EPA-R2-73-117
FEBRUARY 1973 Environmental Protection Technology Series
Oil Spills Control Manual
for Fire Departments
Office of Research and Monitoring
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and
Monitoring, Environmental Protection Agency, have
been grouped into five series. These five broad
categories were established to facilitate further
development and application of environmental
technology. Elimination of traditional grouping
was consciously planned to foster technology
transfer and a maximum interface in related
fields. The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
i». Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental studies
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION TECHNOLOGY series. This series
describes research performed to develop and
demonstrate instrumentation, equipment and
methodology to repair or prevent environmental
degradation from point and non-point sources of
pollution* This work provides the new or improved
technology required for the control and treatment
of pollution sources to meet environmental quality
standards.
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EPA-R2-73-117
February 1973
OIL SPILLS CONTROL MANUAL
FOR FIRE DEPARTMENTS
by
Ralph Cross
Archie Roberts
John Cunningham
Bernard Katz
Project 15080 FVP
Project Officer:
Frank J. Freestone
Edison Water Quality Research Laboratories, NERC
Edison, New Jersey 08817
Prepared for
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND MONITORING
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402
Price $1.25 domestic postpaid or $1 GPO Bookstore
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EPA Review Notice
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Protection Agency
and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the
contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the
Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names
or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation
for use.
ii
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ABSTRACT
This report was developed from field tests and actual oil spill control
experiences of the Marine Division of the New York Fire Department during
a twenty-two month period beginning October 8, 1970. The information
offered is intended to assist a community in protecting its area against
oil spill damage. Operational procedures described are intended to serve
as stop-gap measures, pending the inauguration of cleanup activities by
the spiller or responsible Federal Agency.
A survey of cities susceptible to oil spills indicates that most
responding fire departments are concerned with containing spills as well
as dealing with spill-created fire hazards.
Research and development which culminated in the production of this
manual concentrated on the utilization of existing fire department
resources. However, a limited amount of useful ancillary equipment
was procured or developed. Such equipment is described and its use
is explained. The manual describes common sources of oil spills and
some ecological effects of oil pollution. Pertinent Federal laws and
regulations are outlined. Some feasible techniques for dealing with
harbor spills are offered.
This report was submitted in partial fulfillment of Project Number 15080 FVP
under the partial sponsorship of the Water Quality Office, Environmental
Protection Agency.
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CONTENTS
Section
I Conclusions
II Recommendations
III Introduction
IV Damage to the Marine Environment
V Fate and Behavior
VI Laws and Regulations
VII A Spill Notification System
VIII Familiarity with Local Waters and Waterfront
Conditions
IX Source of Oil Pollution
X Techniques Used in Controlling Oil Spills
XI The Containment Removal Technique
XII Containment Booms
XIII Recovery of Spilled Oil
XIV Floating Sorbents
XV Use of Fire Streams for Controlling Oil Spills
XVI Control of Floating Oil
XVII Removal of Oil from Under Piers
XVIII Fire Department Spill Control Capabilities
XIX Acknowledgments
XX References
1
3
5
7
9
13
17
19
21
23
31
33
51
57
59
65
71
87
95
97
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FIGURES
Number
1. Encirclement of a Leaking Barge by a Moving
Fire Boat 40
2. Protection of a Boat Basin by a Moving Fire Boat 42
3. Boom Terminator Schematic 48
4. Pick-Up System 53
5. Boom Corner Skimmer 54
6. Volume Discharge and Momentum Rate vs. Pressure
for Several Nozzle Diameters 60
7. Fire Stream Induced Patterns for Various Angles
of Orientation between the Fire Stream and the
Natural Current 62
8. Use of Under Pier Boom 80
9. Clearing a Cul-de-sac 83
10. Drawing Oil Out of an Embayment by Entrainment 85
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
The information contained in this manual should provide the guidelines
for a community in establishing a local emergency oil spill response
service.
The operational parameters suggested by this manual are confined to
oil spill containment and are not intended to include the cleanup
operation.
Inhouse resources are utilized for the most part in the spill control
techniques offered.
Those Federal Laws and Regulations which are included, should enable
a community to assist in law enforcement and should promote cooperation
with Federal Agencies concerned with air/water pollution.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Because of the changing state of the art of oil spill control
brought about by the development of new equipment and promulgation of
new laws and regulations, periodic up-dating of this manual will be
necessary.
2. Even though a Fire Department may be well trained in the use of streams
for fire extinguishment, additional active training in the application of
fire streams for oil spill control is essential.
3. The occasional staging of simulated spill incidents will enable a
community to test the technique described in this manual and to estab-
lish command, communication and tactical procedures for an effective
local oil spill control program.
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
Before a field supervisor can expect to function effectively at an oil
spill in the harbor area wherein he serves as a fire protection officer,
a fair amount of basic background and operational knowledge is essential.
The background knowledge relates to the possible fate and behavior of an
oil slick, which would include some information on the natural weathering
and spreading tendencies of oil on water and the way a slick may be
expected to behave in a harbor. The operational information would
include some of the ways and means for containment, the removal of the
oil from the marine environment, and the responsibilities established by
law for dealing with spills. Of particular value is the awareness of
just how the in-house capabilities of a fire department may assist in
limiting the spill damage.
Some of this knowledge may have already been acquired in the normal
course of fire protection functions, or even as a result of participation
is spill containment operations. In recognition of the fact that fire
departments are the local agencies usually responding first to oil spills,
prompted by their traditional concern for the fire hazard, and the more
recent concern for the ecological damage done by spills, the USEPA made the
NYFD the recipient of a grant to determine just what a fire department
can do to limit oil spill damage. Especially stressed during the 22-month
course of this project was researching and developing the use of the in-
house capabilities of fire departments for dealing with oil spills. As a
result of this research and development project, some of the valuable
knowledge has been acquired and is made available in this manual.
Prior to the preparation of this manual, local community interest in oil
spill control throughout the nation was sampled by a widely distributed
questionnaire. Cities most susceptible to oil spills were sampled.
Of the 64 responding fire departments, 49 indicated active participation
in oil spill containment, either by the use of fire streams or deployment
of containment boom, or by assisting in various other ways. The vast
majority of the departments reporting indicated a concern for the marine
ecology, as well as the fire hazard presented by oil spills, and 60 of
the 64 departments indicated they respond to spill incidents, either
because of the fire hazard and/or ecological concern.
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SECTION IV
DAMAGE TO THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Oil is a complex substance having many constituents nearly all of which
are severely damaging to the marine environment in one vay or another.
The low boiling saturated hydrocarbons found in petroleum can be fatal
to lower animals and may be very injurious to young forms of marine
life, while the higher boiling saturated hydrocarbons may interfere
with the nutrition of marine animals. But the aromatic hydrocarbons
which are abundant in petroleum constitute the most deadly fraction.
These low boiling aromatics, such as benzene and toluene, are
poisonous to all organisms. In recent years, it has been recognized
that the treatment of oil slicks by chemicals known as dispersants or
detergents tends to add to the destruction of the surrounding marine
environment by releasing these toxic elements for the ingestion by,
or contact with living organisms. For this reason, the use of these
chemicals has been severely restricted by the Federal regulations.
Along with the immediate and poisonous effects of these petroleum
constituents are the highly publicized and damaging effects of spills
on the bird population, littoral vegetation, recreational beaches and
private property. But the long term, less dramatic and unobtrusive
effects of oil pollution must also be considered.
Since man derives a considerable amount of food from the seas, lakes,
and rivers, the effects of oil pollution on what he eats becomes a
matter of concern. Research has found that once hydrocarbons are
incorporated into a marine organism, they remain stable and pass
unaltered through many members of the marine food chain. These
hydrocarbons are not only retained in marine organisms, but may also
be concentrated. Ultimately, some organisms which have assimilated
the hydrocarbon contaminants are gathered for human consumption. Then,
passed along to man are some of the same carcinogenic compounds which
research has identified in crude oil, crude oil residues and tobacco
tars.
Sunken oil has been found on sea bottoms after some of the historical
spill incidents. This oil can move with bottom sediments and it is
felt that this sunken oil is not easily biodegraded because there is
less oxygen available at the bottom. Therefore, the bottom communities
become polluted.
Recent years have witnessed an aroused public awareness to the contam-
ination of the seas and inland waters by petroleum spills. This
awareness has prompted many investigations which will ultimately give
us a fuller knowledge of the short and long term effects of oil
pollution on the marine environment.
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SECTION V
FATE AND BEHAVIOR
When a spill occurs, the oil is subjected to a process known as weathering.
Changes in the composition of the oil result from the weathering process.
The principal causes of the changes are the loss of its compounds by
biological degradation. These processes are influenced by such variables
as the physical properties of the oil, the oceanographic and meteorological
conditions at the scene of the spill, and the influence of time.
The principal physical properties of an oil spill which have a direct
bearing on its eventual fate are: its viscosity, its specific gravity,
its volatility and flash point, its solubility in water, and possibly
its pour point. Along with influences of the natural environment in
which a spill occurs, these properties will govern the extent of a spill,
the degree to which it may damage the marine environment, and the
severity of the fire hazard it may present.
Knowledge of some of the principal physical and chemical processes which
have a direct effect on the fate and behavior of a spill is essential
for emergency service operating personnel. Although the tendencies
to spread, evaporate, degrade microbiologically and become lost through
other processes in the surrounding environment may result in the eventual
"disappearance" of a spill at sea, such is not the case on inshore or
harbor areas. The spill damage in the latter areas will be immediate
and intense. Whereas it may be difficult to mobilize and employ oil
containment and removal resources at sea, the control of a spill and
minimization of ecological damage can be affected on a community's waters
through some knowledge and training in the use of available equipment
and techniques.
The JSpread Process
The first observable process of an oil spill influencing its fate and
behavior is its tendency to spread in an even slick on the water's
surface. The lighter fractions and water soluble constituents are lost
due to evaporation and dissolution, leaving the more viscous residue
which comprises the bulk of the persistent slick.
Oil's spreading tendency is influenced by the physical forces of gravity
and surface tension. The horizontal movement of the oil is actually
caused by the downward pull of gravity and the surface tension of the
water which is ordinarily greater than that of the floating oil. As the
slick spreads and thins, the force of gravity naturally lessens. But,
the tendency to spread due to surface tension differentials does not rely
on film thickness, as does the gravity force, and ultimately surface
tension will prevail as the spreading force. The forces which tend to
retard the spread of oil are viscosity and inertia.
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In addition to the natural spreading tendency of oil, a slick will
follow the direction of the moving water surface on which it floats.
Therefore, currents and tides may move an oil slick a considerable
distance from the original spill incident. In calculating the move-
ment of a slick, the speed and direction of the wind are also important
meteoroligical factors to be considered. Wind is an influential factor
in the movement of surface water, and therefore, also on a floating oil
spill. The drift direction of a spill will be the same as the wind,
and speed will approximately be 3.5% of wind speed. The wind-driven
motion and the motion due to other currents are superimposed to give
the net drifts of the oil.
Estimating the Amount of Oil Spilled
The visual appearances of a spill can serve to estimate the thickness
and therefore the quantity spilled when we can also estimate the area
covered. Thickness will vary over the spill area so that actual measure-
ment for quantative evaluation is very difficult. Therefore, the
following appearance table is offered as a guide in approximating the
quantity of the oil spilled.
APPEARANCE TABLE (1)
Quantity of Oil
Film Appearance (Gallons per sq. mi.)
Barely visible 25
Silvery sheen 50
Slight trace of colors 100
Bright color bands 200
Dull Brown color 600
Darker brown 1,300+
The Evaporation Process
The various fractions of the oil begin to evaporate as soon as a spill
occurs. These lighter compounds will, of course, evaporate more rapidly
than the heavier. The rate of evaporation into the atmosphere is
influenced by the type of oil spilled and its viscosity, and also by
such factors as the air and water temperatures, water turbulence, wind
and the rate of spill spread. Vaporization tapers off after the early
loss of volatiles.
In the case of crude oil, while it is felt that evaporation accounts for
the greatest volumetric loss, solubility in sea water also plays a
significant role in volume reduction. The high volatility of some of
the refine products such as gasoline or naptha not only accounts for the
rapid volumetric reduction of the spill, but also creates an ignition
possibility in the surrounding atmosphere. The table which follows, gives
some indication of the rate of evaporation of #2, #4, and #6 fuel oils,
under controlled conditions at a temperature of 77° F for a period of
40 hours.
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Percentage of
Fuel Oil Oil Evaporated
n 13.1
#4 2.5
#6 2.0
Other Natural Processes
Several other natural physical and chemical processes may assist in the
dissipation of oil in the environment. But these processes are dependent
on such variables as time, meteorological conditions, microbial species
and oxygen content of the water, air and water temperatures, and the
quantity and type of petroleum spilled. In one such process, microbial
degradation, certain water borne bacteria, fungi and yeasts consume
hydrocarbons for food. This process is rather slow even under ideal
conditions. But most of these microorganisms found in both salt and
fresh water require oxygen, which unfortunately our polluted and oxygen
depleted harbor waters do not supply. Therefore, little of the oil
can be oxidized, and each spill serves to further contaminate the
ecology, and further reduce the oxygen content of the water. The
combination of hydrocarbons with atmospheric oxygen referred to as
autoxidation is another one of the weathering processes of petroleum.
It is a rather slow process because of the small amount of oxygen
penetrating into the oil.(3)
Influence of Wind and Water Conditions on the Movement of Oil
Whereas the surfaces of sheltered bays and lakes may show little movement,
rivers and open tidal basins possess known and predicable surface speeds.
Ordinarily, a spill will move in the same direction and at the same speed
as the surface water on which it rests. In the absence of a natural
current or floating debris, a spill will drift with the wind at about
3.5% of the wind velocity. This drift will occur regardless of such
factors as spill size, spreading tendencies of the oil, size of the
spill and water depth' '. Therefore, depending on the waterfront geo-
graphy of the locale, the movement of the water surface is a deciding
factor as to whether a spill will be localized or widespread. Prior
knowledge of local weather, current, tidal and geographic conditions
are necessary in planning operational strategy to limit spill damage.
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SECTION VI
LAWS AND REGULATIONS
Several Federal, State and Municipal laws are intended to prevent oil
spills and to control spill damage to the marine environment. Only the
more pertinent Federal statutes of interest to municipalities shall
be summarized herein.
The Refuse Act of 1899
Provisions
Prohibits the discharge of refuse into the navigable waters of the
United States or their tributaries from any vessel, wharf, manufacturing
establishment or mill of any kind.
Is applicable to oil discharges, both chronic and accidental in origin,
and case law has extended the "refuse" concept to valuable products,
such as gasoline.
Penalties
Violations are misdemeanors punishable by fines of $500.00 to $2,500.00
and/or imprisonment of not less than 30 days nor more than one year.
One-half of the fine penalty is payable to those giving information leading
to the conviction.
The Federal Water Quality Improvement Act of April 3, 1970
This law supersedes the Water Pollution Control Act of 1965-1966 in
regard to oil pollution control. Some of the more significant provisions
of the new law are:
The discharge of oil is prohibited except in such "quantities and at
times and locations or under such circumstances or conditions as the
President may, by regulation, determine not to be harmful".
Note: Regulations promulgated by the Secretary of the Interior in the
Federal Register dated September 11, 1970, interpret "quantities harmful
to the public health and welfare" as being those which:
"(a) violate applicable water quality standards, or
(b) cause a film or sheen upon or discoloration of the surface of water
or adjoining shorelines or cause a sludge or emulsion to be deposited
beneath the surface of the water or upon adjoining shorelines".
The owner or operator of a vessel or an onshore or offshore facility
from which oil is knowingly discharged can be assessed a civil penalty
not to exceed $10,000.00 for each offense.
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The person in charge of a vessel or an onshore or offshore facility who
fails to immediately notify the appropriate Federal agency (U. S. Coast
Guard or Environmental Protection Agency) of a harmful discharge of oil
can be fined an amount not to exceed $10,000.00 and/or imprisoned up
to one year.
The owner or operator of an onshore or offshore facility which discharges
a harmful quantity of oil may be assessed for cleanup costs not to exceed
eight million dollars. Discharges resulting from willful neglect or
willful misconduct within the privity and knowledge of the owner renders
the owner or operator liable to the U. S. Government for full cleanup
costs.
The owner or operator of a vessel which discharges a harmful quantity of
oil may be held liable for cleanup costs not to exceed $100.00 per gross
ton of the vessel or fourteen million dollars, whichever is less.
The Federal Government may remove discharged oil from navigable waters
or the contiguous zone at any time if the responsible party is not
properly removing the oil.
The Federal Government may remove or destroy a vessel involved in a
marine disaster in navigable waters and take action against on/off
shore facilities which present a substantial pollution threat.
The Federal Government shall issue regulations establishing methods and
procedures for the removal of oil; procedures, methods and requirements
for equipment to prevent oil discharges, and the governing of.the
inspection of oil vessels carrying oil cargoes.
The owner or operator of a vessel over 300 tons shall provide evidence of
financial responsibility to the extent of $100.00 per gross ton or
fourteen million dollars, whichever is less.
The Federal Government will prepare and publish a National Contingency
Flan for dealing effectively with oil spills, including containment
methods, removal procedures, and the regulations for the use of
dispersants and sinking agents.
A revolving fund is available to finance Governmental oil removal opera-
tions in cases where the violators fail to act. Any other monies received
as a result of this act shall also be deposited in this fund.
Federal Oil Spill Prevention Regulations
The implementation of the Water Quality Improvement Act's provisions for
equipment to prevent oil discharges from vessels and onshore and offshore
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facilities can be expected in the near future.
According to Vol. 36, No. 244 of the Federal Register, dated December 18,
1971, responsibility and authority for "non-transportational" facilities
shall be vested in the Environmental Protection Agency. These respon-
sibilities include the regulation of drilling, producing, refining,
storing, disposing and certain transferring operations.
Whereas the Department of Transportation (Coast Guard) will be responsible
for regulating the "transportational" phases of the oil industry. Included
are the transferring of oil to or from a vessel at any facility, including
terminal facilities; transporting oil via highway, pipeline, railroad or
vessel and certain storage operations.
Federal Oil Spill Contingency Plans
Pursuant to the Water Quality Improvement Act's provision for the prepara-
tion of a National Contingency Plan for effectively minimizing spill
damage, on June 2, 1970, the Council on Environmental Quality promulgated
the National Oil and Hazardous Materials Pollution Contingency Plan. The
Federal Register of August 20, 1971, promulgated the revised Nation
Contingency Plan.
National Objectives;
The Plan provides for the coordinated response of Federal Agencies to pro-
tect the environment from the effects of pollution spills. It also
promotes the coordination of Federal, State and local response systems
and encourages local government and private capabilities in dealing
with spill incidents.
The Plan preates Federal strike forces. It provides for a notification,
surveillance and reporting system and establishes an operational center
for coordinating Plan operations. The Plan, among other features, contains
a schedule for chemicals to treat spills; procedures for the investigation
of spills and enforcement of pertinent laws, and instructions relating
to on-scene coordination at spill incidents. A pre-designated On-Scene
Coordinator (OSC) is provided for spill response activities. The
National Plan also provides for the creation of Regional Plans for
dealing with oil spills.
Accordingly, the Environmental Protection Agency furnishes the OSC for
inland navigable waters and their tributaries. The U. S. Coast Guard
provides the OSC for the high seas, coastal and contiguous zone waters
and for Great Lakes coastal waters, ports and harbors.
The U. S. Coast Guard is responsible for developing, implementing and
revising as necessary, Regional Plans for those areas where it is assigned
the responsibility for providing the OSC. The Environmental Protection
Agency has similar responsibilities for those areas to which it furnishes
the OSC.
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The Primary Objectives of Regional Plans are;
Provide a Federal response at the regional level.
Determine, through the OSC, if the person responsible for the spill has
reported it in compliance with Federal Law and is taking adequate action
to remove the pollutant or adequately mitigate its effects.
When the person responsible for the spill is taking adequate action, the
Federal role shall be to observe and monitor progress and provide advice
as needed.
If the responsible person does not take or propose to take appropriate
cleanup action, or if the discharger is unknown, the Federal Government
is authorized to take steps to remove the oil. In the former instance,
the responsible person is liable to the U. S. Government for cleanup
costs to the limit of the law.
Questions relating to the Federal Water Quality Improvement Act or
Federal Oil Spill Contingency Plans should be directed to the Federal
Agency which supplies the OSC for a particular area. Furthermore, the
establishment of liaison with the pre-designated OSC will prove
valuable to a community in planning to protect its waters from oil
spill damage.
Legal Interpretation
The regulations as sunmarized in this manual should not be considered
lawfully binding. The actual Local, State, and Federal laws should be
consulted when considering this legal interpretation.
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SECTION VII
A SPILL NOTIFICATION SYSTEM
Although Federal statute requires that the person in charge of a vessel,
an onshore or an offshore facility, immediately notify the nearest
Environmental Protection Agency or U.S. Coast Guard office in case of
a spill on navigable water, shorelines or contiguous zones, it is also
advisable to have the local fire department notified as well. The
fire department's nearby presence and quick response capability may
result in promptly stopping the flow of the oil, eliminating a fire
hazard and/or reducing the environmental or property damage.
An exchange of spill notification information between local and Federal
agencies will be mutually advantageous by initiating operating liaison
and thereby expediting control and cleanup activities. In some instances
the Federal response agency may be required to engage the services of
the cleanup contractor when for some reason the spiller has not done
so or when the source of the spill cannot be determined.
The identification, location and telephone number of the Federal agency
responsible for providing on-scene coordination at spills on navigable
waters in the various geographic areas of the nation is available at the
nearest EPA or Coast Guard office. A knowledge of this information
for quick use by a community will insure a more rapid Federal response
in case of a spill.
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SECTION VIII
FAMILIARITY WITH LOCAL WATERS AMD WATERFRONT CONDITIONS
The susceptibility of a community to oil spill damage is predicated on
several factors related to its navigable and surrounding waters, its
waterfront geography, and the uses to which these waters and shore-
fronts are devoted. In evaluating the extent to which a spill may
injure a community, and in estimating possibilities for the control
of a spill, familiarity with the waterfront areas, through data and
map study and personal inspection, will prove helpful.
An oil slick on a fast moving stream may present little opportunity for
containment in the rapid current, but the angular diversion of some of
the spill into a quiescent cove or bay for eventual recovery may be
possible. A spill on tranquil water will provide a much better
opportunity for containment and recovery. The efficiency of spill boom
increases as the current decreases. Also, the performance of skimming
equipment is more effective in quiet water conditions.
Knowledge of the extent to which local waters are affected by tidal
changes is important in minimizing spill damage. Reference to published
tide tables giving high and low water predictions will be helpful in
formulating strategy for containment boom deployment or other spill
control operations. It may be necessary to effect some radical changes
in the positioning of spill boom when the tidal flow changes from ebb
to flood. Otherwise, especially when a spill cannot be fully encircled,
oil may escape from behind the barrier.
Based on this information, sensitive areas such as marinas may be
protected by boom in advance of the spill, work crews may be alerted
to construct protective sand berms on beaches and to participate in the
general removal of oil from beaches. Obviously, there is no assurance
that a slick which has been carried out on an ebb tide won't return on
the next flood tide.
The type of spill control operations also depend on the water depth
beneath the spill. When the water is sufficiently deep, there will be
no problem with deployment of boom by boat and utilizing floating
skimming equipment. Should the water be very shallow, other means of
boom deployment, possible from the land side, may be necessary. In
tidal zones the water depths will vary as predicted in the tide tables.
A first hand knowledge of the community's shorefronts will aid in the
prompt formulation of spill control operations. The presence of sea
walls and accessible roads along the waterfront can mean quick delivery
of control equipment by land. Without access to the waterfront,
equipment must be transported and deployed by boat, which may be slower
in certain circumstances. Spill control operations from a pier or
bulkhead would differ from operations undertaken from a beach.
Beach protection may entail boom deployment from the land side alone,
whereas operations from piers or bulkheads where water depth is greater,
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may require the use of boat equipment. The type of skimming equipment
to be used will also vary with the kind of waterfront. Beach areas may
prohibit the approach of vacuum trucks of cleanup contractors, oil
companies, etc., whereas, approach to the floating oil pool may be
afforded by piers or roads along sea walls. Also, since oil can accumu-
late beneath shorefront structures and re-appear during low water periods,
it becomes necessary to sweep it from beneath these areas during low
water periods, possibly by fire streams, into a captive pool for
ultimate recovery.
It is hardly possible that a cleanup contractor or an oil company can
possess the knowledge of a community's waterfront that its fire service
can. Having this information available for the cleanup people on their
arrival can aid materially in the expeditious recovery of the spill.
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SECTION IX
SOURCES OF OIL POLLUTION
Concurrent with the increased transportation, storage, and use of
petroleum, is the increase in spill incidents. Oil is introduced into
the nation's waters from both stationary sources and transportational
sources. The stationary sources present in many communities are the
refineries and bulk storage facilities usually situated along
shorelines; the pipe lines, which may be situated above and below the
ground and beneath some bodies of water; and the sewer outfalls which
discharge into local waters. The transportational sources of oil
traffic are the passenger, cargo, and military vessels fueled by oil;
and the railroad tank cars and tank trucks which carry petroleum. In
spite of the continuing efforts devoted to oil spill prevention, spills
continue to occur for the simple reason that the vast majority are
attributable to human error.
A barrel of petroleum will be transferred between ten and fifteen times
between the different modes of transportation from the time it is
produced until it is finally used. It is during these actual transfers
that the spill frequency is exceedingly high. Statistically, one barrel
is lost for each one million transported.
Major Sources of Oil Pollution
It is difficult to estimate the number of spills from ships and barges
in the United States inland and offshore areas for several reasons.
Although it's illegal to do so, oil can be discharged into the open
waters and rivers during ballasting, cleaning of oil tanks, and pumping
bilges. However, even the scattered data on hand indicates that spills
are frequent. The pollution potential from deballasting alone may exceed
100,000 tons per year.(5)
Because of the nature and volume of its cargo, the tanker poses the threat
of creating the most serious pollution incidents. The historic Torrey
Canyon disgorged 119,00 tons of crude oil in the memorable 1967 grounding
incident.(*) Some government and petroleum sources estimate conservatively
that 33,000 bbls of oil are lost daily in the oceans of the world from
tanker operations along.(6) Port areas are highly vulnerable to spill
damage resulting from tanker collisions as evidenced by the fact that
80% of a 10-year total of 550 collisions occurred entering or leaving
ports.'')
In addition to the 387 tankers and 2,900 barges engaged in the business
of transporting petroleum on the nation's waters, some 217,000 miles
of pipe lines, 158,000 tank trucks and 81,000 railroad tank cares are
also employed in the delivery business. Accidental discharges from
any of these modes of transport can pollute our waterways.(6)
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Besides the transportational sources of spills, stationary sources
from industries, refineries, storage facilities and sewer outfalls,
continue to cause water pollution. Since these sources are present
in most municipalities, a knowledge of their locations, and pollution
potential will assist the fire department in planning spill control
possibilities. These chronic, local sources volumetrically exceed
that spilled from all waterborne sources.
Defective piping, storage tanks and dyking at some of these shorefront
terminal facilities, which number about 6,000 nationally, have created
some noteworthy spill incidents. One tank failure alone released
200,000 barrels of crude oil into the marine environment of several
communities in the New York-New Jersey area.^8) Notwithstanding, the
susceptibility of terminal operations to human error, plant personnel
training and periodic inspections can effectively reduce spill incidents.
It is estimated that of the 1.25 billion gallons of waste crankcase oil
generated by automotive engines, half a billion gallons are being
discharged into the environment in an illegal manner. Much of this
poisonous discharge finds its way into the aquatic environment and
reveals itself as an oil slick, possibly near a sewer outfall. The
enlistment of the cooperation of those involved in the sale of auto-
motive oil, gas station operators and the general public is essential
if this pollution nuisance is to be overcome. Also, a concerted effort
must be made to provide and utilize nonpollutive means of disposing of
waste crankcase oil.'''
A prior knowledge of the location and pollution potential of these
static sources will be valuable to a fire department in formulating
its spill response plan. Furthermore, inter-community planning may be
necessary due to the vulnerability of communities to spills occurring
outside their corporate limits.
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SECTION X
TECHNIQUES USED IN CONTROLLING OIL SPILLS
Several different techniques, some of which are controversial, are
used with varying degrees of success in controlling oil spills. Under
certain circumstances, slicks are burned off into the atmosphere or
even sunken into the water column by adding high density particulate
solids. At times chemical surface-active agents or emulsifiers are
employed to disperse the oil in the water. While a method quite the
opposite to dispersion, still in the developmental stage, is gelling
the slick or the oil cargo of a leaking vessel to prevent its spread.
Gelling is accomplished by the addition of a chemical agent which
solidifies the oil. But the most widely used technique for con-
trolling spills, particularly in port areas, involves the combined
use of flotation barriers called boons and skimming devices for
removing the spilled oil entirely from the water. At times, sorbents
which may be granular substances or slabs of oleophilic (oil
attracting) but hydrophobic (water repelling) materials may be used
to soak up the oil for subsequent removal from the water. These various
techniques will be outlined, and the dual technique of containment
and removal will be described in greater detail, since this appears
to be the most acceptable method of oil spill control in port areas.
The Burning Technique
The disposal of oil spills on water by burning them off, may seem at
first glance to offer an ultimate solution to the oil pollution
problem. Hopefully, all the oil could be consumed without adversely
affecting the marine environment, and, under closely controlled con-
ditions, the inherent fire hazard can be minimized. However, several
problems associated with the burning technique, must be solved
before burning can be considered a practical means of disposing of
oil spills.
Whereas, under certain circumstances burning might be considered for a
spill at sea, it can hardly be recommended for inland waters or harbor
areas because of the inherent air pollution and fire extension
possibilities presented. Along with some actual experience with
burning and the tests conducted by the Federal Environmental Protection
Agency, some valuable information has been made available on the burning
of oil slicks.
Some of the problems associated with the burning technique have been
emphasized as a result of historic spills from tankers and other vessels
at sea, experienced during the past few years. It has been found that
after a short period of time, a spill is difficult to ignite and burn.
The more volatile and lower flash point components are lost rapidly
to the atmosphere and as the slick spreads, it becomes thinner and
begins to emulsify with the water. Ignition then becomes very difficult.
The heat loss to the body of water then makes sustained combustion
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improbable* Some investigators report that oil slicks less than 3
millimeters thick (about 1/8 in.) won't burn, and that kerosene, fuel
oil or lubricating oil on water won't burn without a "wick". Never-
theless, fresh spills within harbors or confined areas involving
light crude oil, gasoline or other low flash point products can present
fire hazards which should be given the prime attention.
Research experiments have been conducted by the U. S. Na^y and the
Environmental Protection Agency, both with and without special burning
agents.(9) Burning agents were used to ignite and sustain the combustion
of a spill, while wicking agents were used to increase oxygen access and
insulate burning oil from the cooling water. Priming agents may be
gasoline, light, south Louisiana crude oil or various commercial
products. Wicking agents may be straw or manufactured glass beads
or silane treated fumed silica. The results of these tests indicate:
Burning of uncontained oil slicks is extremely difficult unless the
oil is 2 millimeters thick or greater. These results closely parallel
those of other researchers.
Eighty to ninety per cent of contained south Louisiana crude oil was
burned without the use of burning agents but Bunker C could not be
ignited under the same conditions.
Bunker C was burned to an eighty to ninety per cent reduction when
seeded with a priming fuel and a wicking agent.
Experience and limited experiments with burning, to remove oil from
beaches, indicate that burning of the heavy tarry patches causes
liquification and therefore, penetration into the sand. The present
techniques for physical removal of the oil are therefore preferable.
Until the research efforts aimed at the production of a "floating
incinerator" to cleanly and safely burn off oil slicks are successful,
the burning technique cannot be recommended for inland waterways or
harbors.
The National Contingency Plan, as revised in August, 1971, regulates
the use of burning agents. These agents are allowed so long as they
do not in themselves or in combination with the material to which they
are applied, increase the pollution hazard and their use is approved
by appropriate Federal, State and local fire prevention officials.
The Sinking Technique
The National Contingency Plan, as revised in August, 1971, defines
sinking agents as "those chemical or other agents that can physically
sink oil below the water surface." The Plan allows the use of sinking
agents "only in marine waters exceeding 100 meters in depth where
currents are not predominantly onshore, and only if other control methods
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are judged by EPA to be inadequate or not feasible." A brief
explanation of the technique follows, so that sinking may be
better understood, even though inland and harbor water depths
preclude its use.
In the normal course of events, some of the oil spilled on harbor
waters finds its way to the bottom by clinging to or possibly by
adsorption on particulate matter suspended in the water column.
Experiments and experience with sinking as a method for disposing of
oil slicks indicate that when sand or other high gravity hydrophobia
(water attracting) substances, such as ground chalk or cement, carry
oil to the bottom, the results are only temporary. The oil can be
expected to resurface in a short while. Some other granular, oleo-
philic (oil attracting) substances, such as sulphur, permit the
oil to cling to the grains and keep the oil submerged. The eventual
elimination of sunken oil will depend on the biodegradation process
and the dispersion caused by tides and currents.
To be effective, a sinking agent should be a high density, particulate
solid having a large specific surface area. The sinkant should be
oleophilic or capable of being conveniently made so, and it should
bind with the oil so that it will be retained on the bottom. The
agent must be capable of being distributed over the slick to achieve
sinking of the oil.
Continuing investigations, tests and evaluations, both in the United
States and abroad on various types of sinking agents and methods of
application indicate that:
The numerous natural and manufactured products which might be used
as sinkers require the application of large quantities to be effective.
In addition to their purchase price, storage, transportation and
application, add to costs. It, therefore, appears that clean sea
sand which can be conveniently provided by dredges and transported to
the slick, can be considered a practical sinkant. Sand slurries,
treated with a chemical oil wetting agent have been effectively sprayed
on slicks; the sinking effect experienced in these operations has been
reported to be between 50 to 95% of the sprayed oil.*10) (1J-) The wide
variation in results may be attributable to differences in the thickness
of the oil slicks.
The heavier, more viscous oils are more susceptible to sinking than
lighter oils.
Sinking is more appropriate to deep water sea spills where the fish
population is less dense and marine biology would be less likely to be
affected. Although sinking will localize the spill, damage may be more
intense in the localized area.
Sand containing a minimum quantity of clay and silt is more effective
than sand with higher quantities.
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Although too coarse a sand may adversely affect oil retention, the use
of sand which is too fine can be costly because of the increased
surfactant requirements. However, regardless of the sand grading, wax
coated sand is an efficient sinkant.
The logistics of dredging up large quantities of sand, transporting
it to the spill site, treating it with chemicals and spraying it over
the slick is a tested technique applicable only to large spills at sea.
The rate of application of sinkers is an important factor in their use.
Fine powders are preferably applied at a rate not much faster than that
of which they are encapsulated by the oil.^2)
The Dispersing Technique
This method of treating oil spills consists of the application of a
chemical agent to the slick to reduce the oilwater interfacial tension
and create an emulsion. Dissolved in the oil, these chemical agents
render the oil more dispersible in the water; small droplets are formed
and coalesence is prevented as the oil is "lost" in the water column.
Besides the obvious removal of the oil from the water's surface, its
dispersion in the body of water can be expected to promote biodegrada-
tion.
Some of the early dispersants used on oil slicks were actually emul-
sifying degreasers intended for such purposes as cleaning oil tanks.
Today, many more efficient and less toxic dispersants are available.
Usually, chemical dispersants contain three types of ingredients:
The surface active agent which is the principal active component.
The solvents which may or may not be present to dilute the surface
active ingredient and promote mixing with the oil.
The additives which stabilize the emulsion and aid dispersion.
Some of the surface active agents used are soaps, for fresh water use;
sulfonated organics; phosphated esters; caroxylic acid esters of
polyhydroxy compounds; and ethoxylated alkyl phenols and alcohols.
There are three general classes of solvents used in dispersants. They
consist of hydrocarbons, such as kerosene, mineral spirits and in
some cases, naptha; alcohols, glycols and glycol ethers; and water,
which although the least toxic, does present problems in regard to
miscibility in oil and freezing.
The additives in dispersants may consist of sodium phosphates, sodium
silicates and liguin sulfonates among many, which are dispersant
aids.C13)
Since the use of dispersants is controversial, some of the pros and
cons concerning their use are worth knowing.
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On the positive side are such benefits as the increased rate of degra-
dation; injury to birds is reduced; the fire hazard is reduced; damage
to beaches and solid surfaces is reduced and the formation of floating
agglomerated oil masses is avoided.
The principal arguments against the use of dispersants revolve around
their innate high level of toxicity and the toxicity of the dispersed
oil. The low boiling point aromatic solvents used in some dispersants
are known to be toxic to marine life. And certain surfactants, although
efficient emulsifiers, have been found to be detrimental to marine life.
Considerable effort has been undertaken in recent years to produce
dispersants of considerably reduced toxicity. As a result, some
effective and practically non-toxic dispersants are now available. The
penalty paid for dispersing the oil several feet into the water column
is that the oil is transferred from the surface to an area where it can
damage forms of marine life which would have escaped if the oil had re-
mained on the surface.
Another concern recently voiced is for the ultimate oxygen demand of
the dispersant or the disperant-oil emulsion which might further reduce
the dissolved oxygen in already polluted coastal and inland waters.
Section 2000, Annex X of the National Oil and Hazardous Substances
Pollution Contingency Plan, promulgated August 20, 1971, describing the
restricted uses of dispersants, follows:
2000. Schedule of Dispersants and Other Chemicals to Treat Oil Spills:
2001.1 This schedule shall apply to the navigable waters of the United
States and adjoining shorelines, and the waters of the contiguous zone
as defined in Article 24 of the Convention on the Territorial Sea and
the Contiguous Zone.
2001.2 This schedule applies to the regulation of any chemical as herein-
after defined that is applied to an oil spill.
2001.3 This schedule advocates development and utilization of mechanical
and other control methods that will result in removal of oil from the
environment with subsequent proper disposal.
2001.4 Relationship of the Environmental Protection Agency with other
Federal agencies and State agencies in implementing this schedule: In
those States with more stringent laws, regulations or written policies
for regulation of chemical use, such State laws, regulations, or written
policies shall govern. This schedule will apply in those States that have
not adopted such laws, regulations, or written policies.
2002. Definitions:-Substances applied to an oil spill are defined as
follows:
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2002.1 Collecting agents - include chemicals or other agents that can
gell, sorb, congeal, herd, entrap, fix or make the oil mass more rigid
or viscous in order to facilitate surface removal of oil.
2002.2 Sinking agents - are those chemical or other agents that can
physically sink oil below the water surface.
2002.3 Dispersing agents - are those chemical agents or compounds
which emulsify, disperse, or solubilize oil into the water column or
act to further the surface spreading of oil slicks in order to facili-
tate dispersal of the oil into the water column.
2003. Collecting agents - Collecting agents are considered to be
generally acceptable providing that these materials do not in them-
selves or in combination with the oil increase the pollution hazard.
2004. Sinking agents - Sinking agents may be used only in marine waters
exceeding 100 meters in depth where currents are not predominately on-
shore, and only if other control methods are judged by EPA to be
inadequate or not feasible.
2005. Authorities controlling use of dispersants, 2005.1: Regional
response team activated: Dispersants may be used in any place, at
any time, and in quantities designated by the On-Scene Coordinator,
when their use will:
2005.1-1 in the judgment of the OSC, prevent or substantially reduce
hazard to human life or limb or substantial hazard of fire property;
2005.1-2 in the judgment of the EPA, in consultation with appropriate
State agencies, result in the least overall environmental damage, or
interference with designated uses.
2005.2 Regional response team not activated: Provisions of section
2005.1-1 shall apply. The use of dispersants in any other situation
shall be subject to this schedule except in States where State laws,
regulations, or written policies that govern the prohibition, use,
quantity, or type of dispersant are in effect. In such States, the
State laws, regulations or written policies shall be followed during
the cleanup operation.
2006. Interim restrictions on use of dispersants for pollution control
purposes: Except as noted in 2005.1, dispersants shall not be used:
2006.1 On any distillate fuel oil;
2006.2 On any spill of oil less than 200 barrels in quantity;
2006.3 On any shoreline;
2006.4 In any waters less than 100 feet deep;
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2006.5 In any waters containing major populations, or breeding or
passage areas for species of fish or marine life which may be damaged
or rendered commercially less marketable by exposure to dispersant or
dispersed oil;
2006.6 In any waters where winds and/or currents are of such
velocity and direction that dispersed oil mixtures would likely, in
the judgment of EPA, be carried to shore areas within 24 hours; or
2006.7 In any waters where such use may affect surface water supplies.
2007. Dispersant use - Dispersants may be used in accordance with this
schedule if other control methods are judged to be inadequate or
infeasible, and if:
2007.1 Information has been provided to EPA, in sufficient time prior
to its use for review by EPA, on its toxicity, effectiveness and
oxygen demand determined by the standard procedures published by EPA
(prior to publication by EPA of standard procedures, no dispersant
shall be applied, except as noted in Section 2005.1-1 in quantities
exceeding 5 p.p.m. in the upper 3 feet of the water column during any
24-hour period. This amount is equivalent to 5 gallons per acre per
24 hours); and
2007. Applied during any 24-hour period in quantities not exceeding
the 96 hour TLjQ value of the most sensitive species tested, in parts
per million, by 0.33; except that in no case, except as noted in Section
2005.-1 will the daily application rate of chemical exceed 540 gallons
per acre or one fifth of the total volume spilled, whichever quantity
is smaller.
2007.3 Dispersant containers are labeled with the following information:
2007.3-1 Name brand, or trademark, if any, under which the chemical is
sold;
2007.3-2 Name and address of the manufacturer, importer, or vendor;
2007.3-3 Flash point;
2007.3-4 Freezing or pour point;
2007.3-5 Viscosity;
2007.3-6 Recommend application procedure(s), concentrations(s), and
conditions for use as regards water salinity, water temperature, and
types and ages of oils;
2007.3-7 Date of production and shelf life.
2007.4 Information to be supplied to EPA on the:
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2007.4-1 Chemical name and percentage of each component;
2007.4-2 Concentrations of potentially hazardous trace materials,
including, but not necessarily being limited to lead, chromium, zinc,
arsenic, mercury, nickel, copper, or chlorinated hydrocarbons;
2007.4-3 Description of analytical methods used in determining chemical
characteristics outlined in 2007.4-1, -2 above;
2007.4-4 Methods of analyzing the chemical in fresh and salt water are
provided to EPA or reasons why such analytical methods cannot be
provided; and
2007.4-5 For purposes of research and development, EPA may authorize
use of dispersants in specified amounts and locations under controlled
conditions irrespective of the provisions of this schedule.
Note: In addition to those agents defined and described in Section
2002 above, the following materials which are not a part of this
schedule, with cautions on their use, should be considered:
Biological agents - those bacteria and enzymes isolated, grown and
produced for the specific purpose of encouraging or speeding biode-
gradation to mitigate the effects of a spill. Biological agents shall
be used to treat spills only when such use is approved by the
appropriate State and local public health and water pollution control
officials.
Burning agents - are those materials which, through physical or
chemical means, improve the combustibility of the materials to which
they are applied. Burning agents may be used and are acceptable so
long as they do not in themselves, or in combination with the
material to which they are applied, increase the pollution hazard and
their use is approved by appropriate Federal, State, and local fire
prevention officials.
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SECTION XI
THE CONTAINMENT-REMOVAL TECHNIQUE
Based on the current state of the art of oil spill control in
sheltered areas, the physical containment and removal of the oil
from the marine environment is the most universally accepted
approach. The containment-removal technique is not intended to
add any pollutants to the water, and recovery of the spilled oil
is followed by its proper disposal.
Containment is ordinarily attempted by the use of spill booms and
in the case of fire departments, particularly, their fire streams
can be of value in controlling and herding spills. The use of
containment boom and fire streams for spill control purposes will
be explained in detail, since either or both of these tools might
be used by emergency personnel arriving first in an oil spill harbor
or an inland waterway.
Some chemical containment techniques are in the development stage.
One consists of the application of a gelling agent, either on the
surface of the spill or into a leaking tank or compartment to gel
the product and prevent further escape. Another is the application
of a monomolecular or "piston" film substances on a spill to drive
the oil into a compacted area for easy recovery. Although both of
these means of chemical control offer promise; to date neither has
been sufficiently accepted to be of concern to a fire department.
The physical recovery of the oil from the marine environment is a
sure method of preventing the ecological damage which a spill may
cause. Several types of "skimming" devices are employed in removing
slicks from the water's surface. Among these are circular, floating
weir suction units; the revolving disc or endless belt; suction
hoses suspended or floated close to the water's surface; also
numerous experimental recovery units using a variety of approaches
for removing oil from the water are now in existence. "Sorbents"
are those substances used on spills which float on water and attract
the spilled oil. To be efficient, such substances must have a
greater attraction for oil than for water and they must retain the
oil long enough to allow the removal of the oil-soaked sorbent from
the water's surface. A variety of natural and manufactured products
are used as "sorbents" in the cleaning up of oil spills.
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SECTION XII
CONTAINMENT BOOMS
Next to stopping the flow at its source, the most urgent need at a
spill operation is to restrict the spread of the oil to the smallest
possible area. Due to the speed with which oil spreads on water,
quick containment efforts are essential if the damage is to be
localized. These efforts should be harmless to the ecology and
should assist the oil recovery operations. At the present time,
a quickly deployed containment barrier is the most practical means
of containing a spill on quiescent waters. This spill containment
is usually achieved by the deployment of a manufactured containment
boom.
At some waterfront installations where petroleum is transferred or
used in volume, spill booms may be permanently maintained in the
water around the potential spill sources. Thus, oil spills are
almost automatically confined, and recovery of the spilled oil is
simplified. At those plants or transfer points where oil spill
boom is not kept in the water, a plant plan for quick boom deploy-
ment is essential. Spills at such unprotected locations present
the possibilities for serious pollution incidents, as do those
transportation accidents involving oil carrying vessels, barges
and pipe lines. Furthermore, spill incidents may occur at locations
where spill boom is remote from the scene or when most working
personnel are unavailable to deploy boom stored ashore.
It therefore becomes obvious that an emergency response service is
needed in many communities. Such a protective service can be made
available by equipping a local agency, such as the fire department,
with some containment boom and by training some personnel in its
use. To supplement this 24-hour response availability, an agree-
ment is desirable whereby the fire department can assist plant
personnel in the deployment of plant boom. Such an arrangement can
be especially valuable when spills occur at times when plant person-
nel are too few to effectively deploy their boom.
The arrival of the professional cleanup contractor should normally
terminate the need for the fire department's services at a spill.
Because of the lack of boom cleaning facilities at fire stations,
prior arrangements should be made with persons responsible for
spill cleanup to have the fire department's boom cleaned and re-
turned as soon as possible.
Criteria for Emergency Spill Boom
As a result of one year's experience in a research and development
project, sponsored by the Federal EPA, the NYFD established some
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performance criteria for an ideal oil containment boom which an
emergency service, such as a fire department or a plant team
might use to control harbor spills. The criteria is an outgrowth
of the NYFD's use of different types of boom at spills and in
test exercises; reviews of publications containing boom information;
consultations with manufacturers' representatives, and observations
at spill operations in the Port of NY. Suggestions for the storage
and use of boom which follow, are also products of NYFD experience.
A summary of these boom criteria are offered to assist a fire
department in the selection of a satisfactory boom from the many
manufactured products now available:
1. A draft of 12 inches and a freeboard of 6 inches proved
adequate for harbor spills. The increased capacity of a larger
boom is slight, and the weight and deployment time penalties are
large.
2. The boom weight should be under 2 pounds per foot.
3. Flotation, ballast and stiffeners should be permanently
attached, preferably inside the fabric to avoid snagging and
simplify cleaning.
4. The fabric should carry the tension distributed over its
height, with possible sewn or molded reinforcement at top and
bottom. In addition, the fabric must be tough, abrasion-resistant,
stable in solar radiation, thermally stable, and resistant to
petroleum oils and products. A bright yellow color is recommended.
5. The cost should be under $12.00 per foot.
6. Grab handles should be provided on the top edge.
7. The boom should have an overall tensile strength near 6,000
Ibs without external tension members.
8. Fire resistance is not recommended due to high weight and
cost penalties.
9. The ballast and float configuration should afford stability in
15-knot winds, 0.5-1.0-knot currents and 2-ft waves.
Boom Storage & Handling Considerations^
Since the use of boom was not envisioned when fireboats or water-
front fire service facilities were designed, no space or facilities
for the storage and handling of spill boom were included. The
adaptability of existing facilities may well be the deciding factor
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as to the kind and quantity of boom acquired by a fire department.
The decision as to whether all boom storage should be concentrated
in one location or distributed throughout a harbor community will
depend on the size of the community, location of the spill potentials,
the storage facilities and the personnel available.
In the course of the NYFD demonstration project, four different
types of spill boom were tested for their handling and storing
features. These booms were 36-in. boom with self-contained flota-
tion and weighing about 4 pounds per foot; a light 36-in. boom with
attachable flotation and two types of light boom with self-contained
flotation, weighing between 1.5 and 2.5 Ibs per foot. Four types of
storage facilities were studied to determine acceptable modes
applicable to an emergency service whereby four men cculd launch
about three hundred feet of boom in a short period of time. The
Tested modes involved storage aboard a fireboat, or at waterfront
fireboat berths from which boom could be readily transported by
boat or truck to a spill. Due to the quick response requirement and
manpower limitations, the 36-in. heavy boom was eliminated from
consideration. Its weight and bulk precluded storage aboard a
boat and prompt loading either on a boat or truck. However, if
manpower, storage space and lifting equipment are readily available,
a heavy boom provides some containment and strength advantages.
Storing a reasonable amount of boom in the "ready" aboard a boat or
truck for prompt transportation to a spill eliminates loading delays.
Since the dedication of a truck exclusively to this service is not
ordinarily possible, storage aboard a boat which may have some
unused deck space, should be explored. Furthermore, having boom
already aboard a fireboat insures prompt boom deployment should the
boat encounter a spill while away from its berth.
Boat Storage
Three alternatives are offered for fireboat storage, namely:
1. On a standard fire hose reel
2. In a storage box
3. On deck pallets.
This storage mode necessitates the use of a flat, flexible boom
with little buildup when wound on a reel, or a flat boom with
detachable flotation. Limited deck space may necessitate the
use of a reel for storage and the use of a flat, flexible boom.
However, the New York experience indicates that 300 ft of 36-in.
boom with detachable floats can be stored on a reel measuring
5 ft in diameter and 5 ft wide with core spool measuring 9 in.
in diamter. Although this storage is quite compact and convenient
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for boom launching, the attachment of the floats delays launching.
In tests, 300 ft of wound, detachable flotation boom was launched
in 18 minutes while an 18-in boom with built-in flotation was
launched in 3 minutes from the deck of a fireboat.
Deck Storage on Pallets
A convenient deck space can servce for this type of storage. The
pallets are intended to keep the boom off the deck and allow for
deck drainage. A tarpaulin cover, secured with line, will serve
to protect the boom from the elements, especially from snow and ice.
Most booms are adaptable to this tyoe of storage, and readying the
boom for launch can be accomplished with relative ease.
Box Storage
The measurements of the boom to be stored (especially its articu-
lations) must be considered to insure maximum space utilization
within the box. A stern location for the boat storage box is
preferable. The long measurement of the box should parallel the
vessel's length since the boom will usually be fed out over the
vessel's stern. To facilitate removal of the boom from the box, the
cover and the rear (stern) end should be removable.
A convenient construction material for the box is 3/4-in.marine
plywood. The bottom should be raised slightly above the deck and
bottom drainage should be provided. Auxiliary equipment such as
end connectors, tow plates, tow and securing lines can be con-
veniently stored in a box along with the boom.
A box measuring 6 ft long by A ft wide by 3 ft, 6 in high should be
capable of holding 300 ft of light, 18-in. boom. An initial response
of 300 ft of boom should be a fire department's planning objective.
Shore-side Storage
Storage inside a building is preferable to storage in the open.
Accessibility to a means of transportation (truck or boat) should
be considered in selecting a storage building, and when placing
the boom in the building. A compact package of the boom's auxiliary
equipment (connecting and tow plates and line) should be kept with
boom.
If a boom must be stored in the open, it should at least be placed
on pallets and covered with a secure tarpaulin.
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Readiness of Boom Equipment
A program of periodic inspections should insure the boom's readi-
ness for emergency use.
Important items to be inspected are:
Tension member connections. Connections of tension members (chain,
cable, etc.) between each length must be made up to each other when
joining sections of boom. Shackles may form the connecting links.
If the stress members are not joined, tension put on the boom will
be transmitted to the boom fabric instead of the tension member, and
result in serious tearing of the fabric.
The end connector system. Sections of similar boom are connected
by various systems. Some use bolts through matching grommet holes
at the end of each section; some use connector plates which accomo-
date the two ends to be joined; and others may use snap hooks which
connect to eyelets in the ends to be joined. Whatever the system
used, these ends must be properly joined before the boom is put in
the water, otherwise oil will escape at these connection points.
Flotation system. For boom using detachable floats, adequate
plastic floats must be available and means of attaching them to
the boom must be in good condition. If an internal flotation system
is used, the encapsulating fabric must be closely inspected for
tears or abrasions which might cause the release of the flotation
material, particularly if pellets are used. Loss of flotaltion,
even in one section of boom, can result in the escape of a spill.
Also, the prior detection of the need for a small repair patch may
result in a substantial monetary saving, in view of the costliness
of boom.
Auxiliary equipment. The presence and serviceability of such items
as tow plates, end connectors and tow lines, small light anchors
and floats must be assured, as should a small reserve of such
expendable items as connecting bolts, shackles and light securing
line.
Adaptability of Dissimilar Booms
It is improbable that all the boom in a community will be of the
same size and make. Yet, on occasions it may be necessary to
join these different booms to contain a spill. To do this, some
improvised universal adaptor plates can be made from light aluminum
stock. The plates should be 4 in, x 18 in.and 4 in.x 36 in.with
two vertical rows of bolt holes drilled at intervals to match the
grommet holes of boom ends and to accept tension member connectors.
Such plates should permit connection of dissimilar 18-in booms or
37
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18-in booms to 36-in booms. It is easier to join dissimilar booms,
using adaptor plates, before the booms are launched. Joining the
ends of floating booms, especially during adverse weather or in
darkness can result in the loss of nuts and bolts or even the
plates themselves.
Transporting Boom to a Spill
In the large port communities boom may be transported to the spill
site by fireboat and/or truck. Boat transportation may be used
when larger boats having storage capability are available.
Delivery and deployment of the boom is usually simpler from such
a vessel than from a truck, since less manhandling is required, and
the assistance of a small boat is more or less assured when a
fire boat is used. Such small boats are usually carried as routine
equipment on the larger fire boats. Also, on occasions, a truck may
have difficulty getting close enough to the water to permit quick and
efficient launching of boom.
In the industrial heart of the community, a fireboat willusually
arrive promptly at a spill. Fireboats are usually situated in these
areas and water traffic doesn't present the response delays which
can be expected by vehicles on busy roadways. But, for spills which
may happen in the outlying areas of a city, transportation by
truck may be a practical means of getting boom to the spill site.
When truck transportation is used, arrangements should be made to
acquire the services of a small boat, such as an outboard, to deploy
the boom on the water.
Storing a few hundred feet of spill boom aboard a fireboat as part
of its normal operating equipment is preferable to storing all boom
ashore. On-boat availability can save much valuable loading and
responding time. This is particularly true when a fireboat which is
a considerable distance from the nearest boom storage location re-
ceives a radio notification to respond to a spill incident. Having
the boom already on board eliminates traveling to the boom storage
location and loading boom on board the boat prior to responding to
the spill.
Planning for Boom Containment of a Spill:
To effectively control a spill, the officer responsible for boom
deployment should seek the following information as soon as the
spill notification is received:
The kind and quantity of oil spilled.
The exact location of the vessel, tank or sewer outfall observed
discharging oil. Whether or not the leak has stopped flowing.
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The direction and speed of the current in the main channel or river
as well as the current in the immediate (usually sheltered) area of
the leak.
The velocity and direction of the wind.
The type of shorefront (beach or bulkhead) and the sensitivity
of the exposed area to spill damage.
Whether the spill is restricted to a small area or has spread.
If it has spread, the possibilities for extended damage must be
evaluated, and appropriate oil diversion or containment plans
formulated. If the original spill notification is vague, it may
be necessary to have fire personnel close to the reported spill
investigate and radio any clarifying information which may assist
the unit responding with the spill control equipment.
When the existence of a spill is verified, the Federal Agency
(Environmental Protection Agency or the U. S. Coast Guard) charged
with providing the on-scene coordinator should be notified promptly
to guarantee cleanup by the person responsible for the spill.
Evaluation of the spill information and existing meteorological
conditions, combined with his knowledge of the harbor, the fire
officer should be able to reach decisions as to:
Whether or not full containment of the oil with a boom is feasible.
If current/wind conditions make full boom containment unfeasible,
how and to where diversion of the oil by boom may be undertaken.
If containment is feasible, the quantity of boom which may be needed;
the methods of launching and deploying to be used, the type of termina-
tion which may be successfully used, such as running the boom up on
a beach or securing to a wood or concrete bulkhead; the method/s of
sealing the gaps at boom terminals against oil escaping.
A boom array which can be expected to facilitate recovery of the
oil.
When excessive currents preclude containment, boom can be placed
at an angle to the flow, causing floating ail to be diverted toward
quieter areas where containment and recovery are feasible. Consider-
ation should be given to the accessibility of the various types of
recovery equipment to the slick before the boom is positioned. In
some cases the pickup area in which the oil is concentrated may
necessitate the use of shore-based equipment whereas in others,
floating equipment may be necessary.
If reconnaissance indicates that the slick has spread, it may be
advisable to boom a remote, sensitive area for protection, as well
as the immediate spill site, for containment. In this case, provisions
would have to be made for simultaneous boom deployment in separate
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? /
a
b
c
d
POINT AT WHICH FIRE BOAT LAUNCHES BOOM OVER STERN
POINT AT WHICH LAUNCHING IS COMPLETED AND TOW
LINE IS DROPPED INTO THE WATER
FIRST POINT AT WHICH SMALL BOAT SECURES THE BOOM
SECOND POINT AT WHICH SMALL BOAT SECURES THE BOOM
FIGURE I
ENCIRCLEMENT OF A LEAKING BARGE BY A MOVING FIRE BOAT
40
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areas of a community.
Launching Boom from a Fire Boat
Two methods of launching boom from a fire boat have proven success-
ful. Either may be used as the circumstances dictate. The first
method consists of launching the boom from a boat which is underway,
the second, from a boat which is moored.
Launching Boom from a MovingL_Boa_t
This launching method may be used when it is desired to boom a
rather wide slip or embayment at its open end or to encircle a
spill source accessible to a fire boat. (Figures 1 & 2).
Boom with built-in flotation is more adaptable to launching and
deploying from a moving fire boat than boom to which flotation
members must be attached prior to launching. The attachment of
floats slows the operation and requires the commitment of personnel
beyond that needed for boom with built-in flotation.
Steps to be Taken Preparatory to Launching Boom
While enroute to the site, sufficient boom to form the containment
barrier should be laid out on deck, along the length of the boat.
The needed number of boom sections should be joined; an end plate
should be connected to the array's leading end (first end off the
moving boat) and a tow plate should be fastened to the bitter end
(last end off the moving boat).
A neatly folded securing line, about 25 ft long should be attached
to the end plate and a tow line about 100 ft long should be fastened
to the tow plate. If attachable end plates or tow plates are not
required for the boom being used, the end lines should be tied to
the boom to form "bridles". Therefore, any stress will be trans-
ferred to the boom's tension member and the boom will be held up-
right when in the water. The 100 ft tow line will allow sufficient
distance between the boat's propellers and the boom itself during
towing operations, thus, fouling the fire boat's propellers or
damaging the boom itself, will be avoided.
In boom operations, flotation line has been found to be preferable
to line which lacks buoyancy. The floating line will tend to avoid
propeller fouling. Also, locating the floating line for boom
towing and handling will be simplified for personnel working in
small boats. Towing of both ends of a boom by two fire boats in
a "U" configuration would not ordinarily be expected of a fire
-------
SHORE LINE
Q
SEA WALL a
LAUNCHED
"BOOM
a - POINT AT WHICH BOOM IS LAUNCHED
b - POINT AT WHICH BOOM LAUNCH IS COMPLETED
c,d- POINTS AT WHICH BOOM IS SECURED
BY SMALL BOAT
NOTE d IS IDEAL LOCATION FOR RECOVERY
OPERATION
FIGURE 2
PROTECTION OF A BOAT BASIN BY A MOVING FIRE BOAT
42
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department. However, should this be undertaken, both boats should
have 100-ft tow lines ready; means of constant communication should
be established so that the slow speed and maneuvering of both
vessels can be closely coordinated. A small utility boat should
be readied for launching.
The Utility Boat
Boom ends must be secured to piers or bulkheads at or near the
water's surface. If a taut mooring line leads down from a high
mooring point, such as a pier deck, a gap will be created between
the boom and the water, which will allow the oil to escape.
The main decks of the larger fire boats are normally too high above
the water to allow personnel to tie boom ends snugly to piers or
bulkheads near the x^ater's surface. Therefore, a small utility boat
is a useful adjunct to a boom deployment operation.
When preparations for launching the boom have been completed aboard
the responding fire boat, the small boat (usually an outboard) is
readied for launching. The initial function of the two men in the
small utility boat is to pick up the boom tow line cast from the
stern of the fire boat and to secure the boom snugly at a mooring
point. Two men in the utility boat can handle walkie-talkie
communication, boom deployment and operate the boat.
A practical location for launching the small boat is usually about
1,000 ft from the anticipated boom mooring points. After launching,
the utility boat should head for the area at which the boom is to be
deployed and be ready to receive the boom tow line when it is cast
from the fire boat. After one end of the boom is fastened, the small
boat should proceed to the other end and likewise secure it. Other
boom tending functions will be performed as directed by the officer
in charge.
In quiescent water, a utility boat with as little as 6 hp can tow a
more or less straight array of boom as long as 300 ft with relative
ease. Towing boom in narrow circles or redeployment in a circular
configuration, particularly when one end of the boom is secured, is
slow and difficult for such a small boat. If necessary, two small
utility boats can effectively tow 100 ft of light boom in a "U"
configuration to corral a slick in a quiet area.
Boom Launching Methods & Considerations,
So that a boom array will be launched without becoming twisted or
fouled in its own folds and be ready for easy towing and securing
by the small boat crew, it is preferable to launch boom in a
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straight line over the stern. As the boom is payed out, it will be
carried aft in a straight line away from the fire boat's stern.
A supervising officer should observe the boom launching function
on the boat's stern, the prospective boom site and the small boat's
activity. He should be equipped with a local field frequency radio,
and he should serve as the communications link between the small boat
crew and the pilot of the fire boat. The pilot should be informed
when boom launch begins and he should be given status reports as the
launching proceeds. This information will assist him in maintaining
the proper headway so that the boom will tail out behind the fire
boat as it is launched. It will also assist him in maneuvering the
boat to achieve a boom array which can be easily deployed and secured
by the small boat personnel.
The location from which boom launch should begin depends on several
factors:
The length of the boom.
The facility with which boom can be payed out over the stern.
The speed at which the floating boom is carried aft by the combined
effects of the wind, current and the boat's headway.
If only a few hundred feet of boom are to be launched from the fire
boat, launching can begin as close as 500 ft from the objective, pro-
vided all the boom can be water borne in that distance. When the
utility boat is launched and underway toward the objective area, the
decision is made as to the direction of approach the fire boat will
take to accomplish the boom launching. Also considered are the points
at which boom launch will begin and end.
Should the current or wind be negligible, the boat's headway will
allow the boom to tail out behind as it is launched over the stern.
Thus propeller fouling can be avoided and a reasonable straight boom
array will be achieved.
Existing wind and current conditions can be utilized to advantage
when launching and deploying boom. But if the elements are disregarded
they can work against such an operation. Although a fire boat may
respond to a spill site in a favoring current, the boom should be
launched over the stern while the boat is headed into the current.
This procedure will allow the boat to go as slow or fast as needed to
achieve the controlled launching of the boom. If a noticeable current
is flowing near the spill source or area to be protected, it may be
advisable to resort to the following launching procedure:
1. The fire boat takes an upstream position in relation to the booming
objective, with the bow pointed into the current.
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2. While working ahead on the propulsion engines, but making little
or no headway, the boom is launched over the stern and carried aft
as desired, by the current.
In the absence of a natural current, wind may create a surface
current which should be considered for its effects on the boom. It
may be advisable under some wind conditions to head a fire boat into
a wind and let the wind assist in the launching operation over the
stern, as a natural current would.
In all cases, the speed of a fire boat must be regulated to achieve
the desired launching results and to insure that all the boom is
waterbome as the boat approaches the tow line mooring or the location
from which the small boat may conveniently take the boom in tow. If
there is any doubt about when to start launching a boom, it has been
found that it is preferable to begin launching prematurely and then
slowly tow the boom a short distance if necessary. If launch is
delayed, the boom objective may be passed and the small boat may have
to re-position the boom by towing, and this may be time consuming.
In most cases a "slow ahead" boat speed is prescribed both for
launching and towing by a fire boat. Tests incidate that an 18-in.
harbor boom can be towed from one end at speeds up to 5 knots without
physically damaging the boom. Dynamometer readings on 300 ft of such
boom towed at 5 knots indicated a stress of about 230 pounds. The tow
line should be able to withstand this tension with some factor of safety.
Faster boat speeds during launch operations may not only allow deck
personnel insufficient time to launch the boom in the desired area but
may cause damage to the boom itself by overstressing it.
The pilot of a fire boat is normally concerned about what is happening
ahead and in fact may have no visibility astern, where the boom is
being launched and towed. Walkie-talkie radio information from the
officer can keep him aware of the stern activities so he can regulate
his speed or modify this course as necessary.
There should be no hesitance to allow a boom array to float unsecured
for short periods while maneuvering the fire boat. The tow line can
easily be picked up by the small boat crew and secured or returned to
the fire boat if necessary.
It is poor practice to secure one end of a boom to a stationary object
while boom is being launched from the deck of a moving boat. At
times this may appear to be an easy way of launching boom near a shore
line or pier front; however, this method of launching can result in
injury to deck personnel or damage to the boom if the boom becomes
snagged or fouled.
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Launching Boom from a Moored _Fir_e_ Boat
The circumstances surrounding most harbor spills usually require the
launching of boom from a moored fire boat, rather than one underway.
Shallow water and confined waterways usually restrict the movement of
a large fire boat. Under these conditions, a small boat may effectively
deploy the boom launched from a moored fire boat. In some situations
boom may be walked ashore from a fire boat or taken on a pier, then
manually deployed onto the water around the leak source.
When a size-up of a spill situation indicates that the quickest and
surest way of launching and deploying boom is from a moored fire boat
rather than a boat underway, the following operational suggestions
should prove helpful:
1. Boom should be prepared for easy launching while enroute to the
site. Preparations are the same as when launching is from the fire
boat underway.
2. If one is carried, the small utility boat should be prepared for
launching. It may be necessary to launch this boat before the fire
boat moors, because of its location on the fire boat. If no small boat
is carried, the requisitioning of one at the spill site may be possible
3. Personnel should be assigned definite functions and field communi-
cations should be organized to control the operation. The cooperative
use of workers at the spill site, particularly the personnel of the
spiller, should be considered. An extra willing hand can save some
valuable time.
4. As the fire boat approaches the spill source, the decision should
be made as to where and how to position the fire boat so that the
small boat and boom can be launched with the greatest facility.
5. Boom launch or off-loading should begin as soon as the boat is
moored and the propellers stop turning. Little time can be saved in
launching while the boat is approaching a mooring, and the likelihood
of fouling the propellers is created.
6. An attempt to hurry boom launching by dumping large sections over
the side for deployment by a small boat, is poor practice, which will
only cause delay. The boom will become fouled and twisted and will
have to be straightened before it can be deployed. It is preferable
to pay out the boom over the boat's stern in a straight line for towing
and deployment by a small boat. This launching procedure is not unlike
that recommended for boats underway.
7. Even though a moored launching usually takes place in a sheltered
area, wind and current (tidal flow in some cases) should be considered
and used to advantage for boom launching and deploying. The objective
should be to let these forces assist the small boat in carrying the
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boom over the stern toward the containment objective.
Launching Boom from a Truck
Before boom is loaded on a truck for transportation to and launching
at a spill site, boom sections should be connected. The end and
tow plates should be affixed, and such auxiliary equipment as small
anchors, floats and light line should accompany the boom. Mooring
and tow lines should be attached to the boom ends and then neatly
folded to prevent unravelling while being carried.
To minimize manhandling the boom, the truck should approach as
close as possible to the mooring site. Unloading should be planned
so that the boom can be fed in a straight line to a small boat for
deployment on the water. If the boom is to be hand-carried along
the vaterfront and lowered into the water around a leak source, many
hands will be required. Extra help is needed to actually carry the
boom rather than drag it any distance on the ground. Boom isn't
nearly as rugged as fire hose which is less inclined to snag and is
more abrasion resistant than boom.
Boom Fastening
Boom ends should be fastened close to the water's surface and as
snugly as possible to the vertical surface to which it is secured.
In a harbor, boom ends may be expected to be tied to the timbers of
pier or other wooden structures; fastened to concrete or steel bulk-
heads, or at times run up on a beach and secured to some object
ashore. When tied to waterfront structures (piers, bulkheads etc.),
it is advisable to tie the boom snugly to the mooring point to prevent
oil from getting through. If the boom is to remain in place during
tidal height changes, it will be necessary to adjust the mooring lines
accordingly to compensate for the rise and fall of the tide. When this
is not practical, other means must be considered to prevent oil escaping
through the gap between the shore and the boom. (See suggested methods)
The availability of a hammer and some heavy nails will prove useful at
times when securing a boom line to some wooden structures. A power-
actuated stud driver has proven satisfactory in providing fastenings
to which boom line can be tied, when steel sheathed or concrete
bulkheading is encountered.
Boom Retrieval
When boom is sufficiently clean to be taken back on board a fire boat,
the boat's power equipment should be used when practicable, to assist.
If the boom is retrieved in a straight line over the stern, some of the
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"V" FRAME
OIL BOOM
INNER TUBE
MOORING BRIDLE
MOORING LINE TO SHORE
FIGURE 3
BOOM TERMINATOR SCHEMATIC
48
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work can be done by tying a rope onto the boom and pulling it in with
the boat's capstan. One man can operate the capstan pulling on the
line while one man can guide the boom over the rail. The small
boat can be useful in keeping the boom array straight during
retreival. For easier retreival under some conditions, it might
be better to tow a short array of boom back to a fire boat's berth
for reloading.
Control of Spill Leakage at Boom Shore Terminal Gaps
A common source of boom failure at oil spills is the leakage of
oil between the boom end and the adjacent shoreline or bulkhead.
Some of the proven methods for preventing leakage at boom terminal
gaps are:
Use of fire stream commensurate with the size of the gap. A fire
stream (hand line or monitor stream) can be used to generate a counter
current to prevent oil escape. For most gaps (5 ft - 10 ft) a 1-1/2 in
hose line with a 1/2 in tip and 20-30 psi nozzle pressure will effectively
create a surface counter current to prevent the escape of oil. The stream
is held more or less stationary and directed to impinge downstream from
the boom so that the edge of the fan-shaped current fills the gap
spanned by the mooring line. If for some reason a wider gap must be
spanned by a fire stream-generated current, heavier caliber streams
may be used in the same manner, but greater care must be exercised
in using heavier streams. Heavier streams should impact on the
water's surface a greater distance from the gap to avoid the in-
creased possibilities of upsetting the boom or emulsifying the slick.
Since the use of fire streams to develop counter currents at boom end
gaps may tie up a fireboat or personnel, an alternate means was
developed in the NYFD Demonstration Project. It is referred to as a
shore termination for oil spill booms.
The Shore Termination for Oil Spill Booms
A simple flotation implement was developed during the course of the
NYFD project to dynamically seal the gap between the boom end and
the shore. The terminator utilizes the propwash from a small out-
board engine to create a counter current and thus keep the oil within
the containment area (Figure 3). Except for periodic refueling of
the engine, the unit operates without much attention and adjusts to
various types of shore lines and to tidal height changes.
The principal components of the terminator unit are:
1. A plywood "V" frame for the basic which supports structure and
barrier extension.
2. A 6-hp outboard engine to generate the counter current.
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3. A large (1,000 x 20) truck tire inner tube to provide flotation.
Complete construction and performance details of this terminator
are contained in a report related to this project entitled, Shore
Termination for Oil Spill Booms".
A less efficient alternative method of sealing a boom gap is to use
a small boat equipped with an outboard engine, in lieu of the termina-
tor described above.
Boom Tending
After boom has been deployed to contain or divert a spill, it should
not be left unattended. The constant observation of a boom array
will detect conditions which may destroy the effectiveness of the
booming efforts. Some of the situations which should receive constant
attention are:
1. Changes in tidal current direction which can nullify a boom's
effectiveness unless the boom array and recovery operation are re-
positioned. Since tidal behavior is predictible, prior knowledge and
close observations of surface currents should result in the timely
re-alignment of a boom array to avoid the escape of a spill.
2. Leaks caused by loss of detachable flotation members. The
availability of additional floats or possibly an instant repair may
correct this condition.
3. The intrusion of debris which may physically damage the boom or
cause oil escape. Screening out such debris or actual removal from
the captive pool may be necessary.
4. The unauthorized entrance into the boom protected area by vessels
or the actual damaging of the boom by such vessels. Intervention by
the USCG or the local police may be indicated in such instances.
Most of the functions associated with boom tending can best be performed
in a small utility boat.
Personnel Familiarization
Probably the best way to familiarize operating personnel with the use
of containment boom is participation in occasional training exercises.
Handling and deploying boom and observing its performance in the water
will improve operating efficiency and generate innovative suggestions.
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SECTION XIII
RECOVERY OF SPILLED OIL
The national policy in regard to techniques for dealing with oil spills
is embodied in Annex S of the National Oil and Hazardous Substances
Contingency Plan which in part "advocates development and utilization
of mechanical and other control methods that will result in removal
of oil from the environment with subsequent proper disposal." Although
a fire department may have little oil removal capability, its prompt
deployment of light boom, and the use of fire streams to contain or
herd oil can facilitate removal of the spill by the persons responsible
for the spill or contractors. The efficient recovery of a spill is
feasible only as long as it can be contained.
Spill booms have containment limitation imposed by their size as well
as the meteorological and hydrological conditions under which they are
employed. A slick tends to thicken at a boom barrier, but it may be
lost over the sail (freeboard) of a boom by wind or wave action. Also,
failures may occur beneath a boom's skirt (submerged portion) by either
of two mechanisms. These are known as droplet loss and drainage loss.
Drainage loss occurs when oil builds up against the skirt and passes
under. Droplet loss occurs when particles of the slick are entrained
in a current and carried beneath the skirt. Both the institution of
prompt skimming and the application of sorbents are the counter
measures which may be employed to prevent boom failures.
Unless skimming is undertaken reasonably soon after boom containment,
boom failure becomes a possibility. Although oil recovery isn't
usually considered a fire department function, under certain circum-
stances some skimming capability night be required, such as: (a) when
the community desires to recover spills for which it alone is ret>ijonsi-
ble, or; (b) when cleanup contractors are unable to respond reasonably
soon to the area.
A Small Oil Skimming System
In the course of the NYFD demonstration project, it was found that,
in order to expedite the research into effective utilization of fire
streams and boom for herding and containment of oil slicks, an oil
skimming system was needed to familiarize fire department personnel with
this type of equipment as it related to their prime mission of rapid
containment. The booms had to be deployed and the streams directed
to facilitate the ultimate objective of removing the oil from the
water. The tests with boom and fire streams also entailed the use
of plastic floaters which duplicated to a large degree the action of
oil on water. The skimming system had to provide a means for recovering
these floaters for further use, and be keyed to the unique needs of the
project and the capabilities of the fireboats.
Given the options of weir or vacuum type skimming devices, a small
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compressed air-driven vacuum type unit t^as selected based on power
and handling criteria. Each fireboat was equipped with an air
compressor and sufficient length of air hose; and air eductor
vacuum equipment is relatively light compared to electrically driven
equipment of the same capacity. These units are commercially
available, off-the-shelf units normally used in conjunction with
standard open top 55 gallon drums for wet vacuuming in factories.
Only minor modifications are needed to adapt the equipment for oil
skimming and all the components are light in weight and easily
transferred from boat to boat or boat to dock with a minimum of
personnel. For test purposes, the 55 gallon capacity is sufficient,
and when the system is used at an actual spill, the system capacity
is only limited by the available supply of drums or other utilizable
oil storage space. (Figure 4) •
Of the modifications to the vacuum unit, one was made to the head
itself and the other to the drum. The first made it possible to
transfer oil from the open top drum into standard drums with 2 in.
pipe fill and 3/4 in. vent holes. The second allowed drain off the
water from the bottom of the drum after the oil/water mixture had
decanted. The drum was raised on an angle iron f rane so that a 2 in.
gate valve could be installed in the bottom. Since none of the ready-
made vacuum accessories was suitable for skimming oil from the water,
that section of the system had to be fabricated. The open end of the
2 in. vacuum hose, when held approximately 1/2 in. to 1 in. above
the surface, was found to perform quite adequately as a skimmer and
a float was designed which would hold the hose in this configuration
with the correct hose-to-surface gap. This float was actually made
to perform two functions. In addition to holding the hose in the
correct position, it provided a collection area into which the oil con-
tained by the booms could be driven for pickup. It consisted of a
simple V-shaped structure made of two 3 ft x 4 ft sheets of plywood
with foam flotation outside the V and a mounting bracket for holding
the vacuum hose. (Figure 5). Provisions were made to attach oil spill
boom to the open ends of the V. It was therefore possible to place
this pickup unit in any location where there was a splice in the oil
boom and it was convenient to herd and pickup the oil.
The only critical design parameter was the flotation configuration. The
system normally operates as would a typical vacuum cleaner with the
oil/water entrained in the air stream and the hose essentially full of
air. If, however, the hose end happens to dip under the surface due
to wave action and start picking up 100% water, there is an effective
increase in weight causing the unit to sink further. The flotation
area must be sufficient to allow only small changes in the gap
spacing due to this weight variation.
This small skimmer performed quite adequately in meeting the requirements
of the demonstration project. It picked up the plastic chips used to
simulate oil with no problems, and also did an effective job of oil
skimming on those occasions when it was tested on spills of opportunity.
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VACUUM UNIT
FROM AIR SUPPLY
55 GAL. DRUM
WATER DRAIN
-TO SKIMMER
FIGURE 4
PICK-UP SYSTEM
53
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5/4 THINWALL
CONDUIT
SPREADERS
FLATTEN END 8.
SCREW TO 1X3"
2" PLASTIC PIPE
CONN. TO VAC. HOSE
2X6' BEVELED
30° EACH EDGE
SHELF BRACKET
^ STYROFOAM
FLOATS
WATERPLANE AREA
I FT2-X 8"HIGH
MARINE OR EXT. GRADE
AB PLYWOOD
WEIGHTS
'/4 MASONITE ON OUTER FACE —
BOLT THRU TO !/2" PLYWOOD,
4" THREADED ROD
1X3" GLUED 8 NAILED TO PLYWOOD
FIGURE 5
BOOM CORNER SKIMMER
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More complete construction and performance details of this recovery
system are contained in a separate report related to this project
entitled, "A Small Vacuum Oil Skimming System."
Use of the Sys_tem
In conjunction with the deployment of boom, the decision should be
made as to where to situate the skimmer. Spill situations vary but
experience indicates that some proven procedures can be helpful:
1. Consider wind and current influences on the movement of oil
along the boom so that the skimmer may be placed at the location
where the slick is likely to be the thickest.
2. Containment boom must be connected to each side of the "V" skimmer
to channel oil toward the angle apex. If it is not possible to affix
the boom ends to the skimmer with attached hardware, a flexible boom
may be looped around and secured to the skimmer so that the open end
of the "V" is facing the direction from which the oil is being herded
or driven by the elements.
3. A long array of boom will ordinarily be connected to one side of
the "V" skimmer and a short array to the other. The longer array
will constitute the prime deflection barrier while the short array will
prevent loss of oil which may be herded toward the skimmer.
4. In some tight situations, where the leak may be coming from a
moored vessel, it may be necessary to place the skimmer between the
ship's hull and the dock or bulkhead.
5. The skimmer head may be lowered into the water by hand, from a
dock, or a boat's davit may be used. A lifting bridle fastened to the
unit will facilitate lowering or raising. The services of two men in
a small boat are essential for positioning the skimmer (it can be
towed short distances) and for inserting it in or looping the boom
array around it. A screwdriver will be needed by the men in the small
boat for affixing the 2 in. flexible hose to the pickup pipe. These
men can also be helpful in removing any large debris which may obstruct
the vacuum inlet. The inlet itself can usually be cleared quite simply
by merely shutting down the vacuum momentarily.
6. The vacuum drum should be placed close to the skimming head and
other receiving drums should be situated reasonably close to facilitate
transfer of oil and removal of the drums.
7. While the vacuum drum and head, the receiving drums and the
flexible hose are being set up by 2 men, 2 others stretch the 1 in.
air hose to the vacuum unit.
8. One end of the air hose is connected to the air manifold or discharge
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outlet, the other is connected to the vacuum head; valves at both
connections remain closed until ready to pick up oil.
9. Using universal hose clamp fittings, a man at the vacuum drum
connects the vacuum hose to vacuum head and drain hose to drain
fitting. A screwdriver is used to connect these fittings. The drain
valve is closed. Then the flexible hose is connected to the skimmer's
vertical pipe.
10. The vacuum head's automatic overflow cut-off is then seated by
pushing down the flat disc on top of the unit.
11. When the boom is in position, the recovery system ready, and
herding operations are directing oil into the skimmer, the air
compressor is started. The air valve at the vacuum head is opened
and the skimming has begun.
12. Effective herding is an integral part of skimming. Fire streams
properly used can keep a steady stream of oil flowing into the skimmer.
Training exercises involving some limited herding and a small recovery
system can be devised, utilizing a procedure employed in the NYFD
project. A sealed containment basin may be created in a sheltered
area, using about 150 feet of boom. The boom can be deployed to create
a circle, or across a solid bulkhead corner, to create a containment
area. Some chopped up data processing cards can be scattered on the
water surface to simulate oil and a small fire stream can be used to
herd the "slick" toward the skimmer. This simulates in miniature the
problems involved and the corrective procedures associated with oil
spill.
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SECTION XIV
FLOATING SORBENTS
"Sorbents" include those natural or manufactured substances used in
oil spill control, which are either absorbent or adsorbents. Oil
clings to the surface of adsorbents but is assimilated into
absorbents*
The sorption process is dependent on several natural phenomena, namely,
wetting, spreading and capillary action. Also, the sorbent capacity
of a substance is proportional to the substances exposed surface,
provided it has the necessary wetting characteristics. Effective
sorbents have high oil and low water sorption capacity; that is, they
are oleophylic and hydrophobic. Their oil retention should be high
and they should remain buoyant.
Materials Used as Sorbents
The floating substances used as sorbents may be categorized as inorganic,
natural organic and synthetic organic. Some of the inorganics are
perlite and vermiculite, which are usually treated to improve their
efficiency. The natural organics include ground corn cobs, wheat straw
and treated wood cellulose fiber. Among the synthetics can be found
the sorbents which have exhibited the greatest degree of oil sorption.
These are the polymeric foams, such as shredded or cubed polyurethane,
polyethylene fiber, urea formaldehyde and polypropylene fiber.
Use of Sorbents
Sorbents are applied to spills in several physical forms such as mats,
slabs, cubes, shavings or powders. Ideally, sorbents should be applied
only to the oil, to the exclusion of the water. But under actual spill
conditions, only partial coating by oil can be expected. For optimum
effectiveness, the particle or powdered forms should be broadcast evenly
over a spill. The physical mixing of sorbents with the oil mass will
improve their sorption effectiveness. Wind and wave may accomplish
this or some convenient manual or mechanical means may be used to
promote mixing. The larger forms, such as slabs or mats must be moved
through the slick so as to contact as much oil as possible.
Surface active agents, such as detergents can seriously interfere with
the usefulness of sorbents. They break down the hydrophobic properties
of the sorbents allowing water to contact them excluding the oil.
Some of the drawbacks associated with the use of sorbents are:
1. Because of bulk, their storage and transportation become problems.
2. Although systems for efficient distribution over spills have been
developed, they are not as yet generally available.
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3. Their use entails the use of a considerable amount of manpower in
what can be messy work.
4. Some skimming and pumping systems will clog with the oil-soaked
mass.
5. Disposal of the sorbed oil is more difficult than the disposal of
simple emulsions, which can be separated and processed for re-use.
Some benefits associated with sorbents, are:
1. When used on a controlled spill, sorbents will assist the boom
array in containing the spill.
2. They can assist in agglomerating a spill to limit its spreading
and pollutive tendencies.
3. They can minimize shore damage, either by being applied on uncon-
tained spills or spread on beaches in anticipation of a slick on the
incoming tide.
4. They do not add to the toxicity problems as do dispersants. '
Fire Department Use
The storage and use of large amounts of sorbents by a fire department
are not likely. The problems created by the need for considerable
storage space and the amount of equipment needed for dispersal recovery,
and disposal, seem to preclude sorbents from consideration as a major
tool for an emergency response force. Under some circumstances, a
fire department might, however, assist in the application of sorbents,
and should be familiar with their use.
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SECTION XV
USE OF FIRE STREAMS FOR CONTROLLING OIL SPILLS
Until recently the main use of fire streams at an oil spill was to
"break up" the oil by playing the fire streams directly onto it. In
cases of highly volatile petroleum products, this still may be the
best procedure for reasons of fire safety. But, where explosion or
fire is not a hazard, it has become vitally necessary to control and
contain the oil so that environmental and property damage can be
minimized, and as much of the oil as possible can be recovered. This
is exactly opposite to dispersal - the previous approach. Whereas
dispersal required little in the way of special knowledge or techniques,
control and containment are a far more difficult matter.
Fire Streams
For purposes of controlling oil slicks, the useful output of a fire
stream is its continuous discharge of momentum. This momentum discharge
the time rate of momentum output - is proportional to the product of the
mass rate of water discharge multiplied by the discharge velocity, there-
fore, it is also proportional to the product of nozzle tip area and tip
pressure (velocity head). It is, in fact, equal in magnitude, but
opposite in direction, to the reaction force on the nozzle. Figure 6
shows the volume discharge, Q, and the momentum discharge, F, vs. tip
pressure for several different tip diameters.
Unfortunately, the entire momentum output of the tip is not usable.
There are two reasons for this:
(a) The fire stream usually enters the water at an angle. Therefore,
it has a horizontal and a vertical component. Only the horizontal
component is useful for the control of floating oil. The smaller the
angle of entry the larger the horizontal component will be. The angle
of entry is affected by the height of the tip above the water, the tip
pressure, and angle that the tip makes with the horizontal. Decreasing
the height of the tip, and increasing the pressure have the effect of
reducing the angle. For any particular height and pressure, the
angle will be the smallest when the tip is aimed horizontally, and will
increase as the angle between the nozzel and the horizontal (whether
elevation or depression) increases.
(b) A portion of fire stream's momentum is lost to air resistance.
Although the process by which this happens is not fully understood, it
is known that, with the same pressure, air resistance increases with
increasing tip size and, with the same tip, air resistance increases,
at an even faster rate, with increasing pressure.^15) Also droplets
are much more affected by air resistance than solid streams, and the
smaller the droplets the more they are affected. Thus nozzles which
tend to break up the fire stream into fog or fine spray are generally
ineffective. By the same token, solid streams should be operated at
pressures well below those at which ooning occurs.
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IOOOO
9OOO
6C
100 120 140 i60
PRESSURE (PSD
240
DISCHARGE {0 GAL /MINI 8 MOMENTUM RATE ( F SLUG FT /SEC2 1 = (IBS !
VS NOZZLE PRESSURE ( PS I ) FOR SEVERAL NOZZLE DIAMETERS
FIGURE 6
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Of course, the longer the fire stream, the greater the effects of air
resistance. Thus, while the smallest angle of entry is achieved when
the nozzle is aimed horizontally, a slight downward angle of aim would
shorten the fire stream, and the increase of momentum loss due to
increased angle of entry would tend to be offset by the decreased loss
due to the shorter fire stream. On the other hand, an upward angle of
aim increases the fire stream length and the air resistance loss as
well as increasing the angle of entry. Thus, depressing the tip from
horizontal by several degrees will have little effect, but elevation
from the horizontal produces rapid deterioration.
Fire Stream Effects
When a fire stream plunges into a body of water, it establishes a fan-
shaped pattern of turbulent, aerated water with velocity components in
the general direction of the fire stream. The shape of the pattern
depends on the angle of the fire stream with respect to the natural
current (see Figure 7). Its size for a particular angle depends on
the magnitude of the horizontal momentum flux at the surface due to
the fire stream, and on the magnitude of the natural current. Veloci-
ties in the pattern, of course, vary, depending on where in the pattern
they are measured.
When the fire stream induced current has components directed opposite
to the natural current, a rip zone will be established in the region
where these opposing currents cancel each other out. This zone
determines the up-stream boundary of the pattern. The rip zone is not
a stable region; it is turbulent and it meanders. However, it is by
means of this rip zone that floating oil may be affected in a useful
way. In open water the net flow in the rip zone is tangential to it
and directed away from a horizontal axis drawn longitudinally through
the fire stream. But when the fire stream induced current is confined
in a narrow channel so that the rip zone extends across the full width
of the channel, there is no net flow in the rip and it becomes a null-
current zone.
The distance of the rip or null-current zone from the impact point
depends on the horizontal momentum flux of the fire stream at the
impact point and on the speed of the natural current. For a 3 inch
tip, about 15 feet above the surface, aimed horizontally, and
operating at 100 psi, the distance from the impact point to the rip
zone will be about: 45 feet against a 1 kt current, 75 feet against
a 1/2 kt current, and 200 feet against a 0.1 kt current.
The length of the rip zone (approximately the width of the fan-shaped
pattern at its furthest from the impact point) is probably also related
to the horizontal momentum flux of the fire stream and the natural
current speed, but because end points of the rip zone are difficult
to see when the natural current is small, not enough observations have
been made to establish this relationship. However, a number of observations
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FIRE STREAM INDUCED PATTERNS FOR VARIOUS ANGLES, 6, OF ORIENTATION
BETWEEN THE FIRE STREAM AND THE NATURAL CURRENT.
FIRE STREAM
IMPACT POINT
RIP
e = i
IMPACT POINT
9 - 90°
FIGURE 7
THE RiP IS THE TURBULENT ZONE IN WHICH OPPOSING COMPONENTS OF THE
FIRE STREAM - INDUCED CURRENT AND THE NATURAL CURRENT CANCEL.
IN A NARROW CHANNEL THE RIP BECOMES A NULL-CURRENT ZONE.
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of the angle subtended by the edges of the fan, at several different
natural current speeds, have all yielded values between 80 and 90
degrees. If this angle remains constant with distance from the impact
point, which it seems to do, the relationship between the length of
the rip zone and its distance from the impact point is a simple
geometric one.
For "small" natural currents (less than 1/2 knot) the rip zone is
well separated from the fan-shaped aerated water near the impact point.
It is a region of low turbulence which will divert or collect oil and
other flotsam. For "large" natural currents, (greater than 1 knot), the
rip zone is coincident with the edge of the aerated water. It is a
region of high turbulence, and floating oil has been observed to go
under or penetrate it. When the natural current is between 0.5 and 1.0
knots, the behavior of the oil in the rip zone cannot as yet, be
predicted. Apparently, in this range of velocities other factors (such
as the oil's viscosity) become critical. For a more detailed discussion
of fire stream effects see reference (16).
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SECTION XVI
CONTROL OF FLOATING OIL
The foregoing discussion of fire streams and their effects on the water
surface shall form the basis for the tactics to be developed for
using fire streams to control floating oil. However, it would be
futile to try to anticipate every possible situation and develop cook-
book methods for handling them. Rather, we shall suggest a number of
possible uses of fire streams, and describe methods for their implemen-
tation. It will be left to the commanders on the scene to adapt these
to specific situations. It should be stressed that no tactic should
be followed blindly. The person in charge should frequently and care-
fully observe the results of the procedure being employed to be sure
that the desired effect is being achieved. Often it will be found
that the initial evaluation of a situation was in error, or that the
conditions (e.g., current, wind) have changed. The required changes
in tactics may be minor, such as re-aiming the monitor, or drastic,
such as re-positioning the fire boat and/or boom array. Bear in mind
that control and clean-up of any fairly large oil spill is likely to be
a project of at least several days' duration. In sheltered areas along
the edges of the main channels, in peripheral channels, and in parts
of large shallow embayments such as New York City's Jamaica Bay, there
are places where currents are insignificant. But, in most places
currents are mainly tidal; it will be necessary, in such places, to plan
on rather drastic changes approximately every six to twelve hours,
depending on whether the tides are semi-diurnal or diurnal. All this
may seem obvious, but it has been observed that one of the main causes
of wasted effort at oil spills is inattentiveness.
In most cases, fire streams will be used in conjunction with and in
fairly close proximity to (i.e., within several hundred feet of) a boom
array or bulkhead. Unless the current is virtually nil and the extent
of the oil patch small, operating a fire stream in open water, far
from an enclosure or barrier of some sort can, at best, result in an
insignificant diversion, and, at worst, can cause a greater dispersion
or emulsification of the oil.
Also, it should be stressed that the fire stream should not be allowed
to play directly on the oil, but rather at a point far enough away so
that the stream does not "break up" the oil. For large caliber streams
and low natural currents this can be from 100 to 200 feet. Remember
the movement or blocking of the oil is accomplished by the null-current
zone and the flow patterns set up in the water rather than by the fire
stream itself. If the fire stream is allowed to play directly on the
floating, the oil will be churned up, emulsified, and carried away by
the natural current rather than contained.
A constantly shifting fire stream has little opportunity to develop a
current structure. To fully develop its flow pattern, the fire
stream must play on nearly the same spot for several minutes, and it must
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continue to play on this spot to maintain the pattern. If the natural
current is very small, the angle of train can be varied continuously
back and forth through a small arc, but this should be thought of as
a broadening of the impact point. Tests have shown, that while it is
possible for most fire boats having twin screws to maintain for a few
minutes, any heading with respect to natural currents of a few knots
in combination with any angle of train of the bow monitor operated
at pressures up to 150 psi, it is generally impossible to do this for
an indefinite period. And to control oil effectively, the fire boat
generally must maintain position as well as orientation. For these
reasons it will be necessary, in most cases, to secure the fire boat
when using the fire streams to control oil. Furthermore, experience
has proved that a large percentage of the spills will probably occur
near a bulkhead or dock to which the fire boat can be moored.
As with other methods of oil control, fire streams are far, far more
effective in the presence of low natural currents than they are when
the natural current is high. Fortunately, in harbors the majority of
spills occur near shore, where the currents are often small, even
though the current in the main stream may be quite large. For these
reasons, and also because the oil film will be thicker and less
dispersed near the source, the major effort should be expended at or
near the site of the spill. Only after everything possible is being
done at the source, should any remaining capability be expanded in
more distant areas.
Tactics for Small Natural Currents
In relatively confined channels, when the natural current is less than
1/2 knot, fire streams may be effectively used to set up a dynamic
barrier (the null-current zone) to stop the progress of the oil. For
example: They may be used to seal off the mouth of a slip or basin to
prevent oil inside from getting out or oil outside from getting in. At
100 psi nozzle pressure a 3-inch tip was found to effectively cover a
200-foot wide basin. These effective fronts can be augmented if
necessary, by using additional monitors to create adjacent null-current
zones.
The null-current zone is similar to a boom in many ways, and it can be
used as a boom in cases where the fire boat can be maneuvered into a
suitable position. Its major disadvantage in this respect is that the
fire boat could not then be used for other activities. However, it has
two important advantages: the null-current zone can be easily penetrated
by small boats, while a boom cannot. And a fire stream can be activated
or adjusted much more quickly and easily than a boom can be deployed or
moved. Where speed is essential, fire streams may be used initially to
contain the oil until boom can be deployed, whereupon the fire boat would
be free to perform another function. Whether the boom should be deployed
between the oil and the fire boat, or the fire boat should be included
in the enclosed area, will depend on the nature of the other function.
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Fire streams may be used to move oil from under piers or between pilings
where it is not readily accessible for recovery; (See Section XVI).
The efficiency of an oil pick-up device can be greatly increased if fire
streams are used to herd the oil towards the pick-up point. A pick-up
point will be in a semi-enclosed area (e.g., a corner where two bulk-
heads meet, the apex of a boom array, the juncture between a boom and
a bulkhead, etc.). If the area is small, hose and hand-held nozzles
will be most effective. The objective is to maintain a continuous
layer of oil on the water surface, having the maximum possible thickness,
in the vicinity of the pick-up device. If there is no natural current,
the oil will continue to move towards the pick-up point until a balance
is reached between the hydraulic head in the oil layer and the pressure
exerted on the edge of the oil by the fire-stream-induced current. The
current should be very slight at the oil edge to avoid churning the oil.
As oil is removed by the pick-up device, the edge of the oil will recede
towards the pick-up point. If there is a slight current opposing the
fire-stream-induced-current, the limit of effectiveness of the fire
stream will be marked by a null-current zone. In this case, the edge
of the oil will not recede towards the pick-up point. Rather, the oil
will tend to collect along the null-current zone, and it will be necessary
to advance the impact point of the fire stream. This can be done by
elevating the tip, but a price is paid in reduced efficiency. The better
way is to increase the tip pressure or to advance the nozzle. Think in
terms of advancing the null-current zone (which can be considered to be
one of the boundaries of the pick-up area) so that the pick-up area
is completely covered by the oil layer. If the natural current is
towards the pick-up point fire streams may still be useful in directing
the oil.
Tactics for Large Natural Currents
When the natural current is in excess of one knot, the null-current zone
ceases to be a barrier to floating oil. It is too turbulent, and the
oil mixes downward and is carried past it. In short, it is no longer
possible to block the movement of the oil. However, tests have indicated
that, for currents up to about 2 knots, it may be possible to divert
the oil; the method is similar to entrainment; (see page 84 )« The
fire stream is directed perpendicular to the natural current, as in
Figure 7C, rather than against it. Oil carried by the current to the
fire-stream-induced-pattern will be shunted to the end of the pattern.
In this case emulsification of the oil is unavoidable, but there is
less tendency for the droplets to be dragged downwards. Diversions of
up to 70 ft have been accomplished in this way. Note that the area
between the fire boat and the impact point of the fire stream will
still be open to the unimpeded flow of oil. However, other streams may
be used to close this gap. The impact point of these auxiliary streams
should be slightly upstream of the impact point of the main stream.
Rail pipes could serve well to generate the auxiliary streams.
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Some success in eliminating the gap and lengthening the deflection has
been achieved by using nozzles held horizontally very close to the
surface of the water so that the fire stream just skims the surface.
So far this method has been effective only in the absence of waves.
The objective is to concentrate as much high velocity momentum as
possible right at the water surface for the full length of the fire
stream. This is impossible when the wave height exceeds about half
the diameter of the fire stream because the wave crests will interrupt
the stream and the wave troughs will allow oil to pass under it. Also
wave induced rocking of the boat will often cause the nozzle to dip
below the surface thus periodically destroying the stream at its source.
Attempts to overcome these difficulties by increasing the vertical
spread of the stream and holding the tip higher have been unsuccessful
because the momentum output is excessively diluted by the reduced
velocity and by the spreading of the stream itself.
Since the objective is clean-up of the oil, it will have to be diverted
to a place where this can be done. For the present this means a semi-
enclosed area where the currents are small. It may not be possible to
accomplish the necessary diversion with one fire boat, but if the other
boats are available, additional structures may be established so that
the necessary diversion can be accomplished in a step-wise fashion.
This diversion technique might also be used to protect an area, for
example, a marina, by forcing the oil to flow around rather than
through it.
For currents greater than about 2 knots there is very little that can
be done in the way of control by fire streams.
Using Fire Streams to Adjust Boom Configuration
Fire streams can be used to modify the shape or position of a section
of containment boom. This is particularly useful at times when it may
be desirable or necessary to fasten only one end of the boom to a pier
or wall. The technique is more likely to be useful in protecting an
area rather than in corralling oil. The up-stream end of the boom is
fastened to the pier or bulkhead, and the fire streams are used to
push the boom outwards into the main stream, thus forming a protected
embayment which can be entered from the open, down-stream end. A like
result can be achieved with a number of light anchors similar to the
Danforth type. This is an alternative method which is more quickly
and easily activated and which might, in some cases, be more effective.
Left to itself the boom will tend to line up with the natural current.
With the fire stream in use, that portion of the boom towards which
the fire stream is directed will "belly" outwards. Down-stream of the
"belly", the remaining boom, if any, will trail in the natural current
again. The extent of the "bellying" depends, of course, on the natural
current speed, the rate of momentum input to the water at the impact
point, the proximity of the impact point to the boom, the overall
length of the boom, and the angle between the fire stream and the
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natural current. Using a 3-inch tip at 30 psi it was possible to hold
100 ft of boom out in a current of 0.2 knots; with 120 psi in a
1 knot current, the boom was held out only 30 feet. Using a 5-inch
tip at 120 psi, 70 feet of boom were held out in a 1-1/2 knot current.
In each case the total length of boom was 200 feet.
Care must be taken to avoid "spilling" or twisting of the boom, and
this imposes limits on the fire stream output and/or the proximity of
the impact point to the boom. To achieve optimum displacement without
causing the boom to spill or twist it is best to start with tip
pressures moderate and/or the impact point at some distance from
the boom, and then gradually increase the pressure while closing the
distance. The impact point is generally advanced by increasing
nozzle elevation, but, for reasons already discussed in the section on
fire streams, elevation much above the horizontal is likely to be
counter-productive.
There are two basic configurations: In the first, the fire boat is
almost directly down-stream of the tied end of the boom; as, for
example, when both are secured to a bulkhead which is parallel to the
current. The fire stream is directed against the current and between
the boom and bulkhead thus forcing the boom outwards. This method
can be used to protect an exposed area such as a small marina. Because
the fire stream and the current directly oppose each other along a
line containing the moored end of the boom, this configuration is
somewhat unstable, the boom having a tendency to fold back upon itself,
unless the impact point is kept about 100 feet up-stream of the trailing
end of the boom. In order to initiate boom movement, it may be
necessary to use a small boat to open a space for the fire stream
impact point between the boom and bulkhead. Although the fire stream
can impact quite close to a wall without causing any damage, it should
never play directly onto the wall. If the currents are strong (greater
than one knot) some oil will go under any section of the boom making
a large angle with the current.
In the second configuration the fire boat is abeam of the boom and
directing its stream perpendicular to the current; as, for example,
when the boom fastened to the end of a pier, and the fire boat is
moored to the side of the pier closer to shore. Though it is not
possible to achieve, under the same conditions, as much displacement
as with the former method, there are no instability problems. Also
there is evidence about a boom supported by a fire stream in this way
may be more effective than either boom or fire stream alone. Oil
that penetrated the barrier near the moored end has been observed to
skirt the inner edge of the boom.
It is frequently impossible to avoid a gap where the boom end is
fastened to a wall. This is particularly true where allowance must be
made for the rise and fall of the tide. When no other means are
available, this gap can be sealed quite effectively by means of fire
streams. Since the gap will usually be only several feet wide, small
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caliber streams will in most cases be quite adequate.
Anchoring
In a previous sub-section we explained the need for securing a fire
boat in order to use its monitors effectively. There are other
activities (e.g., boom deployment and retrieval) which are much more
quickly, safely and easily performed from a moored boat than from one
that is hove-to. Y.et, in many places where such activities might be
required, there are no mooring facilities. For these reasons an
effective anchoring system that can be rapidly and safely deployed
will, at times, be a very valuable aid.
Almost all boats carry anchors, but, on many fire boats and other type
boats of equivalent size, the anchor is a stockless or "patented" type
weighing about 1/4 ton. Because of the need for bow fenders, the
anchor is not kept in a hawspipe from which it can be readily dropped,
and it must be put over the rail. The equipment is so cumbersome that
the usefulness of the anchor in an emergency situation is virtually
nil. Yet, it is possible to put together an anchoring system which
is at least as effective in terms of holding strength, but which can be
handled easily, safely, and quickly by only two men. Its components
and their specifications are listed below:
(a) Anchor - 85 Ib Danforth (lightweight) standard. Holding strength
2,700 Ibs in soft mud; 19,000 Ibs in hard sand. (For comparison: the
holding strength of the 1/4 ton stockless is 1,800 to 7,200 Ibs
depending on the bottom; the reaction force on a 5-inch tip operating
at 100 psi is 3,926 Ibs, but surges in anchor line tension up to 1000
Ibs greater have been measured.
(b) Chain (50 ft) - 1/2", hot galvanized, proof coil. Working load
4,250 Ibs; proof load 8,500 Ibs; min. break test 17,000 Ibs.
(c) Line (use a length equal to seven times the maximum anchoring
depth) - nylon, 1-1/4", 3 strand, hard lay. Working load 4,125 Ibs;
tensile strength 37,000 Ibs.
Whether or not anchoring is possible in a particular situation will
depend on the type of bottom, the anchoring gear available, and the
current and wind speeds. But once anchored in a steady current, and
with the fire stream operating at a constant pressure and angle of
train, an equilibrium of forces will develop that will hold the boat
steady. However, any change in the natural current, or the fire
stream will force the system to seek a new equilibrium, which means
that the fire boat will move. If it is possible to set up in such a
way that the anchor line, current, and fire stream all have the same
line of action these motions will be kept to a minimum.
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SECTION XVII
REMOVAL OF OIL FROM UNDER PIERS
In any harbor there are likely to be numerous pile-supported structures
beneath which spilled oil will collect. These will be places where
there is little or no flushing by the natural current, and which usually
are inaccessible to pick-up devices. There are several approaches to the
problems posed by such trapped oil; however, one should realize that
oil under a pier is less destructive to the environment than the same
oil would be if it were staining the shoreline, coating the bottom, or
dispersed in or floating on the surface of open water. In short,
unless the oil can be contained and subsequently picked up, it is
better to leave it under the pier. A quantity of oil seeped out over
a long period of time will be less noxious than the same quantity
released all at once. This does not mean that no attempt should be
made to remove oil from under a pier; rather, it means that efforts
at containment and pick-up should take precedence over extraction.
Piers
Although piling does affect the flow of water and oil, in most cases
this effect causes minor difficulties when compared with other problems
encountered in removal of oil from under piers. It becomes a relatively
severe problem only in special circumstances: In the vicinity of
specialized structures, such as ferry slips, where the spaces (if any)
between piles are narrower than the piles themselves; when the oil is
extremely viscous, such as Bunker C in cold weather; or where there is
a lot of floating debris that can clog the spaces between the piles.
The main problems presented by piling arise from the fact that piling
is almost always too dense to permit the maneuvering or manipulation
of any reasonable sized equipment in its midst.
The most common type of pier substructure consists of rows of piling
which run transverse to the long axis of the pier, whether this long
axis is perpendicular or parallel to the shore. The spacings between
rows range from about 10 to 25 feet; within a row the pile spacings
range from about 1 to 5 feet. There are varying amounts of cross-
bracing and cribbing between piles, but many of the more common pier
types have some horizontal beams between piles that just clear the water
at low tide and are submerged at high tide. Most often they run along a
row of piles, but it is also common to find them stretched between rows.
Pier corners, especially of piers built for the mooring of large ships
and barges, are often very heavily constructed of thick clusters of
adjacent piles. The ends and often the sides of piers are generally
more heavily constructed than other parts. Many pier ends are faced with
solid wood or metal sheathing. Under some piers the piles in a row
tend to be grouped, with spaces between the piles in a group being about
one foot, and spaces between groups being several feet. Many piers
have fire walls underneath. Typically these take the place of one or
more of the transverse rows, are made of concrete, are supported by piles
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so that they extend down almost to the low tide water level, and are
placed 120 to 150 feet apart.
Serious difficulties in the removal of oil from under piers can arise
from one or more of the following factors:
(a) Large areal extent with respect to the means available for
generating water movement. One of the newer piers in New York Harbor
for example, covers 15 acres, and there are larger ones.
(b) Limited accessibility because of shallow water, adjacent structures,
restricted channels, or moored vessels.
(c) Complex configuration; the plan views of many shore side installa-
tions exhibit varying degrees of complexity, from simple finger piers
to intricate juxtapositions of platforms and wharves, often of different
construction. The shoreward ends of many piers abut onto platforms or
roadways which are themselves on piling, rather than onto solid bulkheads
or shoreline. This provides additional places for oil to collect, as
well as possible escape routes for oil during cleanup operations. Some
pile-supported structures abut bulkheads on two or even three adjacent
sides, thus forming covered pockets or embayments. In most places
where oil is likely to collect, it will be impossible to establish a
flow which goes directly through without some diversion.
(d) Low clearance; the under sides of many structures are below the
water surface for part of the tidal cycle, and only a foot or so above
it at other times.
In practice, any possible combination of these obstacles can arise.
When coping with a particular set of problems, various types of equip-
ment will be required. In general, the larger the pier the larger will
be the amount, size, and power of the equipment needed. Some structures
are big enough to exceed the capabilities of the equipment presently
available for driving the oil out. Thus, of the above difficulties,
large size is the one that will prove the most intractable. While it is
often effective to clear a large area by dividing it into sections and
doing one section at a time, this is not always possible.
General Aspects of Oil Removal from Under Piers
Because the buildings along a shoreline can vary so widely in size,
substructure, accessibility, and configuration, it is not possible to
develop a set of standard procedures for cleaning oil out from under
them. However, there are a number of general techniques that can be
applied to a wide variety of situations; these are described below.
Which to use will depend on the circumstances, and a proper selection
will require a detailed knowledge of the area to be cleared. Therefore,
the very first step should be to make a detailed examination of the
piers substructure from a small boat. Since the area under many
piers, especially those where oil is likely to become trapped, is often
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very dark, powerful hand lanterns or flood lights will often be
necessary for an adequate inspection. The need for such an in-
spection from a small boat cannot be stressed too strongly, because
the details of the substructure must be known if the operation is to
be effective, and these are often impossible to ascertain from the
deck of a typical harbor craft, from shore, or from a neighboring
pier. For example: For piers running parallel to and abutting with
a bulkhead and the outer edge, and if there is cross bracing in the
path of any proposed flow. Fire wall ends are often recessed from
the pier edge, and cannot be seen by an observer who is not at the
edge of the pier and well below the platform level, etc. Since we
are concerned here with trapped oil, that is, oil which is not
rapidly escaping or spreading, there is less need for haste, and
we can take advantage of this fact to plan a more effective
operation from the start.
There are three phases to any successful removal operation:
Extraction, containment and pick-up.
Pick-up involves the use of some sort of skimmer, and is relatively
straightforward. Except in rare cases where the piling is very
open, the only oil that can be picked up will be that which has
been extracted from under the pier and contained by a boom. For
all skimmers the efficiency of their operation depends on the
concentration of oil in their vicinity. Hence the arrangement
of boom and skimmer should be such that oil will tend to concen-
trate around the pick-up point. In practice this means that the
skimmer should be located in a corner or apex towards which the
flow is established.
Boom performs a dual function. It not only prevents the escape of
oil driven from under a pier, but it also must channel this oil
towards the pick-up device. Sometimes boom can be used to keep a
cleared area from becoming recontaminated. In general this requires
that the boom be deployed under the structure, which will only be
possible where: there is enough overhead clearance and space between
piles to allow passage of a small boat (a two-man rubber raft can
be used), there are no cross braces in the way, and there is no
current to force the boom hard up against a row of piles. For use
in this way a boom having "internal" flotation is better than one
having detachable flotation, since it is less likely to snag.
Where the emergent flow is intercepted by the boom, its velocity
should be less than a half a knot. (See Section XII). In any
case there is no need for the emergent flow to have a large veloc-
ity, as a slow, barely perceptible drift into a gradually narrowing
corner or pocket will deliver all the oil that most skimmers can
effectively handle.
Methods Not Requiring Artificial Currents
The main approach to the problem of oil trapped under piers involves
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flushing with artificial currents, but, before discussing this, there
are several other options that deserve mention:
A strong air flow would be capable of dragging oil from under a pier.
It has an advantage over artificial water currents in that it would
produce very little turbulence in the water, and would thus cause
very little mechanical emulsification of the oil. In addition to a
large wind generator, heavy curtains might be required to channel and
collect the oil. The necessary equipment is probably unavailable
in most harbors; therefore, this method is not one suitable for
general use.
Chemical solvents or dispersants would remove oil from under a pier,
and their application would be relatively easy. But the dispersed
oil would soon spread in substantial concentration though a sizable
volume of nearby water, and the damage to the environment would be
increased rather than reduced. Even though some of the recently
developed dispersants are practically non-toxic, the oil would still
retain most of its harmful properties, arid is better restricted to
the area under the pier if it cannot be removed entirely. Therefore,
this method is the least acceptable of all, and would be illegal
in many cases.
It is also possible to sink the oil. This method is worthy of consider-
ation because the sediment under most piers, especially in commercially
active areas, is already badly contaminated, and further damage to this
relatively small and useless area might be preferable to the damage
wrought by the same oil elsewhere. A similar approach is "entombment"
of the oil by enclosing it with sheathing. Though this may seem like
doing it the hard way, the fact is that in many cases it will be no
harder or more time consuming than extraction and pick-up of the oil.
The sheathing need not extend from the pier's deck down to the sedi-
ment; a few feet above high water level to a few feet below low water
level would be enough. There would be a bonus in that the sheathing
would protect the area from contamination by subsequent spills in the
vicinity. While it is true that "entombed" oil may eventually seep out,
and sunken oil will dissociate and disperse, this will take a relatively
long time, during which there will be opportunity for biodegradation
of the oil, a process which can be enhanced by seeding with the proper
type of organisms and aeration of the water under the pier.
Under certain conditions, a chemical surface collecting agent (SCA) can be
used to move oil from beneath a pier. An SCA is a substance which
reverses the tendency of most oil to spread on water, and, instead,
causes the patches to contract and form "lenses". To remove oil from
under a pier, the SCA must move the oil rather than cause it to
contract. This can be accomplished only if the SCA is restricted to
one side of the oil slick. Once the SCA completely surrounds the
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oil patch, there is no longer a difference in spreading force on
either side, and it can no longer produce net motion. Since surface
collecting agents spread far more quickly than most petroleum products
that are likely to require removal, it is important that there be no
path through the oil slick or along its edges by means of which the
SCA can spread to the outer side. In practice, this means that an SCA
can only be used for flushing when there is a continuous sheet of
oil covering an embayment or cul-de-sac from wall to wall. The SCA
must be placed in the deepest corner or against the farthest wall.
Unless there is an access hole properly located this will require that
a small boat be taken under the pier for placement of the SCA. It
should not be poured directly on the oil. Rather, a small patch of
water must be cleared into which the SCA is poured.
This work with surface collecting agents has been limited to lab-
oratory experiments and tests made on small spills of opportunity.
These have not enabled a determination of the quantities of SCA needed
to achieve various displacements with different types of oil. However,
the amounts needed will be small, because the SCA need only spread in
a very thin layer. For open water, the prescribed dosage is two
gallons per linear mile of oil patch circumference. Generally surface
collecting agents do not work on thick, waxy oils such as Bunker C, or
in waters having a high concentration of detergent. Some are in-
effective in cold waters. Wind and currents can also inhibit action
of an SCA, but these will probably not be significant in under pier
areas where oil is likely to collect.
Artificial Currents
The primary tools for extracting oil from beneath piers are artificially
generated water currents. The most common means of generating
such currents are: fire streams and propwash. Fire streams are
discussed in detail in Section XV and reference (16). The different
methods of generation produce currents with slightly different
characteristics: The first, of course, is size. A boat's propellers
are far more efficient generators of water movement than its pumps,
even when they are powered by the same engines. The second is shape.
A fire stream's induced current spreads about 80 degrees from the
impact point of the stream. The current pattern produced by propellers
has a much smaller angle of spread, only 5 to 10 degrees, though it
is much wider to start with. The third difference is in the nature
of the turbulence. Propellers produce larger eddies than streams of
water even when the energy outputs are comparable. And propeller
turbulence has a much stronger vertical component which extends much
deeper. This is important because turbulence causes mechanical emul-
sification of the oil, and the large deep eddies can drag the oil
droplets down well below the skirt depth of even the largest boom.
These droplets have a natural tendency to rise, and will begin to do so
as soon as the turbulence subsides; however, the smaller droplets rise
very slowly. Thus, while it is possible to contain much of the oil set
in motion by propwash if the containment boom is located far enough
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from the propellers, a substantial portion inevitably escapes. For
this reason, the use of propwash should be limited to these situations
where fire streams are clearly inadequate, or where no fire streams
are available.
Despite these differences, the methods of applying artificial currents
are essentially the same whether they are generated by fire streams
or propellers. However, fire streams are much easier to position and
control. In both cases the boat must be moored, but the mooring
required for fire stream operation is much lighter and hence more
adaptable. Also monitors can be aimed, whereas to direct propwash
the entire boat must be turned, and this will not always be possible.
While it is true in any clean-up operation that the commander should
constantly observe the effect of the various measures being employed,
it is even more important when using induced currents, because slight
changes in the parameters of the operation can change it from an
effective one to an unproductive, or even a counter-productive one.
For example: A change in the wind can alter the impact point and/or
the strength of the fire stream; it can also affect the flow of oil
and the configuration of the boom array. Though we are concerned
with areas where the natural currents are virtually nil, they could
still be an important, though erratic and unpredictable factor. It
takes time for an induced current pattern to stabilize, and a proce-
dure that has been working well initially may become unsatisfactory
when fully developed. The rise and fall of the tide can open or
close channels. In short, the commander should repeatedly assure
himself that the effects of his operations are the ones he desires.
Methods of Generating Under Pier Flow Using Fire Streams
Once it has been determined to use artificial currents to flush an
under pier area, the two immediate problems are: How to establish
the flow, and where and in what direction to establish it. The
latter depends on the configuration of the area and will be discussed
subsequently. The simplest way to establish a current is by mooring
the boat to an adjacent structure in a way that will permit its fire
streams (or propwash) to be directed as needed to set up the desired
flow. Unfortunately, it will often be impossible to find a suitable
mooring. The adjacent pier, if any, may be poorly oriented or too
far. The fire stream may not be able to span the distance with
enough reserve momentum to establish a sufficient flow. A fire stream's
range can be increased, up to a point, by elevating the tip from the
horizontal. But, if the angle of elevation exceeds several degrees,
the effectiveness of the stream as a current generator suffers. For
a 3 inch tip operating at 150 psi the maximum distance between the
tip and the impact zone, consistent with the generation of an
effective flow, is about 130 feet. In the absence of any natural
current this will produce an effective flow extending about 300 feet
from the impact zone. Thus, under nearly ideal conditions we can
expect to move oil at a distance of about 430 feet from the monitor.
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The presence of even a slight wind or a miniscule current from any
direction except behind the monitor will substantially reduce this
distance. Oil movement has been induced at a distance of nearly
1000 ft from the monitor, but this was an exceptional case, and such
ranges cannot be expected in general.
Where it is not possible to operate effectively from an adjacent pier,
it may be possible to moor directly to the contaminated pier. If the
fire streams are to be directed perpendicular to, or at a large angle
to the pier edge the boat must be held 50 to 100 feet away from the
edge with long mooring lines. The reaction force on the monitors will
be sufficient to hold the boat out, but it may be necessary to use the
engines and rudder to compensate for yaw. If only the bow monitor is
used in conjunction with a single bow mooring line, the thrust of the
reaction force and the pull of the mooring line will tend to assume
the same line of action, and the mooring line may get in the way of
the fire stream. Two mooring lines to separate ballards or cleats,
with the fire stream directed between them, will avoid this. Fore
and aft mooring, with the boat parallel to the pier edge, will permit
the use of additional monitors and also of rail pipes.
If under pier pipes are available, the fire boat can be moored close to
the pier. Since the nozzle is now at the edge of the pier it should,
in general, be as close to the water surface as possible. However, if
the pier is large and the oil has receded from the edge of the pier,
the impact zone can be advanced by elevating the tip. For some applica-
tions it would be better to have the tip at, or slightly below the
surface; these are described in a later section.
Use of hand lines from small boats is the most versatile method of
generating flow under piers. It involves more effort, but it can be
used in many situations where other methods cannot, such as: where
there is no suitable mooring near enough; where the fire boat cannot
approach the pier because of obstructions or shallow water; where (if
the piling is not too dense) it is desirable to establish the current
deep under a large or complex pier. The only limitation is the amount
of hose available. If stand pipes or land pumpers are available, it is
not even necessary to have a fire boat present.
Because the effectiveness of the streams depends so much on the discharge,
the largest hose, tip, and pressure consistent with safe operation should
be used. A 2-1/2 inch hose with a 1-1/4 inch tip operating at 60 psi
tip pressure has been used without any difficulty. However, when in
operation both the tip and the small boat will have to be secured. The
boatshould be secured sideways between piles by fore and aft painters.
The tip, operating between the piles, can be secured by one or more
hose straps or pieces of line. Reaction force on the tip will be about
150 pounds (1-1/4 inch tip at 60 psi). If the boat's gunwale is fairly
sturdy, the hose strap can be hooked directly to it. The line or hose
strap may be attached to parts of pier's substructure, but, if attached
to piles, two lines to separate piles will be needed. In all cases
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the attachment of the line to the hose should be far enough behind the
tip so that the tip is just outboard of the gunwale.
The hose must be floated. If the hose is not to be taken under the
pier, qr if the pier's substructure is free of subsurface snags,
several large floats are adequate and quicker to attach. But in most
cases, it is better to use smaller floats more closely spaced. Quart
size floats with 3 to 4 foot spacings and an additional float at the
brass coupling supported the 2-1/2 inch hose very well. To further
reduce the possibility of snagging, the floats should be attached
with their long axis parallel to that of the hose. This can be done
with friction tape or with string; there appears to be no reason to
prefer one over the other. Because it is much easier to handle
uncharged hose, it is better to affix the floats and play out the hose
before applying pressure. However, most fire hose is flat when uncharged
and round when charged, and the method of affixing the floats must be
able to accommodate the change in dimension. With string this is done
by first tying the string around the hose using a square knot and
leaving ends long enough to encircle the float and tie another square
knot. With tape, make a figure "8", lashing with alternate clockwise
turns around the hose and counter clockwise turns around the float (or
visa versa) and finish with a few turns around the tape intersection
between the hose and the float.
Methods of Applying Artificial Currents Under Piers
If it is possible to do so, the best way to flush the area under a pier
is to establish a flow perpendicular to the pier's long axis. Attempts
to generate a current down the length of the pier will generally be
far more difficult and far less effective. There are two reasons for
this. The preferred direction of flow is parallel to the rows of
piles, and these run perpendicular to the long axis for almost all
piers. This is not so much because of piles themselves as it is
because of the cross bracing, which is much more dense in a row than
it is between rows. Many piers have fire walls underneath; these almost
always run perpendicular to the long axis of the pier, and would permit
longitudinal flushing only at dead low water. Second, even with fairly
open piling, most piers are too long. Pier lengths well over 600 ft
are common, while the effectiveness of fire stream generated currents
usually vanishes between 300 and 400 feet from the impact zone for
the larger monitors. Propwash may be capable of longitudinal flushing
under long piers which do not have transverse fire walls. In using
propwash, the thrust of the propellers should be at an absolute
minimum initially, and gradually increased as the edge of the oil
recedes down the length of the pier.
For longitudinal flushing, boom should be deployed along both sides of
the pier. The far end is assumed to be closed by a bulkhead or shore-
line and the skimmer is located in one of the far corners. In the
final stages of the operation, smaller streams from hand lines will
be useful in channeling the remaining oil to the skimmer.
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Transverse Flushing
Since currents generated artificially by boats have effective widths
from about twenty to about 200 feet (depending on how they are used
and how they are generated), while pier lengths often exceed 600 feet,
flushing under a pier with transverse currents will almost always
be a piece meal task. The essentials of the operation are as follows:
The current is generated on one side of the pier, and the boom and
skimmer array is situated on the opposite side so as to intercept,
concentrate, and pick up the emerging oil. After a section has been
cleared, the current generator on one side, and the boom and skimmer
on the other side are moved down to the next section. When proceeding
in this way, it is necessary to prevent the section just cleared from
becoming recontaminated. If the artificial current is broad> this
is accomplished by making each section about half the width of the
current. If the current is not wide, it will be necessary to operate
an auxiliary current in the section just cleared. The rows of piles
do inhibit broadening of the induced flow; therefore, if the flow
is being generated at the edge of the pier by under pier pipes or hand
lines, it will generally be possible to clear only one aisle at a
time. However, if a large monitor impacting about 30 to 50 feet from
the edge of the pier is used, the artificial current will effectively
span three or four aisles before it goes under the pier. If it is
possible for a small boat to pass under the pier between rows of
piling, boom may be deployed to protect the cleared sections. The
collection boom will "belly" away from the pier, with the apex of the
belly near the strongest part of the emergent flow. If only one
current generator is used, the apex will be roughly opposite the
generator; if two are used, it will be opposite a point between them.
The array should be adjusted so that the skimmer is as close as
possible to the apex. If the emerging oil tends to collect uniformly
along the boom rather than being channeled towards the apex, the belly
should be deepened by slacking the boom. To deepen the belly it may
prove necessary to hold the boom and skimmer out by means of a line to
a nearby structure or to an anchored float. If, for some reason, it
is not possible to obtain a deep enough belly, small hose lines can
be used to establish a flow along the inside of the boom towards the
skimmer. In this case, it will be easier to locate the skimmer more
to one side of the boom array, establishing as much of a pocket there
as possible, and operate the hand line from the other side.
The procedures just described are suitable for a pier much longer than
it is wide, having bulkhead or shoreline on one or both ends, and open
water on both sides. Such piers are comparatively easy to flush out
because it is possible to establish a direct flow entering on one side
and emerging on the other. Since most such piers extend into a channel
where there is a natural current, oil will not usually become trapped
under them except near the shoreward end. In general, a pier under
which an artificial flow can be easily established will be subject to
flushing by natural currents. Conversely, piers not subject to
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ANCHOR
PILES
FLOAT
CONVENTIONAL
BOOM
FIGURE 8
USE OF UNDER PIER BOOM
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natural flushing, those under which oil is prone to collect, will be
the most difficult to clear. The following procedures have been
developed for such cases.
Under Pier Boom
Many piers and over-water roadways run parallel to and abut with a
shoreline or bulkhead. The only possible exit for a flow directed under
such a structure is on the same side as the entrance, but any flow so
directed will tend to move along under the structure, with most of the
energy concentrated along the bulkhead, or inner edge and very little
emerging. In the absence of fire walls, it will be necessary to insert
a barrier that will deflect the flow outwards. If there is enough
clearance for a small boat, conventional boom can be used, but in
many instances the clearance, even at low tide, will be too small. To
overcome this problem we have constructed boom using boards with lead
weights for ballast and small floats for bouyancy. These are bolted
together, with wing nuts and preset bolts, and pushed under the pier.
The assembly and positioning is done with the boom in the water by a
man in a small boat, which must be moored to one of the piles. As
each section is added, the boom is extended further under the pier.
Up to 28 ft of this boom has been assembled with relative ease, and
greater lengths are evidently possible. To accomplish its task, the
boom should extend all the way across the pier from the bulkhead on
one side to the outermost piles on the other. The outer end of this
boom is matched with any type of conventional boom which is then
extended out towards mid-stream and back toward the current generator,
and secured to an anchored float. The plank boom is braced against
the applied current by a row of piles, and it should be tied to the
outermost of these piles in such a way that it can rise or fall with
the tide.
The artificial flow should be directed about a 45 degree angle under
the structure and towards the boom (Figure 8). To achieve an effective
angularity along with an effective stream velocity it may be necessary
to hold the fire boat away from the pier. This can best be done by
mooring a floating fender (a camel) or another boat between the pier
and the fire boat. The boom and the current generator (or impact zone
of the fire stream for deck monitors) should be far enough apart so
that the axis of the current is intercepted by the bulkhead well
before it reaches the boom. This means that the wider the pier (i.e.,
the greater distance between the outer edge of the pier and the shore-
line or bulkhead) the greater must be the distance between the current
generator and the under pier boom. The objective is to create a flow
under the pier along the closed inner edge which is deflected outwards
by the under pier boom. The speed of the current when it reaches, and
is diverted by the boom, should be less than a half knot. The ultimate
configuration of the boom array will depend on the width and strength
of the current, the width of the pier, and the angle of entry of the
current. However, the flexible boom attached to the under pier boom
will form a belly in response to the flow, and the skimmer should be
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located at its apex. Since each situation is likely to have its own
characteristics, on scene experimentation will probably be necessary
to achieve optimum results.
The under pier boom can be constructed of any material having
enough rigidity to enable it to be pushed under a pier. The pro-
totype was made of 10 ft x 1 ft x 1 inch pine boards, with 12 Ibs
of ballast along one edge, and two quart-size plastic bottles for
flotation. The boom had about 4 inches of freeboard and 8 inches
of skirt. For strength there was one foot of overlap where the
planks were joined with four bolts and wing nuts backed by large
washers. Because of its rigidity, the under pier boom will not
conform with the water surface as waves pass; however, it is designed
for use in places where waves of more than a few inches height will
only be an occasional problem. If more freeboard or skirt is needed,
broader planks can be used.
Cul-de-sacs
The substructures under many shoreside installations form basins or
cul-de-sacs having three sides closed and only one side open. For
example: A long pier or roadway running parallel to and abutting
with bulkhead, as described above, and also having transverse fire
walls, will form a series of such covered embayments. The bulkheads
are capable of diverting a flow outwards, so under pier boom is not
needed. But, because distance between the sides of the basin is
usually not much greater than the distance between the mouth and the
closed end, a different type of current structure must be established.
Instead of directing the current inwards, and at an angle towards
the bulkhead which is to deflect it outwards, we try to establish
a rotary flow entering along one side and emerging along the other
(Figure 9).
In establishing such a flow it is important that the current enter
only one side of the basin, leaving room on the other side for an
emergent flow. When using deck monitors, the fire streams should be
aimed as though the entering current were required to bounce off one
wall of the basin. If it is aimed too directly into the basin, even
though the impact zone is near one side of the basin's mouth, the
large angle of spread of the current could cause it to span the
entire width of the basin before it reaches the closed end; and the
only effect would be to drive the oil deeper into the basin. Aiming
the fire stream in this manner will cause a part of the induced current
to be wasted, since not all of it will be intercepted by the wall
and channelled into the basin. The further the impact zone from the
mouth of the basin the greater will be the proportion of the momentum
flux that is lost in this way, but it should never exceed fifty per
cent, since the line of aim should be into the basin's mouth. Aiming
the stream more towards the center will reduce this loss, but, unless
the basin is very wide or the impact point quite close to the mouth,
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WASTED MOMENTUM
FIGURE 9
CLEARING A CUL-DE-SAC
83
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this loss cannot be eliminated completely without destroying the rotary
flow. However, the loss of momentum flux does not appear to present
a serious problem. An effective flow was achieved in a 200 x 160 ft
cul-de-sac, using a 5 inch tip, operating at 75 psi, and impacting 60 ft
from the mouth of the basin with only about 60% of the flow entering it.
If necessary the loss could have been reduced by advancing the impact
zone along the same line of aim. Under pier pipes and hand lines from
small boats can also be used to establish a rotary flow. Since they
are operated close to the edge of the pier and the lateral spread of
their induced flow is inhibited by rows of piling, they can be aimed
directly into the basin near one wall. However, since their output
is so much smaller than that of monitors, it may be necessary to
use two or more streams, parallel and close to each other. The boom
must be deployed so as to intercept the emergent flow without inter-
fering with the entering flow. This will be easier to accomplish when
the current generators are close to the pier edge. The ends of the
boom can be secured to piles at the edge of the pier, and the central
portion, where the skimmer is to be located, should be held away from
the pier by an anchored float so that the entire array forms a deep
pocket.
If the basin is very narrow and fairly deep, with walls extending to the
bottom (in effect a closed channel) it may be possible to set up a
vertical rotary flow. To do this an under pier pipe with the tip sub-
merged is used, and it is aimed into the basin at a downward angle, so
that the current flows inward along the bottom and outwards near the
surface. This is likely to stir up and flush out quite a bit of silt
as well as oil. Since the mouth of the channel is narrow, the boom
and current generator must be placed in tandem; therefore the tip should
be well below the skirt depth of the boom. There are two possibilities:
If there is a convenient hose hole or a means of securing the under pipe
to the pier edge, the boom and skimmer can be placed outboard of the tip.
If this is not possible, the ends of the boom will have to be fastened
to the walls of the basin far enough under the pier so that the boom
forms a deep pocket with its apex under the edge of the pier. (It may
be necessary to drive studs for securing the boom ends.) The under
pier pipe can then be operated from the rail of a boat moored across
the mouth of the channel so that its stream passes under the boom. So
far this method has only been attempted on a laboratory scale, and the
limits of its effectiveness are not known.
Entrainment
A current moving through a body of water will drag some of the surrounding
water with it. This process, entrainment, can be used to set up a flow
of surface water out of a small basin by establishing a surface flow
across the mouth of the basin (Figure 10). On the whole this method is
far less effective than the methods described above, but it might be
useful in some situations. Since the out-flowing surface water must
be replaced, and in the case of a basin, it is replaced by in-flowing
bottom water, propwash, because of its depth, is not suitable unless the
84
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SKIMMER
BOOM
FLOAT
ANCHOR
FIGURE 10
DRAWING OIL OUT OF AN EMBAYMENT BY ENTRAPMENT
85
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basin is very deep. Because of the large angle of spread of currents
generated by deck monitors, it may be difficult to prevent a portion
of the entraining current from entering the basin and setting up a
rotary surface flow. But it will not be an efficient rotary flow,
since much of the entrained emerging water will be recirculated back
into the basin. This difficulty can be reduced by keeping the tip
as close as possible to the surface. To create a significant flow
out of the basin the entraining current must be quite strong. For
this reason the size of the area that can be cleared by entrainment
is limited; the maximum being about 100 ft on a side. Finally,
since the emerging flow becomes a part of the much higher velocity
and more turbulent entraining current, the oil is subject to severe
emulsification. For successful containment and pick-up the boom must
not intercept the entraining current until it has become very weak,
that is, less than 1/2 knot.
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SECTION XVIII
Fire Department Spill Control Capabilities
During the lifetime of Project 15080 FVP the New York City Fire
Department received approximately eighty spill notifications. These
notifications were received, for the most part, from the office of
the Captain of the Port of New York, US Coast Guard. Some notifica-
tions were received direct from spillers or those observing spills.
The Consolidated Edison Company in particular, was cooperative,
both in calling the Fire Department and in confining spills at
their waterfront installations.
Early in Project 15080 FVP, the Fire Department mailed some 200
letters to the oil companies and the waterfront industries active
in New York City, asking that the Fire Department and the Coast
Guard be notified in case of oil spills. On receipt of a notifica-
tion from any private sources, the Fire Department notifies the
office of the Captain of the Port and investigates the report by
having a Fire Chief or a fire boat respond to the scene.
These investigations revealed that the Fire Department's services
were unnecessary in most cases, either because the spill was too
trivial or already contained. However, the Marine Division of the
NYFD has operated at enough spills to be able to report on just
what functions a fire department may be able to render at a spill
incident.
The following digest of 10 such spill incidents is offered to
illustrate these functions and to illustrate some operational lessons
learned at the incidents.
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INCIDENT 1
Date:
Location:
Reported Quantity and
Type of Oil Spilled:
Cause of Spill:
Fire Department
Activities:
Comments:
10/24/70
Greater New York Terminal 1710 Steinway St.,
Queens, New York (Rikers Island Channel)
20 barrels, No. 6 fuel oil.
Burst tanker hose.
1 fire boat and 1 Battalion Chief employed.
Used monitor pipes to herd spill into boomed
area and to confine spill to the cove when the
tanker was moved.
On duty - 3 hours and 29 minutes.
FD herding and containment activities were
efficient, particularly when the tanker was
being moved. A prompter report to the FD
would have probably resulted in better con-
tainment of the spill.
Date:
Location:
Reported Quantity and
Type of Oil Spilled:
Cause of Spill:
Fire Department
Activities:
Comments:
INCIDENT 2
11/1/70
Patchogue Oil Terminal
722 Court Street, Brooklyn, NY
Gowanus Canal
70 barrels, No. 4 fuel oil.
A broken pipe flange on plant pipe.
1 fire boat and 1 Battalion Chief were employed.
The bow monitor of a fire boat was used, with
limited success, to confine oil which had spread
beneath the pier.
The same bow monitor worked well in herding oil
into the boomed area.
A small outboard utility boat was left on the
scene by the Fire Department to assist in the
recovery operation after the fire boat had left.
The FD operated at the incident for a period of
8 hours and 15 minutes.
A prompter notification of the Fire Department
would have made the herding and containment
by fire streams much simpler.
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INCIDENT 3
Date:
Location:
Reported Quantity and
Type of Oil Spilled:
Cause of Spill:
Fire Department
Activities:
Comments:
11/11/70
Sewer outfall
Cropsey Avenue and 26th Avenue, Brooklyn
200 gallons, No. 6 fuel oil
A fuel oil delivery truck discharged an excess-
ive amount of oil into a building storage tank.
Oil ran from tank vent into a storm sewer and
out into Gravesend Bay.
Two Chief Officers, 2 land engines and one
ladder unit responded to the alarm at the
spill scene and the sewer line was traced.
A Marine Battalion Chief and a fire boat
responded to the sewer outfall.
The slick had spread and thinned, therefore
the fire boat was returned to its berth. The
Marine Chief notified the US Coast Guard. The
Marine Chief and fire boat on duty at the
spill scene for 2 hours and 15 minutes.
In this instance the source of the spill was
verified but most discharges from sewer out-
falls go unnoticed and usually the source is
not determined.
Date:
Location:
Reported Quantity and
Type of Oil Spilled:
Cause of Spill:
Fire Department
Activities:
INCIDENT 4
12/20/70
A barge carrying #6 fuel oil struck an under-
water object in the East River, opening its
hull and causing an oil leak. The barge was
towed about 2 miles north where containment
was undertaken in a more sheltered location,
1,000 gallons of #6 fuel oil. Oil was pumped
from the damaged compartment to limit the
amount which might escape.
The barge's hull was opened in a underwater
accident.
One Chief Officer and 1 fire boat responded
to the scene. On the afternoon of the spill
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Comments:
fire department personnel re-deployed boom
belonging to the cleanup contractor, when
the direction of the current changed.
The following afternoon (12/21/70), the fire
boat returned to the spill recovery scene,
where a large quantity of boom and two catch
basin cleaner trucks were still being used by
the cleanup crew. The boat used its bow monitor
(3-in nozzle) stream to sweep a large quantity
of oil from beneath the East River Drive. The
oil had become lodged under the road substruc-
ture and the fire stream drove the slick into
the boomed area for recovery by the vacuum
trucks.
Without the services of the fire stream,
recovery of the oil would have been prolonged
considerably. This incident and later tests
and spill incidents demonstrated that fire
streams can effectively sweep trapped oil
from beneath waterfront structures for
controlled recovery.
Date:
Location:
Reported Quantity and
Type of Oil Spilled:
Cause of the Spill:
Fire Department
Activities:
INCIDENT 5
3/25/71
East River, off the end of an active Brooklyn
pier.
A considerable but undetermined quantity of
gasoline escaped through the split hull seam
of a barge.
Collision of the barge and a freighter which
was backing from a pier into the stream.
A land assignment of four engines, two
ladders and a rescue company responded, in
command of two chief officers.
A marine assignment of three fire boats and
two chief officers responded.
An improvised plug was inserted in the hull
opening: the barge was encircled with Fire
Department boom and a fire foam blanket was
spread inside the boom, around the barge.
Explosimeter readings were taken on, around
and under the pier. Hand fire streams were
directed from the pier to divert the spill into
the stream and away from the pier. Propwash
90
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Comments:
Date:
Location:
Reported Quantity and
Type of Oil Spilled:
Cause of Spill:
Fire Department
Activities:
and monitor streams from the two fire boats
were used to keep a strong current flowing
beneath the pier and prevent the accumulation
of flammable vapors.
One fire boat was utilized in the stream to
break up the slick and diffuse the vapors,
using a 3-in bow monitor stream.
The Fire Department ordered the barge removed
to an anchorage for off-loading the damaged
compartment.
Duration of fire department operations:
4 hours and 45 minutes.
The availability of boom to encircle the barge
quickly made the application of fire foam
around the barge possible.
Recovery of the spill was not the immediate
concern because of the spilled product.
No fire resulted.
INCIDENT 6
5/18/71
Pier 3, Brooklyn Navy Yard
200 gallons of Bunker "C" fuel oil.
Leaking fuel tanks of the destroyer USS Massey,
moored at Pier 3, Brooklyn Navy Yard.
Two large and one small fire boat functioned
at the spill under the supervision of a Chief
Officer.
The first fire boat to arrive used its 3-in
bow monitor to prevent oil from escaping
from the slip.
Both fire boats deployed boom across the slip.
A monitor stream herded oil toward the skimming
device belongiiig to the 3rd party contractor.
A small fire stream "sealed the gap" between a
boom terminal and the pier.
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INCIDENT 7
Date:
Location:
Reported Quantity and
Type of Oil Spilled:
Cause of Spill:
Fire Department
Activities:
Comments:
7/4/71
Kill Van Kull, off 1965 Richmond Terrace,
Staten Island
Undetermined amount of Bunker "C".
Oil was leaking from a sunken lighter.
Oil slick was observed by fire boat personnel
while performing other duties in the Kill
Van Kull. 250 ft of fire department boom
was deployed around the barge.
The US Coast Guard was notified and a cleanup
contractor was hired by the Coast Guard.
Fire Department discovery resulted in
containment of the spill.
Date:
Location:
Reported Quantity
and Type of Oil Spilled:
Cause of Spill:
Fire Department
Activities:
INCIDENT 8
7/15/71
A spill which originated in Bayonne, N. J.
spread through the Narrows into Lower New York
Bay and onto the beaches of Staten Island and
Brooklyn. The ship from which the spill origin-
ated was moored at the Bayonne Pier.
37,000 gallons of Bunker "C"
Human error in transferring fuel aboard a ship.
On receipt of notification of the spill, which
had actually occurred the evening of July 14,
the Fira Department notified the NYC Police
Department (for aerial reconnaissance) and the
Parks Department, so that beach protection and
cleanup would be inaugurated.
Both land units and fire boats were dispatched
to survey the extent of the slick.
A fire boat's streams were used at the spill
scene in Bayonne N. J. to sweep oil from be-
neath the pier, to seal a boom end gap and to
herd oil toward the skimming area. One fire
boat performed these functions for a total of
23 hours during a four-day period.
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INCIDENT 9
Date:
Location:
Reported Quantity and
Type of Oil Spilled:
Fire Department
Activities:
9/22/71
The Narrows, in the vicinity of an anchored
tanker.
The US Coast Guard was notified that 10 bbls
of Bunker
loading hose line ruptured,
"C" had been spilled when an off-
One fire boat worked from about 6:00 AM to
8:00 AM herding a slick from the Brooklyn and
Staten Island shores. Later, the Project's
small vacuun unit was tested from the fire
boat and about 12 gals of the oil were picked
up from the water. A third party contractor
was on the scene, using a vacuum barge.
Date:
Location:
Reported Quantity and
Type of Oil Spilled:
Cause of Spill:
Fire Department
INCIDENT 10
January 27, 1972
Spill which originated at a bulk storage
facility at Carteret, N. J. had spread
across the Arthur Kill to the shoreline of
Staten Island.
About 5,900 barrels of mineral spirits.
A ruptured 7-in pipe at the waterfront,
A surveillance of the shoreline of Staten
Island revealed a slick, in the area of
Fresh Kills inlet. The slick was between
1/4 in and 1/2 in. thick and some had become
trapped in a small cover between a barge and
a wooden pier.
Suspecting that the slick in the sheltered
area might be flammable and possibly unsafe to
skim, the Fire Department took explosimter
readings and oil samples. The meter readings
indicated a possibility of ignition so the
sample was taken some distance away and tested.
Since it flashed, the boat swept the slick from
the trapped area, using fire streams.
Close liaison with the US Coast Guard On-Scene
Coordinator was maintained during the 2-day
period of the spill incident.
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Comment: Although aware of the containment-removal
problems created by the spreading spill,
the Fire Department's principal concern was
the fire hazard created by the low flash
point product.
The activities described herein were performed almost exclusively by
the Marine Division of the New York Fire Department, which maintains
an active fleet of five large fire boats. For those communities
which may have smaller fire boats or none at all, the following
suggestions are offered:
1. A prior arrangement should be made whereby publicly or privately
owned small boats, as small as outboard motor boats would be made
available for boom deployment.
2. A plan should be formulated whereby trucks will be made available
for the transportation of boom to waterfront locations.
3. As substitutes for fire boat streams, a fire department should
consider the possibilities of using fire streams from the standpipes
of piers or waterfront structures, hydrants along the shorefronts or
from draughting pumpers. These smaller caliber streams can be very
effective in herding spills for skimming operations.
A. A fire department should maintain an on-going liaison with the
federal agency responsible for providing the On-Scene Coordinator
(US Coast Guard or EPA) for oil spills in its community.
94
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SECTION XIX
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The active participation in field test exercises and at spill opera-
tions by the Officers and Members of the Marine Division of the
New York Fire Department, during the course of Project 15080 FVP, is
gratefully acknowledged.
The guidance of Mr. Howard Lamp'l and Mr. Frank Freestone of the
Water Quality Office of the Environmental Protection Agency, and
the cooperation of the City of New York and the U. S. Navy in
providing the test basin in Wallabout Creek, Brooklyn, New York,
are gratefully acknowledged.
95
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SECTION XX
REFERENCES
1. National Oil and Hazardous Materials Contingency Plan,
Council on Environmental Quality, Federal Register,
June 2, 1970.
2. Smith, Craig L. and William G. Maclntyre, "Initial Aging of
Fuel Oil Films on Sea Water", Proceedings, Joint Conference
on Prevention and Control of Oil Spills, sponsored by the
American Petroleum Institute, Environmental Protection Agency
and the US Coast Guard, Washington, D. C., June, 1971.
3- Oil Tagging System Study_, Water Pollution Control Research
Series, Contract No. 14-12-500, FWQA, May, 1970.
4. Schwartzberg, Henry G., "The Movement of Oil Spills", Pro-
ceedings, Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of
Oil Spills, sponsored by the American Petroleum Institute
Environmental Protection Agency and the US Coast Guard,
Washington, D. C., June, 1971.
5. Oil Pollution, A Report to the President, by the Secretaries
of Interior and Transportation, p. 64 (1968).
6. Oil Pollution Control Training Manual. Environmental Protection
Agency, Edison Water Quality Laboratory Training Program,
Edison, NJ, pp. 1-1, 12-1, February, 1971.
7. Bernard, Harold, "Embroiled in Oil", Proceedings, Joint Conference
on Prevention and Control of Oil Spills, pp. 91, 92, Washington,
D. C., 1971.
8. Analysis^of Oil Spills and Control Materials, Dillingham Corp.,
for American Petroleum Inst., Washington, D. C., p. 10,
February, 1970.
9. Frieberger, A. and J. M. Byers,"Burning Agents for Oil Spill
Cleanup", Proceedings, Joint Conference on Prevention and
Control of Oil Spills, Sponsored by the American Petroleum
Institute, Environmental Protection Agency and the US Coast
Guard, Washington, D. C., June, 1971.
10. Report, "The Shell Sand Sink Method", Shell Exploration and
Production Laboratory, Rijswik, The Netherlands, April 8, 1970.
11. Smith, J. W. United Kingdom Ministry of Technology, "Work on
Oil Pollution", Proceedings, Joint Conference on Prevention and
Control of Oil Spills, API, FJPCA, 1969.
97
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12. Pardes, 0. and L. J. Schmit, "Laboratory Investigation into the
Sinking of Oil Spills with Particulate Solids", Proceedings,
Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Spills,
sponsored by the American Petroleum Institute, Environmental
Protection Agency and the US Coast Guard, Washington, D. C.,
June, 1971.
13. Poliakoff, M. Z., "Oil Dispersing Chemicals", Edison Water
Quality Laboratory, FWPCA, Edison, NJ, May, 1969.
14. Schatzberg, Paul and K. V. Nagy, "Sorbents for Oil Spill
Removal", Proceedings, Joint Conference on Prevention and
Control of Oil Spills, sponsored by the American Petroleum
Institute, Environmental Protection Agency and the US Coast
Guard, Washington, D.C., June, 1971.
15. Casey, James F. Fire Service Hydraulics, Reuben H. Donnelly Corp.,
NYC, 1970.
16. Katz, B. and R. Cross (unpublished report) "Use of Fire Streams
to Control Floating Oil", submitted to the Water Quality Office,
EPA, by NYFD, December, 1971.
17. Katz, B. (unpublished report) "Removal of Oil from Under Piers",
submitted to the Water Quality Office, EPA by NYFD, August, 1972.
98
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SELECTED WATER
RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
1. Ref-tKo.
w
4. Title
OIL SPILLS"CONTROL MANUAL FOR FIRE DEPARTMENTS
5, R
P'rforatin Otgar -ntios
:(s} Cross, Ralph; Cunningham* John; Katz, Bernard}
Roberts, Archie
9. Organization Alpine Geophysical Associates, Inc.
under contract to
New York City Fire Department
10.
15080 FVP
II.
113. Type Repc? . of
Pages
22. $rV«
Send To:
WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
WASHINGTON, D. C, 2024O
institution Alpine Geophysical Assoc.,Inc. for NYFD
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