*U» < SULKS)
SUIRS maintain* a flic of
?an4£circnti SW1RS r«-
ipond» to technical in-
bibnograptiita on to ltd
Solid W4»t« man-
pollution; air
pollution^ urban,
Lndu*tri«l *nd *n-
v
Rookt , potent*,
tiiic paciodi-
c«U.
I y« t «
Contact EI»A.
0 1 ( U- «- of
K.ln.iKfrt:nl
rruj-.rr*i»,
18i5 K. St..
K.W.,
Wjihlnjton,
O.C. 2
-------
Table 17. FEDERAL DATA RETRIEVAL AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS - NOISE
and sponsor
U.S. tnwiroi^.cn-
tal Protection
Office of Nolle
Abatement and Con-
trol
Brief description
VM5E servti «a an Inte-
grated, cent rallied inf or-
njtlon center that collect*
technical and nontechnical
data en noise and noli*
K01SE U * P*rt of the
Scopr
11 .mpoct, of
nvirorvi.-nt ol
otsc, IricHiO Ing:
ircraf t , truck,
rain , bus , jnJ
uKw-oM le nolie ;
legal anJ r^fur ce-
ment experience.
NOISt consists c(
-li.OUO article!.
1/5 of which tuva
been conpuc*ciced.
Input
Journals , nova*
p«?c s , prof rs- •
govo nncnc pub"
llca ions, ETA
port to Con-
Spcclal effotti
Europe ^ Japan.
•nd the USSR.
Acccca to
system
Part ol the
SCOISK Jata
b.isc has
born co^put"
trdiJ anJ
nal linked
}t>0-65 com-
puter «y»-
tCM.
U5:::,,5i'dl
avjll^ble
A tlics»urus to
be used with
the NOISE d«ta
base can be
provided upon
Form of
dat, DljtPut
Output consist* of
either cou.pl* t« ref-
erencing to litera-
ture ot interest or
COpio Of public*"
Mjnual literature
•tarchlag !• «vail*bla
to all without charge.
SO
-------
Table 18. FEDERAL DATA RETRIEVAL AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS - TOXICOLOGICAL SUBSTANCES
Haie of iyst«a
tr.d sponsor
Oa« P idgr National
la^cr jtory
Irwlrcr-rntal
Infertutica Sy«-
l«3 Of f ICC —
EISO, P.O. Box X,
Oat ftidi*. Ten*
Mtat* 3MJO
Toxic Kiteriili
cue i OQ Sy*tem
OffUe. Ojk Ridge
lory
Brief descr Ipt Ion
El£0 Is co-rp^f-d ot topical.
irL Ulc: the Toxicology
• oi:r«l lor\ Ccntrr iT^lC),
Fr.crgy Inlorrvjticn Ctntor
«c*rch and Dcvvlupnwnt t
«nd Environmental Rc»^on««
(EWIS).
The objective of the «y»-
prcvi^cs Ri D inf^trjtion.
ir.i jr.d abstracting and in-
Mtioo aourc*«.
Scope
0 l^c i p 1 Luc* , *nd
iejrc'.c.
i fpor t i on llif
lor.y and p«-stl-
CiJtfS.
rIGO provides cov-
er, j I;P ol c-nv Iron-
FI r.tjl rcsuarch
iiu li.i! 1115: Cco-
m.itcrl .all rcsourcct
a nil i re yc 1 ing, en-
viri'i*-1' ntal tir>pjcc
of t-le 1 1 rical en-
erf.y, .iod rtRional
mod'-ling.
Two Cl.l*9('l Of
ihi?t vi: and n jt u-
ponnds .
runin,' , snf It Ing,
«nJ vfwt-r fjcill-
t ies ; njtural and
tr.J-.icrd lcx-U
t>'x ic ai't i»oi»Tt-
l iril ly r»-r. ic r-.ttc-
rirfls in vjrious
ari'j* 01 t)>c coun*
try ; Ini orm.^lltm on
tt,^ IcV^'li of
in plants and anl-
lllT.ul
EISO input, a
Itr-1 1 i Ics in-
Atisirjcth, Lhc«-
tt il -ntf Dio lo-
gic J I Sec t ioua
of CA CCAHS) .
nouncvKcntt
(CRA).
PablUhed Uter-
produccd, r«-
pore*.
Access to
system
Cont.i<-t OPNL.
P.O. llox X,
UMCS IAV1
360-75 and
360-91 COA-
puteo.
On *tte uie
of collection
Use r • £
-------
Table 18 (continued). FEDERAL DATA RETRIEVAL AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS - TOXICOLOGICAL SUBSTANCES
N.--- cf lyitra
Cnvlconoental
tlon C«a«r, thIC
Laboratory
Mtloa Res?onM
C.ot.r IIJIIC)
0«k HUs« »«tloo»l
mc«> InfentftlM
Cc«t«r. rsic
Brief description
for rut-S,-nlcitx.
ipor.^ori J by OEM., the TMIC
1. to provide literature
duciloi of annotated bib-
iio^rjrhif*, critic*!
Ui Sciences Diviiioti of
of kponiorit
Scope
ciiK-s , IcoJ dvld i-
tlvt-3, metal.
ln*iustri.il chem-
istry, and tnvl-
rtnr-.^nt^l pcllu-
Cants.
nuc I U'c c) cl f ng in
*«,d tlifr^il
el f rets jnJ othtrr
* pec i j 1 «f(«jjl)jj I j
U RLvt-n to the
p«cc* of pluCcdiun
Inpi.c
Jonrn.l ortl-
• ynpos iufi rr°"
tilic ni-ws .1-
tctt «nd I- llc-
t Irs , and <>m-
ireic i jlly vall-
«ble corpn cr-
•n4 TCXLUE.
complex of »pc-
» Y. BlOg.
iz:*.. o»k
] ill orrn.it lun
iystcm Of(lc<
consist ing
of 12M 360-75
ji.J 360-91
con.putcr*.
flU-i >re
III, tl.e Cn-
OUic..
moriti.il
Tiac pubUci-
Torm of
djt* output
•vaiUbl*.
PubllccCion tbsLTtctt
grMphiei compiled
•edfchci, «Ad d«C«
Service* are «v«U«bli
Servlcei «r* jv^il*t>l»
•niwcrcd on the bjslt
•nd resoucc«t.
SO
-------
Table 18 (continued). FEDERAL DATA RETRIEVAL AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS - TOXICOLOGICAL SUBSTANCES
jftd sponsor
V. S. Public Holth
Service
of Occupational
IIIOSH
tico S«rvice$
Ir.octi. IIS1
Servlct
HUM tnfonultoo,
Service*
CHCCIXI
Chralol Dlccle-
nry oa-LlM
U.S. Xitlm.il
C!n.
Toxicology Infer-
ejcloa Program.
11?
TWLOU
The TU3 Jlm.-Mr-jtcs
nir. .n Infocution .tor-
health.
the Toxicology Information
TIP w«s *ttabli»'ted to pro-
ttity with « toxicolojy In*
7CXLIXE i« * n^ricmwid*,
on-iio* lit*r«tur« re-
Scope
HUM ing, «fid
cht-nictry.
20. QUO ducui^ntt
in the tyUcre.
and IfdmoloRy;
00,000 chcnical
t If ird t>y CAS Rc?-
Jsiry NtiHirrs,
n f 1 r t '.j I . ( r 1 n i ' -• u 1 ^ S ,
c .1 n be & i- j r c hed on •
11.K-.
tcx ic i ty stkiJles,
cJ l»-Ll* of envi-
ron: cnt.il cticni-
nnd an^lvt ic jl
The d^ta busc in-
cluiJcs -approxt-
Mtcly 32). 000
d.ti^urco.
LI' A publica-
tion Center.
cus priv«t« «nd
courcc*.
ACCCSI to
s > -, t c n
Tici.iucal
]nl.nvt.tr Ion
Rrarun, P.O.
«nd C.^rt
U -.-,«• hulld-
ln^, Cincin-
nati. ChiO
tnrough MEO-
LINC.
i,y diffi-ri-nt
'yj'i-i ot tcc-
-i -njny loca-
t j :-:.». fntry
1 t-v. -;>im:r are
loc-lcJ
Lhc U.S.
^.^.a1^
Tfc.mical Pub-
lication*,
H10SH.
Form of
£.ita output
doilcltcd publica-
tatna a library (4000
volurvM and period I*
Cfila) and provide*
blM iojraphic ser-
vices bo:h ct^nually
*nd by cut line ler-
vlrval through MO-
LINE.
Whol« text output of
over 2/0.000 cita-
tion* art avallabl*.
Uac rettrictloni
MEKS p«r»P.lQ*l, oth7S30.
vO
00
-------
Table 19. FEDERAL DATA RETRIEVAL SYSTEMS - TOTAL ENVIRONMENT
Na-* of sy»te«
C«at«r and Library
CcoIo^y Fofua, Inc.
»-»t Ion Center CTC
C\£*t *nr house. Inc. ,
Vainir^can, D,C., 1*
• n af f iliat anJ
Vctvct • » I » in^ut
a^ent (or c ngrei*
» ian*l «nd th«r
MI ion.
Brlff iescrlptlon
se*rch- 500 scientific pubHca-
t ion* .
en nit «t tons g^}'» , to tdc 11 1-
• ?ctd with which now tnfor-
ucion Can tM •**l*LL«trd. .
Scope
lut 1 on, TA>I int ion.
cT^'insif: n on
c ' l '" w
Jcets ** chvmistry,
lip.;r«phy
ra 11 or tele-
phone order*
VUr-ri guide
available
Library.
Cincinnati,
Ohio 4526ft
Form of
data output
capias, and library
flcha or ha d copy
lt«
-------
Table 19 (continued). FEDERAL DATA RETRIEVAL SYSTEMS - TOTAL ENVIRONMENT
>i=* of syifo
and t porter
Uc.
Energy Information
C'r.ctr (EIC)
5C5 Klr.J Avenue
(tU> 2^-Jin *37U
Sr tf»f dcscr Iptlon
TMs p.' r 1 r>J It «1 service
ir.Vx^s and ab^trflits
j^il'.ttorv. It F*c fcictra
tt.c n«tio^s ra)jr source of
: t un ar.J d«ta.
it*t«-*nt» throu^lt the
ir^ In F«dtT*l RcgUter.
Scope
T%> 1 a «»-rv Uc
cov*>(5 JO.U'JO
pot l"t u>n.
• uhstT Ihrt to 7!»0
[.erlodlcaU.
tr.ic t i»n to fir.Al
cunsumpt Ion.
Statr".?!>i3 which
Tn|mt
d»tft «iOU7C»«
ri'Urt-st ic
• rxl (or«-!Kn
jo>in>«ls , tcc^i-
bookn , K/L.[>OS 1*,
r itls.
OH Ice ot fcOcral
j^rci Input !ro«
I'.sw Irttrr.ivntrtl
uril.-r ci»rr*-nt review! \o$i which *rc
c^ui* pvr region,
tti order to mortltor
proccsitnj of st*t*-
•cnc«.
iroa *il £?A
region*.
•ystrm
Snivel 1 ;>t ion
t.) ivr."tion
Ai.*.r r*i tii
FdU.
.« 'MU.
C.il I fornia
V^UJ?
terminal
1
L'tcri guid«
*VlU*t>l*
S/A
Fora of
dec* Output
Bl-M>nthly periodical
R*iult« of computer
and data liaclng*
I. Sl-wccV.ly regi»t«r
*. Monthly frtquency
report *
4. i.Uting of total
il'.« off-line.
Service* *->d p^blieatio^l
arc 4v*\!»^'.« to (a^irribtfi
contract bat U.
Service! are *vallabl« Co »ll
co«rt/ prpbLc^j.
;
ro
o
O
-------
Table 19 (continued). FEDERAL DATA RETRIEVAL SYSTEMS - TOTAL ENVIRONMENT
**-< of «v*-c»
arj ipcasor
V.S. Envlron-scntal
fro^raa Review »o4
Evaluation &yit«»
<7R£S)
lattelle Ketsorltl
In*t itvte
£:u Uotaental
Information
Analyst* C«nt«r
(EUC)
Brief df*crljttlon
?W> c;rpUea in one
ration on all wMtorlng
iVo-i^'iout ET\. Central
wV.ifo And who Is performing
tpoclftc vonltorin; opera-
tions.
far—it ion col Ice cd and uted
in ?i'«r^rt of v.i io-ja cnv(-
p.t- prirary crpli s(» li
Ret tv jt ies.
ence, literature icarchlng.
itrvlccs; provide! RU) in*
fortution; Icndt m«terl*ls;
peroiti onslct use of
collection.
Sco?c
rp.FS will Identify
format ion for •
tor Ing procr.m:
work
2. Whur* work 1*
bo I it,; done
tlicrnul ct fluont
cf l"t.'Cts ; vBtVf
r.id i onucl i Je cycl tn?
ninitor Ini; and
rtscai cli; rnv iron-
mrntAl ir^act
ronr^-nral aipcct*
of urbirx
rcc, i (inn 1 pi. inn i ni; ;
m«thc;rjC ical OKxlcl-
ifla af ccoiystom* ;
•ucion auiugcoenc*
dat • so'trroi
Flic- lncl«.r< ?rovU«
-------
Table 19 (continued). FEDERAL DATA RETRIEVAL SYSTEMS - TOTAL ENVIRONMENT
Vfse of syxt««
t^ tf»rn*or
T!-.t Center for
Dnllcd X«tion«
I b * c «• 11 1 r r h * s t! i- \- * 1 o p t d
M "i J ?r i!at» base on
lui ion ronltorinj; program*
tains inf orr .it Ion on the
j«ur prtsr of c.ich fro^rnm.
j li-n'. r. i iti rt'J JnJ th.C pol-
lutar.L* e.^nirc-rcd. Tnfor-
rJC irn is ^i\i-n on th*
nj-ibcr oi uit^s, sampling
prccUlon of •nilysU, mod*
i
c tiiJi-s uif or^at ion
Tlic dntt h.isc in-
t lv.-, ojM-r .it iM-al ,
.ii-J trt linii .il JALA
on each proj'.ratr,.
tor Inf; S0:. sul-
j.l.c.s. ri»M. CO.
nl tr.itrs. nit r Uci,
anr.uni.t, bi»J, UJ,
pil, coili'frn b-c-
tcr la, r.idio-
n>ic 11 ties, soluble
..a lib of alkali
lint e^rch actttl*.
input
Infcrmnt Ion
rcoctvoJ frow
environocrvteJ
Acct-st to
C. nl i-r 1 ur
Tuuo- l'*rkw*y
02133
phone (61?)
666-4793
I'teri guide
Form of
A. A Output
A vnrlity of c-.. ^t»
Ificity «.^d Jet il
roqu irt-'d . For x. it-. pie.
one cnn obccln llic
of pro^raas Don coring
* »f.cclflc pall c*nc
In • given c^dl a in
• » pacific off A *r««.
Tc« charged for t«rvLc«i,
but »v*ii.b.U Co >11
-------
Table 19 (continued). FEDERAL DATA RETRIEVAL SYSTEMS - TOTAL ENVIRONMENT
,*'*r« of • v*teo
•nJ spo-.*or
KtxLS
£a:r i* of Envlron-
for Energy S>stena.
cental Quality
CEQ
BrleJ description
rvl I-it ion, air pollution,
»o'. iJ vjsto, lard use, and
ciu.lcs rfata on ruergy cffi-
e Icrc l«s and coits ,
A C* |or reason for the
d c v c 1 c , — -• r t of ?•.!-'. H ~ S i » to
projlJt- s if;-l 11" (cot Ion of
prej'aracl^n anj review of
tnviT-. n .-ntal l-vact stata-
f-nts, concern in.; energy
related projects.
T>«e cowplrte systua in-
cluding Che tOIPXS data b«a«.
computer software, and
tcrcKd the Energy hod«l
(OlDa).
Scope
r nt ire sp«~ctru» of
ftifrey t-.ipp't y syt-
fctivlt les arc
con-; iJi-rr^l;
rcscutcc, rxtr*c-
tinn, l ran:" pc>rt»»
t ion, pr uc^ss i ng,
dlstrlh.it Jon.
slun, cl.-cltlt;
;t ncral or^, and
er.J uses. For each
activity. MJ:RES
contains cm- f f i-
clt-nts cstinj»r Ing
lmp.it t , *• if icicncy.
oj'rrat Ing cosCi,
Eniir^y soirees
those di r IwJ
fron coal , oil ,
natural g.is , uucVear
Hsi ion. anJ new
technologies Such M
cv-i 1 ^ns 1 1 tent ion
BiiO 1 icjm {Action,
oil vvjlf. solvent
roflncJ coal, *n>1
f lit icJ coal
coii.ljust ion.
Her, iduals spfclfled
in VIMS IncluJe
air, k-jtrr, »n>l
scl 1.1 w^stva. Air
pt'lliiinnts i-uvi-ri-d
•rv :;ox. sox. uc'«»
CO, aiiJ nMf'iyJtfi.
covcrcil iiK- luJc
kolvrd solids, BOO.
COD, and heal, LA(U
**
considered.
Inn-it
t sources
t T incd in y.'.HJIS
crtmc fron "tr.vl-
t in.c y , *nO
CoU of C,tfT#y
Sup,,•» red
t»V lilt trail
Inc. Uf-Jnt Irg
of t)if ("»Ca U
a c£">t JnuOu*
roccss carried
rookhaven.
AI-C.-YS to
a coirpiji er at
the- Broalh.M,!
*
Isl.m.1. N.Y.
S:H?
c 01. 'put at iont
ate nv.illablc
frt.n the
c jntjutcf via
-------
APPENDIX D
POLLUTION LEGISLATION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
One important function of an environmental assessment is to assure com-
pliance with federal, regional, state and local pollution and resource
use statutes. Most pertinent federal regulations fall under the enforce-
ment of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) but other agencies,
such as the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) and the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA), set standards for release of various substances.
A clear discussion of the EPA statutory authority is presented in a
recent EPA publication.
Although EPA has national authority for maintaining and improving the
environment, a significant portion of the enforcement and setting of
standards is carried out by state and regional agencies. For example,
The Clean Air Act of 1970 called for EPA to set national ambient air
quality standards for six pollutants: SO , particulate matter, CO, hy-
drocarbons, photochemical oxidants, and N0x> The EPA has set standards
for these substances which are to apply to the entire country. States,
however, have the responsibility to draw up implementation plans to meet
these criteria. These state (and in some cases regional and local)
regulations often take the form of emission restrictions on individual
facilities. Space does not permit a discussion or compilation of the
various state regulations here, but these specific restrictions must be
of prime concern to any energy system developer.
205
-------
On another level, EPA directly regulates the emissions of certain .species
from several classes of stationary sources. These New Source Performance
Standards (NSPS), where applicable to energy systems, will be indicated
in the following sections.
Similar considerations pertain to water pollution. The Federal Water
Pollution Control Act (FWPCA) as amended by Congress in 1972 sets as a
goal the elimination of the discharge of all pollutants into navigable
waters by 1985. An interim goal is that the level of water quality nec-
essary for the protection of fish, shellfish, and wildlife shall be
reached by July 1, 1983. To meet these goals, industrial dischargers
must employ the best practiceable control technology by July 1, 1977,
and use the best available technology by July 1, 1983. Again, states
are required to develop implementation plans including effluent limits
to meet federal strictures.
Table 20 summarises the significant statutory authority of the EPA in
the areas of air, water, solid waste, and noise pollution, and contains
brief summaries of state responsibilities under these acts. The next
section presents current federal standards developed by the EPA. The
following section .iotes standards under consideration, and the final
section discusses the sorts of regulations which can be expected in
the future.
It must be emphasized that these federal, as well as state and local,
standards are continually reviewed and updated. As a consequence,
energy system developers must keep abreast of the Federal Register and
local governmental publications. A convenient way of accomplishing this
2
is to consult the Federal Regulations section of the Environment Reporter.
This document provides a continuous updating of all amendments and revi-
sions to pollution regulations.
206
-------
Table 20. FEDERAL LEGISLATION CONCERNING ENVIRONMENTAL
ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
Area of
legislation
A
r
Name of atandard
or proposal
»ec«iwt»l 1C htfjHh or
wlfjre
National emtasion
oui air pollutants
(NESHAP)
FTA reputations on
pnerjy related author-
Clean Air Act con.
t a inrd In tlic Energy
Act of 1974)
DCkcr 1 pt ton
2. P.itt iculatc
mot Irr
3. Cjr>t>n nonoxiut;
4. Photochemical
oxidant s
5. ityttrocjrbcnc
6. Nit to^en
M.'ct ". . .tin- iJi^rue
t ton iclilfvjl.lc
by ElfA.
(Section III of Clean A
out si ile air
2. Mercury - 24-ho
3. Beryl Unit - -i-
requtre anbien
Civcs TPA author Ity
to iu«pi'nd otdcrt
T r Ic power pi jnt s 1 rom
in t'ni*hii»nji of any
Air p.'llut:int for
whicli u.ilioa.il .imbleht
st .mJardfc h.ivf not
bi'fii 'troiuu t K.I t cd .
Scope
f
Cle.ni Air Act -
IT linjry : qiul ity
wliich F.PA Ju,l>-L-«
public hc.iltli.
SrconJjrv; levc 1 of
qual ity which EPA
Judges lu-ccsii.iry to
iiroti-ci pul-Hc wcl*
i.trc (tm« known or
tint tcipatt'J jdverse
I'tft'cti ol pcllutjntl.
Ir.i plants).
lr Act)
* cmlss ns t
ur standard - require
t and utack sanpllng
Tlild is a potential
n-qulrrnx>nt on coal
inns 10 U'-ntlfy
,il 1 airborne ornls-
imi'osJnn cm(*» ton
iitand.irJti.
R l ,1 1 c rule
li-ih stjndardi which
me more kt riftKent
Ihjn the national
standard**
1 ish any JtanJjrd*
locility to obtain
jny permit, lt-
iion or oppvatlon of
the lacility.
tu 'In i.icil ity pro-
viwrti ll.cy art not
Icsk «t r infant than
It dl.o njy rctjuira
Lite owner of th«
tac il icy to obtain
»nv p< rmll«, 1 1-
ci-nick or approvals
prior to ccnitruc-
lion ur operation of
the facUity.
Reference
40 CFS 50;\
36 FH 2238ft"
40 CFR 60;
36 r* 24876
40 CFR 61 J
36 Fit 6820
40 CFR 5$;
40 FR 16438,
April 23, 1975
207
-------
Table 20 (continued). FEDERAL LEGISLATION CONCERNING ENVIRONMENTAL
ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
Arm of
i
Wj
cr
Njrw of il4iid4rl Ion
US|.« Ol 1,11 1.1- .,,.,1
U;nJril to 1 lr.lt the
i.i"out;l And Oisl rlbu-
t tot; o( pM 1 nl jnt •
permit t frd In these
waters .
1 . St n-jn usf cUl-
s i i if .it ion —
f uitr cat t*f,or lei
cypress..,] In
tt-rnj u( ri'cr**
at lonj 1 nkeft ;
1 ic jn-o'int juJ
4^.1 ll ty of *-jch
;n>l liit .nit lolcr-
j. Ant i "l-'^t j.! «t Ion
t i tyi'i,, th.it
d.?.'r...l.it ten of
w^i cf <\vi 1 i t y !•
pr. !uN i tt-d except
i or iH'Ci'-iiary
Pt O'Uirt'IC Ji'VL lop*
v i n t ;
fc . J-i.;>lcn.-nt jt Ion
an.l i nl orcti'icnt
pi an,
ot d 1 SL -hji ft* , ^ . tir.cn-
If i .- U- jsfJ 1 1 orr a
h.i^y of w»lor.
r.y Jv'.y It/ 7. nil
t!(f jVLTjh*.' Ot t lio
be*: ixLitinp, pi rfor-
- - -t- hv veil oj'i-rul cd
r./ July 1<-1J, all' In-
t ,> thr vi- ry best con*
t rol .ind l re,iir«'nt
re Jturr-s t'ut tuvc
t.'on or j re *- jp.iblB
> — '
U'Xtrpt t hose- SJM-C 11-
l ta 1 iy upprovctl by
KPA-
A-i>t mi t r «• o t irk.- n t
/,,]d on t rctttmcnt
on production
. ,
In if ijt t'-'n to
If |i UiM-tit at ion of
pl.inr.int; I'loCCii
• . SCJ'P : fct ate* rc*
t.i m i olc for tot t ing
Ait.) culorc InK uaUT
qiM 1 i t y s t .i.vijrdi . In
ill. tit mn, iut/y h^ve ch«
oaJi'd duty of nuk i(i(«
CL rt .11 n l hat iui *f Mu-
i-nt lii-i tat iua written
wjt * r (;u,t 1 ;i y at and jrd,
'il.c ri-lat it-n-.Iiip ».c-
tw,-.-n ft (lu.ol dJs-
J t y vi.-. i fo ccjrJjnated
to 1 L-J«-i * L approval.
b. ("rrmit proj;r.ia:
qujlltv starvf.irds and
.ill ('! llU'Ot
t [ral t.'.lions.
ttii? Sdt icrui 1 )'ol lutadt
Fefcrenc*
U) CKR 120;
3', FR 7J489,
NuvfD.ber 2),
1971
of thr JVPCAC
208
-------
Table 20 (continued)
FEDERAL LEGISLATION CONCERNING ENVIRONMENTAL
ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
AJ-CJ of
legliLjcion
i
w*
er
N^mc of nt anJafd
or pro;>osil
(rrouulftjird)
EUccclvt 1974
(Effective July 1976
jnd h*y iS74 ior new
pl.nl.)
Toxic ECflutnt
Standard*
(Efiectiv*
January I97i)
Description | Scop*
vi;l> nMril fn -jili. is ( s
fHl.mu ii'.Jiutinn
r,if».r-h rhanurs in iht
pro 1 it t Ion process .
Ajvlic.iMc wtn-re i»tan-
d.itils i'H •• r 1 1 iv v ith
udl cr s>i.i 1 ity t^oi 1*
in spoc i 1 Lc port ion*
Nov utmrctt will not
sir in ['.<'iiL si.ttul jfds
tor .'i ' lu-r 10 yo.ir*
or period of drpre-
clatlon — whichever
J« Hr»t.
so th^t it dr-'B POE
inierf«*rr with the
ojM-r.jf ion of tho
pl.mt or p,is« throiiRh
tllC pi. in I Ullt lC.ll*J
or without «Jt''." •
troU, raw tnateriali
Lnicr'-cd l^y EPA
•nd nvmlclpalttLci
In fecr.er*!.
rh.i ,'.».'S needed to
pr>- ItUt or limit
tox '•« - rf fectivt
iu to pub) Uh * ^
list of pollutant*
,inu cfUucnt tinl-
t,ulor.!i for thOM
pollucantt.
In relation to
ttjtc role
KPDES
il'lto^c prnrfUl-
thosc of CI'A in
orJer to neet *C*
fluent limitation*
In j NTOKS pcrfftC
(or . publicly
owned trratmenC
worm.
Permit program under
NPDES
Peferenct
Section 306
or th« rWPCA
43 crR 123;
3d rR 30&82
Section 307
of th« IWCA
Section 307
of tht FV7CA
209
-------
Table 20 (continued). FEDERAL LE
ASSESSMENT
.GISLATION CONCERNING ENVIRONMENTAL
ACTIVITIES
Arcj oi
lcj;i» Lit ton
i
Ual
1
4
So
V.
ftp
r
,
id
it<
Natr^ ol st dn>ljid
or ptopOi.il
ThiTT.jl discharge's
S o i 1 J • a S t e t'15"
i. = ul Art ll'.*!0
Act (19/0)
Dnc r Ipt Ion
*ri!iT*l lirll.utuna
01 tlu-rr. .1 p. .lint ion.
a point stiurc* jnd
ttc tir, olo -:.f jvailibla
V. ccrs : ruct ion,
dor," ,:r..ticn, and
app 1 i . „• i o-i C'( wasce
("dnj s-i--.>.it 4--.J i e*
s i?'j re t ff^ovt-ry sys-
v.t ic •, of j;r, -.^ter.
2. t*fhnifjl md
nnK ar J drvcloptng
grjiss ;
3 njrior.jl r^scarth
Kftr.3 to develop and
t r 1 1 r.e i h LX! § of d e j 1 -
1 1 1 14 u ; t h collection,
**-?ar itio-x, tc-cowecy,
r*cyc 1 intt , rfnd *af«
dlipos^l o[ noii(*cov-
trjbl*- vj jtr ;
« . KU •-'•- l iTl1-* fot th*
col l'.-c c i c-n , tr*:uport«-
t ior, , i*-p.tr.jt i on , jr.d
rtto-.-rry J^d Jisposjl
5. tr^ in Inc. f;r jnl I (n
OCtuf (t IO:M 1 tivulvlng
d.».i »"i , o,"-f jt lff\. jn1
tr*inf i -ij.icr ol tolld
W3,C*- J I ^p--5>» I 1 vttfrj .
Scope
1 I Oil d 1 I point
All * 0 1 1 J V i i 1 •> *
In rc-lnicn to
( t at r rolf
1 1> t-st jM i i1! irJcr jl
lli:U 1 -ll If'Ul Ot\ tliCf "
ti i.i 1 prtl 1 LIL lun . llu1^ *
sLjt*.' pt-rutt -ii>Tcy if
the difr^Uaiv'oc *hi^»
thjt [lie •c.nul.itd Id
IPCTO si r inf.'-rtt tlian
i i&fi and sbr lift *h.
ten into IVe ^crtilt ,
the diM-f-^rf'^r «ill
net ht- n.'j ji-ct to an/
iroro it r in .V i t st jfi-
dj.-J tor j 10 yi-jr
pt-r i oJ ^r f'.f per 1 o«I
of Jr jirn: t jt i, in , w^i ich-
cviT c,-~r* (ir=.t.
1
C o jpi- : j : j ,«n jc ivr . n
e U Ail.le States, cunt-
^ nt <•. -LJ-. ; e i, it j,;tn^ !o«
dcvt- li.p U up. ul plant ,
constroct t^ft f-cill-
t n-s , Pom'v L ii * l«o
pro1. : JvJ t<^f ()er*onn«l
'.r.lnif.i, iTwoVvtng
disi.'t, of .• : it ion , and
projce:^.
Kc tf rrnct
•;.vii»n 116
,.f lh« J-U't-CA
40 CfR 122;
19 IK Ibl7fc
c
n. *.-ii2 (H70).
PL f^3-;; (1973).
H 93-C11 (19/S)
210
-------
Table 20 (continued). FEDERAL LEGISLATION CONCERNING ENVIRONMENTAL
ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
Area
— — -^
So
»•
*f propo.,1
A.t at 1972
lion of t.ajof noi.bc
ctchnoiogy
S«;c. 6 - Nols* Ettl*-
sipn St.ir.dMrda fcr
in Cocr-trc*
Dr*i-ript ion
pin1, isli cr IUT Li with
uscu-l M i:i(iif.i: 'nf,
o: el ti-tts on p.ibl Ic
t; r.nt It ics of noi se .
to ^tovw t fmblii:
I.e.-, ttu uit.nn a cargin
- I'ubl iil; .1 ri-port(s)
.en it. uuy p o c i
informal Jo;i lor tJtc con-
trol of nulsa.
tPA Bu-.t pulil Ish ?ro-
j>os. J rr f iilat lonf. for
ujrdjt arc ic.isible
- F.klis into the cate-
gory of
- HquipDcnt lor COft-
ftt ruction
- Tr.ii.sportation
- Any aot or or
engint
- cUccrical or elec-
tronic *qulpc«nt
Sropt
sj
-------
EXISTING STANDARDS
Air
Federal air pollution authority falls into three categories: ambient
air quality (AAQ) standards which are to be achieved through State im-
plementation plans; national emission standards for hazardous pollutants;
and new stationary source performance standards. The AAQ levels, listed
in Table 21, are divided into primary and secondary standards. Primary
standards are those which if exceeded are judged to be detrimental to
human health. These ambient levels are to be reached by 1975. Secondary
standards, which are meant to protect animals, plants and property, have
no set date for achievement.
To date, three species — mercury, beryllium, and asbestos — have been
classified as hazardous air pollutants. Emission standards for these
species from certain sources have been set and are shown in Table 22.
Standards for 17 types of new or substantially modified stationary sources
have been established by the EPA. Two of those source types are relevant
to energy systems: steam electric generators having greater than 250 x
10 Btu/hour heat input, and storage vessels for petroleum liquids. The
standards for these sources are shown in Table 23.
Water
Water pollution standards include water quality standards to be established
by the states, effluent standards identifying the best practicable control
technology available for existing and new industrial point sources, and
effluent limitations for toxic pollutants.
212
-------
Table 21. AMBIENT AIR STANDARDS
a
Species
SO (as S09)
X 4r
Particulate
Carbon monoxide
Oxidant (as 0~)
N0v (as NO,)
X **
Nonme thane (HC)
Hydrocarbons (HC)
(as CH4)
Averaging
period0
AAM
24
8
3
AGM
24
8
8
1
8
1
AAM
24
8
1
8
3
Air quality standards
„ . a
Przmary
80(0.03)
365(0. 14), lx
-
_
75
260, lx
-
10, 000(9) ,lx
40, 000(35), lx
160(0. 08) ,lx
100(0.05)
—
-
160(0. 24) ,lx
*i
Secondary
60(0.02)
260(0. 09), lx
-
1,300(0.49) ,lx
60
150, lx
-
10, 000(9), lx
40, 000(35), lx
160(0. 08), lx
100(0.05)
-
-
-
160(0. 24), lx
2
aFormat for each entry is as follows: STANDARD yg/m @
760 mralig & 20°C (Equivalent Value, ppm). The maximum
allowable exceedance rate, if any, follows. This refers
to the maximum number of times per year that the standard
may be exceeded. For example, lx means the standard may
be exceeded only once per year.
"National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air Quality
Standards," Federal Register 36, //84, pp. 8186-8201.
°The averaging period is given in hours unless otherwise
specified. AAM means Annual Arithmetic Mean Value and AGM
means Annual Geometric Mean Value.
213
-------
Table 22. SUMMARY OF HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANT STANDARDS
Pollutant
Mercury
Beryllium
Affected facility
Asbestcs
Mercury ore processing facilities,
Mercury cell chlor-alkali plants
Extraction plants, foundries,
ceramic manufacturing plants,
beryllium waste disposal
incinerators, propellant plants,
machine shops processing alloys
with > 5 percent Be.
Rocket testing facilities
Asbestos mills, manufacturing
operations
Spraying of asbestos fireproof-
ing and insulation that contains
more than 1 percent asbestos on
buildings, structures, pipes and
conduits.
Spraying of asbestos fireproof-
! ing and insulation that contains
! more than 1 percent asbestos on
equipment and machinery.
Use of isbestos mill tailings on
roadways
Demolition operations
Limitation
Not more than 2300 gin/day
for the entire facility.
Not more than 10 gm/day
(Option of meeting ambient
level of 0.01 ug/m3 if
3 years of ambient data
available).
Limited to 75 ygm-min/m
No visible emissions or
use control equipment
meeting specific
performance characteristics
Banned
No visible emissions
Banned except on asbestos
ore deposits
Good control practices are
required
214
-------
Table 23. SUMMARY OF AIR EMISSION STANDARDS FOR NEW OR
SUBSTANTIALLY MODIFIED SOURCES3
Steam Generators (> 250 million Btu/hour heat input)
(a) Particulate Matter:
(1) 0.1 Ib per million Btu heat input (0.18 grams per
million calorie)
(2) No more than 20 percent opacity visible emissions,
except for 2 minutes in any hour visible emissions
may be as great as 40 percent opacity.
(b) Sulfur Dioxide:
(1) 0.8 Ib per million Btu heat input (1.4 grams per million
calorie) when oil is fired.
(2) 1.2 Ib per million Btu heat input (2.2 grams per million
calorie) when coal is fired.
(c) Nitrogen Oxides (as N02) :
(1) 0.20 Ib per million Btu heat input (0.36 grams per
million calorie) when gas is fired.
(2) 0.30 Ib per million Btu heat input (0.54 grams per
million calorie) when oil is fired.
(3) 0.70 Ib per million Btu heat input (1.26 grams per
million calorie) when coal is fired.
Storage Vessels for Petroleum Liquids
(a) Hydrocarbons:
(1) If the true vapor pressure of the petroleum liquid,
as stored, is equal to or greater than 78 mm Hg
(1.5 psia) but not greater than 570 mm Hg (11.1 psia),
the storage vessel shall be equipped with a floating
roof, a vapor recovery system, or their equivalents.
(2) If the true vapor pressure of the petroleum liquid,
as stored, is greater than 570 ram Hg (11.1 psia),
the storage vessel shall be equipped with a vapor
recovery system or its equivalent.
215
-------
As in the area of air pollution, source performance standards have been
issued Cor steam electric generating plants. These guidelines, which
are applicable to existing as well as new sources of all sizes, are
summarized in Table 24.
Solid Waste
There are no federal emission or effluent standards per se for solid
waste disposal. Rather, a series of guidelines and recommended pro-
cedures have been developed which are applicable to federal installa-
tions. Under the Resource Recovery Act, states have the primary re-
sponsibility for the management of solid waste material. Table 25
highlights and compares federal and state guidelines.
PENDING STANDARDS
Air
Emission standards for 14 stationary sources presently under review by
EPA have been published in the Federal Register. Reference 3 contains
a discussion of the procedures and legal requirements involved in the
establishment of new source performance standards. Five of these sources
are related to energy systems and are listed along with affected facili-
ties and controlled pollutants in Table 26.
Water
Interim primary standards for drinking water soon to be promulgated in
4
the Federal Register have recently been issued by EPA. Pending review
and public comment, these standards which are to be enforced by the
states arc to become effective in June 1977. These interim standards
are listed in Table 27.
21S
-------
to
Table 24. WASTEWATER EFFLUENT GUIDELINES AND STANDARDS - STEAM ELECTRIC GENERATING
POINT SOURCE CATEGORY3
A! f re led
rrt-J«ft*f j f 4 > i
.
coDtrel c.chnolour ccaoMlcaHjr «coUv.el«.
-------
Table 25. SUMMARY OF FEDERAL GUIDELINES AND STATE REGULATIONS
FOR SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL PRACTICES
Federal guidelines
State regulations
Site selection:
Consistent with local environ-
mental standards and land-use
plan
Design plans should include:
Site hydrogeology evaluated for
protection of groundwater
resources
Characteristics of site soil
should be evaluated
Consideration of environmental
factors, climatological, and
socioeconomic factors
Determination of types and
quantity of waste to be disposed
Initial and final topographies
of area at 5 foot intervals
Surveys of the land use and
zoning within 1/4 mile of site
Location of all utilities
within 500 feet
A narrative description with
drawings describing development
and operation procedures
Ultimate use of land disposal
site
Proposed location of observa-
tion wells for testing
Provision for surface water
runoff
Proposed control of leachate
generation
Site should meet air quality
standards; e.g., fugitive dust
Decomposition gases should be
controlled
Site should be 100 to 300 feet from
nearest surface water and 1000 feet
from nearest potable water.
Generally 3 to 5 feet separation be-
tween high groundwater table and
departed solid waste.
Soil case samples should be taken and
analyzed
Similar to federal
Quarterly reports may be required
Similar to federal
Similar to federal
Similar to federal
Similar to federal
Generally the owner must maintain the
site for 1 year after its final use
Underground water samples may be re-
quired for checking of leachates
Surface should be properly graded with
a slope between 1 and 15 percent
If leachate could be a problem, treatment
is required
Similar to federal
Similar to federal
218
-------
Table 25 (continued). SUMMARY OF FEDERAL GUIDELINES AND STATE REGULATIONS
FOR SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL PRACTICES
Federal guidelines
State regulations
Vectors should be controlled
The aesthetics of the area
shall be maintained
Operating practices:
Daily cover should be applied
at least 6 inches
Intermediate cover when area
will not be used for an ex-
tended period of time (1 week
to 1 year) at least 1 foot
Final cover should be at least
2 feet
Fencing required
Seeding of area
Similar to federal
Similar to federal
Similar to federal
Table 26. SOURCES FOR WHICH STANDARDS HAVE BEEN PROPOSED
AND REVIEW INITIATED3
Source
Facility
Pollutant
Coal cleaning plants
Lignite-fired steam
generators
Sulfur recovery
plants in
petroleum
refineries
By-product coke ovens-
charging operation
Crushed stone plants
Air tables, thermal dryers
Boiler
Sulfur recovery plant
Truck, railcar, barge and
ship unloading and loading
operations, and conveyors,
cleaners and dryers
Crushers, screens, convey-
or transfer points, surge
and storage bins, and
drilling operations
Particulates
Nitrogen oxides
Total reduced
sulfur and sulfur
dioxide
Particulates
Particulates
219
-------
Table 27. NATIONAL INTERIM PRIMARY DRINKING WATER STANDARDS
A. Maximum Contaminant Levels
Contaminant
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium
Chromium
Lead
Mercury
Nitrate
Selenium
Silver
for Inorganic Chemicals
Level (mg/£)
0.05
1
0.010
0.05
0.05
0.002
10
0.01
0.05
Fluorides
When the annual average of the maximum daily air
temperatures for the location in which the community
water system is situated is the following, the corre-
sponding concentration of fluoride shall not be exceeded:
Temperature (in degrees F) (in degrees C) Level (mg/g,)
53
53
58
63
70
79
. 7 and below
.8 - 58.3
.4 - 63.8
.9 - 70.6
.7 - 79.2
.3 - 90.5
12
12
14
17
21
26
B. Maximum Contaminant Levels
.0
.1
.7
.7
.5
.3
for
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
Endrin
Lindane
Methoxychlor
Toxaphene
and below
- 14.
- 17.
- 21.
- 26.
- 32.
6
6
4
2
5
Organic
Level
0.
0.
0.
0.
2
2
2
1
1
1
.4
.2
.0
.8
.6
.4
Pesticides
(mg/4)
0002
004
1
005
Chlorophenoxys
2,4-D
2,4,5-TP Silvex
0.
0.
1
01
220
-------
THE FUTURE
Air
General expectations include timetables for compliance with AAQ standards
and identification of additional hazardous air pollutants. Specifically,
at least 18 additional sources are currently being surveyed for estab-
lishment of emission standards. Included in this category are particulate
and hydrocarbon emissions from coke ovens and sulfur and hydrocarbon
emissions from coal gasification plants.
Water
Future water effluent guidelines will evolve toward the goal of zero dis-
charge by 1985 as spelled out in the Federal Water Pollution Control Act.
REFERENCES
1. The Challenge of the Environment: A Primer on EPA's Statutory
Authority. December 1972. (Available from the Superintendent
of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. •
20402.)
2. Environment Reporter. The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc.,
Washington, D.C. 20037.
3. Cuffe, S. T. Development of Federal Standards of Performance.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Programs,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. (Paper presented at
the EPA Stationary Source Combustion Symposium. Atlanta.
September 1974.)
4. Environmental Reporter. Current Developments Section. Vol. 6(33):
1393, December 12, 1975.
5. Sedraan, C. B. Considerations for Federal Air Regulations for Coal
Gasification Plants. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina. (Taper presented at the 80th National
Meeting of the American Institute for Chemical Engineers. Boston.
September 1975.)
221
-------
APPENDIX E
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SECTION II. INTEGRATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES WITH
ENERGY SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
Potentially Hazardous Emissions from the Extraction and Processing of
Coal and Oil. Battelle, Columbus Laboratories. Prepared for U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development,
NERC-RTP, Industrial and Environmental Research Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina. Publication Number EPA-650/2-75-038.
April 1975.
Symposium Proceedings: Environmental Aspects of Fuel Conversion Tech-
nology. St. Louis, Missouri. May 1974. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Research and Development. Publication Number EPA-650/
2-74-118. October 1974.
Program Plan for Environmental Effects of Energy. Mitre Corporation.
Sponsored by National Science Foundation. Publication Number PB-235 115.
July 1974.
Energy Research Program of the U.S. Department of the Interior. Pre-
pared by Office of Research and Development. U.S. Government Printing
Office. Publication Number 0-537-710. March 1974.
Energy Alternatives and Their Related Environmental Impacts. Bureau
of Land Management, U.S. Department of the Interior. December 1973.
Environmental Considerations in Future Environmental Growth. Battelle
Columbus and Pacific Northwest Laboratories. Prepared for U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Contract Number 68-01-0470. 1973.
Energy Resources and the Environment. Mitre Corporation, McLean, Vir-
ginia'. Report Number PB 213031/8. October 1972.
An Evolutionary, Normaltive Methodology for Environmental Assessment.
Mitre Corporation. Report Number MTR-4172. October 1970.
223
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SECTION III. PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION AND WASTE STREAM ANALYSIS
Slaminski, J.M. Steam-Electric Unit Operating Parameters in Relntion to
the Emission of Particulate Matter, Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Dioxides.
AICHE Symposium Series. 70(137):510. 1974.
USEPA Effluent Guidelines Division, Office of Water and Hazardous Sub-
stances: Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and
New Source Performance Standards for the Steam Electric Power Generating
Point Source Category. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Research and Development. Publication Number EPA-440/l-74-029a Group 1.
October 1974.
Study of Potential Problems and Optimum Opportunities in Retrofitting
Industrial Processes to Low and Intermediate Energy Gas From Coal. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development.
Publication Number 650/2-74-052. May 1974.
Danielson, John A. Air Pollution Engineering Manual (Second Edition).
Los Angeles County, Air Pollution Control District, and U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Water Programs. Publica-
tion Number AP-40. May 1973.
SECTION IV. ESTIMATE POLLUTION FROM ASSOCIATED DEVELOPMENT
General Environmental Issues and Analyses
Reitze, Arnold W., Jr. Environmental Law. Second Edition. North
American International. Washington, D.C. 1972.
Reitze, Arnold W. Environmental Planning: Law of Land and Resources.
North American International. Washington, D.C. 1974.
Council on Environmental Quality.
Reports. 1970-1975.
Environmental Quality - Annual
Yarrington, Hugh J. The National Environmental Policy Act. Environ-
ment Reporter. Monograph Number 17, The Bureau of National Affairs,
Inc. 4(36), January 4, 1974.
Tho Costs of Sprawl. Environmental and Economic Costs of Alternative
Residential Development Patterns at the Urban Fringe. Vol. 1: Detailed
Cost Analysis. Vol. 2: Literature Review and Bibliography. Prepared
for the Council on Environmental Quality, The Office of Policy Development
224
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and Research, Department of Housing and Urban Development and the Office
of Planning and Management, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, by
Real Estate Research Corporation. April 1974.
Environmental Quality Guidelines
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Preparation of Environmental
Impact Statements: Final Regulations. Federal Register. Vol. 40,
Number 72. April 14, 1975. p. 16813-16827.
Leopold, Luna B. et al. A Procedure for Evaluating Environmental
Impact. U.S. Geological Survey. Circular 645. Government Printing
Office, Washington, B.C. 1971.
Land Resources and Environmental Impacts
Haskell, Elizabeth H. Land Use and the Environment: Public Policy
Issues. Environment Reporter. Monograph Number 20, The Bureau of
National Affairs, Inc. 5(28), November 8, 1974.
Water Resources and Environmental Impacts
Hittman Associates, Inc. Forecasting Municipal Water Requirements. •
Columbia, Maryland. National Technical Information Service. 1969.
p. 1901275.
Forges, Ralph. Factors Influencing per Capita Water Consumption.
Water and Sewage Works. Vol. 104. May 1957.
Linneauer, P.P., Jr., John C. Geyer, and Jerome B. Wolfe. A Study of
Residential Water Use. Study prepared for the Federal Housing Adminis-
tration. Washington, D.C. Government Printing Office. 1967.
Savers, William T. Water Quality Surveillance. The Federal-State
Network. Environmental Science and Technology. February 1971.
The Impact of Energy Development on Water Resources in Arid Lands:
Literature Review and Annotated Bibliography. Arizona University.
Prepared for Office of Water Research and Technology. January 1975.
Berlin, Harriet G. Federal Aids for Water Pollution Control. Environ-
ment Reporter. Monograph Number 1, Bureau of National Affairs, Inc.
1(1), May 1, 1970.
225
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Clark, Vicsr.mnn, and Hammer. Water Supply and Pollution Control.
International Textbook Company. Scranton, Pennsylvania. 1971.
Rahn, P.H. Movement of Dissolved Salts in Ground Water Systems.
Symposium on Pollutants in the Roadside Environment. University of
Connecticut and Connecticut State Highway Department. 29 February
1969. p. 36-45.
Pitt, R.E., and G. Amy. Toxic Materials Analysis of Street Surface Con-
taminants. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Raleigh, North Carolina.
Publication Number EPA-R2-73-283. August 1973.
Sartor, J.D. and G.B. Boyd. Water Pollution Aspects of Street Contaminants.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Raleigh, North Carolina. Publication
Number EPA-R2-72-081. November 1972.
Cost of Clean Water, Volume II. Cost Effectiveness and Clean Water.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, Raleigh,
North Carolina. March 1971.
Air Impacts
Ott, W., J. F. Clarke, and G. Ozolins. Calculating Future Carbon Monoxide
Emissions and Concentrations from Urban Traffic Data. U.S. Public Health
Service. Publication Number 999-AP-41. Cincinnati. 1967.
Guidelines for Air Quality Maintenance Planning and Analysis:
Volume 1: Designation of Air Quality Maintenance Areas
Volume 2: Plan Preparation
Volume 3: Control Strategies
Volume 4: Land Use and Transportation Consideration
Volume 5: Case Studies in Plan Development
Volume 6: Overview of Air Quality Maintenance Area Analysis
Volume 7: Projecting County Emissions
Volume 8: Computer-Assisted Area Source Emissions Gridding
Procedure
Volume 9: Evaluating Indirect Sources
Volume 10: Reviewing New Stationary Sources
Volume 11: Air Quality Monitoring and Data Analysis
Volume 12: Applying Atmospheric Simulation Models to Air Quality
Maintenance Areas
Volume 13: Allocating Projected Emissions to Sub-County Areas
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Waste Management.
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina. 1974-1975.
226
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Roberts, John J., Edward J. Ci'oke, and Samuel Booras. A Critical Review
of the Effect of Air Pollution Control Regulations on Land Use Planning.
J Air Pollut Control Assoc. 25(5), May 1975.
Neustadter, E.G., S.M. Sidik, and J.C. Burr, Jr. Statistical Summary
and Trend Evaluation of Air Quality Data for Cleveland, Ohio, in 1967
and 1971; Total Suspended Particulate, Nitrogen Dioxide, and Sulfur
Dioxide. NASA TN D-6935. September 1972.
Stolzenbach, K.D. and D.R.F. Harleman. Analytical and Experimental
Investigation of Surface Discharges of Heated Water. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Raleigh, North Carolina. Publication Number
16130 DJU02/71. February 1971.
Cermak, J.E. Air Motion in and Near Cities - Determination by Laboratory
Simulation. Colorado State University Fluid Mechanics Program Technical
Paper. Publication Number CEP 70-71JEG27. 1971.
Koh, R.C.Y., and L. Fan. Mathematical Models for the Prediction of
Temperature Distributions Resulting from the Discharge of Heated Water
into Large Bodies of Water. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Raleigh, North Carolina. Publication Number 16130 DWO•10/70.
October 1970.
Noise Impacts
Greenwald, Alan G. Law of Noise Pollution. Environment Reporter. •
Monograph Number 2, Bureau of National Affairs, Inc. 1(1), May 1,
1970.
Senku, Alexander et al. Urban Noise Survey Methodology. L.S. Good-
friend and Associates. Prepared for New York City (NYC) Department of
Air Resources, Bureau of Noise Abatement. N.Y.C., N.Y. and U.S. Depart-
ment of Housing and Urban Development, Washington, D.C. National Tech-
nical Information Service. November 1971. p. 211631.
Other Environmental Impacts
Weston, Roy, F., Inc. Macon County Solid Waste Management System Analysis,
Project Number 40.00 for State of Illinois, Chicago, Illinois. Institute
for Environmental Quality. April 1974.
Tassett, Ann. Solid Waste Programs and Research. Environmental Reporter.
Monograph Number ft, The Bureau of National Affairs, Inc. 1(1), December
11, 1970.
227
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SECTION V. ESTIMATING THE SPHERE OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE
Monitoring and Air Quality Trends Report. Monitoring and Data Analysis
Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Ap,cncy, Raleigh, North Carolina,
Publication Number KPA-450/1-74-007. October 1974.
Karubian, J.F. Polluted Groundwater: Estimating the Effects of Man's
Activities. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Las Vegas, Nevada.
Publication Number EPA-680/4-74-002. July 1974.
SECTION VI. ASSESSING THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF ENERGY SYSTEMS
Theis, T.L. The Potential Trace Metal Contamination of Water Resources
Through the Disposal of Fly Ash. Paper presented at 2nd National Con-
ference on Complete Water Reuse. Chicago, Illinois. May 1975.
Sather, N.F. and W.M. Swift. Potential Trace Element Emissions From
the Gasification of Illinois Coals. Argonne National Laboratory.
March 1975.
Axtmann, R.C. Environmental Impact of A Geothermal Power Plant.
Science. 187:4179. 1975.
The Impact of Energy Development on Water Resources in Arid Lands:
Literature Review and Annotated Bibliography. Arozona University.
Publication Number PB-240-008. January 1975.
Degradation Mechanisms: Controlling the Bioaccumulation of Hazardous
Materials. National Environmental Research Center, Office of Research
and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Cincinnati, Ohio.
Publication Number EPA-670/2-75-005. January 1975.
Report of the Interagency Working Group on Health and Environmental
Effects of Energy Use. Interagency Working Group on Health and Environ-
mental Effects of Energy Use. Council on Environmental Quality.
November 1974.
The Bioenvironmental Impact of Air Pollution From Fossil-Fuel Power
Plants. National Environmental Research Center, Office of Research
and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis, Oregon.
Publication Number EPA-660/3-74-011. August 1974.
Solid Waste Disposal. Radian Corporation. Prepared for U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Publication Number EPA-650/2-74-033.
May 1974.
228
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Development of Predictions of Future Pollution Problems. Prepared by
Implementation Research Division, Washington Environmental Research
Center. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Publication Number
EPA-GOO/2-74-002. March 1974.
Energy Production and Thermal Effects. Limnetics, Inc. Proceedings
of a Symposium held at the Oak Brook Hyatt House, Oak Brook, Illinois.
September 10-11, 1973.
Public Health and Welfare Criteria for Noise. U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, Office of Noise Abatement and Control. Publication
Number EPA-550/9-73-002. July 27, 1973.
Calvert, J.G. Interactions of Air Pollutants. Proceedings of the
Conference on Health Effects of Air Pollution, National Academy of
Sciences. October 3-5, 1973. Serial Number 93-15. p. 709.
The Environmental Flow of Cadmium and Other Trace Metals. Volume I.
Progress Report July 1, 1972, to June 30, 1973. Purdue University.
NISF (RANN) Grant GI-35106. Publication Number PB 829478.
Beryllium and Air Pollution: An Annotated Bibliography. U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Air Pollution Control Office. Publication
Number AP-83. February 1971.
Pollutant Impact on Horticulture and Man. Hort Sci. 5:244, 1970.
Kemp et al. Water Quality Criteria Data Book: Effects of Chemicals
on Aquatic Life, Vol. 3. Battelle Columbus Laboratories. U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Publication Number EPA 18050 GWV 05/71. May
1971. (Literature through 1968.)
Kemp, H.J., R.L. Little, V.L. Holoman, and R.L. Darby. Water Quality
Criteria Data Book: Effects of Chemicals on Aquatic Life, Vol. 5.
Battelle Columbus Laboratories. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Publication Number EPA 18050 HLA 09/73. September 1973. (Literature
1968-1972.)
229
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APPEND EX A. SOURCE AND AMBIENT TESTING AS PART OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL
ASSESSMENT PROGRAM
Air
Sulfur Compounds -
Natusch, D.F.S., J.R. Scwell, and R.L. Tanner. Determination of Hydro-
gen Sulfide in Air - An Assessment of Impregnated Paper Tape Methods.
Anal Chem. 46:410-415, March 1974.
Collaborative Study of Method for the Determination of Sulfur Dioxide
Emissions From Stationary Sources (Fossil-Fuel-Fired Steam Generators).
Southwest Research Institute. Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency. Publication Number EPA-650/4-74-024. December 1973.
Monitoring Instrumentation for the Measurement of Sulfur Dioxide in
Stationary Source Emissions. TRW Systems Group. 1973.
Forrest, J., and L. Newman. Ambient Air Monitoring for Sulfur Compounds,
J Air Pollut Control Assoc. 23:761-768, September 1973.
Nitrogen Compounds -
Bruening, M.L., and L.H. Wullstein. Controlled Atmosphere Technique
for Measurement of Molecular Nitrogen, Nitric Oxide, Nitrous Oxide,
and Oxygen by Gas Chromatography. Environ Sci Technol. 8:72-75,
January 1975.
Collaborative Test of the TGS-AMSA Method for Measurement of Nitrogen
Dioxide in Ambient Air. Midwest Research Institute. Prepared for
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Publication Number EPA-650/4-74-
046. September 1974.
Evaluation of Triethanolamine Procedure for Determination of Nitrogen
Dioxide in Ambient Air. Quality Assurance and Environmental Monitoring
Laboratory. Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Publi-
cation Number EPA-650/4-74-031. July 1974.
Collaborative Study of Method for the Determination of Nitrogen Oxide
Emissions from Stationary Sources (Fossil-Fuel-Firud Steam Generators).
Southwest Research Institute. Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency. Publication Number EPA-650/4-74-025. October 1973.
230
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Hydrocarbons -
Altshuller, A.P., W.A. Lonncman, and S.L.Kopczynski. NonMcthanc Hydro-
carbon Mr Quality Measurement. J Air Pollut Control Assoc. 23:597-599,
July 1973.
Giger, W., and M. Blumer. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons by Chroma-
tography, Visible, Ultraviolet, and Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem.
46:1663-1671, October 1974.
Feldstein, M. Regulations for the Control of Hydrocarbon Emissions From
Stationary Sources. J Air Pollut Control Assoc, 24:469-478, May 1974.
Mieure, J.P., and M.W. Dietrich. Determination of Trace Organics in Air
and Water. J Chromatographic Sci. Vol. 11, November 1973. p. 559-570.
Trace Elements -
Electron Spectroscopy Analysis of the Atomic Content of Samples of Occu-
pational Health Interest. National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health. Publication Number NIOSH-75-130. January 1975.
Sugimae, A. Emission Spectrographic Determination of Trace Elements in
Airborne Particulate Matter. Anal Chem. 46:1123-1125, July 1974.
Lee, R.E., Jr. and D.J. von Lehmden. Trace Metal Pollution in the Environ-
ment. j*Air Pollut Control Assoc. 23:853-857, October 1973.
Survey of Manual Methods of Measurements of Asbestos, Beryllium, Lead,
Cadmium, Selenium, and Mercury in Stationary Source emissions. Stanford
Research Institute. Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Environmental Monitoring Series, Office of Research and Development,
Washington, D.C. Publication Number EPA-650/4-74-015. September 1973.
Particulate Matter -
Administrative and Technical Aspects of Source Sampling for Particulates,
PEDCo Environmental Specialists, Inc. Prepared for U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. Publication Number EPA-450/3-74-047. August 1974.
Duvall, P.M. and R.C. Bourkc. Personal and High-Volume Air-Sanpling
Corruintion Particulates. Environ Sci Tcchnol. 8:765-767, August 1974.
231
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Collaborative Study of Method for the Determination of P.irticulnte
Matter Emissions; from Stationary Sources (Fossil-Kuel-1'irod Steam
Generators). Southwest Research Institute. Prepared for U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Publication Number EPA-650/4-74-021. June
1974.
Other -
Saltzman, B.E., and J.E. Cuddeback. Air Pollution. Anal Chera.
47:1R-15R, April 1975.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Ambient Air Monitoring Reference
and Equivalent Methods. Fed Regis. Vol. 40, Number 31, Part II,
February 18, 1975.
Guidelines for Development of a Quality Assurance Program. Volume III
Determinetion of Moisture in Stack Gases. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Institute, North Carolina. Publication Num-
ber EPA-650/4-005C. August 1974.
Monitoring and Air Quality Trends Report. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Air and Waste Management, Office of Air Quality Plan-
ning and Standards. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Publication
Number EPA-650/1-74-007. October 1974.
Designation of Unacceptable Analytical Methods of Measurement for Criteria
Pollutants. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards. Publication Number EPA-450/4-74-005. September
1974.
Neustadter, H.E., and S.M. Sidik. On Evaluating Compliance With Air
Pollution Levels Not To Be Exceeded More Than Once A Year. J Air Pollut
Control Assoc. 24:559-563, June 1974.
Chapman, R.L. Continuous Stack Monitoring. Environ Sci Technol.
8:520-525, June 1974.
Report on Analytical Methods Used in a Coke Oven Effluent Study, The
Five Oven Study. U.S. Department of IIEW Public Health Service. Center
for Disease Control. National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health. Division of Laboratories and Criteria Development. Cincinnati,
Ohio. May 1974.
Schulte, K.A., D.J. Larsen, R.W. Harming, and J.V. Crable. Report on
Analytical Methods Used in Coke Oven Effluent Study. National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio. May 1974.
232
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Smith, I'., D.E. Wagoner, and A.C. Nelson, Jr. Guidelines for Develop-
ment of a Quality Assurance Program: Vol. I: Determination of Stack
Gas Velocity and Volumetric Flow Kate (Type S-?itot Tube). U.S. En-
vironmental Protection Agency, Quality Assurance and Environmental
Monitoring Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Publi-
cation Number KPA-650/4-74-005b. February 1974.
Smith, F., D.E. Wagoner, and A.C. Nelson, Jr. Guidelines for Develop-
ment of a Quality Assurance Program: Vol. II: Gas Analysis for Carbon
Dioxide, Excess Air, and Dry Molecular Weight. U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, Quality Assurance and Environmental Monitoring Labora-
tory, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Publication Number
EPA-650/4-74-005b. February 1974.
Nader, J.S., F. Jaye, and W. Couner. Performance Specifications for
Stationary - Source Monitoring Systems for Gases and Visible Emissions.
U.S. National Environmental Research Center, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina. Publication Number EPA-650/2-74-013. January 1974.
Progress in Instrumentation and Techniques for Measurement of Air Pollu-
tants. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and
Development. Publication Number EPA-650/2-74-015. January 1974.
Schneider, T. Automatic Air Quality Monitoring Systems. New York,
American Elsevier Publishing Company, Inc. 1974.
Development and Testing of an Air Monitoring System. Research Triangle
Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Prepared for Office
of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C. Publication Number EPA-650/2-74-019. December 1973.
Survey of Various Approaches to the Chemical Analysis of Environmentally
Important Materials. U.S. National Bureau of Standirds. COM-74-10469,
July 1973.
Nader, J.S. Developments in Sampling and Analysis Instrumentation for
Stationary Sources. J Air Pollut Control Assoc. 23:587-591, July 1973.
Compendium of Analytical Methods - Volume I Matrix. Compendium of Analyt-
ical Methods - Volume II Method Summaries. Mitre Corporation. Publica-
tion Number EPA-R4-73-027a and EPA-R4-73-027b. 1973.
Guidelines: Air Quality Surveillance Networks. Office of Air Programs
Publication Number AP-98 by Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Air Programs. May 1971.
233
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Water
Organics -
Identification of Organic Compounds in Effluents from Industrial Sources.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Publication Number EPA-560/3-75-002.
April 1975.
Harris, I.E., W.E. Budde, and J.W. Eichelberger. Direct Analysis of Water
Sample for Organic Pollutants With Gas Chromatography. Mass Spectrom.
46:1912-1917, November 1974.
Brown, E., M.W. Skongstad, andM.J. Fishman. Methods for Collection and
Analysis of Water Samples for Dissolved Minerals and Gases. Book 5,
Chapter Al of Techniques of Water Resources Investigations of the
U.S. Geological Survey. Government Printing Office Stock No. 2401-1015.
1974.
Goerli, D.F., and E. Brown. Methods for Analysis of Organic Substances
in Water. Book 5, Chapter A3 of above. U.S. Geological Survey. 1972.
Slack, K.V., R.C. Averett, P.E. Greeson, and R.G. Lipscomb. Methods for
Collection and Analysis of Aquatic Biological and Microbiological Samples.
Book 5, Chapter A4 of above. U.S. Geological Survey. 1973.
Ma, T.S., and M. Gutterson. Organic Elemental Analysis. Anal Chem.
46:427R-451R, April 1974.
Kites, R.A. Analysis of Trace Organic Compounds in New England Rivers.
J Chromatographic Sci. 11:570-574, November 1973.
Current Practice in GC-MS Analysis of Organics in Water. Southeast
Environmental Research Laboratory, sponsored by National Environmental
Research Center, Office of Research and Monitoring. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Corvallis, Oregon. Publication Number EPA-R2-73.
August 1973.
Minear, R.A. et.al. Organics. J Water Pollut Control Fed. 45:982-986,
June 1973.
Inorganics -
Chen, K.Y., C.S. Young, T.K. Jan, arid N. Rohathi. Trace Metals In Waste-
water Effluents. J Water Pollut Control Fed. 46:2663-2675, December 1974.
234
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Coleman, R.I'. Comparison of Analytical Techniques for Inorganic
Pollutants. Anal Chem. 46:989A-996A, October 1974.
Mytelka, A.I., J.S. Cznchor, W.B. Guggino, and II. Golub. Heavy Metals
in Wastewater and Treatment Plant Effluents. J Water Pollut Control Fed.
45:1859-1864, September 1973.
Carlton, T.L., I.L. Smith, and J.V. Walters. Major Inorganics. J Water
Pollut Control Fed. 45:979-982, June 1973.
Boyer, J.F., and V.E. Gleason. Coal and Coal Mine Drainage. J Water
Pollut Control Fed. 45:1179-1184, June 1973.
Barnett, Paul R., and E.G. Mallory Jr. Determination of Minor Elements
in Water by Emission Spectroscopy. Book 5, Chapter A2 of Techniques
of Water Resources Investigations of the U.S. Geological Survey. 1971.
Other -
Fishman, M.J., and D.E. Erdmann. Water Analysis. Anal Chem.
47:334R-361R, April 1975.
Roesler, J.F., and R.H. Wise. Variables to be Measured in Wastewater
Treatment Plant Monitoring and Control. J Water Pollut Control Fed.
46:1769-1775, July 1974.
Brezonik, P.L. Continuous Monitoring, Automated Analysis, and Sampling
Procedures. J Water Pollut Control Fed. 46:1100-1109, June 1974.
Manual for Evaluating Public Drinking Water Supplies - A Manual of
Practice. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Water and
Hazardous Substances. 1974. (No number. Formerly known as PHS
Pub. No. 1820.)
Manual of Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes. National
Environmental Research Center, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268. Publication Number
EPA-625/6-74-003. 1974.
Biological Field and Laboratory Methods For Measuring the Quality of
Surface Waters and Effluents. National Environmental Research Center,
Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio. Publication Number EPA-670/4-73-001. July 1973.
Hcrbes, S.E., and H.E. Allen. Continuous Monitoring, Automated Analysis,
and Sampling Procedures. J Water Pollut Control Fed. 45:1018-1026, June
1973.
235
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Ghosh, M.M. Water Characteristics. J Water Pollut Control Fed.
45:986-995, June 1973.
Young, R.H. F. Effects on Groundwater. J Water Pollut Control Fed.
45:1296-1301, June 1973.
Fishman, M.J., and D.E. Erdman. Water Analysis. Anal Chem. 45:361R-403R,
April 1973.
Bender, D.F., M.L. Peterson, and H. Stierli (eds.). Physical, Chemical,
and Microbiological Methods of Solid Waste Testing. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio. Publication Number EPA-6700-73-01.
May 1973.
Handbook for Analytical Quality Control in Water and Wastewater Laborato-
ries, Analytical Quality Control Laboratory. National Environmental Re-
search Center, Cincinnati, Ohio. June 1972.
Miscellaneous
TRW, Procedures for Process Measurements Trace Inorganic Materials. Pre-
pared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of R&D, Triangle
Park, North Carolina. Contract No. 68-02-1393. July 1975.
Chian, S.K., and F.B. DeWalle. Compilation of Methodology Used for
Measuring Pollution Parameters of Sanitary Landfill Leachate. Department
of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois. For the: National En-
vironmental Research Center, Office of Research and Development, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio. 1974.
Research Facilities Necessary to Adequately Support Measurement of Low
Levels of Pollutants and Follow Their Trends. Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development, Environment Directorate. 1971.
APPENDIX B. DISPERSION MODELS
Comprehensive Analysis of Time Concentration Relationships and the
Validation of a Single-Source Dispersion Model. Final Report. GCA/
Technology Division, Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Contract No. 68-02-1376. March
1975.
Korshover, J. Synoptic Climatology of Stagnating Anticyclones East of the
Rocky Mountains in the United States for the Period 1936-1956. US HEW -
PUS SEC-TR-A60-7, 1960.
236
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Shirazi, M.A., and L.R. Davis. Workbook of Thermal Plume Prediction.
Vol. 2, Surface Discharge. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Publication Number EPA-R2-72-005b. May 1974.
Holzworth, G.C. Meteorological Episodes of Slowest Dilution in the
Contiguous United States. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Publication Number EPA-650/4-74-002. February 1974.
National Air Monitoring Program: Air Quality and Emissions Trends. Annual
Report Volume 1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Monitoring and Data
Analysis Division. Publication Number EPA-450/l-73-001a. August 1973.
Solid Waste Management Information Materials. U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency. Report Number SW-58 19. July 1973.
Montgomery, T.L., W.B. Norris, F.W. Thomas, and S.B. Carpenter. A Simpli-
fied Technique Used to Evaluate Atmospheric Dispersion of Emissions From
Large Power Plants. J Air Pollut Control Assoc. 23:388-394. May 1973.
Trent, D.S., and J.R. Welty. Numerical Thermal Plume Model for Vertical
Outfalls into Shallow Water. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Publication Number EPA-R2-73-162. March 1973.
APPENDIX C. DATA RETRIEVAL AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS APPLICABLE TO
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENTS
ORD Publications Summary. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office
of Research and Development, Washington, D.C. Publication Number
EPA-600/9-75-001a. March 1975.
Indexed Bibliography of Office of Research and Development Reports.
U S Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development,
Washington, D.C. Publication Number EPA-600/9-74-001. July 1974.
Enercy Research and Technology. Interim Bibliography of Reports with
Abstracts. Rann Document Center. Ref. NSF 74-22. June 1974.
Where to Find State Plans to Clean the Air. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D.C. April 1974.
The Energy Index: A Select Guide to Energy Information Since 1970.
Environmental Information Center. 1973.
A Supplemental Bibliography of Publications on Energy. U.S. Senate,
Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs. 1972.
237
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Al'PF.NDIX D. POLLUTANT LEGISLATION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
Air Quality Criteria Cor Nitrogen Oxides. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Air Pollution Control Office. Publication Number AP-84. 1971.
Air Quality Criteria for Hydrocarbons. National Air Pollution Control
Administration, Environmental Protection Agency. Publication Number AP-64.
1970.
HcCune, D.C. The Technical Significance of Air Quality Standards: Fluoride
Criteria for Vegetation Reflect the Diversity of Plant Kingdom. Environ
Sci Technol. 3:720-727, 1969.
Air Quality Criteria for Sulfur Oxides. National Air Pollution Control
Administration. Publication Number AP-50. 1969.
Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter. National Air Pollution
Control Administration. Publication Number AP-49. 1969.
Federal Energy Administration, Energy Supply and Environmental Coordina-
tion Act of 1974, Section 2. Coal Conversion Program FES 45-1, Filial
Environmental Statement, April 1975.
Interim Primary Drinking Water Standards. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Fed Regis. 40:(51);Part II. March 14, 1975.
Thermal Discharges. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Fed Regis.
39(196):Part II, October 8, 1974.
Environmental Impact Requirements in the States: NEPA's Offspring.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development.
Publication Number EPA-600/5-74-006. April 1974.
Government Responsibilities for the Application and Control of Technology
in Relation to Man's Environment. Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development, Environmental Directorate. 1971.
238
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