U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
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Quotes
"Planning for public recreation must be as systematic as planning
for schools, roads, and municipal water. This objective can be met
by giving full recognition to outdoor recreation in local comprehensive
land-use plans. Through long-term planning, schedules of priorities
and of investment requirements can be prepared.
In order to be effective, planning must have active community sup-
port. The public must be convinced of the need for both taking full
advantage of existing public areas and facilities and acquiring new
ones."
—From Outdoor Recreation for America, a report by the Outdoor
Recreation Resources Review Commission
"In conserving our national outdoor areas, opportunities delayed
generally mean opportunities lost."
—President John F. Kennedy
Public Health Service Publication No. 1195
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Mealtk Practice
in
RECREATIONAL
AREAS
A GUIDE TO THE PLANNING, DESIGN, OPERATION,
AND MAINTENANCE OF RECREATIONAL AREAS
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Division of Environmental Engineering and Food Protection
Special Engineering Services Branch
Washington, D. C. 20201
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Public Health Service Publication No. 1195
For sate by the Superintendent of Documents, XJ.S, Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C, 20402 - Price 55 cents
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Preface
Environmental Health Practice in Recreational Areas is designed
to provide guidance to persons responsible for planning, designing,
operating, and maintaining recreational areas. The standards pre-
sented and the practices recommended have proven successful for many
years in Federal, State, and local parks and other recreational places
hi minimizing or eliminating health and safety hazards.
Those having a special interest in detailed design criteria of utilities
or sanitation facilities may refer for further guidance to publications
listed under "References" or contact State and local health departments
for specific applications.
WESLEY E. GH^EKTSON,
Chief,
Division of Environmental Engineering and Food Protection.
m
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Acknowledgments
In the preparation of this Guide the Public Health Service grate-
fully acknowledges the valuable suggestions and assistance from Fed-
eral, State, and local health and recreation agencies and national
organizations who are concerned with and have experience with
environmental health problems in recreation areas. Experience gained
since 1922 by the Public Health Service in its cooperative program
with the National Park Service in developing and maintaining high
standards of environmental health in the national parks of the country
is reflected in the various chapters.
Information was also obtained from the publications listed under
"References," and several illustrations were taken or adapted from
these sources. Under the direction of Arthur H. Neill, Chief, Special
Engineering Services Branch, Division of Environmental Engineering
and Food Protection, the original draft of the publication was de-
veloped by Mr. Charles T. Wright, Sanitary Engineer Director (Re-
tired). Mr. Joseph P. Schock, Chief, Technical Services Section,
assumed a major role in its production.
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Introduction
The conservation, development, and wise use of outdoor recreational
resources are of great importance in satisfying the social and health
goals of our population. Expanding leisure time, growing interest in
outdoor recreation, increased mobility of people, and a rising standard
of living make it possible for more people to seek and utilize recrea-
tion areas.
The term "recreation area" refers to land and water areas dedicated
to the enjoyment of the public. These developments generally involve
facilities operated by a public agency, concessionaire, or voluntary or
private groups or individuals and include parks, campgrounds, shel-
ters, picnic areas, travel trailer parking areas, resorts, motels, hotels,
cabin camps, organizational camps, marinas and other facilities re-
lating to a variety of activities—swimming, fishing, hunting, boating,
sailing, hiking, picnicking, camping, touring, and sightseeing.
Attention to the environmental health aspects of recreational prob-
lems has been stimulated greatly by the increasing demand for outdoor
recreation as indicated in the Outdoor Recreation for America Re-
port1 and illustrated in figure 1.
In many instances the planning, provision, and maintenance of
facilities in recreational areas have not kept pace with this rapidly
increasing visitor load. As a result optimum use of such areas is not
possible and deterioration of overtaxed facilities is frequently en-
countered. Where facilities such as water supply, sewage disposal,
and refuse handling are inadequate or totally lacking, the visitors will
fend for themselves, often creating conditions which are grossly in-
sanitary as well as creating serious environmental health hazards for
themselves and neighboring community residents. Available recrea-
tion facilities in 1960, even though currently considered inadequate by
many authorities, will need to be tripled by the year 2000. Estimates
are that adequate environmental health safeguards comprise approx-
imately 30 percent of development costs of new recreation areas, there-
fore investment in adequate and efficient facilities is justified from
the economic standpoint.
Experience has demonstrated that whenever a large number of per-
sons are concentrated in one place, health problems are accentuated.
The increasing number of visitors to recreational areas creates a need
for planning and constructing adequate health-related facilities as well
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as to educate the public to observe good sanitary and personal hygiene
practices. The need for continuing research and studies to develop
unproved standards and solutions to environmental health problems
peculiar to recreation areas and activities should be recognized.
In recognition of the stated relationships between recreation and
public health interests and in order to obtain maximum health protec-
tion of the population from environmental health hazards in outdoor
recreation areas, it is urged that all Federal, State, and local public
or private agencies, groups, or individuals having responsibility for
the planning, development, design, operation, or maintenance of recrea-
tion areas apply high standards of public health and sanitation hi the
administration of and supervision of their programs. A high level
of performance in this regard can be facilitated by maintaining
close cooperation and consultation with health and sanitation authori-
ties and realized by following applicable environmental health stand-
ards and criteria as authorized in this guide of the responsible Federal,
State, or local jurisdiction that may be involved.
"In a fruitful new partnership with the states and cities the next
decade should be a conservation milestone. We must make a massive
effort to establish—as a green legacy for tomorrow—more large and
small parks, more seashores and open spaces than have been created
during any period in our history."
—President Lyndon B. Johnson
"How we Americans spend leisure time might seem to have little
bearing on the strength of our nation or the worth and prestige of our
free society. Yet we certainly cannot continue to thrive as a strong
and vigorous free people unless we understand and use creatively
one of our greatest resources—our leisure."
—President John F. Kennedy
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Contents
Chapter Fag*
Preface iii
Introduction v
I. Public Health Aspects 1
II. Site Selection 7
III. Watershed Management 10
IV. Water Supply _ .._ 16
V. Sewage Disposal 31
VI. Plumbing 42
VII. Building and Housing Hygiene 56
VIII. Milk and Milk Products and Frozen Desserts. 63
IX. Food Service Sanitation ___ __ 64
X. Refuse Handling ___ 73
XI. Swimming Pools and Outdoor Bathing Places 83
XII. Travel Trailer Parking _ 91
XIII. Boating.. 103
XIV. Fish Cleaning Facilities 107
XV. Insect and Rodent Control. 108
XVI. Recreation Safety 115
XVII. Campgrounds and Picnic Areas 120
XVIII. Stable Sanitation _ _ 125
References 128
Appendix A—American Standard Specification for Drinking
Fountains 131
Appendix B—Basic Principles of National Plumbing Code, ASA
A40;8-1955 132
VII
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700
600
500
400
o
5
i
TREND OF VISITS
TO RECREATION AREAS
STATE PARKS
IA
300
200
CORPS OF X*
ENGINEERS /
vC&
100
NATIONAL
PARK SERVICE
Ctllmotcd
1950 1955
I960 1965
Figure 1.
1970
1975
1980
Viii
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Chapter I
Public Health Aspects
There are many important considerations which must be included
m the overall planning, development, and operation of recreation
areas to insure that proper health protection of individuals visiting
or residing in such areas will be provided and maintained. Among
the requisites for a safe and healthful environment in such areas are
the following:
(1) Drainage, soil permeability, ground water, location and
possible effects of swamps, streams, lakes on health and safety.
(2) Development of sources, treatment, and distribution of
water supply to meet quality and quantity standards for domestic
and culinary use.
(3) Proper collection, treatment, and disposal of sewage wastes-
to prevent pollution hazards that may cause disease or produce
other undesirable effects.
(4) Proper storage, collection and disposal of garbage and
other refuse.
(5) Design of kitchen, dining, and other facilities to insure
that safe handling and serving of food and drink to the public
can be accomplished. Certification of sources of foods, frozen
desserts, and milk and milk products during operation.
(6) Adequate and safe housing, including campsites, cabins,
dormitories, and other public use buildings.
(7) Control of insects and rodents.
(8) Elimination of accident hazards and promotion of safety.
(9) Design and operation of outdoor bathing areas and swim-
ming pools.
The most effective means to insure consideration of these public
health aspects and assessment of their present and future significance
is by active cooperation between health and recreation agencies. The
development and review of plans of proposed developments and fa-
cilities by qualified public health engineers is recommended. A pro-
gram should be established to conduct periodic sanitary surveys in
recreation areas and inspection of facilities and their operation.
PLANNING
Planning for recreation includes the process of gathering and
analyzing pertinent facts and data as a prerequisite to sound decision-
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making, formulating goals, developing plans, and acting to carry
out those plans. The objective of planning is to minimize or eliminate
future problems through the application of informed judgment and
foresight, thereby helping to insure a pleasant, healthful, and safe
environment which includes an adequate quantity and variety of
suitably developed recreation areas.
Preplanning conferences with representatives of all agencies inter-
ested in proposed recreational developments are desirable inasmuch
as this procedure assists planners in providing projects which will serve
the greatest number of people without impairing the areas for the
enjoyment of future generations.
It is seldom possible to fulfill all desirable site criteria for the loca-
tion of recreation areas and of their intensively developed portions.
However, any location being considered within a recreation area for
development of such a facility as a motel, campground, picnic area,
travel trailer parking area, cabin camp, organization camp, resort,
bathing area, headquarters, management buildings, visitors center,
and other development should be well drained, gently sloping, free
from topographical or geological hindrances, and accessible to pro-
posed sources of water supply or sewage works. Sites should be free
from heavy traffic and noise sources. To be most acceptable and
efficient, sites should not encroach on the natural, scenic, esthetic, scien-
tific, or historic values of the recreation area. Avoiding locations near
swamps and marshes, where insects such as mosquitoes may breed and
cause severe annoyance and discomfort, will enable full enjoyment and
utilization of the area by the visiting public.
The review of plans and specifications for proposed sanitary facili-
ties in recreation areas is often the most important single procedure
available to improve health and sanitation conditions in recreation
areas. It has long been recognized by public health authorities that it
is more possible to manage and operate sanitary facilities such as
water supply systems, sewage works, incinerators, and food service
establishments in a satisfactory manner if sanitary defects and hazards
are "built-out" during the planning and design stage. For this reason,
public health authorities stress the use of design criteria or standards
which serve (1) as a guide in the design and preparation of plans and
specifications which meet public health requirements, and (2) to estab-
lish uniform design practices within the agency having design and
construction responsibilities. Confonnance to high standards is es-
sential to provide the type of sanitary facilities that rule out health
hazards to users of such facilities during their expected long period
of uninterrupted service in recreation areas.
To carry out the intent of these requirements, plans and specifica-
tions for sanitary facilities in recreation areas should be submitted
to a reviewing authority for review and recommendations. Appropri-
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ate changes should be incorporated in the plans and specifications
before contracts are let or construction is started. This activity can
only be accomplished by developing procedures for coordination be-
tween the health and other agencies having responsibility for recrea-
tion planning, design, and construction.
Problems Peculiar to Recreation Areas
There are unusual conditions of location and use encountered in
many recreation areas which often make it difficult to apply solutions
or procedures found satisfactory in the average city or community to
provide adequate public health protection. These conditions may
include—
(1) Seasonal Operation. The operation of recreation areas,
such as camp or lake resorts, on a seasonal basis creates many
economic problems. Adequate public health precautions require
use of devices and equipment such as chlorinators, dishwashing
machines, and sewage treatment facilities which are often expen-
sive and raise a question about the economic feasibility in seasonal
operations. It is sometimes difficult to justify the cost of expen-
sive equipment if it will be used only 3 or 4 months of the year.
Seasonal operation also creates many problems related to per-
sonnel and staffing. Experienced personnel to operate modern-
type water and sewage treatment facilities or work in food service
establishments are often difficult to hire for short operating sea-
sons. Consequently most personnel must be trained and by the
time this is accomplished it is time to close the area for the winter.
(2) Public Behavior. A serious difficulty in public use of many
recreation areas is irresponsibility of some visitors. Complaints
are common about vandalism, theft, and thoughtless actions in-
jurious to property and to the general recreation environment.
Comfort stations and plumbing fixtures, for example, are special
targets of vandalism. Picking up trash and litter left by visitors,
and repairing petty damage is often a major expense. Careless
disposal of garbage is a major contributing factor to fly produc-
tion and nuisance in recreation areas. The solution of this prob-
lem of public behavior may require major expenditures for
additional enforcement or caretaking personnel and an extensive
public education program.
(3) Vector and Animal Problems. Recreation in the outdoors
provides the recreationist with much more exposure to animals,
reptiles, and insects which in many instances may pose a threat to
health and safety. Infection by rabid bats, ticks causing Rocky
Mountain spotted fever, encephalitis, and fleas from rodents in-
fected with plague is possible in many areas. Insects crawling
into the ears of outdoorsmen sometimes create painful conditions
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that require surgical procedures for removal. Visitors are some-
time bitten or attacked by large animals as bears or snakes. Mos-
quito bites may cause such discomfort to visitors in some recreation
areas that the areas are unused or full enjoyment is not possible.
Animals also cause other indirect health problems such as those
caused by the activities of bears and wild animals with the con-
tents of refuse containers. Bears are often observed foraging for
food in refuse containers, which results in the containers being
turned over and refuse scattered about. This increases collection
costs and the litter which is not promptly picked up contributes to
fly breeding.
(4) Noxious Plants and Weeds. Contact with these are increas-
ing as greater numbers of people are exposed to the outdoor en-
vironment. Millions of Americans suffer from hay fever and
other allergic reactions, such as poison ivy and poison oak. For-
tunately, weed control measures may be instituted to provide re-
lief in areas of serious infestation.
(5) Remote Locations. Lack of electric power and roads in re-
mote areas causes many design and operation problems. If elec-
tric power is unavailable, head for a water distribution system
must be provided by other means. Intakes may be located high
enough upstream to produce sufficient pressure by gravity flow or
internal combustion engines may be used for pumping. Trans-
portation of construction materials and operational supplies to
a remote water intake or treatment location may be difficult.
(6) Landscape and Wildlife Protection. The objectives of
many recreational activities require, among other things, the pres-
ervation and the development of the natural scene for enjoyment
of present and future generations. This entails considerable ef-
fort on the part of planners to assure that the natural scene will
not be despoiled by manmade structures such as elevated steel
water tanks, water and sewage treatment facilities, and refuse
disposal facilities located within view of visitors. This factor
of landscape protection requires many sanitary engineering in-
novations and oftentimes results in the use of alternative methods
which are more costly.
Sanitary Surveys
Whether they cover existing facilities, or proposed sites scheduled
for development, the importance of field sanitary surveys cannot be
overemphasized.
In general, surveys of existing sanitary facilities should be made
once each year, although they may be made less often where facilities
are limited or more often when health problems indicate a need for
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more frequent checking. Surveys of sites scheduled for development
should be conducted during the early planning stages.
The sanitary survey of existing facilities should be made by a repre-
sentative of the health authority competent in environmental health
and should include the inspection and evaluation of all sanitary utili-
ties and facilities relating to water supply, sewage disposal, refuse
disposal, milk and food establishments, plumbing, housing, camps, in-
sect and rodent infestation, travel trailer parking areas, swimming
pools and bathing places, and other existing or potential public health
problems.
Surveys of existing sanitary facilities should be made in company
with local individuals responsible for the operation and maintenance
of the facilities. Problems relating to potential health hazards should
be discussed and procedures for dealing with particularly urgent
health hazards arising from defects encountred should be agreed upon
before leaving the area.
Survey reports, including a statement of all health hazards detected,
and an assessment of present and future significance together with
appropriate recommendations, should be sent to those authorities re-
sponsible for the administration and operation of the area. - Provi-
sions in accord with such recommendations for proposed developments
should be incorporated in the project during the planning stages. Cor-
rection of defects covering existing and proposed projects will provide
substantial overall public health benefits and prevent or minimize po-
tential public health problems.
Communicable Disease Control
A communicable disease is an illness due to a specific infectious agent
or its toxic products, arising through the transmission of that agent
or its products from a reservoir to a susceptible host, either directly,
as from an infected person or animal, or indirectly through the agency
of an intermediate plant or animal host, a vector, or inanimate
environment.2
People visiting recreation areas come from different environments
in many sections of the country and may bring with them unknow-
ingly or harbor diseases that are transmittible to fellow visitors.
Experience has demonstrated that whenever large numbers of
people gather in close association with one another, there is increased
danger of the spread of any infection from one to another. Recrea-
tional visitors often participate in activities and encounter environ-
ments in which they are not accustomed, thus resistance to infection
from certain communicable diseases may be lessened.
The control of communicable diseases is greatly enhanced if each
recreation area is equipped with the good sanitary utilities and facili-
ties discussed throughout this Guide. These facilities should be de-
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signed, operated, and maintained in accordance with the requirements
of the health agency having jurisdiction.
The control of communicable diseases is a fundamental responsi-
bility of government which is an assigned function of the official health
agency having jurisdiction. The health agency in protecting the
people under its jurisdiction has certain duties relating to communi-
cable disease control including reporting, isolation and quarantine,
hospitalization, immunization, and case investigation. The coopera-
tion and assistance of all other governmental agencies in communicable
disease control is constantly necessary in any community.
In some of the more isolated recreational areas where hospital facili-
ties and medical services are not readily available, it should be appar-
ent that there is the need for careful and continuing appraisal of all
factors relating to communicable disease control to avoid undesirable
outbreaks of disease or infection.
Procedure for Reporting Communicable Disease
The superintendent or administrator of a recreational area should
establish the following procedures when communicable diseases in man
or diseases in animals transmissible to man are encountered:
1. Whenever an outbreak or suspected outbreak of a com-
municable disease occurs, the health officer having jurisdiction in
the area or region should be notified immediately. Isolation, if
necessary, should be maintained in a manner approved or re-
quired by the health officer. The cases should not be allowed to
leave or be removed from the area without the permission of the
health officer having jurisdiction.
2. TJnsual epizootics or "die offs" in the wild rodent or animal
population should also be reported to the health authorities, in-
asmuch as some diseases in rodents and animals are transmissible
toman.
3. When a physician is assigned to a recreation area, he should
be required to report outbreaks or suspected outbreaks to the
health authority. This report should contain a recommendation
as to whether, in his opinion, an epidemiological investigation
should be initiated by the health authority for the purpose of
establishing control measures.
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Chapter II
Site Selection
Sites selected for recreation areas should be well drained, gently
sloping, free from topographical or geological hindrances, and acces-
sible to proposed sources of water supply or sewage works. Sites
should be free from heavy traffic and noise sources. To be most accept-
able and efficient, sites should not encroach on the natural, scenic,
esthetic, scientific, or historic values of the recreation area. Avoiding
locations near swamps and marshes, where insects such as mosquitoes
may breed and cause severe annoyance and discomfort, will enable full
enjoyment and utilization of the area by the visiting public.
LOCATION
Recreation facilities should be far enough away from main thorough-
fares to minimize accident hazards. Roads providing access to the
area should be constructed with turns, loops, and other functional lay-
outs so that the excessive speed of vehicles is self-limiting. One-way
traffic, if feasible, should be used as one means of minimizing accidents.
The roadways should be surfaced to permit travel during rainy
weather.
Proposed sites should also be remote from railroads, airports, truck
routes, factories, and other sources of noise which detract from a rest-
ful and peaceful environment; and as remote as possible from sources
of air pollution such as manufacturing plants, refineries, oil-burning
power, or industrial establishments that contribute to air pollution,
and other sources of smoke, dust, fumes, or objectionable odors.
Proposed developments should be located a safe distance from po-
tential breeding areas for insects and rodents in order to minimize
the necessity of using insecticides and rodenticides for their control.
Swampy areas and marshes should be avoided, and developed areas
should be located beyond the flight range of mosquitoes from these
potential breeding areas. An entomological survey should be under-
taken to determine the species of mosquitoes or other nuisance in-
sects.
CHARACTERISTICS
Preferably, recereation areas should be located on gently rolling,
well-drained land which is free from large rock outcroppings and not
subject to flooding. From the drainage standpoint, a desirable site
is one on which there is limited or no standing water following heavy
rainfall.
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***.
i
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Sites on which good natural drainage is not possible may be made
suitable by installing drainage systems for the rapid removal of storm
water. On steep slopes suitable measures should be taken to prevent
erosion.
Fairly previous soil located above the highest recorded water table
or level is essential to assist in maintaining a dry area, and to permit
the disposal of liquid wastes by means of subsurface disposal. Loca-
tion with respect to high water levels of adjoining bodies of water
should be determined to be certain that sites are not subject to flooding.
Camps to be occupied during the summer months should have an
eastern exposure, if possible, so that visitors will receive the benefit
of early morning sun and afternoon shade. Camps located on the
western shore of lakes or streams will have the desired eastern ex-
posure, and will generally be protected on the west by woods or shade
trees.
Lightly wooded sites provide either natural or manmade shade as
well as sunshine, and permit rapid dryoff after heavy rains. Trees
offer valuable protection from winds, but growth that is too dense
will restrict the movement of air, thus interfering with the comfort
of visitors during hot weather.
If the proposed site has heavy underbrush, weeds, and tall grass,
the brush and weeds should be removed, and provisions made for
controlling the grass along paths, trails, roadways, and other devel-
oped places to reduce the potential infestation from ticks and other
harmful insects.
UTILITIES
In proposed recreation areas where public water supply and sewer-
age systems are not accessible, authorities should determine, during
the early planning stages, whether an adequate supply of potable
water can be developed in the area, and whether the site is suitable
for the installation of a sewerage system and sewage disposal plant.
A sewerage system which will carry liquid wastes by gravity is
desirable, since the power required to pump the wastes increases opera-
tion and maintenance costs.
Those responsible for the development of proposed areas should con-
sult an engineer, preferably a sanitary engineer, on problems in-
volving water supply and sewage disposal facilities. State or local
health departments should always be consulted regarding applicable
laws or regulations relating to these facilities.
Figure 2.—Recreation accommodations site, Yellowstone National Park.
735-744 O - 65 - 2
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Chapter III
Watershed Management*
Watershed management involves the supervision, regulation, main-
tenance, and wise use of the aggregate resources of a drainage basin
to provide the maximum yield of water of desirable quality, includ-
ing the control of erosion, pollution, and floods.
The condition of the soil and the growth it supports have a marked
influence on the quality and quantity of water contributed by a water-
shed. The use of various control measures and management practices
in watersheds is essential to conserve water resources and to prevent
economic losses to municipal, industrial, and agricultural water sup-
plies, fisheries and recreation. In carrying out the various functional
activities on watershed lands, including grazing of livestock and
game, logging, roadbuilding, fire control, sewage disposal, and rec-
reaction, it is essential that satisfactory watershed conditions be
preserved.
The upper reaches of many watersheds in the Nation are still in
good condition and yield water of excellent quality. In the lower
reaches of some watersheds, however, conditions have been so modi-
Bed by natural and manmade activities that they now yield contami-
nated, highly mineralized or turbid water. Since many of the streams
and lakes in the upper reaches of watersheds in recreation areas have
not been adversely affected, the objective should be to preserve these
waters in the best possible condition consistent with reasonable and
beneficial future development and use.
Continued population growth and economic progress will necessi-
tate extending resource developments into the upper reaches of many
watersheds and utilizing the resources in presently developed areas
more extensively. In the utilization and development of land and
water resources, Federal, State, and local agencies and private enter-
prises should consider it their responsibility to—
1. Preserve the excellent quality of water in presently unde-
veloped areas; and
2. Help restore the quality of water hi other areas to conditions
to permit increased beneficial use.
The principal activities which affect the quality of surface waters
in and adjacent to recreation areas include: construction, logging,
grazing of livestock and wild game, mining, public use of developed
and undeveloped areas, disposal of wastes, and fire control.
10
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CONSTRUCTION
Construction activities that generally affect the quality of water are:
roads, railroads, power transmission lines, mines, and dams. The
polluting substances which are likely to enter streams during and after
construction include silt, chemicals, oil, gasoline, litter thrown from
vehicles, and wastes from construction camps and trains. The control
of soil erosion during and after construction is essential to reduce
construction and maintenance costs and to maintain water quality.
Highway cuts and fills should be stabilized and provided with ade-
quate drainage to prevent erosion. The protection of cuts and fills
with natural growth enhances the appearance of these areas and elim-
inates soil erosion which would otherwise reach adjoining bodies of
water as silt after heavy rainfall and thus increase the turbidity of
watercourses. Erosion control during and following construction in-
volves good planning of facilities, proper supervision during con-
struction, and adequate maintenance following construction.
LOGGING
Logging operations, when not properly carried out, can contribute
to the deterioration of water quality. The utmost care should be
taken in planning logging operations, and in locating and constructing
logging roads. Deterioration of water quality will be encountered in
headwater areas as logging activities move into higher forested areas.
Where logging is permitted, controlled cutting of timber is essential to
maintain scenic values in and adjacent to recreation areas and to pre-
vent water pollution. The principal polluting substances which are
likely to enter a watercourse from timber harvesting and management
activities are: silt, logs, brush, decayed vegetation, pesticides, cinders,
oil, gasoline, and logging camp wastes. Silt is frequently washed into
streams from poorly located or constructed roads, skid trails, burned-
over areas, and other attendant operations. Most of the polluting sub-
stances that originate during logging operations can be controlled by
proper planning and supervision of logging and cleanup operations.
GRAZING
Overgrazing of recreation areas by livestock and game depletes vege-
tation, thus causing erosion which has an adverse effect on water
quality. Where grazing is permitted it should be controlled or re-
stricted so that natural ground-covering plants and grass can be main-
tained to prevent erosion. Wildlife can be maintained at desirable
levels by having a flexible seasonal hunting program. The extent of
pollution of water supply sources from animal wastes and dead animal
carcasses is a factor in determining the degree of treatment required
to assure a safe drinking water supply.
11
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Figure 3.—Big K*rn Ink* and north upriv»r.
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WASTE DISPOSAL
Proper disposal of domestic and industrial liquid and solid wastes
from permanent developments and construction camps in and adjacent
to recreational areas is essential to prevent water pollution. All do-
mestic and industrial wastes from these areas should be adequately
treated prior to disposal by approved subsurface disposal or by dis-
charge of treated effluents to adjoining watercourses. Garbage and
other solid wastes should be disposed of by means of approved meth-
ods, including sanitary landfill, incineration, or garbage grinding
with discharge to sewerage systems. Sanitary landfills should be lo-
cated properly in relation to watercourses so that the byproducts or
leaching of these wastes will not be responsible for surface or ground
water pollution.
MINING AND PROCESSING ORE
Uncontrolled mining and processing of ores may be detrimental to
water resources rendering a stream unfit for most water uses. Mines,
including spoil banks, which have been worked and abandoned may
also cause damage to water resources. The principal activities that
affect water quality are: construction and maintenance of roads, strip
mining, underground mining, improper stockpiling of wastes, and ore
processing. The objectionable substances which have been encoun-
tered in streams from these operations are: silt, coloring matter, min-
erals, acids, and chemicals. Therefore, proper control of mining and
ore-processing operations to prevent water pollution is essential.
Drainage from abandoned mines and dumps can be controlled by
proper sealing and by locating dumps where the drainage from these
areas can be kept from entering adjoining watercourses. Abandoned
strip mines should be leveled and covered with a layer of the original
or new topsoil to permit seeding with an approved vegetative cover.
PESTICIDE CONTROL
A variety of synthetic pesticides are being used in enormous quan-
tities in this country to control undesirable insects, animals, or plants.
They may be applied in numerous ways, including the use of aircraft,
from which fallout may contaminate water supply reservoirs located
miles away from the area being treated.
There is no standard procedure to evaluate the hazard to a water
supply reservoir from the use or proposed use of any pesticide on the
surrounding watershed. The properties of a given pesticide and the
plans for its use which are the prime concern in evaluating a potential
health hazard are:
1. Toxicity. How much can be tolerated by a human being for
how long.
13
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2. Persistence. How long will the agent, in its basic formula,
be found on or coming from the area to which it has been applied.
For example, the chemical half life of stable chlorinated hydro-
carbons is measured in years.
Others hydrolize to harmless components in a matter of hours.
3. Exposure. What amount of the agent will be applied over
what acres and at what dosage per acre. From this information
and knowledge of runoff and percolation, some approximation
may be made of the amounts, if any, which might be expected to
appear in a water supply.
Those considering the possible use of pesticides on their watersheds
that are used for water supply should seek the advice of the appropriate
Federal, State, or local health authority.
RECREATIONAL AREAS
In developed forested areas, the soil cover may be destroyed by ex-
cessive visitor use and overcrowding of recreational and camping
sites, thus causing erosion of the topsoil and resulting in physical de-
terioration of adjoining watercourses. As most outdoor recreation
is seasonal, there is usually a period of rest which may assist in the
recovery of vegetation and soil cover. However, if a season's rest is
insufficient for the revival of plant growth, a moratorium on use of
the area, providing artificial cover as paved campsites or the construc-
tion of new areas to relieve overcrowding, will be necessary for these
areas to recover.
FIRE PREVENTION AND CONTROL
Adequate fire prevention and control measures are of major impor-
tance, since fire is a constant threat to the timber and water resources
of a forested watershed. Fires caused by lightning and man expose
large land areas which are then subject to erosion. Surface drainage
from these areas may carry increased color, ash, and turbidity for
several years after burning, thus causing widespread deterioration of
water quality in the drainage basin. Adequate fire control is essential
in all forested areas to minimize damage to watersheds by fires. Un-
controlled camping in forested areas is often the cause of forest fires
by careless campers. This problem can be controlled by providing
sufficient campgrounds and picnic areas for the public where activities
can be supervised. Uncontrolled camping in areas without proper
facilities should be prohibited.
CONSERVATION
Most Federal, State, and local agencies that have an interest hi the
development and operation of recreation areas participate in water
conservation practices.
14
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The Soil Conservation Act of 1935 authorizes Federal agencies to
execute a soil and moisture conservation program on public lands.
The development of water resources under this program is designed
primarily to reduce erosion, sedimentation, and flood damage. The
use of surface water is further directed toward increasing the produc-
tivity of the land through water retention, water spreading, and other
land treatment practices. These water developments also serve other
multiple purposes through betterment of watersheds.
The very nature of the objectives of Federal and State agencies with
a major interest in the development and operation of recreational areas
is conducive to good watershed management practices. Practically all
of the vast acreage of land managed by the National Park Service,
Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, and Corps of Engineers
has improved watershed value. The headwaters of many large drain-
age basins are wholly or in part in these areas.
Both Forest Service areas and public lands under jurisdiction of the
Bureau of Land Management are managed hi accordance with the
principles of multiple use in order to derive the maximum values for
the public. Recreation resources of these areas are made available to
the extent consistent with the overall management of the areas. Good
water resources management is practiced by these agencies in con-
nection with the utilization of the resources in these areas.
The lands included in the National Park Service areas embrace the
headwaters of some streams and large segments of various river water-
sheds. The National Park Service policy is to provide for the enjoy-
ment of these areas so as to conserve the scenery, the natural historical
objects, the wildlife therein, and to leave them practically unimpaired
for the enjoyment of future generations. This policy is consistent with
good water resource management.
With increased use of our watersheds and continued demand for
opening of additional watersheds for recreational purposes, it has
been generally necessary to restrict development hi some cases in
order to maintain water quality, especially when the watershed serves
as a source for public water supplies. When proposed plans for recrea-
tional development involve the watersheds of water supply reservoirs
or lakes, the appropriate State or local health authorities should be
contacted regarding requirements covering their use.
While the determination of the effects of recreation use on water-
sheds is usually always dependent on a study of local conditions and
factors, a useful guide on this subject can be found in a Statement of
Policy on Use of Water Storage Reservoirs for Public Recreation
adopted by the American Water Works Association.'
15
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Chapter IV
Water Supply
An adequate supply of water under pressure which meets the bac-
teriological, chemical, physical, and radiological requirements of the
Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards 5 or equivalent is es-
sential for the convenience, comfort, safety, and health of visitors and
resident staffs at outdoor recreation areas.
According to the Drinking Water Standards, a "water supply system
includes the works and auxiliaries for collection, treatment, storage,
and distribution of the water from the source of supply to the free
flowing outlet of the ultimate consumer."
When feasible, water should be obtained from an approved public
water supply system to obtain the advantages of qualified supervision
which provides added assurance that the quality and quantity of water
will be adequate at all times for domestic and firefighting purposes.
Where public water supply systems are not available within a reason-
able distance for extension to recreational areas, the best available and
least contaminated source should be developed and protected for this
purpose.
Proposed sources of water supply require a sanitary survey of the
source and the results of bacteriological and chemical examinations of
the raw water to provide essential information regarding the type
and degree of treatment needed.
CLASSIFICATION OF WATER SUPPLY SOURCES6
The vast majority of water supplies available to recreational areas
generally fall in the following classifications:
Group 1. Water Requiring No Treatment. This group is limited
to underground waters obtained from wells, springs, and infiltration
galleries not subject to any apparent possibility of contamination and
meeting in all respects the requirements of the Drinking Water Stand-
ards as shown by satisfactory, regular, and frequent sanitary surveys
and laboratory examinations.
If available, ground water supply of desirable quality and quantity
generally provides the most satisfactory sources of supply for small
recreational areas, because such supplies require minimum treatment,
operation, and maintenance to assume a constant safe water supply.
Group 2. Water Requiring Disinfection Only, This group includes
both underground and surface waters subject to a low degree of con-
tamination and meeting the requirements of the Drinking Water
16
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Pump Unit
Sanitary Well Seal
Cobble Drain-
Outlet
Artesian Pressure Surface
~or Piezometer Surface-
"Drop Pipe!
^Casing
Rei nforced Concrete
Cover Stab Sloped
Away From Pump
^2-Ejector
: Foot Valve
-—Packer"- ; ,
_• Water-Bearing Sand
'?-^Screen
Figure 4.—Drilled well.
17
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-Cleanout Drain
Perforated Pipe-
fSurface Waterj
Diversion
Ditch
Fence-^
PLAN
Lock
Surface Water
Diversion Ditch-
;,L i--•«• -•« "•• '•'•V.
B =• Maximum Water Level qi
• . Water-Bearmg Gravel
-V: ..•-••• ELEVATION
Figwr* 5.—Spring protection.
18
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Standards in all other respects except as to coliform bacterial con-
tent, which should not average more than 50 per 100 ml. in any month.
All surface water supplies regardless of source are subject to chance
undesirable contamination and, therefore, require some form of treat-
ment. The extent or degree of treatment is governed by the chemical
and physical characteristics of the raw water and the extent of con-
tamination or pollution that reaches the source.
Group 3. Water Requiring Complete Treatment. This group in-
cludes all waters requiring coagulation, sedimentation, nitration, and
chlorination treatment pre and post for color and turbidity removal;
waters of high or variable chlorine demand; and waters polluted to
such an extent as to be inadmissible to groups 1 and 2, but containing
numbers of coliform bacteria averaging not more than 5,000 per 100
ml. in 20 percent of the samples examined in any one month.
Group 4. Auxiliary Water Supplies. At recreational areas without
developed sources of supply, water from approved sources may be
hauled to the development in tank trucks and dispensed directly from
the tanks or from reserviors which are filled for this purpose. Al-
though the source of water may be safe for drinking purposes, the fol-
lowing precautions should be taken with the tanks used for hauling to
eliminate chance contamination during handling:
(a) The tank interior should be devoid of sanitary defects, and
should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected prior to being placed
in service.
(b) Tank lining materials should be nontoxic.
(c) The tank should not be used for other purposes.
(d) As an added precaution, chlorine solution should be added
to the water in the tank to provide a chlorine residual of at least
0.2 ppm of free chlorine after the chlorine has been hi contact with
the water for at least 20 minutes.
(e) One hose should be used for filling and unloading the tank
and stored on the truck hi a covered container when not in use.
It should be thoroughly flushed with clean water before each use.
QUANTITY OF WATER
One of the first steps in the selection of a suitable water supply
source is determining the demand which will be placed on it. The es-
sential elements of water demand include the average daily water con-
sumption and the peak rate of demand. The average daily water
consumption must be estimated—
1. To determine the ability of the water source to meet continu-
ing demands over critical periods when surface flows are low and
ground-water tables are at minimum elevations; and
2. For purposes of estimating quantities of stored water which
would sustain demands during these critical periods.
19
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Shingles &
Sheathing
Ratters
L-Control Box
Automatic
CtilorinatoTs, "V
Studs
,5-Sheathing
^Siding
— *J,' \Protective—
Casing
S"^ Casing Shoe
B
Water Bearing Sand or Gravel
>- Well Screen
Closed Bail Bottom
Figure 6.—Pvmphowt*.
-------
The peak demand rates must be estimated in order to determine
plumbing and pipe sizing, pressure losses, and storage requirements
necessary to supply sufficient water during period of peak water de-
mand.
AVERAGE DAILY WATER USE
Many factors influence water use for a given system. For example,
the mere fact that water under pressure is available stimulates its use,
often excessive, for watering lawns and gardens, for washing automo-
biles, for operating air-conditioning equipment, and for performing
many other utility activities in recreation areas. Modern kitchen and
laundry appliances, such as food waste disposers and automatic dish-
washers, contribute to a higher total water use and tend to increase
peak demands. Since water requirements will influence all features of
an individual development or improvement, they must figure prom-
inently in plan preparation. Table 1, page 29, presents a summary
of average water use as a guide in preparing estimates, with local
adaptations where necessary.
SAMPLING FOR CHEMICAL, PHYSICAL, AND BACTERIOLOGICAL
QUALITY
New Supplies
Prior to the development of a water supply system, a sample of the
raw water should be taken from the source to determine the chemical,
physical, and bacteriological quality of the water. Samples should
be taken and submitted for examination and interpretation in accord-
ance with instructions from a State or local health department or
other State-approved laboratory.
The results of the laboratory examination and the findings of a
sanitary survey of the source should determine the type and degree
of treatment that will be required. In the use of a well supply, a
sample should be collected when a pumping test is being conducted
to determine its yield and drawdown.
If the chemical and physical quality of the supply meets the Drink-
ing Water Standards, the supply should be fully developed and then
disinfected to remove all traces of contamination that may have been
introduced during development. Water samples should then be col-
lected for bacteriological examination and interpretation by the health
authorities. The supply should not be used for domestic purposes
until the report covering the bacteriological examination results shows
that the supply is safe for use. If the results are unsatisfactory and
continued sampling indicates that additional treatment will be needed
to provide a safe supply, the necessary treatment should be provided
before the supply is placed in service.
21
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—Switch
Control
Screened Overflow
and Vent
Lock
Switch Control.
Screened Drain
/—Slope Floor to Drain
ElfVATION
Figure 7.—Typical concrete r»i»rvoir.
22
-------
Existing Supplies
When the source of supply has been adequately treated and other-
wise protected against contamination, compliance with the bacterio-
logical requirements of the Drinking Water Standards should be based
on the examination of samples collected at representative points
throughout the distribution system. When bacteriologically unsatis-
factory samples are obtained, immediate and active efforts should be
taken to locate the cause of contamination. When conditions responsi-
ble for unsatisfactory samples have been corrected, daily samples from
the same point or points should be collected as soon as possible and
examined until the results from at least two consecutive samples show
that the water is bacteriologically satisfactory.
Experience has demonstrated that a minimum of two samples per
month, preferably one sample semi-monthly, should be collected from
each recreational area water supply for bacteriological examination
during the operating season. Water supplies requiring complete treat-
ment and those serving large developments should be sampled more
often, the frequency to be governed by the results of sanitary surveys,
the judgment of supervising health authorities, and the criteria out-
lined in the Drinking Water Standards.
Samples should be collected for chemical analysis from existing
sources of supply, preferably annually, to determine if there has been
any change in the chemical characteristics that may affect the quality
of the supply and degree of treatment needed. However, if there is
some suspicion that the concentrations of chemical substances exceeds
the limits indicated in the Drinking Water Standards, samples should
be collected for chemical analysis more frequently. When experience
and available evidence based on laboratory results indicate that the
chemical characteristics of a supply are consistently within the limits
of the Drinking Water Standards, a maximum period not exceeding
3 years is prescribed in sampling for chemical analysis.
SANITARY SURVEY
A sanitary survey should be conducted by persons trained and com-
petent in environmental sanitation and the epidemiology of water-
borne diseases. In connection with a proposed supply, the sanitary
survey should be made in conjunction with the collection of initial
engineering data covering the development of the source and its ca-
pacity to meet existing and future demands. The survey should in-
clude the detection of all health hazards and an evaluation of their
present and future significance. Sanitary surveys of existing water
supply systems should preferably be made annually or at a frequency
compatible with the control of the health hazards and maintenance of
water in accordance with the Drinking Water Standards. Informa-
23
-------
tion obtained from a sanitary survey is essential to complete interpre-
tation of bacteriological examination results and frequently the
chemical data.
WATER TREATMENT
The "water supply should be obtained from the most desirable source
which is feasible, and efforts should be made to prevent or control
pollution of the source. If the source is not adequately protected
by natural means, the supply should be adequately protected by treat-
ment. Adequate protection by treatment means any one or combina-
tion of the controlled processes of coagulation, sedimentation, absorp-
tion, filtration, and disinfection or other processes which produce
water consistently meeting the requirements of the Drinking Water
Standards. Proper supervision of the water supply system, especially
treatment by well-trained, skilled, and competent operators, is essential
to maintain water quality. Water treatment facilities should be pro-
tected from vandalism and tampering by unauthorized persons. Since
disinfection may be the only method of treatment in recreation areas,
and is frequently the final step in most treatment processes, proper
supervision and control of disinfection is essential to maintain water
quality. The following requirements of chlorination control em-
phasize the importance of this facet of water treatment.
Chlorination Control
Chlorination equipment should be selected, installed, and operated
so that continuous and effective disinfection is secured under required
local conditions. Chlorine should be applied continuously to un-
treated or filtered water at a point, where thorough and rapid mixing
with the treated water is effected. Unless bacteriological and other
tests indicate the need for maintaining higher minimum concentra-
tions of residual chlorine, the following requirements should prevail:
1. When simple chlorination is used for disinfection, at least
0.2 part per million (ppm) of free residual chlorine should be in
contact with the water for not less than 20 minutes before the
treated water reaches the first consumer beyond the point of
chlorine application. In general it is desirable to maintain a
free chlorine residual of not less than 0.05 to 0.10 ppm at distant
points in the distribution system.
2. When chloramine treatment is used, at least 2.0 ppm of
residual chlorine should be maintained after 3 hours' contact
before the treated water reaches the first consumer, and 1.0 to
2.0 ppm residual chlorine should be maintained at all points in
the distribution system.
3. When "breakpoint" chlorination is being considered, the
health authority having jurisdiction should be contacted regard-
24
-------
ing the procedure to be followed in initiating this method of
disinfection.
At tunes of threatened, or prevalent outbreaks of waterborne disease
such as during floods or other disaster conditions, a higher residual
chlorine should be maintained in all parts of the distribution system,
regardless of tastes or odors in the delivered water. Similar measures
should be taken when any lapse in the normal efficiency of treatment
is encountered. The amount of residual chlorine needed should be
based on the recommendations of the health authority having juris-
diction over the area.
Special care should be taken to maintain a detailed and accurate
record of chlorination and the results thereof. Such a record should
show—
(a) Kate flow of water treated.
(b) Gross weight of chlorine cylinder or container in use.
(c) Weight of chlorine used for 24 hours.
(d) Setting of chlorinator.
(e) Time of making tests and results of residual chlorine tests.
SupercMorinaffon-Dechfortnaf/on
In some small water supply systems, sudden increased demands of
water use and the relatively short distance between the point of
chlorine application and the first water tap does not allow sufficient
contact time for simple chlorination procedures to be effective. This
problem can be overcome by means of superchlorination-dechlorina-
tion. By this method chlorine is added to the water in increased
amounts (superchlorination) to provide a minimum free chlorine
residual of 3.0 ppm for a minimum contact period of 5 minutes, fol-
lowed by the removal of excess chlorine (dechlorination) to eliminate
objectionable chlorine tastes. Dechlorination can be accomplished
by passing the water through activated carbon filters or by other
commercially available methods and equipment.
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Delivery of a safe water supply depends upon the protection of the
water in the distribution system. Minimum protection in the distri-
bution system should include programs which result in: provision of
sufficient and safe materials and equipment to treat and distribute
the water; prevention of health hazards; preventing loss of pressure
because of overdraft in excess of the system's capacity; routine test-
ing of water samples and frequent sanitary surveys of the water system
to evaluate the adequacy of protection and disinfection of water
mains, storage facilities, and other equipment after each installation,
repair, or other modification which may have subjected them to pos-
sible contamination.
735-744 O - 65 - 3
25
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Many failures to meet the bacteriological requirements of the Drink-
ing Water Standards \vhich are directly related to the distribution
system are caused by: (1) insufficient treatment at point of produc-
tion, (2) cross-connections, (3) distribution system storage facilities
not properly protected or adequately covered, (4) inadequate water
mains and appurtenance disinfection, unsatisfactory water main con-
structed conditions and main joint-packing contamination, (5) sewer
and water mains in close proximity, (6) blowoffs and vacuum or air
relief valves improperly constructed or located, (7) negative pressures
in distribution system, and (8) after growths in water mains and
reservoirs.
DISINFECTION AND FLUSHING OF SYSTEM
Water from newly constructed or existing water supply systems
which have been repaired or reconstructed may show unsatisfactory
sanitary quality upon bacteriological examination. This is usually
due to contamination from equipment, material, or surface water which
may be introduced into the system during construction and repair.
Water systems should be always thoroughly flushed to clear the sys-
tem of dirt and debris, followed by disinfection to remove all traces
of contamination following construction or repair work. This pro-
cedure should also be followed for water distribution systems drained
for the winter. Disinfection should be done in accordance with the
"Procedure for Disinfecting Water Mains,"7 prepared by the Amer-
Figur* 6.—Well pumphouse and storage tank.
26
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ican Water Works Association. All wells and springs should be dis-
infected after construction or major repair in accordance with the
guidelines contained in the "Manual of Individual Water Supply
Systems,"8
EMERGENCY DISINFECTION OF WATER IN THE FIELD s
When it is not possible to transport a sufficient supply of water for
drinking purposes from approved sources of supply for field trips by
hikers, horseback riders, fishermen and campers in wilderness area,
plans should be made for the emergency disinfection of water in the
field.
There are two general methods by which small quantities of water
can be effectively disinfected. Boiling is the most effective method
by which water can be made bacteriologically safe to drink. Another
method is chemical treatment. If correctly applied, certain chemicals
will make most waters safe for drinking and culinary purposes.
When emergency disinfection is necessary, the physical condition
of the water must be considered. The effectiveness of disinfection will
be reduced in water that is turbid. Consequently turbid or colored
water should be allowed to settle and then filtered through a clean
cloth, and the clean water drawn off for disinfection. Water prepared
for disinfection should be stored only in clean, tightly covered, non-
corrodible containers.
METHODS OF EMERGENCY DISINFECTION
1. Boiling. Vigorous boiling for 1 full minute will kill any disease-
causing bacteria present in water. The flat taste of boiled water can
be improved by pouring it back and forth from one container into
another, by allowing it to stand for a few hours, or by adding a pinch
of salt to each quart of water boiled.
2. Chemical Treatment. When boiling is not practical, chemical
disinfection should be used. The two chemicals commonly used are
iodine and chlorine.
(a) Iodine
(1) Tincture of Iodine. Common household iodine from the
medicine chest or first-aid package may be used to disinfect water.
Add 5 drops of 2 percent U.S. Pharmaceutical (U.S.P.) tincture
of iodine to each quart of clear water, and for turbid water add
10 drops and let the solution stand for at least 30 minutes.
(2) Iodine Tablets. Commercially prepared iodine tablets
containing the necessary dosage for drinking water disinfection
can be purchased at drug and sporting goods stores. They should
be used according to the instructions. When instructions are not
27
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available, use one tablet for each quart of water to be purified.
After thorough mixing, allow the water to stand for 30 minutes
before being used.
(&) Chlorine
(1) Chlorine Bleach. Common household bleach contains a
chlorine compound which will disinfect water. The procedure to
be followed is usually written on the label. When the necessary
procedure is not given, one should find the percentage of available
chlorine on the label and use the information in the following
table as a guide.
Available chlorine (percent)
1 „
4-6*
7-10 -- — -
If not known,. - -
Drops to be added per
quart
Clean water
10
2
1
10
Cloudy water
20
4
2
20
* Common household laundry bleach.
The treated water should be mixed thoroughly and allowed to
stand for 30 minutes. The water should have a slight chlorine
odor or taste; if not, repeat the dosage and allow the water to stand
for an additional 15 minutes. If the treated water has too strong
a chlorine taste, it can be made more palatable by allowing the
water to stand exposed to the air for a few hours or-by pouring
it from one clean container to another several times.
(2) Chlorine Tablets. Chlorine tablets containing the neces-
sary dosage for drinking water disinfection can be purchased
commercially. These tablets are available from drug and sport-
ing goods stores and should be used as stated in the instructions
on the label. When instructions are not available, use one tablet
for each quart of water to be purified.
Water used for drinking, cooking, making any prepared drink,
or brushing the teeth should be properly disinfected.
DRINKING FOUNTAINS
Drinking fountains should meet requirements adopted by the Joint
Committee on Plumbing of the American Public Health Association
and the Conference of State Sanitary Engineers. A copy of these
requirements is outlined in appendix A.
28
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Table 1.—Planning guide for water ute s
Types of establishments Gallons
per day
Airports (per passenger) 3-5
Apartments, multiple family (per resident) 60
Bathhouses (per bather) 10
Camps:
Construction, semipermanent (per worker) 50
Day with no meals served (per camper) 15
Luxury (per camper) 100-150
Resorts, day and night, with limited plumbing (per camper) 50
Tourist with central bath and toilet facilities (per person) 35
Cottages with seasonal occupancy (per resident) 50
Courts, tourist with individual bath units (per person) 50
Clubs:
Country (per resident member) 100
Country (per nonresident member present) 25
Dwellings:
Boardinghouses (per boarder) 50
Additional kitchen requirements for nonresident boarders 10
Luxury (per person) 100-150
Multiple family apartments (per resident) 40
Roominghouses (per resident) 60
Single family (per resident) 50-75
Estates (per resident) 100-150
Hotels with private baths (2 persons per room) 60
Hotels without private baths (per person) 50
Institutions other than hospitals (per person) 75-125
Hospitals (per bed) 250-400
Laundries, self-serviced (gallons per washing; i.e., per customer) 50
Livestock (per animal):
Cattle (drinking) 12
Dairy (drinking and servicing) 35
Goat (drinking) 2
Hog (drinking) 4
Horse (drinking) 12
Mule (drinking) 12
Sheep (drinking) _ 2
Steer (drinking) 12
Motels with bath, toilet, and kitchen faculties (per bed space) 50
With bed and toilet (per bed space) 40
Parks:
Overnight with flush toilets (per camper) 25
Trailers with individual bath units (per camper) 50
Picnic:
With bath houses, showers, and flush toilets (per picnicker) 20
With toilet facilities only (gallons per picnicker) 10
29
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Table 1.—Pfenning guide far wafer use'—Continued
Types of establishments Gallons
per day
Poultry:
Chickens (per 100) 5-10
Turkeys (per 100) 10-18
Restaurants with toilet facilities (per patron) 7-10
Without toilet faculties (per patron) 2^-3
With bars and cocktail lounge (additional quantity per patron) _ 2
Schools:
Boarding (perpupil) 75-100
Day with cafeteria, gymnasiums, and showers (per pupil) 25
Day with cafeteria but no gymnasiums or showers (per pupil) _ _ 20
Day without cafeteria, gymnasiums, or showers (per pupil) 15
Service stations (per vehicle) 10
Stores (per toilet room) , 400
Swimming pools (per swimmer) 10
Theaters:
Drive-in (per car space) 5
Movie (per auditorium seat) . 5
Workers:
Construction (per person per shift) 50
Day (school or offices per person per shift) 15
30
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Chapter V
Sewage Disposal
Safe disposal of human and domestic wastes in recreational areas is
necessary for the preservation of the surface and ground waters and
the restoration of such waters to the best possible condition consistent
with the public health and welfare. Proper sewage disposal assists
in the propagation and preservation of fish and wildlife, and is essen-
tial to protect the visting public, employees, and nearby communities
from diseases transmitted through sewage.
Sewerage systems and sewage treatment facilities must have ade-
quate capacity, be capable of providing sufficient treatment, and be
economical to construct, operate, and maintain.
The goal of Federal and State water pollution control authorities
in conducting pollution abatement activities is to protect and enhance
the capacity of the water resources to serve the widest possible range
of human needs. Thus a positive policy of keeping waters as clean
as possible, as opposed to a policy of attempting to use the full capacity
of water for waste assimilation, is essential.
Seaonal operation and shutdowns, wide fluctuations in the quantity
of sewage generated because of varying or heavy weekend visitor use,
and detached or distant locations from normal repair and maintenance
services are unusual problems associated with recreational areas.
These difficulties must be considered in the design to insure adequate
plant capacity, sufficient treatment, and still be economical to con-
struct, operate, and maintain.
WATER-CARRIAGE SEWAGE-DISPOSAL SYSTEMS
Where posible in recreation areas the provision of a water-carriage
system of sewage disposal is most desirable to remove the liquid wastes
from flush toilets and other modern plumbing fixtures. This is ac-
complished by connecting to an existing public sewerage system where
adequate treatment facilities have been provided. Where a public
sewerage system is not available, a private system should be designed
for the area under consideration. During the planning stage, the
health or water pollution control authorities having jurisdiction over
the area should be contacted to determine the degree of sewage treat-
ment which will be needed to meet pollution abatement standards
for the area and to assist in locating suitable waste discharge points.
Where possible, treatment facilities and outfalls should be isolated,
particularly with regard to the proximity of developed areas.
31
-------
A preliminary study by a qualified sanitary engineer is desirable for
the development of a sound and economical plan for a sewage works
project. The study should justify the need for the project, what it
will accomplish, and suggest alternate plans where two or more solu-
tions exist for a particular problem. The engineering report should
be based on field surveys and careful consideration of other factors
which may influence the design or construction, and should be sub-
mitted to the approving authorities having statutory jurisdiction for
review and recommendation prior to the preparation of final design
plans and specifications.
SEWAGE WORKS
Sewage works should be designed on the basis of the waste water
volumes from the various installations of the recreation area for the
cov«
WHTTl TOWELING WIU K «LACKSN£D-
IY SLUDGE
MEASURING STICK
fO* SlUDGt
MEASLMING DEVICES
FO* SCUM
TURKISH TOWfL
T
»-
If,
• •
- -
-
W0?f MAKE MtASUtING STICKS AtOUT V.IONG
Figur» 9.—D«vic«i for measuring sludg* and scum.
32
-------
estimated ultimate development, except in considering those units of
the system such as the number of niters, settling tanks, digesters and
sludge drying beds that can be readily increased as the recreation area
expands. The degree of treatment required should be based upon the
size, usage, and character of the receiving body of water and upon
the volume and strength of sewage to be treated. In order to remove
settleable solids and to prevent the formation of sludge banks immedi-
ately below the sewer outlet, at least primary treatment should be
provided in all areas, regardless of the size and character of the re-
ceiving body of water. Chlorination of primary treatment plant ef-
fluent is generally required to destroy pathogenic bacteria.
Where there is an existing sewerage system, data on the volume
and the strength of sewage should accompany the report, for use in
designing facilities. In cases of proposed systems where flows can-
not be measured, consideration should be given to the figures presented
in table 2 covering quantities of sewage for various types of develop-
ments. Records of quantities of sewage flow from similar types of de-
velopments are also useful in designing new facilities. Allowances
should be made for ground water infiltration.
Table 2.—Quantifies of sewage wafer "
Recreational facility: Gallona/penon/day
1. Campgrounds or travel trailer parks with central comfort stations. 35
2. Small dwellings and cottages with seasonal occupancy 50
3. Hotels with private baths (2 persons per room) 60
4. Motels with bath, toilet, and kitchen wastes 50
5. Motels (per bed space) 40
6. Single-'family dwellings 50-75
7. Picnic parks (toilet wastes only) (gallons per picnicker) 5
8. Picnic parks with bathhouses, showers, and flush toilets 10
9. Restaurants (kitchen wastes/meal served) 2%-3
10. Restaurants (toilet and kitchen wastes/person) 7—10
11. Swimming pools and bathhouses 10
12. Day camps (no meals served) 15
13. Work or construction camps (semipermanent) 50
14. Luxury camps *100
*Modern developments may include: (1) Central lodge with rooms for over-
night guests, restaurant and bar: (2) adjoining cabins; (3) complete laundry
facilities: (4) garbage grinders for the disposal of garbage to the sewerage
system; and (5) private bath in all rooms and cabins.
Many of the recreational areas in cold climates operate on a seasonal
basis, where the utilities must be drained to prevent damage by freez-
ing during the winter months. When a proposed development will
operate under these conditions, the disposal plant should be designed
accordingly.
33
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WELL f DIA.-I40- DEEP THROUGH SAND AND LIMESTONE
NEAREST OTHER WELL ?00 rOS. NORTH
TO 6AJNESVULE3Y4 Ml
2. -~-
4- C.I. KITCHEN
WASTE UNE
\
GREASE TRAP
(ISO GAL)
\
GARtAGt GRINDER LINE
2* RMS; » IATHV X TO'LETS
." C.l. PIPE
StOPf *%
MANHOLE
is:
NEAREST AOKWNING WELL 37S'
•*• r VITRIftED
ClAY HPE
SLOPS 1%
'TEST HOLE"—(T.H.)
I" MOP IN Stt
MINUTES
IS}
152
I.IM GAL. SEPTIC TANK
DOSING TANK
PARTITION
Rgur* 10.—Typical layout plan of a subsurface sewage disposal system.
-------
SEPTIC TANKS AND SUBSURFACE DISPOSAL SYSTEMS
When the volume of sewage is limited and the terrain and soil are
suitable for disposal of a septic tank effluent by means of subsurface
disposal, the installation of a system consisting of septic tank and
subsurface disposal field may be the most economical and practical
method for the disposal of domestic wastes in recreational areas.
The results of satisfactory percolation tests should always be avail-
able before a disposal plant of this type is designed. Criteria for the
design of septic tanks for large and small installations are presented
in the "Manual of Septic-Tank Practice." Public Health Service
Publication No. 526.9
Septic tanks and subsurface disposal fields should be located where
they cannot contaminate any well, spring, or other source of water
supply. Underground contamination may travel in any direction and
for considerable distances, unless filtered effectively. Underground
pollution usually moves in the same general direction as the normal
movement of the ground water in the locality. Ground water moves
in the direction of the slope or gradient of the water table; i.e., from
the area of higher water table to areas of lower water table. In gen-
eral, the water table follows the general contour of the ground surface.
For this reason, septic-tank systems should be located downhill from
wells, springs and infiltration galleries. No part of the septic-tank
system should be closer than 50 feet from any source of water supply
and greater distances are always preferred where possible.
The septic tank should not be located within 5 feet of any building.
The septic-tank system should not be located in swampy areas, or in
areas subject to flooding. In general, the tank should be located
where the largest possible area will be available for the disposal field.
Considerations should also be given to the location from the stand-
point of cleaning and maintenance. Where a sewer system may be in-
stalled at a future date, provisions should be made in the connecting
line to the tank for future connection to the proposed sewer system.
Contrary to popular belief, septic tanks do not accomplish a high
degree of bacteria removal. Although the sewage undergoes treat-
ment in passing through the tank, this does not mean that infectious
agents will be removed; thus septic-tank effluents cannot be consid-
ered safe. The liquid discharged from a tank is, in some respects,
more objectionable than that which goes in; i.e., it is septic and mal-
odorous. The purpose of a septic tank is primarily to condition the
sewage, so that it may be more readily percolated into the subsoil of
the ground. This is accomplished by removal of solids, biological
treatment, and sludge and scum storage. The functional operation
of septic tanks is not improved by the addition of disinfectants, chem-
icals or other additives.
35
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-------
Capacity is one of the most important considerations in septic-tank
design. Studies have proved that liberal tank capacity is not only
important from a functional standpoint but is also advantageous for
the storage of large volumes of sludge and scum, thus reducing
cleaning intervals. The "Manual of Septic-Tank Practice"9 rec-
ommends a minimum tank capacity of 750 gallons for a single-family
dwelling which is also required by most State and local health de-
partments.
In recreation areas where plumbing in buildings must be drained
to prevent freezing, the inlets to septic tanks that serve these build-
ings should be trapped below the liquid level of the tank to keep
septic-tank gas from entering the building through trapped outlets
that have been drained.
Experience has shown that, septic tanks and subsurface disposal
systems give satisfactory service for many years when properly de-
signed, constructed, operated, and maintained. The principal reason
for the unsatisfactory operation of many septic-tank systems is failure
to inspect and clean tanks periodically.
Septic tanks should be cleaned before too much sludge or scum is
allowed to accumulate. If either the sludge or scum approaches too
closely to the bottom of the outlet device, particles will be scoured
into the disposal field and will clog the system. Eventually, when
this happens, liquid may break through to the ground surface, and
the sewage may back up in the plumbing fixtures. When a disposal
field is clogged in this manner, it is not only necessary to clean the
tank but it also may be necessary to construct a new disposal field.
Septic tanks should be inspected at least once a year and cleaned
when necessary. When a tank is inspected, the depth of sludge and
scum should be measured in the vicinity of the outlet baffle. The tank
should be cleaned if either: (a) The bottom of the scum mat is within
approximately 3 inches of the bottom of the outlet device; or (6)
sludge comes within the limits specified in table 3. (See fig. 9, p, 32.)
Septic tanks should be accessible to servicing trucks to facilitate the
removal of sludge and scum by pumping of this material when neces-
sary. When the sludge and scum are removed from a septic tank, the
material should preferably be buried in uninhabited areas selected for
this purpose, or approval obtained from responsible authorities to dis-
charge the sludge into a sanitary sewer system. These wastes should
never be emptied into storm drains or discharged into a watercourse.
Rgura II.—Trickling filter plant.
37
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NON-WATER-CARRIAGE SEWAGE DISPOSAL FACILITIES
Where water is in short supply or unavailable, or when soil condi-
tions are unsuitable for subsurface disposal of a septic-tank effluent,
various facilities such as "Pullman," chemical, and burnout toilets, and
pit privies, have been used for sewage disposal. These units are
often used in isolated areas for small developments as a temporary
expedient, or where the cost of a water-carriage system of sewage dis-
posal cannot be justified or financed. Use of the "Pullman" type toilet
in recreational areas involves the installation of the toilet in a conven-
tional comfort station provided with sanitary facilities for both sexes.
The comfort station is usually mounted over a watertight holding tank
for the retention of wastes. The liquid wastes are discharged to a
subsurface drain field or are pumped from the tank periodically and
disposed of by burial or other approved means.
Chemical and burnout toilets are used where water is unavailable for
the operation of modern sanitary facilities. These units generally
include a watertight holding tank located below a building provided
with seats and risers.
In the case of a chemical toilet, the holding tank is filled with water
to a predetermined level to which a chemical, usually a caustic com-
pound, is added. The purpose of the chemical solution is to break
down the fecal matters, liquify the contents, and to mask odors. The
wastes from the tank must be pumped out frequently and disposed of
by burial or other approved means. There are no additives which
eliminate or reduce the need to clean out the tank by pumping or man-
ual removal.
The solid wastes in a burnout toilet collect on a metal grill mounted
in the bottom of the holding tank, which allows the liquids to dram off
to an adjoining leaching pit or title field. These units must be taken
out of service periodically and the solid wastes burned out by means of
fixed or portable burners.
Although chemical and burnout toilets serve a useful purpose, they
present operation and maintenance problems. Accident hazards and
odors are occassionally associated with their use and operation.
Installation of earthpit or masonry vault privies for developed
areas such as campgrounds, picnic areas, etc., should be approved only
where the installation of more modern sanitary facilities is considered
impractical or as a temporary expedient. Recreational area develop-
ers should be encouraged to install water-carriage sewage disposal
facilities for all recreational developments.
The following features of pit privy construction should be consid-
ered in connection with the design of sanitary pit privies for recrea-
tional areas:
38
-------
1. The receptacle for storing human wastes should be flytight,
rodentproof, and constructed in a manner and of such materials
as to afford reasonable assurance of remaining flytight and rodent-
proof under ordinary conditions of use.
2. The unit should be located to prevent pollution of adjoining
watercourses and domestic water supply sources, to prevent the
contents from overflowing to the ground surface and surface wa-
ter from flowing into the pit. If the tank is to be pumped peri-
odically, it should be located so as to be accessible for servicing.
3. The unit should be constructed of such material and in such
manner so as to prevent rapid deterioration, provide adequate
capacity, and facilitate maintenance in a satisfactory manner un-
der ordinary conditions of use.
4. Venting of the pit is desirable to provide a continuous escape
of odors through a screened vent that extends from the pit through
the roof or sides of the superstructure.
STABILIZATION PONDS
Stabilization ponds provide a satisfactory method of sewage disposal
and have been demonstrated to be a practical, minimum-cost method of
sewage treatment when properly designed, constructed, and operated.
However, they should not be considered the solution for all sewage
treatment needs.
The design of stabilization ponds is dependent on characteristics of
the sewage flow, rainfall, evaporation, seepage, topography, and soil
conditions. While the structural design is not complicated, a basic
understanding of the biological and chemical processes is essential to
a successful design. The health authorities having jurisdiction over
the area should be contacted regarding the design criteria and degree
of treatment that will be needed. The choice between the use of single-
cell or multiple-cell ponds will be based on local conditions and down-
stream water use if the effluent will be discharging into a receiving
body of water. The shape of all cells should be such that a uniform
perimeter results. No islands or peninsulas should be used.
The pond site should be located at a practical distance away from
developed areas with due respect to future expansion. Preference
should be given to sites which will permit an unobstructed wind sweep
across the ponds, especially in the direction of local prevailing winds.
Locating ponds in watersheds receiving significant amounts of runoff
water should be discouraged unless adequate provisions are made for
storm water to bypass the ponds. Proximity of ponds to water sup-
plies and other facilities subject to contamination should be critically
evaluated to avoid creation of health hazards or other undersirable
conditions.
39
-------
Figure 12.—Wosie stabilization pond.
Figur* 13.—Pit privy.
40
-------
The pond area should be enclosed with a suitable fence to exclude
livestock and discourage trespassing. A vehicle access gate of suffi-
cient width to accommodate mowing equipment should be provided.
All access gates should be provided with locks. Appropriate signs
should be provided along the fence around the pond to designate the
nature of the facility and advise against trespassing. The optimum
liquid waste depth will be influenced to some extent by the pond area,
since circulation in larger installations permits greater liquid depth.
The basic plan of operation may also influence depth. Facilities to per-
mit operation at selected depths between 2 and 5 feet provide for op-
erational flexibility. Where winter operation is necessary, the operat-
ing level can be lowered before ice formation and gradually increased
to 5 feet by the retention of winter flows. In the spirng, the level can
be lowered to any desired depth at the time surface runoff and dilu-
tion water are generally at a maximum. Shallow operation can be
maintained during the spring with generally increased depths to dis-
courage emergent vegetation. In the fall, the levels can be lowered and
again be ready for retention of winter storage.
The need for daily maintenance of stabilization ponds is not as
urgent as for other water-carriage sewage treatment systems. How-
ever, planned maintenance at regular intervals is essential in order to
protect the dikes, keep weeds from growing in the shallow water, and
to avoid the breeding of mosquitoes or other pests. Weeds and willows
will grow in shallow water areas unless controlled by soil sterilization
initially, and routine mowing. Dikes and structure should be in-
spected regularly for erosion from wind and rain or for burrowing
by rodents.
Table 3.—Allowable sJvtfge accumulation 9
Liquid capacity of tank (gallons)
500 - - -- -- --
600 - - - - -
750 -
900 - -
1,000 - -
Liquid depth
3 feet
4 feet
5 feet
Distance from bottom of outlet
device to top of sludge, inches
11
8
6
4
4
16
13
10
7
6
21
18
13
10
8
735-744 O - 65 - 4
41
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Chapter VI
Plumbing
Plumbing includes "the practice, materials, and fixtures used in the
installation, maintenance, extension, and alterations of all piping, fix-
tures, appliances, and appurtenances in connection with any of the fol-
lowing: sanitary drainage or storm drainage facilities, the venting
system, and the public or private water supply systems within or ad-
jacent to any building structure, or conveyance; also the practice and
materials used in the installation, maintenance, extension, or alteration
of storm water, liquid waste, or sewage, and water supply systems of
any premises to their connection with the public sewer system or other
acceptable disposal facility."10
MINIMUM NUMBER OF PLUMBING FIXTURES
Adequate toilets, lavoratories, and other necessary plumbing fixtures
should be provided for buildings in recreational areas for the conven-
ience and comfort of visitors and employees. The desirable minimum
number of plumbing fixtures is listed in table 4 for the types of build-
ings and occupancy specified.
MATERIALS
All materials used in the construction of any plumbing system, fix-
tures, or equipment should conform with the minimum standards of
the National Plumbing Code ASA A40.8-1955 or as subsequently re-
vised, or requirements which are substantially equivalent in State or
local plumbing codes. All materials should be handled and installed
so that the quality of the material is not impaired.
BACKS1PHONAGE AND CROSS-CONNECTIONS
Public health officials have long been concerned about cross-connec-
tions and backflow conditions in plumbing systems. There are num-
erous and well-documented cases where such connections have been
responsible for contaminating drinking water supplies resulting in
outbreaks of waterborne disease. Since humans are capable of emit-
ting disease organisms with body wastes, the opportunities for water-
borne disease outbreaks are present when there is any possibility that
body wastes can enter drinking water supplies.
Those responsible for the construction and supervision of buildings
in recreation areas should recognize that serious health hazards to
drinking water supplies can result from plumbing system defects.
42
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A cross-connection is any physical connection or arrangement be-
tween two otherwise separate piping systems, one of which contains
potable water and the other water of unknown quality or questionable
safety; or steam, gas, liquids, or other chemical substances whereby
there may be a flow from one system to the other, the direction of flow
depending on the pressure differential between the two systems. A
backflow condition is simply any arrangement whereby backflow into
the potable water system can occur.
Preventing cross-connection is obtained by recognition of the poten-
tial danger involved and regular surveillance of the plumbing system.
Many who are experienced in piping installation often fail to recog-
nize cross-connection possibilities. Plumbing systems are usually
altered or extended, therefore a continuing program of cross-connec-
tion detection is recommended by health authorities.
NEW INSTALLATIONS
All plumbing to be installed in recreation areas should conform to
the minimum requirements of the National Plumbing Code ASA
A40.8—1955 or as revised subsequently, or requirements which are
substantially equivalent in applicable State or local plumbing codes.
The National Plumbing Code is founded upon certain basic princi-
ples of environmental sanitation through properly designed, accept-
ably installed, and adequately maintained plumbing systems. Some
of the details of plumbing construction may vary, but the basic sani-
tary and safety principles desirable and necessary to protect the
health of people are the same everywhere. These basic principles
listed in the code are outlined in appendix B for use in the interpre-
tation of situations not covered in the body of the code.
EXISTING INSTALLATIONS
The correction of existing cross-connections or backflow connections
should be undertaken as follows:
1. Eliminate immediately all direct connections between potable
water supply piping and nonpotable water supply piping and
plumbing drainage systems that are pollution possibilities.
2. Eliminate on a planned program basis all other plumbing
hazards and always when replacement of fixtures is scheduled.
METHODS OF CORRECTING PLUMBING DEFECTS
Corrective or remedial action to eliminate cross-connections is
handled by applying one of the well-known methods described below.
More extensive definition and application of these methods is described
in the National Plumbing Code.
1. Airgap. An airgap is the unobstructed vertical distance
through the free atmosphere between the lowest opening from
43
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SPIGOT
Overflow point or
flood level rim
SINK
DRAIN
Figure 14.—Lavatory unit with an air gap water inlet.
VACUUM
BREAKER
Figure 15.—Typical vacuum breaker installation.
44
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any pipe or faucet supplying water to a tank, plumbing fixture,
or other device, and the flood level rim of the receptacle. Figure
14 shows the airgap technique applied to a lavatory installation.
An airgap distance of at least twice the diameter of the effective
opening of the supply pipe should be provided. In no case
should this be less than the following10:
Effective opening
size (inches)
Minimum airgap (inches)
When not affected
by near wall
When affected
by near wall
K or less
More than J4__
Up through %.
More than %..
Up through 1__
Greater th~an 1.
2 times the effective
opening.
3.
3 times the effective
opening.
2. Non-pressure-type vacuum breaker. A non-pressure-type
vacuum breaker is a device used to protect all water connections
not subject to backpressure when installed at or above a specified
minimum accepted elevation and on the discharge side of the last
control valve. Figure 15 shows the typical installation of this
vacuum breaker.
3. Back-jlow preventer — Reduced pressure zone type. An as-
sembly of differential valves and check valves, including an auto-
matic opening port to the atmosphere to prevent backflow due to
higher pressures on the discharge side of the assembly.
EXAMPLES OF CROSS-CONNECTIONS AND BACKFLOW CONNECTIONS
Examples of cross-connections and backflow connections which
may be encountered in recreation areas include —
1. Direct connection of water supply to cooling or condenser
systems in refrigerating or air-conditioning systems.
2. Drinking fountains with submerged water inlets or with the
water-supply line passing through the drain.
3. Fish ponds with submerged inlets.
4. Fire hydrants with drain connection to sewers.
5. Frostproof waterclosets, whether or not the valve drains to
the sewer or to the ground surrounding the sewer.
6. Kitchen and laundry fixtures with common waste and supply
lines.
45
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7. Lawns—underground water sprinkling systems without
vacuum breaker.
8. Pump pits with drain connection to pump or sewer line.
9. Sinks with faucets or water inlets below the rim and sinks
with loose hose connections not provided with a proper retractor.
10. Swimming pools with water supply inlets below the over-
flow line or having a physican connection between potable water
and the recirculating system.
11. Water coolers improperly designed and using toxic refrig-
erant which may pollute the water supply.
12. Watercloset bowls equipped with flushometer valves or with
flushing tanks with submerged-float-operated ballcocks.
13. Flushometer valves for toilet fixtures not protected with
siphon breaker or air gap.
14. Ice cube machines with direct sewer connections or black-
flow connections.
15. Soil and waste pipes passing above open water storage
tanks, refrigerators, or food storage, and food preparation areas.
The manual on "Water Supply and Plumbing Cross-Connections" ''
lias been produced as a too] for health officials, waterworks personnel,
building maintenance foreman, plumbers, and man}' others. It de-
fines, describes, and illustrates typical cross-connections and suggests
simple methods and devices by which they may be eliminated without
interfering with the functions of plumbing systems.
COMFORT STATIONS
It is generally conceded that comfort stations providing flush toilets,
lavatories, or other facilities for the use of the public are among the
most necessary structures built in recreation areas. While compact-
ness and economy of construction are highly desirable, the design of a
comfort station should be slanted toward the development of an ef-
ficient unit that will minimize the long-term maintenance and opera-
tional costs.
Permanent Construction
Comfort stations of permanent construction should be provided with
an interior finish of moisture-resitant materials which will stand fre-
quent washing and cleaning. The floors, walls, partitions, and other
interior surfaces should be imperivous to water and easily cleanable.
The use of ceramic tile floors and wainscot reduces maintenance costs
and is believed by many to discourage vandalism.
Comfort stations should be well lighted, adequately ventilated, and
properly protected from the weather. They need not be heated; how-
46
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ever, when they are to be used during freezing weather conditions
sufficient heat should be provided to prevent damage to plumbing. All
exterior openings should be covered with 16-mesh screen. Windows
should be placed above the eye level for privacy, if possible, otherwise
translucent window glass will be needed. Outward-opening self-
closing doors should also be used.
There is obvious saving in cost in grouping men's and women's toilet
rooms under one roof. When this is done, the arrangement of sepa-
rate entrances so that each section is suitably remote from the other is
important. If on opposite sides of the building, the maximum de-
sirable separation of approaches is obtained. The approaches and
entrances should be clearly marked. A substantial soundproof parti-
tion should completely separate the two toilet rooms. A typical
layout of a comfort station is shown in figure 16.
Plumbing fixtures should be provided in comfort stations as out-
lined in table 4. Soap and individual towels, or other means for
drying hands, and trash containers shoiild be provided. A safe and
adequate water supply and an approved sewage disposal system are
necessary requisites to the installation of a modern comfort station
as described in chapters IV and V of this Guide. An estimate of
the quantity of water needed for a comfort station is outlined in
table 5, which gives the flow desirable for many common types of fix-
tures, and the average pressure necessary to provide this rate of flow.
Mobile Comfort Stations
In many recreation areas, especially in and around large cities,
mobile comfort stations have satisfactorily been used to provide ade-
quate and essential facilities for large group gatherings. These units
have been invaluable for use during short-term special events such as
festivals, carnivals, and sporting events. Their quick and convenient
service and mobility make them indispensable for many occasions.
These units are constructed with separate compartments for men
and women. Each compartment is provided with soap, paper towels,
and a trash receptacle. The following number of plumbing fixtures
have been found adequate in units which have been used at Washing-
ton, D.C., events.
Men Women
Waterclosets 4 5
Urinals 2
Lavatories 2 2
Separate water and sewer connections are provided for direct service
from a municipal water supply and sewerage system. Parking over
a sewer manhole is a convenient way to obtain ready access to an
existing sewerage system. A power connection must be provided, as
lights in the units are necessary and discourage vandalism.
47
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A comfort station of pleasing design and proportion intended for campgrounds,
but one which might profitably be used at the smaller public swimming areas.
A fiberglass roof would make the interior brighter if this building were to be
located in shaded areas.
2T-8"
8f-0"
48
PLAN
Figure 16.—layout of a permanent type comfort station.
-------
Figure 17.—Comfort station for campground.
Figure 18. Mobile comfort station.
49
-------
TabU 4.—-Minimum number of pfumblng ftxfvrwi10
Ui
O
Type of building
occupancy
Assembly — places
of worship.
Auditoriums,
theaters, and
convention
halls.
Dormitories —
school or
labor, alao
institutional.
Type of fixture
Waterclosets
Number of
persons
150
women.
300 men _.
Number of
persons
1-100
1 01-200.-
201-400. .
Number
f
of
fixtures
1
1
Number
of
fixtures
1
2
3
Over 400, add 1
fixture for each
additional 500
men and 1 for
each 300 women.
Men: 1 for each 10
persons.
Women: 1 for
each 8 persons.
Urinals
Number of
persons
300 men *.
Number of
persons
1-200
201-400. .
401-600. .
Number
f
, °f
fixtures
1
Number
of
fixtures
1
2
3
Over 600, add ]
fixture for each
300 men.*
1 for each 25 men.
Over 150, add
1 fixture for
each 50 men.*
Lavatories
1
Number of Number
persona of
fixtures
1-200 1
201-400.. 2
401-750- , 3
Over 750, add 1
fixture for each
500 persons.
1 for each 12
persons.
(Separate den-
tal lavatories
should be pro-
vided in com-
munity toilet
rooms. A ra-
Bathtubs or
showers
1 for each 8
persons. For
women's dor-
mitories, addi-
tional bath-
tubs should
be installed
at the ratio
Drinking
fountains**
1
1 for each 300
persons.
1 for each 75
persons.
Other fixtures
1 slop sink.
Laundry trays,
1 for each 50
persons.
Slop sinks, 1
for each 100
persons.
-------
Dwellings — 1
and 2 family.
Dwellings —
multiple or
apartment.
1 for each dwell-
ing unit.
1 for each dwell-
ing unit or
apartment.
tio of 1 dental
lavatory to
each 50 persons
is recom-
mended.)
1 for each dwell-
ing unit.
1 for each dwell-
ing unit or
apartment.
of 1 for each
30 women.
Over 150
persons, add
1 fixture for
each 20
persons.
1 for each
dwelling unit.
1 for each
dwelling
unit or
apartment.
Kitchen sink,
1 for each
dwelling unit.
Kitchen sink,
1 for each
dwelling
unit or
apartment.
For apart-
ment or
multiple
dwelling
units in
excess of 10
apartments
or units, 1
double laun-
dry tray for
each 10 uinits
or 1 automate
laundry
washing
machine for
each 20 unit.
See footnotes at end of table.
-------
s
TabU 4.—Minimum number of plumbing Axturtt—-Continued
Type of building
occupancy
Public buildings,
offices, busi-
ness mercan-
tile.
Schools —
elementary,
secondary.
Working men,
temporary
facilities.
Swimming pools.
Based on maxi-
mum load.
Type of fixture
Waterclosets
Number of
each
sex
1-15
16-35
36-55
66-80
81-110,..
110-150--
1 fixture fo
addition
employe
Boys
1/40
1/75
Num-
ber of
fixtures
1
2
3
4
5
6
r each
a!40
es.
Girls
1/35
1/45
1/30 working
men.
Males
1/75
Females
1/50
Urinals
Urinals may be
provided in
men's * toilet
rooms in lieu of
water closets
but for not
more than % of
required num-
ber of water-
closets.
1/30 boys
1/30 boys
1/30 working
men.
Males Females
1/75
Lavatories
Num ber of
employees
1-15
16-35
36-60
61-90
91-125--.
1 fixture fc
addition
persons.
1/50 pupils
1/50 pupils
Num-
ber of
fixture*
1
2
3
4
5
»r each
al 45
1/30 working
men.
Males
1/100
Females
1/100
Bathtubs or
showers
In gym or pool
shower rooms,
1/5 pupils of a
class.
Males Females
1/50 1/50
minimum of 2.
Drinking
fountains**
1 for each 75
persons.
1/100 pupils,
but at least
1 per floor.
1 fixture or
equivalent
for each 100
working men.
1 located in
swimming
pool area.
Other fixtures
1 slop sink per
floor.
Slop sinks, 1 on
each floor.
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Table 4.—Minimum number of plumbing fixtures
Type of building occupancy
Comfort stations for campgrounds.
Comfort stations for picnic areas. -
Type of fixture
Water closets
Number
of sites
1-20
21-30
Number of
car park-
ing spaces
1-40
41-80
81-120
Number of
fixtures
Male
1
2
Female
2
3
Number of
fixtures
Male
1
2
3
Female
2
4
6
Urinals
Number
of sites
1-20
21-30
Number of
car park-
ing spaces
1-40
41-80
81-120
Number
of fixtures
1
2
Number
of fixtures
1
2
3
Lavatories
Number
of sites
1-20
21-30
Number of
car park-
ing spaces
1-40
41-80
81-120
Number of
fixtures
Male
1
2
Female
1
2
Number of
fixtures
Male
1
2
3
Female
1
2
3
Ul
u
A comfort station with good balance should contain 2 waterclosets, 2 lavatories, and 1 urinal for males; and 3 waterclosets and 2
lavatories for females. A sanistand substituted for 1 watercloset is desired for females. A comfort station should provide facilities
for sites within a 300-foot radius.
* Where urinals are provided for women, the same number should be provided as for men.
** Drinking fountains should not be installed in toilet rooms.
-------
These units are not provided with heating equipment because they
are seldom used during cold weather. However, if cold weather use
is necessary, skirt enclosures can be installed below and around the
unit to protect the piping below the flow level and an electric heater
used in this enclosure to prevent pipes from freezing.
Because of their weight, they must generally be kept on solid road-
ways to avoid becoming mired down in soft earth. It is also not
practical to transport them over highways for long distances as pipe
leaks and breaks will develop. A typical mobile comfort station is
shown in figure 18.
Portable Toilets
Portable chemical toilets are very useful and provide economic toilet
facilities for many occasions such as construction projects, parades,
and other public events where large numbers of people congregate for
a short period of time. These units are generally equipped with a
toilet and urinal and are available for rental or lease from many com-
mercial companies to include installation and routine servicing.
Easily transported by truck, any number of these units can be dis-
persed rapidly to locations to meet the demands for emergency toilet
facilities that meet public health standards. A typical unit is shown
in figure 19.
Rgwr* 19.—Portable toiltt*.
54
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Table 5.—Kates of flow for certain plumbing and houjehoW fixtures
Location
Ordinary basin faucet _ _ „
Self-closing basin faucet
Sink faucet, % inch _ _ - _ _
Sink faucet, %. inch . - ._
Bathtub faucet_ _
Laundry tub faucet, % inch
Shower -- . _ _
Ballcock for closet. _
Flush valve for closet - - - -
Flushometer valve for urinal
Drinking fountains
Sill cock — wall hydrant . - _ _
Flow pres-
sure *
pounds per
square inch
(psi)
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
15
15
15
10
Flow rate —
gallons per
minute
(gpm)
2 0
2 5
4 5
4 5
6 0
5 0
5 0
3 0
b 15-35
15 0
0 75
5 0
• Flow pressure is the pressure in the supply near the faucet or water outlet
while the faucet or water outlet is wide open and flowing.
b Wide range due to variation in design and type of closet flush valves.
55
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Chapter VII
Building and Housing Hygiene
Construction of new buildings and the operation and maintenance
of existing buildings in recreational areas are specialized problems
which require proper analysis and comprehensive coordinated plan-
ning by the landscape architect, architect, and engineer. Many recre-
ational developments are communities unto themselves which involves
the entire scope of community planning. Proper site selection and
development and adequate design, construction, and maintenance of
recreational area buildings is essential, so that the development will
blend in and not mar the scenic and other values in the vicinity.
The scope of the public health aspects of housing involves the de-
sign and arrangement of the dwelling unit, the materials and methods
of construction, the use of space by the occupants, the maintenance of
the structures and dwelling areas, and the availability of community
facilities and services.
Housing of good sanitary quality must provide for fulfillment of the
physiological needs of man, which include: a thermal environment
that not only is conducive to good health but is comfortable and pro-
motes the efficiency of Irving; air that is chemically pure and free from
objectionable odors; humidity that is healthful and comfortable; and
air movement that will assist in maintaining the desired thermal con-
ditions and air purity and will provide for the necessary air changes.
Housing should be free of noise that may impair health. Lighting
should be quantitatively and qualitatively adequate including both
natural and artificial sources.
All buildings and dwelling units should be constructed in accordance
with the minimum requirements of the "Proposed Housing Ordi
nance"13 prepared by the Committee on the Hygiene of Housing of
the American Public Health Association or requirements that are
substantially equivalent. The "Basic Principles of Healthful Hous-
ing," " prepared by the same committee, is another good reference in
the field of housing. Those concerned with the design, operation, and
maintenance of public buildings should consult these references for
more complete coverage of this subject. Plans and specifications
covering housing, dormitories, labor camps, hotels, restaurants, and
similar facilities should be submitted to the appropriate authorities
having jurisdiction for review and recommendations. Some of the
more important aspects of housing not covered elsewhere in this Guide
are outlined below:1S
56
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A. Light, Ventilation, and Heating
1. Every habitable room should have at least one window or skylight facing
directly to the outdoors. The minimum total window area, measured be-
tween stops, for every habitable room should be 10 percent of the floor area
of such room. Whenever walls or other portions of structures face a window
of any such room and such light-obstruction structures are located less than
3 feet from the window and extend to a level above that of the ceiling of the
room, such a window, should not be deemed to face directly to the outdoors
and should not be included as contributing to the required minimum total
window area. Whenever the only window in a room is a skylight-type window
in the top of such room, the total window area of such skylight should equal
at least 15 percent of the total floor area of such room.
2. Every habitable room should have at least one window or skylight which can
easily be opened, or such other device as will adequately ventilate the room.
The total of openable window area in every habitable room should be equal to
at least 45 percent of the minimum window area size or minimum skylight-type
window size, as required in item I, except where there is supplied some other
device affording adequate ventilation and approved by the health or other
authority having jurisdiction.
3. Every bathroom and watercloset compartment should comply with the light
and ventilation requirements for habitable rooms contained in items 1 and 2,
except that no window or skylight should be required in adequately venti-
lated bathrooms and watercloset compartments equipped with a mechanical
ventilation system which is approved by the health or other authority having
jurisdiction.
4. Where there is electric service available, every habitable room of such dwell-
ing should contain at least two separate floor- or wall-type electric convenience
outlets, or one such convenience outlet and one supplied ceiling-type electric
light fixture; and every watercloset compartment, bathroom, laundry room,
furnace room, and public hall should contain at least one supplied ceiling-
or wall-type electric light fixture. Every such outlet and fixture should be
properly installed, should be maintained in good and safe working condition,
and should be connected to the source of electric power in a safe manner.
5. Every dwelling should have heating facilities which are properly installed,
are maintained in safe and good working condition, and are capable of safely
and adequately heating all habitable rooms, bathrooms, and watercloset com-
partments in very dwelling unit located therein to a temperature of at least 70°
P., at a distance 3 feet above floor level, under ordinary minimum winter
conditions.
6. Every public hall and stairway in every multiple dwelling containing five
or more dwelling units should be adequately lighted at all times. Every public
hall and stairway in structures devoted solely to dwelling occupancy and con-
taining not more than four dwelling units may be supplied with conveniently
located light switches, controlling an adequate lighting system which may be
turned on when needed, instead of full-time lighting.
7. During that portion of each year when it is necessary to protect against mos-
quitoes, flies, and other insects, every door opening directly from a dwelling
unit to outdoor space should have supplied screens and a self-closing device;
and every window or other device with openings to outdoor space, used or
intended to be used for ventilation should likewise be supplied with screens:
Provided, That such screens should not be required during such period in
rooms deemed by the health authority to be located high enough in the upper
stories of buildings as to be free from such insects. Screening material
should not be less than 16 mesh to the inch or equivalent.
735-744 O - 65 - 5 *
-------
S. Every basement or cellar window used or intended to be used for ventila-
tion, and every other opening to a basement which might provide an entry for
insects and rodents, should be supplied with a screen or such other device
as will effectively prevent their entrance.
B. Safe and Sanitary Maintenance
1. Every foundation, floor, wall, ceiling, and roof should be reasonably weather-
tight, watertight, and rodentproof; should be capable of affording privacy; and
should be kept in good repair.
2. Every window, exterior door, and basement hatchway should be reasonably
weathertight, watertight, and rodentproof; and should be kept in sound
working condition and good repair.
3. Every inside and outside stair, every porch, and every appurtenance thereto
should be so constructed as to be safe to use and capable of supporting the
load that normal use may cause to be placed thereon; and should be kept in
sound condition and good repair.
4. Every plumbing fixture and water and waste pipe should be properly in-
stalled and maintained in good sanitary working condition, free from de-
fects, leaks, and obstructions.
5. Every watercloset compartment floor surface and bathroom floor surface
should be constructed and maintained so as to be reasonably impervious to
water and so as to permit such floor to be easily kept in a clean and sanitary
condition.
6. Every supplied facility, piece of equipment, or utility should be so con-
structed or installed that it will function safely and effectively, and should
be maintained in satisfactory working condition.
C. Space, Use, and Location
1. Every dwelling unit should contain at least 150 square feet of floorspace for
the first occupant thereof and at least 100 additional square feet of floor-
space for every additional occupant thereof, the floorspace to be calculated on
the basis of total habitable room area.
2. In every dwelling unit of two or more rooms, every room occupied for sleeping
purposes by one occupant should contain at least 70 square feet of floorspace,
and every room occupied for sleeping purposes by more than one occupant
should contain at least 50 square feet of floorspace for each occupant thereof.
3. Xo dwelling or dwelling unit containing two or more sleeping rooms should
have such room arrangements that access to a bathroom or watercloset com-
partment intended for use by occupants of more than one sleeping room can
be had only by going through another sleeping room; nor should room arrange-
ments be such that access to sleeping rooms can be had only by going througL
another sleeping room or a bathroom or watercloset compartment.
4. At least one-half of the floor area of every habitable room should have a ceil-
ing height of at least seven feet; and the floor area of that part of any room
where the ceiling height is less than five feet should not be considered as part
of tile floor area in computing the total floor area of the room for the purpose
of determining the maximum permissible occupancy thereof.
5. No cellar space should be used as a habitable room or dwelling unit.
6. No basement space should be used as a habitable room or dwelling unit
unless—
(a) The floor and walls are impervious to leakage of underground and sur-
face runoff water and are insulated against dampness;
(&) The total of window area in each room is equal to at least the minimum
window area sUes as required in item A.1 above;
(o) Such required minimum window area is located entirely above the grade
of the ground adjoining such window area; and
58
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Figure 30,—Tourlif accom-
modations, Canyon Vil-
lage Yellowiton*
Notional Park.
-------
(d) The total of openable window area in each room is equal to at least the
minimum as required under item A.2 above, except where there is sup-
plied some other device affording adequate ventilation and approved by
the health authority.
D. Spacing and Location of Buildings **
The minimum spacing between various housing units and any other building
regardless of construction type should be as follows:
Feet
Apartment buildings 40
Bunkhouses— 40
Dormitories 40
Duplex residences— 30
Mnltifamily dwellings,,. 40
Quarters , 30
Banger station 30
Unit for seasonal occupancy 40
All buildings in this group should be so located that the side facing the access
road is not less than 25 feet back from the inside line of the sidewalk or road
curb where no sidewalk occurs, Each building in this group should have one
side, other than the one facing the access road, not less than 60 feet from any
other building.
Continued evaluation of the building program is necessary to assure
that the control of deterioration of buildings and developments as well
as the rehabilitation of substandard buildings is being carried out on
a planned basis. Inspections of habitable or occupied buildings should
be made periodically by the health authority, or upon request of the
area supervisor. Inspections should be frequent enough to note and
record signs of deterioration which are in need of correction. Follow-
up inspections should generally be made when problems are being
encountered and for the purpose of checking proposed improvements.
Housing surveys should generally include such items as—
1. Source and adequacy of water supply.
2. Equipment and facilities, especially plumbing, food service, and refuse
storage facilities.
3. Heating, lighting, and ventilating.
4. Safe and sanitary maintenance of occupied buildings including accident
hazards.
NOTE : Includes tight construction or screening with hardware cloth to
exclude rodents and other small mammals including bats.
5. Space, use, and location requirements, especially in regard to adequacy
of sanitary facilities such as toilets, urinals, lavatories, and baths for
maximum occupancy.
6. Maximum occupancy—especially space provided for temporary employees.
7. Fire hazards.
8. Sewage disposal.
In areas where flies and mosquitoes are prevalent, adequate provision
should be made for effective 16-mesh screening of all habitable or oc-
cupied buildings. All screen doors should open outward and be self-
closing.
60
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Figure 21.—Housing ac-
commodations. Grand
Teton National Park.
-------
Figur. M.-Typical approval bu«k milk disp.ns.r-
62
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Chapter VII!
Milk, Milk Products, and Frozen Desserts
Local and State health authorities have for many years enforced
laws and regulations concerning the sanitary quality of milk, milk
products, and frozen desserts. These products are unique because
their consumption in adequate quantities is essential to the nutritional
well-being of the individual; but if not properly safeguarded, they
may be instrumental in the transmission of diseases infectious to man.
Thirty-seven States and over 1,900 communities have adopted the
Public Health Service "Recommended Milk Ordinance and Code"15
as the basis of their milk sanitation laws or regulation. Grade A
pasteurized milk and milk products produced, processed, and stored
using this sanitary standard will, if served properly, minimize or
prevent the transmission of milkborne diseases.
SOURCES OF SUPPLY
Lists of Grade A pasteurized milk, milk products, and frozen des-
sert sources which are approved may be obtained from States and/or
local health departments for use in the recreational area. Informa-
tion on approved sources of fluid milk, milk products, and dry milk
products can also be obtained from the Sanitation Compliance and
Enforcement Ratings of Interstate Milk Shippers published periodi-
cally by the Public Health Service. The sources listed in this publi-
cation are approved for use on interstate carriers and are widely ac-
cepted by public health agencies and the milk industry.
Milk and milk products should be kept at or below 45° F., except
when being served. Multi-use containers of milk and milk products
should not be stored in water in such a manner that the pouring lips
of the bottles are submerged. Single-service containers should not
be stored in water.
Milk and milk products should be served in the individual con-
tamers in which they were received from the distributor or from an
approved-type bulk dispenser as illustrated in figure 22. This require-
ment does not apply to cream that may be served from the original
bottle or from a dispenser approved for such service.
All frozen desserts should be maintained in a frozen state between
the period of production and dispensing to the consumer to maintain
quality and a low bacterial content. Eefreezing should not be per-
mitted. Dispensing scoops, spoons, or dippers used in serving frozen
desserts should be stored, between uses, in an approved running-
water dipper well or in a manner approved by the health authority.
63
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Chapter IX
Food Sanitation
Despite the progress which has been achieved in food protection
programs, foodborne illness continues to be a major public health
problem. The incidence of such illness can be reduced by the appli-
cation of the basic principles of food protection. However, to achieve
this on a day-to-day basis, better understanding on the part of many
food-service employees must be developed, and this in turn will
necessitate a maximum of cooperation between public health agencies
and the food service industry. The need for even greater attention
to this problem in recreation areas is due to seasonal operation of
many areas and the widely fluctuating visitor load that must be ac-
commodated by food service facilities provided. Seasonal employees
with lack of adequate training in good food-handling practices in-
troduce additional hazards.
OBJECTIVES OF A FOOD SERVICE SANITATION PROGRAM
Both the food and beverage service industry and public health
agencies have important roles to play in helping to insure that only
safe, wholesome food and drink is offered to the millions who patron-
ize the restaurants, lunch counters, refreshment stands, and other
food service establishments in recreational areas. There must be as-
surance that operations and techniques, including preparation and
service to the customer, are such that food is properly protected at all
times against contaminants and infective agents. It is essential that
hygienic principles be applied to eliminate any conditions or operat-
ing methods that might serve as avenues of contamination. Unfor-
tunately food can be easily contaminated and has the potential to
support the growth of disease organisms, and may also serve as the
vehicle for the transmission of toxic contaminants.
The broad objective of a food sanitation program is the protection
of the health of the consumer. Such a program is designed to protect
food against contamination and insure the wholesomeness of food
and to meet consumer expectations. While esthetic considerations
must be recognized as having a place in the overall program, they are
less important than the food itself, the personnel ^employed, and the
manner in which processing, storage, and serving are carried out.
A food service sanitation program should be designed to cover all
eating and drinking establishments, including fixed establishments
and mobile units in recreation areas where food or beverages are
64
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served or provided the public, as well as those kitchens, commissaries,
and similar food-preparation establishments which are used for the
final preparation of food served to the consumer elsewhere. It is not
sufficient to apply sanitary standards to food service establishments
only. The source of food, food products, and ingredients, as well as
transportation methods of all food utilized in recreation areas, should
be subjected to control.
CONDUCTING AN EFFECTIVE FOOD SANITATION PROGRAM
Consumer protection through the application of sound public health
practices is a basic responsibility of public health agencies. While
food sanitation and the protection of the public on a day-to-day basis
must be achieved by the food industry, health agencies have a respon-
sibility to see that the job is accomplished. Food sanitation programs
should be based on nationally accepted health principles and stand-
ards. The vast majority of the health agencies have adopted and
use a food sanitation ordinance and code for this purpose. The "Food
Service Sanitation Manual,"16 including A Model Food Service San-
itation Ordinance and Code, 1962 Recommendations of the Public
Health Service, is a basic reference in this field. Codes and ordinances
are no substitute for well-qualified, well-trained, and competent
sanitation personnel. Experience has demonstrated conclusively that
impartial, strict enforcement of the ordinance leads to a more satis-
factory relationship between the health authorities and industry and
creates an atmosphere which produces maximum benefits in terms of
food protection.
Although it is not possible to discuss all phases of food sanitation
in a publication of this type, some of the more important public health
problems which are covered in the Food Service Sanitation Manual
are presented. Those readers concerned with regulating or operating
food service establishments are urged to consult the Manual for more
complete coverage of this subject.
FOOD SUPPLIES
AD food in food service establishments should be from sources ap-
proved or considered satisfactory by the appropriate health authority
having jurisdiction, and should be clean, wholesome, free from spoil-
age, free from adulteration and misbranding, and safe for human con-
sumption. Requirements for milk, milk products, and frozen desserts
are covered under chapter VIII of this Guide. All fresh and frozen
oysters, clams, and mussels should be from sources approved by the
State shellfish authority, or appear on the Public Health Service list
of Certified Shellfish Shippers. Meat and meat products and poultry
and poultry meat products preferably should be inspected for whole-
someness under an official regulatory program.
65
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FOOD PROTECTION
All food while being stored, prepared, displayed, served, or sold at
food service establishments, or during transportation between such
establishments, should be protected from contamination. All perish-
able food should be stored at such temperatures as will protect against
spoilage. All potentially hazardous food should be maintained at
safe temperatures (45° F. or below, or 140° F. or above), except during
necessary periods of preparation and service. Raw fruits and vege-
tables should be washed before use. Stuffing, poultry, stuffed meats
and poultry, and pork and pork products should be thoroughly cooked
before being served. Individual portions of food once served to a
customer should not be served again. Wrapped food other than poten-
tially hazardous food, which has not been unwrapped and which is
wholesome, may be re-served.
Only such poisonous and toxic materials as are required to maintain
sanitary conditions and for sanitization purposes should be used or
stored in food service establishments. These materials should be
identified and should be stored and used only in such manner and
under such conditions as will not contaminate food or constitute a
hazard to employees or customers.
Ice intended for use for human consumption or to be used in direct
contact with food, food equipment, or food utensils should comply
with the Sanitary Standards Relating to the Manufacture, Processing,
Storage and Transportion of Ice—1964 Recommendations of the Pub-
lic Health Service.17
HEALTH AND DISEASE CONTROL
No person while affected with any disease of a communicable form,
or while a carrier of such disease, or while afflicted with boils, infected
wounds, sores, or an acute respiratory infection, should work in any
area of a food service establishment in any capacity in which there
is a likelihood of such person contaminating food or food-contact
surfaces with pathogenic organisms, or transmitting disease to other
individuals; and no person known or suspected of being affected with
any disease or condition should be employed in such an area or capac-
ity. If the manager or person in charge of the establishment has reason
to suspect that any employee has contacted any disease of a communi-
cable form or has become a carrier of such disease, he should notify
the health authority immediately.
CLEANLINESS
All employees should wear clean outer garments, maintain a high
degree of personal cleanliness, and conform to hygenic practices while
on duty. They should wash their hands thoroughly in an approved
hand-washing facility before starting work, and as often as may be
66
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necessary to remove soil and contamination. No employee should re-
sume work after visiting the toilet room without first washing his
hands.
FOOD EQUIPMENT AND UTENSILS
Construction and Installation of Equipment and Utensils
All equipment and utensils should be so designed and of such ma-
terials and workmanship as to be smooth, easily cleanable, durable, and
should be in good repair; and the food-contact surfaces of such equip-
ment and utensils should, in addition, be easily accessible for cleaning,
nontoxic, corrosion resistant, and relatively nonabsorbent.
Cleaning and Bactericidal Treatment of Utensils and Equipment
Regular, effective cleaning and sanitizing of equipment, utensils, and
work surfaces minimize the chances that food will become contami-
nated during preparation or storage; that food residues will accumu-
late, decompose, or support the rapid development of food poisoning
organisms and toxins; or that disease organisms will be transferred to
employees or to customers on unclean eating and drinking utensils
contaminated by saliva and unclean hands.
All eating and drinking utensils should be thoroughly cleaned and
sanitized after each usage.
All kitchenware and food-contact surfaces of equipment, exclusive
of cooking surfaces of equipment, used in the preparation or serving
of food or drink, and all food-storage utensils, should be thoroughly
cleaned after each use. Cooking surfaces of equipment should be
cleaned at least once a day. All utensils and food-contact surfaces of
equipment used in the preparation, service, display, or storage of
potentially hazardous food should be thoroughly cleaned and sanitized
prior to such use. Non-food-contact surfaces of equipment should be
cleaned at such intervals as to keep them in a clean and sanitary con-
dition.
After cleaning and until use, all food-contact surfaces of equipment
and utensils should be so stored and handled as to be protected from
contamination.
All single-service articles should be stored, handled, and dispensed in
a sanitary manner, and should be used only once.
Food service establishments which do not have adequate and effec-
tive facilities for cleaning and sanitizing utensils should use single-
service articles.
The Public Health Service 1962 Food Service Sanitation Manual,
Publication No. 934, is a basic reference as to procedure which should
be used in cleaning and sanitizing equipment and utensils.
67
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Illustrations of various types of sinks and dishwashing machines
considered satisfactory are shown in figures 23-25.
Toiler facilities
Each food service establishment should be provided with adequate,
conveniently located toilet facilities for its employees. The doors of
all toilet rooms should be self-closing. Where the use of non-water-
carriage sewage disposal facilities have been approved by the health
authority having jurisdiction, such facilities should be separated from
the establishment.
Hand-Washing facilities
Each food service establishment should be provided with adequate,
conveniently located hand-washing facilities for its employees, includ-
ing a lavatory or lavatories provided with hot and cold or tempered
running water, hand-cleansing soap or detergent, and approved sani-
tary towels or other approved hand-drying devices. In all new estab-
lishments, and establishments which are extensively altered, lavatories
should also be located within the area where food is prepared.
Garbage and Rubbish Disposal
All garbage and rubbish containing food wastes should, prior to
disposal, be kept in leakproof, nonabsorbent containers which should
Figure 23.—A mechanical dishwashing
machine of the single tank type.
68
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be kept covered with tight-fitting lids when filled or stored, or not
in continuous use. Such containers need not be covered when stored in
a special verminproofed room or enclosure, or in a food-waste re-
frigerator. Food-waste grinders, if used, should meet the require-
ments of the health authority having jurisdiction. The use of food-
waste grinders in recreation areas will greatly reduce the difficulties
often experienced in the collection, storage, handling, and disposal
of wet garbage in refuse disposal sites.
Figure 24.—A three-compartment
stainless steel sink.
'
Figure 25.— A mechanical dishwashing machine of the belt type.
69
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x
REACH-IN REFRIG.
WASH BASIN
BAICEft S TABLE
I^TEAMER OVEN j
1
n
1
I
I ,
I_VRYER_ **JL6E_
HOOD OVER
1X|
X
Ffew* 26.—layout of WKh*n •quipmont.
70
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OTHER FACILITIES AND OPERATIONS
All floors, walls, and ceilings in kitchens and other rooms and
areas in which food is stored or prepared and in which utensils are
washed should be properly constructed and maintained and provided
with adequate lighting and ventilation.
A well-laid-out kitchen is easy to work in and clean. The kitchen is
usually divided into three separate work areas to keep activities sepa-
rated. Receiving and storage, preparation and cooking, and dish-
washing. In this manner outside traffic is eliminated from food prepa-
ration and dishwashing areas, and the flow of traffic between the
kitchen and dining room is restricted to the area between the dish-
washer and the steam table. A typical layout of kitchen equipment
is shown in figure 26.
Inspections of all food establishments and all catering establish-
ments supplying food to recreational areas should be made by the
health authority having jurisdiction at regular intervals, preferably
at least every 6 months.
All new food service establishments and caterers should be inspected
prior to providing service to recreation areas.
Copies of the completed standard inspection forms with copies
of the narrative reports covering defects observed should be forwarded
to the operator of the establishment or concessionaire for appropriate
action. Persons conducting inspections should discuss observations
with the personnel responsible for the administration and operation of
the area to emphasize the importance of having the defects corrected as
soon as possible.
PLAN REVIEW OF FUTURE CONSTRUCTION
When a food service establishment is constructed or extensively
remodeled or when an existing structure is converted for use as a food
service establishment, properly prepared plans and specifications for
such work showing layout, arrangement, and construction materials
of work areas, and the location, size, and type of fixed equipment and
facilities should be submitted to the health authority having jurisdic-
tion for approval before sucli work is initiated.
TEMPORARY FOOD SERVICE ESTABLISHMENTS
A temporary food service operation is generally considered to be
one that is operated for a period of 2 weeks or less. It differs from
a permanent type of operation and usually requires special arrange-
ments to be made for water supply, refuse disposal, refrigeration,
lighting, etc.
A temporary or mobile food service establishment should comply
with all the provisions of the Public Health Service 1962 Food Serv-
ice Sanitation Manual16
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VENDING MACHINES
Vending machines used to dispense foods and beverages at recrea-
tional areas should comply with the requirements of the health au-
thority. "The Vending of Foods and Beverages,"18 a Sanitation
Ordinance and Code Recommended by the Public Health Service, is
a basic reference in this field. The health authority should inspect
all vending machines in accordance with prescribed regulations. All
violations should be called to the attention of officials responsible for
their operation.
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Chapter X
Refuse Handling
Public health problems are often associated with improper storage,
collection, and disposal of refuse in recreational areas. Experience
has shown that the application of the basic principles of sanitation to
refuse handling results in substantial reductions in fly, rodent, and
other insect problems. In addition, there are significant relationships
between the incidence of certain diseases in humans and animals and
improper refuse disposal. It is also common knowledge that many
hazards and nuisances, such as fire, smoke, odors, and unsightliness, are
created by poor refuse handling practices. Also, the full appreciation
of recreational area values by the public is often diminished by the dis-
order of accumulated refuse and litter.
REFUSE CHARACTERISTICS AND QUANTITIES
Numerous factors, such as geographic location, season, character of
development, types of business, and type and frequency of collection,
influence the amounts of refuse collected. The volume of garbage pro-
duced per capita is declining with the increased use of frozen and pack-
aged foods and other convenience foods. However, the total pounds
of refuse per capita is increasing because of the corresponding increase
in household rubbish of such items as paper, cans, and bottles.
The Public Health Service conducted field studies for the National
Park Service in 1954, which covered characteristics and quantities of
refuse produced in four typical national park installations, including
three in the Western States, and one in the East. The results of the
studies have been summarized in table 6. These data may be useful in
planning refuse disposal programs in similar areas such as State parks,
summer camps, and resorts.
STORAGE
In establishing and enforcing rules regarding the preparation and
storage of refuse, the following is recommended good practice.
All refuse should be kept in durable, watertight, rust-resistant,
nonabsorbent, and easily washable containers that are covered with
close-fitting lids and furnished with suitable handles. Lining the con-
tainers with a disposable paper or plastic bag aids in maintaining
cleanliness and reduces the need for frequent washing of containers.
In many areas containers can be replaced by using heavy-duty paper
bags with special holders. The containers should be kept covered
pending removal, have adequate capacity, and be provided in sufficient
735-744 O - 65 - 6
73
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TobU 6.—Boi/e rtfut* qvonfffy data
Lodges and hotels.
Campgrounds - - -
Picnic areas*
Park headquarters area (includ-
ing residences and maintenance
areas) .
Combined refuse
Garbage
Rubbish
Combined refuse
Garbage
Rubbish
Combined refuse
Combined refuse
Garbage _ _.
Rubbish _
Pounds per capita per day
Average
Mini-
mum
1.79
1.89
1, 15
.45
1.52
Average
Maxi-
mum
3.90
5.04
3.24
1.60
2.82
Median
of
average
3.5
2.0
1.3
1.4
.4
2.0
Cubic feet per capita per day
Average
Mini-
mum
0.43
.08
.33
.07
.28
Average
Maxi-
mum
0.59
. 13
.67
.41
.51
Median
of
average
0.43
.09
.37
.18
.07
.40
Percent of garbage
and rubbish in
refuse
By
weight
60
40
40
60
53
47
By
volume
15
85
20
80
20
80
NOTE : The above figures for all developments, with the exception of picnic areas, are based on measurements covering volume and
weight of a representative sample of refuse in each area. Although ashes were omitted from the samples, the error introduced is rela-
tively small.
*Estimated.
-------
Figure 27.—Refuse container storage rack.
Figure 28.—Bearproof refuse receptacle.
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number to hold all refuse that accumulates between collections. The
conventional heavy-duty galvanized metal or plastic container with
recessed bottom, and a capacity of 20 to 30 gallons, generally meets
these above requirements for mixed refuse. Containers of 5- to 12-gal-
lon capacity for garbage are adequate for single-family residences pro-
vided for caretakers and employees. Garbage generally requires more
preparation for collection than other types of refuse. Draining and
then wrapping of garbage in at least three thicknesses of newspaper
before it is placed in the containers has several benefits for the house-
holder or small food-handling establishments. Wrapping reduces the
production of disagreeable odors either in the containers or during
collection and disposal, and it makes garbage less accessible to flies.
Rubbish, also, should be stored in covered containers between collec-
tions, except in the case of large articles such as large wooden crates,
baskets, cardboard boxes, and similar items.
Containers should be placed where they will be convenient to the
user and yet be readily accessible to the collection crew. All garbage
receptacles at food service establishments, picnic areas, and camp-
grounds should be kept on concrete slabs or preferably metal or wooden
stands located on the premises and easily accessible to the collector.
The storage platform should be adequately sloped and drained for the
removal of wash water to a suitable disposal point. Washing facilities
should be provided to facilitate the cleaning of cans to prevent nui-
sances and fly breeding. At small developments can-washing facilities
are usually provided at or near the point of storage. Where the can
exchange system is used, it may be desirable to install central can-
washing facilities at the disposal site. A typical container storage rack
is illustrated by figure 27.
Special attention should be given to the construction and location
of containers in campgrounds, picnic grounds, and cabin areas. Where
bears and dogs are common, the containers should be of durable con-
struction, and effectively anchored to prevent them from being knocked
over and the refuse scattered. A bearproof refuse receptacle is illus-
trated in figure 28.
COLLECTION
Refuse collection is an essential part of a well-organized refuse-
handling system and has an important bearing on local fly and rodent
populations. All refuse should be removed from the premises as
frequently as necessary to prevent nuisances and unsightliness. The
frequency of collection will vary according to the type of facility being
served but, in general, the following periods should prevail:
1. Daily for large food service establishments.
2. Twice weekly for residential areas.
3. Daily to once or twice weekly, as necessary for picnic areas,
campgrounds, and parking areas.
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The type of collection provided is largely determined by the method
of disposal used. Combined collection of mixed refuse is the most
practical and economical method, where sanitary landfills or modern
incinerators are used. Separate collection of garbage is necessary
only if hog feeding is the method of disposal. Garbage from hotels
and restaurants is more suitable for this purpose. Basically, collec-
tion trucks should have watertight bodies with metal or heavy canvas
covers. They should be constructed to facilitate thorough cleaning.
Loading heights should be low. Trucks with heights of over 60 inches
are generally undesirable because of the greater amount of spillage
and additional effort necessary to load them. The following types
of collection trucks are generally considered satisfactory for recrea-
tional areas:
1. Trucks with dump or fixed-type watertight bodies that can
be loaded easily.
2. Can exchange trucks designed for the storage of filled and
cleaned containers.
3. Enclosed trucks equipped with power elevators and/or me-
chanical compactors.
Enclosed trucks, equipped with elevators and/or compactors, should
be considered when the volume of refuse is large or the length of haul
is long enough to justify the increased cost of the equipment. These
units have the following advantages: (1) Refuse is compacted to at
least one-half of its original volume, thus reducing the number of trips
that must be made to the disposal site; (2) the refuse is completely
enclosed and not subject to scattering; and (3) loading heights of as
low as 36 inches are possible.
Disposal sites should be located strategically in relation to the areas
served to maintain as short a haul as possible. When practical, the
collection routes and the sites should be located so that the collection
trucks will not have to travel over main highways used by the public.
DISPOSAL
Under the best of circumstances, the problems associated with the
disposal of refuse in recreational areas are often difficult. The method
to be used for disposal should be governed by the characteristics of the
development and determined by careful study and anlysis of the prob-
lems involved. There are four methods of disposal presently used in
recreational areas which meet public health requirements; they are:
(1) Sanitary landfill;
(2) Incineration;
(3) Garbage grinding with discharge to the sewerage system;
and
(4) Feeding cooked garbage to swine. (For complete refuse
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disposal, these last two methods must be combined with sanitary
landfilling or incineration.)
SANITARY LANDFILL
In a sanitary landfill operation, the refuse is spread, compacted, and
then covered with a layer of earth. Garbage, rubbish, ashes, or mixed
refuse can be handled easily and compacted into the smallest practical
volume by a crawler-type tractor or other suitable equipment. The
covering layer of earth is applied daily and compacted to exclude
rodents and to prevent the escape of odors and the outbreak of fires.
Sanitary landfills are widely used where suitable unwooded land of
desirable characteristics is conveniently located, because both initial
and operating costs are generally low. In areas where bears are
encountered, operations may have to be modified, because bears fre-
quent the disposal areas and attempt to uncover the buried refuse
nightly.
Experience indicates that about one-half acre of new land will be
needed each year per 5,000 population (based on a 6-foot depth of com-
pacted refuse) for areas operating on a full-time basis. However,
this has been found to vary from three-eighths to three-quarters of an
acre and even higher depending on local conditions such as methods
of operation and type of refuse collected. Available information
indicates that a round trip of about 20 miles with noncompactor trucks
is the maximum distance of haul before a centrally located incinerator
becomes more economical.
There are three methods in general use which utilize sanitary land-
fill principles: (1) the trench method, (2) the ramp of progressive
slope method, and (3) the area method.19* *•'S1 "Refuse Storage Col-
lection and Disposal in Recreation Areas" was prepared specifically
to cover problems which are encountered in recreational areas.
When properly conducted, the trench method provides the most
orderly sanitary landfill operation. It is particularly suited to flat or
gently rolling ground. Refuse is spread in shallow layers not ex-
ceeding a depth of 2 feet of compacted material in trenches with a
maximum depth of approximately 8 feet by 1% to 2% times the width
of the tractor blade and then sealed with at least 6 inches of suitable
cover material by the end of each day. Sanitary landfills for small
developments can often be provided most economically by excavating
a single trench which is adequate in capacity to hold all refuse collected
during the tourist season. The trench is either extended the next season
or the old trench is sealed at the end of the tourist season and a new
trench excavated prior to opening of the development the following
year.
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In the progressive slope method, cover material is obtained just
ahead of the operating face. The refuse is compacted in layers on the
face of the slope and covered with 6 inches of earth at the end of each
day's operation.
The area method is usually employed at uneven or low sites, where it
is impossible or undesirable to obtain cover material from the base of
the slope. In low or swampy locations, a moving slope may be built
into the area to be filled, working out from a natural bank or a ramp.
Refuse is compacted in layers on the face of the slope and covered with
earth obtained from nearby areas or it is brought in by truck.
All landfills should be sealed with a final 2-foot layer of compacted
cover material.
Figure 29.—Sanitary landfill operation.
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INCINERATION
Incineration is the process of burning combustible refuse to ash at
high temperatures in enclosures designed specifically for the purpose.
Well-designed and efficiently operated incinerators provide an excellent
means of sanitary refuse disposal. Food for bears and rats, and breed-
ing places for flies are completely eliminated. Since incineration has
proved to be an effective means of refuse disposal in many recreational
areas, this method of disposal is the most desirable where land suitable
for landfilling is unavailable within economical hauling distance and
SIDE ELEVATION
I. STACK «
I. SECONDARY AIR PORTS 7
3. ASH PIT CLCANOUT OOOftS a
4. SPATES »
s. CHARGING DOOR 10
FLAME PORT
IGNITION CHAMBER
OVERFIRE AID PORTS
MIXING CHAMBER
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
11. CLEANOUT DOORS
12. UNOERFIRE AIR PORTS
13. CURTAIN WALL PORT
14. DAMPER
is. GAS BURNERS
Bgim 30.-
' HtfilMfe
-------
where bears are a problem. However, the residue and ashes from in-
cineration, which amount to 5-25 percent by weight, must be disposed
of hi a landfill.
There are two general types of multiple-chamber incinerators capa-
ble of producing the desired results. They are the retort type named
for the return flow of gases through the U-arrangenient of adjacent
chambers, and the in-line type, in which the three chambers follow one
after the other in a straight line. A typical in-line incinerator is illu-
strated by figure 30. Design criteria for this type of unit is presented
in "Multiple-Chamber Incinerator Design Standards for Los Angeles
County.":
I 22
GARBAGE GRINDING
Installation of food-waste grinders improves kitchen sanitation by
providing means of ready disposal of food wastes, and eliminates the
necessity of providing facilities for garbage storage or collection.
Their installation, however, does not eliminate the need for landfills
or incinerators, inasmuch as garbage is only a small percentage of the
total refuse produced. Garbage grinders are not considered practical
where existing sewage disposal plants lack capacity to handle the addi-
tional organic loading contributed by ground garbage. Their use
should be considered, however, when plans for sewage disposal plants
are being prepared.
HOG FEEDING
Feeding of garbage to hogs is only acceptable to agricultural and
public health authorities when the garbage has been cooked at boiling
temperatures for at least 30 minutes prior to feeding. Cooking is
necessary to prevent the spread of hogborne diseases, such as vesicular
exanthema, that are transmissible to hogs; and trichinosis which is
transmissible to both man and animals. Permits to collect garbage
from recreational areas for hog feeding should be issued only when
the feeding operation is located a safe distance beyond fire area's
boundaries. This will insure problems related to hog feeding such
as production of odors and residues, fly breeding, and drainage pollu-
tion will not be created within the recreational area. The feeding
operation must be approved by the authority which has jurisdiction.
MODIFIED REFUSE DISPOSAL METHODS
At the smaller recreational areas where it is not practical or eco-
nomically feasible to dispose of refuse by means of a sanitary landfill,
incineration, or garbage grinding, it may be advisable to consider
modification of these procedures.
Modification of sanitary landfill techniques is usually necessary
when the volume of refuse is inadequate to justify keeping a crawler-
81
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type tractor at the disposal area continuously for the daily compac-
tion and covering of refuse. Modifications of disposal methods, which
have been used with some success in areas where necessary, are:
1. Separate collection of garbage and rubbish, followed by—
a. Disposal of the garbage by periodic burial (by hand if nec-
essary) in previously prepared trenches or by cooking and feed-
ing to hogs; and
5. Disposal of rubbish by burning in suitable enclosures. The
ashes and noncombustibles will then be incorporated in the
landfill.
2. Depositing of mixed refuse in previously prepared trenches,
followed by compaction and covering with a layer of earth two or
three times weekly. This procedure usually reduces fly produc-
tion and odor nuisances. Since windblown material becomes a
problem under these conditions, the area should be fenced to keep
this material from being scattered over wide areas.
3. Depositing of mixed refuse in previously prepared trenches,
followed by daily burning of the combustible material and bi-
weekly burial of the remains. This procedure can be followed
only where burning of combustible material in open trenches will
not create health hazards or create fire hazards.
LITTER
Littering or the scattering of refuse in campgrounds, picinc areas,
etc., and areas adjacent to highways, parkways, parking areas, and
scenic overlooks has become a problem of major concern to authorities
responsible for the operation and maintenance of recreational areas.
This practice detracts from the appearance of these areas, creates po-
tential health hazards, and results in higher operating costs. In some
areas it has been necessary to employ additional personnel primarily
for the pickup of paper, bottles, cans, and waste food particles which
are scattered by the thoughtless visitor, thus increasing operating
costs. This material usually attracts rodents and flies which create a
potential health hazard to visitors.
Control over littering in recreational areas, is, under the best of cir-
cumstances, often difficult. However, the best control can be obtained
by initiating a carefully planned program of operation. This usually
involves the adoption of rules and regulations governing the scatter-
ing of refuse, proper enforcement and prosecution of violators,
education of visitors to observe rules and regulations, provision of a
sufficient number of refuse containers in strategic locations that are
serviced frequently, and supplemented by the cleanup and disposal of
any scattered material. An excellent resource of information on
litter control can be obtained from Keep America Beautiful, Inc., a
national public service organization for the prevention of litter.
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Chapter XI
Swimming Pools and Outdoor Bathing Places
Swimming and associated activities such as sunbathing and wading
is one of the fastest growing recreational interests in the Nation. With
the increase in pool construction, which currently is at a rate of about
70,000 pools annually, swimming will remain the most popular of the
outdoor activities, with the possible exception of travel and sight-
seeing.
Public health authorities have been concerned with sanitation and
safety problems involving swimming and bathing for many years.
While the problem of accidents and drowings are the most dramatic
statistics relating to swimming, the communicable disease aspects must
be given proper attention.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BATHING PLACE SANITATION
In the control of swimming pool and bathing place sanitation, cer-
tain broad principles should apply to all classes of public bathing
places,
1. No person having a communicable disease should be em-
ployed or work at a public bathing place. All patrons or swim-
mers suspected of having an infectious disease should be
excluded.
2. Appropriate facilities should be provided for the safety of
bathers as may be required by the health authority having juris-
diction. This should include lifesaving equipment, safety de-
vices, lifebuoys, lifehooks, first-aid kits, together with adequate
staff during swimming periods who are competent in lifesaving
and artificial resuscitation.
3. At public bathing beaches on natural waters the same sani-
tary standards should apply to bathhouses, dressing rooms, toilet
facilities, and to the handling and care of bathing apparel as
would be required at artificial swimming pools.
4. Sanitary drinking fountains with a supply of safe potable
water should be installed at all bathing places. The common use
of towels, drinking cups, combs, hairbrushes, or other toilet arti-
cles should be strictly prohibited.
SWIMMING POOLS
All swimming pools should be designed and constructed in accord-
ance with the requirements of the health authority having jurisdiction
or in the absence thereof, in accordance with the standards outlined
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Figure 31.—Outdoor swimming pool.
84
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in the "Suggested Ordinance and Regulations Covering Public Swim-
ming Pools."23 Plans and specifications covering proposed swim-
ming pools and those to be substantially altered or reconstructed
should be submitted to the health authority for review and approval
before construction is initiated.
Wafer Supply
The water supply serving the pool and all plumbing fixtures in-
cluding drinking fountains, lavatories, and showers should meet the
requirements of the health authority for potable water.
All portions of the water distribution system serving the pool and
auxiliary facilities should be protected against backfiow. Water intro-
duced into the pool, either directly or to the recirculation system,
should be supplied through an airgap. When such connections are
not possible, the supply should be protected by a suitable backflow
preventer installed on the discharge side of the last control valve to
the fixture, device, or appurtenance.
Sewer
The sewer system should be adequate to serve the facility, including
bathhouse, locker room, and related accommodations.
There should be no direct physical connection between the sewer
system and any drain from the swimming pool or recirculation system.
Any swimming pool or gutter drain or overflow from the recirculation
system when discharged to the sewer system, storm drain, or other
approved natural drainage course should connect through a suitable
airgap so as to preclude possibility of backup of sewage or waste into
the swimming pool piping system.
The sanitary sewer serving the swimming pool and auxiliary facili-
ties should discharge to the public sewer system whenever possible.
Where no such sewer is available, the connection should be made to
other suitable treatment facilities in accordance with requirements of
the health authority having jurisdiction.
User Loading
For the purposes of computing user loading, those portions of the
swimming pool 5 feet or less in depth should be designated as "non-
swimmer" areas. Portions of the pool over 5 feet in depth should be
designated as the "swimming" area.
In order to compute swimmer and bather capacity, swimming pool
areas should be determined as follows:
1. Ten square feet of pool water surface area should be pro-
vided for each nonswimmer expected at time of maximum load.
2. Twenty-four square feet should be provided for each
swimmer expected at time of maximum load.
3. Three hundred square feet of pool water surface area should
85
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be reserved around each diving board or diving platform and this
area should not be included in computing the area of the swimming
section.
The health authority may make additional allowance for bathers
in cases of swimming pools with extensive deck areas used by patrons
for lounging or sunbathing. These allowances can be based on studies
of actual swimming pool use in areas within the jurisdiction of the
health authority.
Dressing Rooms
Bathhouses to be used simultaneously by both sexes should be divided
into two parts separated by a tight partition, individually designated
for men or for women. The entrances and exists should be screened
to break the line of sight.
Floors of bathhouses should be of smooth finished material with
nonslip surface, impervious to moisture and sloped to a drain. Junc-
tions between walls and floors should be coved.
Toi/efs and Showers
Toilet and shower facilities should be provided on the basis of the
plumbing fixture schedule outlined in table 4, chapter VI. The layout
of the bathhouse should be such that bathers on leaving the dressing
room pass the toilets and showers en route to the pool.
Operation Control
1. Swimming pools should be operated under the close supervision
of a well-trained operator. A lifeguard should be on duty during all
bathing hours. When no lifeguard is provided, a warning sign should
be placed in plain view indicating that no lifeguard is on duty and the
pool should not be used by children without an adult in attendance.
2. Swimming pools when in use should be continuously disinfected
by a chemical which imparts an easily measured free available residual
effect. When chlorine is used, a free chlorine residual of at least 0.4
ppm should be maintained throughout the pool whenever it is open or
in use. If other halogens are used, residuals of equivalent disinfecting
strength should be maintained. A testing kit for measuring the con-
centration of the disinfectant, accurate within 0.1 ppm, should be pro-
vided at each swimming pool.
3. The health authority having jurisdiction may accept other dis-
infecting materials or methods when they have been adequately demon-
strated to provide a satisfactory residual effect which is easily meas-
ured and to otherwise be equally as effective under conditions of use
as the chlorine concentration required therein, and not be dangerous to
public health, create objectionable physiological effects, or impart
toxic properties to the water.
86
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4. Swimming pool water should be maintained in an alkaline con-
dition as indicated by a pH of not less than 7.2 and not over 8,2. A
pH testing kit accurate to the nearest 0.2 pH unit should be provided
at each swimming pool. The alkalinity of the water should be at least
50 ppm, as measured by the methyl-orange test.
5. The water should have sufficient clarity at all times so that a black
disk, 6 inches in diameter, is readily visible when placed on a white
field at the deepest point of the pool. The pool should be closed im-
mediately if this requirement cannot be met.
6. The pumps, filter, disinfectant and chemical feeders, and related
appurtenances should be kept in operation at all times the swimming
pool is in use and for such additional periods as needed to keep the pool
water clear and of a satisfactory bacterial quality. Continuous opera-
tion of the recirculating system should be maintained in swimming
pools having a capacity of 20,000 gallons or more during seasons of
regular use.
7. Chemicals used in controlling the quality of water should be
demonstrated as imparting no toxic properties to the water. Such
chemicals as may be used for algae control should be approved for use
by the health authority having jurisdiction.
8. Proper operating records, \vhich may include the following as re-
quired by the health authority, shall be kept showing daily:
(a) Bather loads—total;
(6) Peak bather load;
(c) Volume fresh water added;
(d) Operating periods of recirculation pumps and filters and
corresponding rate of flow meter readings;
(e) Amounts of chemicals used;
(/) Disinfectant residuals;
(g] pH readings;
(k) Maintenance (and malfunctioning) of equipment.
9. Visible dirt on the bottom of the swimming pool should be re-
moved every 24 hours or more frequently as required. Visible scum
or floating matter on the swimming pool surface should be removed
within 24 hours by flushing, skimming, or other effective means.
Bacterial Quality of Swimming Pool Waters
Samples for bacteriological examination should be collected in
specially treated bottles obtained from the health authority only when
the pool is in use and preferably during periods of heaviest daytime
bathing loads. It is desirable to collect one or more samples weekly
from swimming pools.
Not more than 15 percent of the samples covering any considerable
period of time should either (a) contain more than 200 bacteria per
milliliter, as determined by the standard (35° C) agar plate count, or
87
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'jfy
•<**¥*
-------
(&) show positive test (confirmed test) for coliform organisms in any
of the five 10-milliliter portions of a sample or more than 1.0 coliform
organisms per 50 milliliter when the membrane filter test is used.
WADENG POOLS
By definition, a wading pool should normally be a small pool for
nonswimming children only, used for wading, and should have a maxi-
mum depth at the deepest point not greater than 24 inches.
Because of the high degree of pollution likely to be present, a wading
pool should have a maximum turnover cycle of 2 hours. The supply
to the wading pool should consist of filtered and adequately disinfected
water. Water from the circulating outlets from the wading pool may
be wasted or may be returned to the circulation system of the large
pool at the suction side of the pump for refiltration. There should
also be provided a waste outlet at the deepest point of the wading pool,
by means of which it can be completely emptied to waste.
In general, standards of sanitation in circulation, surface skimming,
and all other details should be equal or superior to those for swimming
pools. Wading pools, by the nature of their usage, are likely to be-
come polluted and a public hazard. Where installed, they should be
operated very carefully to minimize the danger to public health. They
should be drained, scrubbed out, and disinfected once daily. It is
considered very desirable to install a spray pool in lieu of a wading
pool, where no water stands at any time but is drained away freely as
it sprays over the area.
OUTDOOR BATHING PLACES
Under this heading are considered bathing places along small
streams, rivers, lakes, and tidal waters.
Sources of Pollution
In an artificial swimming pool whose water is derived from a supply
of unquestioned quality and maintained by constant recirculation and
treatment, it may be assumed that the occurrence or presence of or-
ganisms of the coliform-aerogenes group in the bacteriological exami-
nation of a sample is due to human fecal pollution. In outdoor bathing
places, however, the presence of such bacteria may be due to the runoff
from cultivated fields and soil animal life on the watershed which is
usually considered to be less harmful contamination. Insasmuch as
routine bacteriological examinations do not differentiate between
sources of harmless and harmful contamination as may be caused by
Figure 32.—Outdoor bathing plac«.
89
735-744 O - 65 - 7
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sewage from boats, dwellings, and other establishments; or public
sewerage systems; refuse dumping; and bathers themselves or soil or
animal pollution, it is necessary to consider the presence of all coliform
organisms as indicative of harmful contamination.
Bacteriological Standards for Outdoor Bathing Places
In evaluating the quality of water in outdoor bathing places, the
following aspects should be taken into consideration:
1. The results of chemical analyses of the water;
2. The results of bacteriological examinations of the water; and
3. Information obtained by a sanitary survey of sources of
pollution, consideration of flow currents, etc.
Analyses of samples of bathing waters intelligently interpreted are
of great value, but full consideration should be given to conditions
under which samples are collected and conditions which may exist at
other times. The replenishment of bathing water by streamflow, by
tidal action, and by wind and temperature currents; the contamination
introduced by bathers themselves; and the intermittency of various
sources of sewage pollution are all of importance.
There is still a wide divergence of opinion as to standards of accept-
able bacteriological quality for outdoor bathing places, but the fol-
lowing information may be useful in utilizing bacteriological examina-
tion results as a guide in evaluating the acceptability of outdoor
bathing places: **
Some areas of the country are reported to be able to meet bacterial
standards for natural surface waters with maximum limits of coliform
indexes of not more than 240 to 500 per 100 ml. Such excellent quality, is
of course, greatly to be desired. However, experience indicates that other
sections of the country, especially those located in more densely populated
areas and among cultivated lands cannot maintain such conditions.
Waters showing a concentration of most probable numbers of coliform
organisms of less than approximately 1,000 per 100 ml. are considered in most
such areas to be fairly acceptable for bathing unless the sanitary survey
discloses immediate dangers of human sewage pollution. However, it must
be admitted that bathing beaches where the content of coliform organisms
runs as high as 2,400 per 100 ml. on the basis of most probable numbers, or
sometimes even higher, have been used without reported evidence of illness,
and this limit of 2,400 per 100 ml. is still employed as a criterion of accept-
ability in some states.
Bathing in streams or ponds subject to gross animal pollution should
not be allowed because of the possible danger of animalborne virus
The above information should be used for classification of outdoor
bathing areas. Proper sanitary facilities for outdoor bathing places
such as dressing rooms, showers, toilets, lavatory accommodations, etc.,
should meet the same requirements as for indoor swimming pools.
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Chapter XII
Travel Trailer Parking
More families every year are finding that the travel trailer is the
solution to their vacationing problems. Whether the reasons for
travel trailer use be economy or convenience, the ability to visit most
any part of the country and take along many of the comforts of home
seems appealing to many travelers.
The great increase in the number of travel trailers on the highways
during the vacationing months is quite evident to the motoring public
and reflects the increasing amount of leisure time and extra spending
power being enjoyed by more people each year. It also points out
the need to keep pace by the development of adequate travel trailer
parking areas and related facilities each year which meet accepted
standards of health and safety.
THE TRAVEL TRAILER
The size of, and accommodations contained in, travel trailers vary
widely; however, a commonly accepted definition is as follows:
A vehicular portable structure built on a chassis, designed as a temporary
dwelling for travel, recreational, and vacation use, permanently identified
"Travel Trailer" by the manufacturer on the trailer and, when factory
equipped for the road, of body width not exceeding- eight feet and of any
length providing its gross weight does not exceed 4,500 pounds, or of any
weight provided its body length does not exceed 29 feet.
Thus, in contrast to the larger mobile home, a travel trailer is a
smaller unit, used primarily for temporary recreational purposes
such as weekend camping or vacation trips and is pulled by the family
car.
Many of the smaller travel trailers contain only sleeping, loung-
ing, dining, and simple cooking facilities, while the larger ones con-
tain more complete living accommodations, including bathroom
facilities, full kitchen equipment, self-contained hot and cold water
supply, and often a holding tank for sewage. All have their own
LP (low pressure) gas supply in tanks usually located on the A-frame
at the front of the trailer. All may have gas (or possibly oil) space
heaters. The larger ones are always so equipped. They usually
have a 12-volt light and appliance system. The electrical equipment
is often convertible to 110-volt use, when available, to save battery
drain.
91
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For the purpose of determining the needs of travel trailer parking
areas to provide toilet, bathing, and kitchen or other liquid waste
disposal facilities, travel trailers are classified into two categories,
Self-Contained and Non-Self-Contained. Those classified as Self-
Contained have: sleeping accommodations; kitchen sink and other
food preparation equipment; a water-flushed toilet; lavatory and
shower; and a sewage-holding tank for retaining liquid wastes.
These travel trailers can be used without need of any service hookups
to water and sewer utilities. Under these circumstances, the availa-
bility of a "Sanitary Station," as described below, to properly dis-
pose of the liquid wastes and the holding tank capacity will govern
the length of trailer use. Those classified as Non-Self-Contained have
sleeping and usually kitehen facilities only and are dependent on a
service building provided in the parking area for at least toilet and
lavatory facilities. Current information obtained from the travel
trailer industry indicates that approximately 50 percent of the travel
trailers being used are N on-Self-Contained and 50 percent are Self-
Contained.
Nearly all travel trailers have hose bib-type inlet couplings for
hooking up to water supply systems. Sewage-holding tanks are pro-
vided with valved pipe outlets below the trailer for connection to either
individual sewer outlets at the parking space or for disposal at
sanitary stations.
SANITARY STATION
The development of the travel trailer with a holding tank for sewage
wastes has created a public health problem—the indiscriminate dump-
ing of sewage along highways and in recreation areas. A major step
has been taken to alleviate this problem with the development of a low-
cost travel trailer sanitary station. These stations are being installed
in many recreation areas and several major oil companies are install-
ing these units adjacent to their gas stations to provide a free service
for the convenience of travel trailer owners. A typical sanitary sta-
tion is shown in figure 33. The station utilizes a foot-operated seal
cover providing sanitary closure of the sewer pipe inlet when not in
use. One end of a drain hose is connected to the holding tank of the
travel trailer with the free end placed securely in the drain opening
while the cover is opened and the tank is allowed to empty.
A concrete apron surrounds the sewage inlet with a slope gradient
to permit periodic washdown of the immediate adjacent area. The
water hose for this washdown is a modification of an upright gaso-
line station air hose tower. It is spring loaded at its midsection to
return it to vertical position after use. The nozzle end clears the
ground by 18 inches and a vacuum breaker is also required to prevent
backsiphonage into the water supply. The water tower may be re-
92
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placed by other watering facilities for flushing and cleaning purposes
that are approved by the local health authority having jurisdiction.
TRAVEL TRAILER PARKING AREAS
There are two basic types of travel trailer parking areas: overnight
and destination. The overnight travel trailer parking area is usually
located along or near a main highway, where travel trailerists stop
overnight on the way to some farther destination. The destination
type of travel trailer parking area is usually located at or near a scenic
or historical area, or near camping, fishing, hunting, boating, swim-
ming, skiing, or other outdoor recreational activities where the dura-
tion of stay may extend to several days or weeks. Some parking areas
may be developed for both overnight and destination needs.
The travel trailerist going to or from his destination vacation spot
might not be too concerned with esthetics or scenery, but he is quite
concerned with convenience of location to the highway, cleanliness
and orderliness of the area, provision for easy parking, convenience of
eating establishments, and in the cleanliness and adequacy of the serv-
ice building facilities. The desire of the vacationing travel trailer
family for a clean, dignified location in a community where he will
feel secure and accepted for the duration of his stop should be con-
sidered by prospective park owners and community officials.
FACILITIES FOR TRAVEL TRAILER PARKING AREAS
Site Selection
To be most acceptable and efficient, sites for travel trailer parking
areas should not encroach on any scenic, scientific, or historic values in
an area. The availability of adequate water supply and of satis-
factory means of sewage disposal is also a basic consideration in select-
ing a suitable site. Sites should be well drained, preferably gently
sloping and free of obstructions. An important consideration for over-
night use is accessibility to main roadways and tourist services such as
restaurants and shopping areas.
Roods and Parking Areas
Roads where practical should be one way to help preserve natural
features and paved to control dust. Curves should be adequate to
accommodate the travel trailer and towing vehicle. Curves on inte-
rior circulation roads should have a minimum inside radius of 25 feet
and on exterior circulation roads a radius of 35 feet. Grades should
be as minimum as possible, because some trailers are a heavy load for
the towing vehicle. Maximum grades of minus 6 percent and plus
4 percent are recommended.
93
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TRAILERS
HOLDING TANK DISPOSAL
INSTRUCTIONS
CONNECT YOUR HOSE TO
HOLDING TANK-PLACE END
SECURELY IN DRAIN OPEN-
ING WHILE HOLDING COVER
OPEN WITH FOOT.
OPEN TRAILER TANK DRAIN
VALVE,
FLUSH AWAY ANY SPILLAGE
ON CONCRETE INTO DRAIN.
4" C.».OR VITRIFIED
SOtL PIPE
NOTICE
THIS WATER FOR
FLUSHING AND
CLEANING PURPOSE
ONLY
WATER TOWER (OPTIONAL) MAYBE
REPLACED 8Y OTHER LOCALLY
APPROVED ARRANGEMENT
ATTACH SIGN TO
POST OR FENCE
SIGN
B
[WATER NOZZLE (WITHOUT
VALVE)
SMUT-OFF VALVE
-SERVICE BOX
3-WAYCOCK WITH
/EXTENSION HANDLE
VIEWB
WOOD BUMPER
URB
[PLUG a CONNECTION
FOR COMPRESSED
AIR HOSE
(VOTE:
fKOVISICH
AGAINST fREEZIHG
DRAIN WATER 8Y
FORCING AIR THRU
THE W
DRAIN
SERVICE BOX
-------
5" THICK CONCRETE
TROWEL SMOOTH
PLAN
Figure 33.—Typical sanitary station.
95
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Drivethrough parking spaces which permit occupancy without
having to unhitch the trailer from the towing vehicle are preferred
to back-in-type parking spaces particularly for overnight parking.
Back-in-type parking is most suitable for destination needs. Parking
spaces for the travel trailers should be level in cross section and on a
grade for drainage. Maximum grades of minus 1.5 percent, and plus
3 percent should be used for the drivethrough spaces. A typical
layout of a travel trailer parking area is shown in figure 35.
Space Limitations
Spaces that vary in width are desirable and will probably result
where natural features are to be preserved. Spaces of a size that will
place trailers 20 feet apart are desirable, though a 15-foot separation
is minimum according to the National Fire Protection Association.
Usually, it has been found practical to limit the number of individual
travel trailer parking spaces to 25 per acre.
Water and Sewer Facilities
A sanitary station as described above should be provided in destina-
tion travel trailer parking areas for the disposal of liquid wastes from
travel trailers equipped with holding tanks. It is also desirable to
have sanitary stations provided in overnight travel trailer parking
areas, but the need for this type of facility is not as critical as for
destination areas. Individual water and sewer risers in each space
are desirable, especially for Self-Contained travel trailer spaces.
The need for more sophisticated water and sewage service is often
a matter of local determination based on factors such as duration of
stay in the park, amount of convenience desired by the travel trailer
owner and park operator, and the volume of business handled. The
most satisfactory arrangement from the public health viewpoint is
'the provision of individual water and sewer connection facilities at
each space; however, from an economic viewpoint, the ability to install
these especially for overnight parking is often limited or impractical.
Where a water supply connection is provided, it should consist of a
riser terminating at least 4 inches above the ground surface with a
%-inch threaded valve outlet provided with a cap or screw plug. The
riser pipe should be designed so that it can be operated during freezing
weather and drained if necessary. This may require the use of elec-
trical heater tapes or specially constructed risers. A typical water
supply connection is shown in figure 36.
A hydrant and hose for filling water tanks may be provided as a
convenience to travel trailer guests, but it should be located at a point
separate from that used for the sanitary station.
An individual sewer connection, where provided, should consist of
a 4-inch riser with at least a 3-inch sewer connection extending at least
96
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Figure 34.—Willow Bench trailer parking area on Lake Mohre, Lake Mead National Recreational Area.
-------
TYPICAL TRANSIENT (OVERNIGHT) TRAVEL TRAILER PARK
INDIVIDUAL SPACE ALLOTMENT
AVERAGE SPACE- 20'x 6O1-1200 SQ.FT.
RECOMMENDED FACILITIES
FOR OVERNIGHT PARKS
L ABSOLUTE MINIMUM: CENTRAL TRAVEL TRAILER SANITARY B WATER STATIONS, ft TOILETS
?• F*"R: INDIVIDUAL ELECTRICAL OUTLETS,.CENTRAL TRAVEL TRAILER SANITARY a WATER STATIONS.AND TOILETS
1 SETTER: ffi8£ idm&S®maSBIk a^JV-'ftSJoKC'TSSW El'
TRAVEL TRAILER SANITARY STATION, TOILETS, SHOWERS AND COIN-OPERATED LAUNDRY
1 INDIVIDUAL ELECTRICAL, WATER,"* SEWER CONNECTIONS. TOILETS * SHOWERS. COIN-OPERATED LAUNDRY
A ND PICNIC TA B LE 3.
FOR DESTINATION PARKS
L ABSOLUTE MINIMUM'. BACK-IN PARKIN*. INDIVIDUAL ELECTRICAL OUTLETS. CENTRAL TRAVEL TRAILER SANITARY « WATER
STATIONS, AND TOILETS A SHOWERS.
*• FAI": BACK-tN PARKING. INDIVIDUAL ELECTRICAL • WATER CONNECTIONS, CENTRAL TRAVEL TRAILER SANITARY
9TATION, TOILETS ft SHQWtftS-
»• BOOD- DRiVTEi;T^OUTnt!1^rICI^»H'.V"'UAL ELECTRICAL* WATER CONNECTION*. CENTRAL, TRAVEL TRAILER SANITARY
STATION. TOILETS, SHOWERS, COIN-OPERATED LAUNDRY. AND PICNIC TABLES
4. BETTER' DRIVE-THROU8H PARKIN9, INDIVIDUAL ELECTRICAL • WATER CONNECTIONS, CENTRAL TRAVEL TRAILER SANITARY
STATION, TOtLETS. SHOWERS. COIN-OPERATED LAUNDRY, PICNIC TABLES AKD 8ROCERY
DRIVE iVMROUeM PARKIN*. INDIVIDUAL ELECTRICAL.WATER, • SEWER CONNECTIONS, TOILETS, SHOWERS COIN-
OPERATED LAUNDRY, PICNIC TABLES. 8HOCERY. ALSO BARBECUE. BOTTLED 8AS TRAVEL TRAILER PARTS FOB
E'" "^™FH-"° *P°"T *cctMORI" "™"TION BU|LDIN« i» swrMMiWToo*
Figure 35.—Typical travel trailer parking arrangements.
98
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jg
II
£
"S
ii
"a
TYPICAL RESORT(DESTtNATION) TRAVEL TRAILER PARK
INDIVIDUAL SPACE ALLOTMENT
AVERAGE SRftCE-3O'x50'-150QSQ.FT.
A TYPICAL MOUNTAIN RESORT
TRAVEL TRAILER PARK
Courtesy of Mobile Homes Manufacturer* Association Park Division
99
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4 inches above the ground surface and provided with an easily remov-
able watertight cap or screw plug. The connection should be pro-
tected against "wheel damage" by a concrete collar, at least 3 niches
thick and extending 12 inches from the connection in all directions,
or other protective measures. A typical sewer connection is shown
in figure 37.
Liquid wastes from sinks should not be discharged onto or allowed
to accumulate on the ground surface. Where sewer outlets at the
travel trailer site are not provided, seepage pits on such sites may be
provided for the disposal of sink wastes where a direct connection is
made between the sink drain and the seepage pit. No other liquid
wastes should be discharged into the seepage pit. Approval for this
type of installation should be obtained from the health authority hav-
ing jurisdiction.
Refute Dispoxal
Adequate facilities for the storage, collection, and disposal of refuse
should be provided for the travel trailer parking area. Refuse should
be stored in durable, flytight, watertight, and rodentproof containers
which should be maintained in a clean condition and kept in good
repair. Permanent locations should be selected for refuse containers,
and satisfactory racks or holders should be provided which will mini-
mize spillage and container deterioration. A rack station should be
located near the circulation roads and a maximum of 150 feet from any
travel trailer space.
Service Bui/ding
A central service building containing the necessary toilet and other
plumbing fixtures specified on page 101 should be provided in a travel
trailer parking area which provides parking spaces for Non-Self-
Contcdned travel trailers. Service buildings should be conveniently
located for the number of parking spaces within a radius of approx-
imately 300 feet
Where a travel trailer parking area is designed for and exclusively
limited to use by Self-Contained travel trailers, a service building
containing toilets, urinals, lavatories, and showers is not required.
Installation of a service building requires a safe and adequate
water supply and an approved sewage disposal system as described in
chapters IV, V, and VI of this Guide.
100
-------
Number
of parking
sites •
1-15
16-30
31-45
46-60
61-80
81-100
Toilets
Men
1
1
2
2
3
3
Women
1
2
2
3
4
4
Uri-
nals
Men
1
1
1
2
2
2
Lavatories
Men
1
2
3
3
4
4
Women
1
2
3
3
4
4
Showers
Men
1
1
1
2
2
3
Women
1
1
1
2
2
3
Other
fixtures b
*
1 slop
sink.*
'
For parking areas having more than 100 travel trailer sites, there should be
provided 1 additional toilet and lavatory for each sex, for each additional 30 travel
trailer sites; 1 additional shower for each sex for each additional 40 travel trailer
sites; and 1 additional men's urinal for each additional 100 travel trailer sites.
• Parking spaces for Non-Self-Contained travel trailers.
b Additional fixtures including laundry trays, clothes-washing machine (I for
every 30 sites), and an icemaking machine may be desirable.
e A slop sink for disposal of liquid wastes unless a sanitary station is conveniently
accessible for this purpose.
-HEATER TAPE
HINGED COVER
M ETA L L 1 C^^QBon
INSULATION-
(Oplionol)
TILE —
• J!E M,
. imiQlSim
*
tl-?i
^
;'•'•.*
A" •* *^
?i"V'
•.$.**',
i'V '-
$*
i
B-I
i
s
%
.
^Uft|
»Tj;-.
•it-
^:.
w?-;
r""?*T*
'*•»%''*
B
-------
Electrical Service
The electrical service to the travel trailer site should preferably
be provided by means of a direct-burial, underground cable, connected
to a receptacle mounted on a pedestal. The receptacle should be 125-
volt, 30-ampere, and a weatherproof type or mounted in a weather-
proof box.
All electrical wiring should be in compliance with applicable State
and local codes, or where none exists, with the National Electrical
Code.
Plan Review
Detailed plans and specifications should be developed for proposed
travel trailer parking areas and forwarded to the health authority
having jurisdiction for review and approval. The plan should in-
clude a general layout showing facilities to be provided in relation
to adjoining developments and detailed plans showing: (1) The area
and dimensions of the site; (2) the number, location, and dimensions
of all travel trailer spaces; (3) the location and width of roads and
walks; (4) the location of the service building, sanitary station, or
other proposed structures; (5) the location of water and sewer lines;
and (6) the location of storm drains and catch basins. When it is
necessary to provide private water supply and sewage disposal facil-
ities, their location should be shown.
CLOSE NIPPLE
FERRULE
THREADED JOINT
MAY ALSO BE USED
C.I.45*ELBOW
.SLEEVE (FROST EXPANSION)
GROUND LEVEL
-f-CONCRETE APRON
(OPTIONAL)
Hgur* 37.—Typical s*ww connection.
102
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Chapter XIII
Boating
The outdoor boating industry reported in 1962 that there are more
than 8 million pleasure boats being used for recreation in U.S. waters
and the trend is increasing upward. More and more of these boats
are being equipped with a galley and toilet facility. Therefore, body
wastes, galley wastes, and other debris are being discharged into our
watercourses to threaten or damage recreational values as swimming,
fishing, and other aquatic sports. The dredging of boat basins, con-
struction of small craft harbors, marinas by the hundreds, boat launch-
ing ramps and docking floats are but a few of the type projects being
constructed or planned for recreation areas. Such new developments
which attract and serve boating enthusiasts may create water pollu-
tion and related health problems of concern to public health and rec-
reational agencies. For this reason it is most important that the
planning of such developments consider the environmental health
aspects involved.
MARINAS
Marinas are being constructed in many recreation areas to provide
a center of activity where boats can be berthed, launched, repaired,
fueled, and provisions obtained.
Adequate facilities for collection and disposal of domestic sewage,
waste oils and fuel, and solid wastes as garbage and refuse should be
included in the planning and design of a marina. The collection and
disposal of each of these wastes, because of their varying characteris-
tics, must be handled separately. Some communities require the
marina operator to lock and seal the heads on all boats not equipped
with suitable treatment such as a chlorinator device upon berthing.
Several States have adopted requirements concerning sewage dis-
charge from boats. The eventuality of this requirement becoming
more widespread should be anticipated. A permanent comfort sta-
tion with sanitary facilities for both sexes centrally and conveniently
located near piers should be a prerequisite in the design of a marina.
The use of a municipal system for sewage disposal is most desirable
when the marina is located within a community having a sewerage
system. Connection to an existing system will usually prove most
satisfactory and most economical even when it is necessary to run a
trunkline a long distance to effect a connection. Where this cannot
be accomplished, other methods of sewage disposal as discussed in
this Guide should be provided.
103
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The proper collection and disposal of garbage, trash, and other
debris is important not only from the standpoint of appearance but
for insect and rodent control. A few simple precautions taken by
the marina operator can eliminate potential public health problems.
Several heavy-duty receptacles with self-closing covers should be
provided on the piers for the interim disposal of refuse. Final
disposal can be accomplished on shore at designated sites.
Boat-Launching Areas
The construction of docking facilities and launching ramps aid in
eliminating the indiscriminate launching of boats from adjacent
highways. In an area where boating is a popular pastime, one boat-
launching facility for trailered boats has been provided for each 160
surface-acres of boating water.25 This facility includes a paved ramp
with a minimum width of about 20 feet and a grade of about 10 per-
cent which extends from above the high-water level to a sufficient
distance below the low-water level to permit boat launching at mini-
mum water levels. Parking space is provided adjacent to the ramp
for the parking of automobiles and boat trailers.
Courtesy of Michigan Department of Health
Figure 38.—Marina*.
104
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Boat-Docking Facilities
When buildings with modern sanitary facilities are located on floats
adjacent to floating boat docking facilities, arrangements should be
made to dispose of all wastes in and approved manner. Liquid
wastes from these facilities should be collected in water-tight reten-
tion tanks, from where they are pumped to sewage disposal facili-
ties located a safe distance above high-water levels. Eefuse from
these developments should also be transported above high-water levels
for proper disposal. The storage and dispensing of gasoline from
floating facilities should be carried out in a manner to keep spillage
at a minimum.
Boating Requirements
1. When boats provided with marine toilets are permitted to operate
in receational watercourses where it is desired to institute pollution
control measures, the following requirements should be enforced:
(a) No marine toilet on any watercraft should be construct-
ed and operated as to discharge any inadequately treated
sewage into the watercourses directly or indirectly as required by
the health authority or local water pollution control agency
having jurisdiction. All sewage passing into or through the
marine toilet should pass solely through the treatment device.
(6) When the use of marine toilets is not permitted, no water-
craft equipped with a marine toilet should be used unless the
sanitary facilities are removed, sealed, or made to drain into a
retention tank for subsequent disposal at designated disposal sites
on shore.
2. All refuse, including garbage, cans, bottles, waste paper, etc.,
should be stored in a durable container with tight-fitting cover for
subsequent disposal on shore at designated disposal sites.
3. The operation of pleasure boats within a reasonable distance of
waterworks intakes, bathing areas, and dams should generally be re-
stricted by means of warning signs on buoys or floats because of the
potential health and accident hazards involved.
4. Boats launched in receational area waters should be equipped
to meet minimum safety requirements for pleasure boats as recom-
mended by the U.S. Coast Guard.
5. Regulations should be esablished to control health and accident
hazards associated with boating activities in receational areas. When-
ever overly hazardous conditions develop on receational waters due to
tides, winds, high elevation, ice, or other emergency conditions, the
waters should be closed to boating, temporarily restricted, or limited
to use of certain types of boats.
735-744 O - 65 - 8
-------
t <
Figure 39.—Beet launching facilities, Lake Mead National Recreational Area.
106
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Chapter XIV
Fish-Cleaning Facilities
Fishing is an activity many visitors enjoy while visiting recreational
areas, especially where natural reproduction and stocking of local
waters is accomplished. Where fishing is productive, consideration
should be given to the installation of fish-cleaning facilities near boat
docking and launching areas. These facilities are essential to control
nuisances, odor, and pollution from the indiscriminate cleaning of
fish and the disposal of these wastes into lakes, reservoirs, and along
shorelines
In planning these units, consideration should be given to providing
the following facilities:
1. Fish-cleaning facilities should preferably be located in a
screened enclosure, or building provided with an impervious floor
which slopes to a trapped floor drain.
2. Where electricity is available, the building should be wired
to provide proper lighting and for the operation of equipment.
3. Tables provided with impervious, nonabsorbent surfaces
which slope to centrally located drains should be provided for fish
cleaning.
4. Water under pressure should be provided to facilitate the
cleaning of fish and for general cleanup of floors and tables.
If the table drains are to be connected to the sewerage system or a
retention tank, heavy-duty garbage grinding units should be installed
in each drain for the purpose of pulverizing the solids, so that this
material can pass through the sewers or be pumped from the retention
tank for subsequent disposal. Water outlets, preferably with flexible
extensions, should be located at a convenient height above the tables
to wash the solids to the drains. A desirable arrangement includes a
spring-operated foot control switch, which activates a solenoid valve
to turn on the water and grinding unit simultaneously. Release of
the foot-operated switch automatically turns off the water and grinding
unit.
When power is unavailable, wastes from the cleaning tables may be
drained directly to retention tanks through untrapped drains and
pumped out periodically for disposal by burial or other approved
means. This material should not be discharged into a sewerage sys-
tem, because the solids, especially fish heads, may be responsible for
obstructing the sewers. Scrupulous cleanliness of facilities should be
maintained to eliminate offensive odors and the attraction of flies.
When it is necessary to remove the solids from the retention tank by
pumping, the pump acquired for this purpose should be capable of
removing solids such as fish heads.
107
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Chapter XV
Insect and Rodent Control
Several groups of arthropods and rodents may create serious public
health and nuisance problems at recreational areas. These include
species that are vectors of human disease organisms or which serve
as reservoirs of these organisms or otherwise interfere with man's
health, welfare, and comfort. A number of aquatic insects may be
encountered at recreational areas located along the shores of impound-
ments. Mosquitoes are undoubtedly the most important of these
insects, since several species serve as vectors of encephalitis and
malaria, and others create public health problems because of their
vicious biting habits.2* Other groups of aquatic insects such as deer
flies, horseflies, black flies, and biting midges are vicious biters of man
and sometimes are involved in transmission of disease. In addition
to the aquatic insects, people who visit water-related and other recrea-
tional areas are often exposed to terrestrial arthropods such as ticks,
mites, fleas, and flies, and rodents including ground squirrels, rats,
mice, and chipmunks.87' w The public health importance of these
arthropods and rodents involves a number of human diseases including
Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Colorado tick fever, tularemia, relaps-
ing fever, tick paralysis, typhus, plague, bacillary dysentery, and
typhoid fever. Irritation, discomfort, and annoyance caused by bites
of the arthropods can be serious to the point of reducing the use of an
otherwise attractive recreation area. Thus it becomes most important
that measures be taken to eliminate or reduce such insect population.
The public health hazards created by arthropods and rodents can be
minimized by providing appropriate prevention and control measures
during the planning, construction, and operational phases of recrea-
tional areas. Detailed entomological, biological, and engineering
studies are generally necessary to develop the most suitable prevention
and control measures for a particular recreational area. Upon
requests, State and Federal health agencies can provide technical
assistance of this type. In most instances, naturalistic and source
reduction measures provide the most effective control, and over a
period of years are more economical than repetitive chemical control
measures which should be reserved for situations where adequate
control cannot be obtained through prevention and source reduction
measures.2* Hazards to wildlife can be minimized by the appropriate
choice of chemical.
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PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF ARTHROPODS AND RODENTS
The following measures are recommended for the prevention and
control of arthropod and rodent problems at recreational areas:
I. Prevention and Source Reduction Measures
A. Mosquitoes and Other Aquatic Insects
The following principles and practices are recommended for the
control of mosquito problems commonly associated with impound-
ments. Some of the measures are equally effective against other
aquatic insects of public health importance,
1. As a general principle, waterside recreational areas, particularly
those which have facilities for overnight occupancy, should be located
along sections of the reservoir which have a low mosquito production
potential. In situations where it is necessary to locate recreational
sites along sections of an impoundment which have a high morquito
production potential, provision should be made for adequate preven-
tion and control measures as indicated in the following sections.
2. Prior to impoundage, the reservoir basin should be prepared as
follows:
(a) The normal summer fluctuation zone should be completely
cleared, except for isolated trees and sparse vegetation along
abrupt shorelines which will be exposed to wave action or in other
situations where- no significant mosquito production is likely to
occur.
(6) Borrow areas resulting from construction of the dam
should be located where they will be permanently inundated, if
possible. Borrow areas located in the normal summer fluctuation
zone or outside the reservoir basin should be self-draining.
(c) All depressions which will be flooded by the reservoir at
maximum pool level should be connected with the reservoir by
drains to insure complete drainage or fluctuation of water within
the depressions.
(d) Provision should be made for utilizing water-level man-
agement to minimize conditions favorable for mosquito production
to the maximum degree permitted by the primary functions of the
reservoir.
(e) Depressions and borrow areas should have relatively steep
banks to prevent the development of shallow ponds which mini-
mize wave action and allow the growth of emergent vegetation.
3. After impoundage, the following maintenance measures should be
carried out in all potential breeding areas located within mosquito
flight range of recreational areas.
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(a) Vegetation of a type and density favorable for mosquito
production in flat, protected areas within the normal summer
fluctuation zone should be periodically controlled by mechanical,
chemical, or biological measures.
(J) Seepage areas that develop below dams or behind dikes
should be adequately drained.
(c) Vegetation, debris, and floatage should be removed pe-
riodically from all mosquito control drains to insure free flows.
B. Terrestrial Arthopods
1. Provision should be made for proper storage, collection, and dis-
posal of garbage and refuse in order to prevent and control flies,
wasps, and other noxious insects.
2. Provisions should be made for the removal of brush along paths,
trails, and roadways and for the removal of weeds from other areas of
frequent use by visitors in order to reduce the likelihood of tick
infestations.
C. Rodents
1. Provision should be made for proper storage, collection, and dis-
posal of garbage and rubbish to prevent and control rats, wild rodents,
and other small mammals.
2. All buildings, including new and existing structures, should be
rodentproofed to reduce the possibility of rats and rodents creating
public health hazards,
3. Provisions should be made for periodic removal of debris, rub-
bish, and other material which may serve as a harborage for rats and
other small mammals.
II. Chemical Control Measures™
In situations where adequate arthropod and rodent control cannot be
obtained through the prevention and source reduction measures out-
lined above, provision should be made for supplementary use of in-
secticides and rodenticides to achieve the desired level of control at
recreational areas.
When using insecticides and rodenticides, it should be recognized
that they are not only effective and lethal for insects and rodents,
but can also produce harmful effects in animals or human beings if
ingested. It is extremely important that they be stored and handled
in a satisfactory manner out of the reach of children and unauthorized
persona Normal control of insects and rodents with the use of these
chemical agents can be accomplished by recreation area personnel
with proper instruction in large-scale application methods. How-
ever, use of highly toxic poisons such as sodium monofluoracetate
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(1080) or cyanide should be done by licensed pest control operators.
Where difficult or severe problems are encountered, assistance should be
requested from a reputable pest control agency. Supplementary in-
formation to this chapter can be obtained from the "Public Health
Pesticides," annual release prepared by the Communicable Disease
Center, Public Health Service.29
Mosquitoes
Outdoor space treatments, when properly timed and applied, can
temporarily reduce adult mosquito populations to the levels that cause
little or no annoyance. The frequency of space treatments in an area
will be governed by the rapidity with which it becomes reinfested.
Although DDT at 0.4 pound per acre and chlordane or BHC at
0.2 pound per acre based on a 200- to 300-feet-swath width are effective
against susceptible mosquito populations, resistance to these com-
pounds in many areas has resulted in the use of organophosphorus
compounds for this purpose.
Malathion, the principal organophosphorous pesticide used, is highly
toxic to many species of mosquitoes. Fog applications that disperse
0.075 to 0.10 pound of malthion per acre based on a 300-foot-swath
width have given highly effective kills of salt marsh mosquitoes.
Flies
The basic tentet of controlling house flies is the improvement of
environmental sanitation. Continued research to develop new chem-
icals for fly control has only confirmed that application of insecticides
in the absence of adequate sanitational levels is a costly and inefficient,
tool. Every chemical measure, to fulfill its objective, must be ac-
companied or preceded by adequate sanitation efforts to reduce or
eliminate fly breeding sources.
If it is found necessary to use insecticides for the control of flies,
spraying of walls and ceilings with a 5-percent DDT solution may
afford protection for a period of time. In areas where flies have
developed an immunity to this insecticide and it is no longer effective,
use of another agent such as dieldrin, DDVP, or malathion may
provide satisfactory results. Care should be exercised to insure that
in the application of insecticide sprays food stuffs are properly pro-
tected to avoid contamination.
Another fly control agent, as an alternate to DDT, is diazinon.
Diazinon cords or string 1/32 inch in diameter, impregnated with in-
secticide by immersion in 10 and 25 percent diazinonxylene solutions,
have been effective against DDT-resistant houseflies. It has also been
found that cords impregnated with 25 percent diazinon solution
have a higher degree of control than those impregnated with the 10-
percent concentration. Diazinon has been effective on the larva of
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the housefly, and should they be noticed on the organic soaked ground
beside garbage cans, 1 pint of a 0.25-percent diazinon solution applied
to a small area can be used as a method of control.
Cockroaches
Insecticides commonly used in cockroach control include chlordane,
diazimon, dieldrin, and malathion.
The control achieved with many of the organophosphorus com-
pounds appears to be directly related to the completeness of coverage
achieved. Staining problems may arise in treating certain types of
surfaces such as wallpaper, plaster, etc.
Application of any of these pesticides in households or in food-
handling establishments should be as a spot treatment in utilizing a
coarse spray or a dust to treat baseboards, along water pipes, and in
other cockroach harborage areas and runways.
A suggested method for applying liquid insecticides for roach
control is the so-called band or perimeter method. In this approach,
an emulsion of the agent is painted from the corner of the room, 4
inches up on the baseboard and 4 inches out on the floor. This band
should be continued around the windows and doors so that an un-
broken chain of insecticide is formed about the perimeter of the room.
This is augmented by use of a hand spray to reach areas behind heavy
objects which cannot be readily moved. When insects emerge from
their hiding places in search of food, they will often have to cross the
insecticide barrier at some point and, in so doing will absorb insecti-
cide.
To obtain a quick kill in heavy cockroach infestations or to drive the
insects from protected recesses, the use of aerosol formulations of
pyrethrum alone or in combination with a residual treatment is of
value.
Ticks and Chiggen
Area control of ticks can be obtained by the application of DDT,
chlordane, dieldrin, and toxophene at rates of 1 to 2 pounds of toxi-
cant per acre, or BHC at a rate of 0,5 pound of the gamma isomer
per acre. Suspension, emulsion, or dust formulations of these pesti-
cides produce similar results. The level of control secured is depend-
ent on the adequacy of coverage. In brush areas, 50 gallons of spray
or 40 pounds of dust per acre are required as compared to approxi-
mately half those amounts in sites of thin cover such as lawns, etc.
Treatment with these chemicals usually prevent reinfestation for 30
days or more.
Area infestation of chiggers (red bugs) can be controlled with
spray or dust treatments of toxaphene or chlordane (1 to 2 pounds
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per acre), lindane (0.25 or 0.5 pound per acre), or dieldrin (0.6 to
1.0 pound per acre). Application rates of 40 pounds of dust or 50
gallons of spray per acre may be required to insure thorough cover-
age of the area.
In treating woodland areas for either tick or chigger control, avoid
application to ponds, streams, and other watercourses or to their ad-
jacent margins, since at the maximum dosages these pesticides (except
lindane) are highly toxic to fish.
Rodent Control
For rodent control, it may be necessary to choose between trapping,
the use of rodenticides, or a combination of both. Trapping has an
advantage in that when the animal is caught, it may be removed from
the premise and does not cause an odor problem, which may often
occur if a poisoned animal falls back into a harborage point in walls,
floors, or ceiling. However, trapping is also the least efficient rodent
control measure because it reaches only a small percentage of the total
rodent population.
The anticoagulant, poisons have dominated the field of rodenticides
for the past decade. These slow-acting rodenticides are preferred
for use in most situations because of their effectiveness against ro-
dents and low degree of toxic hazard to humans and domestic animals.
Anticoagulant poisons include pival, warfarin, diphacinone, fumarin,
and PMP; warfarin being used most extensively.
The effect of the anticoagulants is cumulative so that their rodentici-
dal action depends upon at least a small amount of poison being con-
sumed almost every day for several days. To achieve effective con-
trol, the anticoagulant baits must be continuously available for at least
2 weeks. Establishment of permanent bait stations in places sub-
ject to reinf estation provides good continuous control.
Wasps, Yellow Jackets, Hornets 3°
Wasps can be controlled by applying an insecticidal spray or dust
to their nests. Chlordane, dieldrin, and DDT are effective for this
purpose and are available as emulsifiable concentrates and wettable
powders from which sprays can be prepared or as dusts and oil solu-
tions ready for use. Suitable insecticides are (1) a 5- or 6-percent
chlordane dust, a 5- or 10-percent DDT dust, or a 1-percent dieldrin
dust; or (2) a 2-percent chlordane oil solution, a 5-percent DDT oil
solution, or a 0.5-percent dieldrin oil solution; or (3) an emulsion
or suspended spray. An emulsion spray can be prepared by mixing
a chlordane, DDT, or dieldrin emulsifiable concentrate with water; a
suspension spray, by mixing DDT or a chlordane wettable powder
with water.
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Dusts can be applied to some hornet and yellow jacket nests, whether
above or under the ground by inserting the extension tube on a garden-
type duster into the nest opening. Two or three strong puffs of dust
will filter through the nest and usually kill the colony within 24
hours. A shovelful of moist earth thrown over the entrance of a
colony in the ground after treatment will prevent the dying wasps
from gaining the surface. An underground nest can also be treated
by pouring several ounces of carbon tetrachloride into the opening and
then plugging it with absorbent cotton.
Control work should be done at night when the wasps are less active
and most of them are in their nests. The openings should be con-
centrated on when applying insecticides to the nests.
Nests can also be dislodged and disposed of in a sack or other suit-
able container. Before dislodging a nest, the opening should be
plugged with absorbent cotton that has been soaked in carbon tetra-
chloride. After the nest is dislodged, it can be burned, buried, or put
into a can containing a few tablespoonfuls of carbon tetrachloride
and the can sealed tightly.
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Chapter XVI
Recreation Safety
Recreation areas, to be fully enjoyed, should be free of unnecessary
accident potentials. According to the National Health Survey esti-
mates for 1960, there were 5,232 accidental drownings and 1,478
water transport deaths. Estimates on accidents occurring in places
of recreation indicate that over one-third result from falls and 9 per-
cent result from being struck by moving objects. Other statistics
are equally alarming. Sustained accident prevention requires careful
planning and continued vigilance. Factors which must be consid-
ered in evaluating a recreation area environment for accident preven-
tion include the selection of the site, proper construction and main-
tenance of the buildings and playgrounds, and safe practices followed
in the buildings and on the grounds. Many implications to acci-
dent prevention are mentioned throughout this Guide, but because of
their importance, they may be reemphasized in this chapter.
SITE SELECTION
Site selection should consider safe automobile access and egress.
Roads should be looped or so laid out so that the speed of vehicles
is limited. One-way traffic, if feasible, should be utilized. Sites for
travel trailers, tents, and other buildings should be set back from
roads and separated to permit safe visibility, and there should be
easy accessibility to these facilities by firefighting equipment.
BUILDING AND EQUIPMENT
Buildings in recreation areas should be well proportioned, sub-
stantially constructed, and fire resistant. Walls and foundations
should be in good repair, free from cracks or other evidence of fail-
ure under stress. Floors should be firm and flat; and general plumb-
ing, electrical equipment, and other furnishings should be of stand-
ard materials and adequately installed.
FIRE AND SAFE EGRESS
Fire and explosion, with its resultant superheated air, suffocating
smoke, and toxic byproducts, is the major single threat to life asso-
ciated with the structure and exterior premises of housing. Any
structure used for living purposes should be reasonably fire resistant.
Exit routes should be so located as to provide safe and unobstructed
egress in at least two directions from all habital areas. Exits should
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be marked in larger units such as hotels and resort lodges. Emer-
gency egress procedures should be conspicuously posted. Where
groups are being housed for extended periods, emergency exit drills
are advisable. Proper fire extinguishers, as recommended by the Na-
tional Fire Protection Association, should be readily available.
ELECTRICAL WIRING
Inadequate electrical wiring coupled with excessive demands being
placed on it by electrical appliances can constitute fire and electrical
shock hazards. All wiring installed in recreational areas should com-
ply with specifications of the National Electrical Code or require-
ments which are substantially equivalent in State or local codes.
Basically, the code specifies that sufficient service be available to
accommodate the electrical needs of the building; that the wiring be
of sufficient size and quality to cope with demands to be placed on
it; that equipment and facilities within the system meet these same
requirements; that there be an adequate number of permanent, con-
venience outlets in each room to safely accommodate all anticipated
use: and that the service, wiring, equipment, facilities, convenience
outlets, and appliances be used in a safe manner. Electrical circuits
should be protected by fuse or circuit breaker of proper size. Over-
sized fuses should never be used. Maintenance crews should be con-
tinually alert for such hazards as outmoded or defective wiring, over-
loaded circuits, unnecessary extention cords, ungrounded electric
motors, and other electrical appliances.
HEATING SYSTEMS
Heating units should be so installed and maintained as to prevent
fire, burn, and asphyxiation accidents. These units should be ap-
proved by the Underwriters Laboratory and the American Gas Associ-
ation. All of its parts should have adequate clearance from combusti-
ble construction, should be of correct size, and have the capacity to
operate efficiently without overheating so as not to be dangerous.
There should be sufficient air supply in the room to insure proper com-
bustion. Because of the severity and prevalence of fires associated
with the use of various types of range oil and kerosene space heaters
and cook stoves so often used in recreation areas, they should be given
special surveillance.
Floor furnaces set immediately below the floor level and covered with
a floor-level metal grating present accident hazards to which chil-
dren, elderly persons, and the weak are particularly vulnerable. Its
two major hazards involve burns sustained when contact is made with
the metal grating which may reach a temperature of 300° F. and fire
resulting from combustible materials being placed on them. Fire and
explosion are not the only potential hazards associated with space
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heaters. Innumerable case studies of carbon monoxide poisonings
have implicated them as being the causative agent. Wherever such
units are improperly installed, maintained, or used, the possibility of
carbon monoxide poisoning exists.
STRUCTURAL HAZARDS
Some structural considerations aimed at reducing falls and related
injury include: alertness to structural weakness brought about by rust,
rot, deterioration, or alterations; alertness to badly worn, nonsecure,
broken, or slippery floors and floor coverings which may constitute
tripping hazards; stair handrails both inside and outside the building;
to note the advantages of guard rails around outside porches, balco-
nies, raised terraces, or patios; alertness to protection against over-
head unstable objects which may fall; and understanding the inherent
hazards presented by single steps, thresholds, and threshold strips.
All floor coverings should be of a nonslip type, and waxes should have
nonslip characteristics. Toilet rooms and showers should have non-
slip-finish ceramic tile on floors.
Sanitation, maintenance, and safety cannot be separated. Recrea-
tional area housing facilities are either improving or deteriorating
constantly, but they never continue at a status quo. Constant main-
tenance of a structure along with consideration of its neatness and
cleanliness is essential to continued safety of the basic construction and
exterior premise.
CAMPGROUNDS
Campgrounds should be as level as possible. Hilly or sloping
grounds requiring retaining walls or terraces multiply the hazards to
visitors. Grounds should be cleared of accumulations of trash, open
pits, and anything else that might cause injury. Weeds should be
regularly cut to prevent course stubble from developing and reduce
insect, snake, and small animal hazards. All poisonous plants should
be cleared from the area. Grading to drain off surface water is essen-
tial. Stoves and barbecue grills for open fires should be capable of
keeping the fire contained and under control, and sufficiently isolated
from picnic tables.
PLAYGROUNDS
Areas in which children may play should be free of severe stone out-
croppings, away from busy highways, railroad tracks, and dangerous
manufacturing areas. Openings such as abandoned wells, dropoffs,
sewage areas, lakes, and ponds should be properly isolated, preferably
by fencing.
Where playground equipment is provided, it should be located away
from natural pathways of traffic. Steps leading up to slides should
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have handrails. There should be guards on seesaws to prevent boards
from hitting the ground. Playground equipment should be carefully
selected and properly placed. It should have supports of galvanized
or painted metal, which should be firmly anchored in concrete.
Swings offer special hazards which can be minimized by using seats
of lightweight material such as belting, rubber, or heavy canvas.
FOOD SERVICE
A basic aid to safety in any food service operation is Convenience
and Efficiency. The nature of many recreational area places particu-
lar stress on this operation. Proper design, supported by preventive
maintenance and regular inspection programs, will serve to eliminate
many unsafe conditions and maintain a safe and sanitary environ-
ment. Major hazards are associated with handling of glass, crockery,
hot liquids, sharp instruments, power machinery, exposure to hot cook-
ing surfaces, and portable, petroleum-fired stoves. Cuts, burns,
muscular strains, and fractures can be reduced by developing safe pro-
cedures, proper maintenance, storage, preparation, and serving. Slip-
pery surfaces and falls due to spilled liquids and foods can be reduced
by skid-resistant floors free of broken and missing tiles, defective
boards, damaged cement, and maintenance of a clean floor at all times.
Walkways should be kept clean, clear, and dry.
There should be routine inspection for faculty or damaged equip-
ment, utensils, work surfaces, walls, floors and ceilings, and faulty
equipment should be removed if necessary.
All equipment, particularly knives and other sharp-cutting instru-
ments, supplies, and toxic substances such as insecticides, petroleum
products, and detergents should be safely stored away from food and
out of children's reach.
SWIMMING POOLS
Accident prevention in swimming pools encompasses considerations
of design, maintenance, operation, lifesaving equipment, and qualified
lifeguards. Design features such as structural stability, location of
diving boards, congestion, water depth, pool bottom slope, filtration
and chlorination, plant design, maintenance, and location, nonslip deck
construction, facilities for chlorine and chlorinating equipment, and
recessed ladders are a few such considerations. Safe lighting and
auxiliary pool electrical facilities both within and away from water
must meet the code requirements. Dressing room and bathhouse floors
should be of nonslip, easily cleanable material. Additional dressing
room considerations should include soap dispensers of a type which
will prevent spillage, elimination of exposed hot water pipes on which
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a bather may be burned, and benches and similar facilities in good
repair and free of slivers. Pool regulations governing users should
be enforced to protect against accidents.
NATURAL BATHING AREAS
The hazards associated with natural bathing areas include dropoffs,
potholes, unsafe underwater rock outcroppings, heavy weed growth,
cloudy water which reduces visibility and dangerous escarpments near
the water's edge. Such hazards should be removed where possible or
clearly marked. Depth marking with clearly visible signs is also
desirable.
Auxiliary facilities such as walkways, diving rafts, and platforms,
recreational equipment, bathhouses, lockers, and showers should be
safely constructed and maintained as is the case for artificial pools. A
sufficient number of qualified lifeguards should be on duty during all
swimming hours.
REFUSE DISPOSAL
Discards such as broken bottles, tin cans, broken furniture, objects
with protruding nails, chemical wastes, and containers of toxic and
flammable substances are a few potentially hazardous materials which
may be encountered at campgrounds, picnic areas, travel trailer park-
ing areas, cabin developments, and other recreational facilities. In
addition to the sanitation, insect and rodent control, and disease poten-
tials these discards represent, their accident causation capabilities are
very real. Cuts, punctures, fractures, poisonings, and dermatitis, and
suffocation have been a few of their other resultant effects.
The hazards such discards represent begin with improper sanitation
procedures practiced within the recreational area and their refuse stor-
age sites. The problem is magnified wherever areas are permitted
to be strewn with litter, broken glass, fuels, and similar hazardous
materials. It is particularly acute where such conditions prevail in
bathing areas, pathways, campsites, and children's play areas.
Safe, sanitary, and efficient disposal of refuse, whether it be garbage,
trash, or hazardous materials, begins at the point where it is generated.
Recreational area regulations for safe disposal procedures should be
brief, conspicuously posted, and enforced. Such regulations should
specify proper procedure for disposal of hazardous drugs, insecticides,
fuels, and similar materials. Safe disposal of such materials may
necessitate a special place within the recreational area where final
disposal will be conducted by the area's management Material such
as broken glass, cans, and objects with protruding nails should be
placed in closable, metal containers. Paper, rags, woods, and similar
combustible discards require similar disposal procedures because of
the fire hazard they represent.
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Chapter XVII
Campgrounds and Picnic Areas
31
Camping and picnicking have become major recreation pastimes of
millions of people that make up today's traveling and vacationing
public. Picnicking is usually associated with other outdoor pursuits
such as fishing, swimming, boating, sightseeing, horseback riding,
hiking, and simply walking for pleasure. Many like to go for an
overnight camping trip where a meal can be cooked over an open
fire and sleeping bags can be enjoyed by the glow of the camp fire.
Camping is often a necessary part of any outdoor recreation outing
that extends beyond 1 day. Many campers stay in motels and hotels;
however, tents, travel trailers, and pickup campers are looming larger
and larger in the camping scene in recent years. Camping in the
1960's is increasing faster than the sites and facilities for camping have
been provided. Increases in camping will most certainly accompany
increases in travel, for camping makes it possible for families to enjoy
weekends and vacations economically far from home. Camping facili-
tates other outdoor activities, such as fishing and hunting. When
resources are developed for such purposes, adequate facilities for camp-
ing also should be provided. A survey of participation in outdoor
recreation conducted in 1959 and 1960 showed that about one-third
of the campers enjoy camping in remote areas removed from other
people, while about the same proportion enjoy camping in an area
where they can visit with other campers.32 Consequently both types
of camping areas are needed, with proper consideration given for
environmental health factors relating to this mode of recreation.
Campgrounds and picnic areas should be located in such a manner
as to protect the areas that are needed for watershed, timber, range,
and other basic resources insofar as physically possible.
SITE SELECTION
The site selected should not encroach on any outstanding natural,
scenic, esthetic, scientific, or historical values. A well-drained, gently
sloping area is preferred. Sites should be free of rock outcrops and
heavy undergrowth. Should a lakeshore area be considered, it should
be on solid beach, free of boggy areas and caving banks. Attractive
natural ground cover and any trees should be retained as much as
possible. Water supply and sewage disposal needs will also govern
selection of sites in most instances.
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Gravel Pad to Fit Tree Openings
and Contour a* Much a* Possible.
The National Conference on State Parkt in cooperation with The National Park Service
Figure 40.—Campsite layout.
-------
LAYOUT
The first principle of layout is to confine vehicles to designated
parking areas and fires to specific locations. For good management,
sites should be composed of a number of integrated though independent
sections. Circulation roads for each section should preferably be one-
way, all-weather roads, and treated to reduce dust. Campground
roads should be laid out to provide access to individual campsites,
while picnic grounds should be laid out on a walk-in basis with multi-
car parking areas.
The number of sites per section will be influenced by topographical
conditions, but should also be reconciled with the most economical
distribution of central comfort stations. All elements should be
fitted into the landscape.
If preservation of park values within a campground site requires
the spacing of parking areas and campsites at a considerable distance
apart, an alternate campground site should be sought because the cost
of constructing roads and utility lines becomes excessive as the space
between campsites increases. Generally a range of about 4 to 7 camp-
sites can be obtained per acre, while the range for picnic areas is about
10 to 15 sites per acre. Each picnic site should contain one table and
bench combination and one fireplace, preferably a charcoal burner for
each two to four tables. Each campsite should contain a car parking
space, a tent, or vacation trailer area, one table and bench combination,
and one fireplace. However, each area should be given individual
attention to obtain the maximum number of sites per acre consistent
with preservation of park values and consideration of the visitors'
experience. Examples of typical layouts of campsites and picnic areas
are shown in figures 40 and 41.
SIZE
Where visitor use warrants, campground and picnic areas should
have a minimum size of about 90 to 120 sites for efficient operation.
It is recognized that further economies in operation and maintenance
will be made as additional sections are added to the initial area and
operated by the same staff. The repeated development of small camp-
ground and picnic areas of 10, 20, or 30 sites should be avoided in the
interest of economical service to larger numbers of visitors.
WATER SUPPLY
Campgrounds and picnic areas should be provided with an adequate
supply of safe drinking water. Water hydrant stations with non-
threaded, self-closing faucets, properly drained to prevent standing
water, should be provided within 150 feet from any of the campsites
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An example of a good picnic site
layout with consideration for ap-
propriate amounts of shade, pleas-
ant surroundings, reasonable but
not excessive separation of tables,
and relationship of picnicking to
parking areas, comfort facilities,
water, and shelters.
:
-
The Xational Conference on State Parks in cooperation tcith The National Park Service
Figure 41.—Picnic site layout.
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and individual picnic table areas. In addition, a number of risers
should be provided with threaded hose bibs located strategically
throughout the area for fire protection. Fire hoses should be provided
and stored in centrally located hose boxes. Both hose storage cabinets
and fire hydrants should be properly identified.
In smaller areas, especially those in remote locations where power
is unavailable, an approved well with a hand pump or spring may be
found adequate. In areas where a water supply system is not possible,
it may be necessary to provide a source of water from pickup stations.
Campgrounds without adequate water supply should be discouraged,
or in any case should be limited to emergency use or not more than 20
campsites. Campers should be warned of the danger in using a
stream, lake, or brook for drinking water without proper treatment,
as described in chapter IV.
REFUSE DISPOSAL
Durable, waterproof and rodentproof containers should be provided
near the circulation road and a maximum of 150 feet from any camping
and picnic site but not near a water hydrant. These units should be
sufficiently stationary to minimize being overturned by domestic and
wild animals. The construction of a heavy wrought iron base into
which the container can fit reasonably tight will provide a sturdy stand.
They should also have flytight covers and be maintained in a clean
and odor-free condition at all times. The swinging lid-dome type
cover is useful in this regard.
COMFORT STATIONS
Adequate toilet facilities should be provided to serve all campgounds
and picnic areas. In areas where water under pressure is available,
modern comfort stations, as described in chapter VI, should be located
within an approximate radius of 300 feet for campgrounds and 500
feet for picnic areas.
Pit privies as described in chapter V should only be provided after
all efforts have failed to obtain modern flush toilets that depend on an
adequate water supply and an approved means of sewage disposal.
The use of privy units in detached or remote areas will, of course, be
the only practical solution in many instances, but careful, frequent
maintenances is always required to avoid objectionable odors and
nuisances.
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Chapter XVIII
Stable Sanitation
Horseback riding is an outdoor activity available in many recreation
areas. Horses are also used to pack supplies to remote back country
or wilderness areas and are essential for fire control, border patrol, and
searching parties in some areas.
The primary environmental health concern associated with the use
of horses is the stabling of these animals and related manure disposal.
Accumulations of such wastes afford breeding places for flies, and un-
less controlled, will invariably produce large numbers of flies, and also
public health officials recognize that flies constitute a public health
hazard and that the abatement of fly populations is essential to the con-
trol of certain communicable diseases.
STABLES AND CORRALS
Horses should be stabled in a location removed from but readily ac-
cessible to the main recreation area center of activity to minimize po-
tential odor and nuisance problems.
Stables should be located on a well-drained, gently sloping site, and
of durable construction to protect the building from destruction by
fire and from deterioration or damage by breakage, rodents, termites,
and dampness. Floors in horse stalls should be paved with wooden
blocks sealed in asphalt or of other impervious material except con-
crete and sloped to facilitate proper drainage. Floors in the feed and
tack rooms should preferably be of concrete construction so they can
be hosed down and maintained in a clean, odor-free condition. A suf-
ficient number of hose bib water outlets should be provided throughout
the stable for this purpose.
The stable should be provided with an adequate drainage system
so that all liquid wastes can be satisfactorily drained away from the
stable. Difficulties with stoppage of drains can be reduced if drain
lines are installed without bends so they can be readily rodded and
solid matter removed when necessary.
The stable area should be provided with adequate, conveniently
located toilet facilities for employees and visitors, consisting of at least
one watercloset, one urinal, and one lavatory for each sex. A shower
should be provided if the stable is used for sleeping purposes by the
caretaker.
Corrals and paddock areas should be gently sloping to facilitate
natural drainage to minimize standing pools of surface water. It may
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Figure 42.—Well-drained stable site.
Figure. 43.—Clean, well-maintained corral and barn area.
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be necessary to construct a base course of bank run gravel (40-60 per-
cent sand) approximately 4 to 6 inches deep covered with approxi-
mately 4 inches of wash sand to obtain adequate draining. A drink-
ing water trough should be provided in the corral area for watering
the animals. Water supply and sewage disposal facilities should be
provided in accordance with the guidelines contained in chapters IV
and V of this Guide.
INSECT AND RODENT CONTROL
The stable should be of rodentproof construction. Openings to the
outer air should be effectively screened when necessary against the
entrance of flies and other insects insofar as possible. Grain feeds
should be stored in metal-lined bins with covers to provide insect and
rodent-tight facilities.
The application of insecticides on the interior walls, ceilings, and
stall area and the exterior of the stable building will assist in con-
trolling excessive fly population. Chemical control measures should
be conducted in accordance with chapter XV of this Guide.
MANURE DISPOSAL
All manure should be removed, and stored or disposed of in such a
manner to prevent the breeding of flies therein. The quantity of ma-
nure and bedding for stabled horses will average 2 to 3 cubic feet per
animal per day, the weight depending on the character of the bedding
and the amount of moisture.33
Manure should be removed from the stalls and corrals at least once
each day, preferably in the early morning. Final disposal during the
fly-breeding season may be accomplished by either—
1. Spreading the manure upon the ground in a thin layer not
over 1 or 2 inches thick. The drying area required varies from
4 to 12 square feet per animal depending on the thoroughness of the
collection and amount of bedding. It generally requires 4 to 7
days for the manure to properly dry. Fresh horse manure should
not be spread on pastures used for grazing by the horses; or
2. Providing a physical barrier to keep the flies from having
access to the manure by—
(a.) Storing the manure in a pile that is completely covered
with a plastic mesh tarp or approximately 1 inch of dry material
such as loose dirt, dried manure, and sawdust.
(&) Storing the manure temporarily in a tight screened manure
shed having a floor of impervious material such as concrete or
asphalt and then spreading periodically on the ground in fields
as in (1) above or hauled away for use as fertilizer by farmers.
The effectiveness of the manure disposal procedure used should be
determined routinely by checking the manure to see if fly larvae are
present
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References
1. Outdoor Becreatkm Resources Review Commission, Outdoor Recreation for
America, a Report to the President and to the Congress, 1962, 245 pp.
2. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service,
Control of Communicable Disease* in Man, Washington, D.C., 1960.
3. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Pollution Control
Council, Pacific Northwest Area: Water Supply and Watershed Protec-
tion. U.S. Public Health Service, Portland, Greg., 1956.
4. "Recreational Use of Domestic Water Supply Reservoirs." Journal American
Water Works Association, vol. 50, No. 5, pp. 579-580, May 1958.
5. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service:
Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards 196S. Publication No.
956, Washington, D.C., 1962.
6. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service,
Manual of Recommended Water Sanitation Practice. Publication No.
525, Washington, D.C., 1946.
7. American Water Works Association, "Procedure for Disinfecting Water
Mains." Report C601-54. (2 Park Ave., New York 16, N.Y.)
8. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service:
Manual of Individual Water Supply Systems. Publication No. 24, Wash-
ington, D.C., 1962.
9. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service,
Manual of Septic Tank Practice. Public Health Service Publication No.
526, Washington, D.C., 1963.
10. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers: National Plumbing Code.
ASA-A40.8—1955. (27 West 39th St., New York 18, N.Y.) 1955.
11. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service:
Water Supply and Plumbing Cross-Connections—Hazards in Household
and Community Systems. Publication No. 957, Washington, D.C., 1962.
12. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service: National Park Serv-
ice Building Construction Handbook, Washington, D.C., 1958.
13. American Public Health Association, Inc.: "A Proposed Housing Ordi-
nance." (1790 Broadway, New York 19, N.Y.) 1952.
14. American Public Health Association, "Basic Principles of Healthful
Housing." (1790 Broadway, New York 19, N.Y.) 1954.
15. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service:
MUk Ordinance and Code. Publication No. 229, Washington, D. C., 1953.
16. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service:
Food Service Sanitation Manual. Publication No. 934, Washington, D.C.,
1962.
17. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service:
Sanitary Standards Relating to the Manufacture, Processing, Storage,
and Transportation of Ice. 1964 Recommendations of the Public Health
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ia U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service:
The Vending of Foods and Beverages (a Sanitation Ordinance and Code).
Washington, D.C., 1957.
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19. Refuse Collection and Disposal for the Small Community—American Public
Works Association and U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Wel-
fare. American Public Works Association, Chicago, 111., 1953.
20. Johnson, Wilfred H., Sanitation in the Control of Insects and Rodents of
Public Health Importance. Publication No. 772, Insect Control Series:
Part IV, U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C., 1960.
21. Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency Committee and Columbia Basin Inter-Agency
Committee: "Refuse Storage, Collection and Disposal in Recreational
Areas." 1961.
22. Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District: Multiple Chamber Incinerator
Design—Standards for Los Angeles County, Los Angeles, Calif., 1960.
23. Joint Committee on Swimming Pools and Bathing Places, the American
Public Health Association, Conference of State Sanitary Engineers and
Conference of Municipal Public Health Engineers in cooperation with the
Public Health Service, Suggested Ordinance and Regulations Covering
Public Swimming Pools, 1963.
24. American Public Health Association, Inc., "Recommended Practice for
Design, Equipment and Operation of Swimming Pools and Other Public
Bathing Places." (1790 Broadway, New York 19, N.T.) 1957.
25. California Public Outdoor Recreation Plan Committee, California Public
Outdoor Recreation Plan, Part II, Sacramento. 1960.
26. Hess, A. D.: "Vector Problems Associated With the Development and Utili-
zation of Water Resources in the United States." Proceedings 10th Inter-
national Congress Entomology (1956) 3: 595-601, 1958.
27. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Communicable Disease
Center: Household and 8tored-Food Insects of Public Health Importance,
Atlanta, 1960.
28. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Communicable Disease
Center: Control of Domestic Rats and Mice, Atlanta, 1960.
29. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Communicable Disease
Center: Public Health Pesticides. Annual release. Atlanta, Ga.
30. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Wasps, How To Control Them, Leaflet No.
365, July 1962, U.S. Government Printing Office.
31. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, National Park
Service Handbook—Special Park Uses. Washington, D.C., 1961.
32. Eva Mueller and Gerald Gurin: "Participation in Outdoor Recreation:
Factors Affecting Demand Among American Adults." Outdoor Recreation
Resources Review Commission Report 20, 1962.
33. Military Preventative Medicine by George C. Dunham, M.A., M.D., Dr. P.H.,
D.T.M. & H. (Lond.). Third edition, Military Service Publishing Co.,
Harrisburg, Pa., 1940, 1198 pp.
34. Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency Committee and Columbia Basin Inter-Agency
Committee: "Recommended Design Criteria for Water Works in Recrea-
tional Areas." 1962.
35. Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency Committee and Columbia Basin Inter-Agency
Committee: "Recommended Design Criteria for Sewage Works in Recrea-
tion Areas." 1962.
36. Great Lakes-Upper Mississippi River Board of State Sanitary Engineers,
"Recommended Standards for Sewage Works." I960.
37. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service:
The Sanitary Privy—Construction Plans and Specifications of Earth-
Pit Privy With Concrete Slab and Diagonal Riser. Washington, D.C.,
August 1961.
129
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Underwriters, National Building Code, 85 John
Uniform Building Code,
38. National Board of Fire
Street, New York, N.Y.
39. International Conference of Building Officials,
610 South Broadway, Los Angeles 14, Calif.
40. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service:
Frozen Desserts Ordinance and Code, Washington, D.C., 1962.
41. Waste Stabilization Lagoons—Proceedings of a symposium at Kansas City,
Mo., Aug. 1-3, 1960. Public Health Service Publication No. 872. 170 p,
42. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service,
"Mobile Home Park Sanitation with a Suggested" Ordinance." 1960.
43. Office of Education (Publication No. OE 21014) and Public Health Service
(Bulletin No. 856) (a joint publication). Environmental Engineering for
the School: A Manual of Recommended Practice. Washington, D.C., 1961.
44. Mobile Home Manufacturers Association, Trailer Coach Associates and
Mobile Home Dealers National Association (a joint report). Travel
Trailer Parking.
45. Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency Committee and Columbia Basin Inter-Agency
Committee. "Administrative Guide Covering Public Health Problems in
Recreational Areas." 1961.
46. Kabler, P. W., Clark, H. F., Geldreich, E. E.: "Sanitary Significance of
Colifonn and Fecal Coliform Organisms in Surface Water." January 1964.
Public Health Reports, vol. 79, No. 1, pp. 58-60.
130
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Appendix A
American Standard Specifications for
Drinking Fountains
1. The fountain should be constructed of impervious material, such
as vitreous china, porcelain, enameled cast iron, other metals, or stone-
ware.
2. The jet of the fountain should issue from a nozzle of nonoxidiz-
ing, impervious material set at an angle from the vertical such as to
prevent the return of water in the jet to the orifice or orifices from
whence the jet issues. The nozzle and every other opening in the water
pipe or conductor leading to the nozzle should be above the edge of
the bowl, so that such nozzle or opening will not be flooded in case a
drain from the bowl of the fountain becomes clogged.
3. The end of the nozzle should be protected by nonoxidizing
guards to prevent the mouth and nose of persons using the fountain
from coming into contact with the nozzle. Guards should be so de-
signed that the possibility of transmission of infection by touching
the guards is reduced to a minimum.
4. The inclined jet of water issuing from the nozzle should not
touch the guard, thereby cause spattering.
5. The bowl of the fountain should be so designed and proportioned
as to be free from corners which would be difficult to clean or which
would collect dirt.
6. The bowl should be so proportioned as to prevent unnecessary
splashing at a point where the jet falls into the bowl.
7. The drain from the fountain should not have a direct physical
connection with a waste pipe, unless the drain is trapped.
8. The water supply pipe should be provided with an adjustable
valve fitted with a loose key or an automatic valve permitting the
regulation of the rate of flow of water to the fountain so that the valve
manipulated by the user of the fountain will merely turn the water
on or off.
9. The height of the fountain at the drinking level should be such as
to be most convenient to persons utilizing the fountain. The provision
of several steplike elevations to the floor at fountains will permit
children of various ages to utilize the fountain.
10. The waste opening and pipe should be of sufficient size to carry
off the water promptly. The opening should be provided with a
strainer.
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Appendix B
Basic Principles of National Plumbing Code,
ASA
Principle No. 1 — ALL OCCUPIED PREMISES SHALL HAVE POTABLE WATEB
All premises intended for human habitation, occupancy, or use shall be provided
with a supply of potable water. Such a water supply shall not be connected
with unsafe water sources, nor shall it be subject to the hazards of backflow or
backsiphonage.
Principle No. 2 — ADEQUATE WATEB REQUIRED
Plumbing fixtures, devices, and appurtenances shall be supplied with water
in sufficient volume and at pressures adequate to enable them to function prop-
erly and without undue noise under normal conditions of use.
Principle No. 3 — HOT WATEB REQUIRED
Hot water shall be supplied to all plumbing fixtures which normally need or
require hot water for their proper use and function.
Principle No. 4 — WATER CONSERVATION
Plumbing shall be designed and adjusted to use the minimum quantity of
water consistent with proper performance and cleaning.
Principle No. 5 — DANGERS OF EXPLOSION OB OVERHEATING
Devices for heating and storing water shall be so designed and installed as
to guard against dangers from explosion or overheating.
Principle No. 6 — USE PUBLIC SEWER WHERE AVAILABLE
Every building with installed plumbing fixtures and intended for human
habitation, occupancy, or use, and located on premises where a public sewer
Is on or passes said premises within a reasonable distance, shall be connected
to the sewer.
Principle No. 7 — REQUIRED PLUMBING FIXTURES
Each family dwelling unit shall have at least one watercloset, one lavatory,
one kitchen-type sink, and one bathtub or shower to meet the basic requirements
of sanitation and personal hygiene.
All other structures for habitation shall be equipped with sufficient sanitary
facilities. Plumbing fixtures shall be made of durable, smooth, nonabsorbent.
and corrosion-resistant material and shall be free from concealed fouling
surfaces.
Principle No. S — DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF ADEQUATE SIZE
The drainage system shall be designed, constructed, and maintained to guard
against fouling, deposit of solids, and clogging, and with adequate cleanouts so
arranged that the pipes may be readily cleaned.
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Principle No. 9—DURABLE MATERIAL AND GOOD WORKMANSHIP
The piping of the plumbing system shall be of durable material, free from
defective workmanship, and so designed and constructed as to give satisfactory
service-for its reasonable expected life.
Principle No. 10—LIQUID SEALED TRAPS REQUIRED
Each fixture directly connected to the draining system shall be equipped with a
liquid-seal trap.
Principle No. 11—TRAP SEALS SHALL BE PROTECTED
The drainage system shall be designed to provide an adequate circulation of
air in all pipes with no danger of siphonage, aspiration, or forcing of trap seals
under conditions of ordinary use.
Principle No. 12—EXHAUST FOUL AIR TO OUTSIDE
Each vent terminal shall extend to the outer air and be so installed as to
minimize the possibilities of clogging and the return of foul air to the building.
Principle No. 13—TEST THE PLUMBING SYSTEM
The plumbing system shall be subjected to such tests as will effectively disclose
all leaks and defects in the work or the material.
Principle No. 14—EXCLUDED CERTAIN SUBSTANCES FROM THE PLUMBING SYSTEM
No substance which will clog or accentuate clogging of pipes, produce explosive
mixtures, destroy the pipes or their joints, or interfere unduly with the sewage-
disposal process shall be allowed to enter the building drainage system.
Principle No. 15—PREVENT CONTAMINATION
Proper protection shall be provided to prevent contamination of food, water
sterile goods, and similar materials by backflow of sewage. When necessary, the
fixture, device, or appliance shall be connected indirectly with the building
drainage system.
Principle No. 16—LIGHT AND VENTILATION
No watercloset or similar fixture shall be located in a room or compartment
which is not properly lighted and ventilated.
Principle No. 17—INDIVIDUAL SEWAGE DISPOSAL SYSTEMS
If waterclosets or other plumbing fixtures are installed in buildings where there
is no sewer within a reasonable distance, suitable provision shall be made for
disposing of the sewage by some accepted method of sewage treatment and
disposal.
Principle No. 18—PREVENT SEWEB FLOODING
Where a plumbing drainage system is subject to backflow of sewage from the
public sewer, suitable provision shall be made to prevent its overflow in the
building.
Principle No. 19—PROPER MAINTENANCE
Plumbing systems shall be maintained in a safe and serviceable condition from
the standpoint of both mechanics and health.
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Principle No. 20—FUTURES SHALL BE ACCESSIBLE
All plumbing fixtures shall be so installed with regard to spacing as to be
accessible for their intended use and cleansing.
Principle No. 21—STRUCTURAL SAFETY
Plumbing shall be installed with due regard to preservation of the strength of
structural members and prevention of damage to walls and other surfaces
through fixture usage.
Principle No. 22—PROTECT GROUND AND SURFACE WATER
Sewage or other waste shall not be discharged into surface or sub-surface
water unless it has first been subjected to some acceptable form of treatment.
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