EPA
United States Industrial Environmental Research EPA 600/7 79 187a
Environmental Protection Laboratory August 1979
Agency Cincinnati OH 45268
Research and Development
Manual of Practice for
Protection and Cleanup of
Shorelines:
Volume I
Decision Guide
Interagency
Energy/Environment
R&D Program Report
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Augujf 1979
MANUAL OF PRACTICE FOR PROTECTION AND CLEANUP
OF SHORELINES
Volume I
Decision Guide
by
Carl R. Foget, Eric Schrier,
Martin Cramer, and Robert Castle
Woodward-Clyde Consultants
Three Embarcadero Center, Suite 700
San Francisco, California 94111
Contract No. 68-03-2542
Project Officer
Leo T. McCarthy, Jr.
Oil and Hazardous Materials Spills Branch
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Edison, New Jersey 08817
INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
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FOREWORD
When energy and material resources are extracted, processed, converted
and used, the related pollutional impacts on our environment and even on our
health often require that nev and increasingly more efficient pollution
control methods be used. The Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory -
Cincinnati (lERL-Ci) assists in developing and demonstrating new and im-
proved methodologies that will meet these needs both efficiently and
economically.
This manual, a product of the above efforts, is structured to provide the
field user, guidelines to determine which shoreline protection, clean-up and
restoration techniques would be most effective for a given shoreline and
oil spill situation. This project is part of the continuing program of the
Oil & Hazardous Materials Spills Branch, lERL-Ci, to assess and mitigate
the environmental impact of oil spills.
David G. Stephen
Director
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati
iii
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ABSTRACT
LThe purpose of this manual is to provide the On-Scene-Coordinator (OSC)
with a systematic, easy to apply methodology that can be used to assess the
threat of an oil spill and select the most appropriate protection and cleanup
techniques. I
This manual is structured to provide a decision-making guide to enable
the user to determine, for a given oil spill situation, which protection and
cleanup techniques would be most effective for a specific shoreline type. A
detailed discussion of the factors involved in the decision-making process is
also given and Includes oil characteristics, behavior and movement of oil,
shoreline characterization and sensitivity, protection and cleanup priorities
and implementation requirements, and impacts associated with cleanup oper-
ations. The manual also presents criteria for terminating cleanup operations
and a discussion on handling of oily wastes.
This manual was submitted in fulfillment of Contract No. 68-03-2542 by
Woodward-Clyde Consultants under the sponsorship of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
iv
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CONTENTS
FOREWORD
ABSTRACT
FIGURES
TABLES
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
100 Introduction
200 Information Checklist
300 Spill Characteristics and Movement
301 Oil Characteristics and Behavior
302 Oil Spill Movement
400 Shoreline Classification Characterization
401 Introduction
402 Shoreline Classification
403 Descriptive Factors
404 Shoreline Sensitivity
500 Protection of Shorelines
501 Protection Priorities
502 Selection of Protection Techniques
503 Protection Implementation Requirements
600 Cleanup of Shorelines
601 Cleanup Priorities
602 Selection of Cleanup Procedure
603 Impacts Associated with Cleanup Techniques
604 Cleanup Implementation Requirements
605 Termination of Cleanup
606 Waste Handling
iii
iv
vii
ix
xi
100-1
200-1
300-1
300-1
300-10
400-1
400-1
400-3
400-5
400-11
500-1
500-1
500-9
500-16
600-1
600-1
600-4
600-14
600-21
600-27
600-28
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CONTENTS (Continued)
700 Inland Waters 700-1
701 General Shoreline Information 700-2
702 Shoreline Classification 700-5
703 Protection 700-6
704 Criteria for Selecting Containment Sites 700-7
705 Methods of Containment and Exclusion 700-9
706 Cleanup 700-14
707 Impacts of Cleanup 700-16
vi
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FIGURES
Number
Page
100-1 Manual organization 100-1
100-2 Decision flow chart for protection and restoration
of shorelines 100~4
301-1 Field identification of oil types 300-4
301-2 Light oil contamination an a cobble bank 300-7
301-3 Light oil contamination on a sand beach 300-7
301-4 Medium oil contamination on a boulder beach 300-8
301-5 Light to medium contamination on a gravel beach 300-8
301-6 Heavy oil contamination on a gravel beach 300-9
301-7 Heavy oil contamination on a sand beach 300-9
302-1 Vector addition for 10 km/hr NW wind and
0.3 km/hr north current 300-14
302-2 Oil-spill volume, filmthickness, appearance, and
area covered 300-16
302-3 Medium oil spill radius versus time (Fay-Hoult model) .... 300-18
401-1 Shoreline characterization 400-2
403-1 Typical shoreline landforms 400-6
403-2 Landform configurations affecting current flows 400-8
404-1 The potential for persistence of oil 400-12
501-1 Decision guide for protection priorities 500-2
501-2 Hypothetical spill and coastline. . 500-5
501-3 Hypothetical spill response guide totals 500-8
vii
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FIGURES (Continued)
Number Page
502-1 Decision guide for inland waters 500-11
502-2 Protection decision guide for coastal waters 500-12
502-3 Protection techniques for hypothetical spill 500-14
503-1 Deadman boom anchor 500-18
503-2 Straight line towing force versus boom length at 2 knots. . . 500-21
503-3 Straight line towing force versus boom length at 6 knots. . . 500-22
601-1 Decision guide for cleanup priorities 600-2
602-1 Key to decision guides 600-5
602-2 Cleanup decision guide number 1 600-6
602-3 Cleanup decision guide number 2 600-7
602-4 Cleanup decision guide number 3 600-8
606-1 Field oil/water separation 600-29
606-2 Temporary waste storage site 600-31
700-1 High and low current areas 700-3
705-1 Oil containment on rivers 700-10
705-2 Oil containment on streams 700-11
705-3 Oil containment on lakes 700-13
viii
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TABLES
Number Page^
200-1 General Data Checklist 200-2
200-2 Shoreline Information Checklist 200-3
301-1 Spill Response Oil Classification 300-2
301-2 Worksheet for Estimating Oil Contamination of Shorelines . . . 300-6
402-1 Shoreline Classification A00-4
404-1 Shoreline Sensitivity 400-1:4
501-1 Response Guide Worksheet—Establishing Protection Priorities. . 500-3
501-2 Response Guide Worksheet—Establishing Protection
Priorities for a Hypothetical Spill Event 500-6
502-1 Protection Techniques 500-10
502-2 Protection Techniques for a Hypothetical Spill 500-15
503-1 Boom Selection 500-16
503-2 Support Equipment and Materials 500-19
503-3 Data Form for Determining Deployment Time 500-20
503-4 Boom Handling Requirements 500-24
503-5 Checklist for Implementing Protection Procedures 500-25
602-1 Cleanup Techniques 600-9
602-2 Checklist for Determining the Natural Recovery Potential
of a Shoreline 600-13
603-1 Impacts Associated with Cleanup Techniques 600-15
604-1 Equipment and Personnel Requirements 600-22
ix
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TABLES (Continued)
Number Page
604-2 Summary of Cleaning Rates 600-23
604-3 Data Form for Cleanup Implementation Requirements 600-25
604-4 Implementation of Cleanup Techniques Checklist 600-26
606-1 Rates of Disposal for Oiled Material 600-32
704-1 Preferred River and Stream Containment Sites During
Low and High Flows 700-8
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SECTION 100
INTRODUCTION
Purpose
When a major oil spill occurs, it usually involves contamination of
coastal or inland shorelines, which can result in serious environmental
and economic damage. Such damage can be significantly reduced if proper
protection and cleanup actions are taken promptly.
The purpose of this manual is to provide the on-scene coordinator (OSC)
and his staff with a systematic, easy-to-apply methodology that can be used
to assess the threat or extent of shoreline contamination and to choose the
most appropriate shoreline protection/cleanup procedures for each shoreline
contamination event*
Use of Manual
This manual of practice for protection and cleanup of shorelines is de-
signed as a guide for determining the protection and restoration techniques
that would be most effective for specific spill situations. The manual is
divided into two volumes as illustrated below: Volume I, Decision Guide,
Collect
Spill
Information
Evaluate
Spill
Behavior
and
Impacted
Areas
Assess
Protection
Actions
\
Assess
Cleanup
Actions
Implement
Protection
and
Cleanup
Actions
Volume 1
Volume II
Figure 100-1. Manual organization.
100-1
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gives instructions on how to gather information on a spill, assess the type
and extent of a spill and decides which protection and cleanup actions are
appropriate; Volume II, Implementation Guide, presents background informa-
tion on oil characteristics and shoreline processes, and gives detailed
Instructions on how to implement various protection and cleanup procedures*
Figure 100-2 is a flow chart which illustrates the proper use of the
manual. Starting with the initial information received concerning a spill,
the user can progress through the various information and decision points
indicated on the flow chart. Each of these points represents one or more
subsections of the manual in which instructions are given for conducting a
specific evaluation or decision making.
Section 200 provides information checklists that should be filled out
for each discrete section of shoreline* threatened or contaminated by oil.
The questions asked in the checklists are intended to provide information
needed to make decisions in other sections of the manual.
Section 300 gives procedures for estimating the volume, nature, and
character of the spilled oil and predicting where it will move and what
shoreline it will threaten.
Once the nature and direction of the oil spill have been estimated,
the next step is to determine the types and vulnerability of the threatened
shorelines. In Section 400, information and decision guides are provided
to classify coastal shorelines as to sediment type, energy level, exposure,
access, and sensitivity to oil contamination. Section 700 discusses similar
factors for shorelines on inland waters.
Protection of shorelines that are threatened but not yet contaminated
by an oil spill is the next action to consider. Section 500 describes how
to determine which shoreline areas need protection most (i.e., how to set
priorities), how to select the protection technique most applicable to the
particular spill situation, and how to implement the procedure selected.
Once protection measures are implemented, cleanup of oil-contaminated
shorelines should commence. Through a series of decision guides, Section
600 describes the steps necessary to implement a shoreline cleanup program.
First, priorities for cleaning each shoreline area are determined. Second,
cleanup procedures for each shoreline area are selected, and those shorelines
best left to natural cleaning are identified. Third, each cleanup procedure
is evaluated to determine if the impacts associated with that cleanup tech-
nique are acceptable. Fourth, support requirements needed to implement each
selected technique are assessed and compared with locally available equip-
ment, personnel, and supplies. Finally, criteria are given to assist the
user in determining when the cleanup is satisfactory and operations can be
terminated. Guidelines are also given for establishing temporary waste-
handling facilities.
*A discrete section of shoreline is a continuous shoreline area which has a
similar substrate along its length.
100-2
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The appendices (Volume II) provide background information on data
sources, oil characteristics, shoreline processes, and unique and sensitive1
features, and detailed instructions on how to conduct the protection ands
cleanup techniques identified in Sections 500 and 600.
This manual of practice describes proven state-of-the-art techniques,
using manual or mechanical means, for the protection and cleanup of ocean
estuarine and inland shorelines. Techniques which are considered experi-
mental or have not been proven during an oil spill are not considered in
this manual. The protection and cleanup of marshes and mangroves is not
included in this manual but is the subject of a separate manual of practice
published by the Environmental Protection Agency. The use of chemical agents
for protection and/or cleanup of a shoreline are not covered in this manual
and are also the subject of a separate EPA manual.
100-3
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o
o
1SITE ENVIRONMENTAL
INFORMATION
SPILL INFORMATION
Maiaoiological data
Hvdfolagical/coailai data
ShOf cling landtoim 01
clauilication
Sensitive or uniquv
faatuiei
200
Spill chiiKltfillict
Oil charMtaiiiiict
200
Zoatial 400 403
niand 700 /
-------
o
o
Ln
• protection I
\ technique /
I Dcierminp cleanup A
I procvduret 1^
I i /
cleaning ^ • •**.
jf ^ | Evaluate poifiiiiai 1
I • I cleanup impdcti I
I circumstances • ^<^ ^^^
~ * ^
I ™"l"a,enlat,on 1
Y y
..J
n
It cleanup
leaiibie '
XHandlinqmdX _A
I rjiipoul oi \ S~~ ^
I oil and \f__t Implement "V
I oil contaminated I*"* cleanup H
V melerialt / \ techr-.aue *
V^ 606 ^/ ^'
CEvaluaip \
cleanup I
ODefdtiOn I
- J
No
It cleanup
utitlaciory !
Figure 100-2. Decision flow chart for protection and restoration of shorelines.
(Note: The numbers in each box refer to section of the manual.)
Should a different
be uied '
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SECTION 200
INFORMATION CHECKLIST
Before shoreline protection and cleanup efforts are initiated, infor-
mation about the spill and the affected or potentially affected area should
be collected. Much of this information can be collected before an incident
occurs by the preparation of comprehensive local contingency plans. The
following checklists (Tables 200-1 and 200-2) call for the information
that will assist the user in the selection of protection or cleanup methods
and determination of priorities. Those sections in the manual that more
fully describe the key words used in the checklists are noted next to the
general category headings.
The checklist shown in Table 200-1 calls for general information about
the spill itself. Time, location, and volume of the spill and character-
istics of the oil will be used in determining the extent of tAe spill and
its shoreline contamination potential. Meteorological and oceanographic data
form the basis for predicting movement of the spill and, in turn, implement-
ing effective protection measures and mobilizing cleanup equipment and crews.
The checklist shown in Table 200-2 calls for information on the specific
shoreline areas that have been or may be contaminated by the spill. A sep-
arate checklist should be filled out for each discrete shoreline area. The
list requires information on the general physical character and special or
unique features of the shoreline, hydrological character of the nearshore
area, extent of contamination, and additional features applicable to protec-
tion and/or cleanup decisions.
Most of the information required by the checklists can be obtained
from aerial (ideally by helicopter on initial overflight), vessel, and/or
land reconnaissance of the spill site and associated shoreline areas. These
checklists should be used in conjunction with maps and overlays. Sources
for information not obtained by reconnaissance are given in Section 801.
200-1
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TABLE 200-1. GENERAL DATA CHECKLIST
SPILL DATA
Apparent Source:
Time and Date:
Location: (plot on chart or
overlay)
Is spill •continuing? Yes No ._
Volume of Discharge Known (barrels/or gal)
(rate if continuing): Estimated (barrels/or gal/day)
Maximum Spill Potential: (barrels/or gal)
Size and Location of Slick(s): (Plot on Chart or Overlay)
Direction of Slick Movement:
Oil Type: A B C D (Section 301)'
METEOROLOGICAL DATA (Section 302)
Air Temperature: *C (or °F)
Wind: Speed Direction
Precipitation: None Rain Snow
Visibility: Good Fair Poor
Forecast:
OCEANOGRAPHIC DATA (Section 302)
Water Temperature: °C (or °F)
Water Current: Speed Direction
Sea State: 1 2 3 4 5j
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
200-2
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TABLE 200-2. SHORELINE INFORMATION CHECKLIST
Beach Name
Location
GENERAL DESCRIPTION (Section 401)
Long (m or ft),
Length and Width:
Intertidal:
Backshore:
Substrate:
Type:
Depth:
(1)
JLong (m or ft),_
(2)
Shoreline Exposure: Exposed_
Energy Level: High
Sheltered
Low
Type of Access: (Plot on Map Overlay)
Land: Heavy Equip. Vehicular
Water: Barge or LCM Small Craft
Sensitive or Unique Features (Plot on Map Overlay)
Biological:
Wide (m or ft)
~Wide (m or ft)
(3)
Foot
Swim
Physical:_
Cultural:
Recreational Use: Type
Extent
HYDROLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS (Section 803)
Wave Height: m (or ft)
Currents:
Tidal (Ebb): Speed
Tidal (Flood): Speed'
Longshore: Speed
Direction_
Direction_
Direction'
Duration^
Duration
Tidal Range:
Water Depth (nearshore):
jn (or ft) rising
m (or ft)
falling (moon phase)
Sediment Cycle:
Seasonal:
Tidal:
Erosion_
Erosion
Deposition_
Deposition
200-3
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TABLE 200-2 (Continued). SHORELINE INFORMATION CHECKLIST
OIL CONTAMINATION (Section 302) (Plot on Map Overlay)
Degree of Contamination: High Low
Migration Potential: High Low"
Depth of Penetration: cm (or in)
FEATURES/CONFIGURATION FOR PROTECTION (Section 502) (Indicate on Map
Overlay)
OTHER FEATURES (Section 803) (Plot on Map Overlay)
Trafficability: Good Fair Poor Cone Index
Debris: Type Location
Man-made Structures: Type
Location
Vegetation: Type __
Location
Ice: Amount
Location
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
200-4
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SECTION 300
SPILL CHARACTERISTICS AND MOVEMENT
301 OIL CHARACTERISTICS AND BEHAVIOR
General
In defining an acceptable response to an oil spill incident, it is
necessary to know certain physical and chemical characteristics of the oil
involved. Typically, analytical data will not be available during an emer-
gency, nor will it be relevant after a short time. It is therefore neces-
sary and desirable to field-categorize oils as they react and change in
the environment. Although they vary widely in properties, oils have common
basic features that permit their grouping for predictive evaluation of en-
vironmental effects and determination of control actions.
Oil Classification
The following classification has been developed specifically for use
in oil spill response. It considers general toxicity, physical state, and
changes with time and weathering.
Class A: Light, volatile oils
Class B: Non-sticky oils
Class C: Heavy, sticky oils
Class D: Nonfluid oils
It is essential to recognize the dynamic nature of this classification.
Some oils can rapidly undergo extensive modification of properties, whereas
others may remain relatively unaffected over longer periods of time. For
this reason, an oil can and often will, change characteristics sufficiently
to be ranked in more than one of the above oil classes over time. In addi-
tion, types of oil can change with the time of day, becoming fluid during
exposure to sunlight and solidifying during night and morning hours.
Representative oils, diagnostic properties, and physical chemical pro-
perties for each of these classes are summarized in Table 301-1.
Class A; Light, Volatile Oils. This class typically includes dlesel oils
and many light crude oils. These materials are generally flammable when
fresh. Class A oils can be identified by high fluidity, clarity, rapid
spreading rate, strong odor, and high evaporation rate. They do not tend
300-1
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TABLE 301-1. SPILL RESPONSE OIL CLASSIFICATION
Field-Determined
Oil Type
Designation
Representative
Oils
Diagnostic Properties
Physical/Chemical Properties
Light volatile oils
Distillate fuel and
most light crude oils
Highly fluid, usually
transparent but can be
opaque, strong odor,
rapid spreading, can be
rinsed from plant sample
by simple agitation.
May be flammable, high rate
of evaporative loss of vola-
tile components, assumed to
be highly toxic to marine
or aquatic biota when fresh,
tend to form unstable emul-
sions, may penetrate sub-
strates.
Non-sticky oils
o
o
Heavy sticky oils
Medium to heavy paraffin-
base refined and crude
oils
Residual fuel oils;
medium to heavy asphaltlc
and mixed-base crudes
Moderate to high visco-
sity, waxy or oily feel,
can be rinsed from sur-
faces by low pressure water
flushing.
Typically opaque brown
or black, sticky or
tarry, viscous, cannot
be rinsed from plant
sample by agitation.
Generally removable from
surfaces, penetration of
substrates variable, tox-
Iclty variable. Includes
water in oil emulsions.
High viscosity, hard to re-
move from surfaces, tend to
form stable emulsions, high
specific gravity and poten-
tial for sinking after wea-
thering, low substrate pene-
tration low toxlclty (biolo-
gical effects due primarily
to smothering). Will interfere
with many types of recovery
equipment.
Nonfluld oils (at Residual and heavy crude
ambient temperature) oils (all types)
Tarry or waxy lumps.
Nonspreadlng, cannot be re-
covered from water surfaces
using most conventional
cleanup equipment, cannot be
pumped without pre-heatlng
or slurrylng, initially re-
latively nontoxlc, may melt
and flow when stranded in sun.
-------
to adhere to surfaces and can be largely removed by flushing. This tendency
can be experimentally determined by agitating an oiled sample (i.e., plant
material) in water.
The lighter members of this class tend to evaporate entirely and quickly.
Heavier Class A oils may partially evaporate, leaving a residue that falls
into one of the other response classes. The tendency to penetrate porous
surfaces is high, and in the case of contaminated substrate, the oil may
be persistent. When fresh, volatile oils can be considered highly toxic.
They generally form unstable emulsions.
Class B: Non-Sticky Oils. This class of oils includes medium to heavy
paraffin-base oils and is distinguished by a waxy, oily or non-sticky feel.
Although they adhere to plant and other surfaces, the oils of this class
tend to be moderately removable by flushing. Their tendency to penetrate
permeable substrates is variable, and increases as temperatures rise. Their
toxicity is variable. When weathered or subjected to low temperatures,
they may become solid and fall into the Class D category. Fluid, emulsified
oils generally fall into this class.
Class C: Heavy. Sticky Oils. This class typically includes residual fuel
oils and heavier asphaltic and mixed-base crude oils in the fluid state.
Characteristically viscous, sticky or tarry, and brown or black in color,
they cannot be readily removed from test samples of vegetation by agitation.
After natural light ends and cutter stock evaporates from an oil, its toxi-
city tends to be lower. Biological effects are generally the result of
smothering. Typically, the ability to penetrate substrates is low. Many
Class C oils have a specific gravity near or exceeding that of water and
may sink. Class C oils will weather to a tar- or asphalt-like consistency
and then may be considered as Class D oils. Emulsions formed tend to be
stable. Water in oil emulsions with high water contents may fall into
Class C.
Class D: Nonfluid Oils. This class Includes residual oils, heavy crude
oils, some high paraffin crude oils, and weathered oils that are solid
or nonfluid at spill temperatures. In the solid form, they are essentially
nontoxic. When heated, many melt and contaminate adjacent areas. Some
water in oil emulsions may become nonfluid.
Oil Identification
The criteria for field categorization of oil type are shown graphically
in Figure 301-1. The key diagnostic factors are described on the lower
left portion of the figure.
Estimation of Oil Contamination
Estimation of the degree to which a shoreline is contaminated by oil
is subjective and can be difficult, depending primarily on the type of oil
and beach substrate and the existing tidal and wave conditions. Oil tends
to wash ashore in patches and streaks; only in cases of extremely heavy con-
tamination does oil completely cover a shoreline. If the contamination
300-3
-------
Is the source
of the oil known?
No
Yes
1
Gather information
on type of oil
Is the oil
opaque'
Classify
oil
No
Yes
i.
Type A
Oil
i
Does the oil
feel waxy'
No ,
I
TypeB
Oil
.
i
f
Yes
,,
Is the oil in
solid chunk*'
No , • Yes
I
Is the oil
sticky or viscous'
No ,
•
Type D
Oil
Yes
DEFINITION OF TERMS
OPAQUE Cannot see through coating of oil
WAXY Feels slick but is not sticky
can be easily wiped off fingers or hand
with a cloth, can be viscous
SOLID Does not flow, can have solid
CHUNKS consistency or be soft like putty
STICKY Oil is very sticky and has a thick consistency,
OR is not easily removed from hands or fingers
VISCOUS without using detergents or cloth
Figure 301-1 Field identification of oil types.
300-4
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is light, oil tends to be deposited in a narrow windrow along the high tide
line, with occasional streaks or blotches occurring in the mid-tide zone.
Wave and tidal action also affect shoreline contamination, since they
are the primary vehicles of oil deposition. During periods of high wave
activity or large tidal ranges, oil is often deposited over a large area.
The length of time oil has been on a beach is an important factor. Oil
initially contaminating a beach will often remain on the surface; however,
oil that has been on a beach for several days or longer will have time
to penetrate the beach or be buried by sediments. Oil type is also impor-
tant; Class A oils will usually quickly penetrate most sediment beaches,
whereas Class B, C, and D oils will normally remain on the surface of
sand on mud beaches when they first come ashore.
Appearance alone cannot be used to determine the amount of oil on
a shoreline accurately. A sand or gravel beach might give the appearance
of being slightly contaminated when the majority of oil has penetrated
the substrate or has been buried by tidal and wave action. Therefore,
when estimating the percent of a shoreline surface covered by oil, holes
should be dug into a beach or cores taken to determine the amount and
depth of oil penetration. Estimation of shoreline oil contamination is
then done by combining estimates of the extent of surface oil contamination
with an estimate of the depth of oil penetration as shown in Table 301-2.
For example, 20 percent of the upper intertidal beach surface maybe oil-
contaminated with oil penetration varying from 1 to 3 cm and a clean
mid-intertidal area. Figures 301-2 to 301-7 show beaches with various
amounts of oil contamination.
300-5
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TABLE 301-2. WORKSHEET FOR ESTIMATING OIL CONTAMINATION OF SHORELINES
§
Beach
Name
Amount of Oil Contamination
Location of Oil Depth of Oil Penetration
Upper Intertidal
% covered
Mid-Intertidal
% covered
Upper Intertidal
cm
Mid-Intertidal
cm
-------
Figure 301-2. Light oil contamination on a cobble bank.
Figure 301-3. Light oil contamination on a sand beach.
300-7
-------
Figure 301-4. Medium oil contamination on a boulder beach.
Figure 301-5. Light to medium oil contamination on a gravel beach.
300-8
-------
Figure 301-6. Heavy oil contamination on a gravel beach.
Figure 301-7. Heavy oil contamination on a sand beach.
300-9
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302 OIL SPILL MOVEMENT
General
The movement of oil spilled on water depends primarily on the effects
of wind and the surface currents present near the site of the spill. Less
Important Is the Internal spreading of the slick itself.
When current and wind are absent, slick spreading will dictate the
probable location of beach contact. However, the movement of a slick will
be dictated by even weak wind or surface currents when they exist.
When spills threaten to affect shoreline areas, slick movement predic-
tions can be used to determine the location of potential shoreline contami-
nation and to direct the protection of sensitive areas. Data that are
helpful for predicting oil spill movement (listed in order of importance)
are: 1) surface current speed and direction, 2) wind speed and direction,
and 3) oil spreading characteristics.
Another important aspect for the planning of oil spill response actions
is the determination of the volume of oil involved. An accurate assessment
of spill volume is needed for determining cleanup equipment requirements.
Prediction of Spill Movement
The National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) under
the National Contingency Plan is assigned the responsibility for providing
marine environmental data to the OSC. These data include current and pre-
dicted meteorological, hydrological, and oceanographic conditions for an
area.
Prediction of oil slick movements by on-scene personnel can be accom-
plished by vector addition of the two main motive forces that apply: sur-
face currents and winds. Surface currents will dominate spill movement
unless the winds are extremely strong. Observations from actual spill
situations have shown that the wind will cause an oil slick to move at
about 3 percent of the wind speed, and in the same general direction.
Figure 302-1 gives an example of the vector addition method of oil slick
movement prediction; the general methodology of this technique is as follows:
1. Draw ocean current and wind component vectors in their relative
directions and lengths (length of vector represents velocity:
10 mm = 0.1 km/hr).
2. Draw a line parallel to the wind vector starting from the tip of
the current vector and measuring the exact length of the wind
vector.
3. Draw a line from the point of origin (present oil slick position)
to the tip of the parallel wind vector line drawn in Diagram 2 of
Figure 302-1. This final line is the resultant vector that gives
300-10
-------
1.
0°
Current component - 0.3 km/hr
towards the north
10 mm =0.1 km/hr
Present oil slick position
Wind component
3% of 10 km/hr from
the northwest
2.
3.
\68°
Note 1 km/hr « 0 55 kt
Figure 302-1. Vector addition for 10 km/hr NW
wind and 0.3 km/hr north current.
300-11
-------
Che direction and speed of the oil slick movement. The direction
can be measured by using the cardinal points of a compass. The
speed is determined by the length of the resultant vector relative
to the scale used in drawing the component vectors.
Aerial reconnaissance is a useful tool for predicting the time(s) and
location(s) of spill contact. Separate observations can be compared to
quantify the direction and amount of slick movement. The distance noted
can be divided by the time between observations to obtain the speed and
direction of slick movement.
Estimation of Spill Volume
A rough estimate of the total volume of the spill Is desirable. Early
in the response, total spill volume determines, In part, the equipment and
manpower needed, and the requirements of the disposal site.
Because early estimates of spill size are often either unavailable or
of questionable accuracy, onsite estimations are generally necessary. Sev-
eral quick methods can be used to provide working approximations.
When a tanker or an oil barge suffers serious damage, e.g. owing to a
collision or grounding, spill volumes can be estimated if the cargo capacity
and extent of hull damage are known. Typically no more than two compartments
will be breached during the first hours following an accident. A reasonable
estimate of maximum probable spill size would be the volume of these tanks.
For a barge, this would mean about one-fourth of its cargo and for a tanker
approximately one-eighth. If the vessel cannot be off loaded and continues
to breakup then its total cargo and on-board fuel can be considered the max-
imum spill volume.
If a spill occurs during oil transfer, the total spill volume can be
estimated if the pumping rate and the elapsed time between leak commencement
and transfer shutdown are known. The maximum transfer rate from a vessel
to receiving facility multiplied by the length of time the pumping continued
until shutdown may be assumed to be the spill volume for a complete transfer
hose rupture or manifold failure. Spills resulting from improper flange
makeup or from hose leaks would be likely to occur at significantly lower
rates. Estimates of likely spill volumes from ruptured hoses are:
Large crude oil tanker 300 barrels
Product tanker 200 barrels
Barge SO barrels
A rough estimate of spill volume can be attempted by considering slick
size and thickness. Figure 302-2 relates the appearance of oil on water
to its thickness. Slick thicknesses greater than 0.25 mm cannot be dif-
ferentiated by appearance. A direct measurement of slick thickness would
be preferable.
300-12
-------
1,000,000
10cm
1 cm
0.1 cm
0.01 cm
_ 100,000
£
|
O 10,000-
ID
o
o
I-1
CO
o
LL
o
UJ
5
D
O
1,000-
100-
10-
0.001 cm
0.0001 cm
0.00001 cm
103
10"
105
10°
10'
108
109
101
AREA COVERED AFTER 24 hr (meters2)
Shaded area indicates the range of oil slick
observations for which thickness and area
covered can be determined by appearance.
Any value below the shaded area would
not be visible, and any value above would
be a dark brown or black.
Figure 302-2. Oil-spilt volume, film thickness, appearance,
and area covered.
-------
Oil spills eventually cease to increase in area if the spill source is
stopped. Figure 302-3 shows the radius to which an oil spill is expected to
spread and the time it takes for the spill to attain these proportions for
four spill volumes.
300-14
-------
16000
14000 -
12000 -
10000 -
01
V)
« 8000 -
a.
c/i
6000 -
4000
2000
Figure 302-3. Maximum oil spill radius versus time (Fay-Hoult model).
300-15
-------
SECTION 400
SHORELINE CHARACTERIZATION
401 INTRODUCTION
The type of shoreline, its uses and the environmental conditions at
the time of an oil spill will affect the spills impact on the shoreline
and the response which is required. Factors involved include substrate
type, exposure, energy, and access. On occasion, sensitive and unique
features and the recreational value of the shoreline must also be consid-
ered. When evaluating a shoreline, each of these components is identified
separately and then related to provide the information needed to determine
how and to what extent protection and cleanup operations should be conducted.
Figure 401-1 identifies the important shoreline characteristics and illu-
strates how they are categorized.
400-1
-------
SHORELINE
CLASSIFICATION
•DESCRIPTIVE FACTORS-
EXPOSURE
ENERGY LEVEL ACCESS
O
?
ro
SENSITIVE OR
UNIQUE
FEATURES
RECREATIONAL,
COMMERCIAL.
INDUSTRIAL USE
O
4
N
or
UJ
O
oc
O
Ul
oc
O
Note Marsh lands are not included in this manual
Figure 401-1. Shoreline characterization.
-------
402 SHORELINE CLASSIFICATION
Selection of cleanup alternatives (e.g., removal of the oiled substrate
or removal of the oil from the substrate) and the expected persistence and
impact of the oil on shore are dictated largely by substrate type. For use
in oil spill response planning, shorelines may be classified by the follow-
ing substrate catagories: mud, sand, gravel, cobble, boulder, rock, marine
terrace, and man-made structures (marshlands are the subject of another man-
ual and excluded from this discussion). If more than one substrate type is
present, the most predominant substrate is listed first, the second most
predominant next, and so on. For example, a beach area composed primarily
of cobbles with some gravel zones would be classified as a cobble/gravel
beach. Table 402-1 can be used as a guide to classify shoreline types.
In addition to substrate classification, several descriptive factors are
shown in Table 402-1 which are used to characterize shorelines.
400-3
-------
TABLE 402-1. SHORELINE CLASSIFICATION
Substrate
Type
Grain Size
(nun)
General Descriptive Features
Mud
_< 0.06 • 1 !° beach slope
• Develop in areas where there is a source of fine material
• Incised by a complex network of creeks and channels
despite the generally flat surface
• Saturated with water; even at low tide, the mud deposits are
usually covered with a thin film of water that cannot drain
through the closely packed sediments
• Low bearing capacities frequently Incapable of supporting the
weight of a person
Sand
0.06-2.0 • r-40° beach slope
• Subjected to seasonal erosion and deposition cycles as a
consequence of the varying levels of Incoming wave energy
and to a lesser extent, ebb and flood tidal action
• Closely packed substrate with a low water infiltration rate
Gravel 2.0-50 • Narrower and steeper beach slope than sand beaches
• Storm ridges8 often present to the landward side of the berm8
Cobble 50-256 • Narrower and steeper beach-face than gravel beaches
• Rock fragments are somewhat rounded or modified by abrasion
• Storm ridge usually present to the landward side of the benn
Boulder
> 256
• Detached rock masses that are somewhat rounded or otherwise
distinctively shaped by abrasion in the course of transport
• Typically located near the base of cliffs or rocky outcrops;
often found on pocket beaches8
Rock
cliffs
N.A.1
• Typically associated with emergent coastlines
• Occur as a result of high relief in the coastal zone or because
the unreslstant rocks or unconsolldated material are rapidly
eroded by littoral processes
• Often little or no sediment accumulation at the cliff base
allowing erosional processes to act directly on the cliffs
platforms N.A.
• Typically occur in shallow waters at the base of rock cliffs
• Sediment cover, If It occurs, does not provide a protective
cover; wave- and tide-induced processes act directly on the
rock surfaces
Man-Made N.A.
Structures
• Any structure found on a shoreline constructed or fabricated
by man
• Examples include piers, boat ramps, seawalls, groins, rock
jetties, oil handling facilities, houses, etc.
8For definitions of storm ridges, berms, and pocket beaches, refer to Section 803.
"N.A. • not applicable.
400-4
-------
403 DESCRIPTIVE FACTORS
Shoreline Exposure
Shoreline exposure will partially determine the potential for booming
and the expected persistence of the oil. A shoreline can generally be clas-
sified as exposed or sheltered, depending on whether or not it is exposed
to wind and waves and on the protection that may be provided by nearby land
forms. The degree to which a beach is exposed varies among localities, so
that there is a transition rather than a distinct difference between exposed
and sheltered beaches.
Exposed shorelines are subjected to swell and storm waves or high cur-
rents with little or no protection from adjacent land forms. A shoreline
along a straight, open coastline that receives the full force of wind and
waves would be classified as exposed. Beaches located on exposed shorelines
typically have a well-defined sequence - low tide terrace, beach slope, and
berm - that results from the sorting of sediment grain sizes.
Sheltered shorelines are usually protected by land forms such as spits,
sand bars, reefs, or peninsulas and usually have limited fetches, as shown
in Figure 403-1. A shoreline that is located on the leeward side of a pen-
insula or sand bar, for example, would be classified as sheltered. Section
803 gives more detailed information on these shoreline processes.
Energy Level
The energy level of a shoreline will influence the extent and persist-
ence of the oil, contamination, recontaminatlon potential, and the effective-
ness of booming. Energy level refers to the relative amount of energy
being transmitted from wave, current, and tidal action to a shoreline.
In a high energy environment moderate or high amounts of energy are
transmitted to the littoral zone throughout the year. These shorelines are
usually open and exposed to swell and storm waves or to currents that can
remove large amounts of sediment in a short time.
In a low-energy environment there is normally little or no wave, cur-
rent, and tidal activity, although occasionally there may be intense storm-
waves. These shorelines are usually protected or sheltered and have limited
fetches.
In the marine environment, there are four types of water currents that
could impart energy to a coastal area: wind-induced, oceanic, long-shore,
and tidal. Wind-induced and oceanic currents are major factors in the move-
ment of an oil spill on the open sea. Longshore currents, formed by waves
approaching a shoreline at an angle, are the transporting force in sediment
movement, beach erosion, and replenishment and oil migration from a contain-.
inated shoreline. Tidal currents are not as significant in open water as they
are in coastal inlets, intertidal channels, and estuaries. Where the water
moves through constricted areas, current velocities during the ebb and flood
400-5
-------
Bav or Lagoon
Pocket Beach
Harbor
Fjord
Peninsula Protection
Sand Bar
Spit
Islands and Tombolos
Wind
Figure 403-1. Typical shoreline landforms.
400-6
-------
periods can be greatly increased. In general, high water currents can be
expected in areas where water bodies narrow down, where deep water to shallow
water transitions occur, and at stream entrances into larger bodies of water.
Low water currents can be expected in large, calm bodies of water; in channel
openings at right angles to the main current flow; and where there are small
tidal ranges in shallow backwater areas. Figure 403-2 illustrates the effect
of landform configuration on high and low current areas.
The shape of the shoreline sediments can often be used as an indicator
of wave-energy levels. In sheltered or low-energy environments, the sedi-
ments tend to be angular or have few rounded edges. As levels of wave energy
increase, abrasion of sediment particles against each other results in
rounded material with no edges or flat faces.
Another indicator of the energy level on a beach is the degree of sort-
Ing (i.e., the degree to which different sizes of sediment are preferentially
transported and deposited). On low-energy coasts, sediments are usually a
poorly-sorted mixture of sands, pebbles, cobbles, and boulders. As energy
levels increase, sorting of the material also increases, and the beach is
composed of only one size of sediment or the sediments have a distinct zona-
tion across the beach.
Shoreline Access
Any protection and cleanup actions must consider access. Shoreline ac-
cess should be evaluated in terms of type, seasonal!ty, and whether access
can be improved by construction.
The three major types of access to a shoreline are land, water, and air.
These can be further subdivided as follows:
Land access:
1. Heavy equipment access - paved, gravel, or dirt roads, suffi-
ciently wide to allow passage for earthmovlng equipment directly
to the beach
2. Light vehicular access - narrow roads or trails that will allow
passage of small trucks or four-wheel-drive vehicles to a beach
3. Foot access - narrow trails or paths down cliffs, through marshes
or ravines, or across high relief topography that will allow per-
sonnel on foot access to a beach
4. No land access - no discernible trails, paths, or roads lead to
the shoreline
Water access:
1. Barge or landing craft access - shoreline free from submerged
obstacles with sufficient water depth to allow a landing craft
or barge to ground on beach
400-7
-------
High current;
;High current
iHigh current;
Figure 403-2. Landform configurations affecting current flows.
400-8
-------
2. Shallow draft access - nearshore area is shallow and will only
permit passage of small boats
3. No water access - submerged rocks, high currents, or waves
Air access:
1. Helicopter access - area sufficiently flat and open to allow
helicopter to land or operate
2. No air access - no flat shoreline area, or shoreline too narrow
to allow helicopter landing
It may be possible to improve access to a shoreline. If the terrain
permits, trails can be widened or unpaved roads quickly cut to allow passage
of heavy equipment. Trail widening or road construction should be limited
to that which is absolutely necessary.
Sensitive or Unique Features
Sensitive or unique features are those characteristics of a shoreline
that are of special biological, physical, or cultural importance. These fea-
tures may strongly influence the setting of protection and cleanup priorities
and the form and extent of cleanup activities.
Shorelines can be classified as biologically sensitive if one or more of
the following features are present:
1. Rare, threatened, endangered, or protected species
2. Reserves, preserves, and other legally protected area
3. Waterfowl rookeries or concentration areas
4. Mammal rookeries, calving grounds, and concentration areas
5. Species of commercial importance
6. Species of recreational importance
7. Ecologically productive areas
8. Areas of beach stabilizing vegetation
Examples of these features are given in Section 803.
Shorelines can be classified as physically sensitive if special or
unique geological features are present on the shoreline. Examples of such
areas are:
1. High erosion potential areas if disturbed
2. Specially designated geological study areas
3. Fossiliferous formations
4. Mineral-bearing sediment deposits
Shorelines classified as culturally sensitive or unique areas would be
those that have historical, tribal, or archaeological significance and could
include:
400-9
-------
1. Archaeological study areas
2. Tribal fishing areas
3. Historical monuments
Recreational, Commercial, and Industrial Use
The extent to which a shoreline is used recreationally is of major im-
portance in setting cleanup priorities. As a rule, marinas and popular
beaches will receive a high priority whereas beaches that are seldom or
never used by the public will be cleaned later or left to natural recovery.
Typically, extensive sand or gravel beaches located near metropolitan areas
have heavy recreational use whereas boulder beaches or cliff areas have lim-
ited recreational value. Examples of high recreational use shoreline areas
are:
1. Marinas and boat harbors
2. State parks and beaches
3. Sunbathing, surfing, and swimming beaches
4. Beaches with shore-front homes
5. Beaches with shore-front hotels and restaurants
6. Beaches adjacent to roads and highways
Shorelines with high commercial and industrial use generally warrant
high protection and cleanup priority because of the public pressure and
economic loss associated with temporary shut-down of a service or business.
Examples of high commercial and industrial use are:
1. Cooling water intakes
2. Process water intakes
3. Domestic and agricultural water supply (applicable to freshwater
systems)
400-10
-------
404 SHORELINE SENSITIVITY
A shoreline1s sensitivity to oil spill damage may affect the setting
of protection and cleanup priorities. Differences in sensitivity between
shorelines reflect differences in the biological value of the area and the
physical processes governing the persistence of the oil.
Biological Value
Biological effects will vary with the type and amount of oil spilled,
season, life stages of the affected organisms, and persistence of the oil.
In general, however, the most biologically valuable shoreline areas will be:
1) highly productive habitats, usually sources for repopulation of surround-
ing areas (e.g., estuaries), or 2) ecologically significant habitats, usually
areas of particular food chain importance (e.g., mudflats).
Persistence
The persistence of an oil on a shoreline is generally influenced by a
combination of physical processes controlling oil deposition, penetration,
and removal. More specifically, oil and substrate type, wave energy, and air
and water temperature are the principal forces that set the length of time
that oil will remain on a shoreline. Figure 404-1 indicates the relation of
physical variables which affect the persistence of an oil type on a variety
of shorelines. Because of the variability in the physical characteristics
of shorelines and the way in which the different shoreline processes inter-
act, Figure 404-1 should be used only as an indicator of the relative per-
sistence of an oil type on a variety of shorelines and not as an estimate
of the length of time the oil will remain there. In general, the physical
variables of a shoreline will affect persistence in the following manner:
1. The deeper the oil penetrates and/or is buried, the more likely
the oil will persist. Penetration and burial insulate the oil
from surface radiation and mechanical energy. The lighter oils
(Class A) will tend to penetrate more than the heavier oils. Oil
will penetrate the larger grain size beaches most readily; oil
will be buried most readily in areas characterized by high sedi-
mentation rates (e.g., longshore sand transport, freshwater sedi-
ment loading).
2. The lower the shoreline energy level, the more likely the oil will
persist. Mechanical energy is related to the action of waves,
tides, and winds that change the physical character of the oil
directly and expose greater surface areas to other weather and
aging processes as well (photo oxidation, biodegradation, dissolu-
tion, evaporation, emulsification).
3. The colder the air and water temperatures, the more likely the oil
will persist. Rates of physical and biological (microbial) de-
gradation decrease as temperatures decrease.
400-11
-------
TYPE OF
OIL
A
B
Class
DEGREE OF
PENETRATION
OR BURIAL
All or Most of
the Oil
Exposed
Extensive Oil
Penetration or
Burial
ENERGY LEVEL
High
(exposed)
Low
(sheltered)
PREVAILING
TEMPERATURE
EXPECTED
PERSISTENCE
High
(e.g 20 - 30 C» •—i/
Low
(e.g. 0 - 10 C)
High
Low
.
High
Low
r
LJ
High
i
Low
n
i
i
Short
Long
Figure 404-1. The potential for persistence of oil.
-------
Relative Sensitivity
Taking into account relative biological value and persistence, a class-
ification of shoreline types has been developed to reflect potential shore-
line sensitivities to oil spill damage (Table 404-1). Because persistence
will vary with different oils, Table 404-1 separately lists the relative
sensitivity rankings for Class A, B, C, and D oils.
Table 404-1 is best used in a potential spill area as a guide for com-
paring the sensitivities of shoreline types not characterized by special
and unique features or uses. For example, consider a coastal area composed
of sheltered tidal flats, exposed tidal flats, gravel beaches, boulder
beaches, and exposed wave-cut platforms subjected to a Class A spill. Table
404-1 shows the relative sensitivities in order of decreasing sensitivity to
be sheltered tidal flats, gravel beaches, exposed tidal flats and wave-cut
platforms, and boulder beaches. In several cases, no discernible differences
exist between shoreline types (e.g., exposed tidal flats and exposed wave-cut
platforms for a Class A spill) and thus are given the same relative rankings.
The sensitivity rankings in Table 404-1 will aid the user in identifying
those shoreline areas most susceptible to a spill of each oil class; although
the relative rankings themselves will be applicable to most spill events, the
greater the difference in rank, the less likely are site-specific conditions
to change the order of sensitivities.
Although special and unique features have not been used to set the rel-
ative shoreline sensitivities, they will strongly influence the ultimate
selection of protection and cleanup priorities. Similarly, previous or on-
going pollution (e.g., chronic oil, pesticides, heavy metals) may alter the
sensitivity hierarchy developed here.
400-13
-------
TABLE 404-1. SHORELINE SENSITIVITY
Relative Sensitivity*
of Oil Classb
Shoreline Type
General Comments
Sheltered tidal flats 10C 10 9 8 Probability of persistence high; high bio-
logical value.
Exposed, compacted
tidal flats
4-5 3
Typically consist of fine-grained mud or
sand tidal flats exposed to winds, waves, and
currents; probability of persistence general-
ly low but varies depending upon oil class;
moderate biological value.
Sand beaches
1 Low biological value.
Mixed sand and gravel
beaches
5-6 7
Low to moderate biological value.
Gravel beaches
5-6 4-5 Low biological value.
Cobble beaches
Probability of persistence generally high but
varies depending upon oil class; low biologi-
cal value.
Boulder beaches
Probability of persistence high; low to mod-
erate biological value depending on the pre-
sence of sediment in the spaces between the
boulders and the exposure of rock faces.
Sheltered rocky coasts 9 9 10 10 Probability of persistence high; high biolo-
gical value.
Exposed rocky head-
lands
Probability of persistence low; high bio-
logical value.
Exposed wave-cut
platforms
4-5 4-5 Typically consist of eroding glacial material
or platforms cut directly into crystalline or
sedimentary rock; some sediment deposition in
holes and crevices; probability of persist-
ence low; high biological value.
aBased on persistence and biological sensitivity.
bFrom Section 301.
°Scale of 1 to 10, with 10 being the most sensitive.
400-14
-------
SECTION 500
PROTECTION OF SHORELINES
501 PROTECTION PRIORITIES
One of the realities of responding to a major oil spill is that protec-
tion of large areas of coastline is seldom possible. Limitations of time,
manpower, and equipment make the setting of priorities an essential part
of a rapid and effective response.
The need to protect a shoreline area is directly related to the poten-
tial for contamination; the presence of sensitive and unique features and/or
recreational, commercial, and industrial uses; and the relative sensitivity
of that particular shoreline. In addition, the feasibility of successfully
Implementing protection techniques must be considered. Figure 501-1 illus-
trates how these variables can be combined into a general decision guide for
selecting protection priorities. The relative sensitivities of different
shoreline types are listed in Table 404-1 and can be applied to the priority
setting process as soon as the coastline has been characterized and the
spilled oil classified. The potential for contamination, presence of spe-
cial features and uses, and feasibility of protection must be determined
with additional site-specific information developed by the OSC staff and,
when possible, local and regional experts.
Because several shoreline areas might be given the same priority based
on Figure 501-1, a more detailed guide (Table 501-1) has been developed using
the same key components. The matrix should be used in the following manner:
1. List the different shoreline types, and locations, in the area of
potential impact.
2. For the type of oil spilled, assign the shoreline sensitivities
according to Table 404-1. This assures that in those cases where
no special features exist, the most sensitive shorelines will re-
ceive the highest priorities.
3. Assign a rating of 10 to 20 for those shorelines with sensitive or
unique features and/or high recreational, commercial, or Industrial
use. The evaluation of the special features and uses should reflect
their value relative to the other features and uses in the poten-
tially impacted area. The use of a rating scale between 10 and
500-1
-------
Ln
O
O
N)
Specific
shoreline
area
K
^A
A
, f
]/
Y
1
Is there a
potential for
contami-
nation'
Section 302
^N
rV
r
Sensitive
features
and
special
use
Section 403
K
High y
r-y
Low j
I/
i y
"-A
H.gh J
Relative |f
sensitivity? L
Low ,
Section 404 | |f
•-N
High ^
I/
Relative |r
sensitivity7 |.
Low ^
_ ^_. r^^^i/
Section 404 | y
\
Amenable
to
protection?
Section 503
"-N
Y",/
V
K^
rV
'— N
Vei,y
v
r
\
"" )
Y
\
\
NO S
r~^
K
No ,
Y
Final
priority
lie*
Figure 501-1. Decision guide for protection priorities.
-------
TABLE 501-1. RESPONSE GUIDE WORK SHEET - ESTABLISHING PROTECTION PRIORITIES
in
CO
Shoreline Type
and Location
Sensitivity
Special
Features
and
Uses
High
Potential
for
Contamination
Feasibility
of
Protection
Total
-------
20 ensures Chat special features and uses of a shoreline will dom-
inate the selection of priorities (i.e., a low sensitivity beach
with a special feature will receive a higher priority rating than
a high sensitivity shoreline without a special feature). There
are no predetermined values for any of the special features, nor
are there specific rules for setting these values; thus it becomes
advantageous for the OSC and staff to consult local regional experts
capable of assigning values that reflect the time- and site-specific
characteristics of the spill area.
4. Check off those shoreline areas with a high probability of
contamination.
5. Check off those shoreline areas where protection implementation is
feasible.
6. Total the sensitivity and special feature use values only for those
shoreline areas with both contamination and protection checkmarks.
7. Plot the total values on an overlay or map along with the present
location and direction of the slick.
8. Protect those areas on the map that 1) have the highest total values
and 2) are most likely to be contaminated next. If time, equipment,
and/or manpower are limiting, protect the area with the highest to-
tal value first, the next highest total second, and so on. If time,
equipment, and manpower are or will be sufficient to cover all sen-
sitive areas, protect the area closest to the slick first, the next
closest second, and so on.
The use of the protection priority work sheet can be demonstrated with
the help of a hypothetical spill event. For example, assume a Class C oil
spill occurs off the coastal area shown in Figure 501-2. Several shoreline
types and sensitive or unique features characterize this area. The differ-
ent shoreline types are first listed in Table 501-2 (from north to south)
and sensitivity values for a Class C spill are given to each type (from
Table 404-1). The OSC, with the assistance of local and/or regional biolog-
ists/ ecologists, then assigns values between 10 and 20 to those coastline
areas with special features and/or uses. In this example, the sheltered
tidal flat is given the highest value (in this case, 20) because of the pres-
ence of both a rare and endangered species and a waterfowl concentration
area. The waterfowl rookery along the sheltered rocky coast is given the
next highest value (in this case, 15), the state preserve and commercial
shellfishing areas each a value of 12, and the recreational beach a value
of 10. Actual values assigned to the special features and uses along a coast
after a real spill event will vary according to the season, species involved,
impact to the population as a whole, etc. A waterfowl concentration area,
for example, might be given a higher value than a recreational beach during
a winter spill when large populations of birds are present, but given a lower
value during the summer when the bird populations are smaller and recrea-
tional use of the beach is at its peak.
500-4
-------
MIXED SAND AND GRAVEL BEACH
ERODING WAVE-CUT PLATFORM
State preserve
/
f ft—Waterfowl rookery
SHELTERED ROCKY COAST
Wind
\
Ocean
EXPOSED ROCKY HEADLAND
Rare and
endangered species
SHELTERED
TIDAL FLAT
Waterfowl concentration area
Commercial shellfishing area
EXPOSED COMPACTED TIDAL FLAT
-Recreational beach
SAND BEACH
Figure 501-2. Hypothetical spill and coastline.
500-5
-------
TABLE 501-2. RESPONSE GUIDE WORK SHEET - ESTABLISHING PROTECTION PRIORITIES
FOR A HYPOTHETICAL SPILL EVENT8
Shoreline Type
and Location
Mixed sand and gravel
Eroding wave-cut
platform
Sheltered rocky coast
Ul
g Exposed rocky
^ headland
Sheltered tidal flat
Sand beach
Exposed compacted
tidal flat
Sand beach
Sensitivity1*
6.5
4.5
10
2
9
1
3
1
Special
Features
0
12
15
0
20
0
12
10
High
Potential Feasibility
for of
Contamination Protection
X
X X
X
X X
X
X X
X X
Response
Guide
Total
25
29
15
11
Class C oil.
From Table 404-1.
-------
Once the special feature and use values are assigned, shoreline areas
with a high potential for contamination are designated. This judgment is
best made by the OSC with information given to him by bis staff. In the
example, those areas south of the eroding mixed sand and gravel beach are
likely sites of contamination; X's are therefore placed in the boxes
associated with potentially impacted sites.
Given the areas of high sensitivity, special features and uses, and
likely oil contamination, the OSC and his staff must then evaluate the
feasibility of protecting these sites. Again, X's are placed in those
boxes where protective measures can be implemented. In this case, the ex-
posed rocky headland and northernmost sand beach cannot be protected; but
various combinations of diversion, exclusion, and/or containment booming
might protect the sheltered rocky coast, sheltered tidal flat, exposed com-
pacted tidal flat, and southernmost sand beach from heavy contamination.
The sensitivity and special feature and use values are then added only
for those shoreline types with both X's (i.e., the sheltered rocky coast,
sheltered tidal flat, exposed compacted tidal flat, and southernmost sand
beach). These values are then plotted on another map or overlay (Figure
501-3) and protection priorities are set. If there is only enough time
and boom to protect one area, the sheltered tidal flat would receive first
priority in this case because it has the highest value. If adequate time
and boom are available for at least two areas, then the sheltered rocky
coast should be protected first because it is closer to the oil slick and
the first to be impacted and then the sheltered tidal flat should be pro-
tected. The OSC should also consider the probable success of protection
measures in setting the final priorities.
The OSC now directs the protection efforts in accordance with the
priorities and pursues these efforts until the lack of equipment or manpower
prevents him from doing so, or until new information (e.g., on movement
prediction or special features) surfaces to change the order of priorities.
Such changes can be quickly incorporated into the work sheet: For example,
if the area of potential contamination along the hypothetical shoreline
shifts to the north, the OSC merely has to evaluate the feasibility of
protecting the eroding wave-cut platform to reorder the priorities.
500-7
-------
MIXED SAND AND GRAVEL BEACH
ERODING WAVE-CUT PLATFORM
SHELTERED ROCKY COAST
EXPOSED ROCKY HEADLAND
SHELTERED
TIDAL FLAT
EXPOSED COMPACTED TIDAL FLAT
SAND BEACH
Figure 501-3. Hypothetical spill response guide totals.
500-8
-------
502 SELECTION OF PROTECTION TECHNIQUES
Selection of an appropriate protection technique for a shoreline or
water area depends on the following factors:
• type of water body (e.g., inland waters - lakes, rivers etc;
coastal waters - bays, tidal channels, open water)
• velocity of water currents
• land form and water body configurations, (e.g. straight coastline,
harbor or bay entrance, etc.)
• depth of the water
• presence of breaking waves
• amount of oil contamination
Table 502-1 lists seven protection techniques that are applicable for
controlling or containing floating oil slicks. Figures 502-1 and 502-2
are decision guides that will help the user evaluate the factors affecting
the use of a protection technique(s) and select the appropriate technique(s)
for the particular spill conditions.
Decision Guide Use
The decision guides are divided into two categories: Figure 502-1
for protection of inland waters and Figure 502-2 for protection of coastal
waters. They are used as follows:
• For inland waters (Figure 502-1), enter the figure at the type
of water body where protection is needed and select the appropriate
booming technique depending on the amount of oil contamination
and the water current speed (except for shallow waters). If a
large lake is involved where water currents and waves are present,
use the decision guide for coastal waters (Figure 502-2).
• For coastal waters (Figure 502-2) enter the figure at the con-
figuration of the area to be protected and select the appropriate
booming technique depending on the presence of breaking waves and
the velocity of water currents.
In any location (inland and coastal waters) where currents exceed 3
knots or breaking waves are greater than 25 cm, it is best to move the
proposed boom location away from turbulent waters and into a more quiescent
area along the water body.
Once a protection technique has been selected, the implementation re-
quirements should be checked (Section 503). Instructions on how each tech-
nique is used are given in Section 804.
The use of the decision guide in selecting a protection technique can
be demonstrated using the hypothetical spill solution described in Section
501. For example: Assume the entrance to the sheltered tidal flat had water
currents of approximately 1.5 knots at flood tide with no breaking waves;
500-9
-------
TABLE 502-1. PROTECTION TECHNIQUES
Protection Technique
Description of
Technique
Primary Use of Protection
Technique
Environmental Effect
of Use
ui
O
O
1. Exclusion
Booming
2. Diversion
Booming
3. Containment
Booming
Boom Is deployed across
or around sensitive areas
and anchored In place• Ap-
proaching oil Is deflected
or contained by boom.
Boom Is deployed at an
angle to the approaching
slick. Oil Is diverted
away from the sensitive
area or to a less sensitive
area for lecovery.
Boom Is deployed In a "U"
shape In front of the on-
coming slick. The ends of the
boom are anchored by drogues
or work boats. The oil Is
contained within the "U" and
prevented from reaching the
shore.
Used across small bays, harbor
entrances, Inlets, river or
creek mouths where currents
are less than 1 kt and breaking
waves are less than 25 cm in
height.
Used on Inland streams where
currents are greater than 1 kt;
across small bays, harbor en-
trances. Inlets, river or creek
mouths where currents exceed 1 kt
and breaking waves are less than
25 en, and on straight coastline
areas to protect specific sites,
where breaking waves are less than
25 cm.
Used on open water to surround an
approaching oil slick to protect
shoreline areas where surf Is pres-
ent and oil slick does not cover
a large area; also on Inland waters
where currents are less than 1 kt.
Minor disturbance to
substrate at shoreline
anchor points.
Minor disturbances to
substrate at shoreline
anchor points, cause
heavy shoreline oil
contamination on
downstream side.
No effect on open
water; minor dis-
sturbance to sub-
strate on inland
anchor point.
4. Sorbent
Booming
5. Sorbent Barriers
Boom is anchored along
a shoreline or used in
one of the manners des-
cribed above to protect
sensitive areas and ab-
sorb oil.
Barriers are constructed
across a waterway and
constructed of wire mesh
and stakes which contain
loose sorbents. The barrier
allows water to flow but
retains and absorbs oil
on the surface.
Used on quiet waters with minor
oil contamination.
Used in small, low velocity
streams, tidal Inlets or
channels, or any narrow
waterway with low current
velocities.
Minor disturbance
to shoreline at
anchor points.
Minor disturbance
to stream or channel
substrate.
-------
TYPE OF WATER BODY
Large lake with water
currents and waves
Lake or pond
Rivers or large
streams greater
than '/» meter deep
Small streams (less
than 10 meters wide
and more than V4
meter deep)
Shallow rivers or
streams less than
L-N
p/
r
Use Figure 502-2
Coastal Waters
AMOUNT OF OIL
CONTAMINATION
Minor sheen
Moderate to major
visible slick
WATER CURRENT SPEED
Less than 1 kt
Between 1 and 2 kt
Greater than 2 kt
Less than 1 kt
Between 1 and 2 kt
Greater than 2 kt*
K
>
V
Sorbent booming
Containment booming
Containment booming
or exclusion booming
Single diversion boom
Cascading diversion
booms
Sorbent barrier or
containment booming
Single diversion boom
Cascading diversion
booms
Diversion dikes
on stream bed
•If current speed exceeds 3 kt.
booming should be attempted
at an alternata location where
currents are slower
Figure 502-1. Decision guide for inland waters.
500-11
-------
Configuration
of area to be
protected
Straight
coastline
with
sensitive
areas
n/
Are breaking
waves >25cm
present in area
where boom
will be
deployed'
^
Yes
Containment
booming of
slick outside
of surf zone
1
1
1 K
\
No j
rV
Diversion
booming
upstream of
sensitive area
Entrance to
bays, harbors.
lagoons, etc.
Narrow
tidal
channel
Are breaking
waves >25cm
present in area
where boom
will be
deployed'
Can booming
location be
moved to
calmer area'
Water
Current
Speed
Less than
1 kt
Greater than
1 kt
Exclusion booming
across entrance
Diversion booming at
an angle in entrance
or inside of entrance
where water currents
diminish
Containment
booming of
slick outside
of entrance
Water
Current
Soeed
Less than
i kt
Greater than
1 kt
Sorbert barrier
across entrance
or
Exclusion booming
across entrance
Diversion booming at
an angle across channel
Figure 502-2. Protection decision guide for coastal waters.
500-12
-------
according to Figure 502-2 under "Entrance to Bays, Harbors, Lagoons, Etc."
the most appropriate protection technique would be diversion booming in the
entrance to the tidal flat as shown in Figure 502-3. In a similar manner,
the selection of protection techniques for the three other priority areas
under the conditions given would be as described in Table 502-2 and shown
in Figure 502-3.
500-13
-------
MIXED SAND AND GRAVEL BEACH
ERODING WAVE-CUT PLATFORM
-State preserve
'Waterfowl rookery
SHELTERED ROCKY COAST
EXPOSED ROCKY HEADLAND
endangered species
SHELTERED TIDAL FLAT
Waterfowl concentration area
Commercial shellfishing area
EXPOSED COMPACTED TIDAL FLAT
•^Recreational beach
SAND BEACH
Figure 502-3. Protection techniques for hypothetical spill.
500-14
-------
TABLE 502-2. PROTECTION TECHNIQUES FOR A HYPOTHETICAL SPILL
Shoreline Type
Conditions
Booming Technique
Sheltered rocky
coast
Breaking waves in
entrance, water
currents less than
1 knot
Exclusion booming
across front of
waterfowl rookery
Exposed compacted
tidal flat
No surf, protected
by headland to
north
Diversion booming
Recreational sand
beach
Surf along whole
length of beach
Containment booming
of slicks outside of
surf zone
500-15
-------
503 PROTECTION IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS
Before the initiation of shoreline protection measures, various re-
quirements must be satisfied to ensure effective and efficient implementa-
tion. This section will help the user identify those requirements by pro-
viding procedures and decision guides for determining the feasibility of
effectively implementing shoreline protection techniques.
The following is a list of requirements that must be evaluated before
determining the feasibility of using a protection technique.
type and length of boom
anchoring method
available manpower and support equipment
availability of protection equipment and materials
time required to deploy or initiate technique
estimated arrival time of oil
The type of boom required is determined mainly by the conditions under
which it is to be used. Table 503-1 gives suggested boom types for different
conditions of use.
TABLE 503-1. BOOM SELECTION
Conditions of Boom Use Type of boom
1. Shallow water (less than 0.5 to Curtain boom
1 m)
2. Across intertidal zone Curtain boom
3. Water depth over 1 meter in:
a) calm water (wave height <25 cm) Curtain or fence boom
b) rough water (wave height >25 cm) Heavy duty curtain
boom or fence boom
4. Water currents above 1 kt Curtain boom with
tension cables at
top and bottom
The length of boom needed is dependent on the width of the inlet or area
to be protected. Extensive testing under actual spill conditions indicates
that the best performance of a boom (with regard to stability and oil reten-
tion) occurs when it takes a parabolic shape. It has been found that the
optimum boom length is about 1.5 times the straight-line distance between
500-16
-------
the points where the boom is to be anchored. This added length gives the
boom stability and will reduce its tendency to roll. A boom tends to become
unstable when its length is less than 1.25 times the straight-line distance
between the anchor points.
Anchoring Requirements
Anchoring requirements will vary with the boom and technique used, and
the shoreline topography. When a boom is anchored to a shoreline, it can
be attached to large boulders or trees by a cable sling and shackles. If
there are no natural structures available, an anchoring system will have
to be constructed. Ideally, the onshore anchoring device should be some
type of deadman buried at right angles to the direction of maximum force
(pull, in this case). If it is possible to dig a hole, a log .3 m in
diameter and about 2 m long can be buried 1.2 m deep. A cable sling is
attached to the log and, in turn, the boom to the sling. If there is no
timber available, a Danforth anchor can be buried in a similar fashion.
If digging a hole is not feasible, a deadman that can be handled by one
man should be taken ashore. The deadman will plow itself into the ground
when it is pulled by a winch or another source of power, as shown in Figure
503-1.
Boom deployment using shoreline anchoring can be achieved with the use
of a winch-boat and smaller power craft. The small craft can pull a leader
line from the winch-boat to the point on shore where the boom is to be
secured. The line is passed through a sheave block and returned to the
winch-boat where the boom is attached to it and winched ashore. Boom should
be positioned so that the boom ends are above the hi'gh tide line. This will
enable the boom to act as a barrier throughout the entire tide cycle.
Booms can be anchored in the water by using conventional ship's anchors,
sea anchors (drogues), or a vessel, depending on the situation. Sea anchors
or drogues* are used for containment booming when the boom drifts with the
contained oil slick. Conventional anchors or a vessel are used to anchor
boom in the water for shallow water containment or diversion booming. When
an anchor is used, a line approximately three to four times as long as
the water depth is attached to the anchor. The other end is fixed to a
buoy float which is then attached to the boom with a short piece of line.
The buoy float prevents the boom from being affected by the pull of the
anchor.
Support Requirements
Equipment support requirements must also be evaluated along with their
availability. Once the specific protection technique has been selected, the
major support equipment and materials can be determined from the summary
given in Table 503-2.
*Drogues or sea anchors holding booms need to be tended by a vessel.
500-17
-------
OEAOMAN ANCHOR
Hookup ring
Figure 503-1. Deadman boom anchor.
500-18
-------
TABLE 503-2. SUPPORT EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
Protection
Technique
Exclusion
Booming
Diversion
Booming
Containment
Booming
Sorbent
Booming
Beach
Berms
Berns and
Dams
Controlling
Variable
Calm weather,
light boom
Rough weather,
heavy boom
Single boom
Cascading boom
ISO m diameter
slick
250 m diameter
slick
Booms
Barriers
Good
trafflcablllty
Poor
trafflcability
Diversion berm
or overflow dam
Water bypass
dam
Support Equipment and Materials
1 - workboat plus crew
6 - anchors plus anchor line and
buoys
1 - workboat plus crew
12 - anchors plus anchor line and
buoys
1 - anchor and anchor line
1 - workboat plus crew
1 - recovery unit
6-9 - anchors plus anchor line and
buoys
1 - workboat plus crew
1-2 - recovery units
1 - workboat plus crew
2 - drogues
1 - skimmer, pump, storage tank
1-2 - workboats plus crews
2 - drogues
1-2 - skimmer, pump, storage tank
1 - small motor boat
2 - anchors plus anchorllne and
buoys
1-2 - disposal barrels or containers
Cyclone, chicken wire, or suit-
able fencing. Iron pipe or
wooden supports. Disposal con-
tainer.
1 - motor grader
1-2 - bulldozers
1 - front-end loader or bulldozer
3-6 - short or 1 long section of
boom
1 - skimmer, pump, and tank
1 - front-end loader or bulldozer
1 - discharge tube w/ or w/o valve
1 - skimmer, pump, and tank
500-19
-------
The vessels used for boom deployment should have sufficient towing capa-
bilities to overcome the drag created by the boom being towed through the
water.* Figures 503-2 and 503-3 give the approximate towing forces and
equivalent inboard and outboard horsepower requirements** for straightllne
towing of various boom types at 2 and 6 knots respectively. If booms are
to be towed in other than a straight line or if they are towed against or
across a current or in breaking waves, then additional towing force would
be required. If water conditions in which a boom is to be towed are unknown,
a vessel with at least twice the required horsepower needed should be used
for stralghtline towing of a boom.
Protection Feasibility
The critical factor for determining feasibility is the relationship
between the total deployment time of the technique and the estimated time
of arrival (ETA) of the oil at the protection site. The procedure and
formulas for calculating the ETA of an oil slick are given in Section
302.
When estimating the total deployment time, several variables must be
considered. Table 503-3 gives an example of a form that might be used to
estimate the total deployment time. The form lists the primary variables
that must be quantified with respect to the time required to complete each
task.
TABLE 503-3. DATA FORM FOR DETERMINING DEPLOYMENT TIME
Description of Task Time Required
Procure boom, support materials, and
personnel at deployment site hr min
aUnpackage and assemble boom hr min
aDeploy boom initially into water hr min
Tow boom to site and anchor in position hr min
Total Deployment hr min
aRefer to Table 503-4.
*If booms are towed at speeds of 1 knot or less, the towing vessel will
need controllable pitch propellers, Kort nozzles or bow thrusters, in
order to control the vessel at such a low speed.
**The towing capabilities of a vessel are determined by its horsepower
rating. Horsepower is multiplied by a factor of 13 for outboard motors
and 20 for inboards (workboats) to yield the available towing force in
kgs. The available force must exceed that required by the boom to ensure
effective Implementation.
500-20
-------
in
O
Equiv Equiw
Inboard Outboard
Horse- Hone- ™ce
power power nu
1750
125-
75-
50-
25
10
100-
75-
50
25
1500
1250
1000
750
500
250
75 150
225 300
BOOM LENGTH (m)
375 450 525 600
TypeF
Figure 503-2. Straight line towing force versus boom length at 2 knots.
-------
tn
O
O
M
ro
E
-------
In the case of berms or dams used as protection measures, the variables
would be aquisition of materials, equipment, and personnel, travel time to
site, and construction of the berm or dam. Table 503-4 lists the time,
equipment, and manpower required to deploy six different types of boom. The
times listed encompass assembly and launch time and do not include towing
to the site and positioning the boom. Towing, positioning, and anchoring
the boom are site-specific factors and have to be evaluated for each spe-
cific booming location.
Once all the requirements have been satisfied, the total deployment
time must be compared to the ETA of the oil to determine if it is feasible
to Implement the protection procedure effectively before oil contact with
the shoreline. The checklist shown in Table 503-5 indicates the procedure
for determining the feasibility of protection. If all the requirements
cannot be met, or if the ETA Is less than the implementation time, other
techniques should be examined.
500-23
-------
TABLE 503-4 BOOM HANDLING REQUIREMENTS
in
O
?
ro
Transportation Prelaunrh Launch
Boom
Type A
Type B
Type C
Type D
Type E
Type F
Equipment
to Load/Un-
load and
Transport
Small fork-
lift
16-fc flat-
bed truck
Small fork-
lift
1/2-ton flat-
bed, truck
Medina size
forkllft
16- ft flatbed
truck
Medium size
forkllft
Small flat-
bed truck
Small fork-
llft
16-ft flat-
bed truck
Small fork-
llft
1/2-ton
pickup truck
Approxi-
mate Approxi-
Man power to Time to mate
Load/Unload Unpack- Time to
and Trans- age and Workers Tools Complete Hen
port Assemble Required Required Launch Required
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
- Driver 1/2 hr 2 None 1/2 hr 5
- Forkllft
operator
- Laborer
- Driver 1/2 hr 3 None 10 min 3
- Forklift
operator
- Laborer
- Driver 1/2 hr 3 Hand- 10 rain 4
- Forkllft tools
operator
- Driver 1/4 hr 2 Hone 1/2 hr 4
- Forkllft
operator
- Driver 1/2 hr 3 Hand- 10 min 4
- Forklift tools
operator
- Laborers 1/4 hr 3 None 1/4 hr 3
Retrieval
Time to
Complete Men
Retrieval Required
1/2 hr 3
1 hr 2
20 min 3
1 hr 2 Full-time
1 Part-time
1/2 hr 3
2 3/4 hr 4
NOTE: All booms were 91 o In length.
-------
TABLE 503-5. CHECKLIST FOR IMPLEMENTING PROTECTION PROCEDURES
1. DETERMINE: A. Length of boon required or length of dams
or berms required
B. Number of personnel required _
C. Type and number of vehicles and vessels required _
THEN:
Are sufficient boom personnel and support equipment available
to implement protective procedure? Yes No
If not, can another technique be used which requires less boom,
personnel or support equipment? Yes No
o
I If boom is not available, can booms be constructed on shoreline? Yes No
vn
2. DETERMINE: A. Estimated arrival time of oil slick
B. Time required to implement protection _
technique
THEN:
Can protection technique be deployed before arrival of oil? Yes No
If not, can another technique be used which requires less time
to implement? Yes No
-------
SECTION 600
CLEANUP OF SHORELINES
601 CLEANUP PRIORITIES
In most Instances, oil spill cleanup efforts are not subject to the
same time constraints imposed upon protection efforts, such as reliance on
availability of equipment and manpower. As a result, cleanup planning may
be conducted with greater attention to detail, Including damage assessment,
selection of techniques, and cost effectiveness. Shoreline cleanup, how-
ever, should be implemented as rapidly as possible to reduce the effects of
oil migrating to adjacent clean shorelines.
For any spill situation, it is probable that a variety of shoreline
types will have to be considered. Spill impacts on different shoreline
types can range from severe cases, requiring immediate and thorough atten-
tion, to cases where leaving the oil alone may be acceptable. Thus, as a
first step in cleanup planning, it is necessary to relate impacted shore-
lines in order of cleanup need (or priority). To assist in the setting or
identification of cleanup priorities, a decision guide has been developed
(Figure 601-1). In essence, the position of a particular shoreline area in
the resulting cleanup priority list will depend on the answers to the fol-
lowing questions:
1. Is the biological, physical, or cultural value of the shoreline high
or low?
2. Is the degree of oil contamination high or low?
3. Is it likely that oil will migrate from the contaminated shoreline
to a clean shoreline?
4. What is the spacial distribution of the shorelines relative to each
other?
Shoreline areas can be ordered in priority of consideration by entering
the discrete areas contaminated by a spill into the decision guide and answer-
ing the above questions. A brief description of the components of Figure
601-1 is presented below. It is recommended that characteristics under con-
sideration be plotted on a chart or overlay.
600-1
-------
Shoreline
type
H
Biological
physical, and
\
9>
IT
r
.^
",/
v
H
Degree of
Lc
H
Degree of
contamination
A
1
gh i
y
k
,.
r
V
H
Degree ol
potential oil
Li
potential oil
Lc
Low
gh ,
^
,w
V
LK
jy
^
k
\
j
Y
Rank in order \
Of post'ion rela- \
nve to current \
Up-current i
I- /
Down-current /
Up-current \
Down-current /
/
\
Up-current \
Down-current /
/
\
Up-current \
1 ;
Down-current /
/
\
Up-current \
' )
/
Final
priority
list
Figure 601-1. Decision guide for cleanup priorities.
600-2
-------
Biological, Physical, and Cultural Value
The features of a shoreline that make it valuable are discussed in
Sections 403 and 803 (sensitive and unique features). Whether the presence
of one of the these features on a particular shoreline warrants a "high" or
"low" value rating will depend on the onsite evaluation of the OSC and his
staff in consultation with local experts familiar with the amenities of the
entire shoreline area contaminated by the spill. In most cases, however, the
presence of a sensitive or unique feature alone will justify a "high" value.
Degree of Contamination
The extent of oil contamination on a shoreline (Section 301) will depend
on the type of oil; type of substrate; and currents, tides, and wave energy.
Because the degree of contamination may vary within a specific shoreline area
itself, the "high" and "low" determination should reflect the average oil
coverage on the shoreline. As a rule, an oil thickness or penetration of
> 1 cm can be considered as a "high" degree of contamination.
Oil Migration
Even when the oil on a specific shoreline area does not threaten any
sensitive features or recreational use, it may be a threat to other, more
valuable shoreline areas if the oil can move off the beach and be carried
elsewhere. Oil migration will be a function of the winds, currents, and wave
energy characterizing the contaminated shoreline. In general, the potential
for oil migration is "high" when strong longshore currents, an offshore
wind, and/or high tidal fluctuations are present.
Spatial Distribution
Because more than one shoreline area can emerge from Figure 601-1 with
the same priority, the position of the shoreline relative to water current
direction has been added to the decision guide. Within the same priority
level, areas up-current should be given a higher priority.
The OSC can use the final priority rankings as a guide in selecting
where and when he should implement cleanup measures. As conditions change
or new information becomes available, the OSC can use the decision guide
again to reorder the cleanup priorities as required.
600-3
-------
602 SELECTION OF CLEANUP PROCEDURE
Twenty-three shoreline cleanup techniques have been identified as being
in general use. Selection of the proper technique to clean an oil-contam-
inated shoreline depends on the following factors:
1. Type of substrate
2. Amount of oil contamination
3. Depth of oil contamination in sediments
4. Type of oil (class A, B, C, or D)
5. Type of oil contamination (i.e. tar balls, pooled oil, viscous-
coating, etc.)
6. Trafficability of equipment on shoreline
7. Environmental sensitivity of contaminated shoreline
A series of decision guides have been prepared that will allow the user
to evaluate these factors for a given shoreline and to select the preferred
cleanup technique. Figure 602-1 presents a key to these decision guides
(Figures 602-2 through 602-4). Table 602-1 lists the shoreline cleanup tech-
niques and gives a brief description of how and where they are used.
Decision Guide
The procedure for using the decision guide is as follows:
1. Use Figure 602-1 (Key to Decision Guides) to determine which of
the other three decision guides is applicable for the cleanup of
each shoreline in question. Enter with the type of substrate that
is contaminated and follow the guide, answering the questions where
appropriate.
2. Enter the decision guide selected (Figure 602-2, 602-3, or 602-4)
and answer the questions for each shoreline section that requires
cleanup. The guide will lead the user to one or more cleanup tech-
niques applicable to his situation, with the most preferable tech-
nique listed first. If the first technique cannot be used because
of the lack of equipment or access to shoreline, then the next
technique should be chosen.
3. Instructions on how to use each cleanup technique are given in
Section 805.
600-4
-------
Substrate
type
Sand \
Gravel \
Cobble
Mud flat I
Mud bank /
Mi
to
Amount
of oil
contamination
LA
adium *
high/
T
\
K
Yes A
Can ehnralmo ^___ /
sediment be 1
removed w/o 1 .
causing I N
erosion of ^J \
beaches' No >
\y
y
^
Yev
Can (— |/
sediment "
be re-
placed if k
removed? '~~'\
No -
rv
k
Light or tar balls on beach ,
V
Use cleaning
techniques from
Figure 602-2
Use cleaning
techniques from
Figure 602-3
f
Boulder
Rock cliff
Rock bench
Man-made
structures
Oiled
vegetation
I K
>
/
V
K
>
/
V
Use cleaning
techniques from
Figure 602-4
(17) Manual cutting
or
(18) Burning
or
(23) Natural recovery
Figure 602-1. Key to decision guides.
600-5
-------
o
o
Tiafficabihty
1 Can rubber-tired
equipment operate
on beach?
No
2 Can tracked
equipment operate
on beach?
Substrate
type
Sand
Gravel
Mud
Gobble
Mud bank
Depth of oil
penetration
Less than
3cm
Greater than
3 cm
Less than
25cm
Greater than
25cm
Not
applicable
Cleanup technique in
order of preference
(1( Motor grader E-Scraper
(21 E Scraper
(3) Motor grader / R T PEL
(21 E Scraper
<4( R T PEL
(5) Bulldozer /R T FEL
<4» R T FEL
<4( Tracked FEL
(5) Bulldozer / R T FEL
(41 Tracked FEL
(61 Backhoe
(4) R T FEL
ISand
Gravel
Mud
Cobble
Less than
25cm
Greater than
25cm
(4) Tracked FEL
(5) Bulldozer /R T FEL
(5) Bulldozer /R T FEL
14) Tracked FEL
Access
3 Is there
access
for
heavy
equipment
«
to beach
or can
access
be
constructed'
No
Use cleanup technique
(7)-Dragtme or Clamshell
or leave to natural recovery
No
Select most
preferable
technique
Go to Figure 602-3
Decision guide
number 2.
question 4
Figure 602-2. Cleanup decision guide number 1.
-------
1 Are strong longshore
currents and/or winds
concentrating oil on
<•>
2 Is oil contamination
in the form of
tar balls'
<">
3 Can oil remain
on beach or in
nearshore area
without causing
environmental
problems'
1 No |_
1 1
K * TB- ml
' From \ be flushed
L decision J from
1 gu'de I/ substrate
_ k
L-K
ves\
P
Ves
Yes
a heavy viscous
coating on
beach'
i NO r"~
Substrate type
Sand
or
Gravel
Cobble
Mud
Yes
No
r
i
1*
L
r
h
Yes
1 \
Beach lightly
contarnmatei
Medium to
heavy
comaminatu
Not
applicable
Not
applicable
1^
K
L
N
/I
N
(15) Beach cleaner
(13) Manual removal
(21) Breaking up
pavement formation
(13) Manual removal
(14) Low pressure
flushing
(13)
Manual removal
Figure 602-3. Cleanup decision guide number 2.
600-7
-------
cr>
o
o
oo
Shoreline types
Boulder
Rock cliff
Rock bench
Man-made
structures
1 Is shoreline
a high
energy
area7
A
Does oil
stick to
substrate'
Consider leaving to
natural recovery
3 Are living
animals
and algae
substrate?
Type of oil
contamination
4 Large pools of
oil on flat surface
i
Y \
r
b
Cleanup techniques in
order of preference
(8) Low temperature
hydroblastmg
(1 1 1 Manual scraping
(8) High temperature
hydroblastmg
(9) Steam cleaning
(10) Sandblasting
(11) Manual *crapmg
'-A
rV
LA
5. Small pools of *
oil on flat surface i
r-J
1
6. Oil film
on substrate
1
1
7. Tar balls
LA
1
on substrate i
I—I/
(19) Vacuum truck
(16) Sorbents
(16) Sorbents
(14) Low pressure flushing
(16) Sorbents
(13) Manual removal
Figure 602-4. Cleanup decision guide number 3.
-------
TABLE 602-1. CLEANUP TECHNIQUES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Cleanup
Technique
Motor grader/
elevating
scraper
Elevating
scraper
Motor grader/
front-end
loader
Front-end
leader - rub-
ber-tired or
cracked
Bulldozer/
rubber-u red
front-end
loader
Backhoe
Dragline or
clamshell
High pressure
flushing
(hydroblasclng)
Description
Ho cor grader
forms windrows
for pickup by
elevating
scraper.
Elevating
scraper picks
up contaminated
OBCerlal dlreccly
off beach.
Motor grader
forms windrows
for pickup by
front-end loader.
Front-end loader
picks up Bate-
rial directly
off beach and
hauls It to un-
loading area.
Bulldozer
pushes contami-
nated substrate
Into piles for
pickup by front-
end loader.
Operates from
top of a bank or
beach to remove
contaminated
sediments and
loads Into trucks.
Operates from
top of contami-
nated area to
remove oiled
sediments.
High pressure
water streams
remove oil
from substrate
where It is
channeled to
recovery area.
Primary Use of
Cleanup Technique
Used primarily on sand and gravel beaches
where oil penetration is 0 to 3 cm, and
trafflcablllty of beach is good. Can
also be used on mudflats.
Used on sand and gravel beaches where oil
penetration Is 0 to 3 cm. Can also be
used on mudflats. Also used to remove
tar balls or flat patties from the surface
of a beach.
Used on gravel and sand beaches where oil
penetration is lees than 2 to 3 cm. This
method is slower than using a motor grader
and elevating scraper but can be used when
elevating scrapers are not available. Can
also be used on mudflats.
Used on mud, sand, or gravel beaches when
oil penetration Is moderate and oil contami-
nation is light to moderate. Rubber-tired
front end loaders ere preferred because they
are faster and minimize the disturbance of
the surface. Front-end loaders are the pre-
ferred choice for removing cobble sediments.
If rubber-tired loader cannot operate,
cracked loaders are the next choice. Can
also be used to remove extensively oil-
contaminated vegetation.
Used on coarse sand, gravel, or cobble
beaches where oil penetration Is deep, oil
contamination extensive, and trafflcablllty
of the beach poor. Can also be used to
remove heavily oil-contaminated vegetation.
Used to remove oil contaminated sediment
(primarily mud or silt) on steep banks.
Used on sand, gravel, or cobble beaches
where trafficabillty is very poor (I.e.,
tracked equipment cannot operate) and oil
contamination IE extensive.
Used tu remove oil coatings from boulders.
rock, and nan-made structures; preferred
method of removing oil from these surfaces.
Technique
Requirements
Good trafflcablllty.
Heavy equipment
access.
Fair to good traf-
ficabillty. Heavy
equipment access.
Good trafflcablllty.
Heavy equipment
access.
Fair to good traf-
ficablllty for
rubber-tired loader.
Heavy equipment ac-
cess.
Heavy equipment
access. Fair to
good trsfficablllty
for front-end
loader .
Heavy equipment
access. Stable
substrate at top
of bank.
Heavy equipment
access to operating.
area. Equipment
reach covers contami-
nated area.
Light vehicular
access. Recovery
equipment.
600-9
-------
TABLE 602-1 (Continued). CLEANUP TECHNIQUES
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Cleanup
Technique
Steam cleaning
Sandblasting
Manual scraping
Sump and pump/
vacuum
Manual removal
of oiled mate-
rials
Low-pressure
flushing
Beach cleaner
Manual sorbent
application
Manual cutting
Description
Steam removes
oil from sub-
strate where It
Is channeled to
recovery area.
Sand moving at
high velocity
removes oil from
substrate.
Oil is scraped
from substrate
manually using
hand tools.
Oil collects In
sump as It moves
down the beach
and Is removed
by pump or
vacuum truck.
Oiled sediments
and debris are
removed by hand,
shovels, rakes,
wheelbarrows,
etc.
Low pressure
water spray
flushes oil
from substrate
where It Is chan-
neled to re-
covery points.
Pulled by trac-
tor or self-pro-
pelled across
beach, picking up
tar balls or
pa c ties.
So r bents are ap-
plied manually
to contaminated
areas to soak up
oil.
Oiled vegetation
Is cut by hand.
collected, and
stuffed into
bags or con-
tainers for dls~
posal.
Primary Use of
Cleanup Technique
Used to remove oil coatings from boulders,
rock, and man-made structures.
Used co remove thin accumulations of oil
residue from man-made structures.
Used to remove oil from lightly contami-
nated boulders, rocks, and man-made struc-
tures or heavy oil accumulation when other
techniques are not allowed.
Used on firm sand or mud beaches In the
event of continuing oil contamination where
sufficient longshore currents exist, and
on streams and rivers In conjuctlon with
diversion booming.
Used on mud, sand, gravel, and cobble
beaches when oil contamination la light or
sporadic and oil penetration is slight, or
on beaches where access for heavy equipment
is not available.
Used to flush light oils that are not sticky
from lightly contaminated mud substrates,
cobbles, boulders, rocks, man-made struc-
tures, and vegetation.
Used on sand or gravel beaches, lightly
contaminated with oil in the form of hard
patties or tar balls.
Used to remove pools of light, nonstlcky
oil from mud, boulders, rock, and man-made
structures.
Used on oil contaminated vegetation.
Technique
Requirements
Light vehicular
access. Recovery
equipment. Fresh
water supply.
Light vehicular
access. Oil must
be semi-solid. Sup-
ply of clean sand.
Foot access. Scrap-
Ing tools and dispo-
sal containers.
Heavy equipment
access. A long-
shore current
present.
Foot or light-
vehicular access.
Ught vehicular
access. Recovery
equipment.
Moderate to heavy
vehicular access.
Good trafficablllty.
Foot or boat access.
Disposal containers
for sorbents.
Foot or boat access.
Cutting tools.
600-10
-------
TABLE 602-1 (Continued). CLEANUP TECHNIQUES
Cleanup
Technique Description
18. Burning Upwind end of
contaminated
area is Ignited
and allowed to
burn to down-
wind end.
19. Vacuum trucks Truck Is backed
up to oil pool
or recovery site
where oil is
picked up via
the vacuum hose.
Primary Use of
Cleanup Technique
Used on any substrate or vegetation where
sufficient oil has collected to sustain ig-
nition; If oil Is a type that will support
ignition, and air pollution regulations so
allow.
Used to pick up oil on shorelines where pools
of oil have formed in natural depressions, or
In the absence of skimming equipment to re-
cover floating oil from the water surface.
Technique
Requirements
Light vehicular or
boat access. Fire
control equipment.
Heavy equipment
access. Large
enough pools on
land or thick
enough oil on water
for technique to be
effective.
20. Push contami-
nated substrate
Into surf
21
22.
Breaking up
pavement
Disc into
substrate
23. Natural
recovery
Bulldozer pushes
contaminated
substrate into
surf zone to ac-
celerate natural
cleaning.
Tractor fitted
with a ripper is
operated up and
down beach.
Tractor pulls
discing equip-
ment along con-
taminated area.
No action taken.
Oil left to de-
grade naturally.
Used on contaminated cobble and lightly con- Heavy equipment
taminated gravel beaches where removal of access. High
sediments may cause erosion of the beach or energy shoreline.
baekshore area.
Used on low amenity cobble, gravel, or sand Heavy equipment
beaches or beaches where substrate removal access. High energy
will cause erosion where thick layers of oil shoreline.
have created a pavement on the beach surface.
Used on nonrecreatlonal sand or gravel
beaches that are lightly contaminated.
Used for oil contamination on high energy
beaches (primarily cobble, boulder, and
rock) where wave action will remove most oil
contamination in a short period of tine.
Heavy equipment
access. Fair to
good trafflcabillty.
High energy environ-
ment.
Exposed high energy
environment.
600-11
-------
Shoreline Cleanup Factors
Most of the questions asked in the decision guides can be answered after
simple field observations have been made for each shoreline section requiring
cleaning*
The completed shoreline checklists given in Section 200 (Tables 200-1
and 200-2) should provide most of the Information needed for each shoreline
area. Two questions, however, may require special local expertise:
Figure 602-1 - Can shoreline sediment be removed without causing
erosion of beaches? A local shoreline processes
geologist should be consulted to determine if sedi-
ment removed from beaches may cause increased erosion
of the beach.
Figure 602-3 - Can oil remain on beach or in nearshore areas with-
out causing environmental problems? The OSC and his
staff, generally in consultation with local and re-
gional biologists/ecologists, should determine the
impacts of leaving oil on or near a shoreline.
Once a cleanup technique has been selected for a particular shoreline
area, the impacts of that cleanup technique (Section 603) and the implementa-
tion requirements should be assessed (Section 604). If the Impacts of the
technique are unacceptable or the technique cannot be implemented, then the
next preferable technique listed should be chosen or consideration should
be given to leaving the shoreline area to natural recovery.
Natural Recovery
Under certain circumstances, it may be preferable to leave an oil-con-
taminated shoreline to recover naturally rather than to attempt to clean it
through physical means. These circumstances depend on the amount, location,
type, and persistence of the oil on the shoreline, the nature and uses of
the shoreline, and the impacts of various cleanup techniques on the shoreline
and its biota. A checklist given in Table 602-2 presents a series of ques-
tions that should be considered in determining if a shoreline should be left
to natural recovery.
600-12
-------
TABLE 602-2. CHECKLIST FOR DETERMINING THE NATURAL RECOVERY
POTENTIAL OF A SHORELINE
Factors Influencing Natural Recovery Yes No
1. Will cleanup activities on the shoreline cause
more damage to the shoreline than leaving the
oil to natural recovery?
2. Will cleanup activities cause severe disruption
to shoreline bird or mammal colonies?
3. Does the oil have a relatively low toxicity?
4. Will storm activity or seasonal erosion cycles
remove the oil from the shoreline?
5. Is the degradation rate of the oil rapid?
6. Is the presence of the oil on the shoreline
acceptable in terms of the shoreline*s use?
7. Is the shoreline lightly oil-contaminated?
8. Does the shoreline have a high energy level?
9. Is the oil present on the surface of the sub-
strate and likely to remain there (as opposed
to being incorporated in sediments or buried
by seasonal cycles)?
10. Is rapid (chronic) release of oil likely to
occur?
11. Is oil migration to adjacent shorelines or near-
shore areas unlikely?
NOTE: If most or all of the above questions are answered in the affirma-
tive, then the shoreline is a good candidate for natural recovery.
However, in most cases, some of the answers will be negative and it
will be up to the OSC and his staff to weigh the relative importance
of each factor, depending on the local situation. Natural recovery
may be preferred even if there are several negative answers to the
above questions.
600-13
-------
603 IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH CLEANUP TECHNIQUES
Any oil Chat comes in contact with a shoreline has the potential for
adversely affecting biological and physical processes. For this reason,
various cleanup techniques have been developed to mitigate the environmen-
tal damages that follow a spill event. In some cases, however, the cleanup
techniques result in adverse impacts of their own and, particularly if care-
lessly implemented, can result in greater ecological, aesthetic, recrea-
tional, and/or economic damage to the shoreline than the oil contamination
itself. The types of physical and biological effects that can occur with
different cleanup alternatives are generally described below. Specific
impacts associated with each cleanup technique are listed in Table 603-1.
These impacts should be considered when selecting cleanup techniques from
among those recommended in the previous section, and when deciding to termi-
nate cleanup efforts.
Physical Effects
The major physical impacts associated with shoreline cleanup usually
result from sediment removal. A direct relationship between the quantity of
sediment removed relative to total sediment budget and rate of replenishment
and the severity of impact can be expected. Other physical impacts, such as
generation of suspended sediments, are related to in situ cleaning techniques
and additional specialized methods.
The removal of large quantities of sediment may upset the littoral (or
nearshore) sediment balance. A large depletion of sediments from from a beach
can shift this balance, resulting in erosion on adjacent beaches and depletion
of offshore sediment deposits as natural shoreline processes work to replace
the extracted sediments. If there is a large sediment budget, as with most
sand and gravel high energy beaches, sediment adjustments can occur fairly
rapidly; if the budget is small, however, replacement will be slow or may
not occur at all.
Some shoreline types such as poorly resistant or unconsolidated cliffs
and pocket, cobble, or mixed sediment beaches are highly susceptible to the
adverse effects associated with removal of sediments. Beaches fronting unre-
slstant cliffs often serve to protect them by absorbing the Incoming wave
energy. Removal of beach substrate allows waves to work directly on cliffs,
potentially initiating severe erosion and cliff retreat. Pocket, cobble, and
mixed sediment beaches react in much the same way. Because pocket beaches
typically have limited sources of sediment supply, replacement is slow and
backshore areas may be eroded. If sediment is removed from cobble or mixed
sediment beaches, the backshore areas can become inundated during the first
storm, especially if the storm ridge or berm is removed. Substantial
erosion and beach retreat is also likely to occur. Rocky cliffs and long
stretches of sand and gravel beaches are generally more resistant to the
effects of sediment removal.
Artificial replacement of removed sediments will, in most cases, prevent
substantial disturbance of the beach equilibrium. If sediment removal is
600-14
-------
TABLE 603-1. IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH CLEANUP TECHNIQUES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Cleanup
Technique
Motor grader/
elevating
scraper
Elevating
scraper
Motor grader/
front-end
loader
Front-end
loader - rub-
ber-tired or
tracked
Bulldozer/
rubber-tired
front-end
loader
Description
Motor grader
forms windrows
for pickup by
elevating
scraper.
Elevating
scraper picks
up contaminated
material directly
off beach.
Motor grader
forms windrows
for pickup by
front-end loader.
Front-end loader
picks up mate-
rial directly
off beach and
hauls It to
unloading area.
Bulldozer
pushes contami-
nated substrate
into piles for
pickup by front-
end loader.
Physical Effect
of- Use
Removes only
upper 3 cm of
beach.
Removes upper
3 to 10 cm of
beach. Minor re-
duction of beach
stability.
Erosion and
beach retreat.
Removes only
upper 3 cm of
beach.
Removes 10 to
25 cm of beach.
Reduction of
beach stability.
Erosion and beach
retreat.
Removes IS to
50 cm of beach.
Loss of beach
stability. Severe
erosion and cliff
or beach retreat.
Inundation of
backshores.
Biological Effect
of Use
Removes shallow burrowing
polychaetes, bivalves, and
amphipods. Recolonizat ion
likely to rapidly follow
natural replenishment of the
substrate.
Removes shallow and deeper
burrowing polychaetes,
bivalves, and amphipods. Re-
stabilization of substrate
probably slow; recolonizatlon
likely to follow natural
replenishment of substrate;
reestablishment of long-lived
indigenous fauna may take
several years.
Removes shallow burrowing
polychaetes, bivalves, and
amphipods. Recolinization
likely to rapidly follow
natural replenishment of the
substrate.
Removes almost all shallow and
deep burrowing organisms. Re-
stabilization of the physical
environment slow; new fauna 1
community could develop.
Removes all organisms. Restabil-
ization of substrate and
repopulatlon of Indigenous fauna
is extremely slow; new faunal
community could develop in the
interim.
6. Backhoe
Operates from
top of a bank
or beach to re-
move contaminated
sediments and loads
into trucks.
Removes 25 to
50 cm of beach
or bank. Severe
reduction of beach
stability and
beach retreat.
Removes all organisms. Resta-
bilizatlon of substrate and
repopulation of organisms
is extremely slow; new faunal
community could develop in the
Interim.
600-15
-------
TABLE 603-1 (Continued). IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH CLEANUP TECHNIQUES
Clean up
Technique
7. Dragline or
clamshell
8. High-pressure
flushing
(hydro-
Description
Operates from
top of contami-
nated area to
remove oiled
sediments.
High pressure
water streams
remove oil
Physical Effect
of Use
Removes 25 to
50 cm of beach.
Severe reduction
of beach stability.
Erosion and
beach retreat.
Can disturb
surface of
substrate.
Biological Effect
of Use
Removes all organisms. Resta-
blllzatlon of substrate and
re population of Indigenous fauna
Is extremely slow; new faunal
community could develop in the
Interim.
Removes some organisms and
shells from the substrate,
damage to remaining organisms
blasting) from substrate;
oil is channeled
to recovery
area.
variable. Oil not recovered
can be toxic to organisms
downslope of cleanup activities.
9. Steam
cleaning
Steam removes
oil from sub-
strate where it
is channeled to
recovery area.
Adds heat Removes some organisms from
(> 100°C) to substrate but mortality due
surface. to the heat is more likely.
Empty shells remaining may en-
hance repopulation. Oil not
recovered can be toxic to
organisms downslope of cleanup
activities.
10. Sandblasting
Sand moving at
high velocity
removes oil from
substrate.
Adda material
to the environ-
ment. Potential
recontamination,
erosion, and deeper
penetration Into
substrate.
Removes all organisms and shells
from the substrate. Oil not
recovered can be toxic to
organisms downslope of cleanup
activities.
11. Manual
scraping
Oil is scraped
from substrate
manually using
hand tools.
Selective re-
moval of mate-
rial. Labor-
intensive activity
can disturb
sediments.
Removes some organisms from the
substrate, crushes others. Oil
not removed or recovered can be
toxic to organisms repopulating
the rocky substrate or inhabiting
sediment downslope of cleanup
activities.
12.
Sump and
pump/
vacuum
Oil collects in
sump as it moves
down the beach
and Is removed
by pump or
vacuum truck.
Requires excavation
of a sump 60 to 120
cm deep on shore-
line. Some oil
will probably re-
main on beach.
Removes organisms at sump
location. Potentially toxic
effects from oil left on the
shoreline. Recovery depends
on persistence of oil at the
sump.
600-16
-------
TABLE 603-1 (Continued). IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH CLEANUP TECHNIQUES
13.
14.
Cleanup
Technique
Manual re-
moval of
oiled
materials
Low-pressure
flushing
Description
Oiled sediments
and debris are
removed by hand,
shovels, rakes,
wheelbarrows,
etc.
Low-pressure
water spray
flushes oil
from substrate
and is chan-
neled to re-
covery points.
Physical Effect
of Use
Removes 3 cm or
less of beach.
Selective. Sedi-
ment disturbance
and erosion poten-
tial.
Does not disturb
surface to any
great extent.
Potential for
recontaminat ion.
Biological Effect
of Use
Removes and disturbs shallow
burrowing organisms. Rapid
recovery.
Leaves most organisms alive
and in place. Oil not re-
covered can be toxic to
organisms down slope of
cleanup.
IS. Beach cleaner Pulled by trac-
tor or self-pro-
pelled across
beach picking up
tar balls or
patties.
Disturbs upper
5 to 10 cm of
beach.
Disturbs shallow burrowing
organisms.
16.
Manual
sorbent
application
Sorbents are ap-
plied manually
to contaminated
areas to soak up
oil.
Selective re-
moval of material.
Labor intensive
activity can
disturb sediments.
Foot traffic may crush organisms.
Possible ingestion of sorbents
by birds and small mammals.
17. Manual
cutting
Oiled vegetation
is cut by hand,
collected, and
stuffed Into
bags or contain-
ers for disposal.
Disturbs sediments
because of exten-
sive use of labor;
can cause erosion.
Removes and crushes some
organisms. Rapid recovery.
Heavy foot traffic can cause
root damage and subsequent
slow recovery.
18. Burning
Upwind end of
contaminated
area is Ignited
and allowed to
burn to downwind.
Causes heavy air
pollution; adds
heat to substrate,
can cause erosion
if root systems due
damaged.
Kills surface organisms caught
in burn area. Residual matter
may be somewhat toxic (heavy
metals).
19. Vacuum trucks Truck Is backed
up to oil pool
or recovery site
where oil is
picked up via
vacuum hose.
Some oil may be
left on shore-
line or in water.
Removes some organisms.
Potential for longer-term
toxic effects associated with
oil left on the shoreline.
Recovery depends on persistence
of oil left in the pools.
600-17
-------
TABLE 603-1 (Continued). IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH CLEANUP TECHNIQUES
Cleanup
Technique
Physical Effect
Description of Use
Biological Effect
of Use
20. Push contami-
nated
substrate
Into surf
Bulldozer pushes
contaminated
substrate Into
surf zone Co ac-
celerate natural
cleaning.
Disruption of
top layer of
substrate;
leaves some oil
In intertldal
area. Potential
recontamlnat ion.
Kills most of the organisms
Inhabiting the uncontamlnated
substrate. Recovery of or-
ganisms usually more rapid
than with removing substrate.
21. Break up
pavement
Tractor fitted
with a ripper Is
operated up and
down beach.
Disruption of
sediments.
Leaves oil on
beach.
Disturbs shallow and deep
burrowing organisms.
22. Disc Into
substrate
Tractor pulls
discing equip-
ment along con-
taminated area.
Leaves oil bur-
led In sand.
Disrupts surface
layer of sub-
strate.
Disturbs shallow burrowing
organisms. Possible toxlclty
effects from buried oil.
23. Natural
recovery
No action taken.
Oil left to de-
grade naturally.
Some oil may
remain on beach
and could
contaminate
clean areas.
Potential toxlclty effects
and smothering by the oil.
Potential incorporation of
oil Into the food web. Po-
tential elimination of habitat
if organisms will not settle
on residual oil.
600-18
-------
required and replacement is not practical, contaminated material can be
pushed into the surf zone. This serves to accelerate the natural cleaning
process but without significantly reducing beach stability.
In situ cleaning of oil-contaminated sediments usually does not cause
severe physical impacts upon a shoreline. The primary problems associated
with high and low pressure flushing, steam cleaning, sand blasting, and man-
ual scraping and sorbent application are 1) recontamination by oil that is
removed but not effectively recovered and 2) substrate disturbance caused by
extensive manual labor or the physical effects of the cleanup technique it-
self. Large numbers of workers operating in an area can make recovery dif-
ficult by trampling oil into the substrate. If manual labor is required on
a hillside or steep bluff, workers can Induce severe erosion problems.
Biological Impact
Five general types of biological impacts resulting from cleanup tech-
niques exist: 1) removal of biota with the substrate or as a consequence of
the cleanup efforts; 2) extension of toxic effects because of cleanup-induced
recontamination; 3) habitat disruption by equipment, techniques, or cleanup
crews; 4) crushing of organisms with manual methods or heavy machinery; and
5) disturbance of organisms due to the noise and commotion associated with
heavy equipment and/or large numbers of people*
The biological effects of sediment removal are heavily dependent on the
depth and, to a lesser degree, area of substrate being removed regardless of
the cleanup technique used or sediment type. In general, the number and di-
versity of affected organisms and habitats Increases as the depth of removed
substrate increases. Similarly, recovery time increases with the extent of
substrate removal. As is the case with all cleanup effects, the severity of
Impact depends on the biological value of the particular shoreline, the
presence of similar and unaffected habitats nearby, and whether the affected
organisms spawn and produce sufficient offspring for recruitment.
With removal of the upper 3 to 10 cm of the beach, the shallow burrow-
ing polychaetes, bivalves, amphipods, and other infaunal organisms are likely
to be affected. Because these organisms have generally adapted to disturbed
beach environments, however, the regional population is not likely to be
affected. Repopulation is usually rapid owing to recruitment from the shal-
low subtidal area or from other, unaffected areas of the same or adjacent
beaches.
The removal of 10 to 25 cm of substrate would probably remove the ma-
jority of organisms inhabiting the beach. The short-term impact could be
severe, but the longer-term impact would be somewhat mitigated by recruit-
ment from offshore and longshore areas. If substrate replenishment is slow
and the interim habitat is not acceptable for repopulation by the same or-
ganisms, colonization of an entirely new fauna is possible. And if the
removed substrate is artificially replaced, It could take several seasonal
cycles for the beach to become stabilized and repopulated because of the low
nutrient content of the new material.
600-19
-------
The removal of 25 to 50 cm of sediment would deplete the beach of al-
most all its organisms. Recruitment would be slow and both long- and short-
term impacts could be significant.
The biological implication of cleanup techniques using in situ cleaning
vary considerably. Low- and high-pressure flushing, steam cleaning, sand-
blasting, and manual scraping will, to different extents, remove organisms
from substrates along with the oil. Low pressure flushing will disturb the
fewest organisms. Although steam cleaning leaves most of the organisms in
place, the intense heat involved will frequently kill them. In some cases,
however, empty shells left attached to rocky environments have provided habi-
tat and aided natural recovery to pre-spill conditions (e.g., barnacles and
mussel tend to settle on or close to their own species).
High-pressure flushing, sandblasting, and manual scraping remove al-
most everything from the substrate resulting in dramatic short-term impacts.
High-pressure flushing and sandblasting normally leave a clean surface that,
compared with an oiled surface, offers an attractive habitat for new re-
cruits. Because it more selectively removes oiled flora and fauna, manual
scraping usually has the least short-term Impact.
By transporting oil off the rocks, into the sediments, and around and
under rocks, in situ cleanup techniques can indirectly affect organisms out-
side the area of initial contamination if appropriate recovery measures are
not implemented. Similarly, equipment and people traffic can extend the area
and duration of Impact by pushing oil deeper into the sediments.
Natural cleaning can have the least overall biological impact of the
cleanup options. The actual impacts that result from reliance on natural
cleaning are extremely time dependent and site-specific and cannot be easily
predicted.
600-20
-------
604 CLEANUP IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS
Before implementing a cleanup operation, there are several factors that
must be considered to ensure that implementation of the proposed cleanup op-
eration is feasible. These factors are:
• access requirements
• logistical requirements
• personnel requirements
• equipment availability
The section also aids the user in estimating the total cleanup effort in-
volved and approximating the amount of time required to effect cleanup.
Once a cleanup technique is chosen for a section of shoreline, the
equipment and personnel requirements can be evaluated using Table 604-1. Ac-
cess to the contaminated areas must be evaluated to determine if the existing
access is compatible with that required by the cleanup equipment or if access
can be modified to satisfy cleanup requirements. Land access is preferable
and should be evaluated first; if limited or nonexistent, however, accessi-
bility by air or water should also be considered. If existing access is
compatible with the requirements of the equipment, the selected cleanup tech-
nique can be implemented providing other logistical requirements are met. If
available access is nonexistent or not sufficient the possibility of improv-
ing or providing access should be determined. Improvements can include
widening, grading, decreasing the slope, or increasing trafficability of
an existing road, trail, or path. If terrain permits, roads can be quickly
cut where no access previously existed.
Before any improvements are made, consideration must be given to the
environmental effects of constructing or modifying access routes in addition
to obtaining permission from the landowner and permits from government agen-
cies. Common effects of such surface disturbing activities are erosion and
increased runoff, disruption of wildlife habitats, aesthetic degradation, and
destruction of vegetation. Another consideration is that increasing access
for equipment may also increase it for public use. This may be in conflict
with the general shoreline plan or the ability of the shoreline to withstand
increased human activity.
Once the cleanup technique and associated logistical requirements for
each shoreline area are established, they can be combined to estimate the
total cleanup effort involved. A summary of the various cleanup techniques
and their cleaning rates is given in Table 604-2. The time required to
clean each shoreline area can be estimated by dividing the amount of area
to be cleaned by the cleaning rate of the particular technique. The time
and equipment required to clean each shoreline section can be added together
to estimate the total time and equipment required to effectively clean
the entire contaminated shoreline.
The final step in determining feasibility of cleanup actions is to com-
pare the equipment and personnel requirements with what is available from
600-21
-------
TABLE 604-1. EQUIPMENT AND PERSONNEL REQUIREMENTS
Estimated Time
Length Amount and Type Amount and Type Required to
Cleanup of of Equipment of Personnel Clean Up Beach
Technique Beach Needed Required (from Table 604-2)
Total Total
Types of Number Time Required Personnel
Equipment of Each For Each Piece Required
Needed Type of Equipment by Type
Heavy Equipment
Op.
Manual
Laborers
Truck
Drivers
Cleanup
Equipment
Operators
600-22
-------
TABLE 604-2 SUMMARY OF CLEANING RATES
Cleanup Technique
Combination motor grader/
Elevating scraper
Elevating scraper
Combination motor grader/
front-end loader (rubber-tired)
(tracked)
Front-end loader (rubber-tired)
(tracked)
Cleaning Rates8
30-m (100 ft) Haul Distance) ISO-m (500 ft) Haul Distance
2.5 hr/hectare (1 hr/acre)
2.6 hr/hectare (0.95 hr/acre)
6 hr/hectare (2.4 hr/acre)
8.3 hr/hectare (3.3 hr/acre)
16.5 hr/hectare (6.6 hr/acre)
22 hr/hectare (8.8 hr/acre)
7 hr/hectare (2.8 hi/acres)
6.5 hr/hectare (2.6 hr/acre)
18 hr/hectare (7.2 hr/acre)
27 hr/hectare (10.8 hr/acre)
34 hr/hectare (13.6 hr/acre)
69 hr/hectare (27.6 hr/acre)
O
o
K>
U)
Combination bulldozer/
front-end loader (rubber-tired)
Backhoe
Dragline or clamshell
Disc Into substrate
Beach cleaner
Push contaminated substrate
into surf
Breaking up pavement
High-pressure flushing
(hyd rob la sting)
Steam cleaning
Sandblasting
Manual cutting
25 hr/hectare (10 hr/acre)
17 hr/hectare (6.8 hr/acre
52 hr/hectare (20.8 hr/acre)
Dragline - 28 hr/hectare (11.2 hr/acre)
Clamshell - 50 hr/hectare (20 hr/acre)
1 hr/hectare (0.33 hr/acre)
1 hr/hectare (0.5 hr/acre)
5 hr/hectare (2 hr/acre)
1.33 hr/hectare (0.6 hr/acre)
1.5m2/min (15 ft2/min)
1 M2/mln (10 ft2/min)
1.25 m2/min (2.5 ft2/min)
65 m2/hr (77 yardn2/hr)
*Rough estimate only, actual rates may vary depending on the circumstances. Details regarding
the basis of these rates are given in the discussion of each individual technique.
-------
contractors. If the supply is sufficient to satisfy the logistical require-
ments, cleanup can be implemented. Should the supply be inadequate, other
cleanup techniques can be evaluated in light of the available resources.
In some cases, other types of equipment can be substituted for a specific
cleanup technique but are usually less efficient.
A sample form that can be used for gathering data concerning cleanup
implementation requirements is given in Table 604-3. A checklist for deter-
mining feasibility of different cleanup techniques is given in Table 604-4.
Once the cleanup technique and associate equipment and personnel have been
established for each shoreline section, the information on the data form
can also be used to estimate the total cleanup effort required as described
previously.
600-24
-------
TABLE 604-3. DATA FORM FOR CLEANUP IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS
Beach None and
Cl HUH 1 Heat Ion
Cleanup
Technique
Selected
Type of
Available
Access
Logistic Re-
quirements of
Cleanup Technique
(fion Section SOS)
In Access
Acceptable?
(Yen or No)
To What Extent
Can Access Be
Improved?
Are Required
F.i ul pmrnt
and Personnel
Available?
Cnn Aval lahle
Supply Be
Supplemented
or Improvised?
o
?
in
-------
TABLE 604-4. IMPLEMENTATION OF CLEANUP TECHNIQUES CHECKLIST
Access (Sections 403 and 803)
1. Is there access to the shoreline for the cleanup equipment? Yes No
2. If access is not sufficient, can it be improved by widening
the trail or building a road? Yes No
3. Are effects of road building or widening acceptable? Yes No
4. If not acceptable, Is other access available (sea or air)? Yes No
5. If other access is not available, select another technique
whose access requirements are compatible with the available
access.
Equipment and Personnel (Section 805)
1. Are sufficient equipment and supplies available to initiate
technique? Yes No
2. Can another item of equipment or supply be substituted
for the unavailable item? Yes No
3. If other equipment or supplies are not available, select
another technique for which equipment and supplies are
available.
4. Are sufficient personnel locally available to implement
technique? Yes No
5. If not, can personnel be brought in from outside the local
area? Yes No
6. If personnel are not available, select another technique.
600-26
-------
605 TERMINATION OF CLEANUP
Determining when specific cleanup actions being conducted on an oil
contaminated shoreline should be terminated can be a difficult decision,
involving several potentially conflicting factors. These factors are
usually the ever-increasing costs of the cleanup actions and the damage
to the social and ecological environment caused by the cleanup versus
the ecological and economic effects of leaving the remaining oil in place.
The decision to terminate cleanup activities is one which must be
made on a case-by-case basis depending on the prevailing local condition.
In all cases, two conditions must be met before cleanup actions on a par-
ticular shoreline are terminated:
1. Fresh oil contamination of the shoreline is no longer occuring.
2. The oil remaining on the shore can be considered immobilized
and is no longer a threat to recontaminate adjacent areas.
Other factors dependent on local conditions that should be considered
in terminating cleanup actions are:
1. When environmental damage caused by cleanup efforts is greater
than the damages caused to the environment by leaving the re-
maining oil in place.
2. When local environmental experts or OSC staff deem that the re-
maining oil is not harmful to local ecology. This is primarily
a function of the natural cleaning ability of the shoreline.
3. When cost of cleanup operations increases significantly while the
amount of oil being removed decreases significantly.
4. When only occasional spots of oil remain on substrates.
5. When public pressure for continued cleanup terminates.
6. When cleanup operations interfere significantly with the designated
use of the shoreline area more than the presence of the remaining
oil.
In most cases, only a few of these factors will apply to a given
shoreline area. Consequently, the OSC and his staff will have to make
subjective judgments in assessing the local conditions and determining
at what point a sufficient number of these factors have been achieved so
that cleanup activities can be terminated.
600-27
-------
606 WASTE HANDLING
Handling recovered oil and oil-contaminated materials can pose both
immediate and long-range problems. Oil/water mixtures can be separated
in treatment tanks and recovered oil then sent to a refinery.
Disposal of contaminated debris is more difficult. Legal requirements
for its disposal are established by most state regulatory bodies. In most
cases, contaminated wastes should not be burned. They can, however, be
buried safely on land in approved disposal sites if correct procedures are
followed. It is often advisable during waste handling, transfer, or storage
to prevent contamination by covering the area of operation with plastic
sheets.
Disposal can pose several problems. The first of these is temporary
onsite storing and then transporting oil and contaminated material to the
final disposal sites. In most oil spill situations, recovered material is
stored for a short period of time at a local site, while arrangements are
made for a final disposal site. Also, recovered liquid wastes can undergo
primary separation to reduce the amount of liquid requiring transport.
The second problem involves disposal methods, of which several are
available. They include oil and water separation, burial, and natural deg-
radation. The specific disposal method selected depends on the nature of
the oil-contaminated material and the location of the spill.
Oil and Water Separation
In some areas the majority of the oil and water separation can be per-
formed at existing treatment and separation facilities located at refineries
or oil production sites. However, if the spill is minor and/or occurs at a
considerable distance from any such facility, the following techniques can be
used to provide oil/water separators for field use. These separators might
also be utilized locally to remove a portion of the water so as to reduce the
bulk of the oil/water mixture before transporting it for final separation.
Effective oil/water separators can be constructed under field conditions
to further recover oil from oil/water mixtures. Fifty-five gallon drums
or sheet metal welded together into a 4 x 8 x 4-foot transportable container
can be used as separators, after being fitted with a bottom draining pipe
with valve. The oil/water mixture would enter the container from the top,
be allowed to settle, and water then drained off the bottom through the
drain pipe. The oil can be pumped from the vat to a storage tank or tank
truck (Figure 606-la).
A second method can be used to remove oil from a natural or excavated
sump pit. A 55-gallon drum fitted with a small pump and hose and a 4- x
18-inch slot cut from the top third is suspended upright into the sump pit,
positioned such that the bottom of the slot remains just below the surface
of the oil layer. Oil flowing into the drum is then pumped into a storage
tank or tank truck (Figure 606-lb).
600-28
-------
Water drain valve
A. 55-gal drum oil /water separator.
B. 55-gal drum and sump oil/water separator.
Figure 606-1. Field oil/water separation.
600-29
-------
A tank or any portable tank can also be used to provide oil/water
separation. If water in oil emulsions is recovered, chemical de-eraulsifiers
can be added to the separator tanks to aid in breaking the emulsions and
providing more effective water/oil separation.
Temporary Waste Storage Sites
In the event of any shoreline cleanup operation, establishing a tem-
porary oily waste disposal site close to the cleanup operation is very im-
portant. The purpose of a temporary storage site is to provide a location
to accumulate oily sediment and debris removed during shoreline cleanup
operations until a final disposal site can be located, approved, and arrange-
ments made for its use. The temporary storage sites should be located in
an area with good access to the shoreline cleanup operation and to nearby
streets and highways. Good storage site locations should be flat areas such
as parking lots (paved or unpaved) or underdeveloped lots adjacent to the
shoreline.
Temporary storage sites should be selected and prepared to minimize con-
tamination of surrounding areas from leaching oil. Therefore, storage sites
should not be located on or adjacent to ravines, gullies, streams, or the
sides of hills, but on flat areas with a minimum of slope. Once a location
is selected, certain site preparation Is usually necessary to contain any
leaching oil. An earth berra should be constructed (Figure 606-2) around the
perimeter of the storage site. If a paved parking lot is used, earth would
have to be imported from nearby areas; if an unpaved surface is used, ma-
terial can be excavated from the site Itself and pushed to the perimeter,
thereby forming a small basin. Entrance and exit gaps should be left in the
berm to allow cleanup equipment access to the site. If the substrate or berm
material Is permeable, plastic liners should be spread over the berms and
across the floor of the storage site in order to contain any possible oil
leachate.
A front-end loader should be stationed at each storage site to distri-
bute the dumped oily material evenly and to load trucks removing the material
to final disposal.
Transport
Transporting oiled material to a final disposal site is usually done
with dump and tank trucks. The material is loaded into the trucks at the
point of removal or temporary storage and transported to an approved dump
site. The trucks typically have capacities of 10 yd3 or 20 yd3. To prevent
oil leakage during transport, the truck beds should be lined with plastic
sheeting.
The rate at which contaminated material is transported to a disposal
site depends on the number and capacity of dump trucks used and the distance
to the site. The trucks are loaded by front-end loaders at a date dependent
on the bucket size of the loader. The time required to load each truck ranges
from 1.5 to 4 minutes for a 10 yd3 truck and 3 to 8 minutes for a 20 ydj
600-30
-------
IP'lriw
f>*S>tiv*
Entrance
D-
* \
/„
-Front-End Loader
^m
Exit
Figure 606-2. Temporary waste storage site.
600-31
-------
truck. Table 606-1 lists disposal rates of contaminated material for various
haul distances to a disposal site, truck capacities, and number of trucks.
Final Disposal
If an existing, approved disposal site is unavailable or not feasible
to use, private burial offers an alternative disposal method. For specific
procedures for site selection and burial refer to EPA Disposal Manual
0EPA-600/2-77-153a.
TABLE 606-1. RATES OF DISPOSAL FOR OILED MATERIAL
Distance to
Disposal
km
20
30
40
60
80
Approved
Site
(mi)
(12)
(19)
(25)
(37)
(50)
No. of 10 yd3 Cap.
Dump Trucks
4
4
6
8
10
No. of 20 yd3 Cap.
Dump Trucks
2
2
3
4
5
Disposal or
Removal Rate3
20 m3/hr
12.5 m3/hr
14.4 m3/hr
13 m3/hr
12 m3/hr
aRates based on an average travel speed of 65 km/hr (40 mph) and a fill
time of 2 minutes for 10 yd3 trucks and 4 minutes for 20 yd3 trucks.
600-32
-------
SECTION 700
INLAND WATERS
The shorelines of inland waterways have many characteristics similar to
the shorelines of coastal waters, and much of the information presented in
this manual is directly applicable to inland shorelines as well as coast-
al shorelines. However, some differences do exist that can affect the re-
sponse actions to a spill. This section supplements the characterization of
coastal shorelines with information pertaining primarily to inland waterways
and discusses the implication of this information with regard to oil spill
response efforts.
700-1
-------
701 GENERAL SHORELINE INFORMATION
Hydrological Regime
Oil contamination occurring on lakes, rivers, streams, or other non-
tidal environments is affected by a different hydrological regime than that
of the ocean. Currents and, to a lesser degree, water level variations are
the primary factors controlling oil pollution.
Rivers
Currents. Wind-induced currents and downstream currents are the major mov-
ers of an oil spill in a river environment. Wind-induced currents cause
the surface water and therefore oil on the surface to move in the direc-
tion of the wind. Downstream currents are a function of the channel gradient
and the channel width/depth. The currents next to the banks are the least
strong; the current is greatest at midstream, except at bends in the river.
Currents tend to be strongest along the outside edge of a bend in a
river where the current tends to flow straight into the outside bank before
being deflected downstream. Oil contamination is usually heavy in this area
because currents drive the oil onto the bank. Other areas of high oil
concentrations typically occur in small inlets and back eddy areas along
the river bank away from the influence of the main current.
River currents often exceed 1 knot, which is the velocity above which
boom failure usually occurs. Therefore, containment booming is relatively
ineffective in these high-current environments; however, diversion booming
can be used in strong current areas.
In general, high water currents can be expected to occur in the follow-
ing areas:
• where waterways narrow down
• in shallow water connecting two bodies of deeper water
• at stream entrances into larger streams or water bodies
• in the center sections of streams or rivers
Low water currents can be expected in the following areas:
• in channel openings at right angles to the main current flow
• in shallow backwater areas
Figure 701-1 illustrates typical examples of high and low current areas.
Water Level Variation. In river environments, water level variation is a
result of changes in snow melt, natural groundwater inflows, precipitation,
evaporation, water releases from dams, and municipal and industrial consump-
tion.
700-2
-------
Low current
Higher current;
\
o
o
High current
High
current
Figure 700-1. High and low current areas.
-------
Oil contamination along a river is essentially linear, i.e., oil con-
taminates the shoreline in a narrow band at that water level. Storm runoff
can raise water levels significantly and, in some cases, cause flooding
of surrounding low-lying areas. Oil spilled during these periods can cause
extensive contamination* Under normal conditions, though, water level varia-
tion is usually small and occurs over a long period of time causing little
difficulty for protection and cleanup efforts.
Lakes
Currents* Currents in lakes or other inland water bodies are influenced
primarily by the wind, with lesser effects from circulation patterns and
river inflows and outflows. Oil movement and contamination is thus con-
trolled mostly by the speed and direction of the wind.
Water Level Variation. In non-tidal environments, long-term water level
variations are due to man-induced changes, barometric pressure, wind-gener-
ated storm surges, and hydrological factors (water inflow from rivers, lakes,
groundwater, and precipitation; water outflow into rivers, lakes, and ground-
water; and as evaporation). Short-term water level variations could be in-
duced by barometric pressure, storm surges, and wind set-up (seiche effect).
Oil contamination in a calm, non-tidal environment is also linear except
in cases of large water level variations. In these disturbed environments
oil contamination is still somewhat linear but in a wider band. Wind seiches
and storm surges can deposit oil relatively high on a shoreline where it will
remain until subsequent strong seiches and surges act to degrade and wash
away some of the oil.
For large bodies of water, such as the Great Lakes, water level varia-
tion is an important factor in protection and cleanup. Although they are
generally low-energy environments, severe storms, especially those parallel-
ing the long axis of a lake, can create conditions similar to storm surges in
a coastal environment. Therefore, oil spills occurring during these periods
could cause extensive contamination of backshore areas with the same effects
as those described in Section 803.
700-4
-------
702 SHORELINE CLASSIFICATION
The classification of inland shorelines basically follows that de-
scribed for coastal shorelines in Section 400. However, the differences
that do exist in sediment type, energy level, sensitivity, and persistence
of oil are presented belowi The checklists presented in Section 201 can
be used to classify inland shorelines and to determine protection and clean-
up techniques and implementation requirements.
Sediment Type
Generally, the sediment types of inland shorelines parallel those in
coastal areas except for the frequency at which they occur. Lake and river
shorelines are frequently composed of mud or dirt banks and may be lined with
trees or heavy vegetation. However, sand or gravel beaches are sometimes
found on lake shorelines and on river or stream shorelines.
Energy Level
Inland shoreline energy levels are almost always low except during
storms or floods. Nonetheless river currents or waves in large lakes can
impart some energy on the shore.
Persistence
Although the zone of contamination on inland shorelines is typically
small and linear, oil can persist for long periods of time. Since water
levels of rivers and lakes tend to decrease during the summer, oil depos-
ited on those shorelines during late spring would likely remain until the
following winter when water levels return to their seasonal highs. The
same is true of shorelines contaminated during or following storms when wa-
ter levels are above normal or wind and wave action could deposit oil above
normal water levels. The oil would tend to persist until subsequent storms
cause water levels to equal or exceed the height of contamination.
700-5
-------
703 PROTECTION
The techniques used to protect inland shorelines and their implementa-
tion requirements are basically the same as those used for coastal areas
as described in Sections 502 and 804. The majority of protection techniques
used on Inland shorelines are concerned with containment of the spilled oil
before the contamination becomes extensive.
700-6
-------
70A CRITERIA FOR SELECTING CONTAINMENT SITES
River and Stream Characteristics
When selecting containment sites within rivers and streams, the follow-
ing stream characteristics must be considered:
velocity
discharge and flow characteristics
channel conformation (width, depth, pool-riffle ratio)
man-made structures (culverts, spur dikes, bridges, LWC)
backwater areas
side channels
presence of ponds adjacent to stream
bank vegetation
Availability of access, presence of suitable topography for working condi-
tions, storage areas for oil removed from the rivers, and environmental fac-
tors also must be considered.
The selection of containment sites will change somewhat with changes
in the flow characteristics of the river. The following discussion consid-
ers containment site criteria for periods of low and high flow in rivers and
streams. Table 704-1 lists the preferred containment site locations for each
period.
Low Flow Period
During low flow, the water level will be below the vegetation along the
bank. In the smaller rivers and streams, the flow pattern will probably be a
series of pools and riffles. Normally the pools will exist on the outside of
a meander where the velocities will be slower. The slower the water velocity,
the more effective the containment procedures. Gravel bars and dry, high wa-
ter channels will probably be present for staging containment operations and
obtaining materials for berms and sandbags. Dry depressions in dry highwater
channels could be used for temporary storage of removed oil, however the de-
pressions should be lined with polyethylene sheets before being used for oil
storage.
High Flow Period
When rainstorms cause high water levels, access and containment proce-
dures are hampered. Velocities of the water will be faster and probably
prohibitive to containment booming operations except at specific locations.
Increased turbulence will tend to entrain the oil in the water and may
tend to form water in oil emulsions. The water level will probably be up
to the vegetation line and all highwater channels could contain flowing
water, with pool and riffle sequences probably flooded over. Except for
the small streams, fording the river by men with equipment will be diffi-
cult or impossible.
700-7
-------
TABLE 704-1. PREFERRED RIVER AND STREAM CONTAINMENT SITES
DURING LOW AND HIGH FLOWS
Low Flow
1. Man-made structures: Bridges, culverts, spur dikes, and low water
crossings provide ideal access points where dikes, berms, or diver-
sions can be installed to slow water velocities and facilitate con-
tainment procedures.
2. Natural pools: At the outside of meanders or other pools where ve-
locities are slower.
3. Backwater areas: Pools may exist behind log jams or debris jams.
4. Gravel and sand bars: Berming and diking could be facilitated where
sufficient gravel materials are available.
High Flow
1. Man-made structures.
2. Side channels: High water channels will probably be flowing water.
Those that exist along the side of the river, especially where the
oil entered, could be utilized for partial or complete containment.
These channels are normally narrower and facilitate berming and diking
more easily than the main channel.
3. Backwater areas: Pools with lower water velocities might exist behind
log and debris jams, again facilitating containment procedures.
4. Vegetated banks: The water level will probably be up to the vegetation
and will probably cause some oil to collect on the vegetation, in
small pools and eddys along the bank. Partial containment could be
accomplished by utilizing these.
700-8
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705 METHODS OF CONTAINMENT AND EXCLUSION
Rivers
Booms deployed directly across a river or stream will usually con-
tain the flow of oil if current velocity is less than about 1 knot (0.5 m/s).
Wind will affect surface water velocity by a factor of approximately 3 per-
cent of the wind speed. This should be taken into consideration when wind
is blowing downstream or upstream. When containment booming is used, the
oil will have to be removed rapidly from the upstream side of the boom.
When current velocities are greater than 1 knot, diversion booming should
be used.
If containment booms are deployed across a river or stream, secondary
backup or sorbent booms should be positioned slightly behind the primary
boom to recover any oil that might escape. Sorbent barriers can also be
used in shallow, low-current waterways to contain light oil sheens on the
water's surface.
Spills on the main river channel will be difficult to contain and can
be treated in several ways. During periods of high stream flow and velocity,
a series of diversion berms and booms should be used, diverting the spill to
a containment pit or floodplain feature. Digging a pit across the main river
channel will create eddies and pools of quieter water. This is practical
only on smaller rivers where equipment can be used. This technique is more
effective when used with an overflow dam directly downstream. The pit should
be located where rapid removal of the oil is possible. Oil should be removed
from behind the boom as rapidly as possible to prevent loss of oils.
A spill entering the river can be partially controlled by deploying
booms parallel to the river bank downstream from the point of entry. Under
some circumstances, side channels could be converted to containment ponds
if the following procedures are used: 1) berm or dike the downstream end
of the side channel; 2) blast or construct a suitable channel for diversion
to a skimmer in conjunction with an overflow berm such that the flowing
oil is diverted into the mouth of the side channel, but allows the majority
of water to flow down the main channel. Figure 705-1 illustrates the con-
tainment techniques described above.
Berms and dams are best suited for shallow rivers, streams, and creeks
where booming is ineffective because the draft of the boom exceeds the water
depth. Small creeks can be blocked entirely by damming if there is suffi-
cient storage area upstream. However, a means to stop the oil and let the
water continue downstream will generally be required, such as an underflow
dam, an overflow berm, or a dam in conjunction with a pump or siphon. Side
views of these techniques are shown in Figure 705-2. These barriers should
be located so that a pond will form upstream from the barrier, allowing the
use of sorbents, booms, and skimmers for cleanup. In addition, pools may
exist behind log jams or debris jams where containment could be achieved.
Where trees exist along the banks, they could be cut and used for booming
across the stream in an emergency situation. On fast-flowing creeks, a
700-9
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This represents a series of diversion berms
joined by booms. They are positioned
so that a spill can be diverted to a
location with adequate storage and
accessibility to removal equipment.
If stream and spill conditions
permit, one berm may be
all that is required.
Collection Point
Oil Skimmer
Skimmer
Boom
—Overflow Berm
A. Diversion berms and booms
B. Overflow berm and boom
o
?
o
C. Booming parallel to shoreline
0. Diversion boom/side channel containment
Figure 705-1. Oil containment on rivers.
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Oil Layer
Waterflow of stream is bypassed to maintain
reservoir level. Elevate discharge end to tube(s)
to desired reservoir level.
Side View
A. Underflow dam
C. Overflow dam with pump
Oil
.Oil Skimmer Boom
u
IBI
Overflow Berm
Side View
B. Overflow berm
Siphon
. ^ r > \,
.>- « «- *'
Side View
D. Overflow dam with siphon
Figure 705-2. Oil containment on streams.
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series of containment barriers such as chicken wire (with sorbents) struc-
tures might be used. It may be necessary to remove log jams and other de-
bris in creeks and streams to allow effective deployment and maintenance
of booms. During periods of high flow, it may be necessary to install steel
nets, chicken wire, or similar devices upstream from containment devices
and areas in order to protect both equipment and personnel. To facilitate
cleanup and removal, spills should be diverted to an area with adequate
storage.
Lakes
Booms are the most useful means of containment on large lakes. The
most effective technique is to encircle the spill with booms (containment
booming). In the event containment booming is not a viable response tech-
nique, exclusion boom should be employed to protect sensitive areas, inlets,
harbors, stream deltas, etc. Diversion booming is usually not applicable
for most inland lakes as currents are typically too low to warrant its use.
Strong winds can, however, create surface currents of sufficient velocity
to make diversion booming an effective alternative. It should be used to
protect sensitive shorelines and to assist in oil cleanup* During storm-
surges or large seiches, beach berms can be constructed to protect backshore
areas.
Booms deployed across the inlet stream to a lake may prevent oil from
reaching the lake itself. Booming the inlet or containment booming along
the shore should minimize impact on the lake. However, booming the outlet
of a lake is generally more practical because the surface of the lake pro-
vides a large storage area, and the low current velocity on the lake makes
dealing with the spill easier.
If oil is flowing into the lake, a boom should be secured to the shore
on one side of the point of entry and deployed around the periphery of the
slick by boat until the spill is encircled. As in oil containment on small
lakes, sorbent booms and conventional booms deployed in tandem may be effec-
tive. Both should be deployed across the lake outlet with the sorbent boom
downstream. Sorbent pads can be distributed between the two booms. This
technique will pick up some of the oil that passes the conventional boom.
Deployment configurations for the containment booming techniques de-
scribed above are given in Figure 705-3.
700-12
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Primary Boom
Sorbent Pads
Sorbent Boom
A. Containment booming at source
B. Containment/sorbent booming at lake outlet
Primary Boom
Secondary Booms
C. Containment booming at lake inlet
D. Containment booming at lake outlet
Figure 705-3. Oil containment on lakes.
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706 CLEANUP
Cleanup techniques and their implementation requirements are similar
for both- inland and coastal shorelines (Section 805)• Most techniques can
be used effectively with no modifications on many inland shorelines.
Rivers
As discussed previously, booms and berms are used to divert and contain
spills on large rivers. The use of one or more skimming devices is part of
the containment and cleanup actions associated with booms and berms. Rocks,
boulders, and sand and gravel bars may be covered with a film of oil as the
spill flows downstream. Rocks and boulders can be cleaned by hand scraping
or with pressurized equipment. A hand-operated skimmer with a floating head
may be used in conjunction with sorbents. Gravel bars can be cleaned simply
by removing the contaminated gravel and debris. Replacement with clean ma-
terials may be necessary if the quantity removed is significant. This can
be accomplished with front-end loaders, drag-lines, and backhoes. For steep
banks consisting of mud or dirt, contaminated sediments can be removed using
a backhoe.
Since many river banks, and some lakes, have vegetation extending down
into or growing in the water, plants may have to be cleaned or removed. De-
pending on the type of oil, low pressure flushing will usually remove most
of the oil from the vegetation. If the river bank consists of stable con-
solidated materials, this technique can also be used to wash oil from the
substrate. As with any in situ technique, it is imperative that booms are
placed in the water around the area to be worked or slightly downstream to
collect the oil that is flushed back into the water. If the current velocity
is excessive, the booms may be deployed in one of the diversion booming con-
figurations described in Section 804.
In the event low pressure flushing is not feasible, the contaminated
vegetation may have to be removed by manual cutting (Section 805). Again,
booms should be positioned to collect any oil that may become freed during
the cutting and removal.
Lakes
The primary means of containing and cleaning up spills on large lakes
is the use of booms, sorbents, and skimmers. Booms are used for containing
and concentrating the oil. Skimmers should be used to remove the oil from
the water surface, transferring it to storage for subsequent disposal.
Sorbents should be used for spills of small volumes and for final cleanup
of larger volumes. Self-powered skimmers with onboard storage will be
needed if the oil is not concentrated adjacent to the shoreline where smaller
floating skimmers or vacuum pumps could be used.
Cleanup along the shoreline is done in much the same way as along a
river. Contaminated vegetation can be clipped and removed. Sand and gravel
700-14
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can be removed and replaced. Sorbents can be used to pick up small slicks,
and sorbent booms deployed to clean up continuing seeps of oil.
Shorelines of small ponds can be cleaned by hand or with sorbents and
small pumps with skimming heads. Contaminated grasses (except where there
are soil erosion constraints) and debris may have to be removed by hand, if
required. Hydroblasting equipment can be used to clean rocks and boulders,
which may also be scraped by hand. Small slicks can be removed from the
water surfaces with sorbents or small skimmers.
700-15
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707 IMPACTS OF CLEANUP
The impacts of the cleanup techniques used on inland shorelines are
similar to those for coastal areas. One difference, however, relates to
the consequences of sediment removal. Although the energy levels of inland
waters are typically low with no tidal effects, the removal of contaminated
sediments can lead to erosion of stream shorelines and biological effects
downstream due to increased sediment loading.
Rivers
Sediment removal from river banks may cause accelerated erosion. River
currents act to erode materials from the banks naturally at a slow rate.
Sediment removal can weaken the stability of the river banks creating an in-
crease in the erosion rate.
Low pressure flushing can also accelerate erosion if used on unconsoli-
dated shorelines. The flushing itself can erode sediments into the water
and allow the currents to further the process.
Large scale erosion can increase turbidity and induce sedimentation of
the river bottom downstream. Sedimentation can 1) bury organisms and their
habitats, 2) disrupt fish spawning activities or bury and suffocate eggs
should the sediment cover the gravel bottom of a spawning ground, 3) reduce
Oo levels due to the increased biochemical oxygen demand of the organic load,
4j have direct turbidity effects (e.g., making it difficult for fish to find
food), and 5) add a toxic load from the introduced sediment.
The construction of berms or dams from stream bed materials may de-
stroy some organisms inhabiting those materials but the impact should be
short-term. If the berms or dams are not removed after cleanup operations
are completed, they may disrupt migration and spawning activities of some
fish.
Lakes
Sediment removal from the shorelines of lakes and other inland water
bodies is not expected to cause substantial erosion problems due to the
absence of currents or significant wave energy. Extensive sediment removal
may, however, allow storm runoff to erode loose sediments into the lake.
Increased human and heavy equipment activity in the area may produce the
same erosion effects by loosening the soil and destroying vegetation.
Accelerated erosion and subsequent sedimentation may begin to fill in
small ponds or lakes and adversely affect fish and benthic organisms. Sedi-
mentation can also cause algae blooms through the release of nutrients
trapped in the sediments.
700-16
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