EPA-600/3-77-042
April 1977
Ecological Research Series
SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS
EFFECTS ON FRESHWATER BIOTA
A Review
Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1, Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH series. This series
describes research on the effects of pollution on humans, plant and animal spe-
cies, and materials. Problems are assessed for their long- and short-term influ-
ences. Investigations include formation, transport, and pathway studies to deter-
mine the fate of pollutants and their effects. This work provides the technical basis
for setting standards to minimize undesirable changes in living organisms in the
aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric environments.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/3-77-042
April 1977
SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS EFFECTS
ON FRESHWATER BIOTA: A REVIEW
by
Darwin L. Sorensen
Margaret M. McCarthy
E. Joe Middlebrooks
Donald B. Porcella
Utah State University Foundation
and the
Utah Water Research Laboratory
College of Engineering
Utah State University
Logan, Utah 84322
Project Officer
Jack H. Gakstatter, Chief
Special Studies Branch
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
CORVALLIS ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CORVALLIS, OREGON 97330
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publi-
cation. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect
the views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor
does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement
or recommendation for use.
ii
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FOREWORD
Effective regulatory and enforcement actions by the Environmental
Protection Agency would be virtually impossible without sound scientific
data on pollutants and their impact on environmental stability and human
health. Responsibility for building this data base has been assigned to
EPA's Office of Research and Development and its 15 major field installa-
tions, one of which is the Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
(CERL).
The primary mission of the Corvallis Laboratory is research on the
effects of environmental pollutants on terrestrial, freshwater, and marine
ecosystems; the behavior, effects and control of pollutants in lake systems;
and the development of predictive models on the movement of pollutants in
the biosphere.
This report presents a review of the recent literature describing the
effects of suspended and dissolved solids on aquatic organisms.
A. F. Bartsch
Director, CERL
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ABSTRACT
It is widely recognized that suspended and dissolved solids in lakes, rivers,
streams, and reservoirs affect water quality. In this report the research needs
appropriate to setting freshwater quality criteria or standards for suspended
solids (not including bedload) and dissolved solids are defined by determining
the state of our knowledge from a critical review of the recent literature in
this field. Common literature sources and computer searching routines were used
as an initial source of information followed by detailed journal searches. Al-
though some 185 journal articles, government reports, and other references were
cited herein (about 45 percent published since 1974) and many other reports
(about 300 citations) were reviewed, there is a dearth of quantitative informa-
tion on the response of freshwater biota, especially at the community level, to
suspended and dissolved solids.
Consequently, the major research need was defined as the development and/or
application of concepts of community response to suspended and dissolved solids
concentrations and loads. These concepts need to be applied especially to the
photosynthetic level and the microfauna and raacrofauna levels. Fish studies are
of lower priority since more and better research has been reported for these
organisms.
In addition, the role of suspended solids in transporting toxic substances
(organics, heavy metals), aesthetic evaluation of suspended solids in aquatic
ecosystems and dissolved solids in drinking water, and economic aspects of dis-
solved solids in municipal-industrial water were defined as research needs.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Purchase Order No. CC6991630-J
by the Utah State University Foundation and the Utah Water Research Laboratory
under sponsorship of the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. This report
covers a period from July, 1976 to December, 1976 and work was completed as of
January, 1977.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
I CONCLUSIONS 1
II INTRODUCTION 3
SCOPE OF THE REVIEW 3
DEFINITIONS OF SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS .... 3
SOURCES OF SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS 4
Natural Sources A
Rural and Agricultural Sources 5
Urban Runoff and Storrawater Sources 6
Sources from Forestry Practices 6
Construction and Mining Sources 7
Dredging and Disposal Sources 8
Municipal and Industrial Wastewater Sources ... 8
COMPOSITION OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS . 8
TYPES OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS 9
III PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS 10
EFFECTS ON IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY 10
EFFECTS OF SALINITY ON THE QUALITY OF DRINKING
WATER FOR ANIMALS 13
EFFECTS ON PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY 13
EFFECTS ON INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLY 15
IV PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS 17
RESERVOIR FILLING 17
TOXIC SUBSTANCE TRANSPORT 17
Halogenated Organics 17
Metals 19
NUTRIENT TRANSPORT 20
AESTHETIC EFFECTS OF TURBIDITY 21
EFFECTS ON WATER SUPPLY 22
vii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Section Page
V EFFECTS OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS ON AQUATIC BIOTA 23
EFFECTS ON PHYTOPLANKTON, PERIPHYTON, AND
VASCULAR PLANTS 23
EFFECTS ON ZOOPLANKTON 25
EFFECTS ON MACROINVERTEBRATES 26
EFFECTS ON SALMONID FISHES 27
EFFECTS ON OTHER FISH 28
VI EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS ON AQUATIC BIOTA 32
EFFECTS ON PHYTOPLANKTON, PERIPHYTON, AND
VASCULAR PLANTS 32
EFFECTS ON ZOOPLANKTON AND AUFWUCHS PROTOZOANS .... 33
EFFECTS ON MACROINVERTEBRATES 34
EFFECTS ON SALMONID FISHES 36
EFFECTS ON OTHER FISHES 39
VII RESEARCH NEEDS RELATED TO STANDARDS ON SUSPENDED AND
DISSOLVED SOLIDS FOR PROTECTION OF FRESHWATER
BIOTA 43
EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS ON
AQUATIC PHOTOSYNTHETIC SYSTEMS 45
Successional Effects—SS 45
Abrasive and Siltation Effects—SS 45
Successional Effects—DS 45
Primary Production Effects—DS 46
EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS ON
ZOOPLANKTON AND MACROINVERTEBRATES ...... 46
Successional Effects—Microfauna 46
Successional Effects—Macroinvertebrates .... 46
Macroinvertebrates—Acute Changes in SS .... 47
EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS ON FISH ... 47
VIII OTHER RESEARCH NEEDS 48
SUSPENDED SOLIDS TRANSPORT OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES .... 48
AESTHETIC EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS 48
THE EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS ON
PUBLIC AND INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLY 48
REFERENCES 50
viii
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1 Soil salinity levels (ECe) associated with various yield
decrements (%) and the calculated corresponding irrigation
water electrical conductivities (EC) .......... 11
2 Guide to the use of saline waters for livestock and poultry
(CWQC, 1973) .................. 14
3 Summary of suspended solids effects on aquatic macro-
invertebrates (data collected from Gammon, 1970; Hill,
1972; and Rosenberg and Wiens, 1975) .......... 35
4 Summary of effects of suspended solids on salmonid fish .... 37
5 Some effects of turbidity on selected fish species (data from
Wallen, 1951) .................. 40
6 Effects of suspended solids on non-salmonid fish (data collected
from Gammon, 1970) ................ 41
7 Classification of suspended and dissolved solids and their
probable major impacts on freshwater ecosystems ...... 44
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1 Relationship of organic matter biotnass of surface water
seston (productivity) to the total dissolved solids in
nine bodies of water in central Alberta 25
ix
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many persons have contributed to the successful completion of the literature
review reported herein. The innovation and direction of the project by Jack H.
Gakstatter, the project officer, is gratefully acknowledged. The support and
extra effort by the Utah Water Research Laboratory staff has helped greatly in
the performance of the work. Project business management by the Utah State
University Foundation has been expeditiously performed. We gratefully acknowledge
the expert assistance of the staff of the Merrill Library at Utah State Univer-
sity. Special recognition is due Mary Cleave who has often volunteered her time
and expertise to locate materials included in the review.
x
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
Generally, the review indicates that considerable effort has been directed
toward determining the freshwater ecosystem effects of dissolved and suspended
solids. However there is a significant gap at the freshwater community level in
our understanding of the impacts of these pollutants and research needs are
principally related to developing concepts about community response to dissolved
and suspended solids.
Specific major conclusions about biological effects of dissolved and sus-
pended solids gained from the reviews were:
1. Acute effects on specific organisms were difficult to demonstrate;
succession and/or adaptation can allow communities to be maintained even though
specific organisms may differ.
2. The total quantity of dissolved salts and the composition of the ions
are both important in terms of organism type selection and productivity. The
mode of action of dissolved salts is primarily due to osmotic interactions.
Cation and anion ratios seem to have important roles in succession of certain
organisms.
3. Dissolved organic compounds frequently increase the availability (and
toxicity or biostimulation) of specific elements.
4. Although fishes adapt somewhat to gross changes in salinity, life
cycle effects may prevent specific fish from being maintained in a specific
aquatic habitat. Osmoregulation is an important aspect of adaptation and bio-
chemical changes (e.g., protein and glucose levels in blood) are evidence of
salinity changes.
5. Suspended solids have significant effects on community dynamics when
they interfere with light transmission because of turbidity (shading).
6. Suspended solids may have significant effects on succession due to
shading, abrasive action, habitat alteration, and sedimentation. Avoidance
reactions of fish, selection of species and shading impacts on community
stability have been demonstrated.
7. The role of sediments in serving as a reservoir of toxic chemicals
has been demonstrated but the quantitative and directional aspects of toxicant
transfer are largely unknown and whether the sediments are a sink or a source
of toxicants needs to be studied.
1
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8. Relatively high suspended solids were needed to cause behavioral
reactions (20,000 mg/1) or death (200,000 mg/1) in a short time in fish. Re'
covery is fairly rapid when fish were returned to clear water.
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SECTION II
INTRODUCTION
SCOPE OF THE REVIEW
The current literature on the effects of suspended and dissolved solids on
aquatic living systems is reviewed in this report. Attention was directed to
the literature published since 1971 with occasional reference to especially im-
portant work on reviews published prior to 1971. The effects of suspended and
dissolved solids on freshwater organisms and their habitat was emphasized.
Works concerning estuarine or marine life were reviewed only when they were
directly relevant or appeared to be the only work available on a given topic.
The effects of suspended and dissolved solids on the physical or chemical
environment are included in the review as supportive material for the effects on
biological systems. Here again the review was directed primarily toward the
literature published since 1971, but was further limited to major or review
type publications which had direct reference to the topic. An important recent
review on methodologies for assessing streamflow requirements was not included
because that report dealt only peripherally with suspended solids and salt
effects on biota (Stalnaker and Arnette, 1975). However the reader should be
aware that streamflow integrally affects dissolved and suspended solids and
that relationship needs consideration.
DEFINITIONS OF SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS
Natural surface or groundwater is never found as pure H^O. Separation of
the impurities of natural water into particulate and dissolved fractions is, in
practice, made on the basis of working definitions such as those found in
Standard Methods (APHA, 1975). Suspended solids are the residue in a well mixed
sample of water which will not pass a standard (glass fiber) filter. The
residue trapped on the filter is dried (103-105C) and reported in units of
weight per volume (mg/1). Suspended solids usually impart an optical property
to water called turbidity. Particulate matter causes light to be scattered
and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight lines. This property (turbid-
ity) can be measured by standardized methods but it cannot be related to weight
concentrations of suspended solids because of the effects of size, shape, and
refractive index of the particles. However, turbidity measurements do give an
indication of the relative abundance of suspended material in a water sample.
Dissolved solids (filterable residue) are the material that pass through
a standard (glass fiber) filter and remain after the water has been evaporated
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and the material dried (180C or 103 to 105C). Salinity is the filterable solids
in water after all carbonates have been converted to oxides, all bromine and
iodide have been replaced by chloride, and all organic matter have been oxidized.
Salinity measurements are usually numerically smaller than dissolved solids
measurements (APHA, 1975). Total dissolved solids (IDS) and salinity terminol-
ogy are often used interchangeably in practice and are not distinguished as to
biological or chemical-physical effects in this review.
The ionization of substances dissolved in water allows water to conduct an
electric current. The numerical expression of this property is referred to as
conductivity. The mobility, valence, and actual and relative concentrations of
each of the dissolved ions affect conductivity. Most inorganic acids, bases
and salts (e.g., HC1, Na2C03, NaCl, MgSC>4) in solution are good conductors.
Organic compounds that do not dissociate in aqueous solution are not good con-
ductors. Conductivity is a good method for determining the degree of mineral-
ization of water, for assessing the effect of diverse ions on chemical equili-
bria, and for determining physiological effects of dissolved ions on plants or
animals. The dissolved ionic matter in water may be estimated by multiplying
the conductivity (in ymhos/cm) by an empirically determined factor which usual-
ly ranges from 0.55 to 0.9 (APHA, 1975).
SOURCES OF SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS
Nat-ural Sources
Natural weathering and decomposition of rocks, soils, and dead plant
materials and the transport or dissolution of the weathered products in water
contributes a natural c'background'* of suspended and dissolved materials to
natural waters. Even rain and snowfall contain such contaminants which are
washed from the atmosphere. Snyder et al. (1975) observed that gross precipi-
tation in a forest in northern Idaho contained a mean suspended solids concen-
tration of 21.8 mg/1. Likens et al. (1970) report an annual mineral dissolved
solids export from an undisturbed northern hardwood ecosystem watershed of 13.9
metric tons/km2. In the Colorado River Basin natural diffuse sources of salt
are estimated to contribute 60.5 percent and mineral springs 8 percent of the
36,393 tons (33,084 metric tons) of salt/day exported via that river (USU, 1975,
part one). Geologic formations (e.g. exposed marine shales) and other factors
of the watershed contribute greatly to natural salt loading of streams (Black-
man et al., 1973) .
Erosion of soil materials depends greatly on many watershed factors
(Bennett, 1974). The protection of undisturbed forest canopies and their mats
of detrital material make such forests very resistant to erosion (EPA, 1973;
Debyle and Packer, 1972). Snyder et al. (1975) report natural suspended solids
concentrations in a northern Idaho forest stream as 2.7 to 9.0 rag/1. Erosion
and sedimentation from rangelands is expertly reviewed by Branson et al. (1972).
They point out that approximately 40 percent of the world's land surface is
classified as rangeland, 80 percent of which is within arid and semi-arid zones.
These areas are especially subject to erosion due to extremes in the hydrologic
cycle and limited plant cover. Concentrations of suspended solids in the
Colorado River have been reported as hij.,h as 38,700 mg/1 (USU, 1975, part four).
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Fletcher et al. (in press) have reviewed the processes contributing to or con-
trolling erosion in arid areas of the western U.S. along with the potential
effect that the erosional process has on nitrogen fertility of soils in these
areas.
Rural and Agricultural Sources
Sixty-four percent of the land in the U.S. is used for agriculture and
silviculture. The major pollutant of water in the U.S. is sediment and it has
been estimated that 50 percent or more of the sediment deposited in streams and
lakes of the U.S. is contributed by cropland. This amounts to 1.8 billion
metric tons of sediment annually. Local values of sediment loading vary widely
as to rainfall and rainfall intensity, type of crop, soil characteristics,
topography, type of tillage and conservation practices (EPA, 1973). Bowen
(1972) points out the pressing need to address water pollution problems assoc-
iated with runoff and to develop technology for their control. He points out
that contrary to the expected dilution effect expected during periods of high
flow associated with rainfall, that pollution is often worse during high flows.
This suggests a large contribution of pollution due to runoff from land.
A study conducted in eastern South Dakota (Dornbush et al., 1974) measured
annual soil losses from agricultural land ranging from < 10 to 1000 Ib/acre/yr
(< 11 to 1120 kg/ha/yr). Runoff due to rainfall accounted for 93.7 percent of
the sediment losses. Most of the sediment loss was from cultivated fields.
The bulk of soil losses occurred during short duration, high intensity rain
storms. Feedlot runoff waters have been found to contain from 1,000 to 13,400
mg/1 suspended solids as well as high levels of other pollutants (Middlebrooks,
1974). Filip and Middlebrooks (1976) observed suspended solids concentrations
of approximately 20,000 mg/1 in a study to evaluate the eutrophication potential
of cattle feedlot runoff. In describing the nonpoint rural sources of pollution
in Illinois, Lin (1972) identified suspended solids loading from feedlots as a
problem. In her work in the South River Basin in Virginia, Southerland (1974)
observed a suspended solids contribution ranging from 3.35 to 29.5 Ib/acre/day
(3.76 to 33.1 kg/ha/day) during a storm event. She estimated that agriculture,
forests, and urban runoff contributed 99.99 percent of the suspended solids
during periods of storm flows.
Literature published prior to 1969 dealing with dissolved and suspended
solids contributions as well as other pollution problems of irrigation return
flows has been reviewed by the USU Foundation (1969). Law and Skogerboe (1972),
Blackman et al. (1973), and Branson et al. (1975) have reviewed the effect of
irrigation usage of water on dissolved solids content of water. Irrigation
water often dissolves mineral salts and organic matter as its flows over and
through soils and adds these materials to the stream as it returns as tailwater
(runoff) or as groundwater. Oster and Rhoades (1975) have modeled the gain
in salt burden of irrigation drainage water due to mineral dissolution by
waters from eight rivers used for irrigation in the western U.S. Hagius et al.
(in press) observed that irrigation return flows can be inhibitory to algal
growth under bioassay conditions.
The Sevier River in central Utah undergoes seven complete stream diversions
for irrigation along its 200 mile course, and in the process increases in salin-
ity 20 fold (Law and Skogerboe, 1972). It has been estimated that 15,809 tons/
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day (14,372 metric tons/day) or 30.5 percent of the total salt load of the Colo-
rado River is due to irrigation (USU, 1975, part one). Sorensen et al. (1976)
have estimated that from zero to more than 35 percent of the salt loading in
various subbasins of the Bear River Basin, Idaho-Utah-Wyoming is due to irriga-
tion. Also irrigation can serve to concentrate salinity by removing diluting
water from the stream by consumptive use (e.g. evapotranspiration).
King and Hanks (1975) conducted field and laboratory research to determine
the effects of irrigation management and fertilizer use upon the .quality and
quantity of irrigation return flow. The total seasonal discharge of salts from
the tile drainage system was directly related to the quantity of water discharged,
because the solute concentration of the groundwater was essentially constant
over time. Under such conditions, reduction of salt content of return flow is
accomplished by reduced drain discharge. Field studies and computer models
showed that salts may be stored in the zone above the water table over periods
of several years without adversely affecting crop yields on soils with high
"buffering" capacity. However, over the long term, salt balance must be ob-
tained. Appreciable amounts of nitrate moved into drainage water at depths of
at least 106 cm when commercial fertilizer and dairy manure were applied to the
ground surface. Submergence of tile drains in the field reduced nitrate concen-
trations in the effluent, especially under heavy manure applications.
Urban Runoff and Stormwater Sources
Runoff waters from urban and suburban areas have been observed to contain
significant amounts of pollutants. Bryan (1971) found that an urban drainage
basin in North Carolina produced runoff that contained an annual load of total
organic matter in excess of the load from the sewage treatment plant for the
same area. This area produced 43.6 Ib/acre/day (49.0 kg/ha/day) of total
solids. Sartor et al. (1974) calculated that for a hypothetical city of
100,000 persons and 14,000 acres (5,666 ha) with 400 curb miles (644 km) that
street runoff following a one-hour storm would yield 560,000 pounds (254,500
kg) of settleable plus suspended solids/hour. He found that the major con-
stituent of street surface contaminants was inorganic, mineral material similar
to common sand and silt. Another study (Whipple et al., 1974) estimated that
suspended solids concentration doubled (from 36 mg/1 to 74 mg/1) due to runoff
from an urban area in New Jersey.
Sources from Forestry Practices
Undisturbed forests are virtually free of erosion, but poorly managed
lumbering or forest fires can lead to significant contributions of suspended
sediments from forests (EPA, 1973). Deforestation and herbicide treatment of
a northern hardwood forest ecosystem (Likens et al., 1970) caused a four fold
increase in particulate matter output over that of undisturbed forest. In-
organic materials in the particulates increased from a normal 50 percent to 76
percent. Negligible increases in turbidity were associated with this increase
in particulate matter.
Debyle and Packer (1972) working in a Larch-Douglas Fir forest in northern
Idaho on plots which had been clearcut and the logging debris broadcast burned,
observed a maximum soil erosion of 168 Ib/acre/year (189 kg/ha/year). In the
third year of study after logging and burning of slash, erosion had been
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reduced to 15 Ib/acre/year (17 kg/ha/year). In four years, vegetal recovery
returned conditions to near prelogging status. In one steep denuded area rain-
fall exceeding two inches (5.1 cm) in 10 hours (0.4 inches [1.0 cm]/hour during
one two-hour period) produced "much'5 (no numbers given) of the total of
1,507 pounds (685 kg) of erosion occurring on that plot in the first year after
treatment.
Working in the same forest ecosystem in northern Idaho, Synder et al. (1975)
found increases in suspended solids in streams on clearcut and burned plots of
from 4 to 14 times higher than undisturbed areas. Buffer strips of unlogged
areas between the logged and burned area and the stream effectively reduced
sediment loading to the streams.
Likens et al. (1970) found a significant increase (from 13.9 to as high as
97 metric tons/km2) in dissolved solids being exported from the disturbed forest
ecosystem at Hubbard Brook. High rates of nitrification of nitrogen from decay-
ing organic matter resulted in increased availability of hydrogen ions which
replaced cations on the various exchange sites on the soil making them suscepti-
ble to leaching. Since this high rate of salt loss was the result of mining the
nutrient capital of the ecosystem (nitrification) it could not be expected to
continue indefinitely.
Snyder et al. (1975) found significant increases in electrical conductivity
and in most major ions in streams draining clearcut and burned plots in northern
Idaho. Here, high runoff yielded low concentrations and low runoff yielded high
concentrations of dissolved solids.
Construction and Mining Sources
Construction and mining activities occupy 0.6 percent of the land area of
the U.S. Construction activities are responsible for 99.5 percent of the sedi-
ment eroded from construction sites (EPA, 1973). Glancv (1973) found that
annual sediment yields ranged from 620 to 7,600 tons/mi2 (218 to 2,670 metric
tons/km2) from developed areas whereas undeveloped areas yielded 60 to 930
tons/mi2 (21 to 326 metric tons/km2) in the Lake Tahoe-Incline Village area,
Nevada. Goldman (1974) has shown that bacteria associated with these sediments
can be important in cycling nutrients which can lead to eutrophication. Con-
struction activities in a development area in Florida disturbed a marsh and
lake, and increased suspended solids in water draining from the area (Anderson
and Ross, 1975). Here, a 0.28 inch (0.71 cm), 15 minute storm produced 0.178
Ib/acre (0.20 kg/ha) of suspended solids. A recent report by the Utah Water
Research Laboratory (UWRL, 1976) reviews erosion problems associated with high-
way construction in the U.S. Methods in use for erosion control during highway
construction are reviewed and evaluated, and research needs are identified in
the UWRL report.
Dissolved mineral pollutants are of primary importance to the mining in-
dustry. Acid mine drainage contributes large amounts of toxic materials to
surface waters that have a devastating effect on a local basis. Neutralized
acid mine drainage can also be a serious local source of salinity (EPA, 1973).
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Dredging and Disposal Sources
In 1972 dredging transferred over 380 million cubic yards of dredge spoils
from freshwater and marine sediments (Slotta and Williamson, 1974). A great
deal of concern over the effects of the suspended and relocated sediments has
been raised, and considerable research has been directed toward assessing poten-
tial hazards and developing criteria for reducing the impacts of dredging and
disposal operations (Hansen, 1971; Fulk et al., 1975; Lee et al, 1975; Blom et
al., 1976; Chen et al., 1976).
Municipal and Industrial Wastewater Sources
Contributions of dissolved and suspended solids from municipal and indus-
trial sources are of concern primarily because of their local impact and composi-
tion. Southerland (1974) found that suspended solids contributions from waste-
water effluents in the upper South River Basin in Virginia were always over-
shadowed by loads from runoff sources. However, suspended solids from munici-
pal and industrial effluents such as those from the sugar industry (EPA, 1971),
paper manufacture (EPA, 1972), and fish hatcheries (Liao, 1970) are often com-
posed of oxidizable organic matter which can, through biodegradation, reduce the
oxygen content of receiving water making it unfit for desirable aquatic life.
A large paper manufacturing plant discharging 29 million gal/day (111,000 m3/day)
of treated wastewater discharged approximately 5,000 pounds (2,300 kg) of sus-
pended solids per day (EPA, 1972). Cane sugar manufacture at one plant in
Hawaii produced 1,850 pounds (841 kg) of suspended solids for each ton (0.91
metric ton) of sugar produced (EPA, 1971).
Dissolved solids from municipal and industrial effluents are of concern
primarily due to their special, often toxic, composition. Biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) due to dissolved organic materials is the problem of most wide-
spread concern. Heavy metals and other dissolved toxic materials also draw
special attention to municipal and industrial wastes (McGauhey and Middlebrooks,
1972a; 1972b). Salt loading from municipal and industrial sources is usually
not of great importance in a river basin. Municipal and industrial salinity
loading in the Colorado River Basin contribute less than 1.7 percent of the
total daily salt load (USU, 1975, part one). Consumptive use by municipalities
and industries can serve to concentrate salt loads (Blackman, 1973).
COMPOSITION OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS
Inorganic dissolved solids is considered the combination of dissolved salts
found in natural water. A summation of the concentrations of the major ions
found in water can be and sometimes is used to approximate total dissolved
solids (TDS) (APHA, 1975). These major ions are as follows: Sodium (Na+),
potassium (K+) , calcium (Ca"1"'"), magnesium (Mg++), carbonate ((£3) , bicarbonate
(H(X>3), sulfate (SOp, and chloride (Cl~). The relative abundance of these ions
in natural water and the way in which they are contributed varies widely (Hem,
1970; Likens et al., 1970; Snyder et al., 1975).
Organic matter dissolved in water varies greatly as to composition and con-
centration. Probably of greatest importance on a large scale is the macro-
molecular humic and fulvic acids and similar compounds which persist in the
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environment as degradation products of plant materials. These compounds can
serve as chelating or complexing agents for metals and nutrients, and have been
shown to be effective in solublizing chlorinated hydrocarbons (Wershaw et al.,
1969; Blom et al., 1976). Dissolved organic compounds which exert a BOD are of
serious local importance to aquatic life. Currently, great effort is being
made to remove these compounds from wastewater effluents. However, urban run-
off often goes untreated even though it is a significant source of oxygen de-
manding organic matter (Whipple et al., 1974). Low molecular weight organic
compounds are in certain instances very important. V. D. Adams et al. (1975)
have found high concentrations of low molecular weight dissolved organic com-
pounds (i.e., acetaldehyde, methanol, ethanol, propanol, acetone, and 2-propanol)
in a eutrophic reservoir in northern Utah. Possible sources of these compounds
include algal by-products and algal decomposition products.
TYPES OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS
Eroded soils are the most important type of suspended solids on a large
scale. Sand, silt, and clay are dislodged by rainfall and overland flow and
carried into streams and lakes from rural and agricultural areas, forests, and
urban areas (Likens et al., 1970; Bryan, 1971; Lin, 1972; Clancy, 1973; Sartor
et al., 1974). Sediment resuspended in the course of the stream (bed load) is
also an important type of suspended solids but will not be addressed in this
review. A review of bed load effects is being currently prepared for EPA,
Region X, by the University of Washington.
Organic suspended particulates compose an important part of suspended
solids in most natural waters. Natural detrital material can be dislodged from
the soil surface and enter a stream or lake. Likens et al. (1970) reported that
50 percent of the suspended solids being exported from the undisturbed area at
Hubbard Brook were organic in nature. Often the less dense organic fraction of
soil will be preferentially removed in runoff causing the organic fractions of
the suspended solids to actually be enriched (Debyle and Packer, 1972). This
organic fraction is often higher in nutrients than the inorganic fraction of
the soil (Fletcher et al., in press). The suspended solids washed from feedlots
are primarily organic material (Miner et al., 1966). Much of the suspended
matter in urban runoff is organic (Bryan, 1971). The organic nature of suspend-
ed solids in municipal and industrial effluents has been discussed above.
-------
SECTION III
PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS
EFFECTS ON IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY
A great amount of research dealing with the effects of irrigation water
salinity on soils and crops has been accomplished. It is beyond the scope of
this report to deal extensively even with the more recent literature pertaining
to the subject, but some description of the problems and management solutions
is included.
The Committee on Water Quality Criteria (1973) have prepared a good review
of water quality considerations for irrigation including crop tolerance to
salinity and effects on soils. Methods for dealing with saline and alkaline
soils (Richards, 1954) have been reviewed. Problems related to usage of high
dissolved solids water in irrigation are usually found in arid and semi-arid
areas such as the western U.S. and the middle east. Repeated irrigation with
high salinity water in these areas increases the concentration of soluble salts
in the soil due to large portions of the applied water being removed by evapora-
tion, leaving the salts behind. High concentrations of salts in the soil solu-
tion results in high osmotic pressures which make it difficult for plants to
extract water. Soil salinity is usually measured as electrical conductivity of
a saturation extract. Salinity levels that may produce yield-limiting soil
salinity have been calculated (Branson et al., 1975) and are shown in Table 1.
These values are applicable to areas with a climate similar to southern Calif-
ornia where soil-solution salinity levels in the active part of the rootzone
are commonly threefold more than in the irrigation water due to evapotranspira-
tion.
High ratios of sodium to calcium and magnesium in irrigation water can
lead to excessive exchangeable sodium percentages in the soil. Sodium-sensitive
plants can be limited in production in even slightly affected soils. Soil
structure can be destroyed by excessive exchangeable sodium leading to perme-
ability and aeration problems (Branson et al., 1975). Accumulated salts in the
soil solution of soils receiving high dissolved solids irrigation water can be
removed by leaching the soil with an excess of irrigation water above that re-
quired for evapotranspiration and plant growth. Soil salinity can be leached by
rainfall in areas such as India where monsoon rains occur (Lai and Singh, 1973).
Drainage waters containing surplus salts leached from irrigated soils may have
a several fold increase in salt concentration over that of the irrigation water
(Branson et al., 1975).
Bernstein and Francois (1973) have found that crop yield response for
alfalfa (Medicago sativa L. cv. Sonora) appears to be related to the mean
10
-------
TABLE 1.
SOIL SALINITY LEVELS (ECe) ASSOCIATED WITH VARIOUS YIELD DECREMENTS (%) AND THE CALCU-
LATED CORRESPONDING IRRtGATION WATER ELE.CTRI.CAL CONDUCTIVITIES (EC ).*
Yield decrements
Crop
Barlev (Hordeum vulgare)
Sugarbeets (Beta vulgarian
Cotton (GossVDium hirautumt
SaCflower (Carthamus tinctorius)
Wheat ITriticum aestivum
(T. vutfeare)!
Sorghum (Sorghum vulga re)
Soybean (Gbcine max)
Sesbania (Seabania eultau is
macrocarpa)!
Rice (Paddy) (Orvia saliva!
Corn (Zea mavsl
Broadbean (Vicia fabal
Flax (Linum usitatlssimum)
.Beans (Field) (Phaseolus
»ulgarl8)
Beets (Beta vulgarial
Spinach (Spinacia oleracea)
Tomato (Lvcooersicon eaculealmnl
Broccoli (Braasica oleracea)
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea)
Potato (Solanum tuberosum)
Sweet Corn (Zea mava)
Sweet Potato (Inomoea batatas)
Lettuce (Lactuca saliva I
Bell Pepuer (Capsicum frutearene)
Onion (Allium cepat
Carrot (Daucua carota)
Beans (Phaseolua vulgarlal
Cantaloupe (Cucumis melol
Watermelon (Cltrullus lanatus)
Tall Wheat Grass (Agrf»pyT*nn
etonzatumi
Crested Wh. Grass (Agropvron
cristatum)
Tall Fescue (Festuca arundinacea)
Barley (hay) (Hordeum vulgare)
Perennial Rye (Lolium pereooe)
Harding Grass (Phalarla tuberosa
steaoptera)
Birdsfoot Trefoil (Lotus corni-
culatus)
Beardless Wild Rye (Elvmna
iritlcoides)
Alfalfa (Medicaeo saliva)
Orchard Grass (Daclvlls glomerata)
Meadow Foxtail (Alopecurus
pratenaia>
Clover (Trifolium repens)
C
EC/
8
6.7t
6.7
5.3
4.7
4
3.7
2.7
3.3
3.3
2.3
2
1
5.3
3.7
2.7
2.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.3
1.3
1.3
1
1
2.3
2
8.7
7.3
4
4.7
5.3
5.3
5.3
4
2.7
2
1.7
1.3
1.3
be
EC
5.3
4.5
4.5
3.5
3. 1
2.7
2.5
1.8
22
2.2
1.5.
0.7
3.5
2.5
1.8
1.8
1. 1
1. 1
l.l
1. 1
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.7
0.7
1.5
1.3
5.8
4.9
2.7
3. I
3.5
3.5
3.5
2.7
1. 8
1.3
1. 1
U. 9
0. 9
io\
£Ce
12
10
10
8
7
6
5. 5
4
5
5
3.5
3
1. 5
8
5.5
4
4
2.5
2. 5
2. 5
2. 5
2
2
2
1.5
1.5
No Data
13
11
6
8
8
8
6
4
3
2.5
2
2
ECv»
25?,
ECe
Field Crops
8 16
6.7 13
6.7 12
5.3 11
4.7 10
4 9
3.7 7
2. 7 5. 5
3.3 6
3.3 6
2.3 4.5
2 4.5
1 2
Vegetable Crops
5.3
3.7
2.7
2.7
.7
.7
.7
.3
.3
.3
10
7
f>. 5
4
4
4
3.5
3
3
3. 5
2
2. 3 No Data
No Data
Forage Crops
7.3
4
4.7
5.3
5.3
5.3
4
2.7
2
1.7
1.3
1.3
15
11
10. 5
11
ID
1U
8
7
5
4.5
3.5
2 5
EC
10.7
8.7
8
7.3
6.7
6
4.7
3.7
4
4
3
3
1.3
6. 7
4,7
4.3
4
2. 7
2.7
2.7
2.3
2
2
2.3
1.7
1.3
10.7
10
7.3
7
7.3
6.7
6.7
5.3
4.7
3.3
3
2.3
50- L
EC
18
16
16
14
14
12
9
9
7
6. 5
6.5
3. 5
12
8
8
8
6
6
5
4
4
3.5
No Da la
No Data
18
18
18
14. 5
13. 5
13
13
10
11
8
8
6. S
EC
12
10.7
10.7
8
9.3
8
6
4.7
4 7
43
4.3
2.3
8
5.3
5.3
5.3
4.7
4
4
4
3.3
3.3
2.7
2.7
2.3
12
\2
12
9. 7
8.7
8.7
6. 7
7.3
5.3
5.3
4.3
-------
TABLE 1. Continued.
Yield decrements
0% 10ft
Crop
Date Palm ( Phoen U dac ty 1 if e ra )
Fie (Ficus carica)
Olive (Olea europaea)
Pomegranate (Punica granatum)
Grape (Thompson) (Vitis venifera)
Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi}
Orange (Citrus sinensis)
Lemon ( Citrus limonl
Apple [Malus pumlla (Pvrus malus)]
Pear (Pyrus com munis)
Almond (Prunus amygdalus)
Apricot (Prunus armeniaca)
Peach (Prunus persica)
Prune (Prunus domestica)
Walnut (Juglans regia)
Blackberry (Rubus sp. )
Bovsenberrv (Rubus ursinus)
Raspberry (Rubus sp. )
Avocado (Rubus idaeus)
Strawberry (Fragaria sp. )
EC,'
5.3
2.7-4.0
2.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.0-1.7
1.3
1.0
EC.' ECe
3.5 8
1.8-2.7 4.6
1. 8 4
1. 1 2. 5
1.1 2.5
1. 1 2. 5
1. 1 2. 5
0.7-1.1 1.5-2.5
0.9 2
0.7 1.5
ECW ECe
Fruit Crops
5.3
2.7-4.0
2.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.0-1.7
1.3
1.0
25% 50%
ECw ECe
16'
9!
8s
5!
5!
56
5!
4!
4*
3*
ECw
10s
6!
5.3'
3.3s
3.3!
3.3!
3.36
2.7!
2.78
2.0«
" From Univ. of Calif. Committee of Consultants report to California State Water Resources Control Board. March 1974, baaed on USDA-Ag. Inf. Bull. 283 and personal communication
with Dr. Leon Bernstein. U.S. Salinity Laboratory, Riverside, Calif.
t ECe is electrical conductivity of saturation extract in millimhos per centimeter (mmho/cm): ECW is electrical conductivity of irrigation water (in mmho/cm),
NOTE: Conversion from ECe to ECW assumes a threefold concentration of salinity in soil solution (ECsw) in the more active part of the root zone due to evapotranspiration. ECW
x 3 = ECsw; ECsw-f 2 - ECfi.
i Tolerance during germination (beets) or early seedling stage (wheat, barley) is limited to ECe about 4 mmho/crn.
S Calculated values, assuming 5O>c decrease in yield results from doubling of salinity values for 10% yield decrement.
-------
salinity of the soil water, and that this mean salinity is influenced more by
the salinity of the irrigation water than by the salinity of the drainage water.
Alfalfa and presumably other plants are affected relatively little when the
plants concentrate the soil solution to nearly the limits of tolerance. This
indicates that leaching requirements may be reduced from 25 percent to 40 per-
cent of the previously recommended levels depending on salt tolerance of in-
dividual species. This would reduce irrigation drainage volume making it more
easily treated or diverted from a receiving water. Since the allocation of
water between irrigation and leaching can have important bearing on policy
decisions in water limited areas, methodologies of reducing the leaching water
requirement are important (McFarland, 1975).
EFFECTS OF SALINITY ON THE QUALITY OF
DRINKING WATER FOR ANIMALS
The effects of high salinity in livestock drinking water is well reviewed
in Water Quality Criteria, 1972 (CWQC, 1973). Effects on animals ranges from
mild diarrhea and increased or decreased water consumption in some animals at
relatively low concentrations of salt (e.g. 4,000 mg/1 total salts) to severe
anorexia, anhydremia, and collapse at high concentrations (e.g. 20,000 mg/1
NaCl). Table 2 presents a guide to the use of saline waters for livestock and
poultry (CWQC, 1973). Effects of salinity in the drinking water of domestic
animals would be expected to be similar for wild animals of similar physiology.
Recent work by A. W. Adams et al. (1975) showed that 4,000 ppm sulfate
as Na2S04 or MgS04 significantly depressed feed consumption and hen-day produc-
tion of laying hens. They also found that Na2S04 significantly increased water
consumption and fecal moisture content, while MgSOA decreased water consumption.
Mortality data suggested that lethal levels of Na2S04 and MgS04 for laying hens
were between 16,000 and 20,000 ppm.
Digesti and Weeth (1976) found increased methemaglobin and sulfhemaglobin
in beef heifers given water containing 1,250 and 2,500 mg/1 sulfate (as Na2S04).
Test animals would discriminate against 21 mM (^ 2000 mg/1) sulfate and reject
34.5 mM (^ 3300 mg/1) sulfate. Based on these data and the finding that no ad-
verse effects were noted at 2,500 mg sulfate/1 Digesti and Weeth (1976) placed
the "safe" concentration for sulfate in drinking water for cattle at 2,500
mg/1. They also found that cattle would discriminate against 45.6 m chloride
and reject 115.6 m chloride.
EFFECTS ON PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY
The effects of high dissolved solids in public water supplies are primarily
physiological, aesthetic (taste), and economic. High levels of mineralization
in drinking water may have a laxative effect especially on transients (CWQC,
1973).
The "California Mineral Taste Study" conducted primarily by W. H. Bruvold
has provided a functional relation between mineral content of drinking water and
consumer attitude toward taste. In accomplishing this, the "California Mineral
Taste Study" may be unique in assessing aesthetic effects of water quality.
13
-------
TABLE 2. GUIDE TO THE USE OF SALINE WATERS FOR LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY (CWQC,
1973).
Total Soluble
Salts Content
of Waters
(mg/1)
Comment
Less than 1,000
1,000-2,999
3,000-4,999
5,000-6,999
7,000-10,000
Over 10,000
Relatively low level of salinity.
of livestock and poultry.
Excellent for all classes
Very satisfactory for all classes of livestock and poultry.
May cause temporary and mild diarrhea in livestock not
accustomed to them or watery droppings in poultry.
Satisfactory for livestock, but may cause temporary diarrhea
or be refused at first by animals not accustomed to them.
Poor waters for poultry, often causing water feces, increased
mortality, and decreased growth, especially in turkeys.
Can be used with reasonable safety for dairy and beef cattle,
for sheep, swine, and horses. Avoid use for pregnant or
lactating animals. Not acceptable for poultry.
Unfit for poultry and probably for swine. Considerable risk
in using for pregnant or lactating cows, horses, or sheep,
or for the young of these species. In general, use should
be avoided although older ruminants, horses, poultry, and
swine may subsist on them under certain conditions.
Risks with these highly saline waters are so great that they
cannot be recommended for use under any conditions.
Using methods of psychometric scaling, taste panel studies rated general taste
quality of natural waters. Waters were carefully selected which had no detect-
able odor, nor history of odor due to anything but common minerals. The water
samples, with the exception of one, had not been chlorinated. The results show
an inverse linear relationship between general taste quality and mineral content.
It was also found that persons may accept water of less than neutral quality.
Potability (palatability) grades for various levels of TDS were suggested as
follows: Excellent, < 300 mg/1; Good, 301-600 mg/1; Fair, 601-900 mg/1; Poor,
901-1100 mg/1; unacceptable, > 1101 mg/1 (Bruvold et al., 1967; Bruvold and
Ongerth, 1969). The study casts doubt on the usefulness of threshold testing of
aesthetics for setting standards by finding that clearly detectable mineral taste
may be unacceptable for daily drinking.
A public survey of six California communities using water ranging from 50 to
1401 mg TD3/1 confirmed that attitude scale scores became more negative as TDS
increases. The least offensive taste was found in sulfate and bicarbonate solu-
tions while chloride and carbonate solutions have the most offensive taste.
Synergistic or inhibiting effects of ions were not observed. Each ion appeared
14
-------
to make a straightforward contribution to the ratings according to its concen-
tration. Dissolved oxygen variations did not seem to have a significant effect
on mineral taste. Chlorine additions at 0.8 mg/1 could be detected by a special
panel and did not remove mineral taste. Temperature did not have a profound
effect on taste either, even though cooler water was liked a little more. Con-
trary to common belief, consumers did not habituate or adjust to the mineral
taste with time. Distilled water was less liked than water with a low mineral
content. Beverages (coffee, tea, grape, and orange) made with mineralized
water showed the same taste effects as for the individual ions (804 and HCC>3 had
better taste than Cl" anc 0)3). Increasing salinity in natural water decreased
the palatability of these beverages (Bruvold, 1975).
Theoretically, any water can be processed into high quality water--for a
price. Desalination appears to be as much as 50 or more times the cost of
typical water treatment in existing water treatment plants including softening
(Hartung and Tuepker, 1969).
Lawrence (1975) has developed estimating functions for the indirect costs
imposed by high TDS on urban water use including industrial water supply. He
listed the principal effects of high TDS as: (1) increased potentials for
corrosion of vulnerable ferrous metals, (2) dezincification of vulnerable copper
alloys and (3) industrial imposition (maintenance and treatment costs) to cool-
ing waters and critical process waters. Low levels of salinity are not un-
desirable since distilled water itself is corrosive generally.
Water heater life is shortened about one year for every 200 mg/1 additional
TDS. Water hardness causes wear and tear on laundered fabrics, increased con-
sumption of soaps, detergents, cleaners, chelating agents or combinations of
these. Estimated total impact cost curves (penalty cost) were developed for
the Los Angeles River planning area for 1974. These curves show the penalty
cost estimate to range between about $25/acre-ft (2.0
-------
The dissolved solids characteristics of water that has been used for in-
dustrial water supplies varies greatly according to the requirements of in-
dividual industries and process. Concentrations of dissolved solids in water
used in industry are reported to range from 150 to 35,000 mg/1 (CWQC, 1973).
Boiler feed, cooling tower makeup, and industrial process waters usually require
specific treatments such as softening, dealkalizing, demineralization, or amelio-
rative additives in order to meet specific needs. Therefore, individual indus-
tries incur different costs from a given quality water. In metropolitan San
Diego, California, the average industrial costs for water treatment were slightly
over $5/acre-ft (0.405
-------
SECTION IV
PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS
RESERVOIR FILLING
The loss of reservoir capacity through the accumulation of sediment is a
problem with serious economic consequences. A bibliographical review of the
subject for the period 1964 to December 1975 which contains 105 abstracts has
been compiled by R. J. Brown (1975) of the National Technical Information
Service. It is beyond the scope of this review to discuss this literature in
detail.
Generally, the factors contributing to the rate of sedimentation are erosion,
sediment delivery rates, trap efficiency of the reservoir, and bulk density of
the sediment (Paulet et al., 1972). They found that reservoir sedimentation is
significantly associated with the characteristics of the contributing watershed,
particularly the soils and geomorphology. Features of reservoir sedimentation
can be estimated from stream characteristics and textural properties of the
soil. Sedimentation rates were greater with finer texture, more uniform parti-
cle size, and lesser clay content in the soil. Similarly, greater sedimenta-
tion rates per unit of drainage area occurred with smaller drainage areas and
shorter main stream length, lower order of the main stream, and smaller stream
length ratio (i.e. the ratio of the mean length of the stream segment of the
order of the stream on which the reservoir is located to the mean length of the
segments of the next lower order). Lund et al. (1972) found that sedimentation
rate predictions using the model of Paulet et al. (1972) could not be improved
by including sediment clay mineralogical parameters.
TOXIC SUBSTANCE TRANSPORT
Halogenated Organics
A great deal of research has been and is being conducted on the release to
the environment and ultimate fate of halogenated organic compounds. Several of
these types of compounds have been associated with ecological damage and are
deleterious to human health. Selected western U.S. streams (Brown and Nishioka,
1967; Manigold and Schulze, 1969) were surveyed for pesticides (i.e., aldrin,
ODD, DDE, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide) and herbicides
(i.e., 2,4-D; 2,4,5-T; silvex). Both classes of compounds were found but not
at all sampling stations. Herbicides were the most infrequently encountered
(possibly due to degradation). DDT and its metabolites were the most commonly
found. The highest concentrations of insecticide were found in samples having
the highest sediment load.
17
-------
Pfister et al. (1969) used liquid-liquid extraction methods on Lake Erie
water and found no detectable chlorinated pesticides in the water. However, they
found lindane associated with the small (size) inorganic fraction, and aldrin
and endrin associated with the less dense fraction (mostly organics, detritus,
and microorganisms) of the microparticulates in the water. They pointed out
that not including particulates in water analysis is inadequate for pesticides.
Wershaw et al. (1969) found that DDT was 20 times more soluble in 0.5 per-
cent sodium-humate than in water alone, and that humic acid strongly sorbs
2,4,5-T from solution. DDT was found to be concentrated 15,800 times in color-
ing colloidal material by Poirrier et al. (1972). This coloring colloidal mater-
ial was described as allochthonous polymeric hydroxy carboxylic acids complexed
with varying quantities of iron which were less than 10 pm in size. These
colloids may stay in suspension for long periods of time, but may precipitate
with changes in environment. It is possible that they may be transported to
estuaries where contact with seawater may cause them to precipitate and adsorb
to plants and/or be used by estuarine organisms as food.
The intimate association of clay and organic matter (organoclay complexes)
can modify clay adsorption properties. Kahn (1974) found that 2,4-D adsorption
by a fulvic acid-montroorillonite complex was smaller than previously reported
values for humic acid, but was much higher than for montmorillonite alone. Low
heats of adsorption by these complexes are on the order of van der Waals-type
adsorption. Pierce et al. (1974) described the adsorption of DDT to clay as
electrostatic attraction between the net negative charge on clay surfaces and
hydrogen atoms on the aromatic rings of the DDT. Adsorption of DDT to humic
acid has been attributed to hydrophobic bonding to portions of the humic polymer.
Pierce et al. (1974), noting the increased adsorption capacity of humic matter,
pointed out the need for knowledge of the transport and distribution of humic
substances as related to the transport and distribution of chlorinated hydro-
carbons in the environment.
Rizwanul et al. (1974) found that the higher the chlorine content of a
PCB (polychlorinated biphenyl) the greater its solubility in water. He also
found that sand and silica gel adsorbs very little PCB 1254, while kaolinite
clay, montmorillonite clay, illite clay, and woodburn soil (Corvallis, Oregon)
adsorbed increasingly more, respectively. The organic content of the soil was
suspected as being the reason for higher adsorption.
A linear relationship has been found to exist between the concentration
of chlorinated hydrocarbons and total organic carbon (as well as humic and fulvic
acid material) in marine sediments (Choi and Chen, 1976). This study also found
organoclay complexes to be important in adsorption of chlorined hydrocarbons.
Chlorinated paraffins (suggested substitutes for PCB in many applications) have
been tested for uptake by juvenile Atlantic salmon by Zitko (1974). He found
that the juvenile salmon accumulated a relatively large amount of PCB (144 mg/g/
144 hours) but little if any chlorinated paraffins from suspended solids. Feed-
ing of the chlorinated paraffins to the fish did not result in accumulation, but
some indications of toxicity were found.
Dredging and dredge spoil disposal operations have been suspected of free-
ing toxic chlorinated hydrocarbons from contaminated sediments. Slotta and
18
-------
Williamson (1974) point out that the cause-effect relationship between dredging
and toxic organic matter release is not well documented. Transfer of PCB and
pesticide material to the water column from resuspended sediments collected near
Chicago, IL; Green Bay, WI; Fall River, MA; Houston, XX; and Memphis, TN; was
found to be negligible (Fulk et al., 1975). Chlorinated hydrocarbon concentra-
tions associated with the suspended solids reached ''background*' levels after
settling periods of 5 to 24 hours. The oil and grease content of the water was
most important in ''describing*' the concentration of pesticides remaining in
solution. Chen et al. (1976) assayed the release of chlorinated hydrocarbons
from settled dredge spoil under reducing conditions and were unable to detect
any after 3 months incubation. Here again the concentration of chlorinated
hydrocarbons was closely correlated with macromolecular organic compounds in
the sediments and to particles of 8 pro or smaller. Lee et al. (1975) have re-
fined methods used for evaluating the hazard of toxic substance which may be
released from sediments scheduled for dredging.
Toxic halogenated organic compounds may enter surface waters already ad-
sorbed to soil or organic material. Lin (1972) suggested that agricultural
erosion may be an important source for pesticides in water. The very low con-
centrations of pesticides found in agricultural runoff in eastern South Dakota
by Dornbush et al. (1974) suggest that the contribution from agriculture may be
quite variable and site specific. The processes involved in transport and dis-
tribution of toxic substances through or over a watershed have been mathemati-
cally modeled by Frere (1975). Such modeling efforts help understanding of the
processes affecting loss of pesticides (or other toxics) from land to which they
are applied.
Metals
Heavy metals may be adsorbed by, coprecipitated with, or complexed by sus-
pended solids. Thus, heavy metals may be translocated or deposited with the
sediment load of a natural waterway. Changes in biological, electrochemical,
or physiochemical conditions in sediments such as those experienced during
dredging and disposal operations could conceivably cause the release of toxic
metals to the water. Slotta and Williamson (1974) pointed out that heavy metals
may not be released during dredging operations due to adsorption on or copreci-
pitation with iron (III) oxides and iron (II) sulfides which are exposed during
dredging. Blom et al. (1976) investigating the effect of sediment organic
matter on the migration of chemical constituents during disposal of dredged
material, found that significant amounts of heavy metals were released, but that
concentrations remained below water quality criteria. They also found that
oxygenation of the dredged material decreases metal release except for manganese
in seawater, and to a lesser extent cadmium in both sea and freshwater. There
was no evidence found that sediment or soluble carbon controls the release of
metals or nutrients even in the presence of ligands.
Chen et al. (1976) found that during dredge spoil disposal, concentrations
of silver, cadmium, and mercury were basically unchanged under all experimental
conditions. Concentrations of chromium, copper, and lead were found from 3 to
10 times over background seawater levels. Iron, manganese, and zinc were re-
leased in even larger quantities. They also found that the release of metals
from freshwater sediment in a seawater environment is somewhat larger than the
release from marine sediments, but since the concentrations (except for iron)
19
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were in the sub-ppb to ppb range this was not considered to be a significant
hazard. Extracted macromolecular organics such as humic and fulvic substances
were found to contain from 2 to 15 times higher concentrations of trace metals
than total sediment on a weight basis.
NUTRIENT TRANSPORT
Suspended solids often contain adsorbed or complexed plant nutrient com-
pounds which, if made available for biological uptake and use, can lead to
accelerated eutrophication of lakes and streams. Rural and agricultural runoff
waters and their associated eroded material often contain considerable quantities
of nutrients. Much of these nutrients may have been applied as fertilizer to the
land. Phosphorus especially is tightly bound to soil particles and removed as
sediment (Lin, 1972). With increasing trends in fertilizer application, good
soil conservation practices are needed to minimize this source of pollution.
Runoff water from animal feedlots contains particulate matter which is high in
nutrients (Miner, 1966; Middlebrooks, 1974). Laboratory and field investiga-
tions which characterize suspended sediments from varied hydrologic, soil, and
land use characteristics showed that agricultural activities in the dryland
wheat region of eastern Washington contributed large amounts of sediment and
dissolved nitrogen during heavy runoff periods. Urban activities provided
substantial amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus during the remaining months. In
excess of 90 percent of the orthophosphate exposed to the sediments was adsorbed
(Carlile et al., 1974).
Anderson and Ross (1975) monitored a suburban development site and observed
a significant increase in suspended solids and nutrients, especially phosphorus,
associated with construction activities. Nutrient losses have been associated
with increased erosion in clearcut forest areas in northern Idaho (Debyle and
Packer, 1972; Snyder et al., 1975). Nutrient and suspended sediment production
are greatly dependent on the patterns and magnitude of water drainage in the
forested areas draining to the Lake Tahoe area, and disturbances, such as de-
velopment construction activities, increase sediment production (McGauhey et al.,
1971; Brown et al., 1973; Skau and Brown, 1974). Goldman (1974) reported that
bacteria associated with particulate matter and nutrients eroded from the water-
shed into Lake Tahoe facilitate nutrient regeneration and may contribute to
eutrophication. Huang and Hwang (1973) have shown that from 0 to 38 percent
of the inorganic and from 63 to 89 percent of the organic phosphorus in sewage
is associated with the suspended and colloidal particulates.
Nutrients released from sediments resuspended during dredging operations
have given mixed results as to their algal growth stimulation ability. Larsen
et al. (1975) have shown that sediment release of phosphorus has a great impact
on the phosphorus budget of Shagawa Lake. Slotta and Williamson (1974) suggest
that the localized nature of dredging operations, large dispersion factors, and
the decrease in light penetration due to turbidity from the dredging, lower the
algal bloom potential. Blom et al. (1976) observed the release of ammonia and
low levels of orthophosphate from marine and freshwater dredged sediments. The
numerical product of sediment organic content and the sediment organic nitrogen
content was useful in predicting the release of ammonia nitrogen from dredged
material. The release of other nutrients or metals from sediments was not re-
lated to any measured sediment parameter.
20
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Chen et al. (1976) found that nitrogen and phosphorus were released in sub-
ppm, and silicate in 10-20 ppm concentrations from suspended dredged sediments.
Clay type sediments released nitrogenous compounds 2 to 10 times higher than
silty and sandy sediments. Ammonia and organic nitrogen was released from
settled spoil material under anaerobic conditions while nitrate and nitrite were
released under aerobic conditions at about the same concentrations (10 ppm-N).
Orthophosphate from settled sediments was released at concentrations between 0.1
to 0.8 ppm under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
Chemical analyses of certain systems have been interpreted to show that
clays and sediments are effective in adsorbing organic compounds (heterotrophic
substrates and vitamins) from solution. Button (1969) has shown that clays add-
ed to solutions of thiamine and glucose do not make these compounds unavailable
to microorganisms or remove them to a significant degree from solution. Thus,
it is not likely that suspended sediments influence significantly the populations
of suspended microorganisms by sorbing vitamins or organic substrates.
AESTHETIC EFFECTS OF TURBIDITY
Turbidity, the optical property given to water by suspended solids, affects
human perception visually. The clarity of natural water is seldom perceived
alone, but is a component of the total field of vision or landscape. Most per-
sons would probably agree that a clear mountain stream as part of an alpine
landscape is pleasing and that a turbid stream in the same setting would be
objectionable. However, the majestic appearance of the Green River in Utah
flowing over large rapids is greatly enhanced when the river is laden with silt.
Generally, however, high turbidities are considered to be unpleasing. For
example, Buch (1956) described turbid reservoirs as unpleasing in the aesthetic
sense, and implies that fewer anglers visited a reservoir for that reason.
Forshage and Carter (1973) described the turbidity caused by gravel dredging in
the Brazos River, Texas, as aesthetically unpleasing for several miles below the
dredging site.
Little research on the effects of turbidity on the aesthetics of natural
waters has been done. Methodologies for aesthetic measurement are still in the
developmental stages. Reports of aesthetic evaluations which include turbidity
in water quality assessment provide little if any data relating to the actual
user or public opinion. Leopold (1969) and Hamill (1974) have used scales of
"evaluation numbers" ranging from one to five, of water quality parameters
which include turbidity. Selected panels of persons which may or may not have
represented user group opinions are used in these studies. Hamill's (1974) work
used a method which derived the highest aesthetic value by summing evaluation
numbers from 31 environmental factors, 7 water quality factors (of which turbid-
ity was one), 10 physical factors, and 14 human use factors. Turbidities of
> 5,000 ppm were ranked "5" on the scale, the highest evaluation possible,
with turbidities of < 25 ppm ranked "1," or the lowest evaluation possible.
In identifying social goals, Gum (1974) listed water "clarity" as a sub-
group of "aesthetic opportunity." Measures of water clarity were defined as
suspended silt load (ppm) and BOD (ppm). Masteller et al. (1976) reviewed
current methodologies of assessing aesthetic values of streams and landscapes
21
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including those incorporating water quality factors. They state that aesthetic
measuring techniques are generally inadequate, often being too judgmental and
relying on panels of experts.
EFFECTS ON WATER SUPPLY
Modern water supply treatment plants are designed to remove suspended solids
within the range commonly experienced in the raw water supply. Of course, as the
suspended solids load that must be removed from the raw water increases, the
expense of removal increases and the water supply value decreases. This is re-
flected in the ranges of standards promulgated for raw water resources of domes-
tic water supply (McKee and Wolf, 1963). An excellent source of water supply,
requiring only disinfection as treatment, would have a turbidity range of from
0 to 10 units. A good source of water supply, requiring usual treatment such
as filtration and disinfection would have a turbidity range of 10 to 250 units.
Waters with turbidities over 250 units are poor sources of water supply requir-
ing special or auxiliary treatment and disinfection.
Robeck (1969) pointed out that waters of higher turbidity (30 JTU vs. 5 JTU)
may be more easily coagulated and clay is sometimes added to raw water to give
this effect. Surface area, charge density, and exchange capacity of clay min-
eral particles all have an effect on treatability. He also calls for protection
of high quality (low turbidity) waters and states that effort should be made to
minimize sudden changes in raw water turbidity since these affect coagulation,
chlorine demand, and filterability of the water. The maximum contaminant level
for turbidity in finished drinking water is one turbidity unit (EPA, 1975). An
excellent review of 49 papers dealing with human perception and evaluation
(aesthetics) of taste, odor, color, and turbidity in drinking water by Bruvold
(1975) is recommended as a thorough treatment of this subject. Also Bruvold
(1975) cites work in which the combined 1962 Public Health Service limits for
turbidity, color, and odor were judged acceptable by only 48 percent of the
respondents. He suggests that no more than 10 percent of the users should call
a public water unacceptable, indicating that these standards need to be recon-
sidered.
22
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SECTION V
EFFECTS OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS ON AQUATIC BIOTA
As will be seen in the review of the literature that follows, only occasion-
ally do dissolved or suspended solids have drastic acute effects on the biology
of most freshwater systems. Effects of these water quality parameters are
usually subtle, seldom serving to completely eliminate (or to extremely stimu-
late) biological systems in streams or lakes. In assessing the impacts of a
marine disposal outfall high in suspended and dissolved solids, Harville (1971)
points out that it is not feasible to use the simple presence or absence of
organisms as an indicator of pollution, since some resistant form of life will
always be present.
EFFECTS ON PHYTOPLANKTON, PERIPHYTON,
AND VASCULAR PLANTS
Dissolved solids consist of both organic and inorganic molecules and ions
that are in true solution in water. Reid (1961) defined the most conspicuous
materials which are found in varying quantities in natural waters to include
carbonate, chlorides, sulfates, phosphorus, and nitrates. These anions occur
in combination with such metallic cations as calcium, sodium, potassium, mag-
nesium and iron to form ionized salts. Many of these dissolved materials are
essential for growth and reproduction of aquatic organisms. The presence and
the success of an organism in the environment is controlled by the quality and
quantity of inorganic and organic nutrients; deficiency or excess or both may
be limiting. When these various salts are present in suitable proportion, the
different cations counteract each other, and the solution is physiologically
balanced. Warren (1971) reports that the harmful effects of increased salt
concentrations are caused, not by toxicity of its individual components, but
by high osmotic pressure. When establishing criteria for dissolved solids in
water, the importance of osmotic stress associated with increases in major
cation and anIon species must be considered (Provasoli, 1969).
Because unrooted aquatic plants depend entirely on dissolved solids for
nutrients, any change in the nutrient level of a lake is reflected in its biota
(Wetzel, 1973-1974). Algae as a group, however, are physiologically, as well
as morphologically, very heterogenous. This heterogeneity makes generalization
about their nutrition difficult. Therefore, when dealing with specific ecologi-
cal problems it is dangerous to extrapolate data from one species to another.
Ruttner (1952) reports that a limitation of the number of species in an environ-
ment begins at salt concentration exceeding that of the sea (35 g/1 or 3.5 per-
cent). Specht (1975) reports inhibition of Selenastrum at salinities in excess
23
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of 9 parts per thousand whereas Cleave et al. (1976) report inhibition of
Selenastrum at salinities of between 250 and 500 mg/1. [The effects of in-
creased salinity on mangroves and submerged marine plants will not be covered
here, the reader is referred to Reimold and Queen (1972) for an introduction
to this topic.]
The first report of Na as an essential nutrient for blue-green algae came
from Allen and Arnon (1955) who stated that 5 ppm suffices for optimal growth
of Anabaena cylindrica. Brownell and Nicholas (1967), working with this same
species, found that Na deficiency led to depressed N2 fixation. It has also
been shown that Anabaena variabilis and Synechocystis aquatilis tolerate Nad
up to 23.5 percent (w/v) and Microcystis firma tolerates NaCl up to 60 percent
(w/v) (Schiewer, 1974). Provasoli (1969) proposed that monovalent ions might,
with other factors, be responsible for tipping the balance in favor of blue-
greens. Blue-green algae have an absolute need for Na as well as K which is a
pattern apparently not shared by other fresh water algal groups.
Pearsall (1932) reported that a monovalent to divalent (M/D) cation ratio
below 1.5 was favorable to diatoms in oligotrophic waters and Provasoli, et
al. (1954) report Synura petersenii to prefer low total solids (60-100 ppm)
and M/D above 2. This would appear to explain why eutrophic lakes affected
by civilization often have blue-green blooms. Urbanization adds not only organic
matter but also Na and P.
Zafar (1967) concluded that dissolved organic matter directly influenced
the periodicity of blue-greens. While Seenayya (1973) suggested that an in-
crease in chlorophyll a_ generally coincided with increasing TDS, Kerekes and
Nursall (1966) reported a definite correlation of seston biomass to an increase
in TDS. They hypothesized that as TDS increased, more nutrients became avail-
able thereby increasing the productivity of the water to a certain point (Figure
1). Continued increase in TDS tended to inhibit organoproduction, so that the
productivity of the water decreased. In the study lakes, the TDS and alkalinity
for maximum productivity were about 1,400 ppm and 450 ppm, respectively. How-
ever, the study lakes were not corrected for different nutrient levels and this
confounding prevents confirmation of their hypothesis. The need to consider
nutrient level as well as other limnological variables than TDS in natural field
conditions is illustrated by the results of other workers. Topping (1975) found
that the maximum standing crop in British Columbia lakes occurred at about 8,200
ppm. Topping (1975) also reported that increased concentrations of TDS become
osmotically limiting. Larson (1970) reported that dissolved solids in Odell Lake
(Oregon) were about 1/3 of Crater Lake (Oregon) yet production in Odell Lake was
8-10 times greater. Seventy-five percent of the total dissolved solids of Crater
Lake were made up of six elements suggesting that, although total dissolved solids
were relatively high, certain essential ions may have been deficient and there-
fore limiting.
Batterton and van Baalen (1971), working with blue-green algae, reported
that 1 mg NaCl/1 satisfied requirements for growth and higher concentrations of
NaCl apparently inhibited growth. They, however, reported that inhibition was
caused more by ionic (Na+) stress than by osmotic stress. Most of the literature,
however, supports the conclusion that the osmotic pressure of the solution is
responsible for the observed changes in productivity following an increase in
salt concentration (Schmidbauer and Ried, 1967).
24
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1000 2000 300O 4000
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS ppm
5000
Figure 1. Relationship of organic matter biomass of surface water seston
(productivity) to the total dissolved solids in nine bodies of
water in central Alberta. (Kerekes and Nurshall(1966).reprinted
by permission of the International Association of Theoretical and
Applied Limnology.)
Dissolved organic substances can function directly as growth factors or
essential micronutrients for algae. Doig and Martin (1974) report that iron
associated with dissolved organic material may well cause the onset of log-
arithmic growth in Gymnodinium breve, the red tide alga.
The addition, in any amount of substances which cause shifts in population
composition of the primary producers could adversely affect aquatic organisms
farther up the food chain. Because of the close association between dissolved
solids, nutrient availability and the growth of aquatic organisms, standards
set forth to prescribe limits on TDS must take into account biological effects
to insure maximum use of the water.
EFFECTS ON ZOOPLANKTON
Crustacean plankton populations have increased with increased total dis-
solved solids (TDS) and eutrophication of lakes in the Okanagan Valley, British
Columbia (Patalas, 1973; Patalas and Salki, 1973). TDS in Lake Okanagan had
increased by 19 mg/1 between (July 4 to August 26) 1935 and 1969. The zooplank-
ton abundance had increased from 2.8 mm-Vcm^ in 1935 to 13.3 mm-Vcm^ on
25
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3 2
September 9, 1969, and to 7.8 mm /cm on August 27, 1971. This represents a 4.8
and 2.8 fold increase respectively. There had been an 8 fold increase in bottom
organisms. The increase in zooplankton populations probably are the result of
increased eutrophication (related to phosphorus loading) which was reflected by
the increase in TDS. No significant changes in species of plankton since 1935
were observed.
The chronic toxicity of NTA (nitrilotriacetate) to Daphnia magna was reduced
with increasing water hardness (a major component of dissolved solids) up to 438
mg/1 total hardness (Biesinger et al., 1974). Dissolved polyelectrolytes used
as flocculants or coagulant aids in solids removal treatment of water were toxic
to Mysis and Daphnia at concentrations ranging from 0.06 mg/1 to 16.5 mg/1. Two
polyelectrolytes (Superfloc 330 and Calgon M-500) impaired reproduction of
Daphnia at low concentrations (Biesinger et al., 1976).
Faucon and Hummon (1976) found that the life expectancy, reproductive rate,
and intrinsic rate of natural increase of the parthenogenic gastrotrich
Lepidodermella squammata were maximal at pH 7.1 and total conductivity of 465
Umho/cm. Life expectancy was reduced to zero when acid mine waters were added
to make the pH 4.6 and conductivity 825 ymho/cm. It was concluded that L._
squammata is capable of living and reproducing at pH 6.0 to 6.5 under field
conditions low in carbonates, providing non-carbonates are not abundant, or
under field conditions high in non-carbonate ions, providing sufficient car-
bonates are present. This implies a dependence on anion ratios for survival of
this organism.
EFFECTS ON MACROINVERTEDRATES
Five species of Odonatan nymphs, four species of Heteroptera, and three
species of Coleoptera which had been adapted to freshwater, were tested by
Shirgur and Kewalramani (1973) for their tolerance to various dilutions of sea-
water and to 3.5 percent solutions of major constituents of seawater. In gen-
eral, Odonatan nymphs which survived longer than 360 hrs in dilutions of sea-
water below 30 percent were considered to be the least tolerant organisms, and
Coleopterans, surviving greater than 360 hrs in dilutions below 60 percent were
the most tolerant. The most sensitive species tested was Anisops barbata,
which survived only 134.5 hrs in 10 percent seawater. The most tolerant species,
Cybister cognatus. survived beyond 360 hrs in 50 percent seawater. Potassium
chloride (KCl) was found to be the most toxic constituent and MgSO^ the least
toxic constituent of seawater.
Wichard and Komnick (1974) have shown that damselfly larvae (Zygoptera)
osmoregulate against hypotonic salt solutions by virtue of rectal chloride
epithelia which adsorb electrolytes from solution. Dills and Rogers (1974) ob-
served increases in dissolved solids in streams subject to acid mine drainage
in which macroinvertebrate community structure was adversely affected. However,
hydrogen ion concentration was the only parameter highly correlated with species
diversity.
The invertebrate fauna of two low salinity (25 to 40 mg/1), low pH (4.8-6.0)
lakes on Stradbroke Island, Australia has been described (Bensink and Burton, 1975)
Ninety-seven percent of the 1401 ppm TDS in one lake was due to dissolved organic
26
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(humic) matter, while the 124 ppm TDS in the other lake was only 48 percent dis-
solved organic matter. Littoral fauna species composition was very different in
these lakes, probably due to differences in chemical-physical factors. Inter-
ference with light penetration in the brown colored humic lake may have been an
important factor affecting faunal community structure.
EFFECTS ON SALMONID FISHES
McKim et al. (1973, 1974, 1975, 1976) have prepared extensive reviews which
include the effects of salinity on freshwater fish. Eisler (1973), and Eisler
and Wapner (1975) have also reviewed the literature dealing with salinity
effects on fish in both marine and freshwater environments.
Bergstrbm (1971) found an increase in blood glucose concentration corre-
lated with a decrease in plasma sodium concentration in young salmon (Salmo
salar) which had been placed in deionized water. It is possible that the in-
crease in glucose may be of osmoregularity significance. Oxygen consumption
rates were lowest in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) maintained in a salinity
of 7.5 ppt (Rao, 1971). This salinity is isosmotic with the fish plasma and
the reduced oxygen requirement probably reflects a reduction in the osmotic
load cost for the fish. The slope of a regression line relating fish weight
to oxygen consumption, increased with increasing salinity at 15C, but no signi-
ficant effect on the oxygen consumption-fish weight relationship was observed
at 5C. Fish activity was not different in freshwater and 15 ppt salinity.
Maximum oxygen consumption was observed at 30 ppt salinity (except for smaller
fish at 15C)(Rao, 1971).
Zeitoun et al. (1973) found an increased protein requirement in rainbow
trout (Salmo gairdneri) fingerlings raised in elevated (20 ppt) salinities.
They related this requirement to the protection of the internal environment of
the fish against a hypertonic external environment. However, the osmoregula-
tory capabilities of euryhaline coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kitutch) smolts did
not require extra protein at 20 ppt (Zeitoun et al., 1974b). Water salinity
and dietary protein concentration in rainbow trout (S. gairdneri) fingerlings
did not influence serum protein (Zeitoun et al., 1974a). Hematocrit increased
with increased salinity but was not affected by dietary protein levels. Leduc
(1972) found that Atlantic salmon'retain the same osmoregulation whether from
ocean stock or from freshwater hatcheries. Block (1974) found that rainbow
trout acclimated to 100 percent seawater had elevated levels of erythrocytes
and tissue lipids when held at 1C, while plasma cholesterol and glucose levels
remained unchanged. Seawater adapted rainbow trout accumulated urea in their
plasma when held at 1 and 10C. This may have been due to the inability to
excrete ammonia against the higher exterior concentration of sodium; then the
ammonia would be converted to urea at colder temperatures, a less toxic
substance.
Lack of oxygen brought about complete breakdown in osmoregulatory ability
in the rainbow trout which was manifested by elevated levels of plasma electro-
lytes. Rainbow trout can be put directly into seawater cages if salinity is
reduced to 22 ppt with mortalities of only one to eight percent (Landless, 1976).
27
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EFFECTS ON OTHER FISH
With concern about the effects of impending degradation in water quality
due to decreases in freshwater flows and increases in waste discharges, Turner
and Farley (1971) studied the effects of temperature, salinity, and dissolved
oxygen on the survival of striped bass (Morone saxitalis, Walbaum) eggs and
larvae. Egg survival in salinities greater than approximately 1,000 ppm TDS is
greatly reduced especially at higher temperatures unless they are hardened in
freshwater. Dissolved oxygen levels of from four to five mg/1 adversely affect
egg and larval survival. Turner (1976) collected striped bass eggs and larvae
from the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers in California during the period 1963
to 1972 and found that most spawning in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta occur-
red where salinities during spawning had been below 200 mg/1 TDS with occasional
maximum of 1,500 mg/1 due to seawater intrusion. This high salinity level did
not adversely affect egg survival. Turner (1976) pointed out, however, that
although the ranges of salinities encountered (200 to 71,400 mg/1 TDS) had a
limited short term effect on egg survival and spawning, long term effects such
as accumulative effects of small differences in survival or migratory prefer-
ences may reduce spawning in high total dissolved solids waters. Increased
sodium chloride concentrations in freshwater hatchery ponds increased mean sur-
vival of striped bass fry to 7.65 percent as opposed to 1.7 percent survival in
control ponds. The large variability in survival found in both pond types makes
it difficult to determine if this difference (5.95 percent) in survival is
significant.
Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) lived at salinities of 12 ppt for 10 weeks,
but higher salinities were unfavorable (Al-Hamed, 1971). Fertilized carp eggs
hatched at salinities from two to ten ppt, but had 'favorable' hatching
success only up to 6.6 ppt.
Umminger (1971) found elevated levels of serum glucose in killifish (Fundulus
heteroclitus) held at 0.1C. There was a 30 percent loss of serum sodium, a 42
percent loss of serum chloride, but only a 15 percent decrease in serum osmolar-
ity in these fish. The relatively low decrease in osmolarity was due to a 1,967
percent increase in serum glucose. Osmoregulation ability by inorganic ion con-
centration adjustment is apparently inhibited at low temperatures. The turn-
over of sodium by the killifish (Fundulus kansae) is sharply increased by trans-
fer to low calcium seawater from normal seawater. Mortality brought on by this
phenomenon can be prevented by dilution to 80 percent (v/v) of the low-calcium
seawater (Fleming et al., 1974). Rao (1974) found that incubation salinities
over the range of five to 14 ppt produced the shortest incubation period, maxi-
mum yolk-conversion efficiency, largest larval size at hatching, and the maximum
viable hatch of the California killifish (Fundulus parvipinnis). Lower salinities
at fertilization resulted in shorter incubation periods and larger larvae at
hatching indicating increased growth rates under the low salinity conditions.
Lutz (1972) studied the effect of osmotic and ionic stress on plasma, tissue,
and whole body electrolyte composition of the perch (Perca fluviatilis). The
perch showed a good degree of adaptive ionic regulation as it was able to survive
up to one-third seawater with only potassium, magnesium, and chloride showing
moderate significant rises in plasma. Attempts to acclimate perch to one-half
seawater led to a total breakdown of the ionic controlling mechanisms. Osmotic
rather than ionic considerations determined the lethality of the medium.
28
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Peterka (1972), and Burnham and Peterka (1975) have studied the effects of
salinity on eggs and larvae of the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) and other
fishes. Peterka (1972) found that hatching success and sac fry survival was most
successful for fathead minnow eggs fertilized in water with a conductivity of
1300 pmho/cm and held in water of 500, 1,300, 4,000, or 6,000 ymho/cm. Much
lower success was found for eggs fertilized in 500 or 4,000 umho/cm water and
held in the above concentrations. Sac fry survival was similar in trend. There
was no hatch of walleye (Stizostedion vitreum vitreum), approximately one per-
cent hatch of northern pike (Esox lucius), and 22 to 93 percent hatch of fathead
minnow eggs held in 4,000 ymho/cm water. No sac fry of northern pike survived
6,000 ymho/cm, while approximately one percent of the fathead minnow sac fry
survived 12,000 pmho/cm water. All of the surviving fry at this concentration
had physical abnormalities. The literature reviewed by Peterka (1972) indica-
ted that ionic composition of the water seemed more important to tolerance by
the fathead minnow than did IDS. The fathead minnow was unable to survive TDS
> 2,000 ppm in the NaHC03, Na2C03, and K^CO-j saline lakes of Nebraska, but
survived approximately 15,000 ppm TDS in the Na2SO^ and MgSO^ lakes of
Saskatchewan and North Dakota. In the field, a North Dakota saline lake with
7,000 ppm TDS was not detrimental to reproduction and growth of the fathead
minnow. The fathead minnow grew faster in lakes of 3,250 ppm TDS than at 1,060
ppm TDS.
Chittenden (1973) found that young American shad (Alosa sapidissima) could
tolerate an abrupt as well as a gradual change from freshwater (five ppt) to
salinities of about 30 ppt without mortality. Complete mortality occurred when
the fish were abruptly transferred from 30 ppt to 0 ppt salinity but not with
gradual decrease from 5 ppt to zero ppt salinity. Since these fish are eury-
haline, they can use both brackish and freshwater nurseries. The American shad
was formerly one of the most abundant anadromous fishes in the United States.
Digestive rates of the mosquitofish (Gambusia affins) generally increased
with increasing salinity (Shakuntala, 1975).
Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) and blue catfish (Ictalurus furcatus)
have been collected from Gulf of Mexico waters with salinities of 11.4 ppt.
Hybrids of these catfish were studied for salinity tolerance by Stickney and
Simco (1971). They found that the hybrids were able to tolerate salinities
between 14 and 15 ppt for periods of 96 hours. Allen and Avault (1971) found
that blue catfish were more tolerant to 14 ppt salinity than were channel cat-
fish. Size of the fish did not seem to affect the tolerance of either species.
Both species of fish showed signs of distress early in the experiments, but
showed some signs of recovery near the middle or end of the experiment. All
the test fish lost weight indicating that neither species was able to adapt to
14 ppt salinity. Transfer of the fish from the 14 ppt to freshwater did not
cause adverse effects. White catfish (I. catus) seemed to tolerate 14 ppt
salinity better than blue catfish. Block (1974) found that 30 percent seawater
did not change hematocrit values in channel catfish as compared to freshwater
values. Tissue water of fish in freshwater and 2C was three percent above the
level in freshwater and 30C. In 30 percent seawater at 2C the tissue water of
the channel catfish was increased only one percent compared to 30C fish.
Osmoregulation by the catfish may be lost at low temperatures (2C) as
evidenced by decreases in plasma osmolarity, sodium, and chloride levels in
29
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freshwater adapted fish. Davis and Siraco (1976) observed increases in plasma
sodium and chloride levels of channel catfish after five days exposure to 10
and 12 g/1 sodium chloride in July (27C); at the same time there was a plasma
electrolyte concentration increase for 4.8 hours after which the concentration
leveled off. Catfish exposed similarly in March (9C) had a slow increase in
plasma electrolyte throughout the 13 day experiment.
Hollander and Avault (1975) studied the salinity tolerance of buffalo fish
(Ictiobus cyprinellus. and I. niger). They found that eggs of all fish types
tolerated salinities as high as 15 ppt and hatched in 72 days. Emerging normal
fry could tolerate only 9 ppt. Fry of both species of buffalo fish had the best
survival time at 9 ppt and the poorest at zero ppt. Fingerlings had an upper
salinity tolerance of 12 ppt, and yearlings tolerated 10 ppt salinity. Perry
(1976) repored the successful spawning of black buffalo and bigmouth buffalo in
ponds with salinities ranging from 1.6 to 1.8 ppt and 1.4 to 2.0 ppt respectively,
Leatherland et al. (1974) studied the regulation of plasma sodium (Na+)
and potassium (K~*~) in African Tilapia fishes. Upon comparing plasma levels of
Na+ and K+ in fishes from concentrated "soda" lakes to fishes from freshwaters,
they found that generally Na+ and K+ were more concentrated in species from soda
lakes. The Na+/K+ ratio in the serum was not related to ambient salinity. One
species (Tilapia alcalica) from a saline lake tolerated a loss of plasma Na+ in
fresh water, while another saline adapted species (T. grahami) was better able
to maintain plasma Na+ levels. Fresh water species (T. zilli and T. nigra)
could not tolerate salinities in excess of 2.5 percent NaCl. Mucopolysaccharide
cells in Tilapia mossambica may be converted to chloride cells active in osmo-
regulation under conditions of hyperosmotic stress. The adsorptive surface of
the intestine also increases, possibly to facilitate adsorption of water for
hypoosmotic regulation in the hyperosmotic media (Narasimham and Parvatheswararao,
1974). Adaptation to osmotic stress in T. mossambica has been shown to follow a
regular time course involving two phases (Bashamohideen and Parvatheswararao,
1976). There is a rapid rise in oxygen consumption in proportion to the
magnitude of stress imposed by transfer of the fish into higher saline media,
followed by a gradual decrease in oxygen usage which stabilizes at a new level
almost equal to the original normal (freshwater) medium.
The recreational fishery of the Salton Sea, California, a terminal lake
receiving irrigation return flows, presents an unusual case for salinity manage-
ment in inland fisheries. Marine fish species such as sargo (Anisotermus
davidsoni), orangemouth corvina (Cynoscion xanthulus), and bairdiella (Bairdiella
icistia) have been introduced successfully into the saline waters which have
about 36 ppt salinity. Increasing salinities seriously threaten this fishery
through adverse effects on the eggs and larvae of these fish (Lasker et al.,
1972; May 1976). It has been shown that bairdiella egg and larvae survival
are severely inhibited in 40 ppt Salton Sea water. The unusually harmful
effects of Salton Sea water may be attributed to its higher proportions of
calcium and sulfate which are approximately threefold higher (percentage of
total salinity) than.seawater. In particular, divalent cations (e.g. Ca++) may
have adverse physiological effects (May, 1976).
There is considerable evidence that the pituitary gland (pars intermedia)
plays a vital role in the osmoregulation of euryhaline fishes (Chidambaram
et al., 1972). The bullhead (Ictalurus melas) was unable to survive longer
30
-------
than seven days in freshwater after removal of the pituitary gland. Prolactin
treatment, isosmotic saline maintenance, or autografted pituitary glands
prolonged freshwater survival. Harrison et al. (1974) immersed goldfish
(Carassius auratus L.) in a graded series of sodium chloride solutions up to a
concentration of 15 g/1 and found that the rising osmolarity induced cytophysi-
ological changes (staining reaction) in specialized cells of the pituitary gland.
Singley and Chavin (1975) observed increases in cortisol and ACTH titers in
goldfish subjected to saline stress.
Subramanyam (1974) studied the succinic dehydrogenase activity of the fresh-
water teleost, Heteropneustes fossilis during acclimation to elevated salinities.
He found that the enzyme activity increased in the liver but not in the kidney,
reflecting the metabolic response to osmotic stress. This would indicate that
the effect of salinity stress varied from tissue to tissue.
31
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SECTION VI
EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS ON AQUATIC BIOTA
EFFECTS ON PHYTOPLANKTON, PERIPHYTON,
AND VASCULAR PLANTS
When establishing criteria concerning suspended solids it must be kept in
mind that the concentration of suspended solids in natural waters is influenced
by such factors as topography, geology, soil conditions, intensity, and duration
of rainfall, type and amount of vegetation in the drainage basin, and man's
activity in the drainage basin. Most flowing waters have considerable vari-
ation in the suspended solids concentration from day-to-day; therefore, loading
of suspended solids in lakes from streams will vary from day-to-day. Since
natural variation in suspended solids is so great, it is not desirable to have
fixed rigid standards. For this reason, Cairns (1967) in reviewing the
ecological effects of suspended solids, suggests that the effects upon aquatic
organisms living in the system be used to determine the suspended solids
standard.
Plants adapted to the aquatic environment include floating and benthic
macroscopic plants, phytoplankton, and periphyton. The role of phytoplankton
in the environment includes oxygenation of the water, conversion of inorganic
material to organic material, a source of food for zooplankton and, after death,
a nutrient source. Macrophytes also play an important role in nutrient cycling
in addition to a major role in forming habitats for other organisms. These
habitats include surfaces for attachment of bacteria, periphyton, and aquatic
insects as well as providing protection and nesting sites for fish. Consequent-
ly, perturbation of the system that would adversely affect the phytoplankton,
periphyton, or macrophyte community would also adversely affect other members
of the food chain. Suspended solids concentration standards based on the re-
sponse of this community would insure that maximum use be made of a drainage
basin without impairing its ability to function beneficially in the ecosystem.
The major ecological parameters of suspended solids which would affect
photosynthetic systems includes reduction in light penetration, sedimentation,
and habitat alteration, abrasive action, and effects of adsorbed toxins. The
importances of these effects may vary, some species being affected more than
others.
Since photosynthetic organisms form the basis of the food chain, any reduc-
tion in the availability of light (regardless of nutrient concentration) which
causes a decrease in photosynthetic productivity, has a widespread effect on
other organisms dependent on them for food. Swale (1964) working on the River
32
-------
Lee, emphasized that for most of the year, fluctuation in the concentrations of
phosphorus and nitrogen could not be the factors determining the number of algae.
She placed emphasis on rates of flow and detrital turbidity as major factors
limiting algal production. Lund (1969), also working on the River Lee, reported
that even a reduction of phosphorus and nitrogen to a tenth of their concen-
tration could still permit very large phytoplankton populations to develop if
light intensity were not limiting. Increases in suspended solids brings about
reduction in light penetration and this greatly reduces the primary producers
except for those species that are planktonic or living on floating debris. This
reduction causes a shift from herbivores to those that are primarily detritus
feeders (Patrick, 1972). Not only does reduction in light penetration restrict
photosynthesis, it may also alter oxygen relationships in surface waters
(Oschwald, 1972). Angino and O'Brien (1968) suggest that reduction in oxygen
production due to excess turbidity may be critical in some large streams.
Light penetration is important not only with respect to productivity but
also with respect to community composition. Wetzel and McGregor (1968) reported
that low light intensity inhibits germination of Najas flexilis and Chara and
would, therefore, eliminate these two species from the community.
Sedimentation, due to suspended solids, results in habitat destruction and
abrasive action. These two effects can severely alter the photosynthetic popu-
lation. Many species of plants are confined to one or a very few types of sub-
stratum because they need a special surface for attachment. Destruction of
specific habitats will not only eliminate one part of the populations but may
also introduce a new population to the area. Hynes (1970) reported that fairly
even discharge containing silt can create great stable areas of weed development
which can completely alter the substratum (directly and indirectly) and with it
the animal population.
Adsorption of chemicals by suspended solids is particularly important if
it leads to a build-up of toxic substances in a limited area with the possibil-
ity of sudden release. For some trace elements, especially copper, the limits
between need and toxicity may be extremely narrow. Low concentrations of copper
(£ 10~7 M) are essential for Chlorella while concentrations a 10~7 M are toxic
(Green et al., 1939; Greenfield, 1942).
EFFECTS ON ZOOPLANKTON AND AUFWUCHS PROTOZOANS
Published research concerning the direct effect of suspended solids on
minute invertebrates is limited. It could be assumed that as turbidity limits
light penetration and hence aquatic algae and plant productivity (Oschwald,
1972), the grazing microfauna would also be limited. In addition, the abrasive
action of suspended sediments would be expected to have an adverse effect on
attached protozoans and micrometazoans.
Response of Daphnia magna in suspensions of several kinds of solids was
reviewed by EIFAC (1965).Harmful levels of kaolinite and montmorillonite were
102 and 82 ppm respectively. Charcoal was harmful at 82 ppm. Pond sediment
was not lethal to Daphnia up to 1458 ppm. Toxicity of suspended solids to
Daphnia appeared to be type specific. The reproduction rate of Daphnia seemed
to increase at lower concentrations of suspended solids (e.g. 39 ppm kaolinite,
33
-------
73 ppm pond sediment). The review also cited work in which it was found that
the production of Daphnia in the Mondsee in Austria was reduced from 400,000
kg/year to 80,000 kg/year due to high clay turbidities caused by road construc-
tion. This reduction in plankton severely affected the production of whitefish
(Coregonus).
Spoon (1975) found a doubling in the number of protozoan or micrometazoan
species colonizing artificial substrates in the upper Potomac estuary below the
Blue Plains sewage treatment plant in 1974 as contrasted to 1971. Water quality
in 1974 showed an improvement over 1971 in turbidity as well as dissolved oxy-
gen, phosphorus, nitrogen and organic carbon. It is not clear whether turbidity
directly affected the colonizing protozoans and metazoans. An increase in algae
was also observed in 1974 (see also Spoon, 1976). Research is needed to deter-
mine the mode and extent of the effect of suspended solids on protozoa and re-
lated organisms.
EFFECTS ON MACROINVERTEBRATES
Work by Gammon (1970) includes a review of the literature published prior
to 1970 on the effect of inorganic sediment on stream macroinvertebrates (Table
3). Stream substrate may be altered by suspended silt deposition and this can
have important effects on the macroinvertebrate community. Using a scale rang-
ing from one to 452, various substrates mixed with silt rated no higher than 27.
A substrate combination of moss, gravel, rubble, and Elo_dea_ rated over 400 while
shifting sand supported the fewest macroinvertebrates thus rating only one.
Hynes (1970) has also commented on the importance of substratum to selection
and diversity of aquatic insect populations.
Field monitoring and experimental work by Gammon (1970) in a stream below
a limestone quarry where the average suspended solids load was increased approxi-
mately 40 mg/1 showed that there was considerable impact on the macroinvertebrate
population. Suspended solids concentrations ranged from 13 to 52 mg/1 above the
quarry and 21 to 250 mg/1 below the quarry. Species of the Tricorythoides in-
creased somewhat below the quarry as opposed to the area above the quarry due to
their preference for silt or mud substrate while net spinners (Cheumatopsyche)
were reduced during periods of heavy sediment input. Drift rates of macroinverte-
brates from an impacted riffle increased approximately linearly with increasing
suspended solids up to 160 mg/1. There was a 25 percent increase in drift at an
increase of 40 mg/1 suspended solids above normal and a 90 percent increase in
drift at an increase of 80 mg/1 suspended solids above normal. Drift rates seem-
ed to be more closely related to suspended solids than to settled sediment but
both settled and suspended sediment reduced invertebrate populations. Drifting
species were the same as those in the riffle. It appeared that the effect of BUS*
pended solids on invertebrates in the studied system was equal, i.e. there was no
species selection by suspended solids.
Stream faunal recovery after strip mine reclamation has been studied by
Hill (1972). He found that the pollutant limiting to populations of fish and
bottom organisms in reclaimed and partially reclaimed streams was inorganic
silt, and that complete reclamation of spoil areas reduces the levels of silta-
tion and turbidity which in turn allows recovery of stream faunal communities.
34
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TABLE 3. SUMMARY OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS EFFECTS ON AQUATIC MACROINVERTEBRATES (DATA COLLECTED FROM GAMMON
1970; HILL, 1972; AND ROSENBERG AND WIENS, 1975).
i/t
Organism(s)
Mixed Populations
Mixed Populations
Mixed Populations
Mixed Populations
Chironomus &
Tubificidae
Cheumatopsyche
(Net spinners)
Tricorythoides
Mixed Population
Mixed Populations
Chironomidae
Ephemoptera,
Simuliidae,
Hydracarina
Suspended Solid
Effect Concentration
Lower summer
populations
Reduced popula- 261-390 ppm
tions to 25% (Turbidity)
Densities 11% 1000-6000 ppm
of normal
No organisms in the >5000 ppm
zone of settling
Normal fauna re-
placed by
(Species Selection)
Number reduced (High concen-
trations)
Number increased
90% increase in 80 mg/1
drift
Reduction in 40-200 JTU
numbers
Increased drift with
suspended sediment
Inconsistant drift
response to added
sediment
Source of
Suspended Solids
Mining area
Log dragging
Glass manufacturing
Colliery
Limestone Quarry
Limestone Quarry
Limestone Quarry
Manganese
Strip mine
Experimental sediment
addition
Experimental sediment
addition
Comment
Normal populations at
60 ppm
Effect noted 13 miles
downstream
Reduction in light re-
duced submerged plants
Suspended solids as high
as 250 mg/1
Due to preference for
mud or silt
Also caused changes in
density and diversity
-------
Turbidities in. unreclaimed streams ranged between 40 and 200 JTU with maximum
levels of 32,000 JTU having been recorded. Turbidity and siltation caused an
overall reduction in the number of bottom organisms which resulted in changes
in density, diversity, and community structure. Six years after reclamation in
one stream, faunal recovery was complete. Gravel dredging on the Brazos River,
Texas, limited macroinvertebrates by causing a loss of gravel habitat which was
replaced by a sand-silt bottom (Forshage and Carter, 1973). Increased turbidity
may also have had an effect on macroinvertebrate populations.
Rosenberg and Wiens (1975) added bankside sediment to the Harris River in
northern Canada in order to study the mode of action of suspended and settled
sediments and the responses of stream fauna. Preliminary results of their
study indicated that the number of Chironomidae caused to drift by sediment
addition always increased with sediment addition, but that the Ephemeroptera,
Simulidae, and the Hydracarina were inconsistent in their drift response to
suspended sediment. Based on their data and several assumptions they estimated
that it would take as long as 18 days and as short as seven hours for 50 per-
cent of the resident macrobenthic population to leave their experimental riffle
area when sediment was added as it was in their experiments (100 and 250 mg/1
intended concentrations). McGaha and Steen (1974) in their study of Mississippi
flood control reservoirs found that benthic fauna appeared to be more closely
related to bottom type, submerged vegetation, and normal life cycles than to
turbidity. Reservoir habitats appear qualitatively different with regard to
effects on community responses than stream habitats, as would be expected.
EFFECTS ON SALMONID FISHES
The European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission (EIFAC, 1965) promulgated
protective standards on salmonid and other fish types and delineated five ways
that finely divided solids may harm freshwater fishes. These are:
(1) by acting directly on the fish swimming in water in which solids are
suspended, and either killing them or reducing their growth rate,
resistance to disease, etc.;
(2) by preventing the successful development of fish eggs and larvae;
(3) by modifying natural movements and migrations of fish;
(4) by reducing the abundance of food available to the fish; and
(5) by affecting the efficiency of methods of catching fish.
A summary of their results was prepared to illustrate these effects on salmonids
(Table 4).
On recommending water quality criteria for the protection of aquatic com-
munities the Committee on Water Quality Criteria (CWQC, 1973) relied strongly
on the EIFAC study. Their recommendation is as follows:
36
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TABLE 4. SUMMARY OF EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS ON SALMONID FISH.
1975).
(DATA TAKEN FROM REVIEW IN EIFAC,
Fish
(Species)
Effect
Concentration
of Suspended
Solids
Source of
Suspended
Materials
Comment
Rainbow Trout
(Salmo gairdneri)
OJ
Pacific Salmon
(Oncorhynchus)
Survived one day
Killed in one day
50% mortality in 3 1/2 wks
Killed in 20 days
50% mortality in 16 wks
1/5 mortality in 37 days
No deaths in 4 wks
No deaths in 9-10 wks
20% mortality in 2-6
months
No deaths in 8 months
No deaths in 8 months
No increased mortality
Reduced growth
Reduced growth
Fair growth
"Fin-rot" disease
"Fin-rot" disease
"Fin-rot" disease
No "fin-rot"
Reduced egg survival
Total egg mortality
in 6 days
Survived 3-4 wks
80,000 ppm
160,000 ppm
4,250 ppm
1000-2500 ppm
200 ppm
1,000 ppm
553 ppm
200 ppm
90 ppm
100 ppm
50 ppm
30 ppm
50 ppm
50 ppm
200 ppm
270 ppm
200 ppm
100 ppm
50 ppm
(Siltation)
1000-2500 ppm
Gravel washing
Gravel washing
Gypsum
Natural sediment
Spruce fibre
Cellulose fibre
Gypsum
Coal washery waste
Kaslin and diato-
maceous earth
Spruce fibre
Coal washery waste
Kaslin or diato-
maceous earth
Wood fibre
Coal washery waste
Coal washery waste
Diatomaceous earth
Wood fibre
Wood fibre
Wood fibre
Mining operations
Caged in Powder River,
Washington
70% mortality in 30 wks
Only slightly higher
mortality than control
300-7-50 ppm Silt
(2300-6500 ppm
for short
periods each
day)
Symptons after 8 months
exposure
Eggs in gravel
Powder River, Oregon
(Not specifically rain-
bow trout eggs)
Fingerlings
-------
TABLE 4. Continued.
Fish
(Species)
Effect
Concentration
of Suspended
Solids
Source of
Suspended
Materials
Comment
oo
Brown Trout
(Salmo trutta)
Cutthroat Trout
(Salmo clarkii)
Atlantic Salmon
(Salmo salar)
Brook Trout
(Salvelinus fonti-
nalis)
Reduced survivial of eggs (Silting)
Supports populations (Heavy loads) Glacial silt
Avoid during migration
Do not dig redds
Reduced populations to
1/7 of clean streams
Abandon redds
Sought cover and stopped
feeding
No effect on migration
No effect on movement
(Muddy water)
(Sediment in
gravel)
1000-6000 ppm China-clay waste
(If silt is
encountered)
35 ppm
Several thou-
sand ppm
(Turbidity)
Eggs in gravel
Spawn when silt is
washed from spawn-
ing beds.
Yuba River, California
Water roust pass through
gravel
Two hours exposure
River Severn, British
Isles
-------
Maximum Concentration of Suspended Solids
High level of protection 25 mg/1
Moderate protection 80 rag/1
Low level of protection 400 mg/1
Very low level of protection over 400 mg/1
More recent work by Sykora et al. (1972) showed that suspensions of iron
hydroxide of 50, 25, 12, and 6 mg/1 iron caused juvenile brook trout (Salvelinus
fontinalisr Mitchell) to reach no more than 16 percent, 45 percent, 75 percent,
and 100 percent of the weight of control fish, respectively. The turbidity of
the water at a theoretical concentration of 50 mg/1 iron as Fe(OH)3 (95.5 mg/1
Fe(OH)3) averaged 86 JTU (range 130 to 60 JTU) while the average turbidity at
a 'theoretical' (prepared) 6 mg/1 iron was 23 JTU (range 42 to 14 JTU). It
was assumed that impaired visibility due to high turbidity prevented the fish
from feeding which in turn resulted in slower growth. The review by Oschwald
(1972) pointed out that angler success for most game fish species improved as
turbidity decreases.
Williams and Harcup (1974) working on an industrial river in south Wales
found that spawning areas for brown trout were limited by industrial and urban
developments, sporadically high levels of suspended coal residues and other
factors. Native trout produced in the stream showed poor growth. High levels
of suspended solids in the lower reaches of the river increased the movement
of fish into a downstream river. Suspended solids concentrations ranged from
0 to 22 mg/1 at an upstream station and from 7 to 1530 mg/1 at the most down-
stream station. Resuspended harbor sediment (subject to dredging) at concen-
trations of up to 5 percent wet weight (28.8 g/1 dry weight) had no observable
effect on coho salmon fry (Oncorhynchus kisutch) or threespine sticklebacks
(Gasterosteus aculeatus) in 96 hr bioassays (LeGore and DesVoigne, 1973). The
sediments were contaminated with high levels of organic matter, oil and grease,
zinc, and lead.
EFFECTS ON OTHER FISHES
The acute direct effects of turbidity on fishes was investigated by Wallen
(1951). Using 14 genera and 16 species, he found that behavioral reactions to
turbidity did not develop until turbidities neared 20,000 ppm. Most of the
experimental fish endured more than 100,000 ppm turbidity for a week or longer,
but these same fishes died at turbidities of 175,000 to 225,000 ppm. Lethal
turbidities caused death in 15 minutes to 2 hours after exposure was begun.
Fishes that were killed by the exposure to the suspended clay developed opercular
cavities and clogged gill filaments. Some effects on selected fish used in
Wallens* study are listed in Table 5. The tolerance of the test fish for such
high suspended solids concentrations compared with known natural concentrations
led Wallen to conclude that natural clay turbidity was not a lethal condition
in the life of juvenile to adult fishes.
Buch (1956) in reporting work on the effects of turbidity on fish and fish-
ing, stated that young bass were not found in waters with greater than 84 ppm,
redear sunfish in greater than 174 ppm, and bluegills in 185 ppm turbidity.
39
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TABLE 5. SOME EFFECTS OF TURBIDITY ON SELECTED FISH SPECIES (DATA FROM WALLEN,
1951).
Turbidity at First Turbidity at
bpecies Adverse Reaction First Death
Golden Shinner
(Notemigonus crysoleucas)
Mosquitofish
(Gambusia affins)
Goldfish
(Carassius auratus)
Carp
(Cyrinus carpio)
Red Shinner
(Notropis lutrensis)
Largemouth Black Bass
(Micropterus salmoides)
20-50,000 ppm
40,000
20,000
20,000
100,000
20,000
50-100,000 ppm
80-150,000
90-120,000
175-250,000
175-190,000
101,000 (average)
Clear farm ponds produced from 1.7 to 5.5 times the total weight of fish in tur-
bid ponds. Largemouth bass were most affected by turbidity. Interference with
light penetration lowered plankton productivity by 8 to 12.8 times in turbid
waters as opposed to clear waters. This reduction in productivity limited the
amount of available food for fish. Individual channel catfish grew faster in
clear ponds but greater total weights were obtained in muddy ponds due to lack
of competition. The presence of carp (which increased turbidities) reduced the
growth of bass and bluegills, but led to increased yields of channel catfish
and bluegills. A clear reservoir attracted more anglers, yielded greater re-
turns per unit of fishing effort, as well as desirable species, and was
aesthetically more attractive.
Smith et al. (1965) found that the mortality of fish exposed to suspensions
of wood fibers such as those from pulping plants, depended on the species of
fish, type of wood fibre, processing method, dissolved oxygen concentration, and
to a lesser degree, water temperature. Using young of the year of fathead minnows
(Pimephales promelas) and walleyes (Stizostedion vitreum vitreum), they found
that ground conifer wood was the most lethal and had the greatest effect on
walleye fingerlings, and that ground wood pulps were more lethal than chemical
pulps.
Gammon (1970) presented an excellent review of the effects of suspended
solids on fishes. His review as it pertains to non-salmonid fishes is summarized
in Table 6.
40
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TABLE 6. EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS ON NON-SALMONID FISH (DATA COLLECTED FROM GAMMON. 1970).
Fish
(Species)
Effect
Concentration
of Suspended
Solids
Source of
Suspended
Materials
Comment
Mixed fish popu-
lations
Mixed fish popu-
lations
Perch
(Perca flavesiens)
European Pike Perch
(Lucioperca lucio-
perca)
*• Zebra
I—1
(Brachyolanio rerior)
Barbel
(Barbus fluviatilis)
European eel
(Anguilla anguilla)
Smallmouth bass
(Micropterus dolo-
mieui)
Decrease in occurence
Critical levels affect-
ing populations
High egg mortality
High egg mortality
Earlier egg hatch and
no increase in egg
mortality
Decreased migration
Increased migration
Successful nesting,
spawning, hatching
Turbidity in-
crease
100-300 ppm Industrial
(Silting)
(Silting)
18,000-30,000 Limestone dust
ppm
(Increasing
turbidity)
(Increasing
turbidity)
(Sporadic
periods of
high turbidity)
England, Scotland,
and Wales fisheries
Fry died within 4
hours at 74,800
-------
In investigating the effects of limestone quarry suspended solids, Gammon
(1970) found that most fish were reduced in numbers below the quarry. Carp
(Cyprinus carpio) were often seen in very turbid waters, but were seldom more
than 50 percent as abundant as above the outfall. Carpsuckers (Carpiodes
cyprinus) were the most sensitive to suspended solids but smallmouth bass
(Micropterus dolomieni) were also sensitive. Gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum)
tolerated lower concentrations but avoided higher concentrations of suspended
solids. Spotted bass (Micropterus punctulatus) were unaffected and did not avoid
high levels of suspended solids. Golden redhorse (Moxostoma erythrurum) and
spotted bass grew at significantly lower rates below the outfall than those
above the outfall. Other fish species grew at about the same rate above and
below the outfall. This lack of supression of growth was probably due to the
tendency for these fish to avoid turbid waters.
Ritchie (1972) reviewed the effects of suspended solids (turbidity) on fish
population changes and indicated that the Lake Erie fish community had changed
from ciscoes (Coregonus), whitefish, and yellow perch (Perca flavescens) to
sauger (Stizostedion canadense), sheepshead (Aplodinotus grunniens), catfish,
and carp partly because of sediment.
Hill (1972) observed that the blacknose dace (Rhinichthys atratulus) was
the most common fish collected in streams occurring in unreclaimed manganese
strip mine areas; these streams were subjected to high levels of turbidity.
Sculpins (Cottus sp.) that were otherwise common to the study area were always
absent in unreclaimed streams.
Gravel dredging effects on the fauna of the Brazos River, Texas were
studied by Forshage and Carter (1973). They concluded that habitat destruction
and siltation caused a shift in fish populations from largemouth bass, green
sunfish, bluegill, and redear to white crappie, warmouth, channel catfish, and
flathead catfish.
Horkel and Pearson (1976) have found that green sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus)
did not significantly increase their oxygen consumption rate in bentonite sus-
pensions of as high as 26.7 ppt (2,359-3,750 formazin turbidity units (FTU)).
However, ventilation rates increased 50 percent to 70 percent at the same oxy-
gen consumption rate with turbidities above 898 FTU. Opercular movements of
the green sunfish returned to the pre-treatment rates by the third day of
exposure.
Although these results are sometimes difficult to interpret because of
either conflicting conclusions for some fish species at different life stages or
confounding due to variation in more than one independent variable, the results
do indicate that 1) there are severe effects of suspended solids on species
survivability largely through life cycle effects, 2) significant effects of sus-
pended solids on habitat may prevent maintenance of or eliminate a fish species
from a specific freshwater ecosystem, and 3) there is a strong relationship be-
tween land uses and suspended solids concentrations in streams that manifests
its effect directly on the fish community.
42
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SECTION VII
RESEARCH NEEDS RELATED TO STANDARDS ON SUSPENDED AND
DISSOLVED SOLIDS FOR PROTECTION OF FRESHWATER BIOTA
While it has been frequently stated that the dissolved solids and suspended
materials found in streams, rivers, reservoirs, and lakes affect water quality,
little information is available as to just what some of these effects are on the
freshwater biota. Angino and O'Brien in a 1968 paper summarizing some of the
effects that the suspended load has or may have on determining water quality,
recognized that the direct effect of suspended solids on organisms, chemical
quality, photosynthesis, temperature and oxygen content is poorly understood.
Since then, little information has been added to our knowledge of these effects.
The necessity for establishing water quality standards based on the response
of the aquatic community to changes is obvious; the means for doing so are not
as readily apparent. More quantitative data concerning direct and indirect
effects of changes in dissolved and suspended solids on aquatic life need to be
gathered before standards can aid in maintaining the maximum number of uses of
the watershed. As Wolman (1971) stated in his paper on "The Nation's Rivers,"
we are particularly weak in our ability to detect subtle initial changes from
a natural to a polluted condition. More research is needed so we can understand
changes in biological systems due to changes in environment. This will enable
us to prescribe standards which will prevent the onset of "the polluted
condition.''
To ascertain the research needs relevant to the development of water quality
standards, it is necessary to relate possible impacts of suspended and dissolved
solids on freshwater biota and to prioritize the research needs on the least
understood subject areas. Using the information contained in the foregoing re-
view, a classification was developed to relate specific qualities of the sus-
pended and dissolved solids to likely Impact on freshwater ecosystems (Table 7).
Primary, secondary and tertiary effects on biota of these pollutants would be
expected to be observed. For example, primary includes direct life cycle effects
(growth, reproduction) or toxicity (acute and chronic); secondary includes chemi-
cal effects which in turn cause biological effects, such as, the interaction of
dissolved oxygen and fish; tertiary includes the effects of organisms on organisms,
such as, decreased light reduces primary productivity which in turn affects the
whole food chain.
Standards must reflect these different levels of effect. Because climax
communities generally reflect natural conditions, we are usually concerned with
changes of condition from what occurs naturally. Thus one important area of
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TABLE 7. CLASSIFICATION OF SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS AND THEIR PROBABLE
MAJOR IMPACTS ON FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS.
Biochemical, Chemical,
and Physical Effects
Biological Effects
Suspended Solids
Clays, silts, sand
Natural organic matter
Wastewater organic
particles
Toxicants sorbed to
particles
Dissolved Solids
Major inorganic salts
Important nutrients
Natural organic matter
Wastewater organic matter
Toxicants
Sedimentation, erosion &
abrasion, turbidity
(light reduction),
habitat change
Sedimentation, DO
utilization
Sedimentation, DO
utilization, nutrient
source
All of the above
Salinity, buffering,
precipitation, element
ratios
DO production
DO utilization
DO utilization
Effects on DO
Respiratory interference,
habitat restriction,
light limitation
Food sources, DO effects
DO effects, eutroph.
Toxicity
Nutrient availability,
succession, salt effects
Eutrophication
DO effects
DO effects
Toxicity
*Some of these effects are a result of direct impacts of pollutant (pri-
mary effect) and some are a result of changes due to biochemical, chemical, or
physical changes (secondary) or biological interactions (tertiary effects).
research concerns establishing the effects on natural communities of changes
from natural suspended solids and dissolved solids concentrations and their
patterns and time in space to a new set of conditions caused by human activities
(land uses, waste disposal or water consumption and use). Thus, there is a need
to develop a quantitative relationship between response parameters (biomass,
diversity, growth rates) and the change in pollutant concentration. This
should be the overall goal for determining research needs relevant to setting
standards for suspended solids and dissolved solids. Specific research needs
must be related to this goal.
In the achievement of this goal it is important to stress the need to de-
sign experiments carefully so that confounding due to multiple and uncontrolled
manipulations do not invalidate the conclusions. This is particularly true for
44
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studies on suspended and dissolved solids because 1) the difficulty in isolating
secondary and tertiary effects, 2) the problem of other pollutants which are
either associated with or carried on suspended solids, and 3) confounding effects
in field studies where increased dissolved and suspended solids are associated
with increases in other pollutants.
Impacts of dissolved and suspended solids on the physical and chemical
parameters are well understood. However, biological responses, particularly
at the community level, are only poorly understood but are probably most rele-
vant to setting standards. Thus most of the research needs relate to determin-
ing community responses to dissolved and suspended solids concentrations and
loads. Concepts relating to community responses either need development or must
be applied to the practical problem of setting standards. These concepts in-
clude diversity, successional processes, energy transfer and food web relation-
ships and ecosystem modeling. Thus, the understanding and definition of fresh-
water community response parameters to dissolved and suspended solids are de-
fined as the principal research need.
EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS ON
AQUATIC PHOTOSYNTHETIC SYSTEMS
Although the importance of the effects of dissolved and suspended solids
on photosynthetic systems has been recognized in the literature, very little
quantitative data are available. Therefore, when trying to establish dissolved
(DS) and suspended solids (SS) concentration standards based on the response of
the aquatic community to changes in its environment, one realizes the need for
more research on their effects on photosynthetic systems.
Successional Effects--SS
The effects of reduction in light penetration due to suspended solids has
been established in the literature. Very little has been reported, however,
concerning levels of suspended solids and their direct effect on the plant
population. We need to know what level of increase will cause shifts in popu-
lations from desirable species to less desirable species, for example, algae to
macrophytes or green to blue-green algae.
Abrasive and Siltation Effects—SB
More research is also needed concerning the direct physical effects of sus-
pended solids. Very little is known about the effects of abrasive action on
attached algae and rooted plants. We also need to know what effects sedimenta-
tion has on attached and rooted plants. Good quantitative data are needed in
all these areas concerning community response before standards insuring maximum
use of the watershed can be established.
Successional Effects--DS
Changes in community composition due to increases in dissolved solids must
also be quantified before standards dealing with dissolved solids are established,
45
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More studies, such as the one carried out by Kerekes and Nursall (1966) dealing
with seston biomass and increase in TDS, need to be done so that standards based
on community response can be determined.
Primary Production Effects—PS
The effects of dissolved solids on producer organisms (algae and plants)
are needed in terms of photosynthetic rate, nutrient availability and inter-
actions, and successional effects for different concentrations.
EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS ON
ZOOPLANKTON AND MACROINVERTEBRATES
There is very little information available on the effects of dissolved
solids per se on the microfauna of freshwater. Published information relates
almost entirely to the effects of specific constituents of dissolved solids
such as nutrients (and resulting primary productivity), heavy metals, and
toxic organics. Suspended solids effects on protozoans and micrometazoans are
also poorly understood. Therefore, it is difficult to assess the adequacy of
water quality standards for protection of these organisms.
Successional Effects--Microfauna
A great deal of research is needed both in the laboratory and under field
conditions to assess the tolerances of at least common species of zooplankton,
attached protozoans, and micrometazoans to various concentrations and types of
suspended and dissolved solids. Population composition changes should also be
looked at when trying to determine the effects of changes in suspended and dis-
solved solids. Any shifts in the zooplankton population could adversely affect
other aquatic organisms in the food chain. More knowledge in this area is need-
ed before standards can be set based on the response of this community to
changes.
Successional Effects--Macroinvertebrates
The effects of dissolved solids on macroinvertebrates also have not been
documented quantitatively in the literature. Here again a great deal of re-
search is needed to assess toxic and sublethal effects of dissolved solids on
these organisms. Special attention should probably be directed toward species
selection and effects on ecosystem structure. Bioassay techniques and case by
case studies will probably be required to set effluent standards for protection
of aquatic insect communities which may be impacted by increased dissolved
solids levels.
The literature provides a fair understanding of the effects of suspended
solids on macrobenthic communities. Increased turbidities cause increased in-
sect drift and may selectively reduce insect populations, hence altering eco-
system structure. The recommended criteria of the CWQC (1973) are probably
adequate to protect most aquatic communities.
46
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Macroinvertebrates--Acute Changes in SS
Unusual increases in suspended solids concentrations probably affect estab-
lished macroinvertebrate communities more than concentrations per se, especially
in low suspended solids waters. Research is needed to expand the knowledge of
suspended solids effects on macroinvertebrate ecosystem types as related to
habitat and climate. Little, if any, information is available on physiological
effects of suspended solids on aquatic insects. These effects must be studied
to understand their impacts on community dynamics.
EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS ON FISH
Considerable amounts of research have been published on the effects of dis-
solved and suspended solids on fish, consequently additional research should have
a lower priority. Many fish have been shown to be able to tolerate high sus-
pended solids or relatively high salinities for at least a short time. Eggs,
larvae, and fingerling fish are generally more susceptible to stress by dissolved
or suspended solids than are adult fish. Standards which are similar to the
recommended criteria of the CWQC (1973) are adequate for protecting fish against
suspended solids.
However, some streams probably naturally exceed the recommended low level
of protection afforded by 400 mg/1 suspended solids on a regular basis. In
these streams, special research will be required to determine safe levels of
suspended solids for the native fish population. Standards for protection of
fish from dissolved solids should be designed similarly with the recommended
criteria promulgated by the CWQC (1973), i.e. bioassays and field studies
should be conducted to determine what levels of salinity can be tolerated with-
out damaging ecosystem structure and function, and discharge standards should
be designed to protect the water against exceeding these levels.
47
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SECTION VIII
OTHER RESEARCH NEEDS
SUSPENDED SOLIDS TRANSPORT OF TOXIC
SUBSTANCES
The fluvial translocation of suspended solids to which toxic organics or
toxic metals have been adsorbed poses a significant threat to public health and
ecosystems that is not well understood. The findings that humic matter and
other organics by themselves or in complexes with inorganic clays can greatly
increase the solubility of chlorinated organic compounds and thus increase
their mobility in the environment, calls for research into the transport and
distribution of humic substances and associated chlorinated organics in the
environment. Only limited information is available concerning the nature of the
cause-effect relationship of toxic substance release during dredging operations.
Some laboratory studies have shown negligible release of toxic materials from
dredged sediments, but some field observations conflict with this. Fundamental
information is needed on contaminant-to-sediment attachment mechanisms so that
conditions under which the contaminants might be released can be better predicted
(Chen et al., 1976). Monitoring requirements for dredging operations need to
be improved (Slotta and Williamson, 1974).
AESTHETIC EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS
A great deal of emphasis is being placed by human populations on the quality
of life including aesthetic opportunity. However, methods of evaluating aesthe-
tic preference and/or acceptance have only begun to be developed. No meaning-
ful information is available concerning the aesthetic perception of suspended
solids (turbidity) in water. Sociological research is greatly needed to develop
methods of evaluating aesthetic perception of water quality (including turbid-
ity) and then collecting sociological data so that planning efforts for upgrad-
ing or maintaining water quality can use this information.
THE EFFECTS OF SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS
ON PUBLIC AND INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLY
Bruvold (1975) has evaluated the effects of mineral taste on public accep-
tance of drinking water in California. This information is very valuable in set-
ting salinity limits for public water supplies. However, more geographically
widespread information on mineral taste acceptance is needed. Bruvold (1975) also
points out that the presently promulgated standards for turbidity, color, and odor
in drinking water may be too high and need reevaluation. Dissolved and suspended
48
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solids effects also involve corrosion and wear and tear problems in public water
distribution systems, industrial equipment, and individual residence equipment.
These effects are primarily of economic concern. Little information is avail-
able, however, on the exact nature and extent of this economic impact. Research
is needed on a broad geographical scale into the economics of using or treating
turbid or mineralized water (including treatment alternatives) for public or
industrial water supply.
49
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/3-77-042
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSIOI*NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS EFFECTS ON FRESHWATER
BIOTA: A REVIEW
5. REPORT DATE
April 1977
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHORis) D.L. SORENSEN, M.M. McCARTHY, E.J.
MIDDLEBROOKS, AND D.B. PORCELLA
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
UTAH STATE UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION, AND THE UTAH WATER
RESEARCH LABORATORY, COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
UTAH STATE UNIVERSITY, LOGAN, UTAH 84322
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1BA608
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
P.O. No. CC6991630-J
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY- CORVALLIS, OR
CORVALLIS ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
200 SOUTHWEST 35th STREET
CORVALLIS. OREGON 97330
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
FINAL. JULY-DECEMBER. 1976
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EAP/600/02
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
It is widely recognized that suspended and dissolved solids in lakes, rivers, streams,
and reservoirs affect water quality. In this report the research needs appropriate to
setting freshwater quality criteria or standards for suspended solids (not including
bedload) and dissolved solids are defined by determining the state of our knowledge
from a critical review of the recent literature in this field. Although some 185 jour-
nal articles, government reports, and other references were cited herein, there is a
dearth of quantitative information on the response of freshwater buita, especially at
the community level, to suspended and dissolved solids.
The major research need was defined as the development and/or application of concepts
of community response to suspended and dissolved solids concentrations and loads.
These concepts need to be applied especially to the photosynthetic, the microfauna, anc
macrofauna levels. Fish studies are of lower priority since more and better research
has been reported for these organisms.
In addition, the role of suspended solids in transporting toxic substances (organics,
heavy metals), aesthetic evaluation of suspended solids in aquatic ecosystems, and
dissolved solids in drinking water, and economic aspects of dissolved solids in muni-
cipal-industrial water were defined as research needs.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
review, suspended solids, suspended sedimen
turbidity, residue, dissolved solids,
salinity, TDS, conductivity, freshwater.fis'
invertebrates,zooplankton,algae,water suppl;
lives tock,aesthetics,nutrients,chlorinated
organics,erosion,irrigation,standards,
research needs
0203
0502
0603
0704
0801
0808
1407
2006
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
73
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
65
ft U.S. GOVERNMENT POINTING OCCICE: 1977-797-589/99 BEGION 10
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