EPA-650/1-74-008
April 1974
Environmental Health Effects Research Series
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EPA-650/1-74-008
A LITERATURE SEARCH
AND ANALYSIS OF INFORMATION
REGARDING SOURCES, USES, PRODUCTION,
CONSUMPTION, REPORTED MEDICAL CASES,
AND TOXICOLOGY OF PLATINUM
AND PALLADIUM
by
R. A. Mayer, W. L. Prehn, Jr., and D. E. Johnson
Southwest Research Institute
8500 Culebra Road
P.O. Box 28510
San Antonio, Texas 78284
Contract No. 68-02-1274
Program Element No. 1AA002
ROAP No. 26AAE
EPA Project Officer: Douglas L. Worf, Ph.D.
^
Human Studies Laboratory
National Environmental Research Center
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
Prepared for
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
April 1974
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This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Protection Agency
and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the
contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of tho Agency,
nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
11
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
An intensive search of the literature provides the basis For the
following conclusions concerning platinum and palladium
Supply and Demand. An average of 3.7 million troy ounces of
platinum and palladium were produced in the world in the four-year
1969-1972 period. The United States consumed about a third of this. The
proved world reserves amount to some 394 million troy ounces, with con-
siderable promise of increasing these reserves through new explorations
Half of the proved reserves are in the Republic of South Africa and 45 per-
cent in the Soviet Union. Projected 1980 and 1990 world demands are 6 2
and 8.5 million troy ounces per year, respectively The introduction of a
new demand for automotive emission control catalyst purposes (18 per-
cent of the total in 1980 and IS percent in 1990) is not expected to upset
the world supply/demand situation
This assumption does not consider the possibility that other
countries may adopt the catalytic muffler for their use If this occurs,
there will be a larger demand on platinum and palladium resources
Although it appears that the projected demands on platinum and palla-
dium reserves can be met with known sources, it should be pointed out
that the United States is almost completely dependent upon foreign
sources. The United States currently consumes nearly 40 percent of the
world production, but it produces less than 1 percent
Health Hazards. No data exist by which an estimate can be made of
transfer of platinum and palladium to the environment Investigations
show that only the salts of platinum present human health hazards Indus-
trial exposure to these is limited to the mining and refining of platinum
ores and the preparation of catalysis for the chemical and petroleum
refining industries
111
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY m
NARRATIVE SUMMARY . ... 1
Present World Supply and Demand . .... . . . 1
Future World Demand 2
Environmental Considerations . . . . . . .... . . . 2
BIBLIOGRAPHY . 3
APPENDIX A A-l
APPENDIX B . . B-l
IV
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NARRATIVE SUMMARY
Present World Supply and Demand
Based on reasonably reliable estimates from
foreign sources, world production of platinum and
palladium is estimated to have increased from a total
of 3.12 million troy ounces in l%9 to 3 90 million
troy ounces in 1972, a four-year increase of 25 per-
cent World production by source is summarized in
the table below
WORLD PRODUCTION OF PLATINUM
& PALLADIUM
Average Annual. 1969-1972
(Thousands ol Troy Ounces)
Source
f.mada
Colombia
l.lhiopiu
Finland
Japan
Philippines
Republic of South Africa
USSR
United Stales
TOTAL
1969-1972 Average
Platinum
188
26
03
02
3
06
909
665
9
1801
Palladium
187
-
03
5
1
321
1339
13
1866
Total
375
26
03
05
8
1 6
1230
2004
22
3667
Sources: Minerals Yearbook and Engineering and
Mining Journal
Half of world platinum and one-sixth of world
palladium production comes from the Union of
South Africa One-third of platinum and over two-
thirds of palladium production is from the U.S.S.R.
Canada produces about ten percent of both platinum
and palladium, while the United States produces less
than one percent of each South Africa, U.S S R., and
Canada combined produce 98 percent of the world's
platinum and palladium.
Consumption of the two metals in 1971 is
estimated to have been 3.7 million troy ounces, with
the United States using 37 percent of the total, as
shown in the following table Japan used 20 percent,
Russia 16 percent, and West Germany 12 percent All
other consumption totaled 15 percent of the world
total
Sales to United States users in the five-year
1967-1971 period averaged slightly less than 1 3 mil-
lion troy ounces per year. Sales to specific industrial
categories are shown in the following table
WORLD CONSUMPTION OF PLATINUM
& PALLADIUM
1971
(Thousands of Troy Ounces)
Nation
United Stales
Japan
USSR
West Germany
France
Italy
Canada
United Kingdom
Netherlands
Sweden
Switzerland
TOTAL
Consumption
1376
758
589
451
313
74
68
49
33
17
12
3740
Source: Minerals Yearbook.
PLATINUM AND PALLADIUM SALES TO
U.S. INDUSTRY
1967-1971 Averages
(Thousands ol Troy Ounces per Year)
Industry Category
Electrical
Chemical
Petroleum Refining
Dental and Medical
Glass
Jewelry and Decorative
Miscellaneous
TOTAL
l-ive-Ycar Average
Annual Sales
Platinum
97
155
184
23
49
31
29
568
Palladium
389
208
9
56
5
19
35
721
Total
486
363
193
79
54
50
64
1289
Source: Minerals Yearbook.
Some 38 percent of total sales were to the
electrical industry, the palladium (over half) being
used chiefly in telephonic equipment and the plati-
num being used chiefly for switch gear manufacture
The chemical industry purchased 28 percent of the
total during the 1967-1971 period, chiefly for sul-
furic and nitric acid manufacture The petroleum
refining industry purchased 15 percent of the total
mostly platinum, for use in the refining processes
These three industry groups purchased 81 percent of
the platinum and palladium sales during the five-year
period World reserves of platinum and palladium
were estimated in the 1970 Mineral Facts and Prob-
lems to be about 394 million troy ounces These
reserves are equivalent to 105 years of supply at the
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1971 rate of 3.7 million troy ounces per year Proved
reserve figures are given in the table below. There are
extensive exploration and investigation of other
prospective producing areas which are not included in
these totals.
WORLD RESERVES PLATINUM & PALLADIUM
1970 Lstinutcs
(Thousands of Troy Ounces)
ESTIMATED FUTURE WORLD DEMAND
PLATINUM & PALLADIUM
(Thousands of Troy Ounces per Year)
Nation
Republic of South Africa
USSR
Canada
Colombia
United States
TOTAL
Reserves
Platinum
142,400
60,000
6,940
5,000
950
215,290
Palladium
50,200
120,000
6,860
-
1,960
179,020
Total
192,600
1 80 000
13,800
5,000
2,910
394,310
Source: Mineral Facts and Problems, 1970
Nearly half of total estimated reserves arc in
South Africa, with another 45 percent in the Soviet
Union Canada, Columbia, and the United States
account for only 5 5 percent
Future World Demand
A series of estimates has been made for future
demand for platinum and palladium on the part of
major consuming industries, both in the United States
and elsewhere. High, low, and median estimates were
made for consumption in 1980 and 1990 The follow-
ing table gives the median value of projected demands
and reflects the impact of new demands for automotive
exhaust emissions control catalysts. The 1971 sales to
industry figure is included for comparison This figure
is some 5 percent lower than the U S consumption fig-
ure shown earlier, reflecting transfers to small coun-
tries, chiefly for trading and speculation
Catalyst use for automotive emissions control,
40 percent of the United States demand in 1980 and
37 percent in 1990, is not expected to impose a
supply hardship in the foreseeable future The addi-
tional needs amount to 18 percent of total world
demand in 1980 and 15 percent in 1990 Producer
indications are that production can be increased as
the demand increases. The 1970 proved reserves of
394 million troy ounces are equivalent to 46 years of
supply at the estimated 1990 annual consumption
rate of 8.5 million troy ounces
United States base platinum
automotive catalysts
total platinum
base palladium
automotive catalysts
total palladium
total base
total automotive
Total
Rest of world platinum
palladium
Total
Grand total platinum
palladium
Total
Total Demand
1971
541
-
541
760
-
760
1301
-
1301
1283
1163
2446
1824
1923
3747
1980
734
774
1508
898
332
1230
1632
1106
2738
1826
1655
3481
3334
2885
6219
1990
1044
866
1910
1095
371
1466
2139
1237
3376
2703
2450
5153
4613
3916
8529
Source: Mineral Facts & Problems. 1970, A Look at
Business in 1990 (a Summary of the White Mouse Con-
ference on the Industrial World Ahead. February 7-9,
1972), and SwRI
Environmental Considerations
Losses to the Environment Essentially, no data
were found in published souices covering industrial
rates of transfer of platinum and palladium to the
environment If such transfer is labeled as "unac-
countable losses" versus attrition (that known loss
from catalyst poisoning, handling and the like), then
some speculation may be made as to (1) the probable
sources of unaccountable losses, and (2) some feel for
the relative importance of these
Most platinum or palladium is used by industry
in two forms (l)as a metal, pure or in alloy, fabri-
cated, melted and cast, or used directly, or (2)as a
platinum or palladium compound either in solution
or not and applied, as for catalyst preparation, to a
carrier or matrix
While process losses certainly occur among the
industries using metallic platinum and palladium,
there should be little or no loss entering the environ-
ment in the sense of a potential health hazard These
industries include the electrical industry where
precious metals are used for switch contacts, dental
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work, the glass industry where precious metal spin-
eietles arc used in the production of glass fibers, and
the jewelry and decorative industries
In the chemical and petroleum refining indus-
tries, there is probably some transfer of platinum or
palladium to the product. However, the most prob-
able site of potential loss of platinum and palladium
to the environment, in one form or another in the
chemical and petroleum refining industries, is at the
point of preparation of catalysis rather than at the
chemical plant itself As .in example, mineral carriers
arc impregnated with a platinum compound such as
chloroplatmate in manufacturing the catalyst lor
producing nitric acid The catalyst is then further
processed in order to rendei the platinum elemental
in foim In these processes there are opportunities
for spillage, vapor eniraimnent. or other mechanisms
for loss Of the 354 thousand troy ounces of plati-
num
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Freedman, S.O, Kruper, J , "Respiratory Allergy
Caused by Platinum Salts," J. Allerg. 42 233-7, 1968
Gerrard, M . "Toxicity and Biological Effects of Plati-
num," Report ORNL-TEP/TIRC-72-75, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Tenn , November 1972
Gertner. H B , "Toxicity of Palladium, Platinum, and
Their Compounds-An Annotated Bibliography,"
Report ORNL-TIRC-73-19, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Tenn , June 1973.
Hunter, D, "Toxicology of Some Metals and Their
Compounds Used in Industry." Brit Mcd Bull.
7 5-15. I950.CA 45 8657i
Hunter, D.. Hilton, R, Perry, K M.A, "Asthma
Caused by the Complex Salts of Platinum." Bnt J
Indust Med 2 92, 1945.
International Directory of Mining and Mineral Pro-
cessing Operations, McGraw-Hill Publications, New
York, 1972
Kusler, D J., "Demand for Platinum to Reduce Pollu-
tion from Automobile Exhausts," U S Department
of the Interior, Bureau of Mines Information Cir-
cular-8565. Washington, D.C , January 1973
Levene, G M . "Platinum Sensitivity," Br J Derma-
tol 85(6) 590-93, 1971
Marshall, J , "Asthma and Dermatitis Caused by
Chloroplalmic Acid," S.Afncan Med Joum 26(1)
8-9. 1952.
Merck Index 7th ed., Merck & Co., Inc. Railway,
NJ ,1960
Milne, J E., "A Case of Platmosis," Med. J. Ami
1 1194-5,1970
Parrott, J L, Samdelle, A., Ruff, F., "Platinum and
Platmosis Histamme Release by Some Platinum Salts
and Platinum Allergy," Presse Med (Pans)
75(2817) 20-30, 1967
Parrott, J L., Saindelle, A., Tazi. T , "Histamme
Liberation by Sodium Chloroplatmate," J. Physiol,
(Pans) 55 314-5, 1963(Fr).
Pickering, C.A , "Inhalation Tests with Chemical
Allergens Complex Salts of Platinum " Proc R Soc
Med., 65 2724, 1972
Platinum Metals Review, Quarterly Publication.
Johnson, Matthey & Co , Ltd London, England
Rosenberg, B . Vancamp, L, Trosko. J B , Mansour.
V . "Platinum Compounds A New Class of Potent
Antitumor Agents,"' Nature 222(5191) 385-6. 1969
Samdelle, A . Ruff. F.. "Histamme Release by
Sodium Chloroplalinate." Bnt J Pharmacol.
35 313-21. 1969, BA 51 56709
Sax, N I., (Ed). Dangerous Properties of Industrial
Metals, 3rd ed . pp 1031-2, Van Nostrand Remhold
Co , New York, N Y., 1968
Schroeder, H H. Mitchener, M, "Scandium, Chro-
mium, Gallium, Yttrium, Rhodium, Palladium,
Indium in Mice Effects on Growth and Life Span,"
J Nutr ,181 1431-7, October 1971
Schwartz. L, Tulipan, L., Peck, S M., (Eds ), Occupa-
tional Diseases of the Skin, 2nd ed , Lea & Febiger
Philadelphia, Pa , 1947.
Spikes, J D, Hodgson, C.F , "Enzyme Inhibition by
Palladium Chloride," Bwchem Biophys Res Com-
mun 35 420-2, 1969
National Materials Advisory Board (NAS-NAE), "Sub-
stitute Catalysts for Platinum in Automobile Emission
Control Devices and Petroleum Refining,"- Report
NMAB-297, Washington, D C , March 1973
Oil and Gas Journal, Petroleum Publishing Co . Tulsa
Parrott, J L, Herbert, R . Saindelle. A , Ruff. F ,
"Platinum and Platmosis Allergy and Histamme Re-
lease Due to Some Platinum Salts," Arch. Environ
Health (Chicago) \ 9 685-91,1969. BA 51 45039
Standard & Poor's Register of Corporations, Directors
and Executives, Standard & Poor's Corporation, New
York, 1974
Suskmd, D.A , "Platinum Group-A Bonanza in the
Automotive Industry9" Engineering and Mining
Journal, McGraw-Hill Publications, New York. March
1973.
The Watt Street Journal Dow Jones & Co , New York.
NY
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Thomas Register of American Manufacturers Thomas
Publishing Company, New York, 1973
U.S Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract
of the United States, Bureau of the Census, Washing-
ton, D.C., 1973.
U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Industrial Out-
look 1974 with Projections to 1980 Bureau of Com-
petitive Assessment and Business Policy, Washington,
D.C.,1974.
U S. Department of the Interior, Mineral Facts and
Problems, Bureau of Mines Bulletin 650, Washington,
D.C., 1970.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Yearbook,
Volumes I, II and III, 1970, Vol I., 1971, Bureau of
Mines, Washington, D.C.
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APPENDIX A. LITERATURE SEARCH
1. Introduction
The platinum group metals are often referred to as platinoids and are comprised of platinum.
palladium, iridium, osmium, rhodium, and ruthenium. Canada, the Republic of South Africa, and
the U. S. S. R. are the main world suppliers. Small quantities of platinoids are derived from
Colombia, Ethiopia, Finland, Japan, the Philippines, and the U.S.
Platinoids are found in nature (a) associated with nickel-copper minerals that occur in ultra-
basic rocks, dunite and norite, and (b) in placer deposits. Nearly all of the Canadian production and
most of the U. S. S. R. production are a byproduct of nickel-copper refining. The South Africa produc-
tion comes from mines worked principally for the platinoids with nickel and copper recovered as
coproducts and gold and chromium as byproducts. Ethiopia and Colombia derive their production
from placer deposits, whereas Finland, Japan, and the Philippines produce small amounts of plati-
noids as byproducts of copper refining. Minute amounts are also produced in Papua New Guinea.
The U. S. output comes either from placer mining or is derived in the refining of gold and copper.
Fairly high platinum values were discovered during test drillings in western Australia and in north
Aukland, New Zealand, but further sampling will determine the commercial potential of these finds.
Prospecting in Southern Rhodesia has also uncovered significant occurrences.
In addition to primary platinoid production, the metal group's high costs have stimulated a
substantial effort for secondary recovery from all forms of scrap and used equipment, wherever
economically feasible.
The estimated world production of platinoids is shown in Table A-l.
Table A-l. Estimated World Production of Platinum Group Metals
(million troy oz)
1972
1969 1970 1971 (Prelim.)
Platinum 1.48 1.98 1.82 1.92
Palladium 1.64 1.92 1.92 1.98
Other 0.29 0.35 0.34 0. 35
Total 3.41 4.25 4.08 4.25
Source: E/MJ, March 1973
These data indicate that platinum and palladium are by far the most abundant and the most
important elements of this group. Metals of the platinum group are measured and traded in terms of
troy ounces in the British system of weights. In the metric system, measurements are in kilograms
(1 kg equals 32. 15 troy ounces). Platinum group metals are commercially available in grades ranging
from 99. 8 to 99. 999 percent purity. Platinum and palladium are available in the form of sponge,
single crystals, powder, wire, sheet, foil, and rods. Platinum above 99.7 percent is normally con-
sidered as commercial grade. According to Federal regulations, an article of trade may be marked
platinum if it contains 98. 5 percent platinum-group metals with a minimum of 93. 5 percent platinum.
Most platinoids are recovered as byproducts of the milling, smelting, and refining of nickel
and copper materials. In the Canadian Sudbury district, sulfide ore is processed by magnetic and
flotation techniques to yield concentrates of copper and nickel sulfates. The nickel flotation concen-
trate is roasted with a flux and melted into a matte which is cast into anodes for electrolytic refining
from which the precious metal concentrate is recovered. The platinum, palladium, and gold in the
concentrate are dissolved with aqua regia, leaving a residue containing the remaining four platinoids.
After the gold has been removed from the solution with ferrous sulfate, platinum is precipitated with
ammonium chloride. Palladium may be precipitated as a chloride by the addition of excess ammonia
and hydrogen chloride. The chloride of platinum and palladium are separately reduced to sponge
metal which can be compacted and melted to massive metal. Byproduct platinoids from gold or
copper ores are sometimes refined by electrolysis and by chemical means.
A-l
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Milling and beneficiation of the platinum-bearing nickel ores from South Africa consist of
gravity concentiall.in, flotation, and smelting which produces a high-grade table concentrate called
"metallics" for direct chemical refining and a nickel-copper matte for smelting and refining. The
process of extraction consists essentially of enriching the nickel-copper matte to about 65 percent
platinum metals and then treating the enriched product with acids to separate the individual plati-
noids, followed by final refining.
The mining of crude platinum in placer deposits furnishes a small pait of total production.
The nrn.ning and processing techniques for recovering crude platinum from placers are similar to
those used for recovering gold.
The industrial applications for platinum and palladium are diverse. Platinum-group metals
find application in the U.S. in the chemical, petroleum, glass, electrical, dental and medical, and
jewelry and decorative industries.
Platinum-group metal producers, in general, experienced overproduction and idle capacity
which lasted from 1970 to 1972. Renewed growth is expected, particularly for platinum and palla-
dium to be used in automobile emission control systems scheduled to be installed from 1975 on.
In addition to obtaining the required performance characteristics of these automotive catalytic con-
verters, lead content in gasoline must be reduced and sulphur and phosphorus content must be limited
to avoid rendering the platinum catalysts ineffective. It has been estimated that each car will require
an average of 0. 1 oz ol platinum-group metals, including 30-35 percent palladium, with platinum
comprising the balance. The relatively high costs of platinum and palladium have initiated intensive
research into the use of suitable substitute catalysts. Thus, while the growth of supply is resuming
at a steady pace, the utilization of increased output is precariously dependent on the development
and final timing in the auto emission control area on a worldwide basis.
2. Platinum and Palladium Sources
The platinoid industry in the free world is centered about two major mining companies and
two affiliated refining and fabricating companies. The International Nickel Co. of Canada, Ltd.
(INCO) produces refined platinum-group metals as byproducts of its nickel-copper ore mining and
refining operations in Canada, and accounts for about one-third of the free world output of these
metals.
Rustcnburg Platinum Mines, Ltd. , Republic of South Africa, produces platinum-group metals
from ores mined chiefly for platinum and contributes about two-thirds of the free world output of
platinoids.
The refining and fabricating companu'S are Engclhardt Industries, Inc., Newark, N. J.
affiliated with INCO and Johnson, Matt hey & Co., Ltd. in Great Britain and their worldwide sub-
sidiaries, affiliated with Rustenburg.
In addition to these major companies in mining, as well as refining and fabricating, a
number of smaller organizations are engaged in these same activities in various countries as will
be shown below; the level of their activities depends to a great extent on the woild demand and supply.
A third major source of platinum and palladium in the total world market is the U. S. S. R.
Little information is available on her industry pattern.
Canada. The Sudbury region of Ont. and the Thompson-Wabowden area of Man. aic the
major sources of Canadian production, derived in a residue at nickel refineries. A small amount
of platinum metals is recovered from ores at Shebandowan, Ont. by INCO, in Quc. by Rcnxy Mines
Ltd. , and near the Ont. -Man. boundary by Consolidated Canadian Faraday Ltd. and Dumbarton
Mines, Ltd.
Canadian production in 1972 was 399, 000 troy ouncus compared with 475, 169 ounces in
1971. Cutting back in nickel-copper production by INCO during this time period is the principal
factor for the decline in Canadian platinoid production.
In Ont. , INCO as the Largest pioduccr, operated 13 nickel-copper mines, four concentrators,
and two nickel-copper smelters near Sudhury, Ont. in 1972. A new nickel refinery was also being
A-2
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tuned up, where platinoid-bearing residues will be recovered. The Comston Smelter and Totten and
Crean Hill mines were temporarily closed,and production was reduced at several other operations
in early 197Z. Development work is continuing at INCO's Levack West mine scheduled for produc-
tion in 1975. In Ont., INCO operated a nickel refinery at Port Colborne and started mining the
Shebandowan deposits.
Falconbridge Nickel Mines, Ltd. operated eight nickel-copper mines, four concentrators,
and one smelter in the Sudbury region in 1972. Their Longvack South mine was temporarily closed.
Consolidated Canadian Faraday, Ltd. closed its Werner Lake mine because ore reserves were
exhausted.
In Que. , Renzy Mines, Ltd. closed its nickel mine and concentrator when the company's
smelter contract expired.
In Man., INCO operated three mines, one concentrator, and a smelter-refinery complex at
Thompson. Falconbridge had a normal year of operations at its Manibridge mine and concentrator
near Wabowden. Dumbarton Mines, Ltd. which ships nickel-copper concentrate to the Falconbridge
smelter, increased ore production from 700 to 1100 tpd.
INCO's crude platmum-metal-bcaring residues arc initially concentrated in Canada and then
shipped to INCO's Metals Refinery at Acton, London, England for extraction and refining of the
platinum metals. Much of the refined metals are returned to Canada and exported to the United
States for fabrication and distribution by Engelhard Industries, Inc. Newark, N.J.
Falconbridge ships nickel-copper matte containing precious metals to its nickel refinery in
Kristiansand, Norway from which platinoid-bearing residue also goes to Engelhard for further
refining.
Republic of South Africa is the free world's largest producer of platinoids. Rustenburg
Platinum Mines, Ltd. (RPM) operates three mines, one smelter and a refinery in the Transvaal
district. Rustenburg increased capacity to 1. 1 million ounces of platinoids a year, but reduced
production in 1971 to about 500,000 ounces because of excessive inventory accumulations. As
prospects for a new market are good, the opening of a new mine and an increase of production to
1. 3 million ounces a year are planned.
Impala Platinum Ltd. operates a mine-concentrator-refinery complex near Rustenburg.
Capacity at the operation is 350,000 ounces of platinum a year, and current production is at an
annual rate of about 300,000 ounces. Impala has also announced plans to expand its facilities.
Atok Investments (Pty. ) Ltd. , producing at Anglovaal and Middle Witwatersrand made its
first shipment of a platiniferous concentrate and matte from the Middlepunt mine in 1970 and pro-
duced an estimated 10,000 ounces of platinoids.
The Lonrho Ltd. -Falconbndge Nickel Mines Ltd. -South Africa Superior Oil Co. consortium
formed Western Platinum Ltd. , which commenced production at its Middlekraal mine near
Rustenburg in 1971. The operation has an annual capacity of 150,000 ounces of plat no ids. Annual
capacity may be increased to 430,000 ounces of platinoids by 1974-75, and the company is con-
sidering construction of a platinum refinery near the mine.
Platinum group metal production statistics are not reported in South Africa. In 1970, RPM
accounted for an estimated 83 percent of total output, and Impala produced most of the remainder.
An estimate of the platinoid growth potential is shown in Table A-2.
U. S. S. R. - The U. S. S. R. is the second largest producer of platinum-group metals in the
world.
Most of the production of platinum-group metals comes from nickel-copper ores of the
Norilsk region in northwestern Siberia. Palladium accounts for about 60 percent of this production '
and platinum for 30 percent. Nickel-copper ores in the Kola Peninsula also contribute to the output
of these platinoids. Placer platinum deposits in the Ural mountains, which at one time yielded most
of the platinum produced in the U. S. S. R., now contribute only a small part of the overall output.
Presently, the U. S. S. R. is by far the largest producer of palladium, and ranks second after the
A-3
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Table A-2. Growth Potential for South African Platinum and Palladium
(1000 troy oz)
197Z 19_73_ 1974 1975
Platinum
Rustenburg 550 900 1.300 1.500
Impala 345 400 500 650
Western Platinum 93 125 160 200
Atok 12 15 30 200
Total Platinum 1.000 1.440 1.990 2,550
Total Palladium 355 550 700 890
Source: E/MJ, March 1973
Republic of South Africa in production of platinum. As official U. S. S. R. output figures are not
available, it is estimated that the U. S. S. R. is currently producing platinum group metals at an
annual rate of well over 2. 2 million oz of which over half is palladium. The U. S. S. R. is supplying
20 to 25 percent of international exports of platinum and 70 to 75 percent exports of palladium.
Colombia is the fourth largest producing country. Crude platinum is recovered largely as a
coproduct of gold; it is marketed in the U. S. through various dealers and refiners. Although placer
deposits contain substantial reserves of platinum, some areas are not easily accessible and the
contained platinum may not be economically recoverable. Colombia's platinum production has
declined for several years and currently is about 25,000 oz annually.
Ethiopia. Explorations for platinum, copper and petroleum deposits by private industrial
firms and the Ethiopian Geological Society are continuing. Placer platinum is retrieved in the
vicinity of Gambela, Ilubabor Province.
Finland. Platinum-group metals are recovered as byproducts from the copper refinery at
Pori, owned by Outokumpu Oy.
japan. In 1970, Japan has produced 47,000 oz of platinoids, mostly platinum and palladium,
as byproduct of nickel-copper refining, all of which were exported to Mainland China, the United
States and West Germany.
The Philippines. Platinum-group metals, mostly platinum and palladium, come from the
nickel-cobalt concentrates of Acoje Mining Co. at Santa Cruz, Zambales Province, Luzon. The
concentrate, which is 15 percent nickel-cobalt, assays 1.4 ounces of platinum and 2.8 ounces of
palladium per ton of concentrate.
United States of America. The major part of the U. S. output is recovered as a byproduct of
copper refining in Maryland, New Jersey, Texas, Utah, and Washington. A small part of domestic
output is recovered from a placer platinum deposit at Goodnews Bay, Alaska; this output is pur-
chased by Johnson, Matthey & Co. and refined by its affiliate, Matthey Bishop, Inc. Malvern, Pa.
U.S. refiners also process imported materials such as crude platinum from Colombia and platinum
bearing nickel-copper matte from the Republic of South Africa. In addition, the refiners purchase
platinum- and palladium-bearing scrap, residues, catalysts, and other platinum-bearing materials.
Secondary recovery and toll refining are important segments of this industry. In 1970, the refinery
production of new metal in the U.S. was 21, 395 oz, and of secondary metal 349, 126 oz; the total
industry consumption was 1, 335,467 oz.
Summary of Sources
Canada, Qnt. :
International Nickel Company of Canada, Ltd.
Ontario Division
Copper Cliff, Ont. Canada (705/68
-------
Coniston Smelter
Copper Cliff, Ont. , Canada
Manager of Smelters: J. N. Lilley
Levack West Mine
Copper Cliff, Ont. Canada
Area Superintendent: D. Lennie
Port Colborne Refinery
Copper Cliff, Ont. Canada
Manager: W. V. Barker
Employment: 2, 200
Shebandowan Mine
Copper Cliff, Ont. Canada
Manager: G. W. Johnston
Copper Refinery
Coppe r Cliff, Ont., Canada
Manager: G. A. Dick
Falconbridee Nickel Mines. Ltd.
Headquarters: P.O. Box 40, Commerce Court West
Toronto 1, Ont. Canada (416/863-7000)
President and Managing Director: Marsh A. Cooper
Employment: 4049 total
Sudbury Operations Headquarters;
Falconbridge, Ont. Canada (705/693-2761)
Sudbury Operations General Manager: G. A. Allen
Canada, Man.
International Nickel Company of Canada, Ltd.
Manitoba Division
Thompson, Man. Canada (204/677-5211)
President and General Manager: D. E. Munn
Employment: 3, 700
Falconbridge Nickel Mines, Ltd.
Mainibridge, Man. Canada (204/689-2413)
General Manager: W.A. Case
Employment: 190
Dumbarton Mines, Ltd.
Headquarters: 1600, 100 Adelaide St. West
Toronto, Ont. Canada
Mine
Maskwa Lake, Man. Canada
Concentrator Superintendent: K. Dixon
Mine Superintendent: C. P. Moore
Republic of South Africa
Rustenburg Platinum Mines, Ltd.
Rustenburg and Union Sections
Consolidated Bldg. , P.O. Box 590
Johannesburg, Trvl. , S. Africa
General Manager: J. S. Ritchie
Manager, Rustenburg Section: J. C.J. Van Rensburg
Manager, Union Section: F. J. Brown
Employment: 26, 000 total
A-5
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Impala Platinum Ltd.
3rd floor, Unicorn House, 70 Marshall St.
P.O. Box 61386, Marshalltown
Johannesburg, Trvl, S. Africa (834-4552)
Managing Director: K. A. B. Jackson
Employment: 10, 000 total
Batokeng Mine
P. O. Box 363, Rustenburg, Trvl. , S. Africa
Telephone: Rustenburg 2616
Mine Manager: R. C. Bovell
Employment: 9, 500
Refineries
P.O. Box 222, Springs, Trvl., S. Africa
Telephone: Springs 56-6777
Chief Engineer: H. W. Read
Manager Platinum Refinery: P. A. Reynolds
Employment: 500
Western Platinum Ltd.
Rustenburg, Trvl. , S. Africa
New Plants
Atok Investments (Ptv) Ltd.
c/o Anglovaal House, 56 Main St. , P. O. Box 62379
Marshalltown,
Johannesburg, Trvl. , S. Africa
New Plants
Klockner Werke of West Germany
c/o Rand Mines Limited
The Corner House 63, P.O. Box 62370
Marshalltown
Johannesburg, Trvl. , S. Africa
Exploration
U. S. S. R. All enterprises are owned and run by the communist government.
No detailed data are published outside Russia.
Colombia;
Cia Miner a Choco Pacifico. S. A.
Andagoya, Istmina Choco, Colombia
Manager: Jaime Zapata
Employment: 438
Cia Minera de Narino, S. A.
Barbacoas, Narino, Colombia
Manager: Carlos AspilLera
Employment: 192
International Mining Corporation
280 Park Avenue
New York, N.Y. 10017(212/983-7500)
President: Patrick H. O'Neill
(Pato Consolidated Gold Dredging Ltd.
Aparto Aereo 13-06, Medellin, Colombia
General Manager: Edward Moseley-Williams
Employment: 455)
A-6
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The Philippines
Acoje Mining Co. Inc.
2283 Pasong Tamo Extension
Makati Rizal. Philippines (89-35-61)
Nickel Project
Santa Cruz, Zambales, Philippines
Mine Superintendent: Elmer B. Gabaldow
Employment: 130
Finland
Oytokumpu
Toolonkatu (Box 10280)
Helsinki (10) Finland
Pori Works
Pori, Finland (Pori 11701)
Works Manager: Aarne Kapanen
Employment: 2000
Australia: Possible future platinum operations.
Matthey Garret Pty. Ltd.
P.O. Box 165, Kogarah
New South Wales 2217
New Zealand; Possible future platinum operations.
Matthey Garret (NZ) Ltd.
22 Drake St.. P.O. Box 2073. Auckland
United States of America
Goodnews Bay Mining Co.
(422 White Bldg. , Seattle. Wash. 98101)
Platinum. Alaska 99651
Vice President and General Manager: Edward Olson
Employment: 47
American Smelting and Refining Company
Baltimore Plant, Highland and Eastbourne Aves.
Baltimore, Md. 21224 (301/675-0090)
Manager: R. H. Funke, Jr.
Employment: 1,200
United States Metals Refining Co.
440 Middlesex Ave. , Carteret, N. J. 07008
(201/541-4141)
General Superintendent: Robert N. Brown
Employment: 1,800
Phelps Dodge Refining Corporation
El Paso Refinery, P.O. Box 2001
El Paso, Texas, 79998 (915/772-2701)
Vice President and Works Manager: M.S. Bell
Employment: 880
A-7
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3.
American Smelting and Refining Company
Tacoma Plant, P.O. Box 1677
Tacoma, Washington, 98401 (Z06/759-3551)
Manager: R. E. Shinkoskey
Employment: 1,000
(Company does custom smelting; verification of platinoid smelting necessary)
Kennecott Copper Corp. Metal Mining Division
Utah Copper Div. , P.O. Box 11299
Salt Lake City, Utah 84111 (801/322-1533)
General Manager: J. P. O'Keefe
Employment: 7, 200
(Verification of platinoid smelting necessary)
Platinum and Palladium Processors
It was stated earlier that the platinum-group metals industry in the free world is essentially
centered around two mining companies and two affiliated refining and fabricating companies. The
majoi refining and fabricating companies processing mainly new platinoid materials (Engelhard and
Johnson Matthey) arc not mining companies and are, therefore, not vertically integrated. Imports
of platinum-group metals include refined metals (90%), unrefined metals, crude ores and conccn-
tiates, grain, nuggets and residue. U.S. exports of platinum group metals, principally as semi-
processed metals and alloys and as manufactured products are small compared with imports.
Secondary recovery and toll refining comprise the bulk of domestic refining operations. In 1968
(latest figure available) 2. 3 million troy ounces were produced by toll refining operations, of which
91 percent represented used material and 9 percent was metal recovered from virgin material. As
it is not possible to separate this intertwined industry clearly by functions like mining, refining,
fabucating, etc. , the following lists show first the key members of this industry (Group I) followed
by those emphasizing refining (Group II) and finally those emphasizing fabricating (Group III). In
i cality, some companies may be active in all areas and some only in segments of this industry.
Companies listed are those with over $500, 000 total assets. Some may be brokers only. This can-
not be avoided as many of the specialized companies are not listed in Standard & Poor's Register.
U.S.
Group I; Key members
Engelhard Industries Division
(Engelhard Minerals and Chemicals Corp. )
430 Mountain Ave.
Murray Hill, N. J. 07974 (201/464-7000)
Executive Vice President: Robert S. Levcnthal
Employment total; 7,500
Matthey Bishop, Inc.
Malvorn, Pa. 19355 (Z15/644-3100)
Vice President Operations: U.S. Roberts
Also: Johnson Matthey & Co., Inc., 608 Fifth
Avenue, New York, N. Y. 10020(212/245-6790),
representative of parent company, Johnson
Matthey & Co. , Ltd. , 78 Hatton Garden,
London, E.G. 1, England (01-405-6989)
Group II; Refiners
Handy and Harman
850 Third Avenue
New York, N. Y. 10022
(212/752-3400)
American Chemical and Refining Co.
P.O. Box 4067
Waterbury, Conn.
Canada
Engelhard Industries of Canada, Ltd.
512 King St. E.
Toronto 2, Ont. (416/362-3211)
Johnson Matthey & Mallory, Ltd.
110 Industry St.
Toronto 15, Ont. (416/763-5111)
Handy and Harman of Canada. Ltd.
141 John
Toronto 20 Ont.
National Refining Co. . Ltd.
136 St. Patrick
Toronto (w)
A-8
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U.S.
Canada
National Lead Co.
Goldsmith Division
1300 W. 59th St.
Chicago, 111.
United Refining & Smelting Co.
3700-ZO N. Runge Ave.
Franklin Park, 111. 60131(312/455-8800)
Hyper refiners. Inc.
P.O. Box 80-T
Clifton, N. J.
Engelhard Minerals & Chemicals Corp.
429 Oelaney St.
Newark, N. J. 07105
Eastern Smelting and Refining Corp.
35 Bubier Street
Lynn, Mass (617/599-4000)
Selrex Corp
Precision Metals Recovery Division
73 River Road
Nutley, N.J.
Spiral Metal Co.
South Broadway
South Amboy, N.J.
Sabin Metal Corp
310-334 Meserolf St.
Brooklyn, N.Y. 11206 (212/381-5000)
Samuel J. A. k Co. , Inc.
Engelhard Industries of Canada.
5 12 King St. E
Toronto 2. Ont. (416/362-3211)
Ltd.
233 Broadway
New York, N.Y. 10007
Midland Processing, Inc.
53 Lafayette Ave.
White Plains, N.Y. 10603(914/949-9310)
Mercer Refining
2801-T W Lake
Melrose Park, 111.
Croup III; Fabricators
Western Gold k Platinum Co.
555 Harbor Blvd.
Belmont, Calif.
Whittaker Corp.
10880 Wilshire Blvd.
Los Angeles, Calif.
Wildberg Bros. Smelting & Refining Co.
349 Oyster Point Blvd.
South San Francisco, Calif.
A-9
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U.S.
Canada
Ney. J.M. Co.
Drawer 990
Hartford, Conn. 06101
duPont. E.I, de Nemours & Co., Inc.
Wilmington, Del.
National Lead Co.
Goldsmith Div.
1300 W. 59th St.
Chicago, 111. 60636 (312/925-3800)
United RpfimriE & Smelting Co.
3700-20 N. Rungc Ave.
Franklin Park, III. 60131 (312/455-8800)
Mercer Refining
2801-T W. Lake
Mel rose Park, III.
Texas Instruments, Inc.
30 Forest
Attloboro, Mab&.
Eastern Smelting & Refining Corp
35 Bubiur St.
Lynn, Mass. 01901 (617/599-9000)
Engelhard Minerals & Chemicals Corp
1 13 Astor St.
Newark, N.J. 07114 (201/243-2700)
President: Milton F. Rosonthal
Employment: 7, 500 total
Spiral Mutal Co.
So. Broadway
So. Amboy, N. J. 08879
Engelhard Industries of Canada. Ltd.
512 King St. E.
Toronto 2. Ont. (416/362-3211)
babin Metal Corp.
310-334 Mcscrole
Brooklyn, N.Y.
Williams Gold Refining Co. , Inc.
2960 Main
Buffalo, N.Y.
Adorer, J. Inc.
44th Ave. & 22nd
Long Island City, N.Y.
Consolidated Refining, Inc.
120 Hoyt Ave.
Mamaronech, N.Y.
American Metal Climax, Inc.
1270 Ave. of the Americas
New York, N.Y.
Anaconda Co.
25 Broadway
Now York, N. Y.
A-10
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U.S.
Canada
Copper Joseph B. fa Sons. Inc.
178 Varick
New York, N.Y.
Handy & Harman
850 Third Ave.
New York, N.Y.
Phillip Brothers Div.
299 Park Ave.
New York, N.Y.
Samuel, J.A. & Co.
233 Broadway
New York, N.Y.
United Mineral & Chemical Corp
Hudson & Bach St.
New York, N.Y.
Handy and Harman of Canada. Ltd.
141 John
Toronto 20, Ont.
Midland Processing. Inc.
53 Lafayette Ave.
White Plains, N. Y.
Secon Metals Corp
5-7 Intervale
White Plains, N.Y.
Buckeye Molding Co.
Crysteco Div.
181 E. Main
Wilmington, Ohio
Technic. Inc.
P. O. Box 965
Providence, R. I.
American Chemical fa Refining Co.
P. O. Box 4067
Waterbury, Conn.
Deringer Metallurgical Corp.
1252 E. Town Line Rd.
Mundelen, 111.
Inc.
Kron J. Williams Co. Inc.
301-303 Veteran Blvd.
Carlstadt, N. J.
Hamos Co.
242 W. 30th
New York, N.Y.
4.
Prominent Sources and Processors
In the U.S., most platinoids are byproducts from copper and gold refining and, therefore,
these types of companies are shown as representative sources. Processors (refiners and fabri-
cators) are those that may include refineries specifically for platinoids and thus direct human
exposure to platinum and palladium is expected to be much stronger during processing than during
copper and gold refining.
A-11
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Prominent Sources (for details see pages A-4 through A-7). Most Canadian concentrates, residues
and matte are sent to England and Norway for refining or processing.
U.S.
Canada
International Nickel Comp. of Canada, Ltd.
Falconbridge Nickel Mines, Ltd.
Dumbarton Mines, Ltd.
American Smelting & Refining Co.
United States Metals Refining Co.
Phelps Dodge Refining Corp.
American Smelting and Refining Corp.
Kennccott Copper Corp.
Good News Bay Mining Co.
Prominent Piocessors :
Engelhard and Matthey Bishop are the most prominent and established platinoid companies, with
Engelhard having several divisions dealing in various platinoid applications. In other companies,
paiticularly the larger and diversified ones, the number of employees may be misleading, as only
n relatively small number of employees may deal with platinum and palladium.
U.S.
Engelhard Minerals k Chemicals Corp.
Baker Platinum Division
700 Blair Road, Carteret, N. J. 07008
Chemicals & Catalysts; Engelhard Industries
Division of Engelhard Minerals &
Chemicals Corp
429 Delaney, Newark, N. J.
Engelhard Industries
Division of Engelhard Minerals &
Chemical Corp.
430 Mountain Ave.
Murry Hill, N. J. 07974 (201/464-7000)
Executive Vice President: Robert S.
Li-vcnthal
Employment: 7, 500
Mattlmy Bishop, Inc.
Malvirn, Pa. 19355 (215/644-3100)
Vice President Operations : H. S. Roberts
Handy & Harman
850 Third Ave.
Now York, N. Y. 1022(212/752-3400)
Vice President R&D: C. D. Coxc
Employees: 2, 200
Eastern Smelting & Refining Coip.
37-39 Bubicr
Lynn. Mass. 01903(617/599-9000)
President: Jordan L. Alperin
Employees: 50
Canada
Engelhard Industries of Canada, Ltd.
512 King St. E.
Toronto 2, Ont. (416/362-3211)
Johnson Matthey & Mallory, Ltd.
110 Industry St.
Toronto, 15, Ont. (416/763-5111)
Handy & Harman of Canada, Ltd.
141 John
Toronto 21, Ont.
A-12
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U.S. Canada
N. L. Industries, Inc.
Goldsmith Division
1300 W. 59th St.
Chicago, III. 60636 (312/925-3800)
General Manager: Albert Dipiazza, Jr.
Employees: 160
Consolidated Refining Co. Inc.
120 Hoyt Ave.
Mamaronek, N.Y. 10543(914/698-2300)
President: Mortimer M. Cass
Employees: 130
Segrex Corp, Subsidiary
Hooker Chemical Corp.
Precious Metals Recovery Division
73 River Road
Nutley, N.J. 07110 (201/667-5200)
Vice President Research: D. Bruce Mernfield
Employees: 10, 000 total
Western Gold & Platinum Co.
(Subs. GTE Sylvania)
555 Harbor Blvd.
Belmont, Calif. 9400Z (415/593-3121)
Vice President Manufacturing: Harold O. Richter
Employees: 280
J. M. Ney Co.
Drawer 990
Hartford. Conn. 06101 (203/242-2281)
Production Manager: Ronald G. Robinson
Employees: 300
5. Manufacturers of Automotive Emission Control Systems
U.S.
Engelhard Minerals fc Chemicals Corp.
Matthey Bishop, Inc.
Universal Oil Products
W. R. Grace
Airproducts Division of Linde Products Company (Fecor Industries, Ltd. )
Japan
American Cyanamid and Japan Catalytic International
Europe
Deguzza (VW)
French Company (name unknown)
Engelhard Kali-Chemie Autocat G. M. B. H. (West Germany)
6. Production Data
World production of platinum and palladium by country are shown in Tables A-3 and A-4 below.
It should be noted that official data—where available — are usually 2 years behind in publication. All
South African figures are estimates, as no data are published on this industry.
World production expanded greatly in 1970, but demand failed to live up to expectations, partly
because of the influence of business recession in the leading consumer countries. In early 1971,
producers were forced to halt expansion projects and to cut back production. As a result, world
A-13
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Table A-3. Platinum Production by Country
(troy oz)
Country
Canada
Colombia
Ethiopia
Finland
Japan
Philippines
South Africa
U.S. S. R.
United States
World Total
Source: Minerals Yearbook 1971 and E/MJ, March 1973.
Table A-4. Palladium Production by Country
(troy oz)
Year
1969
134, 715
27.805
343
3. 140
676.400
630,000
8, 702
1.481. 105
1970
209,374
26,358
273
295
3.296
352
1,068,000
660,000
8,036
1,975,984
1971
203,112
25,610
217
275
3,451
900
890,000
690,000
10. 198
1,823,763
1972 (Est.)
(205,000)
(24,000)
(250)
(250)
(3.000)
(1,000)
(1.000.000)
(678,500)
(8.000)
(1.920,000)
Country 1969 1970 1971 197Z(E.t.)
Canada 133.163 206.962 200,772 (208,000)
Colombia
Ethiopia
350 325
878 1,800
1.26o!oOO l,3Zo!oOO 1,380^000 (1.397.000)
UnitVd States 8J 387 11.875 20,951 (%™\
World Total 1,643,877 1.921.175 1.922.979 (1,980,000)
Source: Minerals Yearbook 1971 and E/MJ, March 1973.
output slipped in 1971. That trend was again reversed with auto industry developments. Expansion
plans resumed aBain early in 1972, and it is estimated that the 1972 output reached the previous high
of 1970 The most active growth in the free world occurs in South Africa where platinum output
may be boosted to upwards of 1. 4 million o» in 1973 and further in 1974 and after, if the confidence
m the auto demand outlook is unshaken. Some output recovery may be seen in Canada, although the
long-term trend is relatively static.
7. Consumption Data
It was noted earlier that official data are published usually with a two year delay. Hence, the
U. S. consumption data are now available for the year 1971.
United States. During 1971, the total sales of platinoids to the chemical, petroleum and
electrical industries accounted for 83 percent of all sales compared with 82 peicent in 1970. Plati-
num sales decreased slightly despite the 25-percent increase in sales to the petroleum industry and
nains m sales for dental, medical and miscellaneous uses. The increase in sales to the petroleum
industry was for new reforming units to produce non-leaded gasoline. The bulk of platinum sales in
1971 was distributed among petroleum icfmers (46.5 percent), manufacturers of organic and
inorganic chemicals (25.0 percent), and electrical and electronic equipment manufacturers (9.6 per-
cent). Palladium sales increased 3 percent in 1971 despite sizable declines in sales to the glass
industry. Sales to manufacturers of chemicals increased 18 percent, to manufacturers of electrical
equipment 1 percent and accounted for 29 and 57 percent, respectively, of all palladium sales.
Table A-5 shows the sales of platinum and palladium to consuming industries in totals, and Table A-b
and Table A-7 show sales to industry groups.
A-14
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Table A-5. Platinum and Palladium Sold in
the United States (troy oz)
Year Platinum Palladium
1967 633,864 6Z1. 141
1968 580,155 721,479
1969 515,578 758,738
1970 566,369 739.343
1971 541,164 760,106
Source: Minerals Yearbooks.
Table A-6. Platinum Sold to Consuming Industries in the United States
(troy oz)
Industry 1967 1968 1969 1970 ^ 1971
Chemical 159,384 157,677 175,436 148,289 135,112
Petroleum 245,560 161,050 58.602 202,015 251,876
Glass 45,150 47,935 63.350 46,687 40,703
Electrical 99,686 117,256 112,589 103,318 51,940
Dental and Medical 24,630 24.903 22.266 18,302 23,097
Jewelry and Decorative 33,342 40,184 36,161 29,203 18,577
Miscellaneous 26. 112 31. 150 47. 174 18.555 19.859
Total U.S. 633,864 580,155 515.578 566.369 541,164
(re-revised)
Source: Minerals Yearbooks.
Table A-7. Palladium Sold to Consuming Industries in the United States
(troy oz)
Year
Industry 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971
Chemical 192,011 228,318 214.508 184,618 218,651
Petroleum 3.506 22,683 1.337 15.494 2,916
Glass 301 10 3,891 21,147 237
Electrical 324,684 329.012 430,258 429,032 431,505
Dental and Medical 56.085 61.636 52,326 47.583 61,594
Jewelry and Decorative 18,676 17,797 21,837 17,329 18,752
Miscellaneous 25.878 62.023 34.581 24. 140 26.451
Total U.S. 621,141 721,479 758,738 739.343 760,106
Source: Minerals Yearbooks.
Consumption data of countries outside the United States are difficult to assess, as trade data
for each individual country would be needed. These are not readily available. The Rustenburg group
has provided some estimates for the distribution of demand among the total Western world for newly
mined platinum. These estimates.are based on data for the period of 1965-69. As secrecy shrouds
platinoid data in some producing countries, the following figures, developed for 1971, can be con-
sidered as only an overview of a complex and highly inter me shed demand-supply relationship for
platinoid using countries. The Rustenburg data estimated that 30 percent is distributed to the
chemical industry, 25 percent to petroleum catalytic uses, 20 percent to electrical and allied
industries, 10 percent to glass manufacture, and the remaining 15 percent are distributed among
various uses including jewelry and medical applications.
The total new world production during 1971 in platinoids was 4,076, 788 ounces troy of which
1, 823, 763 oz were platinum and 1, 922, 979 oz were palladium. Free world demand distribution for
A-15
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new platinum and palladium metals is shown in Tables A-8 and A-9. The industry distribution is
based on U.S. 1971 data as shown in Tables A-6 and A-7, with Rustenburg estimates for platinum
given in parentheses. The Rustenburg data differ widely with the U.S. distribution in most industrial
categories. It should be expected that the demand distribution in most industrialized nations of the
Free World follow more closely the U.S. pattern. As Rustenburg assumes an authoritative position
in this metals industry, the actual demand distribution may be between both limits.
Table A-8. Free World Platinum Demand Distribution
(troy oz)
Total 1971 world production 1,823,763
U.S.S.R. estimated total 1971 production 690,000
U.S. S. R. estimated 1971 export 336,375
U.S. new 1971 production 10,198
Free World available new production 1,459,940
Estimated demand distribution
Chemical industry (25 percent) 364.985 (473,852)
Petroleum industry (46. 5 percent) 678,872 (394,876)
Glass industry (7. 5 percent) 109,496 (157,951)
Electrical industry (9.6 percent) 140,154 (315,901)
Dental and medical industry (4. 3 percent) 62,777
Jewelry and decorative industry (3. 4 percent) 49,638 (236,926)
Miscellaneous (3. 7 percent) 54,018
Source: Minerals Yearbook 1971, Universal Facts and Problems 1970
and Southwest Research Institute.
Table A-9. Free World Palladium Demand Distribution
(troy oz)
Total 1971 world production 1,922,979
U.S.S.R. estimated 1971 production 1,380,000
U.S.S.R. estimated 1971 export 1,009,125
U.S. new 1971 production 20,951
Free World available new production 1,531, 153
Estimated demand distribution
Chemical industry (28.8 percent) 440,972
Petroleum industry (0.4 percent) 6, 125
Glass industry (0.03 percent) 459
Electrical industry (56.77 percent) 869,236
Dental and medical industry (8. 1 percent) 124,023
Jewelry and decorative industry (2.5 percent) 38,279
Miscellaneous (3.4 percent) 52,059
Source: Minerals Yearbook 1971, Universal Facts and Problems 1970
and Southwest Research Institute.
The determination of consumption figures for individual countries is difficult for several
reasons. The high cost of platinoids has created great demand for secondary sources and recovery.
Recovery takes place by processing scrap materials which include discarded jewelry, used elec-
tronic components and spark plugs, sludges and sweeps. In addition, large quantities of worn out
or contaminated platinum-metal-bcaring materials are refined on toll. This metal, compromising
the bulk of domestic refining operations, was received for reworking or re-refining of depleted
catalysts, wornout extension dies, spinners, laboratory ware and other used equipment. Recovery
fiom scrap is very efficient, and only a small quantity of these metals is wasted or lost. Secondary
recovery of platinum and palladium in the United States is shown in Table A-10.
While quantities of secondary recovery platinoids are well known for the U. S. , the same
information for other countries could not be obtained. Furthermore, the trade patterns worldwide
as well as within the free world vary considerably. Platinoids are shipped in form of ores, con-
centrates, residues, waste, scrap and sweepings, partly worked rolled and partly worked not rolled.
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Table A-10. Platinum and Palladium Secondary Recovery
in the United States (troy oz)
Year Platinum Palladium
1967 126,377 21S,162
1968 115,587 195,620
1969 126,822 227,763
1970 r!18,298 r208,555
1971 103,429 161,099
(r: revised)
Source: Minerals Yearbook 1971.
For example, during 1971 the U. S. has exported 404, 610 troy oz of platinoids in various
metal stages to 17 countries. These shipments included 154, 775 oz platinum unworked or partly
worked not rolled and 15, 894 oz platinum unworked or partly worked rolled. During the same year,
the U. S. has imported for consumption 1, 302, 740 oz from 24 countries in various unwrought or
semimanufactured conditions. These inputs included 551, 127 oz of platinum and 657, 983 oz of
palladium. These data indicate that no clear picture emerges from these trade patterns to determine
actual consumptions in foreign countries. In addition, and as noted earlier, the U. S. S. R. and the
Republic of South Africa, the major platinoid producers in the world, do not publish data on plati-
noids, and all their figures, found in publications, are estimates by the trade. International trade
data for platinoids are available for the year 1969. Some of these data are given for platinum and
palladium, some are given as a combination of platinoid and silver shipments and some are given
only for non-ferrous metals. In Table A-ll, the 1969 percentages of individual countries to the
total 1969 world production of platinum and palladium are applied to the 1971 consumption year.
Table A-ll. Platinum and Palladium Consumption by Major Country
(Order of Magnitude in troy oz)
Country 1971
Canada 68.259
France 312,947
Germany, West 451,330
Italy 74,227
Japan 758,309
Netherlands 32.824
Sweden 17,158
Switzerland 11,563
U. K. 48, 863
U.S. S. R. 589.340
U.S. 1.375.788
Total Approximately 3, 740, 608
Source: Minerals Yearbooks.
The total consumption (3. 74 million troy ounces) compares favorably with the 1971 production
figure of 3. 75 million ounces. The data shown represent an order of magnitude approximation for
major consuming countries. With the exception of Japan and the U. S., variations are expected.
The causes for these are based on inadequate data on foreign stockpiles, dealer stocks, and foreign
secondary recovery. These data also include small shipments of platinoids from major consumer
countries to a large number of less industrialized and small countries, caused very likely by
Futures trading and speculation.
8. End Use Applications
Platinoids find many applications in industry because of their catalytic activity, resistance to
corrosion, resistance to oxidation at elevated temperatures, high melting point, high strength and
good ductility. Platinum and palladium are the major platinum metals; indium, osmium, ruthenium
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and rhodium are used mainly as alloying elements to modify properties of platinum and palladium.
Rhodium is also used in plating.
Chemical industry. One of the major uses for platinum, alloyed with 10 percent rhodium, is
as a catalyst in producing nitric acid for use in nitrate fertilizers and explosives. New uses for
platinum and palladium as an oxidation catalyst are evolving in the rapidly expanding pollution con-
trol field. Platinum and palladium are widely used as a catalyst in hydrogenation. dehalogenation
and other reactions used by chemical, dyestuff and pharmaceutical industries.
Platinum and other platinum-group metals are used also as catalysts in a great variety of other
chemical processes as shown in Table A-12.
Table A-li. Chemical Processes Using Platinum-Group Metal Catalysts
Process Catalyst .
Hydrogenation Pt, Pd, Ir, Rh, Ru, Os.
Dehydrogenation Pt, Pd, Ir, Ru, Pd-Ag.
Fragmentation Pt, Pd.
Decomposition Ir, Ru.
Hydrocracking Pt, Ir.
Reforming Pt, Ir, Rh, Pt-Ir.
Synthesis Ir, Rh, Ru.
Polymerization Ir-Ni, RhCl3.
Isomenzation Pd, IrCl3. Ir-Ni, Ir-V, RhCl3, Pt-Ir, Pt-Rh. Pt-Ru,
Pt-Os.
Oxidation Pt, Rh, Ru, Pt-Ir, Pt-Rh.
Regenerable reagents PdCl3.
Homogeneous reactions
Carbonylation Ir, Ru, PdCl3, Rhds, Rh(NO3>3-
Oxidation Ir, Ru, PdCl$.
Reductions Ru, Pt-Ir, RhCls-
Source: Minerals Yearbook 1971
Platinum spinnerets are used in the production of synthetic fibers. New precious-metal catalyst
systems are being developed constantly to reduce utilization of platinum at no loss in catalyst effi-
ciency. A precious-mctal-plated titanium anode may replace graphite anodes in the chlorine manu-
facturing industry.
Petroleum industry. Generally, platinum and palladium are used as catalysts in the produc-
tion of high-octane gasolines and for hydrocarbon synthesis to produce numerous petrochemicals.
Reforming units to produce nonleaded gasoline will lead to a substantial increase in platinum con-
sumption. However, application of a new platinum-rhenium catalyst to refining, requiring much
less platinum, may offset the demand for this puipose.
Glass industry. A substantial quantity of platinum-rhodium alloy is used for bushings for
attenuating the glass fibers and for equipment used in manufacturing other glass products. Glass-
making refractory equipment is coated with a thin layer of platinum sheet to prevent contamination
of the molten glass. More uses for platinum-indium alloys are found in crucibles for growing
crystals for lasers, optical modulators and other scientific applications.
Electrical and electronic industry. Platinum, palladium and various alloys find major
use in such application as light duty contacts, electric furnace windings, thermocouples, cobalt-
platinum permanent magnets for travelling wave tubes, resistance thermometers and precision
thermometers, relays, meters, voltage regulators, and other electrical instruments. Palladium
especially is used in low voltage-low energy electrical contacts in telephone equipment. Platinum
and palladium are also used in powder (paste) form or as electrodeposits in components of electrical
printed circuits. Platinum is also used in fuel cell electrodes, and new developments in this field
could lead to a substantial increase in platinum requirements. Significant quantities of platinum
were also used in impressed current corrosion protection systems. Some pacemakers to stimulate
the heart muscle use platinum or platinum-indium electrodes.
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Dental and medical industry. Additions of platinum and palladium to gold-based alloys
increase strength, hardness and wear resistance, raise the melting temperature and enhance the
age hardening of the alloys. These alloys are used extensively in fabricating mechanical aids and
devices for application in prosthodontics and orthodontics. Palladium-rich alloys are used as sup-
ports in the porcelain-overlay type of dental restoration because palladium does not stain or discolor
the porcelain after it is fired. Testing of platinum compounds for their therapeutic value in cancer
treatment of humans is well along in many institutes in the U.S. and abroad. The possibility is
indicated that platinum compounds knock out or cause remissions in a very broad range of cancers,
with little or no side effects. It also appears that platinum may have possibilities as an antiviral
agent, and that it may inhibit leukemia.
Jewelry and decorative industry. Platinum, palladium and rhodium are used to fabricate
various jewelry articles such as watch cases, rings, brochcs and other settings. These metals
provide lightweight, white, tarnish-free alloys. Palladium-ruthenium alloys arc used for large
jewelry articles because of their density and thus their light weight. Platinum settings do not
mask the true color of diamonds, whereas gold lends a yellow tint. In addition, and because of
platinum's mechanical properties, platinum settings hold gemstones more securely than gold.
Miscellaneous uses. These uses of platinum-group metals include laboratory ware such as
electrodes and crucibles. Platinum is used to control galvanic corrosion such as the cathodic pro-
tection of ship hulls, and as inert anodes in electrodeposition. New uses for control of corrosion
are found in the metal, chemical, petroleum, sewage disposal and water supply industries. Brazing
alloys which contain palladium have good wetting ability and are relatively free from erosion at high
temperatures. These alloys are frequently used in gas turbines, jet engines, and air frames when
a high level of reliability is required. Platinum and chromium are used to give razor blades a hard,
corrosion-resistant edge. The automotive industry has all but accepted the platinum/palladium/
ruthenium based catalytic mufflers for pollution control beginning with 1975 model automobiles.
In this system, exhaust gases pass over a platinum catalyst in the muffler and the carbon monoxide
(CO) and hydrocarbons (HC) are converted to carbon dioxide and water. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)>
which also have ceilings under Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) guidelines, are not reduced
by the platinum catalyst, but can be reduced by lower engine temperatures, engine modifications,
or other catalysts in the system. The system must use nonleaded gasoline, because lead, even in
small amounts, makes the catalyst inoperable.
Research and Alternates. Extensive research and development programs are pursued with
particular emphasis on applications of platinum-group metals in such industries as petroleum and
petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, electrical energy and electrical and electronic products, and
powder metallurgy. Considerable effort is being directed toward the development of high-activity
platinum electro-catalysts for the direct conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy in
fuel cells, and there is an increased interest in research to develop a technically and economically
feasible method of recovering palladium and rhodium from atomic wastes.
However, there is also constant economic pressure to substitute less expensive materials
for the platinum-group metals in industrial applications. The platinum metals are only used where
they are justified technically and economically. Platinum and palladium as well as the minor
platinum-group metals are used interchangeably to some extent for certain uses. In some uses,
tungsten and nickel alloys, vanadium, silver and gold can be substituted for platinum-group metals.
Cladding with platinum-group metals enables the surface properties of the noble metals to be com-
bined with the mechanical strength of cheaper metals. Cladding is common in glass melting pots
and in chemical ware. Rhenium-platinum reforming catalysts may replace platinum to some extent
in petroleum refining. Cobalt-copper-rare-earth alloys may be substituted for platinum-cobalt
as a high-energy magnetic alloy in certain electronic applications.
In the automotive industry, there are three approaches competing with the platinum/palladium
catalytic muffler. (1) The nonplatinum catalyst system uses a cheaper catalyst that is resistant to
lead poisoning and hence can use currently available gasoline. Some catalysts for this type of sys-
tem are oxides of vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, molybdenum,
tungsten and rare-earth elements. Although few details have been released on the performance of
these systems, they apparently have not been tested as extensively as the platinum system, and
their long-term reliability is uncertain. (2) The thermal reactor represents an afterburner to con-
vert CO and HC to carbon dioxide and water, in coordination with engine modifications and exhaust
gas recirculation to reduce NOx* While these systems approach the emission standards for the life
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of the car (versus platinum systems 25,000 to 50,000 mile reliability), they reportedly reduce gas
mileage and "driveabihty" considerably. Nevertheless, this system is a strong contender.
(3) Experimental automobiles with radical engine designs are being tested. Their engines are
inherently pollution-free. Some of these are steam-driven cars, battery-run electric cars, turbine-
engine cars, or they may use the Warren engine and other stratified-charge engines. Although the
design changes and lack of proved reliability and other characteristics make these cars unlikely
candidates for 1975 production by major manufacturers, some of these engines may be adopted as
long-range solutions to the pollution problems in the 1980's.
9. Attrition and Transfer to the Environment
In providing attrition and transfer rates, it is necessary to review the following breakdowns
according to published statistics.
Chemical Industry. In 1971, this industry purchased 135, 112 oz of platinum and 218, 651 oz of
palladium. It is estimated that these purchases were divided as follows:
1971 1972
Platinum Palladium
(troy oz) (troy oz)
Chemical (inorganic) 83,229 (61.6%) 47,227 (21.6%)
Chemical (organic) 51.883 (38.4%) 171.424 (78.4%)
Total Chemical Industry 135,112(100.0%) 218,651(100.1
The rough data estimates for consumption rates in the chemical industry provided by the
Buieau of Mines are for nitric acid production only. These consumption data are related to the
latest industry purchased data of platinum and palladium, published for 1971 (Tables A-6 and A-7).
In inorganics, the two largest production items using catalysts with platinum-group metals are
shown below in billions of pounds (bp):
Sulfuric acid, 100% 58. 84 bp
Nitric acid, 100% 13. 48 bp.
In organics, the three major production groups, utilizing such catalysts are:
Ethylene 18. 30 bp
Cyclohexane 1. 75 bp
Benzene 1.08 bp.
The total chemical industry produced in 1971 about 203.00 bp inorganics and about 77.00 bp organics,
or a total of 280. 00 bp.
Petroleum Refining. The major data in this industry are published for crude-oil throughput
capacity, catalytic cracking, catalytic reforming and hydroprocessmg. The rough data estimates of
consumption rates, available at this time, are for catalytic reforming. The development of total
U.S. refinery, cracking and reforming capacities are shown below in 1,000 barrel per calendar days
Crude Oil Cracking Reforming
Capacity Capacity Capacity
Year [1000 b/cd) (1000 b/cd) (1000 b/cd)
December 31, 1971 13.284.9 4,512.5 2,885.2
December 31. 1972 13,087.0 4,852.0 3,169.1
December 31, 1973 13,383.0 4,512.5 3,278.1
The following Tables A-13 and A-14 provide rough consumption estimates, available at this time,
for use, replacement, scrap, attrition and transfer rates for platinum/palladium catalysts in major
industrial use categories. Based on the data shown above, order of magnitude comparisons are
possible for amounts of platinum and palladium used in those consuming industries for which detail
data are not available at this time.
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Table A-13. Estimated Platinum Consumption Rates in the United States
(troy oz/Year)
Replacement Use Scrap Attrition
Industry Rate Rate Rate Rate
Chemical1)
(inorganic) 397,000 --- --- 53.0002)
Chemical
(organic) ---
Chemical Total
Petroleum
(reforming) 270,000 over 8, 5003)
Petroleum total
Glass4)
Electrical --- 92,000 18.000 74,000
Dental & medical 30,000 900 29,100
Jewelry &
decoration 20.000 4,600 15,400
Miscellaneous 50, 000^)
Total known
at this time 667,000 192.000 23.500 180,000
1) nitric acid production only
Transfer
Rate to
Environment
49,000 est.
. .. .
over 8, 500 est.
...
...
74, 000 est. 5)
29, 100 est.
15,400 est.
- - •
176,000 est.
1971
Purchase for
Consumption
83,229 est.
51,883 est.
135, 112
_ _ _
~_. o-jf.
40,703
51, 940
23,097
18,577
19.859
541, 164
2) includes 4000 oz. refining, rest transferred to environment or into products
3) includes losses in reprocessing, does not include entrainment in products
4) no data available
5) includes transfer to environment direct and through manufactured
6) scrap, attrition and transfer rates unknown at this time
Source: Bureau of Mines and Southwest Research Institute
Table A- 14. Estimated Palladium Consumption Rates
(troy oz/Year)
Replacement Use Scrap Attrition
Industry Rate Rate Rate Rate
Chemical')
(inorganic) ...
Chemical1)
(organic)
Chemical Total1)
Petroleum')
(reforming)
Petroleum Total1)
Glass2)
Electrical3) 425,000
Dental & medical --- 94,000 3,000 91,000
Jewelry &
decorative --- 19,000 4,500 14,500
Miscellaneous4) 28,000
Total known ~ ~ '
at this time 566,000 7,500 105,500
goods
in the United States
Transfer
Rate to
Environment
_ _ _
_ _ _
P. - —
91,000 est.
14,500 est.
105. 500 est.
1971
Purchase for
Con sumption
47,227 est.
171, 424 est.
218, 651
2 Q16
t« I 7 1 U
431,505
61,594
18. 752
26,451
7hn inft
1) no data available at this time.
2) no data available yet, as glass industry is difficult to assess
3) telephone industry is dominant user; scrap, attrition and transfer rates unknown.
4) scrap, attrition and transfer rates unknown at this time
Source: Bureau of Mines and Southwest Research Institute
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10. Supply and Demand Trends
Apparent Supply. U.S. reserves are almost entirely in copper ores with a very small quantity
in placers at Goodnews Bay, Alaska. The copper ores are estimated to average about 1 oz of platinum-
group metals per 6000 tons of ore. Production from placer deposits at Goodnews Bay, with signifi-
cant amounts of indium, rhodium and ruthenium,has been slowly declining in recent years, and the
remaining reserve is believed to be relatively small. The aggregate reserve of byproduct platinum-
group metals in gold ores also is relatively small.
The recoverable reserve in the Republic of South Africa is estimated at 200 million ounces,
averaging on the basis of past production about 70 percent platinum, 25 percent palladium and 5 per-
cent minor platinoids. Actually, the occurrence of platinum-group metals in significant quantities
in the Merensky Reef Horizon of the Bush veld igneous complex indicates that the quantity of platinum-
bearing ore may be considerably larger. The reserve of byproduct osmium and indium in the gold
ore of the Republic of South Africa is significant. In Southern Rhodesia, prospecting and exploration
of the Great Dyke ultrabasic formation has disclosed the existence of platinum-group metals which
may potentially reach 100 million ounces.
Ethiopia has provided small quantities of metals from platinum placer deposits for years.
Exploration for additional sources is underway.
In Canada, the platinum-group metal content of the proven nickel-copper ore reserve of the
Sudbury Basin and Thompson, Manitoba areas is estimated at 16 million ounces, comprising 7.4 mil-
lion ounces of platinum, 7.0 million ounces of palladium, and 1.6 million ounces of minor platinoids,
chiefly rhodium.
Colombian placer deposits contain substantial reserves of platinum.
U.S. S. R. production of platinum-group metals has been rapidly expanding in recent years,
and it is estimated that reserves of platinum-group metals in the U. S. S. R. are at least 200 million
ounces.
Finland is providing small amounts of platinum-group metals from copper refining.
Japan provides small amounts of platinoids, mostly platinum and palladium as byproducts of
nickel-copper refining.
The Philippines are furnishing mostly platinum and palladium from nickel-cobalt concentrates.
In Western Australia, high platinum values were found on the Northwest Oil and Mineral Co.
property.
In New Zealand, high platinum values were found on the Georgia-Kaolin Co. property near
Kerikeri, North Auckland.
In Papua New Guinea, an independent nation since December 1973, and formerly under
Australian administration, increasing platinoid production is expected at or near the island of Bougain-
ville as substantial copper ore deposits are opened up.
Estimated proved reserves of platinum and palladium metals from known conventional sources
are shown in Table A-15.
The estimated proportions of six coproduct metals in the platinum group are shown on
Table A-16.
Demand. Of immediate effect on the demand for platinum, palladium and possibly ruthenium
metals is the development in the automobile emission control and petroleum refining areas. But, the
market outlook and hence the market price for these metals is still clouded. In the U. S., the major
automobile manufacturers have negotiated substantial supply contracts to permit all-out production
of 1975 cars equipped with platinum/palladium based converters. Volvo (Sweden) has contracted for
100,000 antipollution units to equip cars for U.S. delivery. Nissan Motors (Japan) have signed a
letter of intent to purchase 400, 000 converter devices to equip that firm's cars for U. S. delivery.
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Table A-15. Estimated World Reserves of Platinum and Palladium
(million troy oz)
Country Platinum Palladium
United States 0.95 1.96
Canada 6.94 6.86
Colombia 5.00
South Africa, Republic of 142.40 50.20
U.S. S. R. 60.00 120.00
Total 215.29 179.02
Source: Mineral Facts and Problems, 1970
Table A-16. Estimated Composition of Platinoids by Source
(percent)
Source Country
Metal Canada U.S. S. R. South Africa
Platinum 43.4 30.0 71.20
Palladium 42.9 60.0 25.10
Indium 2.2 2. 0 .78
Rhodium 3.0 2.0 2.41
Ruthenium 8.5 6.0 .50
Osmium _ 0]
Source: Mineral Facts and Problems, 1970
Toyota Motor Co. (Japan) has also contracted for catalysts, Leyland Motor Corp. (Great Britain) is
reportedly negotiating with prospective suppliers of platinum-based converters. Engelhard Kali-
Chemie Autocat G. M. B. H. (West Germany) will provide catalysts forDnouer-Benz, Peugeot and
Renault cars. Although the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has resisted requests for an
extension of the 1975 deadline, Detroit is still pressing for delay. This delay is also supported by
the Administration for reasons of the current energy and gasoline crises. Despite the fact that the
major U.S. manufacturers have negotiated substantial supply contracts, the industry's actual com-
mitment is small, because of the escape clauses in these arrangements.
Perhaps a still more serious problem concerns the availability of unleaded gasoline. Since
platinum/palladium catalysts are rendered ineffective by the presence of lead, unleaded fuel must be
made available in time to supply 1975 cars, and autofirms have indicated that the maximum residual
lead content permissible in such fuels is 0.03 g per gal. However, sources in the petroleum industry
have continued to express doubt as to the possibility of producing sufficient quantities of unleaded
gasoline in time to meet 1975 auto requirements. It seems almost certain that great quantities of
platinum and palladium (and possibly some ruthenium) will be required in manufacturing converters
for 1975 automobiles and that the petroleum companies will utilize additional quantities of platinum
catalysts in petroleum refining, to boost the octane rating of gasoline without lead additives. It has
been estimated by Engelhard that each car will require an average of 0. 1 oz of metals including 30-
35% palladium and 65-70% platinum. If upwards of 10 million 1975 model U.S. cars were equipped
with these converters, then first year requirements beginning in 1974 could amount to 700,000 to
800, 000 oz of platinum and 300, 000 to 400, 000 oz of palladium with still larger quantities demanded
in ensuing years.
Based on these factors and allowing for expanded use by auto manufacturers outside the U. S. ,
it has been estimated that world consumption of platinum could increase from an estimated 1.92 million
oz in 1972 (Table A-l) to about 3.0 million oz in 1974 and considerably more theieafter. Over the
same period, global use of palladium might expand from around 1.98 million oz in 1972 (Table A-l)
to perhaps 2.4 million oz in 1974 and 2.6 million oz in subsequent years. These data suggest a pos-
sible increment in annual world use during 1972-74 of over 1 million oz of platinum and 500. 000 oz of
palladium. Present trends of platinum and palladium production were shown in Tables A-l, A-3, and
A-4 and estimated reserves in Table A-IS.
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Among the established producing areas, South Africa may experience the most active growth.
As shown in Table A-Z, platinum output in 1972 was estimated to be 1 million oz, and palladium out-
put 355, 000 oz. The output could be boosted to about 2.5 million oz of platinum and 890, 000 oz of
palladium in 1975. The U. S. S. R. was expected to produce close to 700,000 oz of platinum and about
1.4 million oz of palladium in 1972. Although she is exporting a substantial amount of both metals,
her output in these metals appears to increase. It is estimated that Canada produced about 399,000 oz
of platinum group metals in 1972, and that she could increase production to over 500,000 oz.
In emergencies, and if Congress approves the release of stockpile material, platinum and
palladium reserves could be provided for eventual sale. The U.S. national stockpile on Dec. 31,
1971 consisted of 402,646 oz of platinum and 507,314 oz of palladium. The supplemental stockpile
included 49,999 oz of platinum and 747,680 oz of palladium.
Recent Developments. Supply and demand trends will be influenced, above all, by possible
changes in the Clean Air Act with regard to auto emission standards and timing for conformance.
Earlier, in April 1973, the EPA had established modified interim standards for auto emissions
and granted automobile manufacturers a one-year extension in implementing the federal 1975 exhaust
emission standards on all cars manufactured with the exception of those sold in California. Later,
at the end of 1973, the Administration requested Congress to amend the Clean Air Act and proposed
that 1975 interim levels should be frozen for 2 years to "permit auto manufacturers to concentrate
greater attention on improving fuel economy while retaining a fixed target for lower emissions. "
On March 22, 1974, the Administration has made several proposals to Congress to sacrifice
some air quality for making the nation self-sufficient m energy by 1980. Again included are proposals
to freeze the auto-emission standards through 1977.
According to current trade sources. General Motors has indicated it may install platinum/
palladium catalytic converters on many of its 1975 U.S. models to ensure compliance with interim
standards, and Ford considers that about 25 percent of its 1975 production will be fitted with platinum
converters. Other manufacturers expect to use catalytic converters on cars manufactured for the
California market. Hence, the EPA extension will have a moderate effect on delaying the projected
platinum and palladium consumption in catalytic converters and while the near term requirements
have become less stringent, the medium term outlook for these metals appears encouraging.
It also is of interest to note that in July 1973, the Canadian Government announced new exhaust
emission control standards for 1975 model cars in Canada that are much less stringent than those
adopted by the United States.
I 1. Medical and Toxicological Information
The information m this section is in part based on two literature searches, conducted by the
MED LINE Data System of the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio and by the
National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, Springfield, Va.
Human Exposure Cases
Synopsis. Contact with the platinum oxide has been reported to cause eczematous lesions, and the
development of sensitivity to platinum chloride was observed in a chemist, who suffered
a generalized eruption from contact with a small amount of the substance. The trioxide
has also given rise to dermatitis in the Jewelry and Allied Industries. Photographers
have been reported to contract dermatoses from platinum solutions used in their work.
Asthmatic symptoms are not uncommon among workers exposed to the salts of platinum.
Palladium compounds show little or no irritation, when applied locally to the skin.
Platinum (Pt) is a silver-white metal, tenacious, very malleable, ductile and softer than silver.
Exposure to platinum in industry occurs in the metallurgical and chemical processes used in the pre-
paration of the metal and its salts.
Platinum was considered relatively harmless until 1945 when Hunter, Milton & Perry published
the results of their investigation of four platinum refineries. They found that, of 91 workers exposed
to the dust or spray of complex salts of platinum, 52 suffered from running of the nose, sneezing,
tightness of the chest, shortness of breath, cyanosis, wheezing, and cough. Thirteen of the men
complained of dermatitis. None of these symptoms were apparent in the workers exposed to metallic
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platinum dust only, or to the complex salts of the other precious metals, including palladium. The
platinum content of the air samples taken at various stations throughout the works was determined
spectrographically and found to vary from 5jig to 70 (ig per cubic meter (Fothergill, Withers & Cle-
ments, 1945). One may safely conclude, therefore, that the soluble platinum salts, whether carried
as dust or mist, present an industrial hazard, and that they should be carefully controlled and not
exceed a maximum allowable concentration of 2 jig per cubic meter.
The following case histories are given as examples of the syndrome.
Milne (1970) reports the following clinical record from Australia: The patient, a tall, brown-
haired, blue-eyed male, aged 37 years, was first examined in early May 1969, when he stated that
he had been born in Germany and had migrated to Australia at the age of 20 years. He had worked
as a laborer, a hospital orderly and a laboratory assistant. Tn 1967, he came to his present position
as a chemical assistant in a firm which intermittently processes platinum. He said that he had had
no skin affliction of any sort until two years before coming for examination, when his hands broke
out in a "weeping rash". He was not directly involved in the handling of platinum alloys or salts at
that time but in the course of his daily tasks would often enter the refinery. He went to many
practitioners, registered and otherwise, in an effort to obtain a cure. The condition which was
mostly diagnosed as "nerves" or "eczema" had slowly regressed until it had become a dry, itchy
rash on each hand and wrist. He had, for years, also suffered from occasional acute attacks of
asthma, and had consulted many doctors for this.
About a year before being interviewed, he had first worked on platinum refining, without
incident. About nine months later he noticed one day that his face was red and itchy. Next day it
began to "weep" and took several days to heal. A few weeks later, the same sequence of events
occurred, and a fellow workman suggested to him that exposure to platinum salts might be a causa-
tive factor.
Although he handled platinum alloys constantly in the interim, the patient then avoided platinum
refining for six weeks until the day of interview, when, after only 10 minutes' exposure in the refinery,
he noticed facial itch and swelling around the eyes. He stopped work after about half an hour, but
"little blisters" formed on his forehead, and they began to "weep". He put hot towels and "Vaseline"
on his face in an effort to gain relief, and after an hour he left work feeling "shaky". Soon after his
arrival home he vomited, then went to bed, and having drunk a glass of beer, he slept fitfully.
Six hours later, when I saw him, the swelling had largely subsided, but he had noticeable
infraorbital oedema and some blotchmess of the face. The itch had almost disappeared. He had no
further shakiness, and his hands were unaffected.
In late October 1969, he was interviewed again, and said that he had worked in a different
department in the meantime, almost completely detached from precious metals. His general health
had improved. The hands and wrists had completely cleared, his face showed no swelling, and the
asthma had been "mild"--that is, one attack in four months. There were no patches of eczema any-
where on his body.
For two months after that hu was free of skin troubles and in good health, and then, about the
beginning of December 1969, he went a.s usual into the refmeiy, which he was, in the habit of entering
once a week to make a complex gold salt--potassium-gold-cyanide. Unknown to him on this occasion,
the refining and filtration of platinum salts were in progress. Soon after this, his face broke out
again, with "little pimples" over the forehead and cheeks. The skin was itchy, red and swollen.
The "pimples" dried up over the next three or four days. His neck was also affected, and the same
thing occurred at his wrists. At the time of the interview, a few small, dry patches remained on
his wrists.
Since that time he has continued to work away from the precious metal refinery, and has been
untroubled by skin complaints except on one occasion, when, according to the firm's chief chemist,
he was again exposed, unknown to himself, and a similar series of events occurred.
Parrot (1969) reports the following cases from France:
Case 1. --A 50-yr old man was assigned directly to the platinum refining workshop in January
I960. No personal nor hereditary history of allergy was present. After two months, an erythemato-
vesicular, prurigmous dermatitis of the eczema type appeared on the anterior face or wrists and
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under the action of intravenously administered adrenocorticotropic hormone.
Back to work, he had asthmatic attacks treated with aminophylhne (theophyUmc ethylened.a-
mm.) H" r£»,red another month of hospitalization for asthma. The dermatosis finally vanished.
^
^^^
^^
attacks when he met people from that workshop.
Case 2 -A 45-year old man was taken on ,n July 1964 for the manufacture of chloroplatinatcs.
He had no personal no/family history of allergy. After eight months' latency bouts of nocturna!
asthma occuired. These were treated with mamcmoloncdiacetate and aminophyllme Over one
mo 1 the asthma gradually worsened. Attacks occurred dur.ng work, more specially during the
"ydrolV ». o, croons. Then the subject exhibited dyspnea mght and day. Despite ^Ptornatic
treatment the dyspnea increased with more or less violent paroxysms. A one-month work stoppage
hrothcomplete recovery. Forty-eight hours after return to work this man had a very severe
attac" of a'thma was transferred to another workshop, and has remained asymptomatic since then
Cutaneous tes7s were negative but nQ test with chloroplatinate or chloroplatinic acid was carried out.
Case 3 --A 52-year-old man waa employed in 1958 to manufacture chloroplatinic acid. For
one year there was no trouble. Then cutaneous prunginous ecjematoid lesions appeared on the fore-
. rn elbow folds, face, and neck. Hydrocort.sone acetate ointment l^™*^™™^^
dcimatitis over the weekend, relapse occurred on Monday when work was resumed. Platinum salts
test" we e Lhly Po.,t,ve. Hyposensitization to chloroplatinates and chloroplatmic ac.d was per-
"•med without appreciable result: epidermal reaction wrth 1/1,000 platinum chloride solution ,t.U
y°eE d : zcma "This man could carry on with the same work unt,l 1962 when ho was transferred to
another workshop v.herc pallad,um was extracted from .olution. containing various precious metals
amo Kthem, lltinum. Under those conditions slight eczema persisted. In 1964, the actory was
m™v"d o a new ve.y modern buildma. The worker was assigned to chloroplatinate calcination A
'Terahzed Bc.oma immed.ately occurred, with m.htly attacks of asthma. The asthma pers.sted and
attacks occurred several times a day, a violc-it attack required hosp.tahzation.
This worker resumed his woi k in May in anothoi workshop where he no longer had contact
with platinum salts. Eczema remained cured, but slight asthma persisted, triggered by irritating
vapors or by the presence of workers Ijom the platinum relimng shop.
Case 4 --A Zi-year-old man was assic,ied to the platinum workshop. Two months later,
pruriRinoua erythema appeared on the forearms, elbow folds, armpit., and mterdigital spaces
D."m.t"ti. -mproved on Saturdays and Sundays but -ecurred Mondays. For the two "b.oquent
monL. I..l0n. reached the neck, groin, and chest. The alternate application of h^oc^SOne
ointment and acid paste, as well as intiamu.cularly injected cortisone acetate, brought a complete
cure although the patient did not mterrupt hi, wo, k. After e,Bht days, ^rmatit.s recurred. Then.
subsequent to slight choking following the accidental inhaling of a few puffs of chlorine, diy cough
and th4en attacks of asthma started. At the hospital, cutaneous tests with ^^f^^f ^
ammonium and sodium chloroplatinate were h,Rhty pos.twe: chloroplatinic ac.d tests in 1 / 1, 000
dUuTon .ore followed by an ep.dormal reaction, then a tremendous cutaneous reaction, so we had to
rlmove the patch right away. Solutions of more dilute chloroplatmic acid and chloroplatmates were
also positive. Hyposensit.zat.on was not done. Permanent dyspnea developed exaggeiated by
activity. This required many days away from woik. T.anafcr to another job brought a complete
cure.
Case 5 --A 19-yeai-old man was employed on March 16. 1964, at platinum lefimng. After
six months on this job, some attacks of asthma occurred at mght. They did not occur at work but
dyspnea was permanent and breathing remained wheezy. Weekly wo. k stops for two days would
A-26
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cause complete recession of respiratory signs. Sometimes before the onset of asthma this worker
exhibited eczematoid dermatitis on wrists, forearms, face, and neck. He was treated with topical
applications of corticoids and ammophylline suppositories. Despite epidermal reaction tests showing
allergy to chloroplatinates, chloroplatinic acid, and rubber, no hyposensitization was started. During
military service this man was hospitalized, then discharged for asthma and allergic eczema. When
back at work, he was assigned to another workshop; asthma did not recur, but eczema persisted.
Finally, this man had to leave the factory.
Case 6. --A 23-year-old man was employed at the test laboratory where chloroplatinates were
calcined. After seven years, he found that skin contact with such products triggered a nettle-rash
reaction after one minute latency which lasted about two hours. These phenomena became more
severe: as soon as he walked into the laboratory, conjuntivitis, allergic rhinitis, asthma, and edema
of the eyelids appeared for half an hour. Transfer to another department produced complete cure.
Case 7. --A 27-year-old man was employed at the chloroplatinic acid workshop. Three months
after starting this work, he exhibited eczema of wrists and forearms, then of the neck. Fifteen days
later, while dermatitis remained, bronchial asthma occurred nightly and did not stop for four or five
days. Bouts of asthma also occurred during work. Transfer brought cure after one month. Now
this man can even walk into the platinum workshop without trouble.
Case 8. --A 30-yeai -old employee in the chloroplatinate workshop for five months developed
eczema on his upper limbs extending to the shoulders; he did not stop working. Since he did not
touch chloroplatinates any longer, he remained cured.
Freedman et. al. (1968) report the following case from Canada: Dr. T. T. , a 34-year-old
inorganic chemist on the teaching staff of a large university in the Montreal area, consulted one of us
(S. O. F. } in April 1967, because of possible allergy to platinum salts. His history was that he had
worked with platinum compounds for about 10 years.. During the previous 3 years, he noted that
whenever he came in close contact with platinum salts he would develop acute rhinitis and asthma.
His symptoms became progressively worse, finally reaching a point where he could no longer enter
his own laboratory without experiencing severe cough, wheezing, and shortness of breath. On one
occasion, a solution of ammonium chloroplatinate was accidentally splashed in his face by a co-worker
in the laboratory. Almost immediately, he developed massive angioedema of the face and acute genera-
lized urticaria which required epinephrine and steroids for control.
The patient was admitted to the Montreal General Hospital during an asymptomatic period for
detailed investigation. In the allergy history, .t was determined that the patient had suffered from
mild ragweed hay fever for many years and that his daughter had infantile eczema. Otherwise, he
was completely free of atopic symptoms, except when exposed to platinum salts.
Complete physical examination was within normal limits. The resting blood pressure was
recorded as 140/80 mm Hg. A chest x-ray wa^ reported as showing no evidence of pulmonary, cardiac,
or pleural disease. Respiratory function studies showed normal values for the vital capacity, timed
vital capacity, maximum breathing capacity, and >naximum midexpiratory-flow rate. The electro-
cardiogram was within normal limits. Thus, theie was no evidence for underlying pulmonary or
cardiac disease which may have been aggravated in a nonspecific fashion by inert dust particles.
Routine intradermal allergy tostb showed modeiate positive reactions to house dust and rag-
weed. There was no peripheral blood eosmophilia.
Marshall (1952) reports from South Africa: Mr. D. B. S. , a European male aged 25, was
first seen in July 1951 when he complained of a rash affecting his left thigh, hands and face. He gave
no history of any previous skin or allergic disease and there was no family history of allergy.
He had worked as a laboratory assistant foi over a year and had been employed intermittently
during the previous eight months in the preparation of a platinum catalyst. Part of this process con-
sisted of the deposition of platinum metal on a base; and this was accomplished by evaporating chloro-
platinic acid over hot plates in an exhaust-ventilated fume cupooard. The fluid had, however, to be
stirred by hand and the operator was bound to inhale a certain small amount of fumes and to have his
hands contaminated by the acid.
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In March 1951, about four months after he had first begun work on this process, the patient
began to experience attacks of 'tightness of the chest1 while at work. He felt 'as if no oxygen were
reaching the lungs'. At the same time his eyes and nose watered and he soaked his handkerchief
many times in a day. The attacks worked up to an evening climax, but had passed off by the next
morning. On one occasion he was off work for a week with 'bronchitis' which he considers to have
been a major attack.
One day in June 1951 he wiped his work bench clean of chloroplatmic acid (concentration unknown)
with his handkerchief. The next morning there was a patch of erythema on his left thigh, corresponding
to his trouser pocket where he kept his handkerchief. Two weeks later a rash appeared on the dorsa
of both hands; and about ten days later still the face became affected.
When first examined he presented a patch of erythematous, oedematous, scaling and excoriated
acute dermatitis, about 10 cm. in diameter, on the upper and anterior aspect of the left thigh. The
dorsa of both hands and wrists were similarly affected; and there were similar lesions of both cheeks,
and oedema of the eyelids.
Patch tests of the substances used in his work were applied to the anterior surfaces of the
forearms and the following results were obtained:
1% Hydrochloric acid: Negative after 48 hours.
1% Nitric acid: Negative after 48 hours.
1% Chloroplatmic acid: Positive 4-plus (bullous reaction) in less than 24 hours.
Removed from work and treated only with bland applications, the patient rapidly recovered
from his dermatitis and had no further asthmatic attacks.
Hunter, et. al. (1945) report the results of an investigation of workers in four platinum
refineries in Great Britain:
Case 1.--R.C. , act. 58, research chemist, worked a refinery A from 1907 to 1924 (18 years).
From the first year at this work he noticed a tightness of the chest witha wheeze when certain pro-
cesses in the refinery which caused a spray were in operation. He noticed a tightening also in the
muscles of the back and marked sneezing. There was a watering of the eyes and a dislike of light.
He would go home and go straight to bed, and would wake up in the morning quite fit, only to repeat
the same symptoms the next day. He was forced to leave the refinery in 1924 because the symptoms
became so bad he could no longer carry on. Since then he has been perfectly well. On one occasion
he returned to the refinery on business and immediately noticed a tightness of his chest, even though
the process to which he was sensitive was not going on in the room. However, it was discovered
that sodium chloroplatinate had been weighed out in the room about half an hour previously. There
was no family history of asthma. He now showed no abnormal physical signs. His blood count was
4, 160,000 red cells per c. c. , haemoglobin 111 percent, (photoelectric estimation of alkaline
haematin 100 percent., equivalent to 13.8 gm. haemoglobin percent.), white cells 12,200, poly-
morphs 61 percent., small lymphocytes 6 percent, large lymphocytes 27 percent, large hyalines
6 percent. Dr. D. Jennings reported on an X-ray of his chest--old bilateral apical infection with
fibrosis and drawing upward of both hila, emphysema of both bases.
Case 2. --A. W., male, aet. 38, started work at the age of 15 in a chocolate manufacturing
factory. He worked here for 6 months and then transferred to platinum refinery A. After six years
on this work he noticed that when certain processes were in operation his nose started to run and he
would start sneezing. This lasted for half an hour. The symptoms gradually got worse and after
ten years he began to get tightness of his chest, shortness of breath, wheeze and cough, but he
produced no sputum. He never had an attack at home. The attacks gradually got more frequent
and more severe, and two months before he was interviewed he was moved to the "other precious
metals" department. Since this move he has not had further attacks. He had had no previous
illness, and there was no family history of asthma. On examination no abnormal physical signs
were found, except that when he painted a 3 percent solution of sodium chloroplatinate on his fore-
arm a large wheal appeared. His blood count showed 5, 120, 000 red cells, 100 percent, haemoglobin
(photo-electric estimation), 11,200 white cells, 50 percent polymorphs, 41 percent, lymphocytes,
3-5 percent eosmophils, 5.5 percent monocytes. X-rays of his chest showed emphysema.
-------
Case 3. --E. V. N. , chest, assistant manager of wet process at refinery B, aet. 28, had
worked for five years in the laboratory and for 2-1 /2 years as assistant manager of the wet process.
Immediately he started on the process he became aware that if he entered the room where ammonium
chloroplatinate was dried his nose started to run, producing perfectly clear fluid. He would soak
three handkerchiefs in an hour. He would develop severe sneezing attacks and some irritation of his
eyes. After he had been there three months these symptoms were followed by tightness of the chest
which would last for half an hour, and wheezing which lasted 5 hours. He would be awakened in the
early hours of the morning with a cough which might last an hour, but the following day he would be
quite fit. He had had no previous illness, and there was no family history of asthma. He entered
the drying-room on the day he was interviewed and was observed in an attack. He was cyanosed,
dyspnoeic and had an audible wheeze. His respiration rate was 34. He had no clubbing of his fingers.
His chest moved evenly, was hyper-re sonant with normal air entry but many sibilant rhonchi through-
out. There were no other abnormal physical signs. His blood count showed 6,350, 000 red cells,
130 percent, haemoglobin (photo-electric estimation), 8200 white cells, 60 per cent, polymorphs,
30 per cent, lymphocytes, 5 per cent, eosmophils, 1 per cent, basophils and 4 per cent, monocytes.
X-ray of his chest revealed no abnormality. During the attack he was given 10 minims of 1/1000
adrenalin intramuscularly, but it did not produce any relief of the symptoms, though it raised the
pulse rate from 80 to 120.
Case 4. --L. J. , aet. 36, process hand, worked 7 years at a chemical plant and then for
14 years at platinum refinery B on the wet process and in the 'other precious metals' department.
During the past 3 years he had had attacks of running nose, sneezing, shortness of breath, tightness
of the chest, wheeze and cough. He was frequently awakened by attacks of coughing at 2 a. m., and
had had such an attack every night for the three months previous to his sick-leave which had lasted
3 weeks at the time of interview. He had never had any attacks while away from the works. He was
moved to the time office, but still got some attacks, and was therefore transferred to another depart-
ment where he would not be exposed to the salts of platinum. He had had pleurisy at the age of 8,
and had his tonsils removed 1 year previously because of his asthma. There was no family history
of asthma. When examined he had not been at the refinery for three weeks, so he appeared a healthy
man, and showed no abnormal physical signs. His blood count showed 4, 760, 000 red cells, 104 per
cent, haemoglobin (photo-electric estimation), 7450 white cells, 57 per cent, polymorphs, 1.5 per
cent., eosmophils 39.5 percent lymphocytes and 2 percent, monocytes. Dr. M. H. Jupe reported on
an X-ray of his chest as follows: "There are a few scattered calcified nodules over the lung fields.
The hilar shadows are well seen, but not excessive. "
Case 5. --M. D. , female, aet. 20, had worked as a press operator before entering platinum
refinery C; 3 months before her interview she was observed sieving spongy platinum without exhaust
ventilation or mask, and was seen to be without any symptoms. She said that when she handled the
dry complex salt her eyes and nose would run, and she sneezed continuously. She experienced some
tightness of the chest the same evening, but this never woke her at night. She had never been ill, and
had no family history of asthma. On examination she had no abnormal physical signs. Her blood
count showed 4,500,000 red cells, 98 per cent, haemoglobin (photo-electric estimation), 12, 000 white
cells, 58 per cent, polymorphs, 2 per cent, eosinophils, 3. 1 per cent, lymphocytes, 6 per cent.
monocytes. X-ray of her chest revealed no abnormality.
Case 6. --A. A. , chemist, aet. 33, for past 4 years had been in charge of platinum refinery
D. For 12 years before that he had been an analytical chemist. He had no symptoms except when he
treated the filtrates with granulated zinc, tins caused effervescence and droplets containing complex
salts to be thrown into the atmosphere. Then his nose ran and he sneezed. This might last for half
an hour. He had no tightness of his chest, shortness of breath, cough or wheeze. He had had scarlet
fever as a child, but there was no family history of asthma. On examination, apart from a very mild
degree of funnel chest, he had no abnormal physical signs. His blood count showed 5, 950, 000 red cells,
118 per cent, haemoglobin (photo-electric estimation), 7000 white cells, 60 per cent, polymorphs,
36 per cent, lymphocytes. 1 per cent, eosmophils, and 3 per cent, monocytes.
lexicological Information
Synopsis:
Platinum:
Exposure to complex platinum salts has been shown to cause allergic symptoms of
asthma and dermatitis such as wheezing, coughing, running of the nose, tightness in
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the chest, shortness of breath, cyanosis, and itching of the skin, whereas exposure to
dust of pure metallic platinum causes no symptoms. People working with complex
platinum salts are often troubled with dermatitis. This does not appear to include
the complex salts of other precious metals.
Palladium:
Toxicity is low. This metal, in the form of palladium chloride, has been administered
orally in dosage of about 1 gram daily in the treatment of tuberculosis. These amounts
resulted in no toxic effects. Applied locally to the skin, palladium chloride shows little
or no irritation. In experimental animals, palladium chloride has been given by
intravenous injection, producing damage to bone marrow, liver and kidneys when the
dosage was of the order of 0. 5 to 1. 0 mg per kg of body weight.
L,evene(1971) provides the following comments on platinum sensitivity: Disease caused by
platinum worked into annular or trinket form is not an everyday problem. Dermatitis from metallic
platinum has apparently only been recorded in one patient (Sheard, 1955). However, those concerned
in the refining or analysis of platinum are required to work with the complex salts of the metal and
it is these which give rise to a characteristic syndrome. The complex salts are sodium, potassium
or ammonium tetrachloroplatmate or hexachloroplatmate. Apart from being essential intermediate
compounds in the refining and assaying of the metal, they are used in the manufacture of platinum
sponge, a finely divided form of the metal which is a most valuable industrial catalyst. Individuals
may work in an atmosphere containing these salts for periods of months or years without trouble,
but sooner or later the majority of workers will develop symptoms referable to the respiratory sys-
tem and/or the skin.
The respiratory symptoms were clearly described in a classic paper by Hunter, et. al. (1945)
and consist of rhinorrhoea, sneezing, cough, tightness in the chest, wheezing, shortness of breath
and cyanosis. In short, they resemble a mixture of hay fever and asthma. Symptoms can arise
within minutes of exposure. In the patients reported by Hunter, et. al. , 52 of 91 employees who
worked in platinum refineries in the London area had the asthma/hay fever syndrome to a significant
degree. Thirteen of the 91 had a skin eruption of scaly erythematous type but a few had urticanal
lesions. Jordi (1951) in Zurich described 3 cases in which asthma followed inhalation of platinum
salts and immediate urticaria followed splashing of solutions on the neck and forearms. One case
produced a cutaneous weal within 2 min. of painting with a 3% solution of sodium chloroplatmate but
the responses were not clear-cut. Roberts (1951) in Malvern, Pennsylvania investigated reactions
seen in employees in a platinum laboratory and refinery over a period of 5 years. He coined the
term "platmosis" for the syndromes he encountered.
He noted that once disabling symptoms arose in any one case that person never again became
asymptomatic in a platinum-containing atmosphere. His observations concurred exactly with the
other reports, and it was advised that sufferers from the effects of platinum salts should be trans-
ferred to other work. Five cases with both asthma and eczematous dermatitis have been described
from Pans by Parrot, et. al. (1969), in. a study of 51 subjects 3b had symptoms of platmosis.
Freedman and Krupey (1968) report a man with the respiratory syndrome who developed massive
angio-oedema and acute generalized urticaria following accidental splashing of ammonium chloro-
platmate solution on the face.
Roberts carried out scratch tests with aqueous solutions of sodium chloroplatmate on 60 plati-
num workers. He found that all subjects developed a one plus ( + ) reaction with a 1:10 dilution of the
salt. Following the onset of symptoms, either of the cutaneous or respiratory type, a reaction was
always obtained with a 1:1000 dilution. He decided that initial scratch-testing was an unreliable
index of liability to develop future symptoms and he claimed that a person with a strong personal or
family history of atopy or of contact dermatitis was more likely to succumb to platmosis than others.
However, he believed that individuals with moles, acne or sebaceous cysts were also particularly
prone to the condition.
The elicitation of an immediate skin weal and symptoms resembling asthma and hay fever
after exposure to complex platinum salts suggest that either a pharmocological or an allergic hista-
mine liberating process is operating. Parrot, et. al. (1963) injected sodium chloroplatmate solution
intravenously into normal guinea pigs and found that when a sufficient dose was given, the animal
A-30
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developed intense asthma and died witlnn a few minutes. Smaller closes provoked non-fatal asthma,
and if the dose was repeated several times the effect became successively less intense. Complete
protection against such asthmatic episodes was afforded by prior injection with the antihistamine
drug mepyrdmine. From these observations and further experiment!, using isolated guinea pig ileum
in vitro, the authors concluded th,;t platinum salts .let as powei fill histamine liberators in the guinea
pig. However, despite those findings it seems clear that the clinical syndrome of platinosis in man
is Largely the result of hyper sensitivity to platinum salts. Evidence in favour of this contention is as
follows- (1) workers do not have symptoms initially, the syndrome comes only after months or even
years of exposure to the salts, (i) symptoms increase in severity with repeated exposure, (3) cutan-
eous scratch tests to platinum salts at a. dilution of 1 1000 become positive with the onset of symptoms
when they had been previously negative (Rulicil<>, 1951), (I) [missive transfer tests (Prausmtz-
Knitner reaction) using patient's icruni have been positive using both the platinum salt alone and in
conjunction with human sciuni albumin (F reocl.ii.in .incl Kruucy, !%H).
It is worth pointing out that scratch 01 ml i 'ide1 :nal testing can be hazardous to the point of
being life-threatening in these patients. A single inti ade i mal teat using potassium hexachloroplati-
nate at n concentration of 1 ng/ml produced an .iii.ipliylac tic leactiori in the patient of Freedman
and Krupey (1968). It is WISP for these patients to be pi otected by systemic antihistammc prior to
skin testing.
It h.is hitlieito been recommended th.it pat lent a with platmosis should change their occupation.
rhcie is no doubt that this management is effective sine*, symptoms resolve rapidly when the patient
is i cmoved from exposure to platinum salts. I lovc-vc. i, since the main components of the syndromes
of sensitivity to platinum salts are those f>l an hype rsi.nsitivily rfspon.se.it uould seem reasonable
to attempt hyposensitixation by pi ogressively increasing mtraderm.illy injector) doses of platinum
s.ilt in ?i way analogous to that employed using p(ill<_n in hay fever (FranUland, I9(>5), and strepto-
mycin in cases of immediate liypc-rsensitivitv to tins ding (Cohen, 1954; Levone and Withers, 1969).
•Successful hyposcnbitization was rcci nliy .ichicvud in an analytical chemist who exhibited
typical severe symptoms of li.iy fevei, asthm.i .mil contact urticaria when exposed to platinum com-
plex salts in the course of his work (Lcvene and Calnan, 1971). Starting with a dose of 1 0 ng he was
i;iven inci easing doses of ammonium he\cirhloi oplatmale intrade rmally several times daily for a
month. Immediate symptoms wcie weal and ll.tr>. at the site of injection, and wheezing and flushing,
v hich usually passed off within 30 minutes. On the twelfth day of the course of injections he began to
develop crops of widespread symmetrical cM-ythcm.Ltous, papules and joint pains coming on 2 hours
afte i injection, i.e. he developed a seium sicKness-likc reaction. Histology of the papulcr showed
in intense perivascular infiltrate of polymoip! ~i ..irluji luukocyte.s--mainly eosmophils. The injection
sites at first produced veiy pjom-nent \A ea.lt, aid ll.uos but these tended to diminish with increasing
doses. At fust the weals laded lapidly with no sequelae but later in the couise, with higher doses,
the injection sites developed pinkish-brown ln.der papulea rfftei the initial weal had subsided. With
the highest injected dose (100 jig), the injection bilv. became very tendei and nccrotic after i days.
The appearance resembled the Aithus pln-nom jnon as seen in experimental animals. An injection
of this dose into A normal subject pioduced omy . slight tiansienl reaction at 24 hrs. By this time
it was found that the patient coulci carry oul his usual woj k and handle ammonium bcxachloroplatmatc
without the hay fcvei anil asthm.i symptoms and uiticaria which had previously partially disabled
him. He remained well while uui-Kini> with he •w.ichloi oplalinntc although a chance exposure to tetra-
chloroplatmatc produced symptoms, hiiygehling that his reduced sensitivity was specific for the hexa-
chloroplatinale. A furthei chaptei in Ins pathology occurred nftei he stopped working with platinum
salts for about 3 months. When he w.is ai-.iin exposed he found that he had partially relapsed, and he
j -v[uired i e.idmission to hospital for a furthei conisi, of injections. Since then, he has had continuous
e\posuie and has remained well.
It is of interest to ciinsidi.i the nu-chaiiisiii of his liypersensitwity and its amelioration by the
technique of hyposensitization. It is postulated lhat the ofYgirial symptoms were mediated by
icaginic (IgK) antibody and that injections of the platimnn salt stimulated production of IgC (blocking)
•i ut i body which combined pn:leri:iilially with the antigen to pi event anaphylactic symptoms. The
development of a scium sickne.ts-like and Ai thus-like reaction during hyposensiti&ation give support
to this hypothesis smee then- is evidence that suih reactions me caused by immune complex foima-
tion involving precipitating .intibndy (Crc.un and Tuik, I°7I). Although specific IgG antibody was not
directly dumonstrable in this case by double diffusion in agar 01 by haemagglutmation using either
the platinum salt alone or in conjugation \\. ith human scium albumin , it was found that intraclermal
A-JI
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injection of the platinum salt incubated with post-hyposensitization serum gave a much smaller weal
and flare than salt incubated with pre-hyposensitization serum. This indicated that post-hyposensiti-
zation serum had acquired the ability to block the immediate weal and flare response and it seems
very likely that newly formed IgG antibody was responsible for this blocking activity. The platinum
salt presumably acts as a hapten which combines with an endogenous protein to form an allergenic
hapten-protem complex. A likely candidate for the protein concerned is serum albumin as suggested
by Freedman and Krupey (1968). Although it has been assumed that the anaphylactic symptoms in
these cases are the result of IgE antibody, it has recently been shown (Parish, 1970) that IgG antibody
can have limited anaphylactic activity. However. Parish confers ,t unlikely that anaphylactic IgG
could participate in the classical reagm-mediated reactions-asthma, hay fever, or urticaria--that
occur within minutes of exposure to antigen.
The situation with . egard to the eczematous dermatitis in response to complex platinum salts
as described by several authors ,s less clear. It ,s qu.te likely that allergic contact sensitiv.ty can
occur but this has not yet been convincingly proven by patch tests in appropriate cases. Allergic
contact sensitivity is a delayed hypersensitivity reaction, and the situation ,s complicated by the well-
documented ability of these salts to produce urticaria on contact. It is not even clear what is an
appropriate concentration to be used for patch testing. For a patch test to be valid it must, of course.
be shown that the chosen concentration does not produce an irritant reaction in control subjects (Bet
and Calnan, 1957). Complex salts of platinum are not readily soluble >n distilled water, but solubility
,. improved ,f physiological salmc ,. used. They dissolve m dilute hydrochloric acid but such solu-
tion? are probablv not suitable for patch testing. These problems remain to be resolved.
Although platinosis is a rare disease outside platinum refineries, recent reports indicate that
platinum salts may be of value in cancer chemotherapy (Rosenberg, et al. . 1969. Harder and Rosen-
bere 1970) Platinum compounds have not been widely used as therapeutic agents despite an earlv
report that they were "very effective" in syphilis and rheumatism (Hoefer. 1841). If these com-
pounds do come into generalise, one can anticipate that allergic reactions to them may be seen.
Schroeder et al.. (1971) report on studies of the innate effects of low dos.es of abnormal
trace elements in drinking water on mice and rats exposed for life, conducted in an environment
built so as to exclude metallic contaminants:
In order to evaluate possible innate toxic effects of small doses of rhodium and palladium in
teims of growth and survival, mice divided as to sex were raised in an environment limited in
metallic contamination and given 5 PPm metal in drinking water from weaning until natural death.
Body weight was measured at monthly intervals up to 6 months, at 1 year and at 18 months of age.
The feeding of palladium was associated with growth suppression at 7 and of rhodium at 6 of 16 intei-
vals compared to mean weights of controls. Survival of palladium-fed males was greater than that
of controls. Tumors were found at necropsy in 16.3% of one group of controls, 28. 8% of the rhodium
and 29 i% of the palladium groups. Malignant tumors were increased in rhodium and palladium
groups at a minimally significant level of confidence (P < 0. 05), all but one tumor being malignant.
In a second series, tumors were present in 26. 8% of controls. All tumors in these latter groups
wore mal.gnant. Rhodium and palladium appear to exhibit slight carcinogenic activity in mice.
Spikes, et. al. , (1969) report on experiments of enzyme inhibition by palladium chloride-
In the course of examining palladium poiphynns as possible sensitizers for the photodynamic
mactivation of enzymes, it was observed that palladium ( + 2) inactivated tryps.n directly by a non-
photochemical process. Although palladium (KJ) has been shown to bind to proteins such as carboxy-
peptidase, casein, papam and silk fibroin, and to mterfe.c with plant growth, reports were not
found in the literature on it, action as an enzyme inhibitor. For this reason a preliminary examina-
tion of the effects of palladium (+2) on several enzymes was carried out.
Of the enzymes listed above, only chymotrypsin and trypsm were inactivated by palladium (+2).
The mactivation was time- and pH-dependent. Trypsm was very rapidly mactiviated at pH 4. 2, but
was not inactivated at PH 8. 9. Alphachymoti ypsm was also inactivated very rapidly at PH 4. 2, but,
in contrast to trypsm, was inactivated fairly rapidly at pH 8. 9.
The mechanism of the mactivation of chymotrypsin and trypsm by palladium ( + 2) is not known.
Other metals (copper, zinc, mercury) in the divalent form also inhibit these enzymes; mercury
A-32
-------
presumably inhibits trypsin by reacting with sulfhydryl groups. It has been suggested that mercury
may inactivate chymotrypsin (which has no free sulfhydryl groups) by forming a stable chelate with
the active-site histidme. Palladium (+2) binds to papaln with the same stoichiometry as does mercury
(+2), which suggests that, for this enzyme, its binding is due to interaction with sulfhydryl groups.
Palladium (+2) forms complexes with L-cysteine, L-cystme and L-methionine in solution, but not
with L-histidine. Thus, one could envision that palladium (+2) inactivates trypsin by combining
with free sulfhydryl groups and/or with cystine groupings, while the inactivation of chymotrypsin
might result from reactions with cystine groupings.
Wood (1974) reported recently:
Platinum and palladium will be methylated in the environment by microorganisms. These
metabolic products could be more toxic than other forms of the metals. Platinum and palladium were
listed as very toxic and relatively accessible.
Summary of Medical and Toxicological Information
Metallic platinum is non-toxic and never gives rise to occupational injury. The oxide causes
eczema of the hands and forearms and some lesions of the nails. Dust and spray fxom the complex
salts of platinum have been found to cause asthma after continued exposure. The initial symptoms
of the reaction begin with repeated sneezing followed by a profuse running of the nose with a watery
mucous discharge. Later reactions which may develop are tightness of the chest, shortness of the
breath, with wheezing and blue coloration of the face. When the operator leaves the work, the
symptoms clear with the exception of the persistent bouts of coughing in the night which may endure
for about one-half hour. When the work is resumed, the symptoms recur. Certain typical skin
reactions may also develop in some individuals; this is characterized by a scaly red rash. Blood
checks, skin tests, and X-rays do not reveal any abnormalities leading to the lesions noted. Pre-
cautions lie in minimizing the exposure by adequate means not to exceed a maximum allowable con-
centration of 2 ng per cubic meter for the soluble platinum salts. Treatment consists in removal
from exposure and consultation with a physician with a full-history of the exposure.
Palladium salts commonly used are the chloride and the amino-nitrite. So far as is known,
the palladium salts do not constitute any threat of injury in industry, but laboratory tests show that
when these substances are introduced mammals, damage occurs to the heart, kidneys, liver and
bone marrow. From these indications, it would seem that palladium salts should be carefully watched
for chronic and cumulative toxic effects.
The Environmental Protection Agency has efforts underway at EPA-Cincmnati on the toxicity
of platinum and palladium. The results of these studies should provide substantial additions to the
toxicity data presently available.
A-33
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APPENDIX B. ANALYSIS AND PROJECTIONS
1. End Use and Production Projections
The projected forecast base for total demand of platinum and palladium was established for
each of the end use categories. The forecast bases were derived by relating domestic end uses of
each metal in 1971 to the anticipated growth of such indicators as the gross national product (CNP)
or total population, adapted from the White House Conference on the Industrial World Ahead- A Look
at Business in 1990. Relevant contingency factors, which would have a positive or negative influence
on the projected demand in each end use category, were then considered to obtain a high and low range
of demand. The aggregation of these internal ranges for each end use category constitutes the
median, low and high forecast ranges in the years 1980 and 1990 for platinum and palladium.
In the rest of the world, the demand for platinum catalysts in the petroleum industry is
increasing more rapidly than in the United States as the use of platinum in reforming processes to
produce higher octane motor fuels is being adopted. Rest-of-the-world growth in chemical uses will
probably increase fairly rapidly as the demand for fertilizer materials increases. Within the electric
industry, where palladium is used, the move to electronic and other means of switching may result
in a relatively slow rate of future growth in the rest of the world. Demand in dental, medical, glass
and jewelry applications in other countries will probably grow at rates approximating those in the
United States. Based upon these considerations, the rest-of-the-world demand for platinum is
expected to range between 1.565 and 2.087 million ounces in 1980 (with a median of 1.826 million
ounces), and between 2.317 and 3.089 million ounces in 1990 (median, 2.703 million ounces). The
growth rate corresponds to 4.0 percent. The rest-of-the-world palladium demand is expected to
range between 1. 182 and 2. 128 million ounces in 1980 (median, 1.655 million ounces). In 1990, the
range is projected from about 1. 750 to 3. 150 million ounces at a median of 2.450 million ounces.
The median growth rate corresponds also to 4.0 percent. The following Tables B-l and B-2 show
the domestic and rest-of-the-world forecast ranges of demand for platinum and palladium. Tables
B-3 and B-4 present forecast bases for each category of end use.
Table B-l. Forecast Range of World Demand for Platinum
(thousand troy oz)
1971 1980 1990
United States
Rest-of-the-world
Total world demand
estimate
high
median
low
high
median
low
high
median
low
541
1283
---
1824
1900
1508
1141
2087
1826
1565
3987
3334
2706
2442
1910
1453
3089
2703
2317
5531
4613
3770
Source: Mineral Facts and Problems 1970 and Southwest Research
Institute
The projections for platinum and palladium in catalytic mufflers are based on an immediate
demand of 700, 000 oz platinum and 300, 000 oz palladium, required at the original 1975 timetable.
The rest-of-the-world demands in 1971 are taken from Tables A-3, A-4, A-8, and A-9, where it was
shown that about 1.82 million oz of platinum and about 1.92 million oz of palladium were produced in
1971. The projection of production figures to 1980 and 1990 are given in terms of requirements from
major producers on Table B-5.
A comparison of the 1975 production objectives for major producing countries with the pro-
jected world demand shows that a constant 1975 production rate for platinum would meed the 1980
median demand, whereas the constant 1975 production rate for palladium would not meet the 1980
median demand. Based on the 1975 objective, it would appear that the world platinum production
needs to be increased by 2. 064 million oz to meet the 1990 high demand projection, and by 1. U6mil-
lion oz to meet the 1990 median projections. World palladium production would need to be increased
B-l
-------
Table B-Z.
Forecast Range of World Demand for Palladium
(thousand troy oz)
1971
1980
1990
United States
Rest-of-the-world
Total world demand
estimate
high
median
low
high
median
low
high
median
low
760
1163
---
...
19Z3
...
1589
IZ30
78Z
Z1Z8
1655
1182
3717
Z885
1964
1919
1466
962
3150
Z450
1750
5069
3916
Z7IZ
Source Mineral Facts and Problems 1970 and Southwest Research
Institute
Table B-3. Contingency Forecasts of U.S. Demand for Platinum
by End Use, 1980 and 1990
(thousand troy oz)
U.S.
End Us.: Demand
liyTnduatiy '.971
Chemical ,
(inorganic)
Chemical,
(organic)
I'eti oleum
Glass
riecti ical and
Electronic
Dental and
Medical
lew ell y and
Decorative
Miscellaneous
Automotive
Catalysts
Total (Rounded)
81
54
ill
41
52
23
18
20
541
U.S.
Forecast
Base 1980
1 17
60
365
59
58
Z5
i\
29
774
1508
U.S.
Low
1980
105
43
261
54
30
25
19
24
580
1 141
U.S.
High
1980
195
69
489
88
74
50
47
36
852
1900
U.S.
Forecast
Base 1990
177
67
551
90
64
28
23
44
866
1910
U.S.
Low
1990
159
48
394
83
33
28
21
37
650
1453
U.S.
High
1990
295
77
738
135
82
56
51
55
953
2442
Souicu: Minoial Facts and Problems 1970 and Southwest Research Institute
liy 2 106 mi Hi on 01 to meot the 1990 high demand projection, and by 1.343 million oz to meet the 1990
median projection. Table A-l 5 showed that platinum reserves of major producing nations are estimated
as 215 29 million OB and palladium reserves as 179.02 million oz. It would appear that the projected
demands for platinum and palladium can be met amply during the forecast period from known reserves.
£. Contingency Assumptions
Contingency assumptions made to establish the U.S. forecast range of demand for each end use
in 1980 and 1990 arc presented below.
Industr ,al Inorganic Chemicals. The forecast base in the years 1 980 and 1990 for this end use was
oUamed by ielating the growth in demand for platinum and palladium to the growth in CNP which is
anticipated as 4. 2% annually according to the White House Conference Board. The forecast bases of
demand for platinum are 117,000(1980), 1 77, 600 (1 990) oz and for palladium 191, 000 (1980) and
289 000 (1990) oz The chemical industry is a large consumer, especially for the production of nitric
aciri wh.ch ,s used m tonnage quantities in the production of fertilizers and exploswes. With the steady
increase in populat.on as well as demand for food products world wide, there is a continuing demand
B-Z
-------
Table B-4. Contingency Forecasts of U. S. Demand for Palladium
by End Use. 1980 and 1990
(thousand troy oz)
End use
by Industry
Chemical
(inorganic)
Chemical
(organic)
Petroleum
Glass
Electrical and
Electronic
Dental and
Medical
Jewelry and
Decorative
Miscellaneous
Automotive
Catalysts
Total (Rounded)
U.S.
Demand
1971
132
87
3
0.20
432
61
19
26
TbO
U.S.
Forecast
Base 1980
191
96
4.3
0.29
478
69
21
28
332
1230
U.S.
Low
1980
179
96
3.2
0.27
212
69
21
36
166
782
U.S.
High
1980
298
128
6.5
0.43
584
104
49
54
365
1589
U.S.
Forecast
Base 1990
289
108
7
0.44
534
77
23
57
371
1910
U.S.
Low
1990
271
108
5.3
0.40
237
77
23
54
186
962
U.S.
High
1900
452
144
10.5
0.66
653
1 16
54
81
408
1919
Source: Mineral Facts and Problems 1970 and Southwest Research Institute
Table B-5. World Production Requirement for Platinum and Palladium
World Demand
(thousand troy oz)
1971 1980 1990
Production Objective 1975
(thousand troy oz)
Canada U.S. S. R. U.S.A.
Platinum:
high
medium
low
Palladium:
high
medium
low
1824
3987
3334
2706
5531
4613 217
3770
700 2550 3467
~~ "
1923
3717
2885
1964
5069
3916
2712
283
1400
890
2573
Source: Southwest Research Institute
for fertilizers. The demand for explosives may increase due to increased activity in mining and
quarrying operations and m the construction of roads, dams and reservoirs. The present rate of
growth for the chemical industry is about 10 percent per year. At this growth rate, the high demand
for platinum would be 195,000 (1980), 295, 000 (1990) oz and for palladium 298. 000 (1980) and 452 000
(1990) oz. More efficient use of these metals or the use of alternate metals in catalysts for producing
nitric acid may contribute to a low demand for platinum and palladium. It is also possible that nitro-
gen replenishment of the soil by direct application of ammonia will increase substantially. Addition-
ally, the use of mechanized boring machines for mining and quarrying operations may reduce the
demand for explosives. These contingencies may result in a low demand for platinum of 105 000
(1980). 159,000 (1990) oz and for palladium of 179,000 (1980) and 271,000 (1990) oz.
Industrial OrBanic Chemicals. The forecast bases in the years 1980 and 1990 were obtained by
relating the growth in demand for platinum and palladium to the anticipated growth rate of total popula-
tion at 1. 125 percent per annum, resulting in platinum demand of 60, 000 (1980), 67,000 (1990) oz and
in palladium demand of 96. 000 (1980) and 108. 000 (1990) oz. The use of medicmals proportional to
total population will probably rise due to increase m longevity and an expansion in Medicare and other
health programs. It is also anticipated that synthetic fibers will be used increasingly m lieu of
natural fibers. Thus, the demand could reach highs for platinum of 69, 000 (1980), 77, 000 (1990) oz
B-3
-------
and for palladium 128,000 (1980) and 144, 000 (1990) oz. A low demand in this category may result
from the development of alternative processes for producing medicinals. Moreover, education may
result in higher health standards achieved through preventive medicine. New techniques in fabrica-
ting and producing synthetic fibers may reduce the demand for spinnerets made from platinum-group
metals. Due to these contingencies, the low demand could be for platinum 43, 000 (1980), 48, 000
(1990) oz and for palladium 96,000 (1980) and 108,000 (1990) oz.
Petroleum Refining. The forecast bases in this end use are for platinum 365,000 (1980),
551, 000 (1990) oz and for palladium 4. 300 (1980) and 7. 000 (1990) oz, obtained by relating the growth
in this sectorto the projected growth of the GNP at 4. 2 percent per annum. Increased affluence could
result in greater production of automobiles and other motorized recreation vehicles, and thus in
increased demand for gasoline. As lead is outlawed as a means of controlling antiknock characteris-
tics of gasoline and for rendering catalytic mufflers effective, platinum requirements may be sub-
stantially increased in the production of gasoline of higher octane ratings. Based on the increased
mobility, limitations on environmental pollution, and other considerations, the demand for platinum
could reach a high of 489. 000 (1980), 738,000(1990) oz and for palladium 6,500 (1980) and 10.500
(1990) oz. However, innovations in transportation such as the development of electric automobiles
or the introduction of mass transit systems would severely limit the demand for gasoline. In addition,
new techniques in petroleum refining or use of alternate materials for catalysts could reduce the
demand for platinum and palladium. These contingencies could result in a low demand for platinum
of 261, 000 (1980), 394, 000 (1990) oz and for palladium of 3, 200 (1980) and 5. 300 (1990) oz.
Class Industry. The end use in this category was obtained by relating the growth to the CNP
at 4.2 percent per annum, resulting in forecast bases for platinum of 59,000 (1980), 90,000 (1990) oz
and for palladium of 290 (1980) and 440 (1990) oz. Concern over fire hazards could lead to increased
use of fire-resistant glass fibers for carpeting and drapes by the domestic and industrial sectors.
Also, tire manufacturers may adopt increasingly the use of fiberglass for belting in tires. More-
over, if there is a drastic change in transportation, fiberglass belting may be used for conveyer-type
sidewalks. Fiberglass will probably be utilized increasingly in the production of boats, snowmobiles
and car bodies. Based on these assumptions, a high demand could result for platinum of 88,000
(1980). 135,000 (1990) oz and for palladium of 430 (1980) and 660 (1990) oz. However, mass trans-
portation systems may greatly reduce the demand for automobiles. Manufacturers may continue to
use aluminum in boats. Moreover, natural fibers, chemically treated for fi reproofing, maybe
aesthetically preferred to glass fibers. These considerations could result in a low for platinum of
54, 000 (1980), 83, 000 (1990) oz and for palladium of 270 (1980) and 400 (1990) oz.
Electrical and Electronic Industry. The forecast bases for platinum of 58,000 (1980), 64,000
(1990) oz and for palladium of 478, 000 (1980) and 534, 000 (1990) oz were obtained by relating the
growth in this end use to the projected growth rate of total population at 1. 125 percent annually. Due
to affluence and the growth in population, communications equipment, including telephone and tele-
vision, is expected to be in large demand. It is also likely that fuel cells which will utilize platinum
or palladium will be developed. Moreover, the reliability of platinum-group metals as electrical
components will sustain their use in aerospace applications. These contingencies could result in a
high demand for platinum of 74, 000 (1980), 82, 000 (1990) oz and for palladium of 584, 000 (1980) and
653, 000 (1990) oz. Conversely, current applications, utilizing these metals may decline. For
instance, the major use of thermocouples, containing platinum, is currently in the steel industry.
The production of steel by the basic oxygen furnace requires fewer thermocouples than production by
the open hearth and the electric furnace. Demand for spark plugs with platinum contents in aircraft
engines is expected to decline due to increased use of jet propulsion. Use of other metals in alloys
for magnet materials and increased use of solid state devices for electronic switching will contribute
to a decline in demand for platinum-group metals. These contingencies could result in a low demand
for platinum of 30.000 (1980), 33.000 (1990) oz and for palladium of 212,000 (1980) and 237,000
(1990) oz.
Dental and Medical Industry. The forecast bases for platinum of 25,000 (1980), 28,000 (1990)
oz and for palladium of 69, 000 (1980) and 77, 000 (1990) oz were obtained by relating the growth in
this end use to the anticipated growth rate for total population of 1. 125 percent per annum. Affluence,
increased awareness of dental hygene and vanity considerations will probably result in increased
attention to orthodontic treatment and prosthetic dentistry. Hence, the use of the platinum-group
metals in corrective devices for straightening teeth, dental plates, and supports may result in a high
demand for platinum of 50, 000 (1980), 56,000 (1990) oz and for palladium of 104,000 (1980) and
116, 000 (1990) oz. Conversely, prophylaxis either through teaching or through such means as chemical
B-4
-------
treatment of drinking water with fluoride may decrease the need for dental plates or other prosthetic
devices. These considerations could result in a low demand for platinum of 25, 000 (1980), 28, 000
(1990) oz and for palladium of 69, 000 (1980) and 77, 000 (1990) oz.
Jewelry and Decorative Industry. The forecast bases for platinum of Zl, 000 (1980), 23,000
(1990) oz and for palladium of 21,000 (1980) and 23.000 (1990) oz were obtained by relating the growth
in this category to projected growth of total population at 1. 125 percent annually. On the assumption
of increased affluence and the desire for quality jewelry, the demand can be expected to reach a high for
platinum of 47,000 (1980), 51,000 (1990) oz and for palladium of 49,000 (1980) and 54,000 (1990) oz.
However, changes in style and taste may result in a low demand for platinum of 19,000 (1980), 21,000
(1990) oz and for palladium of 21, 000 (1980) and 23, 000 (1990) oz.
Miscellaneous Uses. These uses include such applications as laboratory ware and brazing
alloys containing the platinum-group metals. The forecast bases for platinum of 29, 000 (1980),
44, 000 (1990) oz and for palladium of 38, 000 (1980) and 51, 000 (1990) oz were obtained by relating
the growth in this end use to the growth in the CNP of 4. 2 percent per annum. The forecast bases
for automobile catalysts for platinum of 774, 000 (1980), 866,000 (1990) oz and for palladium of
332, 000 (1980) and 371, 000 (1990) oz were obtained by relating the growth in this end use to the pro-
jected growth rate of total population of 1. 125 percent per annum. The high demand may be realized
by the development of industrial anti-pollution devices and by fuels cells which may use platinum-
group metals: platinum 36,000 (I960), 55. 000 (1990) oz and palladium 54, 000 (I 980), and 81, 000
(1990) oz. The low demand in miscellaneous uses could be as the result of the substitution of alter-
nate metals. The low demand would be for platinum 24, 000 (1980), 37, 000 (1990) oz and for palladium
36, 000(1980)and 54, 000(1990)oz.
The low demand for catalytic mufflers in automobiles may be due to alternate catalytic
materials or due to different technical solutions to the emission problems. The low demand for
platinum would be 580,000 (1980), 650,000 (1990) oz and for palladium 166,000 (1980) and 186, 000
(1990) oz respectively. The high demand could be realized, if the alternate materials and technical
solution would not be feasible. These considerations could result in a high demand for platinum of
852,000 (1980), 953,000 (1990) oz and for palladium of 365,000 (1980) and 408,000 (1990) oz.
3. U.S. Supply and Demand Statistics
Table B-6 shows salient U.S. platinum and palladium statistics for the latest published year.
Table B-6. Salient Platinum and Palladium Statistics for 1971
Platinum Palladium
United States (18,029)
Mine production
Refinery production
New Metal 10, 198 20,951
Secondary Metal 103,420 161,099
Exports (except manufacturers) 319,642 76,471
Imports for consumption 551t 127 657,983
Stocks Dec. 31; refiner, importer, dealer 445,821 316,126
Consumption 541,164 76o]l06
World Production 1,823,763 1,922,979
Source: Minerals Yearbook 1971 and Southwest Research Institute
Data on mine production include production from crude platinum placers and byproduct
platinum-group metals recovered larRely from domestic gold and copper ores. The product from
placer dredging operations at Goodncws Bay, Alaska assays about 64 to 76 percent platinum and
0.23 to 0.39 percent palladium. Byproduct production from copper and gold refining is mostly palladium.
U.S. exports of platinum-group metals include 79 percent platinum of a total of 404,610 oz
for all metals. It was assumed that 18.9 percent represented palladium and 2. 1 percent minor
platinum-group metals.
B-5
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(/'lease read instructions on the reverse before completing)
EPA-650/1-74-008
3 RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO
TITLE AND SUBTITLE A Literature bearch and Analysis of
Information Regarding Sources, Uses, Production, Con-
sumption, Reported Medical Cases, and Toxicology of
Platinum and Palladium
REPORT DATE
April 1974
6 PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
Richard A. Mayer, W. Lawrence Prehn, Jr., and
Donald E. Johnson
8 PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO
SWRI 013881
9 PERFORMING OR~ANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Southwest Research Institute
8500 Culebra Road
San Antonio, Texas 78284
10- KnoGRAiW Etti«6NT NO
1AA002
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO
68-02-1274
iGENCV NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Protection Agency
National Environmental Research Center
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final 2/15/74-4/15/74
4. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
IOTES
the basis tor the
SI^tS,1Sl!SSTn5e??SiSlitSdlJI!RSfS.prwidas the basis
Supply and Demand. An average of 3.7 million troy ounces of platinum and
S™^
troy ounces, with considerable promise of increasing these reserves through new ex-
Introduction of a n dmd fout«ote
lB 1990) 1
>ears that the
sources, it Should be pointed
: upon fpreign sources. The
production, but it produces
o
cal and petroleum
-,, i I _ , *"****Bjj»*»»iwii.* mJtt v/»« \*i i\A \t Willjr Ul 1C «) Q I LJ
itij hazards. Industrial exposure to these is limited ti
atinum ores and the preparation of catalysts for chemi-
industries.
17
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTOR
Platinum catalysts
Palladium catalysts
Catalytic converters - automotive
Trace contaminants
Heavy metal pollution
Auto emissions
b IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c COSATI I icId/Croup
Unlimited
19 SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21 NO OF PAGES
46
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
10 SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
Unclassified
22 PRICE
B-6
------- |