United Slates Environmental Monitoring EPA-600/9-80-018
Environmental Protection and Support Laboratory January 1980
Agency Cincinnati OH 45268
Research and Development
ViBuses in Wast
Renovated, an
Otfcer Waters
1978
Liters
stracts
0.
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EPA-600/9-8O-018
January 1980
VIRUSES IN WASTE,
RENOVATED,
AND OTHER WATERS
Editor: Gerald Berg, Ph. D.
Editorial Assistant: F. Dianne White
1978
BIOLOGICAL METHODS BRANCH
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND SUPPORT LABORATORY
OFRCE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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AUTHOR AND SUBJECT INDEXES
VIRUSES IN WASTE, RENOVATED, AND OTHER WATERS now contains
an Author index and a Subject index. Both listings may be found at the end of
this volume. The Greek letters that appear above each abstract are the coding
for the Subject index. An explanation for their meanings is given on the first
page of that index.
DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Research Center-
Cincinnati, USEPA and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or
commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for
use.
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1978
VIRUSES IN WASTE, RENOVATED, AND OTHER WATERS
(AnonymousilEditOrial). (1978). Viruses in Water. LANCET, 2(8104-5):1352.
Enteric viruses are more resistant than coliform bacteria to sewage and water
treatment procedures. The absence of coliform bacteria from such waters,
therefore, does not guarantee the absence of a viral hazard.
Low level transmission of enteroviruses through waters are likely to be
undetected by epidemiological means.
Although most sewage treatment processes destroy viruses, elimination of
viruses from sewage requires extensive disinfection. Even here some viruses ad-
sorbed within solids may survive.
Viruses discharged with sewage into rivers pose a threat to drinking water
supplies (which in some countries contain viruses), irrigation and recreational
waters 4 and to shellfish beds.
The time may have arrived for setting standards for viruses in drinking and
other waters.
A
Aizen, M. S., Kazantseva, V. A. (1978). Conditions for Concentrating
Enteroviruses and Ti Phages in Water by Membrane Filter Adsorption. GIG
SANIT , O(6):71-2. Russian.
Seeded poliovirus 3 (Leon 12 a, b) and coliphage Ti were concentrated on
membrane filters and recovered with greater efficiency from waters to which 0.05
moles/liter of Na 2 HPO 4 had been added than from waters that did not contain the
salt. The efficiencies of recovery were improved more in distilled and tap waters
than in waters that contained sewage effluents.
Greater recoveries of polioviruses were achieved with tap water at pH 3 than
at pH 5 or 7. Greater recoveries of the coliphage, however, were achieved at pH 7
than at the lower pH levels.
A meat extract at pH 7.8 eluted viruses from the filters better than either
Hanks’ balanced salt solution with 3% bovine serum or 1% polyethylene glycol
(MW 6,000) did.
More viruses were eluted by mechanically agitating the meat extract on the
filter for 30 minutes than by pipeting the elutant forcefully on the filter.
1
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Akin. E. W., . 1 iakubowski, W., Lucas, J. B., Pahren. H. R. Health Hazards
Associated with Wastewater Effluents and Sludge: Microbiological Considera-
dons. In “Proceedings of the Conference on Risk Assessment and Health
Effects of Land Application of Municipal Wastewater and Sludges.” edited
by B. P. Sagik and C. A. Sorber. Center for Applied Research and
Technology. University of Texas. San Antonio, Texas (1978), 9-26.
The literature clearly shows that viruses, bacteria, and protozoa survive
sewage treatment, albeit in reduced numbers, and at times are recovered from
receiving soils. In the absence of more effective treatment processes and in the
absence of recognized disease transmission from the land application of treated
sewage, it would appear unrealistic to require all domestic wastes applied to land
to be pathogen-free; no such absolute condition could be guaranteed. Therefore,
the goal must be that of achieving and maintaining the microbial hazard from
waste disposal on land at an acceptable risk level.
Traditional epidemiological approaches may not be helpful in evaluating such
risk thereby forcing judgments on acceptable levels without supportive evidence.
Nevertheless, the concept of acceptable risk, rather than that of risk-free, must be
embraced as the only reasonable approach for grappling with environmental health
questions.
Surveillance for increases in the occurrence of pathogens and the incidence of
disease must be a primary public health measure. In addition, effective treatment
of sewage before land application must be assured if a likelihood exists for intimate
contact with man either directly or through foods produced on the application
sites.
‘ / x
Albrecht, H., AhI, R., Strauch, 0. (1978). Rotating Aeration (System Fuchs)
Treatment of Liquid Animal and Municipal Wastes. 7. Report Further Invest /ga-
dons on the Effect of Aerobic Treatment on Bovine Entero viruses. BERL
MUNCH TIERAERZTL WSCHR, 91(18):360-5. German.
Seeded bovine enteroviruses (10’ to 108 PH i/mI) were inactivated in aerated
pig slurry at temperatures that precluded thermal inactivation. Inactivation oc-
curred in a pH range of 6.5 to 7.5. The pH of the slurry increased to 9 during aera-
tion. At pH 9, all of the seeded viruses were inactivated; the mean time needed for
inactivation was .5 hours.
Viruses enclosed in “Visking” dialysis tubing suspended in aerated slurry and
viruses suspended directly in the slurry were inactivated at about the same rate.
dO t
Baer, G. M.. Walker. J. A., Vager, P. A. (1977). Studies of an Outbreak otAcute
Hepatitis A:! Complement Level Fluctuation. J. MED VIROL, 1(1):1-7.
Fifty cases of hepatitis A, 26 with jaundice, occurred in a rural Alabama school
that obtained its drinking water from two small springs that received seepage from
septic tanks. The outbreak occurred in the fall of 1972.
An epidemiologic investigation strongly correlated the outbreak with drinking
water (p=0.047) but not with eating in the cafeteria (p=0.3 2 ). The outbreak was
explosive and lasted for seven weeks. It peaked in the third week. Heavy rainfalls
had occurred about 30 days before the onset of the outbreak, and evidence existed
that the drinking water was probably not chlorinated during this period. Un-
chlorinated spring waters contained coliforms.
The levels of the third and fourth components of complement (C’3 and C’4)
were reduced in the acute samples from the sick children but retumed to normal in
2
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the convalescent samples; the C’3 and C’4 levels in healthy matched controls
were not reduced.
Antigen-antibody complexes were found in convalescent sera from some of
the sick children.
V
Bagdasaryan, G. A., Zotova, V. I. (1978). Use of RNA-Containing Bacterio-
phages as Model of Intestinal Viruses in Experimental Studies. GIG SAN IT,
O(3):86-8. Russian.
In 30 minutes, 1.9 to 2.7 mg of chlorine/liter destroyed 99.5% of poliovirus 1
(LSc 2a,b), 97.5% of coliphage 2, 99% of coliphage MS2, and 98.4% of coIl-
phage f52, all RNA viruses, and 99.8% of coliphage Ti, a DNA virus.
V
Balluz, S. A.. Butler, M., Jones, H. H. (1978). The Behaviour of f2 Cofiphagein
Activated Sludge Treatment J HYG, 80(2):237-242.
Coliphage 2, seeded into a model activated sludge treatment plant, was
distributed in the solids and liquid fractions. of the mixed liquor in the ratio 18:82;
20.4% of the virus in the influent was recovered in the effluent. After seeding of
the virus ceased, the number of viruses in the solids fraction of the mixed liquor re-
mained high and unaltered for up to 70 hours, whereas the number of viruses in the
effluent fell to the background number originally present.
Comparisons of the data for coliphage f2 with those reported earlier for
polioviruses suggested that the coliphage is not a good model for studies of the
behavior of human enteroviruses.
Pitt
Baron, J. A., Liston, J., Monte, R. V. (1978). Incidence of Vibrio parahaemo-
Iyticus Bacteriophages and Other Vibrio Bacteriophages in Marine Samples. APPL
ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 36(3):492-9.
Vibrio bacteriophages were recovered from 177 of 643 samples of marine
molluscan shellfish, crustaceans, seawater, and sediments. The predominant
bacteriophage types recovered were specific for strains of Vibrio
parahaemolytlcus. A high frequency of phage recoveries occurred on agar-
digesting vibnios (21 of 56) and psychrophilic vibrios (14 of 72). No V. cholerae
phages were recovered.
Quantitative studies on the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) obtained from
environments in Washington and Oregon showed that the numbers of V.
parahaemolyticus bacteriophages increased with increasing seasonal water
temperatures and that this increase was proportional to the numbers of mesophilic
vibrios present and not to the numbers of V. parahaemolyticus. During the summer
months, the numbers of V. parahaemolyticus bacteriophages occasionally ex-
ceeded 10/gram of oysters.
Specific V. parahaemolyticus bacteriophages were also recovered from
market seafoods and from other marine samples that originated in cold
environments where mesophilic vibrios are not usually found.
V
Bates, R. C., Sutherland, S. M., Shaffer, P. T. B. Development of Resistant
Polio virus by Repetitive Sublethal Exposure to Chlorine. In “Water Chlorination,
Environmental Impact and Health Effects.” Vol.2, edited by R. L. Jolley, H.
Gorchev, and D. H. Hamilton, Jr. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann
Arbor, Michigan (19Th), 471-82.
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On continuous subculture in the presence of chlorine at pH levels of 5,7, and
9, poliovirus 1 (LSc) became progressively more resistant to the disinfectant. The
increased resistance was most marked after 10 subcultures of the virus in the
presence of chlorine at pH 9.
See in 1977 Literature Abstracts: Bates, R. C., Shaffer, P. t B.,
Sutherland, S. M. (1977). Development of Polio virus Having Increased
Resistance to Chlorine Inactivation. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 34(6):849-53.
V
Becker-Birck, J.. Steinmann, .J., Havemeister, G. (1978). Importance of
Chemical Flocculation of Wastewater on Sanitation (Microbiological and
Virological Examinations in a Wastewater Treatment Plant). ZBL BAKT HYG,
ORIG B, 167(1-21:10414. German.
In a small wastewater treatment plant, chemical flocculation reduced the total
plate count and the number of total coliforms by 90 to 95%, phosphates by about
%, 80D B by about 80%, and COD by about 50%. Polioviruses, always present
in the influent, were never recovered from the effluent.
‘it
Bedford, A. J., Williams, G., Bellamy, A. R. (1978). Virus Accumulation by the
Rock Oyster Crassostrea glomerata. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL,
36 (61:1012-18.
In a static seawater system, the accumulation of radioactively-labeled reovirus
3 and Semliki Forest virus by the New Zealand rock oyster Crassostrea glomerata
was less rapid than the accumulation of Escherichia coli. Uptake of the virus was
unaffected by the presence of the marine alga Dunaliella primolecta in the
seawater.
Accumulation depended on virus concentration; saturation was achieved at 4
x 1010 reovirus virions per oyster, implying that an oyster possesses a large but
finite number of sites for virus adsorption.
Uptake of the lipoprotein-enveloped Semliki Forest virus was slower than up-
take of the protein-enclosed reovirus. This observation, together with the finding
that the oyster shell has a strong affinity for viruses, suggests that surface proper-
ties are the principal factors that govern the accumulation of viruses by filter-
feeding marine bivalves.
Vt
Berg, G. The Indicator System. In “Indicators of Viruses in Water and Food,”
edited by G. Berg. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor,
Michigan (1978), 1-13.
There is no completely adequate indicator system for viruses in water. In
many circumstances, however, available indicator systems serve well for viruses
and pathogenic bacteria as well.
The total collforms are an invalid indicator system, but are useful nonetheless
because they constitute a much larger group than the fecal coliforms (which are a
valid indicator system) do and thereby add a measure of safety to evaluation. In a
disinf acted water, that margin of safety would be increased by an indicator system
that included other vegetative bacteria.
However, when vegetative indicator bacteria are absent from a water, it is not
certain that viruses are also absent. Thus, in the end, viruses may be the only
totally safe indicator of viruses.
4
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YaQ
Berg, G. Viruses in the Environment: Criteria for Risk In “Proceedings of the
Conference on Risk Assessment and Health Effects of Land Application of
Municipal Wastewater and Sludges” edited by B. P. Sagik and C. A.
Sorber. Center for Applied Research and Technology, University of Texas,
Sen Antonio, Texas (1978), 216-29.
Viruses occur in large quantities in domestic sludges. Stabilization by
mesophilic anaerobic digestion (rv35 C) as usually practiced does not destroy all
viruses in those sludges. When discharged to the land or oceans, these sludges
usually contain viruses. Because ammonia and other substances that interfere with
disinfection by chlorine are present in sewage, treated chlorinated effluents
discharged to waterways usually contain many viruses also.
Thus, viruses have been detected in ground waters and at water intakes in
rivers many miles downstream of outfalls. To demonstrate transmission of disease
by the water route is difficult, however, because the ingestion of a small number of
viruses by an individual is likely to result in infection but not disease. Thus, the ini-
tial impact of viruses that enter a community is silent. Contacts of the index case
may be infected subsequently by large quantities of excreted viruses and some of
these contacts may suffer disease. But, here transmission follows a person-to-
person pattern, and even if a disease outbreak occurs, its source is obscured and
unrecognizable.
When there is no easy way to demonstrate that transmission of infection or
disease is occurring, it is not acceptable to demand epidemiological proof of such
transmission before a chain of possible transmission is interrupted. To deny that
transmission may occur when viruses are present at water intakes, knowing as we
do that plants break down from time to time, is unrealistic.
• 1
Berg, G., Dahling, 0. R., Brown, G. A., Berman, D. (1978). Validity of Fecal
CoNforms, Total C’oliforms, and Fecal Streptococci as Indicators of Viruses in
Chlorinated Primary Sewage Effluents. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL,
36(6) :880-4.
Quantities of combined chlorine that usually destroyed more than 99.999% of
the indigenous fecal coliforms, total coliforms, and fecal streptococci in primary
sewage effluents destroyed only 85 to 99% of the indigenous viruses present.
Viruses were recovered from five of eight chlorinated primary effluents from which
fecal coliforms were not recovered by standard most-probable-number pro-
cedures. The limited volumes of such chlorinated effluents that can be tested for
indicator bacteria with currently available multiple-tube and membrane filter
technics restrict the value of fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci, and even total coli-
forms as indicators of viruses in these effluents. Although fecal coliforms and fecal
streptococci are useful indicators of viruses in effluents from which these bacteria
are recovered, the absence of these bacteria and even total coliforms from
disinfected effluents (in standard tests) does not assure that viruses are also
absent.
Berg. 6., Metcalf, 1. G Indicators of Viruses in Waters. In “Indicators of
Viruses in Water and Food,” edited by G. Berg. Ann Arbor Science
Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan (1978), 267-96.
Fecal coliforms and other enteric bacteria are excreted by most people in fairly
uniform numbers; only infected people excrete viruses and in numbers that vary
greatly. Also, viral infection rates vary with seasons, climates, socioeconomic
5
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status of populations, and other factors. The ratios of indicator bacteria to viruses
in environmental waters, therefore, cannot be constant. Moreover, viruses usually
survive longer in environmental waters and are more resistant to disinfection than
indicator bacteria.
Thus, the presence of fecal coliforrns, fecal streptococci, and certain other in-
dicator bacteria in an environmental water may be taken as an indication of the
possible presence of human enteric viruses. The absence of these indicator
bacteria, in standard tests, however, cannot be taken to mean that viruses are
absent .
Nonetheless, because indicator bacteria are present in feces (and thereby in
environmental waters that receive feces) in much larger numbers than viruses are,
the development of methods that would permit detection of indicator bacteria in
the hectoliter and kiloliter sample volumes now taken for viruses might eventually
obviate the current concern for the validity of bacterial indicator systems.
A
Bernardez, I., Toranzo, A. E.. More, B., BaTja, J. L. (1977). Entero virus Iso/a-
don Galidan Littoral Water: Concentration Methods. REV INT OCEANOGR
MED. 48:77-31.
Samples of water taken from both sides of the Bay of Pontevedra were con-
centrated by an alum flocculation method, (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 precipitation, and by adsorp-
tion and elution of the virus to and from an organic compound followed by alum
flocculation. The latter method gave the best overall recoveries.
The best specific method for recovering coxsackievirus B was the (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4
procedure.
Berry, J. W., Shaffer. P. t B. (1978). Viruses: Monitoring is the Key. WATER 8
WASTES ENGR. 15(1):14-17.
The authors discuss current methods for recovering viruses from large
volumes of water and the application of these methods to studies on the Occoquan
Reservoir in Fairfax, Va. where reports of the recoveries of viruses from the fin-
ished waters have given rise to a continuing dispute.
V
Bitton. G., Monteith, C.. Pancorbo, 0., Gifford, G. E. (1977). Virus Removal
in Marine Aquaculture Systems. REV INT OCEANOGR MED. 48:47-52.
About 99% of poliovirus 1 ILSc) seeded into seawater that contained from 0
to 40% sewage was removed by magnetic filtration. The viruses adsorbed to
magnetite that had been added to the water. The concentration of magnetite was
1,000 mg/liter. The magnetite was recovered from the water by a magnetic field.
Treated waters supported the growth of marine diatoms and appeared
suitable for use in aquacultures.
VQ
Block, 3. C.. Joret. J. C.. Morlot, M.. Foliguet. J. M. (1978). Persistence of
Polio virus 1 During the Freezing- Thawing of Hydroxide Sludges from a Water
Treatment Plant Under Laboratory Conditions. EUROPEAN J APPL MICROBIOL
BIOTECHNOL 5:331-40.
Dewatering terric hydroxide sludges from water treatment plants by freezing
and thawing may be a solution to disposing of such sludges. With the loss of
hydrated water and the resulting extensive modification of the flocs, the risk of
desorption of viral particles decreases. Moreover, when sludges are thickened
6
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(solids concentrations up to 20 g/liter), the number of freeze-thaw cycles
necessary for inactivating viruses is reduced from five to three.
Residues from lagooned sludges and from sludges treated by one cycle of in-
dustrial freezing may still contain viruses.
Block, J.-C., Joret, J.-C., Morlot, M., Foliguet, J.-M. (1978). Recovery of
Entero viruses in Surface Waters by Adsorption-Elution on Glass Microfibers.
TSM-L’EAU, 73(3):181-4. French.
With a Wallis and Melnick concentrator, 40 PFU of viruses/liter were
recovered from the Mama River at its confluence with the Seine, 48 PFU/liter were
recovered from the Moselle River at its confluence with the Meurthe, 56 PFU/liter
were recovered from the Rhine River at Strasbourg, and 120 PFU/liter were
recovered from the Seine River at it confluence with the Marne.
Twenty-liter volumes of water were sampled. The pH of the water was ad-
justed to 3.5 and Al Cl 3 was added to a concentration of 0.0005 M before the
water was filtered through the concentrator. The clarifying filters were
polyethylene; the virus-adsorbing filters were fiberglass. The viruses were eluted
from the filters with either 3% beef extract at pH 9 or with a glycine buffer at pH
11.5.
4Q
Braude, G.. Sagik, B. P., Sorber, C. A. (1978). Human Health Risk? Using
Sludge for Crops. WATER & SEW WORKS. 125(1 2):62-4.
The hazards to human health presented by viruses in wastewater sludges
discharged to agricultural lands or to mariculture systems are discussed within a
review of all health hazards posed by such use of sewage treatment wastes.
(0
Brown, K. W., Slowey, J. F., Wolf, H. W. The Movement of Salts, Nutrients,
Focal Coliform and Virus Below Septic Leach Fields in Three Soils. In “Pro-
ceedings of National Home Sewage Treatment Symposium,” December
12-13, 1977, Chicago. Illinois, ASAE Publication 5-77. ASAE, St. Joseph,
Michigan (1978), 208-17.
Lysimeter tests on the impact of septic field leachate on groundwater in-
dicated that coliphages and fecal coliforms were removed by passage through
approximately 100 cm of soil. Heavy metals accumulated immediately adjacent to
the point of application in the soil. Phosphates moved slowly in the soil; their
movement was greatest in sandy soils. Under reduced conditions, ammonia
accumulated in the soils and moved about as far and as fast as phosphates moved.
When soil oxidized, large quantities of nitrogen were converted to nitrate which
rapidly leached to the groundwater.
Nitrate leachate is the greatest environmental hazard identified in this study.
Nitrate accumulation may be reduced by limiting the number of septic fields in a
given area, removing nitrogen from the effluent before it is applied, or perhaps by
using vegetation to help remove nitrogen after application.
Ac
Surge, W. D., Enkiri, N. K- (1978). Adsorption Kinetics of Bacteriophage
tX-i 74 on Soil J ENVIRON QUAL, 7(4):536-41
Two populations were distinguished within a seed preparation of coliphage
•X-174 by soil adsorption and elution rate differentials.
7
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NaCI promoted adsorption of the phage to soil. The optimal NaCI concentra-
tion for this purpose was 0.02 N I.
Forty-six percent of adsorbed viruses were desorbed by diluting the soil 1:100
in 0.02 M NaCI.
a
Camann, D. E., Sorber, C. A., Sagik, B. P., Glennon, J. P., Johnson, D. E. A
Model for Predicting Pathogen Concentrations in Wastewater Aerosols. In “Pro-
ceedings of the Conference on Risk Assessment and Health Effects of
Land Application of Municipal Wastewater and Sludges,” edited by B. P.
Sagik and C. A. Sorber. Center for Applied Research and Technology,
University of Texas, San Antonio, Texas (1978), 240-71.
A dispersion model that predicts the dissemination of microflora downwind
of sprayed wastewater has been developed that is believed to be a feasible means
for estimating the level of human exposure to pathogens aerosolized by spray
irrigation.
yt
Carlson, S., Hasselbarth, U., Sohn, F. W. (1976). Studies on Virus inactivation
by Chlorine During Water Disinfection. ZBL BAKT HYG, ORIG B, 162:320-9.
German.
In chlorinated waters, oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) was a better in-
dicator of virus inactivation than measurements of free chlorine.
Higher ORP values and longer periods of contact were needed for inactivating
viruses than for inactivating bacteria.
To insure the inactivation of polioviruses in water that contained organic mat-
ter, an QRP of + 750 my (equivalent to about 0.3-0.6 mg of free chlorine/liter)
must be maintained for 15 to 30 minutes.
Adenoviruses were about as resistant to inactivation as polioviruses.
V a
Chaudhuri, M., Koya, K. V. A., Sriramulu, N. (19Th. Some Notes on Virus
Retention by Sand J GEN APPL MICROBIOL, 23(6 1:337-44.
Both rate of sorption to sand and sorptive capacity of coliphage MS2 de-
creased with increased system pH in the range of 6.0-8.4. However, the greatest
quantity of sorption of viruses occurred at a pH of 7.8 with a natura) ground water
high in calcium and magnesium. Percolation or rapid filtration through sand
removed the coliphage from water.
Viruses were not immobilized or inactivated by retention in sand or by removal
by sand.
Cliver, D. 0., Salo, R. J. Indicators of Viruses in Foods Preserved by Heat In
“Indicators of Viruses in Water and Food,” edited by G. Berg. Ann Arbor
Science Publishers, Inc.. Ann Arbor, Michigan (1978), 3 -54.
Conditions that affect the destruction of viruses in water by heat are briefly
described within a discussion of indicators of viruses in foods preserved by heat.
8
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Cook, B. Using Iodine to Disinfect Water Supplies. In “Individual Onsite
Wastewater Systems,” Proceedings of the Fourth National Conference,
1977, edited by N. I. McCleiland. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann
Arbor, Michigan (1978), 217-26.
The effect upon health of prolonged use of iodine as a water disinfectant is ex-
tensively reviewed and discussed.
yt
Cottet, J. (1976). The Disinfection of Drinking Waters and Sewage by UV Rays.
L’EAU PURE, 39(3-4):20. French.
This paper was fisted in the 1977 edition of these abstracts. A translation was
not then available.
Attenuated polioviruses I and 3, seeded at a concentration of 1 ,000 infective
units/mi into turbid Seine River water, were destroyed by irradiation with UV light
at a wavelength of 253.7 nm. All fecal indicator bacteria were also destroyed.
In spring and river waters, turbidity did not greatly reduce the effectiveness of
UV irradiation, but organics dissolved in such waters did. Vibrio cholera, seeded
into Seine River water at a concentration of 1O organisms/mi, were all destroyed
by the UV irradiation.
Such irradiation also destroyed 99.9% of bacteria in activated sludge effluent.
7 1
Cronier, S., Scarpino, P. V., Zink, M. 1. Chlorine Dioxide Destruction of Vfruses
and Bacteria in Water. In “Water Chlorination, Environmental Impact and
Health Effects,” Vol. 2, edited by R. L. Jolley, H. Gorchev, and D. H.
Hamilton, Jr. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
(1978), 651-8.
Chlorine dioxide is a better disinfectant than chlorine at the pH levels of most
drinking waters.
Several enteroviruses and other viruses are more resistant to disinfecrants
than the fecal indicator Escherichia coli.
E. coli may be an inadequate indicator of disinfection.
Mo
Derbyshire, J. B., Brown, E. G. (1978). Isolation of Animal Viruses from Farm
Livestock Waste, Soil and Water. J HYG, 81(2):295-302.
Ten porcine enteroviruses, two porcine adenoviruses, and one coronavirus
were recovered by direct inoculation from 32 samples of slurry collected from a pig
fattening house. Concentration of the same samples by adsorption on the
polyelectrolyte PE6O yielded 24 porcine enteroviruses and three porcine
adenoviruses. By concentration on PE6O, porcine enteroviruses were recovered
from one of six slurry samples from a sow farrowing house. Viruses were not
recovered from 12 samples of slurry from dairy cows or from six samples of slurry
from a calf-rearing unit.
A porcine enterovirus was recovered on PE6O from soil samples collected one,
two, and eight days after pig slurry had been spread on the soil, and two bovine
enteroviruses were recovered from cattle feedlot run-off by adsorbing the viruses
to layers of talc and celite and hydroextracting.
A porcine enterovirus was also recovered from one of 33 samples of surface
waters collected on farms on which pig slurry was routinely spread on the land, but
9
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no viruses were recovered from 36 samples of ground waters from the same farms.
The surface water and ground water samples were concentrated by talc-celite
adsorption and hydroextraction.
Drapeau, A. J., Paquin, G. (1977). Destruction of Bacteria and Viruses by
Ozone. Part 1: History. EAU DU QUEBEC, 1O(1):34-6. French.
The destruction of bacteria and the destruction of viruses by ozone are
reviewed.
Drapeau, A. J., Paquin, G. (1977). Destruction of Bacteria and Viruses by
Ozone. Part 3: Virucidal Effect EAU DU QUEBEC, 1O(3):210-14.
The destruction of bacteria and the destruction of viruses by ozone are
reviewed.
jA
Edmond, T. D., Schaiberger, G. E., Gerba, c. p. (1978). Detection of
Enteroviruses Near Deep Marine Sewage Outfalls. MARINE POLLUT BULL,
9(9) :246-9.
Approximately 160 million gallons (608,000 m 3 ) of municipal sewage are
discharged daily into the waters off the southeastern coast of Florida. With mem-
brane filter adsorption technics, 21 to 42 PFU of viruses were recovered from
400-liter quantities of water in the vicinity of a deep marine outfall that discharged
raw sewage, and 0 to 3 PFU of viruses were recovered from 400-liter quantities of
water in the vicinity of two deep outfalls that discharged chlorinated secondary
effluent.
About 10’ fecal coliforms/100 ml of water were recovered consistently near
the outfall that discharged raw sewage, but only 0 to 6 fecal coliforms/ 100 ml were
recovered near the other two outfalls. Total coliform counts were a little higher
than fecal coliform counts at all of the outfalls. The counts of fecal streptococci
were about one log lower than the counts of fecal coliforms near the outfall that
discharged raw sewage, but more than one log higher at the other two outi ails.
T I
Englebrecht, R. S., Greening, E. 0. Chlorine-Resistant Indicators. In “In-
dicators of Viruses in Water and Food,” edited by G. Berg. Ann Arbor
Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan (1978), 243-65.
The usefulness of coliforms as indicators of viruses in disinfected wastewater
effluents is questionable.
A yeast (Candida parapsilosis) and two acid-fast bacteria (Mycobacterium
fortuitum and Mycobacterium phlei), recovered from chlorinated secondary
wastewater effluents, were more resistant to chlorination than most bacteria.
These organisms grew readily on well-defined media.
A mixed collection of yeasts or of acid-fast bacilli, naturally occurring in
wastewaters, may be a valid indicator of viruses in disinfected effluents.
T I
Evison, L. M. (1978). Inactivation of Enteroviruses and Coliphages with Ozone in
Waters and Waste WSters. PROG WATER TECHNOL 1O(1-2):365-74.
At C, 99% of coxsackie.irus 83 and poliovirus 3 were destroyed at pH 7 in
about 10 minutes by 0.1 my of ozone/liter. Coxsackievirus 83 and poliovirus 3
10
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were more resistant to ozone than several other enteroviruses. A coliphage was
less resistant. Escherichia co/i was far less resistant than any of the viruses.
Organic and inorganic chemicals and waste water effluents exerted an ozone
demand.
A
Farrah, S. R., Bitton, C. (1978). Elution of Poliovirus Adsorbed to Membrane
Filters. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 36(6):982-4.
Elution of poliovirus 1 (LSc), adsorbed to membrane filters from 40 ml of tap
water seeded with 10 PFU of virus/mi, was best achieved with neutral and basic
acids; acidic amino acids and organic acids were poor elutants.
The highest elution (93%) was achieved with 3% casein in 0.35 M Nat A 3%
solution of beef extract with or without the Na eluted about 76% of the virus
from the filters.
V a
Farrah, S. R., Goyal. S. M., Gerba. C. P.. Conklin, R. H., Smith, E. M.
(19Th). Comparison Between Adsorption of Pollovirus and Rota virus by Aluminum
Hydroxide and Activated Sludge Floes. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL.
35(2):360-3.
Aluminum hydroxide flocs removed 99.9% of the poliovirus 1 (LSc) that had
been seeded into tap water, but only 90% or less of a simian rotavirus (SA-1 1) that
had been similarly seeded. The flocs did not remove a significant number of human
rotavirus virions from a diluted stool suspension.
Activated sludge flocs removed from 50 to 99.6% of the poliovirus and 30 to
40% of the SA-1 1 virus from seeded tap water.
These studies indicate that a basic difference exists in the adsorptive behavior
of enteroviruses and rotaviruses and that water and wastewater treatment proc-
esses that remove enteroviruses effectively may not effectively remove other
groups of viruses.
Ao
Farrah, S. R., Goyal, S. M., Gerba, C. P., Conklin, R. H., Wallis, C.,
Melnick, J. L., DuPont, H. 1. (1978). A Simple Method for Concentration of
Entero viruses and Rotavfruses from Cell Culture Harvests Using Membrane Filters.
INTERVIROL, 9(1):56-9.
Membrane-coating organic compounds in cell culture harvests prevented ad-
sorption of enteroviruses and rotavirus SA-1 1 to membrane filters. These com-
pounds could be removed with fluorocarbon. Enteroviruses and SA-1 1 in
fluorocarbon-treated, acidified (pH 3.5) harvests adsorbed to epoxy-fiberglass
filters.
At pH 9, tryptose phosphate broth eluted these viruses. At this same pH, 0.05
M glycine eluted only 52% of the adsorbed viruses. At pH 8, 10, and 11, few of the
rotaviruses were recovered with 0.05 M glycine.
At pH 10, more than 90% of adsorbed poliovirus 1 (LSc), coxsackievirus B3,
and echovirus 1 were eluted with 0.05 M glycine buffer.
A
Farrati, S. R., Goyal, S. M., Gerba, C. P., WaIlis, C., Melnick, J. L. (1978).
Concentration of Polio virus from Tap Water onto Membrane Filters with
Aluminum Chloride at Ambient pH Levels. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL.
Z(3) :6246.
11
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Seeded poliovirus 1 (LSc) was removed by membrane filters more effectively
from tap waters to which AICI 3 had been added (final concentration 0.00002 M)
than from tap waters that did not contain Aid 3 . Water became slightly turbid and
slightly more acidic (0.5 pH unit) upon the addition of the salt. The virus was
recovered from the membranes quantitatively by treating the membranes with a
basic buffer.To reconcentrate it into a smaller volume of elutant, the virus was ad-
sorbed onto aluminum hydroxide flocs and eluted.
With these procedures, polioviruses in 1,000 liters of water were concentrated
into a final eluate of 20 to 80 ml. The mean recovery of the virus was 70%.
I
Floyd, R., Sharp, D. G. (1978). Viral Aggregation: Effects of Salts on the Ag-
gregation of Poliovirus and Reo virus at Low pH. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL,
35(61:1084-94.
The aggregation of poliovirus 1 (Mahoney) and reovirus 3 (Dearing) in solu-
tions of monovalent, divalent, and trivalent cations, and monovalent and divalent
anions was compared to the aggregation of those viruses at low pH alone. The
numbers of virions in the test suspensions ranged from 0.5 x 10° to 1.0 x 10°/mI.
Monovalent and divalent cations in concentrations that occur in natural
waters generally decreased aggregation; divalent cations were more effective than
monovalent cations. Trivalent cations in micromolar concentrations increased
aggregation of virions. Anions, monovalent or divalent, did not prevent viral
aggregation.
Although the activity of virions generally conforms to classical colloid theory,
aggregation (when it occurs) must be taken into account in the design of
experiments.
I
Floyd, R., Sharp, D. G. (1978). Viral Aggregation: Quantitation and Kinetics of
the Aggregation of Poliovirus and Reovirus. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL,
35(61:1079-83.
The aggregation of poliovirus 1 (Mahoney) and reovirus 3 (Dewing) were
determined in buffers at various pH values by means of a single particle analysis
(SPA) test. The SPA test used was modified from the original test reported earlier
to prevent a disaggregation of virus clumps that might invalidate the results.
The modified SPA test demonstrated that the efficiency of aggregation,
which is a measure of the percentage of collisions effective in producing an
aggregate, may vary widely depending on the conditions in which the virus is
The modified SPA test was also used to demonstrate that the kinetic features
of viral aggregation follow the classical laws of colloid particle aggregation which
in tum depend solely upon diffusion of particles by Brownian motion.
V
Floyd, R., Sharp, D. G., Johnson, J. D. (1978). lnacdvation of Single Po/iovirus
Particles in Water by Hypobromite Ion, Molecular Bromine, Dibromamine, and
Tribroniamine. ENVIRON SCI & TECHNOL . 12(9):1031-5.
In a dynamic flowing system of buffered water, Br 2 and NBr 3 inactivated
single particles of poliovirus 1 (Mahoney) in a manner consistent with first order
kinetics. Hypobromite ion (Oar) and NHBr 2 did not, even though more than 98%
of the virions were dispersed as single particles. Aggregation of virions therefore
could not be the factor responsible for the nonlinear inactivation kinetics. All forms
12
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of free bromine and NBr 3 inactivated poliovirus more rapidly than equimolar con-
centrations of HO d.
At a concentration of 10 MM, the initial inactivation rate for OBr, the linear in-
activation rates for Br 2 , NBr 3 , and HOBr (taken from previously published data),
and the initial inactivation rate for NHBr 2 were 3.85, 1.55, 0.15, 0.16, and 0.013
log 10 /s, respectively.
A
Fournier, J.-G., Rousset, S., Bouteille, M. (1978). Application of Immuno-
Electron Microscopy to the Detection of Virus in Water. C R ACAD SCI (PARIS),
286:1637-9. French.
Adenoviruses seeded into demineralized and deionized waters were detected
five days later by immunoelectronmicroscopy. Quantitation was limited by the
heterogeneous dispersion of the particles on the grids.
YMVX
Fujioka, R. S., Loh, P. C. (1978). Recycling of Water for Irrigation: Persistence of
Enteroviruses in Sewage Effluent and Natural Waters Receiving the Effluent.
WATER AIR SOIL POLLUT, 9(2):213-26.
Viruses were recovered from all of 11 raw sewage samples taken from a
sewage treatment plant that provided chlorinated, activated sludge effluent for
irrigating a two-year crop of sugarcane. The numbers of viruses recovered ranged
from 27 to 19,000 PFU/liter. Fifty-eight percent of 53 chlorinated, activated sludge
samples contained viruses in numbers that ranged from 2 to 750 PFU/Iiter.
Human enteroviruses were recovered from shallow flowing streams at
distances up to 3 miles (5 km) from the closest sewage discharge entering a har-
bor. The viruses most often recovered were echovirus 7, coxsackieviruses B4 and
B5, and polioviruses 1, 2, and 3.
Although activated sludge treatment followed by chlorination removed or
destroyed about 90% of the viruses in raw sewage, the final effluent discharged
into a stream used to irrigate sugarcane still contained a large number of viruses.
Moreover, the recovery of enteroviruses from waterways at points distant from the
sewage treatment plant indicated that sewage—borne viruses persisted in the
natural water environment.
M
Furuse, K., Sakurai, T., Hirashima, A., Katsuki, M., Ando, A., Watanabe, I.
(1978). Distribution of Ribonucleic Acid Cofiphages in South and East Asia. APPL
ENVIRON MICROBIOL 35(6):995-1002.
Fifty of 221 raw sewage samples collected in the Philippines, Singapore, In-
donesia, India, and Thailand in November 1976 contained RNA phages (52 strains).
By serological analysis, 46 of the 52 strains belonged to phage group Ill. Thus, the
most prevalent RNA phages in the Philippines, Singapore, and Indonesia were
group Ill phages.
The most prevalent RNA phages in the sewage of mainland Japan (north of
Kyushu) were group II phages. Group Ill phages predominated in the southern part
of Japan, south of Aniamiohshima Island.
A line appears to exist between Kyushu and Amamiohshima Island in the
geographical distribution of RNA coliphages in the sewage of South and East Asia.
One strain of phage (1D2) was partially inactivated by the antisera of four groups of
RNA phages, a finding that may have evolutionary significance,
13
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Gartner, H. (1978). Problems in Ecology and Hygiene of Coastal Waters (as Ex-
emplified by the Baltic SeaL ZOL BAKT HYG . ORIG B, 166(2-3):222-43.
German.
Within a description of ecological and sanitary problems in coastal waters,
especially on the Baltic Sea, bacterial indicators of viruses are discussed.
P
Gaudin, O.-G., Meley, B.. Chomel, J.-J., Viac, J. (1976). Recove,y of Viruses
fmm River Water from an Urban District (Saint-Etienne). REV EPIDEMIOL
SANTE PUBL, 24(5):423-36. French.
In a survey from March, 1972 to February, 1973, 147 enterovirus strains were
recovered from 54 samples of water collected from the Furan River below St.
Etienne. Forty-four percent were polioviruses; virulent and attenuated strains of
polioviruses 2 and 3 sometimes were recovered simultaneously. Only virulent
strains of poliovirus 1 were recovered.
The numbers of enteroviruses recovered remained constant throughout the
year. The numbers of coliphages recovered varied considerably from season to
season, increasing notably in summer.
A
Gerba, C. P., Farrab, S. ft. Goyal, S. M., WaDis, C., Melriick, J. 1. (1978).
Concentration of Entem viruses from Large Volumes of Tap Water, Treated
Sewage, and Seawater. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 35(31:540.8.
Poliovirus I (LSc) seeded into waters in concentrations of about 3 to 1,000
flU/liter were adsorbed to a 10-inch (ca. 25.4 cm) fiberglass depth cartridge filter
and to a 10-inch pleated epoxy-fiberglass fitter in series at flow rates up to 37.8
liters (10 gallons)/minute. The waters had been acidified to pH 3.5 and AIC had
been added to a final concentration of 0.0005 M before filtration. Adsorbed viruses
were eluted from the filters with glycine buffer (pH 10.5 to 11.5), and the eluates
were reconcentrated by aluminum flocculation and then by hydroextraction.
Wrth this procedure, polioviruses in large volumes of tap water, seawater, and
sewage effluent were concentrated with an average efficiency of 52, 53, and 50%,
respectively. This method detected surface solids-associated viruses that origi-
nated from sewage treatment plants.
When done on a batch basis or with an acid-salt injection technic, no dif-
ferences in the recovery of viruses occurred.
This unified scheme for concentrating viruses permits high operating flow
rates in an apparatus of low weight and small size.
OAtnx
Gerba, C. P., Goyal, S. M. (1978). Detection and Occurrence of Enter/c Viruses
in Shelifish: A Review J FOOD PROT, 41(91:743-54.
During feeding, bivalve mollusks (oysters, mussels, and clams) accumulate
human enteric viruses from sewage-polluted seawater.
Hepatitis A virus is transmitted by consumption of raw or inadequately cooked
shellfish. Because of lack of epidemiologic technics, transmission of other enteric
viruses by shellfish has not been established; but, polioviruses, echoviruses, àox-
sackievinjses, and reoviruses have been recovered from shellfish.
Enteroviruses have been recovered from shellfish harvested from both ap-
proved and non-approved shellfish-growing waters. Enteric viruses survive for
long periods in seawaterand in shellfish.
14
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Recent advances in methodology have led to development of more rapid and
less expensive methods for detecting enteric viruses in shellfish.
W a
Gerba, C. P., Lance, J. C. (1978). Poliovirus Removal from Primary and Secon-
dary Sewage Effluent by Soil Filtration. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL,
36(2):247-51.
Poliovirus 1 (LSc) seeded into primary and secondary effluents adsorbed to an
equal degree in batches of soil and in columns of soil 240 cm long. The extent of
desorption of viruses from soil columns flooded with either virus-seeded primary or
virus-seeded secondary effluents was similar.
These results indicated that adsorption of poliovirus 1 from effluents and
movement of this virus through soils were not affected by the different quantities
of organics in primary and secondary sewage effluents.
Apt
Gerba, C. P., Stagg, C. H., Abadie, M. G. (1978). Characterization of Sewage
Solid-Associated Viruses and Behavior in Natural Waters. WATER RES,
12(10) :805-12.
Solids-associated viruses in activated sludge and trickling filter effluents were
collected on membrane filters that had been treated with fetal calf serum to pre-
vent adsorption of freely suspended viruses and the viruses were eluted with pH
11.5, 0.05 M glycine buffer. The percentages of coliphages and animal viruses
(recovered in BGM cells) in secondary sewage effluents associated with the solids
ranged from <1.0 to 24% and 3 to 100%, respectively.
The largest quantities of solids-associated coliphages were attached to par-
ticles greater than 8.0 pm and less than 0.66 tzm in size. Tap water, lake water, and
estuarine water all eluted solids-associated coliphages. Elution of coliphages by
marine waters appeared to be related to the salinity of the water. Coliphages eluted
from sewage solids in seawater readsorbed to naturally occurring marine
sediments.
AQT
Glass, J. S., Van Sluis, R. J., Yanko, W. A. (1978). Practical Method for Detect-
ing Poiovirus in Anaerobic Digester Sludge. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL,
35(5) :983-5.
Under sonication, 3% beef extract at its natural pH eluted about 47% of
poliovirus 1 (CHAT) from sewage treatment plant solids. The solids had adsorbed
the virus from deionized water seeded at a level of 10’ PFU/ml. Organic floccula-
tion applied to such eluates recovered 60 to 65% of the viruses in the eluate.
Applied to dewatered composted solids, to undigested and anaerobically
digested liquid sludges, and to dewatered digested sludges, the method yielded
viruses from all 25 samples tested.
(3tpur
Goyal, S. A., Gerba, C. P., Melnick, J. 1. (1978). Prevalence of Human Enteric
Viruses in Coastal Canal Communities. J WATER POLLIJT CONTROL FED,
50(10):2247-56.
From I to 246 PFU of viruses were recovered from 400 liter-quantities of
recreational coastal waters that received secondary sewage effluents. Those
waters usually met bacteriological standards for recreational waters and shellfish
harvesting.
15
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The concentrations of viruses in the waters correlated well with presumptive
total coliform MPN counts in the sediments. The physico-chemical characteristics
of the waters (except possibly pH) did not correlate with the recoveries of viruses.
Poliovirus 1 was recovered in greatest numbers. Echoviruses 1, 5, 14, and 19,
and coxsackievirus 86 were also recovered.
óiv$co
Grabow, W. 0. K. South African Experience on Indicator Bacteria, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, and R Coliforms in Water Quality ControL In “Bacterial lndicators/
Health Hazards Associated With Water,” ASTM STP 635, edited by A. W.
Hoadley and B. J. Dutka. American Society for Testing and Materials
(1977), 168-81.
In South Africa, drinking waters from conventional sources and from re-
claimed wastewater that were free of coliforms rarely contained Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, fecal streptococci, Clostridium perfringens, Staphylococcus aureus,
enteric viruses, or parasite ova. P. aeruginosa was occasionally recovered from
waters from which no coliforms were recovered. P. aeruginosa should be included
in some routine quality tests.
Epidemiological studies on an isolated community indicated that water which
conforms to the criteria of 0 coliforms and 0 P. aeruginosal 100 ml, a standard plate
count of less than 100/mI, and 0 detectable enteric viruses/lO liters, will not
transmit microbial diseases. The study included periods when drinking waters ob-
tained by conventional methods were supplemented with supplies reclaimed from
wastewater.
Hospital and city sewage, as well as a river and a reservoir polluted with
secondary sewage effluent, contained large numbers of coliforms with transferable
(R factor) resistance to one or more of five common antimicrobial drugs. The sur-
vival of R + coliforms and the transfer of resistance during treatment of sewage and
in polluted waters indicated that advanced treatment of wastewaters will be
necessary to protect water resources from these organisms. Specifications that
limit R + bacteria should be included in water quality standards.
tft+
Grabow, W. 0. K. , Bateman, B. W., Burger, J. S. (1978). Microbiological
Quality Indicators for Routine Monitoring of Wastewater Reclamation Systems.
PROG WATER TECHNOL, 1O(5-6):317-27.
In South Africa, enteric viruses were not detected in two-phase polymer
separation or in ultrafiltration concentrates of 286 samples that comprised a total
volume of 1,788 liters of reclaimed water from the Wlndhoek plant or of 461
samples that comprised a total volume of 4,610 liters of reclaimed water from the
Stander plant.
About 54 times more Escherichia coil 8 phages than enteric viruses were
recovered from the raw waters of the Stander plant. Such phages were also
detected by direct titration of samples from advanced treatment unit processes
that did not yield enteric viruses from 10-liter volumes of water.
The microbiological standards used for routine monitoring of the reclamation
plants were: total bacterial plate count, 100/m I; total coliforrns, 0/ 100 ml; enteric
viruses, 0/10 liters, and coliphages 0/10 ml. Theplate count proved a highly sen-
sitive indicator of microbiological pollution, and the coliphage test a rapid,
economical, and simple method for screening removal of viruses. Over a period of
more than seven years, the microbiological quality of reclaimed water was
equivalent to or better than that of the best conventional supplies.
16
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L I ,
Grabow, W. 0. K., Middendorif, I. G., Basson, N. C. (1978). Role of Lime
Treatment in the Removal of Bacteria, Enteric Viruses, and Coliphages in a
Wastewater Reclamation Plant APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 35(4):663-9.
At pH 11.2, lime flocculation and sedimentation, the first unit process of a
4,500-m 3 lday wastewater reclamation plant, reduced the numbers of
microorganisms extensively. The efficiency of removal was much less at lower pH
values, and some bacteria multiplied at pH 9.6.
Reductions in the numbers of enteric viruses were greater than reductions in
the numbers of coliphages, enterococci, coliforms, and total numbers of bacteria,
which indicated that the effectiveness of lime treatment in removing viruses could
be monitored with coliphage and conventional bacteriological tests.
High pH lime treatment can contribute significantly in the multiple barrier con-
cept in sanitary microbiology.
t at
Grigoryeva, 1. V., Korchak, G. I., Ponomareva, 1. V. (1976). Detection of
Bdellovibrios and Bacteriophages in the Sea Water Near the Shore. ZH
MIKROBIOL EPIDEMIOL IMMUNOBIOL, (1O):41-4. Russian.
At contaminated sea shore sites, bdellovibrios were recovered from 73 to
100% of samples; bacteriophage were recovered from 75 to 83% of the samples.
Some correlation existed among the bdellovibrio, bacteriophage, and coliform
titers.
In the waters of less polluted shore regions, bdellovibrios were recovered from
15%, and bacteriophages from 21% of the samples.
There was no correlation between the numbers of coliforms and bdellovibrios
in the waters off the shore area. Intestinal bacteriophages were a better indicator
of pollution than the bdellovibrios.
I
Hacker, D. S., Lockowitz, T. Use of Ozone in the Disinfection of Coliphage T-7
Virus. in “Water—lVS: I. Physical, Chemical Wastewater Treatment.”
AIChE Symposium Series No. 166, Vol. 73, edited by G. F. Bennett.
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York, New York (1977),
242-51.
Coliphage Ti was inactivated by ozone (03) in what appeared to be a two
phase reaction. The first phase, identified with saturation of the solution by the
disinfectant, was one in which mass transfer predominated; the second phase was
kinetically a first-order reaction.
The reaction rate depended also on the viscosity and on the impurities in the
media.
“a
Hattingh, W. H. J. (1977). Reclaimed Water: A Health Hazard? WATER SA,
3(2 1:104-112 ,
Within a detailed discussion of the quality of drinking waters in the Windhoek
and Pretoria areas, raw water enterovirus levels of about 24,000 TClD /liter at the
Stander water reclamation plant were reported reduced to 0/liter by treatment.
Fecal coliform levels were reduced from about 600,000 CFU/100 ml to 0 CFU/100
ml and total coliform levels from about 1,300,000 CFU/100 ml toO CF1J/100 ml; the
numbers of other indicators were reduced by similar magnitudes.
17
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Settled sewage at Windhoek contained about 56,000 TCIDW of entero-
viruses/liter; maturation plant effluents there contained only about 100 TClD of
enteroviruses/liter. The raw sewage contained about 2 x 101 CFU of fecal col-
iforms/l00 ml. Maturation pond effluents contained only 80 CFU of fecal col-
iforms/ 100 ml.
In the Pretoria sewage treatment plant, the enterovinis level in the settled
sewage was about 5,000 TClD ,/liter, and the fecal coliforrn level was about
7,000,000 CFU/liter.
Hetrick, F. M. (1978). Survival of Human Pathogenic Viruses in Estuarine and
Marine Waters. ASM NEWS, 44(6):300-3.
The occurrence and survival of viruses in estuarine and marine waters are ex-
tensively reviewed.
I
Hughes, M. B . ., PUssier, M., Torres, M. J.-P. (1977). Djsinfection of
Wastewater by an Oxygen-Ozone Mixture. L’EAU & L’IND, 20(11):67-72.
In pilot plant studies in which tertiary wastewater effluents had been flocced
with Fe , Ca , and a polyelectrolyte, 0.5 mg of 0 3 /liter destroyed >99.99% of
seeded echovirus 1, Salmonella typhimurium, and S. brancaster in 10 minutes at
pH 7.4. To maintain a residual of 0.5 mg of ozone/liter, it was necessary to apply
10 mg of 0 3 /liter.
An 03 residual of 0.3 mg/liter destroyed >99.99% of the salmonellae, but not
as large a proportion of the viruses.
Hurst, C. J., Farrah, S. R., Gerba, C. P., Melnick, J. 1. (1978). Developrnentof
Quantitative Methods for the Detection of Enteroviruses in Sewage Sludges Dur-
ing Activation and Following Land Disposal. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL,
36(1):81-9.
Activated sludge solids were collected by centrifugation, and the solids-
associated viruses in the sludge were eluted by mechanical agitation in pH 11
glycine buffer. Eluted viruses were adsorbed onto a floc that formed de novo upon
adjustment of the pH of the glycine eluate to 3.5. Viruses that remained in the
liquid phase after the pH of the glycine eluate had been lowered were concentrated
by adsorption to and elution from membrane filters.
From seeded sludges, the method recovered 80% of poliovirus 1, 68% of
echovirus 7, and 75% of coxsackievirus B3.
After disposal of sludge to the land, reductions of enterovirus numbers in
sludge solids occurred at a rate of 2 log 10 /week.
AMCU
Jakubowski, W., Chang, S.-L, Erickson, T. H., Lippy, E. C., Akin, E. W.
(1978). Large- Volume Sampling of Water Supplies for Microorganisms. J AM ER
WATER WORKS ASSN, 7O(12):702-6.
The recovery of echovirus 8 from well water in one of four disease outbreaks
suspected to have been waterbome is described. The recovery was made from one
of several samples of 190 to 1,900 liters of water processed by large volume fittra-
don technology.
Viruses were recovered from 13 of 27 samples of Ohio River water with the
same technics. In all, 148 viruses were recovered from the river waters.
18
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The portable apparatus used for processing the large volumes of water and
some data on the recoveries of Giardia cysts and bacteria with the apparatus are
also described.
az ,a
Johnson, D. E., Camann, D. E., Sorber, C. A., Sagik, B. P., Glennon, J. P.
Aemsol Monitoring for Microbial Organisms Near a Spray lrrigation Site. In “Pro-
ceedings of the Conference on Risk Assessment and Health Effects of
Land Application of Municipal Wastewater and Sludges,” edited by B. P.
Sagik and C. A. Sorber. Center for Applied Research and Technology,
University of Texas, San Antonio, Texas (1978), 231-9.
Enteroviruses were recovered from ambient air 50 meters downwind of a
wastewater effluent spray irrigation site in Pleasanton, California. The number of
enteroviruses recovered/rn 3 of air equaled more than 10% of the viruses recovered
in one ml of the wastewater effluent that was sprayed. The numbers of total col-
iforms, coliphages, and fecal streptococci/mI of sprayed wastewater were 4,900,
290, and 34, respectively, The numbers of those entities recovered/rn 3 of air 50
meters downwind of the spray were 2.52, 0.51, and 0.34, respectively.
K
Katzenelson, E. Survival of Viruses. In “Indicators of Viruses in Water and
Food,” edited by G. Berg. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor,
Michigan (1978), 39-50.
Viruses survive in the water environment for days—often many days. Humans
excrete large numbers of viruses. Thus, the ability of viruses to survive for long
periods in the water environment takes on a significance that must not be
underestimated.
Kazantseva, V. A., Aizen, M. S., Drozdov, S. G. (1978) Method of Determina-
don of the Number of Enteroviruses Present in Natural Waters. VOPR VIRUSOL
O(4):475-8. Translation presently not available. Russian.
A
Kazantseva, V. A., Aizen, M. S., Drozdov, S. G., Kodkind, G. K. (1978).
Determination of the Number of Entero viruses in Natural Water by Concentration
of Virus Part/des. GIG SANIT, O(3):79-83. Russian.
Enteroviruses seeded into water were concentrated by adsorption on mem-
brane filters, on ion exchange resin AB-17-8 and on bentonite. The effectiveness of
concentration depended upon the number of viruses seeded into the water. With
membrane filters and on the ion exchange resin recoveries with the methods were
greatest, 100 and 74%, respectively, when the seed virus concentration was
lowest. Bentonite was most effective (60% recovery) when the seed concentration
was highest (12.5 PFU/ml).
A
Kedmi, 5., Katzenelson, E. (1978). A Rapid Quantitative Fluorescent Antibody
Assay of Polioviruses Using Tragacanth Gum. ARCH VIROL, 56:337-40.
Countable fluorescent foci formed in microcultures of cells infected with a
poliovirus, suspended in a Tragacanth gum medium, dispensed on slides, in-
cubated for 18-21 hours under CO 2 at 37 C, and stained with specific fluorescein
isothiocyanate-labelled antipoliovirus rabbit gamma globulin. The numbers of
fluorescent foci were about equal to the numbers of plaques in control assays.
Similar results were obtained with all three poliovirus types.
19
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Y
Keswick, B. H., Fujioka, R. S., Burbank, N. C., Jr., Loh, P. C. (1978). Corn-
parative Disinfection Efficiency of Bromine Chloride and Chlorine for Polio virus. J
AMER WATER WORKS ASSN, 70(1O):573-7.
BrCI (measured as HOBr) destroyed poliovirus I (LSc) in buffer at pH 6 twice
as rapidly as HOCI did. BrCI lost lithe effectiveness at pH levels up to 10 or more,
and its activity was lithe affected by the presence of NH 3 . The activity of HOCI
against the poliovirus was reduced markedly by both elevated pH and NH 3 .
Glycine sharply reduced the effectiveness of both BrCI and HO d.
In sewage effluents, the demand for BrCI was satisfied at a level below that at
which the demand for HOCI was satisfied.
Kostenbader, K. D., Jr., Cliver, D. 0. (1977). Quest for VirusesAssociated with
Our Food Supply. J FOOD SCI, 42(5):1253-1268.
A survey of sanitary sewers at nine meat packing and other food processing
plants during the warmer months of the year yielded no viruses by the grab sample
or gauze pad technics.
Viruses were not recovered from the finished food products from seven meat
and vegetable product processing plants. Enteric viruses were recovered from in-
coming swine at one processing plant.
No viruses were recovered from 60 samples of market foods.
The virus recovery procedure included the inoculation of large volumes of
samples on cell cultures and the transfer of inocula from one cell culture system to
another.
V t ,
Kott, V., Ben-Ad, H., Betzer, N. (1978). Lagooned, Secondary Effluents as
Water Source for Extended Agricultural Purposes. WATER RES, 12(12): 1101-6.
Storage of trickling filter effluents in a 70,000 m 3 pond (four m deep) for 73
days destroyed all viruses present.
In four hours, 20 mg of chlorine/liter destroyed more than 99% of the viruses
and almost all of the coliforms in trickling filter effluents.
Seventy days of detention of wastewater may permit its use for agricultural
purposes. The addition to the stored effluents of 20 mg of chlorine/liter (with a
short holding time) may be expected to add a sufficient margin for safety.
tIuvox
Kott. V.. Ben-An, H., Vinokur. L. (1978). ColiphagesSurvivalas Viral Indicator
in Various Wasrewater QualityEttluents. PROG WATER TECHNOL. 10(1-2):
337-46.
In creeks and streams, the ratios of Escherichia coli B phages to enteroviruses
ranged from 1:1 to 10:1. In heavily polluted waters, the ratios ranged up to l(P:1. In
oxidation pond effluents and in trickling filter effluents, coliphage numbers ranged
to 10°/lOU ml.
Enterovirus counts varied considerably from season to season but coliphage
counts did not. Although enteroviruses were not detected in secondary effluents
73 days after ponding, the numbers of coliphages in these effluents exceeded
1,000/100 ml.
Coliphage f2 survived longer than poliovirus 1 (LSc) in waters of different
qualities. In dry sand, coliphage f2 survived for 217 days, the poliovirus did not.
These results suggest that phages of E. coil B may be useful indicators of
human enteroviruses in wastewater.
20
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A
Landry, E. F., Vaughn, J. M., Thomas, M. Z., Vicale, T. J. (1978). Efficiency of
Beef Extract for the Recoveiy of Pollovirus from Wastewater Effluents. APPL EN-
VIRON MICROBIOL. 36(4):544-8.
Poliovirus 1 (LSc) seeded into 20- to 25-gallon (ca. 75.6- to 95.6- liter) quan-
tities of treated sewage effluent and adsorbed to fiberglass cartridge filters (K27),
epoxy-fiberglass-asbestos filters (M780), or pleated cartridge filters were eluted
more effectively with beef extract (pH 9.0) followed by organic flocculation than
with 0.1 M glycine (pH 11.5) followed by inorganic flocculation. Elution with 3%
beef extract and organic flocculation yielded a mean recovery efficiency of 85%.
Elution with 0.1 M glycine (pH 11.5) and inorganic flocculation yielded a mean
recovery efficiency of 36%.
Organic flocculation was more effective than inorganic flocculation for
reconcentrating viruses recovered from seeded sewage effluents.
Beef extract concentrations of less than 3% were effective elutants of
polioviruses recovered from renovated wastewater.
L.arkin, E. P. Foods as Vehicles for the Transmission of Viral Diseases. In “In-
dicators of Viruses in Water and Food,” edited by G. Berg. Ann Arbor
Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan (19Th), 299-328.
Within a discussion of virus transmission by food, the viruses recovered from
the feces and urine of humans and other animals are summarized.
tOQ
Larkin, E. P., Tierney, J. t, Lovett, J., Van Donsel, D., Francis, D. W. Land
Application of Sewage Wastes: Potential for Contamination of Foodstuffs and
Agricultural Soils by Viruses and Bacterial Pathogens. In “Proceedings of the
Conference on Risk Assessment and Health Effects of Land Application of
Municipal Wastewater and Sludges,” edited by B. P. Sagik and C. A.
Sorber. Center for Applied Research and Technology, University of Texas,
San Antonio, Texas (1978), 102-15.
Poliovirus 1, Salmonella typhimurium, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(BCG) seeded on crops and in soil survived for longer than the growing seasons of
some crops. Viruses and bacterial pathogens can survive on crops for a time longer
than that required for distributing crops to consumers.
Few sludges and effluents produced by sewage treatment plants are
monitored for viruses or bacterial pathogens.
A number of states and territories have no regulations for control of discharge
to the land of sewage sludges or effluents.
t ILQX
Larkin, E. P., Tierney, J. T.. Sullivan, R. (1976). Persistence of Virus on
Sewage-Irrigated Vegetables. J ENVIRON ENGIN DIV. ASCE, 102:EE1:29-35.
To reduce stream pollution, many municipalities are contemplating land
disposal of primary and secondary sewage effluents. Enteroviruses, reoviruses,
and adenoviruses have been recovered from such effluents and from the sludges
of these effluents.
Vegetables spray-irrigated with poliovirus 1-inoculated sewage sludges and
effluents yielded the virus for as long as 36 days, indicating the potential for con-
tamination of vegetables when such spray-irrigation systems are used.
21
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T I
Longley, K. E. (1978). Turbulence Factors in Chlorine Disinfection of Wastewater.
WATER RES, 12(1O):813-22.
At ambient temperatures (15 to 28 C), 31 and 47% of the coliphage f2 seeded
into effluents at a full scale trickling filter plant were destroyed in 2 seconds and 10
seconds, respectively, by 4.5 mg/liter of dosed chlorine delivered through a con-
ventional diffuser. In the same time-dose couplings, 86 and 99% of the indigenous
total coliforms were destroyed. Under similar conditions, 17 mg/liter of dosed
chlorine destroyed 71 and 77% of the seeded coliphage in 2 and 10 seconds,
respectively, and 99.5 and 99.99% of the total coliforms after similar contact times.
Delivered through a venturi that produced rapid mixing into the same trickling
filter effluent (but in an adjacent pilot plant facility) 4.3 and 17 mg/liter of dosed
chlorine destroyed about 90 and 99.99%, respectively, of the indigenous total col-
iforms in the first several seconds of contact at 13 to 16 C.
Free chlorine was measurable in only the first few seconds after the effluents
were dosed. Rapid mixing of chlorine into the effluents by means of a venturi
allowed contact of free chlorine with viruses and bacteria before the chlorine
dissipated into chloramines.
The pH of the effluents ranged from about 6 to 7.
LW
Mack, W. N. Total Coliform Bacteria In “Bacterial Indicators/Health Hazards
Associated with Water,” ASTM STP 635, edited by A. W. Hoadley and B. J.
Dutka. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Penn-
sylvania (1977), 59-64.
Although there are shortcomings to total coliform counts, they are our best
indicator of microbiological health hazards in drinking water. Some of the short-
comings that exist can be corrected by tests to determine interference and to iden-
tify non-coliform lactose-fermenting organisms.
Occasionally, drinking water samples that contain viruses do not yield col-
iform bacteria by standard tests. Coliforms have been recovered from waters by
methods used to concentrate viruses when the coliforms could not be recovered
from the waters by standard tests.
V
Mahnel, H. (1977). Inactivation of Viruses in Drinking and Surface Water; A Con-
tribution to the Decontamination of Water by Field Methods. ZBL BAKT HYG.
ORIG B, 165(5-6):527-38. German.
Under field conditions, drinking waters may be freed of viruses by both heat
and chemical means.
A parvovirus (10 ’ TCID jml) in drinking water was not inactivated completely
after one hour at 80 C. A reovirus was inactivated at 60 C in this period of time. A
poliovirus, an ecliovirus, HCC virus, pseudorabies virus, Newcastle disease virus,
and vaccinia virus lost their infectivities at 56 C within 60 minutes and at 60 C
within 20 minutes.
Iodine, calcium hypochiorite, and potassium permanganate were effective
disinfectants. Chloramine-T, hydrogen peroxide, and sodium peroxide were un-
suitable drinking water disinfectants because the amounts necessary made water
unfit to drink.
Heat was judged a less suitable method than chemical means for field
disinfection of drinking water.
22
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y
Mahnel, H. (1978). Inactivation of Viruses in Water by Anodic Oxidation. ZBL
BAKT HYG, ORIG B, 166:542-57. Translation presently not available. German.
V
Malina, J. E., Jr. The Effect of Unit Processes of Water and Wastewater Treat-
ment on Virus Removal. In “Viruses and Trace Contaminants in Water and
Wastewater,” edited by J. A. Borchardt, J. K. Cleland, W. J. Redman. G.
Olivier. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan (1977),
33-51.
Municipal wastewater treatment plants that incorporate primary sedimenta-
lion, biological treatment, and disinfection can produce effluents with less than 10
PFU of human enteric viruses/liter. Subjecting these effluents to advanced waste
treatment methods should produce a water in which no viruses can be detected
with the technics currently available for the concentration and enumeration of
viruses.
I
Mann, A. W., Vaccaro, R. F., Deese, p. 1. (1918). Controlled Chlorination in
Agricultural Systems Irrigated with Secondary Wastewater Effluents. J WATER
POLLUT CONTRL FED, 50(3):427-32.
Multiple regression analysis of seasonally-acquired data on the destruction of
coliphage MS2 that had been seeded into a secondary effluent used for spray
irrigation yielded mathematical expressions that may be useful in identifying the
minimum chlorine dosages necessary for safely disinfecting such effluents.
A
Meley, B. Gaudin, O.-G. (1976). Viral Flora (Coliphages and Human Entero-
viruses) in River Water Below a City (Saint-Etienne). I. Comparative Study of Four
Simple and inexpensive Methods for Concentration and Isolation of Viruses. REV
EPIDEMIOL SANTE PUBL 24(5):415-22.
Potioviruses, 1, 2, and 3 seeded into river water were recovered in greater
numbers by adsorption to the polyelectrolyte PE6O, added to water samples in a
concentration of 200 mg/liter, than by the same technic when the concentration of
the PE6O was about 100 mg/liter. No viruses were recovered with the two-phase
separation procedure.
‘ U
Melnick, J. 1. Are Conventional Methods of Epidemiology Appropriate for Risk
Assessment of Virus Contamination of Water? In “Proceedings of the Con-
ference on Risk Assessment and Health Effects of Land Application of
Municipal Wastewater and Sludges.” edited by B. P. Sagik and C. A.
Sorber. Center for Applied Research and Technology, University of Texas,
San Antonio, Texas (1978), 61-75.
The epidemiology of waterborne virus infections is reviewed. The difficulties
in demonstrating water transmission of virus infections are discussed.
The author argues that currently available expensive epidemiologic technics
are not likely to yield important new information on the relationship between
viruses in water and disease, and that new funds therefore should rather be ex-
pended on eliminating viruses from raw source waters and from drinking waters.
Z3
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471
Melnlck, J. 1., Gerba, C. P., WaIlis, C. (1978). Viruses in Water. BULL WHO,
56(4):499-508.
The problems of viral contamination of water and shellfish are reviewed and
discussed in light of growing needs for and probable recycling of wastewaters re-
quired to meet the demands of enlarging world populations and industries.
L it
Metcalf, t G. Indicators of Vfruses in Shellfish. In ‘indicators of Viruses in
Water and Food,” edited by G. Berg. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc.,
Ann Arbor, Michigan (1978), 383-415.
Enteric viruses in fecally-polluted waters are filtered out by shellfish and car-
ried within them for long periods of time.
The numbers of indicator bacteria in shellfish-growing waters often do not
accurately reflect the presence of viruses in shellfish-growing waters or in shellfish.
£417 7 1
Metcalf, t C L. Comeau, R., Mooney, R., Ryther, J. H. Opportunities for Virus
Transport within Aquatic and Terrestrial Environments. In “Proceedings of the
Conference on Risk Assessment and Health Effects of Land Application of
Municipal Wastewater and Sludges,” edited by B. P. Sagik and C. A.
Sorber. Center for Applied Research and Technology, University of Texas,
San AntonIo, Texas (1978), 77-101.
Within a mariculture system fed with secondary effluent, seeded poliovirus 1
and other enteric viruses were passively transmitted sequentially from shellfish to
polychaete worms to flounder and lobsters. The transmission of viruses from
worms to the flesh of flounder implied a passive route of transmission from sewage
to man through a food chain.
Large and small millipedes, slugs, sowbugs, and worms fed poliovirus 2 in
their food excreted the virus for at least three days, The large millipedes and slugs
excreted the virus for six and seven days, respectively. The large millipedes still
contained the virus on sacrifice seven days after the feeding. The recovery of the
poliovirus from these soil macrovertibrates for periods up to seven days after the
virus had been fed to them suggested that land disposal of sewage containing
viruses might permit reinfection of man through the food chain.
40
Miller, F. P., Wolf, D. C. Renovation of Sewage Effluents by the Soil. In “In-
dividual Onsite Wastewater Systems.” Proceedings of the Second National
Conference, 1975, edited by N. I. McClelland. Ann Arbor Science
Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan (1977), 89-117.
The movement and survival of viruses in sells is discussed within a com-
prehensive review of the factors that interplay in land treatment of wastewaters.
ZVQ
Moore, B. E., Sagik, B. P., Sorber, C. A. LandApplication of Sludges: Minimiz-
ing the Impact of Viruses on Water Resources. In “Proceedings of the Con-
ference on Risk Assessment and Health Effects of Land Application of
Municipal Wastewater and Sludges,” edited by B. P. Sagik and C. A.
Sorber. Center for Applied Research and Technqlogy, University of Texas,
San Antonio, Texas (1978), 154-67.
24
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More than 4,000 PFU of enteric viruses/gram of suspended solids were
recovered from primary sludge. Almost 600 PFU of viruses were recovered/gram
of digested solids.
In primary wastewater sludges, virus numbers ranged from 440 to 4,300
PFU/gm of solids. Coliphage levels ranged to 2 million PFU/gm of solids.
Raw wastewaters contained from 6 to 7,900 PFU of enteric viruses/liter.
Retention of wastewater in an oxidation ditch reduced the numbers of enteric
viruses by 57% to 99.9%. Trickling filters reduced the numbers of enteric viruses in
wastewater by 59% to 95%.
In an anaerobic digester operating at 37 C, 71% to 92% of the viruses in
primary sludges were destroyed in 40 days. Another 7% to 28% of these viruses
were destroyed by sludge thickening at ambient temperatures for 60 days.
Viruses were recovered from soils at subsurface thickened raw and
mesophilically-digested sludge injection sites. One virus was recovered from one
such she six months after the last application of thickened raw sludge.
1’
Nestor, I. (1978). Conditions of Inactivation of Viruses in Water with Chlorination.
REV IG (BACTERIOL), 23(1):1-15. Translation presently not available. Rou-
manian.
IAQ
Nestor, I., Costin, L., Sovrea, D., lonescu, N. (1978). Enteric Viruses in the
Danube River Water and Sludge. J HYG EPIDEMIOL MICROBIOL IMMUNOL,
22(2):144-151.
In a study from 1972 to 1974, viruses were recovered from 17.5% of 123 water
samples and 116 dredge sludge samples collected from 20 locations along the
Roumanian course of the Danube River. Viruses were concentrated by the gauze
pad method. The frequency of virus recoveries from water samples and from
sludge samples was about the same.
Viruses were concentrated on polyelectrolyte PE6O and yeast cells and
recovered by inoculation into suckling mice and into cell cultures.
M W
Nestor, I., Costin, 1., Sovrea, D., lonescu, N. (1978). Investigations on the
Presence of Enteroviruses in Drinking Water. REV ROUM MED VIROL,
fl(3):203-7.
Enteroviruses were recovered from 3.6% of 220 samples of tap water taken
from eight population centers during the period from 1972 to 1977. Three of the
viruses recovered were attenuated poliovirus 3, two were strains of coxsackievirus
A4, and six were untyped.
The viruses were concentrated from the water by the gauze pad technic and
reconcentrated from pad eluate by adsorption to polyelectrolyte PE6O or to yeast
cells.
A variety of Roumanian rivers constituted the raw source waters of the con-
taminated supplies. The raw waters were treated by standard State treatment pro-
cedures and chlorinated to a residual of 0.1 to 0.25 mg of chlorine/liter.
69
Newaskar, L. D., Vidwans, A. H., Vachha, S. M. (1978) Outbreak of Viral
Hepatitis Due to Water Pollution in Pimpri-Chinchwad Towns/i/p. INDIAN J
ENVIRON HEALTH, 2O(1):79-83.
An outbreak of viral hepatitis in the Pimpri Chinchwad area peaked in March
and April 1976. The peak occurred six weeks after a considerable increase occurred
25
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in the pollution of the Pawana River, the raw water source for the Pimpri Chinch-
wad area. The number of cases of hepatitis reported appeared to be directly pro-
portional to the extent of pollution of the river suggesting a relationship between
the incidence of hepatitis and the pollution of the area’s water source.
Nezu, N. (1976). Removal, inactivation, and Disinfection of Virus in Water.
YOSUL TO HALSUI, 18(1O):13-23. Chinese.
The removal of viruses from water and wastewater and the destruction of
viruses in those waters by disinfectants is reviewed.
If
Nielson . N. E. Ozonation, Irradiation, Chlorination and Combinations: A Discus-
s/on of the Practicalities of Their 1./se in Smaller Water/Wastewater Treatment
Systems. In “Individual Onsite Wastewater Systems,” Proceedings of the
Fourth National Conference, 1977, edited by N. I. McClelIand. Ann Arbor
Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan (1978), 189-216.
The need to destroy viruses and other pathogens in wastewater disinfection is
alluded to briefly in an extensive discussion of chemical and physical methods,
especially gamma irradiation, for disinfecting wastewaters.
I f
Parrelia, A., Bianchetti, A., A llberti, F., Gargiulo, E. (1977). AntiviralActivity
of C4 and NaCK I: Comparative Study. ING AMBIEN, 6:(11-12):412-16. Transla-
don presently not available. Italian.
A
Peyment, P., Trudelet M., Pavilanis, V. (1978). Evaluation of the Efficiency and
the Technique of Adsorption-But/on of Poliovirus 7 on Fiberglass Filters: Applica-
tion to the Vitologic Analysis of I X nil to 7,CKX) Liters of Water. CAN J
MICROBIOL, 24(11):1413-16. French.
At pH 3.5, more than 99% of the poliovirus 1 seeded into tap water, river
water, and sewage to which AICI 3 had been added to a final concentration of 5 x
10 M adsorbed to fiberglass cartridge filters. Eighty-five to 95% of the adsorbed
viruses were eluted from the filters with 3% beef extract at pH 9. The organic floc-
culation procedure reconcentrated the poliovirus into 1/20 of the elution volume
with a 50 to 72% efficiency. The overall efficiency of the technic for 100 ml to 1,000
liters of the waters was 38 to 58%. Seeding concentrations for the poliovirus were
102 to 10° PHi.
I
Peleg, M., Medar, D., Kalbo, R., Katzenelson, E., Shuval, H. Chemical and
Viricidal Investigation of the Ozonization of Wastewater Systems. In “Disinfec-
tion with Ozone,” Proceedings of Forum on Ozone Disinfection, June 2-4,
1976. ChIcago. Illinois, edited by E. G. Fochtman, A. G. Rich, and M. E.
Browning. Ozone Press Internatlonale, Jamesville, New York (1977),
193 204.
Within a paper on the reaction of ozone with chemical constituents of
wsstewaters, studies were alluded to that showed a true dose-response relation-
ship between ozone and poliovirus I in reaction times of less than three seconds.
26
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Ye l l
Peterson, D. A., Wolfe, 1. G., Larkin, E. P., Deinhardt, F. W. (1978). Thermal
Treatment and Infectivity of Hepatitis A Virus in Human Feces. J MED VIROL,
2(3):201-6.
Intramuscular or oral administration of hepatitis A virus (HAV) obtained from
the feces of four patients with acute hepatitis induced hepatitis in 28 to 100% of in-
oculated white-lipped marmosets (Saginus sp.). Orally administered, a 1:3 dilution
of a 10% (w/v) fecal pool prepared from the stools of two patients induced
hepatitis in marmosets (2/4 with 1 ml; 2/2 with 3 ml). A baby food-raw oyster mix-
ture seeded with HAV and fed to fasted marmosets induced hepatitis in 1/4 and
seroconversion in 2/4 animals.
Four of six marmosets fed oysters that had been seeded with a fecal pooi con-
centrate that contained HAV developed hepatitis and the other two marmosets
seroconverted. One of seven marmosets fed the same fecal pool concentrate after
it had been heated at 140 F for 19 minutes developed hepatitis and one other
seroconverted. These data suggest that a pasteurization technic can be developed
that will prevent shellfish-associated hepatitis A without destroying the palatability
of the shellfish.
Petrilli, F. L. (1977). Introduction to the Study of Viral Contamination of Sea
Water. REV INT OCEANOGR MED, 48:5-7.
The problem of viruses in seawater and the usefulness of indicator organisms
are reviewed and discussed.
t,ut
Petrilli, F. 1., De Flora, S. (1977). Correlation Between Animal Viruses and
Bacteria in Coastal Sea Waters and Sediments. REV INT OCEANOGR MED.
48:33-6.
Enteroviruses (vaccine-like polioviruses, group B coxsackieviruses and
echoviruses) were recovered from all sea water samples tested in which the MPN
counts of Escherichia coliexceeded 920/100 ml. The numbers of enteroviruses cor-
related well with those of E. coil in the samples tested. However, the numbers of £
coil varied less than the numbers of viruses.
Counts of enteroviruses and reoviruses in concentrates of sand and slime col-
lected at depths of 0.5 to 12 meters attained levels up to 40 TCD /100 ml of sedi-
ment suggesting that sediments may represent a transient reservoir for animal
viruses.
The viruses were concentrated from all samples by the polyelectrolyte
method.
Pietri, C. (197]). Evaluation of the Va//dity of Virus Counts/n the Sea. REV INT
OCEANOGR MED, 48:21 -6. French.
Sampling, concentration, and culture systems for recovering viruses from
seawater are described and discussed.
‘1
Rao, V. C., Lakhe, S. B., Waghmare, S. V. (1978). Developments in En-
vironmental Virology in India. IAWPC TECH ANN (INDIA), 5:1-16.
In India during the past decade, significant contributions have been made in
water, wastewater, and food virology. These contributions include development of
27
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simple and inexpensive methods for concentrating and enumerating viruses in raw
sewage and effluents; development of an insight into diurnal and seasonal varia-
tions in the quantities of viruses in domestic wastewater; determination of the pat-
tern of excretion of viruses by healthy children; development of an approach to
collecting wastewater samples for optimum virus recovery; development of a
method for preserving and transporting eluates from the field to the laboratory;
evaluation of virus removal efficiencies of costly conventional sewage treatment
systems and low-cost waste treatment plants; determination of the extent of virus
removal during sewage reclamation for reuse; determination of the problem of up-
take of viruses by shellfish that inhabit polluted waters; development of a method
for recovering and quantifying viruses in food (clams and oysters); development of
methods for concentrating and estimating numbers of viruses in large volumes of
drinking water; and determinations of usefulness of bituminous coal in removal of
viruses by filtration of water.
YtL
Rowley, D. B., Sullivan, R., Josephson. E. S. Indicators of Viruses in Foods
Preserved by Ionizing Radiation. In “Indicators of Viruses in Water and Food,”
edited by G. Berg. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor,
Michigan (1978). 355-82.
The D-values for the destruction by gamma irradiation of adenoviruses, cox-
sackieviruses, echoviruses, and polioviruses in distilled water are listed within a
discussion of indicators of viruses in foods preserved by ionizing radiation.
p
Rulter. G. C L. Fujioka. R. S. (1978). Human Enteric Viruses in Sewage and Their
Discharge into the Ocean. WATER AIR SOIL POLLUT, 1O(1):95-103.
Over a 24-hour period, 8 x 1010 PFU of viruses were discharged with
Honolulu’s untreated sewage through an ocean outfall. Higher concentrations of
viruses were consistently recovered from the sewage of Kuhio Park Terrace, a high
density, low socioeconomic level community with a relatively high percentage of
children, then from the sewage of Nuuanu, a low density, high socioeconomic
level community with few children.
Composites of sewage sampled every hour or every two hours over a 24-hour
period yielded equivalent quantities of viruses.
Sedovski, A. V., Fattal, B., Goldberg, D., Katzenelson, E., Shuval, H. I.
(1978). High Levels of Microbial Contamination of Vegetables Irrigated with
Wastewater by the Drip Method. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 36(6):824-30.
Irrigation from drip lines covered by plastic sheets either on the soil surface or
buried at a depth of 10 cm significantly reduced contamination of a cucumber crop
by polioviruses 1, 2, and 3 and by Escherichia coil (with a drug resistant marker)
seeded into oxidation pond effluent irrigation water. The polioviruses were seeded
at a density of about 9x 10 PFU/liter and the E. coil was seeded at a density of
about 1Cr/liter.
Viruses and marker coliforms were recovered repeatedly from the surfaces of
cucumbers irrigated without benefit of plastic cover.
The viruses and the bacteria persisted in the irrigation pipes and in the soil for
at least 8 and 18 days, respectively.
28
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Sagik, B. P., Sorber, C. A. (1978). Assessing Risk for EffluentLandApplication.
WATER & SEW WORKS, 125(1O):40-2.
The removal and destruction of viruses by wastewater and wastewater sludge
treatment processes are described within a discussion of the assessment of the risk
to health that accompanies the disposal of wastewaters and wastewater sludges to
the land.
This paper is a summation of part of the Proceedings of the Conference on
Risk Assessment and Health Effects of Land Application of Municipal
Wastewater and Sludges, edited by B. P. Sagik and C. A. Sorber. Center
for Applied Research and Technology, University of Texas, San Antonio,
Texas (1978).
Sarrette, B., Danglot, C., Vilagines, R. (1977). New Method Permitting the
Quantitative Determination of Vfruses Present in Surface Waters. C A ACAD SCI
(PARIS) 285:1359-61. French.
Poliovirus 1 (LSc) seeded into autoclaved river water was recovered by ad-
justing the pH of the water to 3.5, mixing the water with glass beads for 30
minutes, and eluting the virus adsorbed to the beads with glycine buffer at pH
11.5. About 34% of the seeded virus was recovered.
l i i field tests of waters collected from two sites on the Seine River and from
one site on the Marne River, viruses were recovered in numbers up to 190
PFU/Iiter. There was no correlation between the numbers of viruses recovered and
the numbers of total coliforms recovered.
Sattar, S. A. “Viruses, Water and Health.” University of Ottawa Press,
Ottawa, Canada (1978), 1-106.
“Viruses, Water and Health” is a short textbook on the subject of viruses in
water.
VQ
Sattar, S. A., Ramia, S. (1976). Viruses in Sewage: Effect of Phosphate Removal
with Calcium Hydroxide (Lime). CAN J MICROBIOL, 24(8):1004-6.
Ninety-nine percent of seeded poliovirus 1 (LSc) was removed from
wastewaters when those waters were treated with lime at pH 9.5 to 10.5 to remove
phosphate.
Storage of lime sludges at 28 C for up to 48 hours produced no appreciable
reduction in virus numbers.
Viruses were recovered from all samples of lime sludges and from 80% of the
samples of sewage and lime-treated effluent collected at a plant in Ontario; after
chlorination, viruses were recovered from only 20% of the samples of lime-treated
effluent.
Caution must be exercised in handling and disposal of lime-sludges.
HA
Sattar, S. A., Westwood, J. C. N. (1978). Viral Pollution of Surface Waters Due
to Chlorinated Primary Effluents. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 38(3):427-31.
Over a two-year period, viruses were recovered in BSC1 cells from 80%
(76/94) of raw sewage samples, 72% (68194) of primary effluent samples, and
56% (53/94) of chlorinated effluent samples concentrated by the ta lc-celite
technic. The samples came from two treatment plants that discharged into the
29
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Ottawa River at Ottawa. Both raw sewage and primary effluent samples contained
about 100 viral infective units (VIU)/100 ml.
Chlorination produced a 10- to 50-fold reduction in VIU leaving nearly 2.7
VlU/100 ml of chlorinated primary effluent. With a combined daily chlorinated
primary effluent output of approximately 3.7 x 10 liters, these two plants
discharged about 1.0 x 1010 V i U/day. Alone, these two sources produced a virus
loading of 1.0 VIU/8 liters of river water. This river also receives at least 9.0 x 10
titers of raw sewage/day and undetermined but substantial amounts of storm
waters and agricultural wastes. The river is used for recreation and is the raw water
source of potable water for some 6.0 x 10 people.
In view of the potential of water for disease transmission, discharge of such
wastes into the water environment needs to be minimized.
Scarpino, P. V., Bacteriophage indicators. In “Indicators of Viruses in Water
and Food.” edited by G. Berg. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann
Arbor, Michigan (197W, 201-27.
Bacteriophage have a definite but restricted value as indicators of viruses.
Phage, indigenous to environmental waters, that possess survival characteristics
similar to human viruses may be useful indicators of the removal and inactivation
by treatment processes of human viruses in such waters.
Careful studies must be made of the relative numbers of coliphages and
enteric viruses in waters and of the fluctuations of their numbers in those waters
before any phages can be promulgated as indicators of enteric viruses in
environmental waters.
Schmidt, N. J., Ho, H. H., Riggs, J. L., Lennette, E. H. (1978). Comparative
Sensitivity of Various Cell Culture Systems for Isolation of Viruses from
Wastewater and Fecal Samples. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 36(3):480-6.
In parallel, 181 samples of wastewater were inoculated into tube cultures of
several cell types and plaqued in bottle and petri dish cultures of three types of
monkey kidney cells. Polioviruses were recovered most frequently in a line of
human rhabdomyosarcoma cells (RD), group A coxsackieviruses in RD and human
fetal diploid kidney (HFDK) cells, group B coxsackieviruses in the 8GM line of
African green monkey kidney cells, echoviruses in RD and primary rhesus monkey
kidney (RhMK) cells, and reoviruèes in RhMK cells. 8GM cells were unsatisfactory
for recovering viruses other than polioviruses and group B coxsackieviruses, and a
line of fetal rhesus monkey kidney (MFK) was not a satisfaátory substitute for
primary RhMK. With RhMK cells, comparable numbers of viruses were recovered
in tube cultures and in plaque assays in bottle cultures, but with BGM and MFK
cells, fewer recoveries were made by plaquing than by inoculation of tube cultures.
In comparative plaque assays of fecal samples under three different overlays in
bottle and plate cultures of RhMK, 8GM, and MFK cells, plaquing in the most sen-
sitive system, RhMK, was less efficient for recovering viruses than inoculation of
tube cultures of RhMK or HFDK cells. Overall, plaque assays in petri dishes in-
cubated under CO 2 yielded fewer viruses than parallel plaque assays in closed bot-
tle cultures.
A
Schwartzbrod, 1.. Lucena-Gutierrez, F. (1978). Concentration of Entero virus in
Water by Adsorption on Glass Powder: Proposal for a Simplified Apparatus.
MICROBIA. 4(11:55-68. French.
30
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A poliovirus seeded into tap water was recovered by adsorption onto
powdered glass and elution from the glass with glycine buffer, pH 11.5. Adsorp-
tion onto the glass was accomplished at pH 3.5 in the presence of AI d 3 (0.0005 M).
With this method, viruses were recovered from 50-liter volumes of water flow-
ing through the powdered glass at a rate of about 80 liters/hour. Recoveries of
viruses ranged from 36% to more than 100%.
A
SeIne, M. W., Miele, R. P. (19Th. Virus Sampling in Wastewater—Field Ex-
periences. J ENVIRON ENGIN DIV , ASCE, 103:EE4:693-705.
A California state code requires that reclaimed wastewater used for recreation
must receive treatment beyond conventional secondary treatment. The code was
designed to produce virologically safe effluents for recreational uses.
To test the effectiveness of tertiary treatment systems for removing viruses
from secondary effluents, a modified Baylor system was innovated. Twenty- to
100-gallon samples of effluent seeded with poliovirus 1 were acidified to pH 3.5,
AICI 3 was added to a final (Al 3 ) molarity of 0.005, and each effluent was pumped
through a 1(27 fiberglass filter (pore size 3 Mm) and then through Cox filters
(porosities 1 çim and 0.45Mm). The viruses adsorbed to the fitters were eluted with
two or more liters of 0.05 M glycine, pH 11.5, which was quickly neutralized. The
neutralized eluate was flocced with AlCl 3 and the flocced eluate was neutralized
with Na 2 CO 3 . The settled floc was centrifuged, and viruses were eluted from the
floc pellet with 0.05 M glycine, pH 11.5. The eluate was centrifuged, and the
supernatant was filtered through an alginate filter. The alginate filter was dissolved
in citrate, and the viruses that had been adsorbed to the alginate were recovered in
cell cultures by the plaque technic. The average efficiency of recovery was about
20%.
A
Shatter, P. t B. Virus Detection Methods— Comparison and Evaluation. In
“Viruses and Trace Contaminants in Water and Wastewater,” edited by J.
A. Borchardt, .1. K. Cleland, W. J. Redman, and G. Oliver. Ann Arbor
Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan (19Th, 21-31.
Many problems may be encountered in efforts to recover small numbers of
viruses from large volumes of waters.
in Canada and in the Northern United States, many waters are rich in acid-
soluble humic acids which interfere with the concentration of viruses onto filter
surfaces and then with the subsequent reconcentration of the viruses from eluates.
Variation from laboratory to laboratory with a single virus recovery procedure
may produce recovery efficiencies of from less than I to more than 100%.
Data obtained under carefully controlled laboratory conditions often differ
considerably from data obtained under field conditions. Data obtained with virus
seeding experiments may vary considerably from data obtained with viruses in-
digenous to waters.
Dispersed viruses that adsorb to particulates in waters may not be recoverable
to the same degree as viruses that remain dispersed.
Some viruses are inactivated at the high pH levels (11 to 11.5) that are used to
elute viruses from filter surfaces.
fin4
Shuval, H. I. (1978). Studies on Bacterial and Viral Contamination of the Marine
Environment REV INT OCEANOGR MED. 50:43-50.
Large numbers of viruses and bacteria enter the sea through sewage outfalls
and survive long enough and in large enough numbers to infect people bathing in
31
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sewage-contaminated waters or consuming sewage-contaminated shellfish.
Active control programs based on uniform standards for reducing sewage
contamination at bathing beaches and shellfish-growing areas are a logical goal for
all nations sharing the seas.
JAVL
Slade, J. S. (1978). Entero viruses in Slow Sand Filtered Water. J INST WATER
ENGRS SCIENTISTS, (6):53O-6.
Viruses were recovered from slow sand-filtered waters of the Thames River
for the first time. Poliovirus 2 and coxsackieviruses B1 and 85 were recovered in
concentrations as high as 1 PFU/6 liters. The viruses were recovered during
February and March 1977, but not during April. Viruses were recovered from the
raw waters during February, March, and April of that year. Adequate disinfection
of slow sand-filtered water is essential for public health.
At filtration rates between 1.12 and 4.15 m/day and temperatures of 6 to 11 C,
a full scale slow sand filter removed from 97% to more than 99.8% of the viruses
indigenous to the waters of the Thames River. The removal of Escherichia coil by
the filter reliably indicated removal of viruses. The standard test for E. colt
however, was inadequate as an indicator of small numbers of viruses in large
volumes of water.
T X
SmIth, EM., Gerba, C. P. , Melnick, . 1. I... (1978). Role of Sediment in the Per-
sistence of Entero viruses in the Estuarine Environment APPI ENVIRON
MICROBIOL, 35(4):685-9.
Echo\iirus 1, coxsackieviruses 83 and A9, and poliovirus 1 survived longer in
estuarine waters when associated with marine sediment than when suspended
alone.
In estuarine waters polluted with secondary sewage effluent, the viruses sur-
vived for prolonged periods in sediments, but not in the overlying waters.
Smith. J. W. (1978). Wastewater Disinfectants: Many Ca/led— Few Chosen.
WATER S WASTES ENGRG, 15(61:19-25.
Within a review of wastewater disinfection, the removal and destruction of
viruses in wastewater are briefly discussed.
A
Sng. E. H., Urn, A. L., Yuan, W. S. (1978). Method for the Recovery of Virus
from Large Volume of Tap Water. ASIAN J INFECT DIS, 2:253-7.
Poliovirus 1 seeded into 760 liters of tap water was recovered by adsorption
onto pleated epoxy-fiberglass fitters and subsequent elution therefrom. About
2-3 x 1O PFU of the virus were seeded. The pH of the seeded water was adjusted
to 3.5 before it was filtered through the epoxy-fiberglass. The pore size of the
filters was 3pm. Adsorbed virions were eluted with 1 liter of glycine, pH 11.5. The
volume of eluate was then reduced by a reconcentration procedure. The pH of the
eluate was adjusted to 4.5, NaH 2 PO 4 was added to a molarity of 0.005, FeCI 3 was
added to a molarity of 0.001, the floc that formed was separated by centrifugation,
and virions adsorbed to the fioc were eluted with 20 ml of fetal calf serum.
Sixty-nine percent of the seeded virions was recovered. A concentration fac-
tor of 38,000-fold was achieved.
32
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Sobsey, M. D. (1978). Field Survey of Enteric Viruses in Solid Waste Landfill
Leachates. AMER J PUB HEALTH, 68(9):858-64.
Only two viruses were recovered from a total of 21 solid waste landfill facilities
in the United States and Canada. These facilities represented a broad range of
landfill conditions. Leachate volumes of 10 to 18 liters were tested. The viruses,
identified as polioviruses 1 and 3, were recovered from a 12-titer sample obtained
from a site where landfill practices were poor.
The small number of enteric viruses detected in these leachate samples and
the probability that further reductions in viral numbers would be brought about in
the leachates by thermal inactivation, filtration through soil, and dilution in ground
and surface waters suggest that leachates from properly operated solid waste land-
fills do not constitute a virus hazard to the public health.
An
Sobsey, M. D., Carrick, R. J., Jensen, H. R. (1978). Improved Methods for
Detecting Enteric Viruses in Oysters. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 36(1):l2l-8.
Poliovirus 1 (LSc), reovirus 3 (Dearing), and simian adenovirus SV11 were
each adsorbed to homogenized oyster meats by adjusting the pH of seeded
homogenates to 5 and their conductivity to C2,000 mg of NaCI/liter. The oyster
solids were sedimented and the viruses were eluted from the solids with a glycine-
NaCI solution that had a pH of 7.5 and a conductivity of 8,000 mg of NaCI/liter.
The viruses in the elutant were concentrated to small volumes by either ultrafiltra-
tion or by precipitation with acid at pH 4.5. The concentrates were then treated
with antibiotics and inoculated into cell cultures. The efficiencies of virus recov-
eries averaged about 46%.
Except for virus assays, these methods were simple and inexpensive enough
to be done in typical shellfish microbiology laboratories.
Sorber, C. A., Sagik, B. p. (1978). Health Effects of Land Application of
Wastewater and Sludge: What Are the Risks? WATER & SEW WORKS.
125(71:82-4.
Within a summary of the “Conference on Risk Assessment and Health Effects
of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge” held in San Antonio, Texas in December
1977, some of the papers on viruses in the environment are discussed. Pro-
ceedings of the Conference on Risk Assessment and Health Effects of
Land Application of Municipal Wastewater and Sludges, edited by B. P.
Sagik and C. A. Sorber. Center for Appliad Research and Technology,
University of Texas, San Antonio, Texas (1978).
v4Q
Sprout, 0. J. The Efficiency of Wastewater Unit Processes in Risk Reduction. In
“Proceedings of the Conference on Risk Assessment and Health Effects of
Land Application of Municipal Wastewater and Sludges,” edited by B. P.
Sagik and C. A. Sorber. Center for Applied Research and Technology,
University of Texas, San Antonio, Texas (1978), 282-96.
The removal and destruction of viruses by wastewater treatment unit proc-
esses and by anaerobic digestion of sludges are reviewed and discussed.
V T
Stagg. C. H., Wallis, C., Ward, C. H., Gerba, C. P. (1978). Chlorination of
Solids-Associated Coliphages. PROG WATER TECHNOL, 1O(1-2):381-7.
33
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Solids-associated coliphages in sewage effluents were more resistant to
chlorination in a treatment plant than freely suspended coliphages were.
Laboratory studies showed that most of the solids-associated phages were
adsorbed to the surfaces of the sewage solids.
ex
Stern, G., Farrell, J. B. Sludge Disinfection Techniques. In “Composting of
Municipal Residues and Sludges,” Proceedings of the 1977 National Con-
ference, August 23-s. Information Transfer, Inc., Rockville, Maryland
(1978), 142-8.
In a study of the disinfection of wastewater sludges, 33% of the indigenous
viruses survived storage for 24 weeks, at 4 C, and <3% survived such storage for
eight weeks.
ay u’x
Teltsch, B., Katzenelson, E. (1978). Airborne Enteric Bacteria and Viruses from
Spray Irrigation with Wastewater. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 35(2):290-6.
Coliforms aerosotized during spray irrigation were detected 20 m downwind of
the sprinklers when the concentration of the organisms in the wastewater was
l0 / ml or more. The numbers of viable coilforms in the air increased when relative
humidity increased. The numbers of bacteria in the air, however, were reduced by
solar radiation. The numbers of bacteria detected in aerosols were up to 10 times
greater during night irrigation than during day irrigation.
Wind velocity did not affect the survival of aerosolized bacteria.
Echovirus 7 was recovered from 4 of 12 air samples collected 40 m downwind
of the sprinkler.
“lox
Vaughn, J. M., Landry, E. F., Baranosky, L. J., Beckwith, C. A., DahI, M.
C., Delihas, N. C. (1978). Survey of Human Virus Occurrence in Waste water-
Recharged Groundwater on Long lsland. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL,
36(1):47-51.
For a period of one year, treated wastewater effluents and groundwater
observation wells from three sewage recharge installations located on Long Island
were assayed monthly for human enteroviruses and coliform bacteria.
Echoviruses, 9, 12, 21, 24, and 25 and some unidentified viruses were detected in
groundwaters at sites where recharge basins were located less than 35 feet (ca.
10.6 m) above an aquifer. The numbers of viruses recovered ranged to 10.6
PFU/gallon (3.8 liters). The MPN of fecal coliforms recovered from the well water
sample that contained 10.6 PFU of viruses/gallon was <3/100 ml.
Results from one of the sites indicated horizontal transfer of viable viruses
through the aquifer.
V
Vorobyeva, A. M., Kulskiy, 1. A. Muzychuk, N. T., Matskevich, V. S. (1978).
Study of the Complex Effect of Electric Current and Sodium Hypoch/orite on
Viruses in Water. GIG SANIT, 0(2):98 100. Russian.
After exposure to electric current, the sensitivity of coxsackieviruses A21 and
B6 to sodium hypochlorite (NaOCI) increased. When first subjected to a current of
60 V/cm for three minutes, both viruses were destroyed about 50 times more
quickly by NaOCI than they were when not first exposed to the current.
In the presence of 82 mg of lanthanum chloride (LaC6)/liter, an electric cur-
rent of 60 V/cm destroyed both viruses slowly.
34
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A
Walter, R.. Bagdasaryan, G. A., Rudiger, S., tovtsevich, E. L., Lepachina.
N. K. (1978). Comparative Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Two Methods for
Concentrating Viruses from Surface Water and Potable Water. Z GES WiG,
24(8):598-601. German.
Seeded poliovirus 1 (LSc) was recovered from potable waters better by ad-
sorption to an ion exchange resin (A8-17-8) than by alum flocculation.
However, alum flocculation proved superior to the resin for recovering the
virus from seeded surface waters.
7
Ward, R. L., Ashley, C. S. (1978). Comparative Effects of Ammonia and Related
Compounds on Poliovirus. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL. 36(1):198-200.
Ammonia and related compounds inactivated poliovirus 1 (Chat) at pH 9.5 in
the following order of activity: ethylamine>proPvlamine. dimethylamine, methyl-
amine>ammonia>2 meth0XetWami e.
YQ
Ward, R. L., Ashley. C. S. (1978). Heat Inactivation of Enteric Viruses in
Dewatered Wastewater Sludge. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIOL, 36(61:898-905.
The protective effect of raw sludge on poliovirus 1 (Chat) was enhanced in
sludge dewatered by evaporation. Other enteroviruses were similarly protected.
The state of dryness of the sludges did not seem to be important because in
humus-deficient soil, a relatively inert material, dewatering did not alter signif i-
candy the rate of inactivation of poliovirus by heat. Substances in the sludge, such
as detergents, which are concentrated by dewatering seemed to be responsible for
the protection.
The ionic detergents in raw sludges accelerated the rate of inactivation of
reovirions by heat. Dewatering of sludge partially reversed this virucidal effect.
This reversal was brought about by an unidentified protective substance in sludge
also concentrated by dewatering.
The effects of raw sludges on inactivation of poliovirions and reovirions by
heat were greatly reduced by composting, a result that correlated with the
degradation of detergents.
,YQ
Ward, R. L., Ashley, C. S. (1978). Identification of Detergents as Components of
We ste water Sludge that Modify the Thermal Stability of Reo virus and
Enteroviruses. APPL ENVIRON MICROBIO I-, 36(6):889-97.
An agent in wastewater sludge that reduced the heat required to inactivate
reovirus 3 (Dearing) possessed an infrared spectrum similar to the spectra of com-
mercial anionic detergents. Analyses of fractionated sludge samples demonstrated
that anionic detergents in sludge were copurified with its virucidal activity.
Ionic detergents reduced the heat required to inactivate reovirions. Cationic
detergents were more effective than anionic detergents. Nonionic detergents were
inactive. Several detergents protected poliovirus 1, poliovirus 2, and cox-
sackievirus B1 against inactivation by heat.
Ionic detergents appear to be the major component in wastewater sludge that
reduce the thermal stability of reovirions and increase the thermal stability of
enteroviruse s.
35
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Q
Wellings, F. M.. Lewis, A. L.. Mountain, C. W. Assessment of Health Risks
Associated wdth Land Disposal of Municipal Effluents and Sludge. Jn “Pro-
ceedings of the Conference on Risk Assessment and Health Effects of
Land Application of Municipal Wastewater and Sludges,” edited by B. P.
Sagik and C. A. Sorber. Center for Applied Research and Technology,
University of Texas, San Antonio, Texas (1978), 168-79.
Land disposal of effluents and sludges pose a risk to human health. The
magnitude of that risk, however, cannot be assessed with the technics available
today. Therefore, before discharging effluents and sludges to the land, especially
in vulnerable areas, efforts should be directed towards reducing the numbers of
viruses in those effluents and sludges to undetectable levels.
dOLMO
Weilings, F. Pt, Mountain, C. W. , Lewis, A. L. Virus in Groundwater. In “In-
dividual Onsite Wastewater Systems,” Proceedings of the Second National
Conference, 1975, edited by N. I. McClelland. Ann Arbor Science
Publishers. Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan (1977), 61-6.
Fifty-one cases of enterovirus disease, probably waterbome, occurred ex-
plosively in a migrant labor camp in Florida in March 1975. Fifteen cases of
hepatitis A occurred in the same population with onset of the first cases about six
weeks after the onset of the enterovirus outhreak.
Echovirus 22/23 was recovered by membrane filtration technics from 1 of 20
100-gallon samples of the camp’s drinking water. The water contained a chlorine
residual of 0.4 to 0.6 mg/liter. Water samples were not tested in newbom mice.
Fecal coliforms were not recovered in standard tests.
Echovirus 22/23 and coxsackieviruses A2 and A6 were recovered from fecal
cultures of patients.
The private utility that supplied the water obtained its raw waters from six 35
to 40 foot-deep wells. One of these wells was located approximately 100 feet from
a solid waste disposal area and the other five were located in the center of an area
served by septic tanks. Water pumped from the wells was chlorinated before
distribution.
Yapijakis, C. (1978). RX for /120. WATER S WASTES ENGRG. 15(5):33-7.
The destruction of viruses by disinfectants is briefly discussed within a review
of drinking water disinfection.
36
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AUTHOR INDEX
Authoc
Abadie, M. G. 15
Ah LR 2
Aizen, M. S - 1,19
Akin, E. W 2,18
Albrecht, H 2
Aliberti, F 26
Ando, A 13
Anonymous 1
Ashley, C. S 35
Beer, G. M 2
Bagdasaryan, G. A 3,35
Balluz, S. A 3
Baranosky, 1. J 34
Barja, J. I 6
Baross, J. A 3
Basson, N. C 17
Bateman, B. W 16
Bates, A. C 3
Becker-Birck, J 4
Bechwith, C. A 34
Bedford, A. J 4
Bellamy, A. R 4
Ben-An, H 20
Berg, G 4,5
Berman, D 5
Bemardez, I 6
Berry,J.W 6
Betzen, N 20
Bianchetti, A 26
Bitton, G 6,11
Block, J.-C 6,7
Bouteille, M 13
Braude, G 7
Brown, E. G 9
Brown, G. A 5
Brown, K. W 7
Burbank, N. C., Jr 20
Barge, W. D 7
Burger, J. S 16
Butler, M 3
Camann, D. E 8,19
Canison, S 8
Carnick, H. J 33
Chang, S.-L 18
Chaudhuri, M 8
Chomel, J.-J 14
Cliver, D. 0 8,20
Comeau, R 24
Conklin, H. H 11
Cook, B 9
Page Costin, L 25
Cottet, J 9
Cronier, S 9
Dahl,M.C
34
DeWing, 0. A
S
Danglot, C
29
Deese, P. L
23
De Flora, S
27
Delihas, N. C
34
Deinhardt, F. W
27
Derbyshire, J. B
9
Drapeau, A. J
10
Drozdov, S. G
19
DuPont, H. L
iT
Edmond, 1. D 10
Englebrecht, R. S 10
Enkiri, N. K 7
Ericksen, T. H 18
Evison, L. M 10
Farrah, S. R 11,14,18
Farrell, J. B 34
Fattal, B 28
Floyd, H 12
Foliguet, J. -M 6 ,7
Foamier, J.-G 13
Francis, 0. W 21
Fujioka, A. S 13,20
Furuse, K 13
Gargiulo, E 26
Gartner, H 14
Gaudin, O.-G 14,23
Gerba, C. P. 10,11,14,15,18,24,32,33
Gifford, G. E 6
Glass, 3. S 15
Glennon, J. P 8,19
Goldberg, 0 28
Goyal, S. M 11,14,15
Grabow, W. 0. K 16,17
Greening, E. 0 10
Grigoryeva, L. V 17
Hacker, D. S 17
Hasseibarth, U 8
Hartingh, W. H. J 17
Havemeister, G 4
Hetrick, F. M 18
Hirashima, A 13
Ho,H.H 30
Hughes, M- B 1 ?
37
-------
Hurst,C.J. 18
lonescu, N. 25
Jakubowski, W . 2,18
Jensen, H. R . 33
Johnson, D. E 8,19
Johnson,J.D 12
Jones, H. H 3
Joret, J.-C 6,7
Josephson, E. S 28
Kalbo, R 26
Katsuki, M 13
Katzenejson, E 19,26,28,34
Kazantseva, V. A 1,19
Kedmi, S 19
Keswick,B.H 20
Kodkind, G. K 19
Korchak,G.l 17
Kostenbader, K. 0., Jr 20
Kott, V 20
Koya, K. V. A 8
Kulskiy, L. A 34
Lakhe, S. B 27
Lance, J. C 15
Landry, E. F 21,34
Larkin, E. P 21,27
Lennette, E. H 30
Lepachina, N. K 35
Lewis, A. L 36
Lim, A. L 32
Lippy, E. C 18
Liston, J 3
Lockowitz, I 17
Loh, P. C 13,20
Longley, K. E 22
Lovett, J 21
Lovtsevich, E. L 35
Lucas, J. B 2
Lucena-Gutierrez, F 30
Mack,W.N 22
Mahnel, H 22,23
Malina, J. E., .Jr 23
Mann, A. W 23
Matskevich, V. S 34
Medar,D 26
Melnick, J. L. .. 11,14,15,18,23,24,32
Meley, B 14,23
Metcalf, T. G 5,24
Middendorl, I. G 17
Miele, R. P 31
Miller, F. P 24
38
Monteith, C 6
Mooney, R 24
Moore, B. E 24
Mora, B 6
Morita, R. V 3
Morlot, M 6,7
Mountain, C. W 36
Muzychuk, N. T 34
Nestor, I
Newaskar, L. D
Nezu, N
Nielson, N. E
Pahren, H. R 2
Pancorbo, 0 6
Paquin, G 10
Parrella, A 26
Pavilanis, V 26
Payment, P 26
Peleg, M 26
Peterson, 0. A 27
Petrilli, F. L 27
Pietri, C
Plissier, M 18
Ponomareva, L. V 17
Ramia, S
Rao, V. C
Riggs, J. L
Rousset, S
Rowley, 0. B
Rudiger, S
Ruiter, G. G
Ryther, J. H
Sadovski, A. V 28
Sagik, B. P 7,8,19,24,29,33
Sakurai, T 13
Salo, R. J 8
Sarrette, B 29
Sattar,S.A 29
Scarpino, P. V 930
Schaiberger, G. E 10
Schmidt, N. J 30
Schwartzbrod, L 30
Selna, M. W 31
Shaffer, P. T. B 3,6,31
Sharp, D. G 12
Shuval, H. 1 26,28,31
Slade, J. S 31
Slowey, J. F 7
Smith, E. M 11,32
Smith, J. W 32
Sobsey, M. D 33
25
25
26
26
29
27
30
13
28
35
28
24
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Sohn, F. W. 8
Sorber, C. A. 7,8,19,24,29,33
Sovrea, D . 25
Sng, E. H 32
Sprout, 0. J 33
Sriramulu, N 8
Stagg, C. H 15,33
Steinmann, J 4
Stern, G 34
Strauch, D 2
Sullivan, R 21,28
Sutherland , S. M 3
Vaccaro, R. F 23
Vachha, S. M 25
Van Donsel, D 21
Van Sluis, R. J 15
Vaughn, J. M 21,34
Viac, J 14
Vicale, T. J 21
Vidwans, A. H 25
Vilagines, R 29
Vinokur, L 20
Vorobyeva, A. M 34
Waghmare, S. V 27
Walker, J. A 2
Walter, R 35
Wallis, C 11,14,24,33
Ward, C. H 33
Ward, R. L 35
Watanabe, I 13
Wellings, F. M 36
Westwood, J. C. N 29
Williams, G 4
Wolf, 0. C 24
Wolf, H. W 7
Wolfe, L. G 27
Yager, P. A 2
Yanko, W. A 15
Yapijakis, C 36
Yuen,W.S 32
Zink, M. L 9
Zotova, V. I 3
Teltsch, B
Thomas, M. Z
Tierney, J. T
Toranzo, A. E
Torres, M. J.-P
Trudelet, M
34
21
21
&
18
25
39
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SUBJECT INDEX
Each subject category listed on this page is coded by a Greek letter to simplify the
identification of abstracts that contain information that relates to that category. To
use the subject index, note the pages listed for the category, and read those
abstracts marked by the Greek letter that codes for the category.
Abstracts that are marked by more than one Greek letter contain information
in more than one subject category.
COde Subject Page
a Aerosols 8,19,34
fi Bathing Waters 1,15,31
y Disinfection
1,3,4,5,8,9,10,12,13,17, 18,20,22,23,25,26,27,28 ,29,32,33,34,35,36
6 Epidemiology 2,5,16,23,25,36
t Fish 24
Food 2,8,20,21,24,28
ip General 3,21,24,27,29,30
B Hepatitis A 2,14,25,27,36
i Indicators . . .1,2,4,5,7,8,9,10,14,15,16,17,19,20,22,24,27,28,29,30,32,34,36
A Methodology 1,6,7,11,13,14,15,18,19,21,23,26,27,29,30,31,32,33,35
a Recovery from Drinking Water 6,16,18,22,25
p Recovery from the Environment
7,9,10,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,24,25,27,28,29,32,33,34,36
v Removal by Treatment Processes
1,2,3,4,6,8,10,11,13,15,16,17,20,23,24,26,29,32,33
Review 7,9,10,14,18,23,24,26,27,29,32,33,36
o Rotaviruses 11
it Shellfish 1,3,4,14,15,24,27,31,33
Q Sludges 2,5,6,7,15,18,21,24,25,29,33,34,35,36
o Soils 7,8,9,15,20,21,24,34,36
r Solids 15,18,27,32,33
u Solid Wastes 33
+ Standards and Criteria 1,16,31
x Survival 2,13,14,18,19,20,21,28,32,34
40
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(P/ease read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO. [ 2.
EPA-600/9-80-018
3. RECIPIENT’S ACCESSIOI*NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Viruses in Waste, Renovated and Other Waters
1978 Literature Abstracts
5. REPORT DATE
January 1980
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Gerald Berg, Editor
F. Dianne White, Editorial Assistant
S. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
IPERFORMING ORGAN1ZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Biological Methods Branch
Environmental Monitoring & Support Laboratory-Cl
ERC, Cincinnati, USEPA
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
A38B1D
11.CDNTRACT/GRANTNO.
In House
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Monitoring & Support Laboratory-Cl
Office of Research and Development
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati,_Ohio_45268
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COvERED
Literature Review - 1978
14,SFONSDRINGAGENCYCOOE
EPA/ ooo/ 06
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
The volume comprises the abstracts of the published papers and books on
viruses in waste, renovated, and other waters for 1978.
1 . KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OFEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
*Viruses Waste water, Water, Sewage
13B
19.DGTRIBUTION STATEMENT
•
Release Unl inn ted
—
19. SECURITY CLASS (Thiskeport ;
UNCLASSIFIED
21. ND. OF PAGES
43
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
41
* U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING O$EICE:1980--657-165/0155
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