EPA-600/2-76-298
December 1976
Environmental Protection Technology Series
WATER POLLUTION CAUSED BY INACTIVE
ORE AND MINERAL MINES A National
Assessment
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into five series. These five broad
categories were established to facilitate further development and application of
environmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3- Ecological Research
4, Environmental Monitoring
5, Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
TECHNOLOGY series. This series describes research performed to develop and
demonstrate instrumentation, equipment, and methodology to repair or prevent
environmental degradation from point and non-point sources of pollution. This
work provides the new or improved technology required for the control and
treatment of pollution sources to meet environmental quality standards.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/2-76-298
December 1976
WATER POLLUTION CAUSED BY
INACTIVE ORE AND MINERAL MINES
A National Assessment
by
Harry W. Martin
Will 1am"R. Mills, Jr.
Toups Corporation
Santa Ana, California 92711
Contract 68-03-2212
Project Officer
Ronald D. Hill
Resource Extraction and Handling Division
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for
publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily
reflect the views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
11
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FOREWORD -
When energy and material resources are extracted, processed,
converted, and used, the related pollutional Impacts of our environ-
ment and even on our health often require that new and increasingly
more efficient pollution control methods be used. The Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory-Cincinnati (IERL-Ci) assists in
developing and demonstrating new and improved methodologies that
will meet these needs both efficiently and economically.
This report describes the first attempt to make a national
assessment of the water pollution problems associated with inactive
ore and mineral mines. In addition, a review was made of the mining
systems that caused these problems, the state-of-art of control
methods and research needs. As such, it serves as a basic reference
to planning and control agencies formulating state plans and
federal agencies mounting an attack on the inactive ore and mineral
mine pollution problem. For further information contact the Resource
Extraction and Handling Division.
David G. Stephan
Director
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati
iii
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ABSTRACT
The report identifies the scope and magnitude of water pollution from
inactive ore and mineral mines. Data collected from Federal, State, and
local agencies indicates water pollution from acids, heavy metals, and
sedimentation occurs at over 100 locations and affects over
1,200 kilometres of streams and rivers. The metal mining industry was
shown to be the principal source of this pollution.
Descriptions of the mineral industry are presented, including a summary
of economic geology, production methods, and historic mineral production.
The mechanisms of formation, transportation, and removal of pollutants
are detailed.
Annual pollutant loading rates for acid and metals from inactive mines
are given and a method provided to determine the extent of mine-related
sedimentation in western watersheds. State-by-state summaries of mine
related pollution are presented. An assessment of current water pollution
abatement procedures used for inactive mines is given and research and
development programs for necessary improvements are recommended.
This report was prepared by Toups Corporation, Santa Ana, California in
cooperation with Mountain States Research and Development Corporation.
It is submitted in fulfillment of Contract No. 68-03-2212 under the
sponsorship of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This report
covers the period of June, 1975 to August, 1976. Work was completed as
of August 15, 1976.
iv
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CONTENTS
FOREWORD 111
ABSTRACT 1v
FIGURES v111
TABLES 1x
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS x
SECTION 1. INTRODUCTION ... 1
PURPOSE 2
SCOPE 2
Conduct of Study < 3
Limitations of the Study 3
Abandoned Versus Inactive Mines ... 3
IDENTIFICATION OF MINE POLLUTION AREAS 4
SECTION 2. SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS 5
SECTION 3. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 7
SECTION 4. THE MINERAL INDUSTRY . . 8
SCOPE OF THE MINERAL INDUSTRY 8
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY ...;... -.'..- 8
Classification of Minerals, Rocks,
and Mineral Deposits. .... 8
PRODUCTION METHODS , 9
Mining 9
Mineral Processing 9
Processing Technology for Major Commodities . . 18
Waste Disposal ; 26
Historical Mineral and Waste Production 27
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CONTENTS (continued)
SECTION 5. POLLUTANTS ASSOCIATED WITH MINING 29
FORMATION OF POLLUTANTS 29
Acid Mine Drainage (AMD). .... 30
Heavy Metals 34
Sedimentation .' 37
ACID AND METALS IN RECEIVING WATERS 41
Natural Buffering Systems in Stream Systems 41
Sulfate as an Indication of AMD 43
Transportation and Removal of Pollutants
in Streams 44
TOXICITIES AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS 56
Aquatic Life 57
Municipal and Agricultural Uses 63
*.
SECTION 6." ASSESSMENT OF MINE RELATED WATER POLLUTION . . .... 69
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE. * 69
NATIONAL SUMMARY 69
Regions Exhibiting Major Impact 71
Methodology of Assessment . 73
Causal Factors Affecting Pollution 84
SECTION 7. ASSESSMENT.OF CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
FOR INACTIVE MINES 89
EXISTING TECHNOLOGY. . . ......... 89
Infiltration Control 89
Retention and Regulation of Mine Drainage . . . . 91
Treatment of AMD 92
Erosion Prevention 93
Sedimentation Basins 94
DIFFICULTIES IN IMPLEMENTING CONTROL PROGRAMS. ........... 94
SECTION 8. RECOMMENDED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT .... 96
SPECIFIC PROBLEMS NOT SUFFICIENTLY DOCUMENTED 96
Effects of Mine Drainage on Groundwater Quality ....... 96
Assessment of Mercury In Surface Waters from
Gold Milling 97
IMPROVEMENT OF POLLUTION MONITORING TECHNIQUES . ......... 97
Monitoring Manual 98
CHEMISTRY RELATED TO MINE DRAINAGE ... 98
vi
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CONTENTS (continued)
PREVENTION TECHNOLOGY 99
Air Control 99
Erosion Prevention 101
TREATMENT 102
Natural Mineral Formations as Traps for
Dissolved Ions 102
Botanical Treatment 103
Physical Chemical Treatment 103
EFFECTS OF MINING TECHNIQUES ON POLLUTION CONTROL . 105
SECTION 9. BIBLIOGRAPHY 106
SECTION 10. APPENDICIES 117
APPENDIX A METRIC CONVERSION 117
APPENDIX B ILLUSTRATION OF VARIOUS MINING TECHNIQUES 118
APPENDIX C HISTORICAL MINERAL PRODUCTION 128
APPENDIX D STATE ASSESSMENT OF PROBLEM AREAS
AND POLLUTANT LOADING. .......... 144
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FIGURES
1 Problem areas ..... 4
2 Typical particle size distribution of
ore concentration wastes 20
3 Pyrite oxidation model 32
4 Solubilities of oxides and hydroxide of various metals. . . . . 36
5 Stability of iron oxides and sulfides 38
6 Stability of iron and copper oxides and sulfides 39
7 Solubility of calcium sulfate . 44
8 Kerber Creek and vicinity 45
9 The pH in Kerber Creek. 47
10 Bicarbonate concentrations 1n Kerber Creek 47
11 Hardness concentrations in Kerber Creek 48
12 Total cadmium concentrations in Kerber Creek 48
13 Dissolved zinc concentrations in Kerber Creek 49
14 Percent of dissolved metals in Kerber Creek 49
15 Gradient of Kerber Creek 53
16 Effects on typical unit sediment load by tailings 83
17 Average annual runoff in ore and mineral mining areas 88
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TABLES
Summary of Recommended Research
and Development Programs . . .
2 Selected, Representative, Metallic
and Non-Metallic Minerals 10
3 Mineralogic and Lithologic Summary of Mineral Deposits .... 12
4 Classification of Mineral Deposits 16
5 Processing Methods and Reagents Used for
Common Metallic Ores 21
6 Classification of Nonmetallics 25
7 Summary of Historical Production of Major Metals
and Potential Waste Generated 28
/
8 Drainage of the Rawley Mine 46
9 Comparison of Drinking Water Standards and Effluent
Limitations - Selected Drinking Water Standards 64
10 Empirical Relationship Between Constituents
of Mine Drainage 75
11 Summary of Estimated Annual Loading for Metals and Acid. ... 76
12 Summary of Types of Pollution and Length of Stream Affected. . 85
13 Summary of Sources of Acid and Heavy Metal Pollution 86
14 Summary of Minerals Mined at Problem Areas 87
15 Properties of Kelly Underground Mine Water 92
ix
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The guidance of Ronald Hill, Director of Resource Extraction and Handling
Division, Environmental Protection Agency is gratefully acknowledged.
We are particularly indebted to the many Federal, State, and local
agencies contacted throughout this study for their assistance.
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SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
Regardless of the influence of man, mineral deposits are continuously
undergoing the natural weathering process of oxidation and erosion. The
materials released by weathering slowly find their way into streams,
lakes, or groundwaters. This weathering produces acids and metals which
result from the oxidation of metallic sulfide ores, principally pyrite.
The acid produced accelerates the weathering of many other metallic ores
which release heavy metals. This process is a continuing source of non-
point pollution to the environment.
Mining operations expose vast quantities of previously undisturbed
material in the search for valuable minerals. The exposure of these
materials in underground workings and tailings provides many potential
sources of pollution. Excavation of mine workings frequently intercept
groundwater which transports the minerals dissolved by weathering. The
groundwater must be either pumped or allowed to freely drain from the
workings.
During active mining operations the quantity and quality of flow from an
adit may be regulated and the discharge of pollutants controlled. Also
water may be diverted around tailings making them less susceptible to
erosion and accelerated weathering. When active operations cease, main-
tenance of control structures may also cease, increasing the possibility
of failure and ultimately increased pollution.
Tailings offer another potential source of pollution. Material that is
extracted from the ground is crushed and finely ground, greatly increasing
the exposed surface area susceptible to weathering. Once a mineral is
extracted from the gangue, the non-economic fine material is placed in a
tailings pile. Historically, mills were often located near rivers and
waste products were either discharged directly into the river or placed
in tailings piles. Often these piles were carelessly constructed causing
streams to flow through or around them. The exposure of the highly
mineralized gangue to water and oxygen causes accelerated weathering and
a manifold increase in the discharge in pollutants.
On a national basis, the potential for pollution from these mines is
tremendous considering the multitude of abandoned mines and the many
potential sources of pollution at each mine. Estimates of the number of
abandoned mines in the country vary by orders of magnitude. In an unpub-
lished draft report, the U.S. Bureau of Mines reported 19,000 abandoned
and inactive ore and mineral mines and a total of 90,000 mines of all
1
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types. This estimate appears quite low. For example, the Bureau reported
a total of 3,159 abandoned and inactive mines in California but the
California State Department of Geology estimates the number to be in
excess of 30,000. In North Carolina, the Bureau reported only 78 abandoned
and inactive metal mines, but the State Department of Natural and Economic
Resources estimates the number of abandoned gold mines alone to exceed
700. From these examples, it appears that the number of abandoned and
inactive ore and mineral mines is far in excess of the 19,000 reported
by the Bureau and may well be on the order of magnitude of ten times of
the reported numbers.
PURPOSE
-The discharge of mineralized acidic waters from inactive mines has
overloaded the assimilative capacities of many receiving waters creating
a distressed environment. To date, no comprehensive assessment has been
conducted to determine the extent of this type of pollution. In addition,
the extent of utilization of pollution control procedures at inactive
mines is not known.
The purposes of this study have been to:
0 Identify the nature and extent of water pollution caused by inactive
ore and mineral mines. Pollution problems associated with mining
of coal, natural gas, petroleum, and sand and gravel are not included.
0 Determine present water pollution abatement technology available
for inactive mines.
0 Determine use and effectiveness of pollution abatement technology.
0 Prepare research and development programs for development of tech-
nology, to adequately control water pollution caused by inactive
mines.
SCOPE
This study considered water pollution from inactive ore and mineral
mines throughout the United States. Water pollution problems caused by
pollutants discharged during active mining operations were excluded as
the discharge has ceased and often is not attributable to a specific
source. For example, high mercury concentrations have been measured in
stream sediments below old gold milling operations that used mercury for
amalgamation. This is a result of allowing mercury to escape during
active mining. Once the mill closed, the discharge ceased but the
pollution continued. These types of problems were not investigated in
the course of this study but may well be a suitable topic for further
study.
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CONDUCT OF STUDY
Due to the size of the study area and the vast number of abandoned
mines, the study was limited to collecting data on known pollution
problems. Project team personnel were not directed to perform any site
visits.
This study was conducted in the 12-month period between July 1975 and
July 1976. Since many Federal, State and Local Agencies are cognizant
of pollution problems from inactive mines, it was necessary to contact
several hundred offices of various agencies to perform the assessment
phase of this study. Each State Water Pollution Control Office was
contacted to determine their knowledge of inactive mine pollution and data
available. Where a significant problem in mine prelated pollution
occurred, members of the study team visited the agencies to review their
files. To augment this data, regional offices of the following Federal
Agencies were contacted:
U.S. Bureau of Land Mangement, U.S. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, U.S. Forest and Wildlife Service, U.S.
Forestry Service, U.S. Geological Survey, and U.S. National Park
Service.
Many of the directors of these agencies referred the requests for
information to their subordinant local offices, which frequently responded
with detailed data that complimented the data collected from the State
Agencies.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The study presents a summary of data collected from these various sources.
It is recognized that many of the states have concentrated their pollution
control efforts toward identifying point source pollution problems and
have not had the budget or manpower to perform a detailed analysis of
non-point source pollution problems such as those associated with abandoned
mines. This study is, therefore, limited in detail to the level of
analysis performed 1n each state. This study should be used as a broad-
based planning guide and should not be interpreted as an assessment with
a sufficient level of detail for use on a localized basis.
ABANDONED VERSUS INACTIVE MINES
Frequently the term abandoned is used to identify a mine not currently
being operated. However, the common and legal terminology may cause
confusion. Often mines are temporarily inactive due to adverse economic
conditions and may reopen if economic conditions change. Abandonment in
its legal sense is related to ownership. For a mine to be abandoned,
there must be a relinqulshment of rights with the intent never to return.
This is rarely the case in non-fuel mines. For the purposes of this
study, the term "inactive" will refer to mines not currently being
worked. Inactive portions of active operations will be excluded as
there is often no clear demarcation between the active and inactive site.
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IDENTIFICATION OF MINE POLLUTION AREAS
A majority of data collected during the course of the study identified
specific problem areas or reaches of streams and river polluted by mine
drainage. The agencies reporting the data often treated these problem
areas as a single unit and had not yet performed an analysis of sufficient
detail to identify each discrete polluted discharge affecting the stream.
When many mines were involved, their specific numbers was often unknown.
However, since a mineral mine may be a single adit driven a short distance
in search for ore or may be a large complex containing many audits,
haulageways and mined out slopes covering thousands of square feet, the
number of mines is not as important as the number of discharges.
Areas of water pollution caused by mining are referred to as problem
areas. A plot of these areas is shown on Figure 1. The areas are
identified by a two-letter state abbreviation followed by an identification
number.
Figure 1. Problem areas,
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SECTION 2
SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions have been made based on the findings of this
study:
1. More than 1j200 kilometres of streams and rivers at over 100 loca-
tions have been adversely affected by past mining activities.
2. In excess of 30,000 metric tons of>acid and 10,000 metric tons of
heavy metals are being discharged annually into the nation's
surface-waters. This does not account for discharges from mines
which are not causing water quality problems but which may be the
source of low level non-point source pollution.
3. The metal mining industry contributes the majority of this pollution.
The principal mining activities involved are: gold, copper, silver,
lead, zinc, and mercury in descending order of importance.
4. The metal mining industry has produced in excess of 30 billion
metric tons of tailings and waste material.
5. Acid mine drainage, heavy metals, and sedimentation are the principal
pollutants.
6. On a statewide basis, water pollution from inactive mines is usually
not assigned a high priority in relationship to the total pollution
problems in the state, however, on a localized basis it can be a
severe problem.
7. Approximately 70 percent of the polluted streams are affected by
acid and metals; 30 percent are affected by sediment.
8. Acid and metals may be released from tailings, adits, or pits. The
study results indicate that the source of pollution is from tailings
greater than 50 percent of the time, adits of underground mines
greater than 30 percent, and open pit/mines less than 10 percent.
9. No correlation could be determined between average annual runoff
and pollutant loading. However, the majority of pollution problems
occur in areas where the average annual runoff exceeds 2.5 centimetres.
10. The discharge of pollutants is a function of many factors such as
climate, mlneralogic and lithologic characteristics of the host ore
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body, volume of material disturbed during mining activities, and amount
of water flowing through mine workings or tailings.
11. The metallic pollutants associated with mine drainage precipitate
and settle to the bottom of streams and lakes. These metals may be
redissolved by chemical or biological mechanisms and re-enter the
aquatic ecosystem for many years after the discharge has ceased.
An example of this is the methylation of elemental mercury.
12. In most states, adequate data is not available on the inactive mine
problem, Including number of situations, actual number of mines and
polluting discharges, source of pollution, characteristics of
pollution and length of stream degraded.
13. No adequate model presently exists to predict annual pollutant
loading from Inactive metal mines or mining areas.
14. The erosion of tailings may have a severe impact on a watershed and ,
is dependent on many factors including local soil conditions,
climate and terrain, size of watershed, type of tailings, and area
of watershed covered by tailings. These many variables make it
impractical to predict sediment produced by inactive mines on a
national basis.
15. Groundwaters are a substantial component of the water resources of
the country. The impact of, mine drainage from inactive mines may
be severe but the effects are unknown due to the lack of groundwater
quality monitoring programs at Inactive mine sites.
16. Reclamation of tailings and water diversion are the only technologies
currently used for pollution abatement.
17. Thorough assessment of water pollution caused by inactive mines is
often Incomplete and has received a low priority status in many
areas. The states are reluctant to budget funds on problem identi-
fication because the implementation of pollution abatement programs
is often stagnated by factors such as: different ownership of
surface and mineral rights causing questions of responsibility,
inadequate abatement technology, possibility of reopening claims,
cost effectiveness, and lack of funding.
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SECTION 3
SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
The results of this study have indicated that research and development
programs are necessary to solve water pollution from inactive ore and
mineral mines. These programs are fully developed in Section 8 and are
outlined in Table 1.
TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS [a]
Program
Specific Problems not
Documented
Groundwater Pollution
Effects of Mercury from
Gold Mining
Improvement of Pollution
Monitoring Techniques
Monitoring Manual
Instrumentation'
Chemistry of Mine Drainage
Prevention Technology
Air Control
Air Seals
Provision of an Inert
atmosphere
Mine Flooding
Erosion Prevention
Treatment
Natural Formation as Traps
Botanical
Physical-Chemical
Precipitation
Foam Flotation
Reverse Osmosis
Mining Techniques
Mining Methods
Nine Shutdown Manual
Research
.
Development
Demonstration
O
0
O
,
0
[a] 0 Recommended program.
0 Recommended program' pending suitable results of prior program.
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SECTION H
THE MINERAL INDUSTRY
This section will give a brief introduction into mineral industry. An
overview of economic geology is presented to familiarize the reader with
the minerals and compounds that may be a source of pollution. Production
methods are then described with emphasis on the potential pollutants,
waste disposal and tailings placement. Finally, historical metal produc-
tion is summarized for all states.
SCOPE OF THE MINERAL INDUSTRY
The mineral industry includes the discovery and exploitation of useful
elements, minerals, and rocks which occur in the Earth's crust. Discovery
involves application of earth sciences disciplines such as economic
geology, geochemistry and geophysics; exploitation follows discovery
through the practical use of mining engineering, mining geology, metal-
lurgical engineering, and mineral economics.
The majority of water pollution in the mineral industry is the result of
the oxidation of base metal sulfide compounds. Pyrites (iron sulfides)
are present in practically all metallic mineral deposits, many non-
metallic deposits (as a secondary constituent of major rock formations),
and other diverse geologic environments. Other metallic sulfides (ore
minerals) are also sources of pollution, accented by toxicity of many
essential, varietal, and associated trace elements. Since the sulfide
metals are the predominent source of pollution, specific emphasis will
be placed in this section on the processing and production of the major
sulfide metals which are copper, lead, mercury, molybdenum, nickel,
silver, and zinc.
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
Economic geology is the one subdiscipline of geological science directly
concerned with the mineral industry. An understanding of the basics of
this discipline is desirable to comprehend the significance of the
industry and assess its impact on environment.
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS, ROCKS. AND MINERAL DEPOSITS
Mineral matter may be.considered as the building blocks of rock.
Minerals are composed of chemical substances bound together and
exhibiting crystal forms dictated by natural physical and chemical laws.
Pertinent details in the categories of the two major divisions of minerals,
8
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metallic and non-metallic, are outlined in Table 2. All rocks are
classified under three major categories or types, according to their
origin: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
Ores (or ore deposits) can be defined simply as natural assemblages and
mixtures of minerals and rocks that can be mined for profit. Thus, most
commercial deposits contain two essential items: the ore mineral (or
rock) of value; and the associated worthless minerals or rock materials
(gangue).
Rock material enveloping an ore deposit is known as the host or country
rock. The latter term is used primarily in underground mining. In
surface mining operations, the soil and/or rocks which overlie the ore
deposit are overburden. A summary of the minerals and rock materials,
the overburden, host rock, ore and gangue are shown for various mineral
deposits in Table 3.
An understanding of the varied forms of mineral deposit occurrence can
be helpful in assessing the location and type of water pollution to be
expected from inactive mineral industry operations. An outline classifi-
cation of mineral deposits is shown in Table 4. The table has been
arranged using the major headings of: "Syngenetic" (formed at the same
time as the enclosing rock); and "Epigenetic" (those formed in pre-
existing rock). Few of the nonmetallic minerals are included in this
classification.
PRODUCTION METHODS
Production practices of the mineral industry fall under the major headings
of mining and processing (beneficiation). Details of these complex
technologies are briefly discussed and illustrated herein, and waste
disposal techniques summarized.
MINING
All general mining practices are classified under the two categories of
surface and underground. A third category, marine technology in ocean
mining, is developing rapidly and is currently in the experimental
stage. It is therefore not included in this report.
Surface Mining
Surface mining techniques are applied to deposits at or near the surface
of the ground, including placer and open cut mining. Placers denote
transported deposits of heavy minerals which have accumulated through
natural processes of weathering, erosion, and gravity concentration.
Deposition is normally accomplished through the action of running water.
Placer mining operations range in size from a single prospector, panning
gold and sluicing, through the larger developments involving high-
pressure washing techniques (hydraulicing) and dredging.
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TABLE 2. SELECTED, REPRESENTATIVE, METALLIC AND NON-METALLIC MINERALS
METALLIC
CLASS
(Useful
Substance)
CARBONATES
Copper
Lead
Manganese
Zinc
HALIDES
Silver
NATIVE ELEMENTS
OXIDES
Aluminum
Chromium
Copper
Iron
Manganese
Titanium
Uranium
SILICATES
Nickel
Zinc
TELLURIDES
Gold
Silver
TUNSTATES
SULFIDES
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Molybdenum
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
MINERAL NAMES
Azurite
Cerussite
Rhodochrosite
Smithsonite
Cerargyri te
Copper (Cu)
Gold (Au)
Silver (Ag)
Gibbsite (Bauxite)
Chromite
Cuprite
Hematite
Magnetite
Pyrolusite
Rutile
Uraninlte
Garni erite
Hemimorphite
Calaverite
Sylvanite
Wolframite
Bornite
Chalcocite
Chalcopyrite
Galena
Cinnabar
Molybdenite
Pentlandite
Argentite
Sphalerite
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Formula(e)
2 CuC03.Cu(OH)2
PbC03
MnC03
ZnC03
AgCl
A1203.2H20
FeCr204
Cu20
FC2°3
Fe3°4
Mn02
Ti02
Complex
(Ni,Mg)S103.nH20
H2ZnSi05
AuTe2
(Au, Ag)Te2
(Fe, Mn) W04
Cu5Fe S4
Cu2S
CuFe S2
PbS
HgS
MoS2
(Fe, Ni)S
Ag2s
ZnS
Similar
Varieties
Malachite
Hydrozincite
Embolite
D la spore
Tenor Ite
Limonite
Psllomelane
Ilmenite
(Vanadates)
Scheelite
Covellite
Pyrlte
Trace
Minerals
Fe(Iron)
Zn(Zinc)
Fe(Iron)
Mn(Manganese)
Hg(Mercury)
Fe(Iron)
Mg(Magnesium)
Fe(Iron)
Mn(Manganese)
Ba( Barium)
Fe(Iron)
Ra;Th;Pb
Al(Aluminimum)
Ag(Silver)
Mo(Molybdenum)
Ag(SHver)
Fe(Iron)
Co(Cobalt
Pb(Lead)
Cd( Cadmium)
(Continued)
10
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TABLE 2. SELECTED, REPRESENTATIVE, METALLIC AND NON-METALLIC MINERALS (Continued)
METALLIC
CLASS
(Useful
Substance)
CARBONATES
Dolomite
Limestone
Magnesium
HAL IDES
Salt
Fluorine
HYDROXIDES
Boron
Magnesium
NATIVE ELEMENTS
PHOSPHATES
Lithium
Phosphorus
POTASH SALTS
Potassium
SILICATES'
Bentonite
Asbestos
Potash
Garnet
Kaolin
Refractories
Micas
Alumina
Rdfractories
Silicas
Lithium
Talc
SULFATES
Aluminum
Barium
Calcium
SULFIDES
Sulfur
MINERAL OR
ROCK NAMES
Dolomite
Calcite
Magnesite
Halite
Fluorlte
Borax
Brucite '
Carbon (C)
Sulfur (S)
Amblygonite
Phosphorite
Sylvite
Montmorillonite
Chrysotile
Orthoclase
(Complex Mineral
Group)
Kaolinite
Kyanite
(Complex Mineral
Group)
Nepheline
Olivine
Quartz
Spodumene
Steatite
Al unite
Barite
Gypsum
Pyrite
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Fortnula(e)
CaMg(C03)2
CaCO,
MgC03
Nad
CaF2
Na2B407.10H20
Mg(OH)2
LiAl(F.OH) P04
Ca3(P04)2.H20
KC1
(Complex) Caly
Mineral (Group)
Mg3Si205(OH)4
KAlSijOg
A12SI205(OH)4
A12S105
(Na.K) (Al, Si204
(Mf, Fe2Si04
Si02
LiAlSi2Og
Mg3Si205(OH)4
KA13(OH)6S04)2
BaS04
CaS04.2H20
FeS2
Similar
Varieties
Apatite
Halite
Microcline
Sepentine
Opal
Jarosite
Anhydrite
Pyrrhotite
Trace
Minerals
Fe (Iron)
Mn (Manganese)
Ca (Calcium)
Mg (Magnesium)
Ba (Barium)
Ca (Calcium)
Fe; Ca
Na (Solium)
(Radioactive)
Na (Solium)
Li (Lithium)
Ni (Nickel)
Na (Sodium)
Mg; Mn
Li (Lithium)
Cr (Chromium)
Na (Sodium)
Sodium
Sr (Strontium)
Mg; Na; Cl
Au (Gold)
11
-------
TABLE a MINERALOGIC AND LITHOLOGIC SUMMARY OF MINERAL DEPOSITS
Deposit
Aluminum
Antimony
Arsenic
Asbestos
Barium
Bentonlte
Bismuth
Borate
Cadmium
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
D1atom1te
Dolomite
Fluorspar
Garnet
Gold
Graphite
Gypsum
Iron
Rock Type(s)
Igneous (residual)
Igneous & Sedimentary
Igneous 4 Sedimentary
Metamorphlc
Sedimentary
Igneous
Igneous I Sedimentary
Sedimentary
Sedimentary
Igneous S Metamorphlc
Metamorphlc
Igneous & Sedimentary
Sedimentary
Sedimentary
Sedimentary
Metamorphlc
Igneous & Sedimentary
Metamorphl c
Sedimentary
Sedimentary, Igneous
& Metamorphlc
Overburden [a]
Clays, soil
Clays, soil
Shale, sandstone, clay
Clays, soil, alluvium
Soil, host rocks and
related types
Clays, soil
Host rocks and
related types
Common sediments
Silicates
Host rocks, soil
Host rocks, soil
Host rocks, soil
Host Rock
Syenite
Quartz veins
Quartz veins
Serpentl ne
Carbonates, shales
Montmor1llon1t1c clay
Monzonltes, carbonates
EvapoHtes (salts)
(with zinc minerals)
Perldotltes
Metamorphlc
Granitic rocks, sandstone
and limestone
Monomlnerallc
Caldte, dolomite
Silicates
Quartz, volcanlcs
Schist, gneiss
Shales, clays
Shales, limestone
sandstones, gneiss, gabbro
Ore
Bauxite
St1bn1te
Arsenic
Chrysotlle
BaHte
MontmoHllonlte (clay)
Bismuth
Borax
Greenocklte
Chromlte
Cobaltlte
Azurlte
Bornlte
Chalcodte
ChalcopyrUe
Co veil He
Enarglte
Malachite
Opal
Fluorlte
Complex silicates
Calaverlte ... *
Native Gold (Au)
Sylvanlte
Carbon
Gypsum
Hematite
SldeHte
Gangue
Aluminum, silicates
Quartz, sulfldes
quartz, sulfldes
Magneslan, silicates
Calclte, quartz, fluorl
Impure clay
(See lead, tin, deposit
Impure borates
OHvlne, corundum
Host rock and
minerals (limestone
dlorltes , monzonl tes,
sandstone, etc.)
Clays, sands, etc.
Host rock, barlte
Silicates
Silica, pyHte
Host rock, silicates
Anhydrite
Host rocks, sulfldes
ro
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 3. MINERALOGIC AND LITHOLOGIC SUMMARY OF MINERAL DEPOSITS (continued)
Deposit
Kaolin
Lead
Limestone
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Molybdenum
Nephellne
Syenite
Nickel
Ollvlne
Pegmatite
Rock Type(s)
Igneous (residual
and Sedimentary
Sedimentary, MetamorpMc
and Igneous
Sedimentary
Sedimentary
Igneous, Sedimentary
and Metamorphlc
MetamorpMc & Sedimentary
Igneous
Igneous
Igneous
Metamorphlc
Igneous & Metamorphlc
-ttnerallsl a
Overburden [a
Host rocks, soil
Soils, host rocks, and
related types
Host rocks, soil
Host rocks, soil
Impure host rock, soil
Impure host rock, soil
Mixed host rock, soil
id/ar Hnen Haterlalslsl of:
Host "Rock
Granite (resldlum) and
common clays
Carbonates, shales
quart z1tes, slates
Dolomite
Clays, limestone,
schist
Slate, quartz 1te.
1 Imestone
Granite, monzonlte
Monomlnerallc
Quartz, dlorlte, norlte
greenstones
Dunlte
Granite, schist
Ore
Kaol1n1te
Anglestte
Cerusslte
Galena
Limestone
Car nail He
Braunlte
Manganlte,
Psllomelane
Pyroluslte
Rhodochroslte
Cinnabar
Molybdenite
Wulfenlte
Nephellne Syenite
Pent land He
Garnlerlte
Forsterlte
Fayallte
Beryl
Feldspar
Lithium minerals
Micas
Quartz
Rare earths
Gangue
Silicates, Impure
clays, Iron rfxlde
Barlte, fluorlte
sul fides, oxides
Impure limestone,
Iran oxide
Impure host rock
minerals
Quartz, opal, pyrlte
Fluorlte, sul fides,
Iron oxides
B1ot1te, hornblende
' /
Pyrrhotlte, silicates,
oxides
Iron and magneslan
silicates
Host rock, Impurities
blotlte, hornblende,
Iron oxides
CO
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 3. HINERALOGIC AND UTHOLOG1C SUMMARY OF MINERAL DEPOSITS (continued)
Deposit
Phosphate
Platinum
Potash
Quartz
Rock Salt
Silver
Stone
(Dimension)
Strontium
Sulfur
Talc
Thorium
Tin
Titanium
Rock Type(s)
Igneous & Sedimentary
Igneous & Sedimentary
Sedimentary (evapoHtes)
Igneous & Sedimentary
Sedimentary
Igneous 1 Sedimentary
Igneous, Metamorphlc
and Sedimentary
Igneous 4 Sedimentary
Igneous & Sedimentary
Metamorphlc
Igneous & Sedimentary
Igneous & Sedimentary
Igneous t Sedimentary
Clays, sands, soil
Clays, soil
Host rocks and related
types
Impure host rock
KEEDESIHIBHHHIHiHV
Phosphorite, guano,
apatites
Pyroxenltes, dunltes
Shales, clays
Granitic rocks, alluvium
Common sediments
Quartz, quartz He,
volcanlcs
Granite, marble
conglomerate, sandstone
Marls, dolomite
Common sediments,
volcanlcs
Altered limestone,
serpentine, gneiss
schist, slate
Granite, sandstone
Granite alluvium
Syenite, alluvium
beach sands
Ore
Apatite
Colophonlte
Native platinum
Sylvlte
Quartz
Halite
Argentlte
Cera rgy rite
Native Silver
Proustlte
Granites
Marbles
Serpentine
Strontlanlte
Native Sulfur
Pyrlte
(Steatite)
(Soaps tone-fine
crystalline)
Thorlanlte
Cass1ter1te
Ilmenlte
Rutlle
Gangue
Limes, silica, Iron
oxides, uranium oxides,
clays
Ferro-magnesl an
silicates
Impure evapoHtes
Iron oxides, caldte,
clays
Impure salts.
anhydrite, gypsum
Quartz, barlte,
manganese oxides, and
base metal sul fides
Impure host rock
Sulfur, gypsum
Salts, anhydrite,
sul fides, etc.
Silicates
SI 11 ca, Impure host
Granite, quartz
Iron oxides, Impure
host rocks
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 3. MINERALOGIC AND LITHOLOGIC SUMMARY OF MINERAL DEPOSITS (continued)
cn
Deposl t
Tungsten
Uranium
Vanadium
Z1nc
Rock Type(s)
Igneous & Sedimentary
Igneous & Sedimentary
Sedimentary
Sedimentary, Igneous
M neral(s) ,
Overburden [a.
Barren host rock
Barren host rock
nd/or Rock Materlals(s) of:
Host Rock
Granite alluvium
resldlum
Granite, phosphate rock
shales, -sandstones
Shales, limestone
Phosphate rock
sandstones
Carbonates, granitic rocks,
quartzltes, slates
Ore
Scheel 1 te
Wolframite
Carnotlte
Uranlnlte (complex
oxide)
Patronlte (complex)
Carnotlte (vanadate)
Roscoellte (mica)
Sphalerite
Sm1thson1te
Hemlmorphlte
Gangue
Quartz, fluorlte,
micas
Impure host rocks
Quartz, carbonates
Mica, Impure host rock,
rare V minerals
PyHte, fluorlte,
Barlte, Impure
host rock
-------
TABLE 4. CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS
Process
SYNGENETIC
Igneous Concentration
Disseminated
Segregated
Injected
Sublimation
Sedimentation
Chemical
Contact Metamorphlc
Metamorphlc
EPIGENETIC
Cavity Filling
Fissure Veins
Shear Zones
Breccias
Solution Openings
Pore Spaces
Vesicular
Replacement
Massive
Disseminated
Concentration
Residual
Mechanical
Enrichment
Evaporation
Metamorphosed
Examples of Deposits
Commodity (1es)
Diamonds
Chromium
Magnetite
Sulphur
Iron (Hematite)
Manganese
Phosphate rock
Iron (Magnetite)
Copper
Gold
Graphite
Asbestos
Talc
Snilmanlte Group
Garnet
Mercury
Gold :
Zinc
Lead & Zinc
Copper (Red Beds)
Copper
r,
Copper
Porphyry Coppers
Iron
Manganese
Bauxite
Gold (Placer)
Tin (Placer)
Copper
Gypsum, Salts
Lead
Location
South Africa
South Africa
Sweden
Gulf Coast of U.S.
Appalachian Area
Tennessee
Florida
Cornwall, England
Morend, Arizona
Worldwide
Alabama
Maine
North Carolina
North Carolina
New York
California
New Zealand
East Tennessee
Wisconsin
New Mexico
Lake Superior Area
. Blsbee, Arizona
Western U.S.
Lake Superior Area
Gold Coast (Africa)
Arkansas
California
Dutch East Indies
Ray, Arizona
Western U.S.
Coeur d'Alene,
Idaho
16
-------
Open cut raining methods apply,to the surface or shallow deposits which
are "in place", i.e.,. have npt been transported. Typical open cut
mining operations include the following:
0 Open Pits-.developed by benches
0 Strip Mines - developed by long, usually shallow, cuts
0 Quarries - usually developed in massive rock formations with promi-
nent topographic expression (cliffs, etc.)
Underground Mi n.i ng ; . -
Underground mining techniques have evolved from simple tunnels driven
horizontally in rock to the complex development now represented by the
great mines of the world. Mining plans for a given deposit are drawn on
the basis of its geometry and position relative to the ground surface.
Important considerations are the choice of vertical or jnp]ined shafts,
and adits (tunnels) for access and haulageways. The techniques and
practices of underground mining are outlined below. -Illustrations of
various mining techniques are shown in Appendix B.
1. Open Stopes (excavations from which ore has been mined)
A. : Sub!eve! stoping - withdrawal of ore on a haulage level below
the ore.
B. Shrinkage stoping - broken ore is left temporarily as a working
, . platform in the stope, and the ore is mined upward.
C. Glory holes - a funnel shaped excavation, the bottom of which
is connected by an opening to a lower haulage level, and the
top of which is open .to the sky. ,;
2. Supported Stopes
_j
A. Natural pillars - columns of undisturbed ore are left to
support the roof (or back) of stopes.
B. Artificial support - (Timber posts, stulls, cribs, reinforced
concrete)
a, Cut-and fill stoping - after ore is removed, waste rock
. is brought in and mining continued - using the waste as
a base. , .,
' '- . " 1 .' ' ' " ; , f
b. Square-set stoping - used for unstable rock (heavy ground)
that requires immediate support. Square-sets are built
of heavy timbers.
3. Caving Methods -
A. Top Slicing - ore is removed in a series of horizontal slices,
beginning at the top.
17
-------
B. Sub! eye! caving - mining every other slice by driving crosscuts
(level access openings). The ore between the crosscuts, as
well as that above, Is then mined.
C. Block caving - undercutting Targe blocks of ore and removing
the broken rock through haulageways underneath.
4. Flat Seam
A. Room and pillar - roof supported by pillars of undisturbed
ore.
B. Checkerboard - variation of room and pillar method.
C. Longwall - mining is advanced Over a long front; mined out
areas at the rear are allowed to cave.
D. Augering - minfng by augering machine.
5. Solution Mining
A. Frascto Process - pumping hot water down through a concentric
arrangement of vertical openings to melt the desired material
whfch is then pumped to the surface in liquid form.
B. Leaching of metallic ores in-situ - leaching fragmented and
unfragmented ores in place by application of leaching solution,
and return of solution to a surface plant for recovery of
metal values.
C. Solution of soluble salts - similar in operation to the Frasch
Process.
D. Borehole mining - injection of leaching solution into an
^>rebody through a borehole and recovery of the solution through
peripheral boreholes..
MINERAL PROCESSING
The second major step in mineral industry production is processing.
Except for a few mineral and rock commodities, practically all ores
require some degree of metallurgical beneficiation in order to produce a
marketable product. Processing techniques are classified under the main
headings of sizing, sorting, concentrating and metallurgical processing.
Sizing
Depending on the end product, crude material is crushed and/or ground to
specifications dictated by either the market or further processing
requirements. Coarser size ranges result from sizing the crude materials
in either one or a series of'crushers which are designed to reduce the
18
-------
rock to sizes required for the next step. The grinding stage, if neces-
sary, is simply an extension of the crushing process. It is designed to
gain a further reduction in size.
Sorting
Additional beneficiation may be required to separate valuable materials
from those of no value. For convenience and clarity, all processes in
this category, from a simple manual separation (hand sorting) to the
sophisticated chemical and metallurgical techniques of flotation, are
grouped under the general heading of sorting. Washing is removing
unwanted materials such as clays, muds, and soils. Magnetic separation
is the utilization of inherent magnetic properties in either the ore
mineral or gangue for separation. Concentration has the greatest interest
for this study since it is this process that generates the solid waste
or tailings. It will be discussed in greater detail.
Concentration
Gravity concentration is a method of separating grains of minerals of
different densities. It is usually applied where the waste rock has a
low density (2.5 to 3.0) and the valuable mineral has a high density
(4.0 to 7.5). Gravity concentration was used from the late 1800's to
the 1920's when froth flotation replaced many of the gravity concentration
applications.
Froth flotation is a chemically induced method for beneficiating or
upgrading an ore, which utilizes a layer or column of froth as a separating
medium to segregate and remove the valuable minerals from the worthless
gangue components of a finely ground ore suspended in water.
No metallurgical process developed in the 20th century compares with
froth flotation in its effect on the mineral industry. Processes like
gravity concentration, amalgamation, and pyrometallurgical reduction are
of ancient origin; others like cyanidation and electrolytic reduction
were well established by 1900. Although metallurgical processes such as
heavy-media separation, ion-exchange, and solvent extraction are new,
their influence is small compared with froth flotation.
The purpose of grinding ore material is to expose the valuable minerals.
The finer the grind, the higher the probability of an ore particle being
released from the gangue material. However, grinding adds-to the cost
of production and in a gravity separation process very fine material
will not segregate properly. The particle sizes of the ground ore
material were changed during the transition period from gravity separation
to froth flotation. The variation in particle size is shown in Figure 2.
The flotation process required a much finer particle size in order to
float properly. The maximum particle size changed from 2.0 millimetres
for the gravity processes to 0^2 millimetres for froth flotation process.
19
-------
too
I 0.
PARTICAL SIZE (M.
01
M.)
Figure 2. Typical particle size distribution of
ore concentration waste.
Metallurgical Processing
The smelting operation is a pyrometallurgical process developed to
extract metals from ores or concentrates. The materials are liquified
by the application of intense heat; thus, the metals are transferred
from the ore to metallic (or sometimes matte) form. Other processes
are noted in Table 5.
PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY FOR MAJOR COMMODITIES
The major commodities produced by the mineral industry are grouped into
one of two major categories: metallic and non-metallic. Standard produc-
tion methods for processing the major commodities are discussed further.
Metal!ics
The major metals produced are subdivided into five groups: base, ferrous,
precious, rare, and radioactive. The broad category of base metals
includes any of the nonprecious varieties. In general base metals are
simply those produced from mineral deposits comprised primarily of
sulfides and oxides of copper, lead, and zinc. Iron is the principal
20
-------
TABLE S. PROCESSING METHODS AND REAGENTS USED FOR COMMON METAL 1C ORES
On
Process
Reagents
Maste Product!
Sulflde Copptr
Oxide Copper
Copper Carbonate
Ntttve Copper
Lead Zinc
B«e MeUU
Flotttlon recovery of sulftde mineral concentrates
Pyromtallurglcal smiting of conc«ntr«te$-1n which sulfur fi driven
off, leaving residue of impure MU1 (blister copper)
Electro-refining of blister copper to mUl product specification*
Sulfurlc add (H-SOj) leeching. Process Involves partial concentration
of Impure metals through heap, vat, agitation, or tn-i1tu leaching
procedures.
Final recovery of metal by scrap Iron concentration, electrowlnnlng (EH).
or a combination of solvent extraction (SX) and el ec trawl nnlng (SX-EW).
Annonla system leachlng-followed by either steam distillation or the
SX-EM process to produce copper or metal
Metal recovery through successive steps of pyroMtallurglcal smelting,
and electro-refining.
End product recovery by flotation and smelting
Direct and differential flotation; concentrates may contain recoverable
values 1n copper, gold, and silver.
Heavy media beneflclatlon, followed by: differential flotation separation
of lead minerals (others); then activation and flotation of zinc (possibly
s1!ver)--Hlth concentrates going to pyronetallurglcal smelting, electro-
winning, or zinc distillation.
Acid teaching of oxidized zinc ores, precipitation as ZnCOj
Ca(OH)2. sulfyhydryl collector, frother
Oj, fuel, reductant, 310j, CaO
H2S04, electricity, glue, CoS04
Scrap Iron or Ion exchanger,
kerostne, electricity
NH,
Na2S, sulfydryl collection frother, plus
pyrometallurglcal fluxes and electro-
refining reagents as above
sulfydryl collectors, frother, fluxes,
CaO. SI02
sulfhydryl collectors, frother, lead
promoter (such as thlocarbonalld). Ce(OH)2>
NaCN, Cu~S04. ZnS04, zinc promoter.
zinc collector
FerroslHcon, flotation reagents as
above, smelting or distillation re-
agents or electro winning reagents
. C0
Mill tailings and wastewater
Flue gas containing SOj and other
combustion products and slag
High salt solution bleed-off and H2S04
Mill tailings and salt solution
bleed-off
Salt solution bleed-off
Mill tailings and wastewater
Flue gas, smelter slag, and salt
solution bleed-off
Mill tailings, flue gas. smelter slag.
and wastewater
Mill tailings and wastewater,
containing cyanide and cyanide
degradation products
Mill tailings, flue gas, smelter slag,
and wastewater
Salt solution bleed-off
(Continued)
-------
TABLE S. PROCESSING METHODS AND REAGENTS USED FOR COUCH METAL 1C ORES (continued)
Oft
Process
Reagents
Haiti Product*
Iron
Gold-Silver
ro
Ferroui Metals
Dlrtct smelting of Iron or«», through tUlt furnace reduction of oxides.
tenefldatlon of low grade ores (taconlte) by flotation of slllc* to up-
grade, or flotation of hematite, followed by pelletlzlng and Indurating.
Precious Metals
Gravity separation (placer deposits) by pan; rocker: long ton;
slutting; or tabling.
taalgematlon (on free-milling ore)
Flotation
Cyanldttlon: fey vat leach, and line precipitation; by agitation leach,
counter-current decantatlon (CCD), and line precipitation; by flotation
concentration, leach, and line precipitation; -by a combination of vat leach
on sands and agitation leach on slimes, followed by CCD and zinc
precipitation; and by heap leach, carbon absorption, and electrolysis
on steel wool cathodes.
Smelting: Direct smiting of high-grade or Nun-type ore (htgh silica
content).
Carbon. CaCOj. fuel, CaF2
fatty acids, soap, anlne
water
Mercury
HjO, Ca(OH)2, frother (alcohol, pine oil
etc.); collectors (sulfhydryl, dlthlo-
phosphate, soap etc.) with usual doage at
0.01 to O.OS Ib/ton ore
NaCN, Zn, CaO, electricity
fuel, CaO, S102, 02
Flue.duit and gas, blast furnace
slag, and wastewatar
Tailings and wastewater
Mill tailings and wastewater
(containing suspended solids)
Mill tailings and wastewater
(containing mercury )
Mill tailings and wastewatar
Mill tailings and leach solution
containing traces of cyanide and
cyanide degradation products
Smelter slag. Iron, and 11me
(Continued)
-------
TABLE S. PROCESSING METHODS AND REAGENTS USED FOR COMMON METAL 1C ORES (continued)
Ore
Process
Reagents
Waste Products
Molybdenum
ro
Tungsten
Uranium
(CMtlnuri)
Rare Metals
Primary molybdenum
Sulflde flotation; can be followed by roasting to oxide or by
thermite reduction to ferromolybdenum.
By-product molybdenum from porphyry copper operations (sometimes Involves
roasting), flotation separation from copper minerals; can be roasted to
oxide.
Sulflde and non-metallic flotation of complex chalcopyrlte-molybdenlte-
powelllte ore, using straight sulfhydryl flotation benefldatlon for
separation of chalcopyrlte and molybdenite, bulk flotation of scheellte-
powelllte, pressure soda ash digestion of these minerals, and either
chemical or SX separation of tungsten and molybdenum Into pure chemical
salts.
Gravity separation of seheellte.
Flotation benefldatlon of seheellte (best 1n absence of powellUe,
fluorlte, or calclte).
Flotation benefldatlon of seheel 1 te-powel 11 te followed by pressure
soda ash digestion and either chemical or SX separation of tungsten-
molybdenum In solution and final precipitation of the pure salts.
Radioactive Metals
Acid leach with oxldant, liquid solid separates by CCD, solvent
extraction (SX), and alkali precipitation; sand-slime, res1n-1n-pump,
and alkali precipitation; and CCD, column ton exchange (IX), and
alkali precipitation.
P1ne oil, vapor oil, sytex. Ifme, sodium silicate,
nokes reagent (NaOH, P2S5)
Xanthates, dltMophosphate, dlthlocarbanate, fuel oil,
NaCN, yellow prusslate of soda, nokes reagents (NaOH,
P2S5) Na2S, NaHS. (NH4)2S, dextrine, NaOCl, HjOj,
antlfoams, Na2Zn(CN)4
Sulfhydryl flotation reagent, frother,
Na2C03, soap, quebracho, H2S04, NaHS,
CaClj, NaOH or SX-separat1on and
precipitation
soap, Na2C03. quebracho
Mn02, NaC103, Fe3(S04)Z3' H3P04
H2S04
rare), NaCl NaOH
Mill tailings and wastewater
(containing trace amounts of
flotation reagents)
Hastewater containing metal
cyanides and cyanide degradation
products
Mill tailings and wastewater and
chemical plant wastewater
containing numerous metallic Ions
and complex anlons
Mill tailings and wastewater
M111 tailings, wastewater
(containing Na2O>3)
Mill tailings and wastewater and
chemical plant wastewater
containing numerous metallic Ions
and complex anlons
M111 tailings (which are nearly
as radioactive as the mill
feed) and wastewater containing
radioactive daughter products, and
dissolved salts
-------
TABLE S. PROCESSING METHODS AND REAGENTS USED FOR COMMON METALIC ORES (continued)
Ort
ro
Uranium
(continued)'
Uranlum-Vanidlun
Procen
Alkali leach, carbonate-bicarbonate, with ox1d«nt, autoclave leach,
sand-slime teparatlon, CCD, res1n-1n-pu1p, and alkali precipitation;
autoclave leach, filtration for clear solution recovery, and alkali
precipitation.
Salt roast of carnotlte ore, water leach for vanadium, followed by
vanadlun red-cake precipitation, add leach for uranium and additional
vanadlim recover, IX recovery of uranium, alkali precipitation of yellow
cake; and carbonate-bicarbonate quench, chemical tpearatlon of uranium
and vanadium, precipitation of yellow cake.
Reagents
NaC103. NaHCOj, NagCOj. NaOH. 02
Nad, Na2C03, NaOH, fuel, C02
Haste Product!
Mill tailings (which are nearly
as radioactive as the mill feed)
and Naitewattr containing radio-
active daughter products, and
dissolved salts
Mill tailings (which are nearly
as radioactive as the mill feed)
and wastewater containing radio-
active daughter products, and
dissolved salts
-------
commodity of a separate group known as the ferrous metals. Gold and
silver are the common precious metals. Rare metals of importance include
molybdenum and tungsten. Naturally radioactive elements, a small group
with steadily increasing cultural and ecological impact, occur mainly in
uranium and vanadium ores. The various processing techniques used in
these industries are summarized in Table 5. Also shown are the reagents
used in processing and the expected waste products. Normally, all
liquid and solid wastes are disposed of in the tailings pond; however,
in past times, careless operators may have allowed the direct discharge
of the waste stream into receiving waters.
Nonmetal1i cs
Historically, the heterogeneity of nonmetals has precluded their classi-
fication into logical and systematic categories. Inexact chemical
compositions, diverse products and end-uses, widely variable chemical
and physical properties within complex mineral groups, and other over-
lapping characteristics contribute to the classification problem. By
convention, non-metal!ics are classified by the commercial-end use;
agriculture, construction, and industry. Chemical substances included
in each of these commercial categories of nonmetallic minerals are
outlined in Table 6.
TABLE 6. CLASSIFICATION OF NONMETALLICS
Commercial
Category
Use
Chemical
Substance
Agriculture
Construction
Industry
Plant Nutrients and Solvents
Dimension Stone, Lime,
Rock, Foundations, Cements,
Insulation
Abrasives, Acids, Brines, Clays,
Metallurgical, Multipurpose
Refractories
Elemental
Phosphates
Potash Salts
Sulfates
Carbonates
Silicates
Sulfates
Carbonates
Elemental
Hal ides
Hydroxides
Phosphates
Potash Salts
Silicates
Sulfates
Sulfides
25
-------
In many instances, production techniques for the nonmetallics are
similar to those used in producing metals. With a few exceptions, the
bulk of industrial minerals may be produced through less complex operations,
especially in processing. A few of the important commodities require
flotation, electro-magnetic separation, air classification, or other
sophisticated separation methods. Generally, the reagents used are less
reactive and the waste products more inert than those used in the produc-
tion of metals.
WASTE DISPOSAL
In the 19th and early 20th Centuries many mine and mill operations
discharged solid and liquid waste products with no regard for the environ-
mental effects of the wastes. Mills were frequently located alongside
waterways where waste products were often discharged. Tailings were
often placed carelessly which accelerated erosion and subsequent sedi-
mentation of tailings materials.
Solid Wastes
It is inevitable that waste materials will result from mineral industry
operations. Solid wastes developed include overburden from surface
mining, barren or low grade (non-economic) portions of all mineral or
ore deposits, and tailings remaining from mineral processing.
The heterogeneous nature of most overburden restricts its practical
usage for any purpose other than as crude fill material. With planning
and foresight, however, the mine operator will remove the topsoil separ-
ately from other portions of the overburden, thereby saving a valuable
asset needed for use in later reclamation.
Other solid wastes that accumulate during mining include: rock materials
generated through surface facility excavation; pre-production mine
development; weakly mineralized (uneconomic) portions of the deposit
which are broken and removed, as required, to gain access to minable
portions of the orebody. The coarse size and mixed nature of this type
of waste material limits its practical uses to land fill, railroad
ballast, and, in some instances, highway and gravel road construction.
However, favorable economics created by special situations have resulted
in several profitable ventures. A notable example is the limestone by-
product business of major zinc mining companies operating in Tennessee.
The high concentration of minerals in tailings is both an asset and
liability. Increased pollution could result but secondary recovery is
possible.
Frequently a metallurgist considers old tailings piles as a potential
ore body. Some tailings contain valuable by-products that were not
recognized or of economic value during active mining. For instance,
porphyry gangues frequently contain appreciable amounts of potassium and
phosphorous. The extraction of these elements may become desirable when
present deposits are depleted.
26
-------
Liquid Waste
Two liquid waste streams may be expected during an active operation: a
processing waste and water removed from the workings. The processing
waste may contain various concentrations of processing chemicals which
were shown in Table 5 while the water from the workings may be a mineral-
ized acidic discharge. Upon mine shutdown, the discharge of the processing
waste will cease but an acid mineralized discharge may be expected from
free draining workings. The erosion of tailing may result in the
deposition of solid mine waste in receiving waters. The details of
formation, transportation, and removal systems of mineralized discharges
are discussed in Section 5.
HISTORICAL MINERAL AND WASTE PRODUCTION
The mineral industry in the United States has produced in excess of 70
mineral resources. A national summary of the historical production of
metals and the associated waste is presented in Table 7. Production
figures for each state and a geographical distribution of commodities
mined are presented in Appendix C.
The historical production figures are based on data from the United
State's Bureau of Mines Mineral Yearbooks. Historical records are
incomplete which explains the varying base data. The tailings and waste
figures were developed from the production figures using the following
assumptions:
0 Tailings volumes were calculated by dividing the percent occurrence
into the production (except for gold, silver, and iron ore).
0 Since gold is often a by-product of copper mining, only 53 percent
was assumed to be primary production. Thus, the tailings volumes
were calculated as above, but reduced by a factor of 0.53.
o
Silver is often a by-product of copper, lead, and zinc mining, the
primary production was assumed to be 50 percent. The tailings
volumes were calculated as above, but reduced by a factor of
0.50.
Iron ore tailings were assumed to equal production because iron ore
is commonly shipped directly to the blast furnace. The volume of
waste was assumed to equal the production figure.
Waste figures (except iron) were calculated by assuming an average
stripping ratio of 2.5.
27
-------
TABLE 7. SUMMARY OF HISTORICAL PRODUCTION OF MAJOR METALS AND
POTENTIAL WASTE GENERATED [a]
Metal
Base Metals
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Zinc
Ferrous Metals
Iron Ore
Precious Metal
Gold
Silver
Rare Metals
Molybdenum
Tungsten
Uranium
Total
Production
(Metric tons
thousands)
57,800
30,900
120
35,300
5,420,000
s
10
153
1,294
140
253
Production
Base
Dates
1845
1873
1850
1873
1834
1792
1834
1914
1900
1957
Assumed
Occurence
in ore
(percent) [a]
1.0
2.0
0.5
4.0
50.0
0.00086
0.014
0.3
0.5
0.25
Tailings
(metric tons
millions)
5,780
1,550
24
883
5,400
616
546
430
28
101
15,358
Tailings
and Waste
(metric tons
millions)
14,450
3,875
60
2,208
5,400
1 ,540
1,365
1,075
70
253
30,296
[a] Historical production between production base data to present.
[b] The percentages are a synthesis of published data and the author's
experience in mining.
28
-------
SECTIONS
POLLUTANTS ASSOCIATED WITH MINING
The chemistry of acid mine drainage (AMD) and heavy metals Is extremely
complex and not fully understood. This section will define the mechanisms
involved in pollutant formation and transportation; their complex inter-
actions in an aqueous environment; and their removal systems. Infor-
mation is also presented on the relative toxicities and biological
effects of the pollutants to aquatic life and to municipal and agricultural
uses.
Pollutants in river and stream systems will be discussed in the greatest
detail because they have suffered the greatest impact from mining. Mine
drainage effects on lakes and groundwater systems will be discussed
separately. Acid mine drainage and heavy metal pollution are discussed
throughout, whereas only the formation and removal mechanisms of sediment
pollution are discussed. The impact of sediment is discussed in greater
detail in Section 6 under the heading of "Loading Functions".
FORMATION OF POLLUTANTS
Acid and base metal liberation is a natural weathering process and in
some instances acid drainages containing high metal concentrations are
found in an environment undisturbed by man's activities. Unfortunately,
in many cases, indiscriminate mining practices have greatly accelerated
this process and as a result have severely impacted water quality of
receiving waters. The following is a discussion of the major processes
involved in the formation of pollutants.
29
-------
ACID MINE DRAINAGE (AMD)
The results of this study indicate that AMD has contributed to water
quality degradation at approximately 60 percent of the sites where
inactive mines are a source of pollution. Acid mine drainage is the
result of the oxidation of many base metal sulfide compounds. The most
abundant of these compounds are iron sulfides of which pyrite (FeS2),
marcasite (FeS2) and pyrrhotite (Fe5S6 to FelgS17) are the most common.
Hereafter, for simplicity, the term "pyrite" will refer to all iron
sulfides. Investigators generally agree that the oxidation of pyrites
is the predominant source of AMD [Hill 1975a, Colorado Water Conservation
Board 1974].
This oxidation process would not manifest itself if the pyrite were
left in its naturally reducing environment. During mining operations,
pyrites may be exposed to air in underground workings or above ground in
open pits, over-burden piles, and tailing piles. Regardless of the
location, acid is formed if the pyrite comes in contact with oxygen and
water.
Pyrite Oxidation Model
Acid is formed as a result of a series of interrelated reactions which
are given below for the pyrite system:
FeS2(s) + £
Pyrite
)2 + H20
*- Fe"1^ + 2S01
i
Ferrous Ion
(2)
Ferrous ion Ferric ion
30
-------
Fe*3 + 3H20 * Fe(OH)3 + 3H+ (3a)
Ferric 1on Ferric Hydroxide
2Fe+3 + XH,0 - Fe90. . XH90 + 6H+ (3b)
£. t O £
Ferric 1on Hydrous Ferric Oxide
FeS2(s) + 14Fe+3 + 8H20-15Fe+2 + 2S04"2 + 16H+ (4)
Pyrlte + Ferric Iron Ferrous Iron
When pyrite is exposed to oxygen and water, the sulfide is initially
oxidized to sulfate releasing acid, sulfate, and ferrous iron (Reaction 1).
The ferrous iron, which is many times more soluble than ferric iron, is
ultimately oxidized to ferric iron (Reaction 2). At normal pH ranges
(6-8) ferric iron hydrolyzes forming acid and an insoluble, hydrated
ferric oxide (Reaction 3b) which occurs as a gelatinous floe (yellow
boy) and precipitates or adsorbs onto surfaces over which it flows.
Frequently, the precipitate is shown as ferric hydroxide (Reaction 3a).
An alternate pathway for the oxidation of pyrite is shown by Reaction 4.
Ferric iron, dissolved due to the depressed pH of the solution from the
initial formation of acid, oxidizes the sulfide to sulfate and is itself
reduced to the ferrous form. Regardless of the pathway taken, the net
result is the same. By summing Reactions 1 through 3, shown by Reaction 5,
the oxidation of one mole of pyrite produces four equivalents of acidity.
FeS2(s) + if 02 + |H20 Fe(OH)3(s) + 2H2S04 (5)
31
-------
Mechanisms and Rates of Oxidation
Stumn and Morgan have presented a model describing the oxidation of
pyrite shown by Figure 3 [Stumm 1970].
r*-Fe(ll)
FeS2(s) + 02 - a - »- SOU" + Fe(ll)
Fe(lll) =^ Fe(OH)3(s)
Figure 3. Pyrite oxidation model
[Stumm and Morgan 1970],
The initial step in the sequence is the oxidation of pyrite (a) or
pyrite may be dissolved and then oxidized (a1). In either case the
principal oxidant is molecular oxygen. The ferrous iron is then slowly
oxidized to ferric iron (b) which may then rapidly oxidize pyrite (c).
Once this sequence is initiated, oxygen is utilized only to oxidize
ferrous iron. This reaction is schematic and is not intended to specify
the exact mechanistic steps involved. The rate determining step in this
scheme is the oxidation of ferrous iron (Reaction b). Singer and Stumm
determined Reaction (b) to be much slower than (a). This conclusion is
supported by others who discovered that a biological system, catalyzed
by anaerobic microorganisms, produced only acid and ferrous iron [EPA 1970a].
The importance of molecular Og versus ferric iron as the principal
oxidant of pyrite is not fully known. Wentz reported that the rate of
02 oxidation increases with 02 concentration and with pH's higher than
3 [CWCB 1974]. On the other hand oxidation by ferric iron increases
32
-------
+3 +2
with the ratio of Fe /Fe and with the total dissolved iron concentration.
This ratio and the dissolved iron concentration both decrease with
increasing pH [CWC 1974].
Singer and Stumm, as reported by Wentz, indicated that the rate of
+3
oxidation of pyrite is the same in the presence of Fe regardless of
the presence of oxygen. It was also shown that this oxidation does not
+3
occur at detectable rates in the absence of Fe . A strong case is
presented for the theory that the principal oxidant of pyrite is dissolved
ferric iron. Although it appears that 0« plays a minor role, it should
not be forgotten that without the initial oxidation of sulfide and
ferrous iron by 02, no ferric iron could be formed [CWC 1974].
If the ferric iron oxidation of pyrite is to remain predominant over 02
oxidation, the rate of conversion of ferrous to ferric must be accelerated.
Stumm and Lee reported that dissolved divalent copper and manganese
increase the rate of ferrous iron oxidation [Stumm 1961], They also
determined that micro-organisms appear to play a significant role in
catalyzing the oxidation of ferrous iron. Ferrobacillus ferrooxidans,
F. sulfoxidans, and Thiobacillus thiooxidans are the micro-organisms in-
volved [EPA 1970a]. These aerobic acidophilic chemo-autrophic bacteria
are active at pH ranges of 2 to 4.5, obtain energy from the oxidation of
ferrous iron, and their carbon source is C02.
Law and others concluded that there is sound evidence that bacterial
catalysis of pyrite oxidation may only occur in significant amounts in
surface environments such as spoil and tailings piles [Third Symposium
Coal Mining Drainage 1970]. It was also concluded that bacterial catalysis
is less likely to occur in underground environments.
33
-------
In summary It can be concluded that:
a. The principal oxidant of pyrite is ferric iron.
b. The apparent rate limiting step is the oxidation of ferrous
iron by oxygen. This reaction is catalyzed by dissolved
copper and manganese, both of which are usually present in
metal mines.
c. Oxidation of ferrous iron is also catalyzed by microbial
action which is most significant at or near a surface environ-
ment at pK ranges between 2 and 4.5.
Frequently the overall reaction will not occur at a specific location
but will occur as the water flows through the pyrite and on downstream.
For example, the initial reaction will occur wherever the pyrite exists
in the tailings pile or in the mine workings. After Reaction 1, the
ferrous iron is in a soluble form in the low pH water and is free to
move with the water. Therefore, Reaction 2 is free to occur away from
the actual site of the sulfide oxidation. Reaction 3 does not occur
sufficiently until the low pH of its transport water is neutralized.
This buffering may occur as a result of stream alkalinity or the acid
water flowing over natural calcareous formations.
HEAVY METALS
In approximately 50 percent of the cases of pollution reported in this
study, metallic ions were reported in sufficiently high concentrations
to be harmful to aquatic life, either independently or synergistically.
The most commonly noted metals are copper, iron, manganese, and zinc.
However, local mineralogic and lithologic conditions may result in the
solution of other metals.
34
-------
The weathering process of other base metal sulfides is similar to the
process described for pyrite but may not produce acid.
Mining activities accelerate the weathering process by removing material
from a naturally reducing environment, increasing its surface area by
fracturing, and exposing it to elements needed for oxidation (i.e.,
water and oxygen). In addition, tailings often have a high concentration
of other minerals which were not recovered in the mining operation.
During active mining the operator will extract only those minerals from
the gangue which are economically feasible. Historically many ores
such as pyrite, copper, lead, and zinc were overlooked in the search for
gold.
The Penn Mine slag dump (CA-6) is an example of high metals concentrations
in the tailings. The area was mined for copper from the 1860's to 1919
when the smelter was closed. Wiebelt and Ricker have analyzed the
tailings and found the average copper and zinc content to be 0.37 and
6.47 percent respectively [U.S. Bureau of Mines 1948]. Zinc concentra-
tions of present mining operations may be expected to range between 2 and
10 percent. Thus if the mine were being worked in today's economic
market, the zinc would undoubtedly be recovered.
The disolution of heavy metals is greatly accelerated when the pH of the
solution passing over the mineral is lowered. The relationship between
pH and solubility of several metals, in distilled water, is shown in
Figure 4. The linearity of many of the solubilities may only be
expected in the pH ranges shown and should not be extrapolated further.
The solubilities increase by orders of magnitude for each unit the pH is
lowered assuming theoretical complete ionization.
35
-------
Figure 4. Solubilities of oxides and hydroxides of
various metals [Stumm and Morgan 1970].
Solubility, or more realistically stability, is also a function of
temperature, concentration of other dissolved ions, and the oxidation-
reduction (redox) potential of the solution. Redox potential is commonly
measured in volts or millivolts and is represented by Eh. The relationship
of the redox potential and acidity-alkalinity conditions to the
stability of sulfide minerals in natural aqueous environments has
been discussed by Garrels [ERDA 1975]. A graphic method of presenting
this data is the Eh-pH diagram. Unfortunately, there is no accepted
sign convention. The European convention represents oxidizing reactions
with a positive sign and reduction by a negative. Most American physical
36
-------
chemists use the opposite convention. Garrels uses the European convention
(oxidation +) and for clarity this convention will be used for the
remainder of this report.
Figure 5 is an Eh-pH diagram representing the stability relationships
of iron oxides and sulfides in water. This concept is expanded further
in Figure 6 which represents the stability of copper;and iron sulfides
and oxides. The figures demonstrate the complexity of the concept of
stability of the various mineral forms.
As an example, Ross observed a pH of 1.4 in a drainage pond from a mine
in the Rocky Mountains. The typical redox potential of these waters
was found to be approximately 450 mv [EPA 1973m]. It can be seen from
Figure 6 that at these values both copper and iron will exist in the
divalent state. Waters such as this generally are capable of rapidly
solubill zing much more metals than waters at a neutral pH (6-8) with a
low redox potential.
The potential for metal liberation is probably the greatest where acid
is formed in the absence of calcareous formations, which tend to buffer
the water. This theory is supported by the work of Caruccio, who found
that the degree of acidity is a function of the calcium carbonate content
of the natural rock strata, the pH of the natural waters prior to mining,
and the physical state (i.e. crystallographic structure) of the pyrite
[EPA 1973m].
SEDIMENTATION
The production and distribution of sediments into receiving waters is a
natural continuing process of landform development. This process has
been accelerated by many of man's activities, such as erosion of tilled
37
-------
t 1.0
40.8-
14
Figure 5. Stability of Iron oxides and sulfldes
[Garrels and Christ 1965].
38
-------
* 1.4
Figure 6. Stability of iron and copper oxides
and sulfides [Garrels and Christ 1965].
39
-------
lands, mining and new construction of homes, factories, highways, and
utilities. The sources of sediment from mining activities are erosion
of mine wastes, tailings piles or dams, and access roads.
The potential for erosion from these sources varies with many physical
characteristics such as: weather, method of construction, slope, nature
of the material, and particle size distribution. Particle size of mine
wastes ranges from large boulders to fine slimes. No generalization can
be made on the typical particle size to be expected in an overburden
pile. However, particle sizes in tailings will exhibit similar charac-
teristics for a particular processing technique. As shown by Figure 2,
the average particle for tailings from gravity separation size may be
expected to be approximately 0.2 millimetres and 0.04 millimetres for
froth flotation tailings.
The method construction of tailings piles has varied greatly over the
years. It was not uncommon prior to controlling legislation, for the
processing slurry to be discharged directly into the stream where it
washed downstream or formed a blockage causing stream diversion. Many
instances were noted in this study where streams were diverted around or
flowed through carelessly placed tailings. Today tailings are placed by
more controlled methods, examples of which are shown in Appendix B.
Transportation Mechanics
The mechanics of erosion and sedimentation are no different for mine
waste than natural sources. There are six basic sources of erosion
within a watershed. They are: 1) sheet and rill erosion; 2) degradation
of minor drainageways; 3) gully erosion; 4) floodplain scour; 5) streambed
degradation; and 6) stream bank scour [Task Committee 1970]. All of
these methods of erosion may apply to tailings with possibly the exception
of floodplain scour and streambed degradation.
40
-------
Sediment is transported in streams by wash load and bed load. The wash
load is composed of fine particles entrained in runoff which are relatively
insensitive to flow parameters. The bed load is composed of coarse
particles dependent on the energy of a stream. Erosion of tailings may
thus be expected to have a greater potential long range impact on the
character of the wash load and a short range impact on the bed load.
ACID AND METALS IN RECEIVING WATERS
The impact of mine drainage on a stream system may be severe. Often the
equilibrium or natural buffering capabilities of the stream are upset to
such a degree that aquatic life is depressed or destroyed for many
kilometres. This buffering system is vitally important in streams
receiving acid discharges. The following discussion will review the
buffering system and transporation mechanisms for river and stream
systems. Known instances of degraded water quality in lakes and ground-
water systems are discussed separately.
NATURAL BUFFERING SYSTEMS IN STREAM SYSTEMS
Alkalinity is described as the ability of water to neutralize acid.
Bicarbonate and carbonate are the principal sources of alkalinity in
most surface waters. It is generally thought that alkalinity is released
into surface water by the dissolution of minerals such as limestone and
feldspar [Stumm 1970].
Carbon dioxide, which is abundant in the atmosphere, readily dissolves
in water forming carbonic acid in accordance with Reaction 6:
C02 + H20 H+ + HCO~ (6)
41
-------
The solution process will continue until the following equilibrium is
reached.
[HCOI]
=K (7)
[C0]
The result of this process is the formation of waters with a slightly
acidic and agressive nature. If this water flows over a calcareous
formation, such as limestone, the following reaction occurs:
CaC03 + H + HCOg - ^-Ca""* 2\\CQ^ (8)
The degree of carbonation occurring coupled with the potential for
reaction with calcareous materials thus develops the basic buffer system
in most natural waters. When acidic mine drainage combines with these
waters the following reaction occurs:
H* + S04= + Ca"1"1" + HCO~ - Ca"1"1" + SOj + H20 + C02 (9)
Thus, the natural buffering system is destroyed if the added acidity is
greater than the capacity of the buffer system; after this occurs the pH
will drop to a low steady state value.
As the stream continues downstream the resulting low pH waters will meet
with other inflowing buffered waters resulting in the gradual restoration
of neutral conditions in the stream. Thus the length of the stream
exhibiting low pH conditions will be a function of: 1) the AMD reaching
the stream; 2) the buffering capacity of upstream waters; 3) the buffering
capacity of downstream waters joining the stream. Pyrite containing
ores are usually found in acid igneous deposits. Since the calcareous
minerals are rare in these deposits, the impacted length of stream may
be quite long.
42
-------
SULFATE AS AN INDICATION OF AMD
The non-conservative nature of the reactions occurring in the AMD cycle
makes prediction of the scope of the problem difficult. An estimate of
the quantity of acid produced may be made by analyzing the increase in
sulfate concentrations above background.
It can be seen by reviewing Reaction 5 that the sulfate content of
waters will be generally related to acidity potential. The relationship
is non-linear because the acidity generated is a function of the oxida-
tion state of the iron, hence the term acidity potential.
The significance of sulfate measurement is more obvious when it is
realized that, at a particular point in a system, iron may exist in the
ferrous or ferric state. As the ferrous iron is gradually oxidized,
more acid will be released into the system. The sulfate concentration
will therefore remain constant unless the stream is diluted. When
dilution occurs, as is the case in many of the affected stream systems,
a careful mass balance approach in analyzing sulfate, iron, and acid
concentrations can give an indication of the magnitude of AMD pollution.
A pitfall in the sulfate tracer system may arise in the presence of
large amounts of limestone, or in areas of naturally occurring sulfate
as is the case in many waters in highly mineralized areas. Sulfate may
precipitate from solution, in the presence of high calcium concentrations,
as calcium sulfate (CaSCL). Calcium sulfate has a solubility product of
_c ^
2.5x10 . As an example, Figure 7 is a plot of the solubility of CaS04
in distilled water. These concentrations will vary with temperature and
concentration of other ionic species.
43
-------
100,000
10.000
5
. 1,000
o
O 100
0
100 IPOO IQjOOO 100,000
CONC. Mg/l SO4
Figure 7. Solubility of calcium sulfate.
TRANSPORATION AND REMOVAL OF POLLUTANTS IN STREAMS
The composition of mine drainage is complex and may be expected to vary
for each mine or mining area. These variabilities make a mine drainage
system difficult to model in generalized terms. It was decided to use
a specific polluted stream system as an example of what can be expected
to result from acidic discharge with high metal concentrations.
The Kerber Creek area of Colorado (CO-8) was selected as both a represen-
tative site and one which has been analyzed at significant level of
detail. The area contains an adit drainage and the stream flows through
tailing piles which also contribute pollution. The area has been the
44
-------
subject of extensive analysis by Wentz [EPA 1973g, USGS 1974a]. It is
located in the south central portion of the state near the town of
Bonanza at the northeast edge of the San Juan volcanic field.
The location of the mine and tailings deposits are shown on Figure 8.
Water quality in Kerber Creek has been degraded by acid and metals to
the confluence with the San Juan River, a distance of approximately 36
kilometres. Wentz observed that the upper tailings were the largest
contributor of metals to the creek, probably due to less efficient
mining operations [USGS 1974a]. Metals concentrations from the adit
generally decline as the winter progresses and begin to increase in May
during the onset of snowmelt. Low-flow pH values are the highest in the
winter and show a sharp drop with the onset of snowmelt in May and rise
again in June. This is probably due to an initial flushing action in
May and dilution with heavy flows in June.
38°20'-
38 ° 15'-
UPPER TAILINGS
MINE ADIT
BONANZA
LOWER TAILINGS
VILLA GROVE
-RIVER KILOMETRES
KILOMETRES
I06°IO'
106° 05*
I06°00'
I05°55'
Figure 8. Kerber Creek and vicinity.
45
-------
Initial Effect on Stream Quality
The quality of water discharged Into the stream may be seen by reviewing
the adit discharges. The creek flows through the tailings making discharge
there diffuse and Impractical to measure. The range of concentrations
of metals from the adit discharges, measured between October 1972 and
June 1973, are shown in Table 8. These concentrations are not the worst
observed in this study; but the area was selected as an example because
of the availability of data.
TABLE 8. DRAINAGE OF THE RAWLEY MINE [USGS 1965]
Constituent
PH
Alkalinity
Cadmium
Copper
Iron
Lead
Manganese
Zinc
Concentration [a]
Low
3.4
0
0-10
0-50
7.40
<0.1
42.00
48.00
High
3.6
0
0-26
4.00
12.00
0.1
29.00
29.00
[a] Measured in mg/1 except pH, high
and low values shown depict extremes
in constituent concentrations
observed.
Figures 9 through 14 are plots of various constituents of mine drainage
in Kerber and Squirrel Creeks plotted from the confluence with the San
Juan River (0 kilometres) to the stream above the mine drainage. The
mine drainage has essentially all been discharged into the creek by
46
-------
10
9
e
7-
6
5-
4
3-
2-
I-
0
FEB. 73
MAY 73
JUNE 73 -
40 35 30 25 20 15 10
KILOMETRES
Figure 9. The pH in Kerber Creek.
200
180-
C 160-
CT 140-
E
~ I20H
UJ
o
CD
OC
<
O
m
OCT. 72
DEC. 72
FEB. 73
MAY 73
JUNE 73
QO- INDICATES DATA AT STATION-
NOT ABLE TO INTERPOLATE BETWEEN
STATIONS DUE TO LACK OF DATA.
" O
KILOMETRES
Figure 10. Bicarbonate concentrations in Kerber Creek.
47
-------
o;
o
O;
v>
<*
-------
o
z
N
Q
UJ
50
40-
301
20-
OCT. 72
DEC. 72
FEB. 73
MAY 73
JUNE 73
Q- INDICATES DATA AT STATION -
NOT ABLE TO INTERPOLATE BETWEEN
STATIONS DUE TO LACK OF DATA.
O 10-
0-l-T
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
KILOMETRES
Figure 13. Dissolved zinc concentrations in Kerber Creek.
z
o
LU
O
CO
Q
O
UJ
100
90-
80-
70-
60
50 ^
40
"301
20
10
0
CADMIUM
COPPER
IRON
: LEAD
MANGANESE
NICKEL
ZINC
pH
IZZTK;
rzrz \
\
"r~rr. \
\
40 35 3O 25 20 15
KILOMETRES
10
Figure 14. Percent of dissolved metals in Kerber Creek.
-------
river-kilometre 35. At this point, as shown in Figures 9 and 10, the pH
is greatly depressed and the alkalinity is eliminated. In addition,
the concentration of metals are at the highest levels.
Little data is available on whether iron, in the mine drainage, is in
the ferrous (F ) or ferric (Fe+3) state. Iron in the ferrous form may
exert a COD on the stream as it is oxidized to the ferric state and
depresses the DO.
Neutralization of Acid
The potential effects of AMD on a stream system are directly related to
the amount of acid generated and the natural buffering capacity of the
stream. As shown in Figure 10 the alkalinity is slow to recover.
Inflow from less acidic sidestreams dilutes the H* concentrations and
adds bicarbonate which further raises the pH. The creek increases in
hardness where the mine discharges (shown in Figure 11); from this
point the hardness decreases until river-kilometre 25, possibly due to
dilution. Wentz observed outcrops of limestone and alkali springs at
river-kilometre 25 which would account for the gradual increase in
hardness, bicarbonate and pH to San Juan Creek.
Removal of Metals
Reduction of metal concentrations in waters issaccompli shed by precipi-
tation, adsorption, and dilution. Prior to an analysis of precipitation,
some of the complexities involved with metals in aqueous solutions
should be understood. Metals in solution may exist as dissolved ionic
species and organic and inorganic complexes. Metal cations in water are
hydrated and will form aquo complexes [Stumm 1970]. The exact form of
the complex is a function of pH, concentration of the specific cation
and other metallic species present, and the redox potential. Metals may
also form complexes with organic and Inorganic substances. The resultant
50
-------
complex may or may not be in the ionic form. For example, a copper ion
may react with ammonia forming a complex ion as shown in the following
reaction.
Cu+2 + 4NH3 [CU(NH3)4]2 (10)
Metallic ions may also complex with ligands forming complex molecules
which may be difficult to remove from solution. The presence of these
complex forms, in waters affected by mine drainage is not known. Wentz
suggested that a significant quantity of metals may be transported by
the suspended load. It is further stated that the metals may be:
1) adsorbed onto solids including colloids; 2) contained in coatings on
sediment grains (precipitates and coprecipitates); 3) incorporated into
solid biologic materials; 4) incorporated in crystalline structures and
complexed with organics not in solution (chelation) [USGS 1974a]. It is
unclear how much this complexing phenomenon affects metal ion mobility,
also it is unknown what percentage of the suspended metal is carried in
each of the above forms. The most mobile fraction of the total metallic
load in a stream is the dissolved fraction which is Eh-pH dependent.
The total concentration of cadmium, in Kerber Creek, is shown in Figure
12. The cadmium concentration appears to be inversely proportional to
pH. The pH slowly increases downstream from the mine discharge and as
this occurs, the solubilities of the dissolved metals is decreased. At
the point when the solubility of a specific metal is exceeded, the metal
will no longer be dissolved but will be in the suspended form and may or
may not be removed from solution.
The dissolved concentration of zinc is shown in Figure 13 and the
dissolved fraction of the total metal loads along the stream is shown in
Figure 14. It can be seen by comparing these figures that the total
metal concentration and the dissolved fraction are decreasing downstream.
This is consistent with the above theory.
51
-------
Jenne proposed that the sorption of heavy metals occurs in response to
the following factors: 1) aqueous concentration of the metal in question;
2) aqueous concentrations of other heavy metals; 3) pH; 4) amount and
strength of organic chelates and complex ion form present. It was
suggested that other controls are: 1) organic matter; 2) clays; 3) car-
bonates; 4) precipitation as oxides or hydroxide [Jenne 1968].
Ferric hydroxide is a very insoluble precipitate which forms a reddish-
yellow gelatinous floe, also known as yellow-boy. Some researchers
suggest that metals will adsorb onto this precipitate and be removed
from solution [Jenne 1968]. Wentz observed that adsorption of metal
onto ferric hydroxide was of minor importance in Kerber Creek during
high flows [USGS 1974a]. This is understandable as stream velocities
during peak flows are much higher than during low flow periods. Possibly
metals precipitate and settle to the stream bottom during low flow
periods only to be scoured and redeposited downstream during higher flow
periods.
The presence of colloidal materials such as ferric hydroxide or clay
particles may enhance the mobility of the less mobile metals. Wentz
suggested that clay minerals may adsorb metals and transport them down-
stream where flocculation and settling may take place [USGS 1974a]. In
other words, stream velocity, (energy) is an important parameter in the
mobility of metals. This can be seen by comparing metals concentrations
with the stream gradient in-Kerber Creek Figure 15. Thus, the ultimate.
sink for metals may be quiescent streams or lakes far downstream from
the main section of the polluted stream.
52
-------
co
Ul
tr.
t-
tu
U
o
3,000-
2,500-
SQUIRREL CREEK
40 35 30 25 20
15 (0
DISTANCE ALONG KERBER CREEK (Km)
Figure 15. Gradient of Kerber Creek.
Lakes as Sinks for Metals
Several lakes in the western United States are fed by streams polluted
by mine drainage. Lake Che!an in Washington, Lakes Shasta, Berryessa?
and Nacimiento, and Comanche Reservoirs in California, Lynx and Patagonia
Lakes in Arizona, Dillon Reservoir in Colorado, and Coeur d'Alene Lake
in Idaho are a few of the lakes so affected.
The effects to these lakes vary and undoubtedly the extent of pollution
is a function of the mass inflow of pollutants, the natural buffering
capacity of the lake waters and the hydraulic detention time of the
lake. In large lakes, the effects of mine drainage may be the most
notable at the mouth of the polluted stream. For instance at Lake
Berryessa, California, the best spawning gravels, are at the mouth of
53
-------
Pope Creek which Is polluted by mine drainage. Therefore the mine
drainage becomes the controlling parameter for fish production in the
lake [CRWQ 1971]. The effect of the mine drainage on the remainder of
the lake appears negligible. Water quality samples measured approximately
ten kilometres from the entrance of Pope Creek indicate no degradation
as a result of mine drainage. Sulfate concentration, measured in four
successive Septembers (1968-1971), averaged 19 mg/1 which is comparable
with other lakes in the area [USGS 1974b].
It would appear from the high metal concentration in the lake deltas of
streams polluted by mine drainage that the benthos is a sink for metals.
This may not be entirely true. The California Regional Water Quality
Control Board noted that oxidized metals in the benthic sediments may
become soluble when placed in an anaerobic environment. .It was hypothe-
sized that the semi-annual overturn may reelrculate toxic benthic waters.
The discharge of these bottom waters has been observed to have a detri-
mental effect on the fishery downstream from Comanche Reservoir [CRWQ
1971].
Anaerobic action may not alone be the source of this redissolution of
metals. Stratification of pH is known to exist. Smith, and others
observed variations in pH in a strip mine lake of over two pH units [EPA
1971c]. This would affect the concentration of metals as solubility of
metal ions changes by orders of magnitude with a change of pH units (see
Figure 4).
Another possible cause of this redissolution is that organic concentrations
are higher in lakes than streams, increasing the possibility of ligand
formation. Jenne noted that the range of dissolved organic carbon in
large streams in the northwestern United States was between 3 and 7.7 mg/1
while lakes were noted to contain between 27 and 29 mg/1 [Jenne 1968].
The various mechanisms involved are not yet fully known and are recommended
for further study.
54
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The Effects of Mine Drainage on Groundwater
There has been much data written on the effects of mine drainage on
surface waters but little data is available on groundwater pollution.
The potential for groundwater pollution exists at the mine, tailings, or
waste pile. Water may pass through a mine, react with exposed elements,
and enter the groundwater basin. Tailings or waste piles also offer a
potential source of groundwater contamination. Prior to 1920, milling
operations produced coarser, more permeable tailings than present day
methods. The porosity of modern tailings may be limited due to very
fine grinding and stratification upon deposition which limits the flow
of water through the pile.
Preliminary findings from studies in Tucson, Arizona have indicated that
tailings water has been identified down to a depth of approximately 30
metres [Personal Communications with Donald R. Anderson, Professor of
Environmental Engineering, Loyola Marymount University, California].
Groundwater in this area is at a depth of approximately 75 metres and
although its quality is similar to that of tailings water, it has not
been conclusively determined that the groundwater has been adversely
affected by the tailings.
The Cataldo Mission Flats area near Coeur d'Alene, Idaho 1s a large area
of dredge deposit. The majority of these deposits are jig tailings
which were discharged directly into the river during mining operations
and subsequently dredged to enable paddle boats to navigate the river
[Galbraith 1972]. Many investigators have studied the problem and have
discovered that groundwater has been degraded by low pH and high metals
concentrations. Norbech, et al, found that when groundwater is exposed
to the old tailings, bacteriological and chemical leaching may occur
[American Water Resources Association 1974].
55
-------
It was noticed that below one settling pond, pH decreased from a value
of 6.0 to a low of 4.3, 3,700 metres downgradient. Concentrations for
cadmium, lead, and zinc were measured at 0.3 mg/1, 0.9 mg/1, and 33.0 mg/1
respectively. These concentrations are extremely high and would render
the water unfit for human consumption.
It appears from the Cataldo Mission Flats data that the pollutants
associated with mine drainage are fairly mobile in an afuifer. Little
other data was found to support this conclusion and it is recommended
that this subject be studied in greater detail.
TOXICITIES AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS
Many of the constituents of mine drainage are common to natural waters
in low concentrations. Many trace elements are essential, in small
quantities, to life while others such as Arsenic and cadmium have no
known biological function. Conversely, all trace elements can be toxic
in high enough concentrations. The term toxic may easily cause confusion
as it is a relative term. Toxicities may mean anything from a slight
discomfort t6 death; also reactions may bevan acute (immediate) or
chronic (gradual).
Many ions exhibit antagonistic (decreased) and synergistic (increased)
effects oh toxidtles. Associated differences in physiology, such as
life-cycle and species, can also have a considerable effect on the
response of an organism to trace element concentrations. An example of
the effect on life-cycle'can be seen in Lynx'Lalce, Arizona (AZ-1) where
the metal concentrations appear to limit fish propagation and growth.
A classic example of the differing effect between species is the lower
toxlclty threshold for zinc and copper to fish than humans. Due to the
variabilities of toxicities and effects to plant, animal, and man, the
following sections will cite examples of these variabilities in toxicities
56
-------
and the effects to aquatic life, agricultural and municipal users. Much
of the data presented is summarized from McKee and Wolf and will not be
referenced each time unless another source is used [CWRCB 1963]. This
discussion is presented to illustrate examples of toxicity and other
adverse effects of mine drainage and i,s not meant to propose water
quality standards.
AQUATIC LIFE
Aquaticjife has been listed first since it has undoubtedly suffered the
greatest impact from mine drainage. The aquatic eco-system has suffered
a wide range of various environmental stresses from limited diversity to
stream sterility. Toxicities of metals .and acids are not the sole cause
of the stress. For instance, vast quantities of sludge produced by the
precipitation of ferric hydroxide coats ,rocks and smothers valuable
spawning gravels.
Bottom dwelling invertebrates usually have rather long (1 to 3 years)
and complex life histories. They are relatively immobile and cannot
quickly avoid harmful changes .in their environment. Their presence,
absence, or abundance tends to reflect the recent history of the environ-
ment. . Among these benthic organisms there-is ,a wide range of tolerance
to different environmental.stresses^. Therefore, the community structure
may show marked changes in species composition. The evaluation of the
community structure of benthic organisms and the degree of pollution
present at a specific location, can be facilitated by comparison of
diversity index values [Missouri Department of Conservation 1974].
The effects of harmful substances upon fish life vary with species
size, age, and physiological conditions of the individuals. Water
favorable for some species may not necessarily be adequate for others
that have adapted to somewhat different conditions. For instance,
toxicants in low concentrations may have no. apparent effect upon a fish
57
-------
species but may limit the diversity of the food organisms available;
thus, limiting the overall population of the fish.
The effects of deleterious substances upon fish vary with the physical
and chemical composition of the water supply. The interrelationships of
the antagonistic and synergistic effects of the dissolved constituents
of a specific water are extremely important. Hardness is known to be
antagonistic toward the toxicity of cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper,
lead, molybdenum, nickel, vandium, and zinc to fish and other aquatic
life. Conversely, cadmium, copper, and zinc are synergistic in their
effect on fish.
Toxicities of Dissolved Constituents to Selected Fish Species
The following is a listing of several metals and compounds associated
with mining activities and their toxic effects on selected fish species.
Aluminum
The hydroxides and carbonates of aluminum are very insoluble and are not
to be expected in sufficient quantities at normal pH range. The solubil-
ity increases as the pH is reduced (see Figure 4). Concentrations of
between 0.07 to 5.0 mg/1 have been reported to be toxic to various fish
species.
Arsenic
Concentrations as low as one milligram per litre have been reported
toxic to certain fish species.
58
-------
Barium
Like aluminum, the carbonates and sulfate forms are very Insoluble and
are not to be expected In significant quantities in mine drainage.
Cadmium
Most of the quantitative data on toxiclty of cadmium toward fish and
other aquatic organisms are given under the specific cadmium salt,
expressed as cadmium. These data indicate that the lethal concentration
for fish vary from about 0.01 to 10 milligrams per litre, depending on
the test species, temperature, and time of exposure. Cadmium acts
synergistically with other substances to increase toxiclty. Cadmium
concentrations of 0.03 milligrams per litre in combination with .15
milligram per litre of zinc cause mortality of salmon fry.
Copper
Toxiclty of copper to aquatic organisms varies significantly with species
and also with the physical and chemical characteristics of the water,
such as temperature, hardness, turbidity, and acidity. In hard water
the toxiclty of copper is reduced by the precipitation of copper carbonate
or other insoluble compounds. In soft water concentrations of between
0.015 to 3.0 milligrams per litre have been reported as toxic. Also in
soft water copper is known to be synergistic with zinc. As hardness
increases, this synergism apparently disapears. Other investigators
have reported that under certain conditions concentrations of copper can
be toxic to trout at 0.08 mlcrograms per litre.
Cyanide
Toxicity of cyanide may vary markedly with pH. It has been reported
that pH between the ranges of 6.0 to 8.5 had little effect on the toxicity.
59
-------
In natural streams, cyanides deteriorate or are decomposed by bacterial
action so that excessive concentrations may be expected to diminish with
time. The presence of organic matter appears to lessen the time necessary
for removal. In addition to pH the toxicity toward fish is affected by
temperature, dissolved oxygen, and concentration of other minerals. For
instance, a rise of 10 degrees centigrade was known to produce a two to
three-fold increase in the rate of lethal action. Concentrations of
between 0.05 to 10 milligrams per litre, have been reported to be, toxic to
various species .of fish.
Iron
The deposition of ferric hydroxide on the gills of fish may cause an
irritation and blocking of the respiratory canals. In addition,
precipitates of ferric hydroxide may smother fish eggs and disturb the
benthic community. Toxicity of iron appears to be a function of its
oxidation state and whether or not it is dissolved or suspended.
Concentrations of iron of between 0.2 to 50 milligrams per litre have
been shown, to be toxic to various fish species.
Lead
Excess concentratlons/of lead in water apparently suffocate fish due to
a destructive layer, that is formed as a result pf a reaction.between
lead and organic.constituents of mucous. Hardness,is antagonistic to
the toxicjty.of lead. Lethal or toxic concentration of lead to various
fish species have.been reported at between 0.1 to over 60 milligrams per
litre.
-------
Manganese
Manganese has a limited toxlcity toward fish and appears to be somewhat
antagonistic toward the toxldty of nickel. Concentrations of 1.0 to
2,700 mg/1 have been reported to be toxic to various fish species.
Mercury
Elemental mercury Is very Insoluble in an aqueous environment. Generally
In surface waters, mercury compounds are rapidly removed from solution
and adsorbed or concentrated in suspended parti oil ate matter, organic
materials such as algae and stream and lake sediments. After removal
from solution inorganic mercury can be converted to organic forms by
methanogenlc bacteria as Well as by nonenzymatic reactions that are
usually encountered under anaerobic conditions. Methylated mercury
compounds are readily assimilated by aquatic organisms and bioaccumulation
of mercury 1s an important consideration to the higher trophic levels in
a food chain. Studies have shown concentration factors (ratio'of
mercury in an organism to that in the water) of 250 to 3,000 in algae
and 1,000 to 10,000 in ocean fish. Concentrations of 0.004 to 0.02
milligrams per litre have been reported harmful to acquatic organisms
[CWCB 1974, EPA 1971m, CWRCB 1963^ Nines 1971, Wl974jgf].
Molybdenum
Molybdenum does not appear to be extremely toxic to fish. A 96-hour
TL5Q of molybdic anhydride to the fathead minnow in soft water was found
to 70 milligrams per litre. Hardness exhibited an'antagonistic effect
toward this'toxicity.
61
-------
Nickel
Copper, zinc, and iron appear to be more toxic to fish than nickel,
however, concentrations of nickel as low as 0.8 mg/1 have been reported
to be toxic.
Selenium
Selenium is an analogous to sulfur in many of its chemical combinations.
In nature, selenium occurs in some soils as basic ferric selenate, as
calcium selenate, and as elemental selenium. Minute concentrations of
selenium do not appear ,to be harmful to fish during the exposure period
of several days. However, constant exposure to traces of selenium have
caused disturbances of appetite, equilibrium, pathological .changes, and
in a few cases, death after several weeks. Selenium may be passed
through various trophic levels to the fish and accumulate in liver in
lethal doses. Toxicities of selenium have been reported at 2.0 milligrams
per litre.
Silver
,: . » k
Silver is reportedly extremely toxic to fish. As little as 0.003 milli-
grams is known to have been toxic to some species. A higher level of
toxicity was found at 0.2 milligrams per litre for other species.
Sulfate
In the United States waters that support good game fish, 5 percent of
the waters contain less than 11 milligrams per litre of Sulfate, 50
percent less than 32 milligrams per litre, and 95 percent less that 90
milligram per litre. Water containing less than 0.5 milligrams per
litre of sulfate will not support growth of algae.
62
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Zinc
The sensitivity of fish to zinc varies by species, age, condition of the
fish as well as with physical and chemical characteristics of the
water. Some acclimatization to the presence of zinc is possible.
Survivors of batches subjected to dissolved zinc have been less susceptible
to additional zinc concentrations than fish not previously exposed.
Copper has exhibited a synergistic effect to the toxicity of zinc. In
soft water concentrations of zinc ranging from .1 to 1.0 milligrams per,
litre have been reported to be lethal. Calcium is antagonistic towards
such toxicity.
MUNICIPAL AND AGRICULTURAL USES
High concentrations of heavy metals in municipal and agricultural supply
waters may have long range detrimental effects. Wildlife and grazing
animals normally drink from surface water sources and ingest both dis-
solved and suspended matter.
If a surface source is used for domestic supply, the water usually is
flocculated, settled, and filtered. If metals are not removed sufficiently
by standard unit operations additional processes must be used for metal
removal, thus increasing the cost of treatment. The use of polluted
waters may also be limited for irrigation as many plants are sensitive
to certain metal ions.
A comparison of various drinking water standards and effluent limitation
guidelines for the ore mining industry is shown in Table 9. The effects
of selected metals on municipal and agricultural uses are discussed
further.
63
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TABLE 9. COMPARISON OF DRINKING WATER STANDARDS AND EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
SELECTED DRINKING WATER STANDARDS [a]
Water-
Quality
Parameter
Aluminum
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium
Chromlum(VI)
Copper
Cyanide
Fluoride
Iron
Lead
Manganese
Mercury
Selenium
Silver
Uranium
Z1nc
PH
Interim
National
Primary
Drinking
Water
Regulations [b]
50
1,000
50
-. -
[h]
50
...
2
10
50
_-_
"
U.S. Public
Health Service
(1970)
50,10[f]
1,000
10
;50
1,000
200,10[f]
[d]
300[f]
50
50[f]
5
10
50
...
5,000[f]
»
World Health
Organization
1961
European
Standards
[c]
200[f]
...
50
50
3,000
10
l,500[f]
100[f]
100
100[f]
...
50[a]
---
...
5,000[f]
M__
Interim
Effluent
Guidelines
Ore Mining
Industry
[d]
l,200[e]
l,000[g]
100
_
1,000
20
l,000[e]
400
2
4,000[1]
400-1,000
6.0-9.0
*
&
[1]
Maximum dally concentrations 1n mlcrograms per litre.
Reference [EPA 1975gj.
Reference CWRCB 1963].
Base and precious metal subcategory unless otherwise stated
[EPA 1975h].
Bauxite ore subcategory.
Recommended limit.
Feralloy ore subcategory.
Limit varies Inversely with average annual maximum dally air temp.
Uranium ore subcategory.
Municipal and Agricultural Effects
The following 1s a listing of several compounds associated with mine
drainage and their affects on municipal and agricultural uses of waters.
64
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Aluminum
Concentrations of aluminum of 1.0 to 14 milligrams per litre have been
noted to be Injurious to various crop types. Little effect was noted
for stock and wildlife watering.
Arsenic
Concentrations of arsenic of one milligram per litre have been shown to
be injurious to certain plant species. It is believed that the lethal
dose of arsenic for animals is approximately 20 milligrams per pound of
animal.
Cadmium
Cadmium tends to concentrate in liver, kidneys, pancreas* and thyroid of
animals. Once it enters the body it is likely to remain. Doses of
cadmium to dogs are poisonous between 0.15 to 0.3 grams per kilogram of
body weight.
Copper
Small quantities of copper are essential for plant growth. Concentrations
of 0.2 milligrams per litre have been shown to be toxic to certain plant
species. It has been reported that among cattle toxicity develops at
2 grams of copper sulfate per kilogram of live-weight per day. Chronic
poisoning of sheep has been caused by 1.5 grams of copper sulfate dally
for 30 to 80 days.
Cyanide
The toxicity of the cyanide in the hydrogen-cyanide form range from
between 0.03 grams for dogs to between 0.39 arid 0.92 grams for cows. No
65
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deleterious effects are expected as a result of cyanide in irrigation
water as cyanide is quickly complexed with organic matter and is no
longer toxic.
Iron
Iron is apparently of little importance in irrigation practices in the
form usually occurring in irrigation water. It is an essential consti-
tuent in animal diets but if the water is high in iron, cattle will not
drink sufficient quantities for it to be toxic to their systems.
Lead
Inorganic lead salts in irrigation waters may be toxic to plants. Farm
animals have been known to have been poisoned by lead in the drinking
water regardless of whether or not it is in solution or suspension.
Chronic lead poisoning among animals has been caused by 0.18 milligrams
per litre of lead to soft water.
Manganese
Manganese is essential for plant growth. Manganese in concentrations of
,0.5 to 500 milligrams per litre have been reported to be toxic to varying
plant species. It is also essential in the diet of animals. Manganese
has been fed to cattle in dosages of 50 to 600 milligrams ,per kilogram
of baby weight for 20 to 45 days without serious effects.
Molybdenum
Low concentrations of molybdenum are essential for the healthy growth of
various plants. Like many of the other trace elements, excess concen-
trations are toxic. Concentrations of between 0.5 to 200 milligrams per
litre have been shown to have .injurious effects on the growth of various
66
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crops. Molybdenum also appears to be an essential trace element for
some animals. Copper appears to be antagonistic towards the toxicity of
molybdenum. Molybdenum has been observed to concentrate In the foliage
In pastures and cases have been noted where cattle, feeding on foliage
In pastures so affected, have shown symptoms of molybdenum toxicity.
Nickel
Nickel is extremely toxic to some plant species such as citrus and
beans. Lethal doses for dogs range between 10 to 20 milligrams per
kilogram of body weight.
Selenium
Plants appear to vary in their ability to absorb selenium. Concentrations
in the plants may be determined by many factors such as species and the
age of the plant, season, concentration of the soluble selenium compounds
in the root zone. Plants can adsorb large amounts of selenium from
irrigation water with no apparent injurious effects. Selenium poisoning
in wildlife, known as alkali disease or blind staggers, frequently
occurs among livestock of the great plains region.
Sulfate
Sulfates are slightly more toxic than chlorides in irrigation water.
High concentrations of sulfate may cause precipitation of calcium.
Generally it is agreed that excellent irrigation water contains less
that 190 milligrams per litre of sulfate. Sulfate appears to exhibit an
antagonistic effect towards the toxicity of selenium in cattle. High
concentrations, in excess of 2,500 milligrams per litre have shown to
cause a cathartic action in dogs.
67
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Zinc
Small quantities of zinc are necessary for nutrition in most crops,
however, toxicity results from concentrations exceeding low levels.
Zinc concentrations of between 3.0 and 10 milligrams per litre have been
shown to be toxic to various plant species.
68
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SECTION 6
ASSESSMENT OF MINE RELATED WATER POLLUTION
Many federal, state and local agencies are aware of water pollution
problems associated with Inactive mining activities within their area of
responsibility. An objective of this study has been to collect and
compile this data from these sources. The results of this compilation
are presented in this section and Appendix D.
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE
All state agencies responsible for water pollution control were contacted
to determine their knowledge of inactive mine pollution and data available.
Where a significant problem in mine related pollution occurred, members
of the investigating team visited the agencies to review their files.
To augment this data, regional offices of the U.S. Bureau of Land Manage-
ment, U.S. Bureau of Mines. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S., Forestry Service, U.S. Geological
Survey, and U.S. National Park Service were contacted. Many of the
regional directors of these agencies referred the request for information
to their local subordlnant office which often responded with detailed
data which complimented the data collection from the state agencies.
NATIONAL SUMMARY
The summary presented In this section and in Appendix 0 is a compilation
of data collected from all of the responding agencies contacted. It 1s
recognized that many of the states have concentrated their pollution
-------
control efforts toward identifying and correcting point source pollution
and have not had the budget or manpower to perform a detailed analysis
of problems such as these associated with inactive mines. It was observed
during the course of the study that in many areas that the level of
detail in problem identification was proportional to the severity of the
problem. Many non-point sources of low level pollution from mining
activities are undoubtedly undocumented, therefore, this study is limited
in scope in many areas to a summary of information collected on only the
most severe problems. The study, therefore, should be used as a broad-
based planning guide and should not be interpreted an assessment with a
sufficient level of detail for use on a localized basis.
The results of this study indicate that pollution from inactive mines at
approximately 100 locations throughout the county has affected a total
of 1,200 kilometres of streams and rivers. This pollution is characterized
by acid, heavy metals, and increased sedimentation. As discussed in
Section 5, the acid and metals are, for the most part, produced by the
oxidation of base metal sulfides. It is estimated that the inactive
mines are discharging between 30,000 and 50,000 metric tons of acid and
10,000 metric tons of metals annually.
Sediment problems may be increased in a watershed where mining has
occurred. Banks left in an unstable condition can be washed out during
periods of high flow; unvegetated slopes are more susceptable to erosion;
and tailings may have been carelessly deposited directly in the streambed.
Due to the complex relationships of soil stability and local storm
events, it is impossible to quantify the sedimentation produced by
sudden washouts and slope failures. The variabilities involved in
continual erosion make prediction of sediment produced on a national
basis impractical. Prediction of sediment on a specific watershed may
be possible and is discussed in greater detail later in this section.
Thus, the national assessment notes those areas where increased sedimen-
tation is thought to be a problem related to inactive mines.
70
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REGIONS EXHIBITING MAJOR IMPACT
The specific location of all areas with known pollution from Inactive
mines is shown on Figure 1. Detailed information on each of the areas,
as well as the estimated pollutant loading for acid and heavy metals for
each area is presented in Appendix D.
Eighty percent of the water pollution resulting from inactive mines has
occurred in the following four areas:
0 California
0 Idaho-Montana
0 Colorado
0 Missouri
Less severe pollution has been reported in other scattered areas through-
out the country. The following discussion will summarize the major
impacts to these four areas.
California
Approximately 89 kilometres of streams have been polluted by drainage
from mining activities in eight different areas in the state. Inactive
copper, gold, and mercury mines located in the Sierra Nevada Mountains
and the Coastal Range are the principal sources of pollution. The
Leviathan Mine (CA-4) and the Shasta District (CA-8) have been studied
in considerable detail. In a few cases, the state has taken the owners
of mines to court in an attempt to get the owners to control the pollution.
These law suits are being prosecuted at the time of this writing.
Attempts have been made at three areas to reduce or eliminate the discharge
of pollutants with marginal success. Abatement schemes include diversion
of drainage to evaporation ponds and installation of a clay blanket on a
tailing to prevent water infiltration.
71
-------
Idaho-Montana
In Idaho in excess of 130 kilometres of streams have been polluted by
discharges from both active and Inactive mining. The problem areas are
located in three areas of the state: 1) Coeur d'Alene; 2) Central
Idaho; 3) Southeastern Idaho. Base metals, precious metals, and. phosphate
are the principal minerals mined in the affected areas. In the Coeur
d'Alene area, an inseparable combination of active and inactive operations
for antimony, lead, and zinc have eliminated fish life in approximately
55 kilometres of the South Fork of the Coeur d'Alene River. In central
Idaho, drainage from the Blackbird Mine, an inactive cobalt mine, has
polluted 50 kilometres of Panther Creek with add and heavy metals. The
southeastern part of the state 1s the center of large active phosphate
mining activities. Some inactive sites in this area have caused Increased
sedimentation in the streams from erosion of the phosphate slimes. No
estimate was available of the length of stream effected.
In Montana fourteen mines or mining districts have affected the water
quality of approximately 160 kilometres of stream. Approximately 56
kilometres of stream have been polluted by erosion of tailings from
inactive placer gold-mining operations. The remainder of the problems
are add-and metals from .inactive base and precious metal mining activities.
Colorado
In excess of 675 kilometres of streams in the state have been polluted
by both active and inactive mining activities. Wentz and others have
extensively studied these areas but it 1s impractical to attempt to
separate the effects of the active and inactive mines.in many areas [EPA
1973J, USGS 1971m]. The principal problems are add and metals from
base and precious metal mining areas. The Idaho Springs-Central City
(CO-2,3,4) and the Leadvllle (CO-6) areas account for about one-third of
the state's total length of polluted streams.
72
-------
Missouri
Heavy metals and sediment from inactive barite and zinc mining operations
have polluted approximately 135 kilometres of streams. The state's
major problem area is the Flat River-Bonne Terre lead mining district
where 64 kilometres of stream have been polluted from the erosion of
tailings deposited in the streams. Heavy metals are being leached from
the sediments into the streams greatly limiting fish life.
METHODOLOGY OF ASSESSMENT
A variety of state and federal agencies have conducted studies on many
of the major problem areas in the country. Areas such as Spring Creek
(CA-8), Idaho Springs-Central City (CO-2), Blackbird (ID-1), Bunker
Hills (10-3), Hughesville (MT-1), and Contrary Creek (VA-1) have been
the subject of extensive studies. In some areas quantitative and qualita-
tive measurements were conducted throughout the year or over a period of
many years, enabling an accurate determination of the annual pollutant
loading. In other areas biological testing, Including aquatic and
benthic diversity sampling, has been conducted to determine the length
of stream system affected by mine drainage. However, the testing criteria
used by the agencies varied. Often the tests were run to perform a
single purpose function such as a determination of the toxicity of the
waters to fish. The objectives were rarely an estimation of the annual
pollutant loading.
The constituents most frequently present in mine drainage are add,
copper, Iron, manganese, zinc, and sulfate. It was decided to estimate
the annual pollutant loading based on these constituents but there was
some difficulty due to the varied testing criteria used by different
agencies. Acid cannot be determined directly as it begins Interaction
with Us environment upon formation. Hence, acid must be measured
indirectly by measuring the anion that was associated with its formation.
73
-------
In the case of mine drainage that anion Is sulfate which Is also the
most conservative of the constituents In an aquatic environment.
Unfortunately, it is one of the less frequently measured ions since it
is not toxic and rarely causes problems.
Water quality measurements were reported at approximately 50 percent of
the problem areas. Of these, one or more of the desired constituents
were unreported at approximately 40 areas. Therefore in order to
determine the annual pollutant loading, it was necessary to synthesize
data for these unreported constituents. The methodology used in this
synthesis and pollutant loading calculation will be discussed further.
Heavy Metals and Sulfate Loading
In order to calculate the pollutant loading using the available data, it
was necessary to first estimate concentrations of ions not measured.
Twenty-two mine drainage- analyses were selected from approximately fifty
problem areas where analyses were available. The analyses were selected
based on the following criteria: 1) analyses with extremely high or low
concentrations were excluded; 2) all analyses which included sulfate
measurements were included; 3) other relatively complete analyses were
included. The constituents of these twenty-two analyses were averaged
to provide a representation of a typical mine drainage water. Relation-
ships between the various ions were then determined by computing their
relative concentrations as a ratio such as jfjj-, j^, and -^ . These
ratios are shown in Table 10 as 4r, 4r, etc. The average concentrations
and the number of times each ion was measured in the twenty-two analyses
are also shown.
74
-------
TABLE 10. EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONSTITUENTS OF MINE DRAINAGE
Constit-
uent
(X)
Iron
Copper
Zinc
Manganese
Sulfate
Average
Concen-
tration
mg/1
180
37
62
71
1880
Number of
Analyses
[a]
21
18
15
12
15
Ratio
X
FeTb]
1
0.20
0.34
0.39
10.45
X
Cu
4.94
1
1.70
1.93
51.57
X
Zn
2.91
0.59
1
1.14
30.41
X
Mn
2.55
0.52
0.88
1
26.66
X
soT
0.10
0.02
0.03
0.04
1
[a] Number of times constituent measured out of the 22 analyses used.
[b] X represents the constituents mentioned in the first column.
The probable pollutant concentrations were calculated for all problem
areas with incomplete data using the ratios shown in Table 10 and the
known data at each area. The specific ratio used to calculate the
unknown data was selected in the order given in the table since it is
desirable to use the ratio that was based on the greatest number of
analyses. For instance, if an analysis contained only iron and zinc
data the unknown concentrations were calculated by multiplying the known
Y
iron concentration by the appropriate unknown to iron ratio (^). If
iron were unknown, the appropriate set of ratios would be selected by
using the next available ratio (i.e., ^j, jjjjj-, |^, and |Q in order).
As an example, assume the following analysis:
Cu » 75 mg/1
Zn = 120 mg/1
75
-------
The unknown iron, manganese, and zinc concentrations would be determined
using the known copper concentration as follows:
Iron
75 (Cu-mg/1) X 4.94
= 371 mg/1 Fe
Manganese = 75 (Cu-mg/1) X 1.70 (fa) = 128 mg/1 Mn
Sulfate = 75 (Cu-mg/1) X 51.57 (fa) = 3880 mg/1 S04
The pollutant concentrations were calculated for all problem areas where
at least one pollutant concentration was known. The pollutant loadings
were calculated by multiplying this pollutant concentration by a known
or estimated annual flow rate. A summary of the loadings is shown in
Table 11. The loadings, flow rates, and other pertinent data for each
problem area are shown in Appendix D after the state summaries.
TABLE 11. SUMMARY OF ESTIMATED ANNUAL LOADING FOR METALS AND ACID [a]
State
California
Colorado
Idaho
Missouri
Montana
Nevada
New Hampshire
New York
Oregon
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
TOTAL
Acidity
As CaCOa
20,640
10,900
330
75
3,175
320
870
2,145
1,030
7,210
60
47.773
Iron
1,890
1,000
30
7
385
30
2
90
195
290
665
5
4,591
Copper
90
35
7
1
165
2
1
1
8
4
314
Manganese
230
350
12
13
65
12
.
--
7
40
1
1,044
Zinc
460
1,410
1,310
220
570
10
23
1
1
25
30
4,060
Sulfate
5,670
10,420
320
75
5,530
309
330
2,020
2,660
55
30,181
[a] Metric tons per year.
76
-------
Acid Loading
Add Is produced by the oxidation of many base metal sulfides but as
previously discussed, the predominant source of add is pyrite. For the
purposes of .calculating acid loading, it was assumed that all. add 1s
formed by pyrite oxidation, shown by Reaction 5 (see Section 5).
It can be seen from this reaction that the oxidation of pyrite produces
four equivalents of add and two moles of sulfate. These stoichiometric
relationships cannot be used to directly calculate acid for.the following
reasons: 1) acid and iron are non-conservative in the environment;
2) sulfate concentrations were one of the less frequently measured Ions;
3) sulfate may be produced by non-acid forming reactions. Iron was the .
most frequently measured ion. Therefore, it was decided to calculate
sulfate empirically from the iron-sulfate ratio shown In Table 10 and to
calculate acid stoichiometrically from that theoretical concentration.
The sulfate to add conversion factor 1s 1.04 which yields acidity 1n
terms of CaC03 (mg/1).
The annual acid loadings were calculated by multiplying the calculated
add concentration by a known or estimated flow rate. A summary of acid
loading is also shown in Table 11.
The total acid and sulfate loads shown are approximately 47,800 and
30,200 metric tons per year respectively. These figures appear to be in
disagreement with the sulfate to add conversion factor of 1.04. A
possible explanation for this difference is that the sulfate load was
based on known and synthesized data while the add load is based on ,
synthesized sulfate data only. Regardless of this difference, the
annual add load may be expected to be between 30,000 and 50,000 metric
tons.
77
-------
Effects of Inactive Mines on Sediment Production
The combination of many factors may contribute to an increased sediment
load from a watershed. Tailings may contain a large percentage of fine
particles. As shown on Figure 2, the average particle size from a froth
flotation mill is approximately 0.04 millimetres. Tailings piles are
often steeply sloped* adjacent to streams, and void of vegetation.
Erosion of tailings piles often occur because of the failure of mining
companies to construct the tailings pond dams that are designed to
withstand erosion.
Sediment from tailings may be released Into a watercourse either as a
continual erosion or sudden bank failure. Bank failures may occur in
many ways. For instance* erosion of the toe of a tailings pile may
cause a sudden failure of the slope resulting in the discharge of tremen-
dous quantities of mud into a stream. Regardless of the cause of sudden
deposition, there 1s no method to qualitatively or quantitatively predict
sediment produced 1n this manner. Therefore, the remainder of this
section will be devoted to the discussion of the sedimentation caused by
the continual erosion of tailings.
The impact of continual erosion of mine tailings on the sediment produc-
tion of a watershed depends as much on watershed characteristics as on
the characteristics of the mine tailings. A large watershed with a high
natural sediment loading rate will not be significantly impacted from
mine tailings while a small watershed with a low natural sediment loading
rate may be drastically affected. Natural erosion rates and subsequent
sedimentation vary greatly throughout the country and are affected by
many factors such as climate, terrain, local soil conditions, and man's
activities. Sedimentation from watersheds containing tailings will be
affected by other variables such as area of watershed covered by tailings,
method of tailings placement, particle size in the tailings, vegetative
cover of the tailings, and slope of tailings.
78
-------
Due to these many variables there is currently no predictive model
designed to allow calculation, on a national basis, of the annual sediment
produced from inactive tailings. The following discussion presents a
technique allowing prediction of tailings-induced sediment on a regional
basis. A typical unit sediment load for tailings is developed. This is
combined with natural unit sediment loads for the watersheds to form an
equation for overall unit sediment load as a function of percent of
watershed covered by tailings.
Natural Unit Sediment Loads
Many models have been developed for predicting natural sediment load
from watersheds. However, most are not related to the mountainous
terrain often encountered in mining activities. The majority of metal
mine tailings are in the mountainous regions of the western United
States. Flaxman [1972] of the Soil Conservation Service has performed
sedimentation studies on several watersheds in eleven western states.
His studies included mountainous watersheds ranging in size from a few
hectares to over 12,000 hectares. The method presented by Flaxman is
adaptable to assessment of potential sedimentation problems from the
erosion of mine tailings.
In Flaxman's studies, sediment yields were measured for each watershed.
Four independent variables were developed to describe the watershed
characteristics. A multiple linear regression analysis was applied to
the independent variables (X-j-X^) and the dependent variable (Y=sediment
yield) to develop an equation for the prediction of sediment yields.
79
-------
The resulting equation 1s:
log (Y*100) = 6.213 - 2.191 log (Xj+100) + 0.060 log (X2+100) (11)
-010164 log (X3+100) + 0.0435 log (X4+100)
Where:
Y = annual sediment load (ac-ft/sq ml)
Y Precipitation /Inches per year*
Al " Temperature l"F'
X2 = Weighted average slope of watershed
X3 = Percent soil particles coarser than one millimetre
(1n the upper five centimetres of the soil profile)
*4 a Aggregation dispersion characteristics (percent of
soils particles finer than two microns In'the upper
five centimetres of the soil profile)
The variables 1n equation 11 are expressed in English units, since
conversion of the equation Into metric units would complicate 1t greatly.
Variable Xj Is Intended as an Indirect expression of the natural response
of vegetation to climate. It was assumed that there would be more
vegetation cover for greater Values of this ratio. In areas disturbed
by man, such-as tailings, this value Is set equal to zero.
Variable X2 Is the weighted average slope of the watershed. The variable
1s calculated by measuring the area between equally spaced contour
Intervals. Each of these areas 1s multiplied by the distance between
-------
the contour intervals. The summation of the products of this multipli-
cation are then divided by the total watershed area. The resulting
answer is expressed as a percent.
Variable X3 is the percent of coarse particles (greater than one milli-
metre). This variable is intended to reflect the resistance of coarse
particles to erosion.
Variable X^ is an indication of the aggregation or dispersion character-
istics of the soil. Results of field observations by Flaxman indicated
that soils that aggregate resist erosion whereas soils that disperse are
easily erodible. The pH of,a soil is used as, a means of classifying,the
soil.. Soils with high pH (greater than 7) are generally associated with
low precipitation and sparse vegetative cover and are easily eroded.
Soils with low pH (less than 7) are usually associated, with higher
precipitation and more plentiful vegetative cover. This results in a
higher organic content and a low exchangeable sodium percentage which
usually is indicative of a mpre aggregated soil. The- sign
-------
Unit Sediment Load From Tailings
In order to predict the unit sediment load produced by tailings it was
necessary to modify the Independent variables In equation 11. The value
for Xj was set equal to zero to account for the lack of vegetation. The
average slope (X2) of the tailings was assumed to be 30 percent. The
value for X, was set equal to five percent; this was based on an average
of the two curves shown in Figure 2. The value for X. was set equal to
zero to account for the lack of soil particles less than 2 microns (see
Figure 2).
The unit sediment load was calculated for the theoretical watershed
completed covered by tailings and adjusted by an average of the correction
factors developed! for the two example watersheds. This resulted in a
sediment yleTd of 18.4 cubic metres per hectare for the tailings covered
watershed.
Effect of Mine Tailings on Natural Sediment Load
The tfteoretfca'l. Impact of mine tailings on the two natural sediment
Toads was determined by a weighted average of the appropriate unit
loads.
This was accomplished by the. following equation:
y = Y , PT(VYN> (12)
T TN ioa
Where:
Y = TotaT unrfitt sediment load
YN = Natural unit sediment load
YT - Tailings unit sediment load
P = Percent of watershed covered by tailings
82
-------
Estimated sediment loads are plotted as a function of the percent of
watershed covered by tailings and are shown in Figure 16 for the Badger
Wash and Round Butte watersheds. As expected, it can be seen that
tailings induced sediment is more severe in a watershed with a low
natural sediment load than in a watershed with a high natural sediment
load.
14
12
Q
c! 10
S
CO
4
BASED ON
BASE) ON ROUND
BADGER
Y=.073
WASH WATERSH
Pr + II.
X)
VI ftTERSHE
01 23456789 10
PERCENT (Pr) WATERSHED COVERED BY TAILINGS
Figure 16. Effects on typical unit sediment load by tailings.
83
-------
CAUSAL FACTORS AFFECTING POLLUTION
The following subsections summarize the factors that appear to be the
predominant causes of mine drainage.for the problem areas on which data
was available.
Type of Pollutants
The length of streams affected in each state, by acid, metals, and
sediment, is shown in Table 12. It can be seen that acid is the predom-
inant cause of, stream pollution. Acid ,is mentioned as a problem in.
60 percent of the polluted areas, followed by heavy metals in about
50 percent of the cases, and sediment in 25 percent of the cases.
Sources of Pollution
Pollutants may be discharged from many locations within a mining operation.
For instance acid and metals may be discharged from adits, tailings/or
opien pits. A breakdown of the reported sources of acid and metals is
presented in Table 13. From this data, tailings appear to be the major
source of mine drainage. Underground mining methods appear to predominate
over surface mining methods as a contributor of mine drainage.
Effects of Minerals Mined
It is difficult to analyze the effect of minerals mined because at many
locations more /than one commodity has been mined. Frequently tailings
from a former operation, are remined for otjier commodities. A summary of
the occurrances of minerals mined at problem areas is presented in
Table 14.
84
-------
TABLE 12. SUMMARY OF TYPES OF POLLUTION AND LENGTH OF STREAM AFFECTED
oo
State :
Arizona .
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Idaho
Missouri :
Montana
Nevada
New Hampshire
New York
North Carolina
Oregon
Tennessee
Vertnont "... :
Washington
Wisconsin ~
Total
Acid
Number
Cases
1
1
22
12
2
_ -
9
: 1
-
1
v
5
1
3
1
1
60
Stream
Affected
(km)
v-
ft
87
460
105
73
[b]
_
-
37
35
14
14
10
841
Metals
Number
Cases
1
16
13
7
3
3
-
1
_
-
-
2[g]
" 1
-
l
48
Stream
Affected
(km)
[a]
62
436
133
96
42
-
, 5
_
-
-
35 ,.
6 '"
-
10
831
Sediment
Number
Cases
1
2
5
1
4
2
2
-
-
_
1
1
4[g]
1
1
-
25
Stream
Affected
(km)
ft
38
50
[d]
103
56
-
-
_
70[f]
16
60
3
14
-
412
Total
Number
Cases.
3
3
26
14
15
4
15
2[e]
1
1
1
5
4
3
1
1
99
Stream
Affected
(km)
ft
89
486
133
135
161
[b]
5
_
70[f ]
37
60
14
14
10
1220
Lake affected 20-hectares.
No estimate made.
Only four mining districts contributing to 133 km of stream degradation.
stream from other polluted areas unknown.
No estimate available.
One mine discharge causes aesthetic problem due to a colored discharge.
Majority of problem from active operations.
No data on length of stream.
Length of polluted
-------
TABLE 13. SUMMARY OF SOURCES OF ACID AND HEAVY METAL POLLUTION
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Idaho
Missouri
Montana
Nevada
New Hampshire
New York
North Carolina
Oregon
Tennessee
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
Wisconsin
Total
Number
Of Cases
[a]
1
1
22[c]
14
7[e]
3
11
1
1
1
0
5
2
3
2
1
1
76
Type Mining
Under-
ground
1
-
15
-
2
3
8
1
[f]
[f]
0
2
2
3
1
1
1
40
Surface
[c]
-
5
-
1
0
5
0
-
-
0
-
-
2
1
-
.
14
Source of Pollution
Adits
-
-
9
11
1
2
7
0
0
-
0
2
-
2
-
-
.
34
TailingsLb]
1
-
10
13
5
2
9
1
1
1
0
1
2
3
2
1
1
53
Pits
-
-
2
0
0
0
5
0
-
-
0
-
-
1
-
-
'
8
.a Number of cases in which acid and/or metals were reported.
:b] Includes waste, slag and overburden piles.
Type of mining and source of pollution unknown.
.-Type of mining only known at 18 locations. Source of
r \f. -pollution only known at 11 locations.
[e] Type of mining only known,at two locations. Source of
.pollution only known at five locations.
[f] Type of mining unknown.
86
-------
TABLE 14. SUMMARY OF MINERALS MINED
AT PROBLEM AREAS
Mineral Mined
Gold
Copper
Silver
Lead
Zinc
Mercury
Iron
Barium, Sulfur,
Uranium, Phosphate
Antimony, Mica
Aluminum, Cobalt, Cadmium,
Bismuth, Manganese, Molybdenum,
Arsenic, Quartz, Feldspar, Clay
Times Reported
at
Problem Area
33
27
27
24
21
11
6
3
2
1
The table shows that of the six metals most frequently reported, five
occur as sulfides (see Table 2). Gold does not occur as a sulfide but
is often found in its elemental form in sulfide deposits of other minerals,
From this data it may be concluded that the form of the mineral (i.e.,
sulfide) is more significant than the mineral itself as an indicator of
pollutant formation.
Climatological Effects
It was felt that there would be a relationship between the discharge of
pollutants and the average annual runoff. To evaluate this theory it
was decided to attempt a correlation between the average annual runoff
87
-------
and pollutant loading for each problem area. A plot of all problem
areas is shown on Figure 17 along with average annual runoff.
A multiple linear regression analysis was run between the average annual
runoff and pollutant loading. Unfortunately the data was too scattered
to develop a significant curve fit. It was determined that with the
data base for this study no correlation could be determined. However,
by reviewing Figure 17 it can be seen that the major problem areas in
California, Idaho, Montana, Colorado, and Missouri all occur in areas
where the average annual runoff exceeds 2.5 centimetres per year. The
discharge of pollutants is undoubtedly a function of climatic and other
variables such as presence of pyrites, lithologic characteristics of the
host ore body, volume of material displaced during mining, and amount of
water flowing through mine workings and tailings.
Figure 17. Average annual runoff in ore and mineral mining areas,
-------
SECTION 7
ASSESSMENT OF CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
FOR INACTIVE MINES
The objective of the second phase of this study was the evaluation of
the state-of-the-art in prevention and control tecnology of water pollution
from inactive mines. Pollution control technology for mineral mines is
in its infancy and much has been extrapolated from the technology
developed for coal mines. Many studies have been conducted and have
proposed pollution abatement schemes. However, the majority of these
have yet to be implemented and some are not based on proven technology.
This section discusses only existing processes used to control pollution.
Processes which are as yet untried, and which justify additional research,
will be discussed in Section 8.
EXISTING TECHNOLOGY
The existing pollution control practices in the inactive mining industry
are usually limited to control of infiltrating water and control of
erosion from tailings. Mine drainage has been treated in only a few
instances. There are no known cases where mine sealing has been used to
prevent mine discharge.
INFILTRATION CONTROL
Water infiltrating into or flowing through tailings, is in many cases
degraded by acid, metals, and increased turbidity. It has been shown
that control of this water reduces discharges and the degree of contam-
ination. A number of methods of controlling this flow exist such as
surface blankets for tailings, surface water diversion and groundwater
diversion.
Surface Blankets
Percolation of rainfall and snowmelt into tailings may be prevented by
constructing an impermeable barrier on the surface of the tailings.
This also reduces the availability of air to pyrites in the tailings.
Impermeable blankets include chemical soil sealants, synthetic membranes,
and clay blankets. Soils sealants and synthetic membranes are also
useful in preventing erosion and are discussed in greater detail in a
later subsection of this chapter.
89
-------
At the Buena Vista Mine (CA-3) an attempt was made to place a clay
blanket over the tailings. This had limited effectiveness since the
tailings consisted of unconsolidated mercury retort slag. Settlement
caused the blanket to crack in many places which reduced its effectiveness
in controlling infiltration and reducing the available oxygen. Proper
placement of an impervious blanket would have a much greater effect in
reducing oxygen and water reaching the tailings.
Surface Water Diversion
Tailings have frequently been placed adjacent to or in water courses,
diverting the stream and increasing the possibility of erosion and
leaching of heavy metals. Surface runoff may also flow into tailings
from adjacent higher ground.
The flow of water through tailings may be reduced by a number of methods:
0 The stream may be relocated into a newly excavated watercourse;
0 Streams may be rerouted through conveyance structures such as
culverts or channels;
0 Water flowing into tailings from adjacent higher ground may be
diverted by construction of diversion ditches similar to those used
to prevent erosion of highway cuts.
Groundwater Diversion
Rising groundwater has been known to come in contact with tailings
increasing the concentration of metals in the water. Pumping of ground-
water will lower the phreatic surface but the cost-effectiveness of
pumping is questionable. A more feasible solution might be construction
of free-draining collector drains to intercept the groundwater prior to
its contact with the tailings.
Removal of Tailings in A Watercourse
Tailings have often been transported downstream along watercourses as a
result of erosion of tailings piles or direct discharge of mill waste.
When these deposited materials contain pyritic minerals or high concen-
trations of other metals, the stream may be contaminated by acid or
dissolution of some of the metals. An effective method to reduce this
pollution is removal of the tailings materials from the watercourse.
The materials may then be placed in a site where the weathering process
can be minimized such as an abandoned underground mine or landfill where
weathering can be controlled.
At the Contrary Creek problem area in Virginia (VA-1) approximately 15
kilometres of stream has been polluted by mine drainage. A principal
source of this pollution is from mine wastes, containing high concentra-
tions of pyrites, which have been deposited in the watercourse.
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A proposed solution, to a portion of the problem, is dredging approximately
4 kilometres of the stream to remove approximately 50,000 cubic metres
of deposited mine waste. The dredged material would then be placed at a
nearby site and revegetated and graded to minimize erosion and infiltration
of rainfall.
Diversion of Polluted Discharges
Diversion and spreading of polluted drainage has met with limited success
in controlling pollution at two mines in California, the Grey Eagle (CA-1)
and Buena Vista CA-3). At CA-1 the adit discharge has been diverted
and allowed to percolate into the ground preventing a point source
discharge into the stream. The ultimate fate of these pollutants at
CA-1 is unknown. They may be neutralized or exchanged by natural formations
or they may form a non-point dispersed source of pollution to the stream
or groundwater system. There has been little improvement in the stream
water quality since drainage was diverted as naturally occurring acid
from other sources still pollute the stream.
At CA-3 an acid discharge was applied on the ground through a sprinkler
system and allowed to percolate. The metal parts of the system quickly
disintegrated and the system was abandoned. This method of control may
have limited application in the presence of calcareous formations and in
locations where groundwater quality will not be affected. Recommendations
for further research into this technology are discussed in Section 8.
RETENTION AND REGULATION OF MINE DRAINAGE
In areas of the country where the annual evapotranspiration (ET) exceeds
average annual precipitation, the diversion of mine drainage to evapor-
ation ponds may be an effective treatment scheme. The construction of
an evaporation pond with an impermeable bottom liner would allow the
water to evaporate from a polluted drainage. The dissolved constituents
would precipitate out of solution and would be removed for ultimate
disposal or recovery. The system may be effective where there is a
suitable site for pond construction and where the mine drainage can be
easily intercepted.
In the Shasta District area of California (CA-8) the most toxic stream
in the area was Spring Creek which discharged high concentrations of
metals into Keswick Reservoir on the Sacramento River. The Spring Creek
Reservoir was built upstream of Keswick Reservoir and its construction
has had a twofold effect on Keswick Reservoir. Sediment from the creek
is now retained in Spring Creek Reservoir. The reservoir operation
regulates discharges to insure that safe levels of copper concentrations
in Keswick Reservoir are maintained. This method of pollution control
reduces the toxic concentrations of pollutants through dilution but the
mass flow of pollutants remains unchanged.
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TREATMENT OF AMD
In Butte, Montana there is an active open pit mining operation and an
inactive underground mining operation (Kelly Mine). The underground
workings are continuously being dewatered. This water is presently
mixed with lime and discharged into the tailings of the active operations
where the metals reportedly precipitate as hydroxides. The properties
of this untreated water are shown in Table 15.
TABLE 15. PROPERTIES OF KELLY
UNDERGROUND MINE WATER
Consti tuent
PH
Iron
Zinc
Copper
Arsenic
Sulfate
Concentration
(rag/I)
1.8[a]
270
145
68
0.9
4,600
[a] pH units.
A pilot scale demonstration project for removal of heavy metals by
precipitation was performed on a mine waste in Colorado with encouraging
results [EPA 1973m]. A two-stage process was used to treat the acid
water. Lime was added in the first stage raising the pH which caused
aluminum and iron to precipitate. Barium sulfide was added, in the
second step where the remainder of the heavy metals formed sulfide
precipitates. The added barium was precipitated from solution as barium
sulfate. The need for further research ,into this process is discussed
in Section 8.
Backfill ing Mine With. Inert Material or Tailings
Mining methods such as cut and fill stoping require the backfilling of
worked-out slopes prior to excavation of new ore. Common sources of
backfill are mine waste, tailings and surface material. The backfill
may either be placed hydraulically or pneumatically. Illustrations of
cut and fill and methods of placing backfill are presented in Appendix B.
Backfilling the worked-out stopes reduces the availability of oxygen to
material in the stope and subsequent oxidation and pollution. If tailings
or mine waste is used for backfill the size of external dumps and their
associated pollution problems are reduced or eliminated. Another advantage
to backfilling is that it reduces the possibility of subsidence.
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Backfilling is not appliable to all mines since it is dependent on the
mining method. The application of this technology, may in some cases,
provide a solution to pollution from inactive mines. A disadvantage
that must be considered is that subsequent recovery of other minerals .in
the tailings not extracted originally will be more costly if not imprac-
tical if tailings are used for backfill material.
EROSION PREVENTION
The principal methods for stabilization of milling wastes include:
0 Physical - covering of the tailings with soil or other restraining
materials.
0 Chemical - application of chemicals which interact with fine-sized
minerals forming a stable surface crust.
° Vegetative - initiation of plant growth on the tailings.
Physical Stabilization '
Many materials have been used to physically stabilize fine tailings,
preventing wind and water erosion and ultimately water pollution. The
material used most often for stabilization is rock or soil borrowed from
nearby areas. Soil often has the dual advantage of providing an effective
cover and a suitable habitat for local vegetation. '
Crushed or granulated smelter slag has been used in many instances to
stabilize a variety of fine wastes, such as inactive tailings,ponds.
Unlike soils or country rock, slag cannot provide a favorable habitat
for vegetation. Furthermore, suitable slag must be locally available.
Chemical Stabilization
Chemical stabilization involves application of chemical compounds which
react with mineral wastes. This forms an impermeable crust or layer
which reduces water and wind erosion of tailings. Chemicals are not as
permanent as soil covering or vegetative stabilization. However, chemicals
can be used on sites unsuited for the growth of vegetation because of
harsh climatic conditions or the presence of toxic materials.
Studies Have been conducted by Dean in which seventy chemical soil
stabilizers were evaluated in the laboratory and field plots
[Aplin 1973]. The comparative costs and effectiveness in reducing
erosion were,evaluated. The types of chemical compounds available for
soil stabilization include: resinous adhesiyes and emulsions; lignosulfonate
compounds; wax and reSin compounds; and silicate compounds such as
potassium and sodium silicates; bituminous by-products; and catiohic
neoprene emulsions.
Vegetative Stabilization
Revegetatiqn of tailings is both a practical and aesthetically pleasing
solution to bank stabilization. Vegetation is a good stabilizer for
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loose soil and it helps generate a pleasing appearance. The seeding of
tailings has been the subject of much research. After hardy plant types
are developed, they must be placed in proper conditions for continued
growth. In many cases soil amendments such as fertilizer and organic
matter such as wood chips or digested sewage sludge must be applied with
the seed for proper germination. Methods of application have been
studied by many investigators.
In Tucson, Arizona a vegetative stabilization program has been in operation
for several years on active mine tailings. Many native and foreign
plants have been studied with good results. The tailings have been
seeded by hydromulching. As this is a desert area, the plant types that
can be utilized are limited to desert flora [Aplin 1973].
In Toronto, Canada, an active mining operation is utilizing vegetative
stabilization within the Canadian Shield area. This area is characterized
by a moderate amount of rainfall, severe winters, and a short growing
season. The program has been successful for both acid tailings (mining
of various pyrites) and alkaline tailings (asbestos-tailings). An
interesting aspect is that the feasibility of commercial crop production
has been demonstrated. The possibility of commercial crop production
may stimulate further interest in revegetation of tailings in other
areas [Aplin 1973].
SEDIMENTATION BASINS
The construction of sedimentation basins in watercourses below eroding
tailings can reduce sediment loads downstream of the basin. The basins
must be designed with sufficient hydraulic detention times to provide
settling of the desired particles. The basins may also reduce dissolution
of metals as the sediments would be restricted to a more compact area
rather than distributed over a long stretch of stream. Two possible
drawbacks of the system are periodic maintenance of the structure to
remove sediment and the structure's prevention of fish migration.
DIFFICULTIES IN IMPLEMENTING CONTROL PROGRAMS
Proposals have been made for control of mine drainage at many of the
problem areas. The majority of these proposals are based on existing
technology previously cited. Implementation of the proposed programs is
often cumbersome for many reasons.
The responsibility for pollution abatement is often clouded because the
ownership of surface and mineral rights may be held by different parties.
It is not uncommon that the present owners were not the operators during
active mining but acquired the rights subsequent to mine shutdown.
These owners are often reluctant to spend money on pollution control
projects.
Mine operations are often shutdown when the grade of ore being mined is
no longer economically feasible to process. Active mining may resume if
economic conditions or technological advances again make mining profitable.
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Owners are reluctant to seal workings, fill them with tailings, or in
any way make reactivation more costly. As previously discussed, a
tailings pile may be considered as a low grade ore body. Thus any
reclamation efforts that complicate further reworking of these dumps may
meet with stiff opposition from the owner.
Many of the problem areas are located in rugged mountainous terrain
which have limited access especially in winter months. These access
problems limit the choice of pollution abatement solutions to those
which require little or no routine inspection or maintenance.
In order for a pollution abatement program to be implemented it must
significantly reduce pollution and be cost effective. Much of the
existing technology cited in this section has had limited success in
pollution abatement and frequently the cost effectiveness is questionable.
Additional research is needed to expand pollution abatement technology
which is cost effective and which will reduce pollution.
In the past there has been little incentive for state regulatory agencies
to perform assessments and propose control programs for mine pollution
due to factors which include:
1) The mine owners reluctance to comply with pollution control
requirements.
2) The lack of control technology and definition of "Best Management
Practices".
3) On a statewide basis the mine pollution problem may appear less
significant when compared to other types of pollution for which "Best
Management Practices" are more easily defined.
4) Many of the available pollution control options include treatment
schemes, the cost effectiveness of which is questionable.
Therefore, additional research is needed to expand pollution control and
abatement technology which is cost effective and which will reduce
pollution. This expanded research would allow a better definition of
"Best Management Practices" for many problem areas and would create
positive incentives for regulatory agencies to more fully assess problems
in their areas.
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SECTION 8
RECOMMENDED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
The final objective of this study was to prepare research and development
programs to develop technology to control mine related water pollution.
This section will discuss programs and recommend additional research to:
1) more adequately define pollution mechanisms; 2) develop pollution
abatement technology which is-technically and economically feasible.
The recommended programs are discussed under the following categories:
0 Evaluation of specific pollution problems not sufficiently documented;
0 Development of evaluation techniques necessary to adequately monitor
pollution;
0 Research Into the chemistry related to mine drainage;
0 Research and development in prevention technology;
0 Research and development in treatment technology;
0 Research and development in mining technology to reduce or eliminate
polluted discharges upon mine shutdown;
SPECIFIC PROBLEMS NOT SUFFICIENTLY DOCUMENTED
It has become apparent that past mining activities may be the source of
surface and groundwater pollution problems which were not sufficiently
documented to be included in this study. Groundwater pollution from
inactive mines and mercury discharged during active gold mining are two
examples of poorly documented pollution problems which should be studied
in depth.
EFFECTS OF MINE DRAINAGE ON GROUNDWATER QUALITY
The data search conducted in this study revealed many cases of polluted
surface waters, but little information was available concerning the
occurrence or magnitude of groundwater pollution. For example, the
mining related pollution of the groundwaters in the Cataldo Mission
Flats area of Idaho has been the subject of extensive investigation.
Acidic waters, high in metal concentrations, were shown to have moved
more than 700 metres in this shallow aquifer. In the Globe-Miami District
in Arizona, groundwater quality has degraded over the years as a result
of active and inactive mining operations. In Tucson, Arizona large
copper mill tailings (currently active) are being investigated as a
possible source of groundwater quality degradation.
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Groundwaters are a substantial component of the nation's water resources
and since groundwater pollution is difficult to eliminate, it is recom-
mended that several sites be chosen to investigate the potential of
groundwater pollution from mining activities. Specific areas of interest
should include:
0 Investigation of the mobility of pollutants, such as acids and
metals, through tailings and aquifer systems;
0 Determination of the effects of tailings construction methods and
particle size of tailings on the permeability of the tailings and
the mobility of pollutants;
0 Determination of a suitable tracer which may act as an indicator of
mine related water pollution.
ASSESSMENT OF MERCURY IN SURFACE WATERS FROM GOLD MILLING
In the 19th and early 20th centuries the gold milling process consisted
of passing the crushed ore over mercury amalgamation plates to recover
the gold particles. Most of the mercury produced prior to 1900 was used
in gold milling and much of it was discharged inadvertently into surface
waters as free mercury. The discharge of free mercury into surface
waters may result in the formation of methylmercury compounds and subse-
quent bioaccumulation by fish species.
Although the mercury amalgamation process has been for the most part
replaced by cyanide leaching, its use has continued at some locations.
For example, the Homestake Mine in South Dakota practiced amalgamation
until 1970. At this location, high concentrations of mercury have been
measured in the stream sediments and surface waters below the mill [EPA
1971m]. Along the Jordan River an old gold and silver mining area in
Idaho, high concentrations of mercury have been measured in the flesh of
fish.
A research program should be conducted to identify the location of mills
that produced a significant amount of gold. Particular emphasis should
be placed on states such as Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado,
Idaho, Montana, Nevada, South Dakota, and Utah which historically have
produced significant quantities of gold. Once the locations of the
mills have been established, large mills should be selected for detailed
site testing, since the amount of mercury discharged is probably propor-
tional to the gold produced. Testing should include sampling stream
sediments and fish for high mercury content. Benthic diversity tests
should be performed above and below the affected area to determine the
length of stream affected.
IMPROVEMENT OF POLLUTION MONITORING TECHNIQUES
The assessment phase of this study was greatly complicated by lack of
consistency in water quality sampling and data gathering criteria used
by the agencies involved. Water quality analysis ranged from measurements
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of pH and a few metallic constituents to a complete water quality analysis
consisting of both total and dissolved fractions of heavy metals and the
significant anlons. All too often data regarding the type of mining,
mineral mined, or host ore bodies was unavailable or incomplete.
MONITORING MANUAL
The lack of consistency in data collection criteria and analysis has
emphasized the need for an assessment manual which would standardize
testing and evaluation criteria. Complete testing of all possible
metals at each site is expensive and might easily be avoided. The
following objectives should be accomplished in the preparation of the
manual:
0 Develop selective testing criteria. As shown in Figure 2 various
host ore bodies may be expected to contain certain trace elements.
A matrix could be developed whereby the suspected pollutants would
be selected for testing based upon the mineralogic characteristics
of the ores in a watershed.
0 Review and establish standardized sampling procedures. The consti-
tuents of mine drainage are continuously reacting in the aquatic
environment. Thus, it is necessary to collect and preserve the
samples properly if meaningful test results are to be obtained.
Some constituents, such as pH, must be measured in-situ as laboratory
results will not accurately duplicate field conditions. Often when
metals concentrations are reported, it is unknown if the tests were
run for the total metals or only the dissolved fraction. The
proposed procedures should establish whether analysis should include
total or dissolved metals or both, as the collection and preservation
techniques vary for each test.
0 Develop a predictive model to determine loading functions of pollu-
tants from active and inactive mining areas. Models have been
proposed in coal mining areas but their applicability to metal
mining areas is unproyen. These models should be developed to
assist in the prediction of the effectiveness of water pollution
abatement programs.
0 Determine if a suitable tracer of AMD exists in metal mining areas
and standardize its use in the identification of mine related
pollution. As discussed previously, sulfate has. been used as an
indicator of AMD in coal mining areas but the system has a disad-
vantage due to the often naturally high sulfate concentrations in
the waters of metal mining areas.
CHEMISTRY RELATED TO MINE DRAINAGE
As discussed in previous sections, the chemistry of mine drainage is
complex and not fully understood. Acid mine waters and natural weathering
are responsible for the dissolution of minerals. Once these minerals
enter receiving waters, they may undergo a series of complex interrelated
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reactions. The mineral equilibrium is a function of Eh, pH, temperature,
and constituents of its surrounding solution and atmosphere. Research
is recommended in the following areas in order to expand the knowledge
of the chemistry and significance of some of the pollutants:
0 Determine the mechanisms of transportation and removal of heavy
metals in surface waters.
0 Determine the significance of the formation of organometallic
complexes on the transportation and removal systems. Some investi-
gators believe that formation of these complexes may allow the
metals to remain in solution longer than the analysis of the solu-
bility products would predict.
0 Determine the effects of organometallic complex on the toxicity of
dissolved metals to aquatic species.
0 Expand knowledge concerning the ultimate fate of metals in the
aquatic environment affected by mine drainage. As discussed in
Section 5, the metals discharged into surface waters ultimately
settle into the benthos of streams and lakes but it is suspected
that the metals may later be chemically or biologically redissolved,
becoming a low-level source of non-point source pollution for many
years.
PREVENTION -TECHNOLOGY
The currently utilized prevention and control technology for inactive
mines was discussed in Section 7. Other existing technology, such as
that used for pollution abatement in coal mining, is available. However,
its effectiveness in pollution control at inactive metal mines has not
been demonstrated. There are also unproven proposed abatement schemes
which may prove viable. This section discusses pollution prevention
schemes where additional research is recommended.
AIR CONTROL
The rate-limiting reaction in acid formation is the oxidation of ferrous
iron by molecular oxygen. Experiments have shown that the rate of acid
production from pyrite oxidation is proportional to the partial pressure
of oxygen. In coal mining areas, mine sealing has been attempted, for
years, to reduce acid formation by limiting the quantity of oxygen in
the mine. There are three methods used to seal mines: 1) sealing all
openings exposed to the atmosphere; 2) displacing the air with an inert
gas; 3) displacing air in the mine with water.
Air Seals
Air seals have been tried on coal mines but have had a limited effect in
reducing the discharge of pollutants. Investigations have shown that
oxygen levels must be reduced to 1 percent to achieve a 90 percent
reduction in the formation of acid. The difficulty with air seals is
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that changes In barometric pressure cause the mine to "breathe", making
it difficult to reduce the oxygen content below an average of 15 percent
[Hill 1975a].
Breathing is caused in part by the fact that these free-draining coal
mines are excavated in coal deposits which are relatively close to the
surface and which have a fractured and permeable overburden. This
allows air to pass in and out of the mine in responce to changes in
marometric pressure. Many metal or "hard rock" mines are excavated in
competent rock with more cover than coal mines. Thus, it is expected
that the breathing problem may be reduced. It is therefore recommended
that a demonstration project be undertaken to determine the feasibility
of installing of air seals to reduce pyrite oxidation and subsequent
heavy metal liberation.
Inert Atmosphere
Another method of eliminating oxygen in a mine is displacing oxygen with
an inert gas. Laboratory tests have shown that nitrogen and methane are
the most effective inert atmospheres for the prevention of pyrite oxidation.
A possible source of an inert atmosphere is the biological decomposition
of organic matter in an anaerobic environment. The gas produced consists
principally of methane and carbon dioxide.
Studies in sanitary landfills have shown that initially carbon dioxide
is the major constituent of the gas since the process is partially
aerobic. When oxygen has been consumed methane and carbon dioxide are
produced in approximately equal quantities. It has also been shown that
the rate of decomposition and gas production may be regulated by con-
trolling the moisture content of the organics.
It is suggested that organic wastes may be placed in a mine and by
properly controlling the moisture content of the organics the rate of
gas generation could be regulated to overcome problems associated with
breathing. Thus, the inert atmosphere supplied would greatly reduce
pyrite oxidation. Control of gas production would also optimize the
life of the system. In the initial phases of the project it may be
necessary to route the mine drainage around the organics as the acid and
metals may be toxic to the biological process. If this were the case it
would be necessary to provide a fresh water source to control the moisture.
It is recommended that a research program be conducted to investigate
this theory. Specific components of the program would include:
0 Selection of a suitable mine site where the problems of breathing
could be minimized and which is in close proximity to a suitable
source of organics;
0 Determine the toxicity of mine drainage to the biological process
and, if toxic, provide a bypass system to avoid direct contact
between mine drainage and the organics;
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0 Determine the rate of gas production and regulate the moisture
content to overcome breathing;
0 Determine the effectiveness of the inert atmosphere in reducing the
formation and discharge of mine drainage.
Mine Flooding
When pyrite is submerged underwater the production of acid essentially
ceases. It has been demonstrated in coal mines that bulkheads may be
constructed which cause the mine to flood and thus limit air and reduce
the acid production. A possible drawback is that mine drainage may leak
around the bulkhead through fractures in the rodk strata. The bulkheads
must also be periodically inspected for structural integrity to insure
against a sudden failure. Bulkhead seals have demonstrated that acid
formation can be reduced by more than 95 percent, but little is known of
the ability to reduce the dissolution of minerals. It is possible that
proper construction of a well designed bulkhead in competent rock may
eliminate the discharge completely. It is recommended that a demonstration
project be undertaken to determine the effectiveness of bulkhead seals
on inactive metal mines.
EROSION PREVENTION
As discussed in Section 7, the three methods of erosion prevention of
tailings are physical, chemical, and vegetation stabilization. Erosion
prevention is an important technology used in other sectors of the
economy and is regularly used on projects such as highway and new construc-
tion embankments.
The technical problems associated with vegetative stabilization such as
lack of adequate nutrients and organic matter for proper growth and the
presence of toxic compounds makes vegetative stabilization of tailings a
unique problem. Tailings must be properly prepared prior to revegetation
if the plants are to survive and propagate. The surface preparation
includes: addition of necessary nutrients, normal microbial population
must be seeded, excessive salts and phytotoxicants (such as metals) must
be removed, and the soil must be consolidated to prevent blowing sand
which destroys young plants. Costs for this can be high, as shown
in studies by Ludeke the initial application of nutrients by hydroseeding
can be expected to cost approximately $3,200 per hectare [Alplin 1973].
The cost of this type of application in remote areas would be escalated
greatly due to limited access.
It is recommended that research be conducted to develop plant species
with a high resistance to the toxic environment to avoid the high cost
of tailings preparation prior to revegetation. Additional topics for
further research might include investigation of plants species which
extract heavy metals from the soil and concentrate the metals in the
plant tissue. Hybridization of these plants may produce plants which
could be economically harvested to recover the concentrated metals.
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TREATMENT
A desirable solution to eliminate water pollution at inactive mines is
the prevention of its formation. Often this may be impractical techno-
logically and not cost effective. Treatment of mine drainage based on
proven technology is a positive approach to the elimination of a polluted
discharge. However, treatment processes have some inherent disadvantages
which include: continuous operation and maintenance, purchase of chemi-
cals, sludge disposal, high initial cost, and site availability. Many
treatment processes developed to treat discharges from coal mining may
be applicable in metal mining areas, but their effectiveness in removal
of high concentrations of metals is unknown. Treatment includes both
physical-chemical and biological processing.
NATURAL MINERAL FORMATIONS AS TRAPS FOR DISSOLVED IONS
Naturally occurring silicate minerals exhibit a unique property of ion
adsorption or ion exchange. Such silicate minerals (and the natural
geological formation containing these minerals) might be used for selective
adsorption or ion exchange of dissolved heavy metals and acid in mine
drainage. Similarly, many types of clay can also act as an ion exchange
medium.
In silicon minerals as the oxygen-silicon ratio increases from quartz to
the olivines, a greater percentage of the oxygen bonding power is available
for bonding to cations other than silicon. Hence, with an increasing
oxygen-silicon ratio, there is increasing oxygen-to-metal bonding capa-
bility. Upon the fracturing of a silicate mineral crystal, the oxygen-
metal bond, which is almost entirely ionic in character, should break
more easily than the stronger oxygen-silicon bond, resulting in a greater
number of unsatisfied negative charges on the surface. If the mineral
is then immersed in a liquid containing hydrogen ions, these negative
charges will neutralize free hydrogen ions in the solution. An increase
in the degree of adsorption of hydrogen ions is to be expected as the
oxygen-silicon ratio in the crystal structure increases [Deju 1965].
It is recommended that a research and development program be undertaken
with the following objectives:
0 Identify natural silicate formations which exhibit acid neutralizing
capabilities;
0 Determine the feasibility of treatment of AMD with these formations;
0 Identify pollution problem areas in close proximity to silicate
formations with acid neutralizing properties;
0 Conduct demonstration projects to determine the effectiveness of
silicates as an acid neutralizer;
0 Determine the cost effectiveness and life expectancy of this treat-
ment process.
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Other natural mineral and rock formations may have acid neutralizing
properties similar to silicates. Other research programs should be
conducted to determine if other such formations exist and their effec-
tiveness as an acid neutralizer.
BOTANICAL TREATMENT
Some plant species are known to have the ability to extract heavy
metals from the soil and to concentrate the metals in the plant tissue.
The feasibility of utilizing these plants in a treatment process for
mine drainage should be investigated further. The water hyacinth and
some natural bogs have this ability.
Recent studies have shown that the water hyacinth has the ability to
remove metals from solutions and to concentrate the metals as much as
10,000 times [Water Newsletter 1976]. The plants have proven to be an
effective removal system for lead, mercury, and other pollutants. The
plants also have shown that a single plant can to produce up to 60,000
plants in eight months with proper harvesting and disposal. The combi-
nation of the plants ability to concentrate metals and proliferate in
large quantaties may prove to be an effective treatment process for the
removal of the dissolved constituents in mine drainage.
A research program should be conducted to:
0 Determine if hyacinths can proliferate in an acidic environment;
0 Determine threshold toxicity of various metals to the plants;
0 Determine its effectiveness in the removal of pollutants.
Bog iron deposits were formed by waters, containing high concentrations
of ferrous iron, flowing through natural bogs. These bogs removed the
iron from solutions and concentrated it in the cellular structure of the
plants. Feasibility studies should be conducted to determine if natural
bogs can effectively remove pollutants from mine drainage. Further
research is recommended to determine if other plants have the ability to
remove pollutants.
PHYSICAL CHEMICAL TREATMENT
Most of the existing treatment processes for mine drainage (from both
coal and ore mining areas) are physical-chemical methods. Many of the
processes developed for coal mine drainage may be applicable to metal
mine drainage. However, the effectiveness of these processes in the
removal of high concentrations of heavy metals is unknown and should be
verified. The most common treatment process in coal mining areas is the
addition of lime which neutralizes the acid and causes the dissolved
ferric iron to precipitate. This process and other possible processes
are discussed further.
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Precipitation .
As discussed In Section 7 pilot scale studies have shown that metals may
be removed from mine drainage by a two-step process. Lime is added in
the first step to raise the pH causing iron and aluminum to precipitate.
Barium sulfide was added in the second step where the remainder of the
heavy metals formed insoluble sulfide precipitates. The added barium
was precipitated from solution as barium sulfate. A drawback of this
system is the high cost of barium sulfide.
It is recommended that further research be conducted to develop an
inexpensive sulfide source for this process. The biological reduction
of sulfate, which is abundant in mine drainage, may be a possible sulfide
source. This is known to occur in sanitary landfill where sulfides are
produced when brackish water, high in sulfates, infiltrates into the
solid waste. If an economical sulfide source is discovered it is recom-
mended that a demonstration project be undertaken to determine its cost
effectiveness and effectiveness in removing pollutants.
Foam Flotation
As discussed in Section 4, flotation 1s presently used for beneficiation
in the mineral industry. However, as foam flotation, it may prove to be
a feasible process in the removal of heavy metals in mine drainage and
ore concentration wastes at active operations. The process consists of
addition of an organic collector forming an anionic complex which may be
removed from solution by flotation. These collectors may be an amine or
a simple cation. An example of this type of reaction is:
S S S
ROC-S.Na + Cu** ROC-S.Cu.S-COR + 2Na+ (13)
(xanthate) (copper xanthate)
The development of the existing flotation technology is directed toward
economic recovery of minerals and is not directed toward recovery of
metals in the concentrations encountered in mine drainage. It is recom-
mended that additional research be conducted in this field to determine
if metals can be removed from solution in the concentration encountered
in mine drainage.
Reverse Osmosis
Treatment of an add discharge from a coal mine by reverse osmosis (RO)
has been shown to be an effective method of treatment which produces a
high quality effluent [EPA 1973b]. Recovery was limited by calcium
sulfate scaling which might be avoided by the addition of a sequestering
agent. The high rejection rates obtained by RO for calcium, iron, and
maganese indicates that RO may be a technically feasible process for
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treating AMD, from ore and mineral mining. However, application of the
process would be greatly limited by its high initial cost and continual
operation and maintenance. Since RO is a concentration process the
disposal of waste brine imposes limitations on its application for mine
drainage pollution abatement.
It is unknown if the process will exhibit high rejection rates for the
other disolved metals in AMD. Therefore it is recommended that a feasi-
bility study be performed to determine the applicability of RO to treatment
of AMD with high concentrations of heavy metals. If RO proves successful,
demonstration projects should be undertaken.
EFFECTS OF MINING TECHNIQUES ON POLLUTION CONTROL
One of the most significant factors affecting the potential for pollution
from a mine is the method of mining. A mine working may be either free
draining or may need pumping to discharge intercepted groundwater. The
flow of groundwater has in some instance been the limiting factor in the
excavation of a mine. Some tunnels such as the Sutro near Virginia
City, Nevada and the Argo near Clear Creek, Colorado were constructed
primarily as drainage tunnels. Drainage from the Argo is one of the
primary sources of pollution in Clear Creek.
When the mine is deactivated, flow can be expected to continue from
free-draining mines and if pyrites are present, acid discharge will
result. Mines that must be pumped will fill with water and may produce
no discharge. At present, there are no specific guidelines available
delineating the various methods which can be used to properly deactivate
a mine and prevent the formation and discharge of polluted drainage.
It is recommended that a manual be prepared summarizing applicable
prevention, reclamation, and monitoring procedures. The manual should
include topics such as:
0 Removal of broken ore or mineralized waste from the workings;
0 Sealing tunnels, workings, shafts, etc., diversion of surface water
from mine openings and tailings;
0 Surface reclamation;
0 Tailings sealing and revegetation;
0 Construction of evaporation ponds;
0 Backfilling mine with inert material or tailings;
0 Flooding the workings;
0 Establishing proper monitoring techniques.
105
-------
SECTION 9
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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to Mining. Edited by Hadley, R. F. and Snow, D. T.T974~:
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Appalachian Regional Commission. Determination of Estimated Mean
Mine Water Quantity and Quality from Imperfect Data and Historical
Records.January, 1973.
Arizona Daily Star. Tucson, Arizo.na. "Uranium Remnants Radiating Part
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Avotins, P. and Jenne, E. A. "Time Stability of Dissolved Mercury in
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Baker, D. H., Bhappu, R. B. "Specific and Environmental Problems
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and Energy."
Boyles, J.M., et al. Impact of the Argo Tunnel Acid Mine Drainage
and Mine Tailings on Clear Creek and Possible Abatement Procedures.
Colorado School of Mines.December 1973.
Brezina, E. R., et. al. "Effects of Acid Mine Drainage on Water Quality
of a Reservoir." Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation.
Volume 42, No. 8, Page 14, 29.August, 1970.
California Division of Mines and Geology. Principal Areas of Mine
Pollution. June 1972.
. 67th Report of the State Geologist. 1973-74.
California Regional Water Quality Control Board. Central Valley Divi-
sion. Pre-feasibility Study Corona Mine Waste Demonstration
Abatement Project.November, 1971.
. Lahontan Region. Report on Pollution of Leviathan Creek
Brian Creek, and the East Fork of the Carson River Caused by
Leviathan Sulfur Mine.January, 1975.
106
-------
California State Water Resources Control Board. Hater Quality Criteria.
McKee and Wolf. 1963.
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 10, Chapter 1, Part 20. Standards
for Protection Against Radiation.
Colorado Department of Health, Water Pollution Control Commission.
Guidelines for Control of Water Pollution from Mine Drainage
Adopted November, 1970.
Colorado Water Conservation Board. Circular No. 21. Effects of Mine
Drainage on the Quality of Streams in Colorado 1971-1972.Wentz,
D. A. 1974.
Circular No. 25. Effects of Metal-Mine Drainage on Water
PJ
W<
fuality in Selected Areas of Colorado 1972-73.Moran, R.E. and
entz, D.A. 1974.
The Daily Sentinel. Grand Junction, Colorado. Newspaper articles over
the period 1970-1975 on use of radioactive climax tailings for
construction fill and concrete in Grand Junction area. Also studies
on radiation effects and removal of tailings.
Deju, R. A., and Bhappu, R. B. Surface Properties of Silicate Minerals.
State Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources.New Mexico Institute
of Mining and Technology, Socorroi New Mexico. 1965.
Duncan, David L. and Eadie, Gregory G. Environmental Surveys of the
Uranium Mill Tailings Pile and Surrounding Areas, Salt Lake City,
Utah.Environmental Protection Agency, National Environmental
Research Center, Las Vegas, Nevada. August, 1974.
Emrich, G. H. and Merritt, G. L. "The Effects of Mine Drainage on
Groundwater." Groundwater. Volume 7, No. 3. June, 1969.
Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA). Statistical
Data of the Uranium Industry. January, 1975.
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Northwest Region, Alaska
Water Laboratory. Effects of Placer Mining on Water Quality in
Alaska. February, 1969.
Fifth Symposium on Coal Mine Drainage Research. Mellon Institute. Coal
in the Environment Technical Conference. October, 1974. Louisville,
Kentucky.
Flaxman, E. M. "Predicting Sediment Yield in Western United States."
Journal of Hydraulics Division. American Society of Civil
Engineers.December, 1972.
107
-------
Pollen, R. H. and Will son, J. C. Pollution of Lynx Lake by Drainage
from the Abandoned Sheldon Mine"!Arizona State Department of -
Health.August, 1969.
Fourth Symposium on Coal Mine Drainage Research. Mellon Institute.
April, 1972. Plttsburg, Pennsylvania.
Galbraith, J. H., et. al. "Migration and Leaching of Metals from Old
Mine Tailings Deposits". Groundwater. Volume 10, No. 3. May-
June, 1972.
Garrels, R. M., and Christ, C. L. Solutions and Mineral Equilibrium.
Freeman and Cooper. 1965.
Hem, J. D. and Durum, W. H. "Solubility and Occurrence of Lead in
Surface Water." Journal of American Water Works Association.
August, 1973. Page 562.
H111, R. D. "Add Mine Water Control". Mining Environmental Conference.
Rola, Missouri. April 16, 1969.
"Neutrolosls Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage." 26th Annual
Purdue Industrial Waste Conference, Layfayette, Indiana.
May, 1971.
. "Restoration of a Terresterial Env1ronment-The Surface Mine."
AlS Bulletin. Volume 18, No. 3. July, 1971.
. "Treatment of Ponds and Pits Filled With Acid Mine Drainage."
RaFch, 1974.
. "Non-point Pollution from Mining and Mineral Extraction."
Presented at Conference on Non-point Sources of Water Pollution,
Virginia Water Resources Research Center, Blacksburg, Virginia.
May, 1975.
. "Sediment Control in Surface Mining." Pol1sh-U.S. Symposium.
Environmental Protection in Open Pit Coal Mining, Denver, Colorado.
May 1975.
Hines, W. G. Preliminary Investigation of Mercury-Hazard Potential
Warm Springs Dam and Lake Sonoma Project, Dry Creek Basin,
Sonoma County, California.USGS Water Resources Division, Open
file report. Menlo Park, California. November, 1971.
Jenne, E. A. "Controls on Mn, Fe, Co, N1, Cu, and Zn Concentrations 1n
Soils and Water: the Significant Role of Hydrous Mn and Fe Oxides".
Reprint from Advances 1n Chemistry Series Number 73, Trace Organics
in Water. 1968.
108
-------
Jenne, E. A., and Avotins P. "The Time Stability of Dissolved Mercury in
Water Samples. No. 1. Literature Review." Journal of Environmental
Quality. Volume 4, No. 4. 1975. ~~~
Jennett, J. C., Wixson, B. 6. "Problems in Lead Mining Waste Control."
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation. Volume 44, No. 11.
November, 1972.~~~~
King, D. L, et. al. "Acid Strip Mine Lake Recovery". Journal of
Water Pollution Control Federation. Volume 46, No. 10.October,
1974: 2301.
Lee, Dich. Metallic Contaminants and Human Health. Academic Press. 1972.
Loy, L. D. "Deep Mine Pollution-Solving the Hole Problem." Spring
meeting of the Interstate Mining Compact Commission. Date unknown.
Lynn, R. D. and Arlin, Z. E. "Anaconda Successfully Disposes Uranium
Mild Wastewater by Deep Well Injection." Mining Engineering.
July, 1967: 49-52. :
Missouri Department of Conservation, Aquatic Series No. 10. Water
Quality Survey of the Southeast Ozark Mining Area, 1965-1971.
Ryck, F. M.August, 1974.
Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences. Appraisal of
Water Quality in the Boulder River Drainage and Potential Methods
of Pollution"Abatement or Control.R. D. Braico, and M. K. Botz.
December, 1974.
Montana, Department of Natural Resources and Conservation. Progress
Report No. 13. Annual Report on Studies Concerning Acid Mine
Drainage. Stream Pollution Abatement Near Hughsville, Montana.
. Annual Report Acid Mine Drainage Control-Feasibility Study.
Cook City, Montana.Wallace, J. J., et al. April, 1975.
National Academy of Sciences. Underground Disposal of Coal Mine
Waste. 1975.
Nevada Bureau of Mines. Bulletin No. 66. Interpretation of Leach
Outcrops. Blanchard, R. Mackey School of Mines, University of
Nevada. 1968.
Oregon Department of Planning and Development. "A Method of Electro-
winning Copper and Zinc (or Brass)." Menidest, R. E. December,
1962.
Patterson, R. M. "Stowing in Abandoned Mines for Drainage Control".
Interstate Mining Compact Meeting. May 16, 1974.
109
-------
Pennsylvania State University, Department of Civil Engineering. Insti
tute for Research on Land and Water Resources. Crushed Limestone
Barriers: A Basic Feasibility Study in the Neutralization of
Acid Streams. R. E. Jarrett and R. Koumpz. Water Resources
Research Publication 2-66. June, 1966.
Pine, R. E. The Effects of the Hoi den Mine Tailings on the Aquatic
Insect Fauna of Railroad Creek. State of Washington Water Pol-
lution Control Commission. October, 1967.
Pugsley, E. B. Removal of Heavy Metals from Mine Drainage in Colorado
by Precipitation. Master Thesis, University of Denver. March,
Reimers, et. al. "Sorbtlon Phenomenon in Organics of Bottom Sediments."
Reprinted from Progress and Water Technology, Volume 7. K. Krenke. ,
Editor. 1975. Oxford. Permagon Press.
Roase, J. V., Dudley, J. 6. Radlochernical and Toxic Pollution of Water
Resources, Grants Mineral Belt, New Mexicol AIME Annual Meeting,
Las Vegas, Nevada. February, 1976.
Santa Clara County Parks and Recreation. Draft Environmental Impact
Report for the Proposed Almaden Quicksilver Park Equestrian
Center. Earth Metrics Incorporated. May 16, 1975.
Sawyer and McCarty. Chemistry for Sanitary Engineers. McGraw-Hill.
1967.
Scott, R. B., Wilmoth, R. C., and Hill, R. D. "Cost of Reclamation in
Mine Drainage Abatement, El kins Demonstration Project." Society
of Mining Engineers AIME Transactions. Volume 252. June, 1972.
Second Research and Applied Technology Symposium on Mine-land Recla-
mation. Coal and Environment Technical Conference. October 1974.
Louisville, Kentucky.
Sizemore, D. R. "The Effects of Acid Mine Drainage on Chestnut Creek in
Virginia." Masters Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute.
August, 1973.
Stumm, W., Lee G. F. "Oxygenation of Ferrous Iron." Industrial
Engineering Chemistry. Volume 53: 143-146. 196TT
_ . Aquatic Chemistry. Wiley-Interscience, 1970.
Task Committee on Preparation of Sedimentation Manual. "Sediment Sources
and Sediment Yield." Journal of Hydraulics Division. American
Society of C1v1l Engineers.June, 1970:1283.
Third Symposium on Coal Mine Drainage Research. Mellon Institute. May,
1970. Pittsburg, Pennsylvania.
no
-------
Third Symposium on Surface Mining and Reclamation, Volumes 1 and 2.
Coal Conference on Expo II, October, 1975. Louisville, Kentucky.
Trakowsky, A. C. "Abandoned Underground Mines." Interstate Mining
Compact Commission, Spring Meeting, Pipesden, West Virginia. May,
1974.
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. Summary Report, Phase I Study of
Inactive Uranium Mill Sites and Tai1~^
data on various mill sites. October.
Inactive Uranium Mill S1tes~and Tailings Piles, plus back-up
"" ' """""~ ', 1974.
. Grand Junction Office. Uranium Industry Seminar. October,
1974: 13-38.
U.S. Bureau of Mines. Penn Mines Slag Dump and Mine Water Calaveras
County, California^Wlebelt, F. J.and Ricker, F.March, 1948.
Hydraulic Model Studies for Backfilling Mine Cavities.
REC/ERC/75/3.Carlson, E. J.March, 1975.
. Environmental Effects of Underground Mining and of Mineral
Processing.Draft Report.
. Surface Mining in our Environment.
. Report of Investigation No.. 8036. Paulmetric Materials for
Sealing Raidon Gas into the Walls of Uranium Mines.J. C. Franklin,
et al. 1975.
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration. Disposition and Control of Uranium Mill
Tailings Piles in the Colorado River Basin.March, 1966.
_. Technical Report W62-17. Process and Waste Characteristics
at Selected Uranium Mills. 1972.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Water Research and Technology.
PB/239 523. Acid Mine Water, a Bibliography. February, 1975.
U.S. Forestry Service. "Chequamegon and Nicolet, National Forest,
Wisconsin, Hunt, CUnt." Iron-Brule River Report. March 1974.
U.S. Geological Survey, Water Supply Paper No. 1473. Study and
Interpretation of Chemical Characteristics of Natural Waters.
J. D. Hem.Reprinted 1965.
. 622. The Absorption of Silver by Poorly Crystalized
Manganese Oxides. D. J. Anderson., et. al.
_. Open File Report. Mercury in the Water of the United
States. 1970-71. Jenny, E. A. April, 1972.
Ill
-------
. Colorado Water Resources Circular No. 25. Effects of Metal-
Mine Drainage on Water Quality in Selected Areas, 1972-73.Moran,
R. E. and Wentz, D. A. 1974.
- . . Open F11 e Report. Limnoloqica.1 Data From Selected Lakes in
the San Francisco Bay Region, California.Britton, L. J., et. al.
T97T:
U.S. Public Health Service. Report on Investigation of Groundwater
Pollution; Grants-Bluewater, New Mexico. Robert A. Taft Sanitary
Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio.August, 1957.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 14010 DKN 11/70. Microbial
Factor in Acid Mine Drainage Formation. July, 1970. Water
Pol1uti on Control Research Seri es.
. 14010 ETV 08/70. Neutralization of High Ferric Iron Acid Mine
Drainage. Wilmoth, R. C. and Hill, R. D.August, 1970.Water
Pollution Control Research Series.
. 14010 FMH 12/70. Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage by Ozone
Oxidation. December, 19757Water Pollution Control Research
Series.
. 14010 FKK 12/70. Underground Coal Mining Methods to Abate
Water Pollution. December, 1970. Water Pollution Control Research
Series.
. A Reexamination of the Coeur D'Alene River. Jack E. Sceva
"and" William Schmidt, September, 1971. ~
' f
. Grant No. 14010FPR. Acid Mine Drainage Formation and
Abatement. Ohio State University Research Foundation.Water
Pollution Control Research,Seri es. Apri1 1971.
. Grant No. 18050EEC1271. Acid Mine Pollution Effects on
Lake Biology. Smith, R. W. and Frey, D. G. Water Pollution
Control Research Series. December 1971.
. 14010 DYG 08/71. Acid Mine Waste Treatment Using Reverse
Osmosis. August, 1971. Water,Pollution Control Research Series.
. 14010 SPZ 09/71. Concentrated Mine Drainage Disposal Into
"Sewage Treatment Systems"September, 1971. Water Pollution~
Control Research Series.
. 14010 ECC 08/71. Effects of Various Gas Atmospheres on the
IjxTdation of Coal Mine Pyrites. August, 1971. Water Pollution
Control Research Series.
112
-------
14010 DYI 02/71. Evaluation of a New Acid Mine Drainage
Treatment Process. February, 1971.Water Pollution Control
Research Series.
. 14010 DRB 05/71. Flocculation and Clarification of Mineral
Suspension. May, 1971. Water Pollution Control Research Series.
. 14010 DAY 06/71. Inorganic Sulfur Oxidation by Iron-Oxidizing
Bacteria. June, 1971. Water Pollution Control Research Series.
?
. 04010 ENW 09/71. Micro-Biological Treatment of Acid Mine
Drainage Waters. September, 1971. Water Polltuion Control Re-
search Series.
. ORD-14010 DYH 12/71. Neutradesulfati ng Treatment Process
for Acid Mine Drainage. December, 1971. Water Pollution Control
Research Series.
. Division of Field Investigation, Denver Center. Pollution
Affecting Water Quality of the Cheyenne River System, Western
South Dakota. September, 1971.
. 14010 EIZ 12/71. Studies of Limestone Treatment of Acid
Mine Drainage. Part II.December, 1971.Water Pollution Control
Research Series.
. 14010 FNQ 02/72. Electro-Chemical Treatment of Acid Mine
Waters. February, 1972.Water Pollution Control Research Series.
. National Environmental Research Center. Evaluation of
Bulkhead Seals. R. B. Scott. October, 1972.
. 14010 FQR 03/73. Reverse Osmosis Demineralization of Acid
Mined Drainage. March, 1972.Water Pollution Control Research
Series. -- ;
. 14010 EFK 06/72. Use of Laytex as a Soil Sealant to Control
Acid Mine Drainage. June, 1972. Water Pollution Control Research
Series.
. EPA-670/2-73-092. Abatement of Mine Drainage Pollution
"blTUnderground PrecipitatTorTStoddard, C. K. October, 1973*
Environmental Protection Technology Series.
_. EPA-670/2-73-100. Applications of Reverse Osmosis to Acid
Mine Drainage Treatment. Wilmoth, R. C. December, 1973.Environ-
mental Protection Technology Series.
_. EPA-R2-73-230. Control of Mine Drainage from Coal Mine
Mineral Wastes. Kosowski, Z. Z.May, 1973. Environmental
Protection Technology Series.
113
-------
. EPA-R2-73-169. Dewaterlng of Mine Drainage Sludge. Akers,
E. J. and Moss, E. A. February, 1973. Environmental Protection
Technology Series.
. EPA-R2-73-151. Feasibility Study: Lake Hope Mine Drainage
Demonstration Project.March, 1973.Environmental Protection
Technology Series.
. EPA-R3-73-032. Fish and Food Organisms in Acid Mine Waters
of Pennsylvania. R. L. Butler, et al. February 1973.Ecological
Research Series.
. EPA-430/9-73-012. Groundwater Pollution From Some Surface
Excavations. 1973.
. EPA-R2-73-135. Investigation of Use of Gel for Mine Sealing.
Chung, N. K. January, 1973. Environmental Protection Technology
Series.
. EPA-670/2-73-081. Laboratory Study of Self Sealing Limestone
Plugs for Mine Openings. Penrose, R. G. and Holubec, I. September,
1973.Environmental Protection Technology Series.
. EPA-430/9-73-011. Processes Procedures, and Methods to Control
Pollution from Mining Activities.October, 1973.
. National Field Investigation Center, Denver, Colorado.
Reconnaisance Study of Radio Chemical Pollution from Phosphate
Rock Mining and Milling.December, 1973.
. EPA-670/2-73-080. Removal of Heavy Metals from Mine Drains
by Precipitation. -Ross, L. W.September, 1973.Environmental
Protection Technology Series.
. National Environmental Research Center. Sealing of Coal
Refuse Piles. R. B. Scott. July, 1973.
. National Environmental Research Center. Sodium Hydroxide
Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage. J. L. Kennedy. February, 1973.
. Region X-3. Water Quality Considerations for the Metal Mining
Industry In the Pacific Northwest.Sceva, J. E.1973.
. EPA-670/2-74-009. Analysis of Pollution Control Costs. Doyle,
F. J., et. al. February, 1974.Environmental Protection Technology
Series.
. EPA-670/2-74-001. Carbonate Bonding of Taconite Tailings.
La Rosa, P. J. et al. January, 1974.Environmental Protection
Ttchnology Sries.
114
-------
EPA-670/2-74-023. Electro-Chemical Removal of Heavy Metals
from Acid Mine Drainage. Franco, M. B. and Baloufkusra. May, 1974.
Environmental Protection Technology Series.
. EPA-670/2-74-093. Environmental Protection In Surface Coal
Mining of Coal. Grim, E. C., Hill, R. D.October, 1974.
. PB 241247. Environmental Surveys of the Uranium Mill
Tailings, Pile, and Surrounding Areas. Salt Lake City, Utah.
Office of Radiation Programs for Las Vegas, Nevada.August, 1974.
. EPA-670/2-74-051. Limestone and Limestone Lime Neutralization
of Acid Mine Drainage. Wilmoth, R. C.June, 1974.Environmental
Protection Technology Series.
. EPA-660/3-74-021. Mercury in Aquatic Systems: Methylation,
Oxidation-Reduction, and Bioaccumulation. August 1974. Ecological
Research Series.
. EPA-670/2-74-003. Mine Drainage Pollution Control Demonstra-
tion Grant Procedures and Requirements. Zaval, F. J. and Burns, R.
A~!October, 1974.Environmental Protection Technology Series.
. EPA-670/2-74-070. Mine Spoil Potentials for Soil and Water
Quality. Smith, R. M., et al. October, 1974. Environmental
Protection Technology Series.
. EPA-660/2-74-019. North Fork Alluvial Decontamination Project,
Hubard Creek Reservoir Watershed. Jacob, B. L. April, 1974.
Environmental Protection Technology Series.
. EPA-660/2/75/038. State-of-the-Art. Uranium Mining. Milling,
and Refining Industry. Clark, D. A.June, 1974.Environmental
Protection Technology Series.
. EPA-660/2/74/018. Storage and Disposal of Iron Ore Processing
Wastewater. Baillod, C. R. and Alger, P. R.March, 1974.Environ-
mental Protection Technology Series.
. "User's Handbook for Assessment of Water Pollution From Non-
point Sources." Midwest Research Institute. December 18, 1974.
(Draft)
. EPA-440/9-75-008. Criteria for Developing Pollution Abate-
ment Programs for Inactive~and Abandoned Mine Sites.August, 1975.
. Development Document for Effluent Limitation Guidelines and
Standards of Performance.Mineral, Mining, and Processing Industry.
Volume 1.Minerals for the Construction Industry. October, 1975.
115
-------
. Development Document for Effluent Limitation Guidelines and
Standards of Performance.Mineral, Mining, and Processing Industry.
Volume 2. Minerals for the Chemical and Fertilizer Industries.
1975.
. Development Document for Effluent Limitation Guidelines and
Standards of Performance. Mineral, Mining, and Processing Industry.
Volume 3.Clay, Ceramic, Refractering, and Miscellaneous Minerals.
1975. '
. EPA-660/3-75-018. Groundwater Pollution Problems in the North-
western United States. Vander Leden, F.et. al.May, 1975.
. EPA-440/-75-007. Inactive and Abandoned Underground Mines
Water Pollution Prevention and Control.June, 1975.
. Water Programs, "National Interim Primary Drinking Water
Regulations." Federal Register 40, No. 248. December 24, 1975:
59566-59588.
. Guidelines. "Ore Mining and Dressing Point Source Category."
Federal Register 40, No. 215. November 6, 1975: 51722-51748.
. River Basin Water Quality Status, 1975, Spokane River Basin
₯
ilj
Profile!Surveillance and Analysis.1975.
. EPA-670/2/75/047. Up-dip Versus Down-dip Mining and Evaluation.
Mentz, J. W. and Warg, J. ~~B~iJune, 1975.Environmental Protection
Technology Series.
Virginia State Water Control Board. Feasibility Study: Contrary
Creek Mine Drainage Abatement Project.Miorin, A. S., et al.
T__
Water Newsletter. January 13, 1976.
Williams, J. R., Berndt, H. D. "Sediment Yield Computed With Universal
Equation". Journal Hydraulics Division. American Society of Civil
Engineers. December, 1972.
Williams, R. E. Acid Mining Drainage in Idaho. University of Idaho,
College of Mines. September, 1975.
Wilmoth, R. C., Kennedy, J. L., and Hill, R. D. "Observation on Iron
Oxide Rates in Acid Mine Drainage Neutralization Plants." Presented
at the Fifth Symposium on Coal Mine Drainge Research, Louisville,
Kentucky. October, 1974.
Wixson, D. 6. and Chen, H. W. Stream Pollution and the New Lead Belt
of Southeast Missouri/ Missouri Water Resources Research Center,
University of Missouri, Roll and. August 1970.
116
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APPENDIX A
METRIC CONVERSION
From
Hectares
Hectares
Kilometres
Litres/ Second
Litres/Second
Metric Tons
Metres3
Metric Tons
Metric Tons
Metric Tons
To
Acres
Square Miles
Miles
Cubic Foot/Sec
Gall on/Mi n
Ounces
(avoirdupois) -
Yards3
Ounces (troy)
Tons (long)
Tons (short)
Multiply By [a]
2.472 E+00
8.862 E-03
6.215 E-01
3.531 E-02
1.585 E+01
3.527 E+04
1.308 E+00
3.215 E+04
1.842 E-01
1.102 E+00
[a] The conversion factors are written as numbers greater
than one and less than ten. This is followed by the
letter E (exponent), a plus of minus sign, and two
digits which indicate the power of ten by which the
number must be multiplied to obtain the correct value.
For example: 3.862 E-03 is 0.003862.
117
-------
APPENDIX B
ILLUSTRATION OF VARIOUS MINING TECHNIQUES
Figure B-1. Open stoping sublevel stoplng.
118
-------
Figure B-2. Shrinkage stoping.
119
-------
HAULAGE
ENTRY
AIR COURSE
UNDEVELOPED
AREA
PLAN VIEW
Figure B-3. Room-and-pillar mining with mechanical loaders.
-------
Figure B-4. Cut-and-fill stoping.
121
-------
RAISE
BLOWER
HYDRAULIC
' POWER PACK
STOWER
ORE CHUTE
Figure B-5. Cut-and-fill mining with pneumatic backfill system.
122
-------
ro
SOLID ORE
SOLID ORE
DRILL HOLESC__ JJ
HANGING WALL
BRACE
FOOT WALL
BRACE
'II111 il'l'Iin 111,11 mi in m i fii,. nnrrttm
. {4 1
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
CROSS SECTION A-A
Figure B-6. Square-set stoping in narrow veins.
-------
ro
FIRST SLICE-CAVED
ORE
WASTE
PLAN
CAPPING
'/ '04-TIMBER MAT
HM SLICE OF ORE TO BE CAVED
SUB -DRIFT
ORE CHUTE
iiiiimmirrn.
ORE
-MANWAY AND TIMBER SLIDE
.MAIN .HAULAGE LEVEL
L2 COMPARTMENT RAISE
SECTION
Figure B-7. Sublevel caving.
-------
ORIGINAL SURFACE
CAVED AREA
BLOCK WEAKENING
DRIFT
GRIZZLY LEVEL
HAULAGE LEVEL
Figure B-8. Block caving.
125
-------
SELF ADVANCING
ROOF SUPPORTS
PLAN
Figure B-9. Longwall mining method.
126
-------
FUTURE
DYKES
SLURRY PIPE
DISCHARGING ONTO
SURFACE OF POND
SUBSEQUENT DYKES
SAND (COARSE TAILINGS
FRACTION )
INITIAL STARTER DYKE
(FREE DRAINING)
V
SLIMES (FINE FRACTION OF
\ \ TAILINGS )
Figure B-10. Tailings dam construction U/S method.
FUTURE DYKES
SLURRY PIPE DISCHARGE
ONTO SURFACE OF POND
SUBSEQUENT DYKES
ROCK TOE FILTER
FOR FINAL
SECTION
DRAINAGE LAYER
COMFftCTE IMPERVIOUS SEAL
INITIAL STARTER DYKE
(IMPERVIOUS)
Figure B-ll. Tailings dam construction D/S method.
127
-------
TABLE C-l. HISTORIC METAL PRODUCTION BY STATES [a]
to
oo
State
Production
DaU
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas %
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
IOWA
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carol 1n
845-1973
>01
662*
24,200
590.
315.
1
198
5,675
113
8.079
3,398
3,403
56
Lead
1873-1973
23
589
1.7
224
2,704
6,742
117
0.5
589
17
11.660
771
487
286
43
Mercury
1850-1973
>
1
101
1
6
Z1nc
1873-1973
1.146
24
150
2,178
2,647
1,280
0.6
3,172
68
44
2,510
2,526
451
3,884
1.324
1,889
.. Iron
1834-1973
313.832
1
29.942
1
897,778
3,609,409
46,555
167.849
Goldfb]
1792-1973
1.5
932
440
3,305
1,278
27
260
0.2
1.0
557
951
73
37
S1lver[b]
1845-1973
0.2
2,916
13.570
3,802
24,860
0.3
29,300
5
>0.1
577
424
27,357
19,011
5.154
42
28
NolybdmnCc]
1914-1973
259
647
0.300
36
Tungsten[d]
1900-1973
-
>0. 1
.-' 1.7
16.9
83.2
10.8
>0.1
6.7
">0.1
o!z
16.5 *
~>0.1
1.8
Uranluatt]
1957-1973
1.8
101.5
Tailings
^13,934
131.853
2,620,782
4.975
333,754
- 567,703
1,200
P «
J
547,882
37,873
csl
41
108,730
2,521
IfiJ
1 ,090
12
To!
1,467,474
3.609,409
' 658J71
1.043.894
508.971
IjM
439J507
217,373
8,400
CO
o
I3S -O
m
-o
I
(Continued)
-------
TABLE CO. HISTORIC METAL PRODUCTION BY STATES (Continued)
ro
ID
State
Production
Data
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Caroling
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Other
Total Above
TOTAL U.S. [f!
Copper
1645-1973
13
>0.1
0.1
621
1.3
10.240
111
15
57,69!
57,800
Lead
1873-1973
1.184
0.6
0.5
61
4.9
4,928
117
251
117
30,923
30.900
Mercury
1850-1973
3.7
4.9
118
120
Zinc
1873-1973
4.733
359
2,639
0.8
1,682
702
572
1,130
35,119
35.300
Iron
1834-1973
30.299
105,977
59,821
88,483
5,350,000
5,420,000
Goldfb]
1792-1973
180
1.2
9.9
1,103
o.a
0,3
644
0.1
5.2
95.0
2.6
10,000
10,000
S11ver[b]
1845-1973
170
6.4
1.1
405
157
1,038
27,260
4.7
2.8
420.
2.3
157,000
153,000
Molybdnumfc]
1914-1973
352
1.Z94
1.294
Tungsten[d]
1900-1973
>0.1
0.6
>0.1
0.1
0.6
139
140
UranlumfeJ
1957-1973
54.5
95.2
253
253
Tailings
[g]
19J
177,500
13,670
39,371
[9]
618
69,854
131,740
5,155
1,557,530
24
23,730
45,450
94,101
102,661
15,000,000
15.000,000
In thousands metric tons unless otherwise noted. Data based on U.S. Bureau of Mines Mineral yearbooks.
Metric tons.
State flgues based on percent production of U.S. total.
Some state figures based on averages.
As U,0~. No data available on production prior to 1957.
U.S. totals differ due to Inconsistencies In state reporting procedures.
Negligible.
-------
u
o
LEGEND
O MAJOR MINES
C=» MAJOR MINING DISTRICTS
X DISPERSED PRODUCTION
Figure C-l. Geographical distribution of mineral production
Copper.
-------
60
55
50
45
40
1
1
I
25
20
\5-
\0-
KXXXJ
AK. AZ. CA. M\. MT. NV. N.M. TN. UT. OTHER U.S.
Figure C-2. Historical production - Copper.
131
-------
ro
LEGEND
O MAJOR MINES
MAJOR MINING DISTRICTS
X DISPERSED PRODUCTION
Figure C-3. Geographical distribution of mineral production -
Gold/Silver.
-------
8
« W. CO. 10 WT. W. NM. OR $.0 UT. WA OTHER U.S.
Gold
ISO
140
130
120
HO
i-oo)
BO
^
Uj 40
30
20
10
0
»
t
CO. 10. HI. MO. MT. HV. MM OR. S.D. TX UT. WA. OTHER
Silver
Figure C-4. Historical production
133
-------
LEGEND
O MAJOR MINES
MAJOR MINING DISTRICTS
X DISPERSED PRODUCTION
Figure C-5. Geographical distribution of mineral production -
Iron Ore.
-------
3
2-
fc
HE
AL. 6A. Ml. MN. N.J. N.Y. PA. UT. Wl. WY. OTHER U.S.
Figure C-6. Historical production - Iron Ore.
135
-------
SS
D
.
cyAKVv^-v
x£ ,0
* *-l X«
LEGEND
MAJOR MINES
MAJOR MINING DISTRICTS
X DISPERSED PRODUCTION
Figure C-7. Geographical distribution of mineral production -
Lead and/or Z1nc.
-------
so
25
20
$0 15
POOJ I
Boooa
«
8
MM OH. UT V*. *» Wl. OTHER US.
Lead
CO Id 1C KS MO. UT. MV. MJ. N.M N.Y OK. M. TN. UT.VA.WA.Wl CFTHtB U.S.
Zinc
Figure C-8. Historical production
137
-------
LEGEND
O MAJOR MINES
=> MAJOH MINIM'S DISTRICTS
X DISPERSED F-KODUCTION
Figure C-9. Geographical distribution of mineral production -
Mercury.
-------
120-1
100-
80
I
60
I
40
20-
AK. CA. ID. NV. OR. TX. OTHER U.S.
Figure C-10. Historical production - Mercury.
139
-------
LEGEND
O MAJOR MINES
=> MAJOR MINING DISTRICTS
X DlSPERSEO PRODUCTION
Figure C-11. Geographical distribution of mineral production -
Tungsten.
-------
140
I3O
120
110-
100
90
80-
70
60-
fi
40H
30-
20-
AR. CA. CO. ID. NV. OTHER U.S.
Figure C-12. Historical production - Tungsten.
141
-------
LEGEND
o MAJOR MINES
MAJOR MINING DISTRICTS
X DISPERSED PRODUCTION
Figure C-13. Geographical distribution of mineral production -
Uranium.
-------
250
I
200
150
100
50
AZ. N.M. WY. OTHER U.S.
Figure C-14. Historical production - Uranium.
143
-------
APPENDIX D
STATE ASSESSMENTS OF PROBLEM AREAS
AND POLLUTANT LOADING
The first part of this appendix contains a summary of the pollution
problems,in each state along with a listing of the agencies contacted.
The state summaries are a compilation of data from the many agencies
listed. Due to the unique properties of water pollution from Inactive
uranium mines, this industry will be discussed under a separate heading
following the state summaries. The tables listed following the uranium
Industry contain data for all states where there were problem areas.
This data includes the area name, length of stream and beneficial uses
affected, type of mining activities, and annual pollutant loading.
Quantities 1n parentheses ( ) denote values estimated as discussed in
Section 6.
ALABAMA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Conservation and Natural Resources
0 State Water Quality Improvement Commission
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Bureau of Mines
Summary of Findings
An abandoned limestone quarry contributes surface water quality problems.
The quarry Interse'cts-groundwater, resulting in a continuous overflow of
a large volume of high pH water to a small water quality limited stream.
The large volume of uncontrollable flow appears to preclude practical
and cost-effective neutralization prior to discharge.
ALASKA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation
0 U.S. Bureau of Land Management
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
0 U.S. Forestry Service
144
-------
Summary of Findings
No specific problems were reported by the agencies contacted. However,
in a report prepared by the Federal Water Pollution Control Adminis-
tration, it was found that dredging operations in alluvial streams have
caused changes in streambed gradients. Mining on Cripple Creek at
Dredge Lake was causing erosion of the natural streambed above the lake
and increased sediment deposition in the lake. Turbidity of.the stream
entering the lake was measured at 950 JTU; leaving the lake it was ,
6 OTU [FWPCA 1969]. '
This degradation can be expected to continue until the streambed grade
reaches equilibrium in the dredged area. No data is available regarding
the extent of the problem caused by inactive mines".
ARIZONA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Bureau of Water Quality Control
0 U.S. Bureau of Land Management
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Forestry Service
Summary of Findings
Only mining two locations were reported to affect surface water quality.
Metals from the Sheldon and other inactive mines (AZ-1) are suspected of
inhibiting fish and other aquatic life, reducing the value of Lynx Lake
as a fishery.
Sporadic complaints have been made about water pollution in Patagonia
Lake (AZ-2). Discoloration and sedimentation from intermittent flows
have been caused by old lead, silver and gold mining operations.
The groundwater in the Globe-Miami Mining District (AZ-3) has been
degraded from active and inactive mining operations over the years.
High concentrations of TDS and sulfate have limited the use of the
groundwater for municipal purposes. No studies were discovered which
dealt with the cause and possible cure to this problem.
ARKANSAS
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Pollution Control and Ecology
0 U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Division
0 U.S. National Park Service
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
145
-------
Summary of Findings
Minor water quality problems have been associated with past mining
activity. Two old lead and zinc mining districts, the Rush-Moumee and
Ponca-Boxleg Districts (AK-1), are suspected of causing high heavy metal
concentration in the benthic muds of the Buffalo National River. High
concentrations of lead, zinc, and cadmium have been reported as a result
of erosion and sedimentation of tailings. However, analyses of river
water samples indicate that little metal is being dissolved.
Past barite mining in the Magnet Cove District (AK-2) is reportedly
causing minor turbidity and high TDS concentrations in the waters in
Cove Creek, a tributary of the Ouachita River.
The Bauxite Mining District (AK-3), drained by tributaries of the
Saline and Ouachita Rivers is suspected of mine related acid drainage.
No specific mines have been identified as the source of pollution.
CALIFORNIA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Water Quality Control Board (Nine regional offices)
0 State Water Resources Control Board
0 State Division of Mines and Geology
0 U.S. Geological Survey
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
0 U.S. Forestry Service
0 U.S. Bureau of Land Management
Summary of Findings
The water quality in 89 kilometres of streams has been degraded by mine
drainage from eight mines or mining areas (CA 1-8). The degradation
ranges from complete sterility to limited aquatic diversity. The data
available on these mines is relatively complete.
An additional 18 mines (CA 9-26) have been cited as known or suspected
sources of intermittent dischargers of poor quality water. The impact
of these mines on receiv.iiig water quality is limited and data is sparse.
Drainage from the ad.it at the Grey Eagle (CA-1) Mine has been diverted
and no longer discharges directly into Indian Creek. However, the creek
is degraded by low pH water and high metals concentration. Natural
deposits may be the source of this low quality water.
Mercury concentrations have been noted in fish tissue below the Almaden
Mine (CA-2), as a result of high concentrations of mercury in the stream
sediments. The source of the mercury is probably from metal that escaped
during active operation rather than erosion of tailings since little
mercury is expected to be found in the tailings of a mercury mine which
mainly consist of waste rock and retort slag.
146
-------
The Buena Vista Mine (CA-3) is located in a geo-chemically reactive
area. Heavy iron oxide cementation of river gravels in old stream
terraces downstream from the mine appear to indicate that the mine area
has been producing acid and the associated iron hydroxide precipitate
long before any mining activity. Undoubtedly this process has been
accelerated by the mining operations. Corrective measures attempted
include covering the slag heap with a clay blanket, sprinkler spreading
of acid water, addition of limestone to neutralize acid water, and
construction of evaporation ponds. All of these efforts have had little
or no success as long-range solutions.
The Penn Mine (CA-6) has been reported to affect only 3 kilometres of
the Mokelumne River. This may be misleading. The mine is approximately
3 kilometres up river from Comanche Reservoir where mine wastes apparently
have no effect on aquatic life. However, it is suspected that copper
deposited in the benthic muds is reduced to a more soluble form by
anaerobic organisms. Subsequent discharges of this water have adversely
affected the spawning success of the salmon and steel head hatchery
downstream [CRWQB 1971].
Lake Berryessa has a limited area of spawning gravels located in James
and Pope Creeks, which drain the Corona Mine (CA-7). The discharge of
acid from the Corona Mines assumes the controlling influence in the
perpetuation of the trout fishery, however, the water quality in the
remainder of the lake appears unaffected by the mine [CRWQB 1961].
The streams in the Shasta District area (CA-8) drain into Lake Shasta
and Keswick Reservoir. Approximately 18 kilometres of these streams
have been adversly affected by the many mines in the district. The
magnitude of the problem is exemplified by the number of fish kills.
Since 1965 there have been fifteen incidents of fish kills with over
59,000 fish reportedly killed at seven locations.
In summary, the most severely impacted beneficial use is depressed or no
aquatic life. In addition to the eight serious locations (map reference
CA 1-8), fishing and fish populations have been affected at nine other
locations. Many of the minor problem areas are the result of ephemeral
discharges, which complicates documentation of the problems since the
flows are not continuous and are less predictable. Spring freshets
occurring below the Greenhorn (CA-13), Engle (CA-14, Reed (CA-17), and
Mt. Diablo (CA-26) Mines have been recognized as a threat to sport
fisheries [CRWQB 1971].
COLORADO
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Health
0 U.S. Geological Survey
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
147
-------
0 U.S. Bureau of Mines
0 U.S. Bureau of Land Management
0 U.S. Forestry Service
Summary of Findings
Approximately 675 kilometres of stream have been adversely'affected by
active, and inactive metal mining activities. The following is a summary
of the most significant problems in areas where all or a portion of
mining activity is inactive. This summary accounts for approximately
486 kilometres of the affected streams [USGS 1974a]. Stream quality is
degraded as a result of natural causes and past and present mining and
in many instances it is impractical to attempt to segregate the sources
of the problem. More realistically, each area will be discussed with
attention focused on the activity of mining and natural sources of
pollution.
Discharges from the Jamestown, Burlington and Efnmit Mines (CO-1) have
depressed aquatic life on 14 kilometres of Little James Creek. During
1972 there was limited mining of flourspar. -
In the Central City and Idaho Springs area (CO-2, 3 and 4) high metal
concentrations have degraded the quality of approximately 100 kilometres
of stream system. The area Is abundant with many small inactive mines
and a few active ones. Stream samples are moderately high in metal
concentrations and the pH range is normal. The majority of data available
are based on stream samples which indicates an overall stream quality
but does not indicate the concentration'of particular mine drainage or
the overall pollutant loading. An example of the concentration of
metals in mine drainage may br seen from data collected from the Argo
Tunnel which are as follows: pH 2.8, Fe 140-380 mg/1, Mn 95-150 mg/1
and Zn 45-76 mg/1.
In the Urad-Henderson (CO-5) area some sporadic mining still occurs
although the Urad Mine was closed in 1974. Although the mine, mill and
tailings are on the east slope, there is a drainage tunnel to the west
slope which affects the water quality in the Williams Fork and Darling
Creek.
The Leadville (CO-6) area was one of the most extensively mined areas of
the state. Approximately 110 kilometres of stream have been affected by
drainage high in metal concentration. As in the central city area, the
concentration of drainage is not reflected by stream quality data. The
Yak drainage tunnel has a flow approximately equal to 5 percent of
the flow of Arkansas River below Iowa Gulch. Concentrations in the Yak
Tunnel are as follows: pH 3-8, Fe 50 mg/1, Cu 1.5 mg/1, Mn 28.0, and Zn
56-100 mg/1.
All of the mines in the Lake Creek (CO-7) and Kerber Creek (CO-8) are
inactive. In the Creede area (10-9) a failure in the mill effluent
ditch caused a fish kill in the Rio Grande River.
148
-------
The Summitville Mining District (CO-10) is in a geo-chemically reactive
area. Degraded water quality appears to be a result of natural conditions.
However, it can be argued ttiat mining activities have accelerated the
problem..
Metal concentrations from the Montezuma Mine (CO-11) and the Breckeriridge
area (CO-12) have .limited the aquatic diversity in receiving streams
flowing into Dillon Reservoir. The only active mine in these areas is
in the Breckenridge area. ~
In the Crested Butte (CO-13) and Red Mountain (CO-14) areas, there are
two active and many inactive mines. Apparently most of the problem at
CO-14 is caused by active mines.
CONNECTICUT
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Environmental Protection
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Geological Survey
0 U.S. National Park Survice
Summary of Findings
No water quality problems were reported within the scope of this study.
DELAWARE
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control
0 State Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Bureau of Land Management
Summary of Findings
No water quality problems were reported within the scope of this study.
FLORIDA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Environmental Regulation
0 State Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
149
-------
Sumnary of Findings
The phosphate mining areas were frequently mentioned as a possible
source of pollution. The montmorillonitic clays associated with the
slime produced by phosphate mining readily adsorb water. These hydroscopic
slimes occupy vast areas of land in the dewatering process. Erosion of
these tailings has caused fish kills. The mining operations are still
active although the slime disposal areas may be no longer active and
thus are not within the scope of this report.
GEORGIA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Natural Resources
0 Environmental Protection Division
0 Game and Fish Commission
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
0 U.S. Forestry Service
0 U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Division
Summary of Findings
Past water pollution problems associated with the kaolin mining areas
are now under control. No other problems were reported.
HAWAII
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Health
Summary of Findings
No water quality problems were reported within the scope of this study.
IDAHO
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Health, Environmental Division
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Forestry Service
0 U.S. Geological Survey
0 National Park Service
Summary of Findings
Drainage from a number of mining districts has degraded water quality in
excess of 130 kilometres of stream. In some of the areas, it is imprac-
tical to attempt to separate active from inactive mining as a source of
150
-------
water quality degradation. This is especially true of the Coeur d'Alene
mining district in northern Idaho, and the phosphate mining areas in
southeastern Idaho.
Most regions of the state experience some water quality problems due to
inactive mine drainage.
The Jack Waite (ID-11) and Continental (ID-12) Mines near the Canadian
Border have been identified with significant pollution problems. Drainage
containing high concentrations of heavy metals, particularly zinc, has
created sterile conditions in approximately 8 kilometres of stream
below Jack Waite Mine on Tributary Creek, and 20 kilometres of stream
below Continental Mine on Blue Joe Creek.
In northern Idaho, serious water quality degradation occurs in the Coeur
d'Alene mining district (ID-4). Approximately 25 inactive mines located
in the Coeur d'Alene mining district are the source of acid mine drainage
and heavy metal pollution. The Bunker Hill Mine, only part of which is
inactive, has been the source of extensive study. It has been identified
as a significant contributor to water quality problems in the Coeur
d'Alene District. The South Fork of the Coeur d'Alene River is reported
to have no fish life due to the many mines in the area, from the mining
district for approximately 55 kilometres downstream until the river
discharges into Coeur d'Alene Lake.
In Central Idaho a few mines present notable water quality problems.
The Blackbird Mine (ID-1) near Cobalt, Idaho is responsible for discharge
of waters of high heavy metal content and low pH. Salmon and Steel head
spawning in parts of the Panther Creek drainage system have been eliminated.
The Stibnite Mine (ID-2) has long been associated with sediment problems
in the East Fork of the South Fork of the Salmon River. However, this
condition has reportedly improved in recent years.
The Silver City area (ID-14) in southwestern Idaho was the site of
extensive silver and gold mining at the turn of the century. Mercury
was used as an amalgam and careless disposal introduced much mercury
into the aquatic environment in the Jordan Creek drainage system. The
DeLamar mill waste products have been documented as the major source of
the mercury contamination. Fishermen have been warned of the possibility
of mercury poisoning by regular consumption of fish caught in the Jordan
Creek drainage system. Southeastern Idaho is the site of much active
phosphate mining. Associated with these active mines are some inactive
sites which are identified with water quality degradation. Two of these
areas are Georgetown (ID-8) and Waterloo (ID-9).
Some sediment problems associated with dredge mining have been identified
at Beaver Valley (ID-4) and Mores Creek (ID-10). However, these problems
are not well defined and do not appear to pose any major water quality
problems.
Various Federal and state agencies are conducting on-going studies of
the inactive mine drainage problem in Idaho. One study to be conducted
151
-------
by the U.S. Forest Service will examine extreme northern Idaho including
the Jack Waite (ID-11) and Continental (ID-12) Mines. The Idaho State
Department of Health will examine the mercury problem in the Silver City
area, and possibly other problem areas in the state as well. However,
results of this work are not expected until mid 1976 or later. When
completed, the studies should provide clarification of the problem areas
identified herein.
ILLINOIS
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Environmental Protection Agency, Water Pollution Control
Division
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Geological Survey
Summary of Findings
No water quality problems were reported within the scope of this study.
INDIANA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
o
o
State Forestry Department
State Stream Pollution Control Board, Industrial Waste Section
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Geological Survey
Summary of Findings
One water quality problem associated with inactive mining was reported.
Solid waste disposal in an abandoned limestone quarry has caused ground-
water pollution. However, this is a result of improper solid waste
disposal and not associated with mining activities.
IOWA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Environmental Quality, Water Quality Management
Division
0 State Geological Survey
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Summary of Findings
No water quality problems were reported within the scope of this study.
152
-------
KANSAS
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Health and Environment, Division of Environment
Water Quality Programs
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
° U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Division
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Summary of Findings
The Tri-State lead and zinc mining area (see Missouri) extends into the
southeastern portion of the state. Water quality problems in the Tri-
State area in Missouri led to suspicion of similar problems in the
Kansas region. No complaints were received and there was no documentation
of water quality problems.
KENTUCKY
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Natural and Economic Resources, Division of
Environmental Management
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Summary of Findings
No water quality problems were reported within the scope of this study.
LOUISIANA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Stream Control Commission
0 State Wildlife and Fisheries Department
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
0 U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Division
Summary of Findings
No water quality problems were reported within the scope of this study.
MAINE
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Environmental Protection
0 Bureau of Water Quality Control
153
-------
0 State Geological Department
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
0 U.S. Geological Survey
Summary of Findings
There are few inactive mines in the state, however, no significant water
pollution problems were reported from these mines.
Initial contacts with some agencies indicated that the Callahan Mine (a
copper and zinc mine) near Castine, Maine was a source of pollution to
the nearby marine estuaries. However, the mine is currently active.
Abandoned limestone quarries at Camden and Rock!and are being used as
dump and have caused some concern regarding groundwater contamination
but no further documentation was reported to substantiate this concern.
The state of Maine, Department of Sea and Shore Fisheries, is currently
undertaking a research project sponsored by the Environmental Protection
Agency to determine levels of metals and shellfish in marine areas
adjacent to active and inactive copper and zinc mines.
MARYLAND
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Natural Resources
0 State Environmental Health Administration
0 U.S. Bureau of Land Management
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Summary of Findings
An abandoned quarry was suspected of having an acid drainage. No docu-
mentation was found regarding the magnitude or location of the problem.
MASSACHUSETTS
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Natural Resources, Division of Water Pollution
Control
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
0 U.S. Geological Survey
0 National Park Service
Summary of Findings
No water quality problems were reported within the scope of this study.
154
-------
MICHIGAN
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Bureau of Water Management
0 Department of Natural Resources, Fisheries Division
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Forestry Service
0 U.S. Geological Survey
0 National Park Service
Summary of Findings
Low pH water and sewage effluent have affected 10 to 13 kilometres of
the Iron River. There is no consensus regarding the source of the low
pH water. The drainages are from a basin that has had previous iron
mining activity, however, there is disagreement as to whether the acid
drainage is caused by inactive mines or naturally caused. It was speculated
by some agencies contacted that acid drainage may have been caused by
groundwater rising to a sufficient elevation to contact sulfur bearing
rock.
MINNESOTA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Geological Survey
0 State Water Pollution Control Agency
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Summary of Findings
Water resources investigation and a water quality network throughout the
state have revealed no problems related to past mining activities.
MISSISSIPPI
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Air and Water Pollution Control Commission, Division of Water
Pollution Control
0 State Game and Fish Commission
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
0 U.S. Geological Survey
Summary of Findings
Past problems of increased turbidity from bentonite mining,in the
northern part of the state have been investigated and solved by local
authorities.
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MISSOURI
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Natural Resources, Division of Environmental
Quality, Water Quality Programs
0 Ozark Gateway Regional Commission
0 U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines
Environmental Protection Agency
Fish and Wildlife Service
Geological Survey
0 U.S
0 U.S
0 U.S.
Stannary of Findings
Drainage from four mining areas within the state are affecting water
quality in approximately 135 kilometres of stream and rivers. Two
problem areas are within the old lead belt (Mine - La Motte and Flat
River-Bonne Terre MO-1 & 2) where high metal concentrations are the
source of water quality degradation. Acid does not appear to be a
problem. Measurement at MO-1 shows a high pH (8.0) and no measurements
were reported at MO-2.
In the Flat River - Bonne Terre District (MO-2) sediments that either
washed down during active operations or continue to erode from tailings
are the source of high metal concentrations in Flat River and the Big
River. Although the water quality 1s marginal 1n the river, benthie
fauna are greatly depressed and there is little or no fish production.
This is Illustrated by a comparison as shown in Table D.I of concentration
of metals in the water and the stream sediments.
TABLE D.I. CONCENTRATION OF METALS
IN WATER AND SEDIMENT
Concentration (mq/1)
Metal
Al
Cu
Fe
Mn
Pb
Zn
Water
0
10
130
80
130
70
Sediment
19,000
340
188,000
27,000
19,000
11,000
There are approximately 20-30 inactive barite mines in the Washington
County Tiff Mining District (MO-3). Abandoned tailings ponds continually
erode causing sedimentation in three rivers (Mill Creek, Old Mine Creek,
and Mineral Ford Creek). Occasionally one of these ponds breaks, causing
severe problems. In August, 1975 a dam failure resulted in 64 kilometres
of stream pollution (discoloration, turbidity, etc.).
156
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The Tri-State area (MO-4) has been extensively mined for lead and zinc.
There are between 30 and TOO inactive mines. Seepage from the mines has
caused the concentration of zinc in Center Creek and Turkey Creek to be
in excess of the toxic limits for adults of some fish species and eggs
and fingerlings of most species. Nevertheless, water from some of the
mines is of sufficiently high quality for municipal use.
MONTANA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Health and Environmental Science
0 State Department of Natural Resources, Water Resources Division
0 State Department of Lands
0 State Fish and Game Department
0 State Bureau of Mines and Geology
Anaconda Company
U.S. Forestry Service
U.S. Bureau of Land Management
o
o
Summary of Findings
Drainage from fourteen large inactive mining areas affected the water
quality of about 160 kilometres of streams. Most of the water quality
problems are caused by acid mine drainage and high concentrations of
heavy metal; however, sediment problems are created by some mining
activities.
Several mines (MT-1) in the vicinity of Hughesville (70 kilometres
southeast of Great Falls) contribute significant amounts of iron, manga-
nese, and zinc to the waters of Galena Creek. Approximately 3 kilometres
of Galena Creek are affected. The major source of pollutants in the
area is seepage from the Block P Mine tailings dump which discharges
highly acidic water to Galena Creek. The State of Montana has taken
flow measurements and chemical analysis of drainage flows since July
1973 in order to formulate a plan for preventing further pollution of
Galena Creek [Montana 1974b].
The McClaren Mill (MT-2) is located near Cooke City. The mill tailings
cover about 4.5 hectares and contain approximately 117,045 cubic metres
of tailings. The tailings discharge highly acidic water into Soda Butte
Creek. The water enters tailings from three sources: creek, snowmelt,
and precipitation. The Bear Creek Mining Company has considerably
lowered the level of pollution by relocating Soda Butte Creek in the
tailings area and by regrading the tailings. Approximately three kilom-
etres of Soda Butte Creek are still devoid of aquatic life due to the
acid drainage [Montana 1975].
The McClaren Mine mine (MT-3) area covers about 8 hectares. Dumps,
waste piles, and disturbed areas contain approximately 82,600 cubic
meters of material. Precipitation, snowmelt, and groundwater percolate
through the wastes to leach metal ions and acids from the materials.
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Additional acid drainage originates from open-pits and adits. About 6
kilometres of stream are affected by the drainage. Streams involved are
Daisy Creek and the Stillwater River [Montana 1975].
The Glengary Mine (MT-4) is located about 6 kilometres north of Cooke
City. The area covers about 3 hectares. The ground suface has been
disturbed by road and trench construction and by formation of several
small mine dumps. Surface flows and snowmelt leach metals from the
disturbed areas into Fisher Creek. In addition, highly acidic water
drains from the adit into the creek. Apparently groundwater is the
major source of flow from the adit. Approximately 5 kilometres of
Fisher Creek are affected by the acid drainage [Montana 1975].
The Comet Mine (MT-5) is located on High Ore Creek about eleven kilometres
northwest of Boulder. Base metal ions are leached from the tailings and
enter High Ore Creek. Approximately 6 kilometres of High Ore Creek are
sterile because of the acid drainage. The Boulder River has been
degraded several kilometres downstream of its confluence with High Ore
Creek. Considerable erosion of the tailings occurs when High Ore Creek
freezes and water overflows onto the tailings" [Montana 1974a].
The Crystal Mine (MT-6) is located about 48 kilometres northeast of
Butte near Cataract Creek, a tributary to the Boulder River. Acid
drainage from several adits is the primary problem. The drainage water
contains high concentrations of heavy metals, primarily zinc, iron,
copper, and manganese. About 10 kilometres of Cataract Creek below the
mines are devoid of fish life. The Boulder River is severely degraded
for 16 kilometres downstream of Cataract Creek.
The Elkhorn Mining District (MT-7) is located about 64 kilometres south-
west of Butte. The major problem caused by the district is drainage
from two adits, the Upper Elkhorn and the Lower Elkhorn Mines. Additional
heavy metals are added to the lower mines drainage as it flows through a
tailings pile. Drainage from the district has caused Elkhorn Creek to
become sterile for about 5 kilometres. Analyses of water drainage from
the mines indicates that heavy metal concentrations are low in comparison
to the sulfate concentrations. Because acidity is lower than expected,
the drainage water is probably partly neutralized by natural limestone.
While metal concentrations are fairly low, the relatively high flow rate
of water from the mines causes a large enough pollutant loading to
damage the stream.
The Heddleston District (MT-8) is a lead and zinc mining area located
about 56 kilometres northwest of Helena. Drainage from the district's
adits and tailings have degraded the Upper Blackfoot River for about 13
kilometres below the mines. Heavy rainfall in 1975 caused large runoff
flows which breached the tailings pond dam and washed tailings into the
upper Blackfoot River.
Grasshopper Creek (MT-9) contains several placer mining sites near
Bannack, about 96 kilometres southwest of Butte. The primary problem
created by the mining activities is a heavy sediment load in Grasshopper
158
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Creek from Bannack to its confluence with the Beaverhead River. Hydraulic
mining was practiced extensively in the area to produce gold from the
terrace deposits along the creek. Large waste piles accumulated along
the creek bed. Occasionally these are undercut by the stream, allowing
large amounts of tailings to fall into the stream. Approximately 24
kilometres of Grasshopper Creek have been affected by the resulting
sediment loads.
The Sunshine Lead Prospect (MT-10) is a small exploratory site that
produced small amounts of ore for several years. The prospect is located
near Hyalite Creek about 16 kilometres south of Bozeman. The mine
itself does not cause a water quality problem, but a natural spring near
the mine discharges water with significant concentrations of base
metals. At the present time the discharge does not enter Hyalite Creek,
but infiltrates into the hillside. The spring does present a potential
problem, however, because Hyalite Creek is the primary water supply for
the City of Bozeman the discharge is a concern.
The Alta Mine area (MT-11) is a large complex of open pit and under-
ground mines, and milling operations. The area is located near Corbin
Creek about 56 kilometres northeast of Butte. Acid drainage from the
workings contributes substantial amounts of iron, manganese, and zinc to
the waters of Corbin Creek and Prickly Pear Creek. About 9 kilometres
of streams are severely affected.
The Frohner mine area (MT-12) is located about 24 kilometres southwest
of Helena. The area consists of underground mines and tailings. Acid
mine drainage enters Lump Gulch, a tributary to Prickly Pear Creek, and
degrades about 5 kilometres of stream. The problem is especially
significant because Park Lake, a popular recreation area, is fed by Lump
Gulch. The drainage water contains high concentrations of arsenic.
The Gold Creek Placer area (MT-13) is a series of placer mining sites
along the north and south forks of Gold Creek, about 64 kilometres
northwest of Butte. Over the last 60 years, hydraulic mining extensively
damaged the streambed and banks. As a part of the operation, the North
Fork was diverted into the South Fork. The stream relocation caused
severe erosion during periods of high stream flow and about 32 kilometres
of Gold Creek have been adversely affected by sediment loadings.
The Forest Rose Mine (MT-14) is located near Dunkleberg Creek, a tributary
to the Clark Fork River, about 8 kilometres north of the Gold Creek
Placers. Mineralized water flows from the mine adit and through the
tailings before reaching the creek however, no estimate is available on
the length of creek adversly affected.
Anaconda operates a large copper mining complex about 32 kilometres
northwest of Butte (MT-15). The operation includes open pit and under-
ground mines, ore concentraters and tailings. Both active and inactive
mines exist in the area. The magnitude of the pollution problem from
the inactive mines is difficult to assess because mine drainage and mill
wastewater from several operations are treated in one central area
159
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before being discharged to the darks Fork. Considerable degradation of
the Clarks Fork occurred before treatment facilities began operating.
About 26 kilometres of Clarks Fork are affected.
At the present time, mine drainage and processing Wastewater are treated
in the tailings pond by addition of lime. Most of the metals are preci-
pitated in the tailings pond as hydroxides. Pond effluent is considerably
higher quality than influent.
Proposals for Pollution Abatement
Pollution abatement efforts at several abandoned mine sites have been.
studied by various governmental agencies. Abatement efforts at some of
the problem areas are discussed further.
The roost feasible means of abatement in Galena Creek involves segregating
the creek from the seepage because the major pollutant load from the
area enters the creek at a discrete spot. A study by the Department of
Natural Resources and Conservation determined that the best method would
be to route the creek through a pipeline in the area of the seepage
[Montana 1974b]. The seepage from the tailings can then be treated
separately.
The McClaren Mill, McClaren Mine, and Glengary Mine are all located in a
small area near Cooke City. Pollution abatement of these sites is being
studied by the Department of Natural Resources and Conservation [Montana
1975]. Hydro!ogic studies are being conducted to determine the most
practical method of treatment.
It is possible that the problems due to seepage from the tailings may be
solved by the use of excess cut material from the future construction of
Interstate 15 between Boulder and Butte. Highway construction is expected
to create large quantities of excavated material that will have to be
disposed of. The Fish and Game Department and Department of Health are
studying the possibility of using the excavated material to dam High Ore
Creek and submerge the tailings. It is expected that once the tailings
are covered with water and deposited organic matter, the oxidation of
pyrites in the tailings will be halted.
It is expected that the underground operations at Crystal will be reac-
tivated. In this case, the drainage will fall under existing state
mining and water pollution controls, and the mine owners will be respon-
sible for abatement of pollution.
NEBRASKA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Environmental Control, Water Pollution Control
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
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0 U.S. Geological Survey
0 National Park Service
Summary of Findings
No water quality problems were reported within the scope of this study.
NEVADA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State; Department of Human Resources, Environmental Protection
Servifces
0 State Bureau of Mines and Geology
0 U.S. Bureau of Mines
Summary of Findings
In spite of Nevada's extensive mining history, only two inactive mines
were found to be causing water pollution problems. It was expected that
the Sutro Tunnel, a drainage tunnel under the Virginia City mines, might
be a source of pollution. Drainage from the Sutro Tunnel, however, is
contained in ponds built on the tailings from the mine. Overflow from
the ponds is apparently caught by irrigation ditches.
The Jarbidge Mine (NV-1) is located in Jarbidge, about 118 kilometres
north of Elko. It is an underground gold and silver mine which was
abandoned in the 1930's. The major problem caused by the mine's drainage
is aesthetics. The mine discharges a small flow of colored water which
is slightly acidic but apparently not enough to dissolve heavy metals.
The Rio Tinto Mine (NV-2) is located about 42 kilomtres west of the
Jarbidge Mine. Seepage from the tailings enters Mill Creek, a tributary
to the Owyhee River. The discharge varies considerably in chemical
quality but generally is very acidic and contains large amounts of iron
and copper. The most recent operation at the mine was an acid leach.
Seepage from the tailings has caused several fish kills in the Owyhee
River during the last 20 years. The mine owners successfully isolated
the main seepage from the tailings so that it could be diverted back to
the mine for treatment. However, previously unknown seeps in the tailings
continued to cause problems. The leaching operation was abandoned in
early 1975.
NEW HAMPSHIRE
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Water Supply and Pollution Control Commission
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
0 National Park Service
161
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Summary of Findings
Although some local water pollution problems can be attributed to mining
activities, It was reported that In many cases high sediment and salinity
loads are not attributable to the activities of man. Except for some
special situations, pollutants in surface water are attributed to natural
conditions, and urban discharges. Radioactive contamination of both
surface and groundwater in the Grants Mineral Belt area of northwestern
New Mexico has been documented recently, although it has not been proven
whether the radioactivity exists naturally or is man-caused. The Animas
and San Juan Rivers have elevated levels of uranium and radium. These
levels are considered to be the result of leachates derived from tailings
developed at uranium mining operations. Amounts of radium, selenium,
and vanadium sufficient to render surface water in the Rio Paguate,
Arroyo Del Puerto, and Rio Puerco drainages unfit for domestic livestock
and irrigation use have been reported. Radioactive contamination of
groundwater has been detected in close proximity to the centers of
uranium production, along with widespread selenium concentrations in
areas adjacent to separate milling facilities. The natural occurrence
of selenium in water is common In arid and semiarid climates.
NEW YORK
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Pure
Waters
0 State Department of Environmental Conservation, Bureau of Industrial
Programs
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
0 U.S. Geological Survey
0 National Park Service
Summary of Findings
Two iron mines are noteworthy although they apparently do not cause
serious water quality degradation. An NPDES permit has been applied for
at the Adirondack iron mine (NY-1) and no water quality degradation has
been reported in the receiving stream. The effects of the discharge at
the Stella Mine (NY-2) are under study and not known at this time.
The owner of the Stella Mine has attempted to minimize the effects of
the discharge by ditching around the tailings and covering the pile with
limestone. Apparently this has had limited effect on the quality of the
discharge.
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NORTH CAROLINA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Natural and Economic Resources, Division of
Environmental Management
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
. ° U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Summary of Findings
Mining and retroactive environmental regulations now being enforced have
resulted in the resolution of all significant water pollution problems
In the state. Siltation of 65 to 80 kilometres of the Nolichucky River
in Tennessee has been attributed to the Spruce Pine Pegmatite (feldspar,
mica, and quartz) Mining District (NC-1). The mines are located in the
upper reaches of the drainage basin where the stream gradient is steeper
than in the lower portion of the basin. The steeper stream gradient has
a greater capacity to transport sediment; as a result the sediment
settles out when the grade flattens.
There are approximately ten active and fifty inactive mines. Most of
the inactive mines were small one or two man operations. The bulk of
the problems apparently stem from a few major active mines.
NORTH DAKOTA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Geological Survey
Summary of Findings
No water quality problems were reported within the scope of this study.
OHIO
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Environmental Protection Agency, Water Pollution Control
Division
0 State Department of Natural Resources
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Summary of Findings
A clay mine in the vicinity of some coal mines was suspected of an acid
discharge by one source. The location and magnitude of the problem was
unknown. No documentation was found to substantiate this data.
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OKLAHOMA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Mines
0 State Department of Pollution Control
0 State Geological Survey
0 State Water Resources Board, Water Quality Division
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Summary of Findings
Local problems exist in Oklahoma within the McAllister, Bartlesville,
and Henrietta areas. Acid mine waters containing, iron and manganese are
creating some minor surface water contamination in the McAllister area.
Some heavy metal concentrations have been reported in surface waters
draining the Bartlesville area; these problems are a result of the
erosion and runoff from smelter slag piles. Similar conditions exist
from inactive strip mining and custom smelter-operations in,the zinc
mining area near Henrietta, Oklahoma. Both sedimentation and heavy
metal concentrations are problems.
OREGON
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Environmental Quality, Water Pollution Control
Division
0 State Department of Geology and Minerals
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Geological Survey
0 National Park Service
Summary of Findings
Five inactive mines are known to be the source of varying water quality
problems. Many of the mines are located near large streams which dilute
the discharge. Therefore, only an estimated 37 kilometres of stream
system are affected. Specific problems are discussed below.
White King Mine (OR-1) is located in southern Oregon about 100 kilometres
east of Klamath Falls. The mine has caused sediment problems in Auger
Creek. Drainage from the mine enters a small lake which normally has no
surface outlet, but spring flows usually cause the lake to overflow to
Auger Creek. About 16 kilometres of Auger Creek were reported to have
been sterilized when the mine was pumped out.
The Blackjack Mine (OR-2) is located on Clear Creek about 100 kilometres
southeast of Pendleton. Highly acidic water entering Clear Creek is the
major problem caused by the mine. Heavy metal concentrations are
relatively small with the exception of iron.
164
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The Couger-Independence (OR-3) Mine is located about 10 kilometres
northeast of the Blackjack Mine. Acid drainage from the mine containing
significant quantities of iron and manganese enters Granite Creek.
The Silver Peak Mine (OR-4) is located about 47 kilometres north of
Grants Pass. Acidic water discharges into a small stream which is
tributary to Canyon Creek. The drainage also contains significant
quantities of iron, zinc, and manganese.
The Alameda mine (OR-5) is a large underground mine located on the Rogue
River about 30 kilometres northwest of Grants Pass. Gold and Copper
were mined from a large sulfide zone which also contained lead, zinc,
and silver. The mine was abandoned in the 1930's. The major problem
caused by the mine is acid mine drainage. Plant life is very scarce
near the stream and an aesthetic problem is also caused by the colored
drainage water.
PENNSYLVANIA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Environmental Resources, Bureau of Water Quality
Management
0 State Division of Mine Drainage Control and Reclamation
0 U.S. Bureau of Mines
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Geological Survey
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Summary of Fjjidings
Some of the people contacted suspect past clay and mining activities of
causing minor acid drainage. No documentation regarding the location or
magnitude for the problem was found. No other water quality problems
from mine drainage within the scope of this study were reported.
RHODE ISLAND
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Water Pollution Control, Division of Water Supply and Pollution
Control
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
0 U.S. Geological Survey
0 National Park Service
Summary of Findings
No water quality problems were reported within the scope of this study.
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SOUTH CAROLINA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Health and Environmental Control
0 State Land Resources Conservation Commission
0 State Development Board, Division of Geology
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Summary of Findings
A potential problem from lithium bearing tailings originating in North
Carolina is suspected. However, no documentation was available.
SOUTH DAKOTA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Environmental Protection
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Geological Survey
Summary of Findings
Minor problems of tailings erosion were cited. In addition, small
intermittent acid discharges were noted for fish kills. The scope and
magnitude of these problems was not documented. No other information
was available.
TENNESSEE
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Forestry Service
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Summary of Findings
Four problems are in part attributable to past mining activities. The
Nolichucky River has been degraded by mining activities, however, the
source is in North Carolina (NC-1).
The Ball Clay District (TN-1), a surface mining area approximately 95
percent active, is the source of intermittent sedimentation from erosion
of disturbed land and waste piles. The Brown Phosphate District (TN-2),
a surface mining area approximately 95 percent active, has caused fish
kills from discharge of slimes.
In the Ducktown District (TN-3), a copper and iron sulfide mining area,
large areas of land were denuded from sulphurous fumes from old ore
166
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roasting operations. This has resulted in excessive soil erosion, acid
discharges, and siltation in 30-40 kilometres of the north Potato Creek
and the Ocoee River. Approximatly 90 percent of the mining in this
region is still active.
In the East Tennessee Zinc District (TN-4) there are four active and one
inactive zinc mining operations which cause sedimentation and heavy
metals concentration in Mill Creek.
Strip mining of manganese in the eastern part of the state has been the
source of some undocumented complaints of sedimentation. Further inves-
tigation will verify the validity of these complaints.
TEXAS
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Water,Quality Control Board, Industrial Services Section
0 State Wildlife Department
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 National Park Service
Summary of Findings
In the Uranium District (TX-1) of southeast Texas approximately 30
mines, of which approximately 20 are inactive, have a potential of
radioactive pollution from tailings erosion. No documentation regarding
this problem was discovered.
In the Terlingua District (TX-2), an inactive mercury mining area in the
Big Bend National Forest, mercury concentrations in the sediments of
Terlingua Creek have been measured as high as 0.3 ppm. Little or no
mercury was found in the waters draining the area. Opinions differ on
the source of the mercury. Undoubtedly some of the mercury can be
attributed to naturally occurring deposits which wash into the creek.
However, no consensus exists regarding the extent of the contribution
from tailings.
UTAH
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Bureau of Environmental Health
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Forestry Service
0 U.S. Geological Survey
Summary of Findings
No water quality problems were reported within the scope of this study,
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VERMONT
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Agency of Environmental Conservation
0 State Geological Survey
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. F1sh and Wildlife Service
0 U.S. Geological Survey
0 National Park Service
Summary of Findings
Drainage from three inactive copper mines (VT-1,2 and 3) is causing
water quality degradation to approximately 14 kilometres of streams.
Activity at these mines dates back as far as 1793. The ore consists of
cha1 copyrite disseminated in pyrrhotite, with the latter being one of
the most readily oxidized add forming iron sulfides. According to
native history, the copper deposits in this region were discovered
through observation of the colored water in the creeks. Undoubtedly the
mining activities have accelerated the rate of pollution and increased
its magnitude.
Data available on VT-1 and VT-2 were insufficient to calculate any
loading rates. The most significant problem has been reported at VT-3.
Therefore, the loading from the other mines is assumed to be less.
The major source of acid has been reported to be tailings. This may be
explained as follows: 1) At VT-2 the mining operations were conducted
to a vertical depth of 1,500 below the surface and are not free-draining;
2) At VT-3 the adits drain into the tailings pile and seep through it.
VIRGINIA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Water Control Board
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
0 U.S. Geological Survey
Sumnary of Findings
The State of Virginia has only a few water quality problems due to
inactive mine drainage. Three separate locations have been identified.
Acid mine drainage is a problem noted at two locations: Contrary Creek
(VA-1); and Chestnut Creek (VA-2). Both locations have old pyrite mines
with the Contrary Creek site composed of three separate operations.
Approximately 8 kilometres of Chestnut Creek are reported to be sterile,
as well as 15 kilometres of Contrary Creek, due to the acid drainage.
Implementation of an abatement project at the Contrary Creek site is
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scheduled to begin in April 1976. The work involves reclamation of two
of the three operation sites, Boyd Smith, and Sulphur mines. This
includes reconstruction and revegetation of stream channels and removal
of contaminated material from the streambed. No reclamation of the
downstream channel is included. Project completion is scheduled for
late summer 1976 with water quality monitoring to continue through 1978.
The third location, Kelly Bank (VA-3), is reported to be causing sediment
problems due to failure of sediment trap dam.
WASHINGTON
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 Department of Ecology, Water Quality Management
0 U.S. Bureau of Mines
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 National Park Service
Summary of Findings
One inactive mine is reported to cause water quality problems. The
Holden Mine (WA-1) is a large operation located on Railroad Creek about
140 kilometres northeast of Seattle. It produced copper, zinc, silver
and gold from 1937 to 1957.
Large amounts of sediment eroded from the tailings, by wind and water,
have been deposited in Railroad Creek. Seepage from the tailings drains
into the creek and contributes acidity and high concentrations of copper,
iron, and zinc to the creek.
Railroad Creek is a glacial stream and is naturally low in nutrients.
Because of this relatively little flora or fauna exists in Railroad
Creek, even upstream of the mine. Discharge from the mine has nearly
removed what little life did exist. Approximately 14 kilometres of
stream are degraded by the mine discharge to its outlet into Lake
Chelan [Pine 1967].
WEST VIRGINIA
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Natural Resources
0 State Water Control Board
0 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
0 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Summary of Findings
No water quality problems were reported within the scope of this study.
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WISCONSIN
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Natural Resources, Fisheries Division
"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
U.S. Geological Survey
o
Summary of Findings
The zinc mining district (WI-1) in the southwestern portion of the state
was the only problem area reported. Approximately 10 kilometres of
stream have been affected by acid water and sedimentation from the
tailings of the old zinc workings. Although the area is now inactive,
it is expected to be reactivated in the near future.
WYOMING
AGENCIES CONTACTED
0 State Department of Fish and Game
0 State Water Quality Division
Summary of Findings
The only mine pollution problem indicated, was the Ferris-Haggerty Mine
in Carbon County. The mine, which was abandoned in 1905, has adversely
affected 8 kilometres of stream. The mine has recently been reactivated
and the state will impose discharge requirements on the owner.
WATER POLLUTION FROM URANIUM MINES AND MILLS
The uranium industry is dissimilar to base metal mining where the mine
and mill are frequently located in close proximity to each other.
Uranium mines on the Colorado Plateau are usually quite small and located
in remote areas widely separated from each other. Usually the mines are
short lived. The ore is trucked to a central mill where all processing
takes place. Most pollution problems are associated with the mill, not
the mine. It is possible that a few of the mines may have water running
from the tunnels but such water is not acid though it may be radioactive.
Most carnotite mines are small, dry holes in the permeable sandstone.
Such sandstones are seldom aquifers, since they are located on canyon
rims. Thus most pollution problems in the uranium industry are a result
of milling activities. Water pollution problems exist because most
mills are located on rivers; elsewhere on the Colorado Plateau water is
scarce.
Pollution from uranium mills involves radioactive pollution, a special
hazards about which the general populace knows little. It can take many
forms:
170
-------
1. Alpha, beta, and gamma emnlsslons.
2. Ingestion of radioactive particles into the lungs.
3. A generally higher than normal ambient radioactivity level
4. Breathing of radioactive radon gas which can result in lodqlnq
radioactive disintegration products in the lungs.
5. Drinking radioactive water which can result in lodging radio-
active sites in the digestive tract.
Aside from airborne dust and radioactive particles, most of these radi-
ation products are water-borne and can result in significant stream and
aquifer pollution.
In the early days of carnotite extraction on the Colorado Plateau, small
plants existed for the recovery of radium from the ore. This same ore
was processed later for its vanadium content, and for its uranium content.
It is currently processed for its combined uranium-vanadium content.
The first radium facility was operated in the 1920's at Uravan, Colorado.
There the carnotite-bearing Salt Wash member of the Morrison formation
outcropped in the gorge of the San Miguel River in western Colorado.
This provided ore, water, coal, and flat land at one location. Subsequent
vanadium plants using the salt roast process operated in many locations
in the Colorado Plateau region.
Until about 1950, these early plants discharged their tailings to the
nearby rivers, thus ridding themselves of salts, ground sandstone, and
all the radioactive daughter products. These salts, sands, and radioactive
daughters became part of the river's mud and sand bars. Some of the
earliest tailings may even have penetrated to the Gulf of California.
After Boulder Dam was built, many of the radioactive tailings were
deposited into Lake Mead. Lake Powell would now catch whatever escapes
the mills, but tailings are no longer dumped into rivers. Presently,
salts are evaporated in impermeable ponds.
Other aspects of pollution from uranium processing facilities have
recently come to light. Reports exist that drinking water in the Grants
and Ambrosia Lake areas in New Mexico contains "intolerable" levels of
radioactive and poisonous wastes such as selenium [Roase 1976, USPHS 1957].
It is also known that at least one of the uranium mills in the area has
been injecting liquid waste materials in a deep aquifer by means of an
injection well [Lynn 1967]. Whether such solutions remain 'buried' in
the desired aquifer appears questionable. At any rate, Radon 222 contami-
nation of drinking water in the Grants area is a serious problem.
A similar situation exists in regard to the site of the former Vitro
Uranium Company uranium mill in south Salt Lake City, Utah [Duncan 1974],
This site has been abandoned since 1964 for uranium use and since 1960
for any industrial use. The tailings are unconsolidated and are frequently
airborne. Groundwater contamination has occurred in the shallow aquifers
under the tailings and gamma-ray measurements on the tailings are substan-
tial. Radon and radon-progeny readings in several buildings on the site
171
-------
are high. There is evidence that some of the tailings have been removed
for construction material in the Salt Lake Valley and radiation from
these sources is often an unsuspected hazard.
t
In Grand Junction, Colorado, the tailings from the Climax Uranium Company
operation were widely used for construction and fill in the Grand Junction
area before it was realized what was happening. There was a tremendous
local interest in the problem and many articles were published in the
Grand Junction Sentinel over a period of six years on the subject.
[Daily Sentinel]. In 1975, many of the fills made from tailings were
removed through an extensive correction program.
In south Texas there is concern over aquifer pollution from in-situ
uranium recovery plants which are currently active. In-situ recovery
methods have unique pollution problems and special techniques are necessary
for effective control.
The Shiprock mill located in the northwest corner of New Mexico has been
shut down since 1968 [U.S. Atomic Energy Commission 1974a]. A recent
survey (1974) of the site showed many possible pollution conditions
existed. The southern .tailings areas have been used for a training
ground for large equipment operators and the tailings are consequently
loose and frequently windblown. There is general radioactive contamination
by deposited and wind-borne sand. The areas of contamination are 1,000
feet beyond the plant fence borders.
The uranium mill tailings are situated on a bluff overlooking the south-
west bank of the San Juan River. Storm runoff empties into the river,
after passing through the contaminated area. Radioactive pollution of
the San Juan has certainly occurred in the past and can be expected to
occur in the future until the tailings are covered, stabilized, and
anchored down by suitable vegetation.
Water supply for the town of Shiprock is diverted from the San Juan. It
is possible that the high winds of the Shiprock area have carried
radioactive particles into the San Juan above the water supply intake.
Data on pollution possibilities at twenty other inactive mill sites have
also been published by the AEC [USAEC 1974a].
Recent newspaper publicity discusses use of uranium tailings at Port
Hope, Ontario, Canada for building purposes in the area, with results
similar to the Grand Junction, Colorado experience [Arizona Daily Star
1976]. It may be necessary to remove all tailings used for such purposes
and re-bury them elsewhere in order to reduce radiation levels in homes
to natural levels.
Revegetation of tailings is a valid and useful technique in reclamation
of most mining dump areas, but in uranium the method is dangerous [EPA
1973k]. The irrigation necessary to establish vegetation in arid areas
may result 1n radioactive pollution of groundwater. Riprap might be a
better solution for stabilization of blowing uranium mill tailings in
arid, windy areas.
172
-------
TABLE D-2. ARIZONA
Mine or
District
Sheldon
Patagonia
Globe-Miami
Hap
Reference
AZ-1
AZ-2
AZ-3
Water Quality Impact
km of
Stream
M
-
[b]
Beneficial
Use
F1sh
Aesthetics
Domestic
Problem
Type
Add
Metals
Sediment
TDS
Associated
With
Tailings
Tailings
Tailings
Processing
Type
Mining
Underground
Underground
--
Materials
Mined
Au.Ag.Cu
Pb.Ag.Cu
Cu
Mine
Discharge
(1/secl
0.19
PH
3.0
Annual Loading (metric tons/yr)
Acid As 1
CaCO, Fe Cu Mn Zn 1 SO,
18 8£b] <0.1 (1) <0.1 11
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
[a] Fish production In small (20 Hectare) lake limited.
[b] Groundwater affected.
CO
TABLE D-3. ARKANSAS
Mine or
District
Rush-Moumee
Ponca-Boxle>
Magnet Cove
Bauxite
Map
Reference
AK-1
AK-2
AK-3
Water QuaWy Impact
km of
Stream
[a]
[»]
[a]
Beneficial
Use
[b]
[b]
-
Problem
Type
Sediment
Sediment
Acid
Associated
With
Tailings
Tailings
Pits
-
Type
Mining
Surface
Underground
Surface
Underground
-
Materials
Mined
Pb.Zn
Barlte
Bauxite
~ Mine
Discharge
(1/sec)
PH
Annual Loading (metric tons/, T)
Acid As
CaCO, Fe
Cu i Mn Zn SO*
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
[a] No estimate made of length of stream effects.
[b] Possibly stressed bent Me community.
-------
TABLE 0-4. CALIFORNIA
Mine or
District
Gray Eagle
Almadln
Buena VUta
Leviathan
Walker
Penn
Corona
Shasta
D1»tr1ct[h]
Big Boy
Sylvia
Blue Ledge
Copper Bluff
Greenhorn
Engle
Iron Duke
Abbot
Reed
Hap
Reference
CA-1
CA-2
CA-3
CA-4
CA-5
CA-6
CA-7
CA-8
CA-9
CA-10
CA-11
CA-12
CA-1 3
CA-1 4
CA-1 5
CA-1 6
CA-17
water Quality Impact
km of
Stream
3[a]
flb]
2[d]
15
24
3[c,e]
22
18
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Beneficial
Use
Fish
Fish
Fish
Fish
Stock
Watering
Fish
Fish
F1sh
Fish
Minor
Minor
Minor
[J]
Aesthetics
Fishing
W
Esthetics
-
[1]
Problem
Type
Acid
Kg
Add
Heavy
Metals
Add
Heavy
Metals
Add
Add
Heavy
Metals
tf]
[f]
Erosion
Sediment
Sediment
Add
Add
Heavy
Metals
Add
Add
Heavy
Metals
Add
Heavy
Metals
Add
Heavy
Metals
Acid
Associated
With
Adit, Tailings
Adit
Tailings
AdH, Talllnos
PHi
Adit. Tailings
Pits
Adit. Tailings
AdH, Tailings
Adit, Tailings
Adit, Tailings
Waste Dumps
Tailings
-
-
Adits
-
-
-
-
-
Type
Mining
Underground
Underground
te]
Underground
Surface
Underground
Surface
Underground
Underground
Underground
Underground
Surface
Underground
Surface
Hydraulic
Underground
Underground
-
Underground
-
Underground
-
Ma ten -Is
Mined
Cu
Hg
Ho.
Sulphur
Cu
Cu.Zn
Hg
Ag.Au.Cu
Zn.Cd.S
Hg
Au
Cu.Ag.Au
Pb
Cu
Cu
Cu
Cu
Hq
Hg
nine
Discharge
(I/sec)
5.0
NA
.25
8.3
14.2
14.2[c]
14.2
[1]
Small
Flow
[n]
[1]
PH
2.9
NA
3.6
1.6
4.5
3.1
3.3
2.0
Annual Loading (metric tons/yr)
Acid As
CaCOj Fe
213 20
NA NA
56 5
6100 560
370 (34)
4200 380
1100 97
8600 790
Cu Mn
9 (8)
NA NA
(1.0) (2.0)
8 1
7 (13)
10 (150)
(20) (38)
33 19
Zn SO,
4 (204)
NA NA
(2) (53)
(90) 390
0.3 (350)
165 4000
(33) 670
63
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA
NO DATA
NO DATA
AVAILABLE
AVAILABLE
AVAILABLE
(Continued)
-------
TABLE D-4. CALIFORNIA (Continued)
filne or
District
Great Mesterr
Big Injun
Kellog
Dairy Farm
Copper H111
Newton
Argonaut
Copperopolis
Ht. Diablo
Hap
Reference
CA-18
CA-19
CA-20
CA-21
CA-22
CA-23
CA-24
CA-25
CA-26
Water Quality Impact
Km o
Stream
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
f Beneficial
Use
Aesthetics
Fishing
-
Fishing
Fishing
-
-
[m]
Aesthetics
Fishing
[k]
Problem
Type
Add
Froslon
Add-Hg
Add
Heavy
Metals
Add
Heavy
Metals
Add
Heavy
Metals
Add
Heavy
Metals
Add
Heavy
Metals
Acid
Heavy
Metals
Add
Associated
With
-
-
"
-
-
Tailings
-
-
Type
Mining
-
Surface
Open Pit
Underground
-
-
Underground
-
Underground
Materials
Mined
Hg
Hg
Hg
Cu
Cu
Cu
Au
Cu
. Hg
Mine
Discharge
(I/sec)
Small
Flow
[n]
[n]
PH
Annual Loading imetrlc tons/yr)
TCId As
CaCO,
Fe Cu Mn Zn SO*
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
Naturally caused. Drainage from adit diverted.
Hg concentration 1n fish tissue.
Estimated or assumed data.
Geologically reactive area. Many old stream terraces show evidence of Fe(OH)2 cementing
below main area.
Heavy metals have caused fish kills d/s from Comanchee Reservoir.
Acid, heavy metals, and s17t.
There are twelve significant mines and four smelter sites within the problem area.
Since 1966. there have been 15 fish kills at seven locations with over 59,000 fish
reportedly killed, principally In Spring, Squaw, and Backbone Creeks.
Only those streams with pH 6.5 were used considered for pollutant loading.
Depressed aquatic organisms 1n Trinity River.
F1sh are threatened by spring freshets.
Stock watering. Flow dissipates on private land.
Stockwaterlng, domestic, and fishing.
Variable flow - dry 1n summer.
Small amount mercury noted.
-------
TABLE 0-5. COLOMBO
Hint or
District
Jamestown
Black Hawk
Central City
Idaho Spring]
Minnesota,
Lion CrMk
Urtd-
Henderson
Leadvll Je-
St. Kevin
Like Creek
Kerber Creek
Creede
SurnnUvIll*
Motezuna
Breekenrldge
Crested
Butt*
Red
Mountain
Uncompangre
. Hap
leference
CO-1
CO-2
CO-3
CO-4
CO-5
CO-6
CO-7
CO-8
CO-9
CO-10
CO-11
CO- 12
CO-1 3
CO-1 4
nattr anility ie»act
tabf
Stream
14
26[b]
65[b]
9[b]
8
110
13
43
ie
50[f]
35
10
35
50
Beneficial
Use
F1sh
Cc]
Fish
Domestic
F1sh
DOMStlc
Fish
Fish
Fish
Fish
F1sh[a,e]
F1ih
F1sh
F1sh[c]
F1sh
Fish
Problem
Type
Acid
Metal s
Add
Metals
Add
Metals
Acid
Metals
Metals
Acid
Metals
Add
Metals
Add
Metals
Metals
Add
Sediment
Add
Metals
Add
Metals
Add
Metals
Add
Metals
Associated
With
Tailings
Tailings
Adltsfd]
Adits
Ta1l1ngs[d]
Adits
Tailings
Adits
Tailings
Adits
Talllngsfd]
Ad1ts[d]
Adits
Talllngsfd]
Tailings
Adit
Ta111ngs[fl
Adit
Tailings
Adit
Tailings
Adit
Tailings
Tailings
Type
M1n1ng[g]
'
Underground
Underground
Underground
Underground
Underground
Underground
Underground
-
Underground
Underground
Underground
Underground
"
Materials
Mined
Pb,Au,Ag
Fluorspar
Au.Aq.Cu
Pb.Zn.U
Au.Ag
Au.Ag
Mo
Au.Zn.Pb
Ag.Cu.Hn
Fi.BI
Au,Pb.Ag
Zn
-
Ag.Pb.Zn
Au.Cu
Ag.Au.Cu
Pb
Pb.Zn.Au
Au.Ag.Pb.
Zn
-
Cu.Pb.Zn
AS.AU
nine Annual Loading (metric tons/rr)
DlKharge Acid As 1
(I/sec) PH CiCOt Fe Cu 1 Mn
10.6 6.6 14.5 1.0 0.1 2
2.0 6.3 1.6 0.2 0.1 0.1
28.0 6.8 4300 390 8 69
1,0 4.0 91 8.3 0.9 5.6
2.0 7.2 0.2 <0.01 <0.1 0.5
348 7.5 3600 330 3 87
238 S.I 360 33 1 7
2150 - 1700 157 15 100
1274 - 100 9.2 4.0 7
340 - 28 2.6 0.2 2
3360 - 610 56 2 8
42.4 - 2.9 .27 <0.1 2
54 - 105 9.7 0.4 37
NO DATA AVAILABLE 3.8 0.2 0.6
Zn
4
0.1
43
0.5
0.1
480
6
116
40
0.8
690
5
24
0.25
SO.
(J4)
(2)
(4100)
(88)
(.2)
(3400)
(345)
(1650)
(96)
(27)
(590)
(3)
(101)
tn
[a] Type of nlnlng not known for all nines at each area. Underground nines practiced at all
places where adits are reported.
[b] Exact length Influenced by CO-2, 3, 4 Indeterminable due to com1ng11ng of streams.
Total length effected by all three areas 100 km.
Aquatic diversity limited.
Problems also associated with drainage adits.
F1sh kill 1n 1971 due to tailings dam failure.
Area of hydrothermlly altered rock much of drainage natural. Natural seeps have
concentration as high as Fe * 170 mg/1 and Ng 5-7.
-------
TABLE 0-6. IDAHO
Mine or Map
District Reference
Blackbird
StlbnHe
Bunker Hill
[e.g]
Bear Valley
Big Creek
Warren
Thompsonfh]
Creek Project
Georgetown
Canyon
Water! oo[c]
Mores Creek
Jack Wa1te[f]
Continental [f]
Pearl
Silver City
Red Ledge
ID-1
ID-2
ID-3
10-4
ID-5
ID-6
10-
ID-8
ID-9
ID-10
ID-11
10-12
ID-13
ID-14
ID-1 5
Water Quality Impact
km of
Stream
50
[b]
55
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
8
20
-
-
Beneficial
Use
Fish
Fish
Aesthetics
Fish
Fish
-
-
-
-
-
-
F1sh
Fish
F1sh
Fish
Fish
Problem
Type
Add
Heavy
Metals
Sediment
Add
Heavy
Metals
Sediment
Sediment
Sediment
Heavy
Metals
Sediment
Sediment
-
Heavy
Metals
Heavy
Metals
Arsenic
Mercury
[c]
Heavy
Metals
Associated
With
Adits
Tailings
Tailings
Tailings
Tailings
-
Adits
Adits
Tailings
Tailings
-
-
-
Tailings
Tailings
Adits
Type
Mining
PUS
Underground
Pits
Underground
Dredge
-
Underground
Underground
-
-
Dredge
Dredge
Dredge
-
Underground
Materials
Mined
Co
Sb
Zn.Pb.Sb
Ag
-
Au
-
Phosphate
Phosphate
-
-
-
As
Au.Ag
Cu
Mine
Discharge
(I/sec)
11.3[a]
358[a]
176
[]
PH
4.5
3.3
2.5
Annual Loading [metric tons/yr)
Acid As
CaCO. Fe
20 2
NO DATA
109 (10)
205 (19)[a]
Cu
0.7
Mn Z
(.7) (
n SO*
.6) (19)
AVAILABLE
2.0
4
(4) 480 (105)
7 830 (197)
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
. NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO
NO
DATA AVAILABLE
DATA AVAILABLE
Ephemeral discharge.
South Fork Salmon River water quality emprovlng and fishing Is returning.
Near Montpel1er, Idaho.
Hg used as an amalgam escaped during active mining.
This mine 1s only partially Inactive.
These mines to be studied by USFS, see text for reference.
Two distinct discharge locations at time of study.
This mine Is 1n the development stage.
-------
TABLE D-7. MISSOURI
Mine or
District
Nine it Mottt
Flat River-
Bonne Terre
Washington C<
T1ff Mining
Area [fa]
Trl-State
Area [c]
Hap
leferenee
MO-1
MO-2
MO-3
HO-4
Hater Quality Impact
km of
Stream
6-16
64
39
21
Beneficial
Use
Flih
F1sh
Benthos
Fish
Fish
Probl em
Type
Heavy
Metals
Heavy
Metals
Sediment
Sediment
Zn
Associated
With
Ad its
Tailings
Tailings
Adits
Tailings
Type
Mining
Under? round
Underground
Surface
Underground
Materials
Mined
Pb
Pb
Bar He
Pb, In
Nine
Discharge
(1/secl
35.0
[«]
[e]
pH
8.0
5.9
Annual loading (metric tons/
Acid As
CaCO. Fe
76 7.0
Cu Mn
.8 13
r)
Zn SO.
I (73)
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
217[f]
00
[a] No nine discharge water quality data was available.
[b] 20-30 mines.
[c] 30-100 mines.
[d] Zinc concentration toxic to some fish species.
[e] Data not available on all mines.
[f] Total load of zinc from Center Creek, no data on Turkey Creek.
-------
TABLE D-8. MONTANA
Mine or
District
Hughesvllle
McClaren [c]
McC1aren[e]
Glengary[e]
Comet[c]
Crystal
Elkhorn
Heddleston
Grasshopper
Creek
Sunsh1ne[g]
Alta
Frohner
Gold Creek
Placer
Forest Rose
Map
Reference
MT-1
MT-2
MT-3
MT-4
MT-5
MT-6
MT-7
MT-8
MT-9
MT-10
MT-11
MT-1 2
MT-13
MT-14
Water Quality Impact
km of
Stream
3[a]
3ld]
3[f]
5
6
26
5
13
24
None
10
5
32
-
Beneficial
Use
-
F1sh
-
-
-
Fish
Fish
Fish
-
-
-
-
-
N/A
Problem
Type
Acid
Add
Acid
Add
Heavy
Metals
Add
Acid
Add
Sediment
[h]
Add
Metals
Add, As
Sediment
TDS.Color
Associated
With
Tailings
Tailings
Adits, Pits
Adits, Pits
Dump
Tailings
Adits, Pits
Tailings
Adits, Tailings
Adits, Tailings
Tailings
-
Adit, Pits
Tailings
Adit, Pits
Tailings
[1]
Type
Mining
Underground
Mill
Pits
Underground
Underground
Underground
Pits
Underground
Underground
Placer
Underground
Underground
PUS
Underground
Placer
Underground
Materials
Mined
-
Cu.Au
Au,Ag,Cu
Au.Ag.Cu
Pb.Zn, Au.
Acj.Cu
Ag.Au.Cu
Pb.Zn
Ag.Au.Pb
Pb.Zn
Au
Pb.Ba
Pb,2n,Cu
Ag.Au
Pb.Zn.Cu
Ag.Au
Au
Au.Ag.Pb
Zn
Mine
Discharge
(l/sec5
2.0
21
85
7.8
3.3
3.4
31
18.9
0.3
2.0
Annual Loading (metric tons/yr)
Acid As
PH CaCOi
2.9 144
3.7 260
2.8 2300
2.7 11
6.6 3
260
6.5 14
4.4 140
Fe
13[b]
24
209
97
0.2
24
1
13
Cu
Mn Zn
0.2[b] 7[b] 7
5
118
34
< 0.1
7
0.2
1
2 8
30 10
0.9 0
0.1 0
4 520
(0.5) 2
15.5 31
SO*
M (138)
510
3850
.1 82
.7 (3)
(250)
106
550
NO DATA AVAILABLE
DISCHARGE DOES NOT REACH STREAM
17
3.0 28
2
3
NO DATA
NO DATA
< 0.1
< 0.1
5 3
(1.0) 0
(16)
1 (26)
AVAILABLE
AVAILABLE
ID
Galena Creek.
Data from pages 20-24, Reference 518, converted to MT/yr, and sampled 11/28/73.
Mine or mill tailings.
Soda Butte Creek.
Mine area.
Daisy Creek, Stlllwater.
Load prospect.
Potential metal problem.
Relocation of stream.
Lowest pH.
-------
TABLE D-9. NEVADA
Mine or
District
JarbHdge
R1o Tlnto
Map
Reference
NV-1
NV-2
Water Quality Impact
Tan or
Stream
-
Beneficial
Us«
-
Fish
Problem
Type
Color
Add
Associated
WHh
Tailings
Type
Mining
Underground
Underground
Materials
Mined
Au,Ag
Cu
Mine
Discharge
(I/sec)
23
0.2
pH
6.S
2.2
W
Annual Loading [metric tons/.
. CaCOi
20
300
M
Fe
2
6
Cu
(0.4)
1
Mn
(0.7)
(11)
fr)
In
(0.6)
00}
SO,
(19)
(290)
[a] Used average Of analyses for July-August 1974.
TABLE 0-10. NEW HAMPSHIRE
Mine or
District
Ore Hill
Map
Reference
NH-)
Hater Qwillty Impact
Km of
Stream
5
Beneficial
Use
Fish
Problem
Typej
Heavy
Metals
Associated
With
Tailings
Type
Mining
-
Materials
Mined
M1ca
nine
Discharge
(1/secJ
28.3[aJ
*H
7.5
Annuaf Loading (metric tons/yr)
A
-------
TABLE D-12. NORTH CAROLINA
Mine or
District
Spruce Pine
Pegmatite
Map
Reference
NC-1
Water Quality Impact
km of
Stream
70
Beneficial
use
-
Problem
Type
Sediment
Associated
With
Tailings
[«]
Type
M1n1w
Surface
Materials
Mined
Feldspar
M1ca
Quartz
HI lie
Discharge
(I/sec)
pH
Annual Loading (metric tons/vr)
Add As
CaCO, Fe
Cu Hn In SO*
NO DATA AVAILABLE
[a] Many Inactive small mines (50 plus) and approximately ten active larger nines.
Much of problem caused by active mines.
00
TABLE 0-13. OREGON
Mine or
District
White King
Blackjack
Couger-Inde-
pendence
Silver Peak
Alameda
Map
Reference
OR-1
OR-2
OR-3
OR-4
OR-5
Water Quality Impact
km of
Stream
16
6[b]
6[b]
9[b]
N/A
Beneficial
Use
F1sh
-
-
-
-
Problem
Type
Add
Sediment
Add
Add
Add
Add
Associated
With
Adits, Tailings
-
-
-
Adits
Type
Mining
Underground
-
-
-
Underground
Materials
Mined
U
-
Au
Ag
Au,Cu
Mine
Discharge
(I/sec)
1.9
14.2[a]
0.2
6.3
pH
2.8
3.5
3.2
Annual
Acid As
CaCOi F
Loading (metric tons/
e Cu Mn
NO DATA AVAILABLE
40.2 4
2100 190
2.7 0
NO
<0.1 0.3
.04 7
3 <0.1 <0.1
DATA AVAILABLE
yr)
Zn SO*
<0.1 (39)
.5 (1980)
0.2 (236)
[a] Assumed flow rate.
[b] Assumed stream effected until diluted by tributary.
-------
TABLE 0-14. TENNESSEE
Mine or
District
Ball CUy[a]
Brown Phos-
phate [b]
Duck town
East Tennes-
see Z1nc
Hap
Reference
TN-1
TN-2
TN-3
TN-4
Hater Quality Impact'
"Ki of
Strewn
20
5
35
-
Beneficial
Use
Fish
fish
-
Problem
Type
Sediment
Sediment
Sediment
Add
Metals
Sediment
Metal t
Associated
H1th
Pits, Waste
Pits, Waste
Ta1Hngs[c]
Tailings
Type
Mining
Surface
Surface
Underground
Underground
Materials
Pined
Ball Cla>
Phosphate
Cu.Fe.S
Zn
RTne
Discharge
(J/sec)
pH
Acid As
CaCO,
NO
NO
NO
NO
Fc
Cu Mn Zn SO.
DATA AVAILABLE
DATA AVAILABLE
DATA AVAILABLE
DATA AVAILABLE
00
ro
[a] Approximately 95 percent of District 1i still active. Most of problem from active mining.
[b] Approximately 90 percent of District 1s still active.
[c] Denuded land from sulphurous fumes also causing erosion and sedimentation.
TABLE D-15. TEXAS
Mine Or
District
S.E. Uranium
Terllngua
Map
Reference
TX-1
TX-2
Uaier Quality Impact
km of
Stream
-
-
Beneficial
Use
-
[b]
Problem
Type
[]
Sediment
Mercury
Associated
With
Tailings
Tailings
Pits
Type
Mining
Surface
Surface
Underground
Materials
Mined
U
Hg
Nine
Discharge
(17MCJ
pH
Annual loading (metric tons/yr)
Acid As
CaCO,
Fe
Cu Mn
Zn SOS
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
[a] Potential hazard not documented.
[b] Much of Mercury 1n sediments from natural sources.
-------
TABLE 0-16. VERMONT
Mine or
District
Pike Hill
Ely
Elizabeth
Map
Reference
VT-1
VT-2
VT-3
Uater Quality Impact
km of
Stream
3M
5
6
Beneficial
Use
Fish
F1sh
Fish
Probl em
Type
Add
Sediment
Acid
Add
Heavy
Metals
Associated
With
201 Adits
80* Tailings
Tailings
AdH. PUs,
Tailings
Type
Mlnlnq
Underground
Underground
Surface
Underground
Surface
Materials
Mined
Cu
Cu
Cu
Mine
Discharge
(1/secl
28.0
28.3[b]
PH
3.6
Annual Loading (metric tons/yr)
Add As
CaCO, Fe
Cu Mn Zn SOi,
NO DATA AVAILABLE
NO DATA AVAILABLE
1030 290
1 - 1
00
00
[a] Assumed-based on distance downstream to confluence with d11lut1ng stream.
[b] Stream below mine.
TABLE D-17. VIRGINIA
Mine or
District
Contrary
Creek
Chestnut
Creek[a]
Kelly Bank
Map
Reference
VA-1
VA-2
VA-3
Water Quality Impact
km of
Stream
15
8
-
Beneficial
Use
F1sh
F1sh
-
Problem
Type
Add
Add
Sediment
Associated
With
Tailings
Adits
Tailings
Tailings
Type
M1n1nq
Underground
pits
-
Materials
Mined
Pyrlte
PyrUe
-
Mine
Discharge
(1/secl
130
28.?
8.9
ll.lt
PH
U.O
3.7
3.8
3.1
Annual Loading (metric tons/yr)
Acid As !
CaCO, I Fe
jltO 50
265 2lt
2900 270
3500 320
Cu
2
(5)
0.2
0.2
Mn
li
do)
lit
13
Zn
11
(8)
3
It
SO,,
590
20.:
950
1100
NO DATA AVAILABLE
[a] Three discharge locations.
-------
TABLE 0-18. WASHINGTON
Mine or
District
Hoi den
Hap
Reference
WA-1
Utter quality Impact
fafof
Stream
14
Beneficial
Use
.
Problem
Type
Acid
Sediment
Associated
With
Tailings
Type
Mining
Underground
Materials
Mined
Cu.Zn.Au
Ag
nine
Discharge
(I/sec)
57
pH
fc.s
[.]
Annual Loading (metric tons/
Add As
CaCO,
58
Fe
5
[a]
Cu
It
[a]
Mn
T]
Zn
1 29
ta] [a]
SO,
(56)
00
4*
[t] EPA 19730.
TABLE 0-19. WISCONSIN
Mine or
District
S.H. Zinc
Map
Reference
Hl-1
Water Quality Impact
km of
Stream
10
Beneficial
Use
-
Problem
Type
Add
Heavy
Metals
Associated
With
Tailings
Type
Mining
Underground
Materials
Mined
Zn
Mine
Discharge
(I/sec)
pH
Annual Loading (metric tons/
Add As
CaCO, Fe
Cu
Mn
V)
Zn SO,,
NO DATA AVAILABLE
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
I. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/2-76-298
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
WATER POLLUTION CAUSED BY INACTIVE ORE
AND MINERAL MINES - A National Assessment
5. REPORT DATE
December 1976 issuing date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Harry W. Martin
William R. Mills, Jr.
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Toups Corporation
1010 N. Main Street
Santa Ana, CA 92711
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1BB040
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-03-2212
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory - Cin., OH
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/12
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16.
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
me report identifies the scope and magnitude of water pollution from inactive
ore and mineral mines. Data collected from Federal, State, and local agencies
indicates water pollution from acids, heavy metals, and sedimentation occurs at
over 100 locations and affects over 1200 kilometres of streams and rivers. The
metal mining industry was shown to be the principal source of this pollution.
Descriptions of the mineral industry are presented, including a summary of economic
geology, production methods, and historic mineral production methods, and historic
mineral production. The mechanisms of formation, transporation, and removals of
pollutants are detailed.
Annual pollutant loading rates for acid and metals from inactive mines are given and
a method provided to determine the extent of mine-related sedimentation in Western I
watersheds. State-by-state summaries of mine related pollution are presented.
An assessment of current water pollution abatement procedures used for inactive
mines is given and research and development programs for necessary improve-
ments are recommended.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Water Quality
Water Pollution
Metalliferous Minerals
Metalliferous Mineral Deposits
Mining Waste Disposal
Mine Surveys
Assessments
Ore and Mineral Mines
Metal Mining
Acid Mine Drainage
Heavy Metals
Pollution Control Tech.
R and D Programs
13/B
08/1
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
195
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 <9-73)
185
ftUSGPO: 1977 757-056/5481 Region 5-11
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