Emergency Response Procedures for
Control of Hazardous Substance Releases
Rockwell International, Newbury Park, CA
Prepared for
Municipal Environmental Research Lab.
Edison, NJ
1983
PB84-L28719
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EPA-600/D-84-023
1983
EMERGENCY RESPONSE PROCEDURES FOR
CONTROL OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE RELEASES
by
Robert W. Mel void
Rockwell International
Newbury Park, CA 91320
Leo T. McCarthy, Jr.
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Aqency
Edison, No 08837
MUNICIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OH 45268
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fflivi . IcOd InzZructw,,s O i l tile reverse ce/we onipsennpj
17
.__L______________________
PROCEDURES FOR CONTROL
RELEASES
3 RECIPtENT S ACCESSIOINO
PB84 12871 9
5 RE ORT DATE
6.PhRFORMINGOROANIZATIONCOOE
Leo 1. McCarthy, Jr.
B. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPONT NO.
NAME AND ADDRESS
Dr.
10 PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
CBRD1A
1I.CONTRACYIGRANTNO
68—03-30 14
A iOAODPESS -.
Research Laboratory-Cm., Oil
Development
Protection Agency
13 TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Paper
14.SPONSORINO AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/ 14
T. McCarthy, Jr. (201) 321—6629
Is provided f r selecting the best spill stabilization controls for
substances regulated by the Coinprenensive Environmental Response.
Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA). Guidance is provided for the
of the iirvnediate removal phase (Phase Ill of the National
Subpart F). Initial or emergency response Is defined as the
control required in the early stages of a release to halt further
released substance on the public and the environment. Spill
methods are identified as feasible for use in initial response
Information is also provided n the onsite assessment of spill severity.
precautionary measures, determination of response effectiveness and
tn.Eial response. To adeq.iately provide relevant guidance for almost
chemicals covered in the Study, a hazardous substance classification
developed based on (1) a substances chemical and physical peoperties, and
hazard potential to the public, to the workers, and to the
All substances that ganerally behave similarly upo” release, based on
and chemical propertIes, are plai.ed within a specific class.
suostances (within a class’ that exhibit .imilar hazards upon release
the same subclass. Subcl,ss-speclf 4 c gi.idance Is qiven In individual
cnarts that prcvide the user with Informition on associated personnel
and control options available for releases of chemicals from each
KEY WORDS ANO DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
b IOENTIFIERS,OPEN ENDED TERMS
C. COSATI Ficlil/Gioup
— i9 S CURITV CLASS i1liiRepoit
UNCLASSIFIED
20 SECuRITY CLASS (Thi:p çe 1 —
21 NO OF PAGES
27
22 PRiCE
UNCLASSIFIED
EPA Fo,m 2220-I 5.73)
i
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NOTICE
This document has been reviewed in accordance with
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency polcy and
approved for publication. Mention of trade names
or commercial products does not constitute endorse-
ment or recommendation for use.
11
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Paper for 1934 Razardous Material Spills Conference
Nashville, TN, April 9—12, 1984
Emergency Response Procedures for
Control of Razardous Substance Releases 1
by
Robert W. Melvold
Environmental and Energy Systems Division
Rockwell International
Newbury Park, CA 91320
and
Leo T. McCarthy, Jr.
Oil and Eazardous Materials Spills Branch
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Edison, NJ 08837
ABSTRACT
Information La prc vided for selecting the best spill stabilization
controls for hazardous substances regulated by the Comprehensive Environmental.
Response, Compensation and Liability Act of 3980 (CERCI.A). Guidance is
provided for the initial response of the 1-smediate removal phase (Phase III of
the National Contingency Plan, Subpart F). Initial or omergency response is
defined as the stabilization or control required in the early stases of a
release to halt further impact of the released substance on the public and the
environment. Spill stabilization methods are identif Led as feasible for u e
in initial response efforts. Information La also provided on the ansite
assessment of spill severity, application of precautionarY measures,
determination of response effectiveness and termination of initial response.
1. The work reported herein was performed by Versar, Inc., Springfield, VA,
dnder U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Contract No. 68—03—3014,
Subcontract No. NZ52003Z 1CX with Rockwell International Corporation,
Environmental Mo itoring 6. Sevices Center, Newbury Park, CA. Maution of
trade names, cos ercial products, or organizations does not constitute
endorsement or recenmendation for •use by the U.S. Government, Rockwell
International or Versar, The.
I
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To adequately provide relevant guidance for almost 500 CERCLA chemicals
covered in the study, a hazardous substance classification system was
developed based on (1) a eubstance’s chemical and physical properties, and (2)
a substance’s hazard potential to the public, to the workers, and to the
environment. All substances that generally behave similarly upon release,
based ontheLr physical and chemical properties, are placed within a specific
class. Additionally, sub tauces (within a class) that exhibit similar hazards
upon relesee are placed in the same subclass. Subclass—specific guidance is
given in individual spill response charts that provide the user with
information on associated personnel safety hazards and control options
available for releases of chemicala from each subclass.
IflTRODUCTL OK
ACtioft guides for response to hazardous substance spill incidents
typically stress decision—making with specif it reference to explosions, fire
control, and personnel safety or the threat thereof. Environmental
consequences are not usually factored into the decision-making process. This
paper describes an approach to provide information to assist first—on—scene
personnel, such as firefighters, in their decision—making processes at
hazardous substances incidents, particularly those in which no explosion,
fire, or severe safety threat is involved, but -hich nevertheless endanger the
environment.
EVAL AT1O OF CON RCL 1 ’ TR0DS
Approach
The candidate spill control methods were evaluated for their
effectiveness in protecting life, prup rty and the environment by stabtlizir.g
a chemical spUl. The objectivc of the evaluation was to examine each
method’s ability to meet seincted performance and practicality criteria.
2
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Using this comparative approach, countermeasures that meet the criteria and
are applicable for first response, excluding methods that are distinctly u.ged
for cleanup and disposal, were evaluated.
The evaluation does not rank the selected methods according to ultimate
effectiveoess because the overall superiority of a particular oethod is
significantly influenced by site—specific conditions that vary. However, the
degree of danger posed by the chemical itself is included in the evaluation,
while site specific variables such as the volume and location of the spill,
topography, and meteorological conditions are examined aince they vi ii
ultimately determine the best method fcr a particular spill.
Matrices were developed to consider spillcd subst aaces in various
physical and chemical states on land and in water. Because not all methods
apply to both media and because certain methods are designed to control
medium—specific behavior, the following four spill scenarios were used:
o Substances on land.
o Insoluble floating substances in water.
o Insoluble sinking substances in water.
o Soluble substances in ter.
The criteria are based on a method’s (1) degree of risk to response pers nnel,
(2) ability to Limit damage to public health and to the environment, (3)
se’ cndary effects of use on the environment and effects on future cleanuç, (4)
availability of equipment, materials and, if necessary, trained personnel, (5)
speed of application, and (6) usefulness in different weather and topographic
c3nditions. The criteria used to evaluate emergency spill coi.rwermeasures for
releases on land are described in more detail in Table 1. Similar criteria
were adopted accordingly to accommodate the other three spill scenarios.
3
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J4% L d J. • ‘.4 .L £.C.L JJt U J ¼J C.V.%&.A ItLr. ‘.L’L&L .J j ‘.AI lI%#
PU cRr IA
I. Ability to Limit Dai qe to wironrrent and Public Healih
A. Pron tes stabilization of substances on surface. Stabilization may
involve a contairment technique which controls spreading, prevents
entrance to public water sources and se rs and loca.U zes the
substance so it can be cleaned up. Stabilization could also be
a i lis1 by a non-contairrient technique which may dilute or
alter the nature of the substance.
B. Pr rotes abi1 i tion of substance bel the surface by preventing
penetration into the ground, thereby avoiding entrance into ground
water.
C. Pra ctes stabilization of substance in the ata sphere by inhibiting
volafil i
II. Effect of Use
A. Will not produce negative secondary aesthetio effects on the
envi ent (e.g., unsightly residuals) or negative iiTçacts,
in Taiiate or long erin, on flora or fauna.
B. Will not cause repercussions that intensify ciean efforts. Is
capable of being r roved after stabilization. T es not sigeificantly
increase voiu e of ste material.
PR I LlT
III. Dejree of Risk to Response Personnel
A. Sa e to tploy by es nse personnel. Does not require response
personnel to be inu iate.ly close to spill. Does not create
additional hazardous corxiitions. (Dangers fz t the chenical. itself
are r t considered, only the safety involved in the deploynent and
u Se Of the net1 ).
IV. Av ii1th ility of Required uiprent, Materials, and, Where Necessary,
Thairl Perscnnel .
A. ! ipient (inclt ing ii ovised syst ) and materials are readily
av i1able 95% of the tiae, considering: (1) the need for trained
personnel to use the equipnent and/or materials, and (2) the relia-
bility and repairability of equiptent.
V. Speed of pplicatiai
A. Tire required for stabilization of a 10-500 gallon spill is generally
]fl z. (Assun ptions: effort involves 3-5 pecple ax the tire
limitation does not involve gathering of equipnent, materials, and
trained personnel, if necessary.)
VI. Useful ness in Different Weather and grathic Conditions
A. Not affected by wind, precipitation, and/or air t perature. Not
affected by t ography, i.e •, slope of land, per abi.lity of soil,
and hardness of ground.
4
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Although an actual spill incident will always involve a unique set of
variables, a hypothetical situation was devised tc create a uniform
comparative measure for the evalt.ation. Certain assunptions were made:
o The substance has the potential to spread on the
surf ce, to penetrate the ground, to disperse in
water, and to volatilize.
o The substance is not on fire when response
personnel arrive.
o The substance is not so acutely toxic to response
personnel that it eliminates all possible stabilization
procedures.
o The spill volume is between 1.0 and 500 gallons.
o Response effort involves 3 to 5 people.
Results
Using the criteria descrLbed above, emergency spill coswtermeasures were
evcluated on the basis of all available information.
Separate consideration was given to both performance (Criteria I, It) and
practicality (Criteria LII, IV, V, Vt). Candidate methods were then
classified into three general categoriest
A. Raconnended methods
3. Methods recommended in special cases
C. Generally unsuitable methods
The categories and their respective methods are presented in Table . Methods
in Category A met most or all of the criteria and were judged high in both
performance and practicality. Methods in Category B were judged high in
5
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8TZ 2. 9WTtC p
Uaa Loni
InaoLL lo Floaters
Inioluble Sü Wers
U ter
Soluble Subsw
to
8. Th t o.
fl crc rotein, al tol or
ut factanta).
S ia ti.c ta (e.g.,
p,Jy ’l e, tythyL ).
14&o a. (e.g..
.icu1.ite, Jyp , —diiit.
lu tty b ttir, b ta).
z rci l toctive s.
certain oauoraUieri (.of a
aah.
i i b cart at.,
ciai id a caaatic
eraLiz g agerta .
deei for t!
ka ( inq eert or
1açc uin iaLs).
Di a ( uq - - 1
ZJnizig or
plaattc, if t3.bLe
with h.zaz mtsw ).
ter aptay or føg with
ta ct.
(e.g., AFI?. p vta .n,
f1L cpota.1n. s z—
fact nts).
.
N aLizat a (s a ash,
Lis st e • r r a , a t
bic arb ata a L C1 1
ac 4 az uatic uersi-
L nq ‘ s a fi .Lly
d uç i for t ose.
iral (e.g., ver-
uLita, IaW L t).
Synt tic erz t pta, mti
(e.g.. y—
e yl ).
t r fls i ba s.
(with earth , i-
oviamd. or iLLy
aveilabl estermals) to
divert C of t.
FtL f .
I’ba’ (e.g., AFFF.
Dz tein. fit zvpzvvaiJ ,
• surf actants).
Cert n oau li r,
(l.iz u2i , &L te,
soda ash, bicar-
ba ata, erereiai acid
aid uaUc neueraLiz
agetta specificaUy
— for t e so
Precipitattoa aid
Overflow bar er,.
Dikes to divert flow (w .th
earthan, r sid, or
ercially available
taria.Ls).
Filtt. fsoce..
etkcd
Cslatiat.
will terdthq mnq
Dilutioa with taan-
d
Dilutiso with itaimsit.
rent.
aUy
Iin-aiW.i burial.
cis ng
aiial
bla
i1 .
Foasbi eta dikes.
L itiati n of burning.
Cytog5 s.
yogens
Thzwiq
c.-.- L . .qL t
& .rt.. .t- x n
6
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either perfornance or practicality, but not both. Although methods in
Category B are generally more limited in overall usefulness than those in
Category A, they may be appropriate in a specific spill situation. For
example, a first responder may reco nize that because of iemedia%e ssf .y
considerations, tim, is not available for a high performance method (e.g.,
pumping) and therefore a more immediately practical ns:hod (e.g., dilution
with contaimsent) would better appiy. It should be noted that combinations of
emergency cotmtermeaaures such as diking with pumping and excLvation, can be
employed by emergency response petsonnel as conditions varrant. Methods in
Category C did not meet most criteria and were not judged high in either
performance or practicality. Methods in both Categories A and B, but not
those in Category C, have been incorporated Late spill response charte
designed for groupings of CERCLA hazardous substances based on
phyalco—chemical properties and hazard potentials.
Development of response charts
The CERCLA hazardous substances were grouped into class/Subclass
categories based on physical/chemical properties that determine their mobility
in the environnent and the specific hazardous conditions created in the event
of a spill. The characteristics and properties used to classify the cEP.CLL
hazardous substances are the class properties of reactivity, solubility,
density and volatility that predetermine a substance’s immediate disposition
upon release into the environs and the subclase properties of toxicity,
flaability/combustibility, persistence, and corrosivity that predetermine a
released substanee’s potential impact on life, property and the environment.
Class and subclass designations are listed in Table %.
Approximately 50 subclass—specific Emergency esponse Charts which
present safety and emergency environmental response information have been
7
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‘ .BtZ 3 • A I 2? JS SL BS’rPIZ ca t7J2’XcN
S ±c1azs
. Highly to,o.c, persistent, r n-
corr sa .e.
B. Highly tc dc, persi. tertt,
us .ve.
C. Highly toxfc, n-çersistezv,
r -a rxoeive.
D. Highly ti , n -persistent,
rzx sive.
E. dc • pesistent, z-
. rzosive.
?. ‘Xtisic, persistent, corrosive.
G. 1 dc, n x1-persiStEflt, z —
H. 1b a.c, - ersa.stent, w s xe.
I. Highl ’ persistent,
b ist ge, u -corrosive.
3. Highly persistent,
carb itibLe, corrosive.
K. Highly to,d.c, r -persistent ,
cizthustthie, ix n-corrosive.
L. Highly rx n-persiste t.
irbustible, corrosive.
N. 1 ,d.c, persistent, . tible,
r ,n-corrosive.
N. mdc, persistent, cxmbustib].e,
cC ,S V .
0. c, rx t-persictent, cathustible,
rx n-ccrrosive.
P • ‘ro d.c, i t- e.rsistent, ca b stible,
corrcs .cie.
Class
I. Daigexix sly reactive with
volatile.
II. I ngerousJ .y reactive with ater,
rxm—vnlatile.
III. Soluble, volatile.
IV. Soluble, n-volatile.
V. Insoluble, volatile, ficater.
VI. Insoluble, volatile, si.*er.
VII. Insoluble, i -vclatile six ker.
VIII. Insoluble, r ,n-volatile, floater.
EC. Gases
8
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developed for almost 500 CERCLA substances. The generalized safety
precautiona and emergency response techniques listed on each chart are based
on conmon physical/chemical and environmental hazard characteristics of
chemicals in the respective subclass. Some charts pertain to more than one
subclass of chemicals because similar responses are involved. ha exaaple of a
response chart is given in Pigure 1. Generalized pbysica / chemical and
environmental hazard properties are hated for the subclass. For subclasses
vith ten chemicals or fever, all chemicals are listed; for those with move
than ten, only selected representative examples are given.
Each chart is then divided into two sections. Section A des’rlbee
general safety hazards anil recosends a safety equipment level and protection
for response personnel. Section B highlights significant potential
environmental hazards along with requisite precautions, and describes
prioritized effective stabihizati n techniques for spills on land and in
water.
CENCY RESPONSE PROCEDURES
The following steps shoild be taken during the emergency phase of a spill
reoponse so that effective stabilization of the spill can be achieved with
minimal risk to the first responder and the environment. Onc the spill
report infoi.-matior identifying the hazardous iubatance has been received, the
following steps should be taken by the first responders:
1. Determine Safety Hazards (Uce Response Charts)
2. Determine Severity of Spill
3. Apply Precautionary Measures
4. Stabilize Release Situation
a Stop Release
b Control Release (Use Response Charts)
9
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x* B
mill SI h41 4 zatiat ? t s
DO ! F Z4 a4 IAL. ._ F 1 ZL
? C W L JEcTS. DO tvr APP1 O SPUL 1
L. A 4th
. .Lal a t3
2. Use r al aoti tive
3. Dig an vati at if a na zal
ttaiz tt area i.e r t prea .t
4. iL1d a dike t ing ercial
pr trts av 1 i 1 — . or
ear or irçrcv,.ead iaia
5. ver ttai.r tt axes w .th a
tarp or plastic st
or
6. sal gsU .nq agent
7. Neu a1.i.ze with
Lirms a s, i.tm
e a ash, or a
nt
Des pillow., se , or p I blodc
es e ar en ar vet ys. Use . arl3. _ t 6 sm—
epiU. en s flow.
Des n n 1ae, . ains, az ts n will
vicinity or ut path of flow.
(Difficult if gi is haxd. P y be i ffort . i.ve
at tery pazuui stts aess n. t as 5az .)
Use en divert men a tairssett axes. Use en divert
y frat s e ard other daz areas. Use en
ttaut eptLL. (t gi w y paevent ing an
eert ) % dike. Po1yt ethan. dikee esy be i.neffertive
at atid ar vet eur aate.) CO U AL4Y L
Dn .
Fsp *1 ly eftij at wardy days en pae’antt dispersiat.
P1 c er araz spilt. Ptet effecti”. for ll
spills.
t ffertive w es spill is nai.n . (Lizes
be 2.z ffectwe buuse of slow reectiat tixe).
.
1. Neu a1ize with
Lisest wia. s it bLcarbatate.
a ash, or a sercia1
au a
t bst e.ff tivs w ert s .U is ttained wt t spiLt
is si.dar b1y Lar than of ve it a.nteraeta
wath. (Li. ..st .e ray be ineffective be uxe of slow
reecti tire.) XZ A W .
Claas/S class a - b. I
I/B .C
Pronerties ; Dar wsly reactive with vetar • volatile, higrily enxi.c. atatosive • flwiriable
or ray pa txe flemeble ard paiscrtoua vapare especiaLly in tbe paes of
or netals.
fl ni js; ?irs’euc ?rid lonide, P s r cydloride
fIQ A Safety ffazards
o Poiea i if inhaled, or ab itad thraxh skin.
o Liquid ard vapers hi* tly irritating en skin ard eyes.
Level of Protectiat (See Page 37) - A
(See Paos 143)
10
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5. Assess Effectiveness of Response
6. Terminate Emergency Response
Safety hazaYda identification
Using Response Cba t Section A (see Figure 1) general safety hazards
associated with a particular CIA class/subclass can be identifed. The
safety of the public and personnel ri sponding to a hazardnus material spill is
of the utmost ls.portance. After securing the public safety, the next concern
of response personnel øhould be to define the hazards involved as quickly,
safely, and completely as possible. Once the haza doua chemical is
identified, the api 11 response personnel should follow proper safety
procedures and utilize protective equipment appropriate for use in and around
a spill of that specific hazardous substance. Wear prope: breathing apparatus
and protective gear if it is necessary to approach the hazardous substance
spill. Generally, backup support should be present before entering a
contaminated area. Care should be exercised around torn and twisted
structural materials, resulting frun wrecks of transport vehicles or
explosions at installations, to avoid cutting or teeriug protective clothing
or snagging breathing apparatus on such debris. Furthermore, until the
hazards can be better defined, it is best to approach a spill from upwind
aasuin3 worst—case ambient concentration of the substance.
Onsite assessment of spill severity
Once the spilled hazardous substance has been identified, and properties
determined, the spill’s severity should be assessed. The objective of the
onaite assessment is to determine the relativ . seriousness cf the situation
and the safety hazard to the public and the rorkers, provide input for
11
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selection of precautionary measures and release stoppage and control
techniques, and define the necessary resources (i.e., manpower and equipment)
for stabilization.
Three groups of variables contribute to the seriousness of a spill.
Basically, tt ese variables inciude (].) characteristics peculiar to the soilled
substance, (2) spill site topography and location and (3) local weather
conditions. Table 4 presents 13 variables to be considered when a spill’s
severity is being assessed. A combination of these conditions will be
encountered during most spills.
Class—The hazardous substance class determines two important spill
behavior patte. ns: (1) reactivity with water end (2) dispersion potential.
Since water in same form might be present at a spill site, the class
designation determines the potential for reaction with water to release toxic,
corrosive, or flan able vapors and fumais. Dispersion by volatilization into
the air or transport of soluble componeut in water columns is determined by
the substance’s evaporation rate, solubility in water and density.
Subclass—The hazardous substance subclass determines the substance’s
hazard potential with greater emphasis on toxicity and flaability than on
persistency and corrosivity characteristics.
Volume—The volume of spilled material directly influcoces: (1) the
spill dispersion range, (2) the extent of p ,3otble exposure, and (3) the
resources needed to stabilize the spill.
Physical State—The physical state of a substance largely determines its
limit of dispersion and its ease of stabiii ation. The air and ground
temperature, i 1 conjunction with the physical properties of the chemical, will
determine a substance’s physical state. When a solid is released onto land,
it will generally be contained within a small area, whereas a free flowing
12
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‘ & E 4. AL SPflL SEV ITt( CCII DtTIQ
Spill Pro erties Low Severity derate Severity High Severi
o Class VII, VIII III, IV, V 1 V I I, II, DC
o Subclass G,H,O,P C,0,E ,F,K,L ,M,N
o Vol 500 ll s 500—5,000 g 1k s 5,030 gallons
o Physical. Solid Sani-solid Free flowing,
State liquid, gases
o Fire !b fire tb fire present Fire present
present but thmtibLe
ography
o Nat a1 Present aid Present but bt present
Contaiim t sufficient insufficient
o Ground Low ( n r te Msth.in ( loose snil atgh (ooarse
surface as Mlt, clay) fizz said) sand, avel)
p1c 1 i ty
o Di 3tance to 500 feet 100—500 feet W..thin 100 feet,
sensitive or in texway
arn
o Ground Slope Flat ? exate ( 1O°) Stew C’20°)
at r
oAir O 1d Mi14
TOIçera 2re
o Precipitation l bne Light ! avy
o Wind S ed Calm L .ght High, gusty
o Wind direction frca ‘L iards sensitiv
sensitive areas aress
13
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liquid or gas will disp rse according to topography and weather conditions.
Fire — If a combustible or flammable substance is ignited upon release,
the severity of a spill greatly increases. New hazards such as spreading of
fire, smoke, and toxic fumes and explosions will become the primary safety
concerns ford. first responders.
Containment—In some spill. aituations natural r man—made containment
barriers way be present. This is especially true for in—plant storage and
loading operations at industrial facilities. Other spill sites way have
natural depressions, ditches, and dry stream beds which would greatly
facilitate containment and stabilization efforts.
Ground Surface Permeability—The permeability or porosity of the
underlying ground surface will determine the extent of downward movement of
the spilled substance. This, in turn, dictates the degree of control ‘ and
necessary eventual removal of contaminated material. The extent of downward
novenent can range from negligible on a concrete pad to eev’ ral feet through
sand and gravel within a brief period following a moderate—size spill.
Distat’ce to Sensitiv. Areas—Since a primary objective of a spill
respons a is to limit both the spread and the exposure of the public tc.
hararda, the location, distance and pathways to sensitive areas suc i as
vatervays, severs, and public areas, aust be determined. Once these are
known, steps can be taken to eiiminate or restrict the flow or spread of a
spilled substance along those routes that could jeopardize sensitive areas.
Ground Slope—For spills on land, the slope and draLnage of the spill
site wLi]. affect the dispersion of spilled liquids and soluble solids. A
relatively flat ground surface can accommodate a containment barrier easier
than a sloped surface. Also, in case of heavy rainfall, the runoff flows
generated by sloped ground can overflow minimal cc.ntainment structures.
14
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Air Temperature—i..xtreme temperatures can have either a positive or a
negative effect on control of a spilled subotance. Cold temperatures lover a
substance’s evaporation rate and increase a liquid’s viscosity. Freezing
temperatures will delay downward movement of liquids on frozen surfaces. On
the other bjnd, high teeperatures increase the rate of evaporation and
decrease a liquid’s viscosity.
Pr cipitation—Raiofall can have a positive influence on a spill by
reducing hazards via diluting concentrated substances which are soluble and
non—reactive with water. aowever this advantage may be outweighed by the
greeter increase in spill volume and subsequent containment requirements
arising from suc t dilution. Other negative impacts could be chemical reaction
with water, whether from rein or snow melt.
Wind Speed—Usually, wind speed is important when ire is present and/or
if flammable gases, toxic fumes, or smoke threatens public areas. Wind speed
also deter.n.ines the effectIveness of various stabilization techniques such as
fa, ms aed water mists. Usually, when winds are gusty, fire and/or fuies can
be spread over a large area making precise evacuat ion distance calculations
difficuLt and application of foams to control vapors ineffective, tight winds
can act ially help a spill response in dispersing fumes, bus reducing worker
exposure.
Wind Direction—Wind di’ection it of importance when fire,, tonic smuke,
fl able gases, or fumes are present and sensitive areas are dow!,wind of the
spill site. Wind direction also largely determines necessary areas of
evacuation.
Precautionary resoønse measures
Precautionary measures are initial actions taken during an emergency
response to minimize .:he threat to worker and public health and safety. Five
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gece’ral precautionary measures that need to be considered and implemented, if
required, after the spill severity has been determined are isolation of the
spill area, elimination of ignition sources, restriction of water use,
prevention of reactions between incompatible substances, and control of fire
at the spil’ site, if applicable.
Isolation of Spill Area— All spill sites need to be secured to eliminate
access by unauthorized persons. Even if the spill has already been contained
by natural barriers, exposure of persons to volatile emissions, which may be
toxic or flar abla, must be minimized. To secure the spill site the response
team should (I) seek assistance of local police for traffic and crowd control,
(2) re3triv t unauthorized entry into spill cite, (3) construct physLcal
barriers such as barricades and fencing, (4) poet Wo Adaittance signs at
entrances, (5) assign personnel responsible for site seenrity, and (6) inform
the public on radio/or television to avoid area, if warranted. In extreme
situations, temporary evacuation should be conaidered The final decision of
when and where to evacuate persons is critical, and many site—specific
considerations a e involved 2 . The decision requires the support of response
personnel and local officials. If evacuation is to be performed, responsible
parties should (1) implement contingency plan if available, (2) determine
movement of pltmie from spill site, (3) identify general threatened areas and
sensitive components, (4) seek assistance of local police and health 1 fire,
utility, and industry personnel, (5) notify and warn those persona affected in
2. Several references for calculation of evacuation distances include: (1)
the EPA Vla able Mazardous Substances Emergency Response Randbook: Control
and Safety Pr ocedures, (2) the USCC C IS Manual, and (3) the DOT Emergency
Response GuLdebook.
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evacuation areas, (6) provide transportation and support personnel for
relocation assistance, (7) survey evacuated areas for complete evacuation, (8)
mottitor toxic and/or flammable levels downwind of spill within evacuation
area, and (9) determine when safe levels are obtained and evacuation order can
be rescinde4.
Elimination of Ignition Sources— Because some substances may be
flaable and/or combustible and can create an ign.ttible mixture when
released, measures need to be taken to eliminate all possible sources of
ignition.. Otherwise, explosions and/or fires can occur which drastically
increase the safety hazards associated with the spill. Elimination of
ignition sources La gonerally possible by strict site security and controlled
eLte access. However 1 in situations where flammable plumes are carvied
eizabie distances away from the spill site, elimination of ignition sources
over large areas as veil as evacuation of people from large areas may be
necessary.
The moat severe fire and/or explosion hazards exist when flammable
substances flow into enclosed areas such as sewers, basements, and underground
vaults. All sources of ignition must be eliminated, and ventilation by forced
air must be considered to lower the probability of an explosion and/or fire
until readings below the l ver explosive limit (LEt) are maintained.
Examples of coon sources of ignition that ahould be removed from the
spill site are it.ternal combustion engStes, cigarette, igar and pipe smoking,
lighters and matches, flare9, stoves, hot metal surfaces, impact sparks, small
electric motors cameras with flash, flashlights, and cu’ttng torches.
Restriction of Water Uae— ITher spills reach waterways or severs,
precautionary measures may need to be taken to restrict the routine use of
‘ ater sources. Such uses may include, private and public drinking use, farm
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and agricultural use, industrial process and/or cooling use, recreational use
(e.g., boating, fishin;, swimming), and waste disposal use e.g., sanitary
sewer).
To restrict water use, responsible parties may need to notify local water
and health auttic tLties, state water cor.trol offices, and private water users;
limit downstream intake, if possible; prevent livestock from reaching
waterway; protect drinking water intakes by physical methods; supply
alternative sources of drinking water, if required; limit use of water for
household and business sanitary disposal, if spill erters sanitary system;
and notify local vastewater treatment plant, if spill enteri sanitary system.
rreventiou of Deleterious Reaccions— In cases where a spilled substance
may com’a into contact wI th ( ,,, other spilled chemicals, (2) stored chemicals,
(3) water, or (4) wood, metals, and other construction materials,
precautionary measures should be taken to minimize reactions which may cause
serious safety hazards. The most commcn incompatible mixtures are presented
in the Emergency Response Charts, as appropriate (See Figure 1). Potentially
incompatible materials should be removed from the flow path of a spilled
hazardous substance. Once emergency control measures described in the
response charts are implemented, control equipment and chemicals must be
judiciously selected for compatibility with the released substance.
Control of Fire— If a hazardous ubstaace is on fire, or if fire is
invclved in the emergency situation, two precautionary measures are available:
controlled burning or extinguishment. The deiisioa c f whether to allow a fire
to continue burning or t. extinguish it is a very difficult one but is usually
based on safety. Generally, fires should only b.’ extinguished if they can be
completely extinguished and. all possibility of re—ignition can be eliminated.
Several factors influence the decision as shown in Table 5.
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‘ 3LE 5. AL CRl’ IA FOR ‘ EU1 J/NO Th ” D SICVS
criteria All to ct i nguish
o Spill location Isolated away fran Close proxL’ ity
public and buildings
o Av 1 hiLtty of Limited Self-contai t
safety equipient ‘P thjflg and protective
clothing
o Population density Icw, evacuated High, nct evacuated
o Presence of other ! e present Hazardous na ria.ls
ustible peLoleun or natura.].
!aterials tran tassion or
atorag ; oded areas;
and otbsr ztustible
str es
o Substance spilled !‘igh vapor pressure L i vapor pressure
Highly tc dc vapors I to,dc vapors
- - ftves
bt-dc tion Hazardous by-prcd t
proô d fran cartusticn
o Conta.ixm nt status plete Ur t roUed
o Release fran source Continui Stopped
o Av i labiLity of tAmit e d Sufficient
foams, dxy chanicals,
orpa ers
o Wind conditions Strong, qusty
tbte: Severai. references for control . of fire si.t ations or fl mable substances
during spills inclu e: (1) the ‘A Flinable Haz3xdous Substances ergency
Response Handbcok: Control and Safety P tcedures, (2) the PA Fire Protection
Qi3. 1e. and (3) the Bureau of losivess rgency Handling of Hazardous
Materials in Surface ansp,rtation.
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Release stabilization methods
Release Stoppage— The damage from potentially setious spills can be
greatly lessened by prompt action to stop or reduce the releasa of a hazardous
substance. However, since controlling the release at the source can be
extremely dangerous, safety concerns greatly reduce its availability to spill
responders. Before attempting to stop a release, initial responders m wt
first determine whether an attempt should be made and, if so, what the beat
method(s) for a compliehing the task would be.
Although actual spill site and source conditions dictate the answers to
those questions to a great extent, aeveral general considerations are
presented in Table 6 to assist in determining whether to attempt stopping a
release from a source. If moat of the listed considerations suggest that an
ac.cempt to stop the release should be made, eelection of the best method(s) is
critical for success. In no instance should an attempt be made to stop the
release without proper safety equipment. Methods typically suggested for
stopping releases or leaks consist of (1) patching or plugging, (2) changing
container position, (3) valve closing, and (4) pumping of the source.
Relsase Control— Along with identifying hazards and precautions that may
pertain to all or some of the hazardous substances in the subclass, Section B
of tho Emergency Raiponea Chart (See Figure 1) prioritizeS and describes
effective stabilization technLque for spills on Land and in water. In most
spill situations no one method will mitigate all hazards, such as dispersion
into the air, permeation into the soil, uncontrolled spreading, and entrance
into the water sources. To the maximt extent possible, stabilization
techniques are listed In a logical sequence designed to effic’.ently and
effectively m tigace all spill hazards. Rowever, not all methods apply to all
.ituations. because of variations in weather conditions(rain, wind, and aIr
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TABI.E 6 • Gfl AL ID ATICt S FOR T xP G R Z’i
iteria Att t ! Att rct
o Av i1 hj1ity of zafety Suffici t
o Natt e of dischar C J ve or turn or
pxcp failure e q1aa n
o Substan VII, VIII I, III, C
( 1 e,/sub c1ass) E,G ,M.O B,D,JPL
o Volute spille1/vo1t e High
ra ining ratio
o i-rm nt of s 41 lage ‘resent ax
sutfici t
o Pate of discharge Slow, dri piz Fast,
s e n
o Size of ) le or rupture I Large
c t nt aL c-f fire b tentia1 Alre y cisting
o Palative di!ficul.ty in sy Greit
sto p discharge
* In r thstar e sk uld an atteiç,t be e s p a discharge wit1x ut the zoper
protective clothizq ar safety equip nt.
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temperature), availability of equipment and personnel, volume of spill, time
contraints, worker and public safety, and the ability of various methods to
handle liquid ve . a scud spills. Limitations ara listed with methods to aid
the first resronder in judging applicability. Where there are two or ‘ore
effective techniq4es to handle the same spill hazard, they are listed tn orde:
of effectiveness.
Neutralization and dilution are often listed last in the sequence of
methods. Generaily, neutraliz’ ion is not necessary if the other options are
successful. Dilution should be implemented only when all other methods have
been eliminated from consideration or when extreme safety hazards prevail and
then only with proper containment. Also, the charts do not apply to very
small spills on land that do not require containment. Small, dry aptila can
generally be 3hoveled into a dry container and covered; small liquid spills
can be absorbed with natural or synthetic sorbents, shoveled tnt a dry
container, end covered.
Assessment of spill response
An c.cgoing assessment of spill response efforts during the emergency
phase ta necessa.y to (1) identify ineffective, inappropricte and/or unsafe
release stoppage or st biltzation techniques, (2) modify and/or replace those
techniques, a d (3) plan for cl snup e9orts and/or final removal. The major
factors that can affect an ongoing response include change in weather
conditions (e.g., rain), .lppearance of new safety hazards (e.g., fire),
malfunction of equipment (e.K., pump failure), and shift in priorities due to
public concerns.
The ffectLveness of an emergency spill response denends on a number of
factors, ±ocluding: (1) availability of trained - aponse personnel, (2)
response personnel protection, (3) public protection, (4) stabilization, aid
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(5) uotificattoas. Table 7 as esees overell spill response effectiveness.
toeffective or low—rat responses should be modified by one or more of such
activities as enlisting the aid of more qualified spill response personnel,
increasing manpower resources 1 obtaining additional or Improved safety and/or
Stabiligation equipment, and using different stabilization methods.
Emergency response termination
The emergency response pha a is not completed until the spill hai been
controlled to the extent that the threat of further damage to life 1 property
and tbs enviroexent has been removed. Three criteria should ideally be met
before thi emergency is deemed unde’ control and subsequentf c nup.
disposal, and recovery operations are begun:
o The potential for additional acute exposure
of the rkers end th. public to hs ardous
substance. baa been alitinated or reduced to
en acceptabl, level.
o Al] safety hazards such as accidental ignition
potential explosion, and dangerous incoispatible
reactions have bean addressed end controlled.
o Tha potential for further .nviroia.etal
contamination, has been eliminated as much as
pose ibis
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ThBIZ 7 • SPILL C4& WEtTIVB’5
Factor Very Effective Mirdn.l ly Effective Ineffective
!ftaina l Fra i l ly available Sn a site
Pertnel
Sufficiatt
Protectiai
Pthlic )b çosure
P rotectiat
S [ t1l Ab lute, go s2iticral Inn ’çlate, 1a”- lb stab 4 4 tiat
5Pahl 14 e me level wços’xe f v . ..4
Sotn Ab54ament Swççoi Possible, bit Itt p ssSble
*ça’t arrival to att t aid to attaipt
H1 taSzmit Withü Ot Cattained ov lb cnitaiztwt
ares p,st4h [ e large ares
I ttifications All aplicable Sn ztacts It cm ts
DISCLAIMER
This paper has been reviewed by the Municipal Environmental Research
Laboratory — Cincinnati, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved
for publlcttion. Ap iroval does not signify that the contents necessarily
ref uect the views and pollc 4 es of the U.S. Envronmental Protection Agency,
nor does mention of trade names or comercial products constitute endorsement
or r2comendatlon for use.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors express their appreciation to Jon. D. Byroade, Pixie A.
Hamilton, and John E. Quander of the technical staff of Versar, Inc.
(Springfield, Virginia) who performed the work reported herein.
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