Working for Clean Water
An Information Program for Advisory Groups
Nonpoint Source
Pollution
Agriculture, Forestry, and Mining
What is nonpoint source pollution?
What are the effects of nonpoint source pollutants?
What are the Best Management Practices
for preventing or abating
pollution from nonpoint sources?
How is a nonpoint source control plan developed?
Citizen Handbook
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This program was prepared by
The Pennsylvania State University
Institute of State & Regional
Affairs
MiddJetown, PA 17057
Dr. Charles A. Cole
Project Director
Dr. £. Drannon Buskirk, Jr.
Project Co-Director
Prof. Lorna Chr, Stoltefus
Editor
Tfus unit was prepared by
E. Drannon Buskirk, Jr.
Advisory Team for the Project
David EUdnton, State of West
Virginia
Steve Frishman, private citiaen
Michele Frame, private citizen
John Hammond, private citizen
Joan Jurancich, State of California
Richard Hetherington, EPA
Region 10
Rosemary Henderson, EPA
Region 6
George Hoesse], EPA Region 3
George Neiss, EPA Region 5
Ray Pfortner, EPA Region 2
Paul Pinault, EPA Region 1
Earlene Wilson, EPA Region 7
Dan Burrows, EPA Headquarters
Ben Gryctko, EPA Headquarters
Robert Hardaker, EPA
Headquarters
Charles Kauffataa, EPA
Headquarters
Steve Maier, EPA Headquarters
EPA Project Officer
Barry H. Jordan
Office of Water Programs
Operations
Acknowledgements
Typists:
Startoni
Student Assistants:
Fran Costanzi, Kathy DeBatt,
Mike Moulds, Terry Switzer
Graphics support wae provided by
the Office of Public Awareness,
US. Environmental Protection
Agency.
Photographs were provided by
USD A — Sott Conservation
Service, C. U. StdStrfus Mf&, toe.,
and VS. Forest Service.
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Nonpoint Source Pollution:
Agriculture, Forestry,
and Mining
The Problem
Of course you have noticed how refreshing
the air is after a rainstorm. Did you ever
wonder what happened to the air
pollutants removed by the falling rain?
After joining other debris on the ground
the pollutants flow into the sewers, lakes,
and streams. Such substances of
widespread origin which run off, wash off,
or seep through the ground are called
nonpoint source pollutants. Common
nonpoint source pollutants include soils
eroded from farms and construction sites,
metals and oils removed from roads,
fertilizers and pesticides washed off
croplands, and acids leached from mines.
Pollutants coming from distinct locations
such as pipes are called point source
pollutants. The impacts of many nonpoint
source pollutants are only now being
realized:
• Without controlling nonpoint source
pollution the 1983 national goal of fishable
and swimmable waters cannot be achieved
in parts of at least 37 states.
• Two-thirds of the areawide water quality
planning agencies identify nonpoint source
pollutants as the main cause of their water
quality problems.
Nonpoint source pollutants have many
origins, including agriculture, construction,
mining, septic systems, silviculture
(forestry), and urban activities. Here we
focus upon the major sources of the rural
areas — agriculture, forestry, and mining.
Nonpoint Source Pollutants
Type
Source
Sediment
Nutrients
(e.g., fertilizers, grease,
organic matter)
Acids, Salts
Heavy Metals
(e.g., lead, zinc)
Toxic Chemicals
(e.g., pesticides, herbicides,
fungicides)
Pathogens
Heat
Construction sites
Mining exploration and operations
Croplands
Logging roads and trails
Croplands and livestock pens
Gardens, lawns, and forests
Petroleum storage areas
Landfills
Irrigation fields
Mines
Roads and parking lots
Landfills
Mining operations
Vehicle emissions
Landfills
Croplands
Waste from building sites
Forests
Landfills
Domestic sewage
Livestock wastes
Landfills
Denuded streambanks
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Planning For Nonpoint
Source Pollution
Although most of the nation's water
clean-up efforts have been directed at
pollution from point sources, the concern
for nonpoint source pollution is increasing.
Section 208 of The Clean Water Act
requires the control of nonpoint sources of
pollution. The 1977 amendments to the Act
further emphasize the role of nonpoint
control programs. Since climate, land
characteristics, and even the types of
pollutants vary throughout the country,
state and local governments and 208
planning agencies were given the
responsibility to develop nonpoint source
pollution control plans.
A six-step planning sequence is suggested
for nonpoint source prevention and
abatement:
1. Set water quality goals, criteria, and
standards
2. Assess pollution relationships
3. Determine allowable pollutant loads
4. Select Best Management Practices
5. Develop and implement a management
plan
6. Revise plan and conduct ongoing
planning.
Information Necessary for
Decision Making
• Quality and location of ground and
surface waters
• Climate variations, including
volume, intensity, and duration of
precipitation
• Land and soil characteristics
• Landforms, including slope and
topography
• Vegetative cover
• Location of waste-producing and
storage areas
• Cropping, logging, mining, and
ranching methods
• Management of fertilizers,
herbicides, pesticides, and fire
retardant chemicals
• Existing, previous, and future land
uses.
Before - Hillside eroded and worn out by farming.
After - Revegetated hillside after only three years.
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Nutrient and sediment pollution
caused by farm animals.
Set Goals, Criteria, and Standards
In step one the basis for analysis and
decision-making is established.
Although states may have already set
water criteria and standards, advisory
groups have much to consider such as
the scope of water quality plans and
guidelines for making tradeoffs.
It is important that the total environment
is kept in mind in water quality planning.
Areawide and community benefits and
costs, rather than just private gains and
losses, should be cpnsidered. Most 208
planning groups have progressed beyond
this point.
Assess Pollution Relationships
Consultants or a technical staff must
perform many of the tasks, but
advisory groups can contribute by:
• Helping to identify analysis
objectives
• Questioning the analysis program to
ensure that local needs are being met
• Giving insights into local conditions
• Communicating the questions of the
public, and the findings of the
technicians.
Assessing and predicting nonpoint source
pollution has had mixed success. The basic
problems are inadequate data and a lack of
knowledge about the dynamics of many
pollutants. Too little data is collected
during wet weather conditions. Massive
data inputs such as hourly rainfall
patterns for thirty years may be required.
Computational procedures range from
hand-calculation approaches to computer
models.
Data collection is a complex matter. If it
does not exist, it will have to be collected.
Advisory groups will have to support the
necessary time and expense. Furthermore,
such matters must not be automatically
left to the analysts and technicians. Their
methods and findings must be continually
questioned. For example, a sediment
control ordinance is central to the nonpoint
source pollution plan in Lewis and Clark
County, Montana. Such an ordinance
should require a single technique for
computing storm water runoff throughout
the watershed. Different computational
approaches can give vastly different
estimates of runoff volumes. Various kinds
and sizes of control structures are based on
these calculations. As a result, costs can
vary greatly because of different
calculations. For similar reasons, a
common storm event such as a five-year
frequency storm should be used in design
work throughout the area.
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Determine Allowable Pollutant
Loads
Streams can handle only limited amounts
of various pollutants. Therefore, to
maintain water quality the total amount of
a substance (load) entering a body of water
over a period of time must be controlled.
It is not always possible to use load
analysis. However, when it is done the
advisory groups should fully
understand how the allowable
pollutant loads are determined. Such
calculations can markedly affect an
area's developmental pattern, such as
the type, scale, and location of
industries.
Select Best Management
Practices
Next is the identification of the Best
Management Practices (BMPs) — the
techniques for preventing or controlling
nonpoint source pollution. Selection of the
BMPs involves the consideration of
regulations, reliability, fiscal aspects,
technical matters, environmental impacts,
and interagency coordination.
Develop, Implement, and
Revise Plans
In the final steps plans are developed,
implemented, and revised. These latter
planning steps have many
opportunities for citizen involvement,
especially the selection of BMPs and
plan implementation. The constraints
of implementation have a strong
bearing upon the choice of BMPs.
Nonpoint Source Plan
Implementation
Considering the breadth of nonpoint source
problems, and the large number of
governmental agencies that must cooperate
to solve them, it is not surprising that the
control of nonpoint source pollution lags.
The initial focus in water quality
management was on point sources. The
first designated planning groups were
those in metropolitan areas where point
sources of pollution were most obvious. As
a result, facilities planning and
construction often preceded comprehensive
areawide planning. Later, when states
began 208 planning, nonpoint source
problems received more attention.
As planners gained experience with
nonpoint source pollutants, perspectives
changed. Nonpoint source pollution in its
principal mode of transport — storm water
— was underscored in the 1974 annual
report of the Council on Environmental
Quality, which states:
Until the storm water situation is analyzed and
efficient corrective measures taken, there is little
or no sense in seeking higher levels of treatment
efficiency in existing secondary plants.
Although this statement is generally true,
advanced waste treatment may be needed
in some cases to meet water quality
standards.
Areawide 208 programs are planned by
state or regional units of water quality
planning agencies. Nonpoint source
controls for citizens, however, are
administered by existing governmental
institutions such as the United States
Department of Interior, state
environmental protection and natural
resource agencies, and local conservation
districts. Their effectiveness depends upon
public acceptance, adequate laws, effective
regulations, and sufficient resources for
administration, monitoring, and planning.
In implementing water quality plans,
citizens must be concerned about:
• How pollution control programs are
designed
• Who should be responsible for the
control facilities
• How enforcement can be handled
• How to finance the program.
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Program Responsibilities
Control programs typically involve both
private individuals and the government.
Private citizens are expected to prevent
nonpoint source pollution from their own
properties. The public institutions have a
broader set of functions, including:
• Jurisdiction where pollution crosses
several governmental boundaries
• Review of control plans
• Inspection of construction and
maintenance of facilities
• Enforcement of control practices
• Monitoring of water quality.
At least one county in Pennsylvania
advocates that municipalities maintain
responsibility for permanent erosion and
sedimentation control facilities. This
position is taken out of concern for
facilities that fall into disrepair as the
original owners die or go into bankruptcy.
Program Management
Planning would be best for an entire
watershed, of course, but this option is
seldom politically feasible. While much
nonpoint source planning is done at the
areawide level, it appears that plans can
be effectively coordinated at the county
level. Plan reviews and inspections should
be handled by the local government.
Unfortunately, few communities have the
resources or staff for these duties. Several
alternatives for plan reviews and
inspection activities exist:
• Township engineer (fees paid by several
municipalities)
• Conservation district
• Code enforcement agency or council of
governments
• Joint watershed authority.
In addition to these kinds of arrangements,
advisory groups need to examine existing
opportunities for controlling of nonpoint
source pollution. Such opportunities
include:
• Land use controls such as zoning
• Building codes such as road width
requirements
• Subdivision plan reviews
• Water and sewer permits
• Regulations such as refuse disposal.
Of course, neighboring municipalities may
have incompatible controls such as
conflicting land use ordinances. These
problems are to be expected. Nonpoint
source planning is a continuing process.
Rarely will all the desirable arrangements
be present.
Governmental nonpoint source controls are
based upon two types of policies: incentives
and regulations. Different approaches are
favored by the various agencies, or are
required by law.
Erosion caused by a single
rainstorm on overgrazed
range land.
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Agriculture
Mining
The agricultural community believes that
pollution control can be done through
various non-regulatory means. Several
governmental agencies and programs
follow such policies in providing financial
and technical services:
• Rural Clean Water Program — technical
assistance and cost sharing in high priority
areas
• Soil Conservation District — erosion and
sedimentation control agreements with
developers and farmers
• Extension Service — information for
rural areas, especially of agricultural
research
• Soil Conservation Service — technical
advice and plans for soil and water
problems
• Agriculture Stabilization and
Conservation Service — cost-sharing
programs for farm and forest development.
Most programs are directed towards
agricultural production or erosion and
sedimentation control. They are being used
more effectively in controlling nonpoint
source pollution.
The federal government and many states
also operate regulatory programs for
several nonpoint source pollutants. The
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES) permit program now
covers major agricultural pollution sources
such as animal feedlots of 1,000 head or
more. At the state and local levels
nonpoint source regulations mainly involve
erosion and sedimentation controls. Sixteen
states and hundreds of communities have
sediment control laws.
Mining can result in severe land
disturbances that are expensive to correct.
Since mining costs and environmental
damages are large, few incentives exist for
voluntary nonpoint source controls. An
alternative is mining regulations. This has
been done at both the state and local
levels. All states in which coal is mined
have reclamation laws.
The federal government is becoming more
involved in regulating mining. The NPDES
permit program controls point sources from
mines such as ditches and pipes. Since
1977 pollution from coal strip mines has
been subject to federal control. In most
states certain mining forms — sand,
gravel, phosphates, and other non-metallic
minerals — are only minimally regulated.
Mining regulations should include the
following elements:
• Requiring permits for mining and
mining exploration
• Incorporating BMPs into permits
• Providing inspections, corrective action
orders, and penalties such as stop-work
injunctions for violations
• Requiring pre-mining planning for
ground and surface water protection, land
reclamation, and mine entrance sealing
• Requiring performance bonds, pollution
control plans, and reclamation plans for
every operation
• Establishing an abandoned mine
pollution abatement program.
Several lessons can be learned from
existing programs. Well-operated
regulatory programs require
substantial resource commitments.
Advisory groups should sort out
federal, state, and local programs that
deal with nonpoint source problems
from land disturbing activities.
Advisory groups can help identify
cost-effective BMPs keyed to local and
area conditions.
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Silviculture
As compared to agriculture and mining,
nonpoint source problems in silviculture
(forestry) are less widespread. Only a few
states or areas, principally the West and
Southeast, identify forestry activities as a
major contributor to nonpoint source
pollution. These problems are based upon
many factors including:
• Land ownership patterns
• Forest managers with varying degrees of
experience and knowledge of BMPs in
silviculture
• Unenforced local and state regulatory
programs for logging operations
• Legal-institutional-financial tools
applicable to silviculture, but not fully
coordinated for this purpose.
Federal lands are guided by the expertise
and authority of the Forest Service and the
Bureau of Land Management. These
agencies provide financial and technical
assistance to state and private landowners.
In several regions water quality
management controls are incorporated into
contracts for timber sales on public lands.
The large commercial forestry operations
also have professional competence.
Many western states regulate silvicultural
activities through various kinds of Forest
Practice Acts. The other region having
large private holdings, the South, has
relied upon non-regulatory means such as
education.
A whole range of financial, institutional,
and legal tools apply to silvicultural
activities. The NPDES permit program
applies to four activities considered point
sources: rock crushing, gravel washing, log
sorting, and log storage. Other federal
permits are associated with the Corps of
Engineers Section 404 Regulations, the
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, and
wetland acts.
Many states depend upon voluntary
compliance with forest practice standards.
More effective enforcement often results
from:
• A state erosion and sedimentation
control law such as Pennsylvania's Clean
Streams Act which can be used to monitor
forestry-related erosion
• Performance bonds for correcting
damage to fragile areas or streams caused
by irresponsible operators
• Training, testing, and licensing forest
operators
• Interagency cooperation and
coordination between forestry, land use,
and water quality agencies.
Although some programs are not
originally forestry-oriented, many are
authorized to deal with silvicultural
problems. Advisory groups should
identify existing laws, agencies,
regulations, incentives, technical
assistance, and programs that are
applicable to silvicultural activities.
Their collective action may be all that
is necessary for dealing with nonpoint
source pollution.
Unreclaimed strip mine waste
and garbage dump.
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Best Management Practices Agriculture
Timely application of soil
nutrients avoids nonpoint
source pollution.
Identifying Best Management Practices
(BMPs) is one of the most important tasks
in nonpoint source planning. These control
techniques include the most effective and
practical means of preventing or abating
nonpoint source pollution. The selection of
BMPs involves assessment of nonpoint
source problems, examination of
alternatives, and public participation.
Although nonpoint source BMPs generally
are less expensive than are wastewater
treatment facilities, they can demand
significant finances and manpower. For
example, the cost of controlling acid mine
drainage in Pennsylvania has been
estimated at more than a billion dollars.
In past 208 plans the BMPs approved by
the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) were ones that
were determined to be the most
cost-effective. Although the EPA relies
upon previous experience for feasibility
and cost-effectiveness, innovative
approaches are encouraged. The magnitude
of nonpoint source problems and the cost of
conventional remedies, especially in
mining, have sparked new interest in
alternative approaches.
Control methods and strategies are of
two kinds: nonstructural measures and
structural modifications. Structural
solutions involve the construction
of physical devices for delaying, blocking,
or trapping pollutants such as sediment.
Nonstructural approaches use an
array of techniques that are less
physically-oriented, such as work
schedules, zoning ordinances, and farming
practices.
In more than two-thirds of the river basins
in the nation, agriculture is the most
widespread cause of nonpoint source
problems. The regions most affected by this
pollution are the Central, Southwest, and
Island regions. Many activities cause these
problems.
Crop production can degrade water quality
by contributing to soil erosion by water
and wind; by using fertilizers in such
amounts or at times that they run off into
surface waters or leach into groundwaters;
by using fungicides, herbicides, and
pesticides improperly so that they drain
into watercourses, and by allowing
irrigation water polluted by chemicals,
sediment, and dissolved salts to flow into
surface waters or to evaporate on the land.
Livestock can break down stream banks,
disturb stream bottoms, and destroy
vegetation. Animals can supply wastes and
sediment that promote the unwanted
growth of aquatic plants in lakes and
streams.
Structural techniques for manaSnng
agricultural pollution include:
• Cropland control devices such as erosion
barriers, and sedimentation basins
• Direct runoff control techniques such as
diversion barriers, storage ponds, and drip
irrigation systems.
Categories of nonstructural methods
include:
• Control of nutrient losses through fewer
but more timely fertilizer applications, crop
rotations, and control of fertilizer
breakdown
• Reduction of pesticide use through
genetic breeding, crop rotations, changed
planting times, and integrated pest
management systems
• Erosion and runoff controls such as
tillage techniques, cultivation timing, crop
rotations, and changed land uses.
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Mining
The impacts of mining extend far from the
sites of operations. Although less than two
percent of the land surface in any state is
disturbed by mining, the impacts on
waterways are much greater.
More than 13,000 miles of streams and
181,000 acres of lakes and reservoirs have
been affected by pollution related to strip,
open pit, and underground mines.
Sediment, acid, and chemicals that are
leached from surface mines and mine
wastes pollute both ground and surface
waters. The Surface Mining Control and
Reclamation Act of 1977 attempts to
remedy some of these problems.
Nonpoint source control programs in
mining are aimed at minimizing site
erosion, saving and replacing topsoil for
continued vegetative growth, restoring
area landforms to pre-mining conditions,
and protecting nearby ground and surface
waters from pollutants.
Specific Best Management Practices for
controlling pollution from active and
abandoned mines exist, but they may be
very expensive. Preventive techniques are
more effective than are measures for
dealing with abandoned operations.
Principal approaches to the prevention and
abatement of pollution from mines include:
• Keep polluting materials away from
watercourses
• Rapidly stabilizing the land surface
through topsoil reuse, mulching, and
revegation
• Neutralizing or preventing toxic
substances from forming.
Silviculture
High-quality waters in forested areas
historically have been used for water
supply and fishing purposes. Water quality
degradation in these areas often is due to
silvicultural practices.
Silvicultural activities involve the
cultivation, harvest, and transport of
timber. In certain areas these activities
significantly influence the water quality of
streams and lakes. The types of pollution
associated with silviculture include:
pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, and
fire-retardant chemicals; sediment and
nutrient losses associated with erosion of
harvest sites, log landings, logging roads,
and skid trails; organic matter and woody
debris in watercourses; thermal damage
from increased water temperatures where
trees along streams have been removed.
All harvesting techniques, especially
clearcutting where an entire stand of trees
is taken down, have potential for soils
disruption and sedimentation. However,
the erosion of roads and trail systems is
the greatest source of sediment from
logging. The BMPs for reducing sediment
from these sources involve:
• Constructing roads and skid trails to
minimize erosion
* Protecting streamside management
zones from the destruction of ground cover
and soil disturbances. BMPs may require
the transportation of logs by aerial cables
rather than skid trails, and the prohibition
of tracked and wheeled vehicles from the
zone.
In addition to mitigation measures
associated with roads and trails, other
BMPs for silvicultural activities involve:
• Schedules of logging operations
• Controls of fertilizers, herbicides, and
pesticides.
An extensive array of BMPs is available.
With the exception of certain irrigation
problems, technologies exist for abating or
preventing most types of nonpoint source
pollution. Yet, nonpoint source pollution
has been identified as a major deterrent to
reaching the 1983 national water quality
goals.
Aerial transport of logs.
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Who Me?
Future Planning
As compared to the readily identifiable
point sources of pollution, nonpoint sources
often are widely dispersed. It is difficult for
citizens to locate them, and to realize their
overall magnitude. Citizens may
erroneously regard their own agricultural
runoff and other nonpoint source pollutants
as minor contributions to water
problems. Many individuals do not
take responsibility for instituting the
appropriate BMPs without the
encouragement or prodding of regulatory
agencies.
Advisory groups can help in the major
educational effort that is needed
regarding nonpoint source pollution.
->n eroded slope.
Nonpoint source planning, especially under
federal programs, is changing. The 208
grants program is gearing down. Subject to
work needs and funding levels, the grants
may end after fiscal year 1983. Of course,
this is not the end of nonpoint source
planning, but it does mean changed
directions and organization.
During this final stage of the 208 program,
a major emphasis is being placed on
prototype projects for financial and
technical solutions to various kinds of
problems. This planning takes an applied
problem-solving focus, rather than the
more comprehensive orientation of the
past. Advisory groups can continue their
participation in identifying problems,
developing alternatives, and evaluating
results. They can help push plans towards
implementation — making sure that
problems are being solved.
In the future nonpoint source planning
will become more a part of the overall
planning process, rather than
programs with special grants and
separate organizations. Advisory
groups can have major inputs into this
restructuring effort. Since nonpoint
source planning will have more of a
local focus, and local funds may
provide the main support, advisory
groups should see that program
changes fit local needs. Various options
exist such as cost sharing and
legislation. Through evaluation of these
opportunities, advisory groups can
influence the future planning for
nonpoint source pollution.
10
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Examples
Nonpoint Source Pollution in the USA
Agriculture
Connecticut
Agricultural erosion statewide has been determined to be over 12 tons/acre/year
(acceptable levels are generally 3 to 5 tons/acre/year). This problem is especially
noticeable in Lake Waramug and the Housatonic River, impairing recreation and water
supply uses.
Delaware
Rural nonpoint pollution sources (agriculture, animal wastes, and rural septic systems)
are causing coliform and nitrate problems in groundwater drinking supplies in Sussex
County. Water quality standards violations have been documented (60-100 mg/L
nitrates; the standard is 10 mg/L nitrates).
North Carolina
The Chowan River has had severe algal blooms which affected the fishery resources,
ruined beaches, and resulted in objectionable odors and deposits of decaying algae. About
85 percent of the nitrogen input is from nonpoint sources, with agricultural areas
accounting for 50 percent of the total.
Louisiana
Lake Providence and Round Lake have deteriorated due to sedimentation and pesticide
residues from agricultural nonpoint sources; private and commercial fishing have been
banned by the state in Lake Providence because pesticide levels in the fish violate
standards.
Nebraska
Eastern and central parts of the state are adversely affected by sediment, animal wastes,
and agricultural chemicals, causing violation of standards for nitrates, turbidity, fecal
coliform, and total dissolved solids. Over 1.5 million acres have been identified as
nonpoint sources of pollution.
North Dakota
hi the Souris River nutrients and suspended solids from agricultural activities have
violated water quality standards. They are exceeded 80 percent of the time, and nonpoint
sources account for 90 percent of the pollutant load. The area has experienced major
duck kills. The state has identified 10,000 acres as high priority for treatment.
Wyoming
Eutrophication of the Flaming Gorge Reservoir is being caused by phosphorus loadings,
78 percent of which comes from nonpoint sources. The Big Horn River is similarly
affected, as is the Yellowtail Reservoir where nonpoint sources contribute 99 percent of
the phosphorus load. Sources of phosphorus are agricultural fertilizers, septic tanks,
feedlots, and erosion.
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Silviculture
Oregon
Eight priority areas with water quality problems related to silviculture (Southwest part
of North Coast Basin, Yamhill River, South Fork of Umpqua River, part of Goose/
Summer Lakes Basin, Crooked River, Malheur River, and Umatilla River) have
been identified. Water quality problems involve erosion and sedimentation, excessive
debris, high water temperatures, and algal growths.
Washington
Six priority areas having water quality problems (Willapa Bay, Kaloma River, part of
Skykomish River, part of Snohomish River, Newaukum River, Deschutes River) are
identified. These water quality programs involve sediment, temperature, and wood
debris.
Maine
A survey of 350 sites indicates that 10 percent have sedimentation problems causing
localized stream impacts; 25 percent have excessive erosion. Spraying pesticide for spruce
bud worm control on 23 million acres has resulted in fish kills.
California
Paralleling a trend in other states, Californians are increasingly concerned about
herbicides and pesticides used in forestry operations. In a referendum in Mendocino,
California, residents voted by a 2 to 1 majority to ban the use of 2, 4, 5-T and Silvex
biocides.
Mining
Pennsylvania
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania estimates that 2,600 miles of its streams are
continuously in violation of water quality standards, and another 1,200 are
intermittently in violation — all a result of acid coal mine drainage. About 76 percent of
the stream miles that are degraded are due to abandoned mines alone or in combination
with other sources.
California
California has identified about 200 miles of its streams affected by inactive mining
operations. Although the extent of polluted streams is small, important areas are
affected. Some abandoned mines are located in park lands, and others are in watersheds
that provide water supplies to portions of the San Francisco metropolitan area.
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Case Study
Erosion and Sediment Controls
Helena, Montana
Adapted from Water Quality Management Accomplishments
Compendium I. Document Number EPA-440/3-77-026. Washington, DC:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December 1977. 95 pp.
In June, 1977, voters of Lewis and Clark County,
Montana, approved a sediment control ordinance to deal
with serious water pollution in their area. The ordinance
and its approval were achieved as a result of public
participation and technical assistance provided under a
water quality management program demonstration
project.
These actions began when, in response to the 1972
Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments, the
Montana legislature requested the Montana Department
of Natural Resources and Conservation to head up a study
of sediment control problems and legislative issues. The
study yielded three major findings: (1) erosion is a serious
water pollution problem in Montana; (2) existing enabling
legislation provides sufficient authority to address erosion;
(3) any sediment control program should be locally
administered and enforced.
The Montana Conservation District laws permit local
conservation districts to develop soil conservation
ordinances, subject to adoption by local referendum. The
ordinances are administered locally and enforced through
Conservation District Courts. This enabling legislation
had never been used prior to the demonstration project.
Lewis and Clark County was selected for this pilot
program because it was willing to participate, and its land
use patterns and erosion problems are a typical example
of Montana conditions. Most of the land in the county is
equally divided between federal and private ownership.
Agriculture is the primary industry. Most operators raise
livestock. Accordingly, the largest land use in the county
is rangeland, which accounts for 65 percent of the acreage,
followed by forests with 25 percent of the total.
The major sources of erosion and sedimentation are: (1)
subdivision development in the urbanized area (the county
does not include the incorporated cities of Helena and
East Helena); (2) irrigated agriculture; (3) overgrazed
rangeland.
Technical Assistance and Public Involvement
The combination of technical staffing and public
involvement in the form of two policy advisory committees
permitted state and local officials to work with citizens
towards implementation of a sediment control ordinance.
Technical staff members were hired through the 208
funded demonstration project. They included: (1) a
program manager hired by the Lewis and Clark County
Conservation District; (2) a water quality specialist hired
by the Montana Department of Health and Environmental
Sciences; (3) a sedimentologist hired by the Department of
Natural Resources and Conservation.
Two policy advisory committees (PAC) at the state and
local levels were established to assist the Conservation
District in developing land management practices and the
sediment control ordinance. Both the 25-member state
PAC and the 60-member local PAC addressed the
following subjects: irrigated cropland, dry cropland,
rangeland, forest land, construction and subdivisions,
information/education, and financing/cost-effectiveness.
The public involvement process emphasized the following
advantages of sediment control: (1) good conservation
practices pay rewards; (2) stewardship of the soil resource
is necessary for future generations; (3) prevention of soil
erosion is less costly than remedial measures; (4) local
control and administration of erosion and sediment control
regulations is efficient; (5) accelerated soil erosion and the
resulting sediment may violate state water quality
standards.
Best Management Practices
The sediment control ordinance incorporates Best
Management Practices developed by: the Soil
Conservation Service for agriculture; the Montana State
Forestry Committee for silviculture, and the Lewis and
Clark County Conservation District for subdivision
construction. These Best Management Practices are based
on site-specific soils, climate, and use characteristics.
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Financing of Best Management Practices
Since financing of Best Management Practices depends on
local acceptance of the sediment control ordinance, it
would have been premature for the pilot program to
specify funding sources before the referendum had passed.
The Lewis and Clark County study nonetheless identified
potential funding sources at all levels of government.
Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service
cost-sharing and Small Business Administration
low-interest loans were identified at the federal
level. Two possible state sources were proposed: an
appropriation from the state legislature for operating
costs, and grants or low-interest loans from the Montana
coal severance fund according to the state's 1975
Renewable Resources Act. The Lewis and Clark County
Conservation District was also authorized to levy a
property tax of P/2 mills, part of which might be applied to
support the operating expenses.
Most of these funding sources cover only part of the cost of
the Best Management Practices. Local ranchers, farmers,
and developers help pay for the sediment and erosion
controls. This willingness to cooperate by the various
parties led to the passage of the Lewis and Clark County
sediment control ordinance.
Implementation
The primary means of complying with these practices is
through a Conservation District-approved erosion and
sediment control plan. Erosion and sediment control plans
are optional for agricultural activities, as long as
standards are met or exceeded and no erosion problems
occur. However, they are mandatory for most construction
and subdivision activities. In addition, logging operators
must either prepare erosion and sediment control plans, or
give the Conservation District notice before starting
forestry activities.
Any land occupier, Conservation District supervisor, or
state and county water quality official may file a
complaint alleging that accelerated erosion or sediment
damage has taken place. If a violation of the ordinance is
verified by the Conservation District, the land user is
given an opportunity for voluntary compliance. If the
violation is not corrected, the District Supervisors are
authorized to issue stop work orders and/or impose fines of
up to $500 per day.
Significance
Increased public awareness of nonpoint source pollution
and support for Best Management Practices to improve
water quality are crucial in developing a water quality
management program. The case of Lewis and Clark
County illustrates this point. The county possessed the
enabling legislation for establishing sediment and erosion
controls, but it lacked a widespread local commitment to
solve this nonpoint source problem.
Public participation and technical assistance funded by
the 208 program were the missing links. The water
quality management program enabled concerned state and
local officials to work with citizens, and build consensus
for implementing Best Management Practices designed for
local conditions.
Wire damy holding silt in gully.
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Selected Resource;
Publications Need More
T £ j." O
Forest Harvest, Residue Treatment, Reforestation and Protection of Water Quality.
Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, April 1976. 273 pp.
Order #2815A.
Methods and Practices for Controlling Water Pollution from Agricultural Nonpoint
Sources. Washington, DC: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, October 1973. 83 pp.
Order #2117.
Methods for Identifying and Evaluating the Nature of Nonpoint Sources of Pollutants.
Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, October 1973. 261 pp.
Order #0002.
Water Quality Management Guidance for Mine-Related Pollution Sources (New, Current,
and Abandoned). Washington, DC: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, December
1977. 198 pp. Order #4301.
These EPA publications are helpful in monitoring and evaluating nonpoint
sources of pollution. They give the impacts of various agricultural, silvicultural,
and mining activities on water quality. Specific best management practices for
control of these pollution sources are described in detail. Policy aspects are not
discussed in depth. They may be obtained from U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Library Services, Mail Drop 35, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711.
Institutional Basis for Control of Nonpoint Source Pollution Under the Clean Water Act —
With Emphasis on Agricultural Nonpoint Sources. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, November 1979. 165 pp. Order #37175.
Written in layman's language, this document discusses nonpoint source pollution
history, policy, and regulatory arrangements. The first part gives insights into
federal planning provisions for nonpoint source controls, legal aspects, EPA
regulations, and court decisions. The second half of the document gives synopses
of agricultural laws, agency and program arrangements, and funding sources for
nonpoint source controls in selected states. Extensive footnotes and references
are provided. It is available from the Forms and Publications Center, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Mail Drop 41, Research Triangle Park, NC
27711.
Nonpoint Sources of Pollution Fact Sheets. Sheet Numbers 1-6. Washington, DC: U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, November 1978. 6 pp. Order #36852.
These sheets provide brief introductions to nonpoint source problems, programs,
legislation, best management practices, and citizen action. They may be
obtained from the Forms and Publications Center, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Mail Drop 41, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711.
Audiovisual Materials
Slide-tape presentations on nonpoint source pollution
Twelve slide trays and tapes cover an introduction to selected nonpoint
sources of pollution, agriculture, construction, mining, silviculture, and legal/
institutional considerations. Specific areas, especially BMPs, are
discussed in detail. The programs are long (2-3 trays of slides per program), but
technical matters are covered. Policy considerations are minor. The
materials are available from either the regional or national EPA offices (Water
Planning Division).
Other slide-tape programs and films are available from conservation
districts, agricultural extension services, the Soil Conservation Service, and
state agencies in agriculture, mining, and forestry.
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Glossary
Acid Mine Drainage — water with an acidic
pH from working or abandoned mines.
Best Management Practice (BMP) —
technique which deals most effectively with a
given problem.
Colifonn — bacteria found in the intestinal
tracts of humans and other animals; indicator
of fecal pollution.
Computer Modeling — the programming of a
computer to use related data to solve a problem
or simulate a system; such programs predict
events such as stormwater runoff and pollution
loading.
Cost-Effectiveness Analysis — determination
of whether a project or practice is worth the
funding; both monetary and nonmonetary
factors are involved.
Detention Basin — small basin for collecting
stormwater runoff until the particulates picked
up by rain water have settled.
Erosion — the wearing away of land surface
by water or wind.
Eutrophication — nutrient enrichment of a
body of water producing excessive growths of
aquatic plants that deteriorate the water
environment.
Five-Year Frequency Storm — storm of a
certain degree of severity that is expected to
occur on an average of every five years.
Leaching — process by which substances are
dissolved and carried away by water, or are
moved into a lower layer of soil.
Nonpoint Source Pollutant — a contributing
factor to water pollution that can't be traced to
a specific spot, such as agricultural fertilizer
runoff.
Nonstructural Methods — nonphysical
approaches to pollution controls such as land
use controls, construction activity schedules,
and zoning ordinances.
Pathogen — disease-causing organism.
PCBs — polychlorinated biphenyls; a group of
extremely persistent chemicals used in
electrical transformers and capacitors.
Point Source Pollution — pollution that is
discharged from a single location such as a
pipe.
Silviculture — a phase of forestry dealing
with the establishment, development,
and harvesting of trees.
Structural Methods — construction of
physical entities for delaying, blocking, or
trapping pollutants.
Suspended Solids (SS) — tiny pieces of solid
pollutants in sewage that may cause cloudiness
and require special treatment to remove.
Total Dissolved Solids — the total amount of
dissolved organic and inorganic material
contained in water.
Turbidity — cloudy condition in water due to
suspended silt or organic matter.
Watershed — the land area that drains into
surface waters.
Wetlands — low-lying lands which frequently
have standing water on them such as swamps,
marshes, and meadows. Wetlands essentially
are pollutant traps in natural environments.
16
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 198O 326-592
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Working for Clean Water is a
program designed to help advisory
groups improve decision making in
water quality planning. It aims at
helping people focus on essential
issues and questions by providing
trained instructors and materials
suitable for persons with
non-technical backgrounds. These
materials include a citizen
handbook on important principles
and considerations about topics in
water quality planning, an
audiovisual presentation, and an
instructor guide for elaborating
points, providing additional
information, and engaging in
problem-solving exercises.
This program consists of 18
informational units on various
aspects of water quality planning:
• Role of Advisory Groups
• Public Participation
• Nonpoint Source Pollution:
Agriculture, Forestry, and Mining
• Urban Stormwater Runoff
• Groundwater Contamination
• Facility' Planning in the
Construction Grants Program
• Municipal Wastewater Processes:
Overview
• Municipal Wastewater Processes:
Details
• Small Systems
• Innovative and Alternative
Technologies
• Industrial Pretreatment
• Land Treatment
• Water Conservation and Reuse
• Multiple Use
• Environmental Assessment
• Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
• Wastewater Facilities Operation
and Management
The units are not designed to
make technical experts out of
citizens and local officials. Each
unit contains essential facts, key
questions, advice on how to deal
with the issues, and
clearly-written technical
backgrounds. In short, each unit
provides the information that
citizen advisors need to better
fulfill their role.
This program is available through
public participation coordinators at
the regional offices of the United
States Environmental Protection
Agency. D
This information program was
financed with federal funds from
the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency under Cooperative
Agreement No. CT900980 01. The
information program has been
reviewed by the Environmental
Protection Agency and approved
for publication. A'pproval does not
signify that the contents
necessarily reflect the views and
policies of the Environmental
Protection Agency, nor does the
mention of trade names or
commercial products constitute
endorsement of recommendation
for use.
This project is dedicated to the
memory of Susan A. Cole.
• Financial Management
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