United States 	
EnvironrnontBl Protoctlon
Agency
Office of Water
Regulations and Standards
Washington. DC 20460
                            June, IMS
Environmental Profiles
and Hazard Indices
for Constituents
of Municipal Sludge:
Cyanide

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                                 PREFACE


     This  document  is  one of a series of prelimin.. •/ assessments dealing
with  chemicals of  potential concern  in municipal  sewage sludge.   The
purpose  of these  documents is to:   (a)  summarize the available data for
the  constituents  of  potential  concern,  (b)  identify  the key environ-
mental  pathways for  each constituent  related to  a reuse and disposal
option  (based  on  hazard indices), and  (c)  evaluate the conditions under
which such  a pollutant  may pose  a  hazard.   Each document provides a sci-
entific  basis  for making  an initial  determination of  whether  a pollu-
tant, at  levels currently observed in sludges, poses a likely hazard to
human health  or the  environment when  sludge is disposed  of by  any of
several  methods.   These methods  include  lands reading  on  food  chain or
nonfood  chain  crops, distribution  and marketing  programs,  landfilling,
incineration and ocean disposal.

     These  documents are  intended  to serve as a  rapid  screening tool to
narrow an  initial list  of  pollutants  to  those of  concern.   If* a signifi-
cant hazard is indicated by  this  preliminary analysis, a  more detailed
assessment  will be  undertaken  to  better  quantify the  risk from  this
chemical and to derive criteria if warranted.   If a hazard  is  shown to
be unlikely, no further assessment  will be conducted at  this  time;  how-
ever, a reassessment  will be  conducted  after  initial regulations  are
finalized.  In  no case, however, will criteria be derived  solely  on  the
basis of information presented in this document.

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                            TABLE OP CONTENTS


                                                                     Page

PREFACE 	    i

1.  INTRODUCTION	  1-1

2.  PRELIMINARY CONCLUSIONS FOR CYANIDE IN MUNICIPAL SEWAGE
      SLUDGE	  2-1

    Landspreading and Distribution-and-Marketing 	  2-1

    Landfilling 	  2-1

    Incineration 	  2-1

    Ocean Di sposal 	  2-1

3.  PRELIMINARY HAZARD INDICES FOR CYANIDE IN MUNICIPAL SEWAGE
      SLUDGE	  3-1

    Landspreading and Distribution-and-Marketing 	  3-1

    Landfilling 	  3-1

         Index of groundwater concentration resulting
           from landfilled sludge (Index 1) 	  3-1
         Index of human tpxicity resulting from
           groundwater contamination (Index 2)  	  3-8

    Incineration 	  3-10

    Ocean Disposal 	  3-10

A.  PRELIMINARY DATA PROFILE FOR CYANIDE IN MUNICIPAL SEWAGE
      SLUDGE	  4-1

    Occurrence 	  4-1

         Sludge 	  4-1
         Soil  - Unpolluted 	  4-1
         Water - Unpolluted 	  4-2
         Air 	  4-2
         Food  	  4-2

    Human Effects  	  4-3

         Ingestion 	  4-3
         Inhalation 	   4-4
                                   11

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                            TABLE OF CONTENTS
                               (Continued)

                                                                     Page

    Plant Effects 	  4-4

         Phytotozicity 	  4-4
         Uptake	  4-5

    Domestic Animal and Wildlife Effects 	  4-5

         Toxicity	  4-5
         Uptake 	  4-5

    Aquatic Life Effects 	  4-6

         Toxicity	  4-6
         Uptake 	  4-6

    Soil Biota Effects 	  4-6

         Toxicity	  4-6
         Uptake 	  4-7

    Physicochemical Data for Estimating Fate and Transport 	  4-7

5.  REFERENCES	  5-1

APPENDIX.  PRELIMINARY HAZARD INDEX CALCULATIONS FOR
    CYANIDE IN MUNICIPAL SEWAGE SLUDGE 	  A-l
                                   in

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                                SECTION 1

                               INTRODUCTION
     This  preliminary  data  profile  is  one  of  a  series   of  profiles
dealing  with chemical  pollutants  potentially of  concern  in municipal
sewage sludges.   Cyanide was initially identified  as being  of potential
concern  when  sludge  is  placed  in  a   landfill.*  This  profile   is  a
compilation  of  information  that may  be useful  in  determining  whether
cyanide poses an  actual hazard  to  human health or the environment when
sludge is disposed of by this method.
     The  focus  of   this  document  is  the   calculation of  "preliminary
hazard ind.-.es"  for  selected potential   exposure  pathways,  as  shown in
Section  3.   Each  index illustrates  the hazard  that could  result from
movement  of  a  pollutant by  a  given  pathway  to  cause  a  given  effect
(e.g., sludge •» groundwater •» human toxicity).   The values  and  assump-
tions  employed  in  these  calculations  tend  to  represent  a  reasonable
"worst case"; analysis  of error or uncertainty has  been  conducted to a
limited degree.  The resulting value  in most  cases is  indexed to unity;
i.e.,  values >1  may indicate  a  potential  hazard,  depending upon the
assumptions of the calculation.
     The data used for  index  calculation  have  been selected  or estimated
based  on  information  presented  in   the  "preliminary  data  profile",
Section 4.   Information in  the profile  is based on a compilation  of the
recent literature.   An  attempt  has been made to  fill out  the  profile
outline to the greatest extent  possible.   However,  since  this is  a pre-
liminary analysis, the literature has  not been exhaustively perused.
     The  "preliminary  conclusions" drawn  from each  index in  Section  3
are  summarized  in Section  2.   The preliminary  hazard indices will  be
used as a  screening  tool to determine which pollutants and  pathways may
pose a hazard.  Where a potential hazard is indicated  by  interpretation
of these  indices,  further analysis will  include  a more detailed  exami-
nation of  potential  risks  as well as  an  examination of  site-specific
factors.    These more rigorous  evaluations  may  change the  preliminary
conclusions  presented  in  Section  2,  which are  based on a  reasonable
"worst case" analysis.
     The  preliminary   hazard  indices   for   selected  exposure   routes
pertinent to landfilling are  included  in this profile.  The calculation
formulae for these  indices  are shown in  the  Appendix.   The  indices are
rounded to two significant figures.
  Listings were  determined  by a  series  of expert  workshops  convened
  during  March-May,  1984  by  the  Office  of  Water   Regulations   and
  Standards (OWRS)  to  discuss landspreading, landfilling,  incineration,
  and ocean disposal,  respectively,  of  municipal  sewage  sludge.
                                   1-1

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                                SECTION 2

      PRELIMINARY CONCLUSIONS FOR CYANIDE IN MUNICIPAL SEWAGE SLUDGE
     The  following preliminary  conclusions have  been derived  from the
calculation  of  "preliminary hazard  indices",  which  represent conserva-
tive or  "worst  case" analyses  of hazard.   The indices and  their basis
and  interpretation  are  explained  in  Section  3.    Their  calculation
formulae are shown in the Appendix.

  I. LAHDSPREADING AND DISTRIBUTION-AND-MARKETING

     Based on  the recommendations  of  the  experts  at the  OWRS  meeting
     (April-May,  1984),  an assessment  of  this reuse/disposal option is
     not being  conducted  at  this time.  The U.S.  EPA reserves the right
     to conduct such an assessment for this option in the future.

 II. LANDFILLING

     The  landfill disposal  of  municipal  sewage  sludge  is expected  to
     result  in  a  substantial   increase  in  cyanide  concentrations  in
     groundwater,  especially  when worst-site  parameters  are  present  in
     the saturated  zone  or when  the  cumulative worst case  is evaluated
     (see  Index 1).   In  most  cases,   cyanide  may pose  a slight  human
     health  hazard  as  a  result  of drinking groundwater contaminated  by
     municipal  sewage  sludge  landfills.    However,   a  moderate  health
     hazard  may be associated  with the cumulative  worst-case  landfill
     scenario (see Index 2).

III. INCINERATION

     Based on  the recommendations of  the  experts  at the OURS  meetings
     (April-May,  1984),  an assessment  of  this reuse/disposal option  is
     not being  conducted  at  this  time.  The U.S. EPA reserves the right
     to conduct such an assessment for this option  in  the  future.

 IV. OCEAN DISPOSAL

     Based on  the recommendations of  the  experts  at the OWRS  meetings
     (April-May,  1984),  an assessment   of  this reuse/disposal option  is
     not being  conducted  at  this  time.  The U.S. EPA reserves the right
     to conduct  such an assessment for  this option  in  the  future.
                                   2-1

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                                SECTION 3

                 PRELIMir\HY HAZARD INDICES FOR CYNANIDE
                        IH  "JHICIPAL SEWAGE SLUDGE
I.   LANDSFREADING AND DISTRIBUTION-AND-HARKETING

     Based on  the recommendations  of  the experts  at the  OWRS meetings
     (April-May,  1984),  an assessment of  this reuse/disposal  option is
     not being conducted at  this  time.   The U.S. EPA reserves  the right
     to conduct such an assessment for this option in the future.

II.  LANDPILLING

     A.   Index of  Groundwater Concentration  Resulting from  Landfilled
          Sludge (Index 1)

          1.    Explanation  -  Calculates  groundwater  contamination  which
               could occur in a potable aquifer  in  the landfill  vicin-
               ity.    Uses  U.S.  EPA's  Exposure  Assessment Group  (EAG)
               model, "Rapid  Assessment of Potential  Groundwater Contam-
               ination Under  Emergency  Response  Conditions" (U.S.  EPA,
               1983).  Treats  landfill leachate as  a pulse input,  i.e.,
               the application of a constant  source  concentration  for  a
               short time period relative to the  time frame of  the  anal-
               ysis.   In order to  predict pollutant movement   in  soils
               and groundwater, parameters regarding  transport  and  fate,
               and boundary or  source conditions  are evaluated.   Trans-
               port   parameters  include  the   interstitial pore   water
               velocity  and   dispersion   coefficient.   Pollutant   fate
               parameters include the  degradation/decay coefficient  and
               retardation  factor.   Retardation is  primarily a  function
               of  the  adsorption  process, which  is  characterized  by  a
               linear,   equilibrium   partition   coefficient   representing
               the ratio of  adsorbed and  solution  pollutant concentra-
               tions.  This partition coefficient,  along with  soil  bulk
               density and  volumetric water content,  are used  to calcu-
               late   the  retardation  factor.    A  computer  program  (in
               FORTRAN)  was developed  to facilitate  computation of  the
               analytical solution.   The  program predicts pollutant  con-
               centration as  a function  of time and location in  both  the
               unsaturated  and  saturated zone.    Separate   computations
               and parameter  estimates are required  for  each zone.   The
               prediction  requires   evaluations   of   four   dimensionless
               input values  and  subsequent  evaluation  of  the result,
               through  use  of  the  computer program.

          2.    Assumptions/Limitations -  Conservatively  assumes  that  the
               pollutant  is 100  percent  mobilized  in the  leachate  and
               that  all leachate leaks out  of  the landfill in  a finite
               period and undiluted  by precipitation.   Assumes  that  all
               soil  and  aquifer properties  are  homogeneous   and  isotropic
               throughout each zone; steady, uniform flow occurs only in
                                  3-1

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          the  vertical direction  throughout the  unsaturated zone,
          and  only in  the horizontal  (longitudinal) plane  in  the
          saturated zone;  pollutant movement is  considered only in
          direction of  groundwater  flow for the saturated zone;  all
          pollutants  exist in  concentrations  that do  not signifi-
          cantly affect water movement; for  organic  chemicals,  the
          background  concentration  in  the  soil profile  or aquifer
          prior to  release from the  source is  assumed  to be zero;
          the pollutant source  is a pulse  input;  no dilution of  the
          plume occurs by  recharge from  outside  the  source area;
          the  leachate  is undiluted  by  aquifer  flow within   the
          saturated zone;  concentration  in the  saturated zone  is
          attenuated only by dispersion.

3.   Data Used and Rationale

     a.   Unsaturated zone

          i.   Soil type and characteristics

               (a)  Soil type

                    Typical    Sandy loam
                    Worst      Sandy

                    These  two  soil  types were  used by Gerritse  et
                    al. (1982)  to  measure  partitioning of elements
                    between  soil  and  a   sewage   sludge   solution
                    phase.   They are used  here since  these  parti-
                    tioning measurements (i.e.,  K
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          estimated by  infiltration  or net recharge.  The
          volumetric wa'war  content  is used in calculating
          the water n. Cement  through the unsaturated zone
          (pore   water   velocity)   and   the  retardation
          coefficient.  Values obtained from COM, 1984.

     (d)  Fraction of organic carbon  (foc)

          Typical    0.005  (unitless)
          Worst      0.0001 (unitless)

          Organic content  of  soils  is described  in terms
          of percent organic  carbon,  which is  required in
          the  estinu.-'ion  of  partition  coefficient,  Kj.
          Values,  obtained  from R.   Griffin  (1984)  are
          representative values for subsurface soils.

ii.  Site parameters

     (a)  Landfill leaching time (LT) = 5 years

          Sikora  et  al.  (1982)  monitored  several  sludge
          entrenchment  sites  throughout  the United  States
          and estimated time  of  landfill  leaching to be  4
          or 5 years.  Other  types of landfills  may leach
          for longer periods  of  time;  however, the  use  of
          a value for  entrenchment   sites  is  conservative
          because  it   results    in   a  higher   leachate
          generation  rate.

     (b)  Leachate generation rate (Q)

          Typical    0.8 m/year
          Worst       1.6 m/year

          It  is   conservatively  assumed   that   sludge
          leachate enters  the unsaturated  zone  undiluted
          by precipitation  or  other  recharge,  that  the
          total  volume  of  liquid  in  the   sludge leaches
          out  of  the landfill,  and  that  leaching is  com-
          plete  in 5  years.   Landfilled sludge is assumed
          to be 20 percent solids by  volume, and depth of
          sludge  in  the landfill  is 5 m  in  the typical
          case  and  10  m  in  the  worst  case.    Thus, the
          initial  depth   of   liquid   is  4  and  8 m, and
          average  yearly  leachate generation  is  0.8 and
          1.6 m,  respectively.

     (c)  Depth  to groundwater (h)

          Typical    5 m
          Worst      0 m
                   3-3

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          Eight  landfills  were monitored  throughout  the
          United  States and  depths  to  groundwater  below
          them  were listed.   A typical  depth to  ground-
          water  of  5  m was  observed  (U.S.  EPA,   1977).
          For  the  worst case,  a  value of  0 m is used to
          represent  the  situation  where  the bottom of  the
          landfill  is  occasionally or regularly below  the
          water table.   The depth  to groundwater must be
          estimated  in order  to  evaluate  the likelihood
          that  pollutants  moving  through  the unsaturated
          soil will reach the groundwater.

     (d)  Dispersivity coefficient  (a)

          Typical    0.5 m
          Worst      Not applicable

          The  dispersion process  is  exceedingly  complex
          and  difficult  to quantify, especially for the
          unsaturated  zone.   It  is  sometimes  ignored  in
          the  unsaturated  zone, with the  reasoning  that
          pore water velocities are  usually  large  enough
          so  that   pollutant   transport   by  convection,
          i.e., water  movement,  is paramount.  As  a rule
          of  thumb, dispersivity   may be  set  equal  to
          10 percent of  the distance measurement  of the
          analysis  (Gelhar  and  Axness,   1981).     Thus,
          based on depth to groundwater listed above, the
          value for  the  typical  case is  O.S and  that for
          the worst  case  does  not  apply  since  leachate
          moves directly to the unsaturated zone.

iii. Chemical-specific  parameters

     (a)  Sludge concentration of  pollutant (SC)

          Typical        476.2  mg/kg DW
          Worst        2686.6  mg/kg DW

          The typical and worst sludge concentrations are
          the   median    and   95th   percentile  values,
          respectively, statistically derived  from  sludge
          concentration data from a survey  of  40  publicly
          owned treatment works (POTWs) (U.S.  EPA,  1982).
          (See Section  4,  p. 4-1).

     (b)  Soil half-life  of  pollutant (t^)  -  Data not
          immediately available.

     (c)  Degradation rate  (y) = 0.0 day'1

          The unsaturated zone can  serve  as an effective
          medium   for  reducing  pollutant  concentration
          through  a  variety of  chemical   and  biological
                   3-4

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               decay  mechanisms  which  transform  or  attenuate
               the  pollutant.   While these decay  processes  are
               usually  complex, they  ai   approximated here  by
               a  first-order  rate  constai*.    The  degradation
               rate is  calculated using  the following formula:
               Since   half-life   data  are   not   immediately
               available,  it  is  conservatively  assumed   that
               U =  0.0  day'1.
                                                          „'•
           (d) Organic  carbon partition coefficient  (Koc) =
               0.0 mL/g

               The  organic  carbon  partition  coefficient  is
               multiplied   by   the   percent   organic  carbon
               content  of  soil   (foc)  to  derive a  partition
               coefficient (Kd),  which represents the ratio of
               absorbed   pollutant    concentration    to   the
               dissolved  (or  solution)  concentration.    The
               equation   (Koc  x  foc)  assumes  that  organic
               carbon  in the  soil  is  the  primary  means  of
               adsorbing  organic compounds  onto  soils.   This
               concept  serves  to reduce much of  the variation
               in Kd  values  for  different  soil  types.   Since
               data  are  not   immediately   available,  it   is
               conservatively assumed that Koc = 0.0 mL/g.

b.   Saturated zone

     i.   Soil type and characteristics

          (a)  Soil type

               Typical    Silty sand
               Worst      Sand

               A silty  sand  having the values of  aquifer por-
               osity and  hydraulic conductivity defined  below
               represents a  typical  aquifer  material.  A more
               conductive medium  such  as  sand  transports  the
               plume more readily and with less dispersion  and
               therefore represents a reasonable worst case.

          (b)  Aquifer porosity (0)

               Typical     0.44   (unitless)
               Worst       0.389  (unitless)

               Porosity  is that portion of the total  volume of
               soil  that is  made  up  of voids (air)  and water.
               Values  corresponding  to the  above  soil types
                        3-5

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          are  from Pettyjohn  et  al.  (1982)  as presented
          in U.S. EPA (1983).

     (c)  Hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer (K)

          Typical    0.86 m/day
          Worst      4.04 m/day

          The hydraulic  conductivity  (or  permeability) of
          the aquifer is needed  to estimate flow velocity
          based on  Darcy's  Equation.   It  is  a  measure of
          the  volume  of liquid  that  can  flow through  a
          unit area or  media with time; values  can range
          over nine orders  of magnitude depending  on the
          nature  of  the media.    Heterogenous  conditions
          produce  large spatial   variation  in  hydraulic
          conductivity,   making  estimation  of  a  single
          effective value   extremely   difficult.    Values
          used  are  from  Freeze  and  Cherry  (1979)  as
          presented in U.S.  EPA (1983).

     (d)  Fraction of  organic carbon (foc)  =
          0.0 (unitless)

          Organic  carbon  content,  and therefore  adsorp-
          tion, is assumed  to be  0 in the  saturated zone.

ii.  Site parameters

     (a)  Average hydraulic gradient  between  landfill and
          well (i)

          Typical   0.001  (unitless)   !
          Worst     0.02  (unitless)

          The  hydraulic gradient  is  the  slope   of  the
          water table  in an  unconfined aquifer,  or  the
          piezometric   surface for  a  confined  aquifer.
          The  hydraulic  gradient  must   be   known  to
          determine  the   magnitude   and   direction  of
          groundwater  flow.    As  gradient   increases,  dis-
          persion is  reduced.   Estimates  of  typical  and
          high gradient values were  provided  by Donigian
          (1985).

     (b)  Distance from  well to landfill (Al)

          Typical    100 m
          Worst        50 m

          This   distance  is   the  distance   between  a
          landfill  and any  functioning public or private
          water  supply or livestock water supply.
                   3-6

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           (c)  Dispersivity coefficient  (a)

               Typical     10 m
               Worst        5 m

               These  values are  10 percent  of  the  distance
               from  well  to landfill (AH),  which  is  100  and
               SO m,   respectively,   for   typical   and  worst
               conditions.

           (d)  Minimum thickness of  saturated  zone  (B) =  2  m

               The  minimum  aquifer  thickness  represents   the
               assumed   thickness   due   to  preexisting  flow;
               i.e., in  the absence  of  leachate.  It is  termed
               the  minimum  thickness because  in  the  vicinity
               of  the  site it  may  be  increased  by  leachate
               infiltration  from  the site.   A value of   2 m
               represents   a   worst  case   assumption    that
               preexisting  flow is very  limited and therefore
               dilution  of  the plume  entering   the  saturated
               zone is negligible.

           (e)  Width of landfill (W) = 112.8 m

               The  landfill  is   arbitrarily  assumed  to  be
               circular with an area of  10,000 m2.

     iii.  Chemical-specific  parameters

           (a)  Degradation rate (y)  = 0  day'1

               Degradation  is  assumed   not to  occur  in  the
               saturated zone.

           (b)  Background   concentration   of   pollutant   in
               groundwater (BC) = 0 Ug/L

               It is assumed that no pollutant  exists in  the
               soil  profile  or  aquifer  prior  to release from
               the source.

4.   Index Values -  See Table 3-1.

S.   Value Interpretation  - Value  equals the  maximum  expected
     groundwater concentration  of  pollutant,   in  Ug/L, at  the
     well.

6.   Preliminary  Conclusion  -  The   landfill   disposal   of
     municipal   sewage   sludge  is   expected to   result   in  a
     substantial   increase  in   cyanide   concentrations   in
     groundwater, especially when  worst-site parameters  are
     present  in  the  saturated  zone or  when the  cumulative
     worst case is evaluated.
                         3-7

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B.   Index   of   Human    Toxicity   Resulting   from   Groundwater
     Contain"nation (Index 2)

     1.   t_-?lanation  -   Calculates   human   exposure  which  could
          result from groundwater  contamination.   Compares exposure
          with acceptable daily intake (ADI) of pollutant.

     2.   Assumptions/Limitations  -  Assumes  long-term  exposure  to
          maximum concentration at well at a rate of 2 L/day.

     3.   Data Used and Rationale

          a.   Index  of   groundwater   concentration  resulting  from
               landfilled sludge (Index 1)

               See Section 3, p. 3-9.

          b.   Average human  consumption of  drinking water  (AC)  =
               2 L/day

               The value  of 2  L/day   is  a standard  value used  by
               U.S.  EPA in most risk assessment studies.

          c.   Average daily  human   dietary   intake  of  pollutant
               (DI)  - Data not  immediately available.

          d.   Acceptable  daily   intake  of   pollutant  (ADI)   =
               7560  Ug/day

               The  reported   ADI  value  is   based   on  the   no-
               observable-adverse-effect-level   (NOAEL)   in  mammals
               (10.8 mg/kg/day)  for   the inhibition  of  cytochrome
               oxidase activity  in rats  (U.S.  EPA,  1984).    (See
               Section 4,  p.  4-3.)

     4.   Index 2 Values  - See  Table 3-1.

     5.   Value Interpretation  -  Value  equals factor due only  to
          groundwater contamination by landfill  by  which expected
          intake exceeds  ADI.   The value does  not  account for  the
          possible increase resulting  from daily  dietary  intake  of
          pollutant  since  DI  data were  not  immediately available.

     6.   Preliminary Conclusion - In  most cases, cyanide may pose
          a  slight  human  health  hazard  as  a result  of drinking
          groundwater  contaminated  by   municipal   sewage   sludge
          landfills.    However,  a  moderate  health  hazard  may   be
          associated   with   the  cumulative   worst-case  landfill
          scenario.
                             3-8

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           TABLE 3-1.  INDEX OP CROUNDUATER CONCENTRATION RESULTING FROM LANDFILLED SLUDGE (INDEX 1)  AND
                       INDEX OF HUMAN TOXICITY RESULTING FROM GROUNDUATER CONTAMINATION (INDEX 2)
Site Characteristics
Sludge concentration
Unsaturated Zone
Soil type and charac-
teristics^
Site parameters6
Saturated Zone
Soil type and charac-
teristics^
Site parameters^
Index 1 Value (pg/L)
Index 2 Value
1
T

T
T

T
T
13
3.4xlO-3
2
W

T
T

T
T
73
1.9xlO-2
3
T

W
T

T
T
13
3.4x10-3
Condition of
4
T

NA
U

T
T
13
3.4x10-3
Analysisa»b»c
5
T

T
T

U
T
69
1.8xlO-2
6
T

T
T

T
W
520
0.14
7
W

NA
U

U
W
16000
4.1
8
N

N
N

N
N
0
0
aT = Typical values used; W = worst-case values used;  N = null  condition,  where no  landfill  exists,  used  as
 basis for comparison; NA = not applicable for this condition.
 Index values for combinations other than those shown  may be calculated using the formulae  in  the  Appendix.
*-See Table A-l in Appendix for parameter values used.
 Dry bulk density (Pdry), volumetric water content (8), and fraction of organic carbon (foc).
^Leachate generation rate (Q), depth to groundwater (h),  and dispersivity  coefficient  (o).
*Aquifer porosity (0) and hydraulic  conductivity of the aquifer (K).
SHydraulic gradient (i),  distance from well  to landfill (AH), and dispersivity coefficient  (a).

-------
III. INCINERATION
     Based on  the recommrndaiions  of  the experts  at the  OWR5  meetings
     (April-May,  1984),  an Assessment of  this reuse/disposal option  is
     not being conducted at  tnis  time.  The U.S. EPA reserves  the right
     to conduct such an assessment for this option in the future.
IV.  OCEAN DISPOSAL
     Based on  the  recommendations of  the experts  at  the OWRS  meetings
     (April-May, 1984),  an  assessment of  this  reuse/disposal option  is
     not being conducted at  this  time.   The U.S. EPA reserves the  right
     to conduct .such an assessment for this option in the future.
                                 3-10

-------
                              SECTION 4

   PRELIMINARY DATA PROFILE FOR CYANIDE IN MUNICIPAL SEWAGE SLUDGE
I. OCCURRENCE

   A.  Sludge

       1.  Frequency of Detection

           Detected in 992 of 432 samples from
           40 POTWs

           Detected in 72Z of 72 samples from
           10 POTWs

       2.  Concentration

           36 to 286,000 yg/L in 40 POTWs


           10 to 4,000 pg/L in 10 POTWs


           SOth percentile =  476.2 Ug/g DW
           Mean            =  835.6 Ug/g DW
           95th percencile = 2686.6 iig/g DW

   B.  Soil - Unpolluted

       1.  Frequency of Detection

           Data not immediately  available.

       2.  Concentrat ion

           Cyanides are not: absorbed or retained
           within soils.  Microbial metabolism
           rapidly degrades cyanide and thus
           minimizes soil  accumulation.

           Cyanide is not  a natural constituent of
           soil.  Plants can synthesize quite  large
           amounts of cyanide in tissues under
           certain climatic conditions.  Incor-
           poration of cyanide-containing plant
           materials into  soils  usually results in
           the transformation of cyanide into
           harmless nitrogen gas or into nitrate by
           microbial oxidation.
U.S.  EPA,  1982
(p. 41)

U.S.  EPA,  1982
(p. 49)
U.S. EPA, 1982
(p. 41)

U.S. EPA, 1982
(p. 49)

Statistically
derived from
U.S. EPA, 1982
U.S. EPA, 1978
(p. 2)
Fuller, 1977
(p. 70)
                                4-1

-------
C.  Hater - Unpolluted

    1.  Frequency of Detection

        Despite numerous potential sources of       U.S.  EPA,  1980
        pollution, cyanide is relatively            (p. C-2)
        uncommon in U.S. water supplies.

    2.  Concentration

        a.  Freshwater

            Data not immediately available.

        b.  Seavater

            Data not immediately available.

        c.  Drinking water

            8 llg/L maximum concentration           U.S. EPA, 1982
            0.09 llg/L average for 2,595 water      (p. C-4)
            samples

D.  Air

    1.  Frequency of Detection

        Cyanides are uncommon in air.              U.S. EPA, 1980
                                                   (p. C-l)

        Cyanides are usually not found in air.     U.S. EPA, 1978
                                                   (p. 9)

    2.  Concentration

        Data not immediately available.

E.  Food

    1.  Frequency of Detection

        Except for certain naturally  occurring     U.S. EPA, 1982
        organonitrites  in plants,  it  is uncommon   (p. C-5)
        to find cyanide in foods  in the United
        States.   Additionally,  there are  no  data
        indicating bioconcentration of cyanide.
        The bioconcentration  factor will be very
        close to zero.
                              4-2

-------
        2.  Concentration

            Data not immediately available.

II. HUMAN EFFECTS

    A.  Ingestion

        1.  Carcinogenic!ty

            a.  Qualitative Assessment

                There have been no detailed studies    U.S. EPA, 1978
                to implicate cyanide as a carcino-     (p. 183)
                genie agent.

            b.  Potency

                Data not immediately available.

            c.  Effects

                There is no evidence that chronic       U.S. EPA, 1980
                exposure to cyanide results in         (p. C-23)
                carcinogenic effects.

        2.  Chronic Tozicity

            a.  ADI

                7.56 mg/day.   The  ADI  for man  has       U.S. EPA, 1984
                been derived by taking the NOAEL in    (p. 17)
                mammals (10.8 mg/kg/day)  multiplied
                by the  weight of the average man
                (70 kg) and dividing by a safety
                factor  of 100.   This is based  on
                data for the  inhibition of cyto-
                chrome  oxidase  activity in rats.

            b.  Effects

                The chronic effects  of  long term        U.S.  EPA,  1978
                exposure to low cyanide levels are      (p.  139)
                not well  understood.

                Cyanide ingested by  humans  at quanti-   U.S.  EPA,  1976
                ties  of 10  mg or less  per  day is not    (p.  67)
                toxic and is  biotransferred to the
                less  toxic  thiocyanate.
                                 4-3

-------
          3.  Absorption Factor

             The  percentage  of a  given  dose  absorbed     U.S.  EPA,  1978
             is a factor of  dose  size and  absorption     'p.  128)
             rate:  death may  intervene before
             absorption is complete.

          4.  Existing Regulations

             Water quality criterion for drinking        U.S.  EPA,  1980
             water = 200  Ug/L                            (p. c-24)

     B.   Inhalation

          1.  Carcinogenic!ty

             Data not immediately available.

         2.  Chronic Toxicity

             a.  Inhalation Threshold or NPIH

                 No data  immediately available for
                 cyanide.

             b.  Effects

                 Inhalation of cyanogen or halogenated  U.S. EPA, 1978
                 cyanogens causes respiratory irrita-   (p. 129)
                 tion with possible hemorrhage and
                 pulmonary edema.  Inhalation of HCN
                 vapor can be fatal.

                 Inhalation of 270 ppra HCN vapor        U.S. EPA,  1978
                 brings death immediately;  135 ppm      (p. 129)
                 is fatal after 30 minutes.

         3.  Absorption Factor

             Data  not  immediately available.

         A.  Existing  Regulations

             Threshold limit  values  on  the  basis  of      ACGIH, 1982
             time-weighted average for  cyanogen  is
             20 mg/m3  or 10 ppm.

III. PLANT EFFECTS

     A.  Phytotoxicity

         Cyanide is toxic to  plants  inhibiting           U.S. EPA, 1978
         electron  transport in  photosynthetic and        (p.  100)
         respiratory functions.
                                  4-4

-------
        Cyanides are found in many plants and animals  U.S. EPA,  1976
        as metabolic intermediates which are           (p. 65)
        generally not stored for long periods of
        time.

        Cyanide is naturally produced by some fungi.   Fuller, 1977
        at least one bacterium, and many vascular      (p. 145)
        plants.

        Cyanide is utilized as an energy source and/
        or source of nitrogen by plants and
        microorganisms.

        Cyanide and related compounds have long been
        regarded as potential fertilizers.  Cyanamide
        serves as a fertilizer because it forms
        ammonia readily in soils.

        Cyanide added to soils in modest amounts (up
        to 200 Ug/g NaCN) is slightly less effective
        as a N-fertilizer for some crops.

    B.  Uptake

        Free cyanide is not found in plants.            U.S. EPA,  1978
                                                       (p. 4)

        Cyanide producing plants can have up  to        U.S. EPA,  1978
        378 Ug/g CN in tissues.                        (p. 87)

IV. DOMESTIC ANIMAL AND WILDLIFE EFFECTS

    A.  Tozicity

        See Table 4-1.

        Cyanide has an  unusually low degree of          U.S. EPA,  1980
        chronic toxicity.   It does  not  appear to be     (p. C-2)
        mutagenic,  teratogenic,  or  carcinogenic.

    B.  Uptake

        Cyanide has a low degree of persistence  in      U.S. EPA,  1980
        the environment  and it  is not accumulated or    (p. C-l)
        stored in any mammalian  species  that  has been
        studied.

        There is  no data available  indicating biocon-   U.S. EPA,  1980
        centration  of cyanide.   The U.S.  EPA  Duluth     (p.  C-5)
        laboratory  states  that the  bioconcentration
        factor will be very close to  zero.
                                 4-5

-------
        Cyanides are found in many plants and animals
        as metabolic intermediates which are
        generally not stored for long periods of
        time.

 V. AQUATIC LIFE EFFECTS

    A.  Toxicity

        1.  Freshwater

            Freshwater aquatic organisms and their     U.S. EPA, 1985
            uses should not be affected unaccep-
            tably if the four-day average concen-
            tration of free cyanide (the sum of
            cyanide present as HCN and CN~*,
            expressed as CN) does not exceed
            5.2 Ug/L more than once every three
            years on the average and if the one-
            hour average concentration does not
            exceed 22 Ug/L more than once every
            three years on the average.

        2.  Saltwater

            Saltwater aquatic organisms and their      U.S. EPA, 1985
            uses should not be affected unaccep-
            tably if the one-hour average concen-
            tration of free cyanide (the sum of
            cyanide present as HCN and CN~*,
            expressed as CN) does not exceed
            1.0 ug/L more than once every three
            years on the average.

    B.  Uptake

        Data not immediately available.

VI. SOIL BIOTA EFFECTS

    A.  Toxicity

        See Table 4-2.

        A wide variety of microorganisms are able      U.S. EPA, 1978
        to metabolize cyanide.   These organisms  may    (p.  3)
        play a role in the treatment  of cyanide
        wastes.  If a mixed population in a  sludge
        sample has not been exposed to cyanide
        concentration, small cyanide  concentration
        (200 ppm) can be toxic.   However,  the popula-
        tion can be acclimated  to cyanide after  which
        higher concentrations can be  metabolized.
                                  4-6

-------
     B.  Uptake

         Data not immediately available.

VII. PHYSICOCHEMICAL DATA FOR ESTIMATING PATE AND TRANSPORT

     Molecular weight:  HCN    27
                               26
     Physical form at standard temperature and
     pressure:  colorless liquid

     Solution in water:  soluble in all proportions

     Vapor pressure:

         -178°C           100   torr
            7°C           380   torr
         21.9°C           658.7 torr
         26.7°C (b.p.)    760   torr

     Cyanide commonly occurs in water as hydro-         U.S. EPA, 1980
     cyanic acid (HCN), the cyanide ion (CN~*),
     simple cyanides, metallocyanide complexes, or
     as simple chain and complex ring organic com-
     pounds.  "Free cyanide" is defined as the sum
     of the cyanide present as HCN and as CN~^.
     The alkali metal salts such as potassium
     cyanide (KCN) and sodium cyanide (NaCN) are
     very soluble in aqueous solutions and the
     resulting cyanide ions readily hydrolyze with
     water to form HCN.  The extent of HCN forma-
     tion is mainly dependent upon water tempera-
     ture and pH.  At 20°C and a pH of 8 or
     below, the fraction of free cyanide existing
     as HCN is at least 0.96.

     Cyanide ions form complexes with a variety of
     metals, especially those of the transition
     series.  The stabilities of these complexes
     are highly variable.  Zinc and cadmium cyanide
     complexes, when diluted with water, are known
     to dissociate rapidly and nearly completely
     to form HCN.  Some of the other metallocyanide
     anions, such as those formed with copper,
     nickel, and iron, demonstrate varying degrees
     of stability.
                                   4-7

-------
                                        TABLE 4-1.  TOXICITV OP CYANIDE TO DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND WILDLIFE
Peed
Chemical Porn Concentration
Species Ped (|ig/g)
Dog NaCN NR«



-is
00
Dog. beagle NaCN ISO
Rat HCN 100-300
fumigated
into feed
Water Daily
Concentration Intake Duration
(ng/L) (mg/kg) of Study Effects
NR 0.5-2.0 IS months Administered once or
twice per day producing
toxic signs but recovery
within 1/2 hour I no long-
tern effects

NK NR 30 days No effect
NR NR 2 years No effect




References
U.S. EPA, 1980 (p. C-18)
.




U.S. EPA. 1980 (p. C-19)
U.S. EPA, 1980 (p. C-19)


• NR - Not reported.

-------
                                                     TABLE 4-2.  TOXICITY Of CYANIDE TO SOIL BIOTA
Experimental Experimental Experimental
Tissue Soil Application
Chemical Porm Soil Concentration Concentration Rate
Species Applied Type  (kg/ha)
Nitrifying bacteria Cyanide Calcareous NR* 100 of N NR
Nitrifying bacteria Cyanide Calcareous NR 200 of N NR
Nitrifying bacteria CN NR NR <200 NR



Tissue
Concentration
(pg/g) Effects
NR No effect on rate of
nitrogen conversion
SOX reduction in
nitrogen conversion
NR Readily transformed
or degraded depend-
ing on oxidation/
reduction conditions

References
Puller, 1977 (p.
Puller, 1977 (p.
Puller, 1977 (p.





14S)
145)
146)



NR • Not reported.

-------
                                 SECTION 5

                                REFERENCES
Abramowitz,  M.,  and  I.  A.  Stegun.    1972.   Handbook  of  Mathematical
     Functions.   Dover Publications, New  York,  NY.

American   Conference  of  Governmental  Industrial  Hygienists.     1982.
     Threshold  Limit Values for Chemical  Substances and Physical  Agents
     in  the  Working  Environment  with  Intended  Changes   for  1983-84.
     Cincinnati,  OH.

Camp D. esser  and McKee,  Inc.   1984.   Development  of Methodologies  for
     Evaluating  Permissible Contaminant  Levels  in  Municipal  Wastewater
     Sludges.   Draft.   Office  of Water  Regulations and  Standards,  U.S.
     Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

Donigian,  A. S.   1985.  Personal Communication.  Anderson-Nichols  &  Co.,
     Inc., Palo Alto,  CA.  May.

Freeze, R. A.,  and  J. A. Cherry.   1979.   Groundwater.   Prentice-Hall,
     Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Fuller, W. H.   1977.   Movement  of Selected Metals,  Asbestos, and Cyanide
     in Soil.   Application  to  Waste  Disposal  Problems.   EPA-600/2-77-
     020.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH.

Gelhar,  L. W.,  and  G.  J.  Axness.    1981.     Stochastic  Analysis  of
     Macrodispersion  in 3-Dimensionally Heterogeneous  Aquifers.    Report
     No.  H-8.    Hydrologic  Research Program,  New  Mexico   Institute of
     Mining and Technology, Soccorro, MM.

Gerritse,   R. G.,  R.  Vrieaema, J. W. Dalenberg  and  H.  P. DeRoos.   1982.
     Effect of  Sewage  Sludge  on Trace Element Mobility  in Soils.   J.
     Environ.  Qual.  2:359-363.

Griffin,  R.  A.   1984.    Personal  Communication to  U.S.  Environmental
     Protection   Agency,   ECAO  -  Cincinnati,   OH.     Illinois   State
     Geological Survey.

Pettyjohn, W.  A., D.  C. Kent, T. A. Prickett,  H. E.  LeGrand,  and  F. E.
     Witz.    1982.     Methods  for  the  Prediction  of  Leachate  Plume
     Migration  and  Mixng.   U.S.  EPA  Municipal  Environmental  Research
     Laboratory, Cincinnati,  OH.

Sikora, L.  J.,  W. D.  Burge and  J.  E. Jones.   1982.   Monitoring of  a
     Municipal    Sludge   Entrenchment   Site.       J.   Environ.    Qual.
     2(2):321-325.

U.S. Environmental   Protection  Agency.    1976.    Quality  Criteria  for
     Water. U.S.  Environmental  Protection Agency, Washington,  D.C.
                                   5-1

-------
U.S.  Environmental  Protection Agency.   1977.   Environmental Assessment
     of  Subsurface Disposal  of  Municipal Wastewater  Sludge:   Interim
     Report.      EPA/530/SW-547.      Municipal   Environmental  Reseo.-ch
     Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH.

U.S.   Environmental   Protection  Agency.      1978.     Reviews   of  the
     Environmental Effects  of Pollutants:   V.  Cyanide.    EPA 600/1-78-
     027.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH.

U.S.  Environmental  Protection  Agency.    1980.    Ambient  Water  Quality
     Criteria  for  Cyanides.    EPA/440/5-80-037.    U.S.  Environmental
     Protection Agency, Washington,  D.C.

U.S.  Environmental   Protection   Agency.     1982.    Fate   of  Priv -ity
     Pollutants  in  Publicly-Owned  Treatment  Works.    EPA/440/1-82/333.
     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

U.S.  Environmental  Protection  Agency.     1983.    Rapid  Assessment  of
     Potential   Groundwater  Contamination   Under   Emergency  Response
     Conditions.  EPA 600/8-83-030.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.   1984.  Health Effects Assessment
     for  Cyanide.    Final   Draft.     ECAO-CIM-H011.     Cincinnati,  OH.
     September.

U.S.  Environmental  Protection  Agency.   1985.    Ambient  Water  Quality
     Criteria for Cyanide.  Unpublished.
                                  5-2

-------
                                 APPENDIX

            PRELIMir
-------
 where:
     A,  = X- [V* - (V*2 + 4D*
     Al    2D*
         _  Y - t (V*2 + 4D* x u*)*
       2  ~        (4D* x t)*

     BI  =  X— [V* + (V*2 + 4D* x
           y + t (V*2 + 4D* x
     B2          (4D* x t)*
and where for Che unsaturated zone:

     C0 - SC x CF = Initial leachate concentration  (yg/L)
     SC = Sludge concentration of pollutant (mg/kg DW)
     CF = 250 kg sludge solids/m3 Leachace =

          PS x 103
     PS = Percent  solids  (by  weight) of  landfilled  sludge
          20%
      t = Time (years)
     X  = h = Depth to ground water  (m)
     D* = o x V*  (m2/year)
      a = Dispersivity coefficient  (m)

     V* = — 2 — (m/year)
          0 x R
      Q = Leachate generation rate  (m/year)
      6 = Volumetric water content  (unitless)

      R = 1 + J*££ x Kd =  Retardation factor (unitless)
                0
   pdry = Dry bul-k density (g/mL)
     Kd = foc x Koc (mL/g)
    foc = Fraction of organic carbon (unitless)
    Koc = Organic carbon partition coefficient  (mL/g)
     u* =          (      ,-i
                                1
      U = Degradation rate (day'1)

and where for the saturated zone:

     C0 = Initial  concentration  of  pollutant  in  aquifer  as
          determined by Equation 2 (ug/L)
      t = Time (years)
      X = AH = Distance from well to landfill (m)
     D* = o x V* (m2/year)
      a = Dispersivity coefficient (m)
                         A-2

-------
          u* - K x i (m/year)
               0 x R
           K = Hydraulic conduct.'vity of Che aquifer (m/day)
           i = Average hydrai'ic gradient  between landfill and well
               (unitless)
           0 - Aquifer porosity (unitless)

           R = 1 + £d£Z x Kd = Retardation factor = 1 (unitless)
                     0
               since K      Q.*"** -  and B > 2
                 —  K  x i  x 365             —

D.  Equation 3.  Pulse Assessment


          C(Xt° = P(X,0  for  0  <  t .< t0
             co
                 = P(X,t) - P(X,t  - t0)  for t > t0
             co
     where:
          to (for  unsaturated  zone) = LT  = Landfill leaching  time
          (years)

          t0 (for  saturated zone)  =  Pulse  duration at  the water
          table (x = h) as determined by the following equation:
               t0 = [   o/08 c dt] * c
                   C( Y t)
          P(X»t) =   ft1   as determined by Equation 1
                              A-3

-------
B.   Equation 4.  Index of Groundvater Concentration  Resulting
     from Landfilled Sludge (Index 1)

     1.   Formula

          Index 1 =

          where:

               Coax = Maximum concentration  of  pollutant at well  =
                      maximum of  C(Al,t)  calculated  in Equation  1
                      (Ug/U

     2.   Sample Calculation

          12.9 Ug/L = 12.9 Ug/L

P.   Equation 5.  Index of Human Toxicity Resulting
     from Groundwater Contamination (Index 2)

     1.   Formula

                     (II x AC) +  DI
          Index 2 =


          where:

               II = Index  1  =  Index  of  groundwater  concentration
                    resulting from landfiLled sludge (yg/L)
               AC = Average  human  consumption   of  drinking  water
                    (L/day}
               DI = Average daily human dietary  intake  of  pollutant
                    (Ug/day)
              ADI = Acceptable daily intake of pollutant dig/day)

     2.   Sample Calculation


          0.0034246095
                              A-4

-------
III. INCINERATION

     Based on  the recommendations  of  the experts  at the  OWRS  meetings
     (April-May,  1984),  an assessment of  this reuse/disposal option is
     not being conducted at  this  time.  The U.S. EPA reserves  the right
     to conduct such an assessment for this option in the future.

IV.  OCEAN DISPOSAL

     Based on  the recommendations  of  the experts  at the  OURS  meetings
     (April-May,  1984),  an assessment of  this reuse/disposal option  is
     not being conducted at  this  time.  The U.S. EPA reserves the right
     to conduct such an assessment for this option in the future.
                                  A-5

-------
                                    TABLE A-l.  INPUT DATA VARYING IN LANDFILL ANALYSIS AND RESULT FOR EACH CONDITION
>
Condition of Analysis
Input Data
Sludge concentration of pollutant, SC (Ug/g DW)
Unsaturated zone
Soil type and characteristics
Dry bulk density, f&Ty (g/aL)
Volumetric water content, 6 (unitless)
Fraction of organic carbon, foc (unitless)
Site parameters
Leachate generation rate, Q (in/year)
Depth to groundwater, h (m)
Dispersivity coefficient, a (m)
Saturated rone
Soil type and characteristics
Aquifer porosity, 0 (unitless)
Hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer,
K (a/day)
Site parameters
Hydraulic gradient, i (unitless)
Distance from well to landfill, A 4 (m)
Dispersivity coefficient, a (m)
1
476.2


1.53
0.195
0.005

0.8
5
0.5


0.389
4.04

0.02
100
10
2
2686.6


1.53
0.195
0.005

0.8
5
0.5


0.389
4.04

0.02
100
10
3
476.2


1.925
0.133
0.0001

0.8
5
0.5


0.389
4.04

0.02
100
10
4 5
476.2 476.2


NA° 1.5-
NA 0.195
NA 0.005

1.6 0.8
0 5
NA 0.5


0.389 0.371
4.04 3.29

0.02 0.02
100 100
10 10
6 7
476.2 2686.6


1.53 NA
0.195 NA
0.005 ' NA

0.8 1.6
5 0
0.5 NA


0.389 0.371
4.04 3.29

0.0005 0.0005
50 50
5 5
8
N«


N
N
V

N
N
N


N
N

N
N
N

-------
                                                                  TABLE A-l.   (continued)
>

Results
Unsaturated cone assessment (Equations 1 and 3)
Initial leachate concentration, Co (|ig/L)
Peak concentration, Cu (pg/L)
Pulse duration, to (years)
Linkage assessment (Equation 2)
Aquifer thickness, B (m)
Initial concentration in saturated cone, Co
fn»/l.i
1

119000
119000
5.00

126
119000
2

672000
672000
S.OO

126
672000
3

19000
19000
S.OO

126
119000
4

119000
119000
S.OO

253
119000
5

119000
119000
S.OO

23.8
119000
6

119000
119000
S.OO

6.32
119000
7

672000
672000
S.OO

2.38
672000
8

N
N
N

N
N
Saturated rone assessment  (Equations 1 and 3)

  Maximum well concentration, C^, (pg/L)

Index of groundwater concentration resulting
  from landfilled sludge.  Index 1 (ug/L)
  (Equation 4)

Index of human toxicity resulting from
  groundwater contamination, Index 2
  (unitless) (Equation S)
                                                           12.9
                                                            12.9
                                                                        73.0
73.0
                                                                                      12.9
                                                                                      12.9
                                                                                                  12.9
                          12.9
                                                                                                                68.8
                                                                                                                68.8
                                                                                                                               S18
                                                       518
                                                            3.42x10-3     1.93x10-2    3.42xlO~3     3.42xlO'3    1.82xlO~2     0.137
                                                                                                                                         15SOO
                                                                                                                                         15500
                                                                  4.11
      aN  •= Null condition,  where no landfill  exists;  no  value  is used.
      bHA = Not applicable for this condition.

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