LAND USE INFORMATION FOR WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLANNING Environmental Protection Agency Washington, D.C. 20460 August 1976 ------- UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY SUBJECT: FROM: TO: Land Use Information for Water Quality DATE: Management Mark A. Pisai Director, WatsK* Planning Division (WH-554) All Regional Water Division Directors ATTN: Regional 208 Coordinators TECHNICAL GUIDANCE MEMORANDUM: TECH-13 Purpose This memorandum transmits the recently completed report, "Land Use Information for Water Quality Management Planning." It is intended for use by State and areawide agencies in the development of their water quality management programs. Guidance This report tells water quality management planners what kinds of land use information are likely to be available and useful to them in their work at identifying impact of land use activities on water quality and at seeking planning and management strategies to solve water quality problems. It is organized around the sources and types of information available and points up the first steps in data collec- tion: people to see, maps and reports to get, things to look for. It is not a manual on methods and techniques for analyzing the relation- ship between water quality and land use. A great deal of work already has been done in that area and is continuing to be produced. This is designed to complement that work. If you would like further information on the report, please contact Bill Lienesch of the Program Development Branch (426-2522). Enclosure State and areawide agencies EPA Form 1320-6 (Rev. 6-72) ------- NOTE This document is not a replacement to the Act, the Regulations, or Official EPA Policy Statements. It is a supplement to these documents. The guidance in this handbook does not constitute a uniform National EPA standard of acceptability. Any clarification and specific conditions applicable to a state or areawide agency should be discussed with the EPA Regional Offices. ------- TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE ii INTRODUCTION iii PART I. THREE PRINCIPLES FOR USING LAND USE INFORMATION IN WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLANNING 1 1. Focus on Possible Solutions from the Beginning 1 2. Talk to the Experts 3 3. Know Your Land Use and Water Quality Models 4 PART II. LAND USE INFORMATION FOR WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLANNING 6 1. Soil Surveys 7 2. Aerial Photography 8 3. U.S. Geological Survey Topographic Maps 10 4. U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologic Maps 11 5. General, Comprehensive, or Policy Plans 12 6. Zoning Ordinances and Subdivision Regulations 12 7. Floodplain Regulations 14 8. Plat Books and Assessors' Rolls 15 9. Transportation Studies 16 10. Health and Sanitation Records 16 11. Capital Improvement Programs 17 12. U.S. Geological Survey Geology Maps 18 13. Special Local Commissions, Boards, and Districts 18 14. Resource People 19 APPENDICES A. INTERIM OUTPUTS FOR LAND USE INFORMATION 21 B. U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE STATE CONSERVATIONISTS 22 C. APPROXIMATE AIRPHOTO SCALE RANGES USEFUL FOR PLANNING AND PLANNING-RELATED STUDIES 23 D. U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY REGIONAL PUBLIC INQUIRIES OFFICES .... 27 E. U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, WATER RESOURCES DIVISION 28 ------- BREFACE This handbook is one of a series designed to provide State and area- wide agencies with assistance in carrying out water quality planning and im- plementation. Designation, Grant Application and Work Plan, Cost Analysis, interim Outputs, Management Agencies, State Continuing Planning Process and Public Participation handbooks have already been published. This handbook serves as a supplement to 40 CFR, Parts 130 and 131. It also expands the Draft Guidelines for State and Areawide Water Quality Management Program Development (February, 1976) and the land use information contained in the Interim Output Evaluation Handbook. This handbook tells water quality management planners what kinds of land use information are likely to be available and useful to them in their work at identifying impact of land use activities on water quality and at seeking planning and management strategies to solve water quality problems. It is organized around the sources and types of information available and points up the first steps in data collection: people to see, maps and reports to get, things to look for. It is not a manual on methods and techniques for analyzing the relationship between water quality and land use. A great deal of work already has been done in that area and is continuing to be produced, much of it under EPA sponsorship. This is designed to complement that work. Other EPA reference documents and previously published handbooks deal- ing in part with land use information in the Water Quality Management process include: • 40 CFR, Part 130, Policies and Procedures for the State Continuing Planning Process • 40 CFR, Part 131, Preparation of Water Quality Management Plans • Draft Guidelines for State and Areawide Water Quality Management Program Development (February, 1976) • Interim Output Evaluation Handbook for Section 208 Areawide Waste Treatment Management Planning (June, 1975) This handbook was prepared under Contract No. 68-01-1969 by the American Society of Planning Officials. William Toner was Project Director. Antoinette McAllister and George C. Turnbull, Jr. were other research staff members. Michael J. Meshenberg was Project Supervisor. For EPA, James Lund and the Program Development Branch provided direction and support. Mark A. Pisano Director, Water Planning Division Washington, D.C. ii ------- INTRODUCTION Water pollution experts are more aware than ever of one thing: control- ling land use may be an effective strategy in reducing the impact of many non- point pollution problems and in providing an alternative to constructing ex- pensive sewers and treatment plants. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972, emphasizing prevention of pollution at its source as well as treat- ment, declared as national policy an attack on water pollution. In Section 208 of that Act, land use is seen as a major element in the water quality management strategy. Land use techniques for reducing water pollution include zoning, subdi- vision regulations, floodplain controls, public facility development to in- duce development into more compact areas, controls on agriculture and silvi- culture, urban stormwater controls, and sediment controls. Reduction in sedi- ment and urban runoff by themselves would have an enormous impact on the puri- ty of our rivers and lakes. The growing body of literature that discusses the relationship between land use and water quality is readily available and is not duplicated here. Rather, this listing identifies sources of information that may provide WQM agencies with specific data on local land use conditions. Such information is needed to assess the impact of existing and proposed local land uses and to develop regulatory and management approaches to pollution control that can be implemented locally. Included here are the sources for information, where to find it, its form of presentation, and some key elements of the information to consider. This resource list focuses on the early stages of a 208 agency work program. It supplements and expands upon Interim Output Evaluation Handbook for Section 208 Areawide Waste Treatment Management Planning, U.S. EPA, Wash- ington, D.C., June 1975 and is responsive to Draft Guidelines for State and Areawide Water Quality Management Program Development, U.S. EPA, Washington, D.C., February 1976. 111 ------- PART I THREE PRINCIPLES FOR USING LAND USE INFORMATION IN WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLANNING This list of sources should be of great help to agencies in collecting information about their regions' land use so that they can come up with effec- tive and sensible solutions to water quality management problems. Not every source needs to be consulted. Three principles should guide the collection and use of land use data by 208 agencies. 1. Focus on Possible Solutions from the Beginning The 208 program is intended to be the first comprehensive, coordinated, wide-ranging effort to attack water quality problems at the regional level. Most of the regions have a limited period of time, but often considerable sums of money, to study the problems and come up with workable solutions. The issues, however, are large and complicated. Agencies that are lulled into thinking that plenty of time and money must be spent to define the problems and then to collect vast amounts of data to back up their solutions, might find there is little of either left to prepare good plans and develop the essential backing of those people, mainly local government officials, who will implement them. To avoid getting trapped in overwhelming data and the need to support every conclusion and proposal with enormous detail, agencies need to be selec- tive not only in the problems they choose to address but in the solutions they offer. Certainly agencies should not ignore complicated relationships between problems that demand coordinated and consistent solutions, but at the same time they need not cover everything. The desire to tie up every loose end has hung up many planners and reduced their effectiveness with decision makers. The 208 program offers a good chance to learn from these experiences and come up with selective, sound, and politically acceptable solutions. The water quality issues that have been identified are complex. Relat- ing in-stream water pollution generation to categories of nonpoint source activity is a difficult and time-consuming process. But a considerable amount of research is available to WQM agencies; every agency need not do its own original research to come up with good, workable solutions. What is important is knowing what is available and using the data to focus program direction—and allocate agency resources—on solving pressing local water quality problems. (See Figure 1.) The experiences of some well-developed 208 programs and other similar planning programs indicate the need for an early and continuous focus on specific goals and possible implementation strategies. The significance of this focus is perhaps too well known to the many planners who have found that ------- Figure 1 The Role of Land Use Planning and Control in Water Quality Management BALANCE AND REDUCE POINT DISCHARGES GOALS REDUCE AND BALANCE NON-POINT DISCHARGES CONSERVE NATURAL FEATURES REGIONAL STRATEGIES • MODIFY GROWTH RATES • MODIFY GROWTH DISTRIBUTION • CONSERVE EN VIRONMENTALLY SENSITIVE AREAS & OPEN SPACE • CONTROL SITING OF "CRITICAL USES- STRATEGIES SITE DEVELOP- MENT STRATEGIES • MODIFY SITE LOCATION PRACTICES • MODIFY PROJECT SIZE & MIX • IMPROVE SITE PLANNING & DEVELOPMENT LAND MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES • CONTROL CON- STRUCTION RE- LATED EROSION • UTILIZE AGRI- CULTURE & SIL- VICULTURE CONSERVATION PRACTICES • MANAGE FLOOD PLAIN & SHORELINE USES • CONTROL RESOURCE EXTRACTION ACTIVITIES REGULATIONS • ZONING • SUBDIVISION REGS • BUILDING CODES • SPECIAL ORDINANCES • STATE LAND USE REGS • STATE DIS- CHARGE PERMITS • HEALTH COOES TECHNIQUES INCENTIVES & DISINCENTIVES • TIMBER CONSERVATION INCENTIVES • DEVELOPMENT BONUSES & PENALTIES • RELOCATION SUBSIDIES • DEVELOPMENT DISINCENTIVES • TAX DEFERMENT ACQUISITION PROGRAMS • OPEN SPACE ACQUISITION • SCENIC & CONSERVATION EASEMENTS • PARK DEDICATION • LAND BANKING • URBAN RENEWAL GRANT PROGRAMS • CONDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS • FACILITY DEVELOPMENT • LAND ACQUI- SITION • PLANNING • NEW TOWNS INTER-GOVT ARRANGEMENTS a REVIEWS • ZONING & SUBDIVISION REFERRAL • NEWGOVT FORMS • A-95 REVIEW • E 1 S VOLUNTARY AGREEMENTS a SERVICES • LENDING POLICIES • INNOVATIVE ENTREPRE- NEURSHIP • TRADE ASSOC GUIDANCE PUBLIC FACILITY DEVELOPMENT & SERVICE DELIVERY • URBAN SERV- ICE POLICY • SEWER TAP POLICY • CAPITAL IMPROV POLICY • MORATORIA a BANS Source: Environments for Tomorrow, Inter-Relationships of Land-Use Planning and Control to Water Quality Management Planning, U.S. Environmental ' Protection Agency, 1973, p. 95. 2 ------- supposedly workable solutions are politically unpopular and infeasiole. In many instances, emphasis may be placed on identifying and controlling the most serious water pollution problems initially and resolving the remaining ones over time. In any case the implementation strategies developed are critical factors in determining the usefulness of the sources, scales, for- mats, and analyses of the information collected by 208 agencies. For exam- ple, detailed maps are required for regulatory purposes. An early decision about something as basic as map scales can save time and money later. A good way to get the program focusing on solvable water pollution problems early is to talk to the people in the region. One western WQM agency, for example, worked with special committees to come up with a list of water problems that had some possibility of being solved. Following the problem-identification stage, the committees were again used to develop a list of solutions for each of the problems identified. Thus, at a very early stage the agency was able to focus its attention on specific problems in spe- cific places. In the relatively short time of fourteen months, the agency had prepared detailed cost estimates of a range of solutions to these prob- lems. This means that in the remaining ten months the agency could concen- trate on further developing and specifying its plans and programs and work with local governments and others to gain support for carrying them out. In some other regions, possible solutions are not considered until the final plan preparation phase. The inventory and problem definition phases in some work programs run anywhere from three to nine months into the program. The plan formulation phase may begin in the twelfth month while the final plan preparation begins sometime after the sixteenth or eighteenth month. Since it is intended that elements of the plan should be implemented within the two years, far too much time is spent on problem identification. Certainly considering solutions at the beginning involves some risks that perhaps could be avoided in a more carefully ordered approach to water quality planning and management. Such a process does not try to cover all possible land use related water quality problems in the region. It may miss some of the interrelationships between problems that may suggest joint solu- tions. But the selective approach may be more politically desirable because it brings faster results. It is a conscious trading of elaborate, exhaustive, and complicated data gathering, analysis, and plan making for the rapid iden- tification of problems and solutions, selection of priorities, and achieve- ment of quick success. Given the nature of the 208 program, its big mission and short time schedule, this is a sensible approach. 2. Talk to the Experts Planners in 208 agencies are finding that one of their most difficult problems is getting solid interpretations from the great mass of existing data. Indeed, the kinds of primary and secondary data that could be col- lected and the number of ways to manipulate them appear to outrun analytic capabilities. (Though in some places new water quality and other data must be gathered through new testing stations.) But 208 planners are discovering that one of the best methods to isolate critical data and to effect solid analysis and solutions is to talk to the experts. ------- Data experts are the people who initially gather the data or the peo- ple who constantly work with them. Soil scientists, hydrologists, land use planners, photo interpreters, public works engineers, developers, and geolo- gists have those important qualities of experience and expertise. Often, these are the people who first mapped data on soil, topography, or hydrology or who first interpreted land use from aerial photographs. More important, they often have direct experience in and thus can offer practical solutions to specific water quality problems. Sometimes 208 agencies operate under the mistaken assumption that these experts really don't want to be bothered. In one western region, for example, the 208 management failed to invite the local Soil Conservation Service to participate in any substantive way in the 208 process. Yet this 208 agency intended to devote a large segment of its resources to the interpretation of SCS-generated soil surveys. As a result, 208 staffers were constant visitors to SCS offices, gathering maps and picking up reports, but reluctant to get into questions that might involve large chunks of SCS time. Thus the 208 planners spent many frustrating hours evaluating these data and adapting them to their special purpose. In exasperation, the local SCS chief complained to 208 officials that SCS had never even been invited to participate. The 208 staffers were delighted. But the program had been underway for several months and it was too late to make use of the SCS's help. There are, of course, potential problems with relying upon the advice and interpretations of some data experts. One of the most common is that the experts themselves may sometimes be consumed by the data they generate. Ask some experts what to do and they may say, "Collect more data" or "Ana- lyze it further." Another difficulty is that some experts may recognize only the conventional ways of doing things and may not be able to respond with the necessary flexibility. There are many ways to avoid these problems. One of the best is to en- sure that the experts understand that 208 is a problem-solving program and is intended to provide solutions. This suggests that the experts be asked to look for quick, inexpensive solutions to water quality problems. This ap- proach leads to questions like, "If you (the experts) had to produce three solutions to a given quality problem in four weeks, what would you do?" Or, "If you (the expert) had to produce a map which was suitable for land-use regulations showing the five most development-sensitive soils, how would you do it?" Thus 208 planners should ensure that the participation of the ex- perts extends beyond such questions as "What data do you have?" to questions of "How can we use the existing data, quickly and effectively, to produce solutions to specific water quality problems?" There is a variety of ways that 208 planners can capture this exper- tise. If the region has relatively few experts, then the planners might maintain a one-to-one relationship. If the region is blessed with a great deal of expertise, technical committees might be formed. In some instances, cooperative cost-sharing arrangements might be reached. 3. Know Your Land Use and Water Quality Models The first two guidelines are critical for keeping information targeted ------- on resolving regional water quali-ty problems. But to be comprehensive, some activities in the 208 program may demand some expansion of this problem solving approach. Devising a new land use inventory that will serve 208 and other planning purposes is one such example. This activity produces a tool for problem solving and thus can expedite the process. However, it is impor- tant to maintain the perspective on problem solving to ensure a clear analy- sis of the usefulness of the proposed activity. Indiscriminate allocation of resources (including staff, time, and finances) to land use and water quality modeling may be one such process. Agencies performing 208 water quality management are required to evalu- ate the environmental capacity of alternative physical and land-use controls. Different models have been developed to provide a quantitative measurement of various aspects of land use and water quality; and some can provide estimates of the effectiveness of proposed water quality programs. For example, some models can determine the magnitude of wash-off from impervious areas; others can give rough estimates of the water quality consequences of sweeping the streets once a month versus once a year. Or a model might estimate the effect on water quality of on-site runoff retention. In the context of information collection and analysis, the usual cau- tions about the use of models and computers must be stated. Models can be useful tools when kept in perspective with other program objectives. It is often the case that the data required for the model are unavailable or of dif- ferent scales, formats, and types than existing information. For example, land-use categories used by local planning agencies (residential, commercial, etc.) may be different from the categories that must be used by a model. In this instance and in others, 208 agencies must be prepared to balance the costs of providing the data required by a model and the output that the model can produce. ------- PART II LAND USE INFORMATION FOR WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLANNING —Where to find it —Its format —Its usefulness This section describes for water quality management planners what kinds of land use information are likely to be available and useful to them in identifying the impact of land use activities on water quality and in seeking planning and management strategies to solve water quality problems. It is organized around the sources and types of information available and points up the first steps in data collection, which experts to consult, which maps and reports to get, and so on. It is not a manual on methods and techniques for analyzing the relationship between water quality and land use. A great deal of work already has been done and continues to be done in that area, much of it under EPA sponsorship. This study is designed to complement that work. The message is simple: there is a great deal of extremely valuable in- formation available to planners in every region, if they only know where to look. The information may sometimes be incomplete, or in the wrong format, but it is still enormously useful. These secondary sources often will suf- fice. Only as a last resort is the best, but also the most expensive, method —the land use field survey—used. This is a list of available sources. The first five sources listed— soil surveys, aerial photographs, topographic maps, hydrological maps, and comprehensive plans—are likely to be the most useful for working on land use and water quality problems. Other sources should be considered as substitutes for or duplicates of them. Appendix A keys interim outputs for land use identified in the Interim Output Evaluation Handbook for Section 208 Areawide Waste Treatment Management Planning, to the most useful and productive sources. This list can be used to examine possible alternatives when important sources of information are missing. For example, a region might prefer a complete set of USGS topographic and hydrologic maps to serve as base maps for the entire program. But when sources are not available, the agency might find that USGS orthophotoquads are available, although they may be less complete and drawn to a smaller scale. Alternatively, 208 agencies might turn to LANDSAT data to perform many functions that may have been accomplished with orthophotoquads, had they been attainable. Thus, this list is a flexible one that can be adapted to a variety of local circumstances to serve a host of 208 planning requirements. ------- The data obtained from some of these information sources have some lim- itations. First, scales and survey boundaries of some land use data may vary and be incompatible with one another. For example, early topographic maps of Connecticut were 15-minute quadrangles on the scale of 1:62,500 (1 inch = 1 mile) with 20-foot contour intervals. Later maps were 7-1/2-minute quad- rangles on a scale of 1:31,680 (1 inch = 1/2 mile). In 1967, a topographic maps of the state was produced on a scale of 1:125,000 (1 inch = 2 miles) with 50-foot contour intervals. Revised editions record man-made changes only. On the other hand, a soil survey map was prepared on an aerial photo- graph base at a scale of 1:15,840. Aerial photography maps can be reduced or expanded in scale. Reduction or enlargement, however, may create distortion and incongruency in the identifiable features of the aerial photograph and a topographic map, for instance. Further, certain sources of land use information—such as zoning ordi- nances and comprehensive or general plans—may be dated and are not useful. This problem may be particularly evident in areas experiencing rapid growth and development and other recent urbanizing conditions. Finally, the infor- mation on some sources is directly affected by seasons (wet weather, dry weather, ice and snow cover, etc.). Soil surveys are particularly susceptible to inaccuracy. 1. Soil Surveys The Soil Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture conducts soil surveys routinely and widely. These surveys, originally in- tended for improving agriculture, have also been concerned with erosion from roadways and subdivisions and are an extremely useful, important planning re- source . Contact; Local Soil Conservation Service offices or State Conserva- tionists (see Appendix B). Format of Information; Aerial photographs (usually used as base maps) and soil survey maps witn accompanying reports, tabulations, and interpreta- tions. Elements of Information to Consider; Soil maps by themselves are not likely to produce a great deal of information for anyone but a skilled soils scientist. Thus, unless the maps are accompanied by interpretive reports, they are not likely to be of much use. This suggests that 208 planners should establish an early and continuous relationship with the Soil Conserva- tion Service. Another good reason for a close working relationship is that there are many possible interpretations of soil survey maps. Of these, only a few are truly central to planning. Soil scientists can isolate the impor- tant ones. Some important interpretations are: A. Depth of Watertable: This category is important for many reasons as it identifies clear limitations on septic tanks; areas not suitable for development; water quality problem areas; and drainage problems. B. Hydrologic Soil Groups: This grouping identifies soils with high runoff potential. Obviously, these areas must be carefully evaluated since runoff is closely linked to water quality and water quantity problems. Spe- ------- cial attention given to these areas may go a long way in preventing runoff- related water quality problems. C. Erosion Hazard Groups: High erosion-hazard areas can be major producers of sediment. Once disturbed, these areas can release tremendous amounts of soil that will eventually find their way into surface waters or clog recharge areas. As sediment is a leading pollutant, special planning and regulatory attention should be given this category. D. Soil Permeability: Extremely high and extremely low permeability ratings are important to water quality and quantity. Septic tanks, for example, may not work at all in areas with low permeability ratings. Water may lie on the surface for long periods and cause unsanitary conditions as well as raise the threat of flooding. Highly permeable areas, on the other hand, may also prove troublesome, since liquids pass through them quickly to the groundwater, without filtering out pollutants. These are a few of the more important interpretations for water quality planning purposes. There are many others, such as hillside slippage and depth to bedrock, which might be important in select regions. The main point is that 208 planners should review this information with the data source—the local Soil Conservation Service office—in order to identify the key cate- gories and interpret them. 2. Aerial Photography Aerial photographs, including high-altitude photographs and remote sensing, are an important source of information for water quality planning and management. Aerial photographs indicate the use of land as well as a whole range of natural features and the relationships between the natural and man-made features or conditions (see Appendix C for types of detail available at various scales). Contact: There are a number of federal, state, and local agencies that may have complete or partial aerial coverage of the region. The Federal sources are: A. Historical: Cartographic Records Division, National Archives, General Services Administration, Washington, D.C. 20408. B. Department of Agriculture: CD Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service: Aerial Photography Field Office, Administrative Services Division, 2511 Parley's Way, Salt Lake City, Utah 84109. (2) Soil Conservation Service: Contact State Conservationists or Local SCS Offices (See Appendix B). (3) Forest Service: Regional Forester, U.S. Forest Service, Agri- cultural Building, 12th and Independence Avenue, Washington, D.C. 20250. 8 ------- C. Department of the Interior: (1) Geological Survey: National Cartographic Information Center, U.S.G.S., 507 National Center, Reston, Virginia 22092. (2) Earth Resources Observation Systems Program: User Services Unit, EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, South Dakota 57198. D. National Ocean Survey: Coastal Mapping Division, C3415, National Ocean Survey, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration CNOAA), Rock- ville, Maryland 20852. The State sources are: The state offices of transportation often have aerial photos of large portions of the state, especially those areas within existing or proposed state highway corridors. The Local sources are: General purpose governments often have complete sets of aerial photographs covering their jurisdiction. Format of Information; The photos themselves plus accompanying reports and maps generated by the photographs. Elements of Information to Consider; There is no substitute for a skilled photo-interpreter, preferably someone who has worked with the photo- graphs in the past. Unless the aerials will be used for the broadest kinds of observations (i.e., size of a lake, or patterns of new development), the services of such a skilled interpreter will be required. Cooperative arrange- ments with the aerial lending or issuing agency is one worthwhile approach. A. National Archives: This is the storage place of historical aerial photos, some of which date back to the 1920s. These photos are useful in understanding changing development patterns and in following the topographical evolution of certain watercourses, such as streams and wetlands. Further, these photos can also provide valuable information on the alteration of the natural landscape—the addition of ponds and lakes, for example, as well as changes in vegetative cover over time, say from brush to forest. B. U.S. Department of Agriculture: CD The Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service oper- ates primarily in active agricultural areas. But it does have photo- graphic coverage of many areas of the country which were once active agricultural areas. Scales of 1:20,000 are common. (2) The Soil Conservation Service uses aerial photographs as the base document for their soil surveys. The photographs are generally available at scales of either 1:20,000 (3.17 inches = 1 mile) or 1:15,840 (4 inches = 1 mile). (3) The U.S. Forest Service often has aerial photographs of forested areas, especially in large national forests or in national parks. Scale varies. ------- C. United States Department of Interior (1) The U.S. Geological Survey has two important types of aerial photographs useful for planning purposes. The first type is the verti- cal photographs used to make the widely used topographic maps. These photographs are prepared at a scale of 1:24,000. The other type of aerial is an orthophoto quadrangle, a planimetric, scale-corrected photo-image map. This quadrangle is distinctive because it is accurate- ly positioned as a standard topographic map and is compatible with 7-1/2 minute quadrangle and other maps prepared with a 7-1/2 minute base. This map can serve as a basic data source as well as an information product, despite the lack of delineated natural and cultural features. An orthophoto quadrangle, in combination with a field survey, can be used to identify wetlands, scenic areas, erosion areas, and other fea- tures observable on the aerial photograph. The quality of the photo- graph may sometimes be of issue. Scale is generally standardized at 1:24,000. (2) Earth Resources Observation Systems Program (EROS): This pro- gram provides a variety of small scale aerial photography and other remote sensing data. This includes LANDSAT (formerly ERTS) data, NASA Skylab, and NASA Earth Resources Aircraft Program. High aerial photo- graphs by NASA are available on a scale of 1:15,000 to 1:120,000. LANDSAT may be particularly interesting to 208 planners since it has been used in mapping variations in water quality. LANDSAT data can be used to detect certain water quality and quantity effects of land use development by sedimentation loads. One interesting service provided by EROS is a computerized program which can print out the types of ser- vices that EROS can provide for any area in the country. A letter to EROS is all one needs and the computer will respond with information on the types of high altitude or remote sensing of coverage available for your region. D. U.S. Department of Commerce: The National Ocean Survey has aerial photographs in strips of many areas of the nation's coastline. E. State Transportation Departments: These state agencies generally have the longest history or experience in aerial photography of any state agency. Transportation departments were one of the first state agencies to consistently use aerial photographs in planning for new transportation routes. Thus they have two important resources: skilled interpreters and a large set of photographs which may cover major areas of the state. While a state agen- cy may have coverage of the entire state, the photographs usually run along existing or projected corridors or routes and are available at various scales. 3. U.S. Geological Survey Topographic Maps These maps are an important planning resource and often serve as the base maps for water quality management planning. Their distinctive feature is that they present a graphic representation of the shape of part of the earth's surface. Contact; One of nine USGS regional offices (See Appendix D). 10 ------- Format of Information: Topographic maps, aerial photographs, and special surveys. Most recent maps, particularly those with considerable de- tail, are 7-1/2" or 1:24,000. Others are 1:62,500 or smaller scales. Elements of Information to Consider; USGS topographic maps present three types of important information. A. Topographic Features: This is the distinctive feature of USGS topographic maps. Contour lines on the maps indicate slopes, mountains, hills, plateaus, valleys, and other features of the terrain, with the detail varying depending on the map scale and the contour interval. This informa- tion has been used by 208 planners to identify slope areas, erosion areas, floodplains, wetlands, and other sensitive land areas. B. Water Features: The maps show location and shape of oceans, lakes, rivers, canals, glaciers, swamps, and other water-related resource areas, information of considerable value in 208 planning. C. Man-Made Features: The topographic map also shows a number of man-made features such as streets and highways, trails, dams, buildings, airports, railroads, city and county boundaries, and transmission lines. 4. U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologic Maps Hydrology is concerned with the properties of water, including circula- tion and distribution, on and below the ground. The USGS produces informa- tion that covers various characteristics of the hydrologic cycle—the circular path which water takes as it falls in the form of precipitation, penetrates into groundwater reserves, collects in lakes, streams, and oceans, and is evaporated by the sun or transpired by plants back into the atmosphere. While some information is available for the entire United States, other hy- drological characteristics have been mapped only for limited areas. Contact; Water Information Group, U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 420, National Center, Reston, Virginia 22092 (See Appendix E). Format of Information; Maps, atlases, or reports; a free publication available for each state, "Water Resources Investigation," includes a list of a selected number of reports prepared for each state. Depending on detail, scale of maps vary from 1:24,000 to 1:250,000. Elements of Information to Consider; Hydrologic maps and other reports include lots of data about the quality and quantity of ground and surface water. "Hydrologic information includes analyses of the elevation levels of major floods, depth to mineralized groundwater, saline water resources, geohydrology, chemical qualities of surface water, temperature of surface water, and water resources of river basins. Groundwater data have been used to identify aquifer recharge and dis- charge areas and to evaluate the adequacy of water supplies. Comprehensive information concerning flow systems is usually lacking, due in part to the prohibitive costs of drilling test wells and mapping subsurface aquifers. 11 ------- 5. General, Comprehensive, or Policy Plans These plans set out the future pattern of development for a local jur- isdiction, county, or region. The level of detail and precision of plans varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Some are extremely detailed in- cluding considerable land use and environmental inventory information, others are only broad policy guides for the community. Some communities do not have plans. Contact: Planning department; local general purpose government. Format of Information; The plans are usually contained in one report or a series of reports. Maps usually accompany the reports. Aerial photo- graphs may be available. Elements of Information to Consider; A. Distribution of Land Uses: Land use categories, depending on the place and scale, may include residential, manufacturing, transportation, communication and utilities, trades and services, entertainment, recreation, resource production and extraction, open space, and wetlands. Type of land use, its location and extent, is important information for 208 planners, since land use affects all aspects of water quality, including the capabili- ties of watersheds and aquifer recharge areas, the incidence of sedimenta- tion, and the stability of the aquatic ecosystem. B. Future Growth and Development: Most plans indicate the community's policies on future growth and development. The type, location, amount and rate of population growth, employment growth, housing, and so forth may be specified. These policies are terribly useful to 208 planners who must translate forecasts of population, land use, and the distribution of other activities into anticipated levels of water quality. C. Sensitive Areas: Some general plans contain sections on conserva- tion, natural resources, or open space, or detailed natural environmental inventories are prepared prior to plan preparation. Important characteris- tics about local water bodies and water courses and other sensitive areas, such as wetlands, hillsides, and wooded areas as well as the size and condi- tion of the resource may be described. Further, special studies may give specific interpretations of the capacity of the land to support various types of uses without seriously impairing natural processes. 6. Zoning Ordinances and Subdivision Regulations These land use controls are two of the most precise land use documents that local governments possess. They specify local control over the use of land, type and intensity, and rules for converting undeveloped land to urban use. Contact; Zoning or planning department; local general purpose govern- ments . 12 ------- Format of Information: The zoning ordinance including text and maps; subdivision regulations (text only). Elements of Information to Consider; A. Growth and Development Policies: Zoning ordinances specify, through legislation, the local policy for new growth and development. The ordinance establishes various districts and'uses allowed in the districts, and standards controlling development in each district. Examination of the districts and uses allowed can provide information on the local policy toward future growth and development—where, what type, how much, and when growth will or will not be permitted. B. Standards Affecting Natural Processes: Ordinances may set out regulations for treatment of land areas easily disturbed by development, such as hillsides, wetlands, wooded areas, recharge areas, and floodplains. Standards to reduce erosion, sedimentation, and runoff may be included. Most ordinances include provisions for regulating such processes as mineral extraction, topsoil removal, excavation, and other earth processes. When insufficient environmental studies are conducted, regulations may not reflect water quality considerations. For example, aquifer recharge areas might be zoned for major new commercial developments that, because of their high lot coverage, would impair the recharge function. Or, zoning might permit the most intensive type of development in highly erodible soils. C. Lot Coverage Requirements: While mainly used to control density and aesthetics, land development standards may also limit the amount of sur- face covered by impervious material. In an industrially zoned area, for ex- ample, coverage by buildings and paved areas might be limited to 40 per cent of the lot area. This figure may be as high as 90 per cent in high-density zones. Coverage requirements may also be set out in terms of bulk regula- tions such as floor area ratios. Since impervious cover is a prime determi- nant of the amount of runoff, coverage requirements by land use category (residential, commercial, industrial, etc.) should be analyzed. These re- quirements snould also be checked against local soil conditions since these conditions, too, may vary significantly from place to place. D. Flexible Zoning Techniques: It is often the case that local regu- lations include some flexible zoning techniques such as incentive (or bonus) zoning, subdivision exactions, and clustering provisions. In many of these techniques, final decisions about the actual development are made by the jurisdiction after negotiating with the developer. Some-of these techniques may give opportunities for achieving water quality objectives, such as by giving developers bonuses of higher density for protecting especially sensi- tive areas. But, they can work against water quality objectives as well. Ordinances should be examined to see if such provisions exist and how they work with respect to water quality. E. Subdivision Regulations: These control the process of converting "raw" into developed land by setting standards for streets, sewers, drainage, septic tanks (where permitted), water supply, curbs and gutters, and general site design. What these regulations cover and how they are administered can 13 ------- significantly affect the change in water quality prior to and after develop- ment. 7. Floodplain Regulations "Floodplain" is a general term for the land area adjacent to a water- course, such as a river, stream, or creek, which has been or may be covered by flood waters. The planning and regulation of floodplains have important linkages to the 208 program. Aside from the obvious hydrologic relationships, a great deal of information used to develop floodplain management programs is also useful in water quality management planning. Contact: County or metropolitan flood control districts or the state water agency. Regional HUD Offices (Office of Flood Insurance), U.S. Weather Bureau, regional offices of the Corps of Engineers, offices of USGS, local or county water agencies, planning or zoning agencies, or public works depart- ments. Any or all of these may be involved in a total flood-control program. If a flood control agency exists, start there; if not, the best bet is prob- ably the regional planning agency. Format of Information; Maps and reports detailing surface and subsur- face hydrology of the area. This includes information on location and routes of water courses, flow characteristics, flood-prone areas, meteorology, ad;ja- ,cent land uses, problem conditions. Copies of existing or proposed flood- plain regulations. Elements of Information to Consider; A. Land Use/Water Quality: Floodplain regulations are important for their direct substantive ties to water quality goals. Such regulations may set up a series of floodplain districts which generally parallel the floodway path and within which regulations—permitted uses, development standards— vary. The more likely to flood, the more restrictive the controls. These regulations all have important water quality relationships. For example, farming is often a permitted use on floodplain districts. Yet agricultural erosion is one leading generator of sediment and pesticide—or fertilizer-- related pollutants. Maybe the standards themselves should also be examined. For example, a small natural buffer zone between all permitted uses and the water course would serve to help filter and trap various types of pollutants. Conversely, standards which do not account for this filtering function may be detrimental to water quality. B. Land-Use/Water Quantity Relationships: Planning for floodplains often requires analysis of expected flows which in turn requires analysis of runoff in the watershed. The information generated in this analysis can be used by 208 planners in their estimates of current and projected runoff, erosion and sedimentation from the existing and projected land use patterns. C. Basic Hydrology: Reports on the floodplains will often be the single best source of information on the basic hydrology of the watershed. They may include data on topography, land use, length of channels, tempera- ture of water, size of drainage basins, width and length of channels, flow rates, food discharge, floodplains, flood frequency, wetlands, recharge 14 ------- areas, easily erodible soils and so forth. The reports will also identify basic sources of information which will be useful to 208 planners. D. Administration: One important feature of the regulation of flood- plains is the number of agencies and procedures that might be involved in it. This might include local general purpose and special district governments, special conservation commissions, or administrative review procedures in regional HUD offices. Water quality planners should identify the roles and regulations of all these agencies in order to determine the regulatory con- flicts, to identify gaps in the regulatory approach, and to gather base data 8. Plat Books and Assessors' Rolls A plat consists of a map or chart of a city, town, section, or subdivi- sion showing the location and boundaries of individual properties. Plats contain information about land ownership and are most often used for tax assessment purposes. Tax assessment sheets, usually pretty accurately drawn, may be used by 208 agencies as base maps for conducting field surveys, parti- cularly in rural areas, and to determine the location of tax-exempt land. Contact; County or city, township, or village registrar of deeds or tax assessor. Format of Information; Reproductions of plat and tax assessment sheets. Copies usually are not available or are extremely expensive to reproduce since each sheet may cover only a small area. Elements of Information to Consider: A. Ownership: Ownership data may be important after water quality problem areas are designated. For example, although existing land use maps identify public lands by such categories as recreation, transportation routes, utilities and other uses, ownership data is needed to differentiate between federal, state, and local ownership. Land in public ownership may require a different management approach when there are water quality problems to be solved. B. Assessed Valuation: Assessed valuation data may be omitted from the assessment sheets used in the field survey. Nevertheless, these data may help to determine development potential for the jurisdiction. Most often, the land is valued at some percentage of its market value at the land's highest and best use. This valuation may or may not include consider- ation of local zoning. Thus it can provide a strong check of information in the zoning ordinance (or vice versa) concerning development potential of im- portant parcels. High assessed valuation on vacant land indicates strong development pressure, from the tax itself or from forces which produce the high valuation. C. Update Current Land Use: Ownership and assessed valuation data can also be used to update land use maps, to make them reflect current land use or as a cross reference to check questionable land uses identified through other sources such as aerial photographs. 15 ------- 9. Transportation Studies Maps prepared as part of such studies set out the basic transportation scheme for the jurisdiction. They often form the basic data collection unit for 208 land use studies. Contact; County highway or road departments, or transportation dis.- trict offices and planning departments. Also contact the state transporta- tion departments to check and update the local information. Format of Information; Copies of maps which lay out routes, capacities and traffic counts of existing network as well as routes, capacities, and timing of new roads. Reports often accompany the maps and give details on routes, capacities, usage, and timing for the entire existing or produced network. There may be similar information on existing or planned transit systems. Elements of Information to Consider A. Population and Employment: Transportation plans prepared by state, regional, county, and city agencies are excellent sources of information on population and employment, both current and projected. Models used by trans- portation planners demand extensive population and employment figures. These projections are often broken down into small areas called traffic zones which then are used to project future land use patterns. The population projec- tions prepared under these programs may be used in lieu of the OBERS "Series E" national population projections prepared by the Department of Commerce's Bureau of Economic Analysis, if their use can be justified. B. Network Development: The transportation networks proposed in these plans and maps are strong indicators of future development patterns. By looking at locations, capacities, and interchanges and comparing these to existing patterns of development, planners can get a good understanding of key areas for new development and timing of new development. Just as impor- tant, this information will also point out those areas not likely to develop for some time. C. Location and Characteristics: The transportation routes themselves can cause important water quality problems. Runoff from streets and highways is often a problem when it drains directly into a water course. Oil drip- pings, unburned fuel, road salts, and general grime which collects on streets can be highly contaminating, especially at the beginning of a storm. Knowl- edge of location, traffic counts, capacities and their relationship to the drainage system can lead to a quick evaluation of this potential problem condition. 10. Health and Sanitation Records Private septic tanks are often the main sewage disposal method in rural areas. Leakage from septic tanks and raw sewage dumping causes water pollu- tion. Among other things, health codes generally set standards for the con- struction, number, and location of private wells and residential sewage sys- tems, such as septic tank systems; inspection procedures and requirements for 16 ------- new septic tanks; and regulations for commercial and industrial sewage treat- ment systems. Contact: County and city health boards and agencies; local offices of state health boards and agencies; state water control boards; pollution con- trol agencies; and the like. Format of Information! Copies of health codes, standards, and require- ments for the use of septic tanks, private wells, and other private sewage systems; inventories of septic tank permits, land fills, and strip mines; surveys of areas with septic tank failures; inventories of commercial and industrial sewage treatment systems; and laboratory results of air and water quality samples. The data available and capacity for delivering technical assistance vary significantly among health agencies, perhaps more than other sources of information. Available reports may be in the form of memoranda, simple inventories, coded maps, or laboratory analyses. Elements of Information to Consider A. Standards for the Location and Construction of Septic Tank Systems: Local health agencies generally set the location and construction standards for septic systems and other private residential sewage systems. Problems with faulty septic or sewer systems that contaminate water sources may be corrected by modifying or improving existing standards. Minimum changes in the standards may eliminate the need for extensive and expensive future con- ditions. Soil surveys of areas with septic tank failures may help to iden- tify potential malfunctions that might affect water quality and also show locations where private sewer systems would not be suitable. B. Laboratory Testing: In addition to soil sampling, some health boards may produce other sampling information of value to 208 planning. For example, information on the effects of air pollution on surface water runoff may be found in some laboratories. 11. Capital Improvements Programs A community's capital improvements program indicates its plans and schedule for public physical improvements, usually over 5-7 year period. Be- cause the provision, nature and location of certain public facilities has a strong influence on the pattern of urban growth, capital improvements pro- grams although infrequently used, are considered an important tool to imple- ment community land use plans. Contact: Finance or budget officer; city manager or mayor; planning department. Format of Information: Municipal capital budgets, programs, and plans; preliminary reports from participating municipal departments; financial anal- yses. Elements of Information to Consider Physical facilities: "Corridor" or "linear" facilities such as high- 17 ------- way routes, transit lines, and water supply and sewer systems, are among the most important determinants of future growth. While a plan may indicate an intention, a CIP which includes provisions for new construction or moderniza- tion is a specific allocation of public money and worthy of special note. While other public facilities such as schools, libraries, police and fire stations, parking lots, and playgrounds have far less influence on develop- ment patterns, they can be part of an overall growth management strategy, which in turn is a determinant of future waste loads. 12. U.S. Geological Survey Geological Maps Geological maps have limited use. Detailed maps are available for only a small portion of the country, are frequently old, and expert assis- tance is required for interpretation. Contact: One of nine USGS regional offices (See Appendix D). Format of Information; Maps, reports and surveys. Elements of Information to Consider; Geological maps can assist in the identification of potential aquifers for domestic, commercial, or industrial use; and sand and gravel deposits. They also can determine hazardous condi- tions where development should not occur. If available, these sources will probably already have been tapped by planning agencies for conducting land resource inventories and developing plans. Additional analysis of these data by a 208 agency under such conditions, is probably unnecessary. 13. Special Local Commissions, Boards, and Districts In any 208 region there is likely to be a whole set of special purpose governments which are often responsible for planning, protecting, and manag- ing resources that have a direct bearing on 208 planning. Common commissions and districts include: soil and-water conservation, water, sanitation and sewer, watershed conservancy, water and sewer, flood control, port authori- ties, canals, parks and recreation, forests, agricultural, public works, irrigation, conservation and environmental, and economic development. Contact; Special commissions are generally visible at the local level. Local planners, both city and county, may be able to identify them. If not, the tax assessor, in setting and collecting property, is likely to be in contact with all active special district governments in the area. Format of Information; Plans, reports, studies, inventories, capital budgets, aerial photographs. Elements of Information to Consider A. Condition of Natural Resources: Some commissions and districts may be responsible for the protection or conservation of important local natural resources. These sources can identify the type and location of vari- ous natural resources. Parks and recreation, for example, may provide a de- tailed description of the condition, extent, and composition of existing flora 18 ------- and fauna and types of land use and other conditions that may have an adverse impact on the resources. B. Regulatory Functions: Resource oriented special commissions and districts often possess regulatory responsibilities that overlap 208 planning functions, particularly if they are permit issuing agencies. Such regula- tions may often cover the development of floodplains, provisions for water supplies, development along watercourses, etc. Furthermore, some commissions or districts set local policy in terms of future economic development. In- formation available at these sources may also help indicate the type; timing, and rate of new development. 14. Resource People The data which 208 agencies collect is only as good as their interpre- tation. If at all possible, 208 agencies should try to use the talents of the experts. Thus it is important to spend time trying to involve key re- source personnel in the data collection and interpretation process. Indeed, in many ways, the resource personnel may be more valuable than maps and re- ports themselves. Contact, Format and Elements of Information to Consider; A. Regional USGS Offices: These offices are staffed by qualified geologists, hydrologists and many other earth resource specialists. These personnel are obviously most qualified to evaluate information contained in such things as topographic maps and hydrologic maps. They also know the shortcomings of this information and the places to go to get additional in- formation that might be required. B. Regional EPA Offices: Regional EPA offices house limited collec- tions of technical material on most aspects of 208 planning. Some of this material is directly concerned with the land use/water quality relationship —how to define it, how to measure it, methods and techniques of analysis and implementation. Some regional offices offer technical assistance in water quality modeling. One of their most important resources is the knowl- edge of ongoing 208 programs in the region as well as others across the coun- try. C. State Soil Conservationists Offices: This service also has expert personnel. Soil scientists are the most familiar with soil survey informa- tion as well as other data that SCS has or can provide. Further, they under- stand the soils of the region and can provide evaluation and advice which simply cannot be gleaned from the maps and reports. In many regions soil scientists are crucial to the success of 208 programs. D. State Planning Offices: 208 planners should recognize that state planning offices typically collect a wealth of material. Occasionally, the sources of the information or the information itself are computerized, pro- viding an important library for 208 planners. Further, state planning offices generally have good contacts at other important offices such as with geologists and hydrologists and biologists. Thus, 208 planners should con- 19 ------- tact the state planning agency in search of hard data as well as information on places to go and people to see. E. Other State Offices: Each state houses a collection of resource experts that can be extremely useful to 208 planners. Many of these experts are located in the state capital but others can be found in regional offices. Occasionally, these experts may be made available to 208 agencies if the agency is faced with a unique opportunity of regional or statewide impor- tance. State geologists, for example, are often located in departments or divisions of divisions of mines and geology. State hydrologists may be found in water survey offices or state water departments or water quality boards. Regional water quality boards are also important sources of hydrologic exper- tise. F. Colleges and Universities: Professors and other staff are often knowledgeable about environmental information, including land use/water quality interrelations. These resources may be tapped to compile data, pre- pare maps, analyze data, educate, and disseminate information. Water quality modeling expertise and unpublished reports may be available. Students are sometimes used to conduct field surveys for 208 agencies and sampling. G. Private and Public Developers: Developers are often familiar with environmental data collected for environmental impact statements and other local regulatory requirements. In addition, developers may provide informa- tion prepared for market analyses that may be beneficial in determining de- velopment patterns. While some data may be biased, information from devel- opers may be most useful for site-specific considerations. Likewise, con- sultants may be knowledgeable about site-specific conditions, as well as other local water quality planning concerns. 20 ------- APPENDIX A INTERIM OUTPUTS FOR LAND USE INFORMATION: MAJOP SOURCES * Resources for Land-Use Information Soil Surveys Aerial Photos USGS Topographic Maps USGS Hydrologic Maps Comprehensive Plans Zoning Ordinances Floodplain Regula- tions Plat Books and Assessors' Rolls Transportation Studies Health and Sanita- tion Records Capital Improvements Programs USGS Geological Maps Special Local Commis- sion and Districts Resource People Required Existing & Projec- ted Area Characteristics Population and Economic Projections X X X X X X Land-Use Projections X X X X X X X X Suggested Outputs (Illustrative Examples} Identification of Alternative Land- Use Controls X X X X X X Relationships Between Land Use and Hater Quality X X X X X X X X X X X X Identification of Major Nonpoint Source Problems X X X X X X X X X Identification of Management and Regulatory Alternatives X X X X X X X * This table keys interim outputs for land use identified in the Interim Output Evaluation Handbook For Section 208 Areawide Waste Treatment Planning, to the most useful and productive sources of information ------- APPENDIX B UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE STATE CONSERVATIONISTS SCS STATE OFFICE TELEPHONE NO. ALABAMA, Auburn 205-821-8070 ALASKA, Anchorage 907-274-7626 ARIZONA, Phoenix 602-261-3271 ARKANSAS, Little Rock 501-378-5445 CALIFORNIA, Davis 916-758-2200 CARIBBEAN AREA, Santurce 809-725-8966 COLORADO, Denver 303-837-4275 CONNECTICUT, Storrs 203-429-9361 DELAWARE, Dover 302-678-0750 FLORIDA, Gainesville 904-377-8732 GEORGIA, Athens 404-546-2275 HAWAII, Honolulu 808-546-3165 IDAHO, Boise 208-342-2711 ILLINOIS, Champaign 217-356-3785 INDIANA, Indianapolis 317-269-6515 IOWA, Des Moines 515-284-4260 KANSAS, Salina 913-825-9535 KENTUCKY, Lexington 606-252-2312 LOUISIANA, Alexandria 318-448-3421 MAINE, Orono 207-866-2132 MARYLAND, College Park 301-344-4180 MASSACHUSETTS, Amherst 413-549-0650 MICHIGAN, East Lansing 517-372-1910 MINNESOTA, St Paul 612-725-7675 MISSISSIPPI, Jackson 601-969-4335 MISSOURI, Columbia 314-442-2271 MONTANA, Bozeman 406-587-5271 NEBRASKA, Lincoln 402-471-5301 NEVADA, Reno 702-784-7304 NEW HAMPSHIRE, Durham 603-868-7581 NEW JERSEY, Somerset 201-246-1205 NEW MEXICO, Albuquerque 505-766-3277 NEW YORK, Syracuse 315-473-3530 NORTH CAROLINA, Raleigh 919-755-4210 NORTH DAKOTA, Bismarck 701-255-4011 OHIO, Columbus 614-469-6785 OKLAHOMA, Stillwater 405-372-7111 OREGON, Portland 503-221-2751 PENNSYLVANIA, Harnsburg 717-782-2202 RHODE ISLAND, West Warwick 401-828-1300 SOUTH CAROLINA, Columbia 803-765-5681 SOUTH DAKOTA, Huron 605-352-8651 TENNESSEE, Nashville 615-749-5471 TEXAS, Temple 817-773-1711 UTAH, Salt Lake City 801-524-5050 VERMONT, Burlington 802-862-6501 VIRGINIA, Richmond 804-782-2457 WASHINGTON, Spokane 509-456-3770 WEST VIRGINIA, Morgantown 304-599-7151 WISCONSIN, Madison 608-252-5341 WYOMING, Casper 307-265-5550 22 ------- APPENDIX C APPROXIMATE AIRPHOTO SCALE RANGES USEFUL FOR PLANNING AND PLANNING-RELATED STUDIES* Scale 1:250,000 Example of uses Level of detail discernible Studies of land forms Studies of gross land use Natural features: Mountain ranges Valleys Lakes Rivers Urban areas: Rural areas: Forests Farmland Scale 1:96,000-1:126,720 Studies of land forms Studies of gross land use Includes all discernible at preceding scale Urban areas: Subdivisions Rural areas: Villages Reservoirs Transportation and communication Ai rports Railroad yards Expressways and interchanges Scale 1:62,500-1:70,000 General land-use studies at State and regional levels Studies of watershed drainage patterns Studies of road and street patterns Studies of rate of rural to urban land use change Preliminary site selection studies for new towns Selection of possible sites for State or county parks Preliminary site selection studies for new highways Detail discernible at preceding scale. Natural features: Streams Flood plains Ponds Beaches Potholes Rapids Swamps Urban land uses: Residential areas Industrial areas Commercial areas Parks and recreation areas Race tracks Rural land uses: Woodlots Cultivated fields Pasture or idle land 23 ------- APPENDIX C (Cont'd.) Scale 1:62,500-1:70,000(Continued) Example of uses Level of detail discernible Industrial complexes Transportation and communication: High-voltage electric trans- mission towers Pipelines Gas and oil storage tank farms Scale 1:25,000-1:50,000 Natural resources inventory Studies for reservoir site selection Study of potential water power Detail discernible at preceding scale. Transportation: Railroads Highways Docks Shipyards Urban land uses: Subdivisions Shopping centers Mobile home pa,rks Central business districts Drive-in theaters Stadiums Golf courses Rural land uses: Farms Nurseries Greenhouses Cemeteries Scale 1:12,000-1:20,000 Detailed land-use studies Mapping the distribution of one crop Housing market analyses Shopping center location studies Studies for selection of dam sites School site selection Farm land-use planning Erosion control studies Detail discernible at preceding scale. Urban land uses: Residential Houses—single, duplex, row Apartment buildings Institutional Hospitals Churches Community facilities Schools 24 ------- APPENDIX C (Cont'd.) Scale 1:12,000-1:20,000(Continued) Example of uses Level of detail discernible Soil mapping Forest classification Forest inventory Commercial Shopping areas Gasoline stations Industrial Factories Warehouses Vacant land Rural land uses: Nonfarm residential Farmsteads Houses Barns Cropland Row crops Close-grown crops Pasture Orchards Vineyards Idle land Irrigation and drainage ditches Natural features: Rivers Sandbars Streams Ponds Swamps, marshes Transportation and communication: Roundhouses Lanes Streets Parking lots Bridges Airports Runways Hangers Administration buildings Control towers Pipelines Pumping stations Oil storage tanks Gasometers Water storage tanks Recreation areas: Football fields Baseball diamonds Campgrounds Swimming pools Picnic grounds 25 ------- APPENDIX C (Cont'd.) Scale 1:7,920 Example of uses Level of detail discernible Classification and inventory of buildings Count buildings Count railroad cars on a siding Highway route selection Detail discernible at preceding scale. Scale 1:5,280 Measure size of buildings Identify individual heavy industries Detail discernible at preceding scale. Scale 1:2,400 Measure size of railroad cars and automobiles Detail discernible at preceding scale Source: Simon Baker. Aerial Photography for Planning and Development in Eastern North Carolina; A Handbook and Directory, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607. April 1976. 26 ------- APPENDIX D U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY REGIONAL PUBLIC INQUIRIES OFFICES 108 Sklyline Building 508 Second Avenue Anchorage, AK 99501 7638 North Los Angeles St. Los Angeles, CA 90012 504 Custom House 555 Battery Street San Francisco, CA 94111 1012 Federal Building 1961 Stout Street Denver, GO 80202 General Services Building 18th and F Streets, N.W. Washington, DC 20244 1045 Federal Building 1000 Commerce Street Dallas, TX 75202 8102 Federal Building 125 South State Street Salt Lake City, UT 84111 National Center Room 1C-402 Reston, VA 22092 678 U.S. Court House West 920 Riverside Avenue Spokane, WA 99201 27 ------- APPENDIX E U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, WATER RESOURCES DIVISION Addresses of District Offices Alabama P.O. Box V University, Alabama 35486 205/752-8104 Alaska 218 "E" Street Skyline Bldg. Anchorage, Alaska 99501 907/277-5526 Arizona Federal Bldg. , 301 W. Congress Tucson, Arizona 85701 602/792-6671 Arkansas Rm. 2301 Federal Office Bldg. 700 W. Capitol Avenue Little Rock, Arkansas 72201 501/378-5246 California 855 Oak Grove Avenue Menlo Park, California 94025 Colorado Bldg. 53, Stop 415, Box 25046 Denver Federal Center Lakewood, Colorado 80225 Connecticut Rm. 235, Post Office Building 135 High Street Hartford, Connecticut 06101 203/244-2528 Delaware (See Maryland) Florida Suite F-240, 325 John Knox Rd. Tallahassee, Florida 30303 904/386-1118 Georgia 6481 Peachtree Industrial Blvd. Suite B Doraville, Georgia 30340 404/526-4858 Hawaii 1833 Kalakaua Ave., 5th Floor Honolulu, Hawaii 96815 808/955-0251 Idaho Room 365, Federal Bldg., Box 036 550 W. Fort Street Boise, Idaho 83724 208/342-2538 Illinois P.O. Box 1026, 605 N. Neil St. Champaign, Illinois 61820 217/359-3918 Indiana 1819 N. Meridian Street Indianapolis, Indiana 46202 317/269-7101 Iowa P.O. Box 1230 Rm. 269, Federal Building Iowa City, Iowa 52240 319/338-0581 Kansas 1950 Avenue "A", Campus West University of Kansas Lawrence, Kansas 66045 913/864-4321 Kentucky Rm. 572, Federal Building 600 Federal Place Louisville, Kentucky 40202 502/582-5241 28 ------- Louisiana P.O. Box 66492 Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70806 504/348-0181, Ext. 281 Maine (See Massachusetts) Maryland (also Delaware) 8809 Satyr Hill Road Parkville, Maryland 21234 301/661-4664 Massachusetts (also ME, NH, RI & VT) 150 Causeway St., Suite 1001 Boston, Massachusetts 02114 617/223-2822 Michigan 2400 Science Parkway Red Cedar Research Park Okemos, Michigan 48864 517/372-1910, Ext. 561 Minnesota 1033 Post Office Building St. Paul, Minnesota 55101 617/725-7841 Mississippi 430 Bounds Street Jackson, Mississippi 39206 601/969-4600 Missouri 1400 Independence Road Rolla, Missouri 65401 314/364-1599 Montana P.O. Box 1969 421 Federal Building 316 N. Park Helena, Montana 406/449-5011, Ext. 5263 Nebraska Rm. 406, Federal Building U.S. Court House Lincoln, Nebraska 68508 402/471-5082 Nevada Rm. 229, Federal Building 705 N. Plaza Street Carson City, Nevada 89701 702/882-1388 New Hampshire (see Massachusetts) New Jersey P.O. Box 1238 Rm. 420, Federal Building 402 E. State Street Trenton, New Jersey 08607 609/766-2246 New Mexico P.O. Box 4369 Geology Bldg. 2nd Fl. University of New Mexico Campus Albuquerque, New Mexico 87106 505/766-2246 New York P.O. Box 1350 343 U.S.P.O. and Court House Albany, New York 12201 518/472-3107 North Carolina P.O. Box 2857 Century Station, P.O. Bldg. Rm. 436 Raleigh, North Carolina 27602 North Dakota P.O. Box 778 Rm. 332, Federal Bldg. 3rd St. and Rosser Avenue Bismarck, North Dakota 58501 Ohio 975 W. Third Avenue Columbus, Ohio 43212 614/469-5553 Oklahoma Rm. 621, 201 N.W. 3rd Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 405/231-4256 73102 29 ------- Oregon P.O. Box 3202 830 N.E. Holladay St. Portland, Oregon 97208 503/234-3361 Pennsylvania P.O. Box 1107 4th Fl. Federal Building Harrisburg, Pa. 17108 717/782-3468 Puerto Rico Bldg. 652, P.O. Box 34168 Ft. Buchanan, Puerto Rico 00934 809/783-4660 Rhode Island CSee Massachusetts) South Carolina 2001 Assembly St., Suite 200 Columbus, South Carolina 29201 803/765-5966 South Dakota P.O. Box 1412 Rm. 231, Federal Building Huron, South Dakota 57350 605/352-8651, Ext. 258 Tennessee A-413 Fed. Bldg. U.S. Courthouse Nashville, Tennessee 37203 615/749-5424 Texas Utah 8022 Federal Building 125 South State Street Salt Lake City, Utah 84138 801/524-5663 Vermont (See Massachusetts) Virginia 200 W. Grace Street, Room 304 Richmond, Virginia 23220 804/782-2427 Washington Rm. 300, 1305 Tacoma Avenue South Tacoma, Washington 98402 206/593-6502 West Virginia 500 Quarrier St. E Rm. 3303 Federal Building and U.S. Courthouse Charleston, West Virginia 25301 304/343-6181, Ext. 310 Wisconsin Rm. 200 1815 University Ave. Madison, Wisconsin 53706 608/262-2488 Wyoming P.O. Box 2087 Cheyenne, Wyoming 82001 307/778-2220, Ext. 2111 649 Federal Building 300 East 8th Street Austin, Texas 78701 30 ------- |