vvEPA
•J States
jnmental Protection
Agency
Environmental Research
Laboratory
Duluth MN 55804
r)78
Research and Development
Environmental
Effects of Oil Shale
Mining and
Processing
Part
The Aquatic
Macroinvertebrates
of the Piceance Basin,
Colorado, Prior to Oil
Shale Processing
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5 Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8 "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH series. This series
describes research on the effects of pollution on humans, plant and animal spe-
cies, and materials. Problems are assessed for their long- and short-term influ-
ences. Investigations include formation, transport, and pathway studies to deter-
mine the fate of pollutants and their effects. This work provides the technical basis
for setting standards to minimize undesirable changes in living organisms in the
aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric environments.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/3-78-097
October 1978
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF OIL SHALE MINING AND PROCESSING
PART II - THE AQUATIC MACROINVERTEBRATES OF THE
PICEANCE BASIN, COLORADO, PRIOR TO OIL SHALE PROCESSING
by
Lawrence J. Gray and James V. Ward
Department of Zoology and Entomology
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado 80523
Grant No. R803950
Project Officer
Donald I. Mount
Environmental Research Laboratory
Duluth, Minnesota 55804
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
DULUTH, MINNESOTA 55804
-------
DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Research Laboratory,
Duluth, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication.
Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and
policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of
trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation
for use.
ii
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FOREWORD
This report contains the data from a preoperational biological survey
of invertebrates in Piceance Creek, Colorado where oil shale development is
anticipated. It is one of a series of reports all intended to better describe
energy development impacts on aquatic environments in the West. The value of
this report will increase in future years because it will become a reference
point in time by which changes in Piceance Creek will be judged.
Donald J. Mount, Ph.D.
Director
Environmental Research Laboratory-Duluth
111
-------
ABSTRACT
A study was conducted at sampling sites on four streams in the Piceance
Basin of northwestern Colorado to acquire data on benthic macroinvertebrate
communities prior to commencement of oil shale mining and processing activi-
ties. Piceance Creek, the major stream studied, exhibited considerable
longitudinal variation in environmental conditions. Sodium, sulfate, chlo-
ride, and total dissolved solids increased greatly in the downstream direc-
tion. The temperature range, turbidity, severity of winter ice conditions,
and effects of grazing and irrigation activities also increased downstream.
Downstream reductions in density, biomass and diversity, and altered macro-
invertebrate species composition were associated with the longitudinal
changes in environmental parameters. The fauna of upstream areas of Piceance
Creek and its tributaries was composed of primarily winter species (those
that complete their life cycle from fall to spring), whereas the fauna of
downstream reaches of Piceance Creek was composed almost entirely of summer
species. Effects of oil shale mining and processing activities on aquatic
biota will depend upon the type of mining employed, the extent of surface and
subsurface disturbance, the success of pollution controls, points of pollu-
tion entry, and extent of water depletion. Present environmental conditions
and macroinvertebrate communities of lower reaches of Piceance Creek may be
indicative of the potential effect of future impacts at upstream locations.
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CONTENTS
Page
Foreword iii
Abstract iv
Figures vi
Tables vii
Acknowledgments viii
I Introduction 1
II Conclusions 2
III Recoirmendations 3
IV Description of Study Area 4
V Materials and Methods 14
VI Results and Discussion 15
Species Composition 15
Density and Biomass 17
August 1976 to April 1977 Studies 24
Species Diversity and Equitability 27
Statistical Analyses 27
Potential Effect of Oil Shale Development on
Piceance Creek Macroinvertebrates 29
References 32
Appendix A. Taxa Collected from Piceance Creek and
Tributaries, August 1975 to April 1977 36
Appendix B. Piceance Creek Diatom Species List 39
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FIGURES
Number Page
1 Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado 5
2 Piceance Creek, Colorado and major tributaries showing
sampling locations 10
3 Mean density, biomass, and total number of taxa at
Piceance Creek sampling sites, August 1975 to July 1976 19
4 Total density at PC-1, PC-3, and PC-7. August 1975 to
July 1976 20
5 Total biomass at PC-1, PC-3, and PC-7, August 1975 to
July 1976 21
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TABLES
Number paqe
1 Discharge records for Piceance Creek, Colorado 6
2 Water quality data for selected stream locations in the
Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado, and for spent shale
leachate (range of values in mg/liter except as noted) 7
3 Significant trace elements and ions in Piceance Creek
and spent shale leachate in relation to water quality
criteria for aquatic life (values in mg/liter) 8
4 Physical and chemical characteristics of'Piceance
Creek and Black Sulphur Creek sampling sites, August
1975 to July 1976 11
5 Physical and chemical characteristics of Piceance
Creek, August 1976 to April 1977 13
6 Distribution of major taxa in Piceance Creek,
Colorado, August 1975 to June 1976 16
7 Piceance Creek and Black Sulphur Creek macroinvertebrate
parameters (grand means and ranges), August 1975 to
July 1976 18
8 Percentage composition of major taxa at Piceance Creek
and Black Sulphur Creek sampling sites, August 1975 to
July 1976 (values rounded to whole numbers) 23
9 Macroinvertebrate parameters (grand means and ranges)
for PC-2, PC-3, and PC-4, August 1976 to April 1977 25
10 Percentage composition of major taxa at PC-2, PC-3,
and PC-4, August 1975 to July 1976 (values rounded to
whole numbers) 26
vii
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to extend their appreciation to Dr. George W. Byers,
Department of Entomology, University of Kansas, for his assistance in iden-
tifying Tipula cormiscibilis, and to Dr. Kenneth Stewart, Department of
Biological Sciences, North Texas State University, for confirming the iden-
tification of Isoperla patvicia. Mr. R. G. Dufford, Department of Botany
and Plant Pathology, Colorado State University, assisted in diatom identifi-
cation. The Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University,
provided support facilities and coordinated research activities.
This report is based in part on a thesis submitted by L. J. Gray in
partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Master of Science in
Zoology from the Graduate School of Colorado State University, Fort Collins,
Colorado.
This research was funded in part by a National Science Foundation
Energy Traineeship awarded to L. J. Gray, and by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Environmental Research Laboratory-Duluth, Research Grant
No. R803950, awarded to Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State
University, and Fisheries Bioassay Laboratory, Montana State University.
vm
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SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
The Piceance Creek Basin is a large area of land in northwestern Colo-
rado underlain by rocks of the Green River Formation, the primary source of
oil shale in the United States. Although Colorado has the smallest geo-
graphical area of oil shale, its deposits are the richest and best known.
High grade deposits total 400 to 600 billion barrels of oil (U.S. Department
of the Interior, 1973).
The present study of the benthic macroinvertebrates of Piceance Basin
streams was conducted year-round from August 1975 through April 1977. The
objective of this research was to gain an understanding of the structure and
function of the macroinvertebrate community and its relationship to the
physical and chemical environment prior to oil shale extraction and
processing activities.
Previous studies of the macroinvertebrate fauna of Piceance Creek
include Everhart and May (1973), Pennak (1974), Woodling and Kendall (1974),
and consultants to Shell Oil Company (C-b Shale Oil Project, 1976). No
previous studies have been conducted on Black Sulphur Creek.
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SECTION II
CONCLUSIONS
1. Piceance Creek exhibits considerable longitudinal variation in environ-
mental conditions. The harshness of physical and chemical conditions
increases downstream. These downstream changes are caused naturally by
the geochemistry of the basin and are enhanced by effects of current
grazing and irrigation practices.
2. Macroinvertebrate standing crop and diversity decrease downstream. The
species composition of the macroinvertebrate community also varies
longitudinally. Winter species predominate in upstream areas of
Piceance Creek and in most tributaries, whereas downstream reaches are
comprised primarily of summer species.
3. Although Piceance Creek is, in general, a relatively harsh aquatic
habitat, it is capable of considerable resilience to destructive forces,
such as winter ice conditions.
a. This resiliency is thought to be, at least partially, a result of
the ecological role played by entering spring brooks.
b. Springs in the headwaters and spring-fed tributaries provide
approximately 80% of the base flow of Piceance Creek (Weeks et_al_.,
1974).
c. Springs provide water which increases winter temperatures and
reduces summer temperatures in Piceance Creek. Springs also supply
water of low turbidity,
d. Preliminary evidence also indicates that spring-fed reaches provide
a source of benthic organisms which allows maintenance of certain
species populations in Piceance Creek.
4. Alteration of the quality or quantity of ground water, or other modifi-
cation of the spring brook habitats, would be expected to result in
changes in the macroinvertebrate communities of Piceance Creek.
5. This study was devised and conducted based upon the TOSCO II process
which was the intended recovery method at that time. The development
plan has since been revised; present plans are to utilize a modified
in situ recovery method for Tract C-b. The conclusions of this paper
are based upon the TOSCO II process and would be somewhat different for
an in situ method.
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SECTION III
RECOMMENDATIONS
Upon commencement of mining activities, chemical and biological sampling
should resume at sites PC-2, PC-3, PC-4, WC-1, and S6-1. Additional stations
should be established on Willow Creek and Stewart Gulch above drainage from
Tract C-b, and at the sources of springs adjacent to Tract C-b. Biological
sampling of macroinvertebrates should document any changes in species compo-
sition, standing crop, or community structure associated with any changes in
the quality or quantity of water resulting from mining activities.
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SECTION IV
DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA
The Piceance Basin in northwestern Colorado is part of the northern cool
desert. Annual precipitation ranges from 30 to 50 cm. Summer air tempera-
tures may exceed 40°C and winter temperatures may be as low as -40°C (Weeks
et al., 1974). Big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) is the dominant plant in
valleys and on slopes, forming associations with either grasses and forbs or
other shrubs. On the ridges a pinyon (Pinus edulis)-juniper (Juniperus
osteosperma and j. scopulomm) woodland dominates. Plant coverage for the
basin as a whole averages only 25% of the land's surface. Hay is grown on
irrigated land in the stream valleys, and some pinyon-juniper woodland has
been cleared by ranchers to promote grassland for grazing (U.S. Department of
the Interior, 1973). Elevations near potential sites of oil shale extraction
range from 2,000 to 2,250 m with local reliefs of over 100 m.
Figure 1 shows Piceance Creek and its tributaries, many of which are
intermittent streams. Discharge records for Piceance Creek (Table 1) show
large seasonal and yearly fluctuations. These fluctuations are due primarily
to variations in precipitation, but are also caused, to a certain extent, by
diversions for irrigation (about 5,500 acres, or 22.3 km2, are irrigated with
water from Piceance Creek) (U.S. Geological Survey, 1974).
Water quality data for Piceance Creek are shown in Tables 2 and 3. The
concentrations of sodium, sulfate, and chloride increase greatly between the
headwaters and the mouth. These increases, and the increases in total
dissolved solids in general, are apparently caused by groundwater inflows
from the leached zone of the Parachute Creek Member of the Green River Forma-
tion. The Parachute Creek Member, in addition to containing the richest oil
shale, contains deposits of soluble alkaline and saline minerals, principally
nahcolite (NaHC03), halite (Nad), and gypsum (CaSOit«2H20). These mineral
deposits reach their greatest concentration in the lower reaches of Piceance
Creek. Below Ryan Gulch, beds of these minerals are up to 1,000 feet thick.
Two springs over these beds that empty into Piceance Creek (springs S-2 and
S-6, see Figure 1 and Table 2) had total dissolved solids concentrations of
6,120 and 22,100 mg/liter, while two springs above Ryan Gulch (springs S-5
and S-4) had concentrations of 703 and 1,220 mg/liter, respectively (Weeks
and Welder, 1974).
Increases in dissolved solids concentrations in Piceance Creek may also
be partially the result of irrigation activities. Diversions would decrease
the amount of higher quality flows from upstream areas, and return flows
would carry higher concentrations of dissolved solids, thus adding to the
load already present.
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M
i
Figure 1. Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado.
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TABLE 1. DISCHARGE RECORDS FOR PICEANCE CREEK, COLORADO.-
Location
340 m above
Stewart Gulch
0.6 km above
Hunter Creek
12 m down from
Ryan Gulch
At mouth
Period of record
April -September 1974
April -September 1974
October 1972-September 1973
October 1973-September 1974
October 1964-September 1974-/
October 1971-September 1972
October 1972-September 1973
October 1973-September 1974
Maximum—'
4.3
(152)
4.4
(155)
2.83
(100)
1.62
(57)
11.0
(400)
2.83
(100)
3.26
(115)
2.44
(86)
Minimum—
0.1
(3.7)
0.13
(4.6)
0.1
(3.7)
0.085
(3.0)
0.006
(0.21)
0.024
(0.84)
0.10
(3.6)
0.16
(5.8)
b/ c/ d/
Mean— Total— Drainage area—
0.28
(9.8)
0.31
(10.8)
0.82
(29.1)
0.77
(27.3)
0.5
(17.7)
0.37
(13.1)
0.92
(32.6)
3.66
(2,978)
4.08
(3,320)
14.9
(12,100)
24.4
(19,800)
15.8
(12,800)
11.7
(9,520)
29.0
(23,580)
458
(177)
800
(309)
1,256
(485)
1,632
(630)
0.97 30.4
(34.2) (24,730)
-/Records from U.S. Geological Survey (1972, 1973a, 1974) and Ficke et al. (1974).
— Data in m3/s (cfs in parentheses below).
c/
— Data in hm3 (acre-feet in parentheses below).
-Data in km2 (mile2 in parentheses below).
e/
— Total discharge given as a yearly average over period of record.
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TABLE 2. WATER QUALITY DATA FOR SELECTED STREAM LOCATIONS IN THE PICEANCE CREEK BASIN,
COLORADO AND FOR SPENT SHALE LEACHATE (RANGE OF VALUES IN MG/LITER EXCEPT AS NOTED)
Chemical constituents
Ca++
Mg++
Na+
K+
so4:
CT
HC03"
NO-*
pn —
Total alkalinity
pH
Temperature, °C
Dissolved 0~
Dissolved organic matter
Suspended organic matter
Suspended inorganic matter
Total dissolved solids
Spent shale^
leachate
3,150
4,720
35,000
44
90,000
3,080
--
7.4
1.4
--
--
—
—
--
--
--
76,000
Piceance Creek-
at mouth
34-77
74-110
200-810
3.0-6.2
300-580
16-120
701-1,790
0.01-0.79
0.03-0.08
575-1,500
7.9-8.7
0-21
6.2-11.4
169.9-237.0
4.6-22.2
4.6-134.2
1,153-3,159
Piceance Creek-
headwaters
49.9-110.0
27.7-60.6
7.8-235.0
0.6-10.0
65.6-283.0
6.8-13.0
--
0.5-3.8
—
270-500
7.6-8.4
0-15
6.5-11.2
90.5-108.4
0.8-2.4
2.7-10.4
377-728
Piceance Creek-'
Springs
18-7.9
33-64
2,300-9,200
8.5-5.7
180-110
780-1,600
4,060-22,500
1.4-0.88
0.84-1.8
4,540-18,500
--
--
--
--
--
--
6,120-22,100
-From Ward et al. (1971). Values are the potential maximum*.
-/From Everhart and May (1973) and Pennak (1974).
-''From U.S. Geological Survey (1973b) and Pennak (1974).
-/From Weeks and Welder (1974). Spring S-6 cited first, then Spring S-2.' See text for continents.
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TABLE 3. SIGNIFICANT TRACE ELEMENTS AND IONS IN PICEANCE CREEK AND SPENT SHALE
LEACHATE IN RELATION TO WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR AQUATIC LIFE (VALUES IN MG/LITER)
00
Ions
Trace elements
+3
Aluminum (Al )
Barium (Ba+2)
Fluoride (F~)
Zinc (Zn+2)
Anions
Chloride (Cl~)
Sulfate (SQ4~2)
Total dissolved solids
Spent shale^-
leachate
0.10
0.16
0.14
0.10
Up to 3,080
Up to 90,000
Up to 76,000
c/
Piceance Creek—
b/ Springs S-2
Piceance Creek- and S-6
0.02-0.05
0.0-6.3
0.7-7.0 0.4-28.0
—
6.8-120.0 780-1,600
65-580 110-180
377-3,159 6,120-22,100
Water qual ity
criteria for,,
aquatic life—
0.10
5.0
1.5
0.10
Ambient levels
Ambient levels
Ambient levels
-/From Ward et al. (1971).
-/From U.S. Geological Survey (1973b) and Everhart and May (1973).
c/
— From Weeks and Welder (1974). See text for comments.
— From National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering (1973) and McKee and
Wolf (1963).
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Piceance Creek, the largest stream studied, begins in the White River
National Forest at an elevation of 2440 m and flows 80 km before entering the
White River at an elevation of 1738 m. It has a permanent flow due to
incoming groundwater from numerous surface springs and spring-fed tributaries,
but certain portions are intermittent, particularly that part between PC-1
and PC-2 (Figure 2). The streambed is composed of sedimentary rocks (shales,
marlstones, and sandstones) that are readily decomposed by physical and
chemical processes. Riparian vegetation consists of sagebrush and other
shrub communities, hay meadows, and occasional willows that do not form a
complete canopy over the stream. The stream is affected by cattle pastured
in riparian meadows during winter, and irrigation withdrawals and return
flows from April to October.
Black Sulphur Creek, the largest tributary of Piceance Creek, is about
32 km long and enters Piceance Creek at an elevation of 1890 m. At BSC-1 it
flows through a hay meadow with some willows. The substratum is similar to
upper Piceance Creek, and this site is affected by grazing and irrigation
activities. Table 4 summarizes the physical and chemical characteristics of
the Piceance and Black Sulphur Creeks sampling sites for the first year of
study (August 1975 to July 1976). Table 5 summarizes similar data for the
middle Piceance sites during the second year (August 1976 to April 1977).
PC-1 possesses several unique characteristics as a result of its spring-
fed nature. Most of the base flow originates from several bankside springs
that enter 1 km above the sampling site. These springs create relatively
constant temperatures and chemical conditions. Discharge is also relatively
constant, except during the spring (March to May) when runoff increases flows
and scours the streambed. Unlike other Piceance sites, PC-1 is not
appreciably affected by grazing and irrigation activities.
The middle Piceance Creek sites show increases in dissolved solids,
turbidity, and temperature range compared to PC-1. Although surface and
frazil ice were present in the winter, the proximity of these sites to
surface springs and spring-fed tributaries (Stewart Gulch and Willow Creek)
prevented anchor ice formation. This groundwater is also important in
preventing high temperatures during the summer. Irrigation withdrawals
beginning in early spring reduced runoff, thus lessening streambed scour;
withdrawals also created very low flows by late summer (cf. Weeks et al.,
1974). The addition of suspended solids, dissolved solids, and plant
nutrients by return flows increased siltation, salinity, and growths of
filamentous algae. The effects on water quality by these return flows are
illustrated by changes occurring at the sampling site located between Stewart
Gulch and PC-3. During the winter.(November 1975 through February 1976),
when no irrigation was occurring, mean concentrations (n=12) of total dis-
solved solids, total suspended solids, and phosphates were 700 mg/liter,
5 mg/liter, and 0.03 mg/liter, respectively. In June and July 1976 when
irrigation was extensive and runoff had essentially ceased, mean concentra-
tions (n=8) were 876 mg/liter, 21 mg/liter, and 0.04 mg/liter, respectively.
Increases in dissolved solids at the middle Piceance sites, compared to
PC-1, are also due to higher concentrations in entering groundwater. Soluble
minerals (principally nahcolite) associated with richer strata of oil shale
-------
N
10
Kilometers
PC-4
PC-2
Stewart Gulch
Figure 2. Piceance Creek, Colorado and major tributaries showing
sampling locations.
LO
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TABLE 4. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
PICEANCE CREEK AND BLACK SULPHUR CREEK SAMPLING SITES,
AUGUST 1975 TO JULY 1976
Parameter
Total dissolved
solids, ing/liter^-'
Total suspended
solids, trig/liter^'
Temperature range, °C— '
Mean width, m— /
Mean depth, cm-
Substratum^
Winter ice conditions
Disturbance from cattle
(winter)
Spring runoff scour
Magnitude of irrigation
withdrawals and return
flows
PC-1
520
26
3-14
2.2
12
Rubble-
gravel
No ice
No
Yes
Very
small
PC-2 to PC-4
795
34
0-21
3.6
21
Rubble-
gravel
Surface and
frazil ice
Yes
Not observed
Large
PC-5 to PC-7
1,375
251
0-25
5.1
22
Unstable
gravell/
Surface and
anchor ice
Yes
Not observed
Large
BSC-1
1,115
76
2-18
3.1
15
Rubble-
gravel
Surface
ice
Yes
Yes
Small
-/Skogerboe et a!., in press (mean values for October 1975 to July 1976).
— From field measurements.
-General downstream increase in situation.
-/Except PC-5 (see text).
11
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at tract C-b are leached by groundwater contained in the Uinta Formation
aquifer and upper Parachute Creek Member (Green River Formation) aquifer
(C-b Shale Oil Project, 1976).
Physical and chemical conditions at the middle Piceance Creek sites
during the second year of study were similar to the first year in terms of
total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, and temperature range
(Tables 4 and 5). Discharge during the second year was at least 25% below
first year levels.
The lower Piceance Creek sites have the harshest physical and chemical
conditions. These sites are characterized by high dissolved solids concen-
trations, high turbidities, a wide temperature range, anchor ice during the
winter, and an unstable, gravel substratum. The high dissolved solids
concentrations are partially the result of irrigation activities; however,
they are primarily due to inflows of highly saline groundwater from the lower
Parachute Creek Member aquifer, both from small surface springs and inter-
connections with the alluvial aquifer (Weeks and Welder, 1974; Weeks et al.,
1974). The high turbidities are caused by increased discharge combined with
smaller sediment particles and, to a lesser extent, by return flows. Since
the lower sites are some distance from either large springs or tributaries,
the range of temperatures is greater, thus causing high temperatures in the
summer and anchor ice in the winter. At PC-5, a small outcropping of bedrock
has created a rubble substratum similar to the middle Piceance sites.
Compared to the Piceance Creek sites, Black Sulphur Creek is a composite
of physical and chemical characteristics. This is the result of headwater
springs, saline groundwater entering from the lower Parachute Creek Member
aquifer, and enrichment from a cattle pen about 1 km above the sampling site.
Sampling sites were also located on the other two spring-fed tributaries
of Piceance Creek: Stewart Gulch and Willow Creek (Figure 2). Their physi-
cal and chemical conditions are generally similar to BSC-1, although total
dissolved solids concentrations are lower. Their contribution to the total
discharge in Piceance Creek is indicated by the increased discharge at PC-3
and PC-4 compared to PC-2 (Table 5).
12
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TABLE 5. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PICEANCE CREEK,
AUGUST 1976 TO APRIL 1977
Parameter
Total dissolved solids,
mg/ liter2/
Total suspended solids,
trig/liter^'
Temperature range, °C
Mean width, m
Mean depth, cm
Mean current velocity, m/s
Mean discharge, m3/s
PC-2
_
««.
0-20
4.0
15
0.36
0.17
PC-3
830
45
0-19
3.4
17
0.39
0.18
PC-4R-/
867
74
0-21
3.1
21
0.40
0.21
PC-4P-/
« •
__
0-21
3.3
25
0.29
0.21
— Skogerboe et_al_., in press (mean values for August 1976 to March 1977)
Remaining data from field measurements.
-/R = Riffle
P = Pool
13
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SECTION V
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Benthic macronnvertebrates were collected monthly at each of the 10
sampling sites during the first year of study (Figure 2). During the second
year, sampling was continued in riffle areas at PC-2, PC-3, and PC-4. A pool
area at PC-4 was also included.
Quantitative samples were collected in the first year with a standard
Surber square-foot bottom sampler (700 ym mesh). In the second year, col-
lections were made with a metal cylinder which enclosed an area of 325 cm2.
Bottom materials were removed, washed, and strained through 700 ym mesh
netting, and the water within the cylinder was strained through the same
netting. In riffle areas five or more samples were taken in a transect
across the stream (three samples in pools). It was necessary to use a
cylinder to sample pools since the Surber sampler requires considerable
current. Pools have quite different microhabitats which have been often
overlooked in stream studies. Sampling devices were compared using an index
of precision. Each sample was kept separate to allow statistical analysis of
within-site variation and to gain a general understanding of the distribution
of particular species. Samples were preserved in the field with 5% formalin
and later transferred to 80% ethanol.
Biomass was determined during the first year of study by displacement in
a graduated centrifuge tube, assuming a specific gravity of 1.0 (a close
approximation). In the second year, the organisms were dried to a constant
weight at 60°C and weighed on an analytical balance to the nearest 0.1 mg.
Species diversity and equitability were calculated from formulas in
Weber (1973). Techniques used for statistical analyses are discussed in a
later section.
Identifications of organisms were based primarily upon Usinger (1956),
Edmondson (1959), and Mason (1973). Additional references used for species
identifications included Ross (1944, 1956), Allen and Edmunds (1962, 1965),
Brinkhurst (1965), Jensen (1966), Gaufin et a]. (1966), Nebeker and Gaufin
(1967), Brown (1972), Gaufin et al. (1972), Klemm (1972), Kilgore and Allen
(1973), and Baumann1(1975). Species identifications of immature insects were
determined by association with adults collected at the same sampling site.
Adults were collected throughout the study period using sweep nets and light
traps.
Current velocity and discharge measurements during the second year of
study (Table 5) were made with a Gurley current meter.
14
-------
SECTION VI
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
SPECIES COMPOSITION
A total of 83 macroinvertebrate taxa were collected from Piceance Creek
and its tributaries during the study period (Appendix A). A list of diatom
species collected in Piceance Creek is presented in Appendix B. Table 6
gives the common invertebrate taxa and their distributions in Piceance Creek.
Only two identified species, Baetis tricaudatus and SimuUum aratiaum,
were common at all sites, which indicates the tolerance of these species to
the widely varying physical and chemical conditions present, as well as the
tendency for species of these genera to be active drift organisms (Waters,
1972). It is possible that several species of the chironomid genera
Eukiefferiella and Orthoeladius, were also widespread, but species
designations were not possible.
The remaining taxa were more restricted in distribution. With few
exceptions, Capnia spp. and Glossosoma ventrale were restricted to PC-1.
Ephemerella inermia and Isoperla patrieia, were more tolerant of increases in
temperature, TDS, and siltation, and occurred throughout upper Piceance Creek
and its tributaries.
The increased organic enrichment and siltation at the middle and lower
Piceance sites was indicated by the abundance of the oligochaetes Limnodrilus
hoffmeisteri and Tubifex tubifex. These in turn influenced the distribution
of the leech Helobdella stagnalis, because oligochaetes are an important
component of its food (Herrmann, 1970).
The only abundant taxa at the lower Piceance sites were those organisms
widespread in Piceance Creek (tubificid oligochaetes, Baetis spp., and
several chironomids), and two species found primarily at these sites,
Tricorythodes minutus and Ophiogompkus severus. These latter species are
adapted to highly silted conditions and are reportedly characteristic of
warm, turbid streams in the West (Edmunds and Musser, I960; Musser, 1960).
Tvioorythodes may, however, be found in cool, relatively silt-free streams if
submerged angiosperms are present (Ward, 1974, 1976a).
In general, the fauna of Black Sulphur Creek was similar to the middle
Piceance sites. However, it did have some taxa in common with PC-1
(Brachycentrua amerioanua and Diamesinae chironomids) and with the lower
Piceance sites (other chironomids) which reflected its spring-fed nature and
central location in the Piceance Creek watershed.
15
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TABLE 6. DISTRIBUTION OF MAJOR TAXA IN PICEANCE CREEK,
COLORADO, AUGUST 1975 TO JUNE 1976
Taxon
Eaetis tr-icaudatus
Ephemerella -inermis
Tr-ioorythodes minutus
Isopei>la patriaia
Capnia spp.
Hy dropsy ahe oslari
Glossosorr:a ventrale
Ophiogomphus severus
Optioservus quadrimaculatus
1i,pu~la aommiso'ib'i'l'is
Sirmliiffn araticum
Tubificidae spp.
PC-1
X
X
X
X*
X
X*
X
X
Sampling site
PC-2 to PC-4 PC-5 to PC-7
X X
X
X X
X
X
X*
X*
X
X X
X X
Indicates species is restricted to site(s) indicated, with few
exceptions.
16
-------
The fauna of Willow Creek closely resembled that of Black Sulphur Creek
and the middle Piceance sites. Stewart Gulch, however, had a much less
varied fauna consisting primarily of Baetis, tubificids, and various
dipterans.
DENSITY AND BIOMASS
The Piceance Creek sites showed considerable downstream decreases in
density, biomass, and number of macroinvertebrate species which reflect the
increasing severity of physical and chemical conditions (Table 7, Figure 3).
Decreases between the upper (PC-1 to PC-4) and the lower sites (PC-5 to
PC-7) were particularly evident. In order to determine which factors were
the most important in causing this trend, it was necessary to examine
seasonal changes at several sites.
Due to its stable flow and the abundance of winter-emerging species,
density and biomass values at PC-1 were high during the winter (Figures 4 and
5). Fluctuations during this period were largely caused by recruitment and
emergence in winter stonefly and Diamesinae chironomid populations. Values
declined greatly in the spring from runoff scour and emergence. In early
summer, densities increased gradually as typical summer species, such as
Simulium, reappeared. Relatively large biomass values at this time resulted
from the growth of Glossosoma and Tipula larvae. Values again declined at
the time of the fall emergence.
The middle Piceance sites followed a trend similar to PC-1. However,
this was the result of other factors, including reduced runoff scour, changes
in algal populations, and more severe winter conditions.
At the middle Piceance sites, stream flow during spring runoff was
reduced by irrigation withdrawals. This apparently accounts for the rela-
tively high densities and biomass in the spring and early summer (Figures 4
and 5). The streambed was not greatly scoured, and macroinvertebrates
displaced from headwater areas (catastrophic drift from both Piceance Creek
and its tributaries) were able to find refuge. The reappearance of fila-
mentous algal growths (Cladophora3 Enteromorpha, and others) may also have
contributed. These growths not only provide an important microhabitat for
many organisms (chironomids, Baetis, Hydroptila, Lirmophora, and early
instars of many species), but can also serve as a trap for drifting organisms
(Barber and Kevern, 1973).
The lowest density and biomass values at the middle Piceance sites
occurred at the onset of winter when surface and frazil ice were formed and
algal growths were lost. Unlike the lower Piceance sites, however, the
general absence of anchor ice in mid-winter allowed populations to recover
until spring emergence.
At the lower Piceance sites density and biomass trends were virtually
identical with highest values in May, July, and October (Figures 4 and 5).
The spring peak was caused by late instars of Isoperla patricia and
Ephemerella inermis apparently as a result of drift from upstream. Values
17
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TABLE 7. PICEANCE CREEK AND BLACK SULPHUR CREEK MACRO-INVERTEBRATE
PARAMETERS (GRAND MEANS AND RANGES), AUGUST 1975 TO JULY 1976
Parameter
Sampling
site
PC-1
PC-2
PC-3
PC-4
PC-5^
PC-6^
PC-7^
BSC-1
SG-1
WC-1
Density
(indiv./m2)
3,534
3,273
3,192
2,088
1,328
1,235
509
2,962
1,968
1,032
Biomass
(g/m2)
24.3
14.0
15.2
23.6
5.7
5.3
2.4
17.0
11.4
15.2
Total
taxa
25
26
25
26
16
13
13
23
17
16
Diversity
(range/median)
1.76-3.11
2.63
2.10-3.28
2.80
2.25-3.40
2.92
2.22-3.45
3.07
1.13-3.21
2.57
1.06-3.11
2.16
2.10-3.22
2.14
1.59-3.87
2.78
0.38-3.01
2.03
1.58-2.74
2.11
Equitability
(range/median)
0.22-0.49
0.35
0.23-0.54
0.35
0.28-0.66
0.50
0.29-0.58
0.49
0.29-0.80
0.50
0.19-0.77
0.50
0.34-0.95
0.40
0.20-0.89
0.34
0.13-0.52
0.35
0.25-0.50
0.36
— Not sampled in August and January.
-Not sampled in January and February.
18
-------
CM
m
e
CD
"c
O
0>
o
(O
Z
bJ
O
6000 r
5000'}-
4000
3000
2000
1000
Density
Biomass
•— Taxa
-.--A
\
-L
_L
_L
30
25
20 7
0) -J
-------
cr>
'c
o
O>
CO
UJ
Q
8000 r
7000-
6000 -
5000 -
4000
3000 -
20OO
1000' -
•PC-I
I i
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
SAMPLING DATE
Figure 4. Total density at PC-1, PC-3, and PC-7, August 1975 to July 1976.
20
-------
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jon Feb Mor Apr May Jun Jul
SAMPLING DATE
Figure 5. Total biomass at PC-1, PC-3, and PC-7, August 1975 to July 1976.
21
-------
increased in the summer as characteristic species, Trioorythodes minutus,
Ophiogomphus severus, and Baetis insignificans, reappeared in abundance. In
the fall, growth of 0. severus, recruitment of chironomids, and recruitment
of the second mayfly generations increased values. Anchor ice during the
winter almost eliminated the fauna, and its presence was an important factor
in determining species composition. The common species at the lower Piceance
sites were all summer species, i.e., those in which hatching and growth takes
place during the warm months (April to October). In contrast, the common
species of the upper Piceance sites (isopevla patvioia, Ephemerella inevmis,
Tipula, and many others) were those for which the cold months (November to
March) were the most important in the life cycle.
Several factors have been noted as important reasons for the low den-
sity, biomass, and number of taxa at the lower Piceance sites. Of these
factors, the data from PC-5 indicate that substratum was not as important as
temperature regimes (including winter ice conditions), and physical and
chemical conditions (high turbidity and salinity). PC-5 was added as a
sampling site in September 1975, because its substratum was similar to the
upper Piceance sites. Despite this greater stability, its overall macro-
invertebrate values were nearly identical to PC-6 which has a more unstable
substratum. In addition, its common species were the same as those at PC-6
and PC-7.
As noted previously, the common organisms at the lower Piceance sites
are all summer species. In addition, most are rather small in size (e.g.,
Baetis, Tricorythodes minutus, tubificids, chironomids, and Hydroptila).
This may be due to the higher temperatures at the lower sites, since smaller
organisms are better able to withstand concurrent oxygen stresses (Hynes,
1970). There may also be an effect from current velocity. It is noteworthy
that the only common large organism, Ophiogomphus severus , is a burrower and
was found in the largest numbers in backwater areas or beds of lannichellia
where current velocity was reduced.
Macroinvertebrate values for Black Sulphur Creek were generally similar
to the middle Piceance sites (Table 7). Density and biomass values for the
smaller tributaries (Stewart Gulch and Willow Creek) were lower. Although
densities were relatively low, biomass was not correspondingly reduced due to
the abundance of large dipterans such as Tipula, Hexatoma, and Limnophora.
The percentage composition of the major taxa for three Piceance sites
and Black Sulphur Creek are presented in Table 8. In Piceance Creek, down-
stream decreases in the relative importance of Plecoptera and Trichoptera and
an increase in Oligochaeta are evident. Diptera values generally followed
opposite trends for density and biomass due to the dominance of large species
(e.g., Tipula} at upstream sites and small species (e.g., chironomids) at the
lower sites. The higher percentages for Ephemeroptera at PC-3 result from
three abundant species (Baetis tvieaudatus, B. insignificons3 and Ephemerella
inermis], whereas PCI and PC-7 had only one. Values for BSC-1 showed a
dominance of dipterans as did Stewart Gulch and Willow Creek.
22
-------
TABLE 8. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF MAJOR TAXA AT
PICEANCE CREEK AND BLACK SULPHUR CREEK SAMPLING SITES,
AUGUST 1975 TO JULY 1976 (VALUES ROUNDED TO WHOLE NUMBERS)
Sampling site
Density
Taxon
Ephemeroptera
Plecoptera
Trichoptera
Diptera
Subtotal
Oligochaeta
Total
PC-1
26
31
17
26
100
*
100
PC-3
44
8
5
18
75
13
88
PC-7
19
1
2
54
76
20
96
BSC-1
32
3
3
51
89
8
97
PC-1
7
14
13
65
99
*
99
Biomass
PC-3
24
15
11
33
83
9
92
PC-7
8
4
4
38
54
8
62
BSC-1
15
8
7
60
90
5
95
Less than 1%.
23
-------
An overall average of 2,166 organisms with a biomass of 12.9 g per m2
was found for the seven Piceance Creek sites in the first year of study. The
mean biomass of 13.7 g/m2 reported by Pennak (1974) for Piceance Creek
corresponds closely to the standing crop found in the present study. This is
much higher, however, than the mean value of 3.4 g/m2 found by Everhart and
May (1973), as interpolated from their tabulated data by Pennak. All studies
have noted that considerable downstream decrease in macroinvertebrate standing
crop and concurrent changes in species composition.
AUGUST 1976 TO APRIL 1977 STUDIES
Macroinvertebrate sampling during this period was designed to describe
in greater detail the communities present at the middle Piceance Creek sites
(PC-2, PC-3, and PC-4). In addition to riffle habitats at these sites, a
pool habitat was also sampled at PC-4. This pool habitat was defined as an
area with slower current speed, deeper water, and smaller substrate particles
than riffle areas.
Macroinvertebrate parameters for this period are given in Table 9.
Compared to the previous year's data, large increases are evident in both
density and biomass values. Density values were larger due to increased
numbers of tubificids, whereas biomass values increased from higher densities
of both Tipula and tubificids. The majority of species present at these
sites had comparable or slightly higher densities during the second nine
months when compared to the first year. The only common species to decline
in numbers was Ephemerella inermis. These changes probably result from
reduced discharge during 1976-1977, because this would create and maintain
larger areas of extensive siltation.
There was also much milder fall and winter weather during the second
year. Although the seasonal cycles during the second year were similar to
that illustrated for PC-3 in Figures 4 and 5, the decline in numbers at the
onset of winter was much smaller.
The changes occurring at the middle sites are also illustrated in
Table 10. The riffle site with the greatest discharge, PC-4, changed the
least in composition from the first year to the second.
Although total densities at the three riffle sites were nearly equal
during the second year, biomass values increased greatly downstream (Table 9).
This increase was caused largely by the downstream increase in Tipula
(Table 10). This large species is most abundant near spring sources, and its
relative importance reflects the influence of Stewart Gulch on PC-3 and
Willow Creek on PC-4. In addition to affecting temperature regimes, these
tributaries may also be important refuges for several common species (e.g.,
BaetiS; Isoperla* and Hesperophylax]. As noted in the seasonal trends for
PC-3 during the first year of study (Figures 4 and 5), there was a gradual
recovery following the onset of severe winter conditions, and large increases
in the spring presumably as a result of downstream drift. It is doubtful
these events would have occurred unless there was considerable movement of
organisms from the tributaries and headwaters.
24
-------
TABLE 9. MACROINVERTEBRATE PARAMETERS (GRAND MEANS AND
RANGES) FOR PC-2, PC-3, AND PC-4, AUGUST 1976 TO APRIL 1977
Sampling site
Parameter
Total density,
number/m2
Total biomass,
g dry wt/m2
(g wet wt/m2)
Total taxa
Diversity
range/median
Equitability
range/median
PC-2
4,924
3.95
(26.3)
24
0.84-3.38
2.84
0.14-0.53
0.40
PC-3
5,168
5.18
(34.5)
25
1.80-3.28
2.38
0.20-0.49
0.28
PC-4R
5,154
6.70
(44.7)
26
2.60-3.53
3.14
0.37-0.65
0.48
PC-4P
1,871
0.82
(5.5)
13
1.10-3.36
1.26
0.24-0.74
0.26
25
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TABLE 10. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF MAJOR TAXA AT PC-2, PC-3, AND PC-4 (VALUES ROUNDED TO WHOLE NUMBERS)
ro
Density
Taxon
Ephemeroptera
Baetis spp.
E. inermis
Plecoptera
(l. patrieia}
Trichoptera
H. oslari
Diptera
T. cormiacibilis
Coleoptera
(0. quodrimaculatus)
Oligochaeta
(Tubificidae)
Hirudinea
(H. sta.gna.lis}
Amp hi pod a
(G. lacustris)
Total
PC-2
36
26
9
2
5
3
16
*
5
34
2
*
100
PC-3
August
44
35
7
8
5
2
18
.*
7
13
2
*
97
PC-4
1975
46
34
9
15
5
2
18
1
7
4
1
*
96
PC-2
to July
23
-.
--
4
13
--
36
—
1
19
3
*
99
Biomass
PC-3
1976
24
—
—
15
11
--
33
—
3
9
4
*
99
Density
PC-4
8
—
—
19
8
—
60
--
1
2
1
*
99
PC-2
30
22
8
7
6
5
12
*
4
40
1
*
100
PC-3
25
23
2
4
3
2
13
1
5
47
2
1
100
PC-4R PC-4P
August
39
35
2
6
6
2
18
1
5
21
3
1
99
1976
10
8
2
1
1
*
27
*
*
59
1
*
99
PC-2
to April
10
5
4
10
15
13
29
20
3
28
2
*
97
Biomass
PC-3
1977
6
5
1
6
8
7
44
38
2
26
3
1
96
PC-4R
7
6
1
6
10
6
59
51
1
4
3
2
92
PC-4P
4
4
*
2
5
3
47
36
1
35
3
*
97
Less than 1%.
-------
The pool habitat at PC-4 had relatively low density and biomass values
compared to riffle areas (Table 9). Its unstable, silted, and often anaer-
obic substrate was inhabited primarily by tubificid oligochaetes and
chironomids (Table 10). With the exception of Baetis tricaudatus, common
riffle organisms, such as Isoperla and Eydropsyehe, were rarely collected.
Because pool areas comprised a considerable portion of the total stream
habitat, conclusions regarding composition and standing crop of macroin-
vertebrates should not be based solely on samples from riffle areas.
SPECIES DIVERSITY AND EQUITABILITY
Medians and ranges of values for species diversity and equitability
indices are given in Table 7. At the lower Piceance sites, median diversity
values were smaller than upstream sites, and in addition, the range of values
was generally greater, which is an indication of the greater physical and
chemical fluctuations. However, the lower values at PC-1, compared to the
middle Piceance sites, indicate that habitat stability can also lower diver-
sity values. For example, thermal constancy eliminates species which require
a wide range of temperatures to complete their life cycles (Ward, 1976b).
Unlike the middle Piceance sites, relatively constant conditions at PC-1
allowed several species to become very abundant and dominate the community
(e.g., Simuliw artiewn in the summer and winter stoneflies).
Median equitability values at the Piceance sites were generally similar,
although the range of values was much greater at the lower sites. Relatively
low median values were found at PC-1 (see above) and PC-2 (due to large
numbers of tubificids).
Diversity and equitability values for BSC-1 were similar to the upper
Piceance sites. The wide range of equitability values was the result of
abrupt changes in chironomid and simuliid populations. Low values for
Stewart Gulch and Willow Creek are due to their spring-fed nature, and their
relatively small size which reduces the diversity of microhabitats.
Values for PC-3 for the second year of study were lower than the first
year because of an increase in tubificids (Table 9). Values for PC-2 and
PC-4, however, were very similar. The pool habitat had very low diversity
and equitability values.
STATISTICAL ANALYSES
Analysis of variance (F-distribution) were performed on density and
biomass data for the Piceance Creek sites throughout the period of study.
Following Elliott (1973), these data were first transformed to Iog10 before
performing the analyses.
Transformation of the data was necessary in order to fulfill the require-
ment that variance be independent of the mean. With untransformed counts,
the variance was always larger than and dependent on the mean. Although
nonparametric tests, such as the Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis by ranks,
could be used instead, standard one- and two-way analysis of variance with
27
-------
transformed counts has the advantage of allowing determination of the
association of variance and determination of interaction.
In the first year of study, with density data from all seven Piceance
Creek sampling sites, significant between-site variance (p < 0.01) was found
for all dates except August 1975. No significant within-site variance was
found. Significant variance (p < 0.05) between successive sampling dates was
found for September-October, November-December, March-April, and April-May.
These results reflect major periods of emergence and recruitment (fall and
spring) and the onset of winter conditions. Significant site-date interac-
tion (p < 0.05) was found for February-March, March-April, and May-June. The
February-March interaction was caused by the large increase in tubificids at
PC-2. Interactions in March-April (at PC-1, PC-2, and PC-3) and May-June (at
PC-2, PC-3, and PC-4) resulted from changes in the densities of several
species (particularly Baetis tricaudatuss Ephemerella i-nermi-s, Isoperla
patrieia, and Sirmliwn arotioim] from emergence, recruitment, and drift.
Using biomass data, each Piceance site was compared with all other sites
for the first year of study. All of the upper sites (PC-1 to PC-4) had
significantly greater biomass (p=0.05) than all of the lower sites (PC-5 to
PC-7). No significant variance was found within each group of sites. In the
above analyses random error accounted for over 50% of the total variance.
In the second year of study, using density data from PC-2, PC-3, and
PC-4 (riffle), no significant within-site variance was found. Significant
between-site variance (p=0.05) occurred only for December 1976 which indi-
cates the similarity in density values and seasonal trends at these sites.
Significant variance between successive sampling dates (p < 0.05) was found
for August-September, September-October, November-December, and March-April.
These data indicate the similarity in seasonal trends for both study periods.
Significant site-date interaction (p < 0.05) was found for August-September
(at PC-3 and PC-4), November-December"(at PC-2), January-February (at PC-3),
and March-April (at PC-2). These interactions were caused by slightly
different emergence periods of common species and severity of winter condi-
tions at the three sites. Significant interaction at one site and not
another may be more a function of sampling regime (i.e., monthly samples)
than actual differences in the seasonal cycles.
Analysis of the biomass data for the second year showed no significant
variation between the three sites (riffle areas). Significant variation (p <
0.05) was found between the riffle and pool areas at PC-4 for both biomass
and density. As in the first year of study, random error accounted for over
50% of the total variance for all second-year analyses.
To compare the two types of samplers, an index of precision, D, was
computed for several months of density data for each type. This index is
defined as the ratio of the standard error to the arithmetic mean (Elliott,
1973). The median D value was 0.52 for the Surber sampler and 0.53 for the
core sampler. The two samplers were nearly equal in precision, even though
the core sampled only about one-third the area of the Surber. Although D
values for both samplers are rather high, a reduction of this index to 0.20,
for example, would require over 35 samples at each site.
28
-------
Analyses were also performed using density and biomass data from the
three middle Piceance sites in order to compare the two time periods:
August 1975 to April 1976 and August 1976 to April 1977. Both density and
biomass were significantly greater for the second period (p < 0.001),
although random error accounted for over 60% of the total variance.
POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT
ON PICEANCE CREEK MACRO INVERTEBRATES
The main types of potential pollutants from oil shale development are:
(a) sediments eroded from spent shale piles and areas of construction for
access roads and mining facilities, (b) dissolved salts leached from spent
shale piles, and possibly the entrance of groundwater with higher dissolved
salt concentrations due to disturbances of the aquifer system, and (c) toxic
trace substances leached from spent shale piles or released from an acci-
dental spill. The effects of these potential pollutants would be influenced
by possible alterations in flow rates in Piceance Creek from mine dewatering
(changes in the aquifer system) and changes in topography (construction,
deposition of spent shale, etc.).
Processing of oil shale results in very large quantities of waste shale.
It has been estimated that each processing unit will produce 54,000 tons of
waste shale per day. This waste shale will be backfilled into Sorghum Gulch
(a small, usually dry tributary of Piceance Creek between Stewart Gulch and
PC-3), compacted, and then revegetated. Eventually the spent shale pile will
contain as much as 370 million tons of spent shale and cover about 400 to
5.00 ha (C-b Shale Oil Project, 1976).
Studies by Ward et al. (1971) and by Ward and Reinecke (1972) have shown
that compacted spent shale is initially impermeable to water. However, snow
cover eliminates this impermeability and allows leaching to occur. This
leachate is very high in dissolved solids (up to 78,000 mg/liter) and con-
tains several trace elements, particularly zinc, in biologically significant
concentrations. Leachate from a spent shale pile would also contain sus-
pended solids. Spent shale produced from the TOSCO II retort (the type of
retort planned for use at tract C-b) is composed of small particles covered
with residual organic carbon, and these particles would be capable of
reacting with other substances, such as organic compounds and trace metal
complexes (Grissinger and McDonald, 1970).
To control runoff from spent shale piles, a reservoir on Sorghum Gulch
is planned (C-b Shale Oil Project, 1976). Water contained in this reservoir
would either evaporate or be recycled for use in mining operations. Some
water may also be discharged into Piceance Creek.
This reservoir would also be used for storage of water produced during
mine dewatering operations. The extent of mine dewatering and its subsequent
effects on the aquifer system of tract C-b, particularly with respect to
spring and surface flows, is unclear. According to Weeks et al. (1974) a
16 km stretch of Piceance Creek near tract C-b (including sampling sites
PC-2, PC-3, and PC-4) would cease to receive groundwater discharge after 30
years of dewatering (the period of lease tract mining). Since groundwater
29
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supplies 80% of the annual streamflow in Piceance Creek, such decreases would
have significant effects on surface flows. However, studies reported in C-b
Shale Oil Project (1976) indicated that much less water would be removed by
mine dewatering than that predicted by Weeks et al. (1974), and in addition,
consumptive losses would be decreased by recycling water held in storage.
Sediments carried in runoff will be contained in either the Sorghum
Gulch reservoir or in small sedimentation ponds (C-b Shale Oil Project,
1976). At present, sediment yields for the Piceance Basin average 48 to
330 m3/km2 (Frickel et al., 1975). Estimates of yields for areas disturbed
in the construction of mining facilities and additional access roads range
from 950 to 1,900 m3/km2, whereas estimated yields from reclaimed overburden
piles are 240 to 476 m3/km2.
The effects of mining will, of course, depend upon the types of extrac-
tion and processing employed and measures taken to protect the stream envi-
ronment. Therefore, a discussion of their impacts on Piceance Creek
macroinvertebrates will be general in nature with an attempt to relate them
to present conditions and macroinvertebrate communities.
Increases in sedimentation (suspended solids) alter stream habitats in
several important ways. They reduce the available habitat for macroinverte-
brates by filling in interstitial areas (Gammon, 1970), and with continuous
loading they can significantly reduce algal populations by inhibiting light
penetration (Ellis, 1936). Macroinvertebrate communities developing on or in
soft substrata show greater instability (Tebo, 1955), and populations can
remain chronically suppressed under excessive sediment loads (Virginia
Cooperative Fishery Unit, 1971). Additional effects could occur due to the
special characteristics of the TOSCO spent shale. Upon entering the stream
the sediment would be ingested by a number of macroinvertebrates. Any toxic
materials carried on these sediments would then enter the food web and
possibly be bioaccumulated through successive trophic levels.
Increases in dissolved salt concentrations increase osmotic stresses on
macroinvertebrates, thereby increasing energy requirements for maintenance
(Beadle, 1957). The high concentrations of salts at the lower Piceance sites
are undoubtedly an important factor in limiting many species to upstream
areas. It is notable that Odonata naiads, common at the lower sites, have
been shown to possess special physiological mechanisms for coping with high
osmotic pressures (Beadle, 1957).
Short-term releases of pollutants, such as accidental spills, could also
have significant consequences. The seriousness of such an event would depend
upon the substance, the location, and the time of release. The latter factor
is particularly important. Fall (September and October) and spring (March to
May) are major periods of emergence and recruitment for many species (Fig-
ures 3 and 4). The introduction of toxic substances during either period
would reduce populations for at least one, if not more, generations.
The most important consequence of reductions in groundwater discharge
near tract C-b would be an increase in temperature range, although reductions
30
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would also have compounding effects by increasing sedimentation and concen-
trations of dissolved salts. Groundwater discharge has been previously noted
as an important factor in preventing both high summer temperatures and anchor
ice in winter at the middle Piceance sites. Ultimately, groundwater dis-
charge reduction and its indirect effects would create physical and chemical
conditions at the middle Piceance sites similar to those already present at
the lower sites. The macroinvertebrate communities at the middle sites would
change from one dominated by winter species (e.g., Ephemerella inermis,
Isoperla patriaia3 and Tipula] to one composed of summer species (e.g.,
Simulium aratiaum} and highly tolerant organisms (e.g., chironomids and
oligochaetes).
If reductions in groundwater discharge were severe enough to completely
dry up spring habitats for extended periods, a number of species (particu-
larly Tipula, Isoperla, Baetisf and Hesperophylax] would be expected to
decline in numbers in Piceance Creek. These spring habitats appear to serve
as sources of organisms that recolonize Piceance Creek when its populations
are depleted.
31
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C-b Shale Oil Project. 1976. Oil shale tract C-b: Detailed development
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Everhart, W. H., and B. E. May. 1973. Effects of chemical variations in
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Ficke, J. F., J. B. Weeks, and F. A. Welder. 1974. Hydrologic data from the
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Frickel, D. G., L. M. Shown, and P. C. Patton. 1975. An evaluation of hill-
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Hynes, H. B. N. 1960. The biology of polluted waters. Univ. Toronto Press,
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Klemm, D. J. 1972. Freshwater leeches (Annelida: Hirudinea) of North
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tems of Piceance and Yellow Creeks, northwestern Colorado, September and
October, 1974. Colorado Dep. Public Health, Water Qual. Control Div.,
Denver, Colorado.
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APPENDIX A. TAXA COLLECTED FROM PICEANCE CREEK AND TRIBUTARIES,
AUGUST 1975 TO APRIL 1977
INSECTA
Ephemeroptera
Baetidae
Baetis tricaudatus Dodds
Baetis insignifiaans McDunnough
Callibaetis sp.
Heptageniidae
Heptagenia sp. A
Heptagenia sp. B
Epeovus (Ivonopsis) sp.
Leptophlebiidae
Paraleptophlebia sp.
Siphloneuridae
Ameletus sp.
Siphlonurus oaoidentalis Eaton
Ephemerellidae
Ephemerella inermis Eaton
Ephemerella gvandia grandis Eaton
Tricorythidae
Trioorythodes minutus Traver
Plecoptera
Perlodidae
Isoperla patricia Prison
Isogenus colubrinus Hagen
Nemouridae
Prostoia besametsa (Ricker)
Zapada cinatipes (Banks)
Capnlidae
Capnia logana Nebeker and Gaufin
Capnia gvaailavia Claassen
Capnia aonfusa Claassen
Trichoptera
Hydropsychidae
Hydropsyohe oslari (Banks)
Limnephilidae
Hesperophylax consimllis Banks
Brachycentridae
Brachycentms ameriaanus (Banks)
Glossosomatidae
Glossosoma ventrale Banks
Hydroptilidae
Hydropt-i la S p.
Odonata
Gomphidae
Oph-iogomphus severus Hagen
Coenagrionidae
Amphiagrion sp.
Coleoptera
Dytiscidae
Devoneotes depvessus (Fabric!us)
Agabus sp.
LaooopTvilus sp,
Oreodytes sp.
Elmidae
Optioeervus quadrimaaulatus Horn
Zaitzevia pavvula Horn
Microcylloepus pueillue (LeConte)
36
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APPENDIX A. Continued.
Coleoptera (Cont.)
Hydrophilidae
Enoohrus sp.
Hydrobius sp.
Dryopidae
Hel-Lohus sp.
Haliplidae
Brychius sp.
Diptera
Tipulidae
Tipula commiscibilis Doane
Eexatoma sp.
Di,oranota. sp.
Pedio-ia sp.
Ormosia sp.
Culicidae
Chaoborus S p.
Dixidae
Di-xa sp.
Psychodidae
Pericoma sp.
Ceratopogonidae
Palpomyia sp.
Simuliidae
Si-mulium aratiaum Mai loch
Tabanldae
Tabanus sp.
Rhagionidae
Athevix variegata Waiker
Stratiomyiidae
Euparyphus sp.
Empididae
Chelifera sp.
Hemerodromia sp.
Diptera (Cont.)
Ephydridae
Ephydra sp.
Dolichopodidae
Unknown sp.
Anthomyiidae
Limnophora spp.
Chironomidae
Criootopus sp.
Ovfhoo ladius S p.
Copd-iooladius sp.
Eukiefferiella sp.
Psectrotanypus sp.
Prooladius sp.
Micropeectra sp.
Tribelos sp.
Prodiamesa olivacea (Meigen)
Pseudodiameea sp.
Diamesa sp.
Pentaneurini- spp.
ANNELIDA
Oligochaeta
Lumbricidae
Eiseniella tetvaedra (Savigny)
Tubificidae
Tubifex tubifex (0. F. Miiller)
Linrnodpilus hofflneisteri Claparede
Hirudinea
Glossiphoniidae
fle loide Z- Za stagna lie (L.)
CRUSTACEA
Amphi poda
Gammaridae
Gammarue lacustris Sars
37
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APPENDIX A. Continued.
Isopoda
Asellidae
Asellus sp.
TRICLADIDA
Planariidae
Polyoelis coronata (Girard)
NEMATODA
Mermithidae (?)
MOLLUSCA
Gastropoda
Physidae
Physa sp.
Gastropoda (Cont.)
Lymnaeidae
Lyrrmaea sp.
Planorbidae
Gyraulus sp.
Pelecypoda
Sphaeriidae
Pisidium sp.
HYDRACARINA
Limnocharidae
L-imnochares sp.
Sperchonidae
Sperchon sp.
38
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APPENDIX B. PICEANCE CREEK DIATOM SPECIES LIST
Division Bacillariophyta
Aohnanthes lanceolata
Achnanthes minutissima
Cocconeis pediculus
Cocconeis placentula
Cymbella amphicephala
Cymbella minuta
Cymbella twnida
Denticula tenuis
Diatoma hiemale
Diatoma hiemale var. mesodon
Diatoma vulgare
Epithemia sovex
Frag-llaTrla. vaucheriae
Gomphonema olivaaeum
Gomphonema parvulum
Meridian circulare
Naviaula sp.
Navieula oanalis
Navicula aryptoeephala
Navicula exigua
Navicula pupula
Navicula radiosa
Navicula rhynchoaephala
Navicula viridula
Nitzschia spp.
Nitzschia aaicularis
Nitzschia amphibia
Nitzschia apiculata
Nitzschia dissipata
Nitzschia hungarica
Nitzechia linearis
Nitzschia palea
Pinnularia mesolepta
Surirella ovalis
Surirella ovata
Synedra ulna
39
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/3-78-097
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF OIL SHALE
MINING AND PROCESSING. PART II - THE AQUATIC MACRO-
INVERTEBRATES OF THE PICEANCE BASIN, COLORADO, PRIOR TO
SHAI F
5. REPORT DATE
October 1978 issuing date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Lawrence J. Gray and James V. Ward
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Department of Zoology and Entomology
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado 80523
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
R803950
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Research Laboratory - Duluth, MN
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Duluth, Minnesota 55804
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/03
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
A study was conducted at sampling sites on four streams in the
Piceance Basin of northwestern Colorado to acquire data on benthic
macroinvertebrate communities prior to commencement of oil shale mining
and processing activities. Piceance Creek, the major stream studied, exhibited
considerable longitudinal variation in environmental conditions. Sodium, sulfate,
chloride, and total dissolved solids increased greatly in the downstream direc-
tion. The temperature range, turbidity, severity of winter ice conditions, and
effects of grazing and irrigation activities also increased downstream. Downstream
reductions in density, biomass and diversity, and altered macroinvertebrate
species composition were associated with the longitudinal changes in environmental
parameters. The fauna of upstream areas of Piceance Creek and its tributaries
was composed of primarily winter species (those that complete their life cycle
from fall to spring), whereas the fauna of downstream reaches of Piceance Creek
was composed almost entirely of summer species. Effects of oil shale mining and
processing activities on aquatic biota will depend upon the type of mining
employed, the extent of surface and subsurface disturbance, the success of
pollution controls, points of pollution entry, and extent of water depletion.
Present environmental conditions and macroinvertebrate communities of lower
reaches of Piceance Creek may be indicative of the potential effect of future
17.
uPSTreanirocatiq|^.WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSls
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Oil shale
Water pollution
Invertebrates
Benthos
Biological effects
Environmental effects
Environmental biology
Energy development
06/F
13/B
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
48
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (R«v. 4-77) PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
»U.S. OOVEJMMBIT HUNTINGOFFICE; 197»— 657-060/1510
40
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