EPA R2-73 289
September 1973
Environmental Protection Technology Series
Aerial Detection Of
Spill Sources
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and
Monitoring, Environmental Protection Agency, have
been grouped into five series. These five broad
categories were established to facilitate further
development and application of environmental
technology. Elimination of traditional grouping
was consciously planned to foster technology
transfer and a maximum interface in related
fields. The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental studies
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION TECHNOLOGY series. This series
describes research performed to develop and
demonstrate instrumentation, eguipment and
methodology -to repair or prevent environmental
degradation from point and non-point sources of
pollution. This work provides the new or improved
technology reguired for the control and treatment
of pollution sources to meet environmental quality
standards.
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EPA-R2-73-289
September 1973
AERIAL DETECTION OF SPILL SOURCES
By
C. L. Rudder
A. G. Wallace
C. J. Reinheimer
Contract No. 68-01-0178
Program Element 1BB041
Project Officer
John Riley
Office of Air and Water Programs
Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, B.C. 20460
Prepared for
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price 55 cents
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EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has "been reviewed "by the Environmental Protection Agency
and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents
necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Environmental Protection
Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute
endorsement of recommendation for use.
ii
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ABSTRACT
A unique interpretation key emphasizing the environmental aspects of the
petroleum industry was developed for use with an aerial surveillance spill
prevention system. Aerial baseline and stereogram photographs as well as
aerial multiband, aerial oblique, and ground photographs of oil refineries
were obtained for inclusion in the key. Processing systems to convert
crude oil to fuel and LPG, gasoline, heavy fuel oils, lubricating oils
and asphalt were identified with the help of military oil refinery inter-
pretation keys. Three petrochemical facilities within the refinery
were also located and identified. The identification of potential spill
sources as related to processing systems, product storage and disposition
of by-products and waste was performed. The results were confirmed by
refinery personnel and included in the oil refinery key. Concurrent with
the flight program, fifteen samples of spilled material were obtained
along with the appropriate ground truth data. Chemical and spectral
analyses of the samples were performed and correlated with the multiband
image analysis. Finally, the use of aerial photography for temporal
change detection was evaluated and included in the appropriate sections
of the key.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Project #15080, Contract
#68-01-0178, under the sponsorship of the Officer of Research and
Monitoring, Environmental Protection Agency.
ill
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CONTENTS
Section Page
I Conclusions 1
II Recommendations 2
III Introduction 3
IV Experimental Program 5
V Data Analysis 18
VI Discussion 20
VII Acknowledgements 22
VIII References 23
iv
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FIGURES
PAGE
1 BECKMAN DK-2 INTEGRATING SPHERE (A) IN NORMAL IQ
USE AND (B) MODIFIED FOR LIQUID SAMPLES
2 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF OIL-GROUND COMBINATION-
SAMPLE 1 12
3 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF OIL-WATER MIXTURE FROM
ENTRANCE TO PROCESSING PONDS -SAMPLE 2 12
4 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF WATER FROM FIRST PROCESSING
POND - SAMPLE 3 13
5 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF WATER FROM AERATOR POND -
SAMPLE 4 13
6 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF OIL-SOIL ADJACENT TO PRO-
1 CESSING PONDS - SAMPLE 7 14
7 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF PETROLEUM WASTE - SAMPLE 8 14
8 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF PETROLEUM WASTE - SAMPLE 9 15
9 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF PETROLEUM WASTE - SAMPLE 10 15
10 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF PETROLEUM WASTE - SAMPLE 11 16
11 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF PETROLEUM WASTE - SAMPLE 12 16
12 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF LIME SLUDGE - SAMPLE 13 17
13 SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE GLOBAL AND DIRECT
SOLAR RADIATION INCIDENT AT SEA LEVEL ON A
HORIZONTAL SURFACE 17
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TABLES
No. Page
1 Flight Program Over Oil Refineries 6
2 Chemical Sample Analysis 8
vi
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SECTION 1
CONCLUSIONS
A unique imagery interpretation key emphasizing the environmental aspects
of petroleum refineries was developed 'as an integral part of an aerial
surveillance spill prevention system. The petroleum refinery key is a
unique collection of aerial photographs, ground photographs, and textual
information. The key is organized to expedite the location and identifica-
tion of spill threats through the use of conventional and multiband aerial
photographs. The addition of aerial multiband photographs, spill threat
analyses and spectral and chemical analyses of spilled materials distinguish
this key from standard military interpretation keys. Results of the chemical
and spectral analyses have been correlated with various multiband photo-
graphs to increase the capability of the interpreter to detect spill threats
identified with specific processing facilities and refining equipment.
Throughout the aerial spill detection key, the material descriptively
relates oil refinery features to potential contamination of natural water
resources. In addition to serving as a reference manual for imagery
interpreters, the petroleum refinery key can aid in training imagery
interpreters to recognize refinery facilities, equipment, processes and
associated spill threat areas. The key, although prepared for petroleum
refinery, can serve as a model for other industries for which imagery
interpretation keys are desired.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
The format and material in the petroleum refinery key was carefully chosen
to fulfill a specific need - to expedite the location and identification
of spill threats from aerial photographs. Therefore, the petroleum refinery
key should serve as a model for generating other industrial keys that are
to be used for the same purpose.
In the future, additional remote sensors will undoubtedly become a standard
part of an aerial surveillance spill prevention system. Consequently,
imagery from such sensors should be added to existing keys or included in
future industrial keys.
For future industrial keys new film/filter combinations must be determined
for the identification of associated industrial spills, if a multiband camera
system is to be an integral part of an aerial surveillance system.
It is recommended that the key be used as a reference in the training of
those responsible for monitoring spill threats.
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the project was to develop an imagery interpretation key
for use in the detection and identification of spill threats to inland or
coastal waterways from aerial photographs. The U. S. Military services
have employed imagery interpretation keys for rapid and accurate identifi-
cation of pertinent features of a variety of industries. The identification
of real and potential spill threats to adjacent waterways, however, diffe-
rentiates this key from standard military keys. This report discusses
the collection, analysis and organization of data responsible for the
successful formulation of an oil refinery aerial spill detection key.
In the St. Louis area, a number of oil refineries are located adjacent to
or near the Mississippi River. These refineries were selected to serve as
"model" oil refineries for the formulation of the imagery interpretation
key. The cooperation of personnel in the oil refineries industry was
essential to the completion of this project. The appropriate refinery
personnel were informed by phone of the objectives of the project, and
meetings were arranged to explain the program in detail. Cooperation was
agreed upon to identify processing facilities, equipment,and procedures
used in the refinery operation and to point out potential spill threat
areas. In addition, ground truth teams were permitted to collect samples
of spilled material and to take ground photographs of all areas unless
company or government regulations prohibited photography. Each relevant
refinery representative was given permission to review that draft key for
their cooperation.
From photographs gathered during the evaluation of "An Aerial Spill Prevent-
ion System", a mosaic of the "model" oil refinery was made. Based on
information in the military oil refinery key and from other supplementary
information, processing facilities and equipment were identified in the
mosaic. Flow diagrams of the various processing facilities were also
constructed from the reference material. The identification and processing
procedures were confirmed or clarified at periodic meetings with refinery
personnel.
The experimental program consisted of gathering aerial baseline, oblique
and multiband photographs in addition to ground photographs, ground samples,
and ground truth data. Baseline and multiband photographs were shown
previously to be an essential to detecting real and potential spill threats.
Aerial oblique photographs and ground photographs were also determined to
be a necessary part of the key. Such photographs aid the interpreter in
making the transition from a normal ground view to a vertical view. Aerial
photographs taken at different time periods were compared to determine the
effectiveness of change detection as a method for monitoring refinery spills
and activity. Finally, samples of spilled material were spectrally and
chemically analyzed to aid in multiband imagery analysis.
All of the data gathered during the experimental program was evaluated for
inclusion in the oil refinery key. The baseline photographs, oblique photo-
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graphs, and ground photographs of the processing facilities and equipment
were correlated vith the ground sample and ground truth analysis. These
results were then mutually correlated and related to the spill threat
analysis. The selected photographs, and results of spill threat and ground
sample analyses were organized into the refinery key to expedite the
identification and location of spill threats from conventional and multi-
band aerial photographs. The final results are contained in the Aerial
Spill Detection Key (Petroleum Refineries).
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SECTION IV
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
The purpose of the experimental program vas to gather aerial oblique, "base-
line and multiband photographs of oil refineries. In addition, ground
photographs of refineries facilities' and equipment were obtained along
with samples of spilled materials for spectral and chemical analyses. The
equipment, techniques and results of the experimental program are discussed
in this section.
Camera Systems
Aerial baseline and multiband photographs were,previously determined to be
an integral part of a spill prevention system. The baseline camera must
produce photographs maintaining high image fidelity for stereoscopic and
mensuration analyses. To acquire baseline photographs, a Zeiss RMK 1523
mapping camera, utilizing a 6 in. focal length lens was used. These
photographs were recorded on Kodak Double X Aerographic Type 21+05 film
having a 9 in. image format. The multiband photographs were obtained
with an array of three Hasselblad 500 EL/M cameras, each equipped with a
50-mm focal length lens. The multiband photographs were recorded on 70-mm
Kodak Tri-X Aerographic Type 2k03 film and on Kodak Infrared Aerographic
Type 2h2k film. Each of these films was used with Kodak filters 99 and 32,
separately, to produce the multiband photographs. These film/filter combi-
nations were pjeviosuly concluded to be optimum for the detection of petro-
leum products. A discussion of the mounting arrangements and associated
accessories used for both the Zeiss and Hasselblad cameras can be found in
a previous report.
Aerial oblique color and black-and-vhite photographs along with color ground
photographs were obtained for use in the oil refinery imagery interpretation
key. The aerial oblique photographs were taken with a hand-held camera
directed through an open window of the aircraft. The two cameras employed
for this task were a Minolta SRT 101 using a 135-nm focal length lens, and
a Pentocan 6 using a l80-mm focal length lens. The Minolta photographs were
recorded on 35-mm Plus-X film and the Pentocan photographs were recorded on
2 1/1* in. CPS-220 Ektachrome film. Ground photographs were recorded with
the Minolta SRT 101 camera using a 28-mm, 33-mm and 135-mm focal length
lenses. Kodacolor-X 35-nna film was used for the ground photography.
Aircraft
A Cessna 336 or Aerocommander Model 680 aircraft, each with a crew of three,
were used for the recording of the aerial photography. The crew consisted of
the pilot, aerial photographer, and camera monitor. The aircraft and camera
systems..met all the requirements to obtain the baseline and multiband photo-
graphs „
Flight Program
Aircraft flight altitudes were selected to record baseline photographs at a
scale of approximately 1:5000 and multiband photographs at a scale of 1:9000.
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The selection of these scales vere made during the investigation of "An
Aerial Spill Prevention System" and provide adequate area coverage as veil
as sufficient detail for spill detection.
From 15 June 1972 to 29 August 1972, seven flights were made over the oil
refineries. One flight was used to obtain baseline photography and another
flight was used strictly to obtain oblique photographs. The remaining flights
were utilized to record multiband photographs or a combination of multiband
and oblique photographs. A multiband flight consisted of flying two missions
over the oil refineries. On the first mission, the multiband camera system
was loaded with film type 2UU8 and film/filter combinations 2^03/32 and
2U03/99. On the next mission, the multiband camera system was loaded with
film type 2HU8 and film/filter combinations 2U2U/32 and 2U2V99- All the
multiband combinations for one flight were taken within a time span of one
to two hours on the same day.
The flight lines, filter factors, and pertinent flight parameters were
determined in accordance with the specifications made during the previous
project. Table 1 lists the flights made over the oil refinery, and includes
the flight date, altitude, film/filter combination employed on each camera,
the filter corrected f/number, and exposure time.
TABLE 1 FLIGHT PROGRAM OVER OIL REFINERIES
Date
15 June 72®
19 July 72®
19 July 72®
21 July 72
24 July 72
4 Aug 72
11Aug72
29 Aug 72
Altitude
(ft above
ground)
2500
1500
1500-2000
2000
1500
1500
1500
1400-1500
Camera 1
Film
Type
2405
2403
PljsX
PlusX
2403
2424
2403
2403
2424
CPS
CPS
Filter
12
99
K2
K-2
99
99
99
99
99
HF3+4
HF3+4
f/No.
8
16
5.6
5.6
13
13
11
6.3
13
5.6
4
Shutter
Speed
1/600
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/1000
Camera 2
Film
Type
2403
2403
2424
2403
2403
2424
Filter
32
32
32
32
32
32
f/No.
22
22
16
22
32
13
Shutter
Speed
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
Camera 3
Film
Type
2448
2448
2448
2448
2448
2448
Filter
HF3
HF3
HF3
HF3
HF3+5
HF3+5
f/No.
5.6
5.6
5.6
5.6
5.6
5.6
Shutter
Speed
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
1/500
Baseline flight
Oblique photographic flight
GP72-08 56-203
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Photographic Processing
Precision photographic processing of the 70-mm multiband film and color film
is necessary for the. extraction of scientific data from the photographs. Pre-
cision processing insures the tonal variations in the multiband photographs
is a result of the target reflective properties and not the results of
fluctations in the processing techniques. A discussion of the relevant
parameters and required sensitometric data for precision processing can be
found in an earlier report.
Spilled Material Collection
Concurrent with the multiband flight program, ten samples were collected at
the oil refinery on 19 July 1972 and five more samples were collected on
k August 1972. Of the first ten samples, two were taken from the lime
sludge disposal area, two were taken where oil was purposely placed on the
ground to keep down dust, five samples were taken from the water processing
ponds . The second group of spill samples was taken from petroleum waste
areas: three from an area adjacent to the river and two from a similar
area within the refinery. In addition to sample collection, the appropriate
ground truth data at each sample site was recorded. Such data included
weather conditions, the type of processing taking place in the sample area,
a description of the background area, and ground photography. Both chemical
and spectral analyses of the relevant samples were performed.
Chemical Analysis
Because of the chemical complexity of the samples, the personnel performing
chemical analysis consulted with oil refinery representatives to determine
the best tests to chemically identify the samples.
The approved tests included determining l) the concentration of metallic
ions associated with organic compounds, 2) the weight percentage of oil
content, 3) the aromatic and aliphatic content, and ^) the amount of
suspended solids in the samples. These analyses, where applicable, were
performed on thirteen of the samples. Two of the samples were discarded
since they were not pertinent to the areas included in the key. A general
description of each sample, a correlation of each sample with a photograph
in the refinery key, and the results of the chemical analyses are shown in
Table 2. A brief description of each of the chemical analyses performed
is discussed below.
In some complex petroleum hydrocarbon molecules, metallic ions such as
magnesium, calcium, barium,and boron are found as part of the molecular
chain. Motor oil additives exemplify petroleum products that contain
these metallic ions. Consequently, chemical analysis is simplified by
looking for concentrations of these ions rather than identifying the
specific hydrocarbon molecule. The metallic ion concentration associated
with these molecular chains was determined by leaching a known weight
of each sample with methyl isobutyl ketone and performing an atomic
absorption spectroscopic analysis of each leached sample against an
organo-metallic standard. This test procedure assures that the metallic
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TABLE 2 CHEMICAL SAMPLE ANALYSIS
Sample
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Oi Rifinefy
Key Figure
ArwC
Figure 4-93
ATM A
Figun 4-101
AreaC
Figun 4-101
AretD
Figure 4-101
AreaD
Figure 4-101
AreaE
Figure 4-101
AreiB
Figure 4-101
AreaC
Figure 4-1 14
AnaO
Figure 4-114
AreaE
Figure 4-115
Are* A
Figure 4-1 16
An«B
Figure 4-116
Not Shorn
in Key
Sample Description
Oil Placed on Soil
to Keep Down Oust
Oil Water from
Entrance to Water
Processing Pond
Water Sample from
First Oxidation Pond
Water Sample from
Southeast Area of
Aerator Pond
Water Sample from
Southwest Area of
Aerator Pond
Water Sample from
Effluent to Final
Processing Pond
Sol Sample Adjacent
to Processing Ponds
Petroleum Watte
Petroleum Waste
Petroleum Waste
Petroleum Waste
Petroleum Waste
Lime Sluge from
Water Softening
Process
Metal Ion Concentntiont
Leached from Hydrocarbon
Mg
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
< 0.00002
0.0020
0.00140
< 0.00002
< 0.00002
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ions detected are part of the organic chain and not free metal ions usually
found in most materials. The veight percent of each ion in each sample,
where applicable, is shown in column k of Table 2.
The oil content was determined "by either petroleum ether extraction or by
hexane extraction, depending on the nature of the sample. From ten grams
of the extracted sample, the soluble residue remaining after evaporation was
subjected to gravimetric analysis. The oil content of each sample in
weight percentage determined from these analyses is given in column five
of Table 2.
All of the samples were examined by infrared spectrescopy to estimate the
aromatic and aliphatic contents of the samples. Absorption in the 3.U,
6.8,and 7.2 micron bands indicates the presence of aliphatic hydrocarbons;
absorption at 6.6 microns is characteristic of aromatic hydrocarbons.
The presence of the 7.2 micron absorption band in the infrared spectrescopy
is also indicative of the presence of methyl groups. Water in the sample
is characterized by the absorption in the 2.9, 6.1, and 12.15 micron bands.
An analysis of the infrared spectroscopic tests revealed no aromatic content
in any of the oil samples. Therefore, all of the samples are 95 - 9&%
aliphatic in content. The results of infrared spectroscopic analysis of
each sample is given in column 6 of Table 2.
The amount of suspended solids in the water samples was determined by
filtration and gravimetric analysis. The results, expressed in weight
percent, are shown in column 7 of Table 2.
Spectral Analysis
Spectral reflectance scans were performed on the samples that were subjected
to chemical analysis. The reflectance spectra were obtained from a modified
Beckman DK-2 Spectrophotometer. The Beckman Spectrophotometer is designed
to measure the diffuse reflectivity of a sample by use of an integrating
sphere. As shown in Figure la, the light source is directed, alternately,
at the sample and then the reference material. The reflected radiation is
scattered within the integrating sphere and measured by an appropriate detec-
tor. Both the sample and reference material are mounted against the side of
the integrating sphere. Because the samples collected during this project
were liquid, the Beckman had to be modified to obtain reflectance spectra.
The modifications are shown in Figure Ib. The radiation incident normal
to the sample was directed to a mirror which reflected the radiation onto
the liquid sample contained in a glass beaker. The diffuse and specular
radiation reflected from the sample was then reflected back into the
integrating sphere for measurement. With this modification, absolute
reflectance measurements can not be made since the mirror does not collect
all of the diffusely scattered radiation. As a result, the reflectance
spectra of the samples is expressed in relative reflectance units. It
should be emphasized, however, that since all the samples were analyzed
the same way, each reflectance spectrum can be compared relative to the
others. The reference material used in generating these curves was
magnesium oxide. This reference material has a uniform spectral response
in the 300 to 1,000 nanometer region.
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Reference
Alternating
Light Beams
Sample
Top View
Light
1 Beams
i
fc-
f >
r,
Side View
(a)
Reference
Mirror
Sample
Top View
Mirror
Side View
(b)
GP72-0856-205
FIGURE 1 EEC KM AN DK-2 INTEGRATING SPHERE a) IN NORMAL USE AND
b) MODIFIED FOR LIQUID SAMPLES
10
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The reflectance spectrum of each of the various samples is shown in Figures
2 through 12. As samples k, 5 and 6 taken for the water processing showed
the samples' spectral characteristics, only one reflectance spectrum is
shown. Since the spectral curves are independent of the illuminating
source, the solar spectrum must be considered for determining the relative
reflected energy from any sample in any spectral band. Figure 13 shows the
solar spectrum for direct and global radiation incident on a horizontal
surface of the earth for an air mass of approximately 1.0. The air mass
depends on the optical path the sun's radiation must transverse before
reaching the earth's surface and is related to the sun's zenith angle.
The sun's zenith angle at local apparent noon varied from 15 to 20 degrees
during the period of the multiband flights. For these angles the air mass
value of 1.0 is found to be a good approximation for the atmospheric
optical thickness. In Figure 13 the solar spectrum is seen to peak in
the blue-green spectral region. In addition, the red to near-infrared
region contains 2 to 3 times the energy than the ultraviolet-blue spectral
region. These spectral characteristics must be considered when examining
Figures 2 through 12.
Since the spill sample reflectance spectra are self explanatory, only some
general observations are made here. All of the petroleum or oil-ground
samples show either a fairly flat spectral response or increase sharply
in the red and near-infrared spectral regions. These results multiplied
by the solar spectrum indicates that the red and near-infrared reflected
energy is much greater than the ultraviolet-blue reflected energy.
In the prior multiband analysis , it was concluded that film/filter
combination 2^03/32 showed more detail in the multiband photographs because
of the recorded ultraviolet, blue, and red radiation. From these curves,
however, only the red and blue reflected radiation can be responsible for
these results. The samples containing mixtures of oil with earth (Figures
2 and 6) have fairly flat spectral responses with some increase in the
near-infrared spectral regions. In contrast, samples containing water
and oil (Figures k and 5) show absorption in the near-infrared spectral
regions. These results verify the absorptive and reflective properties
in the near-infrared of water and ground respectively. Also both water
samples show little reflected ultraviolet radiation which accounts for
water penetration observed on the multiband photograph 2U03/18A. The
correlation of the spectral responses of the petroleum waste with the
multiband photography is generally quite s^ood. Figures 7> 10, and 11
show strong near-infrared reflectance properties which has been observed
in the black-and-white near-infrared multiband photographs (2b2k/99 and
2^2 V32). It is interesting to note that the chemical analysis of two of
the samples shown in Figures 7 and 11 show a strong presence of methyl
groups. These methyl groups, however, are difficult to correlate with
any specific petroleum product.
11
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.
-
a
0)
cc
.1 4
M
QC
0
300
400
900
1000
500 600 700 800
Wavelength (nanometers)
GP72 0856 182
FIGURE 2 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF OIL-GROUND COMBINATION - SAMPLE 1
:
'
cc
o>
•I A
300 400 500 600 700 800
Wavelength (nanometers)
900
1000
GP72 O856-184
FIGURE 3 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF OIL-WATER MIXTURE FROM
ENTRANCE TO PROCESSING PONDS - SAI - SAMPLE 4
12
-------
300
400
500 600 700 800
Wavelength (nanometers)
900
1000
GP72-0856-186
FIGURE 4 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF WATER FROM FIRST
PROCESSING POND - SAMPLE 3
300 400 500 600 700 800
Wavelength (nanometers)
900
1000
GP72 0856-188
FIGURE 5 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF WATER FROM
AERATOR POND
13
-------
10
i
u
DC
300
400 500 600 700 800
Wavelength (nanometers)
900
1000
GP72 0856 190
FIGURE 6 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF OIL-SOIL ADJACENT TO
PROCESSING PONDS - SAMPLE 7
-
-
.
300 400 500 600 700 800
Wavelength (nanometers)
900
1000
GP72-O856-192
FIGURE? REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF PETROLEUM WASTE - SAMPLE 8
14
-------
S 6
u
•B 4
-
300
400
500 600 700 800
Wavelength (nanometers)
900
1000
GP72 0856-194
FIGURE 8 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF PETROLEUM WASTE - SAMPLE 9
-
IS 4
300
400
900
1000
500 600 700 800
Wavelength (nanometers)
GP72-08 56-197
FIGURE 9 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF PETROLEUM WASTE - SAMPLE 10
15
-------
a
8
2 6
u
^
i
r
f
°P 4
«
DC
300 400 500 600 700
Wavelength (nanometers)
800
900
1000
GP72-0856-198
FIGURE 10 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF PETROLEUM WASTE-SAMPLE 11
Relative Reflectance
3 NJ A. 01 00 O M *
~+
/
^
^
/
X
^
X
^-
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 10(
Wavelength (nanometers)
GP72 0856 20O
FIGURE 11 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF PETROLEUM WASTE-SAMPLE 12
16
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» 6
o
I
.
0
300
400
500 600 700 800 900 1000
Wavelength (nanometers) GP72-0856-202
FIGURE 12 REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM OF LIME SLUDGE - SAMPLE 13
I I
Global Radiation
Direct Solar
300
400
500
600 700
Wavelength (nanometers)
800
900 1000
GP72-0856 181
FIGURE 13 SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE GLOBAL AND DIRECT SOLAR
RADIATION INCIDENT AT SEA LEVEL ON A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
17
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SECTION V
DATA ANALYSIS
All of the data obtained during the experimental program was evaluated for
inclusion in the Aerial Spill Detection Key. Those photographs which best
depicted specific areas had to be chosen from the hundreds of photographic
frames recorded during this project. These photographs were correlated with
textual information, flow diagrams, ground truth data, and the sample
analyses. This section briefly describes the logical selection and reduction
of accumulated data.
Preliminary Analysis
From baseline photographs of the oil refinery areas obtained earlier , mosaics
of two oil refineries were constructed. A preliminary analysis of the various
facilities and equipment was made with the help of the military oil refinery
key . One refinery area was also chosen as the representative refinery for
the Aerial Spill Detection Key. These mosaics were instrumental in deciding
1) what additional aerial photographs were needed, 2) where samples should
be taken, and 3) where ground photographs should be obtained. After the
various processing facilities and equipment had been tentatively identified,
the appropriate textual information and flow diagrams were assembled with
the use of the military keys and other reference sources . In addition,
a spill threat evaluation of..each of the processing facilities was made
based on previous experience . The identifications and spill threat analysis
was ascertained during periodic meetings with oil refinery personnel.
Baseline, Oblique and Ground Photography
Baseline photographic frames were selected from the flight program which
best exemplified the various processing facilities and pieces of associated
refinery equipment. Where appropriate, stereograms were constructed to
help the interpreter identify important features that were not discernible
from strict vertical photographs. Both the aerial oblique photographs and
ground photographs were examined and correlated with selected baseline
photographs. The oblique and ground photographs which best depicted the
specific features of each processing facility and piece of equipment were
chosen for the Aerial Spill Detection Key. The textual information was
reevaluated to point out the similarities and differences of the repre-
sentative oil refinery with other typical refineries.
Multiband Photography
Multiband and color photographic frames containing the processing facilities
and disposal areas identified on the baseline photographs were assembled for
evaluation. Each area was closely examined for the presence of petroleum
spills. Many times, only normal accumulation of petroleum on the ground
could be observed. These areas, however, are valuable as examples of the
utilization of multiband photography for the detection of petroleum products.
In some areas, no petroleum spills or accumulation of oil on the ground
was observed. These areas were also included in the key as representations
of the use of multiband photography. The results of the sample and
chemical analysis, were correlated with the appropriate multiband photographs.
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The results of the multiband, chemical, and spectral analyses and ground
truth data vere compiled into textual information for the oil refinery key.
In order to keep these sections relatively simple for interpretation, the
detailed analysis of the various film/filter combination vere excluded.
Instead, generalizations with regard to contrast fluctuations of petroleum
spills to a specific background were specified for the various multiband
photographs. Sometimes, the overall scenery contrast of one multiband
photograph -will appear better than that of another, although the text
seems to indicate otherwise. This is a result of referring petroleum spills
to a specific background and should be emphasized to imagery interpreters.
The reflective properties of petroleum and the background were included
in each area as they may vary from area to area. The spectral response
of the film/filter combinations, however, were referred to an appendix,
since they are applicable to all the multiband photographs.
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SECTION VI
DISCUSSION
The primary purpose for developing the Aerial Spill Detection Key (Petroleum
Refineries) is to provide a reference manual for the imagery interpreter.
While an interpreter may be skilled in interpretation techniques, he cannot
"be expected to identify, from memory, the various processing facilities and
equipment of a large variety of industries observed on aerial photographs.
Consequently, the appropriate key serves as a reference to refresh or
acquaint him with the important industrial facilities and equipment by the
use of sample vertical, oblique,and ground photographs accompanied by flow
diagrams and brief textual information. The development of the Aerial Spill
Detection Key is unique in that it contains not only the information normally
found in industrial keys, but is oriented to spill detection. Such orienta-
tion is achieved by textual information regarding spill threat analysis,
multiband photography, and sample analyses (both chemical and spectral).
Having collected the data for the refinery key, the final step was to organize
the key to facilitate the identification and location of oil refinery facil-
ities, equipment, and associated spill threats on aerial photographs. The
format of the key was primarily based on that of the military keys. The
Aerial Spill Detection Key has been logically organized into the following
sections: Introduction, Petroleum Refining, Equipment and Features, Refinery
Processes and Support Facilities, References, Glossary, and Appendices. The
introduction defines the purpose, contents, and use of the refinery key.
A general discussion of the petroleum refinery industry with an accompanying
flow diagram of the refining processing system serves to acquaint the
interpreter with the basic background of refinery operations. The next
section is composed of a collection of ground, vertical, oblique,and stereo-
graphic photographs of the equipment and facilities employed in the refinery.
The photographs are accompanied by brief statements identifying the structure
with respect to an appropriate processing facility. Therefore, if an inter-
preter cannot identify a particular structure on an aerial photograph, he
can refer to this section for help. Upon identification, he is then referred
to the processing and support section where additional information is
available. This information includes the purpose, process, identifying
features, and petroleum products of the processing facility. Examples of
oblique, vertical,and ground photographs accompany the textual information.
Finally, the application of multiband and color photography, where appropriate,
completes each processing and support section. The spill threat analysis
of each processing facility is included in the multiband photographic
section and points out the need for identifying petroleum spills in order
to locate both real and potential spill sources. Examples of color and
multiband photographs show the interpreter how petroleum spills can be
positively identified and distinguished from other nonhazardous spills.
In addition, the chemical analysis is correlated with the appropriate multi-
band photographs. The sample spectral reflectance curves are located in
an appendix to keep each section as brief as possible. These curves,
however, serve a useful purpose since they verify the multiband interpretation
20
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and demonstrate the spectral characteristics of various petroleum products
and backgrounds. The list of references provides the interpreter with
additional sources of information. The glossary contains terminology
used in the key that may be unique to refinery operations with which the
interpreter is not familiar. The appendices include instructions for
determining the heights of objects from stereograms, a nomograph for
calclulating storage tank capacities, the multiband film and filter spectral
characteristics common to each multiband analysis section and the sample
reflectance spectra referenced above. The results can be found in the
Aerial Spill Detection Key (Petroleum Refineries).
The development of a key of this type is the first of its kind. A
considerable amount of work has been expended in generating and organizing
the key for a specific purpose, namely, the detection of spill sources
associated with oil refineries. Consequently, the accompanying key should
serve as a model for the construction of similar keys for other industries.
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SECTION VII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work reported herein was performed by personnel of the Reconnaissance
Laboratory at the McDonnell Aircraft Company. Mr. Charles L. Rudder was
the Principal Investigator on the program. Mr. Albert G. Wallace researched
petroleum refinery processing facilities and coordinated the assembly of
the Aerial Spill Detection Key. Mr. Charles J. Reinheimer supervised the
flight test program and the sample analyses, and was responsible for the
multiband photographic analysis. Mr. Erich D. Kassler assembled the
equipment key, collected aerial oblique and ground photographs and
coordinated photographic reproduction. Mr. Robert E. Thompson, and
Mr. Raymond M. Bradley, Jr., are gratefully acknowledged for producing
the numerous baseline and color photographs required for the petroleum
key. Messrs. William A. Dalton and Joseph L. Berrey are recognized for
their participation in collecting the aerial baseline and multiband photo-
graphs .
The personnel of Surdex Corporation are acknowledged for their excellent
performance in flying the cartographic and multiband photographic missions.
A special thanks is extended to the petroleum refinery representatives
for their cooperation, without which this project could not have been
completed.
The support of the Agricultural and Marine Pollution Control Section,
Office of Research and Monitoring, Environmental Protection Agency, and
in particular, the direction provided by Mr. John Riley, the Project Officer
are acknowledged with sincere thanks.
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SECTION VIII
REFERENCES
1. Rudder, C. L. , Reinheimer, C. J., and Berrey, J. L. , "Aerial
Surveillance Spill Prevention System", Environmental Protection
Agency Report for Project #15080HOK, Contract #68-01-0140, (1972).
2. Air Force Regulation 0-2, "imagery Interpretation Keys - The Petro-
leum Industry," No. M200-66 (Confidential), (1959).
3. American Petroleum Institute, "Publications and Materials," Wash-
ington D. C., (1972).
4. Gates, D. M., "Spectral Distribution of Solar Radiation at the
Earth's Surface," Science. No. 3710, Vol. 151, pp 523 - 529,
(1966).
23
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SELECTED WATER
RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
/. Report No.
3. Accession Ho.
w
4. Title
Aerial Detection of Spill Sources
7. Authoi(s)
C. L. Rudder, A. 6. Wallace, C. J. Reinheimer
9. Organization
Reconnaissance Laboratory
McDonnell Aircraft Company
McDonnell Douglas Corporation
12. Sponsoring Organization Environmental Protection Agency
15. Supplementary Notes Office of Research and Monitoring
Environmental Protection Agency report number,
EPA-R2-73-289, September 1973.
5. Report Date October 1972
6.
S. Performing Organization
Report No.
10. Project No.
15080
11. Contract/Grant No.
68-01-0178
13. Type of Report and
Period Covered
Contract Final Report
April 1972 to October
1972
16. Abstract
An imagery interpretation key of the petroleum industry was developed for use with
an aerial surveillance spill prevention system. Aerial baseline and stereogram
photographs as well as aerial multiband, aerial oblique, and ground photographs
of oil refineries were obtained for inclusion in the key. Processing systems to
convert crude oil to fuel and LPG, gasoline, heavy fuel oils, lubricating oils and
asphalt were identified with the help of military oil refinery interpretation
keys. Three petrochemical facilities within the refinery were also located and
identified. The identification of potential spill sources as related to processing
systems, product storage and disposition of by-products and waste was performed.
The results were confirmed by refinery personnel and included in the oil refinery
key. Concurrent with the flight program, fifteen samples of spilled material were
obtained along with the appropriate ground truth data. Chemical and spectral analyse!
of the samples were performed and correlated with the multiband image analysis.
Finally the use of aerial photography for temporal change detection was evaluated
and included in the appropriate sections of the key.
17a. Descriptors
Petroleum Refineries, Water Pollution Sources, Remote Sensing, Aerial Photography
17 b. Identifiers
Photo interpretation, Color Photography, Multiband Photography, Petroleum
Products, Spectral Analysis, Chemical Analysis
17c. COWRR Field & Group
13. Availability
19. Security CJass.
(Report)
Unclassified
20. Security Class.
Abstractor C. J. Reinheimer
21. No. of
Pages
22. Price
Send To:
WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
WASHINGTON. D. C. 20240
Institution McDonnell
WRSIC IO2 (REV. JUNE 1971)
GPO 913.281
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