EPA
United States Industrial Environmental Research EPA 600/7 79 187b
Environmental Protection Laboratory August 1979
Agency Cincinnati OH 45268
Research and Development
Manual of Practice for
Protection and Cleanup of
Shorelines:
Volume I
Implementation Guide
Interagency
Energy/Environment
R&D Program Report
-------
EPA-600/7-79-187b
August 1979
MANUAL OF PRACTICE FOR PROTECTION AND CLEANUP
OF SHORELINES
Volume II
Implementation Guide
by
Carl R. Foget, Eric Schrier,
Martin Cramer, and Robert Castle
Woodward-Clyde Consultants
Three Embarcadero Center, Suite 700
San Francisco, California 94111
Contract No. 68-03-2542
Project Officer
Leo T. McCarthy, Jr.
Oil and Hazardous Materials Spills Branch
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Edison, New Jersey 08817
INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed "by the Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory-Cincinnati, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved
for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily
reflect the views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorse-
ment or recommendation for use.
ii
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FOREWORD
When energy and material resources are extracted, processed, converted
and used, the related pollutional impacts on our environment and even on our
health often require that new and increasingly more efficient pollution
control methods "be used. The Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory -
Cincinnati (lERL-Ci) assists in developing and demonstrating new and im-
proved methodologies that will meet these needs both efficiently and
economically.
This volume a product of the above efforts supplements Volume I
Decision Guide. This volume provides a detailed discussion of the factors
involved in the decision making process and includes; oil characteristics,
"behavior and movement of oil, shoreline characterization and sensitivity,
protection and cleanup priorities, implementation requirements, and impacts
associated with cleanup operations. The manual also presents criteria for
terminating cleanup operations and a discussion on handling oily wastes.
This project is part of the continuing program of the Oil and Hazardous
Materials Spills Branch, lERL-Ci, to assess and mitigate the environmental
impact of oil spills.
David G. Stephan
Director
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati
iii
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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this manual is to provide the On-Scene-Coordinator (OSC)
with a systematic, easy to apply methodology that can be used to assess the
threat of an oil spill and select the most appropriate protection and cleanup
techniques.
This manual is structured to provide a decision-making guide to enable
the user to determine, for a given oil spill situation, which protection and
cleanup techniques would be most effective for a specific shoreline type. A
detailed discussion of the factors involved in the decision-making process is
also given and includes oil characteristics, behavior and movement of oil,
shoreline characterization and sensitivity, protection and cleanup priorities
and implementation requirements, and impacts associated with cleanup oper-
ations. The manual also presents criteria for terminating cleanup operations
and a discussion on handling of oily wastes.
This manual was submitted in fulfillment of Contract No. 68-03-2542 by
Woodward-Clyde Consultants under the sponsorship of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
iv
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CONTENTS
FOREWORD ii:L
ABSTRACT iv
FIGURES vi
TABLES viii
800 Appendices 800-1
801 Collection of Information 800-1
802 Physical and Chemical Properties of Oils 800-7
803 General Shoreline Information 800-18
804 Protection Techniques 800-33
805 Cleanup Techniques 800-65
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FIGURES
Number Page
801-1 Limits of United States coast pilots 800-4
803-1 Typical beach profile 800-19
803-2 Sequence of stonn erosion and oil deposition, burial, and
exposure following a second storm on a sand beach .... 800-22
803-3 Effects of storm-wave activity on oil stranded on a cobble
beach 800-23
803-4 Waves approaching a beach obliquely produce a longshore
current and a longshore drift of sediments by swash and
backwash action 800-25
803-5 View of the effects on oil deposited at the high-water
level by migrating rhythmic topography 800-26
803-6 Obtaining cone index value with cone pentrometer 800-28
804-1 Enclosure booming at inlet with high channel currents . . . 800-36
804-2 Boom at harbor entrance 800-37
804-3 Hypothetical estuary entrance booming 800-38
804-4 Exclusion booming of a stream delta 800-39
804-5 Placement configuration of 3 lengths of boom 800-42
804-6 Diversion booming along shoreline 800-44
804-7 Cross sections of 3 high-stability boom types and optimum
deployment angles under various currents using 61 m/200 m
long booms 800-45
804-8 Boom deployment method 800-48
804-9 Containment: open water 800-49
vi
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FIGURES (Continued)
Number Pa8e
804-10 Typical permeable barrier 800-52
804-11 Beach berm 800-56
804-12 Water bypass dam (valved pipe) 800-58
800-13 Water bypass dam (inclined tube) 800-58
804-14 Diversion booms 800-60
804-15 Overflow berm 800-61
805-1 Motor grader / elevating scraper sequence 800-68
805-2 Cleaning pattern for motorized elevating scraper 800-72
805-3 Motor grader / front-end loader operational sequence 800-76
805-4 Front-end loader operational sequence 800-80
805-5 Bulldozer / front-end loader operational sequence 800-84
805-6 Backhoe operational sequence 800-88
805-7 Cleaning pattern for dragline or clamshell technique 800-93
805-8 Collection of oil on beaches with sumps 800-104
805-9 Collection of oil on river shorelines with sumps 800-106
805-10 Low pressure flushing tactics 800-112
805-11 Cleaning pattern for use of beach cleaner 800-116
805-12 Method of initiating burn of oil contaminated areas 800-126
805-13 Cleaning pattern for pushing contaminated substrate into
surf 800-132
805-14 Cleaning pattern for breaking up pavement 800-136
805-15 Cleaning pattern for discing into substrate technique .... 800-140
vii
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TABLES
Number Page
801-1 Information Sources for General Oil Spill Data Checklist . . 800-2
801-2 Information Sources for Shoreline Information Checklist . . 800-3
802-1 Classification and Components of Crude Oil 800-8
802-2 Observed Properties and Distillation Ranges for Typical
Residual Fuel Oils 800-9
802-3 Comparison of Standards for Diesel Fuel and Fuel Oil
Characteristics 800-10
802-4 Relation (approximate) between Engler Degrees, Saybolt
and Redwood Seconds, and Kinematic Viscosities ...... 800-13
802-5 Surface Tension and Theoretical Spreading Data for Various
Crude Oil 800-14
802-6 Effects of Chemical Characteristics on Oil Behavior 800-15
802-7 Characteristics of Some Light Hydrocarbons Found in
Crude Oil 800-16
803-1 Minimum Cone Index Values 800-29
804-1 Protection Techniques 800-34
804-2 Logistical Requirements per 305 Meters of Boom 800-40
804-3 Logistical Requirements for Diversion Booming for
Deflection in a 1.5-knot Current 800-46
804-4 Logistical Requirements for Containment Booming 800-50
804-5 Logistical Requirements for Berms and Dikes 800-62
804-6 Bird Warning Systems 800-64
805-1 Index of Cleanup Techniques 800-65
viii
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TABLES (Continued)
Number Page
805-2 Logistical Requirements for Heavy Equipment 800-70
805-3 Logistical Requirements for Elevating Scraper 800-73
805-4 Logistical Requirements for Combination Motor Grader and
Front-end Loader 800-77
805-5 Logistical Requirements for Front-End Loader ........ 800-81
805-6 Logistical Requirements for Bulldozer/Front-End Loader
(rubber-tired) Combination 800-85
805-7 Logistical Requirements for Backhoe 800-89
805-8 Logistical Requirements for Dragline or Clamshell 800-94
805-9 Logistical Requirements for High-Pressure Flushing 800-96
805-10 Logistical Requirements for a Steam Cleaner. ... 800-98
805-11 Logistical Requirements for Sandblasting 800-100
805-12 Logistical Requirements for Sump Pump/Vacuum 800-107
805-13 Logistical Requirements for Manual Removal of Oiled
Material 800-110
805-14 Logistical Requirements for Low Pressure Flushing ...... 800-113
805-15 Logistical Requirements for Use of a Beach Cleaner 800-117
805-16 Sorbent Materials Application Techniques 800-120
805-17 Logistic Requirements for Manual Cutting 800-124
805-18 Logistical Requirements for Burning 800-127
805-19 Logistical Requirements for the Vacuum Truck Technique. . . . 800-130
805-20 Logistical Requirements for Bulldozing Contaminated
Substrate Into Surf 800-133
805-21 Logistical Requirements for Using a Tractor/Ripper for
Breaking up Pavement 800-137
805-22 Logistical Requirements for Discing in Substrate 800-141
ix
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SECTION 800
APPENDICES
801 COLLECTION OF INFORMATION
Implementation of an effective response to an oil spill requires that
information necessary for the decision process be obtained quickly and
accurately. Knowledge of prevailing meteorological and hydrological condi-
tions, locations of sensitive and unique features, and existing shoreline
topography is essential to a sound response. Ideally, much of this infor-
mation could be collected for each coastal region before any oil spill
incident. Additionally, local sources can be identified ahead of time to
ensure rapid collection of information.
This section discusses what information is required, some of the pos-
sible sources, and the information that can be obtained before a spill
occurs. In addition, this section serves as background for the Information
Checklists in Section 200. Summaries of major information sources for the
checklists are given in Tables 801-1 and 801-2.
Hydrological Data
Generally, larger scale hydrological phenomena are predictable; annual
publications are available yielding information on tides and currents for
the coastal areas of the United States.
Data on tides can be obtained in the following documents, published
annually by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA):
• Tide Tables - High and Low Water Predictions: East Coast of
North and South America (Including Greenland)
• Tide Tables - High and Low Water Predictions: West Coast of
North and South America
• Tidal Current Tables: Atlantic Coast of North America
• Tidal Current Tables: Pacific Coast of North America and Asia
800-1
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TABLE 801-1. INFORMATION SOURCES FOR GENERAL OIL SPILL DATA CHECKLIST
Subject Source(s)
Spill Data Visual observations
Oil characteristics Section 301, owner of spilled oil
Meteorological data National Weather Service, U.S. Coast
Guard local radio stations, airports,
harbors, marinas, U.S. Coast Pilot
publications
Oceanographic data Visual observations, ocean current
charts, U.S. Coast Pilot publications
Tidal current charts for some areas are also available through NOAA.
These charts depict, by means of arrows and figures, the direction and ve-
locity of the tidal current for each hour of the tidal cycle. The charts,
which may be used for any year, present a comprehensive view of the tidal
current movement in the respective waterways as a whole. They also supply
a means for readily determining for any time the direction and velocity
of the current at various localities throughout the water areas covered.
These charts should be used with care as current speed, direction and time
can vary from predicted valves due to weather, freshwater inflow, and other
variables.
Locally, tide data may be available from marinas, nautical supply
stores, coast guard stations, the weather bureau, libraries, oeprators of
beaches, or bait shops. Tide data documents and charts can also be ordered
from the NOAA Distribution Center at 6501 Lafayette Avenue, Riverdale, Mary-
land 20840.
General ocean current and circulation information can be obtained from
the above sources. These currents, however, usually affect only those spills
occurring at substantial distances from the shore and not significantly in-
fluenced by tidal currents.
The United States Coast Pilot, published by the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, gives navigational information including unique
features and processes for navigators of United States coastal and intra-
coastal waters to supplement nautical charts. Figure 801-1 lists the
volumes and shows the limits of each volume. The Coast Pilot can be ob-
tained locally at nautical supply stores or ordered from its distribution
center at 6501 Lafayette Avenue, Riverdale, Maryland 20840.
Meteorological Data
Meteorological data required for oil spill response planning includes
wind speed and direction, air temperature, visibility, precipitation, cloud
cover, and the daily and near-future forecasts. Because this information is
ann-2
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TABLE 801-2. INFORMATION SOURCES FOR SHORELINE INFORMATION CHECKLIST
Subject
Source(s)
General Description
Length and width
Type of Substrate
Shoreline exposure3
Energy Level3
Shoreline access
Sensitive and unique
features3
Recreational use
Hydrological Characteristics
Wave heights
Currents
Tidal range
Water depth
Sediment cycle3
Oil Contamination
Features/Configurations for
Protection/Ceanup
Other Features
Visual observation
Topographical sheets
Nautical charts
Aerial Photographs
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
State Fish and Game Departments
State Environmental Departments
State Coastal Commissions
Park and Recreation Departments
Local ecologists/biologists
Local historical societies
Environmental atlases
Park and Recreation Departments
Visual observation
Visual observation
Local tide tables
Tidal current tables
U.S. Coast Pilot publications
Topographical sheets
Nautical charts
17.5. Coast Pilot publications
Visual observation
Visual observation
Visual observation
Nautical charts
Topographical sheets
Visual observation
alf possible, local experts should be considered as sources for this
information.
800-3
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Atlantic Coast
1 Eastport to Cape Cod
2 Cape Cod to Sandy Hook
3 Sandy Hook to Cape Henry
4 Cape Henry to Key West
5 Gulf of Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands
Great Lakes Pilot
6 The Lakes and their Connecting Waterways
Pacific Coast
7 California, Oregon, Washington, and Hawaii
8 Alaska -• Dixon Entrance to Cape Spencer
9 Alaska - Cape Spencer to Beaufort Sea
Figure 801-1. Limits of United States coast pilots.
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extremely site-specific and usually cannot be accurately predicted for more
than a few days in advance, it must be obtained daily during spill cleanup
operations. It should be updated several times daily, especially with re-
spect to changes in wind speed and direction and impending storm conditions.
Major sources for meteorological data are as follows:
National Weather Service
U.S. Coast Guard stations
local AM and FH radio stations
commercial radiotelephone coast stations
local airports, boat harbors, and marinas
Information from the National Weather Service (NWS) and Coast Guard
Stations is best obtained by calling the phone number listed in local tele-
phone directories. The NWS also broadcasts weather reports on VHF-FM radio
stations, which usually transmit on 162.55 or 162.40 MHz. Local marine
weather service charts list transmission schedules and frequencies for wea-
ther broadcasts made by commercial and Coast Guard stations.
Another source of this information is the United States Coast Pilot.
The pilots, as discussed previously, cover various coastal regions of the
United States and include all the broadcast schedules, their frequencies,
and transmitting locations. They also provide a summary of historical cli-
matological data which can be used in the absence of long-term forecasts.
Sensitive and Unique Features
Sensitive and unique features of a shoreline include physically and bio-
logically sensitive areas, sites of cultural or historical importance, marine
mammal or sea bird rookeries, feeding or resting areas; areas of commercial
or recreational importance; and certain man-made structures. Information
concerning the locations and disposition of these features is usually avail-
able but often difficult to find. Therefore, as much of this information as
possible should be collected ahead of time.
Probable sources of this information are as follows:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
State Fish and Game departments
State Coastal commissions
State and local parks and recreation departments
local universities and colleges
local historical societies
associations or organizations concerned with coastal marine life
State Environmental departments
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and State Fish and Game departments,
Environmental departments, and Coastal commissions often publish reports and
bulletins dealing with the various sensitive and unique features. Some
states have published environmental atlases which discuss the locations and
800-5
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Status of most of their coastal and inland resources. These atlases generally
cover the major sensitive and unique features but a visual reconnaissance of
the shoreline is advised to supplement any published material*
Shoreline Topography
The description of the shoreline should be general but contain infor-
mation that will apply to choosing a protection or containment technique or
a cleanup method. Visual observation is usually required to obtain an ade-
quate description of the shoreline, especially for areas which undergo sig-
nificant seasonal transformations.
Nautical charts and topographic sheets however, can be used to gain
much information about the shoreline and should be used to plot all data ob-
tained. General shoreline configuration, the presence of cliffs, exposed
rocks, beaches, rivers, estuaries, and wetlands, and access routes can
usually be determined in advance from these charts and maps. Care should be
exercised in the use of these charts and maps, however. The base maps from
which many are prepared are old and may not present accurate shoreline mor-
phology .
Nautical charts and topographic sheets are available in different
scales; the larger the scale, the greater the detail shown. Charts are pub-
lished by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and are avail-
able locally at nautical supply stores or can be ordered from the NCAA's
distribution center at 6501 Lafayette Avenue, Riverdale, Maryland 20840.
Topographic sheets are published by the United States Geological Survey and
may be obtained at its local outlet and backpacking supply stores, or bor-
rowed from a local university geology/geography department.
800-6
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802 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF OILS
Introduction
The term "oil" is applied to a wide variety of petroleum products
ranging from crude oils to different grades of refined products.
Crude petroleum, or crude oil, is not a uniform substance and its pro-
perties vary widely from one location of origin to another and even from
one well to another within the same oil field. Crude oil may also contain
dissolved gases, solids, water, and colloidal particles.
Carbon and hydrogen are the most abundant elements in crude oil, ac-
counting for more than 95 percent of the composition. The molecular weight
of hydrocarbons in crude oils ranges from a minimum of 16 to greater than
850. These hydrocarbons are separated from crude oils through boiling and
vapor recovery processes. The lighter hydrocarbons generally vaporize at
lower temperatures. As an example, gasoline would be one of the first pro-
ducts (low temperature) distilled from a crude oil, and lubricating oils
are derived from a higher temperature fraction. The majority of compounds
that make up residual fuels, such as bunker "C", come from the fraction
left behind after most of the lighter fractions are distilled. Classifi-
cations and components of crude oils and their derivatives as shown in Table
802-1 and Table 802-2 lists the properties characteristic of typical residual
fuels, while Table 802-3 lists the standards for both diesel and distillate
fuel oils.
Physical Properties Of Oil
Some of the physical properties of oil are important in assessing
the method of cleanup (if any) to be initiated. To a large degree,
the characteristics listed below will determine how spilled oil reacts
in the environment. For instance, certain questions regarding the
physical properties of spilled oil and its subsequent behavior are:
Property Question
Density - Does the oil float or sink?
Viscosity - Does the oil flow?
Pour Point - Does the oil cool to the point of
becoming semi-solid?
Flash Point - Is there a threat of explosion or fire?
Surface Tension - Does the oil tend to spread?
*It is recommneded that the user obtain information on the characteristics
of oils that are normally encountered in his area of responsibility before
a spill incident occurs.
800-7
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oo
o
o
co
Boiling Point Ring* *C
G«n«nl Gauificaiion
Mam Componami
Hydrocarbon Rang*
US Bureau of Minn
Correlation Index
Bat* Classification
Typical API
Gravity Ranp*
Specific Gravity
• 200 • 10 0 30 ISO 200 250 350 380 520 1000+
c Liaht M.ddle Hea«v R d ,.
4 GdW% »« Fraction * * Fraction ** Fracnon p*
« tiatei » < Gasolmet •> ^4— Fuel Dili — >• *• - - • Asphalianei ^
rf/y iwr Sight heavy
* Gas Oils >
^ Lubricating
Naphthas
_ . . k . Pentane . ^ ... .' k f 5oljd" >•
^— €4 and lower -^ 4 p( •> < Li«uia •• -f> 4 ounu w
C, C4 C5 C8 C,4 C16 C60
Paraltmig Paraffinic Paratfimc Naptithenic Naphthenic Parallmic Naphthenic Naphihenic
Paraffmic (Light) Mixed (A'omanc) Naphihemc (Heavyl Aspnaltic
38° *T 37° 30° 25' 15*
0835 0800 0840 0876 0900 0970
Mote Tne classifications shown in this table an intended to be representative
ana no precise demarcations are implied
Source Wnitehead, 1976
'Stale of pure hydrocarbon
Table 802-1. Classification and components of crude oil.
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TABLE 802-2. OBSERVED PROPERTIES AND DISTILLATION RANGES
FOR TYPICAL RESIDUAL FUEL OILS
Property
Flash Point
°C
Pour Point
°C
API Gravity
100°F
-Viscosity-
Saybolt
Universal
Seconds 122°C
Sulfur Content %
min
max
min
max
min
max
min
max
min
max
No. 4
76
133
-44
-15.6
8.8
29.9
75.4
45
-
—
0.22-20
Oil Type
No. 5
77
136
-44
-6.7
4
21.5
54
309
34.4
144
0.6-20
No. 6
87
207
-16.4
21
3.6
19.1
_
-
251
853.8
0. 7-40
800-9
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TABLE 802-3. COMPARISON OF STANDARDS FOR DIESEL FUEL AND FUEL OIL CHARACTERISTICS
§
o
Flash Pour Distillation Say bolt Kinematic
Point Point Temperatures. °C (°F) Viscosity, sn Viscosity, cSt
Grade of Diesel Fuel Oil '
r
No.l-D:
No.2-0:
No.4-D.
No. 1:
No. 2:
A volatile distillate
fuel oil for engines
In service requiring
frequent speed and
load change
A distillate fuel oil
of lower volatility for
engines in industrial
and heavy mobile service
A fuel oil for low and
medium speed engines
Grade of Fuel Oil
A distillate oil In-
tended for vaporiz-
ing pot-type
burners requiring
this grade of fuel
A distillate oil for
general purpose heat-
'C *C 101
'F> (°F) Point
38 or
legal
(100)
52 or
legal
(125)
55 or
legal
(130)
38 or -L8C 215
legal (0) (420)
38 or -6° 282C
legal (20) (5*0)
Universal at 38°C At SB'CUOO'F)
90Z Point (100'F)
Hin Max Hln Max Min Max
288 34.4 1.3 2.4
(550)
282C 338 32.6 40.1 1.9 4.1
(540) (640)
45.0 125.0 5.5 24.0
'
288 1-4 2-2
(550)
338 (32.6) (37.9) 2.0C 3.6
(640)
Specific
Gravity
60/60'F
(deg API)
0.85
(35 Din)
0.88
(30 mln)
Ing for use In burners
not requiring Ho. J
fuel oil
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These characteristics are often treated with laboratory precision in the pe-
troleum industry. For the purposes of this manual, however, the physical
properties of oil are addressed in an empirical manner rather than an analyt
ical one. The answers to the questions above are neither simple nor abso-
lute, but the methods for dealing with spilled oil should be based on field
observations, even when specific information is available. A discussion of
the physical properties of primary concern follows.
Density
The density of an oil is important in spill assessment for two main
reasons: First, the density of an oil determines whether it will sink or
float; heavier oils can collect sediment, entrain water, and become heavy
enough to sink. Second, once it has been determined that an oil will float,
the height that the oil floats in the water, or its "freeboard effect",
determines the surface area upon which wind forces may work; an oil which
floats high in the water presents more sail area and will be more easily
moved by the wind.
The density of oil is measured as specific gravity. Specific gravity
is a comparison between the weight of a substance and that of fresh water
at 15.6°C (60°F), which is assigned a value of 1.0000. Therefore, an oil
that floats will have a specific gravity less than the value of the water.
The specific gravity of sea water ranges from about 1.02 to 1.07. There-
fore oil will usually be slightly more buoyant in sea water. The density
of liquid oil is inversely proportional to the temperature.
Density measurement units commonly encountered in oil work are A.P.I.
gravity and specific gravity. One can calculate A.P.I, gravity from the
specific gravity by using the formula:
_ __
A.P.I, gravity = [_ specif ic gravity corrected to 60°F - 131
i
. 5 J
It can be seen that a substance with a specific gravity of 1.0 will
have an A.P.I, gravity of 10.0°; it should also be remembered that a high
value for A.P.I, gravity represents a light oil and a low value corresponds
to a denser oil.
Viscosity
The measure of a fluid's internal friction, or its resistance to flow,
is known as viscosity. The viscosity of an oil affects the rate of spreading
of the slick, penetration of substrate, and persistence. It also affects
cleanup operations. Viscosity is variable and will decrease as an oil's
temperature is elevated.
The viscosity of an oil can be measured in several ways. One is to
allow a known volume of oil to flow through a standard orifice at a par-
ticular temperature. The time required for this experiment can be used to
describe the oil's viscosity, and is commonly expressed in seconds. Low
800-11
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viscosity oils are those which have a light, or more fluid, consistency; high
viscosity oils are those which tend to be tarry or thick.
The methods of measurement for determining viscosity are similar, as
stated earlier, but the sample size and orifice dimensions vary. Table 802-4
shows the relationship between viscosity units. Saybolt seconds units are
commonly used by industry in the U.S., while kinematic viscosity has been
used more by the scientific community.
Pour Point
The pour point of a material is the temperature at which it begins to
flow. Oil may be solid or semi-solid during cool nights and fluid during
the day, or solid when immersed in cool water and fluid when warmed past
the pour point while stranded on land. These situations require different
cleanup methods, and if round-the-clock cleanup efforts are carried out,
daytime strategies and equipment could differ from night operations.
The pour points of petroleum products can differ greatly. Some crudes
and residuals may have pour points in excess of 27°C (80°F), while light
distillates such as light diesel fuel can be as low as -51°C (-60°F). The
pour point information is used in conjunction with ambient air and water
temperatures when selecting the cleanup methods to be employed and predicting
the behavior of the oil itself.
Flash Point
The flash point of an oil is the lowest temperature above which its
vapors will ignite momentarily, and is important in evaluating the explosion
and fire hazard potential for working around exposed oil. Light distillates
such as gasoline or crudes with low boiling points should be considered
dangerous; operations around oils with low flash points* should be avoided
because of these risks.
Surface Tension
The surface tension of oil dominates the spread of a slick as it becomes
thin. The viscous surface-tension spreading of oil on water is caused by the
high surface tension of the water itself. This surface tension force (YW)
acts to "pull" the oil outward thus causing it to spread. Two other forces,
however, tend to effect contraction of the oil. These are the surface tension
of the oil (YQ) and the interfacial tension between the oil and water (Yow).
Because the surface tension of water (Yw) is typically larger than the sum of
the surface tension of oil and water (YQ + YQW) the spreading pressure of the
oil F is positive and the oil continues to spread as is shown in the equation
below:
F - YW -
*A low flash point is one close to or lower than ambient air temperatures.
800-12
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TABLE 802-4.
RELATION (APPROXIMATE) BETWEEN ENGLER DEGREES, SAYBOLT
AND REDWOOD SECONDS, AND KINEMATIC VISCOSITIES AT THE
SAME TEMPERATURE
Engler
Degrees
2.5
2.75
3
3.25
3.5
3.75
4
4.25
4.5
4.75
5
5.5
6
6.5
7
7.5
8
Saybolt
Universal
Seconds
83
92
101
110
118
126
135
144
152
160
169
186
203
220
237
253
270
Saybolt
Furol
Seconds
13.9
14.5
15.2
15.9
16.5
17.2
18
18.8
19.5
20.3
21
22.5
24
25.6
27.2
28.7
30.3
Redwood
Standard
Seconds
74
81
88
96
104
112
119
127
134
142
150
165
181
196
211
225
240
Kinematic
Viscosity
(centistokes)
15.5
17.5
19.5
21.5
23.5
25.3
27.4
29.3
31.1
33.0
34.9
38.7
42.5
46.3
49.9
53.5
57
Source: Neild, 1965.
800-13
-------
Therefore oils with a low surface tension will tend to spread more rapidly on
water*
It is possible to modify the interfacial tension of an oil/water system:
a) dispersants are used to reduce the interfacial tension of the system,
thereby encouraging mixing, solubility, and spreading behavior; b) collec-
tants are used to modify the surface tension of water to the point of causing
oil to contract upon itself. Surface tension data for some crudes are shown
in Table 802-5.
TABLE 802-5. SURFACE TENSION AND THEORETICAL SPREADING DATA FOR
VARIOUS CRUDE OILS
Type
of
Oil
Libyan
(Brega)
Iranian
Heavy
Kuwait
Iraq
(Kirkuk)
Venezuela
(Tia
Juana
medium)
Surface
Tension
Dynes/ cm
23.1
24.3
24.1
23.7
24.1
Inter-
facial
Tension
Sea
Water /Oil
Dynes/ cm
13.9
25.5
24.9
16.9
19.2
Initial
Spreading
Pressure
on Salt
Water,
Dynes/cm
35
22
23
31
29
Thickness (mm) of slick
from spillage of 100 m
of oil after spreading for:
102 sec 103 sec 104 sec 105
2.28 0.49
3.27 0.70
2.10 0.45
2.57 0.55
2.55 0.55
0.11 0.
0.15 0.
0.10 0.
0.12 0.
0.12 0.
sec
02
03
02
03
03
Source: Nelson-Smith, 1973, and John Frazer, 1978.
Chemical Properties of Oils
The chemical and physical properties of an oil are both determined by
the molecules that make up the oil, and thus, they are closely related. The
following chart provides pertinent questions about the chemical character-
istics of oils (Table 802-6).
800-14
-------
TABLE 802-6. EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS ON OIL BEHAVIOR
Chemical
Characteristic
Boiling
Questions Concerning Point Solubility Aromatic
Chemical Behavior of Oil Range Content
1) Will the oil's character-
istics change with
weathering and time? + +
2) Will the oil be toxic
to marine life? 0 +
3) Will the volume of
oil decrease (evaporate
or dissolve)? + +
NOTE: + = high importance.
0 = some importance.
- = low importance.
The chemical properties of major concern are solubility, boiling point
range, and aromatic content. Table 802-7 shows some characteristics of com-
pounds commonly found in crude oils. Crudes are commonly classified by the
dominant hydrocarbon group, and an oil that is made up largely of paraffins
is therefore paraffinic, etc.
Boiling Point Range
Boiling point range (BPR) is important in identifying the low boiling
fractions of oils. The low boiling fractions are volatile and will evapo-
rate readily. The remaining oil will become thicker (more viscous) as the
lighter fractions are liberated over time. The net result is a thicker,
denser oil and a reduced volume as the weathering process proceeds.
The boiling point range can also be used to deduce the approximate make-
up of oils. The BPR usually helps to indicate the homogeneity of an oil,
with crudes being generally characterized by a broad BPR and distillates and
residuals by fairly narrow BPRs.
An oil that has a BP above ambient temperature can undergo measurable
volumetric changes through evaporation. Kuwait crude from the Torrey Canyon
soon lost most of its fractions up to BP 300°C and it is believed that as
much as one-third of the total spill volume was lost through evaporative pro-
cesses.
800-15
-------
TABLE 802-7. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME LIGHT HYDROCARBONS FOUND IN CRUDE OIL
Compound
Boiling
Carbon Point
Number (°C)
Source: Nelson-Smith, 1973.
Density Solubility
(SG) in Water
PARAFFINS
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Pentane
Hexane
Heptane
Octane
Nonane
Decane
Undecane
Dodecane
Tridecane
Tetradecane
Pentadecane
Hexadecane (Cetane)
Heptadecane
NAPHTHENES
Cyclopropane
Cyclobutane
Cyclopentane
Methylcyclopentane
Cyclohexane
Methylcyclohexane
Ethylcyclopentane
Ethylcyclohexane
Trlmethylcyclohexane
AROMATICS
Benzene
Toluene
Ethylbenzene
p-Xylene
m-Xylene
0-Xylene
iso-Propyl benzene
(Cumene)
n-Propylbenzene
Naphthalene
2-Methylnaphthalene
1-Methylnaphthalene
Dimethylnaphthalene
Trimethylnaphthalene
Anthracene
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
3
4
5
6
6
7
7
8
9
6
7
8
8
8
8
9
9
10
11
11
12
13
14
-161.5
- 88.5
- 42.2
- 0.5
36.2
69.0
98.5
125.7
150.8
174.1
195.9
216.3
235.6
253.6
270.7
287.1
302.6
- 33
13
49.3
71.8
80.7
100.9
103.5
131.8
141.2
80.1
110.6
136.2
138.4
139.1
144.4
152.4
159.2
217.9
241.1
244.8
262.0
285.0
354
0.424
0.546
0.542
0.579
0.626
0.660
0.684
0.703
0.718
0.730
0.741
0.766
0.756
0.763
0.769
0.773
0.778
0.751
0.749
0.779
0.769
0.763
0.788
0.777
0.879
0.866
0.867
0.861
0.864
0.874
0.864
0.862
1.145
1.029
1.029
1.016
1.01
1.25
90 ml/1 (20'C)
47 ml/1 (20°C) (gases)
65 ml/1 (18°C)
150 ml/1 (17°C)
360 ppm (17°C)
138 ppm (15.5°C)
52 ppm (IS.S-C)
15 ppm (15.5°C)
c. 10 ppm
c. 3 ppm
"slight"
820 ppm (22°C)
470 ppm (16°C)
140 ppm (15°C)
c. 80 ppm
60 ppm (15°C)
c. 20 ppm
800-16
-------
Solubility and Aromatic Content
The three major components of crude oils are: 1) paraffins, 2)
naphthenes, and 3) aromatics.
1. Paraffins are saturated straight chain hydrocarbons.
2. Naphthenes are saturated ring hydrocarbons.
3. Aroma tics are highly stable ring hydrocarbons.
The original term "aromatic" comes from the pleasant smells often associ-
ated with naturally occurring compounds.
Aroma tics are important in spill analysis because these chemicals have
been shown to be more toxic than the other hydrocarbons and this property
may be magnified by the relatively high solubilities of the aromatics (re-
fer to Table 802-7). However, the aromatic hydrocarbons also tend to be
relatively volatile and can evaporate rapidly. Benzene and toluene are
especially soluble in comparison to other hydrocarbons and readily go into
solution up to 820 and 470 ppm, respectively. Because of their stable form,
the aromatics tend to resist degradation in the environment more than the
paraffins or napthenes.
800-17
-------
803 GENERAL SHORELINE INFORMATION
This section provides technical information concerning coastal proces-
ses, hydrological regimes, access and trafficability, meteorology, and
sensitive and unique features.
Coastal Processes
Coastal processes that affect oil contamination of shorelines deal
primarily with sediment transport on and off a beach. A beach begins
below the surf zone of a shoreline and extends landward to the limit of
storm wave activity usually marked by a storm ridge, vegetation, dunes,
or a cliff. Beaches are generally divided into three areas: the backshore,
intertidal, and nearshore. A profile of a typical beach is shown in Figure
803-1.
Backshore
The backshore area of a beach is located above the berm or level of
normal wave activity. Exposure of the backshore to wave activity occurs
only during exceptionally high tides or storm surges. Oil deposited in the
backshore during these times can only be affected by wave action during
subsequent exceptional high tides or storm surges.
Backshore areas can be biologically productive and sensitive as well as
difficult to clean. Debris, trash, and/or log accumulations and vegetation
are frequently present in the backshore and could cause cleanup difficulties.
However, the location of this debris can provide a useful Indicator of where
the oil may concentrate by determining the maximum limit of the water level
at the time of the last high water or storm level. The maximum inland dis-
tance that oil can be expected to be deposited during these periods of high
water levels can then be estimated from the debris line. Special effort
should be taken to protect backshore areas from contamination as soil pene-
tration is likely and cleanup difficult. Damage to vegetation on sandy
backshores could result in severe wind erosion problems.
Intertidal
The intertidal zone is the area of the beach extending from the low
water mark to the high water mark. Oil contacting a shoreline under normal
conditions will be deposited within this area. On high-energy shorelines,
the heaviest concentrations of oil occur along the upper intertidal area.
The lower intertidal zone usually remains wet, and because oil does not read-
ily adhere to a wet surface, oil in this area can be refloated by a flooding
tide and carried to the upper parts of a beach. Oil deposited in the upper
intertidal zone is, however, usually eroded rapidly if wave action is present.
In low-energy environments or where large volumes of oil are washed ashore,
oil can coat the entire intertidal zone.
800-18
-------
NEARSHORE
High water mark
Low water mark
BEACH
INTERTIDAL
*V&
/^>w«^S-Sgl
-------
Nearshore
The nearshore zone is located below the low water mark and within the
zone of wave-generated processes. Because this area is always submerged,
it receives little contamination except for the small amount of oil that
sinks or from oil-coated sediments eroded from the shoreline.
Coastal Hydrological Regime
Beaches typically undergo erosion and deposition cycles that form the
basis for sediment transport. These cycles occur both daily and seasonally
and are controlled by the hydrological regime. The primary hydrological
factors involved are waves, storms, tides (range and current), and longshore
currents.
Waves
The generation of waves results from the interaction of winds and grav-
ity with surface water. Waves transmit energy through the water at an energy
level which is determined primarily by wind velocity and duration, and by
fetch. The most important aspect of waves or wave-generated processes is
that the energy is dissipated on or near the beach.
The transfer of wave energy to the beach has direct effects on oil.
Mechanical energy from breaking waves or swash causes the physical dispersion
and breakdown of oil on the water and on the shoreline. Oil is subject to
dispersion in the breaker and swash zone where mixing of water and oil can
result in emulsions such as "chocolate-mousse." Oil on the shoreline itself
can be dispersed as individual particles, then returned to the water by back-
wash action. The rate at which wave-induced degradation processes occur is
directly related to level of incoming wave energy.
The transport and redistribution of sediments through wave action is the
most important effect of energy transfer on a shoreline. This transport and
redistribution causes the sediments to act as an abrasive tool on stranded
oil. The extent of this abrasive action is highly dependent on the size of
the sediments and the level of wave energy. Because sand is more readily
transported, oil stranded on a sandy beach will break down much more rapidly
from abrasion than will oil on a comparable cobble beach having a similar
energy level.
On shorelines with large seasonal differences in wave-energy levels, es-
pecially the west coast of North America, beaches will erode away during sea-
sons of high wave energy (winter), with construction or deposition predom-
inating during seasons of low wave energy (summer). Storms will often erode
beaches, to be followed by construction during the post-storm period.
Oil deposited on a shoreline during a depositional cycle can become bur-
ied within a relatively short period of time, resulting in significant clean-
up difficulties. If deposited during an erosion cycle, the oil is quickly
returned to the water, which increases the potential for recontamination.
800-20
-------
A detailed description of this phenomenon taken from Owens (1977) is as
follows:
During an erosion phase on a beach, sediments and oil would
be removed and transported into the nearshore area. This would
lead to a rapid breakdown of the oil particles as the particles
are rolled around by wave action. If oil is deposited on a beach
immediately following the erosion phase, but before recovery has
commenced, the oil on the beach would be buried as constructive
waves return sediment by the landward migration of ridge systems.
Figure 803-2 shows this type of situation where a beach (a) is
eroded and the oil is then deposited on the remnant berra during
or after the storm (b). As the beach recovers, a small ridge (c)
migrates up the beach within a few days (d) and eventually the
large ridge system will restore the eroded berm (e). The buried
oil would then only be exposed during a period of further beach
erosion (f).
In the same context Owens describes the effects of storm-induced wave
activity on cobble beaches previously contaminated with oil:
On cobble beaches, however, sediments would be transported
towards the storm ridge and the oil would become buried [Figure
803-3J. As the cobble beach is eroded, the layer of buried oil
is exposed in the beach face. If oil is stranded on a cobble beach
over a long time period, several erosion-deposition cycles can
lead to exposure of more than one layer of oil in the beach face.
In areas where no beach exists and only cliffs and rocky shorelines are
present, the available wave energy depends on the slope of the intertidal
area. If the slope is shallow (i.e., a shore platform), energy is dissi-
pated by bottom friction and waves breaking on the platform. If the slope
of the intertidal area is steep, all or most of the wave energy is trans-
mitted to the rocks or cliffs. In these situations, wave energy is fre-
quently transmitted seaward as the wave is reflected. Turbulent conditions
may be present near the shoreline as a consequence of reflected waves col-
liding with incoming waves. Oil slicks approaching such an area may not be
deposited on the shore but can be trapped in the turbulent area, resulting
in dispersion of oil into the water column. Oil deposited on rocky shore-
lines or cliffs is subjected to high levels of mechanical energy as the
waves reach the shore, and is broken down and transported away.
Waves can also have detrimental effects on protection and cleanup ef-
forts. Booms deployed in or near the surf zone may be ineffective if wave
height exceeds 25 cm. At this height the waves will generally wash the
oil over the boom unless it has substantial freeboard.
Tide
The tide is a rhythmic, alternate rise and fall of the water level of
the ocean and the bodies of water connected with the ocean. The tidal range
is the difference in height between consecutive high water and low water
800-21
-------
HW
c.
Figure 803-2. Sequence of storm erosion and oil deposi-
tion (b), burial (c) (d) (e), and exposure
following a second storm (f) on a sand
beach (from Owens, 1977b).
800-22
-------
HW
a.
Figure 803-3. Effects of storm-wave activity on oil stranded on a cobble
beach: (a) oil is deposited above the high-water level (HW)
during storm conditions, a second storm erodes the beach
and waves push material onto the upper beach to cover the
oil (b) ; a subsequent storm continues the process, gradually
exposing more of the buried oil layer (c) (from Owens, 1977b).
800-23
-------
at a given place. The vertical rise and fall of water creates an associated
horizontal movement of water, the tidal current. The ebb tide and current
are associated with the fall of the water level, and the flood tide and cur-
rent with the rise of the water level. Ebb currents are generally stronger
than flood currents; stream discharge aids the seaward movement of the ebb
current and works against the landward movement of the flood current.
In open water, the tidal current is not as significant as it is in
coastal inlets, intertidal channels, shallow bays, and estuaries where the
constriction of the waterway can greatly increase current velocities during
the ebb and flood periods. During flood tide, oil can be transported into
sheltered lagoons or back areas of marshes; should this happen, oil may be
stranded there. Because wave energy in this environment is minimal, natural
degradation rates related to littoral processes would be slow. Strong ebb
currents can, however, pull trapped oil from these areas and into open water
where the potential for contamination of previously cleaned or unaffected
shorelines becomes a problem. Tidal currents, or any currents, are a major
factor in protection and cleanup efforts utilizing booms. Because currents
in excess of 1 knot can cause boom failure, booms should be placed in low-
current areas.
Tides are responsible for daily erosion and deposition cycles on a
beach. Ebb tides erode material from the beach while flood tides deposit
the same materials back on the shoreline. These daily cycles result in
temporary burial or removal of oil on a beach.
Longshore Currents
Longshore currents are those formed by waves approaching a shoreline
at an angle. This creates a current which flows parallel, and close to,
the shoreline as shown in Figure 803-4. Longshore currents are the major
force in sediment transport.
Sand beaches with longshore currents commonly develop a type of rythmic
topography called beach cusps. Should these beaches become oiled, the long-
shore movement of sediments would slowly lead to a breakdown of the oil
cover. This migration pattern is, in fact, a sequence of continuous erosion
and deposition that would cause the oil to be broken down into smaller par-
ticles which would then be buried or transported seaward. Figure 803-5
illustrates this process.
Access and Trafficability
Access to, and trafflcability of a shoreline area is important in
determining what approach should be taken for the protection or cleanup of
that area. Access can be evaluated by locating existing roads or large
trails leading to the shore.
If no roads exist, the general topography of the area should be evalu-
ated to determine if a road could be built, providing no alternatives exist
800-24
-------
Beach drifting
A A A A A AA A\y\
Figure 803-4. Waves approaching a beach obliquely
produce a longshore current and a
longshore drift of sediments by swash
and backwash action (from Bird, 1968).
800-25
-------
b.
/High-water
c.
d.
e.
Figure 803-5. View of the effects on oil deposited at the high-
water level by migrating rhythmic topography.
800-26
-------
and approval is obtained from the appropriate agencies. Access and topog-
raphy can usually be determined from U.S. Geological Survey maps and
some nautical charts. Access can also be established from most detailed
road maps.
The trafficability of a shore refers to the bearing strength of the sedi-
ments to permit passage of vehicles and people. Compactness of the surface
materials is the primary factor in determining trafficability. Mud or very
loose sand might require special vehicles to transport equipment and personnel
in and out of the affected area. Sandy, well-drained (dry) soils that are
relatively flat and have a firm feel when walked on normally will support
most types of light vehicle traffic. Damp, clayey soils that can be walked
on without sinking can generally be modified to support limited light vehicle
traffic. Poorly drained muds and clays and very loose sands in which body
weight causes sinking of several centimeters or more cannot normally be modi-
fied to permit safe operation of vehicles.
If a cone pentrometer is available it can be used to determine the traf-
ficability of a sandy shoreline area with reasonable accuracy, as described
below. A cone pentrometer is a field instrument consisting of a stainless
steel cone mounted on a shaft in such a way that the cone can be forced into
the soil surface by hand. A proving ring and calibrated-dial assembly are
used to measure the load applied. The penetration resistance is termed the
"cone index" and is a measure of the shearing resistance of the soil.
The cone pentrometer is positioned vertically on the beach and pressure
is applied by placing both palms on the top of the shaft and pushing the pen-
trometer 9 cm (6 inches) into the soil. At the same time, bend over and
record the reading (called the "cone index value") on the dial as shown in
Figure 803-6.
The process is repeated 20 to 30 times along and across a beach in both
the intertidal and backshore areas. The values for each area are averaged,
which gives a cone index value for the foreshore and backshore of a beach.
This value can then be compared with the minimum cone index values given in
Table 803-1. If the cone index value of the beach is greater than the cone
index value listed for the desired equipment, then the piece of equipment can
operate on that beach. For example, if the backshore of a beach had a cone
index value of 45, then a rubber-tired front-end loader and elevating scraper
could probably operate on the beach with reduced tire pressures, but a motor
grader might become immobilized.
Oftentimes, if the trafficability of a substrate is too low to support
heavy equipment, the tire pressure can be lowered to increase traction and
prevent immobilization. Table 803-1 lists the minimum cone index values for
three types of heavy equipment with tire pressures of 40 and 20 psi. Tire
pressures of 40 psi or greater are recommended for use under normal earth-
moving operations.
800-27
-------
• . , ..
. •• ••••
.
j.
"
l
Vi»v _
Figure 803-6. Obtaining cone index value with cone pentrometer.
800-28
-------
TABLE 803-1. MINIMUM CONE INDEX VALUES
Tire Pressure
Equipment Type 20 psi 40 psi
Rubber-tired front-end loader
Motorized elevating scraper
Motorized grader
10-20
25-42
38-50
22-44
70-105
90-115
Meteorological Considerations
Wind
During spring tides or storm surges where oil is deposited on the berm
of the shoreline, wind-transported sediments could bury the oil, especially
if the wind is off the land. The effect of such burial, however, reduces
the rate of weathering and aging; it also increases the possiblity of recon-
tamination if subsequent strong winds, storm surges, and high water levels
uncover the oil.
If a strong wind is blowing onshore it can trap oil against the shore-
line. Deposition of the oil would then occur either during an ebb tide or as
the water level falls following a wind-induced storm surge. If the surge is
heavy enough, oil can be deposited onto backshore areas or into sheltered
lagoon environments.
Wind speed and temperature also directly affect weathering rates of the
oil. Wind stimulates the process of evaporation, resulting in an increase
in oil density as the light fractions or volatiles are removed.
Temperature
Air and water temperatures can affect the behavior of the oil and the
nature of the protection and cleanup technique used. Temperature signifi-
cantly affects oil viscosity, evaporation rate, and burning characteristics,
and can directly impact the performance of cleanup personnel and equipment.
Extremely low temperatures can cause the oil to behave like a solid mass
and may require a special recovery device. Elevated temperatures decrease
oil viscosity, resulting in deeper penetration into shoreline sediments,
reraobilization of oil formerly adhering to rocks and vegetation, and mobili-
zation of oil in stockpiles of debris.
The weathering process of the oil is directly related to temperature.
Evaporation and biodegradation rates are affected by changes in temperature.
Local climate and time of year, with respect to temperature, are critical
elements in estimating the persistence of the oil, and therefore also in
estimating the need for protection of a beach or cleanup of an affected
beach.
800-29
-------
Precipitation
Knowledge of rainfall predictions can be very helpful in determining
what method of protection and/or cleanup will be used. Direct rainfall
can cause recontamination by washing oil from the shorelines back into the
water. It is also effective in leaching oil from contaminated debris and
vegetation. Reduction in shoreline trafficability and general deterioration
of operating conditions can also be caused by heavy rainfall.
Debris
The type of debris commonly found on shorelines (especially coastal)
consists primarily of wood, plastic bottles, styrofoam, stranded logs, and
other miscellaneous floating objects. It is deposited on the shore at the
upper limits of wave action or storm surges. If the debris becomes contamin-
ated with oil, cleanup operations become more difficult. The presence of
large numbers of stranded trees and logs would increase the cleanup diffi-
culty due to their size and weight. Physical barriers can be constructed to
prevent oil from mixing with the debris. Floating objects and debris can
clog pumps and skimmers and should be avoided or removed during cleanup
activities. Oil contained in stranded debris can be washed off by rain or
refloated during high water, thus recontaminating the shoreline.
Sensitive or Unique Biological Features
Sensitive or unique biological features along a shoreline are threatened
or contaminated with oil during a spill event. Because of the high visibil-
ity of important biological features in an area and the limitations in time,
manpower, and equipment in responding to a spill, rapid identification of
these features becomes a key component of the protection and cleanup decis-
ion-making process.
Local and regional biological experts can provide information on the
nature and location of sensitive or unique features and, where needed,
assign relative values to competing features. The relative importance of
competing features can vary with the season, severity and duration of the
expected impact, and potential for recovery. For example, during a winter
spill a waterfowl feeding area along a southeastern coast may be considered
more valuable when large numbers of birds are present than would a recrea-
tional shellfish area that is used almost exclusively in the summer. Their
relative standing might then be reversed during a summer spill depending on
the type and expected persistence of the oil, relative recovery times for
both the feeding and shellfish areas, and the availability of similar shell-
fishing areas outside the zone of contamination.
A shoreline can be classified as biologically sensitive or unique if
one or more of the features listed below are present. Specific examples of
each feature are included in an effort to expose the user to the types of
concerns that will arise after a spill. Again, because special or unique
biological features are highly visible and attract considerable public atten-
tion when impacted, and because these features should partially dictate
800-30
-------
protection and cleanup decisions, local and regional biological experts
should be consulted for more site-specific information and recommendations.
1. Rare, Threatened, Endangered, or Protected Species
• Any species on Federal or State special status lists.
• Relatively few expected in marine areas, some in estuaries, most
in fresh water.
• Sensitivity will depend on the reason the species uses the aquatic
habitat, duration of use, importance of the habitat to successful
completion of the species life cycle, and public and political
concern for the species.
• In general, sensitivities in decreasing order are: 1) resides in
aquatic habitat and completes whole life cycle in one place, 2)
habitat essential for breeding purposes, 3) habitat essential for
feeding purposes, and A) habitat essential for resting and other
intermittant uses.
2. Reserves, Preserves, and Other Legally Protected Areas
• Areas protected by some legal mandate or areas locally recognized
as important for scientific ecological reasons.
• Areas of special biological significance.
• Ecological preserves.
• Wildlife and/or waterfowl sanctuaries and refuges.
• Scientific research areas.
3. Waterfowl Rookery or Concentration Areas
• Shoreline areas (rookeries) used for breeding, nesting, and fledg-
ling activities.
• Open-water areas (concentration) used for resting, feeding, and
breeding.
• Sensitivity will depend on which species are present; number,
extent, reason for use of the habitat; and susceptibility to oil
impacts.
• In general, sensitivities in decreasing order are 1) diving ducks,
2) swimming and surface-feeding waterfowl, 3) gulls, terns, etc.,
4) shorebirds, and 5) water-associated birds.
800-31
-------
4. Mammal Rookeries, Calving Grounds, and Concentration Areas
• Sensitivity will depend on which species are present; number,
extent, reason for use of the habitat, and susceptibility to oil
Impacts.
• In the marine environment, rookeries, and calving grounds are
generally more sensitive to oil impacts than are concentration
(haul-out) areas.
• In freshwater systems, species with total dependence on the water
environment (e.g., beavers) are more sensitive to oil impacts than
are species that breed on the water, which are, in turn, more sen-
sitive than species that feed in the water.
5. Species of Commercial Importance
• Clams and oysters.
• Crabs, shrimp, lobsters.
• Finfish (including spawning in intertidal and shallow streams).
• Algae.
• Aquaculture sites (shellfish, algae, finfish, lugworms).
• Fish bait (lugworms, clams, ghost shrimp).
• Sensitivity will depend on season, economic value of the local
harvest to the area, and susceptibility to oil impacts.
6, Species of Recreational Importance
• Clams, oysters, mussels.
• Crabs, shrimp, lobsters, ghost shrimp, lugworras.
• Finfish (shoreline fishing areas, spawning areas for grunaion,
salmon, bass, and other fish).
• Abalone.
• Sensitivity will depend on season, use, and susceptibility to
oil impacts.
800-32
-------
804 PROTECTION TECHNIQUES
Efforts to protect a shoreline from an oil spill should be initiated
immediately upon the spill's detection. Rapid and effective response is
necessary to limit the spread of oil and/or to reduce or eliminate damage
to the environment. The protection procedures depend upon the location(s)
and the circumstances of the spill, its potential movement, and the area(s)
to be protected.
The protection techniques, their uses, and environmental effects are
listed in Table 804-1. Procedures for each protection technique are dis-
cussed in this section and include information regarding how the technique
is used, its limitations, logistical requirements, and a detailed descrip-
tion of the conditions affecting deployment. In addition, diagrams depict-
ing typical boom deployment configurations and dam cross sections are also
given. Although each technique is discussed separately, spill circum-
stances may require the simultaneous use of several techniques.
800-33
-------
Table 804-1. PROTECTION TECHNIQUES
Protection Technique
00
O
Sai
.u
•M o
B hi
< O.
1. Exclusion
Booming
2. Diversion
Booming
3. Containment
Booming
4. Sorbent
Booming
Beach
Berms
6. Benns and
Dams
7.
Bird Warning
System
Primary Use of Protection
Technique
Used across small bays, harbor entrances,
inlets, river or creek mouths where cur-
rents are less than 1 knot and breaking
waves are less than 25 cm in height.
Used on inland streams where currents are
greater than 1 knot; across small bays,
harbor entrances, inlets, river or creek
mouths where currents exceed 1 knot and
breaking waves are less than 25 cm, and
on straight coastline areas to protect
specific sites, where breaking waves are
less than 25 cm.
Used on open water to surround an ap-
proaching oil slick to protect shoreline
areas where surf Is present and oil
slick does not cover a large area; also
on Inland waters where currents are less
than 1 knot.
Used on quiet water with minor oil
contamination!
Used on sandy, low energy beaches to
protect the upper intertidal area from
oil contamination.
Used on shallow streams or rivers where
booics are not available or cannot be
deployed, or where dams are part of the
hydrologlcal control system.
Used In bird nesting areas, feeding
areas, flyway stopovers.
Environmental Effect
of Use
Minor disturbance to
substrate at shoreline
anchor points
Minor disturbances to
substrate at shoreline
anchor points causes
heavy shoreline oil con-
tamination on downstream
end
No effect on open water;
minor disturbance to
substrate on inland
anchor point
Minor disturbance to shore-
line at anchor points
Disturbs upper 60 cm of
mid-lntertidal zone
Disturbs stream or river
bottom, adds suspended
sediments to water
Not applicable
-------
Exclusion Booming
Use
Used across small bays, harbor entrances, inlets, and river or creek
mouths where currents are less than 1 knot and breaking waves are less than
10 to 15 cm in height.
Description of Technique
Harbors and Inlets. Enclosure booming involves deploying the boom in a sta-
tic mode, i.e., placing or anchoring the boom between two or more stationary
points. This method is used primarily to prevent or exclude oil from enter-
ing harbors and marinas, breakwater entrances, lagoons, and inlets. Many
of these entrances or channels have tidal currents exceeding 1 knot or surf
breaking in the opening. Under these conditions, booms should be placed
landward from the entrance in quiescent areas of the channel, harbor or inlet.
Exclusion booms should also be deployed at an angle to a shoreline when pos-
sible (preferably in the direction of the wind) to guide oil to an area where
vacuum trucks or skimming equipment can recover the oil. In many cases, the
deployment of a secondary boom behind the primary boom is desirable to con-
tain oil that may spill under the primary boom. Exclusion booming of harbors
or inlets may require that a small work boat be stationed at the upstream end
of the boom to open the boom for boat traffic entering or leaving the harbor.
Figures 804-1 and 804-2 show typical exclusion booming deployments for har-
bors and inlets.
Estuaries. Exclusion booming of estuaries or rivers where sand bars are pre-
sent can pose problems in boom placement. Because high currents can be ex-
pected in entrance channels, boom placement should be attempted on the land-
ward side of the entrance where current velocities drop. This point is gen-
erally discernible by ripples and boils. Sand bars commonly form in this
area and should be avoided in booming as is indicated in Figure 804-3. Note
the secondary boom and positioning to direct oil toward recovery areas.
Stream Deltas. Many streams which empty into bays, harbors, or rivers are
characterized by a delta at the stream mouth, which can provide spawning
grounds for some fish. These deltas at certain times of the year may re-
quire protection, particularly if they are exposed by tidal fluctuations.
If water currents across a delta are less than 1 knot, an exclusion boom
should be deployed. Because the stream deltas normally extend beyond the
mainland at low tide, boom deployed around the perimeter of the delta will
have to be anchored at several locations in the water, as well as on the
shoreline. A typical exclusion boom deployment to protect a delta is shown
in Figure 804-4. If possible, the boom should be placed seaward from the
low tide line so that it will float throughout the full tide cycle. If the
area requiring protection is too large, the boom should be deployed so that
the delta above the midtide line is protected.
800-35
-------
Current < 1 knot at
boom location
Current > 1 knot at
channel entrance
Figure 804-1. Enclosure booming at inlet with
high channel currents.
800-36
-------
Figure 804-2. Boom at harbor entrance.
800-37
-------
Figure 804-3. Hypothetical estuary entrance booming.
800-38
-------
«1.tfi-t>6s5-fei:iei':53T»i.'4'i.v5>i!i<»
Figure 804-4. Exclusion booming of a stream delta.
800-39
-------
Logistics
Specific manpower and equipment requirements will depend on the length
and type of boom used and the nature of the area in which it is deployed.
Deploying heavy duty large booms will require more personnel and larger
boats than deploying small, lightweight booms. Table 804-2 gives a range
of logistical requirements for exclusion booming*
TABLE 804-2. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS PER 305 METERS (1000 FT) OF BOOM
Calm Weather or
Light Boom
Rough Weather or
Heavy Boom
Personnel
Support
Material
1 workboat - 6 to 9 m
(20 to 30 ft)
plus crew
6 anchors plus anchor
line and buoys
1 workboat - 12 to 15 m
(40 to 50 ft)
plus crew
12 anchors plus anchor
line and buoys
Limitations on Use
Exclusion booming can be effective if the water currents are less than
1 knot, breaking waves are less than 25 cm, and water depth is at least
twice the boom depth in other than intertidal areas• Exclusion booming in
most areas will require two booms to be deployed across an intertidal zone
to an attachment above the high-tide mark; therefore a flexible curtain-
type boom should be used. This type of boom will react more favorably to
tidal level fluctuation than a rigid fence-type boom.
800-40
-------
Diversion Booming
Use
Diversion booming should be used where the water current in an area
is greater than 1 knot or if the area to be protected is so large that the
available boom would not be sufficient to contain oil or protect the shore-
line. In addition, diversion booming is useful for diverting oil from
sensitive areas to other shoreline locations that are less sensitive
and/or more easily cleaned up.
Description of Technique
Diversion booms should be deployed at an angle from the shoreline
closest to the leading edge of the approaching oil slick to deflect oil
toward shore, where pickup of pooled oil is more effective.
When the boom is at right angles to the current, surface flow of
water and oil is stopped. At current speeds greater than about 1 knot,
vortexes (whirlpools) and entrainment (oil droplets shearing off from the
underside of the oil layer) will drag the oil down beneath the skirt, ren-
dering the boom ineffective. If the boom is placed at an angle to the
current, surface flow is reduced and diverted permitting the oil and water
to move downstream along the boom into the collection area and/or against
the shore. The reduction in current speed perpendicular to the boom is
related to the decrease in the angle of the boom relative to the direction
of current flow.
The first of two possible methods of diversion booming involves two
or more lengths of boom ranging from 30 m (100 ft) to 152 m (500 ft) placed
in a cascading formation in the water. The lead boom intercepts the oncom-
ing oil slick and diverts it toward the shore. Subsequent booms placed
downstream of the lead boom continue the diversion process until the slick
is directed to the recovery area.
The following list summarizes the deployment procedure used for this
technique:
1. The lead boom is placed in the water and towed by a small work
boat to a predetermined position to completely intercept the slick.
The up-current end is anchored in place.
2. The deployment vessel is maneuvered to the down-current end where
the boom is pulled toward the shoreline until the optimum angle
is achieved and then anchored in place.
3. The first two steps are repeated with each successive boom until
the end of the last boom reaches the recovery area. The leading
end of each boom is positioned approximately 7.5 to 9 m (25 to
30 ft) behind the trailing end of the previous boom in a slightly
overlapping configuration. Figure 804-5 shows the placement con-
figuration of three lengths of boom.
800-41
-------
Current direction
O
O
*-
«o
Oil recovery
Shoreline
Figure 804-5. Placement configuration of 3 lengths of boom
(cascading deflection booms).
-------
4. The booms are fixed in place by dropping overboard an anchor that
is attached to a buoy float by a line equal in length to water
depth plus 1.5 m (5 ft). The buoy is then fastened to the boom
end with a short length of line. Because the current will natu-
rally cause the booms to bow slightly, additional anchors may be
required along the length of the boom to minimize this effect.
The second method of diversion booming is similar to the first except
that only the diverting boom is used to direct the oil onto the shoreline.
One end of the diverting boom is anchored to the shoreline and the free
end is angled by the vessel as shown on Figure 804-6. The advantage of
this method is that It can be set up in less time and with less equipment
than the cascading booms method. Both are most effective on shorelines
with limited wave activity. The primary disadvantage is that the shoreline
around the recovery area must be cleaned.
The optimum angle of boom deployment is dependent on the current speed
and the length and type of boom used. To avoid boom failure in strong cur-
rents the angle must be smaller than in weak currents. The same relation is
true with regard to boom length. The optimum deployment angle decreases as
boom length increases.
The various types of booms available have varying degrees of stability
under increasing current conditions. The more stable the boom, the larger
the optimum deployment angle for a given current speed. In general, booms
with a high ratio of buoyancy to weight, with tension members located at the
top and bottom edges and booms with horizontally oriented floatation collars
resist pivoting and have good stability under most conditions. Figure 804-7
shows cross sections of the three most stable types of booms and their opti-
mum deployment angles under different current speeds.*
Since diversion booms cause a significant reduction in surface current,
successive booms can be deployed at increasingly larger angles as the cur-
rent decreases.
Logistics
The specific manpower and equipment requirements will depend primarily
on the width of the approaching slick and the current speed. The type of
boom and angle to which it is deployed also affect the requirements. De-
ploying large, heavy duty booms will require more personnel and larger boats
than deploying small, lightweight booms (see exclusion booming). Booms de-
ployed at small angles in high current areas require greater boom lengths
to cover the same width as those deployed at greater angles. Table 804-3
gives the logistical requirements for diversion booming.
*Results of tests performed by Canadian Environmental Protection Service
on the St. Glair-Detroit river system.
800-43
-------
Figure 804-6. Diversion booming along shoreline.
800-44
-------
oo
o
o
07 10 knots
10 15 knots
CURRENT DIRECTION
17 18 knots
17-18 knots with
3 anchor points
Type A
~~Q$
c
p-
s
Type 8
TypeC
Figure 804-7 Cross sections of 3 high-stability boom types and
optimum deployment angles under various currents
using 61 m/200 m long booms
-------
TABLE 804-3. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR DIVERSION BOOMING FOR
DEFLECTION3 IN A 1.5-KNOT CURRENT
Single Boom Cascading Booms
Item 15 m (50 ft) Deflection 45 m (150 ft) Deflection
Equipment
« Total boom length 61 m (200 ft) 183 m (600 ft)
• Anchors 1 6-9
Personnel 3-4 4-6
Support
• Workboat (6 to 9 m) 1 1
• Recovery units 1 1~2
Reflection is the lateral displacement across a current between the
upstream and downstream ends of a boom or series of booms.
800-46
-------
Containment Booming
Use
Used on open water to surround an approaching oil slick as a means of
protecting shoreline areas where surf is present and the oil slick does not
cover a large area. Also used on inland waters where currents are less
than 1 knot.
Description of Technique
Oil on water forms a slick and spreads into shapes dictated by surface
currents, winds, and physical boundaries. In the absence of physical bound-
aries, a circular, elliptical, or triangular slick will be formed. A
circular slick is formed when there are no significant surface currents or
winds. An elliptical shape is formed by moderate surface currents and winds.
High winds and strong currents will create a more triangular-shaped slick.
The triangle will widen (spread) as the slick moves away from its source.
Wave action, generally caused by wind, will rapidly distort these shapes,
eventually forming streamers or windrows of oil. Therefore it is important
to try to contain an oil spill before it becomes too wide for effective con-
tainment and it breaks into streamers.
The direction of wind and current must be considered in deploying boom
Boom should be deployed downwind or in the direction of the surface current,
around the leading edge of the floating slick, and then back into the wind or
current, as shown in Figure 804-8. This technique will minimize the amount
of time the boom is pulled perpendicular to winds or currents. The boom will
drift into a U shape.
A spill that is fully contained by booms is best cleaned by a skimmer
(preferably self-propelled) placed inside the boomed area. The oil will tend
to concentrate against the boom in the direction of the wind and current.
and current. The skimmer should move to this area and continually position
itself to skim the thickest area, as shown in Figure 804-9. When skimming
becomes inefficient - after most of the spill has been removed or for small
spills (less than 1 barrel) - sorbent pads or sorbent rolls may be used.
Loose sorbent materials, however, should be avoided where possible. Sorbents
should be used only with contained spills.
Logistics
The equipment and manpower requirements depend primarily on the size of
the slick to be contained. Heavy duty or exceptionally long booms may re-
quire additional personnel for handling but would usually be limited to one
or two workers. Table 804-4 gives the logistical requirements for contain-
ment booming of a 150-m and 250-m diameter spill.
Limitations
Boom required for containment was based on a catenary rather than a
complete encircling of a spill. Since the area of the catenary will change
800-47
-------
Surface Current
or Wind
Workboat
Nylon Line
Boom
Figure 804-8. Boom deployment method.
800-48
-------
00
o
o
*-
VO
Surface Current
or Wind
Drogue
Nylon Line
Boom
•Skimmer
Figure 804-9. Containment: open water.
-------
with a number of variables (i.e., towing speed, wind, current, skirt depth,
etc.) it was assumed that maximum area would be realized, which is in the
form of a semi-circle. Furthermore, it was assumed that a boom lead of 10
percent is required on either end for towing, anchoring, or drogue deploy-
ment. Actual minimum boom requirements in real situations may exceed those
given in Table 804-4.
TABLE 804-4. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CONTAINMENT BOOMING
For a 150 m (656 ft)
Diameter Slick
For a 250 m (820 ft)
Diameter Slick
Equipment
• Boom3
• Drogues
• Work boat
Personnel
Support
• Skimmer
• Storage tank
• Pump
282 m (927 ft)
2
1
Boat crew and
2 boom layers
1
1
1
471 m (1545 ft)
2
1-2
Boat crew(s) and 2-4
boom layers/boat
1
1
1
aMinimum amount of boom required for 100 percent containment assuming
it is independent of slick thickness.
800-50
-------
Sorbent Booming
Use
Used primarily on quiet waters with minor oil contamination. It can
also be used as a backup for standard booming operations.
Description of Technique
Sorbent booms are deployed in the same manner as those booms described
under exclusion booming except on a much smaller scale. They can also be
laid along the shoreline to catch the oil as the tide rises. It is usually
best to drive the oil into the booms with low-pressure water sprays. Once
the booms are set up they must be rotated frequently to be effective.
If used as a backup for standard booming operations, the sorbent booms
are deployed several feet behind (downstream of) the primary booms to trap
any oil splashing over or escaping under the containment boom. They can
also be deployed behind skimmers to catch any oil that evades the skimmer.
Sorbent sweeps tied together often are more effective than the sorbent
booms for absorbing oil when deployed in those manners mentioned above.
Permeable barriers constructed onsite and made of wire screen or mesh
and sorbents can be used to contain or exclude oil from interior areas.
Permeable barriers offer the advantages of non-interference with flow, con-
formance with bottom configuration, and response to tidal variation. Be-
cause of flow reverses in tidal areas, double barriers are required. A
diagram of a typical permeable barrier is shown in Figure 804-10. While a
variety of screen and mesh fencing is available, heavier materials are
recommended. When subjected to high currents and debris, lighter material
such as chicken wire will probably fail.
Single-sided permeable barriers may be constructed in small streams or
channels having continual water flow in one direction. In this case a single
line of posts are driven into the stream bottom with the screen fastened to
the upstream side. Sorbent is also placed on the upstream side of the bar-
rier only, relying on the current to hold it in place.
The screen height in both cases must be sufficient to prevent sorbent
from going over the top at high tide and under the bottom at low tide. The
screen mesh size must be compatible with the type and size of the sorbent
used.
Logistics
The logistical requirements for sorbent booming are heavily dependent
on numerous variables and cannot easily be quantified within the scope of
this manual. The amount required depends on the type and quantity of oil,
how the sorbent is used, where it is used, and so on.
The requirements of the permeable sorbent barrier is also dependent on
many variables and again is not easily quantifiable. The variables include
800-51
-------
Figure 804-10. Typical permeable barrier.
800-52
-------
stream or channel width and depth, tidal variation, current, type of screen
and sorbent used, type and quantity of oil, and amount of debris in waterway.
Therefore, due to the number of variables involved, initial applica-
tions must be used as guidelines for the logistical requirements of subse-
quent applications.
800-53
-------
Beach Berms
Use
Used on sandy, low energy beaches to protect the upper intertidal and
backshore areas from oil contamination. Especially useful during spring
tides when the high water level extends above the normal reaches for a short
period of time. Oil deposited during this time usually persists until the
next tide of equal magnitude.
Description of Technique
Procedures for minimizing the oil contamination of backshore areas
should be instituted at the first indication of a possible shoreline pollu-
tion event. The construction of a dike or berm along the upper intertidal
zone could assist in preventing incoming tides from depositing oil onto
backshore areas. Berms should be approximately 2 m wide and 0.75 to 1.0 m
high but are dependent on the maximum height of the incoming tide. Figure
804-11 depicts a typical beach berm.
Construction of the berms is achieved by operating a motor grader
parallel to the surf line along the upper intertidal area. The blade is
set at an angle to cast a windrow to one side as the motor grader moves
down the beach. Several passes are usually required to attain the optimum
berm height. Bulldozers fitted with angled blades can be operated in the
same manner; if fitted with a straight blade, they can be used to push
material up the beach into a pile forming a berm with successive, adjacent
piles. A trench on the seaward side of the berm would also assist in
trapping oil that comes ashore on each wave for subsequent removal.
Observations of tidal action on constructed berms indicate that the
berms could successfully protect backshore areas for at least one tidal
cycle, and possibly two, assuming no large storm waves or winds occur.
Logistics
Specific manpower and equipment requirements will depend on the length
and height of the berm to be constructed. A bulldozer can build a berm 2 m
wide by 1 m high at a rate of 300 linear meters per hour, with a motor grader
being considerably faster. Under most circumstances only one motor grader
or bulldozer with one operator is required unless the length of area to be
protected is excessive or the berm must be constructed quickly.
800-55
-------
Figure 804-11. Beach berm.
800-56
-------
Berms and Dams
Use
Primarily used on shallow streams or rivers where booms are not availa-
ble or cannot be deployed, or where dams are part of the hydrological control
system.
Description of Technique
Dams. There are two types of dam construction appropriate for oil spill
containment: 1) the complete blocking of an actual or potential drainage
course (a blocking dam), and 2) the blocking of oil flow while letting water
continue downslope (an underflow dam).
Blocking Dams. Blocking dams should be constructed only across drainage
courses which have little or no water flow. The dam should be situated at
an accessible point where there are high banks on the upstream side. It
must be well keyed into the banks and buttressed to support the oil and
water pressure. It can be constructed from several types of materials
including earth, snow, sandbags, and sheets of metal or wood, or from any
material that blocks flow.
The dam can be built across the drainage course to form a holding pond
or reservoir to contain the oil and water. Water trapped behind the dam
can be pumped out by placing the suction (intake) hose at the base of the
dam on the upstream side, leaving oil trapped behind the dam for subsequent
removal. The discharge (outlet) hose should be placed on the downstream
side. Trapped water can also be moved across the dam with one or more
siphons.
Underflow Dams. For waterways with higher stream flow rates, an underflow
dam can be used (Figures 804-12 and 804-13). If the dam is to be effective,
the surface of the oil must always be below the lip of the dam, and the
oil/water interface must be above the top of the underflow opening. To
maintain the proper level, it is necessary to remove some of the water,
usually through horizontal valved or inclined pipes as illustrated.
The underflow dam can be constructed by placing pipes of appropriate
size on the stream bed and building an earthen or sandbag dam over the pipe
across the waterway. The diameter of the pipe will depend on the flow rate
of the stream and the depth of the water behind the dam. For example, a 60-
to 76-cm (24- to 30-in.) diameter pipe will have sufficient capacity for a
flow rate of up to 850 liters (30 cu ft) per second. If time does not
allow for pipe diameter calculations, a diameter larger than that required
will control flow if it is inclined at the proper angle or if a valve is
used. A pair or series of dams may be required downstream if sufficient
underflow cannot be maintained.
Berms. Unlike dams, which are designed either to block flow completely or
to block flow with a provision for underflow, berras are constructed to con-
trol flow by diversion or overflow. For creeks and rivers, overflow berms
800-57
-------
Oil layer
Valved pipe(s) of
adequate capacity
to bypass water.
< J ...» 4
Water flow of stream or surface water drainage is bypassed
to maintain reservoir level. Oil is skimmed off or absorbed
as conditions dictate.
Crest of dam should be of sufficient width to accommodate
compaction vehicle. Height of fill is 0.7 or 1 meter (2 or 3
feet) above fluid level. Normal fall angle of fill will suffice
for sloping.
Valved pipe
Figure 804-12. Water bypass dam (valved pipe).
^^
.-7"'SV*1W*VA*V, *
Water flow or stream is bypassed to maintain
reservoir level. Elevate discharge end of tube(s)
to desired reservoir level.
Inclined tube
Figure 804-13. Water bypass dam (inclined tube).
800-58
-------
(weirs) or diversion berms can be constructed from materials in the flood-
plains; for terrestrial spills, earth berms can be built to divert or impede
flow. In fast-moving streams, berms may have to be continually maintained.
Diversion Berms. Diversion berms can be constructed from floodplain mater-
ials on large rivers (Figure 804-14). In most situations, they should be
constructed in a series, connected with short pieces of boom in a pattern
that forces oil to flow into a containment pit, side channel, or similar
feature for temporary storage. The spacing between each berra should allow
water to flow under the connecting booms while forcing oil to the side. The
size and angle of the berms will be dictated by stream velocity, channel
size, and oil spill volume. As these factors increase, the required size
of the berms will increase, and the angle between the upstream side of the
berms and the stream bank will decrease.
Overflow Berms (weirs). The purpose of overflow berms or weirs is to reduce
water velocity by widening and deepening the stream. They can be constructed
in smaller streams or in the side channels of larger rivers (Figure 804-15).
Overflow berms must be constructed across the entire channel. Materials
should be excavated from the upstream side of the berm, creating a pool where
streamflow will be retarded, permitting boom deployment and oil removal up-
stream from the berm. The required height and width of the berm will in-
crease with stream depth and water velocity.
Logistics
The equipment and manpower requirements from dam or berm construction
will vary with the size and type being built. Generally, a front-end loader
or bulldozer is the only equipment needed for construction, with the loader
being preferred. The time required for construction of a dam or berm measur-
ing 2 m high x 4 m wide x 10 m long is approximately 1 hr for both the front-
end loader and bulldozer. This assumes, however, that substrate material for
for building the dam is adjacent to the site, no material is lost during con-
struction, and access and trafficability are adequate. Table 804-5 gives
the logistical requirements for berms and dams.
800-59
-------
Collection point
This represents a series of diversion berms joined
by booms. They are positioned so that a spill
can be diverted to a location with adequate
storage and accessibility to removal equipment.
If stream and spill conditions permit, one berm
may be all that is required.
Figure 804-14. Diversion berms.
800-60
-------
Figure 804-15. Overflow berm.
800-61
-------
TABLE 804-5. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BERMS AND DAMS
Number Required
Diversion Berm Overflow Berm Bypass Dam
Equipment
• Front-end loader
or bulldozer
• Boom
• Discharge tube
(with or without
valve)
3-6 short pieces 1 long piece 0
0 0 1 or 2
Personnel - 1 heavy equipment operator, 1-2 workers, and 1 supervisor
Support Equipment
• Skimmer, pump, and 1 11
storage tank
800-62
-------
Bird Warning System
Use
Used in oil spill situations as a means of deterring birds from entering
a contaminated area and becoming oiled. Unfortunately, most systems current-
ly available have limited effectiveness but should, nevertheless, be imple-
mented. It is far better to keep birds out of a spill area than to try to
rehabilitate them once they have become oiled.
Description of Technique
Numerous bird warning systems have been used with varying degrees of
success, including electronic sound devices that produce bird distress calls
and communication jamming frequencies, pyrotechnics, gas exploders, and air-
craft. Many are species specific and should not be used when a variety of
birds are present. Perhaps the most consistently successful method is stra-
tegically placed human activity.
In the event of a spill situation, several units should be moved quick-
ly to shore positions or to boats in order to cover the contaminated areas
that birds are most likely to visit. It may be effective to place the warn-
ing device on a small raft in the larger oil slicks and allow the raft to
drift with the oil slick. The positions of stationary units should be
changed as the oil spill moves. Workers in the area must wear ear-protective
devices, since noise level of some of the units is high enough to be uncom-
fortable or hazardous.
Propane cannons combined with shotguns using blank shells and/or
crackers and abstract sound systems have been found effective in shoreline
locations. Habituation does occur with most systems, therefore site rota-
tion is advised. In the deployment of propane cannons, care must be taken
not to aim the muzzle into the wind; this will cause an excess of air to
mix with the propane and prevent explosive ignition of the cannon.
During the spring, beaches and nearshore areas are likely to need the
the most protection since the largest bird populations consist of shore-
birds and waterfowl.
During a critical situation, the first efforts to repel birds will
reveal which procedures are most useful and which are inefficient or poorly
designed. Subsequent efforts can be reorganized on the basis of these
results.
The activities of people, boats, and machinery will usually cause the
greatest disturbance to waterfowl where oil concentrations are greatest and
will repel significant numbers of waterfowl from that immediate area.
Logistics
Specific requirements for manpower and equipment depend primarily on the
length of shoreline and/or the size of the contaminated area. In addition to
800-63
-------
the warning systems, spills offshore require boats or rafts on which to mount
the devices. Table 804-6 gives a range of logistical requirements for bird
warning systems.
TABLE 804-6. BIRD WARNING SYSTEMS
Item
Number/ 20 Hectares
of Contaminated Area
Number/Kilometer
of Shoreline
System
People
Sound devices
Pyrotechnics
Gas exploders
Aircraft
Support
50-7 5a
1-2
1
1-2
1
25-503
3-4
2-3
3-4
1
Small boats or rafts - 1 per warning device
a Includes cleanup crew.
800-64
-------
805 CLEANUP TECHNIQUES
Detailed procedures for 23 cleanup techniques are discussed in this
section and inlcude formation concerning how and where each is used, their
approximate cleaning rates, and the logistical requirements. In addition,
illustrations are given showing how each technique is used.
To facilitate easy referencing, an index listing of the techniques
and their corresponding page numbers is shown in Table 805-1.
TABLE 805-1. INDEX OF CLEANUP TECHNIQUES
Cleanup Technique
Page
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
Motor Grader and Elevating Scraper
Motorized Elevating Scrapers
Motor Grader and Front-End Loader
Front-End Loader - Rubber-Tired or Tracked
Bulldozer /Front-End Loader (Rubber-Tired)
Backhoe
Dragline or Clamshell
High-Pressure Flushing (Hydroblasting)
Steam Cleaning
Sandblasting
Manual Scraping
Sump and Pump/ Vacuum
Manual Removal of Oiled Materials
Low-Pr assure Flushing
Beach Cleaner
Manual Sorbent Application
Manual Cutting
Burning
Vacuum Trucks
Push Contaminated Substrate Into Surf
Breaking Up Pavement
Disc Into Substrate
Natural Recovery
805-1
805-6
805-10
805-12
805-14
805-19
805-24
805-28
805-29
805-31
805-33
805-35
805-39
805-42
805-45
805-46
805-49
805-53
805-54
805-57
805-61
805-64
805-67
800-65
-------
Motor Grader and Elevator Scraper
Use
Used primarily on sand and gravel beaches where oil penetration is
0 to 3 era, and trafficability of beach is good. Can also be used on mudflats
if trafficability permits.
Description of Technique
The most effective method of cleaning sandy beaches contaminated with
oil is with motor graders and elevating scrapers working together. Motor-
ized graders cut and remove the surface layer of beach material and form
large windrows, which motorized scrapers pick up and haul to a disposal
area. Specifically, the sequence of operational procedures for a motorized
grader is:
1. Moldboard (blade) is set at 50° angle from the perpendicular to the
direction of travel.
2. Grader is operated in second gear at 5 or 6.5 km/hr.
3. Grading of first pass is begun on oil-contaminated material farth-
est inshore, casting windrow parallel to surf line. Grading is
continued to end of contaminated area or approximately 200 to
300 m in distance.
4. Grader is returned to starting point by backtracking on cleaned
area.
5. Grader is repositioned for second pass so as to pick up first-pass
windrow and cast second-pass windrow parallel to surf line.
6. Grader is returned to starting point by backtracking on cleaned
area.
7. Grader is repositioned for third pass so as to cast a windrow from
surf line side into first- and second-pass windrow. A three-pass
windrow is the optimum for pickup by a motorized elevating scraper.
Height of the windrow is limited to ground clearance of tractor.
Figure 805-1 illustrates a three-pass technique.
When the elevating scraper is used in combination with motorized
graders, its operator should:
1. Straddle the windrow formed after two or three passes by the motor-
ized grader and lower the cutting edge of the bowl to the depth of
oil penetration.
800-67
-------
Plane view
Direction
of travel
Windrow
1stpass >^iSilii
Figure 805-1. Motor grader/elevating scraper sequence.
800-68
-------
2. Operate the scraper in first gear (low range), pick up windrow
until the bowl has filled up and then stop the scraper and pick
up the bowl, keeping elevator flights moving.
3. Stop elevator flights and proceed to unloading area.
Since one motorized grader can produce windrows continuously, several motor-
ized elevating scrapers should be used simultaneously to pick up the windrows.
Cleaning Rate
The shoreline area that can be cleaned using a motor grader/elevating
scraper combination is primarily dependent on the size of the scraper and the
distance it has to travel from shoreline pickup area to unloading area. For
a 150-m (500-ft) one-way haul distance, the cleaning rate* for the motor
grader/elevating scraper combination is approximately 2.5 hr/hectare (1
hr/acre). Elevating scraper combination is approximately 2.5 hr/hectare
(1 hr/acre).
Logistic Requirements
The logistical requirements for using the motor grader/elevating scraper
technique will vary with the length of the haul distance between the pickup
point and unloading area. As the haul distance increases more elevating
scrapers will be needed to keep up a reasonable cleaning rate. Table 805-2
gives logistical requirements for a 2-km (1.2 ml) length of beach.
*Cleaning rates are based on findings in "The Restoration of Oil-Contaminated
Beaches." URS, 1970.
800-69
-------
TABLE 805-2. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HEAVY EQUIPMENT
For 150-a For 600-m Combined
(500 ft) (2,000 ft) Cleaning Rate
Item Haul Distance Haul Distance (hr/hectare)
Equipment
• Motor Grader
• Elevating scraper -
20 yd3 capacity
• Elevating scraper -
10 yd capacity
1
2
4
1
4
8
3-31/2
3-31/2
Personnel - 1 equipment operator for each piece of equipment and 1 supervisor
Support Diesel Fuel Requirements
(gal/hr)
• Elevating scraper - 9-15
• Motor grader - 3-8
Access requirements - Heavy equipment, barge or landing craft
800-70
-------
Motorized Elevating Scrapers
Use
Motorized elevating scrapers pick up and haul material short distances
to disposal or temporary storage sites. They are equipped with self-loading
elevators that pick up cut material and dump it back into the hopper. Alone
they are used primarily on sand and gravel beaches where oil penetration
exceeds 3 cm. They also can be used to remove tar balls and flat patties
from beach surface.
On beaches with low bearing capacity, the motorized elevating scraper
may become immobilized. Two methods that can overcome this problem are:
1. Use a non-motorized elevating scraper pulled by a tracked bull-
dozer. The use of a crawler tractor greatly increases traction
and permits the scraper to operate on beaches with low bearing
capacity.
2. Use a tracked or wheeled tractor to push the elevating scraper
unit, or use a tandem-drive elevating scraper which has as standard
equipment both pusher and pusher prime mover units.
Description of Technique
When the elevating scraper is used alone, the operational procedures
are:
1. Operate parallel to surf line, beginning with oil-contaminated
material farthest inshore.
2. Set depth of cut to depth of oil penetration or to just skim the
surface if only oil-contaminated debris is to be removed.
3. Operate scraper in first gear (low range), with the length of pass
depending on the size of the scraper bowl.
4. When bowl is full, stop scraper and pick up bowl, keeping elevator
flights moving.
5. Stop elevator flights and proceed to unloading area.
Figure 805-2 gives a graphic example of the cleaning pattern.
Cleaning Rate
Optimum rate of shoreline cleaning for an elevating scraper on smooth,
firm beaches is primarily dependent on the capacity of the scraper and the
distance to the unloading area. For a 30-m (100-ft) one-way haul distance,
the cleaning rate for the elevating scraper is approximately 2.4 hr/hectare
(0.95 hr/acre). Cleaning rates based on findings in "The Restoration of Oil-
Contaminated Beaches," URS 1970.
800-71
-------
To unloading area
Plane view
1st pass
2nd pass •
3rd pass
Figure 805-2. Cleaning pattern for motorized
elevating scraper.
800-72
-------
Logistic Requirements
The logistical requirements for using the elevating scraper technique
will vary with the length of the haul distance between the pickup point
and unloading area. As the haul distance increases, more elevating scrapers
will be needed to keep up a reasonable cleaning rate. Table 805-3 gives
logistical requirements for a 2-km (1.2 mi) length of beach.
TABLE 805-3. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ELEVATING SCRAPER
For 150-m For 600-m Combined
(500 ft) (2,000 ft) Cleaning Rate
Haul Distance Haul Distance (hr/hectare)
Equipment
• Elevating scraper 2 4 3 - 3-1/2
20 yd3 capacity
• Elevating scraper - 4 o j j i/^
10 yd3 capacity
Personnel - 1 equipment operator for each piece of equipment and 1 supervisor
Support Diesel Fuel Requirements (gal/hr)
• Elevating scraper - 9-15
Access requirements - heavy equipment, barge or landing craft
800-73
-------
Motor Grader and Front-End Loader
Use
Used on sand and gravel beaches where oil penetration is less than 2 to
3 cm and trafficability is good. Can also be used on mud flats is traffic-
ability permits.
Description of Technique
Windrows are formed in the same manner as described under motor grader
and elevating scraper techniques. The front-end loader is used in place of
the scraper to remove the windrows and transfer the material to the unloading
area. For specific operating procedures of the loader itself, refer to the
description of front-end loaders. Operating procedures for front-end loaders
working with a motorized grader are listed below. Several front-end loaders
are needed to remove windrows formed by a single grader.
1. Use 4-in-l type bucket if available.
2. Operate tractor in first gear while loading.
3. Fill bucket only 1/2 to 2/3 full to minimize spillage while
scraping.
4. Minimize traffic over oil-contaminated area when using tracked
loader.
Figure 805-3 shows thes operational sequence.
Cleaning Rate
The cleaning rate for using the motor grader/front-end loader depends
on the haul distance to the unloading area and the capacity and type of
loader used. For a 30 m (100 ft) haul distance the rate for a 3 ydj capa-
city rubber-tired front end loader is 6 hr/hectare (2.4 hr/acre). The route
for a 3 yd3capacity rubber tired loader is 6 hr/hectare (2.4 hr/acre). The
rate of a 3 yd capacity crawler type front-end loader is 8.25 hr/hectare
(3.3 hr/acre).
Logistic Requirements
The logistical requirements for using the motor grader/front-end loader
technique will vary significantly between the rubber-tire and crawler loaders
and will also depend upon the haul distance to the unloading area. Since
the crawler type loaders are much slower, more will be needed to maintain a
reasonable cleaning rate. Additional loaders of both types would also be
needed if longer haul distances are required. Table 805-4 gives the logis-
tical requirements for a 2-km (1.2 mile) length of beach.
800-75
-------
Plane view
oo
o
o
Direction
of travel
Windrow
3rd pass
Front-end loader
Surf line
Figure 805-3. Motor grader /front -end loader operational sequence.
-------
TABLE 805-4. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR COMBINATION MOTOR GRADER AND
FRONT-END LOADER
30-m 150-m Cleaning
(100-ft) (500-ft) Rate
Item Haul Distance Haul Distance (hr/hectare)
Equipment
• Motor grader second 1 motor grader 1 motor grader
rubber-tired 2 front-end loader 4 front-end loaders 3.25 - 3.75
front-end loader
• Motor grader and
crawler (tracked) 1 motor grader 1 motor grader
front-end loader 2 front-end loaders 6 front-end loaders 4.0 - 4.5
No. of 10 yd3 No. of 20 yd3
Truck Loads Per Hour Truck Loads Per Hour
• Dump Trucks 19a 10a
Personnel- 1 operator for each piece of equipment and 1 supervisor
Support Diesel Fuel Requirements Bucket Capacity
(gal/hr) (yd3)
• Motor grader 3-8
• Front-end loader 5-5.1 2
(rubber-tired) 13.5-14.5 5
• Front-end loader 4.5-5 1-7
(crawler) 11.5 *
• Dump truck 6-12
Access requirements - heavy equipment, barge, or landing craft
NOTE: Cleaning rates based on loaders with 3 yd3 2/3 full.
aBased on the cleaning rate of 4 hr/hectare (1.6 hr/acre) and 575 m3 hectare
(304 yd 3/acre) of material removed.
800-77
-------
Front-End Loader - Rubber-Tired or Tracked
Use
Used on mud, sand, or gravel beaches when trafficability is poor and
oil penetration is light to moderate. Front-end loaders are designed for
digging and loading, and for limited transport of material. Buckets are
made in different sizes and weights for different kinds of materials and
work conditions. Buckets for wheeled and crawler tractors range from 75
to 10 yd3.
Front-end loaders equipped with slot buckets, which allow loose sand
to fall through the slots, should be used to remove large quantities of oil-
contaminated debris such as kelp and driftwood. Previous beach-restoration
experience indicates that front-end loaders should be used primarily for
loading material into trucks from stockpiles or from windrows formed by
motorized graders.
Description of Technique
When the front-end loader is used alone the operational procedures are:
1. Use 4-in-l type bucket if available.
2. Operate tractor in first gear while loading.
3. Position bucket flat on beach for loading loose material.
4. Position bucket at slight downward tilt for digging and skimming.
5. Load bucket most easily by moving tractor forward.
6. Fill bucket only 1/2 to 2/3 full to minimize spillage while
loading.
7. Minimize traffic over oil-contaminated area when using crawler
loader to avoid oil being ground into substrate.
Figure 805-4 depicts the operational sequence.
Cleaning Bate
The rate of shoreline cleanup when using only a front-end loader de-
pends primarily on three factors: 1) whether a rubber-tired or crawler type
tractor is used, 2) the haul distance to the truck loading area, and, to a
lesser extent, 3) the capacity of the bucket. The rate of operation of a
front-end loader removing contaminated beach material over a one-way haul
distance of 30 m (100 ft) is 16.5 hr/hectare (6.6 hr/acre) for a rubber-
tired loader and 22 hr/hectare (8.8 hr/acre) for a crawler type loader.
800-79
-------
Direction
of travel
2nd pass
1st pass
3rd pass
Surf line
Figure 805-4. Front-end loader operational sequence.
800-80
-------
Logistic Requirements
The logistical requirements for using the front-end loader technique
will vary with those factors affecting cleaning rate. Table 805-5 gives the
logistical requirements for operation of a front-end loader only.
TABLE 805-5. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR FRONT-END LOADER
30-m 150-m Combined
(100-ft) (500-ft) Cleaning
Item Haul Distance Haul Distance Rate (hr/hectare)
Equipment
• Front-end loader
(rubber-tired)
• Front-end loader
(crawler)
2
2
4
6
8-8.5
11-11.5
No. of 10 yd3 No. of 20 yd3
Loads/hr Loads/hr
0 Dump Trucks 23a 12a
Personnel - 1 operator for each piece of equipment and 1 uupervisor
Support Diesel Fuel Requirements Bucket Capacity
(gal/hr) (yd3)
• Front-end loader 5-5.1 2
(rubber-tired) 13.5-14.5 5
• Front-end loader 4.5-5 1.7
(crawler) 11-12 4
• Dump truck 6-12
Access requirements - heavy equipment, barge, or landing craft
NOTE: Cleaning rates based on bucket capacity of 2 yd3 2/3 full.
aBased on a cleaning rate of 9 hr/hectare (3.6 hr/acre) and 1521 ra3/hectare
(850 yd3/acre) of material removed.
800-81
-------
Bulldozer/Front-End Loader (Rubber-Tired)
Used primarily on coarse sand, gravel, or cobble beaches where oil
penetration is deep, contamination extensive, and trafficability poor. Can
also be used to remove heavily oil-contaminated vegetation.
Description of Technique
For those situations described above when no other techniques are ap-
plicable, the bulldozer/front-end loader combination is an acceptable method.
The bulldozer is utilized to push the contaminated material into piles for
pickup by the front-end loader. (Because the bulldozer will have to operate
in the upper edge of the surf zone, an old or expendable piece of machinery
should be used.) The sequence of operational procedures for a bulldozer
follows:
1. Begin at low tide line of the beach using a universal or straight
type blade. If there is a longshore current the bulldozer should
be at the up-current end of the contaminated area.
2. Dozer is operated in first gear.
3. Contaminated material is pushed up the beach perpendicular to the
tideline and onto an area with suitable trafficability to operate
a front-end loader.
4. The cut depth should not exceed the depth of oil penetration.
5. Material should not be pushed beyond the contaminated area to avoid
spoiling uncontaminated areas. A road may have to be constructed
for the front-end loader to gain access to the stockpiled material.
6. Dozer is returned to starting point by backtracking on cleaned area
and repositioned so that the second cut will overlap the first cut
slightly.
7. The procedure is repeated along the beach. (Figure 805-5).
8. Rubber-tired front-end loaders operate at the backshore side of
the contaminated area to pick up the stockpiled sediments and
transfer them to dump trucks for disposal.
9. The loaders are operated by placing the bucket flat on the ground
or tilted slightly forward. The bucket is filled by the forward
movement of the loader.
Cleaning Rate
The shoreline area that can be cleaned by a bulldozer/front-end loader
combination is primarily dependent on the haul distance of the loader and
the width of the contaminated area. For a 30-m (100-ft) one-way haul
800-83
-------
Front-end loader
I rt •']• •.
Longshore current
Figure 805-5. Bulldozer/front-end loader operational sequence.
800-84
-------
distance the cleaning rate for the combination is approximately 25 hr/hectare
(10 hr/acre).
Logistic Requirements
The logistical requirements for using the bulldozer/front-end loader
combination will vary with the haul distance between the pickup point and
truck-loading area; as the haul distance increases more front-end loaders
will be needed to maintain a reasonable cleaning rate. Table 805-6 gives
logistical requirements for a 2-km (1.2 mi) length of beach.
TABLE 805-6. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BULLDOZER/FRONT-END LOADER
(Rubber-Tired) COMBINATION
30-m 150-m Combined
(100-ft) (500-ft) Cleaning
Item Haul Distance Haul Distance Rate (hr/hectare)
Equipment
• Bulldozer 1 1
• Front-end loader 24 12 1/2-13
(rubber-tired)
No. of 10 yd3 Truck- No. of 20 yd3 Truck-
Loads/hr Loads/hr
• Dump trucks 23a 12a
Personnel - 1 operator for each piece of equipment
Support Diesel Fuel Requirements Bucket Capacity
(gal/hr) (yd3)
• Front-end loader 5-5.1 2
(rubber-tired) 13.5-14.5 5
• Bulldozer 4-14
• Dump truck 6-12
Access requirements - heavy equipment, barge, or landing craft
NOTE: Cleaning rates based on bucket capacity of 3 yd3 2/3 full.
aBased on a cleaning rate of 13 hr/hectare (5.26 hr/acre) and 2281 m3/hectare
(1207 yd-Vacre) of material removed.
800-85
-------
Backhoe
Use
Used to remove oil-contaminated sediment (primarily mud or silt) on
steep banks where other types of equipment are unable to operate.
Description of Technique
The oiled sediment is removed by positioning the backhoe at the edge
of the bank, extending the boom down the bank, and scraping the surface
layer into the bucket as the boom is retracted. The contaminated material
is stockpiled or loaded directly into dump trucks and hauled away for dis-
posal. The sequence of operational procedures for the backhoe is as follows:
1. Backhoe is positioned at the top of the bank facing downhill.
2. The boom is extended to the lower edge of the contaminated area or
as far downhill as possible.
3. The edge of the bucket is placed in the sediment about 25 to 50 cm
deep and moved up the bank, scraping the sediment into the bucket.
4. When the bucket reaches the top of the bank or becomes 2/3 full it
is leveled and the material is stockpiled or placed directly into a
dump truck.
5. Several slightly overlapping cuts should be made to clear a path
approximately 3 to 6 m (10 to 20 ft) wide.
6. Backhoe is then repositioned to begin clearing a path adjacent to
the previous path.
Figure 805-6 graphically depicts this operational sequence.
Cleaning Rate
The area that can be cleaned using a backhoe is largely dependent on the
size of the bucket and to a lesser extent, the swing angle from the pickup
point to the unloading point. For a 12-ft3 bucket loaded 2/3 full and a
90° swing, the cleaning rate for the backhoe is approximately 66 hr/hectare
(27 hr/acre).
Logistic Requirements
The logistical requirements for using the backhoe technique will vary
with the amount of contaminated area. Since their cleaning rate is low, a
larger contaminated area will require more backhoes to maintain a reasonable
cleaning rate. Table 805-7 gives logistical requirements for a 3-kra (1.2-mi)
length of shoreline.
800-87
-------
Backhoe operating
positions
Figure 805-6. Backhoe operational sequence.
800-88
-------
TABLE 805-7. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BACKHOE
Combined
For For Cleaning
Item 12-ft3 Bucket 16-ft3 Bucket Rate (hr/hectare)
Equipment
• Backhoe 4
3
16-17
No. of 10 yd3 No. of 20 yd3
Truck-Loads/hr Truck-Loads/hr
• Dump trucks 23a 12a
Personnel - 1 operator for each piece of equipment
Support Diesel Fuel Requirements Bucket Capacity
(gal/hr) (yd3)
• Backhoe 7-8 1.5
18-19 3.8
• Dump truck 6-12 y»
Access requirements - heavy equipment, barge, or landing craft
aBased on a cleaning rate of 17 hr/hectare (7 hr/acre) and a cut depth
of 30 cm (1 ft).
800-89
-------
Dragline or Clamshell
Use
Used on sand, gravel, or cobble beaches where trafficability is very
poor and oil contamination and penetration is extensive. Although this
method is quite slow and inefficient, it can be used on shorelines where
trafficability excludes the use of tracked equipment.
Description of Technique
The dragline or clamshell is operated along the upper edge of the con-
taminated area or as close to it as trafficability of the sediments will
permit. It may be necessary to construct an access road from which equipment
can operate. The specific operating procedures for a dragline are:
1. If a longshore current is present, begin at the up-current end of
the contaminated area.
2. Operate from backshore edge of contaminated area.
3. Position boom* for maximum reach or enough reach to cover the con-
taminated area.
4. Drop the bucket to the beach and pull back toward the crane
to scoop up the sediment.
5. Tilt bucket back when 2/3 full**, swing around, and load the col-
lected sediments into a dump truck, or deposit in a stockpile.
6. Swing the bucket back and continue the cut or start a new cut
adjacent to, and slightly overlapping, the previous cut.
If a clamshell is used, then the following procedures are followed:
1. The crane and boom are positioned as before and the open clam-
shell is dropped onto the beach surface.
2. The clamshell jaws are shut, scooping oiled material into the
bucket portion.
3. The clamshell is raised and swung around to a dump truck or stock-
pile where the clamshell is opened, spilling its contents.
4. The clamshell is returned to a spot on the backshore side of, and
just barely overlapping, the previous cut.
*The boom may have to be of considerable length should the contaminated area
be of excessive width.
**The bucket is only filled to 2/3 capacity to avoid spillage.
800-91
-------
The procedure is repeated until a pass is completed across the contaminated
area where by the crane is moved slightly and a new pass is started adjacent
to the previous one. Figure 805-7 graphically displays the cleaning pattern
for both types of equipment.
Cleaning Rate
Shorelines which can be cleaned using a dragline or clamshell depends
primarily on the width of the contaminated area and the bucket capacity. The
cleaning rate for a 2/3 full 12 yd3 bucket dragline is approximately 28 hr/
hectare (11.3 hr/acre). For a 1 yd3 capacity clamshell 2/3 full, the rate
is approximately 50 hr/hectare (20 hr/acre).
Logistic Requirements
The logistical requirements for the technique utilizing a dragline or
clamshell will vary with the size of the area contaminated and the capacity
of the bucket or clamshell. Because the acre-per-hour that can be cleaned
by a dragline or clamshell is small, several units are required to maintain
a reasonable cleaning rate. Table 805-8 gives the logistical requirements
for using a dragline or clamshell to clean a 3-km (1.2 mi) length of beach.
800-92
-------
Access road constructed on
loose sediments
Crane
.,.••.• 0 -\-. • • • •'. o- ., . - • .1 . •
Figure 805-7. Cleaning pattern for dragline or
clamshell technique.
800-93
-------
TABLE 805-8. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR DRAGLINE OR CLAMSHELL
Item
For
2 yd3 Bucket
For
5 yd3 Bucket
Combined
Cleaning
Rate (hr/hectare)
Equipment
• Dragline 4 2
1 yd3 Bucket
• Clamshell 4
No. of 10 yd3
Truck-Loads/hr
• Dump trucks 57a
• Personnel - 1 operator for each piece of equipment
6-7
13-14
No. of 20 yd3
Truck-Loads/hr
29a
Support
• Dragline
• Clamshell
• Dump truck
Diesel Fuel Requirements
(gal/hr)
7-8
18-19
No data available
6-12
Bucket Capacity
(yd3)
1.5
3.8
Access requirements - heavy equipment, barge, or landing craft
aBased on a cleaning rate of 7 hr/hectare (3 hr/acre) and a cut depth
of 30 cm (1 ft).
800-94
-------
High-Pressure Flushing (Hydroblasting)
Use
Hydroblasting has proved to be the most efficient method of removing oil
coatings from boulders, rock, and man-made structures. Hydroblasting is
safest within a boomed area next to the waterline, but it can be used ef-
fectively in the upper intertidal zone if proper steps are taken to contain
the runoff water and oil.
Descriptions of Technique
Hydroblasting uses a high-pressure water jet that removes oil from al-
most any surface. The water is often heated close to boiling for increased
effectiveness. The water jet should be used only by trained personnel. A
properly controlled jet can remove oil from mussel shells without harming
the mussels; but too strong a jet will remove all plant and animal life
and may also damage man-made surfaces.
When the hydroblast jet drives oil from a surface the oil then adheres
to another surface or forms a slick on top of the water. The oil must be
prevented from contaminating other rocks, gravel, silt, or sand, and this
is best achieved by letting the water and oil form a pool or letting the
oil re-enter the water. Specific operating procedures for hydroblasting are:
1. If the oil is to be channeled into the water or there is a pos-
sibility of it reentering the water, containment booms should
be anchored beyond the surf zone, or close to the shore when used
on inland waterways.
2. Flushing should begin at the highest point, working downslope. It
should be conducted at high tide or timed so the lowest point
is cleaned at low tide and the oil recovered before the tide rises
and recontaminates the area.
3. Plastic sheets should be placed over adjacent surfaces to prevent
further contamination and to direct the flow of water and re-
moved oil to the desired area.
4. Berms or ditches can be constructed or booms used to further
channel the oil and water into collecting pools or, in some
cases, back into the surf or waterway.
5. Pumps, vacuum trucks, or shoreline skimmers can be used to
transfer the collected oil to suitable containers for disposal.
6. Shoreline characteristics, winds, and currents should be used
to an advantage.
800-95
-------
Cleaning Rates
The rate at which a shoreline can be cleaned using the hydroblasting
technique mainly depends on the type and condition of oil and the pressure
at which the flushing is conducted, but is affected by a variety of factors.
Hydroblasters range in pressure from 1,000 to 10,000 psi. For a unit pro-
ducing 3,000 to 4,000 psi pressure, used on freshly deposited oil, the clean-
ing rate is approximately 0.75 to 1.5 m2 (7 to 15 ft2) rain.
Logistic Requirements
The logistical requirements will vary with the amount of the contamin-
ated area to be hydroblasted. The larger the area the more hydroblasting
units and support equipment will be needed. Table 805-9 gives the logistic
requirements for a 2-km (1.2-mi) length of shoreline with a limited amount
of contaminated area to be hydroblasted.
TABLE 805-9. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HIGH-PRESSURE FLUSHING
(HYDROBLASTING)
Number
Item Type Required
Equipment
• Hydroblasting unit Self-contained - lOgpm @ 2-3
4,000 Ibs. psi
Support
• Vacuum truck 60-80 barrel capacity 1
• Trash pump and 25-50 gpm 1
tank truck 60-80 barrel capacity 1
Personnel - 1-2 operators per hydroblasting unit and 1-2 per recovery
equipment and 1 supervisor
Access requirements - heavy equipment for trucks and light vehicular,
shallow craft, or helicopter
800-96
-------
Steam Cleaning
Use
Used as a means for removing oil coatings from boulders, rock, and man-
made structures. The steam raises the temperature of the adhered oil, there-
by lowering its viscosity and allowing it to flow off a surface. However,
since living plants or animals attached to a surface would be unlikely to
survive the high temperatures of steam cleaning, this process is not usually
recommended for surfaces that support living plants or animals.
Description of Technique
Steam cleaning equipment uses a high-pressure steam jet that will re-
move oil from almost any surface. It drives oil off one surface onto
another, requiring that precautions be taken to avoid recontamination of
previously unaffected areas. Specific operating procedures for steam
cleaning are:
1. When used on shorelines the oil should be prevented from reenter-
ing the water by surrounding the working area with containment
booms, which concentrate the removed oil for pickup by skimmers
or vacuum equipment.
2. Cleaning should begin at the highest point of contamination work-
ing downslope and be done at high tide or timed so the lowest
point is cleaned at low tide and the oil recovered before the
tide rises and recontaminates the area.
3. Plastic sheets should be placed over adjacent surfaces to prevent
further contamination and to direct the flow of removed oil to a
collection point.
4. Berms or ditches can be constructed to further channel the oil
into collecting pools or back into the water.
Cleaning Rates
The rate of cleaning is dependent on the equipment used and the degree
of contamination. A unit producing 280 psi at 325°F can generally clean
at a rate of approximately 0.5 to I m2 (5 to 10 ft )/min.
Logistic Requirements
The logistical requirements for using the steam cleaning technique will
vary with the size of the contaminated area and the capacity of the cleaning.
In general, the larger the steam cleaner, the faster it can clean an area;
thus, fewer units are needed. The size of the contaminated area is directly
related to the number of units required in order to maintain a reasonable
cleaning rate. Table 805-10 gives the logistical requirements for a 2-km
(1.2 mi) length of beach having a moderate amount of rocks, boulders, and
man-made structures.
800-97
-------
TABLE 805-10. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR A STEAM CLEANER
Number
Item Size of Unit Required
Equipment
• Steam cleaner 280 psi @ 325°F 4-6
• Vacuum truck or 80-100 barrel capacity 1-2
• Skimmer Small 1-2
Personnel - 2 operators for each cleaning unit and 1 supervisor
Support Water Consumption/Unit Fuel Consumption/Unit
• Steam cleaner 225-260 gal/hr 1.5-2.5 gal #2
fresh water diesel fuel oil/hr
Access Requirements - Heavy equipment for trucks, light vehicular, shallow
craft, or helicopter for steam cleaning units
800-98
-------
Sandblasting
Use
Used primarily to remove thin accumulations of oil residues from man-
made structures. Sandblasting also removes any vegetation or animals
inhabiting the surface and should not be used where repopulation may take
considerable time, or where other techniques are available.
Description of Technique
Sand is applied to the structure surface at high velocity using sand-
blasting equipment. The oil is removed from the substrate by the abrasive
action of the sand. The result is an accumulation of sand, oil, and surface
material in the area near the operation. This should be removed and trans-
ported to a disposal area. In most cases the sand used cannot be taken from
a nearby shoreline as it must be screened to obtain the proper size and
cleaned to meet air quality regulations. Specific operating procedures for
sandblasting are:
1. Blasting should begin at the highest point of contamination and
work down to the base of the structure.
2. Operations should be done at low tide to clean as much of the
structure as possible.
3. Removal of the accumulation of spent sand, oil residues, and sur-
face material is generally performed manually with shovels
and wheelbarrows. Should the quantity become large, front-end
loaders may be used.
Cleaning Rates
The cleaning rate of the sandblasting technique depends heavily on the
type and degree of contamination of the oil, the type of equipment and abra-
sive used, and the accessibility to the substrate being cleaned. The rates
can vary from 2.3 m2 (25 ft2)/hr to 28 m2 (300 ft2)/hr depending on the vari-
ables. Under normal circumstances, a medium size compressor and equipment
can clean 14 m2 (150 ft2)/hr.
Logistic Requirements
To maintain a reasonable cleaning rate, several sandblasting units may
be required. Table 805-11 gives the logistical requirements for a relatively
small area lightly contaminated and easily accessible.
800-99
-------
TABLE 805-11. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR SANDBLASTING
Number
Item Required
Equipment
• Sandblasting unit (compressor incl.) 1
• Sand supply truck 1
• Front-end loader (if used) 1
Materials
• Sand Approx. 455 kg (1,000 lb)/hrs
Personnel
• Sandblasting 2-4
• Cleanup 2-3
• Supervisor 1
Access requirements - light vehicular, shallow craft, or helicopter
aBased on cleaning rate of 14 m4 (150 ft2)/hr.
800-100
-------
Manual Scraping
Use
Used to remove oil from lightly contaminated boulders, rocks, and man-
made structures or heavy oil accumulations when other techniques cannot be
used. It is effective for situations requiring selective removal of
material but is very labor-intensive.
Description of Technique
Manual scraping can be achieved through the use of a variety of tools
such as scrapers, putty knives, flat-bladed shovels, etc. Since this
technique can be selective, non-oiled animals or vegetation attached to
substrates will not be disturbed. There are no specific operational pro-
cedures for this technique other than that scraping should begin at the
highest point of the contaminated surface and continue down toward the base.
The removed oil and substrate material can be scooped up with shovels and
placed in buckets or drums for disposal.
Cleaning Rate
Not applicable.
Logistic Requirements
Not applicable.
800-101
-------
Sump and Pump/Vacuum
Use
This technique is used primarily on firm sand or mud beaches in the
event of continuing oil contamination where sufficient along-shore currents
exist, and on streams and rivers in conjunction with diversion booming.
Description of Technique
For a coastal shoreline with an longshore current, a sump is dug in
the intertidal zone with a berm built from the excavated material extending
from the back of the sump into the surf on the lowest side of the sump.
The current moves the oil down the beach where it is intercepted by the
berm and channeled into the sump. A vacuum truck or trash pump is used
to remove the oil and water from the pit or sump. The specific procedures
for constructing and operating the sump and pump are:
1. Dig a rectangular sump at some point down-current from the con-
taminated area approximately 1 to 2 m (3 to 6 ft) deep at the back
end sloping upward toward the surf.
2. It should be constructed at low tide and situated so the back
end is located just above the high water mark extending
1/2 to 2/3 the distance across the intertidal zone.
3. The berm should be of sufficient height to be above the water
level at high tide and run from the back end of the sump, along-
side, and down to the lower intertidal area angling slightly
up-current.
4. A suction hose from a vacuum truck or trash pump is operated
manually to collect oil from the surface of the sump.
5. Boards or large squeegees are operated manually to further
direct oil into the sump and concentrate it in a back corner
for pickup.
Figure 805-8 shows the sump and pump method on a coastal shoreline.
For an inland waterway, such as a stream or river construction and
operation are basically the same except for the following:
1. The sump is dug into the river bank with the shallow end meeting
the river just above the water line.
2. A diversion boom is used to channel the oil to the sump with one
end anchored to the shore at the downstream corner of the sump
and the other end somewhat upstream and midway across the river.
800-103
-------
Figure 805-8. Collection of oil on beaches with sumps.
800-104
-------
3. The boom should concentrate enough oil and water at the sump
opening to allow the oil to spill over the edge into the sump
without collecting too much water.
4. The sump should be located on the outside bank of a bend in
the waterway where the oil would naturally be concentrated.
5. If the waterway is relatively straight, a sump should be con-
structed on either side with one slightly downstream of the
other and the diversion booms extending past midstream to en-
sure all the oil is collected.
Figure 805-9 illustrates the sump pump/vacuum technique for an inland
waterway.
Cleaning Rate
Not Applicable.
Logistic Requirements
The logistical requirements for using the sump pump/vacuum technique
will vary with the amount of oil channeled into the sump. The more oil
collected the greater the number of vacuum or tank trucks needed to trans-
port the oil away. Since large amounts of water can be collected with the
oil, the total volume of liquid is often large, requiring several disposal
vehicles. Table 805-12 gives logistical requirements for a 2-km (1.2-mi)
length of beach.
800-105
-------
,
^^
Vacuum truck
Figure 805-9. Collection of oil on river shorelines with sumps.
800-106
-------
TABLE 805-12. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR SUMP PUMP/VACUUM
Typical Suction Typical Suction
Rate for Rate for Fill Time for
ltem Thick Oil (2 ram) Thin Oil (0.1 mm) 110 Barrel Tank
Equipment
• Vacuum truck or 75 gpm (50% oil) 50 gpm (5% oil) 1 hr @ 75 gpm
high capacity
trash pump w/ 3 in 1 1/2 hr @ 50 gpm
suction hose
• Number of vacuum Dependent on quantity and rate of
trucks or pumps collection of oil in sump
required
Personnel - 1 person per suction hose, 1 to 2 persons for manual skimming
and concentrating of oil, and 1 supervisor
Support Range of Capacities
Vacuum truck 6 to 140 barrel @ 42 gal/barrel
Tank truck 20 to 160 barrel
6 in suction hose 700 to 800 or 900 gpm max.
4 in suction hose 500 to 600 gpm max.a
3 in suction hose 300 to 400 gpm max.a
Access requirements - heavy equipment, barge, or landing craft
alntake completely submerged drawing water with little or no suction lift.
800-107
-------
Manual Removal of Oiled Materials
Use
Used on mud, sand, gravel, and cobble beaches when oil contamination
is light or sporadic and penetration is slight, or where heavy equipment
access is not possible. Manual removal may also be used when heavy equip-
ment use is deemed harmful to the environment.
Description of Technique
The equipment required for this work includes rakes, shovels, hand
scrapers, plastic and burlap bags, buckets, and barrels. Oiled vegeta-
tion, debris, and sediments are collected by manual laborers and placed
in bags for removal and disposal. Supervisors should be placed in charge
of groups of workers with a foreman for each group. The procedures for
manual removal are:
1. Wear protective gloves, boots, and hand cream.
2. Cut and/or collect contaminated material into small piles.
3. Do not rake vegetation.
4. Fill plastic or burlap bags half full with material from piles.
5. Place filled bags on plastic sheets above high-water line.
6. Bags may be removed manually, by vehicle, airlifted by helicopter,
or loaded onto small boats or barges from shoreline or makeshift
docks.
Cleaning Rate
The rate for manually cleaning a shoreline area depends on the number
of workers used, their productivity, the method of removal of contaminated
materials, and the degree of contamination. If a shoreline area has sporadic
contamination it can be cleaned much faster than if heavily contaminated.
The more workers used, the faster an area can be cleaned. Helicopter, ves-
sel, or vehicle removal of collected materials is fast and effective whereas
manual removal is very slow and labor-intensive. Due to the numerous vari-
ables involved, a rate for manually cleaning a beach can not be accurately
estimated.
Logistic Requirements
The logistical requirements for manually cleaning a shoreline will vary
with the degree of contamination. A heavily contaminated area will obviously
require a larger cleanup crew and more supplies and tools than an area with
light or sporadic contamination. Table 805-13 gives the logistical require-
ments for a 2-km (1.2 mi) length of beach.
800-109
-------
TABLE 805-13. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR MANUAL REMOVAL OF OILED
MATERIAL
For Light or
Sporadically For Heavily
Item Oiled Shoreline Oiled Shoreline
Equipment
• Debris box
• Helicopter (if used)
• Boat or barge (if used)
• Truck (if used)
2
1
1
1
3-4
1-2
2-3
2-3
Personnel
• Workers 10-20 50-100
• Supervisors 1 2-3
Access requirements - light vehicular, shallow craft, or helicopter
800-110
-------
Low-Pressure Flushing
Use
Used to remove light, non-sticky oils from lightly contaminated mud
substrates, cobbles, boulders, rocks, man-made structures, and vegetation.
Low-pressure flushing will not disturb the substrate to any great extent
but does present the threat of recontamination of unaffected areas if runoff
from the flushing operation is not properly channeled and collected.
Description of Technique
Test flushing should be done in each situation to determine the suit-
ability of this technique. Flushing systems of any size may be assembled,
although small portable units are generally most useful. Direct application
of the water stream to the oiled substrate is not necessarily desired as
erosion or damage to the flora and fauna may result. Bathing the substrate
will generally float oil off the suface without any adverse effects. It
can then be channeled into collection areas for removal. Procedures for
low-pressure flushing are:
1. Containment booms should be anchored just past the surf zone
or near the shore on inland waters if there is a possibility
of the oil re-entering the water.
2. Flushing should be completed and oil recovered at low tide to
avoid recontamination of the intertidal zone by the rising tide.
3. Begin flushing at the highest contaminated point and work down-
slope toward the water.
4. The runoff is channeled by berms, ditches, or booms into contained
areas or sumps where it can be removed by vacuum trucks, pumps,
or sorbents. If used on inland waters with little or no current,
it may be washed back into the water within the confines of a
containment boom and herded toward a collecting point with water
jets.
5. Shoreline characteristics, winds, and currents should be
used to advantage.
Figure 805-10 shows general flushing tactics.
Cleaning Rate
Not applicable - the rate of cleaning is too heavily dependent on the
degree of contamination, type of oil, and substrate, and therefore cannot
realistically be quantified.
800-111
-------
Figure 805-10. Low pressure flushing tactics.
800-112
-------
Logistic Requirements
The logistical requirements for using low pressure flushing will vary
with the degree and type of oil contamination, the shoreline configuration,
and size of oiled area. The larger the area, the higher the degree of con-
tamination; the more severe the shoreline relief, the greater the number of
flushing units needed. Table 805-14 gives the logistic requirements for a
2-km (1.2-mi) length of lightly contaminated shoreline with low relief.
TABLE 805-14. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR LOW PRESSURE FLUSHING
Item
Type
Number Required
Equipment
• Flushing unit
(pump & hoses)
vacuum truck
or
• Trash pump and
tank truck
10-20 psi pressure @
50-100 gal/min
110 barrel capacity
50-75 gal/min
125 barrel capacity
3-5
1-2
1-2
1-2
Personnel - 1 to 2 per flushing or recovery unit and 1 supervisor
Access requirements - heavy equipment, barge or landing craft for trucks and
light vehiclular, shallow craft, or helicopter for
flushing unit
800-113
-------
Beach Cleaner
Use
The use of a beach cleaner is a rapid method of cleaning sand or
gravel beaches lightly contaminated with oil in the form of hard patties
or tar balls.
Description of Technique
The majority of beach cleaners operate by being towed behind a tractor
or front-end loader. A blade or rotating drum fitted with blades scoops
up the top layer of sand, debris, and tar balls and places it on an inclined
wire mesh conveyor belt which moves the contaminated material up the belt
while allowing the clean sand to fall through. The remaining tar balls,
patties, and debris are dumped into a refuse container mounted at the rear
of the conveyor belt. The conveyor may be one of several types including:
1. A wire mesh screen which carries the material from the pickup
point, up the incline to the refuse container. A vibrating screen
is sometimes mounted between the conveyor and refuse bin to further
separate the material.
2. A bar conveyor which transports the material up a vibrating bar
screen and dumps it into the refuse container.
3. A rotating conical screen with two internal auger scrolls which
move the material up and back through a hole at the tip of the
conical screen and into the refuse container.
Normally, the cutting blade is adjustable to regulate the depth at which
the material is removed. The units are equipped with a gasoline engine
to power the conveyor and vibrating screen. It may be advantageous to tow
the unit with a front-end loader that can also be used to transfer the col-
lected material from the refuse container to a dump truck for disposal.
The specific operating procedure for the beach cleaner is as follows:
1. Cleaning is begun along the backshore edge of the contaminated
area.
2. Tractor is operated in second and third gears at 3 to 10 km/hr
(2 to 6 mph) depending on the beach sediment and cut depth.
3. A path is cleaned along the entire length of the contaminated area.
4. The tractor is turned around and a new path is cleaned adjacent
to, and slightly overlapping, the previous path.
Figure 805-11 displays the cleaning pattern for a beach cleaner.
800-115
-------
•—-.....Oil contaminati^J:—"•"
1st pass
Figure 805-11. Cleaning pattern for
use of beach cleaner.
800-116
-------
Cleaning Rate
The shoreline area that can be cleaned within a specified time using a
beach cleaner is dependent primarily on the width of the cleaner and the
speed at which it is towed. The cleaning rate for a 6 ft wide beach cleaner
towed at 6.4 km/hr (4 mph) is 3/4 to 1 hr/hectare (approximately 1/2 hr/acre)
Logistic Requirements
The logistical requirements for using a beach cleaner are dependent on
the size of the contaminated area. Since the cleaning rate of the beach
cleaner is high, most shoreline areas require only one tractor and cleaner
to effectively remove tar balls or patties under normal circumstances.
Table 805-15 gives the logistical requirements for a 2-km (1.2 mi) length
of beach.
TABLE 805-15. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR USE OF A BEACH CLEANER
Item No. of Pieces Cleaning Rate
Equipment
• Beach cleaner 1 1 hr/hectare
operated at 6.4 km/hr
(4 mph) taking a skim
cut
• operated at 1.6 km/hr 1 3 1/2 hr/hectare
(1 mph) taking a deep cut
Personnel - 1 operator for each piece of equipment '
Support Diesel Fuel Requirements
• Rubber-tired
tractor 8-14 gal/hr
Access requirements - heavy equipment, barge, or landing craft
800-117
-------
Manual Sorbent Application
Use
Given current methods of cleanup, recovery, and disposal, sorbents are
not recommended for use in the initial phases of oil spill cleanup on shore-
lines. However, they can be used to remove small pools of light, non-sticky
oil from mud, boulders, rock, and man-made structures. Sorbents can also
be used to remove thin films or iridescence occurring during final cleanup
phases and to prevent oil contamination of facilities such as walkways and
work areas during the cleanup operation.
Description of Technique
Sorbent materials are presently available in four forms:
1. squares and strips (pads)
2. rolls and sweeps
3. sorbent booms and pillows
4. loose material
Each form of sorbent is usually associated with a slightly different
method of application and situation for which it is used. The specific
procedures for the use of each sorbent are given in Table 805-16.
Cleaning Rate
Not applicable.
Logistic Requirements
Not applicable.
800-119
-------
TABLE 805-16. SORBENT MATERIALS APPLICATION TECHNIQUES
Form of Sorbent
Description of Technique
1. Squares and Strips
(Pads)
2. Rolls
3. Booms
4. Loose Materials
• Placed in confined areas to pick up small
quantities of oil; they should be left for
a period of time for greater effectiveness.
• Used in the same manner as squares and
strips but usually more convenient since
they can be torn or cut off at the optimum
length.
• Very effective in protecting walkways,
boat decks, working areas, previously un-
contaminated or cleaned areas; can be used to
cover areas used as temporary storage sites
for oily materials.
• Disposal is facilitated by rolling up sor-
bent and placing in suitable container.
• Can serve a dual function by absorbing oil and
acting as a boom but is only effective in very
quiet waters.
• The tightly compacted sorbent material encased
in mesh restricts oil penetration thus requiring
the boom to be rotated and moved around in the
oil to work efficiently. It is usually better
to drive the oil into the boom.
• Can be used effectively to protect sheltered
areas against oil contamination. Also can be
deployed behind skimmers to pick up excess or
missed oil.
• Disposal is accomplished by folding, rolling,
and/or stuffing the boom into plastic or burlap
bags for removal.
Loose sorbent materials are not recommended for use
in oil spills on water for the following reasons:
• Without efficient means of recovering loose
sorbent materials, tidal action, wind, and
currents will disperse oil-soaked sorbents
over a large area, thus complicating the
cleanup effort.
800-120
-------
TABLE 805-16 (Continued). SORBENT MATERIALS APPLICATION TECHNIQUE
Form of Sorbent Description of Technique
• Large-scale recovery of loose sorbents such
as straw, polyurethane foam, and peat moss
is not considered practical in open water,
and at the present time no effective equipment
is available for this purpose.
• Loose sorbent materials tend to clog vacuum
equipment when they are used for oil pickup.
Loose sorbent materials may have limited appli-
cability in the cleanup of oil from land areas
where pools of oil have formed in depressions.
800-121
-------
Manual Cutting
Use
Used on oil-contaminated vegetation whose removal is necessary to avoid
leaching and recontamination. This method is labor-intensive and can cause
severe erosion, particularly if root systems are damaged.
Description of Technique
Manual cutting requires moderate to large crews equipped with shears,
power brush cutters, scythes or other devices. The crews should be split
into cutters, debris handlers, and baggers for an efficient operation.
1. Before cutting, the areas to be cleared should be boomed so
that oil freed during the procedure can be contained. Like-
wise, cleared areas should be protected from recontamination
until that threat is eliminated.
2. Cutting should begin at the upstream end of the area and should
work downstream, thus limiting the possibility of recontamination.
3. The bulk of the cutting must be done at low tide, beginning at
the water line and working ahead of the tide.
4. The debris handlers should follow the cutters, collecting the
oiled vegetation in small piles to be placed in plastic or bur-
lap bags and removed by the bagger group. Debris may be piled
directly onto barges or small flat-bottom boats for disposal if
cutting is adjacent to a waterway.
5. Cut vegetation that is stockpiled on the site for a period of
time should be stored above the high-water line on plastic
sheets, tarps, sorbents, or burlap.
6. Oil lost during cutting can be recovered later by flushing or
skimming.
Cleaning Rates
Cleaning rates depend primarily on the size of the crew, how heavily
vegetated the area is, and the equipment used. Power cutters can obviously
cut faster than shears or scythes. The cleaning rate for a ten-man crew
consisting of one foreman, two cutters using scythes, three debris hand-
lers, and four baggers operating on a heavily vegetated shoreline is ap-
proximately 65 m (77 yd2)/hr.
800-123
-------
Logistic Requirements
The logistical requirements for manual cutting will vary with the
size of the contaminated area, the number of workers, and the amount of
vegetation. Table 805-17 gives the logistical requirements cleaning for
a moderately vegetated 2-km (1.2-mi) length of shoreline.
Table 805-17. LOGISTIC REQUIREMENTS FOR MANUAL CUTTING
Item Number Per Crew
Equipment
• Cutting tools - 3 - 4a
(scythes, power cutters, shears, etc.)
• Collecting tools - 4-6
(pitch forks, rakes, etc.)
• Plastic or burlap bags 75 - 100
• Rolls of ground cover - 1-3
(plastic film, burlap, sorbents, etc.)
Personnel - 5 crews of 10 workers each and 1 supervisor
Access Requirements - foot, shallow craft, or helicopter
aShould have one or two extra in case of breakage or dull blades.
800-124
-------
Burning
Use
Used on coastal or inland substrates and vegetation where sufficient
oil of a proper type has collected to sustain ignition. Consideration must
also be given to the potential environmental damages resulting from burning.
Description of Technique
The feasibility of burning should be determined by test ignition of an
oiled area away from the actual site. Relatively high temperatures may be
required for ignition, but once ignited the fire must be self-sustaining to
be effective. Once "burnability" has been demonstrated, permits must be
obtained from appropriate regulatory agencies such as the EPA, state fish
and wildlife agencies, and local air pollution agencies. Public and wildlife
safety and potential air pollution strongly affect the granting of permits.
Specific operational procedures for burning are:
1. A plan that provides for safe, controlled burning should be
prepared.
2. If the area is very large, it may be necessary to section it
off with fire breaks to ensure controlled burning.
3. The fire is started on the upwind side of the contamination
area or section. A combustion promoter or flame thrower may
be required initially to sustain ignition until sufficient
heat is generated to maintain the burning.
4. The fire would be allowed to burn until exhausted or until
it reaches a barrier.
Figure 805-12 displays burning tactics.
Cleaning Rate
Not applicable.
Logistic Requirements
The logistical requirements for using the burning technique are con-
cerned primarily with maintaining combustion and controlling the fire.
The amount of heat required is dependent on the ambient temperature and
flamability of the oil. The number of flame throwers or amount of combus-
tion promoters is dependent on the variables previously mentioned in
addition to the size of the initial area to be ignited. Table 805-18
gives the logistical requirements for burning an oiled area.
800-125
-------
Wind
'Personnel initiating burns should
remain upwind of fires at all times
Figure 805-12. Method of initiating burn of oil contaminated areas.
800-126
-------
TABLE 805-18. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BURNING
Item Type
Equipment
• Flame thrower Propane, kerosene, gasoline, etc.
• Fire fighting equipment Small fire trucks or portable fire
pumps with nozzles
Materials
• Burning agents Chemicals, gasoline, diesel fuel,
napalm, or flammable materials
(rags soaked in diesel fuel, wood
chips, dried brush, etc.)
Personnel - 2 to 3 to ignite and control fire and 1 supervisor
Access requirements - Foot, shallow craft, or helicopter
800-127
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Vacuum Trucks
Use
It is best used to pick up oil which has collected in pools on the
shoreline, but can also be used to skim relatively thick layers of oil off
the surface of the water. The latter use is somewhat inefficient, as rather
large quantities of water are usually collected along with the oil. This
technique is, however, invaluable in the absence of skimming equipment.
Description of Technique
When vacuum trucks are used to pick up oil which has formed pools in
shoreline depressions the procedure is as follows:
1. Truck is backed up to pool of oil.
2. Suction hoses are placed in the oil, maneuvered manually until all
oil is removed.
3. A screen should be placed over the suction nozzle to prohibit any
debris that can cause serious and expensive damage from entering
the vacuum truck system. Finer-mesh screens should be used for
light oils, such as kerosene, while coarse screens are needed for
heavy oils.
If used to collect oil from a water's surface, the same procedure is
used with the addition of booms or some means of concentrating the oil
to increase the ratio of oil to water collected.
Cleaning Rate
Not applicable.
Logistical Requirements
The logistical requirements for using the vacuum truck technique will
vary with the amount of oil to be picked up and whether it is on land
or water. The larger the quantity of oil to be collected, the more vacuum
trucks required. Oil recovery from water also requires more trucks due
to the large amount of water collected in conjunction with the oil. Table
805-19 gives the logistical requirements for using vacuum trucks to pick
up oil.
800-129
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TABLE 805-19. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR THE VACUUM TRUCK TECHNIQUE
Typical Suction
Typical Suction Rate for Fill Time for
Item Rate for Pooled Oil Oil on Water 110-Barrel Truck
Equipment
• Vacuum truck 100 gpra (75% oil) 50 gpm (5% oil) 3/4 hr @ 100 gpm
w/ 3 in suction
Hose 1 1/2 hr @ 50 gpm
• Number of Dependent on quantity Dependent on quantity of oil
vacuum trucks of oil and number of and number of recovery sites.
required pools present Also on oil/water ratio
Personnel - 1 person per suction hose and 1 to 2 persons for manual skimming
and concentrating of oil, and 1 supervisor
Support Range of Capacities
• Vacuum truck • 6 to 140 barrel @ 42 gal/barrel
6 in suction hose 700 to 800-900 gpm max.3
4 in suction hose 500 to 600 gpm max.a
3 in suction hose 300 to 400 gpm max.3
• Devices for • Booms, skimming boards,
concentrating oil low-pressure water hoses
on water
Access requirements - heavy equipment, barge, or landing craft
aIntake completely submerged, drawing water with little or no suction lift.
800-130
-------
Push Contaminated Substrate into Surf
Use
This technique is used primarily on lightly contaminated cobble and
gravel beaches where removal of sediments may cause erosion of beach
or backshore area.
Description of Technique
Bulldozers are used to push the contaminated layer of sediments into
the lower intertidal area where wave action and increased cobble or gravel
movement will remove the majority of the oil from the sediments and
accelerate degradation rates. The sediments are returned to the beach
within a relatively short period of time through natural wave and tidal
action. Specifically, the sequence of operational procedures is as follows:
1. Preferably this operation is carried out at low tide to avoid
the equipment operating in the water.
2. If a longshore current is present, cleaning should begin at
the up-current end of the contaminated area.
3. The bulldozer is operated in first gear, cutting to a depth riot
exceeding that of oil penetration.
4. Starting from the backshore side, the oiled sediment is pushed
straight into the lower intertidal area.
5. The dozer is returned to starting point by backtracking on cleaned
area.
6. Dozer is repositioned for second pass which should run adjacent to,
and slightly overlapping, the previous pass.
7. Figure 805-13 displays the cleaning pattern for pushing con-
taminated substrate into the surface.
Cleaning Rates
How much shoreline area can be cleaned within a specified time is depen-
dent on the size of the bulldozer and width of the blade used. For a
medium-size dozer with a 3-m (10-ft) blade, the cleaning rate is approxi-
mately 4-1/2 to 5 hr/hectare (1-3/4 to 2 hr/acre).
Logistic Requirements
The logistical requirements for using a tracked bulldozer to push the
contaminated substrate into the surf will vary with the length and width of
the oiled area. If the area is very large, several bulldozers may be needed
to maintain a reasonable cleaning rate.
800-131
-------
Oil contamination bounriar
3rd pass
2nd pass
1st pass
Longshore current •
Figure 805-13. Cleaning pattern for pushing
contaminated substrate into surf.
800-132
-------
Table 805-20 gives the logistical requirements for a 2-km (1.2 mi)
length of beach.
TABLE 805-20. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BULLDOZING CONTAMINATED
SUBSTRATE INTO SURF
For 20-m For 50-m Combined
item (66-ft) Wide Area (165-ft) Wide Area Cleaning Rate
Equipment
• Bulldozer 2 5 Approx. 2-1/2
Personnel - 1 operator for each piece of equipment and 1 supervisor
Support Diesel Fuel Requirements
• Tracked-type
• Bulldozer 4-1* gal/hr
Access requirements - heavy equipment, light vehicular, barge, or landing
craft
800-133
-------
Breaking up Pavement
Use
This method can be used on high-energy, low-amenity cobble, and on
gravel or sand beaches where thick layers of oil have created a pavement on
the beach surface and substrate removal will cause erosion. Because this
technique leaves the oil on the beach to degrade naturally, it should be
used only on remote, non-recreational or low-priority beaches.
Description of Technique
Pavement is broken up by a tracked bulldozer or front-end loader fitted
with a ripping apparatus on the rear of the tractor. The ripper consists of
two or three large, curved teeth which are dragged through the pavement by
the forward movement of the tractor. The specific sequence of operating pro-
cedures are:
1. Operate the tractor in first gear at 1.6 to 3.2 km/hr (1 to 2 mph).
2. Set the rippers to a depth slightly below the pavement thickness.
3. Begin ripping along the backshore edge of the pavement-covered
area, operating parallel to the surf line.
4. Continue to end of contaminated area or approximately 200 to 300 m
in distance.
5. Tractor is turned around and repositioned to rip a path in the
opposite direction adjacent to the previous one.
Figure 805-14 displays the cleaning pattern for breaking up pavement with a
tractor/ripper.
Cleaning Rate
The rate of cleaning a shoreline area using this technique is dependent
on the operating speed of the tractor. Although pavement will probably rip
easily with little resistance, the ripping speed should be kept under 3.2
km/hr (2 mph) to facilitate the formation of smaller pieces and extend the
service life of the ripping teeth. For an operating speed of 2.4 km/hr
(1-1/2 mph) on a 300- by 3-m pass, the cleaning rate is 20 rain/hectare (9
min/acre).
Logistic Requirements
The logistical requirements for using the ripping technique for break-
ing up pavement will vary with the size of the pavement-covered area. If
the contaminated area is exceptionally large, several tractor rippers may
be required to maintain a reasonable cleaning rate. Table 805-21 gives the
logistical requirements for a 2-km (1.2-mi) length of beach.
800-135
-------
3rd pass •
1st pass
Figure 805-14. Cleaning pattern for
breaking up pavement.
2nd pass
800-136
-------
TABLE 805-21. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR USING A TRACTOR/RIPPER FOR
BREAKING UP PAVEMENT
For 20-m For 50-m
Item (66-ft) Wide Area (165-ft) Wide Area
Equipment
• Tractor/ripper 1 2
Personnel - 1 operator for each piece of equipment and 1 supervisor
Support
• Tracked-type 4-1* gal/hr
• Tractor/ripper
Access requirements - heavy equipment, light vehicular, barge, or landing
craft
800-137
-------
Disc into Substrate
Use
Used on nonrecreational sand or gravel beaches which are lightly con-
taminated and of moderate to good trafficability. Although this technique is
very fast and efficient, the oil is not removed but buried into the top layer
of sediments and left to degrade naturally.
Description of Technique
The oil is disced into the substrate using a tracked loader or tractor
towing a discer. Thus discing equipment is the same as that used for tilling
agricultural fields. The specific operating procedure for discing into the
substrate is:
1. Begin along the backshore edge of the contaminated area.
2. Operate the tractor in second gear and continue to the end of the
contaminated area or approximately 200 to 300 m in distance.
3. The tractor is turned around and a new path is started adjacent to,
and slightly overlapping, the previous one. Figure 805-15 displays
the cleaning pattern for discing.
Cleaning Rate
The shoreline area that can be cleaned within a specified time by
discing the oil into the substrate is governed by the speed of the tractor
and the width of the discing equipment. The cleaning rate for a 2.5-m
(8-ft) wide discing machine towed at approximately 6.4 km/hr (4 mph) is 3/4
to 1 hr/hectare (1/4 to 1/2 hr/acre).
Logistic Requirements
The logistical requirements for discing into the substrate are primarily
dependent on the size of the contaminated area. Under normal circumstances,
unless the area is very large, one tractor and discing machine can usually
maintain a sufficient cleaning rate. Table 805-22 gives the logistical re-
quirements for a 3-km (1.2-mi) length of beach.
800-139
-------
Oil contaminationja
1st pass
2nd pass
Figure 805-15. Cleaning pattern for discing
into substrate technique.
8oo-iUo
-------
TABLE 805-22. LOGISTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR DISCING INTO SUBSTRATE
No. of Cleaning Rate
Pieces (hr/hectare)
Equipment
• Track-type tractor 1 3/4 to 1
and 8-ft wide discer
• w/ 12-ft 1 1/2 to 3/4
wide discer
Personnel - 1 operator for each piece of equipment and 1 supervisor
Support Diesel Fuel Requirements
• Track-type tractor 2 1/2 to 9 gal/hr
Access requirements - heavy equipment, barge, or landing craft
800-141
-------
Natural Recovery
Use
Used on oil-contaminated high energy beaches (primarily cobble, boulder,
and rock) where wave action will remove most of the oil in a relatively short
period of time. This method sometimes becomes a necessity for shorelines
with no access or where cleanup operations would be environmentally hazard-
ous.
Description of Technique
No action is taken, shoreline should be monitored periodically to
determine if natural cleaning is sufficient.
Cleaning Rate
Varies with amount of wave energy on shoreline.
Logistic Requirement
Not applicable.
800-143
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1 REPORT NO
EPA-600/7-79-187b
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSIOf*NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Manual of Practice for Protection and Cleanup of
Shorelines: Volume II - Implementation Guide
5. REPORT DATE
August 1979 issuing date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7 AUTHOR(S)
C. Foget, E. Schrier, M. Cramer and R. Castle
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9 PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Woodward-Clyde Consultants
Three Embarcadero Center, Suite TOO
San Francisco, CA 9*4111
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
INE 623
11 CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
No.68-03-25l»2
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati. Ohio 1*5268
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final/April, 1979-July, 1979
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/12
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
The purpose of this manual is to provide the on scene field user with a
systematic, easy to apply methodology that can be used to assess the threat of an
oil spill and select the most appropriate protection and cleanup techniques.
This manual is structured to provide a decision-making guide to enable the
user to determine, for a given oil spill situation, which protection and cleanup
techniques would be most effective for a specific shoreline type. A detailed
discussion of the factors involved in the decision-making process is also given
and includes oil characteristics, behavior and movement of oil, shoreline
characterization and sensitivity, protection and cleanup priorities and implemen-
tation requirements, and impacts associated with cleanup operations. The manual
also presents criteria for terminating cleanup operations and a discussion on
handling of oily wastes.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
COSATl Field/Group
MANUALS
OILS
SHORES
BEACHES
Oil Spills
Clean-up
Restoration
Protection
43
68C
68D
85
91
18 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19 SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
156
2O SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
SOO-lUU
S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1979-659-47)
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