EPA-600/3-76-106
November 1976
Ecological Research Series
STUDIES ON THE RECLAMATION OF
STONE LAKE, MICHIGAN
Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, US. Environmental
Protection Agency have been grouped into five series. These five broad
categories were established to facilitate further development and application of
environmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
This report has been assigned to the ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH series. This series
describes research on the effects of pollution on humans, plant and animal
species, and materials. Problems are assessed for their long- and short-term
influences. Investigations include formation, transport, and pathway studies to
determine the fate of pollutants and their effects. This work provides the techrucal
basis for setting standards to minimize undesirable changes in living organisms
in the aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric environments.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/3-76-106
November 1976
STUDIES ON THE RECLAMATION OF STONE LAKE, MICHIGAN
by
Thomas L. Theis
and
Joseph V. DePinto
University of Notre Dame
Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
Grant No. R-801245
Project Officer
Donald W. Schults
Marine & Freshwater Ecology Branch
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
CORVALLIS ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CORVALLIS, OREGON 97330
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for
publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily
reflect the views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products con-
stitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
1 1
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FOREWORD
Effective regulatory and enforcement actions by the Environmental
Protection Agency would be virtually impossible without sound scien-
tific data on pollutants and their Impact on environmental stability
and human health. Responsibility for building this data base has
been assigned to EPA’s Office of Research and Development and its
fifteen major field installations, one of which is the Corvallis
Environinenta]. Research Laboratory (CERL).
The primary mission of the Corvallis laboratory is research on the
effects of environmental pollutants on terrestrial, freshwater, and
marine ecosystems; the behavior, effects, and control of pollutants
in lake systems; and the development of predictive models on the
movement of pollutants in the biosphere.
This report describes the effects of controlling domestic pollution
on a eutrophic seepage lake in Michigan and the control of nutrients
in water by using particulate materials which retard nutrient release
from sediments.
A.F. Bartsch
Director, CERL
iii
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ABSTRACT
This report contains information relating to two factors: (1) the effects of
domestic pollution abatement on a eutrophic lake, and (2) investigations into
methods of reclaiming such lakes especially through the use of particulate
materials which retard pollutant release from sediments.
The study lake, Stone Lake, has been monitored for approximately ten years from
the time of pollution abatement. Results indicate that the sediments are major
pollutant sources during stratified periods and that for such lakes to achieve
meaningful improvements in water quality in a reasonable length of time, a
series of external manipulations is often needed.
Monitoring data indicated a cyclic pattern of phytoplankton succession within
the lake during growing season. This pattern included a steady base of green
algae with alternated dominance with different kinds of blue—greens (nitrogen—
fixing or non—nitrogen—fixing) — the available forms of nitrogen regulating
the cycle.
Certain types of fly ash, a particulate waste product of coal combustion, was
shown, in laboratory studies, to possess properties capable of precipitating
orthophosphate from overlying waters and subsequently “sealing” the phosphorus
within the sediments for long periods of time. A lake such as Stone Lake could
thus be made permanently, or semi—permanently, phosphorus limited thereby
altering the successional pattern previously indicated and significantly
reducing the overall standing algal crop.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Grant Number R—801245, by the
Department of Civil Engineering of the University of Notre Dame under the
sponsorship of the Environmental Protection Agency. Work was completed as
of May, 1974.
iv
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CONTENTS
Sections Page
I Conclusions 1
It Recommendations 2
III Introduction 3
IV Water Quality of Stone Lake 7
V Studies on the Reclamation of Stone Lake 33
VI References 62
VII Appendix 66
V
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FIGURES
No.
1 Hydrographic Map of Stone Lake 4
2 Topographic Map and Tributary Drainage Area 6
of Stone Lake
3 Washout vs. Overturn Orthophosphate in Stone Lake 9
4 Temperature Profile of Stone Lake, 1973 11
5 Suspended Solids Profile of Stone Lake, 1913 12
6 pH Profile of Stone Lake, 1973 14
7 Dissolved Oxygen Profile of Stone Lake, 1973 15
8 Soluble Orthophosphate Profile of Stone Lake, 1973 17
9 Soluble Organic Nitrogen Profile of Stone Lake, 1973 20
10 Soluble Ammonia Profile of Stone Lake, 1973 21
11 Soluble Nitrate plus Nitrite Profile of Stone Lake, 1973 22
12 Phytoplankton Densities in Stone Lake, 1973 26
13 Phytoplankton Composition in Stone Lake, 1973 28
14 Effectiveness of Fly Ash in Removing Orthophosphate 36
15 Effectiveness of Fly Ash in Retarding Phosphate Release 37
from Stone Lake Sediments
16 Algal Regrowth Potential of Fly Ash—Treated Water 39
from Stone Lake
17 Sample Sites for Sediment Survey in Stone Lake 40
18 Restoration Plan for Stone Lake 43
19 Effect of Fly Ash on Dissolved Oxygen in a Lake Column 49
20 Solubilities of Various Heavy Metals 51
vi
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Pag
21 Mercury Release Patterns from Fly Ash in Laboratory 53
Reactors
22 Computer Simulation of Chiorella and Microcystis at 56
Low Phosphorus Levels
23 Computer Simulation of Chiorella and Microcystis 57
at Intermediate Phosphorus Levels
24 Computer Simulation of Chiorella and Microcystis at 57
High Phosphorus Levels
25 Computer Simulation of Chiorella and Microcystis at 58
Low Phosphorus and Nitrogen Levels
26 Computer Simulation of Chiorella and Microcystis at 58
Low Phosphorus and Intermediate Nitrogen Levels
27 Computer Simulation of Chiorella and Microcystis at 59
High Phosphorus and Intermediate Nitrogen Levels
28 Computer Simulation of Chiorella and Microcystis at 59
High Phosphorus and High Nitrogen Levels
29 Computer Simulation of the Effects of Reclamation 61
on Algal Concentrations
vii
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TABLES
No.
1 Morphological Characteristics of Stone Lake 5
2 Dominant Phytoplankton in Stone Lake (1973) 25
3 The Effectiveness as Lake Reclamation Tools 34
of Eleven Particulate Materials
4 Chemical Composition of Fly Ash 35
5 PollutiDnal Potential of Stone Lake Sediments 41
6 Water Chemistry Data for Mishawaka Farm Pond 44
7 Cost—Benefit Table 46
8 Important Water Soluble Extracts of Fly Ash 47
9 Ranges of Trace Metals in Fly Ash 50
viii
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The support and cooperation of the citizens of Cassopolis, Michigan,
particularly Mr. Garrett Snyder, village superintendent, is gratefully
acknowledged.
To those individuals who performed the main portion of the research obtained
herein, Dr. Mark W. Tenney, Dr. Wayne F. Echelberger, Jr., Dr. Stephen M.
Yaksich, Dr. Victor J. ierman, Dr. Cajetan F. Cordiero, Mr. Timothy J. Hampton,
Mr. Scott T. Girinan, and Mr. Robert J. Palla, sincere appreciation is given.
ix
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
In Stone Lake, Michigan, the lake sediments tend to act as nutrient sinks.
During periods of dissolved oxygen depletion in the hypolimnion large
amounts of phosphorus and nitrogen are released in the overlying water.
Insofar as Stone Lake is typical of many natural seepage lakes with
accelerated eutrophic conditions, the application of this finding to
other similar systems appears warranted.
A cyclic pattern of phytoplankton succession was observed in Stone Lake
curing summer stratification. The pattern consisted of green algae
followed by nitrogen — fixing blue—green algae followed again by green
algae with available forms of nitrogen regulating the cycle.
Particulate materials, especially certain clays and fly ash, were shown
to be potentially effective lake restoration tools for controlling
biogeochemical cycling of pollutants from eutrophic sediments. In most
cases a 2 to 5 cm layer of material was needed to control phosphate
release. Supplemental chemical addition, such as lime or alum, enhances
initial phosphate removal from the overlying water.
Sandy shoreline sediments low in water and organic matter have a low
pollutional potential and should not require covering with a particulate
layer in most Instances.
Available data indicates potentially harmful effects from other water
soluble extracts of fly ash, particularly sulfur (as so 3 2 ) and various
heavy metals. Short term extremes of pH may also affect blota unfavorably.
1
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
Particulate materials should be field tested on a large scale to
determine their effectiveness as lake restoration tools. As part
of this effort further information on the costs and harmful effects
(if any) should be obtained.
A more intensive field investigation of phosphorus and nitrogen cycling
in eutrophic lakes should be undertaken. Such a study should focus on
an evaluation of aerobic vs. anaerobic regeneratl0t of these nutrients.
A mathematical model of a lake ecosystem should be developed which will
combine nutrient regeneration with other important aspects of lake
systems such as sediment—water interchange and algal and bacterial
growth and decay.
Investigations into other methods of lake reclatTlatiofl, such as side—
stream treatment, should continue.
2
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL
This report contains information relating to two factors: (1) the effects
of domestic pollution abatement on a eutrophic lake, and (2) investigations
into methods of reclaiming such lakes especially through the use of particulate
materials which retard pollutant release from sediments. The study was for a
three year period supported by an Environmental Protection Agency grant (R—801245)
awarded for the period April 1, 1971 to May 31, 1974. It was an extension of
a previous grant from the Federal Water Quality Administration, the details
of which can be found in a previous report (Tenney etal. 1 ).
LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT LAKE
The project lake was Stone Lake, located within the village limits of
Cassopolis, Michigan (pop. 3000) approximately 40 km northeast of the campus
of the University of Notre Dame. Between the years 1939—1966 it was used as
a receiving water body for the secondary wastewater effluent from the village.
In 1966 the residents of the village, concerned about Stone Lake’s deteriorating
water quality, constructed a new wastewater treatment facility located outside
of the lake’s natural drainage basin. Except for a few septic systems and
some storm drainage from the village, all domestic sources of pollution were
eliminated. Measurements indicated the total input of phosphorus to the lake
was reduced by 95%.
Stone Lake is a seepage lake with no natural surface Inlets or outlets. A
hydrographic contour map is shown in Figure 1.
3
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0 QO •OQ IOO •OO
Figure 1: Hydrographic Map of Stone Lake.
4
HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY
STONE LAKE
CASSOPOL S. MtCHtGAN
MARCH 1965
SCALE I 2Oo A I O ACHES
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Pertinent morphological data are given in Table 1.
Table 1. MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF STONE LAKE
Surface area 60 ha (150 acres)
Depth
Maximum 18 m (60 feet)
Average 6 m (20 feet)
Volume 3.4 x 106 m3 (2876 acre-feet)
Drainage area 176 ha (435 acres)
Urban 128 ha (319 acres)
Forest 40 ha (100 acres)
Agricultural 6.4 ha (16 acres)
The total watershed of Stone Lake is relatively small. As indicated in
Table 1 the total drainage area is 176 hectares. Figure 2 illustrates the
approximate boundaries of the drainage basin. Previous calculations had
indicated a hydraulic retention time of approximately 11 years. However
this was prior to the discovery of storm sewers from the village. The
present calculated hydraulic retention time of Stone Lake is approximately
5.5 years. Further details regarding the cliraatological and geological
characteristics of the lake can be found in Tenney et al. .
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A! f A
ACRiCULYU *L •16.c’..
-319 acres
ORLIT D
TOPOGflAPUIC MAP
(RAINAGL AHEA
STOFIE LAI
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SECTION IV
WATER QUALITY OF STONE LAKE
ELEMENTAL CYCLING
Inputs of pollutants to lakes can come from many sources. Direct discharges
of wastewater effluent, runoff, seepage, and rain water falling directly
on the lake have been shown to be significant sources. Once the intro—
duct ion of the pollutant has been made, the lake system relies upon internal
biogeochemical cycling to define its fate. Of great importance in this
regard is the behavior of the lake sediments. Consider a simplified steady—
state model in a lake system as follows:
E. = E +E (1)
in out sediments
where E represents total amounts of a given element. The terms on the right
hand side of the equation refer to natural flushing (including atmospheric
exchange) and sediment interchange, respectively. Those mechanisms which
are operative for this latter term would include chemical precipitation,
sorption, ion exchange, and biological incorporation followed by sedimentation.
It is useful to compare the theoretical residence time of an element in a
lake with the hydraulic residence time of the water in the lake as a means
of determining the extent to which the last term Influences specific lake
behavior. For a given element,
[ El
TE = E avg . (2)
where -rE is the theoretical residence time of any element in the lake and
[ Elavg. is the average concentration of that element in the lake water.
For the water in the lake,
7
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Average Volume (3)
W E Inf lows
where is the mean hydraulic residence time. As indicated previously
by Stuimn and Morgan 2 , the ratio becomes a useful parameter. If it
is less than one, specific elements are being stored in the sediments.
However, when this ratio is greater than one, the element is being cycled
within the lake and, thus, is present at higher concentrations than would
be predicted from external inputs alone. When the ratio is equal to one,
there is either no exchange with the sediments or the net exchange is zero.
Because of its naturally high reactivity, phosphorus, which is the limiting
nutrient for excessive algal productivity in many eutrophic lakes, has a
value of Tp/Tw which is generally greater than one. Natural flushing with
waters having low phosphorus concentrations will reduce phosphorus levels
in such a system very slowly. This is illustrated in Figure 3 for Stone
Lake. Orthophosphate residual predicted by simple washout (T/Tw = 1) is
compared with the actual measurements made each year during circulation
periods. As is evident, the two curves have basically different shapes.
These differences are attributable to the influence of the sediments. That
portion of influent phosphorus which is initially incorporated into the
sediments is not lost entirely to the system and is available for subsequent
release under proper conditions. Accordingly, lake sediments can act as
sinks or sources of phosphorus at different stages within the lake’s develop-
ment; and for some systems can act as both a sink and a source at various
times during a yearly cycle.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL DATA FOR STONE LAKE
As a means of indicating the present status of Stone Lake, data for a specific
year, 1973, is presented in Figures 4—lI. Data for 1971—72 are found in the
Appendix. Stone Lake is an example of a dimictic lake, the type most often
found in the north—central United States. Figure 4 graphically
illustrates the two periods of total mixing which regularly occur in a lake
of this type. The spring circulation period occurred in late March (point
a, Figure 4) with mixing conditions present until the middle of May. By
8
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2500
U,
0
o 2000
I
0
1500
I-
2
L i i
0
2
g 1000
Lii
ci 500
0
a-
0
r
I-
cr 0
0
2 3 4 5 6 7
TIME — YEARS AFTER POLLUTiON ABATEMENT
Figure 3: Washout vs. Overturn Orthophosphate in Stone Lake.
Abatement of
Domestic Pollution
Orthophosphate in STONE LAKE
at Overturn
0
Residual
Orthophosphate
Predicted by Washout
0
8
9
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June 1 a fairly stable thermal stratification had developed which lasted
until the fall circulation period at the end of October (points b through c).
During the period from June through September a well—defined epilimnion
existed in Stone La&e the lower boundary of which began at about 3 meters
and progressively dropped to about 6 meters as the surer proceeded. The
thermocline during this period can be roughly defined as that portion of
the water column between 4.5 and 7.0 meters with everything below this
depth being the hypolimnion. This study was concerned mainly with this
period of thermal stratification when very little mixing occurs between
the upper and the lower waters.
The suspended solids data for 1973 are presented graphically in Figure 5.
Since Stone Lake receives very little allochth’nous suspended matter, the
suspended solids represent a relatively good indicator of the planktonic
biomass in the lake. It should be noted, however, that this parameter does
not separate living biomass from dead and decaying organisms, or other
detritus. For the most part, though, the filter pads used to measure sus-
pended solids were bright green for samples taken from the epilimnion,
indicating viable phytoplankton, and brown for samples collected from below
the photic zone, indicating decaying organisms. Using the suspended solids
data in this manner, one can make several observations about the trends
in total phytoplankton density in the lake. Although no actual algae data
exist for February, it was noted that a large algal bloom occurred in this
month (point a, Figure 5) beginning under the ice and persisting until
spring circulation. The increase in suspended solids In March between
10 and 25 feet is possibly a reflection of the sinking of this bloom but
more likely of the large Daphnia bloom which occurred at the end of March.
In either case the increase is probably a reaction to the February algal
bloom. No phytoplankton bloom conditions began to arise until stratification
started to appear around June 1. Between mid—April and June (points b
through c) the lake was dominated by macrophytes. A lake survey at the
end of May showed that approximately one-third of the lake bottom (to a
depth of 10—15 feet) was covered by rooted, submerged macrophytes.
10
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C
Figure 4:
1973
Teinpera re Profile o± Stone Lake, Michigan for 1973.
in Units of °C.
Contours are
Ice cover
a
I
4
§
6
7
0
II
12
J F
M
A M
J U A S 0 N
-------
b c d
e fz
;973
Figure 5: Susper ded Solids Profile of Stone Lake, Michigan for 1973. Contours
are in Units of rng/ .
a
E
I
I—
0
U
0
J F M A M U U A S 0 N
-------
Coincidental with the macrophyte die—off in the first two weeks of June was
the beginning of the suimner phytoplankton bloom conditions. Relatively
high suspended solids were attained in the surface waters by the end of
June and lasted at least through the fall circulation. There were at least
three individual peaks of suspended solids during this period (points d, e
and f) which will be seen to coincide with individual algal species blooms.
Also of interest is the gradual increase of solids in the therinocline region
throughout the stratification period. The contour lines roughly follow the
same deepening pattern as the thermocline, suggesting that some of this
material is possibly being trapped in the thermocline region. In addition,
the abrupt decrease in suspended solids with depth through this region
suggests that this material is being degraded as It settles. It could also
mean that the settled material has simply reached its buoyancy level, and
theref ore, sinks no further.
The pH and dissolved oxygen variations In Stone Lake (Figures 6 and 7,
respectively) provide an indication of gross trends In photosynthesis and
respiration. While Stone Lake possesses a relatively hard water (total
hardness between 110—120 nig/l as CaCO 3 ) and is well buffered (total
alkalinity between 120—140 mg/i as CaCO 3 ), the pH does show some variations
through the year. In contrast, the dissolved oxygen changes are quite
dramatic and highly significant. The interpretation of these parameters
is as follows. A rise in pH and a corresponding rise in dissolved oxygen
can be interpreted as an Indication of high photosynthetic activity. The
photosynthetic uptake of CO 2 (or C0 3 2 ) results in an increase in pH, and
the oxygen released during photosynthesis causes a rise in dissolved oxygen.
Conversely, plant respiration and aerobic decomposition utilizes 02 and
releases C0 2 ; therefore, these processes could cause a decrease in pH and
dissolved oxygen. These parameters vary diurnally; however, all Stone
Lake sampling was conducted between 10 A.M. and 12 noon on each sampling
date.
13
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a
J F M A M
1973
Figure 6: pH Profile of Stone Lake, Michigan for 1973.
I-I
E
I
J A S 0 N
Units.
Contours are in p11
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a b
C
‘973
Figure 7: Dissolved Oxygen Profile of Stone Lake, Michigan for 1973. Contcurs
are In Units of r g/ .
U’
E
1-
0
Li
a
I0
F
M
A
M
J A S 0 N
-------
From the pH and dissolved oxygen data for Stone Lake one can place the
February algal bloom (point a) and trace the steady depletion of CO 2 and
the correspondingly high dissolved oxygen in the surface water up to the
onset of summer stratification. At this time the oxygen in the hypolimnion
is rapidly used up, presumably by the stabilization of organic matter
raining down from the epilimnion. From the middle of June to fall circulation
the majority of the hypolimnion is anoxic. Also apparent from the dissolved
oxygen data is the rapid decrease in this parameter through the thermocline.
This seems to indicate that the oxygen in this region is being utilized as
rapidly as it diffuses down from above. It is also interesting to note
that the dip in the oxygen contour in mid—September (point b, Figure 7)
corresponds to an algal bloom occurring at the same time (point e, Figure 5)
which penetrates to deeper water as the thermocline drops. The subsequent
high uptake of oxygen in the thermocline region (point c, Figure 7) corre-
sponds to the crash and decomposition of this bloom.
Figure 8 traces the soluble orthophosphate concentration in Stone Lake
through 1973. The concentrations are given in mg/i as P04 and are there-
fore approximately three times the concentrations as mg P/i. The data
reveal that the phosphorus concentration in Stone Lake is extremely high,
even in comparison with other eutrophic lakes. It is therefore highly
unlikely that phosphorus is limiting at any time in Stone Lake. This is
especially true in view of reports that a phosphorus concentration as low
as 0.01 mg/i at spring overturn might result in nuisance algal conditions
during the summer (Sawyer 3 ). It is possible, however, that changes in
phosphate, even at these levels, could favor one algal species over auother.
In any event, it is likely that phytoplankton blooms and declines can be
reflected in the phosphate concentration in terms of nutrient regeneration
from algal decomposition.
In light of the above discussion, the phosphate data show some very inter-
esting fluctuations. It should be noted that any substantial increases
in phosphate in the surface waters are not likely to be the result of
16
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1973
Figure 8: Soluble Orthophosphate Profile of Stone Lake, Michigan for 1973.
Contours are in Units of mg/& as PO .
E
=
I—
L i i
a
14
‘5
J
F M M J J A S 0 N
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allochthonous inputs. The only significant nutrient input to Stone Lake at
the time of this study was surface runoff. Based on rainfall data and
estimates of total phosphorus concentrations in the runoff, it was estimated
that the increase in total phosphorus in the epilimnion over the six month
period from mid—April to mid—October would be approximately 0.05 mg/l as
P0 4 . It would seem then, that the phosphorus time—variations in the
epilimnion of Stone Lake can safely be attributed to biological and thermal
cycling. Looking at the upper waters, several features stand out. First,
the February algal bloom causes a rather dramatic decrease in phosphate
(point a, Figure 8) only to be followed by what appears to be a phosphorus
regeneration after the bloom (point b). Since no large algal population
appears in April and May, this recycled nutrient remains as soluble ortho—
phosphate. The macrophyte growth which took place at this time apparently
did not require phosphate from the open waters of the lake; however, it
appears that their die—back had a significant effect on the epilimnetic
phosphate concentration. During the macrophyte withdrawal (points c and d),
the orthophosphate concentration in the epilimnion and the thermocline rose
0.30 mg/l as P0 4 .
The phosphorus dynamics through the summer stratification period are difficult
to interpret. It is clear that the three sequential algal blooms during the
period (points d to g) continually reduced the phosphate concentration in
the epilininion from 1.7 mg/l as P0 4 to 1.0 mg/l as P0 4 . Any regeneration
which might have taken place in this region is masked by phytoplankton uptake.
It is interesting to note that the second bloom (points e to f) reduced
the phosphate concentration by only 0.10 mg/l as P0 4 . This fact leads one
to postulate that there was an additional phosphate source during this
bloom. The source may very well have been phosphate regeneration from
aerobic algal decomposition in the lower epilimnion and thermocline region.
Also of note is the steady increase in soluble orthophosphate in the
hypolimnion which begins with the onset of rapid phytop lankton growth at
the surface (point d) and continues to the fall circulation (point h).
18
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This build—up of phosphate also coincides with the rapid decrease of oxygen
in the hypolimnion and the continued anoxic conditions until circulation.
Because of the lack of additional necessary information, it is impossible
to pinpoint the cause or causes for this increase. Based on the available
data, this phenomenon is probably the result of aerobic and anaerobic
decomposition of organic matter settling from the upper waters as well as
bacterially mediated release of phosphorus from the bottom sediments with
the latter most likely making the largest contribution.
The 1973 nitrogen data for Stone Lake are presented in Figures 9 (soluble
organic nitrogen), 10 (soluble ammonia—nitrogen) and 11 (combined soluble
nitrate plus nitrite). The soluble organic nitrogen did not appear to
show too much variation through the year. For this particular year there
seemed to be a progressive decrease in concentration from January through
August, although this type of trend has not been consistent from year to
year. Beginning in September, this parameter appeared to stratify somewhat
because of an increase in the upper water concentration.
The ammonia variations in the lake suggest some very interesting possibilities.
The rapid increase in ammonia at the end of February (point a, Figure 10)
coincides with the crash of the February algal bloom. The increase showed
up through the entire water column because of the complete mixing conditions
prevailing at the time. Hutchlnson 4 noted that in most lakes, maximal
ammonia concentrations appear In the trophogenic zone at periods of full
circulation. This increase, however, is definitely not brought on by
mixing with deep water, since no ammonia is present in the entire water
column prior to the Increase. From this peak there was a steady decline
of ammonia until the end of May when there was no ammonia left in the upper
waters (point b, Figure 11). The decrease of these nutrients from March
through May was most likely due either to uptake by macrophytes and green
algae, or nitrification (perhaps biologically mediated) of soluble
ammonia.
19
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1973
Figure 9: Soluble Organic Nitrogen Profile
Contours are in Units of mg/L.
of Stone Lake, Michigan for 1973.
F ’,
0
r
F-
a-
C
U F M A M U U A S 0 N
-------
a b
J F M A
1973
S 0 N
Figure 10:
Contours
c d
I -i
E
-a
=
F—
0
Li
0
M J A
Soluble Ammonia Profile of Stone Lake, Michigan for 1973.
are in Units of mg NIL.
-------
Figure 11: Soluble Nitrate + Nitrite Prof i1 of Stone Lake, Mich an for 1973.
Contours are n Units of mg NIL.
E
I
a
LU
C
‘973
-------
In the beginning of June it would appear that nitrogen is limiting in
Stone Lake yet, at this same time, a large algal bloom begins to develop.
The apparent anomaly is explained by the theory that nitrogen—deficient
conditions provide a definite competitive advantage to nitrogen—fixing
blue—green algae 5 ’ 6 . As will be seen in the next section, the June algal
bloom (point d, Figure 5) was in fact a nitrogen fixing bloom. Of further
interest is the Increase of nitrate in the surface waters (points b to c,
Figure 11), which coincides with the wane of this algal bloom. The activity
and decay of the nitrogen—fixing algae replenished the supply of Inorganic
nitrogen in the lake. Although ammonia is an end—product of organic nitrogen
breakdown, the nitrogen regeneration appeared only as nitrate. This suggests
that a rapid nitrification of the released ammonia was taking place in the
surface water. There was a rapid build—up of ammonia in the hypolimnion,
however, and this regenerated inorganic nitrogen remained as ammonia because
of the anoxic conditions in those waters. As Hutchinson suggests, the rise
of hypolimnetic ammonia is caused by decomposition of falling plankton as
well as deamination of organic nitrogen compounds in the sediments.
From August 1 to fall circulation the inorganic nitrogen fluctuations become
difficult to interpret. There was a gradual decrease in nitrate from August
1 through the middle of September (point c to d), which corresponds to a
gradual Increase in suspended solids. During this time period there was
little change in the epilimnetic ammonia concentrations, except perhaps
some Invasion of ammonia from the hypolimnion due to vertical entrainment.
About the middle of September both the epilimnetic nitrate (point d to e,
Figure 11) and ammonia (point c to d, Figure 10) showed an increase again.
This increase corresponds quite closely with the wane of the second summer
bloom (point e, Figure 5), but it is masked somewhat by the nitrogen uptake
associated with the third bloom (point f, Figure 5). As the fall mixing
did not occur until about November 1, these variations are not likely to be
explained by this event. These variations may be explained In terms of
biological nutrient cycling with the aid of the phytoplankton data.
23
-------
PHYTOPLANKTON DATA
in collecting the phytoplankton data an attempt was made to classify the
dominant algae encountered down to the genus level. Although a taxonomic
classification may be desirable in some instances, it was felt that the
important task in studying lake nutrient dynamics was merely to separate
the algae into broad functional groups. For the purposes of investigating
successional patterns, the phytoplankton were categorized into five functional
groups: (1) diatoms, (2) non—motile green algae, (3) motile green algae,
(4) non—nitrogen—fixing blue—green algae, and (5) nitrogen—fixing blue—green
algae. Each of these five groups have general differences in their nutritional
requirements, optimum environmental needs, susceptibility to predation,
competition, degradation, and sinking rates. A realization of what these
differences are can often be used to explain why one group succeeds another.
Table 2 contains a list of the dominant phytoplankton found in Stone Lake
between May and November of 1973. This list contains representatives of
four of the five groups discussed above. No dominant diatom genera were
encountered during this time span; however, the large February bloom may
have contained a significant diatom population. In the temperature zone,
eutrophic lake diatom blooms generally occur in the early spring while the
water is cold and before the silicon is depleted 7 .
By grouping the phytoplankton into the four functional groups previously
mentioned, the successional pattern in Stone Lake becomes quite obvious.
Figure 12 presents a plot of the phytoplankton densities (on a log scale)
occurring in the lake through the sampling period. The values used are
an average of four depths counted. For the most part the non—motile green
algae were evenly distributed throughout the first twelve feet. On the
other hand, the blue—green and flagellates exhibited a slight decline in
numbers with depth. This is consistent with the fact that blue—greens
tend to float to the surface and flagellates are capable of diurnal
migrations to seek more light.
24
-------
Table 2. DOMINANT PHYTOPLANKTON IN STONE LAKE (1973)
1. Diatoms
Present, but not found to be dominant
2. Non—motile green algae
Chiorphyta
Staurastrum
Cosniarium
Volvox
Scenedesmus
Fed ias trum
Apa t ococcus
Quadrigula
Nicrospora
Unidentified coccoid
3. Motile green algae
Euglenophyta
Unidentified
Pyrrhophyta
Ceratium
Crytophy ta
Unidentified
4. Non—nitrogen—fixing blue—green algae
Cyanophyta
Microcys tis
5. Nitrogen—fixing blue—green algae
Cyanophyta
Anabaena
Aphanl. zomenon
25
-------
a,
0
C-)
C i )
0
a ’
0
I ..
a,
I ...
0,
.0
E
‘-p
>-
I-
C,)
Iii
0
0
I-
z
0
0
I-
>-
x
0
Figure 12:
1973
Total Phytoplankton Density and Green, Nitrogen—
fixing Blue—green, and Non—nitrogen—fixing Blue—
green Phytoplankton Groups Densities in Stone Lake,
Michigan for May through October, 1973. Values
Represent a Composite of Upper 12 feet of Depth.
lO
6
I0
M J A S 0 N
26
-------
Three peaks in the total phytoplankton are evident in this graph. The first
peak occurred in the first week of July, and was followed by maxima in the
middle of September and the middle of October. The population peaks correlate
exactly with the suspended solids maxima in the surface waters of the lake
(Figure 5). A further observation from this graph is that Stone Lake appears
to be dominated by green algae. While the blue—green groups come and go,
the green algae seem to be always present (though different genera within
the group may dominate) and continually increasing (except for a drop in
September). Several authors (Bierman 8 , Payne 9 , Norton 0 et al.) have
stated that green algae in general have higher maximum growth rates than
blue—green algae. On the other hand, the minimum phosphorus requirement
for green algae is considerably higher than that for blue—greens (Soeder , et al.,
UhlmanA 2 , Shapiro 13 ). The fact that green algae generally dominate in a
eutrophic lake where phosphorus is never limiting is consistent with these
findings.
The successional pattern of the phytoplankton groups is more easily visual-
ized in Figure 13, which presents a bar graph of the percent composition
of each algal group at each sampling date normalized to 100 percent. In
mid—May the phytoplankton in Stone Lake were largely non—motile green
species. Throughout June the nitrogen—fixing blue-green algae ( Anabaena and
Aphanizomenon ) began to occupy a larger and larger percent of the population.
During July the nitrogen—fixers disappeared and once again the green algae
returned to dominance, although a small, short—lived bloom of Microcystis
(the only non—nitrogen—fixing blue—green alga found in Stone Lake) occurred
in early August.
In contrast to the earlier green algae dominance, the August green algae
consisted roughly of equal parts of the motile and non—motile groups. In
mid—September the second summer maximum was caused by another nitrogen—fixing
blue—green bloom ( Anabaena) . In this case Anabaena . completely dominated
the total phytoplankton population (99 percent). Again, however, the greens
recovered fairly rapidly and again the motile green algae lagged somewhat
27
-------
U Non—motile Green
IIBIJ Motile Green
Non—nitrogen-fixing Blue-green
Nitrogen - fixing Blue-green
Nov
Figure 13:
Composition of Phy-toplankton in Stone Lake, MichiGan fra i May tErough
Cctober, 1973. Re1ati e N znber s of Each of the Four Major Groups are
L’ôrz a.Uzed to 200 percent,
100
80
60
40
20
0
w
z
>-
0
I —
(I)
0
0
0
0
H
z
Li
0
U i
a-
May
June July Aug Sept Oct
1973
-------
behind the non—motile green algae. The third and final summer peak was
caused by this green algae resurgence, with Mi ospora being the dominant
genus in the bloom. A final algal sample taken on November 12 (during
circulation) revealed qualitatively that this final green algal bloom had
been distributed through the entire water column. Also, a great deal of
detritus was observed at all depths - and much more in the upper waters than
before complete mixing conditions had existed.
SEASONAL SUCCESSION AND NUTRIENT REGENERATION
By comparing the time variation of nutrients in the upper waters of Stone
Lake with the phytoplankton succession, one can postulate several causal
relationships to explain the lake dynamics. These relationships are important
to the concept of lake management and/or restoration. It is desirable to be
able to predict a priori if a given set of environmental conditions will tend
to favor a stable (non—blooming) or an unstable (frequent blooms) system.
Based on the common definition of an algal bloom being about 5-20 mg/i (dry
wt.) (Azad and Borchardt 14 ), it can be stated that Stone Lake supports a
continuous bloom throughout the summer stratification period. Often, however,
the only objectionable blooms are those of blue—green algae. Knowledge of
nutrient dynamics and how they affect algal dominance can perhaps lead to
the prevention of these nuisance conditions.
It was noted earlier that the phytoplankton in Stone Lake began to bloom
with the onset of thermal stratification. Prior to this the macrophytes
in the lake were by far the dominant biomass. There are two probable
explanations for the macrophyte dominance during the months of April and
May. First, the complete mixing conditions in the lake at this time corres-
pond to one of the “stress points” suggested by Round 15 . Tt is possible
that the average residence time of the algae in the illuminated zone was
not long enough to effectively compete with the inacrophytes for light.
16
Mortimer has stated that a high ratio of stirred depth to illuminated
depth can impose a condition of “morphometric oligotrophy”. The second
disadvantage which the phytoplankton faced at this time of the year was
29
-------
the appearance of filter—feeding zooplankton. The fact that the only green
algae which were present at this time were too large to be grazed by most
zooplankton suggests that the zooplankton had an impact on the rest of the
algal community.
Concurrently with the phytoplankton biomass increase, the macrophytes began
to die off. The decrease in weeds may have been due to shading from algae,
but, in any event, the macrophyte decline brought a simultaneous increase
in epilitnnetic soluble phosphate. This event was not studied closely enough
to determine if the phosphorus regeneration was mainly due to nutrient pumping,
as suggested by Schults and Malueg 17 , or to decay of the plants themselves.
As mentioned earlier, the green algae were the first to dominate the phyto—
plankton community. This dominance is probably due to their more rapid
growth and to the excess availability of all nutrients in the spring. At
the beginning of June the nitrate concentrations had become quite low (points
a, Figure 11) and ammonia was already zero in the surface water (Figure 10).
The low combined inorganic nitrogen provided a competitive advantage to the
nitrogen—fixing blue—green algae, which began to rise at the expense of the
green algal growth rate (Figures 12 and 13). The dominance and decline of
Anabaena and Aphanizomenon in late June and July brought a regeneration of
nitrogen in the epilimnion. The nitrogen which they fixed appeared as
soluble nitrate due to their continual decomposition and the subsequent
nitrification of the ammonia released. The rapid decline of the nitrogen—
fixers could have been due to a number of reasons. Two plausible explanations,
however, are bacterial attachment — — blue—green algae are closely associated
18 19
with bacterial activity (Kuentzel , Lange ) —— and the return of the
competitive advantage to the green algae because of the increased nitrogen
levels. Huang et al. 2 ° have used nutrient enrichment tests to show that
green algae, especially Chlorella , can more effectively compete with blue—
greens when phosphorus and nitrogen are added to a nutrient poor environment.
Green algae dominated again through August and again depleted the nitrate
in the water. This time blooms of Microcystis and a motile green alga shared
30
-------
the productivity. A rise in these groups could possibly have been due to the
depletion of an essential nutrient other than phosphorus. Bierman 8 ,
Shapiro 13 and Bush and Welch 2 ’ have reported that blue-green algae, es-
pecially Microcystis , can out—compete other species for phosphorus when
external concentrations are low. Warmer water has been given as a possible
22 23
explanation for the development of blue—green algae (Hutchinson , Vinyard )
and this may, in fact, be a contributing factor. It has been reported that
the optimum temperature for growth of most blue—green algae is about 35°C
24 o
(Fogg ); however Stone Lake did not exceed 26 C during 1973 and most green
algae achieve maximum growth rates at about 25°C (Marre 25 ).
The motile green algal bloom could also have been a nutrient—depletion
phenrimenon. Being motile, these algae may be able to more efficiently
obtain an essential nutrient which Is In low supply. Although it was not
investigated, they may have migrated into the lower epillinnion or thermocline
at night and thereby replenished their supply of a nutrient which is exhausted
at the surface. Also, this particular motile-green bloom consisted of
Euglenophytes. It happened to coincide with an Increase in soluble organic
22
nitrogen in the surface water (Figure 9). Hutchinson has stated that
Euglenophytes dominate in water rich In nitrogenous organic compounds.
Depletion of combined inorganic nitrogen signaled the onset of a nitrogen—
fixing blue—green bloom ( Anabaena , Figure 13) in late August and early
September. This time the domination was complete and the green algae suffered
a setback. The large decline in the green population (Figure 12) in this
case could be due to an inhibitory substance excreted by the Anabaena .
Hutchinson reported a number of studies on the effect of water collected
from lakes and ponds at the time of a large Anabaena bloom on the growth of
test organisms. The filtrate of this water was always algistatic to all
species studies. Again the blue—green bloom crashed as quickly as it came
about, with the corresponding nitrogen regeneration — this time as ammonia.
It is interesting to note this type of cyclic succession of green to nitrogen—
fixing blue—green and back to green which occurs during summer stratification
in Stone Lake. This successional pattern will probably be common In most
31
-------
stratified lakes with excess phosphates and a tendency toward nitrogen
limitat ion.
The nitrate regeneration associated with the second nitrogen—fixer bloom
was somewhat masked by the rapid nitrate uptake as the green algae regained
their previous status. In contrast to previous green dominations, this late
September — early October bloom was dominated by one species ( Nicrospora) .
Apparently Microspq is an opportunistic variety, which outgrew other greens
when conditions were favorable. Subsequent to the Microspora peak, a
planktonic Cryptomonad emerged. Practically all Cryptophyta require vitamin
B 12 or thiamin, usually both, for optimal growth. The Cryptomonad appearance
may possibly have been the result of a vitamin excretion by Microspora or
stimulated bacterial activity. Organic growth factors can be an important
reason for the decline of alloauxotrophic phytoplankton. As noted earlier,
this fall bloom terminated rather abruptly with the fall circulation. Fall
circulation represents another of Round’s “stress points”.
32
-------
SECTION V
STUDIES ON THE RECLAMATION OF STONE LAKE
INTRODUCTION
There is little doubt among most water resources experts that many of the
nation’s freshwater inland lakes have deteriorated to a point where the
simple curbing of nutrient inputs is no longer enough to restore multiple
water uses. Numerous restoration techniques for these lakes have been
proposed and/or are being evaluated. Among them are the following:
(1) dredging, (2) harvesting, (3) nutrient inactivation/precipitation,
(4) total or hypolimnetic aeration, (5) bottom sealing, (6) sediment
exposure, (7) ecological manipulations, (8) application of selected bio—
cides, and (9) artificial dilution or flushing. Each of these techniques
has advantages and disadvantages depending upon the particular system to
which they are applied. In this section, the potential use of particulate
materials to precipitate and seal phosphate in sediments will be presented.
PARTICULATE MATERIALS AS SEDIMENT SEALANTS
Several types of materials were investigated for their sealing properties
on eutrophic lake sediments including clays, sand, and fly ash (Yaksich 26 ).
A summary of these results is given in Table 3.
Although many of these materials showed promise in the restoration of lakes
through sediment sealing, particular attention was focused on the use of
fly ash, a common by—product of coal combustion. The United States pro-
duces 30 x lO Kg of this material annually, with estimates of up to
90 X 10 Kg by the year 2000. Understandably there is a great desire
on the part of those concerned with its disposal for utilization in some
favorable manner.
3,3
-------
Table 3
Summary: The Effectiveness as Lake Restoration Tools of Eleven Particulate Materials.
Material
Effect
on water
quality
Con patahility
with chemicals
used to improve
water quality
Settling proper,
ties, time for 99
percent to settle
20 feet
Ability to control
phosphate release
from sediments
under anaerobic
conditions
Ability to rssist
resuspension
velocity needed
to disrupt barrier
Comment,:
effect Iveness in
a lake restoration
ject
Ksoltnite
Clsy
Adsorbed phos-
phate but addi-
tional chemicals
may be needed
Alum could be used
to precipitate phos-
Good
40 hours
5. 0 cm layer
effective
Very Good
40cm/sec
—
Georgia
Clay
Bentontte
Clay
Very poor
phosphate
adsorption
Alum could be used
to precipitate phos-
phate and reduce
turbidity
Very Puur
>40 days
Ineffective, it
increased rate of
phosphate release
Very Good
40 cm/sec
Should tiot be used,
it would increase rate
of phosphate release
Exhibited some
phosphate
adsorption, addi-
tional chemicals
would be needed
Could be used if altxr
was added first to pre .
cipitate phosphate and
later added to reduce
turbidity caused by the
clay
Alum could be used
to precipitate phos-
phate and reduce
turbid ity
Fair
72 hours
Tennessee
Clay
50 cm layer
Adsorbed phos-
phate, but addi-
tional chemscals
may be needed
Alum could be used
to precipitate phos-
phate
Barely Acceptable
15 cm/sed
Illinois
Clay
Very Good
12 hours
5.0 cm layer
effective
Could be used on deep
water sediments if alum
was added first lo pre —
cipilate phosphate and
later added to reduce
turbidity caused by the
clay
Adsorbed phos-
phate, but addi-
tional chemicals
may be needed
Good
30 cm/sec
Alum could be used
to precioitale phos-
phate and reduce
turbidity
Poor
28 days
5.0 cm layer
effective
Alum could be used
first to precipitate
phosphate, then clay
added to cover eedL.
ments
sut
Good
30 cmjsec
Adsorbed phos-
phate, but addi-
tional chemicals
may be needed
Sand
Alum could be used
lu precipitate phos-
phate and reduce
turbidity
Good
24 hours
Did not absorb
phosphate
Could be used in shalt 0
lakes if clay was added
first to precipitate —
phate and later added t 0
reduce turbidity caused
Weuld be an ineffec 1 ,,,
barrier on floccuh 0
sediments
Sank below eedi.
neenti and did not
retard phosphate
release
Alum could be used
to precipitate phos-
phate
Fair
20 cm/eec.
Excellent
IS mioutes
Fly Ash No.1
5.0 cm layer
effective
Precipitated
phosphate, but
additional chem-
icals may be
needed
Very Good
40 cm/sec.
Precipitated phos-
phate in combinatio
with ajuni or lime
Fly Ash No.2
Very Good
6 hours
Effectively
precipitated
phosphate
Not recommended
as a barrier on
Lake sediments be.
cause of difficulty
in forming a stable
barrier
Sank below sedi-
ments and did not
retard phosphate
release
Precipitated phos-
phate: excellent
with lime, good
with alum
Good
30 cm /sec.
Good
24 hours
2,0 cm layer
effective
Would be an ineffecti
barrier on floccuient
sediments
Fair
20 cm/sec
Fly Ash No.4
fly Ash No.3
Precipitated
phosphate, but
additional chem-
icals needed
Precipitated phos -
phate; excellent
with lime, good
with slum
Very Good
3 hours
ineffective
EarelyAcceptable
15 cm/eec
Not recommended
because of failure
to stop phosphate
release
Very effectively
precipitated
phosphate
Could be used by i _
self, or with alum .
lime to precipitate
phosphate, Effecti 1
retarded phosphaoe
release
Precipitated phos —
plate; excellent
with linie, good
with alum
Good
24 hours
20 cm layer
effective
Fair
20 cm/sec.
--Th
Most effective,
particularly tested
precipitating Phoephat
and retarding pleos
phate release. Effect
ively precipitated
phosphate and settlOd
in situ colwnrt stU
itself and in combt ,
tion with lime —
-------
Table 4 indicates the range of the macro—constituents of this substance.
It is composed primarily of silica, alumina, and variable amounts of
iron and calcium oxides. The lime brings about phosphate removal from
the overlying water and once in place fly ash displays sealing proper-
ties which effectively retard the release of phosphorus from the under-
lying sediments. Due to the variability of the lime content naturally
present in fly ash, some lime makeup may be required to bring about
acceptable levels of phosphate precipitation.
Table 4. TYPICAL RANGES OF THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FLY ASH
FROM PULVERIZED COAL FIRED PLANTS
(after Minnick 27 )
Range
Constituent % by weight
Silica, SIO 2 34 — 38
Alumina, A1 2 0 3 17 — 31
Iron Oxide, Fe 2 0 3 or Fe 3 0 4 2 — 26.8
Calcium Oxide, CaO 1 — 10
Magnesium Oxide, MgO 0.5 — 2
Sulfur Trioxide, SO 3 0.2 — 4
The effectiveness of fly ash in precipitating and retarding phosphate
release is illustrated In Figures 14 and 15. Depending on the fly ash,
a 5—20 gram/liter dose and a 2 to 5 centimeter layer should bring about
the desired effects.
To see if treated Stone Lake water was phosphorus limited, and perhaps
nitrogen limited also, an algal regrowth study was conducted on Stone
Lake water treated with 5 g/2. fly ash plus 150 mg/9. lime, arid spiked
35
-------
0 EXPERIMENTAL
FLY ASH gm/i
mg/i CoO
Figure 14, A—C:
Effectiveness of Different Fly Ashes in
Removing Orthophosphate from Solution.
D: A Similar Plot for T4me (after Yaksich 26 ).
A. FLY ASH No. I
• THEORETICAL SOLUBILITY
B. FLY ASH No.2
1
0
a.
vs
a
I- a
E
3a0
2.5
2.0
(.5
10
0.5
0
3,0
2.5
2.0
(.5
10
0.5
0
tO 20304050
0 1020304050
FLY ASH gm/i.
C. FLYASH No.3
L u
I-
IC
x
a.
C / )
0
r
0 -
0
I
I-
0
D. LIME
(0 20 30 40 50
0 50 100150 200250300
36
-------
TIME (Days)
Figure 15:
Effectiveness of Various Thicknesses of Fly Ash in
Retarding Phosphate Release from Stone Lake Sediments.
Experiments Performed in Laboratory Reactors (after
Yaksich 26 ).
Erupted
U i
U-
C / )
0
U-
0
1—
cr
0
A.
3.0
2.0
1.0
0
10cm FLYASH
B.
2.0 cm
FLY ASH
0
2.0
C. 5.0 cm
I.0
FLY ASH
00
0
10 2030405060708090
130
37
-------
with nitrogen and phosphorus (Higgins et al. 28 ). The orthophosphate
level in treated water was 7.5 jig/it, while the filtered lake water had
101 pg/it. Figure 16 shows almost a ten—fold cellular growth increase in
filtered lake water spiked with 4 mg/it of nitrogen (added by NaNO 3 ), as
compared to the unspiked control. Clearly, the lake water was nitrogen
deficient. Treated lake water showed the least growth, as it was
deficient both in phosphorus and nitrogen. Adding 4 mg/it of nitrogen
to treated water did not result in any significant increase because
growth was still phosphorus limited. Spiking the treated lake water
with both nitrogen and phosphorus to levels equivalent to the control
plus 4 mg/it of nitrogen did enhance algal growth significantly, but it
was much less than in the control spiked with 4 mgNht. These data
suggest that the fly ash and lime treatment of polluted lake water
reduces the algal regrowth potential, not only by making it phosphorus
limiting, but also by either removing some additional growth factors
or by adding an inhibitory substance.
Available evidence indicates that within each yearly cycle the sediments
of Stone Lake act as a major pollutional source. Further research on
the sediments led to a delineation of four general sediment types shown
in Figure 17. These sediment types can be described as follows:
(1) shoreline sediments (Cl—C8 in Figure 17), which comprise 25 percent
of the bottom of Stone Lake, are mostly sand, and possess little pollution
potential; (2) west bay sediments (Dl—D3), which occupy 15 percent of the
bottom and are of an intermediate pollutional potential; (3) north bay
sediments (Al—AS), 19 percent of the bottom, are of a higher pollutional
potential; and (4) deepwater sediments (B1—B7), 42 percent of the bottom,
and have the highest pollutional potential. The precise parameters used
to define the pollutional potential are given in Table 5.
The characterization of Stone Lake sediments has led to a hypothetical
differential treatment scheme in which varying amounts of fly ash and lime
are added to Stone Lake reflecting the pollutional potential of the
38
-------
0 4 8 12 16
Figure 16:
DAYS
Algal Regrowth Study on Stone Lake Water Treated
with 5 g/Q Fly Ash and 150 mg/a. Lime.
The Top Two Curves (open and closed circles)
Indicate the Lake Water is Nitrogen Limited.
The Bottom Curves Show the Same Water to be
Phosphorus Limited After Treatment (after
Higgins et 28)
6
I0
(I)
-J
-J
w
0
I L-
0
Lu
oJ
z
20
39
-------
SE D I ME NT
SAMPLE SITES
5TON LAKE
Figure 17: Sample Sites for Sediment Survey of Stone Lake (after Yaksich 26 ).
40
0 300m
-------
Table 5
POLLUTIONAL POTENTIAl. OF STONE LAKE SEDIMENTS
L .ocatLon
Number
Depth
It.
Solubi
Orthopho
mg/i as
e
ephate
P0 4
Total Soluble p
mg/I as P04
COD
mg/i as
0
NH 3
mg/l as
N
Orgar’dc-N
mg/I as N
Organic
% dry
Matter
wt.
% Water
Retained on
#200 sieve
¶ dry wt.
‘Al
ka
A3
5
8
8
2.50
7. 16
3. 00
2.50
8. 60
3. 10
27
36
36
5.4
5.6
8.2
2.5
3. 1
3. 2
13.1
47. 0
28. 3
90.6
95. 3
88. 4
6.8
7. 4
36. 5
A4
8
3.75
3. 95
40
5. 5
3. 2
44. 2
93. 8
8. 1
AS
1 B1
Bl
1 B3
20
20
42
44
2. 90
5.70
7. 30
6. 10
3. 20
5.70
8. 10
7. 10
40
48
63
76
7.2
8.5
35.0
39.2
a. 8
2.2
3. 9
3.6
40.4
12. 3
32. 3
22. 8
93. 0
76.
92. 8
93.0
7. 0
72. 3
2. 5
3. 3
B4
35
8.60
8.84
55
23.7
28.1
91.6
12.6
B5
27
3.40
3. 80
44
28.5
3.9
37.6
92. 1
1.2
B6
50
4. 85
6. 00
55
43.2
4.2
33.9
92 0
10.4
B7
30
6.90
6.90
55
17.0
2.8
18.2
91.5
8.1
C l
18
1.70
1.10
55
2.6
3.9
2.5
41.8
94.6
C2
5
1.25
—
72
1.6
-
1.7
27.7
99.0
1C3
16
1.40
—
45
1.8
-
1.5
36.8
98.6
C4
9
1.70
-
86
2.0
-
0.7
22. 2
99 5
Cs
8
1.10
-
82
6.9
-
3.2
38.9
95.8
C6
7
.45
—
91
1.9
-
0.5
18.7
99.4
C7
4
. 64
124
2.4
-
4 2
23. 2
94. 5
Ca
12
1. 32
.
107
2.4
-
0. 3
23. 1
98. 8
D l
8
1.90
1.97
24
2.8
3.2
61.8
95.3
13.8
D2
4
3 92
4.70
34
1.5
2. 2
20. 2
96. 2
27. 5
D3
18
3.25
3.47
38
5.7
1.7
29.2
94. 4
23. 1
* Concentration in interatitlal water.
-------
sediments. This is shown in Figure 18. A similar approach could be
used for other eutrophic lakes to which this treatment technique is
applied.
FARM POND STUDY
In the summer of 1972, a one acre farm pond in Mishawaka, Indiana was
treated with fly ash. The main purpose of the treatment was to evaluate
fly ash application methods and to aid in the development of an appli-
cation method for Stone Lake. In this respect, the treatment was a
success and helped lead to the current method proposed for fly ashing
eutrophic lakes.
In addition to the above studies, some monitoring of the pond was performed
before and after treatment to help evaluate the effect of the treatment
on water quality and biota. The pond was not an ideal test case for the
long term effects of fly ash in reducing productivity because the con-
stant enrichment from high nutrient runoff and direct input of cattle
wastes could not be curtailed following treatment. In any event data
were taken and visual observations made which did shed light on the
technique of treating natural waters with fly ash.
The water quality data in Table 6 show that the fly ash treatment was
effective in reducing the phosphate concentration in the pond. However,
it can be seen from the chemical data that the pond one year later is
very similar to its pretreatment state. The relatively high suspended
solids can be explained by noting that the ground water well which
feeds the pond is high in colloidal clay material (20 mg/l). The
significant phosphate increase over the immediate post—treatment level
was due to nutrient runoff from the heavily fertilized drainage area.
A significant increase in the combined inorganic nitrogen concentration
from July 10, 1972 to August 2, 1972 corroborates this hypothesis.
Before treatment, this pond was approximately one—half covered with a
thick, filamentous algal mat, which was not skimmed off prior to treatment.
42
-------
0
STONE LA
-------
Table 6. SUMMARY OF WATER CHEMISTRY DATA FOR HISHAWAKA FARM POND
ate+
Parameter*
Before treatment
After treatment
May 15,
1972
July 6,
1972
July 10, 1972
- Aug. 2, 1972
July 2, 1973
pH
8.75
8.80
10.90
9.00
9.30
Suspended solids
(mg/k)
15.0
17.5
25.0
10.0
10.5
Alkalinity
(mg/k as CaCO 3 )
84
70
181
66
45
Ca hardness
(mg/k as CaCO 3 )
66
45
278
173
54
S0Z (mg/k as S0 )
20.1
19.2
178
166
25.1
Soluble orthophosphate
(mg/k as P0 4 )
0.086
———
0.013
0.084
0.110
* Treatment of pond took place on July 7—9, 1972.
+ Values given are an average of 4 horizontally located points in the pond.
-------
The fly ash addition served to sink this mat, and no signs of regrowth
or emergence of the mat occurred through the rest of the growing season.
However, the next summer portions of the mat reappeared with a grayish
tinge in color which suggests that gases produced through the winter and
early spring may have buoyed the mat up to the surface. Parts of the mat
were definitely green and viable Indicating that the increased nutrients
due to runoff allowed for the development of an algal mat similar to that
present before treatment. This occurrence indicates a potential problem
associated with applying fly ash over the macrophytes in Stone Lake and
their subsequent decomposition. It may be necessary to harvest any
macrophytes present in the lake prior to treatment. Another potential
problem associated with inacrophytes is their possible regrowth through
the fly ash in the littoral areas of the lake after treatment.
COMPARATIVE COSTS OF RECLANAT ION
One drawback to the use of fly ash, or other particulate materials, as
aids to lake reclamation is the quantity of material involved. Based on
previously cited studies, amounts of up to 300 tons of fly ash per acre
are necessary. In spite of this, a cost analyses of various lake recla-
mation techniques, as applied to Stone Lake, found sediment sealing to
be competitive with most other methods and considerably less expensive
than some (Girman 29 ). The total cost of fly ash application to Stone
Lake was determined to be approximately $250,000. Table 7 indicates the
relative cost effectiveness of seven reclamation techniques weighted by
several factors ona scale of 1 (least effective) to 5 (most effective).
SIDE EFFECTS
Unfortunately, fly ash imparts many water soluble species to an aqueous
solution. Table 8 is a partial list of these components and the
probable chemical form under which each would be likely to exist.
45
-------
Table 7. COST—BENEFIT TABLE (after Girman 29)
Criteria
Cost
S
of
Ease in
handling
application
technique
Tine of
application
Fishery
resources
after
treatment
Removal
of
nutrients
Potential for
water—based
activities
Aesthetic
value
Total out of a
possible
100 points
Multi—factor 5 3 1 1 4 2 4
1) Fly ash (20) (l5) 4(4) 2(2) (l6) (8) (l6) 81
2) Fly ash & lime (2O) (l2) 5(5) 2(2) (8) (l6)
3) Nutrient macti— 2(5) 3(3 33 (8) (16) 62
vation & bottom
sealing (clay)
4) Nutrient macti— 1(5) 1(3) 2(2) 44 (2O) (lO) (2O) 64
vation &
dredging
5) Nutrient macti— (25) (l) 4(4) 2(3) 2(4) 2(8) 65
vatioi &
aeration
6) Mechanical (25) (l5) 1 ( 1) 5(5) 1(4) 1(2) 2( 3) 60
harvesting. &
aeration
7) Replacing lake 1(5) 1(3) 3(3) 1 (1) (l6) (l0) (2O) 58
water with
higher quality
& a soil &
plastic barrier
Note: Numbers in parenthesis denote the rating tines the multiplication factor.
-------
Table 8. IMPORTANT WATER SOLUBLE EXTRACTS OF FLY ASH
Specie
Major Chemical Form(o)
Ca,
+2 +2
Na,
K
Na+, K+
Fe,
Al
Fe(OH) , A1(OR) , etc.
Co,
Ni, Cu,
Zn,
Cd
Various hydroxylated forms
Cr
As
CrO 4 , Cr 2 0 7 2 , Cr(OH)
AsO
Pb
Pb+ 2
Hg
0 +2
Hg ,Hg
s
so 3 2 , so 2
SI
Si0 3 2
Alkalinity
HC0 3 , CO 3 2
Not all of these aqueous extracts can be considered harmless. Several
adverse effects of fly ash addition can be noted as follows: (1) high
pH effects, (2) dissolved oxygen depletion, (3) biological reduction of
high sulfate levels to sulfide, (4) heavy metal accumulation and toxicity,
and (5) physical clogging and crushing of aquatic organisms.
In laboratory aquaria tests, 10—20 grams/liter of fly ash was found to
be toxic to fish indigenous to Stone Lake (Hampton 30 ). The cause of death
was attributed to clogging of gills and subsequent impairment of oxygen
transfer. The applicability of these conditions to an actual lake, however, is
questionable since the addition of fly ash would be to local areas over an extended
time period allowing fish to avoid extreme conditions of pH or turbidity.
47
-------
The effects of fly ash on zooplankton and benthos are less well known and
will be studied more extensively in the future.
Dissolved oxygen depletion occurs primarily due to the presence of water
—2
soluble extracts of sulfite ion, SO 3 , a well known oxygen scavenger
according to the equation
+ 4 02 = S04
The effects of this reaction in an isolated lake column are shown in Figure
19. Dissolved oxygen is depleted rapidly under these conditions and
reaeration takes place gradually over a four day period.
Biological reduction of high levels of sulfate ion, so 4 2, (approximately
100 mg/l) have been shown to occur under the proper conditions. flowever
fly ash, at least initially, appears to inhibit most bacterial action
such that little reduction could be measured in laboratory reactors
31
(Palla ). It should be noted as well that many eutrophic lake sediments
contain high levels of sulfide during stratified periods. The additional
amount due to fly ash may often be considered of minor importance.
The release of toxic trace metals to natural lake systems appears to be
the greatest potential drawback to the use of fly ash. Table 9 gives a
range of trace metals found in several different ashes as compared with
natural crustal abundances.
Of course the background metal concentrations in the specific lake
sediments are a more accurate indication of potential effects; however,
Table 9 gives evidence of a need for further study in this area.
48
-------
E
a
2:
U
0
>-
0
w
>
-J
0
(/,
(I )
a
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0
EFFECT OF FLY ASH
0
No.2 ON
COLUMN
DISSOLVED OXYGEN N A LAKE
40 g/l
Figure 19:
1 2 3 4 5
TIME
(DAYS)
Dissolved Oxygen Depletion and Subsequent Reaeratlon in an Isolated
Lake Column Following Fly Ash Addition.
-------
Table 9. RANGES OF TRACE METALS IN FLY ASH
(after Theis 32 )
Metal
Concentration
Range, ppm
Avg. Crustal
Abundance,
ppm
As
2
—
288
1.8
Pb
9.5
—
500
13
Cu
14
—
300
40
Zn
41
—
1000
50
Cd
0.6
—
11.2
0.2
Cr
18
—
500
100
Hg
0.08
-
0.32
0.06
Several factors will affect the availability and effects of toxic trace
metals on lake systems. These would include simple solubility controls,
pH, the ion exchange and adsorptive characteristics of local solid
phases (such as iron oxides and clays), complex formation, and biologi-
cal incorporation and transportation.
Figure 20 contains standard logarithmic concentration—pH solubility
diagrams for the various free metal ion and mono—hydroxo complexes of
all the metals in question except arsenic (which is generally very
soluble). In the normal pH range of natural waters, it is the hydroxide
of these metals which controls their solubility. At very high pH ’s and
high alkalinities, carbonate ion may control. It can be said from
Figure 20 that, in general, the trace metals display drastically decreased
solubilities with increasing pH. This factor would tend to keep most
metals insoluble at the elevated pH levels anticipated during fly ash
application.
50
-------
pH
Figure 20: Solubility of Various Heavy Metals
(free aqueous and inono—hydroxo species only).
0
—I
—2
I- .
U
E.
D I
0
—8
—10
0 1 2 •3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ii 12 13
14
51
-------
Of course localized adsorption, complex formation, or biological incor—
portation, could functionally circumvent the relationships expressed in
Figure 20. This is illustrated convincingly by the behavior of mercury
from fly ash in laboratory aquaria shown in Figure 21. Two peaks of
mercury release were noted, the first within a few hours of addition at
an elevated pH, the second several days later at a lower pH. Although
no corroborative evidence could be gathered, it is reasonable to postu-
late the action of a combined chemical/biological mechanism to explain
the observations. The initial release, which is enhanced by the high
pH, is essentially a desorption of mercury, probably in the elemental
form. As conditions become more favorable for bacterial activity, it
appears plausible that some of the mercury is biologically converted to
an organo—mercurial, perhaps methyl mercury. The rapid disappearance of
mercury is not unexpected since the reactors were at all times open to
the atmosphere and many mercurial forms, particularly the two noted, ard
notoriously volatile.
SIDE STREAM TREATMENT
One further method of lake reclamation which was considered was the side —
stream treatment of the water for selective removal of phosphorus.
DePinto 34 investigated this method initially and performed laboratory
bench scale studies to demonstrate its feasibility. He calculated the
total cost of a 1 MCD portable treatment plant utilizing chemical precipi...
tation to be approximately $100,000. A further analysis by Theis 35
suggested the use of activated alumina columns as selective phosphate
adsorbants. A portable plant could be made significantly larger without a
proportionate increase in cost. Another advantage of this method is that
few, if any, undesirable constituents are added to the lake.
Of great importance in the technical evaluation of this method of treatment
are the size of a plant necessary to bring about phosphorus removal in a
reasonable length of time and the contribution of phosphorus from the
sediments once treatment has begun. While this method itself has not been
treated on a large scale, other flushing—type projects have been performea
52
-------
1.0
0•.
c i
Jt
L
=
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Figure 21:
Mercury Release Patterns After Fly Ash Addition
to Laboratory Reactors.
10.0
9.0
TIME (Di YS)
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
-------
(Lake Washington 36 , Buffalo Pound Reservoir 37 , Shagawa Lake 38 ) which
indicate the potential of this approach as applied to lake reclamation.
MODELING EFFORTS ON STONE LAKE
The techniques of mathematical modeling can provide a systematic basis
for a research approach to the complex problem of cultural eutrophication
and can be extremely valuable in comparing management options for control
and/or restoration. The general advantage of a mathematical model in
algal growth studies is that such a model can synthesize data from many
different experiments, each with its own particular scope of inquiry,
and present the results in a dynamic and comprehensive manner.
A model devised by Bierman 8 focused primarily on the kinetics of algal
growth in eutrophic lakes and utilized a two—step process involving
separate nutrient transport and cell synthesis mechanism at the species
level. This model included carrier—mediated transport of nutrients,
using a reaction—diffusion mechanism, and allowed for intermediate
nutrient storage in excess of a cell’s immediate metabolic needs.
Applications involved one— and two—species systems where phosphorus is
the regulating nutrient and two— and three—species systems where both
phosphorus and nitrogen are important regulating nutrients. Effects of
atmospheric nitrogen fixation as well as combined nitrogen were included.
For purposes of simplicity, growth simulations were confined to aerobic
surface waters and were extended only through the course of a single
growing season. However, in order to make the model as realistic as
possible, temperature variation, cell sinking, cell decomposition,
nutrient recycle, and predation by higher animals were included.
Because of luxury phosphorus uptake, the proposed model predicts a lag
between the removal of phosphorus from solution and the subsequent algal
growth, and the specific growth rate predictions of the model were not
compatible with the same predictions of Monod kinetics for the single—
species example presented.
54
-------
For the two—species case in which phosphorus is the regulating nutrient,
it was shown that a slower—growing alga with a high phosphorus transport
efficiency can dominate a faster—growing alga with a low phosphorus
transport efficiency when the concentration of available phosphorus is low.
This is shown in Figures 22 through 24 for a mixture of Chiorella , a
green alga, and Microcystis , a blue—green specie. Nuisance blue—green
algal blooms frequently coincide with elevated summer temperatures and
low concentrations of dissolved nutrients in eutrophic lakes. In the
example presented, species differences in phosphorus uptake efficiencies
are sufficient to explain these correlations and it is not necessary to
Invoke a causal relationship between elevated temperatures and assumed
higher growth rates for blue—green algae as compared to other species.
For the cases in which both phosphorus and nitrogen regulate algal growth,
it was shown that the availability of nitrogen in relation to a given
amount of phosphorus, especially the form of the nitrogen, can greatly
affect total algal crop as well as relative species abundance. Figures
25 through 28 indicate these findings. On this basis, a need is recog-
nized to include nitrogen dependence, especially nitrogen—fixation, as
part of any algal growth model that is to be applied to field conditions.
The final set of applications considered various external inputs from
diffuse and point sources such as surface runoff, direct precipitation,
and nutrient loads from assumed secondary— and tertiary—treated waste—
water. Use was made of the physical basin characteristics of Stone Lake.
Generally, these chronic, low—level inputs significantly enhance the size
and duration of the algal crops in the lake and, during the summer months
when dissolved nutrient concentrations are lowest, these inputs prefer-
entially stimulate the more efficient blue—green species. Urbanization
has a very significant effect on these same parameters and, for the
assumed nutrient loadings in the examples, surface runoff from the urban
land in the basin was more stimulatory than if all of the wastewater
produced in the basin had been tertiary—treated and directly discharged
to the lake.
55
-------
Figure 22;
The slower—growing Microcystis
dominates the faster growing
Chiorella at Low phosphorus
concentrations (dotted line).
L i i
-j
z
(ii
I .-
z
f -a
z
Li)
U
z
0
U
U)
0
U.
(I )
0
I
C.
I0.0
8.0
::f
2.0
0
AprU Moy June July Augusl Sept
TIME
56
-------
a
UI
-j
z
I i i
1-
‘C
20
I-.
z
I d
z
0
U
U)
0
x
a-
(I )
0
x
Figure 23:
0
L i i
-J
z
I i i
I-
z
Oo
20.0
Ui
I )
z
8
V)
0
x
a.
I ’)
0
x
a.
Figure 24:
10.0
6.0 —
C
4.0
z
0
U
-J
0
4 croc stis increases proportionately after phosphorus
concentration (dotted line) has been increased from
10 i.igP/1 to 25 pgP/1.
(0.0
6.Oo
z
UI
4.Ou
0
0
-J
4
f1 0
‘.‘#
4
0
TIME
Microcystis does not increase proportionately after
phosphorus conc.entrat ion has been increased from
25 pg.P/l to 50 igP/l.
ApfIl May June July August Sept
TIME
April May June July August Sept
57
-------
10.0
PCM lOjtg .p/t
NCM • 60j g.n/1
8.0
6.0 -
4.0
2.0 - r Chiorella
\ (No growth) Microcystle
April May
June July
TIME
August Sept
Figure 25:
-4
E
z
0
c c
I—
z
I s A
U
0
U
a
4
I ,
-j
4
Figure 26:
The development of Microcystis is limited by available
nitrogen when the initial nutrient concentrations are
10 pg -P/i and 60 pgN/i.
TIME
Microcystis uses virtually all of the available
phosphorus when the initial nutrient concentrations
are 10 pg -P/i and 300 pgN/l.
a
E
a
z
0
1-
4
cc
I-
a
w
U
z
.0
U
a
C
a
- I
4
April May June July Augus l Sept
58
-------
E
z
0
I —
z
U
z
0
C)
-J
4
C )
2.O
Figure 27:
0
Moy June July August Sept
TIME
Chiorella can exploit its faster growth rate at a
phosphorus concentration of 50 pg.P/l and it utilizes
most of the limited supply of nitrogen, 300 . gN/l,
before Microcystls .
—
E
z
0
I-
4
I-
z
U i
C-)
0
C )
-j
4
C,
-J
4
Figure 28:
April Moy Juno July August SepI
TIME
There is enough nitrogen in the system, 1500 ugN/1,
for both Chiorella and Microcystis to utilize the
initial phosphorus concentration of 50 ig P/i to the
best of their capabilities.
PCM • 50p.g.p/t
NCM • 300 ,.Lg.n/t
6.0
4.0
Ch lote llo
April
Microcystis
59
-------
A second mathematical model, devised by Cordiero 39 , made use of the
two step growth process mentioned previously in the dynamic modelling
of a lake ecosystem. The system included both nitrogen and phosphorus
limited situations and incorporated both upper (aerobic) and lower
(anaerobic) waters as a means of determining the degree of cycling of
these nutrients. The utility of the model was demonstrated by the simu-
lation of lake restoration control schemes. Results for the simultaneous
lowering of influent levels of phosphates, precipitation of phosphates
in the lake, and the sealing of bottom sediments (such as is proposed)
is shown in Figure 29 for algal populations in the overlying water.
60
-------
24,2
19.4
9.69
4.85
0.0
0.0
Time in Years
rigure 29: Effect of Reduction of H2P0 4 in Inflow and Lake, Algal and Lower Water Precipitation
at 1—year on Concentration of Algae.
3.0
14.5
z
0
c , —
a—
z
U
z
8
1.0 2.0
-------
SECTION VI
REFERENCES
1. Tenney, M. W., Echelberger, W. F., and Griffing, T. C., “Effects
of Domestic Pollution Abatement on a Eutrophic Lake,” Partial
Report on FWPCA Demonstration Project Grant WPD 126, Dept. of
Civil Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556
(September, 1970).
2. Stumn, W., and Morgan, J. J., Aquatic Chemistry , Wiley—Interscience,
New York, NY (1970).
3. Sawyer, C. N.., “Some New Aspects of Phosphate in Relation to Lake
Fertilization,” Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 24 , p. 768 (1952).
4. Hutchinson, G. E., A Treatise on Limnology, Volume 1 , John Wiley
& Son, New York, NY (1957).
5. Fogg, C. E., “Nitrogen Fixation,” Physiology and Biochemistr J fi
Algae , R. A. Lewin, Editor, Academic Press, Inc., New York, NY,
p. 161 (1962).
6. Ogawa, R. E., and Carr, J. F., “The Influence of Nitrogen on Hetero—
cyst Production in Blue—green Algae,” Limnology and 0ceano raphy, 14 ,
p. 342 (1969).
7. Hutchinson, G. E., A Treatise on Linmology, Volume 2 , John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, NY (1967).
8. Bierman, V. J., “Dynamic Mathematical Model of Algal Growth in
Eutrophic Freshwater Lakes,” unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre
Dame, IN 46556 (1974).
9. Payne, A. C., “Responses of the Three Test Algae of the Algal Assay
Procedure: Bottle Test,” paper presented at the Thirty—Sixth Annual
Meeting of the American Society of Limnology and Oceanography,
Salt Lake City, Utah, June 12, 1973.
10. Morton, S. D., Derse, P. I I., and Sernan, R. C., “The Carbon Dioxide
System and Eutrophication,” U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
EPA—16O1ODXVU/7l, Washington, D.C. (November 1971).
62
-------
11. Soeder, C. J., Miller, H., Payer, H. D., and Schulle, H., “Mineral
Nutrition of Planktonic Algae; Some Considerations, Some Experi-
ments,” International Association of Theoretical and Applied
Limnology, 19 , p. 39 (1971).
12. Uhlmann, D., “Influence of Dilution, Sinking, and Grazing Rate on
Phytoplankton Populations of Hyperfertilized Ponds and Micro—
Ecosystems,” International Association of Theoretical and Applied
Limnology, 19 , p. 100 (1971).
13. Shapiro, J., “Blue—Green Algae: Why They Become Dominant,” Science ,
179, p. 382 (1973).
14. Azad, H. S., and Borchardt, J. S., “Variations in Phosphorus Uptake
by Algae,” Environmental Science and Technology , 4, p. 737 (1970).
15. Round, F. E., “The Growth and Succession of Algal Populations In
Freshwaters,” Mitt. mt. Ver. Limnol., 19 , p. 70 (1971).
16. Mortimer, C. H., “Physical Factors with Bearing on Eutrophication
in Lakes in General and in Large Lakes in Particular,” Eutrophication:
Causes, Consequences, Correctives , National Academy of Sciences,
Washington, D.C., p. 340 (1969).
17. Schults, D. W., and Malueg, K. W., “Uptake of Radiophosphorus by
Rooted Aquatic Plants,” Proceedings of the Third National Symposium
on Radioecology, Oak Ridge, Tennessee (1971).
18. Kuentzel, L. E., “Bacteria, Carbon Dioxide, and Algal Blooms,”
Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 41 ,
p. 1737 (1969).
19. Lange, W., “Cyanophyta—Bacteria Systems: Effects of Added Carbon
Compounds or Phosphate on Algal Growth at Low Nutrient Concentrations,”
Journal of Phycology, 6 , p. 230 (1970).
20. Huang, V. H., Mase, J. R., and Fruh, E. G., “Nutrient Studies In
Texas Impoundments,” Journal of the Water Pollution Control
Federation, Vol.45 , p. 105 (1973).
21. Bush, R. M., and Welch, E. B., “Plankton Associations and Related
Factors in a Hypereutrophic Lake,” Water, Air, Soil Pollution, 1 ,
p. 257 (1972).
22. Hutehinson, C. E., A Treatise on Limnology, Volume 2 , John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New York, NY (1967).
23. Vlnyard, W. C., “Growth Requirements for Blue—green Algae as Deduced
from their Natural Distribution,” Environmental Requirements of
Blue—green Algae , (Proceedings of a Symposium) U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, EPA—l6OlODxvlO/67, p. 81, Corvallis, Oregon (1967).
63
-------
24. Fogg, C. E., “The Comparative Physiology and Biochemistry of the
Blue—green Algae,” Bacteriological Reviews, 20 , p. 148 (1950).
25. Marre, E., “Temperature,” Physiology and Biochemistry of
R. A. Lewin, Editor, Academic Press, New York , NY, p. 54 (1962).
26. Yaksich, S. N., “The Use of Particulate Materials to Control Phosphate
Release from Eutrophic Sediments,” Ph.D. dissertation, University
of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556 (1972).
27. Minnick, L. F., “Investigations Relating to the Use of Fly Ash as
a Pozzolanic Material and as an Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete,”
Proceedings of the American Society of Testing Materials , 54,
p. 1129 (1954).
28. Higgins, B. P. J., Irvine, R. L., and Mohieji, S. C., “Tertiary
Treatment of Industrial Waste and Lake Restoration: A Similarity
in Approach,” Proceedings of the 30th Purdue Industrial Waste
Conference , Engineering Bulletin of Purdue University, Series 145,
West Lafayette, IN 47907 (1975).
29. Girman, S. T., “Cost—Benefit Evaluation of Various Lake Reclamation
Techniques,” !4.S. thesis, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN
46556 (1974).
30. Hampton, T. K., “Evaluation of the Effects of Fly Ash and Lake
Restoration by Fly Ash on Aquatic Consumer Organisms,” M.S. thesis,
University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556 (1974).
31. Palla, R. J., “The Effects of Fly Ash Addition on the Biological
Reduction of Sulfate in Eutrophic Sediments,” M.S. thesis, University
of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556 (1974).
32. Theis, T. L., “The Potential Trace Metal Contamination of Water
Resources Through the Disposal of Fly Ash,” Proceedings of the
2nd National Conference on Complete Water Reuse, AICHE, EPA,
May 5—8, 1975 (in press).
33. DePinto, 3. V ., “Studies on Phosphorus and Nitrogen Regeneration:
The Effect of Aerobic Bacteria on Phytoplankton Decomposition and
Succession in Freshwater Lakes,” Ph.D. dissertation, University
of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556 (1975).
34. DePinto, 3. V., “Design and Evaluation of a Portable Treatment
Plant for the Renovation of Water Bodies,” M.S. thesis, University
of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556 (1972).
35. Theis, T. L., “Side Stream Treatment for Phosphorus Removal from
an Eutrophic Lake,” proposal #R803951—O1, submitted to the Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. (1975).
64
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36. Oglesby, R. T., “Effects of Controlled Dilution on the Eutrophication
of a Lake,” Eutrophication Causes, Consequences, Corrections ,
National Academy of Science, Washington, D.C., pp. 482—493 (1969).
37. Hammer, U. T., “Eutrophication and Its Alleviation in the Upper
Qu Appele River Systems, Saskatchewan,” presented at the Symposium
of Lakes of West Canada, University of Alberta, Edmonton (1972).
38. Larsen, D. P., l 4 âlueg, K. W., Schults, D. W., and Brice, R. N.,
“Response of Eutrophic Shagawa Lake, Ninnesota, USA, To Point Source,
Phosphorus Reduction,” Verk. mt. Ver. Limnol , 19, 884 (Oct. 1975).
39. Cordiero, C. F., “Mathematical Modeling of Lake Systems with
Nutrient Cycling,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Notre Dame,
Notre Dame, IN 46556 (1975).
40. DePinto, J. V., Bierman, V. J., Jr., and Verhoff, F. H., “Seasonal
Phytoplankton Succession as a Function of Species Competition f or
Phosphorus and Nitrogen,” Mathematical Modeling of Biochemical
Processes in Aquatic Ecosystems , R. P. Canale, Editor, Ann Arbor
Press, Ann Arbor, Ml (1975).
65
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APPENDIX
WATER QUALITY DATA 1971-72
Figure
A—i Temperature 1971 67
A—2 Temperature 1972 68
A—3 Dissolved Oxygen 1971 69
A—4 Dissolved Oxygen 1972 70
A—5 Soluble Orthophosphate 1971 71
A—6 Soluble Orthophosphate 1972 72
A—7 Total Phosphorus 1971 73
A—8 Total Phosphorus 1972 74
A—9 Nitrate 1971 75
A - JO Nitrate 1972 76
A —il Ammonia 1971 77
A—l2 Ammonia 1972 78
A— 13 Suspended Solids 1971 79
A—14 Suspended Solids 1972 80
A—15 Organic Nitrogen 1971 81
A— 16 Organic Nitrogen 1972 82
A—17 COD 1971 83
A —18 COD 1972 84
66
-------
TEMPERATURE
C’)
Iii
F-
Iii
C’ =
- J F—
LU
a
197t
0
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
I0
I I
I6
tO
M
2 - -----_
J
DATE
I0
A
S 0 N D
-------
0
2
3
C’)
w
I— 5
IL l
0
ILl
0
9
I0
II
12
I0
J F M A M J J A
DATE
TEMPERATURE 1972
16 1820
-------
DISSOLVED OXYGEN 1971
(1)
I ii
1-
U i
a’
o -
I-
a-
U
0
0
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
I I
12
M
J J A S 0 N D
DATE
-------
DISSOLVED OXYGEN 1972
0
2
a:
w4
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LiJ 5
C-
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0
9
I0
II
12
j
F
A
M
J
DATE
-------
SOLUBLE ORTHOPHOSPHATE
1971
M J J A S 0 N D
2
0
2
3
4
6
9
(I)
a:
LU
I-
LU
-4
-I
F-
0
U
0
7
10
It
12
D4rE
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SOLUBLE
2
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It
ls.i 4
H
Ui 5
6
2:
F-
0
9
l0
12
ORTHOPI-IOSPHATE 1972
F M A
M J J A
DATE
-------
0
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
I0
I I
2
TOTAL PHOSPHORUS 1971
M J J A S 0 N D
DATE
Cl)
U i
U
U i
0
4.O
-------
0
2
3
4
5
6
7
TOTAL PHOSPHORUS
(1)
a:
w
L i i
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I-
w
1972
(2.5)
3.0)
8
9
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12
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2.5
F
M
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J
A
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( I)
or
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I i i
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S
r
I-
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L i i
0
NITRATE 197i
M R i
A
S 0 N D
DATE
-------
0
2
3
(I)
U i
I .-
Ui
-J
I-
U-
w
0
NITRATE 1972
5
6
-7
8
9
I0
Ii
12
J
F
/
M
-------
(el)
w
F-
w
I —
a-
bJ
0
AMMONIA-NITROGEN 197t
D4TE
M J A S 0 N D
-------
uJ
F-
LU
F-
a-
LU
a
0
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
II
12
AMMONIA—NITROGEN 1972
J F M A M J J A
DATE
-------
0
2
3
4
5
6
SUSPENDED SOLIDS 1971
-J
(I )
U i
Ui
2
a
-r
0
w
7
8
9
I I
12
M
J
DATE
A
S 0 N D
-------
SUSPENDED SOLiDS 1972
2-
3-
4
5-
6
7-
8-
9
10-
4
J F
I I
A
M
DATE
2 o —
8
C,)
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H
LU
H
0
L i i
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12
M
J
J
A
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(I )
0 ::
w
I-
U i
I -I =
0
U
0
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
I0
‘I
12
ORGANIC NITROGEN 1971
M
J
A
S 0 N
DATE
D
-------
C’)
cr
U
U
2
I
w
0
8
9
I0
I I
(2
0
2
3
4
5
6
ORGANiC NITROGEN (972
co
i1 7
— I 5
J
F
M
1)ATE
A
M
J
A
-------
0
3
4
5
6
7
COD
1971
M J J A S 0 N D
D. TE
(I )
L i i
I .-
L ii
=
I-u
0
8
9
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I,
12
-------
(1)
w
I —
Lu
0
H
U i
0
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
I0
II
401
COD 1972
9
1
F
rvi
A
M J J
DATE
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read In .t.,uctions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO. 12.
EPA-600/3-76-106
3. RECIPIENT’S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
“Studies on the Reclamation of Stone Lake, Michigan.”
5. REPORT DATE
November 1976
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Thomas L. Theis, Joseph V. DePinto
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Notre Dame
Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1BAO31
11.CONTRACT/GRANTNO.
EPA R-801245
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
200 S. W. 35th St.
Corvallis,._0re on_97330
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final — 4/71-5/74
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA! 0 R&D
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. AbSTRACT
This report contains information relating to two factors: (1) The effects of domes-
tic pollution abatement on a eutrophic lake, and (2) investigations into methods of
reclaiming such lakes, especially through the use of particulate materials which
retard pollutant release from sediments.
The study lake, Stone Lake, has been monitored for approximately ten years from the
time of pollution abatement. Results indicate that the sediments are major pollutant
sources during stratified periods and that for such lakes to achieve meaningful im-
provements in water quality in a reasonable length of time, a series of external
manipulations is often needed.
Certain types of fly ash, a particulate waste product of coal combustion, was shown,
in laboratory studies, to possess properties capable of precipitating orthophosphate
from overlying waters and subsequently “sealing” the phosphorus within the sediments
for long periods of time. A lake such as Stone Lake could thus be made permanently
or semi-permanently, phosphorus limited, thereby altering the successional pattern
previously indicated and significantly reducing the overall standing algal crop.
EPA Form 2220.1 (9-73)
85
17. KEY WOR DSANDDOCUMENTANALYSIS
a. DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
C. COSATI Field/Group
lakes* models
limnology nitrogen
phosphorus* aquatic biology
fly ash* bioassay
sediments*
renovating *Major descriptors
algae
08H
06F
07B
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
94
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
* U. S. GOVOONMENT PRINTING OF ICE 1976—796.498 1 23 REGION 10
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