EPA-R2 73 085
FEBRUARY 1973 Environmental Protection Technology Series
The Influence of
Log Handling
on Water Quality
Office of Research and Monitoring
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and
Monitoring* Environmental Protection Agency, have
been grouped into five series. These five broad
categories were established to facilitate further
development and application of environmental
technology. Elimination of traditional grouping
was consciously planned to foster technology
transfer and a maximum interface in related
fields. The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
»*. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION TECHNOLOGY series. This series
describes research performed to develop and
demonstrate instrumentation, equipment and
methodology to repair or prevent environmental
degradation from point and non-point sources of
pollution. This work provides the new or improved
technology required for the control and treatment
of pollution sources to meet environmental quality
standards.
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EPA-R2-73-085
February 1973
THE INFLUENCE OF LOG HANDLING
ON WATER QUALITY
By
Frank D. Schaumburg
Project 12100 EBG
Project Officer
Dr. H. Kirk Willard
National Environmental Research Center
Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
Prepared for
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND MONITORING
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
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EPA Review Notice
This report has been reviewed by the EPA and approved
for publication. Approval does not signify that the
contents necessarily reflect the views and policies
of the Environmental Protection Agency, nor does
mention of trade names or commercial products con-
stitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
11
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ABSTRACT
The water storage of logs is widely practiced in the Pacific Northwest.
An investigation has been made to determine the effect of this practice
on water quality.
Soluble organic matter and some inorganics leach from logs floating in
water and from logs held in sprinkled land decks. The character and
quantity of leachate from Douglas fir, ponderosa pine and hemlock logs
have been examined. Measurements including BOD, COD, FBI, solids and
toxicity have shown that in most situations the contribution of soluble
leachates to holding water is not a significant water pollution problem.
The most significant problem associated with water storage appears to be
the loss of bark from logs during dumping, raft transport and raft stor-
age. Dislodged bark can float until it becomes water logged and sinks
forming benthic deposits. Floating bark is aesthetically displeasing
and could interfere with other beneficial uses of a lake, stream or
estuary. Benthic deposits exert a small, but measurable oxygen demand
and may influence the biology of the benthic zone. Implementation of
corrective measures by the timber industry to reduce bark losses could
make the water storage of logs a practice which is compatible with a
high quality environment.
111
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CONTENTS
Page
Conclusions 1
Recommendations 3
Introduction 5
Experimental Apparatus and Procedures 9
Experimental Findings
Part I: Leachates 27
Part II: Bark Debris 51
Part III: Comprehensive Field Studies 71
Part IV: Magnitude of the Problem 79
Discussion 81
Acknowledgements 85
Bibliography 87
Publications 89
Appendix A - Development of Masking Procedures 91
Appendix B - Leachate Preservation With The Mercuric Ion 95
Appendix C - Quantity of Bark Dislodged During Log Handling 97
Appendix D - Method for Extrapolation of Laboratory Test 101
Data for Field Application with Example Cal-
culation
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FIGURES
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Log Storage Tanks for Leaching Studies
Schematic of Leaching Apparatus
Custom-made Tripod on Floating Log Raft
Details of Tripod Leg Joints
Reverse Image Slide Viewer with Slide Projector
Schematic Representation of Sunken Bark Removal
from Laboratory Test Barrels
Benthic Sampling Apparatus
Details of Benthic Sampling Apparatus
Freezing Chamber for Benthic Core Samples
Frozen Core Sample from Benthic Deposit
In Situ Benthic Respirometer
FBI Results for Douglas Fir and Ponderosa Pine
Page
10
12
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
28
Logs in Fresh Water
13 COD Results for Douglas Fir and Ponderosa Pine 30
Logs in Fresh Water
14 Total Organic Carbon (TOG) Results for Douglas Fir 31
and Ponderosa Pine Logs in Fresh Water
15 Total Solids Results for Douglas Fir and Ponderosa 32
Pine Logs in Fresh Water
16 Total Volatile Solids Results for Douglas Fir and 33
Ponderosa Pine Logs in Fresh Water
17 COD and PBI Results for Unaltered Douglas Fir Logs 34
in Fresh and Saline Water
18 COD Results for Unaltered Douglas Fir Logs in Fresh 37
Water and Water Which Was Polluted by a Submerged Log
19 PBI Results for Unaltered Douglas Fir Log in Fresh 38
Water
20 Leachate COD from Dynamic Storage Tests with Ponderosa 42
Pine Logs
VI
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Page
21 Leachate COD from Dynamic Storage Tests with 44
Douglas Fir Logs
22 Sinkage for Composite Grab Samples of Bark 55
23 Percentage of Bark Sunk for a Graded Sample of 55
Douglas Fir Bark
24 Percent of Bark Sunk for a Graded Sample of 57
Ponderosa Pine Bark
25 Sampling Areas for Bark Distribution Study of 59
Yaquina Estuary
26 Sampling Areas for Bark Distribution Study of 60
Klamath Falls
27 Bark Distribution at a Typical Log Storage Area 62
in Yaquina Estuary
28 Volatile Solids of Benthic Deposits at Selected 64
Sites in Yaquina Estuary
29 Volatile Solids of Benthic Deposits at Selected 65
Sites in the Klamath River
30 In Situ Benthic Oxygen Demand Results for Two Respiro- 67
meter Runs at the Same Test Site on the Little
Deschutes River near Gilchrist, Oregon
31 Benthic Oxygen Demand as a Function of Volatile Solids. 70
(all values corrected for corresponding control area
values)
32 Little Deschutes River Flow Curve Upstream from 74
Gilchrist Pond.
33 Results of Dye Tracer Study at Gilchrist Pond. 74
vn
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TABLES
Pages^
1 BOD, COD, FBI and Toxicity Associated with Leachate 39
from Logs Held in Static Water Storage for Seven Days
2 Pollutants Contributed by Douglas Fir and Ponderosa 41
Pine Logs Two Feet in Diameter and Thirty Feet Long
Floating One-half Submerged
3 Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen and COD in Leachates from 43
Douglas fir Logs During Dynamic Leaching Studies
4 Physical Characteristics of Selected Log Ponds in 46
Oregon
5 Chemical Characteristics of Log Ponds Studied 48
6 Ponderosa Pine Cold Deck Data 49
7 Incremental Percentages of Bark Dislodged During 53
Logging, Unloading, and Raft Transport
8 Bark Losses from Douglas Fir Logs During Unloading 53
by Two Different Methods
9 Size Distribution of Samples of Bark Collected Ran- 58
domly from Log Dumping Areas
10 Average Unit Weights, Percentage of Volatile Solids 61
and Volatile Solids per Cubic Foot for Core Samples
from Area D (Figure 25)
11 Total and Volatile Solids for Benthic Core Samples 63
as a Function of Depth Below the Water-Soil Interface
12 In Situ Benthic Oxygen Uptake as a Function of Volatile 69
Solids Content in the Top Two Inch Layer of Bark Deposits
13 Percentage of Log Submergence in Water (Based on 72
Diameter)
14 Statistical Data for Raft Volume-Area Parameters 72
15 Measured Concentration of COD, BOD, PBI and TQC at the 75
Inlet and Outlet of the Gilchrist Log Storage Site
16 BOD, COD, PBI and TOC in Inflow and Outflow from 75
Gilchrist Log Storage Reservoir
Vlll
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17 BOD, COD, FBI and TOC in Inflow and Outflow from the
Log Storage Area on the Deschutes River
18 Predicted Increases in BOD, COD, FBI and TOC from the 78
Log Storage Area on the North Fork Coos River
19 Predicted Increases in BOD, COD, FBI and TOC from the 78
Log Storage Area on the South Fork Coos River
20 Total Organic Carbon (TOC) in Leachate from Plexiglas 92
Blocks and Wood Blocks Coated with Different Masking
Substances
IX
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CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are based upon the results of a three year
research investigation outlined in this report.
1. Water storage of logs is widely practiced in Oregon,
Washington and Alaska.
2. Leachates from logs held in water storage contribute
organic substances which exert a BOD and COD. In most
situations the quantity of these substances which enter
the holding water do not represent a significant water
quality problem.
3. Log leachates exert some acute toxicity to fish.
4. Color-producing substances measured by the FBI are
found in log leachates, and are derived primarily from
bark.
5. Bark is dislodged from logs in significant quantities
during dumping and raft transport activities. Consid-
erably more bark is dislodged from Douglas fir logs
than from ponderosa pine logs.
6. Log dumping methods significantly influence the amount
of bark which is dislodged from logs.
7. Dislodged bark sinks at a rate dependent upon particle
size and species of tree.
8. Bark deposits exert a small, but measurable, demand
for oxygen from overlying waters.
9. Should the loss of bark to holding water be minimized
by improved handling practices by the timber industry,
the water storage of logs would not constitute a major
water quality problem.
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RECOMMENDATIONS
I. Further study should be undertaken to determine the effect of bark
deposits on the biology of the benthic zone and to evaluate the
effect on water quality created by the dredging of bark deposits.
2. The timber industry should strive to improve methods of depositing
logs into water storage areas. Methods for consideration might
include: (a) debarking logs on land before dumping, (b) installation
of a sling hoist or fork lift to convey logs from trucks to holding
water or (c) utilization of a man-made dumping channel or pond
adjacent to storage areas which would retain floating and sunken
bark.
3. The water storage of logs, with provisions for minimizing bark
losses, should not be discouraged unless a suitable alternate
storage method is available which results in less input to the
environment.
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INTRODUCTION
Purpose
This research was intended to evaluate the water pollution potential of
log storage practices in the Pacific Northwest. Specific aims of the
research were the determination of:
- the quantity, character and pollution potential of substances
"leached" from logs while floating in water,
- the degree to which leached substances are toxic to biological
life as measured by bioassays,
- the extent and rate at which leached substances are degraded
biologically,
- the distribution of debris under and in the vicinity of log
rafting and storage areas,
- the rate and extent of aerobic biodegradation of benthic bark
deposits, and
- the extent of log raft storage in the Pacific Northwest.
This research included both laboratory and field studies dealing with
pollution problems from soluble leachates and bark debris from several
species of timber in the Pacific Northwest. The three year project was
conducted in a region extending from California to Alaska, however, the
major study area was central and western Oregon.
Background
Timber is a bountiful resource in the Pacific Northwest and is an impor-
tant factor in the economic stability of the region. The timber industry,
which includes the production of pulp and paper, lumber, plywood, and a
multitude of other forest products, ranks as the region's leading indus-
try (19).
The numerous sawmills and pulp and paper mills which dot the Pacific
Northwest find it necessary to retain large inventories of logs to pro-
vide a continuous timber supply throughout the year. Logs which are
simply piled upon the land, soon dry out at the ends and deep cracks
develop longitudinally. This phenomenon, referred to as "end checking",
greatly enhances product wastage. End checking can be minimized by
sprinkling land-decked logs or, more commonly, by floating the logs in
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water. Rafted logs are commonly found in lakes, rivers, estuaries,
sloughs and man-made ponds. Oregon alone has over 12,000 acres of log
ponds and 2,000 acres of sloughs and canals used for log storage (18).
Prior to this research investigation little effort had been put forth to
determine the magnitude of the pollution problem associated with log
handling practices. McHugh, Miller and Olsen (18) surveyed over 80 log
ponds in Oregon in an attempt to find a chemical means to measure the
degree of pollution of a pond. Generally, they found the log pond waters
to be high in chemical oxygen demand (200 ppm to 700 ppm) and total solids
(200 ppm to 800 ppm). Average concentrations of 0.48 ppm for phosphates,
0.56 ppm for nitrates, and 5 ppm for soluble carbohydrates were reported.
Very low concentrations of nitrites, sulfates, and dissolved oxygen were
found for most of the ponds. The researchers concluded that ponds con-
taining logs without bark (peelers) were just as polluted as those con-
taining an equivalent volume of bark-covered logs per unit volume of
water.
Ellwood and Ecklund (8) reported the following values for a log pond
storing ponderosa pine: suspended solids, 38 ppm; dissolved oxygen,
0 ppm; and pH 6.8. The authors attributed the strong, sour smell of log
ponds to the production of organic acids as a result of carbohydrate
breakdown by microorganisms present in the ponds.
Henriksen and Samdal (11) agitated bark with distilled water and measured
the chemical oxygen demand (COD) at different intervals. After 65 hours
they found that a total of 43,200 mg COD/kg bark had been extracted.
Wood bark pollutants from both softwood and hardwood trees were evaluated
by Sproul and Sharpe (24). They measured the quantity of COD, color,
lignin^like extracts and other "pollution parameters" which enter natural
water from benthic bark deposits and from drainage from bark piled on land.
Wood is customarily differentiated into major cell wall components and
extraneous components. The major cell wall components consist of cellu-
lose, hemicelluloses and lignin. Cellulose makes up 40 to 50% of wood
by weight. Hemicelluloses are polysaccharides which are closely related
chemically to cellulose. Lignin forms the boundary between adjacent
cells and acts as a cementing material which bonds the cells together (6).
With the exception of a small part of the lignin these components are
insoluble in organic solvents and in water (27).
The extraneous components are soluble in many solvents, including water,
and are frequently termed extractives for that reason. The character of
the extractives depends upon the species of wood but generally include
tannins, resins, essential oils, fats, terpenes, flavanoids, quinones,
carbohydrates, glycosides, and alkaloids (27).
Douglas fir and ponderosa pine are the two predominant timber species
in the Pacific Northwest; therefore, their extractives are of particular
interest. Considerable research has been conducted on the extractives
from the bark of the above two species. Since the vast majority of ponded
logs still have their bark intact, the bark extractives could well be the
major components of the pond water.
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Kurth and Hubbard (16) have reported that the principal water soluble
extractive of Douglas fir and ponerosa pine bark is tannin. They found
the tannin content of Douglas fir bark to vary from 7.5 to 18% (based
on oven-dry bark weight) and that of ponderosa pine bark from 5.6 to
11.4%. Although the above percentages are based on hot-water extractions,
Kurth (14) has found that the tannin content of bark taken from ponded
logs is considerably lower, indicating that tannin is also soluble in
cold-water.
In addition, Kurth, Hubbard and Humphrey (17) have found ponderosa pine
bark to have a water soluble reducing sugar content of 3 to 6% (based
on oven-dry weight of bark) whereas Douglas fir bark contained only one-
tenth of this amount.
Organization of Research
Initial phases of this research involved the development and application
of techniques and methodology for evaluating the rate of leaching of
soluble organics from logs immersed in water; the quantity of bark dis-
lodged from logs during unloading and transport operations; the rate of
bark deposition; the distribution of bark debris in benthic deposits;
and the rate of oxygen uptake by benthic deposits containing bark debris.
Results of these determinations provided a basis for predicting the
magnitude of pollution from the water storage of logs. These studies
were conducted both in controlled laboratory experiments and in field
situations.
Extensive field investigations at three different locations in Oregon
were undertaken after the developmental work in an attempt to determine
the impact of log handling activities on water quality. Results of
direct water quality measurements in selected log storage areas were
compared with predicted values.
An unproductive attempt was made to ascertain the magnitude of pollution
problem in the Northwest resulting from the log handling activities.
Limited quantitative data was obtained.
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EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND PROCEDURES
Introduction
A search of the technical literature revealed that very little research
activity had been undertaken regarding pollution problems associated with
log handling and storage. Furthermore, very few standard methods or pro-
cedures have been reported for studying problems of this type. As a
consequence a considerable portion of this research effort was devoted to
the development of apparatus and procedures which could provide meaningful
information on this somewhat unique problem. The following sections of
this phase of the report describes in considerable detail the apparatus
and procedures developed to study leachate and bark problems associated
with the water storage of logs.
Leachate Studies
General. Floating logs present two different types of surface for con-
tact with the water, the cross-cut end sections and the cylindrical
surface. Since logs in floating rafts are generally 20-40 feet in length,
the cylindrical surface area contributes the majority of the surface
area exposed. Laboratory facilities at Oregon State University were not
adequate to handle full-length logs, consequently sections 14-20 inches
long were used. These sections had a much higher ratio of end area to
cylindrical area. Since the leaching mechanism was not clear at the
beginning of the research, the relative effect of the end area versus
cylindrical area had to first be determined. This was accomplished by
application of a masking material to the cross-cut ends. A discussion
of the procedure developed for masking log ends is presented in Appendix A.
Static tests. The three species of timber selected for this study were
Douglas fir, ponderosa pine and hemlock. These are the most prevalent
species in Oregon and the Pacific Northwest. Log sections were cut from
freshly felled trees in central and western Oregon. Some of the sections
were debarked by hand and others were left with bark intact to determine
the effect of bark on the leaching rate of soluble substances from logs.
The cross-cut ends of selected log sections were sealed with paraffin
whereas others were left unsealed.
The prepared log sections were immersed in six custom-built,150-liter
plexiglas tanks. All tanks were fabricated from one quarter-inch clear
plexiglas sheet stock to allow visual observation of the logs during the
leaching period. Figure 1 shows the construction details of the holding
tanks. Water-tight joints were developed by cementing the sections to-
gether with, dichloromethane solvent. The tank dimensions were chosen
to maximize the size of samples within the storage space available. Two
shelves were constructed in a temperature-controlled room to support the
test tanks. There was no outflow from the test tanks in the static
leaching tests. However, some mixing was provided in each tank to reduce
the development of concentration gradients near the log surfaces. Teflon
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rn_^— - hold-down
1..I t _Jt j li J
^_^— 1/2° 1/2" plexiglass bracing
in corners
1
=o
CM
T
O
CM
PLAN
28 1/2
28"
^^-— 1/4" plexiglass sheet
^ — drain
~o
CM
O
CM
20'
ELEVATION
FIGURE I.Log Storage Tanks for Leaching Studies.
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coated stirring bars were placed in each tank and were rotated by
magnetic stirrers mounted flush with the shelf surface as shown in Figure 2.
Log samples were held at 20°C +^0.5 throughout the test period to provide
a consistent basis for comparison of the experimental data. This temper-
ature was selected because it approximated the mean summer water temper-
atures surrounding existing log rafts in the inland and coastal waters of
Oregon.
Mercuric chloride was added to each tank to provide a mercuric ion (Hg++)
concentration of 2 to 25 mg/1. This metabolic poison was added to retard
biological degradation of the organic material leached from the logs.
Other methods of inhibiting biological growth were considered including
pH extremes, heat sterilization and organic biocides. These were rejected
due to the uncertainty of an effect on leaching rate and measured indices
of pollution. For instance organic biocides would add COD, total organic
carbon and volatile solids to the storage water.
Samples of leachate were withdrawn from the six test tanks at specified
intervals during 7 to 40 day log storage periods and analyzed for the
following indices of pollution: chemical oxygen demand (COD), Pearl-
Benson Index (PBI), total solids, total volatile solids, total organic
carbon, wood sugar, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and acute toxicity.
BOD and toxicity determination were performed on samples which were pre-
treated by selective chelation to remove the mercuric ion added as a
preservative. A discussion of the mercury removal technique is given
in Appendix B. A more detailed description of the apparatus and proce-
dures used in the leaching studies is given by Graham (10) and Atkinson
(3).
Dynamic leaching tests. The second type of log leaching study involved
a flow-through system. The plexiglas holding tanks used for the static
leaching study were adapted for flow-through experiments. An overflow
port was positioned at the end opposite the inflow to minimize short
circuiting. Tap water was metered at different flow rates into different
test tanks holding Douglas fir and ponderosa pine logs. Evaporation
losses were controlled by covering the tanks with plastic sheets. Mer-
curic chloride was added to the inflow water to maintain a concentration
of about 50 mg/1 (as Hg++). The poison was to retard biological break-
down of leached organic substances. Since constant flow was exceedingly
difficult to maintain at the required low rates, overflow was collected
in a carboy and measured every 2 to 3 days with a graduated cylinder.
Overflow samples were collected for COD analysis only.
Bark Studies
The following experimental methods were developed to study the quantity
of bark dislodged from logs, the rate of bark deposition, the distribution
of bark in the benthic zone and the oxygen demand resulting from bark
deposits.
11
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water level
log section
hook
teflon-coated stirring bar
plexiglass tank
_ring
x 1/2" x 2"
plexiglass block
3/4" plywood shelf
_LJ ii , r
/ magnetic stirrer
FIGURE 2.Schematic of Leaching Apparatus.
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Dislodged bark. In order to accurately determine the percentage of bark
missing from logs in rafts, a photographic measurement technique was
developed. A slide camera was mounted on a custom-made 20-foot tripod
as shown in Figures 3 and 4. The legs were made from 2-inch aluminum
tubing in two ten-foot sections and one 8-foot section. The tripod could
be readily assembled and disassembled on the log rafts. The camera was
a Hasselblad model 1000F. Ektachrome-X 120 film was used at a shutter
speed of l/250th of a second. The camera shutter was controlled by a
long shutter release cable held by the operator on a log raft or boat
adjacent to the log raft being photographed. Photographic slides were
also taken of Inaded log trucks to provide information on bark losses
during the unloading operation. The camera was held by hand at a distanc
of approximately 20 feet. Tabulated photographic measurements are given
in Appendix C.
The photographic slides of log rafts were projected upon a reverse-image
slide viewer. The viewer consisted of a mirror set at an angle to pro-
ject an image on a horizontal viewing surface. The viewing surface was
a 2-foot square frosted plexiglas sheet. Figure 5 is a schematic repre-
sentation of the slide viewer. Planar areas of logs with and without
bark were measured with a polar planimeter from the image projected on
the plexiglas sheet.
Bark sinking studies. The rate at which dislodged bark sinks in water
was evaluated with grab samples and graded samples of Douglas fir and
ponderosa pine bark.
In the first experiment, grab samples of bark were deposited in 55-gallon
drums which were filled with water. The drums were kept uncovered out-of-
doors. At specified intervals during the experimental run the bark re-
maining on the surface was removed by a screening device. Sunken bark
was retrieved by passing the water in the drum through a fine sieve.
Floating bark was returned to the drum and the drum was refilled. The
sunken bark, which was collected on the sieve, was dried and analyzed
for total and volatile solids. A schematic representation of this test
procedure is shown in Figure 6.
In a parallel experiment, randomly collected samples of Douglas fir and
ponderosa pine bark were screened through custom-fabricated sieves which
had square openings of 1/2, 1, 2, 3 and 4 inches on a side. The graded
bark pieces were then placed in open 55-gallon drums filled with tap
water. Duplicate tanks were set up for all samples. Sunken bark was
collected, dried and analyzed by the procedures described above.
Benthic deposits. A core sampling procedure was developed to study the
distribution of bark debris in benthic deposits. Sample tubes were made
from 2-inch diameter, thin-walled aluminum tubing, 18 to 36 inches long.
One end of the tubing was reinforced and threaded for connection with
the benthic sampler.
The benthic sampler, shown in Figures 7 and 8, consisted of three separate
sections. The top section was made of four pieces of 1/2-inch galvanized
13
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FIGURE 3. Custom Made Tripod on Floating Log Raft.
steel pipe each four feet long. These pipes were threaded on both ends
and one end had a 1/2-inch coupling permanently attached to it. The
pieces of pipe could be added or removed to allow for the variable depth
of water encountered while sampling.
The middle section consisted of a 1/2-inch check valve and connecting pipe
fittings. The check valve held the sample in the sample tube by maintain-
ing a vacuum seal in the sample tube as the tube was withdrawn from the
benthic deposits. The water displaced from the sample tube during sam-
pling discharged externally through the check valve.
The bottom section was made of a 2-inch pipe coupling welded to a 1/4-inch
by 3 1/2-inch square steel plate. The plate had a 1/2-inch diameter hole
drilled through its center point to allow for the discharge of the water
from the sample tube. The sample tubes were easily screwed into and out
of the 2-inch coupling.
Samples withdrawn from the deposits were immediately frozen inside the
sample tube to preserve the vertical distribution of solids. The sample
freezing unit, shown in Figure 9, was a 6-inch diameter insulated aluminum
tube. The tube acted as the freezing chamber when dry ice and acetone
were added. A center well inside the tube was made of window screen and
held in position with four evenly spaced vertical wood slats. The sample
tubes were inserted into the center well and the dry ice chips were added
between the center well and the aluminum tubing. The aluminum tube was
wrapped in 1 1/2-inch thick fiberglas insulation and enclosed in a 1/2-
inch plywood carrying case.
-
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v 3/16
2" I.D. * 1/8" walled aluminum pipe
2" 0-D. x I/IB" walled
aluminum tubing
MIDDLE JOINT
2" O.D. x i/ie" walled
aluminum tubing
2" l.D. x i/e" walled
aluminum pipe
IS
END JOINT
FIGURE 4. Details of Tripod Leg Joints.
15
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projector
PLAN VIEW
CM
24'
frosted plexiglass
1/4 plate glass mirror
ELEVATION VIEW
FIGURE 5. Reverse Image Slide Viewer with Slide Projector.
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screening device
r-r •AOfc* fV\ <"•%
bark debris
sunken bark
water
//a
10.20 mesh screen
FIGURE 6. Schematic Representation of Sunken Bark Removal from
Laboratory Test Barrels.
17
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Mil 'ta'TIg ml
FIGURE 7. Benthic Sampling Apparatus.
Sampling was done from boats or, when possible, from the log rafts. A
minimum of two persons were required for sampling, one to physically obtain
the samples and the second to freeze and store the samples and to record
the location of the samples. Maps were drawn to record the specific
location of each sample taken.
Samples were taken in the sampling tubes mounted on the benthic sampler.
The sampling tube was gently forced into the benthic deposit until a solid
bottom was reached, and was then removed. In some cases a solid bottom
was not reached because of a very deep, soft deposit. In this case the
sample tube would fill until the frictional skin resistance of the sample
in the tube exceeded the frictional resistance of the entire sampler
moving through the bottom deposit. This condition was not frequently
encountered in the sites selected for this study. The check valve kept
the semi-fluid sample from dislodging from the sample tube while the
sample was brought to the water surface. At the water surface a rubber
stopper was placed in the open end of the sample tube to prevent dislodg-
ment and loss of the sample during the freezing process. The sample
and sample tube were then taken to the boat while still connected to the
benthic sampler.
The sample tube, containing the sample, was removed from the benthic
sampler and immersed into the dry ice-acetone mixture with the rubber
L8
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00
CM
0.5" pipe
0.5" check valve
0.5" nipple
0.5" pipe coupling
Q/l 3/16
2.25'
3.5"
3/16
0.25 steel plate
2 10 pipe coupling
in
ro
Benthic Sampler
2 OD aluminum pipe
3/16 K
2 ID aluminum tubing •
2.25'
CJ
(0
10
Sample Tube
FIGURE 8. Details of Benthic Sampling Apparatus.
19
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:
FIGURE 9. Freezing Chamber for Benthic Core Samples.
stoppered end down. The sample tube remained in the freezing unit until
:he sample was completely frozen. About three to five minutes were needed
freeze a 24-inch long sample. Frozen samples from the freezing unit
:ied to.the boat by a cord and placed in the river or bay. The warm
in the river or bay melted a thin layer of the sample next to the
This procedure required about three minutes. The sample
• was then removed from the water and shaken vertically to release
:rozen sample from the tube, completely intact. Figure 10 shows a
rrozen sample as removed from the sample tube. The samples were then
wrapped in plastic paper, held in place with a strip of masking tape at
the sample. Packaged samples were labeled to correspond with
the map location from where the samples were taken. The samples were
a portable ice chest and covered with chipped dry ice to keep
:rozen during transport to the laboratory. At the laboratory the
i were removed from the portable ice chests and placed in a chest
type freezer until removed for analysis.
A portable power circular saw fitted with a 7 1/4-inch abrasive blade was
the frozen cores into 2-inch thick wafers starting from the
soil interface. In order to decrease the ignition time of samples
:he wafers were then cut exactly in half. These pieces were then dried
in a drying oven at 103°C for 24 hours.
20
-------
FIGURE 10. Frozen Sample from Benthic Deposit.
The dried samples were placed in a tarred evaporating dishes which had been
previously fired at 600°C for 15 minutes and cooled in a dessicator. The
samples were ground with a mortar and pestle before placing in the evapor-
ating dish if a large amount of cohesion existed in the samples. Loose
samples were finely ground in the evaporating dish with a small scoop.
The dish plus sample was then weighed on a Mettler 46 analytical balance.
Samples were preignited with a bunsen burner for 60 minutes to burn the
large pieces of bark debris. Next,the samples were placed in the muffle
furnace at 600°C for another 60 minutes to ignite all of the volatile
material. After this final ignition, the dish and sample were allowed
to cool in the open air for a few minutes and then were placed in a
dessicator until they had reached room temperature. The sample and dish
were th'en weighed on the Mettler balance and the percentage of volatile
solids calculated.
A more detailed description of the apparatus and technique used in the
bark study is provided by Williamson (26).
Benthic respirometer. A
to provide in situ oxygen
apparatus shown in Figure
housing, 79 cm long with
enclosed at both ends and
covered a planar area of
metal skirt was attached
deposits and restrict the
special respirometer was designed and fabricated
uptake measurements on benthic deposits. The
11 was made from a plexiglas half-cylinder
an inside radius of 24 cm. This chamber, when
bottom, contained a volume of 65 liters and
0.24 square meters. A 4.5 inch galvanized
to the bottom of the chamber to penetrate the
zone of measurement.
21
-------
Is)
M
(|)
(3)
0
(5)
©
(?)
(5)
(9)
(To)
MAIN CIRCULATION PUMP
AQUARIUM PUMP
REGULATING VALVE
UNION JOINT
SENSOR PORT
DIFFUSING SCREENS
8ALVANIZED SKIRT
AIR BLEEDING PORT
SAMPLING PORT
PLEXIGLASS SHELL
FIGURE II. IN SITU Benthic Respirometer.
-------
A 40 gpm (at 10 ft head) centrifugal submersible pump and connecting
piping were mounted on the housing for circulation of water through the
chamber. The recycled water passed through a series of nylon window
screens positioned at the inlet and outlet ends of the chamber. The
screens served as baffles to provide a nearly uniform vertical flow pro-
file.
Once designed and fabricated, the respirometer was tested in a large lab-
oratory tank which had side wall windows. A brightly colored dye was
injected into the intake end of the respirometer and was followed visual-
ly and photographically as it passed through the chamber. The inlet and
outlet baffles were found to be effective in minimizing short circuiting.
The frontal edge of the dye tracer moved relatively uniformly through the
chamber. Valve settings on the recirculation pump were calibrated with
the dye tracer test results.
A YSI (Yellow Springs Instrument Company) dissolved oxygen sensor was
mounted in the chamber as shown in Figure 11. The sensor lead was con-
nected above the water surface to a YSI oxygen meter. A small aquarium-
type pump and connecting tubing were mounted on the housing and recycled
liquid in the chamber past the oxygen sensor at a rate sufficient to
prevent stagnation. A 1.0 mv potentiometric recorder was connected to
the oxygen meter to obtain a continuous readout of dissolved oxygen.
Electrical power was supplied to the oxygen meter, submersible pumps and
recorder by a 1500-watt gasoline-powered generator.
A trained scuba diver placed the respirometer in the appropriate location
for benthic oxygen uptake measurements. The following procedure was
followed by the diver and assisting personnel:
1. Open union joint, air bleeding valve and sample port.
2. Remove inlet hose from the aquarium pump.
3. Submerge the respirometer in the water. Start the pump,
then rotate and shake to remove entrained air bubbles in
the pump and piping. Turn off pump,
4. Force the respirometer into the deposit. A knife or trenching
tool may be needed in hard deposits.
5. Start pump to flush the respirometer.
6. Calibrate oxygen meter and sensor and insert sensor into
the port on the respirometer.
7. Close union joint, air bleeding valve and sample port.
8. Attach aquarium pump inlet hose.
9. Take grab samples from sample port for dissolved oxygen anal-
ysis by a chemical method and for other desired analyses.
23
-------
10. Check seal around skirt and check for proper valve settings.
11. Start recorder and take oxygen uptake readings.
12. Operate system until a uniform uptake rate is established,
usually 2 to 4 hours.
13. Take grab samples from the sample port for subsequent analyses.
14. Turn off the power, remove the sensor and remove the respiro-
meter.
15. Take core samples at the respirometer site, to determine total
and volatile solids.
Analytical Methods
Pearl-Benson Index (FBI). The concentration of tannin, lignin and other
phenolic compounds leached from log segments while in water storage was
determined by the standardized Pearl-Benson, or Nitroso method (7). FBI
is a colorimetric determination of the quantity of lignin and other phe-
nolic compounds present in a sample. The FBI test is used to evaluate
spent sulfite liquor (SSL) concentration in waste streams from pulp mills.
A DU spectrophotometer was used to measure the color developed in the test.
A standard SSL in a range of known concentrations was used to standardize
test results. The standard was calcium SSL, (Orzan+)> made from a ten
percent concentration of SSL.
Chemical^ oxygen demand (COD). COD analyses were made using the Jeris
"rapid" COD technique (13). The standard COD method (1) was applied to
one series of samples to obtain a correlation between the rapid and stand-
ard procedures. Results with the Jeris method were within 4 percent of
those obtained by the standard method.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Five day BOD analyses were made using
300 milliliter BOD bottles and applying the dilution technique described
in Standard Methods (1). Seed for the BOD tests was obtained from a
bench scale activated sludge unit containing microorganisms acclimated
to effluent from a fibreboard plant. The unit was batch fed daily to
accomplish the acclimation of seed.
BOD reaction rate (k-rate) . Oxygen uptake data used in k-rate determi^-
nation was obtained using the Hach manometric BOD apparatus. Interval
oxygen uptake readings correspond to the BOD exerted. The determination
of k-rate was accomplished by matching curves obtained from experimental
data to standard curves obtained using a mechanical plotter in connection
with the Oregon State University computer. To obtain a standard curve
for matching with an experimental curve, 5-day BOD values from experimen-
tal data and an assumed series of k-rates were supplied as input to the
computer program. A series of mechanically plotted curves was obtained.
The closest fit between standard and experimental plots determined k-rate.
24
-------
Reducing sugar content. Reducing sugar content was determined using
techniques described by Somogyi (23) and the procedure presented by Hodge
and Hofreiter (12). The titrimetric method applying the 1945 alkaline
copper reducing agent was used.
Bioassay for toxicity determination. Bioassays were conducted at the
Oregon State University Oak Creek Laboratory by a standardized procedure
(1). The test tanks were located in a constant temperature room held
at 14°C. Test fish were acclimated to Oak Creek water.
Each bioassay test unit consisted of a 2-gallon circular cardboard con-
tainer fitted with a plastic liner. Six liters of water were placed in
the container and a stream of air was bubbled slowly through the water
for 24 hours before the test fish were introduced. A total of 10 fish
were used in every unit and the number of dead fish counted visually at
24 hour intervals for a period of 96 hours. The water was not mechanically
stirred and the fish were not fed during the 96 hour test period. No
fish was used more than once and surviving fish were kept separated from
the remaining unexposed test fish. Oak Creek water was also used for
log storage to eliminate differences in quality between bioassay and
storage water.
Two types of fish were acquired for use as test organisms in toxicity
determination. Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum),
approximately three months of age, were used until the supply was ex-
hausted. The salmon were obtained in May, 1969 from the Department of
Fisheries and Wildlife Hatchery, Netarts, Oregon. Kamioops rainbow
trout, Salmo gairdneri (Richardson), also three months of age, were
purchased from Trout Lodge Springs Hatchery, Soap Lake, Washington. The
trout were obtained in June, 1969 and were used during the remainder
of the study.
25
-------
EXPERIMENTAL FINDINGS
Part I: Leachates
Introduction
Soluble organic matter and color-producing, lignin-like substances which
are extracted from logs floating in water can lead to a gradual deterio-
ration of holding water quality. The organics, measured in this study
as BOD, COD, TOG and volatile solids, can create a dissolved oxygen
demand on the holding water during biodegradation and could lead to foam-
ing problems. Color-producing substances measured by the FBI test affect
the aesthetic quality of water and, thereby reduce its value for recrea-
tional use and as a water supply source. Furthermore, some of the water
soluble extractives may be deleterious to fish and other forms of aquatic
life.
The quantity and character of substances leached from logs in water
storage were determined by both static and dynamic leaching tests con-
ducted under carefully controlled laboratory conditions. A description
of the apparatus and procedures used in these tests is presented in an
earlier section of this report.
Static Leaching Tests
Set-up. In initial experiments, Douglas fir and ponderosa pine log sec-
tions were submerged in tap water and in saline water poisoned with mercu-
ric chloride. Some of the sections had ends sealed with paraffin; others
had all bark removed and ends sealed; whereas others remained unaltered,
i.e., bark intact and ends open. Chemical analyses were performed on
samples of water withdrawn at specified intervals during 30-40 day holding
periods to measure the rate of leaching of soluble,color-producing sub-
stances and organic matter. Several duplicate runs were made to deter-
mine the reproducibility of experimental findings. Close agreement was
consistently observed for the duplicate samples.
Color-producing substances. Soluble tannins and lignin-like substances
impart a yellow to brown color to natural waters. The addition of these
substances to log holding water was measured by the FBI test with results
expressed as grams of equivalent spent sulfite liquor (10% solids basis)
per square foot of cylindrical log surface area submerged.
The experimental results plotted in Figure 12 clearly illustrate that
nearly all of the color, as represented by FBI, is contributed by the
log bark. This was not unexpected since bark is known to contain a
considerable quantity of water extractable tannins and lignins. The
peeled logs (w/o bark) of both species yielded very low FBI values after
40 days of soaking. Furthermore, the rate of--FBI loss to the holding
water was found to be significantly higher for the unaltered log with
27
-------
30
20
a
DL
:
On i
a &
D D
^<
fe^ff-i
InnlforAH
Ends Sealed,
Ends Sealed ,
_x
~^
— D
i — zs
tf/0 Bark
W Bark
'O
Douglas
r
D
fir
&
i i
:
20 30
TIME (days)
40
t. 20
CD
a.
-O Unaltered
-^ Ends Sealed, W/0 Bark
_D D Ends Sealed, W Bark
10
20 30
TIME (days)
FIGURE 12. FBI Results for Douglas Fir and Ponderosa
Pine Logs in Fresh Water.
.
-------
unsealed ends. This demonstrates that the ratio of end area to cylindrical
surface area is significant and must be considered in field application
of laboratory results.
Soluble organics. The loss of soluble organic matter from floating logs
was measured initially by COD, TOG, total solids and total volatile
solids tests. BOD determinations were made in a later study. Experi-
mental results obtained during a 37-40 day test are graphically presented
in Figures 13, 14, 15 and 16. Each graph shows that ponderosa pine logs
yielded significantly greater quantities of organic matter per square
foot submerged than Douglas fir logs. This observation is consistent
with the findings of Kurth, et.al. (17). They found that the extractable
tannins from pine bark contain nearly 10 times more soluble sugar than
do the tannin extracts from the bark of Douglas fir.
The rate of leaching of soluble organics during the first 3 to 4 days of
soaking was apparently influenced by the presence of intact bark. This
is illustrated in Figures 13 and 14. The logs with ends sealed and bark
removed, lost COD and TOC at a higher initial rate; however, the rate de-
creased as the soaking period lengthened.
The open ends of floating logs are responsible for a substantial portion
of the soluble organics lost to the holding water. This is readily
apparent in Figures 13 and 14 when comparing the COD and TOC contributed
by unaltered logs with that from logs having sealed ends but bark in
place. This observation is not surprising since the physiological flow
pattern of water and nutrients proceed longitudinally through a living
tree. By using the calculation method outlined in Appendix D it can
be estimated that 12 percent of the COD lost from a 30-foot long Douglas
fir log 2 feet in diameter is derived from the end section.
A high percentage of the total solids leached from the experimental logs
were found to be volatile. Figures 15 and 16 show that over 80 percent
of the solids leached from the Douglas fir log in 40 days were volatile,
and nearly 62 percent of the solids from the pine logs were volatile.
Saline water. A vast quantity of Douglas fir logs are rafted and held
in storage for extended periods of time in the saline estuaries and bays
along the Pacific coast. A laboratory experiment was undertaken to deter-
mine whether the leaching rate of substances from logs held in saline
water is measurably different from the rate for logs held in fresh water.
A saline water solution was artifically prepared by mixing equal quantities
(by volume) of fresh tap water and synthetic sea water. Nearly identical
unaltered Douglas fir logs were submerged in both the saline preparation
and in an equivalent quantity of fresh tap water. Figure 17(a) shows
COD exerting substances were extracted from the logs at nearly the same
rate regardless of the character of the holding water. There was less
than 10 percent difference in total loss of COD after 38 days of soaking.
The FBI results shown in Figure 17(b) indicate that considerably more
lignin-like material was present in the fresh water after 38 to 40 days
of soaking than in the saline water. The apparent lower FBI yield in
29
-------
-O Unaltered
-A Ends Sealed, W/0 Bark
rj Ends Sealed, W Bark
TL 6
5
a
8 4
V— — u I
A a 1
a D i
jnunvrra
inds Sealed, \
Ends Sealed,
^
O/^
/^ n^-
¥/0 Bark
IW Bark
^
>^
___„, — *""
^±
^^
• — •
ponderosa pine
10
30
20
TIME (days)
FIGURE I3.COD Results for Douglas Fir and Ponderosa Pine
Logs in Fresh Water.
30
-------
c
c
O——O Unaltered
A a Ends Sealed, W/0 Bark
D D Ends Sealed, W Bark
1C
20 30
TIME (days)
c
c
O Unaltered
Ends Sealed, W/0 Bark
O D Ends SeaJed, W Bark
10
20 30
TIME (days)
40
FIGURE 14. Total Organic Carbon (TOG) Results for Douglas Fir
and Ponderosa Pine Logs in Fresh Water.
31
-------
O O Unaltered I
& & Ends Sealed, W/0 Bark
D D Ends Sealed, W Bark
a
A
CO
Q
O
V)
-O O Unaltered
Ends Sealed, W/0 Bark
-D D Ends Sealed, W Bark
I
en
o
o
CO
40
FIGURE 15. Total Solids Results for Douglas Fir and Ponderosa
Pine Logs in Fresh Water.
32
-------
CO
G 3
3
LJ
—O Unaltered
—6 Ends Sealed,W/0 Bark
D D Ends Seated ,W Bark
10 20 30
TIME (days)
40
r 5
-Q Unaltered
-A Ends Sealed, W/0 Bark
D D Ends Sealed, W Bark
10
20 30
TIME (days)
40
FIGURE 16. Total Volatile Solids Results for Douglas Fir and
Ponderosa Pine Logs in Fresh Water.
-------
25
20
15
oo
Q- |0
-O Fresh Water
D D Saline Water
10
20
TIME (days)
(B)
30
40
a
O
O
•J— — v-»
3 D
WUIt
Saline Water
Q^"3"
a^--
.-a
10
20
30
40
TIME (days)
(A)
FIGURE 17. COD and FBI Results for Unaltered Douglas Fir
Logs in Fresh and Saline Water, (note. (A) COD
and (B) PBI.)
34
-------
salt water may be due to the precipitation of lignin-like substances by
divalent cations present in high concentrations in the water. This pre-
cipitation phenomen was observed by Andrews (2) in a study of kraft pulp
mill discharges into saline waters.
Effect of holding water quality. Two different conditions occur in actual
log rafting and storage operations which were not represented by the
laboratory experiments outlined above.
First, log rafts in flowing natural waters such as rivers and estuaries
are subjected to a continual interchange of water over the log surfaces.
Consequently there is little tendency for the formation of a concentration
gradient of leached substances which might retard the rate of diffusion.
This condition was approximated in the laboratory by placing a presoaked
Douglas fir log, which had been submerged for 40 days into a tank of
fresh water and measuring the release of COD and FBI. The results of this
experiment plotted in Figures 18 and 19 show that the amount of COD
leached from the log in each 40-day period was very nearly the same,
indicating that a continuous rate of leaching is likely if a concentration
gradient is not allowed to develop. This observation is significant since
logs are frequently held in water storage for 80 days or longer. Further
information regarding the rate of leachate over extended storage periods
is presented in the section of this report entitled "Dynamic Leaching
Experiments."
The second field condition worthy of consideration occurs when freshly
cut logs are deposited into relatively stagnant log ponds or some lakes.
In these situations where only minimal water interchange is possible,
a concentration gradient does develop which could alter the rate of
diffusion. A laboratory experiment was set up to determine whether the
leaching rate from a freshly cut log is retarded by polluted water.
A freshly cut, unaltered Douglas fir log was placed into a tank of water
which had previously held a similar log for 38 days. The rate of leaching
of COD was followed for 42 days and the results plotted in Figure 18.
The plot shows that nearly 5 grams of COD/ft2 were lost in fresh water
whereas a similar freshly cut log lost only 1.7 grams of COD/ft2 in the
polluted water. This implies that a concentration limit is approached
in stagnant log pond waters independent of the quantity of logs stored
or the length of storage period.
BOD, toxicity, and sugars. A parallel, static leaching study was conducted
to determine the BOD, toxicity and wood sugar content of log leachates.
Douglas fir, ponderosa pine and hemlock logs, 15 inches in diameter,
were cut into sections 20 inches long and suspended in storage tanks as
described earlier in this report. Bark was completely removed from some
of the log segments. Water from a creek near Oregon State University's
Oak Creek Laboratory was used in all experiments since this water was
also used to rear test fish for bioassays.
35
-------
The log segments were held submerged for seven days in the creek water
poisoned with 2 mg/1 Hg-*+ in the form of HgCl2. Following the storage
period at 20° + 2°C, aliquots removed from each holding tanks were de-
poisoned by chelation (see Appendix B) then analyzed for BOD5, BOD decay
constant, wood sugars and acute toxicity. COD determinations were also
made to correlate test results with those reported above. Results of
all analyses except toxicity were expressed as grams leached per square
foot of cylindrical log surface area submerged (g/ft2).
Experimental results summarized in Table 1 include experiments with one
hemlock log, one ponderosa pine log and two Douglas fir logs which differed
considerably in age. In addition, two adjacent segments from the same
Douglas fir log were tested to determine the reproducibility and reliability
of results.
Results show that leachates from ponerosa pine, hemlock and older Douglas
fir logs, with and without bark, are not acutely toxic to salmon and
trout fry in 96 hour exposure. The leachate from the younger Douglas fir
log did result in mortality to some test fish. Log sections without
bark were more toxic than comparable sections with bark intact. TLmg^
values ranged from 20 to 93% (v/v) for leachate from the young Douglas
fir logs. This slight, but measurable, toxicity for the young fir log
might be attributed to the much greater release of soluble substances to
the holding water.
This study also revealed that a considerable portion of the substances
which leach from logs is biodegradable and represents a significant
oxygen demand on holding waters. Table 1 shows BOD5 values as high as
1.3 g/ft2. BOD:COD values are commonly used as an indicator of the bio-
degradability of a waste, BODs represents the oxygen required to bio-
logically degrade a given sample of organic matter, whereas COD represents
the amount of oxygen required to chemically decompose organic matter.
BOD5:COD values for the log leachate were found to range between 0.1 -
0.45. This compares with a BOD5:COD of about 0.7 for glucose and 0.5
for raw domestic sewage.
A considerable portion of the BOD-exerting compounds in the log leachate
were wood sugars. Table 1 shows that 0.18 to 0.41 grams of sugar leached
per square foot of submerged log in 7 days. The high BOD decay constants,
0.17 - 0.40, determined for log leachate can be attributed to the pre-
sence of this large fraction of readily degradable wood sugars. As
expected, ponderosa pine logs which released the highest amount of sugar
also had the highest decay rate. The BOD decay constant is a measure of
the rate at which oxygen is consumed by bacteria during the biodegradation
of organic matter. A high rate constant (0.15 - 0.3) indicates the
presence of a readily degradable substance.
Even though a measurable quantity of biodegradable and toxic substances
leach from floating logs the severity of pollution problem associated
with this storage depends upon the quantity of logs stored, the age
and species of logs and the flow rate of the holding water. Each field
situation should be evaluated separately.
36
-------
•
« 5
§ "
o
3
2
w-
Dr
•
0 C
• i_uy i TVUIC
] Leached Log in Fresh W
) Fresh Log in Polluted W
X
/
ntnr
ater
rf
.-• — o
C
X
&-— -°"
,x
__ —
x<
z:
.
.^
^^
20
30 40
TIME (days)
50
60
70
80
FIGURE 18. COD Results for Unaltered Douglas Fir Logs in Fresh Water and Water Which
Was Polluted by a Submerged Log.
-------
•'.
O
40
TIME (days)
FIGURE 19. PBI Results for Unaltered Douglas Fir Log in Fresh Water.
-------
Table 1. BOD, COD, FBI and Toxicity Associated with Leachate from Logs
Held in Static Water Storage for Seven Days
<£>
Log Description
Species Age Bark
Douglas fir
Douglas fir
Douglas fir
Douglas fir
Douglas fir
Douglas fir
Hemlock
Hemlock
Ponderosa pine
Ponderosa pine
50
50
50
50
120
120
50
50
70
70
1 -
g/ft* of submerged
yr with
with
yr w/6
w/o
yr with
w/o
yr with
w/o
yr with
w/o
surface area
BOD
g/ft2l(mg/l)2
0.90
1.20
0.93
1.30
0.11
0.56
0.27
0.93
0.80
1.36
( 84)
( 84)
( 44)
(120)
( 6)
( 42)
( 15)
( 79)
( 42)
( 92)
BOD decay COD BOD:COD
rate
days"1 g/ft2(mg/l)
0.25 3.25(193) 0.28
0.32 3.91(272) 0.31
0.19 3.18(287) 0.29
0.26 3.38(313) 0.38
0.17 1.0 ( 53) 0.11
0.30 1.89(189) 0.30
0.13 1.82(101) 0.15
0.28 2.04(174) 0.45
0.31 4.25(221) 0.19
0.40 2.63(177) 0.52
Reducing
sugars
g/ft2(mg/l)
0. 41 (24)
0.66
0.41 (37)
0. 50 (46)
0.31 (16)
0.41 (31)
0.23 (13)
0.18 (15)
0.84(44)
0.16 (11)
PBI Toxicity
as 10% SSL
g/ft2(mg/l) TLm4g TLmgg
7.11 (426)
12. 5 ( 46) 20% v/v
4.45 (402)
10. 8 (1005) 24% v/v
0.66 ( 35) 10% kill in 60% soln
after 72 hrs
'2.98(233) 93% v/v
2.06(114) n o kill in 96 hrs
1.91 (163)
7. 48 (416) no kill in 96 hrs
0.79 ( 53)
mg/1 in test tank
-------
Log leaching equation. Based upon results obtained from the static log
leaching tests the following equation was derived for application in
field situations;
T = [(l-x)(D)(Ac)] + [(x)(C)(Ac)] * [(£1)CB-D)(AE)]
where
T = total pollutant contribution from logs (grams)
B = grams leached from test log (ends unaltered, w/bark)
2
ft cylindrical area
C = grams leached from test log (ends sealed, w/o bark)
2
ft cylindrical area
D = grams leached from test log (ends sealed, w/bark)
2
ft cylindrical area
2
A = total submerged end area of logs (ft )
2
A = total submerged cylindrical area of logs (ft )
x - fraction of bark missing from logs
f1 = cylindrical area of log
end area of log
The term [(l-x)(D)(A )] represents the contribution from the cylindrical
log area with bark intact. Correspondingly, the [(x)(C)(Ac)] term is
the contribution from the cylindrical area without bark and the [(f^)
(B-D)(Ag)] term is the contribution from the end areas.
This equation is in slightly different form than the one proposed by
Graham (9) in an earlier study. Example calculations applying this
equation are given in Appendix D.
The above equation can be used to compare the quantity of organic matter
in log leachate for different storage conditions, species of logs and
surface conditions of logs. Table 2 summarizes the estimated contribution
of COD, TOG, TS and TVS from Douglas fir and ponderosa pine logs, two
feet in diameter and thirty feet long. Calculated values are shown for
logs with all bark intact and only 50 percent of the bark intact. These
values show that pine logs add nearly 22 percent more COD and 99 percent
more TOG than fir logs of comparable size and degree of submergence.
40
-------
Table 2. Estimation of Pollutants Contributed by Douglas Fir and Ponderosa Pine Logs Two
Feet in Diameter and Thirty Feet Long Floating One-half Submerged.
Log
species
Douglas
fir
Water
exposure
period
(days)
10
35
COD
(K)
100%
Bark
144
331
50%
Bark
163
332
FBI
Iz)
100%
Bark
265
683
50 %
Bark
204
522
TVS
(z)
100%
Bark
164
278
50%
Bark
174
249
TOC
(K)
100%
Bark
48
71
50%
Bark
-
-
Ponderosa
pine
10
35
210 183
403 344
710
1375
555
915
211 154
349 268
98
161
Dynamic Leaching
General. In rivers, estuaries, and flow-through log ponds, water contin-
uously flows past rafted logs. This dynamic situation would discourage
the build-up of a concentration gradient of leached substances at the
water-log interface. A laboratory experiment was set-up to evaluate the
influence of hydraulic flow rate on the rate of leaching. The apparatus
and procedures developed for this experiment are presented in an earlier
section of this report.
Poisoned log holding water was passed through test tanks at rates low
enough that some measurable accumulation of pollutants could be obtained,
yet fast enough to prevent the development of a concentration gradient.
Flow velocities below 0.01 ft/min were needed to obtain sufficient leachate
concentration for analysis, even though low velocities in excess of 50 to
100 feet per minute are not uncommon in natural flowing streams and
estuaries. Both Douglas fir and ponderosa pine log segments (unaltered)
were studied. Samples of overflow were periodically collected and analyzed
for COD and nitrate and Kjeldahl nitrogen.
COD. The plot of cumulative COD in Figure 20 shows that the rate of
leaching of organic substances is nearly the same for static and low flow
rates. However, at the higher flow rates, the rate of leaching was rapid
initially then leveled out after 30 days of immersion. This indicates
that in swift waters soluble organics will leach at a more rapid rate
than in more stagnant waters such as overflowing ponds, lakes and sloughs.
Furthermore, leaching from the ponderosa pine logs will be essentially
complete within 30 to 35 days. Previous static leaching tests had
indicated that the rate of leaching might remain constant for 80 days or
more.
41
-------
FLOW
VELOCITY
I0's ff/min
-
I I I I
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44
TIME (days)
FIGURE 20.Leachate COD from Dynamic Storage Tests with Ponderosa Pine Logs.
42
-------
Cumulative COD results from Douglas fir logs plotted in Figure 21 also
reveal that logs held in dynamic water systems will contribute leachates
to the water at higher rates than in stagnant situations. The rate of
leaching does not appear to be directly related to flow rate, however,
since similar quantities of soluble organics were leached from the tanks
at all three flow velocities. Even though the rate of leaching declined
after 25 to 30 days considerable material was still removed from the
logs.
At the high flow rates found in natural streams, the initial leaching
rate would likely be very high. No high rate studies were run during this
research investigation because of the difficulty in collecting sufficient
leachate for reliable quantitative measurement. A closed recycle system
might have been applicable in the dynamic leaching studies.
Nitrogen. Total Kjeldahl nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen determinations
were made during the dynamic leaching experiment on samples of leachate
from Douglas fir logs. Results in Table 3 show that a close relationship
exists between COD and Kjeldahl nitrogen in the log leachate. Values
ranges from 0.055 to 0.073 grams of nitrogen per gram of COD with an
average of about 0.061. Nitrate nitrogen appeared in negligible quan-
tities in the leachate samples tested.
Table 3. Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen and COD in Leachates from Douglas fir
Logs During Dynamic teaching Studies
Storage time
hours
100
200
300
400
500
600
COD
1.28
2.39
3.65
4.77
5.79
6.69
N
g/ft2
0.093
0.156
0.214
0.269
0.322
0.369
N
COD
0.073
0.065
0.059
0.057
0.056
0.055
Avg 0.061
*grams per ft of Submerged surface area
43
-------
8 12 16 20 24 Z8 32 36 <»U
FIGURE 21 .Leochate COD from Dynamic Storage Tests with Douglas
Fir Logs.
44
-------
Phosphorus. Total phosphate phosphorus determinations were made on
leachate samples. Results showed only trace quantities collected through-
out the entire dynamic leaching experiment.
Log Ponds
The pollution potential of logs rafted in lakes and rivers is readily
apparent. Not so apparent, but very much a pollution threat, are the
numerous log ponds which dot the Pacific Northwest. A great number of
these ponds are operated on an overflow basis with the overflow being
discharged to the nearest water course. The fact that there are approx-
imately 12,000 acres of log ponds in Oregon alone, stresses the extent
of the problem.
Four log ponds situated at different locations in Oregon were selected
for evaluation. These ponds exhibited different physical characteristics
as indicated in Table 4. Several points were sampled within each pond
to determine if the pond water was homogeneous with respect to chemical
characteristics.
The BOD2Q (20-day BOD) values for each pond were much lower than corre-
sponding COD values. For example Pond B had a COD of 504 rag/1 and a BOD2Q
of only 167 mg/1. This difference can be readily explained by recogniz-
ing what each test measures. The COD test measures all organic compounds
which can be oxidized to carbon dioxide and water by strong chemical
oxidizing agents, whereas the BOD determination measures the oxygen re-
quired to biologically oxidize an organic material. Since many wastes
contain organic compounds that cannot be stabilized totally through bio-
logical action, the COD values are generally higher than the BOD2Q values.
BOD2o was used to estimate the ultimate BOD of the pond water. Further-
more, the biodegradable substances which do leach from logs are attacked
immediately by microorganisms in pond water. This results in a reduction
of BOD and also BOD;COD ratios.
Another important parameter of any waste is the BOD reaction rate con-
stant denoted as k. Values for k can be found by solving the general
BOD equation (20) when the BOD5 and BOD2o values are known. High k values
indicate rapid exertion of BOD. Very simple substrates such as sugars
are degraded rapidly thus the k rates are high (0.20 to 0.30 day1). The
k rates for the four ponds ranged from 0.03 to 0.08 day'1) which indicates
that the organic compounds present in the water were somewhat complex
and difficult to biodegrade.
All of the ponds contained sufficient amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus
to support biological growth. The concentration of these elements in-
creased as the degree of pollution (in terms of COD and BOD) increased.
This suggests that some of the nitrogen and phosphorus must come from
the logs, although neither pine nor fir contain much of these elements.
An important source of the nitrogen and phosphorus is from the benthic
deposits in the ponds. All the ponds tested were fairly old and had
extensive deposits which consisted of bark, wood, dead algae and aquatic
45
-------
Table 4. Physical Characteristics of Selected Log Ponds in Oregon
Surface
Pond area,
acres
A 26
B 20
C 2-1/2
D 3
Average
depth,
ft
8
6-8
12
4-5
Age of
pond,
years
11
14
19
39
Type of
logs
stored
Douglas fir
Douglas fir
85% ponderosa pine
15% Douglas fir
over 90% ponderosa
pine
Length
of
storage
l-3yrs
80% of
logs about
one week
two weeks
one week
Water
source
stream
wells
stream
springs:
irrigation
ditch
Remarks
non -overflowing except during
high runoff periods; sanitary
wastes dumped into pond.
non -overflowing except during
high runoff periods; sanitary
and glue wastes from plywood
dumped into pond
overflowing at about 400 gallon
per minute
overflowing at about 16 gallons
per minute
-------
vegetation. As these materials undergo decomposition, nitrogen and phos-
phorus are released for reuse by the microorganisms feeding on soluble
leachates. Other nutrient sources would include surface runoff, the source
water and some sanitary wastes which are dumped into the ponds.
The indices used to define the character of log pond waters included
chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), dissolved
oxygen (D.O), phosphates, nitrates, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, total solids,
settleable solids, alkalinity, oxygen transfer coefficient, K^a, and
Pearl Benson Index (FBI). The methods of measurement are described under
the section of this report entitled EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND PROCEDURES.
Table 5 summarizes the results of analyses performed on water samples
from each of the four ponds. Generally, the ponds proved to be quite
homogeneous with respect to the various parameters measured. Therefore,
data from only one sampling point for each pond is listed in Table 5.
The length of storage time and hydraulic overflow rate seem to signifi-
cantly influence the chemical nature of the log pond water. Ponds B and
D, which had short log storage times and low overflow rates, exhibited
much higher values for most all the characteristics studied than ponds
A and C.
As logs are added to a pond, leaching of the water soluble materials
begins immediately. As time goes on these materials are depleted until
finally no further leaching can take place. Therefore, the shorter the
log storage period, the greater the amount of substances available to be
leached. A pond with a mean log storage time of one week will build up
greater concentrations of tannins, wood sugars, etc., than a pond which
stores the same logs for a year.
The high overflow rate shown for Pond C resulted from the addition of
large quantities of fresh water to the pond. Therefore, the concentra-
tions of leached substances did not build up in Pond C as they did in
ponds with low discharge rates.
As shown in Ponds B and D, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) of a log
pond can be quite high (504 and 353 mg/1, respectively), indicating that
much of the material leached from the logs was organic.
The Pearl Benson Index (PBI) is a measure of the lignin-like substances
dissolved in water. In all cases the PBI values were closely related
with the COD values. COD values for the four ponds ranged from 24 to
504 mg/1 and the corresponding PBI values ranged from 35 to 545 mg/1.
This could be expected since the same compounds detected by the PBI test
would also contribute to the COD.
The dissolved oxygen (D.O) level in all ponds was quite low (0.0 to 1.5
mg/1), even close to the surface. This indicates that extensive biolog-
ical activity was taking place within the ponds. The quiescent condition
of the ponds also contributed to the low D.O. values since oxygen trans-
fer is much less effective under these conditions.
47
-------
Table 5. Chemical Characteristics of Log Ponds Studied
Pond
A
B
C
D
TS,a
mg/1
254
747
356
606
*vsb
59
55
31
46
ssc,
mg/1
43
180
4
122
DO,
mg/1
0.1
0.3
1.5
0.7
Temp. ,
°C
22
21.5
23
21.5
PH
6.9
7.1
7.5
7.4
COD,
mg/1
116
504
23
353
mg/1
48
167
10
116
mg/1
29
54
6
68
BOD5
COD
0.25
0.11
0.25
0.19
k,
day"-'-
0.08
0.03
0.08
0.08
mg/1
2.4
10.4
1.0
4,9
N03-Ne
mg/1
0.6
1.5
0.1
0.7
po4
mg/1
0.5
1.2
0.1
2.0
FBI,
mg/1
175
545
35
338
a = total solids
1 S
b = volatile solids
c = suspended solids
oo
d = total Kjeldahl nitrogen (ammonia plus organic nitrogen)
NO,-N = nitrate nitrogen
-------
Cold Decks
General. There are several locations in Oregon and the Pacific Northwest
where the water storage of logs is not permitted or is not practical. In
such instances the industry must store their inventory of logs on land in
cold decks. In order to minimize losses of timber through splitting of
log ends, the decked logs are frequently sprinkled with water. Water
which pases over the logs picks up water soluble organics and inorganics
from the wood. Consequently, underflow from sprinkled cold decks contain
similar pollutants to those extracted during submerged water storage.
Cold deck underflow is sometimes recycled although more commonly it is
discharged to a receiving body of water.
A field study was undertaken to obtain cold deck leaching data for com-
parison with laboratory findings. The number and surface area of logs
together with hydraulic flow rate and measured BOD of the cold deck run-
off are given in Table 6. Based upon a BOD to COD ratio of 0.46 (esti-
mated from static leaching experiments)., the resultant daily COD con-
tribution in the under flow would be 147 Ibs/day. Using these data, a
value of 0.085 g COD/ft^ can be calculated per 100 hours of sprinkling.
This value corresponds closely to the slope of the COD vs time curve in
Figure 18 for ponderosa pine logs with bark intact for an extended stor-
age period. Thus, it may be reasoned that the data obtained in the
laboratory leaching tests can provide a good prediction for cold deck
operation in the field.
Table 6. Ponderosa Pine Cold Deck Data
parameter sampled value
Mean log diameter 19.2 inches
Mean log length 32. 5 ft
Number of logs/25 lin. ft 350
Lineal feet of cold deck 1740 ft
Estimated number of logs 24, 400
/- 2
Estimated surface area 4.0 y. 10° ft
Mean BOD of runoff 19 mg/1
Flow 0. 426 mgd
BOD/day 67. 5 Ibs/day
49
-------
Part II; Bark Debris
Introduction
Trees felled in the forest are generally sawed into logs which vary in
length from 20 to 40 feet. Logs are transported to temporary land or
water storage sites by truck or rail car. Water storage sites include
lakes, rivers, estuaries and man-made ponds.
Logs are deposited into a water storage area by several methods including
direct vertical dump, sloped slide and cable hoist. The logs are then
aligned into rafts for subsequent transport and storage. This repeated
handling results in the loss of considerable amounts of bark from the
logs. Bark dislodged in water will sink either immediately or after a
short soaking period. Bark which settles to the bottom of water courses
forms benthic deposits which may have deleterious effects on aquatic
organisms inhabiting the benthic zone. Additionally, benthic deposits
can exert a demand for dissolved oxygen from overlying waters. The
methods used in the developmental phases of the bark study are described
in the section of this report entitled EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND PRO-
CEDURES .
Dislodged Bark
The application of two-dimensional photography for estimating losses of
bark from logs required pre-evaluation of several potential sources of
error since logs are three-dimensional and photographs are planar.
First, optical dispersion in the camera field was determined by photograph-
ing one-foot square pieces of paper placed randomly on the ground beneath
the tripod-mounted camera. The squares were compared in the resulting
photographs. The degree of dispersion was found to be negligible.
Actual photographic scale was found to be insignificant since the per-
centage of bark missing was computed. The projection of the curved
surfaces of the logs upon the planar surfaces of the photographic slides
did not represent the true surface area of the logs. However, on a
statistical basis, the percentage of bark missing in any differential
area would be distorted equally. This rationalization was verified by
physically measuring the total surface area of several logs and the area
of missing bark, then comparing with photographic results for the same
logs. Several logs were also rotated in the water and examined for
missing bark on all surfaces to insure that the percentage of bark missing
from the air-exposed surface was representative of the entire log.
Results of numerous photographic measurements of loaded log trucks, and
rafted logs, before and after raft transport, are given in Appendix C
51
-------
for Douglas fir stored in Yaquina Estuary and for ponderosa pine stored
in the Klamath River. Results summarized in Table 7 reveal that nearly
22 percent of the original bark was lost from Douglas fir logs during
unloading and raft transport compared to only 6 percent for ponderosa
pine logs. This large difference can be explained by two factors, the
species of logs studied and the abrasiveness of unloading operations.
Unloading operations examined on the Yaquina Estuary were more abrasive
than the operations on Klamath River due to the greater height the logs
had to fall to the water surface during direct dumping. At Yaquina
Estuary the elevation difference between the unloading deck and the water
surface varied with tidal fluctuation from 8 to 15 feet. A fall of only
6 to 8 feet was observed on the inland Klamath River. This difference
in distance gave the logs a greater impact velocity which increased the
amount of bark dislodged.
Probably the major factor responsible for the wide difference in bark
loss is the difference in character of the two species of logs studied.
As shown in Table 7, 18 percent of the Douglas fir bark was lost during
felling operations compared to only 6 percent for the pine logs. During
earlier leaching experiments, sections of both the fir and pine logs
were debarked by hand. Douglas fir bark peeled easily and in large chunks
whereas a chisel had to be used to peel the ponderosa pine logs.
A study was undertaken to compare bark losses caused by different unloading
techniques. Fortunately for research purposes, the vertical dump appar-
atus used at the Yaquina Estuary site up to 1968 was replaced in 1969 by
a cable sling system. Therefore, similar log types were studied during
the same month in both years. Data from 190 photographic observations
were analyzed statistically as shown in Table 8 to ascertain the relative
bark losses from the two methods. The vertical dump method was found to
be the most abrasive, as expected, with bark losses of 17.1% compared to
only 8.2% for the cable hoist system. Therefore, the method of dumping
selected by the timber industry can substantially affect the quantity of
bark debris released to a water course.
Bark Sinking Rate
Bark sinking rate is dependent upon the moisture content of the bark
particles, the size of bark particles and the rate at which water diffuses
into, the bark pores. Most pieces of bark will float for a short period
of time before they soak up moisture which increases their density and
causes them to sink.
The first sinking rate study involved a direct comparison of grab samples
of Douglas fir and ponderosa pine bark randomly collected at log dumping
sites. The ponderosa pine bark debris consisted mostly of small, thin
chips approximately 1/16-inch thick with a 1/2-inch mean diameter, plus
a few large bark pieces approximately 3/8-inch thick with a 1 to 3-inch
mean diameter. The Douglas fir bark debris consisted mostly of large
52
-------
Table 7. Incremental Percentages of Bark Dislodged During Logging,
Unloading, and Raft Transport
Area studied
(species of logs)
Yaquina Estuary
(Douglas fir)
Klamath River
(ponderosa pine)
Percentage of Bark Dislodged
During During During raft
logging unloading transport
18.2 16.8 4.9
5.7
During
unloading and
transport
21.7
6.2
Table 8. Bark Losses from Douglas Fir Logs During Unloading
by Two Different Methods
Sample statistic
Bark removed before unloading
No. of observations
Mean (Xi)
Standard deviation (s)
Vertical Hoisting
59
24.8%
12.1%
Direct Dumping
38
18.0%
11.596
Bark removed after unloading
No. of observations
Mean (X2)
Standard deviation (s)
73
33.094
13.4%
20
35.1%
6.9%
Bark dislodged during unloading
Mean (Xg - %)
Pooled deviation (s)
Sampled standard error
(S -}
8.2%
12.7%
2.5%
17.1%
11.6%
3.2%
1) Percent dislodged represents
debarked area
total surface area
X 100.
53
-------
pieces approximately 3/8-inch thick, 1 to 3 inches wide and 1 to 6 inches
long, although, there were some small bark chips.
The cumulative amount of bark which had sunk was measured several times
during the 60-day study. Results plotted in Figure 22 show that about
10% of the bark of both species sank the first day. These were mainly
the very small bark chips. After 30 days of storage, nearly 70% of the
pine bark had sunk whereas only 47% of the fir bark had sunk. This could
be accounted for by the higher quantity of small pine bark particles. At
the end of 60 days, the quantity of bark of both species which had sunk
leveled out to approximately 75%. This data indicates that at least 10%
of the bark dislodged during unloading operations will sink within the
first day and probably in the vicinity of the dump site. Furthermore,
approximately 65% of the bark dislodged during dumping and raft transport
will deposit in the raft transport and storage areas, if the logs remain
rafted for 60 days. Logs are frequently held in rafts for 60 days or
longer. The remaining bark which does not sink within 60 days, will
either float with the prevailing currents or become trapped in the log
rafts. Bark trapped in log rafts is frequently removed from the water
at the log processing site by a skimming mechanism.
Other experiments were undertaken to ascertain the effect of bark particle
size on sinking rate. Cumulative amounts of sunken bark are plotted in
Figures 23 and 24 for Douglas fir and ponderosa pine bark respectively.
These results clearly indicate that sinking rate is dependent upon par-
ticles size. All of the 0-1/2" size bark of both species sank within
20 days of immersion whereas only 3% of the 4" or greater particles of
ponderosa pine sank during this same period. The large Douglas fir bark
sank more rapidly than the pine, i.e., 27% sank within 20 days.
Table 9 shows the relative particle size distribution, on a dry weight
basis, for samples collected around log dumping sites in a random manner.
Approximately 30% of the pine bark was 0 to 1/2-inch in size whereas only
22% was 4 inches or larger
Benthic Distribution
Bark debris arising from log storage activities, eventually sinks and
becomes incorporated in the benthic deposits if not physically removed
from the water. The aim of this part of the study was to determine the
amount of bark in the benthic deposits as a function of depth from the
water-soil interface.
Many techniques were considered for obtaining representative benthic
samples. The method selected involved freezing an intact core sample
followed by analysis of the sample for volatile solids as a function of
depth. COD determinations were considered as an indicator of bark in
the benthic zone, however, due to the high and variable concentrations
of chlorides in the overlying water this pollutant index was rejected.
Chlorides interfere with COD determinations and require special consid-
eration during analysis. The volatile solids test was finally selected
54
-------
100
LEGEND
D Douglas fir
O ponderosa pine
30 40
TIME (days)
FIGURE 22. Sinkage for Composite Grab Samples of Bark.
-------
100
in
LU
z
(0
(E
00
10
20
30 40 50
TIME (days)
60
70
FIGURE 23-Percent of Bark Sunk for a Graded Sample of Douglas Fir Bark.
-------
20
30
40 50
TIME (days)
60
70
8O
90
FIGURE 24. Percent of Bark Sunk for a Graded Sample of Ponderosa Pine Bark.
-------
Table 9. Size Distribution of Samples of Bark
Collected Randomly from Log Damping Areas
Particle size range
inches
0 -
1/2 -
1 -
2 -
3 -
4 +
1/2
1
2
3
4
Pondeiosa pine
% by weight
18.
12.
13.
14.
17.
24.
3
2
3
4
0
8
Douglas fir
% by weight
10.2
12.0
8.5
17.2
25.2
27.0
as the index of bark present in the deposits since this measurement is
a. indicator of organic substances and is not influenced by chlorides.
Organic substances other than bark which are measured by the volatile
solids test could include micro- and macro-organisms, debris from over-
land run-off, industrial waste sludges and others. The presence of
significant quantities of these substances in the deposits could have
resulted in a measurement error, however, much of the error was eliminated
by correcting all readings with volatile solids values taken from control
areas without bark deposits.
The assumption was made in this study that the difference in volatile
solids in soil samples taken from log dumping and storage areas and cor-
responding values for samples from control areas without bark storage
represents the volatile solids added by bark debris. The volatile solids
content of bark varied considerably with the species of wood and the
extent of biodegradation or decay of bark in deposits. Therefore volatile
solids values can be correlated to the amount of bark in a benthic deposit
but cannot be used as a direct measure of actual bark. Experimental
results are reported as grams volatile solids per cubic foot for the soil
depth sampled.
Benthic deposits were studied at log dumping and storage sites in the
Yaquina Estuary and the Klamath River. The sites studied on the Yaquina
Estuary are shown in Figure 25 and the Klamath River sites are shown in
Figure 26. Volatile solids data obtained at log storage site D in
Yaquina Estuary are presented in Table 10 and are plotted in Figure 27.
Descriptive maps for the other study sites in Yaquina Estuary and Klamath
River are presented in a M.S. thesis by Williamson (26).
Some general trends were noted using the core sampling data. Bark debris
did not accumulate in the channel of Yaquina Estuary, probably due to the
high flow velocity. Most of the bark was localized in dumping and stor-
age areas and quiescent regions. Bark debris was found uniformly distri-
buted across the slow moving upper reaches of the Klamath River, with the
largest accumulations in the dumping regions. Furthermore, logs are
stored on a high percentage of the river surface area.
58
-------
Toledo
LEGEND
Q Core Sample Points
ft Pilinas
o Pilings
•O Log Booms
ff Land/Water
•k Sampling Area
_ Typical Graph
VOLATILE SOLIDS (Ibs/ft3)
!J 0 5 10
I
scale: Horiz l" = 10 ibs
Vert I" = 20 im
"EI8
i
H
-
— i
EI7
1
E 14
EI6
EI5
FIGURE 25 .Sampling Areas for Bark Distribution Study at
Yaquina Estuary.
EI9
H E 20
-------
KLAMATH
LEGEND
|ii* Bark Sampling Area
Lost River
Diversion Channel
scale l"= 4000*
FIGURE 26.Sampling Areas for Bark Distribution Study at
Klamath Falls.
60
-------
Table 10. Average Unit Weights, Percentage of Volatile Solids and Volatile Solids per Cubic Foot for
Core Samples from Area D (Figure 25*
Depth
(Inches)
0-2
2-4
4-6
6-8
8-10
10 - 12
12 - 14
14 -16
16 - 18
18 -20
20 - 22
Number
of samples
Extending through
Stated Depth
11
12
12
12
11
11
8
8
3
2
1
Unit
Weight
Mean Ave. Deviation
(lbs/ft3)
34.78
50.81
49.39
51.98
54.27
50.13
48.00
57.00
60.88
59.35
43.46
6.75
11.37
6.43
8.34
19.00
14.59
10.29
11.97
6.10
6.92
%
Mean
9.22
8.90
9.53
9.93
12.20
9.85
7.61
7.14
7.86
12.70
11.72
Volatile Solids
Ave. Deviation
3.28
4.59
5.42
4.49
7.51
5.12
3.26
3.92
3.03
2.70
Volatile Solids
lbs/ft3
3.21
4.52
4.70
5.16
6.62
4.94
3.65
4.07
4.79
7.54
5.09
-------
NJ
0D8 OD6
002
0 0
Dll D4
ODI2
OD7
•o-
~
OD5
OD9 DQ o3 O01
y o o—
LEGEND:
See Figure as for Key
scale
\\
\\
n vT
DIO
D6
D7
Dll
D4
DI2
D9
DI3
D5
D3
Dl
FIGURE 27. Bark Distribution at a Typical Log Storage Area in Yaquina Estuary.
D2
-------
Table 11. Total and Volatile Solids for Benthic Core Samples as a Function
of Depth Below the Water-Soil Interface
Depth
(inches)
% volatile Total solids
solids (grams)
^volatile Total solids
solids (grams)
Control - 5
0
2
4
6
8
10
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
- 2
- 4
-6
- 8
- 10
- 12
- 2
- 4
-6
- 8
- 10
- 12
- 14
9.52
7.48
7.72
4.48
6.98
7.34
40.73
36.54
33.56
25.25
12.
15.
18.
25.
18.
14.
A - 3
8.
9.
15.
25.
48
57
61
54
30
77
68
37
14
12
4.
4.
3.
5.
8.
43.
29.
35.
Sample
No.
Control - 6
69
91
82
12
79
57
98
37
22.
19.
22.
24.
31.
Sample
A -4
6.
12.
14.
43
40
38
13
25
No.
07
14
20
% volatile Total solids % volatile
solids (grams) solids
A - 1
31.90 10.92 22.
20.77 18.91 24.
13.75 22.89 20.
25.07 18.12 14.
19.
A - 5
19.27 8.03 16.
25.91 16.55 24.
24.14 19.16 26.
22.
22.
24.
17.
A - 2
65
42
34
94
10
A - 6
35
46
32
37
63
65
12
Total solids
(grams)
13.13
16.18
15.66
23.42
19.87
14.51
18.68
13.94
15.90
14.22
18.28
19.21
-------
--
8 6
UJ
Q_
5
8
ft
UJ
Q
10
2
14
O L°9 Storage Area I
Log Storage Area 2
23 4567
VOLATILE SOLIDS ( Ibs/ff )
FIGURE 28. Volatile Solids of Benthic Deposits at Selected Sites in
Yaquina Estuary.
64
-------
^ 6
•
4
UJ
I
1
a.
u
c
10
12
'4
LEGEND
Log Dump I
-f""l Log Dump 2
-T1 Log Dump 3
-O Log Storoge Area I
'O Log Storage Area 2
"O Log Storage Area 3
Log Storage Area 4
Log Storage Area 5
\
\
X
b
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
•
f.
^s''
X
X,
X
\
X
k
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
,''h
5 10 15
VOLATILE SOLIDS ( Ibs/ft5 )
20
FIGURE 29. Volatile Solids of Benthic Deposits at Selected Sites in
the Klamath River.
-------
To characterize a given segment of the benthic zone, the average volatile
solids were computed. For each small area sampled the average percent-
age of volatile solids and the average dry weight were computed for
successive 2-inch wafers cut from core samples beginning at the soil-
water interface. From these data the average pounds of volatile solids
per cubic foot of soil was computed. A complete report of all core test
results is given by Williamson (26). Typical results are presented in
Table 11. A plot of volatile solids as a function of depth is shown in
Figures 28 and 29. The control samples noted in Figure 28 had volatile
solids values ranging from 2 to 3 pounds per cubic foot. These volatile
solids were probably contributed by biological growth in benthic deposits
and volatile portions (humus) of the soil.
Figure 28 shows an average increase of 0.1 to 2.8 pounds of volatile
solids per cubic foot for samples from the log storage area over samples
from the control area. The average of the increases is approximately
equal to two pounds of volatile solids per cubic foot. In the log dump-
ing area, increases from 1.9 to 3.8 pounds of volatile solids per cubic
foot over the control samples are shown with an average increase of ap-
proximately 2.5 Ib VSS/cu ft.
Figure 29 shows an average volatile solids content in the log storage
areas of approximately two pounds per cubic foot at the Klamath River
site. No control samples were taken because no area could be found which
was not affected by log rafting. Since the soil is of volcanic origin,
the background volatile solids content from soil humus would probably
be small. A large algae bloom does occur, however, in the upper Klamath
River, which could add some organic matter to the benthic zone.
The volatile solids in the log dumping areas at Klamath River sites
averaged about six pounds per cubic foot for the first six inches of
depth. This is an increase of approximately four pounds of volatile
solids per cubic foot over the log storage areas. At Yaquina Estuary
an increase in volatile solids of only 0.5 lb/ft3 was found for the log
dumping areas over adjacent log storage areas.
The large difference in bark distribution between the two study areas is
probably due to swifter moving water at Yaquina Estuary as compared to
the Klamath River. In the Klamath River the debris would tend to stay
in the log dumping and storage areas after sinking, whereas at the
Yaquina Estuary the tides would tend to redistribute the sunken debris
over a wide area.
The curve in Figure 29 corresponding to the log dumping area on the Klamath
River, shows a volatile solids content of approximately 15 Ibs/cu ft for
samples taken from a depth of 6 to 16 inches. Visual observation revealed
that this sample was nearly 100 percent bark. The volatile solids content
of bark alone would vary, however, depending upon stage of decomposition.
66
-------
—
UJ
*:
:
a.
2
UJ
X
LEGEND
O RUN 4A
D RUN 4B
Oxygen Uptake Rate =
234
TIME FROM START OF RUN (hrs)
FIGURE 30. Insitu Benthic Oxygen Demand Results for Two Respiro-
meter Runs at the Same Test Site on the Little
Deschutes River near Gilchrist, Oregon.
-------
Benthic Oxygen Uptake
The rate of oxygen consumption by benthic bark deposits was evaluated
at four locations in central and western Oregon. Ponderosa pine logs
were stored at the two interior locations and Douglas fir was the pre-
dominant species stored at the coastal sites.
Oxygen uptake readings as mg/1 02 were recorded continuously during each
test run and test results were plotted as shown in Figure 30. Using
these plots together with the volume enclosed by the respirometer and the
planar surface area covered by the respirometer, values with units rag
02/m2/day were calculated. Following each experimental run (2 to 8 hours
duration), the respirometer was removed and core samples were taken at
the exact location of the respirometer emplacement. The top two inches
of the cores were tested for volatile solids content. Experimental runs
were conducted in areas containing different amount of bark in the benthic
deposits. Control areas, with little or no bark in benthic deposits were
also tested.
Volatile solids values and oxygen uptake readings were modified by sub-
tracting comparable values from control samples. The results summarized
in Table 12 represent the averages of several runs at each different lo-
cation. The volatile solids and oxygen uptake values for the control
areas indicate the presence of biodegradable organic matter from sources
other than log storage activities. These sources could include dead and
living organisms, debris washed from the watershed, man-made wastes and
others.
Figure 31 is a plot of oxygen uptake versus volatile solids content of
benthic deposits, corrected for the contribution from control samples.
The curve shows that as the concentration of volatile solids increases,
oxygen uptake increases up to approximately 2 to 2.5 g 0 /m^/day. These
values can be compared with the results obtained by Stein, et.al. (25)
for cellulose deposits in the vicinity of pulp mills. They found uptake
values of 3.6 g 02/m2/day, however, they did not relate their uptake
readings to the volatile solids content of the benthic samples. They
also discovered that benthic oxygen demand is related only to the surface
area of the deposit and not to the depth. Therefore, very deep undisturbed
deposits are no more of a problem from an oxygen depletion standpoint
than are shallow deposits.
68
-------
Table 12. In Situ Benthic Oxygen Uptake as a Function of Volatile Solids
Content in the Top Two Inch Layer of Bark Deposits
<£>
Run No. Location
Control Bend
1
2 "
3 "
Control Gilchrist
4 "
5 "
6
7 "
Control* N. Fork Coos River
8n 11
9 ii "
Control S. Fork Coos River
10 " "
11
12 "
13 " "
Species of logs
Ponderosa pine
M
II
M
Ponderosa pine
n
n
n
it
Douglas fir
M
it
Douglas fir
n
n
M
II
Average
top 2"
0.009
0.026
0.048
0.084
0.009
0.089
0.083
0.136
0.150
0.013
0.046
0.079
0.018
0.032
0.030
0.032
0.031
Volatile solids
(g/cm3)
of Increase above
control values
0.017
0.039
0.075
0.080
0.074
0.127
0.141
0.023
0.056
0.014
0.012
0.014
0.013
Oxygen
(g/m
Average
0.25
0.79
1.0
1.7
0.40
1.7
1.8
3.2
2.6
1.9
3.0
4.4
1.7
2.6
3.8
2.3
2.3
uptake
2 -day)
Increase above
control values
0.54
0.7
1.5
1.3
1.4
2.8
2.2
1.1
2.5
0.9
2.1
0.6
0.6
*Average of five runs
-------
3.0
N
E
ui
*
r
i
Z3
?
X
o
2.5-
2.0-
15 -
1.0-
0.5 -
D
0^
LEGEND
STORAGE
SITE
D BEND
O OILCHRIST
O ALLEGANEY
A DELLWOOD
AVG. CONTRC
02 UPTAKE
—
0.4 g/m2
1.90
0.79
)L VALUES
VS.
0.009 g
0.023
0.016
0.05
0.10
0.15
VOLATILE SOLIDS IN TOP 2" ( g/cm* )
FIGURE 31 Benthic Oxygen Demand as a Function of Volatile Solids. (all values
corrected for corresponding control area values)
-------
Part III; Comprehensive Field Studies
Introduction
During the initial phases of this research investigation, apparatus and
procedures were developed for the prediction of pollution from log storage
activities based upon the quantity of logs in water storage, length of
storage period, and the hydraulic characteristics of the body of holding
water. All experimental results were reported with units which could be
directly extrapolated for field application. In order to determine the
reliability and validity of the predictive information, field studies
were conducted at four log storage sites: one in central Oregon near
Bend, on the Deschutes River; another south of Bend on the Little Deschutes
River; and the third and fourth on the north and south forks of the Coos
River in western Oregon. Ponderosa pine logs were stored at the interior
sites whereas Douglas fir and hemlock logs were stored on the Coos River.
The quantity of logs in storage and approximate length of storage period
were determined through cooperation with the appropriate mill personnel
at the various sites and by direct measurement. Hydraulic flow data
were determined at each site with current meters and flow,cross-section
measurements; water quality measurements were made on samples taken up-
stream and downstream of the log storage sites.
Log Volume-Area Relationship
All leachate data (with the exception of toxicity) taken during the de-
velopmental phases of this study are reported in the units, grams of
pollutant leached per square foot of log area submerged. Therefore, for
extrapolation of this information to field application, the degree of
log submergence had to be determined. This was accomplished by taking
numerous field measurements of logs at different stages of storage.
Depth of submergence was measured with a steel ruler and expressed as
percentage of diameter submerged. Results of measurements on Douglas
fir and ponderosa pine logs are presented in Table 13. Freshly dumped
fir logs were found to be submerged up to 66% of their diameter, whereas
similar logs stored for more than 30 days were only 70% submerged.
Ponderosa pine logs, held in water over 30 days, were found to be ap-
proximately 69% submerged.
Since the timber industry generally uses board feet as an expression of
log volume held in storage, a relationship had to be developed between
board feet stored and square feet of raft area. This was done using log
scaling notes from the timber industry and the Scribner log rule (5).
Then by combining the log submergence data with the log surface area-
volume information, a reasonable estimate could be made of log area
submerged per 1,000 board feet stored. A summary of these calculations
is given in Table 14.
71
-------
Table 13. Percentage of Log Submergence in Water (Based on Diameter)
Parameter
Number of logs
measured
Mean (X)
Standard deviation
95% confidence limit
Douglas fir
(freshly dumped)
118
66. 0*
46.8
64.8 -67.2
Douglas fir
(stored for an
extended period)
323
70.5%
70.4
69.6 -71.4
Ponderosa pine
(stored for an
extended period)
278
69. 0%
117.2
67. 7 - 70. 3
Table 14. Statistical Data for Raft Volume-area Parameters
Species
Douglas fir
mean (X)
no. of observations
standard deviation
95% confidence
interval
Ponderosa pine
mean (X)
no. of observations
standard deviation
95% confidence
interval
Board ft/sq ft
of raft area
4.8
5
0.61
4. 1 - 5. 6
7.2
4
0.85
5.9-8.6
End area submerged/1000 bd ft
(ft2)
7.2
5
0.42
6. 6 - 7. 7
6. 5
4
0.48
5.7-7.3
Cylindrical area submerged
/1000 bd ft (ft2)
249.0
5
10.8
235.6 - 262.
157.1
4
67.10
50. 2 - 264.
4
0
72
-------
Gilchrist Lake
The first comprehensive field study was undertaken on the Little Deschutes
River near Gilchrist in central Oregon. Ponderosa pine logs were stored
in a small reservoir created by a dam on the river. Logs have been stored
for many years at this site which has resulted in a benthic accumulation
of bark debris in various stages of degradation. However, since 1969, all
logs stored at this site have been completely debarked prior to dumping,
consequently, very little bark now enters the reservoir from log handling
activities. No attempts have been made to remove existing bark deposits.
The volume of the reservoir was determined by depth measurements to be about
8.7 million cubic feet.
Flow in the Little Deschutes River during the study period (June 19 to
29, 1970) was measured with a Pygmy current meter at a control section
in the stream. Average flow during the sampling period was 46.5 cfs (30
mgd) which corresponded to a theoretical hydraulic detention time of 52
hours. A plot of measured flow during the test period is shown in Figure
32. A Rhodamine dye tracer was added at the inlet end of the pond to
determine the actual detention time. Results of the dye dump plotted in
Figure 33 show a peak dye concentration in the reservoir outlet of 23 hours
after injection at the inlet. This is 0.6 of the theoretical detention
time. Even though some short circuiting of flow was noted, it was not
judged to be critical for subsequent water quality measurements.
Grab samples were taken daily at six intermediate stations within the
reservoir. In addition, samples were collected every four to six hours
at the inlet and outlet ends of the reservoir. Samples were analyzed for
BOD, COD, PBI, and total organic carbon. Results of tests on samples
taken within the reservoir indicated that the reservoir was nearly com-
pletely mixed. The inlet and outlet sample data were used to measure the
contribution of pollutants from the stored logs. Analytical results are
shown in Tables 15 and 16.
The predicted quantity of pollutants based upon the equation developed
during the laboratory leaching studies (see Appendix D) is also included
in Table 16. An estimated 70,000 board feet of peeled ponderosa pine
logs were held in storage for a mean storage period of 30 days. Based
upon this input information, the following values were calculated: COD,
18 Ibs/day; BOD5, 4 Ibs/day; PBI, 40 Ibs/day; and TOC, 8 Ibs/day. As-
suming a mean flow rate through the storage area of 46.5 cfs, the con-
centration of pollutants leached could be calculated to be BOD, 0.01 mg/1,
COD, 0.06 mg/1; PBI, 0.16 mg/1; and TOC, 0.03 mg/1.
It is readily apparent from Table 16 that a considerably higher quantity
of pollutants were measured in the system than were predicted from lab-
oratory studies. This can be accounted for by the extreme difficulty in
measuring BOD, COD, PBI and TOC at low concentrations, and in obtaining
consistent values at each sampling point during the sampling period.
First, BOD values below 1.0 mg/1 have questionable significance. Further-
more, the average influent BOD value was 0.25 with a standard deviation
73
-------
80
~ 70
•
o
3
60
50
40
30
period of pond sampling- average
I2N
6/22
I2M
I2N
6/23
I2M
I2N
6/24
I2M
12 N
6/25
I2M
FIGURE 32. Little Deschutes River Flow Curve Upstream
from Gilchrist Pond.
70 -
FIGURE 33. Results of Dye Tracer Study at Gilchrist Pond.
-------
Table 15. Measured Concentration of COD. BOD, FBI and TOC at the
Inlet and Outlet of the Gilchrist Log Storage Site
Date
6/23/70
6/24/70
6/25/70
Mean
Std. dev.
Inlet samples
COD, mg/1 BOD, mg/1
_ _
inlet outlet inlet outlet
5.4 8.5 0.4 1.9
14.2 0.1 0.8
4.8 14.7
12.1 7.6 0.2 1.5
5.2 0.3 0.8
8.7
8.3
13.5 14.0
5.7 5.4
8.7 10.0 0.25 1.25
3.7 4.1 0.13 0.55
taken at 4 hour intervals
PBI,ppm SSL
(10% solids)
inlet
0.18
1.00
2.30
6.76
2.30
1.87
2.00
1.61
0.83
outlet
---
1.45
2.09
1.21
25.3
.._
11.23
2.37
1.78
0.54
TOC,
inlet
3
14
4
3.5
5
4
2
5
3.5
3.5
3.7
0.95
mg/1
outlet
9
--
16
12,3
25
16
4
25
12
12
4.7
1.87
Outlet samples taken 30 minutes after inlet samples
Pollution
index
BOD
COD
FBI1
TOC
Table 16. BOD, COD, PBI and TOC
from Gilchrist Log Storage
Inflow Outflow
mean mean
concentration concentration
mg/1 mg/1
0.25±0. 13 1.25±0. 55
8.7± 3.7 10. 0± 4.1
1.6± 0.83 1. 8± 0.54
3.7± 0.95 3.9± 1.87
in Inflow and
Reservoir
Measured
mg/1
1.0
1.3
0.2
0.2
Outflow
increase
lb/day2
250
325
50
50
Predicted increase
mg/1
0.02
0.07
0.16
0.03
lb/day
4
18
40
8
FBI is expressed as ppm SSL (1Q% by weight)
lb/day based on a flow of 46. 5 cfs (30 mdg)
75
-------
of 0.13 mg/1 and the mean effluent concentration was only 1.25 rag/1 with
a standard deviation of 0.55 mg/1. Therefore, with this spread of data,
the 1.0 mg/1 difference in BOD must be considered insignificant. However,
when 1.0 mg/1 is multiplied by the flow of 46.5 cfs, a large daily BOD
contribution (540 Ibs) is calculated; yet only four pounds of BOD were ex-
pected in the leachate per day. Similar reasoning can be applied to
explain the variation in FBI, COD, and TOG results.
Perhaps a closer comparison in results could have been obtained if more
logs would have been held in storage or the flow rate would have been
reduced substantially. Regardless of which values are used, it is im-
portant to note that the storage of peeled ponderosa pine logs in this
particular situation did not have a significant effect on the quality of
the holding water, even though a slight increase in pollutant level was
detected.
Deschutes River Storage
The second log storage area studied was on the Deschutes River near Bend,
Oregon. Approximately 2.5 million board feet of ponderosa pine logs were
stored in the river in the area under study. Most of the bark remained
intact on the logs. River flow was measured to be 1,360 cfs during the
study period.
Water samples were collected immediately upstream and downstream from
the storage area at six to eight hour intervals for three days. Samples
were analyzed for BOD, COD, FBI and TOC. Average results from eight
samples at each site are shown in Table 17. The predicted contribution
of pollutants is also given in Table 17. Refer to Appendix D for com-
putation of predicted leachate values.
These results clearly show that the quantity of pollutants picked up by
log storage was not detectable within the limits of test accuracy and
sample variability. The average BOD values for influent and effluent
samples were exactly the same. Again, when trace concentrations are
multiplied by very large flows, a considerable number of pounds are
calculated. Therefore, it appears more reasonable to determine the
quantity and species of logs in water storage, then predict the effect
on the holding water, rather than rely upon direct water quality measure-
ments .
Coos Bay^ Study
The final log storage sites selected were on the north and south forks
of the Coos River in western Oregon. Douglas fir and hemlock logs with
bark intact (except for that lost during dumping and raft transport) were
held in rafts for one or more days. The rafts were then taken by tug to
the lower bay for processing. The log storage areas were in the upper
tidal water, very near to the free flowing streams. Therefore, the log
76
-------
Table 17. BOD, COD, FBI and TOC in Inflow and Outflow from
the Log Storage Area on the Deschutes River
Pollution
index
BOD
COD
FBI1
TOC
Inflow
concentration
mg/1
1.9±0. 5
6.0± 1.6
2.2± 2.17
0. li 0.15
Outflow
concentration
mg/1
1.9±0. 5
6. 5± 1.6
3.9± 0.99
1.1± 1.4
Measured
mg/1
0
0.5
1.7
1.0
increase
lb/day2
0
70
220
130
Predicted
mg/1
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.02
increase
lb/day
50
110
40
360
FBI is expressed as ppm SSL (10% by weight)
lb/day is based on a flow of 1360 cfs (880 mdg)
holding water moved both up- and downstream during each tidal cycle, with
some net movement downstream due to stream inflow. This tidal fluctuation,
combined with the large volume of fresh water inflow, greatly complicated
the direct measurement of differences in water quality upstream and down-
stream from the rafted logs.
Predicted values for the logs stored in the North Fork area are given in
Table 18 and those for the South Fork are given in Table 19. Supporting
calculations are included in Appendix D.
Results shown in these tables reveal that less than 1.0 mg/1 of all pol-
lution indices measured were added to the log handling water. Since this
quantity is too small to verify by field measurement, especially in a
situation in which the stream and tidal hydraulics are complicated, only
limited effort was made to determine the "actual" impairment to water
quality fron. the log rafts. The direct measurements that were made proved
to be widely variable, and in some instances showed a decrease in pollutant
level during water passage through the log storage area.
Benthic oxygen demand determinations were made at several points in and
around the log storage areas. Values of 1.7 to 3.8 g (H/m /day were
determined for the south fork storage area, whereas values ranged from
1.9 to 4.4 g 02/m2/day for the north fork storage site. A summary of
oxygen uptake values is given in Table 12. Assuming an average demand of
3.0 g 02/m2/day and a log storage area of 200 meters by 20 meters (4,000
m2), the total demand for oxygen would be 12,000 grams or 26.5 Ibs per
day. With a stream flow of 20 mgd, the resulting depletion of dissolved
oxygen from the overlying water would be only 0.16 mg/1. This deficit
could not be determined by conventional analytical methods used in the
field.
77
-------
Table 18. Predicted Increases in BOD, COD, PBI and TOC from the
Log Storage Area on lie North Fork Coos River
Pollution
index
BOD
COD
PBI1
TOC
mg/12
0.20
0.69
0.54
0.27
Ib/day
33
112
86
43
PBI is expressed as ppm SSL (10& by weight)
Concentration is based on a flow of 30 cfs (19.4 mgd)
Table 19. Predicted Increases in BOD, COD, PBI and TOC from the
Log Storage Area on the South Fork Coos River
Pollution
index
BOD
COD
PBI1
TOC
mg/12
0.09
O.30
0.62
0.12
Ib/day
12
40
83
16
PBI expressed as ppm SSL (10« by weight)
2
Concentration is based on a flow of 40. 3 cfs (26.0 mgd)
78
-------
Part IV: Magnitude of the Problem
One of the specific aims of this research program was to survey the
magnitude of the pollution problem in the Pacific Northwest resulting from
log handling and storage. Such a survey requires the active participation
of saw mills, pulp mills, and other industries which utilize raw timber.
Several attempts were made to organize this survey through various timber
industry associations, without success. The industry was found to be re-
luctant to divulge information regarding log inventories, length of storage
and conditions for storage. Perhaps as state and federal pollution con-
trol authorities press for tighter control of all pollution discharges,
information of this type will become more readily obtainable. Some semi-
quantitive information was obtained, however, during visits to the states
in the Northwest region which have log storage problems.
Oregon
Several species of timber including Douglas fir, ponderosa pine, white
pine, hemlock and cedar are harvested in Oregon. Nearly one-half of the
5000 manufacturing firms in the state depend upon this timber resource (19),
Furthermore, the 400 billion board feet of raw timber produced in Oregon
ranks as the largest single state output in the nation.
Large inventories of logs are held in lakes, rivers, estuaries, and man-
made ponds. Oregon has over 12,000 acres of log ponds and 2,000 acres of
sloughs and canals used for log storage (18). In some areas of the state
the Department of Environmental Quality has required that all logs be
peeled before storage in a water course. Land storage of logs, with and
without sprinkling, is also widely practiced.
Washington
Vast quantities of logs are stored in rivers, lakes, estuaries, and man-
made log ponds in the state of Washington. Land storage of logs is also
widely practiced. No estimate was obtainable regarding the quantity and
species of logs stored.
California
California officials in Sacramento indicate that little, if any, water
storage is permitted in the northern California timber regions. Most all
logs are held in cold decks on land.
Alaska
There are only two major log storage sites in Alaska at the present time.
These are located near Sitka and Ketchikan. Logs are primarily held in
79
-------
saline water bays and estuaries. The logs are strapped into bundles,
then the bundles are rafted for transport and storage. No attempt was
made in this investigation to study the effect of bundling on the loss
of bark, however, this procedure should reduce bark losses. Furthermore,
it is likely the rate of leaching and benthic oxygen uptake rate would
be reduced in the very cold Alaskan waters.
80
-------
DISCUSSION
Storage of vast quantities of logs is extremely important to the timber
industry in the Pacific Northwest due to the prevailing regional weather
pattern. Timber cutting and overland hauling activities are essentially
limited to the dry summer and fall months. Heavy winter and spring rains
and snows restrict field activities. Yet, production at saw mills, pulp
mills, and other forest products industries must continue throughout the
entire year.
Logs can be stored on land or floated in rafts in rivers, lakes, or man-
made ponds. Logs which are not kept moist soon dry out at the ends and
cracks develop. This phenomenon! referred to as "checking" enhances insect
attack and results in extensive wastage of the resource. Logs stored
upon dry land can be sprinkled to retard checking.
The presence of logs in water can cause several problems. Log rafts fre-
quently cover large areas of streams, lakes and estuaries which have other
benefical uses such as boating, fishing, crabbing, etc. Some logs become
water soaked, escape from the raft and float partially submerged in the
water course creating a hazard to boaters. Other logs sink and accumulate
on the bottom of the water course. There is also some objection to the
presence of rafted logs for aesthetic reasons. Two other problems are
associated with log storage which perhaps are not so obvious but are of
concern i.e., the quantity and effect of substances which leach (or dis-
solve) out of the logs and the bark which is dislodged from the logs.
These latter two problems were dealt with in detail in this research
investigation.
Leachates from logs in water storage contained mostly organic substances
which exert both a chemical and biochemical oxygen demand (COD and BOD).
This organic chemical composition was also shown by the fact that 60 to
80 percent of the solids leached were volatile. The tannins and lignin-
like substances added a brownish color to the leachates and were quantita-
ted by the Pearl Benson Index (PBI). Even though these substances are
not known to be injurious to aquatic organisms or humans, the added color
is often aesthetically undesirable.
Laboratory results with 20-inch long log sections of ponderosa pine and
Douglas fir logs showed that when logs are held in stagnant, non-flowing
systems, leachates emerge at a relatively constant rate for up to 80 days.
However, when water is passed by the logs in a flow-through system the
initial leaching rate is substantially higher but declines after 20 to
30 days. No studies were attempted at the high flow rates experienced in
some natural streams and estuaries. Apparently, a concentration gradient
builds up around the logs in a static system which retards the rate of
leaching. This gradient would not likely exist in free flowing systems.
The leaching rates determined in this study are absolute rates, and as
such would tend to be conservative. In actual field situations where
81
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microbial biodegradation of leached substances would take place, the
measured amount of BOD, COD, solids, etc., would generally be less than
predicted. This was found to be the case with log pond waters. Log pond
waters tested generally had much lower BOD to COD ratios than would have
been predicted from the leachate studies in which biological activity was
arrested with chemical poison. This low ratio resulted since only bio-
degradable substances are measured by the BOD test whereas both biodegrad-
able and non-biodegradable organic substances are measured in the COD test.
The technique developed during this investigation for poisoning samples
then depoisoning at a later time for biological analyses such as BOD and
acute toxicity could be applied to many other types of experiments and
for routine sample preservation (21).
Experimental data shows that more color-producing and soluble organic
substances were leached from ponderosa pine logs than from comparable
Douglas fir logs. This observation is consistent with the findings re-
ported by Kurth, et.al. (17). They found that the leachates extracted
from pine bark contain nearly ten times more soluble sugar than the ex-
tracts from Douglas fir.
As expected, log sections with bark intact imparted much more color to
the water than pine with the bark removed. Bark is known to contain many
water soluble extraneous components, including tannins and lignin-like
substances which can produce color. The exposed cut ends of the logs
tend to expedite the release of color and soluble organics. A comparison
of data shown in Figure 12 for unaltered test logs with those for logs with
ends sealed clearly illustrate this fact. This observation was not un-
expected since the physiological flow pattern of water and nutrients is
longitudinally through a living tree.
Leaching rate does not appear to be affected by saline water as shown by
COD results in Figure 17a. A significantly smaller value for FBI did
result in saline water, however. This may be explained by the precip-
itation of lignin-like substances which have a net positive surface charge,
through the formation of a complex with chloride ions present in high
concentrations in the saline water. Andrews (2) observed this phenomenon!
during his study of the fate of color in kraft waste when discharged in-
to sea water.
Log leachates were found to be relatively non-toxic to salmon and trout
fry during exposure periods of up to four days. Similar observations
have been reported by Servizi (22) for leachate from bark using adult
sockeye salmon as the test fish.
Only trace amounts of nitrogen and phosphous were found in the log leach-
ates. This is understandable since ponderosa pine and Douglas fir con-
tain very small amounts of these nutrients.
Results from brief laboratory and field studies on runoff from sprinkled
cold decks showed that this water leaches soluble organics from the logs
82
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as it trickles across the log surfaces. Consequently, cold deck runoff
will probably require some form of treatment prior to discharge into a
receiving body of water. An alternate solution would be to form a closed
recycle loop and avoid discharging the polluted water.
Loss of bark from logs during storage is related to the species of timber
and the method of log handling. Ponderosa pine bark tends to adhere more
tightly to the wood surface than does Douglas fir bark. Consequently,
fir logs would be expected to lose more bark than pine under similar han-
dling conditions. This hypothesis was verified by direct field measure-
ment. Approximately 22% of the bark was lost from Douglas fir logs during
unloading and transport compared to only 6% for ponderosa pine. Similarly,
Douglas fir logs lost 18% of their bark during felling operations and
truck loading compared to less than 6% for ponderosa pine.
The rate at which barks sinks when placed in water is a function of bark
density,, water absorption rate and particle sizes. Laboratory studies on
ponderosa pine bark revealed that all particles less than 1/2-inch in
mean diameter sank within 20 days whereas only 3% (by weight) of the bark
pieces 4 inches or larger sank during this period. Generally, a large
fraction of dislodged pine bark is in the small size classification which
would result in a high overall rate of sinking. Sinking studies on bark
samples collected at random near log dumps verified that overall, on a
dry weight basis, pine bark tends to sink at a faster rate than Douglas
fir bark.
Sunken bark accumulates on the bottom of holding water systems to form
benthic deposits. Bark deposits were found to range in thickness from
several feet at log dumping sites to less than an inch in adjacent log
storage sites. Since some bark floats for a period of time, it can be
carried considerable distances with prevailing currents before sinking.
Consequently, bark can be found in benthic deposits at locations far
removed from the dumping and storage areas. Volatile solids measurements
on core samples revealed an average increase of 2 to 2.5 pounds of
volatile solids per cubic foot in log storage areas compared to samples
from control areas (without log handling).
The presence of bark in the benthic deposits could result in several
problems. Bark is a form of biodegradable organic matter which when
undergoing biodegradation results in the consumption of dissolved oxygen
from overlying waters. Fortunately, the rate of bark decomposition is
very slow due to its complex chemical composition and to the low water
temperatures at many storage sites. This low rate was shown by in situ
benthic respirometric measurements in log storage and control areas.
The maximum oxygen uptake values found ranged from 2 to 2.5 g 02/m2/day
greater than control values and the rate appeared to be independent of
depth of deposit. It is apparent from these results that benthic oxygen
demand will only become a significant problem in situations where an
extensive area of a water body is covered with bark and/or the hydraulic
flow is very small. Such conditions could be found in lakes, sloughs,
and man-made ponds. Davison and Hanes (4) have also found that oxygen
uptake rate is independent of depth for compacted sludge deposits.
83
-------
Since the quantity of substances leaching from logs in water storage is,
in general, minute when diluted with the large hydraulic flows found in
many water courses used for storage, it is virtually impossible to detect
an increase in pollutant level due to the logs. The recommended procedure
for evaluating the impact of log storage on water quality is to apply the
predictive equations developed in this study. Several unsuccessful attempts
were made in the field to directly measure an increase in pollutatnt load
resulting from water storage of logs. This is not to infer that log stor-
age does not add pollutants to the holding water, but only that the input
from leaching is generally small. Dislodged bark is another matter.
Methods for controlling bark losses must be developed and implemented,
such as improved methods of depositing logs into the holding water. De-
barking of logs prior to water storage has been successfully used at
several locations in Oregon and could possibly be applied in other sit-
uations. Banding logs in bundles may be another effective method for
reducing bark losses.
Based upon the information generated in this three-year investigation, it
appears that the widely practiced water storage of logs does not have a
severe impact on water quality in the Pacific Northwest. Improved methods
of handling logs during dumping, rafting and transport could significantly
reduce bark losses and thereby prevent the build up of benthic deposits.
Research is currently being conducted by this investigator to evaluate
the effects of bark deposits on aquatic organisms.
84
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The invaluable assistance of Mr. Kenneth J. Williamson and Mr. John
Cristello throughout the entire study is gratefully acknowledged.
The cooperation of many timber companies in the Pacific Northwest
for allowing on-site studies and providing logs is sincerely appreciated.
The support and suggestions offered by Dr. Kirk Willard, EPA project
officer is acknowledged. Also, the financial support of EPA, which
made this study possible, is acknowledged.
The bioassay work performed by the Oregon State University Department
of Fisheries and Wildlife is appreciated.
The principal project investigator was Frank U. Schaumburg, Associate
Professor of Civil Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
97331.
85
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. American Public Health Association. Standard methods for the ex-
amination of water and wastewater. 12th ed. New York, 1965.
2. Andrews, B.N./A study of the coagulation of kraft effluent by sea
water." M.S. Thesis, Oregon State University, 1968.
3. Atkinson, S.R., ''"BOD and toxicity of log leachates/ M.S. Thesis,
Oregon State University, 1971.
4. Davison, B.I. and N.B. Hanes, " Effect of sludge depth on oxygen uptake
of a benthal system/Water and sewage works, August 1969.
5. Dilworth, J.R., Log scaling and timber cruising. OSU Book Stores,
Inc., Corvallis, Oregon, 1966.
6. Farmer, R.H., Chemistry in the utilization of wood. Pergamon
Press, 1967.
7.' Felicetta, V.F. and J.L. McCarthy, "The Pearl-Benson , or nitroso,
method for the estimation of spent sulfite liquor concentration
in water." Tappi 48:337-347. 1963.
8. Ellwood, E.L. and B.A. Ecklund/" Bacterial attack of pine logs in
pond storage." Forest Products Journal 9_: 283-292. 1959.
9. Graham, J.L. and F.D. Schaumburg.t Pollutants leached from selected
species of wood in log storage waters '' Presented at the 24th
Purdue Industrial Wastes Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette,
Indiana, May 6, 1969.
10. Graham, J.L., " Pollutants leached from selected species of wood in
log storage waters/ M.S. Thesis, Oregon State University, 1970.
11. Henriksen, A. and J.E. Sandal, ^Centralized log barking and water
pollution/'' Vattenhygien 2:55-60. 1966.
12. Hodge, J.E. and B.T. Hofreiter, '"'Determination of reducing sugars
and carbohydrates." Methods in Carbohydrate Chemistry.
13. Jeris, J.S./'A rapid COD test." Water_aidjfastw^n£^ering.
4:89-91. May, 1967.
14. Kurth, E.F., '"Chemicals from Douglas fir bark? Tappi, 36_: 119A-122A
1953.
15. Kurth, E.F., H.J. Kiefer and J.K. Hubbard/ Utilization of Douglas
fir barkf The Timberman 49:8. 1948.
87
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16. Kurth, E.F. and J.K. Hubbard, ''Extractives from ponderosa pine bark.
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 43:896. 1951.
17. Kurth, E.F., J.K. Hubbard and J.D. Humphrey, "Chemical composition
of ponderosa and sugar pine barks f Paper presented at the Third
Annual National Meeting of the Forest Products Research Society,
Grand Rapids, Michigan, May 3, 1949.
18. McHugh, R.A., L.S. Miller and I.E. Olsen, //rThe ecology and naturalistic
control of log pond mosquitoes in the Pacific Northwest.7 Portland,
Oregon State Board of Health, 1964.
19. Oregon. Dept. of Commerce. The economy and outlook, Salem, 1968.
20. Sawyer, Clair N. and Perry L. McCarty, Chemistry for sanitary
engineers. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967.
21. Schaumburg, F.D.,"A new concept in sample preservation - poisoning
and depoisoning," Journal Water Pollution Control Fedej-j-tion.,
(In press).
22. Servisi, J.A., D.W. Martens and R.W. Gordon, " Effects of decaying
bark on incubating salmon eggs/'' Progress Report No. 24 for
International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission, 1970.
23. Somogyi, M., "*A new reagent for the determination of sugars/7 Journal
of Biological Chemistry. 160:61-68, 1945.
24. Sproul, O.J. and C.A. Sharpe, Water quality degradation by wood
bark pollutants/" Water Resources Center, University of Maine,
Orono, Maine, 1968.
25. Stein, J.E. and J.G. Denison, "In situ benthal oxygen demand of
cellulose fibers,"' Proceedings, Third International Conference
on Pollution Research, Munich, 1966.
26. Williamson, K.J., "A study of the quantity and distribution of bark
debris resulting from log rafting," M.S. Thesis, Oregon State
University, 1969.
27. Wise, L.E., "Extraneous components of wood," Forest Products Journal
224-227, 1959.
88
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PUBLICATIONS
Graham, J. and F.D. Schaumburg, "Pollutants Leached for Selected Species
of Wood in Log Storage Waters, Proceedings, 24th Purdue Industrial
Wastes Conference, May 1969.
Schaumburg, F.D., "Log Pollution," Northwest Magazine (Oregonian Newspaper),
September 7, 1969.
Williamson, K.J. and F.D. Schaumburg, "Bark Debris from Log Unloading
Operation," Pulp and Paper (In Press).
Schaumburg, F.D., "Influence of Log Handling on Water Quality, Water
Resources Research Institute (OSU) Bulletin, January 1970.
Hoffbuhr, J., G. Blanton and F.D. Schaumburg, "The Character and Treatability
of Log Pond Waters." Water and Sewage Works_, July 1971.
Theses
Williamson, K.J., "A Study of the Quantity and Distribution of Bark Debris
Resulting from Log Storage, OSU M.S. Thesis, June 1970.
Atkinson, S.R.,"BOD and Toxicity of Log Leachates," OSU M.S. Thesis
June 1971.
Blanton, G.I., "The Characterization and Physical-Chemical Treatability
of'Log Pond Waters," OSU M.S. Thesis June 1970.
Hoffbuhr, J.W., "The Character and Biological Treatability of Log Pond
Waters," OSU M.S. Thesis June 1970.
Graham, J.L., "Pollutants Leached from Selected Species of Wood in Log
Storage Waters," OSU M.S. Thesis, June 1970.
Conference Paper and Presentations
Schaumburg, F.D. and S.R. Atkinson,"BOD5 and Toxicity Associated with
Log Leachates," Western Division American Fisheries Society Meeting,
August 1970.
Williamson K J and F.D. Schaumburg, "The Quanity and Distribution of
Bark Debris Resulting from Water Storage of Logs," PNW-WPCF Meeting,
October, 1969.
89
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APPENDIX A
DEVELOPMENT OF MASKING PROCEDURES
Soluble leachates from logs immersed in water emerge from both the cross-
cut ends and the cylindrical surface of the logs. Evaluation of the rel-
ative contribution from each of these types of surface was accomplished
by masking the cross-cut ends of some of the log section to prevent
leaching through the ends. The procedures followed in the selection of
an appropriate masking substance and subsequent application of the sub-
stance are described below. Four commercially available products were
tested as sealants or masking agents. These included: (1) Teflon spray
supplied by Connecticut Hard Rubber Co., New Haven, Connecticut; (2)
Epoxy sealer supplied by Travaco Laboratories Inc., Chelsea, Mass.; (3)
Paraffin wax. supplied by Union Oil Co. of California; and (4) silicone
lubricant supplied by Dow Corning Corp., Midland, Michigan. The effective-
ness of each product was evaluated by total carbon determinations of log
holding water. Other important factors considered were: ease of appli-
cation, durability, sealing quality and product cost. The first exper-
iment involved a determination of the contribution of carbonaceous sub-
stances to the holding water by each sealant. Plexiglas blocks, 1/8"
thick and 0.4 ft^ were used as the base material for the sealants, since
no measurable quantities of organics leach from plexiglas. Each sealant
was applied to individual pieces of plexiglas and allowed to harden.
Two blocks of epoxy sealer were prepared, one air-dried, the other oven-
dried for 3 hours at 103°C. All blocks were then immersed in 1000 ml
beakers containing 850 ml of distilled water.
Two rag/1 of mercury (as Hg++) was added to the water in the form of a
solution of mercuric chloride (HgCl2), to prevent any interference from
biological growth. The water temperature was held at 20°C ^0.5 through-
out the experiment. Samples were taken from each beaker and tested for
total carbon content.
The total carbon data given in Table 20 for the plexiglas blocks showed
that the silicone grease contributed the least carbonaceous material.
The other sealants, listed in order of increasing total carbon contri-
bution, were paraffin, Teflon spray, oven-dried epoxy sealer and air-
dried epoxy sealer.
The second experiment was designed to determine the sealing quality of
each product. Several uniform cubical blocks were cut from the same
Douglas fir log. The total surface area of each block was approximately
0.73 square feet. Each of the four sealants was applied to a separate
block so that the surface was completely covered. Each block was com-
pletely immersed in 1500 ml of water poisoned with 2 mg/1 Hg+ + and held
submerged by a clamp. An unsealed control block was also prepared and
handled in the same manner. The temperature was held at 20°C +_ 0.5
throughout the experiment. Samples taken from each beaker were analyzed
for total carbon content.
91
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Table 20. Total Organic Carbon (TOC) in Leachate from Plexiglas Blocks
and Wood Blocks Coated with Different Masking Substances.
Plexiglas Blocks
Time
(houre)
0
24
96
154
A
0
30.3
6.9
5.9
B
70.5
109.
95.0
C
25.4
27.4
D
39.2
7.9
8.8
E
25.4
38.2
18.6
F
23.5
36.2
45.0
Time
(hours)
0
31
72
120
Wood
Mg TOC/ft2
A
0
171
243
280
B
34.
38.
29.
3
0
8
Blocks
of
C
16.
16.
15.
surface area
4
2
1
37
61
62
D
.3
.5
.8
submerged
A - Uncoated control
B - Epoxy sealer - air dried
C - Paraffin
D - Silicone grease
E - Teflon
F - Epoxy sealer - air dried
92
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Total carbon data for the wood blocks showed that the greatest total car-
bon contribution was from the block sealed with silicone grease, and the
least contribution was from the paraffin-coated block. The total carbon
value of the epoxy sealed (air-dried) block after five days immersion was
approximately 30 mg/ft^ or about twice that of the paraffin covered block
for which the TOG value was about 15 mg/ft^.
Teflon spray was eliminated from practical, full scale application because
it was non-viscous and failed to seal the cracks in the wood block.
The total carbon contribution of the epoxy sealer compared favorably with
the other products only after pre-drying in an oven. Since this method
of drying was not practical for the large log sections and because of the
possible detrimental effect it could have on the leaching characteristics
of the logs, the epoxy sealer was eliminated from consideration.
The total carbon data for the wood block indicated that the silicone
grease did not seal effectively. A possible explanation for this is that
the silicone grease remained in a highly viscous state and therefore was
easily displaced when the sample was handled. This problem could prob-
ably have been reduced by covering the sealed area with a plexiglas sheet,
but this was not a practical solution considering the time and materials
involved.
Paraffin was chosen as the most desirable sealer because it satisfactorily
met the requirements of low carbon contribution to the surrounding water,
excellent sealing quality, ease of application and relatively low cost.
Paraffin sealant was applied by dipping the end of each log in liquid
paraffin and allowing it to solidify onto the appropriate wood surface.
A double boiler arrangement was used to melt the paraffin and to keep it
at a constant temperature of 60°C during application. While the paraffin
was cooling on the log, any bubble present was rubbed away by hand. This
process was repeated until a coating of paraffin approximately 1/4-inch
thick was secured on the log end.
93
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APPENDIX B
LEACHATE PRESERVATION WITH THE MERCURIC ION
Many substances which leach from logs during water storage are biodegrad-
able. Since non-sterile systems were used in these studies, bacteria
and other microorganisms were very likely present in the holding water,
in the test tanks and on the log sections. Consequently, organic sub-
stances which leached into the log holding water were subject to bio-
degradation before qualitative and quantitative measurements could be
made. The rate of leaching measured would have been the net result of
addition of leachate minus losses due to biodegradation.
Several methods were considered for the preservation of organic substances
during leaching tests which lasted from 4 to 40 days, including alteration
of pH, heat sterilization, organic toxicants, and heavy metal toxicants.
Only the heavy metal toxicants appeared feasible since the other methods
would have affected rate of leaching or the character of leached substances.
Since biological tests such as BOD and toxicity by bioassay, were to be
performed on the leachate some procedure was required for complete removal
of the toxic agent added during the log storage period. For other chemical
tests such as COD, solids, PBI, etc., removal of the toxic agent was not
required since there was no interference with the analytical procedures.
Schaumburg (21) describes a sample preservation technique in which the
mercuric ion can be added to water samples as a chemical preservative
then removed by chelation prior to biological analyses such as BOD or a-
cute bioassay. This sample preservation method was used in this study
to prevent biodegradation of organic substances which leached from logs
floating in water. The mercuric ion was added to test tanks filled with
tap water and holding submerged log sections. Following a storage period
of seven days, samples of the holding water were withdrawn and the mercuric
ion was removed by selective chelation. Samples were then analyzed for
BOD and acute toxicity.
In order to verify the effectiveness of the chelating agent in removing
mercury from aqueous solution a bioassay experiment was performed using
Chinook salmon fry as test fish. Twenty liters of the Oak Creek water
used for rearing test fish was allowed to stand quiescent for seven days
after which time, the mercury was removed by chelation. Three grams per
liter of chelex 100 (50 mesh) size was mixed with the poisoned water for
30 minutes. The resin was then allowed to settle out during a 60 minute
holding period. Supernatant water was tested for acute toxicity by the
standard bioassay procedure (1). Results showed that all ten test fish
died in a control sample containing 2 mg/1 Hg++ and not chelated. One
fish died in an unpoisoned Oak Creek water control and none of the test
fish died during a 96-hour exposure period in the poisoned sample which
had been treated with a chelating agent.
95
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This preservative technique was applied in all subsequent experiments in
which log leachate was preserved during a seven day holding period then
tested for acute toxicity following chelation.
A detailed account of the developmental work leading to the application
of this poisoning-depoisoning procedure for bioassay is given by Atkinson
(3).
96
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APPENDIX C
QUANTITY OF BARK DISLODGED DURING LOG HANDLING
Douglas Fir Logs on Trucks (Yaquina Estuary)
Slide no.
Total area
Area of bark dislodged
Percent dislodged
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
TOTAL
180. 29
121. 99
152. 71
194. 79
287.40
215. 57
234. 12
108. 35
218. 70
201. 13
189. 78
259. 13
259. 76
213.69
206. 19
178. 71
274. 43
249. 05
221.17
258.27
264. 56
218.19
227. 58
255. 42
207. 72
176. 26
188.14
194. 82
199.06
173. 70
204. 23
124.40
209. 02
207. 27
185.44
166.48
112.23
124. 17
7663. 92
31.00
29.37
10.19
13.82
43.32
21.13
30.39
57.68
39.63
21.57
17.57
29.91
20.42
15.73
29.88
6.76
41.25
41.28
69.99
37.75
74.90
41.00
26.48
47.71
47.55
36.85
4.04
13.73
24.30
63.52
94.74
34.39
9.35
8.83
33.83
26.04
23.05
37.10
1306.05
Average
Deviation
17.19
24.08
6.67
7.09
15.07
9.80
12.98
43.23
18.12
10.72
9.26
11.54
7.86
7.36
14.49
3.78
15.03
16.57
31.65
14.62
28.31
18.79
11.64
18.68
22.89
20.91
2.16
7.05
12.21
36.57
46.39
67.84
4.47
4.26
18.24
15.64
20.54
29.88
18.25
9.60
97
-------
Douglas Fir Logs After Dumping (Yaquina Estuary)
Slide no.
Total area
Area of bark dislodged
Percentage dislodged
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
TOTAL
Slide no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
282. 65
248.55
250.36
237.46
205. 53
265. 18
269.27
272.05
278. 20
215.30
223. 68
254.83
266.64
292.42
257. 57
257. 72
213.25
217. 42
198.07
214. 68
4920. 83
Douglas Fir Logs
Total area
307. 34
276.44
252.26
225. 87
228.21
200.41
161. 73
241.92
243.60
240.70
176. 31
118. 59
74.29
65.42
95.19
53.18
113.61
77.75
93.66
111.33
67.02
54.56
117. 45
73.70
133.04
77.16
86.03
86.52
84.56
70.68
81.33
1735.07
Average
Deviation
After Raft Transport (Yaquina Estuary)
Area of bark dislodged
121.78
76.55
56.47
95.11
54.21
79.57
115.81
115.64
111.52
108.40
59.72
41.96
29.89
26.13
40.09
25.87
42.84
28.87
34.43
40.02
31.13
24.39
46.09
27.64
45.50
29.96
33.38
40.57
38.89
35.68
37.88
35.06
5.89
Percentage dislodged
39.74
27.69
22.39
42.11
23.75
39.70
71.61
47.80
45.78
45.06
33.87
TOTAL
2554.79
994. 78
Average
Deviation
39.95
9.57
98
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Ponderosa Pine Logs on Trucks and Trains (Klamath River)
Slide no.
Total area
Area of bark dislodged
Percent dislodged
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
TOTAL
150.54
124. 55
118.71
138.30
143. 78
172.82
172.62
144.90
134.84
170. 78
170. 36
160. 11
145.50
145. 92
130.14
119. 58
160. 86
171.75
163.30
128. 85
167.03
139.44
128.54
179.27
181.32
107. 84
138. 10
126. 60
148. 21
149. 57
176. 42
137.16
140.31
128.32
140.47
155. 31
5334.02
2.73
2.86
3.82
4.76
5,12
12.22
6.85
8.19
8.59
26.22
39.60
8.50
5.61
5.24
5.09
4.97
4.92
9.72
6.02
8.77
4.77
7.13
6.30
7.97
3.75
14.77
4.00
5.24
6.75
6.60
7.70
12.34
8.86
6.00
9.55
14.99
306. 52
1.81
2.30
3.22
3.44
3.56
7.07
3.97
5.65
6.37
15.65
20.59
5.31
3.85
3.59
3.91
4.16
3.06
5.66
3.87
6.81
2.86
5.11
4.90
4.45
2.07
13.70
2.90
4.14
4.55
4.41
4.36
9.00
6.32
4.68
6.80
9.65
5.66
Average
Deviation 3.49
99
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Ponderosa Pine Logs After Unloading and Raft Transport (Klamath River)
Slide no
Total area
Area of bark dislodged
Percent dislodged
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
TOTAL
270. 08
247. 61
282.44
318. 53
271.49
266. 25
244.49
142. 08
252. 77
284. 37
301.59
223. 34
250,71
277.70
243. 82
290.28
4167. 80
15.01
74.82
22.19
47.04
39.17
26.52
22.61
11.01
57.64
36.53
7.94
21.90
43.90
17.79
18.16
33.11
495. 34
5.56
30.22
7.86
14,77
14.43
9.96
9.25
7.75
22.80
12.85
2.63
9.81
17.51
6.41
7.45
11.41
11.92
Average
Deviation 5. 14
100
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APPENDIX D
METHOD FOR EXTRAPOLATION OF LABORATORY TEST DATA FOR
FIELD APPLICATION WITH EXAMPLE CALCULATION
Several types of surface conditions are found for logs in water storage
which tend to influence the rate at which soluble substances leach from
the logs. Some of the original bark is dislodged and lost from logs
during dumping and transport activities. The percentage of bark missing
depends upon the species of log and the abrasiveness of handling. The
presence or absence of bark affects the character and quantity of leachate.
There is also a difference in leaching rate between the exposed ends and
cylindrical surface of the logs.
All of these conditions were examined in controlled laboratory experiments
reported in the EXPERIMENTAL FINDINGS section of this report. The fol-
lowing equation was generated from observed laboratory data for application
in field situations:
T= [(l-x)(D)(Ac)] + [(x)(C)Ac)] + [(f1)(B-D)(AE)]
T = total pollutant contribution from field logs (grams)
B = grams leached from test log (ends unaltered, w/bark)
2
ft of cylindrical area (from Figures 13-16)
C = grams leached from test log (ends sealed, w/o bark)
ft of cylindrical area (from Figures 13-16)
D = grams leached from test log (ends sealed, w/bark)
__
ft of cylindrical area (from Figures 13-16)
O
Ap = total submerged end area of field logs (ft^)
c
A = total submerged cylindrical area of field logs
x = fraction of bark missing from field logs
f = cylindrical area of test log
end area of test log
= 2.66 for Douglas fir test logs
= 2.71 for ponderosa pine test logs
The following calculations demonstrate the application of the leachate
equation at four log storage sites in Oregon.
101
-------
Gilchrist Reservoir Site
Storage Conditions --
2
1. area of log rafts - 70,000 ft (based on actual field measure-
ment)
2. species - ponderosa pine
3. all logs peeled before storage
4. average length of storage - 30 days
Calculations --
1. board feet = (70,000 ft ) (7'2 boar^ ft ) = 5.04 x 105 board ft
v ^ square ft
See Table 14 for conversion factor
2. AE - (504 M bd ft) (y') = 3.28 x 103 ft2 of end area submerged
See Table 14 for conversion factor
3. AC = (504 m bd ft) (^53^-) = 8-06 x 1C)4 f*2 of cylindrical area
submerged
See Table 14 for conversion factor
4. Constants B,C, and D from Figures 13, 14 and 15.
Constant
B
C
D
Time
Basis
1/30 d
I/day
1/30 d
I/day
1/30 d
I/day
COD
g/ft2
6.0
0.20
2.35
0.077
3.55
0.12
TOC
g/ft2
2.2
0.073
0.8
0.027
1.4
0.046
FBI
g/ft2
17.0
0.57
4.0
0.13
12.0
0.40
5. "fj" factor - 2.71
6. "x" factor - 1.0 (all logs completely peeled)
7. Solving the leachate equation:
102
-------
TCOD = [tt-l)(0.12)(8.06 x 106)] + [(1.0)(0.077)(3.06 x
+ [(2.71) (0.08)(3.28 x 103)]
0 + 6.2 x 103 + 0.71 x 103
= 6.91xl03 grams COD leached per day
15.2 Ibs COD leached perday
TpBI = [(1-1)(0.40)(8.06 x 104)] + [(1.0)(0.13)(8.06 x 104)]
+ [(2.71)(0.17)(3.28 x 103)]
0 + 10.5 x 103 + 1.5 x 103
12 x 103 grams FBI leached per day
= 26.4 Ibs FBI leached per day (equivalent SSL - 10%
by weight)
TTnr = [(1-1) (0.046)(8.06 x 104)] + [(2.71)(0.027)(3.28 x 103)]
1 L/C*
+ [(2.71)(0.027)(3.28 x 103)]
0 + 2.18 x 103 + 0.24 x 103
= 2.42 x 103 grams TOG leached per day
5.3 Ibs TOG leached per day
8. BOD Apply a BOD/COD factor of 0.19 for ponderosa pine logs
without bark (refer to Table 1) to estimate BOD added:
0.19 x 15.2 Ibs COD/day = 2.9 Ibs BOD leached per day
Deschutes River Site
Storage Conditions --
1. quantity of logs in storage - 2.5 x 106 board feet (mill estimate)
2. species and condition - ponderosa pine, unpeeled (assume 12%
bark missing)
3. average length of storage - 30 days
103
-------
Following the calculation procedure outlined above for the Gilchrist site,
the following values are obtained:
Pollution
Index
COD
BOD
FBI
TOC
Quantity Leached
Ibs/day
109
50
356
43
Coos River North Fork Site
Storage Conditions --
2
1, quantity of logs in storage - 69,000 ft (based On field
measurements)
2. species and condition - Douglas fir, 12 percent bark missing
3. average length of storage period - 1 day
Following the calculation procedure outlined above for the Gilchrist
site, the following vslues are obtained:
Pollution
Index
COD
BOD
PBI
TOC
Coos River South Fork Site
Quantity Leached
Ibs/day
112
33
86
48
Storage Conditions --
1. quantity of logs stored - 23,000 ft2 (based on field measure-
ments)
2. species and condition - Douglas fir, 12 percent bark missing
3. average length of storage period - 1 day
104
-------
Following the calculation procedure outlined above for the Gilchrist
site, the following values are obtained:
Pollution Quantity Leached
Index Ibs/day
COD 40
BOD 12
FBI 83
TOC 17
105 OU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1973 514-153:198 1-3
-------
.SELECTED WATER
RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
1. Report No.
4. Title
The Influence of Log Handling on Water Quality
3. Accession No.
w
7. Authoi(s)
Schaumburg, Frank D.
9. Organization
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR 97331
. J Sponsoring O.-ganizatioa
P. S. EPA, Research & Monitoring
/.i- Supplementary Notes
5. Report Date
6.
8. Performing Organization
Report No.
10. Project No.
12100 EBG
//. Contract/Grant No.
13. Type of Report and
Period Covered
5-1-68 to 10-1-72
Environmental Protection Agency report
number, EPA-R2-73-085, February 1973.
>. Abstract The water storage of logs is widely practiced in the Pacific Northwest. An
investigation has been made to determine the effect of this practice on water quality.
j Soluble organic matter and some inorganics leach from logs floating in water and
(from logs held in sprinkled land decks. The character and quantity of leachate from
Doublas fir, ponderosa pine and hemlock logs have been examined. Measurements including
BOD, COD (1.0-4.2gm/ft2 per week), PBI, solids and toxicity (no kill to 20% TLm 96) have
|shown that in most situations the contribution of soluble leachates to holding water is
jnot a significant water pollution problem.
The most significant problem associated with water storage appears to be the loss of
bark from logs during dumping, raft transport and raft storage. Bark losses from 6.2% :
to 21.7% were measured during logging and raft transport. Dislodged bark can float until
it becomes water logged and sinks, forming benthic deposits. Floating bark is aesthetic-
jally displeasing and could interfere with other beneficial uses of a lake, stream or
'estuary. Benthic deposits exert a small, but measurable oxygen demand and may influence
'the biology of the benthic zone. Implementation of corrective measures by the timber
'industry to reduce bark losses could make the water storage of logs a practice *
jwhich is compatible with a high quality environment.
| I7a. Descriptors
jbark, leachate, bark sinkage, toxicity, water pollution, oxygen demand, log storage,
jbark deposits, benthic deposits
I 17b. Identifiers
jbark, BOD, forest industry pollution, logging wastes, Pacific NW logging, leachate
characteristics.
1 7c. COWRR Field 4 Group
IS. Availability
H. Kirk Willard
Abstractor
19. Security Class. 21. No. of
(Report) Pages
20. Security Class. 22. Price
(Page)
Send To:
WATER RESOURCEb SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENT Ff,
U S DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
WASHINGTON, D. C Z02iO
^Institution Environmental Protection Agency
WRSIC 102 (REV JUNE 1971)
G P 0 9 I 3. 7 « 1
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