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 Biological
Associated
  Problems
         in
Freshwater Environments
             Their
             Identification,
             Investigation
             and Control
 Kenneth M. Mackenthun
   William Marcus Ingram
   UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
 FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION

   For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
         Washington, D.C, 20402 - Price $1.25

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Preface
T HE authors of this book have used LIMNOLOGICAL ASPECTS
OF RECREATIONAL LAKES (Public Health Service Publica-
tion No. 1167, (now out of print) by Mackenthun, Ingram, and Porges,
as a base from which to expand the consideration and treatment o
aquatic biota and the aquatic environment. The present work, however,
is not a second edition. Rather, it discusses the identification, investi-
gation, and control of problems associated with the biota in flowing
stream, lake, reservoir, and pond.
This 12-chapter treatise first introduces the biological probl rns indi-
cated in the title, reviews and gives examples of water uses, and cites
briefly the history of the Federal legislation governing water pollution
and the Federal role in coping with it. The effects on the aquatic
environment of temperature, dissolved oxygen, and light are con-
sidered, as are the effects of streams on reservoirs and reservoirs on
streams. The responses of algae, vascular plants, benthos, and fish to
the aquatic environment under various influencing forces are itemized.
Some of the problems associated with defining the aquatic environ-
ment are discussed. The why, what, how, where, and when of lake and
stream data collecting and reporting are delineated. Nutrients that
stimulate and characteristics that depress aquatic vegetation growths
are detailed. Four chapters deal in series with water-associated pests
and the multitude of problems they cause. Taxonomic keys are pre-
sented for some of the nuisance algae and common vascular plants;
and, finally, information is given on how to control or alleviate excessive
production of biological nuisances.
Physical or chemical changes in an aquatic environment can pose
numerous problems, disrupting the life cycles and patterns of the
things that live in water, and adversely affecting man in his use of the
water resources. %\‘hen the problems become severe—i.e., the water
polluted—agricultural, industrial, and municipal water supply uses are
handicapped, placing financial burdens on the water user. Whatever
the time of year, it becomes “closed season” for most water sports.
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Preventive measures and remedial controls for water pollution must
be defined more clearly, instituted more enthusiastically, and enforced
more vigorously than in the past. Recent legislation at the Federal level
and, in many instances, at State level is clearly pointed in that direction.
Since the earth’s supply of water grows no larger, accelerating human
populations and economic growth have emphasized the divergent, often
conflicting, interests and desires of water users. Competition in the
recreation use alone subdivides among fishennen, waterfowl hunters,
skin divers 1 water skiers, swimmers, and pleasure-boating enthusiasts.
People who pursue these sports soon become aware of any biological
problems in the waters they use. More often than other water-use
groups, they are quick to demand remedial measures to alleviate
developing nuisances or prevent pollution before it occurs.
Underlying demands by people may be nostalgic images of other
days when many enjoyed favored old “swimming holes,” firm-bedded
and deep, whose jewel-like clarity mirrored overhanging trees. Once
gone, the aquatic conditions that inspired such images will not return,
even under the most rigid control of the factors disrupting the aquatic
ecology. Water quality has suffered through increased use, abuse, and
neglect of the resource. It can be greatly improved, but in most places
water quality can never be returned to the primeval state.
This book is for the person who must identify, investigate, relate,
interpret, and control biological problems as they may relate to recrea-
tional water quality, its purpose is to aid the non-biologist’s under-
standing of the aquatic environment and the associated phenomena.
The book is intended also as a guide to the inexperienced aquatic
biologist who may find the described field sampling techniques, data
presentation, and data interpretation of very real help in meeting his
day-to-day assignments.
Cincinnati, Ohio
July, 1967
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Acknowledg ments
T HE authors are indebted to the late Dr. Edward H. Graham and
to E. H. Dustman of the U.S. Soil Conservation Service, and Dr.
Francis M. Uhier of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (formerly of the
Soil Conservation Service), who graciously permitted reproduction of
plates 19—44, inclusive, from USDA Bulletin No. 634, “Food of Game
Ducks in the United State s and Canada” by Martin and Uhler (1939).
Grateful acknowledgment is also expressed to Dr. Ralph T. King,
Roosevelt Wildlife Forest Experiment Station, Syracuse State University,
for the loan of color plates used in J. Percy Moore’s paper in Roosevelt
Wildlife Bulletin, Vol. 2, No. 1 (1923); to Dr. Harald Rehder and
Dr. J. P. E. Morrison of the U.S. National Museum who gave generously
of their time and talents in preparing plates 47 and 48; and to James
S. Ayars, Dr. Herbert H. Ross, and Dr. Carl 0. Mohr of the Illinois
Natural History Survey for permission to reproduce the frontispiece art
from the Illinois Natural History Survey, Vol. 24, Article 1, “The
Mosquitoes of illinois” by H. H. Ross (1947).
Sources of certain of the other plates are acknowledged as follows:
No. 1—Lake Geneva Civic Association, Walworth, Wisconsin; Nos. 2
and 4—Wisconsin Conservation Department; No. S—California Depart-
ment of Fish and Game; No. 5—Ralph Porges, Trenton, New Jersey;
No. 7—M. A. Churchill, Chattanooga, Tennessee; Nos. 10 and 53—
Lowell E. Keup , Cincinnati, Ohio; No. 14—Nelson A. Thomas, Cincin-
nati, Ohio; Nos. 15—18—-C. M. Palmer, “Algae in Water Supplies”
(1959); Nos. 49—50.—Michigan Water Resources Commission; No. 51—
Horn Photo, Clatskanie, Oregon, courtesy of Earl N. Kari; No. 55—
Aquatic Controls Corporation, Hartland, Wisconsin; No. 58—Applied
Biochemists, Butler, Wisconsin; No. 59—Wisconsin Committee on Water
Pollution; No. 60—Dr. John E. Gallagher, Amchem Products, Ambler,
Pennsylvania.
Information for Tables 8, 9, and 10 was graciously supplied by Dr.
Morton Schwimmer, New York, N.Y. The assistance, cooperation and
contributions of Biologists Jack Geckler, Lowell E. Keup, and Nelson
A. Thomas in preparing Figures 10—16 are gratefully acknowledged.
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Contents
PREFACE ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iv
I. Ir4TRoDuaIoN 1
II. THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT 11
Temperature 11
Dissolved Oxygen 17
Light 19
Other Chemical Factors 20
The Effect of Stream Inflows on the Water Body 23
The Effect of Reservoir Discharge on the Receiving
Stream 28
References Cited 30
III. BIOTIC RESPONSES To THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT 33
Algae 33
Submerged Aquatic Plants 37
Bottom Associated Organisms 38
Bottom Fauna and Submerged Aquatic Plants 42
Fish 43
References Cited 47
IV. COLLECTING AND REPORTING LAKE AND STREAM DATA .... 51
Study Organization 51
Collecting and Processing Field Samples 53
Data Analyses and Interpretation 80
Reporting the Results 82
Special Studies 87
References Cited 96
Additional Selected References 99
V. NUTRIENTS AND BIOLOGICAL GROWTHS 103
Introduction 103
Nutrient Suppliers 105
Utilization by Aquatic Crops 116
Occurrence in the Ecosystem 119
Critical Factors for Aquatic Plant Production 131
Micronutrients, Growth Stimulators and Depressants . . . 134
Photosynthetic Oxygen Production 137
The Price of Eutrophy 139
References Cited 142
v i. AQUATIC PLANT PESTS 149
Algae 149
Tastes and Odors 152
Filter Clogging Problems 153
Corrosion Problems 156
Toxic Algae 157
Aquatic Vascular Plants 166
References Cited 171
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VII. RECOGNIZING SOME AQUATIC NUISANCE ALGAE . 174
VIII. RECOGNIZING SOME COMMON HIGHER AQUATiC PLANTS... 18 1
IX. SOME AQUATIC ANIMAL PESTS 201
Midges 201
Mayflies and Caddistlies 204
Mosquitoes 206
Other Insects 208
Leeches 210
Clams 214
Animals in Drinking Water Supplies 215
References Cited 217
X. SWIMMER’S ITCH 220
Life Cycle of Swimmer’s Itch Organism 220
Control 225
Dermatitis Causing Organisms Attacking Man 231
Schistosomiasis, The Blood Fluke Disease of Man 232
References Cited . 235
XL SLIMES 236
The Problem 236
Sphaeroti lus 240
Factors that Stimulate Sphaeros i/us Growths 243
Control of Sphaeroiiius 245
Le ptomitus 245
Fouling Bacteria 246
References Cited 248
XII. CONTROL Oc EXCESSIVE PRODUCTION 251
Introduction 251
State Control Programs 253
Harvesting the Crops 255
Chemical Control 257
Algal Control 258
Control of Submerged Aquatic Weeds 264
Control of Emergent Weeds 270
Chemical Usage 270
References Cited 273
GLOSSARY 276
AUThOR INDEX 279
SUBJECT INDEX 285
Plates
1. Pleasing recreat ion on Lake Geneva, Wisconsin 3
2. Swimming is a recreational activity enjoyed by many .. 5
3. A recreational pursuit engaged in by millions 8
4. Water skiing—an increasingly popular water sport 10
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5. Industrial wastes degrade water for recreational use 25
6. Stream reach polluted with waste wool and debris 26
7. Fontana Project, Tennessee Valley Authority 29
8. An overproduction of lake algae, when discharged to a
river, sometimes causes fish kills (Yahara River, Wis.) . . 36
9. Acid mine discharges cleanse substrates of organisms ... 36
10. Artificial substrate colonized by aquatic organisms 72
11. Biological sampling equipment 75
12. Sorting, enumeration, and identification equipment 76
13. An August algal bloom in Lake Sebasticook, Maine 116
14. Algal scums often result from warm temperature,
abundant sunshine, and nutrients 122
15. Nuisance Algae 175
Rivularia—Nodularia—A nabaena—Osci!latoria—Lyngbya—Ap/ianizo-
men on
16. Nuisance Algae 177
Ph orm ii i i in—C yrlotella—Ste p/ian othscus—Fragila ria—Scen ed esm us—
Spirogyra—Zygnenia—Oedogoniuin—uloz/ , rix
17. Nuisance Algae 178
.Alelosira—Hydrodictyon—Dinobryon—Rh i:oclonirun—Stigeoclon-
iu;n —Caldopl iora—Pediast rum
18. Nuisance Algae 179
A nk istrodesm us—Syn i i ia—Cue/os phaeri urn —M icrocystis—Cera (mm
19. Duckweeds (Lemnaceae) 182
20. Water shield (Brasenia schreberi) 184
21. American lotus (Netumbo) 184
22. Musk grass (Chara) 186
23. Bladderwort (Utricu/aria) 186
24. Water milfoil (Myriophyl/urn) 187
25. Coontail (Cerato phy/lum) 188
26. Water buttercup (Ranuncu/us) 189
27. Water star grass (Heteranthera) 189
28. Floating-leafed pondweed (Potarnogeton natans) 189
29. Large-leafed pondweed (Potamogeton am plifolius) 189
30. Curly-leafed pondweed (Potainogeton crispus) 190
31. Robbins pondweed (Potarnogeton rob binsii) 190
32. Flat-stemmed pondweed (Potainogeton zosterifor;nis) . .. 190
33. Sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus) 190
34. Wild celery (Vallisneria) 191
35. Bushy pondweed (Najas) 192
36. Vaterweed (Anacharis) 193
37. Spike rush (Eleocharis) 194
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38. Bulrush (Scir pus) . 195
39. Wild rice (Zizania) . 196
40. Burreed (Sparganium) 197
41. Alligatorweed (Aiternanthera) 197
42. Smartweed (Polygonum) 198
43. Waterhyacinth (Eichhornia) 199
44. Waterchestnut (Trapa) 200
45. Mosquito (Psorophora ciliata), one of Illinois ’ largest .. 206
46. Blood sucking leeches 212
47. Snails known to harbor swimmer’s itch cercariae 226
48. Snails known to harbor swimmer’s itch cercariae 226
49. Combination mixer.distributor unit, top view 229
50. Combination mixer-distributor unit, side view 230
51. Slimes in Columbia River make gill nets useless 237
52. Slimes , as waving masses, destroy animal habitat 289
58. Slimes growing on stream animals makes the animals
less effective to compete for existence 241
54. Dried wastes from pulp and paper making operations.
These fibers are often he]d together by Sphaerotilus
and other slimes, forming a blanket over stream bed .... 244
55. Mechanical weed cutting and removal 255
56. Liquid spray distribution of herbicide by small boat 263
57. Air boat is steady transport for spraying equipment .... 267
58. Chemical distribution through pressure spraying 269
59. Barge distribution of granular herbicide 271
60. Helicopter application of granular herbicide 272
Tables
1. Recreational use of 25 TVA lakes 4
2. Mean nutrient concentrations from drainage Ill
8. Total to soluble phosphorus ratios in water 123
4. Lake nutrient loadings and retentions 125
5. Nutrient population equivalents 126
6. The standing crop per lake water acre 130
7. Odors, tastes, and tongue sensations of algae in water ... 154
8. Human gastrointestinal disorders associated with algae .... 160
9. Human respiratory disorders associated with algae 162
10. Human skin disorders associated with algae - 164
11. Plants that constitute over one percent of the total game
duck food 169
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Charts and Diagrams
1. Lake zones with seasonal temperature and dissolved
oxygen changes 12
2. Ways in which pollution may affect aquatic life 40
3. Approximate depth distribution of fish in TVA Storage
Reservoirs (Cherokee, Douglas, and Norris), on June 2,
1946
4. Approximate depth distribution of fish in Norris
Reservoir, Tenn., in late July, 1946 45
5. Laboratory services used to plan field study 52
6. Field biological collection card 71
7. Diagram of a natural lake basin showing suggested
sampling sites 79
8. Diagram of a long, narrow shallow water reservoir
showing suggested sampling stations 80
9. Phytoplankton standing crops in Wisconsin stabilization
ponds May, 1957, to August, 1958, reported as No/ml
and as ppm by volume. Note the dissimilar trends of
the two approaches 85
10. Seasonal turbidity values, Geist Reservoir, md 88
11. Concentration of phytoplankton, Geist Reservoir, md. .. 89
12. Bottom associated organism populations in upper Menom-
inee River near Niagara, Wis 90
13. Benthic population in upper Menominee River Reser-
voirs, Wis 91
14. Bottom associated organism population in Chattooga
River, Ga . 92
15. Benthos data—Bear River system 93
16. Bottom associated organism data, Cheat River, W. Va. .. 95
17. Generalized contour distribution of basic plant types on
the shoreline of a main-river reservoir 207
18. Ano pheles quadrimaculatus Say production potentials
of basic plant types 208
19. Life cycle of swimmer’s itch cercariae 221
20. Gravity flow equipment used in distributing chemical
mixture for snail control 228
21. Chemical dosage chart 259
22. Equipment design for algal control 261
23. Equipment suitable for liquid spray distribution
of chemical 266
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“The clear, fresh waters
that were our national heritage
have become dumping grounds
for garbage and filth.
They poison our fish,
they breed disease,
they despoil our landscapes.”
President Johnson
at the signing of the Water Quality Act of 1965.
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1
Introduction
“1 A THEN people hear someone say ‘water’ on a hot day, they
V V usually think of a nice cool drink and a swim. At other
times each person, hearing the spoken word, will more likely re-
act on the basis of his occupation or avocation. It is
a travel route to the sailor
underground water to the geologist
moisture for his crops to the farmer
the habitat of fish and fowl to the sportsman
an essential basic commodity to the industrialist
a means of encouraging annexation to the city official
a natural resource to be used wisely to the conservationist
A chemist, on the other hand, is likely to think of water in the
form of basic elements and a physicist in terms of physical fac-
tors” (Muegge, 1956).
To the biologist, water is a medium to support life in many
forms; a challenge to the serious aquatic samp!ers and to the in-
terpreting biologists who may be perfectionists; a purveyor of
civilization’s rejectamenta that affects adversely the health or
welfare of man.
To the biologist the quality of water is manifested through the
biotic community, in his comparison of one sampling station with
another, one stream reach with another, one water quality with
another. A station is chosen within a desired area by the investi-
gator. The data collected on the characteristics of water quality
from the selected station are compared with data collected from
stations that do not receive man-caused pollution or are not asso-
ciated with nuisances. From this comparison, an interpretation is
made on the water quality in the selected study area.
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“If at different times we stand on the same spot on the bank of
a river, we find that the stream has changed in amount of sedi-
ment, the number and character of its fish, its rate of flow, color,
temperature, and so on. Yet if we had been standing on that spot
continuously, we could not have said, ‘Now, it is beginning to get
colder,’ or ‘Now it is beginning to flow faster.’ It is only in retro-
spect and by comparison that we are conscious of these gradual
changes, which begin at different times and merge imperceptibly
one into the othcr” (Achorn, 1934, p. 7, as quoted by Carlander,
1954).
The investigation and study of waters require a knowledge and
an understanding of the relationships between organisms and their
environment. Knowledge initially is acquired through an individ-
ual’s association with the professional literature; it is augmented
and polished through detailed observations and field investigations
of waters of varying quality; its acquisition is aided by the re-
peated use and manipulation of the tools of the profession.
The investigation and study of waters necessitate a program of
sampling to determine a base for future observations and manage-
ment. Sampling often entails a comprehensive study followed by
periodic monitoring to keep abreast of changes taking place with-
in the water body. Sampling is a broad tern, and no approach
can be itemized to meet all needs; a sampling program must be
tailored to the particular problem. The basic problem is pollution,
but there are many facets to this problem. An investigation must
define the problem, assess the damages, and predict the changes
that may be accomplished through abatement.
Pollution has been defined as a “resource out of place” (Anon.,
1966). The Committee on Pollution, National Academy of Sci-
ences, National Research Council, has broadly classified pollutants
entering watercourses into eight categories. These are:
(1) Domestic sewage and other oxygen-demanding wastes. (2)
Infectious agents. (3) Plant nutrients. (4) Organic chemicals such
as insecticides, pesticides, and detergents that are highly toxic at
very low concentrations. (5) Other minerals and chemicals in-
cluding chemical residues, petrochemicals, salts, acids, silts, and
sludges. (6) Sediments from land erosion. (7) Radioactive sub-
stances. (8) Heat from power and industrial plants. All of these
pollutants may be related to biological problems in the fresh-
water environment; many contribute to an overproduction of or-
ganisms that affect seriously the health or welfare of man.
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The control of excessive production is of prime importance to
those who use the water for recreation. Once biological nuisances
develop, controls and maintenance are indicated; these are often
costly, time consuming, and usually temporary. Overproduction
is likely to remain a curse unless basic causes can be reduced or
eliminated. And the problem of altering basic causes has not been
fully solved at the present time.
According to the Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Com-
mittee, 41 percent of this country’s population prefers water-
based recreation over any other. Swimming is now one of the
most popular outdoor activities, and boating and fishing rank
among the top 10. During the past 9 years, the number of resi-
dential swimming pools has increased 4,800 percent. Camping,
picnicking, and hiking are more attractive near water. A national
survey of fishing indicates that one household in every three has
one or more fishermen; it is a $3 billion annual business.* Water
skiing has a following of over 6 million persons. Enthusiasts of
the relatively new sport of skin diving spent more than $15 mil-
lion for equipment in 1959.
‘National Survey of Fishing and Hunting. U. S. Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Sport
Fisheries and Wildlife, Circular 120, 73 pp. (1960).
Plate 1. Pfeasing recreation on Lake Geneva, Wisconsin —
a lake with few biological nuisances.
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There are 29 major Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) dams
and reservoirs.* The total area of lake water at full pool is 619,460
acres; the total shoreline is 10,755 miles; at the top of gates ele-
vation the capacity is 23,157,700 acre-feet. The largest single
reservoir is Kentucky Reservoir near Paducah, Kentucky. Ken-
tucky Reservoir drains 40,200 square miles; its length is 184.3
miles; its area is 158,300 acres; impoundment at top of gates
elevation will total 6,002,600 acre-feet. Kentucky Reservoir led
all TVA reservoirs in the number of recreational visits to its
waters in 1965 with a total of 11,022,204. Recreational boats an-
chored on its waters numbered 11,518. In addition there were 205
houseboats in 1965. The value of water-based facilities\ and equip-
ment on Kentucky Reservoir exceeds $10 million; land-based facil-
ities and equipment, including privately owned summer cottages.
picnic facilities, overnight rental units, restaurants, concession
stands, and boat service buildings are valued in excess of 527-1 ,4
million. Water recreation is big business.
The average annual increase in recreational use of the TVA
Reservoirs attests to the growing demands placed upon waters of
suitable quality for various recreational pursuits (Table 1).
Table 1. Recreational Use of 25 WA Lakes
Average annual
increase since
1965 1947
Number of inboard recreation
boats 3178 106
Number of all other recreation
boats 47,642 2,183
Total value of boats $46,461,815 $2,283,453
Number of privately owned
summer cottages 11,343 597
Number of person-day visits to
reservoirs for recreational
purposes 49,410,454 2,337,317
Yet another example of reservoir recreational usage is Chicka-
mauga Reservoir near Chattanooga, Tennessee. The Chickamauga
project was completed in 1940 to serve the purposes of flood con-
trol, navigation, and production of hydro-electric power. It drains
Churchill, M. A. Chief, Water Quality Branch, TVA. Personal communication.
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20,790 square miles, has an 810-mile shoreline, and 34,500 acres
of water. The recreational planning, site planning, development,
and administration of land and land rights have been in accord
with established procedures. Now along the shores of this lake
are 2 state and 6 local parks, 75 public access points and thou-
sands of acres in wildlife areas, 2 group camps and 30 club sites,
19 boat docks and resorts, 1,000 cabins, and 2,000 boats. In all,
the value of recreation improvements and equipment on Chicka-
mauga is $25 million, and the number of visits now made in a
year to the lake for recreation totals 4.7 million.
A recent survey of boating in Wisconsin* indicated that more
than 200,000 pleasure boats were licensed by the State of Wiscon-
sin. Approximately 130,000 were registered by residents of the
State, 20000 by nonresidents, and 50,000 by boat livery operators.
Ninety-three percent of all registered boats were outboards. The
average boater uses approximately 80 gallons of gasoline annu-
ally and boats an average of 32.5 days per year. The need for
recreational needs and demands will continue to increase as popu-
lation pressures become greater.
Any single-purpose use of water may conflict seriously with
other desired uses, affecting either the quality or quantity require-
ments of those uses. Reservoirs for flood control, for instance, lose
* Pleasure Boating in Wisconsin. Department of Resource Development, State
Capitol, Madison, Wisconsin, 17 pp. (1962).
Plate 2. Swimming is an outdoor recreational activity enjoyed by many.
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their effectiveness unless the water held back during floodflow is
released as soon thereafter as possible to reestablish storage ca-
pacity for subsequent flood waters. Theoretically, this detracts
from the efficient use of such waters for hydroelectric power gen-
eration, or for longtime storage for subsequent release for irriga-
tion and flow augmentation during periods of low streamfiow.
Hydroelectric power for peaking purposes, which may be the
most efficient use of this power source, often results in intermit-
tent storage and release of the entire streamfiow. This can conflict
with downstream and upstream use of a stream for fish and wild-
life propagation, water supply, and waste disposal.
Diversion of stream flows for irrigation can likewise interfere
with other water needs downstream. Deep reservoirs often produce
stratification that results in oxygen depletion in the bottom wa-
ters. The water released is frequently from the lower depths and
lacks the dissolved oxygen essential to support fish life, fish food
organisms, or to oxidize organic wastes in a reach of the stream
below the impoundment.
The use of a stream for municipal and industrial waste disposal,
and agricultural return flows, may conflict with almost all other
uses. The best treatment methods available cannot effect 100 per-
cent removal of all constituents contributed by municipal and
industrial wastes. Residual nutrients such as nitrogen and phos-
phorus stimulate aquatic plant growths to the detriment of rec-
reation, water supply, and other uses.
These examples of confficts in use demonstrate clearly the close
interrelation of water quality and quantity. As water quantity
and quality become critical, increased demands can be met only
by multiple-purpose use and reuse of the water resource. This re-
quires effective control and abatement of pollution and the incor-
poration of essential quality control measures in all future water
resources planning. Volume is often not the solution to pollution!
In addition to those pollutants associated with the activities of
man, there are natural sources of water pollution. Water, the uni-
versal solvent, takes into solution some part of the many sub-
stances it contacts. As it percolates through the earth’s crust, it
dissolves minerals in concentrations that may make the water
unsuitable for many uses. Salt springs, oilfield brines, and acid
mine drainage are examples of this phenomenon. The physical
force of flowing water can add undesirable constituents such as
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silt eroded from open cuts, from hill sides, fields, and streambanks,
which is carried along with the surface runoff to be deposited in
stream beds, natural lakes and reservoirs. Drainage from lands,
including residential yards and lawns, may carry substantial
amounts of residuals of pesticides and chemical fertilizers.
Federal water-resource planning has been developing over the
past sixty years. President Theodore Roosevelt first conceived
multiple usage of water in 1906, stating: “Every stream should
be used to its utmost. No stream can be so used unless such use
is planned for in advance.”
Until the enactment of the Water Pollution Control Act of 1948,
the Federal role in water pollution was defined in three acts—
the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, the Public Health Service Act
of 1912, and the Oil Pollution Act of 1924.* A section of the
Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 prohibited the discharge or de-
posit into any navigable waters of any refuse matter except that
which flowed in a liquid state from streets and sewers. This pro-
vision, designed primarily to prevent impediments to navigation,
constituted the first specific Federal water pollution control legis-
lation. The Public Health Service Act of 1912 contained provi-
sions authorizing investigations of water pollution related to the
diseases and impairments of man. The Oil Pollution Act of 1924
was enacted to control oil discharges in coastal waters that might be
damaging to aquatic life, harbors and docks, and recreational
facilities.
In the early 1930’s, the National Resources Commission ap-
proached the water resource problem on a watershed, multiple-use
basis. Multiple-use planning is the key to our current development
program.
In 1948, the first Federal Water Pollution Control Act was
passed as Public Law 845, 80th Congress. It provided for water
pollution control activities in the Public Health Service then in
the Federal Security Agency. Section 2 of this Act stated: “In the
development of such comprehensive programs due regard shall
be given to the improvements which are necessary to conserve
such waters for public water supply, propagation of fish and
aquatic life, ‘recreational purposes, and agriculture, industrial,
and other legitimate uses.” Comprehensive water pollution control
* A Study of Pollution—water. Staff Report to the Committee on Public Works,
U. S. Senate. U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, I ). C., 100 pp. (1963).
7

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legislation was enacted by the 84th Congress, and was signed into
law on July 9, 1956 as the Federal Water Pollution Control Act,
Public Law 660. The 1956 Act extended and strengthened the
1948 Act, which expired on June 30, 1956, and was administered
by the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service under the
supervision and direction of the Secretary of Health, Education,
and Welfare. Further amendments to the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act were sLn i into law on July 20, 1961, as Public Law
87—88, th Congress. The 1961 amendments improved and
strengthened the Act by extending federal authority to enforce
abatement of pollution in intrastate, as well as interstate or navi-
gable waters.
The Federal \ ater Pollution Control Act, Public Law 660, was
further amended by the Water Quality Act of 1965 (PL 89—234),
approved on October 2. 1965. The Act declares that it is “. . . the
policy of Congress to reco nize, preserve, and protect the primary
responsibilities and rights of the States in preventing and con-
trolling water pollution, to support and aid technical research
relating to the prevention and control of water pollution, and to
provide Federal technical services and financial aid to State and
interstate agencies and to municipalities in connection with the
prevention and control of water pollution.” The Act requires
that comprehensive programs shall be developed “. - - for elimi-
nating or reducing the pollution of interstate waters and tribu-
taries thereof” and retains the same wording as quoted above
7 — c .. .. . .. -
‘ . :: c . -.-- — -2 ’
_: - _ __
P(ate 3. A recreational pursuit of millions
8

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from the Act of 1948 in connection with comprehensive program-
ming. Research, investigations, experiments, demonstrations, and
studies relating to the causes, control, and prevention of water
pollution, as well as enforcement measures against pollution “.
of interstate or naviable waters in or adjacent to any State or
States . . . which enthngers the health or welfare of any persons”
are provided for in the Act.
One of the recommendations of the National Conference on
Water Pollution held in Washington , D.C., December 12 to 14,
1960, related to comprehensive programming and defined this type
of development as follows:
“Planning for the comprehensive development of each major basin
or water resource area should be established as a fixed national
policy. By comprehensive development we mean the application
of integrated multiple-purpose design, planning and management
which include the joint consideration of ground and surface waters,
systematic conservation by water users, and the treatment and
management of waters having substandard quality. Consideration
of every appropriate technique would be a routine part of plan-
fling for such development.
“Such planning , insofar, as feasible, should include consideration
of all important industrial plant sites. An early and important
objective should be a systematic program of flow regulation. State
initiative toward comprehensive planning should be encouraged,
and participation by all major interests should be encouraged.
The objective should be one of eventually producing maximum
total benefits from all economic and social uses.”
Associated with the municipal and industrial wastes resulting
from the activities of man are pathogenic organisms including
bacteria, viruses, toxic algae, leeches, worms, insect pests, and
parasites. All affect the use of waters for recreation. On the other
hand, swimming, boating, and other water recreational activities,
as well as commercial boating and fishing, may in themselves
cause pollution by contributing organic wastes, pathogens , inor-
ganic wastes, toxic substances from motor exhausts, and just
plain trash.
Water oriented recreation contributes to man’s well-being and
good health. A report on water pollution in the Missouri River
Basin states, “Of probably greater value is the relaxation and
mental well-being achieved by viewing and absorbing the scenic
grandeur of the great and restless Missouri. Many people crowd
9

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the ‘highline’ drives along the bluffs to view this mighty river to
achieve a certain restfulness from the proximity of nature.”
Porterfield (1952) lists the following effects on man from se-
vere water pollution: (1) transmission of enteric diseases by
water inadequately treated, (2) transmission of diseases by in-
sects from polluted streams, ( ) harmful reduction of individual
water intake because of water potability, (4) possible toxicity
of chemical and metallic wates, (5) neuroses caused by noxious
odors from polluted streams, (6) spread of diseases by cattle and
other animals having access to polluted streams, (7) loss of ex-
tensive recreational areas, and (8) economic changes.
References Cited
Acijopil, E. 1934. European Civilization and Politics Since 1818. Harcourt. Brace and
Co., New York, 879 pp.
ANON. 1966. Waste Management and Control. A Report to the Federal Council for
Science and Technology b the Committee on Pollution, National Academy of
Sciences—National Research Council, Washington, D.C., Publ. No. 1400, 257 pp.
CAILLANDER, H. B. 1954. A History of Fish and Fishing in the Upper Mississippi
River. A Publication Sponsored by the Upper Mississippi River Conservation Com-
mission, 96 pp.
MUEGGE, 0. J. 1956. Water Pollution Control Goals. Health. Wisconsin State Board
of Health, Madison, 13 7 : 4—5.
P0R1TMWU. J. D., 195?. Water Pollution. Its Effect on the Public Health. Proc. First
Ohio Water Clinic, Ohio State University Engineering Series Bulletin No. 147,
Columbus, pp. 34—39.
Plate 4. Water skiing — an increasingly popular water contact sport.
l0

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2
The Aquatic Environment
A COMPLEX interaction of many physical, chemical, and bio-
£1 logical forces often influenced by meteorological phenom-
ena occurs in the aquatic environment. To achieve an understand-
ing of the water environment and to project future trends, a
comprehensive knowledge of these forces is essential.
Water is a heavy substance, weighing 62.4 lb. per cubic foot,
or 8.345 lb. for each gallon at 4° C (39.2° F) . It is approximately
0.2 lb. per cubic foot lighter at 80° F than at 40° F. At a depth
of 100 ft. the water pressure is 58 lb. per square inch, or approxi-
mately four times the pressure at the surface. Pure water reaches
its maximum density at 39.2°F (4° C); it becomes lighter as it
cools or warms.
Temperature
Early in the science of limnology, Birge (1904, 1907a and
l907b) and others recognized that physical factors are interre-
lated in the overall ecology of a body of water. The seasons induce
a cycle of physical and chemical changes in the water that are
often conditioned by temperature. For a few weeks in the spring,
water temperatures may be homogeneous from the top of a water
body to the bottom. Vertical water density is also homogeneous,
and it becomes possible for the wind to mix the water in a lake,
distributing nutrients and flocculent bottom solids from the
deeper waters to the very surface. Oxygen is mixed throughout
the water during this time. The advance of summer quickly checks
circulation by warming the surface waters; as they warm they
become lighter, resting over colder water of greater density.
Thus a permanent thermal stratification is formed for many
months. In natural deep bodies of water three layers eventually
form. The upper layer, or epilimnion, represents the warm, more
1 1

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I D -
20 -
40 -
a-
UI

60
70
30
TEMPERATURE F
TEMPERATURE F
40 O 60 70 80
2 4 6 8 JO 12
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (mg/i)
TEMPERATURE F
Jo
20
So
L i.
40
UI
0
50
60
10
TEMPERATURE F
30 40 50 60 0
60 90
2 4 6 8 0 12
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (mg/I)
Figure 1. Diagram of lake zones with seasonal temperature and dissolved oxygen
changes observed In Lake Mendota, Wisconsin (from Birge and Juday, 1911).
I i .
UI
0.
UI
[ LITTo q ILIMNETIC1
EPILIMNION
OISSOLVED OXYGEN (mg/I)
I I
Temp 00
APR 20,1906 )
L! OFUNDAL1
— I I I
— DO Temp
\i
‘I
OCT tI 1906
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (mg/I)
12

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or less freely circulating region of approximately uniform tem-
perature, and may vary in thickness from 10 feet or less in shal-
low lakes to 40 feet or more in deeper ones. The middle layer, or
thermocline, is the region of rapid change usually defined by a
change in temperature of 1.8° F for each 3.28 feet variance in
depth. The lower layer, or hypolimnion, is the cold region of
approximately uniform temperature. It is cut off from circula-
tion with the upper waters and receives no oxygen from the at-
mosphere during stratification.
As autumn comes the standing body of water cools; the epilim-
nion increases in thickness until the lake becomes homothermous,
and again a period of complete circulation begins. This occurs
from late September to December, depending upon the area and
depth of the lake and its geographic and climatic location, It lasts
until changes in density reestablish stratification, or until the
lake is frozen over. This commonly occurs from November to Jan-
uary, varying with lake, season, and geographic location. Circu-
lation then ceases until spring.
During the greater part of the year, free circulation of water
and exchange of gases with those in the atmosphere are restricted.
The lake is saturated, or nearly so, with atmospheric gases in
the fall and in the early spring. As soon as thermal stratification
occurs and until the overturn, only the water of the epilimnion
has direct contact with the air.
Thermal stratification in reservoirs may assume many patterns
depending on geographical location, climatological conditions,
depth, surface area, and type of dam structure, its penstock loca-
tions, and its power use. Reservoirs or impoundments have been
separated into two basic types: main stream and storage (Kit-
trell, 1959).
The main stream (“run-of-the-river”) reservoir is typically an
impoundment formed by a relatively low dam that rarely ex-
ceeds 60 to 80 feet in height. Much of the impounded water
is restricted to the original channel, and water retention ranges
from a few day to a few weeks. Man-regulated fluctuations in
surface levels usually are controlled within a range of 2 to 3
feet. Main stream impoundments are used principally for naviga-
tion and for power production. Thermal stratification often con-
sists of a small but fairly regular gradient of 5° to 10° F from top
to bottom during summer. This gradient is most likely to occur in
13

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a reservoir with limited surface area where wind action is moder-
ate and velocities are low. Temporary thermoclines have been re-
corded where the temperature gradient is steep through a rather
narrow band of water.
Another form of thermal stratification in main stream reservoirs
involves the inflow of a stream of water that is colder than the
normal surface water. Since the penstock intake (discharge) may
extend from near the bottom to within 15 to 20 feet of the water
surface, the cold stream of water flows through the impound-
ment, creating a thermocline below the water surface at the dam
and extending upstream parallel to the bottom of the reservoir.
The storage reservoir, as its name implies, is used to impound
water when surface runoff is high (i.e., flood flows) for release
when runoff is low. As a result the surface water level varies over
a wide range, sometimes 70 feet or more during the year, and is
generally highest at or near the end of a rainy season and lowest
just before the next rainy season. The drawdown of the reservoir
requires that the discharge intake be located deep in the reservoir,
below the minimum level to which the water will be drawn.
The storage reservoir is often located at the headwaters of a
stream that frequently has a steep slope. The dam is high, often
more than 100 feet. The stored water spreads far beyond the f or-
me- river channel into numerous fingers or embayments to pro-
vide a large surface area. Vertical cross sections of the reservoir
are large in relation to stream flow, and flow velocities in the
reservoirs are negligible. Water may be retained in the reservoir
for many months. Passage of water through the reservoir may be
discontinuous, and significant portions of the water may remain
in storage for nearly a year.
Most storage reservoirs exhibit the classical type of thermal
stratification described for natural deepwater bodies. Reservoirs
that do not store substantial volumes of water at winter tempera-
tures or that discharge such water before warm weather occurs
do not develop thermoclines; neither do shallow reservoirs with
broad expanses of surface areas exposed to strong winds that mix
the waters. In the southern portion of the country where surface
water temperatures rarely drop below 4° C, there is no stratifica-
tion in winter and temperatures are nearly uniform throughout
the impoundment.
Density currents have been defined as the gravity flow of a fluid
‘4

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within a medium of the same phase. They are caused by differ-
ences in temperature; differences in the concentration of electro-
lytes, especially carbonates; and differences in the silt content.
A reservoir that is relatively deep , long, and narrow favors the
development of density currents (Wiebe, 1939a, 1939b, 1941). The
waters of Norris Reservoir, Tennessee, contain four well-defined
horizontal zones with respect to dissolved oxygen during thermal
stratification. These include a well-aerated surface stratum, a
zone of stagnant water within the thermocline, a second stratum
of water rich in dissolved oxygen below the thermocline, and a
bottom layer of stagnant water. In some instances, density cur-
rents have been detected from 60 to 80 feet below the surface.
Density currents affect the fish populations since game fish orient
themselves both to the stratum of stagnant water caused by den-
sity currents and to the temperature range that suits them best.
Often they become trapped by a lack of oxygen within this zone.
The gradual expansion in depth of any temperature zone is
largely the result of water withdrawal from the storage reservoir.
As the cold water is removed from a deep penstock at the dam,
and the water level drops, the warmer surface water moves down-
ward into the reservoir, increasing the depth of the epilimnion
and decreasing the depth of the hypolimnion.
Neel (1963) compares glaciated lakes with man-made reservoirs
and notes a number of differences. Inlets and outlets of glaciated
lakes are near the surface, but water may leave a reservoir at one
of several depths or from two or three levels simultaneously. The
lowest depression in a natural lake may occur anywhere in its
basin, but maximum depth of a reservoir is always near the dam,
unless a natural lake or deep canyon is included in the impound-
ment area. A reservoir bottom has a regular slope from head to
tail that was established by the river before damming. A similar
slope is found in natural lakes that are formed by earthquakes,
but basins of glaciated lakes were scooped out below river level,
and nonuniformity of bottom slope is to be expected. Glaciated
lakes normally begin as oligotrophic bodies and increase in pro-
ductivity with time. Reservoirs, on the other hand, often inundate
rich bottom lands and fertile topsoils on river slopes and nor-
mally begin with high productivity potentials and tend to suffer
productivity declines with the passage of time.
Sylvester (1963) notes that the impoundment of water will
produce various temperature effects on the impounded water tem-
15

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perature and on the downstream water temperature, depending
upon:
(1) Volume of water impounded in relation to mean stream-
flow. (2) Surface area of impounded water. (3) Depth of im-
pounded water (4) Orientation with prevailing wind direction.
(5) Shading afforded. (6) Elevation of impoundment. (7) Tem-
perature of inflow water in relation to temperature of impounded
water. (8) Depth of water withdrawal. (9) Downstream flow rates
during critical temperature period, i.e., an increase or decrease in
flow over that occurring naturally.
Sylvester (1963) states that in a natural stream flowing from
an upland to a lowland environment, there will be a natural tem-
perature increase or decrease that must be known before artificial
causes of temperature change can be evaluated. In the 42-mile
stretch of the Wenatchee River between Lake Wenatchee and
Dryden, Washington , water temperature differences for 1956 were
—1.2° F in February, +3.9° F in April, +2.10 F in June,
+18° F in August, and —1.5° F in December. Raphael (1961,
1962) is quoted as calculating that, under natural conditions in
August, the Columbia River temperature will rise about 10 F in a
72-mile stretch below Chief Joseph Dam and about 1° F in a 50-
mile stretch below Rock Island. The Columbia River in the 450
miles between the Grand Coulee Dam and Bonneville rose 5.4° F,
the sharpest rise occurring between Pasco and Umatilla because
of the warm inflow of the Snake River.
Water, in passing through a municipal water system and sub-
sequently through a sewerage system, experiences a rise in tem-
perature that may or may not be significant, depending upon the
size of the receiving water. The data from the Puget Sound area
indicate that treatment plant effluents are warmer than the di-
verted water by about 14° F in the winter, 12° F in the spring,
9° F in the summer, and 13° F in the autumn.
In the Yakima Valley irrigation facility the water temperature
increased, on the average, 3.5° F in 87 miles of main canal flow
during August of 1959 and 1960. This is somewhat greater than
would have been found in the river for the same distance if the
water had not been diverted. However, in August, without irri-
gation flow augmentation, the normal river temperature rise in
37 miles of passage would closely approximate 8.5° F temperature
rise. Water applied to the land had an average temperature in-
16

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crease of 3.3° F and water emerging from sub-surface drains, had
an average temperature decrease of 5.3° F.
In general, Sylvester (1963) states that large and deep im-
poundments will decrease downstream water temperatures in the
summer and increase them in winter, if withdrawal depths are
low; that shallow impoundments with large surface areas will in-
crease downstream water temperatures in the summer; that wa-
ter drawn periodically from the surface of a reservoir will in-
crease downstream water temperatures; that a reduction in
normal stream flow downstream from an impoundment will cause
marked temperature increases; and that “run-of-river” impound-
ments, when the surface area has not been increased markedly
over the normal river area, will produce only small increases in
downstream water temperatures.
Dissolved Oxygen
Interrelated with temperature and light, living and decaying
organisms, decomposable man-produced wastes and deposited
natural decomposable organics, is the dissolved oxygen in the
water.
Oxygen enters the water by absorption directly from the at-
mosphere or by plant photosynthesis and is removed by respira-
tion of organisms and by decomposition. That derived from the
atmosphere may be by direct diffusion or by surface water agita-
tion by wind and waves which may also release dissolved oxygen
under conditions of supersaturation. In referring to the ineffec-
tiveness of diffusion as a factor in the distribution of oxygen in
a lake, Birge and Juday (1911) cite Huffner.* According to his
{1-iuffner’s] calculations, if the Bodensee which is 250 meters
deep should lose its supply of dissolved oxygen, and should then
acquire a new supply from the air by diffusion alone, it would
require over a million years for the entire body of water to be-
come saturated with this gas.
in photosynthesis, aquatic plants utilize carbon dioxide and lib-
erate dissolved and free-gaseous oxygen at times of supersatura-
tion. Since energy is required in the form of light, photosynthesis
is limited to the photic zone where light is sufficient to facilitate
this process. According to Dice (1952), “. . . the ultimate limit of
• Arch. für AnaL. und Physiol. (Physiol. Abteil.) 1897, p. 112.
17

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productivity of a given ecosystem is governed by the total effec-
tive solar energy falling annually on the area, by the efficiency
with which the plants in the ecosystem are able to transform this
energy into organic compounds, and by those physical factors of
the environment which aflect the rate of photosynthesis.” Ver-
duin (1956) summarized the literature on primary production in
lakes; based on computations of photosynthetic oxygen production,
he found that the yields of several lakes were mostly between 42
and 57 pounds of dissolved oxygen per acre per day. A year-
round study under completely natural conditions in western Lake
Erie showed winter yields of about 11 lbs. of dissolved oxygen
production per acre per thy, and summer maxima of about 85 lbs.
per acre per day. The annual oxygen production curve closely
followed the solar radiation curve. The net oxygen production
rate for East Okoboji Lake in Iowa, a producer of large plankton
populations, was 79 lbs. per acre per thy, with production largely
confined to the first 2 meters (Weber, 1958). Whipple et al.
(1948) noted that supersaturation in the upper waters is not
cumulative to a great extent because circulation is maintained by
wind action and convection currents both of which promote con-
tact of the water and the air with a consequent loss of oxygen.
Higher saturation is frequently found in the upper region of the
thermocline in infertile oligothropic lakes. Wind action seldom
disturbs the water of this zone, convection currents are absent,
and diffusion is a slow process. Plants find an abundant supply
of carbon dioxide and sufficient light in this area to stimulate
photosynthesis, resulting in supersaturation values that may ex-
ceed 800 percent.
During respiration and decomposition, animals and plants con-
sume dissolved oxygen and liberate carbon dioxide at all depths
where they occur. Because excreted and secreted products and
dead animals and plants sink, most of the decomposition takes
place in the hypolimnion; thus, during lake stratification there
is a gradual decrease of dissolved oxygen in this zone. After the
dissolved oxygen is depleted, anaerobic decomposition continues
with evolution of carbon dioxide, methane, and hydrogen sulfide.
In the epilimnion, during thermal stratification, dissolved oxy-
gen is usually abunthnt and is supplied by atmospheric aeration
and photosynthesis. Pbytoplankton are plentiful in fertile lakes and
are responsible for most of the photosynthetic oxgyen. The therrn
mocline is a transition zone from the standpoint of dissolved oxy-
18

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gen as well as temperature. The water rapidly cools in this re-
gion, incident light is much reduced, and photosynthesis is usually
decreased; if sufficient dissolved oxygen is present, some cold water
fish abound. As dead organisms that sink into the hypolimnion
decompose, oxygen is utilized; consequently, the hypolimnion in
fertile lakes may become devoid of dissolved oxygen following a
spring overturn, and this zone may be unavailable to fish and
most benthic invertebrates at this time. During the two brief
periods in spring and fall when lake water circulates, tempera-
ture and dissolved oxygen are the same from top to bottom and
fish can use the entire water depth.
Light
Rooted, suspended, and floating aquatic plants require light for
photosynthesis. Light penetration into waters is exceedingly var-
iable in different lakes. Clarke (1939) pointed out that the dimi-
nution of the intensity of light in its passage through water fol-
lows a definite mathematical formula. The relationship between
the depth of water and the amount of light penetrating to that
depth can be plotted as a straight line on semilogarithmic paper.
Even the clearest waters impede the passage of light to some
extent; light passed through 100 meters of distilled water is re-
duced to I or 2 percent of its incident va1ue.
The principal factors affecting the depth of light penetration
in natural waters include suspended microscopic plants and ani-
mals, suspended mineral particles such as mineral silt, stains that
impart a color, detergent foams, dense mats of floating and sus-
pended debris or a combination of these. The region in which
light intensity is adequate for photosynthesis is often referred to
as the trophogenic zone, the layer that encompasses 99 percent
of the incident light. The depth of the trophogenic zone may vary
from 5 to 90 feet.
The length of daylight in water varies inversely with the depth
of the water. The seasonal variation in the intensity of solar radia-
tion influences the potential rate of photosynthesis. In winter the
presence of ice with an over layer of snow further limits the
amount of relatively poor incident light energy that reaches the
water. The work of Birge, reported by Neess and Bunge (1957),
indicates that the absorptive quality of clear ice is very similar
to that of water, although he addition of air bubbles or particu-
late matter reduces the transmission of light. Snow further re-
19

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duces light penetration through ice. Greenbank (1945) found 84
percent light transmission through 7-½ inches of very clear ice,
and 22 percent through 7½ inches of very cloudy ice. A 1-inch
snow cover permitted only 7 percent light transmission through
the ice and snow; 2 inches of snow permitted only 1 percent light
transmission. Bartsch and Allum (1957), studying sewage stabili-
zation ponds, found that in the absence of snow 20 to 55 percent
of the incident light passed through 10 to 12 inches of ice, whereas,
with a 1- to 3-inch snow cover 93 to 99 percent of the incident
light was absorbed by ice and snow, when the ice was I to 2
feet thick. Mackenthun and McNabb (1961) found less than 1
percent of light passed through 16 inches of ice covered by 2
inches of snow.
Beeton (1958) made 57 paired photometer and Secchi disc meas-
urements at 18 stations in Saginaw Bay in Lake Huron. He
found that the average percentage transmission of surface light
intensity, at the Secchi disc depth, was 14.7 percent. Verduin
(1956) made simultaneous determinations with the Secchi disc
and submarine photometer during August, 1955, on Lake Erie.
The Secchi disc readings in meters were plotted against the depth
associated with one percent of the surface light. A line drawn by
inspection through the scatter diagram, suggests that an approx
imate estimation of the depth of the euphotic zone can be ob.
rained by multiplying the Secchi disc readings by 5. Riley (1941)
used a factor of 3. Verduin (1956) computed a factor of 2.5 using
the data of Bursche (1955). Rawson (1950) lists a factor of 4.3
when the Secchi disc reading is about 1 meter.
The maximum Secchi disc reading reported for Lake Tahoe,
California—Nevada, was 136 feet at one station on April 4, 1962
(McGauhey et al., 1963). A minimum Secchi disc reading of 49
feet was recorded in Emerald Bay of Lake Tahoe on May 21, 1962.
In contrast, the Secchi disc disappeared in 3-feet in Lake Sebasti-
cook, Maine, during the July 1965 study. In areas with less dense
algal growths, the readings were increased to 8 feet. Beeton (1965)
records the average Secchi disc depth for Lake Superior as 32.5
feet; Lake Michigan, 19.6 feet; and Lake Erie, 14.6 feet.
Other Chemical Factors
Whipple et al. (1948) stated that hard-water lakes in which
the bicarbonate content is high contain a store of carbon dioxide
20

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not found in soft water, although the amount of free carbon
dioxide present in the upper water may or may not be greater
than in soft water. Bicarbonates may indirectly furnish a large
amount of carbon dioxide for plant gowth. This is taken from
the air when bicarbonates have been largely changed to normal
carbonates, for water containing much normal carbonate will
absorb carbon dioxide more rapidly than water containing little
or none.
Neel et al. (1961), in studying raw-sewage stabilization ponds,
found that pH values above 8.0 are produced by a photosynthetic
rate that demands more carbon dioxide than the quantities fur-
nished by respiration and decomposition; pH levels below 8.0
indicate failure of photosynthesis to utilize completely the
amounts of carbon dioxide so produced. “In general practice, pH
values above 8.0 are assumed to denote the presence of carbonate;
a level of 8.0 indicates bicarbonate alone; and values below 8.0
show the occurrence of free carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide, usu-
ally produced by decomposition and respiration, will react with
any carbonate present to form bicarbonate and water. Photosyn-
thesis by aquatic plants utilizes carbon dioxide, removing it from
bicarbonate and producing carbonate when no free CO 2 exists.
Carbonates of calcium and magnesium are but weakly soluble and
quantities of them leave solution. Decomposition and/or respira-
tion thus tends to reduce pH and increase bicarbonates, whereas
the tendency of photosynthesis is to raise pH and reduce bicar-
bonate.” *
Fish are most commonly found in water with a pH range from
about 5 to 9. “Much more extreme pH values, perhaps below 4.0
and well above 10.0, also can be tolerated indefinitely by resistant
species. However, regardless of the nature of acid or alkaline
wastes responsible, such extreme conditions, associated with in-
dustrial pollution, are evidently undesirable and hazardous for
fish life in waters which are not naturally so acid or alkaline”
(Doudoroff and Katz, 1950).
A total alkalinity of 40.0 mg/I seems to be a natural separa-
tion point between soft and hard waters (Moyle, 1949). Moyle
classified fish and plant productivity of natural lakes in Minne-
sota on the basis of total alkalinity as measured to the methyl
* Neel, J. K., H. P. Nicholson, and A. Hirsch. 1963. Main Stem Reservoir Effects
on %%Tater Quality in the Central Missouri River. U. 5. Department of Health, Edu-
cation, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Reg. VI, DWSPC, 112 pp. (Mimeo.)
21

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Particulate
Particulate organic
Reactive
Soluble orthophosphate
Soluble organic plus poly-. meta-,
and pyrophosphates
Soluble organic
Total soluble
Total dissolved
Total insoluble
Total hydrolyzable
= Orthophosphate
Soluble minus ortho
Orthophosphate
Total minus soluble
Total minus ortho
[ Soluble minus ortho) minus [ (Soluble or-
thophosphate plus hydrolyzable) minus Or-
thophosphate} plus [ total minus Orthophos-
phate]
= Total minus soluble
= Total minus ortho
= Orthophosphate
= Orthophosphate
= Soluble minus ortho
= [ Soluble minus ortho] minus [ (Soluble or-
thophosphate plus hydrolyzable) minus or-
thophosphate]
Soluble
= Soluble
Total minus soluble
= Soluble minus ortho
orange endpoint at approximately pH 4.0. Lakes with a total
methyl orange alkalinity below 20 mg/i were low in fish and
plant productivity; between 20 and 40 mg/i productivity was low
to medium; between 40 and 90 mg/I productivity of both fish
and plants was medium to high; and above 90 mg/I productivity
was high.
Two of the major nutrients, nitrogen and phosphorus, have
become important analytical constituents to characterize water
quality. Often nitrogen and phosphorus data are confusing to the
reader because of the uncertainty of the type of analyses performed
and the elemental form that the data represent. Preferably these
data should be reported as the elements, N and P, with a modifier to
indicate the form for which the analysis was made. Because phos-
phorus may cause the greater confusion between the two, the
nomenclature and synonymy for phosphorus is presented in the
following tabulation:
PHOSPHORUS (P) Nomenclature and Synonymy
Total phosphorus is obtained by digesting sample with persulfate. then filtering.
Soluble phosphorus is obtained by filtering sample, then digesting filtrate with
persulfate.
Orthophosphate is obtained by filtering sample with no digestion.
Soluble orthophosphate plus hydrolyzable is obtained by filtering sample, then
digesting with acid as stated in Standard Methods for the Examination of water
and Wastewater, 12th Edition.
Dissolved inorganic
Dissolved organic plus poly-. meta-,
and pyrophosphates =
Inorganic =
Insoluble =
Insoluble organic =
Organic
22

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The Effect of Stream Inflows on the Water Body
The extensive use of organic phosphate and chlorinated hy-
drocarbon pesticides and recent controversies associated with
the programs for the control of the fire ant, the spruce bud
worm, the gypsy moth, and other forest insects, and extensive
pesticidal application on food crops have focused attention on
the problems created for those interested in the preservation
of the aquatic habitat. Most pesticides are toxic to aquatic
life: some are highly toxic (e.g., 0.6 lb. of Endrin in 120 million
gallons of water will kill bluegill sunfish (Henderson et al.,
1959); some are cumulative in the fat and flesh of organisms
and in the bottom muds and usage has resulted in the death of
fish and waterfowl as well as invertebrates, such as crabs, cray
fish, and aquatic insects that are important in food chains.
Pesticides must be considered individually rather than collec-
tively, and the beneficial and harmful effects of each compound
must be weighed. The total effect of a proposed application upon
the aquatic environment must be assayed , which necessitates a
knowledge of the toxicity and associated hazards of the control
agent. Rigid controls must govern usage and adequate safe-
guards must be taken against “careless use” that has so often
resulted in unwarranted aquatic-animal mortalities.
Environmental changes caused by industrial waste effluents
can be detrimental to aquatic life in varying degrees. These
include decreases in dissolved oxygen to harmful levels; in-
creases in turbidity; formation of sludge deposits by settleable
inert and decomposable solids; increases in chemicals to toxic
levels; changes in pH toward extremes in acidity or alkalinity;
increases in temperature; tainting of fish flesh; and production
of nutrients resulting in undesirable aquatic growths.
Many thousands of waterfowl have been destroyed by the
pollutional effects of oil (Hunt, 1961). This wasteful loss has
deprived nature lovers, waterfowl hunters, and bird watchers
of immeasurable enjoyment. The destruction of ducks such as the
canvasback, redhead, and scaup comes at a critical peripd for
these species, which are fighting for survival against the forces
of nature and man. Additional waterfowl will be destroyed if
oil dumping is continued, especially in late winter. In this age
of technical development, the discharge of oil into a river sys-
23

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tern indicates man’s irresponsibility in the preservation of our
natural resources.
Oil causes matting of the feathers so that ducks become water-
logged, lose their ability to fly, and drown if they cannot get
out of the water soon enough. It breaks down the insulating
power of the feathers; body heat and stored reserves of energy
are rapidly lost. Diving ducks may starve, and following the
preening of oil off contaminated feathers, bleeding ulcers may
be produced in their digestive tracts causing mortality (Hunt
1958).
Wastes with concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus (fertil-
izers) increase certain organism populations to such magnitudes
as to interfere with water uses and create nuisances. Organisms
that respond to such nutrients are certain floating and attached
algae and rooted aquatic plants. If streams, lakes, and man-
made impoundments continue to be enriched with industrial,
municipal, and agricultural wastes, existing biological nuisance
problems will intensify in many areas, and develop in others
that do not now have them.
Turbidity, which is an expression of the optical property of
water that causes light rays to be scattered and absorbed rather
than transmitted in straight lines, is caused by a variety of
suspended particulate matter. Such matter may be living or
dead phytoplankton or zooplankton cells, as algae, protozoans
bacteria, and small crustaceans, or silt or other finely divided
inorganic and organic waste materials. Many industrial opera-
tions contribute turbidity and settleable solids to water; the
resulting bottom deposits affect aquatic life in varying degrees.
Fine particulate inorganic and organic waste materials that
remain in suspension limit the penetration of sunlight, thus
restricting the growth of attached bottom plants, as well as
suspended algae. Also, solids flocculate planktonic algae and ani-
mals out of water and carry them to the bottom to die. Thus,
in limiting growths of aquatic plant meadows, food chains are
interrupted, which results in a sparsity of animal life. As par-
ticulate matter settles to the bottom, deposits of settleable solids
blanket the substrate and form undesirable physical environ-
ments for organisms. In addition, settleable solids may change
heat radiation, retain organic materials and other substances
which create unfavorable conditions on the bottom, interfere
24

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¶ _
S 3
.-,
a.
Plate 5. Industrial wastes degrade water for recreational use.
with fish feeding. smother fish eggs, and produce a grinding and
crushing action deleterious to benthic forms.
The deposition of sediment in streams can and often does de
stroy insect and mussel populations. Ellis (1931), in studying
the Mississippi, Tennessee, and Ohio Rivers, reported that erosion
silt was destroying a large portion of the mussel population
in various streams by directly smothering the animals in locali-
ties where a thick deposit of mud was formed, and by smother-
ing young mussels whereas the adults could maintain themselves.
Ziebell and Knox (1957) * investigated the effects of a gravel
washing operation on the Wynooche River in Washington. The re-
sults of bottom samples indicated reductions in bottom asso-
ciated organisms of 75 to 85 percent at distances exceeding one
mile downstream from the operation. Silt from a gravel wash-
ing plant located on Cold Creek and the Truckee River, California,
reduced bottom organisms over 75 percent for a distance of
more than 10 miles downstream (Cordone and Pennoyer, 1960).
Reports published by the Oregon State Game Commission et al.,
summarized the results of extensive collections of bottom orga-
nisms upstream and downstream from gold dredge operations on
• Ziebell, C. D. and S. K. Knox, 1957. Turbidity and Siltation Studies, Wynooche
River. Report to Washington Poll. Control Comm., 7 pp. (Mimeo.)
1
25

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the Powder River. During siltation, production of fish food or-
ganisms decreased to nearly zero in the zone of heaviest pollution
and the effect of siltation extended for a distance of 20 miles
(Cordone and Kelley, 1961). In about one year after the dredge
closed operations, the silt was flushed from the pools and riffles
by freshets and bottom organisms increased 8- to 10-fold in
weight per unit of bottom area.
Few data are available regarding the direct harm of sedi-
ment to fish. In most cases indirect damage to the fish population
through destruction of the food supply, redds and eggs, or
changes in the habitat probably occur long before adult fish
are harmed directly. Ellis (1944) states that particulate matter
of a hardness greater than one, if held in suspension by current
action or otherwise, will injure the gills and other delicate ex-
posed structures of fishes, mollusks and insects, if the particles
are large enough. Kemp (1949) stated that mud or silt in sus-
pension will clog or cut the gills of many fish and mollusks;
he considered 3,000 ppm dangerous if maintained for a period
of 10 days. Stuart (1953) concludes that silt is not very dan-
gerous in the stream if excess occurs only at intervals; however,
the character of such normal streams can be drastically alter-
k I- *___ -
Plate 6. An esthetically unattractive stream reach polluted
with waste wool and debris.
26

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ed by allowing the washings of quarries, gravel pits, mines,
etc. to flow into the streams untreated. In many cases the quan-
titles allowed to enter the stream may be small and the ma-
terial in suspension may in itself be of a non-toxic character,
but continuous application of small quantities over the redds
may be much more detrimental to the welfare of very young
fish than sudden flushes of large quantities. Others who have
noted detrimental effects of silt upon the eggs and developing
fry of fish include Campbell (1954), Snyder (1959), and Sha-
povalov and Berrian (1940). Shapovalov and Taft (1954) in
discussing mining silt, concluded that from a practical stand-
point the damage to spawning beds would occur when mining
silt enters a stream at times other than storm periods when
the water velocity is insufficient to transport the sediment in
suspension.
Turbidity reduces the enjoyment of fishing and may limit
fishing success. This effect has been determined in expressable
data for Fork Lake in I llinois where it was found that the fish
caught per man-hour decreased from 6.53 to 2.04 when the
transparency in feet as measured by the Secchi disc was likewise
reduced from an average of 4.0 to 1.3 (Bennett. Thompson, and
Parr, 1940).
Sediment is believed to destroy algae by molar action, by
simply covering the bottom of the stream with a blanket of
silt, or by shutting off the light needed for photosynthesis.
Tarzwell and Gaufin (1953) found that turbid waters may trans-
port for considerable distances the byproducts of bacterial ac-
tion on organic wastes and the effluent from sewage treatment
installations before they are utilized. When the water clears
because of an impoundment, these fertilizing materials are uti-
lized and may produce troublesome algal blooms, far from the
source of pollution.
Following a study of the Howard A. Hanson multi-purpose reser-
voir near Tacoma, Washington, a number of suggestions were
made by Sylvester and Seabloom (1965) to improve future
water quality by careful site selection and by site preparation.
The suggestions included the removal of all standing timber,
brush, stumps, logs, and structures from the reservoir site; and
the mowing and removal of grass and associated herbage from
stream and pasture lands. Soil leaching and exchange studies
27

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will indicate whether a soil will impart undesirable properties
to the overlying water. And the impoundment area should be
flushed several times before use, whenever possible, to collect
wood debris, to remove readily soluble soil mineral constituents,
and to remove fine soil particles.
The Effect of Reservoir Discharge on the Receiving
Stream
Water flowing from a natural lake would be expected to be of a
quality similar to that of the water in the uppermost stratum
of the lake. However, when water in a free-flowing stream is
impounded in a large storage reservoir, marked changes are
produced in the physical, chemical, and mineral quality of the
water.
Churchill (1958) dicusses the effect on downstream water
quality of large storage reservoirs with discharge structures lo-
cated deep within the reservoir. Because the reservoirs have
been operated primarily for flood control and power produc-
tion, the magnitude of high stream flows is reduced and the
general level of low flows is increased. Discharge releases are
often reduced over weekends and during other periods of off-
peak power loads. The temperatures in the receiving stream may
be substantially lowered, sometimes to 550 F; and may not ex-
ceed 68 F even in the summer. Because stratification beginning
in March or April stops the vertical circulation that exists all
winter, discharge through the low-level power structures re-
moves cold water from this level. As the supply of cold water at
this elevation is exhausted from the pool, warmer water from
above sinks down and is gradually discharged. By this process
the discharged water may gradually warm to temperatures ap-
proaching 77 °F during the summer and fall. Turbidity result-
ing from intense summer rains of short duration is reduced.
Odors of hydrogen sulfide from decaying organic materials in
the deeper portions of the reservoir may be a problem.
The dissolved oxygen concentration of the discharged water is
often lower than that normally present in the inflow and may
often approach zero at the point of discharge. “Low rates of
released flow are reaerated in relatively short distances down-
stream from the dam, whereas higher discharges require many
28

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miles of open-channel flow before oxygen saturation is reached”
(Churchill, 1958). As much as a 14 to 15° C decrease below
“normal” summer stream temperatures was observed.
The ecology of the receiving stream is drastically altered as
a result of the low-level discharge water characterized by low
temperatures and reduced oygen concentrations. Dend and
Stroud (1949) noted that the warm-water habitats that for-
merlv supported a bass and walleye fishery below Fontana
Reservoir. Tennessee, no longer exist. The highest water tempera-
ture recorded was 68.5° F and the lowest concenti ition of dis-
solved oxygen was 1.6 mg. 1, both reached in late October.
Pfltzer (l95fl investigated a number of reservoir tailwaters in
Tennessee. He found that many of the minnow species had dis-
appeared, and only a few of those remaining were reproducing
succes fuIly. The bottom fauna pattern had changed from one
dominated by large immature stoneflies and heligrammites to
an assortment of cold-water species such as immature midges,
blackilies. and caddisilies along with the scud, Gaminarus, and
snails. The plant populations were dominated entirely by algae of
several species.
Love (1961) lists important beneficial effects of impoundment
on water quality as: reduction of turbidity, silica, color, and
Plate 7. Fontana Project, Tennessee Valley Authority.
29

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coliform bacteria; depression of sharp variations in dissolved
minerals, hardness, pH, and alkalinity; reduction in tempera-
ture, which sometimes benefit fish life; entrapment of sediment;
and storage of water for release in dry periods. Detrimental
effects were given as: increased growth of algae, which may
give rise to tastes and odors; reduction in dissolved oxygen in
the deeper parts of the reservoirs; increase in carbon dioxide
and frequently iron, manganese, and alkalinity, especially near
the bottom; increases in dissolved solids and hardness result-
ing from evaporation and dissolution of rock materials; and
reductions in temperature, which, although sometimes beneficial,
may also be detrimental to fish.
References Cited
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Sewage in Artificial Ponds. Limnology and Oceanography, 2 (2): 77—84.
Br ITON. A. M., 1958. Relationship Between Secchi Disc Readings and Light Penetra-
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BirroN, A. M.. 1965. Eutrophication of the St. Lawrence Great Lakes. Limnology
and Oceanography, 10 (2) : 240—254.
BrNNtrr. C. W., D. H. THOMPSON, AND S. A. P.n, 1940. Lake Management Report 4,
A Second Year of Fisheries Investigations at Fork lake, 1939. I I I. Natural History
Survey, Biology Notes, 4: 1—24.
Butcr, E. A., 1904. The Therrnocline and its Biological Significance. Trans. Am.
Micro. Soc., 25: 5—53.
Brgct, E. A., 1907A. The Oxygen Dissolved in the Waters of Wisconsin Lakes. Report
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BIRGE, E. A., 190Th. The Respiration of an Inland Lake. Trans. American Fisheries
Society, pp. 223—241.
Bntcr, E. A, AND C. JUDAY. 1911. The Inland Lakes of Wisconsin: The Dissolved
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Butsair, F. M., 1955. Beitrage zur Frage des “Krautschwundes” in H 2 S-Oscillatorien-
Seen. Zeit. Fisch. 4: 53—99,
CAMPBELL, H. J., 1954. The Effect of Siltation from Gold Dredging on the Survival
of Rainbow Trout and Eyed Eggs in Powder River, Oregon. Oregon St. Game
comm., 3 pp. (Processed)
CHURcHaL, M. A,, 1958. Effect of Storage Impoundments on Water Quality. Trans.
Am. Soc. Civil Fogs.. 123: 419—464.
ClA m, G. L., 1939. The Utilization of Solar Energy by Aquatic Organisms. Prob.
Lake Biology, A.A.A.S. PubI., 10: 27—38.
Coanonr, A. J. AND D. W. KEUIY, 1961. The Influence of Inorganic Sediment on the
Aquatic Life of Streams. Calif. Fish and Game, 47 (2): 189—228.
CORDONE, A. J. AND S. PENNOYut, 1960. Notes on Silt Pollution in the Truckee River
Drainage. Calif. Dept. of Fish and Came, Inland Fisheries Admin. Rept. No. 60—14,
25 pp. (Mimeo.)
30

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DENDY, J. S. AND R. H. Snoun, 1949. The Dominating influence of Fontana Reser-
voir on Temperature and Dissolved Ox’ gen in the Little Tennessee River and Its
Impoundments. Jour. Tennessee Acad. Sci., 24 (1): 41 —5 1.
DIcE, L. R., 1952. Natural Communities, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor,
547 pp.
Dounogorr, P. AND M. KATZ, 1950. Critical Review of Literature on the Toxicity of
Industrial Wastes and their Components to Fish. I. Alkalies, Acids, and Inorganic
Gases. Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 22 (11): 1432 —1458.
ELLIS, M. M., 1931. Some Factors Affecting the Replacement of the Commercial
Freshwater Mussels. U. S. Dept. Commerce, Bur. Fisheries, Fishery Circ. 7, 10 pp.
ELLIS, M. M., 1944. IVater Purity Standards for Fresh-Water Fishes. U. S. Fish and
Wild!. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept. 2, 18 Pp.
GREENBANK, J. T., 1945. Limnological Conditions in Ice-covered Lakes, Especially as
Related to Winter-Kill of Fish. Ecological Monographs, 15 (4) : 343—392.
HENDERSON, C., Q. H. PICKERING AND C. M. TARZWELL, 1959. Relative Toxicity of Ten
Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides to Four Species of Fish. Trans. Am. Fish.
Soc., 88: 23—32.
HUNT, G. S., 1958. Causes of Mortality Among Ducks Wintering on the Lower De-
troit River, Ann Arbor. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Ph.D. thesis.
HUNT, G. S.. 1961. Waterfowl Losses on the Lower Detroit River Due to Oil Pollu-
tion. PubI. No. 7, Great Lakes Research Div., Inst. Sci. and Tech., University of
Mich., Ann Arbor, pp. 10—26.
KEMP, H .A., 1949. Soil Pollution in the Potomac River Basin. Amer. Water Works
Assoc., Jour., 41 (9) : 792 —796.
KITTP.ELL, F. IV., 1959. Effects of Impoundments on Dissolved Oxygen Resources.
Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 31 (9) : 1065—1078.
Lovr, S. K., 196!. Relationship of Impoundment to Water Quality. Journ. American
Water Works Assoc., 53 (5): 559—568.
MACKENTHUN, K. M. AND C. D. MCNABB, 1961. Stabilization Pond Studies in Wiscon-
sin. Jour. Water Pollution Control Federation, 33 (12) : 1234—1251.
MCGAUI-IEY, P. H., R. ELIASSEN, G. ROHLICH, H. F. LUDWIG, AND E. A. PEARSON, 1963.
Comprehensive Study on Protection of Water Resources of Lake Tahoe Basin
Through Controlled Waste Disposal. Prepared for the Board of Directors, Lake
Tahoe Area Council, Al Tahoe, California, 157 pp.
Moyi.r, J. B., 1949. Some indices of Lake Productivity. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 76:
322—334 (1946) -
MEL, J. K., 1963. Impact of Reservoirs. In: Limno logy in North America, University
of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Pp. 575—593.
MEt., J. K., J. H. MCDERMOfl AND C. A. MONDAy, JR., 1961. Experimental Lagooning
of Raw Sewage at Fayette, Missouri. Jour. Water Pollution Control Federation, 33
(6): 603—641.
Nuss, J. C. AND IV. IV. BUNGE, 1957. An Unpublished Manuscript of E. A. Birge on
the Temperature of Lake Mendota. Part I i. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts and Let-
ters, 46: 3 1—89.
Pnrzn, D. W., 1954. Investigations of Waters below Storage Reservoirs in Tennessee.
Trans. Nineteenth North American Wildlife Conference, pp. 271—282.
RAPHAEL, J. M., 1961. The Effect of Wanapum and Priest Rapids Dams on the Tem-
perature of the Columbia River. Grant Co. P.U.D. No. 2, Ephrata, Wash., Septem-
ber.
RAPHAEL, J. M., 1962. The Effect of ‘SVells and Rocky Reach Dams on the Tempera-
ture of the Columbia River. Grand Co. P.U.D. No. 2, Ephrata, Wash., January.
31

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RAWSON, D. S., 1950. The Physical Limnology of Great Slave Lake. Jour. Fish. R n.
Bd., Canada, 8: l—66.
Run, G. A., 1941. Plankton Studies. IV. Georges Bank. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr.
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SHAFOVALOV, L. AND IV. BERRL%N, 1940. An Experiment in Hatching Silver Salmon
(Oncorhynclius kisutch) Eggs in Gravel. Amer. Fish. Soc. , Trans. 1 69 (1939), pp.
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SHAPOVALOY, L. AND A. C. TAFT, 1954. The Life Histories of the Stee lhead Rainbow
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Calif. Dept. Fish and Game. Fish. Bull. 98, 375 pp.
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SmART. T. A., 1953. Spawning Migration, Reproduction and Young Stages of Loch
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SYLVESTER, R. 0. AND R. W. SEABLOOM, 1965. Influence of Site Characteristics on
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T.ARZWELL, C. M. AND A. K. CAr rix, 1953. Some Important Biological Effects of
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Eng. Bull., Proc. 8th Indus. Waste Conf., 38 pp.
VERDUIN, J., 1956. Primary Production in Lakes. Limnology and Oceanography, I
(2): 85—91.
\VrSER, C. 1., 1958. Some Measurements of Primary Production in East and IVest
Okoboji Lakes, Dickinson County, Iowa. Proc. Iowa Academy of Sd., 65: 166—173.
IVnippij, G. C., C. M. FAIR AND M. C. IVuirni, 1948. The Microscopy of Drinking
Water. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 586 pp.
WIEBE, A. H., 1939A. Dissolved Oxygen Profiles at Norris Dam and in the Big Creek
Sector of Norris Reservoir (1937), with a Note on the Oxygen Demand of the
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\VWBE, A. H., 1939s. Density Currents in Norris Resenoir. Ecology, 20 (3): 446—450.
IS IEEE, A. H., 1941. Density Currents in Impounded Waters—their Significance from
the Standpoint of Fisheries Management. Trans. Six North American Wildlife
Conference, pp. 256—264.
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3
Biotic Responses to the
Aquatic Environment
RGAN ISMS repond to the aquatic environment by pro-
ducing an aquatic crop that is suited best for the par-
ticular environment in which they exist. Organisms also respond
to changes that may take place within their environment with
shifts in species dominance in the aquatic community and with
sometimes dramatic changes in the population numbers of a
single species or a group of species with similar habitat require-
ments. Because of this response of the biota to the aquatic
environment, biology has an important role in the characteriza-
tion of water quality and the interpretation of population trends
within the biota.
Algae
Following the spring overturn and throughout the warm sum-
mer period, algal populations often play a decisive role in the
recreational use of fertile waters. Algal blooms develop in open
water as well as in shallow, warm, shoreline bays and, if con-
ditions are suitable, spread to the remainder of the lake. Algal
masses are moved by wind and waves, and thus often create
localized nuisances that may be acute. Algal populations are in-
fluenced by climate; they tend to rise to the surface during hot,
humid days and disperse to greater depths during rain storms
or turbulent water conditions. Several successive dark or cloudy
days may be sufficient to kill a portion of a dense population, and
subsequent decomposition may bring about localized dissolved
oxygen depletion that may result in fish kills from suffocation.
It is difficult to estimate the standing plankton crop of a
particular body of water because of the diverse horizontal and
33

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vertical dispersion of the organisms and their transportation by
water movement. Birge and Juday (1922) found that the larg-
est crop of spring plankton in Lake Mendota, IVisconsin, was
approximately 360 lbs. per acre on a dry weight basis (10 percent
dry matter), and the largest crop of autumn plankton, 324 lbs.
per acre. The summer and winter minimums were 124 and 98 lbs.
per acre, respectively. Neil (1958) found that 1 ton or more per
acre of the green filamentous alga, Cladophora, was produced
on a suitable substrate in Lake Ontario. When the filaments of
this alga are washed ashore or decompose in the shallow water,
a typical pigpen odor is produced.
The wet weight algal standing crop in Lake Sebasticook,
Maine, was calculated from a series of vertical plankton samples
to be 534 lbs. per acre in February 1965; 631 lbs. per acre in
May 1965; 1,019 lbs. per acre on July 30, 1965; 2,260 lbs. per
acre on August 1, 1965; and 584 lbs. per acre in November
1965.
The response of algae to changes within the aquatic environ-
ment is most often observed in standing waters rather than in
flowing streams. This response. observable by blooms of plank-
tonic blue-green algae, floating scums or floating mats of fila-
mentous green algae, or dense growths of weedlike Chara has
been associated with abundant major nutrients, usually nitro-
gen and phosphorus. This response, also, may be observed in
streams in increased populations of attached algae with the
filamentous varities often producing 6- to 10-ft. long streamers
that undulate lazily in the current. Shifts in populations of
planktonic algae in flowing waters that are due to environmental
change have not been demonstrated with similar ease. Large
sluggish rivers that resemble lakes environmentally more closely
than do swift flowing streams often produce noticeable changes
in planktonic algal populations that may be associated with
environmental changes. In the swift flowing streams the shifts
in planktonic populations may be more difficult to isolate and
interpret because the time of water passage would indicate
that the algae collected by a particular sample were influenced
environmentally at some distance upstream. In some instances
the reach of stream studied may be too short to apply a mean-
ingful interpretation.
Plankton are often introduced into the flowing water from
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impoundments, backwater areas or stagnant areas of the stream.
The plankton that are developed in standing water within thç
river’s basin are, however, frequently destroyed downstream
(Butcher, 1940; Chandler, 1937; Reif, 1939). Blum (1956) cites
Poretzkii (1926) as indicating that certain river plankters are
unable to survive conditions of existence within an impoundment.
Streams whose plankton are not dominated by species from up-
stream lakes or ponds are likely to exhibit a majority of forms
that have been derived from the stream bottom directly (Butcher,
1940).
Factors influencing river algae are listed by Blum (1956) as:
size of the stream, current rate, water level, depth, temperature,
light, turbidity, and chemical conditions. Berg (1943) is quoted
as discussing the possibility that the micro-environment of the
stream bottom is surrounded with water that is not in motion.
It is probable that massive filamentous algae on the stream
bottom enclose between their filaments a volume of water
that is essentially stationary, yet is in contact on all sides with
constantly renewed water which brings fresh supplies of oxygen
and essential nutrients.
Cairns (1956) states that in an unpolluted stream, diatoms
generally grow best at 18° to 30° C; green algae at 30° to 35°
C; and blue-green algae at 35° to 40° C, with some species grow-
ing at even higher temperatures. The work of Wallace (1955)
was cited which shows a shift in the algal population with
the introduction of heated water; as the temperature increases
the diatoms decrease with a resultant rise in green algae and
finally bluegreen algae.
Acid mine wastes discharged to a Pennsylvania-West Vir-
ginia stream reduced phytoplankton species from 12 and 13 in
unaffected reaches to 3 and 4 in those reaches affected by acid
mine discharges. Population numbers were also generally re-
duced in the affected reaches.
Lackey (1938) found that the most highly acid-polluted wa-
ters support a few species of microorganisms which occur in
large numbers and are distinctive indicators of acid conditions.
For example, Euglena mutabilis were so abundant that they
were responsible for the green coating on sticks, leaves and
stones. The organism is devoid of a flagellum and by a “conser-
vative estimate,” over 1,000,000 organisms were found per m t
35

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• - I
cc. - 4
Plate 8. An overproduction of
algae in a lake, when dis-
charged to a river, sometimes
causes fish kills (Yahara River, Plate 9. Acid mine discharges cleanse natural
Wisconsin). substrates of organisms.
of surface. Only one blue-green Oscillatoria sp.. was noted
below pH 7.0 Ulothrix zonata Weber and Mohr) Kuetzing was
common, Stigeoclonium was abundant, and Ciadophora occurred
occasionally. Naviculoid diatoms were numerous in many samples;
one species of Tabellaria was noted. A total of 99 species of
plants and animals were found living at or below pH 3.9: 76
were algae or protozoa. Commonly occurring microscopic forms
included only 17 species (Lackey, 1939).
In studies on acid mine polluted waters with a pH of 3.5 and
lower in Pennsylvania and \Vest Virginia, Ulothrix tenerrima
Kuetzing formed thick beds near the debouchment from mines.*
Euglena mutabilis formed a green slime covering on rocks.
Microthamnion st;ictissimum Rabenhorst was less abundant than
L’ :
2
4
86

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Ulothrix, but was very common, and two pennate diatoms (Pin-
nularia s . and Eunotia exigua (Bréb) Rabenhorst) were ex-
tremely common and abundant.*
The adverse effects of silt on flowing-water algae were demon-
strated in studies of a stream polluted with industrial silts in
Georgia and Alabama. In a stream polluted with silt, algal popu-
lations totalled 126 and 422 cells per ml. Algal genera excluding
diatoms did not exceed 2. In an unaffected associated stream
sampled the same day, algal populations numbered 6,075 cells
per ml and algal genera excluding diatoms numbered 10. The
population was composed of all major algal groups.
Two miles downstream from the junction of the unaffected
river with the turbid waters of the silt-polluted river, the algal
data indicate reductions in both genera and numbers to form
a population of less than half that in the unaffected stream.
Thirteen miles downstream there was an additional reduction
both in algal kinds and numbers, indicating a die-off of algae
from the unaffected stream. In this reach only 2 genera of algae
other than diatoms were noted.
Submerged Aquatic Plants
Studies of the standing crop of submerged aquatic plants in
Lake Mendota and Green Lake, Wisconsin (Rickett, 1922, 1924),
indicate a wet weight of 14,000 lbs. per acre and a dry weight of
1,800 lbs. per acre. In Lake Mendota, the 0- to I-meter zone
contained 1,600 lbs. per acre of submerged plants on a dry
weight basis; the 1- to 3-meter zone, 2,400 lbs; and the 3- to
7-meter zone, 1,300 lbs. in Green Lake the 0- to 1-meter zone
contained 600 lbs. per acre of submerged vegetation on a dry
weight basis; the 1- to 3-meter zone, 1,960 Ibs; and all deeper
areas to the lower limit of plant growth, 1,580 lbs. per acre.
Low and Bel lrose (1944) found similar productions in the Illi-
nois River Valley. Coontail growths approached 2,500 lbs. per
acre (dry weight) ; sago pondweed, 1,700 lbs. per acre; and
duckweed, 244 lbs. per acre. They found that the seed production
of wild rice approached 32 bushels per acre; of pondweed,
Potamogeton americanus Chamisso and Schlechtendal, 20 bush-
els per acre; of sago pondweed, 1.5 bushels per acre; and of
coontail, 0.8 bushel per acre. Little has been demonstrated posi-
Richard \V. Warner. personal communication,
37

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tively regarding the effects of pollution or adverse environmental
changes on populations of higher aquatic plants. Generally,
these plants respond to increased water fertility with increased
production. The factors that trigger the development of dense
higher aquatic plant populations instead of dense algal popula-
tions (and conversely) in fertile standing water bodies are pres-
ently unknown.
Bottom Associated Organisms
Much attention has been given to the bottom invertebrates in
streams, lakes and ponds. Data in the literature pertain us-
ually to the standing crop at a specific sampling period. The
total production of bottom fauna over the year is several times
the standing crop. Many benthic species produce several genera-
tions in a year. Hayne and Ball (1956) estimated the total pro-
duction in two 1-acre ponds to be 17 times the standing crop.
Borutsky (1939), working on the deepwater benthos of a lake
in Russia, concluded that throughout the year 6 percent of the
biological productivity was lost as emerged insects that per-
ished outside the lake basin, 14 percent was eaten by fish, 55
percent was returned to the lake as dead larvae, cast skins, etc.,
and 25 percent remained to assure the continuation of the
species the following year.
Eggleton (1934) compared the benthic population in four lakes
in northern Michigan that are closely situated geographically,
but differ widely ecologically. He concluded that the bottom
populations in each of the lakes varied qualitatively and quanti-
tatively with the seasons of the year, and from year to year in
the same lake. The bottom fauna was not evenly distributed
over the floor in any of the lakes studied, but varied differently
with depth in each of the lakes and very differently during
the four seasons of the year. He determined that there was a
concentration zone that shifted up and down the slope of
the lake floor with the change of seasons. The largest number of
organisms that was collected in the greatest depths occurred in
November and ranged from 300 to 7,200 per square meter and
was composed predominately of Corethra and Chironomid larvae.
Cronk (1932), in his studies of the bottom fauna of Shake-
speare Island Lake, Ontario, found an average of 1,320 ben-
thos per square meter. There was little variation among the
38

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depths studied. Midges predominated. The average net weight
of benthic organisms for 344-acre Blue Lake, California, was
134 lbs. per acre (Calhoun, 1944). There were an estimated
2,627 organisms per square meter of lake bottom.
Rawson (1930) found that chironomid (midge) larvae formed
the bulk of the bottom organisms of Lake Simco and dictated
the curve trend of the total population. The average number
of macroscopic bottom organisms over all of the depths studied
was 820 per square meter; the greater number occurred in the
deeper water. He listed factors affecting bottom fauna produc-
don as the type of lake, the fertility of the water, the com-
position of the benthos, and the size of the lake. A lake of large
area, in general, supports a smaller population per unit area
than a small lake.
Mackenthun and Cooley (1952) studied bottom fauna in four
Wisconsin lakes. The average number of organisms per square
meter in Lake Mendota was 7,500; Lake Monona, 1,100; Lake
Nagawicka, 2,000; and Lake Pewaukee, 1,600.
Adamstone and Harkness (1923) and Adamstone (1924),
in a study of Lake Nipigon in Canada, found that the number
of all kinds of animals per square meter of lake bottom av-
eraged from 750 to 1,000.
Moyle (1961) quotes a number of investigators converting
their data on bottom fauna standing crop to lbs. per acre
(wet weight). Some typical values include 248 lbs. per acre
from a Minnesota pond (Dineen, 1953); 67 to 82 lbs. per acre
in an unfertilized Michigan pond, and 101 to 127 lbs. per acre
in a fertilized Michigan pond (BaIl, 1949); 124 lbs. per acre in
Lizard Lake, Iowa (Tebo, 1955); 398 lbs. per acre in the Mis-
sissippi River system with no weeds, and 1,143 lbs. per acre in
the Mississippi River system in weeds (Moyle, 1940) ; and as
much as 3,553 lbs. per acre in a Chara bed in a slow stream
in New York (Needham, 1938).
Fremling (1960) reports on the large masses of mayflies,
Hexagenia bilineata (Say), in the benthic sediments of the
upper Mississippi River. He writes of a guard gate at Lock 19,
Keokuk, Iowa that, when raised on July 9, 1958, contained 344
nymphs on 10.5 square feet of surface. The gate had been sub-
merged at the river bottom in 18-feet of water for 3 months and
was covered uniformly with about 3 inches of soft mud.
39

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UW [ RIII6 UI U SSII Y [ D OX 6EU
CRUSJA6 EXTREME 9R
IACRERS 1flU TOR8IO h1Y IRlI l3Uflfi [ SJRRBI I
U EFUSITIUB SETliE 8t( IE II1PERRTURE
FIgure 2. Ways in which pollution may affect aquatic life.
Burrowing mayfly nymphs in the vicinity of Green Bay, Wis-
consin, are called the Green Bay fly. In a study on Green Bay con-
ducted during 1938-39, these were found in bottom mud samples
collected from 16 of the 51 stations examined. At some sta-
tions, burrowing mayfly nymphs were as numerous as 50 per
square foot of bottom. In 1952, burrowing mayfly nymphs were
found at 1 of 27 stations sampled with a population of 16 per
square foot. In 1955, 93 stations were sampled in Green Bay. A
single burrowing mayfly nymph was found at one of the near-
shore stations. It was postulated that organic pollution was the
cause of the mayfly population decline. Concurrent with the
decline in mayfly nymphs there was an increase in the popula-
tions of sludgeworms and midges in the benthic deposits.
In the Milwaukee River at Milwaukee, Wisconsin, sludgeworms
attained populations of 84,000 per square foot in 1952-53 by
feeding on a seemingly inexhaustible organic food supply. Im-
mature stages of mayflies, caddisfiies and hel lgrammites were
eliminated. The average live weight per sludgeworm was deter-
mined to be 6.3 milligrams and the calculated weight of the
living sludgeworm population was 1.1 lbs. per square foot of
river bottom. At Worcester, Massachusetts, in the organically
TOXICITY
lififlulilli FiSH 11.1511
40

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enriched Blackstone River, 56,000 sludgeworms per square foot
were found during August 1964. Purdy (1930) found that sludge-
worms eat continuously. Observations during 21 hours of the 24
showed no perceptible decrease in the foraging activity. Evacua-
tion of a string of fecal pellets about 68 inches in length in a
24-hour period was recorded for each worm. An incubation of
24-hours showed an oxygen demand of 2.8 mg/i by these pel-
lets whereas the original mud beneath the surface showed a
demand of 6.7 mg/i. Purdy’s conclusion was that the large sur-
face area exposed to the flowing water in the fecal pellets
possessed a far greater purification potential than did the same
mass of materials an inch or more beneath the mud-water
interface.
In the Brule River bordering Michigan and Wisconsin, where
man-associated organic wastes are not a problem. clean-water-
associated larval caddisfly populations numbered 1,164 per
square foot, and mayfly nymphs were found to number 328 per
square foot in riffles in 1963.
Silt has an adverse effect on benthic organisms, limiting
both the variety and the total population. In a Georgia stream
polluted heavily with industrial silts, only sludgeworms, midges,
nematodes, and an occasional leech occurred in a combined
population of less than 50 per square foot along the stream
margins. In areas not affected adversely, immature stoneflies ,
burrowing mayflies and gill-breathing snails were found.
Coutant (1962) in studying the effect of a heated water efflu-
ent on the macroinvertebrate riffle fauna of the Delaware River
found that the macroinvertebrate biomass was reduced from
1.04 to 0.09 grams per square foot throughout the summer in
the area of maximally heated water as compared with a control
station. A 95° F water temperature at the time of sampling was
found to be causing a detrimental effect on many organisms,
especially the caddisfly, Hydro psyche, many of which were dead
while those alive were extremely sluggish. The data suggest
that there is a tolerance limit close to 90° F for a variety of
different kinds of animals in the population structure of ben-
thos with extensive loss in numbers and diversity of organisms
accompanying further temperature increase.
The highest 24-hour median tolerance limit lethal temperatures
that could be obtained by raising acclimation temperatures from
41

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100 C (500 F) to 20° C (68° F) were estimated to be 34.6° C
(94.2° F) for the sowbug, Asellus intermedius Forks, and the
scud, Gammarus fasciatus Say, 33.2° C (91.8° F) for the scud,
Hyallella azteca (Saussure), and 29.6° C (85.3° F) for the scud,
Gammarus pseudo limnaeus Bousfield (Sprague, 1963).
Bottom Fauna and Submerged Aquatic Plants
Investigations show that the production of invertebrates is
closely related to aquatic plants that provide living space, food,
and shelter. Invertebrates tend to select the particular aquatic
plant with leaves that are finely branched and compact. An-
drews and Hasler (1943) found coontail and water milfoil in
Lake Mendota “most productive,” G uava and sago pondweed
“moderately productive,” the wide-leafed pondweeds “less pro-
ductive,” and wild celery “poorly productive.” The number of
animals per pound of dry weight of plant ranged from 3,000 to
29,000. Surber (1930) showed that snails were six times
more abundant in weedy areas than in nonweedy areas, mussels
1.5 times more abundant, and larger insects about 10 times more
abundant. Needham (1929) found 37.5 times as many inverte-
brates living in weedy areas as on bare pool bottoms. Need-
ham (1938), in studying bottom fauna production associated
with several kinds of aquatic plants in slow-flowing streams of
New York, observed standing benthic crops of 3,500 lbs. per
acre for Chara, and 300 lbs. per acre for sago pondweed, Pota-
inogeton crispus Linnaeus. Shelford (1918), rated Elodea as
excellent in the production of animals; Myriophyllum as good,
and water lilies, Nuphar, and Chara only fair. Pate (1932,
1934) found that plant beds were 17.5 times as productive as
bare pools, and 6.7 times as rich as the average stream bottom.
Elodea beds offered a potential food supply about six times the
average supply in the ordinary bottom of a similar type.
Krocker (1939) did a quantitative population study on several
types of aquatic vegetation. His method of sampling was to
reach down in the water as far as possible and to cut off a
single plant at a time. As the severed portion was lifted clear
of the water, it was placed in a glass dish and water was added,
and the plant was measured. He found the animal population on
Myriophyllutn s / i. was about 2.5 . times as great as on Elodea,
and nearly 4 times as high on Myriophyllum as on Najas.
42

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Krocker states that the chemical composition of the plants and
the morphological features are the bases for the population
difference.
K lugh (1926), who reviewed much of the early literature on
the relationship of invertebrates to aquatic plants, concludes
that since plants provide both living space and food for inver-
tebrates the abundance of aquatic plants can be used as an
“index of productivity” for fish production.
Fish
Bennett (1962) states that the fish carrying capacity of a lake
or pond may vary with (1) the fertility of water; (2) the age of
the water, if this represents age in chemical composition; (3)
changes in the fertility of the watershed soil, caused by erosion
or artificial fertilization that is carried to the pond in runoff
water; and (4) changes in the kinds of fishes or in the relative
abundance of certain kinds and sizes of fishes. Moyle (1956)
reasons that the size of a mixed fish population is related to
the water fertility and conditions associated with it and that
the composition of a fish population adjusts itself until it con-
sists of those species that can best utilize a specific degree
of fertility and conditions associated with it.
Moyle (1956) found a relationship between the total phos-
phorus concentration and the standing crop of fishes in Min-
nesota surface waters. It has been estimated on the basis of
surveys that the Mississippi headwater lakes support about 90
pounds of fish per acre; the summer surface waters of these
lakes have a mean total phosphorus content of about 0.034
mg/i. In central Minnesota the mean total phosphorus content
of fish lakes is 0.058 mg/I and the average fish capacity is esti-
mated at about 150 lbs. per acre. In southern Minnesota, the
total phosphorus content is 0.126 mg/i; seining in 40 fish lakes
showed an average standing crop of 280 lbs. of rough fish per
acre plus about 90 lbs. of other fishes, a total of 370 lbs . per
acre.
Swingle (1950) cites one Alabama pond that was stocked with
140 gizzard shad, 1,500 bluegill fingerlings, and 100 advanced
bass fry per acre. Two years later, the pond was drained and
1,079 lbs. of fish were recovered consisting of 304 lbs. of blue-
gills, 758 lbs. of gizzard shad, and 17 lbs. of bass. In 20 ponds
43

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DEPTH
IN BASS WALLEYE SALJGER
FEET _______________ _______________ __________
10 -
20
- -
30—
1
40—
Figure 3. Approximate depths at which fish were found in WA
storage reservoirs, Cherokee, Douglas , and Norris on June 2,
1946. The figures refer to fish abundance at each level, not to
fish size. Most largemouth bass were near the surface; walleye
tended to be 10 feet or more deep; most sauger were over
30 feet deep (from Eschmeyer, 1950).
with a variety of fish forming the population, the pounds per
acre ranged from 146 to 611; and several ponds were in the
400-pound-per-acre group.
Bennett (1962) states that standing crops of fishes in Illinois
ponds varied from 75 lbs. per acre in the soft-water ponds in
the Ozark hills of southern Illinois, where the population was
largemouth bass and green sunfish, to 1,100 lbs. per acre in
the black-soil ponds in the flood plains of central Illinois,
where the population was composed of crappies and big mouth
buffalo.
The distribution of fish is influenced greatly by water tem-
perature. Results of TVA netting studies (Eschmeyer, 1950)
44

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DEPTH
IN BASS WALLEYE SAUGER
FEET ______________ ______________ __________
- .1
to
20
-
30 —#• , ; ! n, s-. -
40 -
Figure 4. Approximate depths at which fish were distributed in
Norris Reservoir, Tennessee, in late July 1946. Note the dis-
tribution differs from that of June 2 (fig. 3). Some bass were
still near the surface, but the species was spread about evenly
from the top to 20 feet or more in depth. Most walleye and
sauger were in deeper water (from Eschmeyer, 1950).
show that a species with preference for water temperatures of
70 to 800 F would be near the surface in late April and May.
By early September , it would be 40 to 60 feet deep. By late
October, when water temperatures are uniform at nearly all
depths, fish such as bass might be found anywhere between
the surface and a depth of 60 or 70 feet.
The response of fish to environmental adversities is well covered
in a recent book (Jones , 1964) ; cognizance is given especially
to the European literature. Agersborg (1930) studied the reac-
tion of fish to temperature in a region of Lake Decatur, Illi-
nois, where a cold stream, near 0° C joined a stream heated at
times to between 24 and 29° C. No ill effects on the fish were
45

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noticed at the higher temperatures, except for an occasional
shad which suffered from clotting of the gills and died; how-
ever, when the flow of the warm water stopped and the water
suddenly cooled, or when fish moved out from the warmer water
into the cold, they died, sometimes in large numbers. Effect
of cold water was marked. Drops of 2° C brought about symptoms
of unbalanced movements, fish surfaced and snapped at the
surface as though gulping air. All fish that remained in the
cold water, or swam into colder, died.
A review of the literature and other studies on heated dis-
charges and their effects on streams has indicated the following
(Anon., 1962):
“Studies made to date have demonstrated that:
1. As the water temperature rises it holds less DO.*
2. As the water temperature rises aquatic organisms require
more DO in order to maintain a normal existence or to
live at all.
3. The temperature requirements of a certain fish varies
throughout its life history. The requirements differ for
spawning and the development of eggs and fry. The sensi-
tivity or tolerance of aquatic organisms to temperature
changes or levels also varies with age, size, and season.
4. Lethal high and low temperatures vary widely for different
species. The difference in upper lethal levels for different
species varies as much as 82° F (e.g., 107.6° F for the
goldfish and 750 F for the pink salmon).
5. Sudden changes in water temperature can be lethal to
fishes and other aquatic organisms.
6. Within certain limits fish can acclimate to high or low
water temperatures.
7. They become acclimated to higher temperatures much more
rapidly than they do to lower temperatures.
8. A reduction in DO, an increase in CO. or the presence
of toxic materials greatly reduce the upper temperatures
which can be tolerated by fishes.
9. Water temperatures do not have to reach lethal levels
in order to wipe out a species. Temperatures which favor
competitors, predators, parasites, and diseases can destroy
a species at levels far below those which are lethal.
* DO = dissolved oxygen.
46

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t o. As water temperatures increase, bacterial action and the
so-called natural purification process are speeded up. This
may result in the depletion of oxygen during the summer
in certain areas in which DO conditions are satisfactory
during fall, winter and spring.
11. Some fish will swim into hot water in which they are
killed although they might as easily have swum into water
which would have been harmless. Fish acclimated to warm
water are rapidly killed when they swim into cold water.
12. Temperature influences physiologically all the vital pro-
cesses including activity, feeding, growth and reproduc-
tion.”
Studies on the relationship of fish to dissolved oxygen con-
centrations have been made by many; some of these studies in-
clude those by Burdick et al. (1954, 1957), Cooper (1960),
Cooper and Washburn (1946), Davis et al. (1963), Davison et
al. (1959), Ellis (1937), Jones (1952), Moore (1942), and Tarz-
well (1958). Results of these studies have been discussed in sev-
eral reviews, most recently by Jones (1964).
Floods and heavy silt loads were found by Starrett (1951) to
be an important limiting factor to minnows and other species
of fish. Continued low-water levels reduced space and successful
spawning of many fish. The reduction of minnow populations
through isolation following a high water period was thought to
have a beneficial effect on subsequent spawning of two species
of minnows.
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BALL, R. C., 1949. Experimental Use of Fertilizer in the Production of Fish-Food
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of Ontario Water Resources Commission, pp. 3—7.
PATE, V. S. Y., 1932. Studies on the Fish Food Supply in Selected Areas. A Bio-
logical Survey of the Oswegatchie and Black River Systems, Suppl. 21st Annual
Report, New York Cons. Dept., pp. 133—149.
PATE, V. S. Y., 1934. Studies on the Fish Food Supply in Selected Areas of the
Raquette Watershed. A Biological Survey of the Raquette Watershed. Suppi.
23rd Annual Report, New York Cons. Dept., pp. 136—157.
P0RETZKII, V. S., 1926. Life in the Botanic Garden Park as Related to the Flood
of September 23, 1924. Russ. Hydrobiol. Zeits., 5: 182—183.
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Puiwy, W. C., 1930. A Study of the Pollution and Natural Purification of the
illinois River. 11. The Plankton and Related Organisms. Public Health Bull.
No. 198, pp. 1—212.
RAWSON, D. S., 1930. The Bottom Fauna of Lake Simcoe and its Role in the
Ecology of the Lake. Uni. of Toronto Studies, Pub!. Ont. Fish. Res. Lab., 40:
1—183.
REIF, C. B., 1939. The Effect of Stream Conditions on Lake Plankton. Trans. Amer.
Micros. Soc., 58: 398—403.
RICKEn, H. I V., 1922. A Quantitative Study of the Larger Aquatic Plants of Lake
Mendota. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sri., Arts & Lett., 20: 501—522.
Ricxrrr, H. IV., 1924. A Quantitative Study of the Larger Aquatic Plants of Green
Lake, Wisconsin. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts & Len., 21: 381—414.
Suru ogr,, V. E., 1918. Conditions of Existence. Ward and Whipple’s Fresh.Water
Biology. John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 21-60.
SPRAGUE, J. B., 1963. Resistance of Four Freshwater Crustaceans to Lethal High
Temperatures and Low Oxygen. Jour. Fish. Res. Board Can., 20: 387.
STARRETT, W. C., 1951. Some Factors Affecting the Abundance of Minnows in the
Des Moines River, Iowa. Ecology, 32 (1): 13—24.
StaRER, E. W., 1930. A Method of Quantitative Bottom Fauna and Facultative
Plankton Sampling Employed in a Year’s Study of Slough Biology. Trans. Am,
Fish. Soc., oO: 187—198.
Sw1Nca. , H. W., 1950. Relationships and Dynamics of Balanced and Unbalanced
Fish Populations. Agricultural Experiment Sta., Alabama Polytechnic Institute,
Auburn, Bull. No. 274. pp. 1—74.
TARZWELL, C. M., 1958. Dissolved Oxygen Requirements for Fishes. In Oxygen
Relationships in Streams, USPHS, Robt. A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center,
TR 1V58—2, pp. 15—24.
TEB0, L. B., 1955. Bottom Fauna of a Shallow Eutrophic Lake, Lizard Lake,
Pocahontas County, Iowa. Am. MidI. Nat., 54 (1): 89—103.
WALLACE, N. M., 1955. The Effect of Temperature on the Growth of Some Fresh-
Water Diatoms. Not. Nat. Academy Science of Philadelphia, No. 280, 11 pp.
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4
Collecting and Reporting
Lake and Stream Data
F OUR basic and equally important interrelated components
of a biological survey include: initial study organization,
collecting and processing field samples, data analyses and inter-
pretation, and report writing. Biological evaluation of an aqua-
tic environment involves a comparison of the living community
at one location with that in another. To accomplish this com-
parison satisfactorily entails the best possible manipulation of
tools to sample adequately the organism associations, and an in-
terpretation of existing water quality based on the professional
analyses of collected samples, as well as on field observations.
Study Organization
The initial study organization involves a number of basic de-
cisions.
Natural lakes, reservoir and stream sampling and data collec-
tion entail:
(I) a definition of the problem, (2) a determination of the
types of samples necessary to delineate a solution, (3) a selec-
tion of sampling sites, (4) a judgment of the required number
of samples, (5) a decision on the proper time, periodicity, and
extent of sample collection, and (6) a knowledge and under-
standing of the science of limnology.
The location of the laboratory must be determined, whether
it is a field unit or a permanent station. The method of handling,
preserving, and transporting collected samples to the laboratory
must be considered. Survey teams with duties assigned must be
selected; these may include a biological team, sample collectors
51

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DATE ________
DESIRED LABORATORY SERVICES
SURVEY _______________ PROJECT CHIEF _______________
LABORATORY LOCATION _______________ PHONE
FIELD CONTACT: NAME
ADDR ESS
SAMPLING DATES ________________ TO
ANALYSES REQUIRED
CHEMICAL ESTIMATED TOTAL
SAMPLES/DAY SAMPLES
BACTERIOLOGICAL
BIOLOGICAL NO.OF
LOCATIONS
PLAN KTON
BENTHIC
FISH
PERI PHYTON
REMARKS
Chart 5. Laboratory services used to plan field survey. Plan sheet should be
submitted to laboratory chief well in advance of survey.
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for routine chemical analyses, and perhaps a flow measurement
team to evaluate streamfiow as it pertains to quantitative vol-
ume and time of passage measurements. To ensure a well-or-
ganized survey laboratory operation, the total number of sam-
ples to be collected should be estimated for each phase of the
study. When necessary, periodic adjustments will make the total
estimate more realistic. Pre-planning will ensure systematic and
coordinated data collection and analyses. Throughout the sur-
vey it is important to keep collected data current, understand-
able, and available to all survey participants.
In addition, a preliminary survey of pertinent literature is of
extreme importance. Data that are already available may serve
as guides to additional investigation. A study of the most com-
plete maps of the study area will facilitate both organizational
planning and initial field investigation.
Collecting and Processing Field Samples
Sampling and data collection are governed by physical fea-
tures, chemical factors, and biological communities. Physical
features include water temperature, turbidity, color, water move-
ment, light penetration, wind velocity and direction, bottom
deposits, and the size, shape and slope of the lake basin and
stream watercourses. Chemical factors include alkalinity, pH,
dissolved oxygen, free carbon dioxide, hardness, nitrogen (or-
ganic, ammonia nitrogen, nitrite and nitrate), phosphate (sol-
uble and total), as well as other specific elements that may be
of interest in a particular problem. Biological communities in-
clude the littoral community composed of rooted vegetation, at-
tached algae, fish, and a host of invertebrates; the limnetic com-
munity, principally fish and plankton; and the benthic com-
munity of midge larvae, sludgeworms, fingernail clams, and other
bottom associated organisms. Basically, the collecting of limno-
logical data may be summarized by answering the questions
why?, what?, how?, where?, and when? (Porges, 1960).
Why?
The purposes of a sampling program are to assemble data for
a logical and satisfactory solution to a specific problem, to
correlate physical, chemical, and biological phenomena, to under-
stand the interrelationships of the biota with the environment,
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and to evaluate biological productivIty. Too often the public is
impatient with a program designed to investigate the water
body as an entity, since paramount interest usually centers in
certain kinds of desirable fish and in the control of oppressive
aquatic nuisances and disease vectors. Authors who contribute
an insight into problems associated with productivity include
.Coker (1954), Hutchinson (1957), Needham and Lloyd (1937),
Reid (l961),Ruttner (1953),and Welch (1952).
Odum (1959) describes the pond complex in four basic units:
abiotic substances such as basic inorganic and organic com-
pounds including water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, calcium, nitro-
gen and phosphorus salts, etc.; producer organisms such as rooted
plants and algae; consumer organisms such as animal plank-
ton, bottom-dwelling insect larvae, crustacea, and fish; and de-
composer organisms such as aquatic bacteria and fungi. Odum
quotes Hayes and Coffin (1951) who said that a pond or lake “is
not, as one might think, a body of water containing nutrients,
but an equilibrated system of water and solids, and under ordi-
nary conditions nearly all of the nutrients are in a solid
stage.” Odum emphasizes that the rate of release of nutrients
from solids is one of the most important processes that regu-
late the rate of function of the entire ecological system.
Complicated food chains are established that transfer energy
from one organism to another. Odum (1959) describes three
types of food chains: the predator chain that starts from a
plant base and goes from smaller to larger animals; the para-
site chain that goes from larger to smaller or—n isms; and the
saprophytic chain that goes from dead matter into microor-
ganisms.
The primary purpose of a sampling program is, then, to shed
light on the physical-chemical-biological complex within a body
of water or within a particular segment of that water body, and
to understand the meteorothgical phenomena that are interre-
lated. To achieve this aim, cognizance must be given to the
environment and the ecology of the organisms within often
greatly varied environments.
What?
Rawson (1958) considers lake and reservoir investigations in
three broad groups: a morphometric group, a group of physical
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and chemical determinations, and a unit on biological conditions.
A reference list for the morphometric group includes the fol-
lowing:
Area Latitude Shore length, islands
Mean depth Shore length Drainage area
Maximum depth Shore development Rate of runoff
Area of depth zones Littoral development Average inflow
Volume of depth Littoral slope Average outflow
strata Number of islands Time of “flushing”
Altitude Area of islands Water levels
Rawson’s conservative list of physical and chemical determina-
tions includes:
Weekly temperature Summer heat income Total alkalinity
series Duration of ice cover Calcium
Highest mean Average bottom DO Magnesium
temperature Lowest percent Bicarbonates
Highest bottom saturation DO Sulfates
temperature Average pH surface Chlorides
Mean temperature 0 Average pH bottom
to 10 meters Color
Degree of Secchi disk average
stratification Secchi disk range
Duration of Total dissolved
stratification solids
He states, “It would seem desirable to reduce the number of
determinations to the minimum which would provide a general
grasp of the physical and chemical conditions in the lake. Bi-
monthly or preferably weekly temperature series, secchi disk,
surface and bottom pH and dissolved oxygen, and mineral
analysis once or twice during the summer should provide most
of this information.”
To augment the list of tests proposed by Rawson (1958) the
plotting of the vertical dissolved oxygen curve and a knowledge
of the nutrients inflows, outflows, and retention within the
basins is indicated. The latter would involve nutrient measure-
ments on influents and effluents, as well as vertical determina-
tions for organic nitrogen, ammonia, nitrate, and nitrite nitro-
gen, total phosphorus, and soluble phosphorus. In deep reservoirs
and lakes, iron and manganese are important considerations es-
pecially when downstream domestic water supplies are involved.
Because nitrogen and phosphorus trace elements, and vita-
mins in man-associated wastes have been involved in nuisance
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algal blooms and developing aquatic vascular plant communities,
a house to house survey of dwellings adjacent to the lake or
reservoir should be made to determine methods of waste dis-
postal, number of residences, and time period of yearly occu-
pancy. County agents should be contacted to determine the types
and amounts of fertilizers applied to crops within the drainage
basin, and the approximate application time. Nutrients contained
in the annual precipitation, and in the ground water, should
be evaluated.
The flowing stream necessitates flow measurements to assess
the quantity of water quality constituents that pass a given
point. The types of samples that may be related to the flow-
ing stream are dependent upon the specific problem and will
usually include a biological investigation.
Flow measurements should be made, and pertinent samples
collected, on suspected municipal and industrial waste sources
and irrigation return flows as they are discharged within the
drainage basin. Where municipal vater supplies or water-con-
tact recreational sports such as swimming and skiing are in-
volved, water samples for bacteriological determination may be
collected from predetermined points.
Rawson (1958) considers the biological conditions with the
following reference list:
PLANKTON BonoM FAUNA FISH
Average standing Average standing Average catch per
crop (dry ivt. basis) ; crop (dry wt. per unit standard net-number
qualitative data such area) ; percent com- and weight; relative
as water blooms, per- position of major growth rates; sus-
cent predominant benthic forms. tamed commercial
species composition, yields.
etc.
“Looking back now over the three groups of ‘factors,’ which do we
regard as nmst significant, to be included in our minimum required
list? No doubt each limnologist will have some special preferences
and will assign different importance to the various measures. Never-
theless, a solid core of information can be selected. Let us assume
that for any lake you can cite the following 10 items; area, mean
depth, shore development, highest mean temperature, average near
bottom oxygen at midsummer, average depth for secchi disk, total
dissolved solids, average standing crop of plankton and bottom’
fauna per unit area, average catch of fish in a standard gill-net, and
a list of a few dominant plankters, bottom organisms and fish. An
experienced limnologist would feel that he had a considerable
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grasp of what was going on in such a lake and would probably
make some definite suggestions concerning the level of fish produc-
tion to be expected.” (Rawson, 1958)
Submerged aquatic vegetation has become a problem in many
standing bodies of water used for recreation. It is important, there-
fore, to conduct a reconnaissance of the standing crop of sub-
merged aquatics during the period of maximum growth to deter-
mine the immediate potential nuisance problem. Also base line
data should be secured against which future observations can be
compared to determine relative changes in the standing crop and
predict future potential nuisances. This is done best by mapping
the standing crop accurately, both as to kinds present and rela-
tive abundance.
Biological considerations within the flowing stream also involve
fish, bottom fauna and flora plankton and microbiological flora.
The invertebrate bottom-organism community is most often inves-
tigated. Because the life histories of many bottom-dwelling orga-
nisms are 1-year or longer and because these organisms are not
equipped to move great distances by their own efforts, they are
valuable to indicate past and present water quality at fixed points,
to identify conditions on the bottom of the stream and, by popu-
lation comparison in point of time or distance, they suggest past
“short-lived” inflows of toxic wastes.
Although fish may be transient, they are an important consider-
ation in stream sampling. Fish represent one of the end products
of the aquatic phase of the food chain. However, because of their
mobility, they indicate water quality only at the particular time
of capture. Bio-assays, in which fish in cages placed downstream
and upstream from the pollution source are used as test animals,
may increase the observer’s ability to determine water quality for
short-time periods. The fish population responds to adverse envi-
ronmental changes in a manner similar to that of the bottom
organism community.
Plankton, minute organisms that are suspended and/or float on
the water surface, are basic to the aquatic food chain and often
may be a significant part of a stream study. Because plankton
are carried long distances by currents, they reflect water-quality
onditions upstream rather than at the point of sampling.
Attached algae, slimes, and bottom dwelling animals indicate
water quality over long-time periods. These organisms are fixed
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in a particular spot and are subject to whatever environmental
adversities occur at that spot. Quantitative analyses may be made
of samples of growths from artificial attachment surfaces placed
in the water for predetermined time periods.
Sediments tend to accumulate in sluggish waters. A knowledge
of the extent and composition of sludge deposits and the history
of their deposition is important in any study of pollution in a
stream reach. An important tool is the core sampler which secures
a sediment core extending from the particulate matter making up
the bottom at the water interface into the natural stream bed.
Segments of cores can be analyzed microscopically and chemically
to determine the composition of the layered sediments.
Dobie and Moyle (1956) state that “. . . there have been many
attempts to evaluate fish-rearing ponds on the basis of fish popu-
lations and production. Too often basic limnology and chemistry
of pond water and soil have been neglected by fisheries workers
• . . knowledge of the aquatic habitat is essential for understand-
ing the mechanics of fish production.” Based on 10 years of exper-
ience in Minnesota, they set up an idealized pond study to include
analysis of pond soil; analyses of pond water including total alka-
linity, sulfates, chlorides, ammonia, organic, nitrate and nitrite
nitrogen, total nitrogen, and total and soluble phosphorus; the pro
tein nitrogen and phosphorus; and a measure of plankton pro-
duction.
The Federal Water Pollution Control Administration has estab-
lished a Pollution Surveillance network currently involving 131
stations on the rivers of the United States. All network samples
are examined for:’ 234
Radioactivity (weekly): (1) Gross alpha; (2) Gross beta
(3) Strontium 90.
Plankton populations (semimonthly).
‘National Water Quality Network, Annual Compilation of Data, Oct. 1, 1957—Sept.
30. 1958. U. S. Public Health Service Publication No. 663 (1958 Edition), 239 pp.
(1958).
2 National Water Quality Network, Supplement 1, Statistical Summary of Selected
Data, Oct. 1. 1957—Sept. 30, 1958. U. S. Public Health Service Publication No. 663,
Supplement I. 164 pp. (1959).
National Water Quality Network, Annual Compilation of Data, Oct. 1, 1958—Sept.
30, 1959. U. S. Public Health Service Publication No. 663 (1959 Edition), 323 pp.
(1959).
‘National Water Quality Network, Annual Compilation of Data, Oct. 1, 1959—Sept.
30, 1960. U. S. Public Health Service Publication No. 663 (1960 Edition), 424 Pp.
(1960).
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Coliform organisms (weekly).
Organic chemicals (monthly).
Biochemical, chemical, and physical measurements, including
biochemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, chemical oxy-
gen demand, chlorine demand, ammonia nitrogen, pH, color,
turbidity, temperature, alkalinity, hardness, chloride, sulfate,
phosphates, and total dissolved solids (weekly).
Trace elements.
A survey that measures many water characteristics necessi-
tates planning and organization of equipment (Hoskins, 1938;
Carnahan, 1941). DeMartini (1941) described one of the first mo-
bile laboratory units used in a survey of the Ohio River. Since
that time, mobile laboratories have increased in size. Instrumen-
tation on them has kept pace with modern technological develop-
ments especially in the chemical discipline. The Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration uses a 40-foot mobile trailer
laboratory , and a 26-foot compact mobile laboratory. The units
contain a hot water heater, BOD incubator, air conditioner, elec-
tric muffle furnace, hot air sterilizer, electric water still, bacteri
ological incubators and water baths, refrigerator, steam sterilizer,
fume hood, ice machine, glassware washer, exhaust fan, and a
110-volt generator.
How?
The techniques of sample collection and analyses have been well
documented in the 13th, current edition, “Standard Methods for
the Examination of Water and Wastewater” (Anon. 1965). This
has been used for 61 years as a guide to the physical and chemical
examination of water, sewage, and industrial wastes, the radio-
logical and bacteriological examination of water, and the biologi-
cal examination of water related to its pollution from municipal
and industrial wastes. The first edition of “Standard Methods”
was published in 1905. In its letter of transmittal, the committee
developing the first edition stated: “The methods of analysis pre-
sented in this report as ‘Standard Methods’ are believed to repre-
sent the best current practice of American water analysts, and to
be generally applicable in connection with the ordinary problems
of water purification, sewage disposal and sanitary investigations.
Analysts working on widely different problems manifestly cannot
use methods which are identical, and special problems obviously
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require the methods best adapted to them; but, while recognizing
these facts, it yet remains true that sound progress in analytical
work will advance in proportion to the general adoption of meth-
ods which are reliable, uniform and adequate.” The foresight of
the original committee is evident in comparing its statement with
our present beliefs.
Another book, “Limnological Methods” (Welch, 1948) is worthy
of special mention since it “. . . presents the essentials of those
basic methods necessary for (a) entry into the subject of lim-
nology, (b) limnological surveys of lakes and streams, and (c)
fundamental information upon which specialized researches de-
pend.”
Water samples for chemical analyses are obtained from a par-
ticular location within the water body. The location will depend
upon the problem tinder investigation, but the sample should rep-
resent the water volume from which it was obtained and for
which the sampling program was devised. Sampling equipment
designed especially for lakes or streams aids in sampling; a Kem-
merer water bottle is widely used in limnological investigations.
Flow data for the inlets, outlets, and contributing pollution
sources and water use draw-off points, which can be correlated
with sampling dates, are of utmost importance. Such data per-
mit, for example, a calculation of the amount of pollutants enter-
ing, remaining, and being discharged from a body of water. These
data are necessary to the full understanding of a particular prob-
lem and permit a better evaluation of feasible remedial measures.
Samples of water for plankton examinations are secured in
much the same fashion as samples for chemical analyses. In most
cases, a volume of water from a particular location is sufficient;
in special studies it may be advantageous to use one of the spe-
cialized plankton samplers described in “Standard Methods for
the Examination of Water and Wastewater” and ‘ 4 Limnological
Methods.” Again, the sample must be representative of the eco
logical niche for which the sampling program was planned. Unless
the samples are examined soon after collection they must be pre-
served with either 4-percent formalin or one of the special plank.
ton preservatives.
Williams (1961) described the method used by the public
60

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Health Service Water Quality Laboratory.,* Cincinnati, Ohio. Each —
sample is taken directly from the river or lake, or from a contin-
uously flowing intake (as at a water treatment plant) receiving
the river or lake water. The sample, consisting of 3 liters of un-
treated i ater, is added to 100 ml. of preservative (thimerosal,
0.16 percent, plus Lugol’s solution, 1 percent) in a polyethylene ‘
bottle. The Lugol’s solution stains parts of the cells making identi-
fication easier. It also aids in settling the plankton since the
iodine causes some of them to lose gas and, therefore, their buoy-
ancy. This preservative has been found to be effective for approxi-
mately 1 month during the warm seasons and longer during cool ‘
weather. One gram of sodium borate is added for each gram o
thimerosal to help keep the thimerosal in solution.
Innumerable methods have been employed to estimate plankton
populations within a sample and simplified procedures have been
presented (Ingram and Palmer, 1952). Calibration of plankton
counting equipment is essential at the start of any counting pro-
gram and methods for calibration and calculation of results have
been recorded (Jackson and Williams, 1962). Statistical precision
of the results reported have also been given thoughtful treatment
(Moore, 1952; Kutkuhn, 1958). Researchers recognize the many
errors inherent in determining a theoretical plankton population.
The investigator should record precisely the procedure he has fol-
lowed in both sample collection and sample examination to permit
the reader to judge the report against past literature on the sub-
ject and to repeat a method if any area may someday be restudied.
Three analyses, each requiring 1 liter, are made per sample at
Cincinnati, Ohio (Williams , 1961):
(1) the genera of phytoplankters are identified and enumer-
ated with the Sedgwick-Rafter slide technique; (2) the genera
of microinvertebrates, mostly rotifiers and crustaceans, are settled,
identified to genus, and counted in a special microslide; and (3)
the diatoms are settled, washed, and made into a permanent hy-
rax slide from which are made proportional counts of the species
and some of the varieties. These determinations are also used to
qualitate to genus the diatoms recorded in the Sedgewick-Rafter
(step one) procedure and to make the proportional counts in step
three. Phytoplankters counted in the Sedgwick-Rafter slide include
forms measuring 4 microns or more. Clump counts are made of
* Now the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration water quality lab.
61

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fungi and sheathed bacteria. The Sedgwick-ltafter counts for total
algae that were alive when collected are made as clump counts
in which each single-celled individual or natural clump or colony
of cells is enumerated as one. The count is made in a Sedgwick-
Rafter slide from unconcentrated or undiluted raw water sam-
ples, with 20-power objectives and 10-power oculars, and is accom-
plished by counting two lengthwise strips (about 500 microns)
the width of the Whipple square. These two strips represents a
volume of about 0.05 ml. To obtain the number of plankters per
ml., a factor of 20 to 22 is used, varying with the correction for
preservative dilution and differences in calibration of the micro-
scopes. Diatom shells without chromatophores are tallied sepa-
rately from preserved diatoms with chromatophores.
In a survey of the Delaware-Susquehanna watershed (Tressler
and Bere, 1935), a 10-liter plankton trap and a Kemmerer sam-
pier were employed to obtain the sample, which was concentrated
by a Foerst centrifuge, and counted in a Sedgwick-Rafter cell. The
results of the counts were correlated with depth and with the
amount of organic matter in the water.
Damann (1941) described results of quantitative studies of the
phytoplankton of Lake Michigan in which water samples were
filtered through sand supported upon 200-mesh bolting cloth discs
and the number of organisms from the concentrate calculated.
Later Damann (1950), found that a direct count without concen-
nation in a Sedgwick-Rafter counting cell yielded a considerably
higher plankton number in all of the population densities than
that obtained by his earlier method.
Some waters contain sufficient plankton (phyto- and/or zoo-
plankton) so that samples must be diluted to obtain adequate nu-
merical information; however, with a sparse plankton sample,
concentration should be used. The phytoplankton in samples from
many natural waters require neither dilution nor concentration
and should be enumerated directly. Correspondingly, zooplankton
often are not sufficiently abundant to be counted without concen-
tration. Selection of methods and materials used in plankton enu-
meration depends on objectives of the study, density of plankters
in the waters being investigated, equipment available, and expe-
rience of the investigator.
The Sedgwick-Rafter cell has been and continues to be the most
commonly employed device for plankton enumeration because it
62

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is easily manipulated and provides reasonably reproducible infor-
mation when used with a calibrated microscope equipped with an
eyepiece measuring device, usually a Whipple ocular micrometer.
It can be used to enumerate undiluted, concentrated, or diluted
plankton samples. The biggest disadvantage associated with the
cell is magnification. The cell cannot be used for enumerating
very small plankton unless the microscope is equipped with special
lenses that provide sufficient magnification (400X or greater) and
clearance between objective lenses and the cell.
The Sedgwick-Rafter cell is 50 mm long by 20 mm wide by 1 mm
deep. Since the total area is 1,000 mm 2 , the total volume is
I X 1012 cubic , 1,000 mm 3 , or 1 ml. A “strip” the length of the
cell thus constitutes a volume 50 mm long, 1 mm deep, and the
width of the Whipple field. Two or four strips usually are counted,
depending on the density of plankters. Counting more than four
strips is not expedient when there are many samples to be enu-
merated; concentrating procedures then should be employed, and
counts made of plankters in the concentrate.
1,000
No. per ml = Actual Count X —
Volume of “strip” (mm 2 )
If the sample has been concentrated, the concentration factor is
divided into the actual count to derive the number of organisms
per ml. For separate field counts (usually 10 or more fields)
1,000
No. per ml = ave. count per field X
Volume of field X No. of fields
When special lenses are not used and there is a need to enumer-
ate small plankton, unusually abundant, other procedures may be
employed in conjunction with and related to counts obtained from
the Sedgwick-Rafter cell.
Lackey (1938) used a drop counting method in his examination
of Scioto River, Ohio, phytoplankton. In this method, the sample
is first centrifuged and “. . . after thorough agitation by alter-
nately sucking it in and spurting it out of the pipette, the exact
number of drops was counted and a sufficient number of drops of
the decanted portion was added, so that one drop of catch bore a
definite relationship to the amount centrifuged.” One drop of sam-
pie is put on a glass slide and a cover glass added; 5 low-power
fields and 10 high-power fields are examined, and number of each
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species is recorded at the magnifications used. Enumeration is
repeated on 3 such mounts for a total of 15 low-power fields and
30 high-power fields.
No. per ml = ave. no. per field X no. of fields per drop or
per cover slip X no. of drops per ml - - the concentration
factor.
The concentration factor = m l of original sample ± ml of
concentrnte X (100 — percent of preservative in sample).
Lackey’s method has the advantages of including all organisms in
the catch, simplicity and ease of manipulation, and instant use
of the high power magnification where identification with the low
power is questionable. Certain disadvantages are inherent in the
method: 1) because water normally is used as a mounting me-
dium enumeration must be accomplished relatively rapidly to
prevent dessication and subsequent distortion of organisms; 2)
results are not sufficiently accurate when on I slide-mount is
examined, thus necessitating preparation and enumeration of at
least three or more slide-mounts; and 3) the investigator should
be sufficiently familiar with plankton to rapidly identify and
count the specimens encountered.
Application of the membrane filter method of plankton counting
requires a vacuum pump, special filtering papers, and experience
in determining the proper amount of sample to be filtered. Plank-
ton in samples from waters containing substantial quantities of
suspended matter such as silt may be difficult to enumerate by
this method since, in the process of filtering, the suspended mat-
ter tends to crush the plankton or otherwise obscure them from
view. However, the method has certain features that make it par-
ticularly adaptable for use on waters with a low phytoplankton
and silt contents. Primary among these features, the method per-
mits the use of conventional microscope lenses to achieve high
magnification for enumeration of small plankton (the membrane
filter retains very small organisms), provides relatively rapid proc-
essing of samples if the investigator is familiar with the procedure
and the plankton. does not require counting of individual plank-
ters to derive enumeration data, and increases the probability of
observing the less abundant forms (McNabb, 1960).
The sample is filtered through a 1-inch membrane filter. The
wet filter is removed and placed on top of 2 drops of immersion
oil on a microscopic slide, 2 drops of immersion oil are placed
64

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on top of the filter. The filter is air-dried at room temperature
until clear (approximately 48 hours). A cover slip is added prior
to examination.
When examined, the magnification and sampling field or quad-
rat must be of such size that the most abundant species will ap-
pear in at least 70 but not more than 90 percent of the microscopic
quadrats examined (80% is optimum). Otherwise the field size or
the amount of sample concentrated must be altered. The occur-
rence of each species in 30 random microscopic fields is recorded.
Number of organisms per milliliter = density (d) from
following table X number of quadrats or fields on mem-
brane filter ± number of milliliters filtered X formalin
dilution factor [ 0.96 for 4 percent formalin].
conversion Table for Membrane Filter Technique
(Based on 30 Scored Fie ds)
Total Occurrence d
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
3.3
6.7
10.0
13.3
16.7
20.0
23.3
26.7
30.0
33.3
36.7
40.0
43.3
46.7
50.0
53.3
56.7
60.0
63.3
66.7
70.0
73.3
76.7
80.0
83.3
86.7
90.0
93.3
96.7
100.0
0.03
0.07
0.10
0.14
0.18
0.22
0.26
0.31
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.51
0.57
0.63
0.69
0.76
0.83
0.91
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.32
1.47
1.61
1.79
2.02
2.30
2.71
3.42
7
Where F = total number of
species
occurrences X 100
total number of quadrats examined
65

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Plankton samples from the Madison, Wisconsin, sewage treat-
ment plant effluent diversion study (Mackenthun et al., 1960)
were concentrated by settling with a liquid detergent and were
counted by the drop technique. To concentrate the phytoplankton,
500 ml. of stream water were placed in 1-liter glass settling cylin-
ders to which were added 20 ml. of commercial formalin to pre-
serve the sample, and 10 ml. of a detergent to settle the sample.
Sedimentation of the plankton was complete in 24 hours, after
which the supernatant was carefully siphoned from the cylinder,
and the concentrate was washed into 100 ml. centrifuge tubes.
These were spun at 2,000 r.p.m. for 6 minutes. The supernatant
in the tube was decanted and the concentrate was washed into
screw-capped storage vials and brought to the nearest 5 ml. by the
addition of 4% formalin and the use of a volume standard. In
making the drop count, 5 low-power fields and 10 high-power
fields were observed on this slide, and the magnification as well
as number of each species of organisms was recorded. This proce-
dure was repeated on 3 such mounts so that totals of 15 low-power
fIelds and 30 high-power fields were observed. The number of a
particular type of organism in 1 liter of water was determined by
the following formula:
No./1
( Avg No./field) (No. flelds/coverslip) (No. drops/ml) X 1,000
Concentration factor
ml of original sample
The concentration factor =
(ml of concentrate) (0.94)
where 0S4 accounts for the dilution of the sample by the addition
of formalin and the detergent.
The average volume in cubic microns of each species was obtained
by measuring 20 individuals. The volume contributed by each
species was expressed in parts per million by use of the following
formula:
Volume (ppm) = (No. org/l) (avg species vol in ) X lO .
Palmer (Palmer and Maloney, 1954), developed a new count-
ing slide for nannoplankton.
66

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Mackenthun employed constable tubes to determine cell volume
in a 1956 Wisconsin study. Concentrated algal samples were ob-
tained on July 25, 1956 and again on August 8, 1956 from Station I
in the Menasha Channel, Fox River, at mileage designation 38.5,
at Station 2 from the Rapide Croche Dam at mileage designation
19.5, and Station 3 upstream from De Pere Dam at mileage desig-
nation 7.0. The concentrated algal samples were obtained by cen-
trifuging 50 gallons of river water at 12,000 r.p.m. and suspend-
ing the residue in one gallon of algal-free water. A blender was
employed in re-suspending the algae. An aliquot sample of this
50 to I concentration was used for biological analyses.
Ten ml. of the concentrated samples, equivalent to 500 ml. of
raw water, were centrifuged at an approximate speed of 2,000
r.p.m. in a constable tube. The addition of a small amount of
detergent to the constable tube will facilitate the packing of small
blue-green algae. On August 8, 50 liters of river water were
strained through a fine plankton net at the S stations for com-
parative purposes. The cell pack or cell volume as calculated on a
raw-water basis was as follows:
Cell Pack (ml/l)
August 8
Station July 25 Centrifuged Net Plankton
1 .068 .086 .071
2 .058 .066 .038
3 .036 .045 .031
Both the centrifuged and net plankton samples taken on August
8 displayed color stratification in the constable tube. The upper
white layer was composed principally of single blue-green algal
cells and small fragments of blue-green algal colonies. The mid-
dle light green layer was principally blue-green colonies and many
celled filaments or larger fragments of these filaments of Aphani-
zomenon , Anabaena, and Gloeotrichia. In addition, there were nu-
merous single blue-green cells and some colonial greens with a
few diatoms. The lower dark layer was predominately blue-green
algae, because of their abundance in the sample, but diatoms were
heavily concentrated. The large-celled Lyngbya birgei was most
concentrated in this layer, as was the dinoflagellate, Ceratium.
The packed cells, or residue, from the constable tubes were
washed in distilled water and were dried and ignited in a platinum
dish. The following results were obtained:
67

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Mg. dry Wgt./L Mg. Ash/L Mg. Vol. Sol./L
Sta. 7-25C 8-SC 8-SN 7-25 C 8-SC 8-SN 7-25C 8-SC 8-SN
1 9.8 14.6 11.8 4.4 6.8 3.0 5.4 7.8 8.8
2 10.6 14.4 8.6 5.4 4.6 2.0 5.2 9.8 6.6
3 4.8 6.4 7.2 2.0 2.8 1.2 2.8 3.6 6.0
C—Centrifuged sample N—Net plankton Vol. Sol.—volatile solids
Some phytoplankton samples consist primarily of diatoms.
These organisms generally are difficult to identify without special
preparation since distinguishing markings on their frustules are
obscured by protoplasm. Destruction of the protoplasm by heat
or chemicals provides recognition of taxonomic features. Destruc-
tion by heat often is preferred to that by chemicals because the
former requires no special glassware or reagents, reduces the risk
of losing organisms during sample preparation, and shortens proc-
essing time. When there is obvious need to assemble diatom data,
such organisms can be readily concentrated by settling-decanting
or centrifuge-decanting techniques that employ a 2 to 4 percent
solution of household detergent to free organisms lodged on the
walls of sample containers and water-surface films.
A cover slip is placed on a hot plate that is warmed sufficiently
to increase the evaporation rate, but does not boil the concen-
trated plankton sample. Several drops of concentrate are trans-
ferred to the cover slip by means of a large-pore calibrated drop-
per and allowed to evaporate to dryness. (This may be repeated
on concentrates containing few diatoms until the entire sample
has been transferred to the cover slip; precautions should always
be taken to prevent a residue that is too dense to recognize the
organisms.) Following evaporation, the residue on the cover slip
is incinerated on the hot plate at temperatures ranging from 600-
10000 F, effecting adequate incineration in % to ‘4 hour respec-
tively. A drop of distilled water is placed on a clean slide. The
cooled cover slip with its residue is carefully transferred to the
slide thus forming a water mount for identification and enumer-
ation of diatoms. Permanent and more easily handled mounts,
especially for processing at high-dry and oil-immersion magnifi-
cations, are prepared by using HyTaX 4 instead of water as a
mounting medium. When Flyrax is used, heating of the slide to
near 200°F for I to 2 minutes prior to application of the cover slip
1ention of commercial products does not constitute endorsement by the Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration.
68

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hastens evaporation of solvent in the 1-lyrax and reduces curing
of the medium to about 20 seconds (solvent-free Hyrax is hard
and brittle at room temperature). A firm but gentle pressure is
applied to the cover glass by means of a forceps or other suitable
instrument during cooling of the Hyrax mount (about 1 minute)
to assure penetration of the medium into the diatom cells.
Enumeration and calculation to derive numbers of diatoms per
ml are similar to those for the drop count. If examination reveals
uneven distribution of diatoms in either the water or HyTax mount,
only proportionate counts of the species present are conducted
and these are related to enumerations made by previously outlined
methods.
Patrick et al. (1954) developed a slide-carrying device, termed
the Catherwood Diatometer, to sample the diatom populations of
streams. It consists of a plastic base mounted on a lead bar shaped
like a boat. On the plastic base are mounted 2 floats designed so
that the depth to which the diatometer is sunk can be varied.
Between the floats, behind a plastic V-shaped vane, the plastic
slide holder slotted to hold 6 slides vertically is mounted edgewise
to the current. The vane prevents excess washing of the slides.
It was stated that 1 week was sufficient to expose the slides and
that the population of an unpolluted stream could be estimated as
adequately with this method as with the usual methods of collect-
ing diatoms. Calculations upon which these estimates are based
must be corrected when dealing with polluted streams.
Periphyton include that assemblage of organisms that grow on
free surfaces of submerged objects in water and cover them with
a slimy coat. Cooke (1956) comprehensively reviews the litera-
ture on the subject. Periphyton play an important role in flowing
waters because these organisms are the major primary producers
in that environment. Thus, they are an important part of a lake
or reservoir study of both the influent and receiving streams. A
number of substrates have been proposed with which to study
attached organisms including glass slides, cement blocks, wooden
shingles, and plexiglass plates (Grzenda and Brehmer, 1960).
Growths on such substrates may be analyzed qualitatively or quan-
titatively.
Chlorophyll, an enzyme present in green plants, in the pres-
ence of light converts carbon dioxide and water to basic sugar,
a process that is termed photosynthesis. Chlorophyll increases
69

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in lakes as the lakes become more eutrophic; thus chlorophyll
measurements provide comparative data on eutrophication (Dee-
vey and Bishop. 1942; Kozminski, 1938; Manning and Juday,
1941; Anderson 1961).
The quantity of chlorophyll has also been used as a general
index of the quantity of algae present (Harvey, 1934; Riley et al.,
1949; Tucker, 1949). Chlorophyll is related closely to primary
production or the conversion of organic materials to living plant
tissue (Manning and Juday, 1941; Ryther and Yentsch, 1957;
Odum et al., 1958). Because a large quantity of algae may be
present, but not growing, aI)d conversely a small population of
algae may exhibit a substantial growth rate, the quantity of algae
may not be related directly to primary production. Factors such
as light intensity, nutrient availability, temperature, age or via-
bility of algal cells, and size of the cells influence the quantity of
chlorophyll per unit of algae present (Odum et aL, 1958).
Chlorophyll-bearing cells may be filtered from the water with
membrane filters (0.45 micron pore). Filters and cells are placed
in vials of acetone for extraction of the pigments and for solution
of the filters (Crietz and Richards, 1955). Samples are then cen-
trifuged to remove particulate suspended materials. The clear
supernatant pigment-bearing acetone is examined on a recording
spectrophotometer. Spectrums are evaluated and the quantity of
chlorophyll determined as outlined by Richards with Thompson
(1952).
Segments of lake bottom core samples may be analyzed micro-
scopically to determine the diatom composition of the layered seg-
ments. To examine diatomaceous sediments in lake bed core sedi-
ments, an aliquot solids sample based on a packed volume of a
selected core segment is oven-dried, suspended in equal parts of
water and concentrated nitric acid, gently boiled for 45 minutes,
and allowed to cool. Potassium dichromate crystals (0.1 gram)
are added, the mixture cooled, washed into a centrifuge tube,
and water added. The sample is washed S times by alternately
centrifuging, decanting, and adding water. The inorganic residue
is then diluted to a specific volume of water (200 ml per gram of
original sample), then 2 drops of liquid household detergent are
added, the sample is stirred, and 2 drops of sample are withdrawn
by a large bore pipette and placed on a cover slip. The sample on
the cover slip is evaporated to dryness on a hot plate. Following
70

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drying the hot plate temperature is increased to 350°F, a clean
microscopic slide is placed thereon, and a large drop of Hyrax
mounting media is placed on the slide. After 10 minutes, with
slight cooling, the cover slip with the dried sample is inverted
onto the Hyrax drop and pressed firmly into place. The slide is
then examined for diatom skeletons.
To facilitate an accurate appraisal of existing biological condi-
tions within the flowing stream, observations are made on water
depth; presence of riffles and pools; stream width; flow charac-
teristics; bank cover; presence of slime growths, attached algae,
scum algae, and other aquatic plants, as well as red sludgeworm
masses; and unusual physical characteristics such as silt deposits,
organic sludge deposits, iron precipitates, or various waste mate-
rials from manufacturing processes.
FIELD COLLECTION CARD
Date ______________ Hour _________ Collector ___________________
Field Designation _______________________________________________
Station Location _______________________________________________
Sample No. ______________________ Stream Miles _____________
Weather
Bottom: _____ Rock: _____ C. Gravel F. _____: C. Sand F. _____
% : Sandy Loam: ______ Silt Loam: _____ Silt:
______ C. Clay F. ______ : Organic Sludge:
Sample Location Sample Depth
River: Width Depth Current ____________
Temp DO pH
Phth Alk __________ Tot Alk __________ Cond __________
Sampler : Ek : Pet : Sq Ft : Qual
No. of Samples:
Fish: Gear : Shocker : Dip Net : Seine
Sample Time
Sample Area
Remarks:
Chart 6. Desired items for a field biological collection card may be arranged on
a 5”xl” unlined card for convenience. Cards can be punched and carried in a
field notebook; they may be filed after field and laboratory use. The back side
of the card may be ruled to itemize the organisms observed in the
laboratory examination of the collected sample.
71

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The investigator should ask himself three basic questions:
Based on a knowledge of preferred organism habitats, what bot-
tom fauna should I expect to find at this station? Specificail’,
where would I expect to find these creatures? What is the appro-
priate gear with which to capture them? A close search of the re-
spective areas should be made noting and collecting qualitatively
the various types of organisms. A commercial 30-mesh sieve is a
most handy exploratory tool. Attached forms should be collected
and preserved for later identification by scraping rocks. sub-
merged logs, and natural debris.
Following general observations, the investigator collects appro-
priate quantitative samples of the various kinds of organisms
present in the aquatic area. He makes certain that: (1) the sam-
pling area selected is representative of stream conditions, and
(2) the tmple is representative of and contains those forms pre-
dominant in the area and encountered during the qualitative
search.
Artificial substrates have been successfully employed in stud ing
bottom fauna in the flowing stream. One multiple-plate sampler
onstructed of tempered hardboard (Hester and Dendy, 1962) has
been especially suitable for studying stream inhabitants in those
c L
Plate 10. A multiple-plate artificial substrate colonized by aquatic organisms
(Hester-Dendy type).
1 ’
72

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streams that do not possess a natural substrate suitable for the
attachment of benthic forms. A sampler constructed of eight 3-
inch squares, separated by seven 1-inch squares, and held in place
by a bolt or threaded rod exposes slightly more than 1 square
foot of surface to which organisms can attach.
Bottom samples in lakes usually may be collected with an Ek-
man dredge, although the physical composition of the bottom de-
termines to a great extent the type of sampler that must be used
to collect an adequate sample. The Ekman dredge (Ekman, 1911)
consists of a square box of sheet brass 6 x 6 inches in cross sec-
tion.* The lower opening of this box is closed by a pair of strong
jaws so made and installed that they oppose each other. When
open, the jaws are pulled apart so that the whole bottom of the
box is open; the jaws are held open by chains attached to trip
pins. To close tile dredge, the trip pins are released by a brass
messenger sent down the attachment rope and the jaws snap shut
by two strong external springs. The hinged top of the box is
equipped with a permanent 30-mesh screen to prevent loss of or-
ganisms if the sampler sinks into mud deeper than its own height.
The sampler is especially adapted for use in soft, finely divided
mud and muck; it does not function properly on sand bottoms or
hard substrates. The Ekman can also be mounted on a pipe for
shallow stream sampling and tripped by a thrust-through rod.
The Petersen dredge (Petersen, 1911) is the most versatile
stream-bed sampler for collecting bottom life. It is widely used for
sampling hard bottoms such as sand, gravel, marl, clay, and sim-
ilar materials. It is an iron, clam-type dredge, samples an area
of 0.6 to 0.8 square foot, and weighs between 35 and 70 pounds
depending on the rare use of additional weights that may be
bolted to its sides. By means of a rope, the dredge is slowly low-
ered to the bottom to avoid disturbing and flushing away sig-
nificant lighter materials. As tension is eased on the rope, the
mechanism holding the jaws apart is released. As the rope is
again made taut, a sample is secured. The operator controls the
dredge by maintaining tension on the rope until the dredge is
placed. This is helpful in sampling gravel or rubble, as the oper-
ator can determine through sound and touch the type of bottom
and by carefully manipulating the dredge, can secure a better
• F.kmans are made in 8” x 8” and 12” x 12” sizes, but because of size of grabs,
these are almost impossible to operate effectively on many occasions. Through long
experience the authors recommend only the 6” x 6” size.
73

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sample than would othent’ise be possible. In streams with gravel
and rubble beds that permit wading, another technique is for the
investigator to place the dredge and then stand on the jaws work-
ing them into the stream bed with his weight, thus gradually
closing them. When the dredge is surfaced, careful and rapid
placement and subsequent discharge, endwise, of the dredge into
a bucket whose lip is placed at the water’s surface prevents loss
of material.
After the bottom sample is collected by one of the deepwater
sampling devices, it is brought to the surface and placed in a
large pail or tub. Water for sample dilution is added to the pail,
and the sample is mixed into a slurry with the slurry finally being
passed through a U. S. Standard No. 30 mesh sieve while the
sieve is being rotated in the water. The washing operation is re-
peated until all fine material has passed through the sieve, and
all organisms are retained in the sieve. The organisms and
coarser debris are then removed from the sieve and are preserved.
It is often easier to sort the organisms from the debris when the
organisms are alive. Time schedules and extensive field opera-
tions, however, often dictate that sample collection and examina-
tion take place at different times during the year. Thus, after the
samples are preserved in the field they are returned to the labora-
tory where the organisms are separated from the debris, placed
in respective groups, identified, and enumerated.
To sample riffle areas in streams, a square-foot bottom sampler,
originally described by Surber (1936), is widely used. It consists
of two I-foot-square brass frames hinged together at right angles;
one frame supports the net which is held extended downstream
by current velocities, the other encloses the sampling area. In
field operation, the sampler is so placed that organisms dislodged
by hand from the substratum within the sampling frame will be
carried into the net by the current. In stagnant or in slowly
moving water, it often is not practical to employ this square-foot
sampler.
Hess (1941) described another form of circular square-foot
sampler suitable for gravel and rubble stream bottoms. It con-
sists of a cylinder about 18 inches tall, streamlined in cross section
and tapered to a bottom hoop whose inside diameter encloses ex-
actly I square foot of area. The sampler is so constructed that it
may be thrust into the bottom with the dislodged organisms being
74

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captured in a downstream net in much the same manner as in the
Surber sampler.
Needham and Usinger (1956) studied the variability in the or-
ganisms of a single riffle in Prosser Creek, California, as collected
by the Surber sampler. Results of 100 bottom samples indicated
that an excessive number of samples would be required to pro-
vide significant data on total weights and total numbers of bot-
tom organisms. The data showed, however, that only 2 square-foot
samples are necessary to be reasonably certain of obtaining rep-
resentatives of principal groups of organisms present.
Fish samples may be collected by nets, seines, poisons, and elec-
trofishing. Electrofishing is conducted by means of an a!ternating
or direct electrical current applied to water that has a resistance
different from the fish. This difference in resistance to pulsating
direct current stimulates the swimming muscles for short periods
of time, causing the fish to orient and be attracted to the positive
electrode. An electrical field of sufficient potential to demobilize
the fish is present near the positive electrode, but decreases in
intensity with distance. After the fish are identified, weighed, and
measured, they commonly can be returned to the water uninjured.
The electrofishing unit may consist of a 110 volt, 60 cycle,
heavy duty generator, an electrical control Section, which is a
modified commercially-sold variable voltage pulsator, and elec-
trodes. The electrical control section provides selection of voltages
Plate 11. Biological sampling equipment. From left, Kemmerer sampler,
Ekman dredge, U.S. Standard No. 30 sieve, washing bucket,
and Petersen dredge.

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Plate 12. Sorting,
enumeration, and
identification
equipment used in
analyzing benthic
samples
from T() to 700 volts AC and 23 to : 30 volts DC. The AC current
acts as a standby for the DC current and i 5 used in cases of ex-
tremely low water re istane. The variable voltage allows control
of field size in various types of water.
Exduding regular plankton collections, a biologist should always
collect his own samples. Much of the value of an experienced biol-
ogist lies in hi obscrvation of stream conditions in the field and
his ability to rec , nize si ns of chan e within the t iowth patterns
of those or anisins that are subject to adversities within the
environment.
Where?
Proper location of sampling points depends primarily upon the
particular problem under investigation. Sampling may be also
closely correlated with the particular niche of the environment
that appears to contribute most to the study problem.
Routinely, biological stations should be located close to or at
those sampling stations selected fur chemical and microbiological
analv es to assure correlation of findings among the varied disci-
plines involved with (omprehensive surveys. Samples for chem-
ical analyses often are taken from road bridges that cross the
stream; however, because these structures sometimes create an
t
I. /
- — —
I
76

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atypical habitat within the stream environment, samples of bot-
tom dwelling organisms should be taken from an area of the
stream uninfluenced by man-made structures.
Sampling stations should be located upstream and downstream
from suspected pollution sources and from major tributary
streams, and at appropriate intervals throughout the reach under
investigation. When water in tributary streams is found to be pol-
luted, these streams should be similarly investigated. Because the
biologist seeks to determine the damage pollution causes to
aquatic life, he must compare observations for each station with
his findings from an unpolluted area. Thus, he may choose a num-
ber of stations in addition to those selected for chemical or bac-
teriological sampling.
A lake or reservoir is the base-level receiving basin of its in-
flowing waters. It is thus greatly influenced by influent streams,
which must be critically studied to measure the input to the water
body. Sampling stations should be established on major influent
steams, at points where they are not influenced by the back water
from the lake, to determine nutrient loadings, biological produc-
tivity, and other pertinent water properties. Flow data are essen-
tial to determine the pounds of nutrients contributed from the
drainage basin. Biological productivity involves principally a de-
termination of the plankton population, attached algae, rooted
higher aquatic plants, benthos, and fish. A biological reconnais-
sance of the area will assess its suitability as a fish habitat and
spawning area. The environmental conditions of the inflowing
water and its contribution to the basin proper will thus be de-
termined.
The plankton population often can be ascertained by the exam-
ination of periodic plankton samples normally collected at mid-
stream 1 to 2 feet below the surface. Attached algal growths
should be qualitatively assessed wherever they occur. Bottom
fauna should be collected at a minimum of five points across the
stream (mid and 2 quarter points and at near zero water level
with banks); a minimum of 3 individual samples should be col-
lected from each point and retained separately. An attempt should
be made to determine the fish population within a specified area.
Likewise, the receiving waters from the lake or reservoir should
be studied in the same manner as the influent streams. The effluent
of a natural lake will usually give a better than average composite
77

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of the epilimnionic waters of the lake. The discharge from a
penstock located below the thermocline, however, will not give a
representative sample of the productive zone of the reservoir but
shows water quality in a portion of the hypolimnion instead. A
study would be indicated to show the effect of the low-level dis-
charge on the receiving waters.
Within the lake or reservoir, a number of sampling sites may
be chosen depending on the problem under investigation and the
conditions to be studied. An investigation of the kinds and rela-
tive abundance of aquatic vegetation would naturally be limited
to the littoral area. A mapping of aquatic plants often proves
useful for future comparisons. Fish sampling also is often more
profitable in shallow water areas, although gill nets set in the
region of the thermocline and below may sample a fish population
not usually observed in shallow water.
The use of transections in sampling a lake bottom is of particu-
lar value because there are changes in depth and because berithos
concentration zones usually occur. Unless sampling is done syste-
matically and at relatively close intervals along transections, es-
pecially those that extend across the zone between the weed beds
and the upper extent of the hypolimnion, concentration zones may
be missed entirely or inadequately represented. Maximum ben-
thic productivity may occur in the profundal region. Because depth
is an important factor in the distribution of bottom organisms,
productivity is often compared on the basis of samples collected
from similar depth zones. Collections from a transection will
sample all depth zones, and a sufficient number of samples must
be taken to make the data meaningful.
A circular lake basin should be sampled from several transec-
tions extending from shore to the deepest point in the basin. A
long narrow basin is suitable for regularly spaced parallel tran-
sects that cross the basin perpendicular to the shore, beginning
near the inlet and ending near the outlet. A large bay should be
bisected by a transection originating near shore and extending
to the lake proper.
There are definite advantages in sampling the benthic popula-
tion in winter beneath the ice cover. Samples can be collected
at definite, spaced intervals on a transection, and the exact loca-
tion of sampling points can be determined. Also, collections are
78

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at a time of peak benthic population when emerging insects do
not alter the benthic population.
Transections also aid in sampling the plankton population. Be-
cause of the number of analyses necessary to appraise the plank-
ton population, however, more strategic points are usually sam-
pled, such as water intakes, a site near the dam in the fore-bay
area or discharge, constrictions within the water body, and major
bays that may influence the main basin. Because of significant
population variation, plankton samples must be taken vertically
at periodic depths, and at different times over the 24-hour day.
Samples of bottom muds are useful to determine the concentra-
tion of specific elements within the bottom deposits. Heavy metals,
for example, are known to be concentrated in the deeper portions
of the lake, and copper and arsenic used in aquatic vegetation
control have been found in significant quantities in such deposits.
Core samples from the bottom present a historical background of
bottom sediments, from which determinations can be made of
the relative rate of deposition for a period of time.
Figure 7. Diagram of a natural lake basin showing suggested sampling sites.
Inlet and outlet samples give valuable data. Samples taken from points on
transection lines on a periodic or seasonal basis are valuable in determining
vertical water characteristics and the benthic standing crop.
• ROUTINE SAMPLING SITES
o TRANSECT SAMPLING SITES—
PERIODIC OR SEASONAL COLLECTIONS
79

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When?
The periodicitv with which samples are collected during a par-
ticular season will depend on the time, weather conditions and
personnel available. In special studies, samples are often collected
daily or even periodically during a 24-hour day.
To measure plankton populations and chemical constituents that
may change rapidly, weekly collections, as a minimum, are desir-
able throughout the season of active biological growth. A recon-
naissance and mapping of the aquatic vegetation should be done
during maximum vegetation growth, usually in midsummer. Bot-
tom fauna should be sampled during the annaul seasons; the
st inding crop will be highest. however, during the fall and winter
periods hen insect eincr eiice is minimal and one of the sam-
pling dates should ieflect this period.
Data Analyses and Interpretation
Data analyses and interpretation must be priceded by 1ogital
sv tcni itiC organization. c tsona1 studies huuId be examined
closely for seasonal trends at the same location. Understandable,
a(ctlrate graphs that depict trends among study sectors should
then be developed. It may be necessary to graph a number of
facets of the investigation to determine the most suitable way of
analyzing and presenting the data. Narrative description should
* R
Figure 8. Diagram of a long, narrow, shallow water reservoir showing
suggested sampling stations.
— R: : .Y
I
DAW t ‘
‘N
1
I
I
• SAMPLING SITES
O R SECT ‘ .JNG SITES—
PERIODIC C SEASONAL COLLECTIONS
80

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begin only after the data have been analyzed sufficiently to per-
mit their arrangement into meaningful graphs.
The “classical” benthic organism responses to organic wastes
in the flowing stream have been detailed frequently in the litera-
ture (Hynes, 1960; Biglane and Lafleur, 1954; Hirsch , 1958;
Dymond and Delaporte, 1952; Pentelow, 1949; Van Horn,
1949, 1952; Bartsch and In g ram, 1959; and Gaufin, 1958).
Benthic organisms are directly subjected to adverse conditions
of existence in their preferred habitat and their general inabil-
ity to move great distances by self-motion. Different types of or-
ganisms respond in various ways to changes that may occur in
their environments. Some species cannot tolerate any appreci-
able water quality changes, whereas others can tolerate a wide
range of water quality, and some very tolerant ones are able to
live and multiply under extremely adverse environmental condi-
tions. Generally, a natural, unpolluted stream reach will support
many different kinds of organisms but relatively few individuals
of a given species because of predation and competition for food
and living space. The converse most often exists in a stream
reach polluted with organic wastes. In such a reach, most
predators are eliminated by water quality or substrate changes,
living space presents no problem because remaining organisms
must be well adapted to live in organic sludge, and food is
seemingly inexhaustible. Sludgeworm populations have, on oc-
casion, been calculated to exceed 50,000 pounds per acre of stream
bottom.
A toxic substance will eliminate aquatic biota until dilution,
dissipation, precipitation, and volatilization reduce the concen-
tration below the toxic threshold. Downstream from the source
of the toxic substance there is no sharp increase in certain
organisms, such as occurs with organic wastes; rather, there is
an abrupt decline in both the number of species and the total
population. Gradual1y the “normal” stream inhabitants reappear
at some point farther downstream. Since severely toxic wastes
eliminate all animal life, the recovery of an area so affected
depends upon many factors, including the proximity of similar
habitats for seeding, the migratory tendencies and ranges of
the animals, and the number of generations per year.
Inert silts affect bottom-associated animals in a manner sim-
ilar to toxic wastes, but usually not so severely. Following silt
81

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pollution the number of bottom-associated-organism species, as
well as the total organism population generally decreases. The
algal population often is much reduced. Because the food sup-
ply is not increased by inert silt pollution, organism popula-
tions return gradually to the levels encountered in unpolluted
stream reaches when the silt load is dissipated. On occasions
the physical effects of inert inorganic solids can reduce animal
populations by their “ball-mill” grinding action more severely
than do organic solids by settling.
Heat is a pollutant that alters the chemical properties of
water, as well as directly affects the biota. Thermal pollution
can cause fish deaths, alter drastically stream-bed-associated-
organism populations, and stimulate biological slimes and nui-
sance organism growths.
Lakes and other standing waters do not usually support the
variety of benthos found in streams. As with streams, however,
organic pollution eliminates many benthic forms and results in
population increases among the more tolerant varieties (Surber,
1953). Surber (1957) stated, “A survey of the lake reports
showed that an abundance of tubificids in excess of 100 per
square foot apparently truly represented polluted habitats.”
Changes in the benthic population structure are especially evi-
dent in the alluvial fans produced in lakes by polluted influent
streams. Along with changes in the benthos, the nutrients con-
tributed by organic pollution may stimulate aquatic growths
that will have a severe impact on recreational use of the water.
Resultant algal blooms concomitant with recycling and reuse of
nutrients within the lake basin contribute to and hasten in-
evitable eutrophication.
Reporting the Results
A report represents the end result of all the efforts put forth
to accomplish the study. A poor report frequently negates a
meticulous field program while a good report does much to en-
hance the study. The report should be equally as carefully
planned as the field operations. The type of report will depend
upon two basic considerations: (1) the purpose of the report,
and (2) who will use it. The report may be only a record of the
findings. It may be an exposition of existing causes and effects
and projections to other considerations that may reasonably
82

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occur, or predictions of conditions that might occur and recom-
mendations for actions to be taken. The report should be con-
sidered as a document permanently recording all essential facts
in the study to meet the needs of all concerned, including tech-
nical agencies, representatives of varied vested interests who
may be for or against the conclusions and recommendations, and
the public.
In all instances the report adds to the existing record, often
through “endless” time. Ideally field notes, observations, and
laboratory data should be included in the report for a per-
manent record. Such information will always provide valuable
baseline data for future studies of an area.
The first step in the development of the report is an outline.
It should be thought out very carefully and cover all necessary
items in logical continuity. A good outline will prevent omission
of necessary material and save considerable time in report writ-
ing. Outlines vary with report objectives; however, most reports
of water studies will contain the following major items:
Introduction Municipal and industrial
Summary and conclusions needs
Navi  -ation
Recommendations .
Irngation
Acknowledgement -
Fish and wildlife
Historical background of study Flood control
Physical description of study Recreation
area Survey methods
Geography Field investigation
Topography Laboratory operations
Climate Results of study (data
Hydrology presentation)
Use of water resources Discussion
Wa ter resources conserva- Bibliography
don program Appendicies
The discussion should evaluate the data. There is opportunity
in this section for aggressive and imaginative thinking. The
analyses and interpretation of results, including methods of
attack and validity of data, should be discussed. Detailed de-
scription of any statistical method used should be placed in an
appendix. Wherever possible, references should substantiate re-
ports of contradicting results; an effort should be made to ex-
plain discrepancies (Porges, 1960).
83

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Graphic expression of biological data has been used to ad-
vantage (Bartsch, 1948; Bartsch and Ingram, 1959; and Green-
berg, 1962) and has been summarized by Ingram and Bartsch
(1960). Graphics add impact to the findings and give the reader
a broad picture in clear, concise form. Pertinent biological in-
formation has little value or utility to the general reader unless
presented in a form that is readily visualized and understood.
Information from a great many reports is disseminated to the
general public since the public decides, in a broad sense, the
monies allocated for particular studies. Thus, reports should be
so written that they can be understood by the public and still
contain sufficient scientific terminology to accurately define the
results of the study.
Too often the vital message that biology can bring in defining
pollution prol)lems is lost in the vague generalities and difficult
to understand language used in the biologist’s presentation.
Often basic facts become mired in technical explanation. To-
day’s biologist must travel more than halfway if he is to sell
the products of his science to the public. Good, concise, as-
sertive reporting supported by uncluttered, pertinent graphical
material pleases and stimulates the reader to greater comprehen-
sion of the findings of fact. The biologist has a challenge to
present information that is understandable, meaningful , and
helpful to associated disciplines, to administrators, and to the
general public who are the financial supporters as well as the
benefactors of a pollution abatement program.
Recently several methods have been proposed for the presen-
tation of biological stream data. Beck (1954, 1955) grouped
benthic organisms into five classes based on their sensitivity to
environmental change and proposed a numerical biotic index
that represented a summation of those species that tolerate no
appreciable pollution and those that tolerate only a moderate
amount. Beak (1963’ , modified Beck’s reporting method to in-
dude three groups in which all occurring species are placed:
those very tolerant of pollution, those occurring in both polluted
and unpolluted situations, and those intolerant of pollution.
Points are arbitrarily assigned to each group, and a biological
score results from adding the points at a given station.
\Vurtz (1955) developed for each station a four-column histo-
gram in which the columns represent basic life forms: burrow-
84

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PHYTOPLANKTON STANDING CROP
-j
-
O2
o
z N
200
-I
I5o-
100-
. ili !
-J
2
I
/
/
2 r /
o \
2
200
- .
2
-
100: J
MONTHS
Figure 9. Phytoplankton standing crops in Wisconsin stabilization ponds
May 1957 to August 1958, reported as No./ml and as ppm by volume. Note
the dissimilar trends of the two approaches.
8
I n 7
26
-1
New Auburn
Spooner
85

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ing organisms, sessile organisms, foraging organisms, and pelagic
organisms. Columns are plotted as a frequency index in which
the total number of species found at any station represents a
frequency of 100 percent for that station.
Beak et al. (1959) used bivariate control charts to describe
changes in benthos adjacent to the site of a large chemical
plant. Burlington (1962) statistically calculated a “coefficient of
similarity” among stations; for each specific group of orga-
nisms, he used “prominence values” that take into account both
density and frequency of observation. Patrick and Strawbridge
(1963) stated that it is relatively easy to determine the pres-
ence of large amounts of pollution, but that the determination
of definite but borderline deterioration of water quality is in
some cases difficult. They presented a mathematical method
whereby the limits in variation o€ natural populations, especially
diatoms, can be defined.
Ingram and Bartsch (1960) pleaded for the use of common,
understandable terms in presentations on biology. They pointed
out the value of photographs to depict unusual environmental
conditions and showed a number of different graphical presenta-
tions used in investigational reports.
Serious thought should be given the methods and techniques
of reporting data to ensure that the final report meets the needs
of the study and provides answers to questions originally re-
sponsible for the initiation of the study. Often less thought
and consideration are given to reporting data than to col-
lecting and analyzing the data. Each is equally important.
The first step in building a report is to arrange the data in
a systematic and logical manner. From the data, simple under-
standable graphs that depict general trends of biological activity
should be developed. Lastly, the narrative is molded to the
graphical and tabular material,
Statements in the narrative report should be related to point
sources of pollution. What do the biological findings indicate
the water quality to be in a given reach of water? If some
facet of the ecosystem indicates a degraded water quality, how
severely is it degraded? What is the cause of the degradation?
Where is the source located in relation to the reach degraded?
It is not enough to describe findings of fact related to biological
86

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activity; these findings of fact must be interpreted to relate the
biotic condition of the study area, the problems involved, the
cause of the problems, and suggested measures that would afle-
viate the problems.
The narrative report should be built around the graphs, tabular
material, and photographs or drawings and the trends they
indicate; it should interpret the trends and relate them to pollu-
tion sources. The writer should strive constantly to answer the
basic questions what, how, when, where, and why. The ABC ’s
of reporting data or information caution the writer to be:
Accurate
Brief
Consistent
Definite
Effective
Factual
Grammatical
Hostile to indefinite, nondescriptive terminology.
Specific Studies
Specific studies that have been made on lakes, reservoirs, and
streams are presented to exemplify the type of information
that may be collected in field studies and the use that is made
of these data in formulating an interpretation of water quality.
Several graphic presentations are included to illustrate methods
of selling the product of biological investigations.
Geist Reservoir near Indianapolis, Indiana is 7.5 miles long;
it has a surface area of 1,800 acres, a shoreline of 35 miles, and
stores 6.9 billion gallons of water. It has a maximum depth of
30 feet and is divided into three unequal basins by two cause-
ways. The watershed draining to the impoundment is 215 square
miles; the surrounding land is used primarily for farming and
is gently roiling to flat “Wisconsin” glacial-drift. During the
spring runoff period (March through May), the average turbid-
ity was 155 units for the influent and upper causeway stations
(Figure 10). A large portion of the particulate matter settled
out in the reservoir; the mean turbidity was 30 units at the
dam station. During the spring period, maximum turbidity read-
ings were 950 units at the inlet and upper causeway stations
87

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and 75 units at the dam station. The decrease in turbidity with
both time and distance from the influent is shown in Figure 10.
During the spring, Geist Reservoir supported 458 pounds per
acre (wet weight) of phytoplankton; and in summer, 960
pounds per acre. The fall and winter standing crops were (on
the average) very similar to the spring phytoplankton standing
crop, namely, 484 and 213 pounds per acre respectively. \Tolumet
rically, the lower causeway station was richest in phytoplankton
with the exception of the fall period (Figure 11). Phytoplank-
ton volume was least at the inlet station and greatest in the
shallower pools formed by the two causeways. In these areas
turbidities are reduced and nutrients are readily available.
The biology of the Menominee River was investigated in
relation to organic wastes arising from sulfite and gTound-
wood pulp and paper mill wastes discharged at Niagara,
Wisconsin (Figure 12). Clean water associated organisms such
as stonefly, caddisfly and mayfly larvae that are sensitive to
organic wastes were reduced for a distance of 22 stream miles
downstream from the source of these wastes. Tolerant and
10001 K
900-
7001
D600
500
H
H H
200
1000 1
900
I - - - “ intet Station
B00 - - - - - --
70 - - - - - - -‘ -- - -,
600 - - -- --
50
- - - - - / - - - - - ‘- Upper Causeway Station
“400- -.
300 -
200 - - -S -
00- -. -.
- - - - - -- ‘— Lowei Causeway Station
o._ — ‘---- - -
S - - d - - Average Seasonal Value
‘ t - - Moxirntirn Seasonal *Iue

Darn Station
Figure 10. Seasonal turbidity unit values, Geist Reservoir, 1963-1964.
88

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Causeway Station
Causet y Station
very tolerant organisms such as many different kinds of
midge larvae and sludgeworms were increased markedly in
the downstream reach. Stream recovery was noted some 25
stream miles downstream from the waste source. In the reach
just downstream from the waste source, the bed was coated
with slime bacteria and wood fibers, and small balls of
sludgeworms entwined themselves in this mass. Fish food
and fish spawning areas had been destroyed; the reach was
degraded severely by pollution. Farther downstream, where
settleable solids were reduced and nutrients could exert a
greater impact on aquatic growths, algal streamers reached
lengths of 15 to 20 feet. The discharge of wood chips from
pulp mill operations interferes greatly with the normal use
of the bottom substratum by bottom associated organisms, fish,
and other aquatic life. These chips, that eventually become water-
logged and sink, destroy natural homes for bottom associated
organisms, and also serve as a substrate for the development of
slime bacteria which mat together masses of wood chips, fibers,
and other debris. The stream bed is blanketed with these ma-
terials and fish spawning areas are destroyed. As the slime mats
become more extensive they collect gasses of decomposition
which, on occasions, bring a mass of such material to the water
surface. Here it breaks up, disperses, and often is carried to
E
a
a
w
4
9
4
E
a.
a
U I
C
C D
- I
C
Station
Dam Station
Figure 11. Concentration of phytoplankton (ppm), Geist Reservoir, 1963-64.
89

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new locations downstream to decompose. Such solids as fibers,
slimes, and floating sludge patches degrade the appearance
of the stream and reduce its esthetic appeal for general recrea-
tional use. This, then, is the effect of one type of organic waste
upon the aquatic biota in one type of stream environment.
What are the effects of wastes in the reservoir habitat?
Bottom samples were collected from Little Quinnesec Reservoir
upstream from Niagara, Wisconsin, and from Sturgeon Falls
Reservoir downstream from the waste source (Figure 13).
The lake bed associated organism population found in the
upstream reservoir was considered descriptive for a clean
water environment; a great diversity of organisms was found.
In the Sturgeon Falls Reservoir, sensitive organisms were
eliminated and the sludgeworm population was increased tre-
mendously. indicating degraded benthic conditions (Figure
13). The water was turbid; sludge and wood chips were found
in areas of reduced current. WOOd fibers and limited quanti-
ties of slime bacteria were present.
Pn
I;
“1
-
_I
/ L1
. T.1... f
FIgure 12. Bottom associated organism populations In upper Menominee
River near Niagara, Wisconsin, August 1963.
/
90

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200- LITTLE QUINNESEC FLOWAGE
100-
700- STURGEON FALLS FLOWAGE
600-
500-
I . .
a
400
I . .
S
a
300-
2
E
3
Z 200-
100
C ’. p — . 1
a • a a a a a a
r a 2 E
* -n a
u U ’ o 1
a a
o - g
• a
0
o C
S
c I L
a
S
0
a
Figure 13. Benthic population in Upper Menominee River Reservoirs,
August 1963
The Chattooga River near Summerville, Georgia received un-
treated sewage. and textile and other industrial wastes. The stream
bed was excellent, however, for the production of many associated
organisms; it was composed of rock and coarse gravel with sand
occasionally intermingled. The upstream biological station was
in an area that supported 20 species of benthos, predominantly
clean water associated immature insects (Figure 14). Because of
predation and competition for available food among these insects
in this tree-lined stream, the total population was less than 50
organisms per square foot of stream bed. Five miles downstream,
alkaline textile wastes increased the stream’s pH to 9.7 and was
toxic to the benthos. Benthic organisms were eliminated. A layer
of black sludge composed of the settlings from raw sewage and
— — —
91

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industrial wastes covered the stream bed. Because of the wastes’
toxic properties. sludgeworms could not develop to begin stabiliz-
ing the sludge. Slight improvement only was noted three miles
downstream. Five miles downstream a filamentous blue-gTeen
alga was attached to the rocks and the only benthic organisms en-
countered were sludgeworms; these had reached a density of 680
per square foot. The toxic properties of the environment had be-
come reduced sufficiently at this point to permit sludgeworms to
develop and consume the organic food. Clean water associated insect
species did not occur in 50 miles of stream downstream from the
intermingled toxic and organic wastes. When insect species did
occur, they were found sparingly for another 5 miles. Accompany-
ing a decrease in total numbers of organisms and an increase in
species present. these immature iii ccts heralded the beginning
of stream recovery. Two additional stations located at 5 mile in-
tervals downstream were in areas in which the water qualit was
further improved, althoti h populations were hi her than at the
farthest upstream station which reflected a carry-over of the en-
richment from upstream organic wastes.
The Bear River near Lewiston, Utah was sampled in a 47.7 mile
reach that encompassed a variety of habitats (Figure 15). The
R
BEI T- POPULATiON
k
: ;iIt
(IIi
Figure 14. Bottom associated organism population in Chattooga River
near SummerviHe, Georgia, August 1962.
I,
I ,
92

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Figure 15. Benthos Data — Bear River System, 1962.
two upstream stations, located in a series of riffles unaffected by
mans activities, supported several species of mayflies, caddisflies,
and other clean water associated fishfood organisms that num-
bered 400 per square foot of stream bed. Downstream from station
B 89.5 the bed had become covered with silt and sand. It has been
estimated that between 1910 and 1950 the natural gravels, clays,
and silts on the stream bed were covered with five to six feet of
sand from gullies developed as a result of improper agricultural
practices and poor land management. This change in the physical
environment had a dramatic effect on the aquatic biota. Siltation
reduces both the numbers and kinds of organisms that a given
stream reach will support. This stream was devoid of most
aquatic vegetation. Organisms were associated only with rocks
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93

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around bridge abutments and roadways that sand had not cov-
ered. Careful search revealed six species of mayflies and caddis-
flies making their homes on rocks.
Artificial substrates of the Hester Dendy type (Hester and
Dendy, 1962) were placed in the silt-laden reach of the Bear River
for 19 days; these collected a maximum 250 organisms per square
foot indicating that a more suitable stream bed would be much
more productive of fishfood organisms. Drifting organisms prin-
cipally from upstream riffles and occasional rocks were the source
of the biota inhabiting the artificial substrates. Drifting organisms
supply a limited fishfood source also. Stomach analyses of cap-
tured green sunfish, carp, suckers, yellow perch, bullheads, and
bass showed that fish in this reach were feeding primarily on cad-
disfly larvae, mayfly naiads, and midge larvae; some of the stom-
achs contained up to 15 immature caddisflies and mayflies. The
fish population within the reach was limited primarily by the
available food supply that originated in an upstream productive
zone.
Concurrent with the Bear River study, 18 miles of the Cub
River were sampled (Figure 15). At river miles C-19.0 and C—15.0,
large numbers of intolerant species such as immature stonefly
naiads, mayfly naiads, caddisfly larvae and aquatic beetle larvae
were found; relatively few individuals were represented in any
one species. Such an organism assemblage is representative of an
unpolluted aquatic environment. During the fall survey, trout
eggs were found in this reach. Downstream, wastes from a can-
fling plant packaging peas, green beans, and sauerkraut, were
discharged. Downstream from these wastes, pollution tolerant or-
ganisms predominated. Intolerant species were eliminated, and
the numbers of the more tolerant forms had increased greatly.
The stream bed was covered with sludge, and mats of blue-green
algae (Oscillaoria sp., Lyngbya sp., and Spirulina sp.) were
growing on the sludge. The filamentous bacterium, Sphaerotilwc
natans, was observed on sticks and rocks in the stream. The Cub
River was degraded seriously. In the course of a few miles it had
changed from a trout stream to one that supported only the most
tolerant benthic organisms. The stream did not recover.
Wastes from a plant processing sugar beets were discharged
to Lower Worm Creek in Idaho during October and November
(Figure 15). Resulting sludgeworm populations reached 20,000 per
94

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SA .E
ORGANLSMS PER
SQUI RE FCC
Figure 16. Bottom associated organism data, Cheat River near Aibright,
West Vsrginia, 1963.
square foot. Sludge beds on the stream bottom consisting of beet
tops and beet pulp reached depths of 3 feet or more. Ox ’gen
demand by the decomposing sludge restricted the sludgeworms
to the canal banks where limited oxygen was present. The biota
of Worm Creek. consisting of such pollution tolerant kinds of or-
ganisms as sludgeworms, leeches, and Physa snails, remained
essentially unchanged at Worm Creeks confluence with the Cub
River.
The Cheat River in \Vest Virginia is formed by Shavers Fork
and Black Water River upstream from Parsons (Figure 16). Thir-
teen kinds of benthic organisms were found in Shavers Fork in-
cluding those commonly found only in clean, hea thv streams.
Black Water River, on the other hand, receives pollution from acid
mine drainage; it contained no benthic organisms and the rocks
were coated with red silt, iron flocks and bacterial slimes, and an
alga tolerant of acid waters. Downstream from Parsons, \Vest Vir-
ginia, acid pollution vas so severe that no benthos were found.
Some stream recovery was shown by the bottom associated orga-
nism population at Rowlesburg, but additional acid discharges se-
verelv degraded bottom conditions in the Aibright, \Vest Virginia
reach so that only an occasional benthic organism could exist in
the stream. Similar conditions persisted generally to the conflu-
ence of the Cheat River with the Monongahela River.
.. * 6 9 0
KI ’d OS
95

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DYMOND, J. R., AND A. V. DELAPORTE, 1952. Pollution of the Spanish River. Ontario
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McNAn, C. D., 1960. Enumeration of Freshwater Phytop lankton Concentrated on
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Tanswt, W. L. AND R. Bm, 1935. A Liinnological Study of some Lakes in the
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Additional Selected References
on Biological Techniques
ANDERSON, R. 0., 1959. A Modified Flotation Technique for Sorting Bottom Fauna
Samples. Limnology and Oceanography, 4 (2): 223—225.
AWN, W., 1958. The Use of a Large Capacity Portable Pump for Plankton Sampling,
with Notes on Plankton Patchiness. Jour. of Marine Research, 16: 158—173.
Bn.Zav, M., 1962. A Simple Technique for Obtaining Standard Numbers of
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BMuiEs, H., 1959. Oceanography and Marine Biology, A Book of Techniques. Ruskin
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CA5TENHOLz, K. W., 1961. An Evaluation of a Submerged Glass Method of Estimat-
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Ca&r’jc, S. L., 1960. Proposed Method for Examination of Water for Free-Living
Nematodes. Am. Water Works Assoc., 52: 695—698.
CLARKE, IV. J. AND W. F. Sirctn, 1963. Method of Concentrating Phytoplankton
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COLLIER, A. AND S. M. RAY, 1948. An Automatic Proportioning Apparatus for
Experimental Study of the Effects of Chemical Solutions on Aquatic Animals.
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Con, 0. B., 1960. Collection and Preservation of Fish and Other Materials Exposed
to Pesticides. Prog. Fish Culturist, 22: 103—108.
COPELAND, B. J., K. W. MINTER, AND T. C. Doiuus, 1964. Chlorophyll a and
Suspended Organic Matter in Oil Refinery Effluent Holding Ponds. Limnology and
Oceanography, 9 (4): 500-506.
C 0wELL, B. C., 1960. A Quantitative Study of the Winter Plankton of Urschel’s
Quarry. The Ohio Jour. of Sci., 60 (3): 183—191.
CROS5LAND, N. 0., 1962. A Mud-Sampling Technique for the Study of the Ecology
of Aquatic Snails, and Its Use in the Evaluation of the Efficacy of Molluscicides
in Field Trials. Bull, of the World Health Organization, 27 (1): 125—133.
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C UMMIN5. K. W., 1962. An Evaluation of Some Techniques for the Collection and
Analysis of Benthic Samples with Specific Emphasis on Lothic Waters. Am.
Midland Naturalist, 67: 477.
DAv is, H. S.. 1938. Instructions for Conducting Stream and Lake Surveys. U.S.
Dept. of Commerce. Bur. of Fisheries, Fishery Circular No. 26, Pp. 1—55.
Duxzuav. A. C. AND C. S. Yrxmcti, 1956. Plankton Pigment Nomographs. Sears
Foundation: Jour. of Marine Research 15 (1): 92 —101.
Fnoan, 1. E., 1960. A Method of Studying the Vertical Distribution of the Bottom
Fauna in Shallow Waters. Hydrobiologic. 16: 288.
EvANs, J. H. 1961. A Phytoplankton Multi-Sampler and Its Use in Lake Victoria.
Nature. 191 (4783): 53—55.
FREMLINC. C. R. AND J. J. EvANS , 1963. A Method for Determining the Dissolved
Oxygen Concentration Near the Mud-Water Interface. Limnology and Oceano-
graphv, 8 (3): 363—364.
Ftry, D. C., 1951. Pollen Succession in the Sediments of Singletary Lake, North
Carolina. Ecology. 32 (3): 518—533.
Ftn, U. C., 1959. The Two Creeks Interval in Indiana Pollen Diagrams. mv. of
Indiana Lakes and Streams. 5: 151—139.
COt.DMAN. C. R., 1962. A Method of Studying Nutrient Limiting Factors in Situ
in Water Columns Isolated bs Polvethslene Film. Lininology and Oceanography.
7 (I) : 99—101.
GOLDMAN, C. R. AND R. C. Cnn, 1965. An Investigation by Rapid Carbon-14
Bioassay of Factors Affecting the Cultural Eutrophication of Lake Tahoe. Cali-
fornia -Nevada. Jour. Water Pollution Control Federation, 37 (7): 1044—1059.
GRFNWR, F. 1960. A Constant Flow Apparatus for Toxicity Experiments on Fish.
Sewage and Industrial Wastes. 32 (10): 1117—1119.
GtnsoN. C. L AND F. C. GOLF, 1963. A Multi-Level Water Sampler. Prog. Fish-
Cu lturist, 25 (2) : 104 —l O S.
C n n. C. AND R. Hi-nox, 1955. A Comparison of Sampling Techniques Utilized
in an Ecological Study of Aquatic Insects. Jour. of Economic Entomology, 48
(6): 662—665.
I-Iu nnsoN, C.., 1949. Value of a Bottom Sampler in Demonstrating the Effects of
Pollution on Fish-Food Organisms and Fish in the Shenandoah River. Prog.
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HENDERSON, C. AND Q. H. Picxnixc, 1963. Use of Fish in the Detection of Con-
taminants in Water Supplies. Jour. of the American Water Works Assoc., 55 (6):
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Hoorn, F. F.. H. A. P0D0L 1AK. AND S. F. Sxitszxo, 1961. Use of Radioisotopes in
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LAM MEts, W. T.. 1962- Density Gradient Separation of Plankton and Clay from
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LANCnlra. W. F., 1928. The Quantitative Examination of Plankton. Jour. Am.
Water Works Assoc-, /9 (4): 408—415.
LktFF, C. H. FT AL. 1961. A Method for Sorting Bottom Fauna Samples by Elutria-
tion. Limnology and Oceanography, 6: 462.
lAND, J. W. 6.. 1959. A Simple Counting Chamber for Nannoplankton. Limnology
and Oceanograpln. 1: 57-65.
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LUND, J. W. G. AND J. F. TALLING, 1957. Botanical Limnological Methods with
Special Reference to the Algae. The Botanical Review, 23 (8 & 9): 489 —583.
MActout, J. A., 1962. Lininological Organic Analyses by Quantitative Dichromate
Oxidation. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Research Report
No. 60, pp. 1-61.
Mann, T. G., 1962. An Interval Plankton Sampler for Use in Ponds. Ecology,
43 (2): 323—324.
MAltv.ki’i, P., 1960. Notes on the Application of Membrane Filtration for Quantita-
the Ph top1ankton Research. Sd. Papers Inst. Chem. Technol., Prague, Fac.
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MooRE, J. K., 1963. Refinement of a Method for Filtering and Presenting Marine
Phytoplankton on a Membrane Filter. Limnology and Oceanography. 8 (2):
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solved Ox’sgen Content of Water. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 93: 100—103.
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Deli ery of Various Concentrations of Materials in Water. PHS Publ. No. 999—
WP-23, 16 pp.
Munsy, J. W., 1962. A New Bottom-Water Sampler for Ecologists. Jour. Marine
Biol. Assoc. of the United Kingdom, 42 (5): 499—501.
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and Stream Pollution, and Interpretation of Results. Sewage Works Journal, 8
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Pnnsnv, A., 1953. A Manual of Entomological Techniques. Edwards Brothers, Inc.,
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QADRI, S. V., 1960. A Small Drag Net for Capture of Bottom Fish and Invertebrates.
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Rtcns.nis, F. A., 1952. The Estimation and Characterization of Plankton Popula-
tions by Pigment Analyses. I. The Absorption Spectra of Some Pigments Occurring
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SMITH, G. M., 1951. Manual of Phycology. An introduction to the Algae and Their
Biology. Chronica Botonica, Waltham, Mass., 375 pp.
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STAHL, J. B., 1959. The Development History of the Chironomid and Chaoborus
Faunas in Myers Lake. mv. of Indiana Lakes and Streams, 5: 47—102.
Sunn, K W., 1950. A Method of Quantitative Bottom Fauna and Faculative
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Fish. Soc., 60: 187—198.
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TAyj.oR, J. L., 1965. Bottom Samplers for Estuarine Research. Chesapeake Science
6 (4): 235—254.
Th0MM, M. L. H., 1960. A Modified Anchor Dredge for Collecting Burrowing
Animals. Jour. Fish Res. Rd. Canada, 17 (4): 591-594.
Usmm, it. L. AND P. it. NnIatM, 1956. A Drag-Type Riffle-Bottom Sampler.
Prog. Fish Culturist, 18 (1): 42—44.
WAn, C. it., 1955. A Core Sampler for Obtaining Samples of Bottom Muds.
Frog. Fish Cu lturist, 17 (3): 140.
Wunuy. L. S., 1962. New Bottom Sampler for Use in Shallow Streams. Limnology
and Oceanography, 7: 265.
WusoN, J. N., it. A. WAGNER G. L. TooMBs, AND A. E. BECKER, JR., 1960. Methods
for the Determination of Slimes in Riven. Jour. Water Pollution Control Federa-
tion, 32 (1): 83—89.
WooD, E. J. F., 1962. A Method for Phytoplankton Study. Limnology and Ocean-
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WysoctA, H., 1961. Periphyton on Glass Slides as Indicators of Water Pollution.
Verh. mt. ‘er. Limnol., 11: 1063.
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5
Nutrients And Biological Growths
Introduction
E UTROPHICATION is a term that is used increasingly to
mean enrichment of waters by nutrients through either man-
created or natural means. Natural enrichment produces a rate of
lake aging that may be measured only by the clock of geologic
time. Additional fertilization will accelerate this rate of lake aging,
making changes in water quality noticeable within a few decades
or even less. It is obvious, for example, that growing cities and
expanding industries are pouring nutrients into the nation’s Wa-
terways at an accelerating rate; aquatic weed and algal nuisances
have increased in areas where before they did not exist and have
become magnified in areas where before there was a tolerable
growth.
The scope of accelerated eutrophication or water enrichment is
broad. The most perceptible characteristics to the layman on the
scene are those readily noted through visual inspection including
a change in water color and an increase in turbidity, nuisance
growths of small suspended plants or algal scums, developing
areas of rooted water plants, and odors associated with decaying
dead vegetation and possibly fish. More subtle changes can be
found by the investigator as indicated by decreased light pene-
tration; decreased dissolved oxygen in deeper waters; increased
nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations especially in the deeper
waters; significant changes in the algal population, in the kinds
and numbers of bottom dwelling organisms, and in the fishery;
and increased rooted aquatic weed beds.
Present knowledge indicates that the fertilizing elements con-
tributing most to lake eutrophication are nitrogen and phophorus.
Iron and certain “trace” elements are also important. Vitamins
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such as B , many micronutrients, and extracellular products
from existing plant populations play a role in the developing
aquatic plant growths but this role is not presently well under-
stood. Sewage and sewage effluents contain a generous amount of
those nutrients necessary for abundant algal development.
it is well documented that many lakes throughout the country.
and the world, have been fertile reservoirs for algal development
for many years and have been called eutrophic. Notable among
these for their algal growths in the United States are Lake Zoar
in Connecticut, Lake Sebatiscook in Maine, the Madison Lakes
in Wisconsin, Lake Erie, the Detroit Lakes in Minnesota, Green
Lake and Lake Washington in Washington, and Klamath Lake in
Oregon.
As nutrient concentrations increase the numbers of algal cells
increase. Nuisance conditions occur such as surface scums and
algal-littered beaches. The water may become foul smelling. Filter-
clogging problems may occur at municipal water treatment in-
stallations. Filamentous algae, especially Cladophora, grow pro-
fusely on any suitable subsurface; these can cause nuisances when
they break loose and wash ashore to form windrows of stinking
vegetation. The abnormal acceleration of a process that is con-
sidered as normal often is not in the best interests of man.
To properly assess a nutrient problem, consideration should be
given to all of those sources that may contribute nutrients to the
watercourse. These sources could include sewage, sewage effluents,
industrial wastes, land drainage, applied fertilizers, precipitation,
urban runoff, soils, and nutrients released from bottom sediments
and from decomposing plankton. Transient waterfowl, falling
tree leaves, and ground water may contribute important additions
to the nutrient budget. Flow measurements are paramount in a
study to quantitatively assess the respective amounts contributed
by these various sources during different seasons and at different
flow characteristics. In the receiving lake or stream the quantity
of nutrients contained by the standing crops of algae, aquatic
vascular plants, fish, and other aquatic organisms are important
considerations. A knowledge of those nutrients that are harvested
annually through the fish catch, or that may be removed from
the system through the emergence of insects will contribute to an
understanding of the nutrient budget.
For comparative purposes it is valuable to know nutrient con-
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centrations that have been found in various lakes and streams,
the loadings to specific lakes under varying situations, and the
retention in lakes and ponds. The interaction of specific chemical
components in water, prescribed fertilizer application rates to
land and to water, minimal nutrient values required for algal
blooms, vitamins required, other limiting factors, and the inter-
cellular nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations are likewise im-
portant. Usually, it is necessary to determine that portion of the
nutritive input attributable to man-made or man-induced pollu-
don that may be corrected as opposed to that input that is natu-
ral in origin, and therefore, usually not correctable. A nutrient
budget is used to determine the annual input to a system, the
annual outflow, and that which is retained within the water mass
to recycle with the biomass or become combined with the solidified
bottom sediments.
Reservoirs or lakes are the settling basins of drainage areas.
The potential productivity of a body of water is determined to a
great extent by the natural fertility of the land over which the
runoff drains and by the contributions of civilization. Biological
activity within the lake influences such chemical characteristics
as dissolved oxygen, pH, carbon dioxide, hardness, alkalinity,
iron, manganese, phosphorus, and nitrogen; it is varied through
temperature fluctuations and stimulated by nutrient variations
(e.g., phosphorus and nitrogen). A lake’s basin gives dimension
to biological activity and may, because of unique physical charac-
teristics, concentrate the nutrients it receives as well as the devel-
oping biomass.
Nutrient Suppliers
Basic sources of nutrients to lakes and reservoirs are (a) tribu-
tary streams carrying land runoff and waste discharges, (b) the
interchange of bottom sediments, and (c) precipitation from the
atmosphere.
The four principal sources of nitrogen today are the atmos-
phere, coal, natural nitrates, and organic materials. Since the
1920’s the chemical industry, by nitrogen fixation, has supplied
the major part of the world’s nitrogen requirements. The only
commercially important large nitrate deposits in the world are
in Chile, in an area 10 to 50 miles wide and 450 miles long be-
tween the Coast Range and the Andes Mountains in northern Chile.
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The mass of the atmosphere has been estimated at more than 5
quadrillion tons containing about 4 quadrillion tons of nitrogen,
or about 148,000 tons for each acre of land area. Each day, light-
ning fixes about 60,000 tons of nitrogen which reaches the earth
in the form of nitric or nitrous acids; however, most of this ton-
nage falls on nonagricultural areas. The quantity of nitrogen in
coal ranges from less than 1 to 3 percent (Anon. 1965).
Phosphate rock have been reported in 23 states including Ar-
kansas, Florida, Tennessee, Idaho, Montana, Utah, and Wyoming
(Anon. 1965). Of the 19.8 million long tons of phosphate rock
produced in the United States in 1963, 74 percent came from
Florida, 14 percent from the Western states and 12 percent from
Tennessee.
SEWAGE
Sewage and sewage effluents enrich tributary streams. Rudolfs
(1947) studied the content of sewages from 12 separate sources
and concluded that the annual per capita contribution of phospho-
rus (P) ranged from 0.6 to 1.5 pounds. Studies of Wisconsin waste
stabilization ponds indicate annual per capita contributions of
4.1 pounds of inorganic nitrogen and 1.1 pounds of soluble phos-
phorus. (Mackenthun and McNabb, 1961). The Nine-Springs
Sewage Treatment Plant provides primary and secondary treat-
ment for all wastes from the Madison, Wisconsin metropolitan
area of 85 square miles with a population of about 135,000. The
effluent from the secondary processes—one fourth settled sewage
from trickling filters and three-fourths from activated sludge—
has an annual per capita contribution of 8.5 pounds of inorganic
nitrogen and 3.5 pounds of soluble phosphorus (P). By diverting
its treated sewage effluent around downstream Lakes Waubesa
and Kegonsa, this city reduced the inflow of nutrients into those
waters by 3,000 pounds per day of inorganic nitrogen and 1,300
pounds per day of soluble phosphorus (Mackenthun et al., 1960).
Following diversion, in the receiving stream, long streamers of
filamentous green algae (Stigeoclonium and R hizoclonium) , some
of which were estimated to be 50 feet in length, were attached
to bottom materials at numerous locations. Oscillatoria covered
the bottom in the upper area. Severe stream degradation follow-
ing diversion was indicated by the community of stream biota.
Engelbrecht and Morgan (1959) found that the mean ortho-
phosphate concentration among 3 trickling filter sewage treat-
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ment plant effluents and 1 activated sludge plant effluent in Illinois
in 1956 ranged from 5.1 to 10.6 mg/l P and the annual per
capita contributions from 1.5 to 3.9 pounds. In addition, the max-
imum inorganic condensed P concentration ranged from 0.4 to
0.9 mg/i and the annual per capita contribution from 0.3 to 3.6
pounds.
McGauhey et al. (1963) stipulated the unit design factors sug-
gested for domestic wastes in the Lake Tahoe area as follows:
Average sewage flow, gallons per capita per day:
Residential and commercial areas 90
Recreational areas 30
BOD, mg/i 250
Phosphate, mg/i P 8
Total Nitrogen, mg/i N 45
Bush and Mulford (1954) report the nitrogen and phosphorus
range of domestic sewage for 15 California communities as 20 to
40 mg/i N and 5.3 to 10.6 mg/I P. The annual per capita con-
tribution ranged from 6 to 12 pounds N and 2 to 4 pounds P.
Mackenthun (1965) cites Metzler et al. (1958) who reported the
annual per capita nitrogen and phosphorus contributions at Cha-
nute, Kansas, as 6 pounds N and 2.3 pounds P.
Analysis of samples of domestic sewage from communities in
Minnesota, with populations varying from 1,200 to 940,000, showed
that the raw sewage of these communities contained 1.5 to 3.7
grams, with a median of 2.3 grams of phosphorus per capita per
day; 1.9 pounds per year (Owen , 1953).
Stumm and Morgan (1962) state that the P-content of domestic
sewage is about 3 to 4 times what it was before the advent of
synthetic detergents, and it is not unlikely that the P-content of
sewage may continue to rise. Since the ability to assimilate ele-
mentary nitrogen by certain blue-green algae has been demon-
strated to be of importance in fresh water, phosphorus is a key
element in the fertilization of natural bodies of water. If phos-
phorus (as P) is the predominant limiting factor, 1 mg of phos-
phate (as P) released to the surface water in one single pass of
the phosphorus cycle is capable of stimulating the production of
about 75 mg of organic material. Oswald (1960) gives the ele-
mentary chemical composition of an average domestic sewage as
61.3 mg/i total nitrogen (N) and 10.7 mg/i phosphorus.
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Van Vuran (1948) states that the average human inhabitant of
a European city excretes 107 pounds per year solids and 964
pounds per year liquids for a total of 1,071 pounds. This contains
75.8 pounds of dry matter, 11.4 pounds of nitrogen and 1.1 pounds
of phosphorus (P) . Sawyer (1965) states that the average citizen
of the United States excretes about 1 pound of phosphorus per
year. Synthetic and other detergents should increase the per cap-
ita phosphorus content of domestic sewage by a factor of nearly
2.5 over that caused by human excreta.
WATE RFOWL
Lakes and reservoirs located on heavily used duck flyways receive
“flying” or “bombed in” nutrients from transient duck popula-
tions. Sanderson (1953) found the annual raw-waste contribution
of a domestic duck to be 2.1 pounds of total nitrogen and 0.9
pound of total phosphorus. Paloumpis and Starrett (1960) applied
a factor of 0.5 to these data to compensate for dietary differences
of wild ducks, and determined that the annual nutrient contribu-
tion to Lake Chautauqua, Illinois from the wild duck population
was 12.8 pounds of total nitrogen and 5.6 pounds of total phos-
phorus per acre. Samples of fresh and aged wild fowl excrement
adjacent to Green Lake in Seattle, Washington were found to aver-
age 1.43 milligrams of nitrates, 10.3 milligrams of organic nitrogen,
and 0.91 milligram total phosphorus (Sylvester and Anderson,
1964).
RUNOFF
Land runoff may often be the major contributor of nutrients to
the tributary stream. The annual loss of nitrogen and phosphorus
per acre from a planting of corn on a 20-percent slope of “Miami”
silt loam was found to be 38 pounds and 1.8 pounds respectively;’
on an 8-percent slope, this was reduced to 18 pounds of nitrogen
and 0.5 pound of phosphorus. In a study of the lower Madison
lakes, Sawyer et a l., 2 and Lackey and Sawyer (1945) found that
the annual contribution of inorganic nitrogen per acre of drain-
1 Eck. P., M. L. Jackson. 0. E. Haves, and C. E. flay, 1957. Runoff Analysis as a
Measure of Erosion Losses and Potential I)ischarge of Minerals and Organic Matter
into Lakes and Streams. Summary Report. Lakes In estigations. University of Wi.s-
consin. Madison. 13 pp. (mimeoj.
‘Saw er. C. N.. J. B. Lacke; and R. T. Lenz. 1945. An Investigation of the Odor
Nuisances Occurring in the Madison Lakes, Particularl ’ Monona. Waubesa and
Kegonsa from Jul 1942—Juls 1944. Report of Governor’s Committee, Madison, Wis.,
2 vots. (mimeo).
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age area tributary to Lake Monona was 4.4 pounds, Lake Wau-
besa, 4.9 pounds, and Lake Kegonsa, 6.4 pounds.
Sylvester (1960) tabulated the results of analyses of samples
collected from gutters on Seattle, Washington, streets anywhere
from 30 minutes to several hours after a rainstorm had com-
menced. The mean nitrate nitrogen (N) was 0.53 mg/l, total
phosphorus (P) 0.21 mg/i and soluble phosphorus 0.076 mg/i.
Nutrient values in three streams emerging from forested areas
where no human habitation contributes any significant amount
of waste water averaged 0.065 to 0.20 mg/i nitrates as N and
0.004 to 0.009 mg/l soluble phosphorus as P. Surface irrigation
return flows from diversified farming in Yakima Valley, Washing-
ton, contained 1.19 to 1.90 mg/l nitrate nitrogen as N, 0.165 to
0.360 mg/I total phosphorus as P . and 0.127 to 0.210 mg/l solu-
ble phosphorus. In the surface drains, the total phosphorus in
the drainage water varied from 0.9 to 3.9 pounds per acre per
year while the total nitrogen varied from 2.5 to 24 pounds per
acre per year.
In the process of becoming soluble, nitrogen is converted into
nitric acid which combines with important elements in the soil,
such as calcium and potassium, among other elements, to form
soluble compounds which are subject to leaching, thus causing
the loss of these mineral elements as well as nitrogen. In Ken-
tucky, the pounds of nitrogen leached per acre ranged from 0 to
10 for alfalfa, and 0.3 to 12.2 for bluegrass to 29 to 165 where
no crop was grown (Andrews, 1947). The average loss of plant
nutrients per acre of row crops in the Tennessee River System for
the year 1939 Was: 84.6 pounds of calcium, 97.9 pounds of mag-
nesium, 212.2 pounds of potassium, 13.0 pounds of phosphorus (all
expressed as oxides) and 23.8 pounds of nitrogen (Fippin, 1945).
In recent years about 50,000 tons of commercial fertilizer of
various formulae have been applied annually to Prince Edward
Island, Canada farms, mostly to potato fields (Smith, 1959). These
commercial fertilizers made substantial contributions of phos-
phorus to the drainage water. It was estimated that about 10 per-
cent of the phosphorus put on the land was lost through drainage
during the year of its application. At Coshocton, Ohio, two storms
with 2.21 to 5.09 inches of rainfall per storm produced a runoff
of 6,600 to 76,300 gallons per acre; phosphorus (P) in the runoff
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water ranged from 0.016 to 0.14 pound per acre and total nitro-
gen (N) ranged from 0.20 to 6.12 pounds per acre (Anon., 1964).
Phosphorus carried to surface waters may be in the simple
orthophosphate form or as a soluble hydrolyzable phosphate, or
it may be absorbed on clay particles. As absorbed forms of phos-
phate increase in amount, their solubility in water increases ra-
pidly. The amount of agricultural phosphate transported to streams
undoubtedly depends upon such factors as: (1) nature and
amount of phosphates in the soil, (2) mode of drainage, (3) to-
pography, (4) intensity and distribution of rainfall, (5) rates of
infiltration and percolation, etc. Results are reported for 100 sam-
ples from the Kaskaskia River basin in Illinois that has farm-
lands containing 40 to 50 pounds of available P0 per acre, and
are drained by tile. High rainfalls and high rates of percolation
exist. At one station that receives no domestic sewage but re-
ceives runoff from a cultivated drainage area of 11 square miles
ortho plus hydrolyzable P0 averaged 225 pounds of phosphorus
(P) per year per square mile of drainage area (Engelbrecht and
Morgan, 1961).
Sawyer (1947) found that agricultural drainage in the Madi-
son, Wisconsin area contributed approximately 4,500 pounds of
nitrogen and 255 pounds of phosphorus per square mile of drain-
age area per year. Weibel (1965) determined that the loss of phos-
phorus (P) was about 256 pounds per square mile of agricultural
drainage per year to Ohio streams.
Lake Sebasticook in Maine with a non-agricultural drainage
basin of 106 square miles, a runoff of 0.43 cfs per square mile,
and a total phosphorus (P) concentration of 20 g/l , received
17 pounds of phosphorus per square mile of drainage basin per
year. Similarly, Geist Reservoir in Indiana with a drainage basin
of 215 square miles, a runoff of 0.90 cfs per square mile, and an
influent total phosphorus (P) concentration of 140 ig/l, re-
ceived 248 pounds of phosphorus per square mile of drainage basin
per year. The Ross P... Barnett Reservoir near Jackson, Mississippi,
with a drainage basin of 3,100 square miles is currently receiving
226 pounds of phosphorus per square mile of drainage basin.
A study was made of irrigation return flow in the Yakima River
Basin, Washington, from a 375,280 acre area during an irrigation
season whose principal months extend from April through Septem-
ber (Sylvester and Seabloom, 1963). Average water diversion was
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6.6 acre-feet per acre per year of which approximately 4.25 acre-
feet per acre was applied to land, the remainder being lost in
canal seepage, canal evaporation, and wastage. The evapo-transpi-
ration loss in itelf would result in a salt concentration increase
of 1.7 times in the irrigation return water. Chemical constituent
increases occurring in the sub-surface drainage water because of
evapo-transpiration, leaching and ion exchange, expressed as num-
ber of times greater than in the applied water were as follows:
bicarbonate alkalinity. 4.8; chlorides, 12; nitrate, 10; and soluble
phosphate, 3.2. During the irrigation and non-irrigation seasons,
the approximate contribution of ions or salts in pounds per acre
resulting from irrigation were, respectively, bicarbonate, 575 and
715; chloride, 37 and 63; nitrate, 33 and 35; and soluble phos-
phate, I and 1.2.
Nutrient data are presented by Sylvester (1961) for major
highways, arterial and residential streets in the State of Washing-
ton anywhere from 30 minutes to several hours after a rainstorm
had commenced; from three streams containing large reservoirs,
roads and some logging but no human habitation as they emerge
from forested areas, from the Yakima River Basin irrigation re-
turn flow drains, and from Green Lake in Washington.
Table 2. Mean nutrient concentrations (, g/1)
Total Soluble Nitrates Total
phosphorus phosphorus (N) kjeldahl
(P) (P) nitrogen
(N)
Urban street drainage
208
76
527
2,010
Urban street drainage (median)
154
22
420
410
Streams from forested areas
69
7
130
74
Subsurface irrigation drains
216
184
2,690
172
Surface irrigation drains
251
162
1,250
205
Green Lake
76
16
84
340
GROUND WATER
Juday and Birge (1931) sampled 19 wells located on the shores
of 13 widely distributed lakes in northeastern Wisconsin and
found total phosphorus (P) values of 2.0 tg/1 to 197 ,.tg/l with
a mean of 29 1. Eight shallow wells and one spring located on
the shores of Sebasticook Lake, Maine were analyzed for nitrate-
nitrogen and total phosphorus. With one exception (a 38-foot arte-
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sian well with 3.45 mg/i) the nitrate-nitrogen in these well sam-
pies did not exceed 0.05 mg/I. The total phosphorus (P) in one
well was 70 g/l, in one 18-foot deep well and one 2-foot deep
spring was 20 zg/l, and in the remaining wells was 10 jig/i
or less.
NITROGEN FiXATION
Dugdale and Neess (1961) cite necessary conditions for intense
nitrogen fixation. These conditions specify that:
1. the general physical and nutritional characteristics of the
body of water must be such as to encourage the growth of
blue-green algae,
2. some factor (s) must operate to reduce the concentrations of
the various forms of combined nitrogen to very low levels,
3. an adequate supply of phosphorus would appear to be criti-
cal,
4. certain elements (calcium, boron, and molybdenum) in trace
amounts are known to be specifically necessary to permit ni-
trogen fixation by particular species of blue-green algae.
Dilute sea-water is a reasonably good medium for nitrogen-fixing
blue-green algae, perhaps because it contains favorable amounts
of trace elements. it is possible that some of these elements are
concentrated in sewage, resulting under certain circumstances in
the stimulation of nitrogen fixation by this material.
Nitrogen fixation, demonstrated among the algae only in the
Noszocaceae, Oscillato riaceae, Scyton emataceac, Stigon ema taceae,
and Rivulariaceae (Fogg. 1951; Wilding, 1941), has been studied
from economic as well as scientific points of view. Watanabe
(1956) showed that, in four years after inoculation with Toly-
pot hrix tenuis, fields of rice yielded 128 percent more than unin-
oculated controls. The plants in the inoculated paddies contained
7.5 pounds more N per acre than the controls (Watanabe, 1951).
1 k and Mandal (1956) were able to obtain from 13 to 44 pounds
of fixed nitrogen per acre from unfertilized, waterlogged rice soils.
Fogg (1951) found that ?tlastigocladus laminosus can fix 12.88 mg
N per liter in 20 days. Atmospheric nitrogen, however, is not
generally as efficient as a source for growth as NH 3 or nitrate.
Kratz and Myers (1955) showed that N fixation in Nostoc sup-
portS only 75 percent of the growth obtained on nitrate.
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Rates of biological nitrogen fixation in Lake Wingra and Lake
Mendota, at Madison, Wisconsin varied with light intensity (Goer-
ing and Neess, 1964). In Lake Mendota, rates were erratic and did
not follow a regular seasonal pattern. Through the ice-free season,
the rate of fixation was usually zero; however, positive rates did
occur without obvious relation to the concentrations of various
forms of combined nitrogen. Significant fixation rates were found
in Lake Wingra from mid-February to late October. The highest
rate observed was 14.85 gg of nitrogen fixed per liter per 24 hours
at a depth of 1 meter on July 26, 1961. Although the rates were
significant throughout the ice-free season, they often fluctuated
widely from date to date. Fixation occurred at times when nitrate
and ammonia were present; however, maximum rates did not
develop until nitrate and ammonia concentrations were low or
undetectable. Microcystis and Anabaena were predominant genera
present, and Anabaena probably was the significant nitrogen fixer.
PRECIPITATION
Inorganic nitrogen compounds are present in small amounts in
rainwater, predominantly as nitric acid and ammonia. These com-
pounds come from the atmosphere and are the products of elec-
trical discharges, terrestrial decomposition, and volcanic erup-
tions. If the concentrations quoted by Hutchinson (1957) are
used and a 30-inch annual precipitation is assumed, the contribu-
tion of ammonia and nitrate nitrogen in the temperate region
would be 5.5 pounds per acre. In an 18-month investigation at
Hamilton, Ontario, Matheson (1951) determined the annual fall-
out of atmospheric nitrogen to be 5.8 pounds per acre. Sixty-one
percent of the total nitrogen fell on 25 percent of the days when
precipitation occurred; the balance was attributed solely to the
sedimentation of dust.
McKee (1962) found that the total atmospheric nitrogen reach-
ing the soil per unit area tends to increase with the annual rain-
fall. The amount of nitrogen reaching the soil as nitrate and
ammonium lies usually between 1.8 and 9 pounds per acre per
year in certain regions of Europe. Several observers have found
appreciable amounts of organically combined nitrogen (usually
cited as albuminoid N) in rain. Much of the organic nitrogen of
the atmosphere is in small particles such as pollen, spores, bac.
teria, and dust carried from the earth’s surface by ascending
currents. Voigt (1960) studied the composition of rainfall in an
open area in southern Connecticut which receives about 45 inches
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of precipitation per year. Water samples collected from two
storms, one in May and one in September, contained total nitrogen
concentrations of 0.05 and 0.07 mg/i and total phosphorus of
10 g/1.
RELEASE FROM BOTTOM SEDIMENTS
Hasler (1957) found that in an undisturbed mud-water system,
the percentage as well as the amount of phosphorus that is re-
leased to the superimposed water is very small. In laboratory ex-
periments, when P’ is placed at various depths in the mud the
diffusion into the overlying non-circulating water is negligible if
placed greater than 1 centimeter in the mud. Application of lime
to the water, or to the mud, reduces the amount of soluble phos-
phorus available. Acidification of previously alkalized mud will,
upon agitation, increase the amount of phosphorus entering solu-
tion. In an aquarium experiment, circulation of the water above
phosphorus-rich mud with the aid of air bubbles increases the
phosphorus in solution.
Experiments on the fertilization of Scottish lochs, and labora-
tory experiments on the loss of dissolved phosphate from water
overlying mud deposits, showed that aerobic bottom deposits can
take up large amounts of phosphate although the rate of absorp-
tion is slow (Holden 1961). When phosphate is added as a ferti-
lizer, the rate of removal by the deposits may be slower than the
uptake by macrophytic and attached flora. Most of the phosphate
absorbed remains in the upper aerobic zone of the mud, most of
it being converted to organic forms so that only a small propor-
tion is available for release during periods of temporary anaerobic
conditions in the mud. In unfertilized lakes, the quantity of phos-
phorus in the mud surface is very high compared with the equi-
librium concentration in the overlying water. In shallow fertilized
lakes, where the upper 15 cm of the bottom deposit may be in-
volved in phosphate uptake, very large quantities can be removed
from solution and much of that removed may be converted to
forms which are unavailable for subsequent release to the water.
Phosphorus may be removed from solution by a number of
mechanisms which do not act independently of one another. In
alkaline waters where there is an excess of calcium, phosphorus
may precipitate as tricalcium phosphate [ Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2]. This
salt eventually may be converted to the more soluble di- and
mono-calcium phosphates if the pH of the water is reduced. In
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the presence of iron, insoluble ferric phosphate may be formed.
In addition, it may be absorbed directly on organic soil colloids
(humus), where the nature of the reaction is not clearly under-
stood. Under these circumstances, phosphorus will tend to accu-
mulate in the bottom in insoluble forms where it is not available
to the phytoplankton in general, although some algae may be able
to use absorbed phosphorus directly. Bacteria can use particulate
phosphorus in a microzone surrounding the cell and thus the ele-
ment may be passed on through food chains. Increased solubility
of strongly basic phosphates may be the result of local acidity
from base-exchange. Beneath the surface of the soil where oxida-
tion-reduction potentials are lowered, colloidal complexes of ferric
iron are made soluble by reduction and phosphorus absorbed on
them is released.
Zicher et al , (1956) found that in laboratory experiments the
percentage as well as the amount of phosphorus released to the
water from radioactive superphosphate fertilizer placed at var-
ious depths below the mud surface in an undisturbed mud-water
system was indicated to be very small. There was virtually no
release of phosphorus from fertilizer placed at depths greater than
one-fourth inch below the mud surface. There was a higher per-
centage of soluble phosphorus contained in the water samples
taken near the mud surface than in water samples taken at greater
distances above the mud surface. The radiophosphorus placed one-
half inch below the mud surface showed only a very slight tend-
ency to diffuse into the water, while the radiophosphorus placed
at the 1-inch depth did not diffuse into the water at all.
Although the consideration of the release of major nutrients from
the bottom sediments into the superimposed water remains an im-
portant one, the specific contribution to the ecosystem of any
particular water body remains unknown.
MiNOR. CONSIDERATIONS
Donahue (1961) states that sawdust contains 4 pounds of nitro-
gen (N) and 0.8 pound of phosphorus (P) per ton of dry material
and wheat straw contains 10 and 1.2 pounds respectively. McGau-
hey et al. (1963) state that the amount of nitrogen from pollen
may be as high as 1.8 to 4.5 pounds nitrogen per acre per year in
a forested area. The pollen contains chloride and phosphate in
addition to nitrogen, but since a significant amount of pollen is
often found intact in the benthic sediments it cannot be assumed
that these materials are released to water.
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The nutrients returned annuaflv to the soil by forest tree leaves
have been cited as follows (Chandler 1941 and 1943):
Pounds per acre
returned annually
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Conifer
23.6
1.8
Hardwood
16.6
3.3
Utilization By Aquatic Crops
The literatures indicate that all marine algae capable of utiliz-
ing inorganic nitrogen can use ammonia, and most of the common
forms attain comparable rates of growth with ammonia, nitrate.
or nitrite. With all three nitrogen sources available simultaneously,
ammonia is often used preferentiall’.
The activity of phytoplankton in ancttiarv I ake. Pennsylvania
vas inind liv Diic.dale and Dugdale (1 )(Y to fall into three clear1 .
defined periods: (l a spring bloom \hen ammonia nitrogen. 111-
trate nitrogen, and elemental nitrogen are assimilated strongly
and in that order of importance; (2) a midsummer period when
weak assimilation ot ammonia nitrogen and elemental nitrogen,
1.
.I ’
Plate 13. An August algal bloom in Lake Sebasticook, Maine.
116

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but not nitrate nitrogen, occurred; and (3) a fall bloom with
intense nitrogen fixation and some ammonia nitrogen uptake but
characterized by low nitrate nitrogen activity. Nitrogen fixation
and ammonia nitrogen uptake appear to proceed concurrently,
although ammonia uptake dominates in spring and nitrogen fixa-
tion dominates in fall.
Flaigg and Reid (1954) found that in concentrations up to about
15 milligrams per liter there was no significant difference in the
utilization of nitrite nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, and ammonia ni-
trogen. ‘Webster (1959) states that certain bacteria and certain
algae can assimilate all the forms of nitrogen including molecular
N and organic N. Provasoli and Pinter (1960) state that Eugle-
noids prefer ammonia nitrogen or amino acids.
The senior author, following a 1965 limnological study of Lake
Sebatsticook in Maine, calculated that the lake contained 220,000
pounds of organic nitrogen and 109,000 pounds of inorganic ni-
trogen in mid-May. The lake, at this time, contained an estimated
270,000 pounds of algae on a dry weight basis which contained,
in turn, 6.1 percent nitrogen. Thus only 7.5 percent of the organic
nitrogen in the lake was accountable in the algal mass. Sixty-two
percent of the total nitrogen was not accounted in either the inor-
ganic nitrogen fraction or combined in the algal mass. Lake Sc-
basticook in late July contained 197,000 pounds of organic nitro-
gen and 88,000 pounds of inorganic nitrogen. Concurrently 1,000,-
000 pounds of algae on a dry weight basis were present. Thus 25
percent of the organic nitrogen was accountable in the algal mass
and 52 percent of the total nitrogen was unaccountable in either
the inorganic fraction or combined in algal cells.
Phosphorus is taken up by phytoplankton from the uppermost
waters and is concentrated by these plants by a factor of l0 to
l0. Phosphorus is returned to the water possible well distant
from the place and depth at which it was abstracted, on the death
and decomposition of the plants or by the organisms which have
eaten them.
Watt and Hayes (1963) found experimentally that organic
phosphorus compounds were released into solution from dead or
dying organisms. Rapidly growing populations of bacteria or
green plants did not release organic phosophorus compounds. Dis-
solved organic phosphorus compounds were absorbed by bacteria,
broken down, and inorganic phosphorus was released.
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In laboratory experiments Phillips (1964) found that bacteria
retained much of the phosphorus in the water, but higher plants
were more efficient than bottom sediments in removing phosphorus
from the water in the presence of bacteria. When bacteria were
inactivated, there was a much more rapid loss of P to the mud.
Also, water plants assimilate phosphorus more readily in the ab-
sence of bacteria. Bacteria convert inorganic phosphates to or-
ganic phosphorus which may be released to the water in an un-
available form; this appears to be a reversible process. Phosphorus
uptake in zooplankton was negligible in the absence of bacteria,
confirming that zooplankton organisms obtain their food by di-
gestion of particulate matter rather than by absorption of dis-
solved compounds.
Harvey (1960) states that although most of the phosphorus is
absorbed by phytop lankton as orthophosphate ions, there is reason
to believe that some may be absorbed as molecules of dissolved
organic phosphate. Moore (1958) found evidence that some or-
ganic phosphorus compounds can be utilized by algae, but most
of it is broken down to phosphate by bacterial action and then
utilized as such by algae.
Rice (1953) points out that algae absorb more phosphorus when
grown in a medium containing high phosphate concentrations.
Since the amount of phosphorus entering the cell is proportional
to the concentration in the medium, it necessarily follows that
any phosphorus entering the cell in excess of that which the cell
can convert into the organic state, will persist as the inorganic
salts.
Hutchinson (1957) writes that at the height of summer there
may be a great increase in total phosphorus in the surface water
at times of algal blooms although soluble phosphate is undetect-
able. This may occur as a result of rapid decomposition and subse-
quent liberation of phosphate in the littoral sediments during
very warm weather. The phosphate would be taken up by the grow-
ing algae so fast that it never would be detected.
In Lake Sebasticook in mid-May, 1965, floating blue-green algae
contained 0.64 percent phosphorus (P) on a dry weight basis.
Thus, 1,700 or 15 percent of the 11,400 pounds of the total phos-
phorus in the lake was combined in the algal mass. This 1700
pounds plus the 900 pounds of soluble phosphorus in the lake left
75 percent of the total phosphorus unaccountable for but presumed
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to be bound in bacteria, zooplankton, seston, and fecal pellets. On
July 25 it was determined that 0.5 percent of the algae on a dry
weight basis was total phosphorus (P). At this time, nearly 1,000,-
000 pounds of algae (dry weight) were present in the lake. The
phosphorus bound within the algal mass was 33 percent of the
total phosphorus contained in the lake. This bound phosphorus
plus the soluble phosphorus present at this time left 54 percent
unaccountable for as either soluble phosphorus or as phosphorus
bound within the algal mass.
Occurrence in the Ecosystem
1N1’RODUCTION
As fixed nitrogen enters the water, it is incorporated in the bio-
mass as an element of protein. Upon death or excretion, nitrogen
is liberated for reuse. During this process some is lost: (a) in the
lake effluents (as much as 40 percent), (b) by diffusion of vola-
tile nitrogen compounds from surface water, (c) by denitrification
in the lake, and (d) in the formation of permanent sediments.
Likewise, phosphorus taken up in the web of life is liberated for
reuse upon death of the organism (Cooper, 1941). Some may set-
tie into the hypolimnion with the sedimentation of seston (all
living and nonliving floating or swimming plants or animals) or
in fecal pellets, and some may be released at the mud-water inter-
face (Hooper and Elliott, 1953).
Runner (1953) states that phosphorus occurs in the biosphere
almost exclusively in a fully oxidized state. It comes from the
weathering of phosphatic rock and from the soil. In contrast,
however, phosphate is avidiy held by the soil and is not so easily
leached by rainwater as are the nitrates. When ferrous iron and
phosphate occur together in the hypolimnion of a lake, an insol-
uble ferric phosphate is precipitated at times when oxygen is in-
troduced and the reaction is made alkaline. Thus, the whole phos-
phorus content of a lake may be carried to the bottom at the
time of the fall overturn. When there is a lack of oxygen in the
sediments, the iron can be reduced from the ferric to the ferrous
form and the phosphorus freed to go into solution.
During extreme stratification in a lake during the summer, the
phosphorus cycle may involve the following processes (Hutchin-
son, 1957):
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1. Liberation of the phosphorus in the epilimnion from the
decay of littoral vegetation.
2. Uptake of phosphorus from water by littoral vegetation.
3. Uptake of liberated phosophorus by phytoplankton.
4. Loss of phosphorus as a soluble compound from the phyto-
plankton, probably followed by a slow regeneration of ionic
phosphate.
5. Sedimentation of phytoplankton and other phosphorus-con-
taining seston, perhaps largely fecal pellets, in the hypolim-
nion.
6. Liberation of phosphorus from the sedimenting seston in the
hypolimnion, or the liberation of phosphorus when it arrives
at the mud-water interface.
7. Diffusion of phosphorus from the sediments in the water at
those depths at which the superficial layer of the mud lacks
an oxidized microzone.
STREAMS
Concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus in streams depend
upon the kinds and amounts of man-associated pollution and the
geology of the area. Results from 9 samples collected at 8 lake
and reservoir sources in Illinois, believed to be relatively free of
domestic pollution, showed a mean orthophosphate concentration
of 16 jig/i P and a mean value of orthophosphate plus the maxi-
mum inorganic condensed (hydrolyzable) P of 35 ug/ 1 (Engel-
brecht and Morgan , 1959). The analytical results from 27 samples
from streams in the major Illinois River basin, suspected to contain
significant amounts of treated and untreated wastes, gave an
average orthophosphate concentration of 179 j ig/i P and an
average orthophosphate plus maximum inorganic condensed P of
286 jig/I.
Total phosphorus levels in streams entering Western Lake Su-
perior were higher than those observed in the lake (Putnam and
Olson, 1959). In August the concentration of phosphorus (P) in
the streams along the north shore varied from 31 jig/l in the
Poplar River to 47 in the Baptism River. In the south shore
streams, the Brule River contained 53 j ig/i P which was the
maximum for August. The following year the nitrate nitrogen
in all streams except one was lower than that observed in the
lake (Putnam and Olson, 1960). In August, the range was 0.01
to 0.44 mg/i. The overall mean total phosphorus (P) concentra-
120

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don for north shore streams was 22 g/ 1 while that for the
south shore tributaries was 42 p.g/ 1. Inorganic phosphorus consti-
tuted 38.5 percent of the total phosphorus (48 jig/ Il) in the St.
Louis River, and 67.0 percent of the total phosphorus (93 jig/i)
in the Black River.
Total phosphorus (P) concentrations in unpolluted area streams
in the Lake Sebasticook, Maine, study were 20 jig/i. In reaches
polluted with domestic and industrial wastes, total phosphorus
(P) concentrations were 340 Mg/I.
LAKES
Lake Washington near Seattle, Washington began exhibiting phe-
nomena characteristic of eutrophication about 1955. The maximum
hypolimnetic concentration of phosphate (P0 4 —P) reached in the
deepest waters was 23 jig/i in 1950, 89 Mg/i in 1957, and 74
p g/I in 1958 (Anderson, 1961).
Juday and Eirge (1931) reported a mean of 23 jig/l total phos-
phorus for 479 lakes of northeastern Wisconsin, and Hutchinson
(1941) reported a mean of 21 Mg/i total phosphorus for 23
analyses of the surface water of Linsley Pond, North Branford,
Connecticut. About 183 pounds per day of phosphorus (P) enter
Lake Zoar in Connecticut giving rise to a concentration of 12
to 41 jig/i in the water mass with an average of 25 Mg/i (Benoit
and Curry, 1961).
In western Lake Erie organic nitrogen varied from a high of
26 jig/i on August 26 to a low of 2 jig/i on September 18; these
extremes coincided with a high and low level of phytoplankton,
respectively. Soluble phosphate phosphorus values varied from 1 to
8 pg/i with the high point occurring at three times: ( I) at the time
of greatest organic phosphorus concentration, (2) during a period
of increased turbidity which apparently resulted from increased
river discharge, and (3) two weeks following the cessation of the
autumn phytoplankton pulse. Lowest values occurred when the
phytoplankton population was decreasing. Twenty-nine percent
of the total phosphorus content was in the soluble phosphate
phosphorus state (Chandler and Weeks, 1945).
Lake Mendota, Wisconsin was found to contain more than 9
times as much soluble nitrogen as it did total plankton nitrogen
(Domogalia et al., 1925). Ammonia nitrogen varied from 11.6 to
39.2 pg/I N during a i-year period. Most of the soluble nitrogen
121

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was formed at the bottom of the lake, spreading upward toward the
surface. At the spring and fall overturns, the soiuble nitrogen con-
tent of the lake was uniform. As soon as stratification occurs, the
concentration of soluble nitrogen in the hypolimnion exceeds that
in the epilimnion. Hutchinson (1957) states that most relatively
uncontaminated lake districts have surface waters containing 10
to 30 ! g 1 P, but in some waters that are not obviously grossly
polluted, higher values appear to be normal. The soluble phosphate
usually is of the order of 10 percent of the total.
On the basis of surveys in Minnesota it was estimated that
the summer surface waters of Mississippi River headwater lakes
in Minnesota have a mean total phosphorus (P) content of about
4 g/1 (Moyle. 1956). In central Minnesota the mean total
phosphorus content of studied lakes was 58 ,.g/1 and in southern
Minnesota, the total phosphorus content was 126 pgf 1.
A 16-month investigation at Douglas Lake, Michigan. with water
samples collected and phosphorus determinations made every two
weeks, showed that at the surface total phosphorus (P) fluctuated
between 7 and 14 g/1, and at the 12-meter depth (lower limit
of the epilimnion), between 7 and 15 g/1 (Tucker, 1957). At
the 20-meter depth, between July 3 and September 16, the total
Nate 14. Algal scums often resutt from warm temperature, abundant
sunshine, arid nutrients.
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phosphorus increased from 10 to 641 &g/1. Seasonal variation
in inorganic phosphorus (soluble) followed closely the variation
in total phosphorus, although it was smaller in amount. Analysis
of a vertical series of samples showed that the most constant frac-
tion of phosphorus was the soluble organic phosphorus, never ex-
ceeding 9 tg/1 regardless of the depth at which the sample was
taken.
A year’s investigation of Geist Reservoir at indianapolis, mdi-
ana showed mean inorganic nitrogen (N) concentrations in the
reservoir of 1.2 p.g/l, total phosphorus (P) values of 110 tg/l
and soluble phosphorus of 60 .tg/l. At the Ross R. Barneu Reser-
voir near Jackson, Mississippi the mean inflowing total phosphorus
(P) concentration was 100 g/l and the outflow from the reser-
voir, 50 tg/l. Seasonal studies on Lake Sebasticook, Maine, in which
the total phosphorus (P) concentration is a statistic weighted
to the total water volume, showed concentrations of 40 g/l in
winter, 49 ug/1 in spring, 64 tg/1 in summer and 40 g/l in fall.
Total to soluble phosphorus ratios in lakes often range from 2
to 17. Total to soluble phosphorus ratios vary from water to water
and seasonally within the same water body:
Table 3. TOTAL TO SOLUBLE PHOSPHORUS
Water Total P: Sol. P
RATIOS IN WATER
Reference
Western Lake Erie 3.5 Chandler and Weeks,
1945
Detroit River mouth 5 to 7 PHS Detroit Project
Linsley Pond, Connecticut 10.0 Hutchinson, 1957
Northern Wisconsin Lakes 7.0 Juday and Birge, 1931
Northeast Wisconsin Lakes 2 to 10 Juday et aL, 1927
Ontario Lakes (8) 17 Rigler, 1964
Southeast Wisconsin Lakes 9 Mackenthun,
(17) unpublished
Rock River, Wisconsin 2 to 15 Mackenthun,
unpublished
Sebasticook Lake, Maine 4 2.8 winter Mackenthun,
unpublished
12.7 spring “
7.0 summer “ ,s f
4.lfaIl “
The nutrient loading to the lake on a unit basis gives some
measure of comparability among various water bodies. Likewise,
123

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a lake or reservoir usually retains a portion of those nutrients
that it receives from its various sources. The amount or percentage
of the nutrients that may be retained by a lake or reservoir is
variable and will depend upon:
1. the nutrient loading to the lake or reservoir,
2. the volume of the euphotic zone,
3. the extent of biological activity,
4. the detention time within the basin or time allotted for bio-
logical activity, and
5. the level of the penstock or discharge from the basin.
Some nitrogen and phosphorus loadings and retentions have been
reported as follows:
NUTRIENT POPULATION EQUIVALENTS
Nutrient population equivalents are one way to summarize data
using a common denominator. In presenting the population equiv-
alents suggested in Table 5 it is recognized that variability occurs
in both the base (domestic contribution in sewage) and the Se-
I ected contributions.
PLANTS
Birge and Juday (1922) report the percentages of total nitrogen
(N) and phosphorus (P) on a dry weight basis for a number of
plants as follows:
Organism
Percentage of the dry
weight
N P
Microcystis
9.27 0.52
Anabaena
8.27 -53
Volvox
7.61 1.10
Cladophora
2.77 .14
Myriophyllum
3.23 .52
Schuette (1918) made analyses of composite plankton samples
obtained by pumping water from different levels of Lake Mendota,
Wisconsin, and straining it through a plankton net. In 7 samples,
total nitrogen ranged from 4.51 to 9.94 percent dry weight and
averaged 7.55 percent, while the available protein nitrogen ranged
124

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Table
4. LAKE NUTRIENT LOADINGS AND RETENTIONS
Lake
State
Nitrogen (N)
Phosphorus (P)
Loading
lb./yr./acre
Retention
(Percent)
Loading Retention
lb. /yr./acre (Percent) Reference
Washington Wash. 280 12 Anderson,
1961
Mendota Wis. 20 I — 0.6 S — Anon., 1949
Monona Wis. 81 I 48to70 7.5S 64to88 Lackeyand
Sawyer, 1945
Waubesa Wis. 435 I 50 to 64 62.8 S —26to25
Kegonsa Wis. 162 I 44 to 61 35.9 S —21 to 12
Tahoe Calif. 2 89 0.4 93 Ludwig
et al.,
1964
Koshkonong Wis. 90 80 40 30 to 70 Mackenthun,
unpubl.
Green Wash. 4.8 55 Syvester
& Anderson,
1964
Geist Ind. 440 1 44 28 25 F.W.P.C.A. Data
Sebasticook Maine 2 48
Ross R. Miss. 32
Ba rnett
— I — inorganic nitrogen only.
S — soluble phosphorus only.

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Table 5. Nutrient Population Equivalents
‘Eck, P., M. L. Jackson, 0. E. Hayes and C. E. Bay, 1957.
Runoff Analysis as a Measure of Erosion Losses and Poten-
tial Discharge of Minerals and Organic Matter into Lakes and
Streams. Summary Report, Lakes Investigations, University
of Wisconsin, Madison, 13 pp. (mimeo.).
*Normal range of domestic sewage for 15 California
communities was given as 20 to 40 mg/i N and P0 ’.
‘The concentration in treated water was subtracted from
the concentration in sewage to obtain domestic contribution.
C.’
.
Nutrient source
.
Basic reference
Contribution
Population equiavlent
(PE per year)
N
P
N
P
Treated domestic
contribution in
sewage.
Bush and Mulford,
1954.
Metzler et at.,
1958.
6.12* (9 Ib/yr)
6**lb/yr - . . .
2-4 (3 Ib/yr)
1
2.25 lb/yr.
1.
Domestic duck . ..
Sanderson, 1953.
.
2.1 lb/yr . .. -
0.9 lb/yr . . . -
0.23 to 0.35 . .
0.3.
Wild duck
Paloumpis and
Starrett, 1960.
1.0 lb/yr . . . -
0.45 lb/yr . . .
0.11 to 0.17 . .
0.15.
Runoff —20 percent
Eck et al., 1957’ .
.
38 lb/A/yr . . .
1.8 lb/A/yr . .
4.2 to 6.3/A . .
0.6/A.
slope corn.
Runoff—8 percent
Eck et al., 1957’ -
.
18 lb/A/yr . ..
0.5 lb/A/yr . .
2.1 to 3.0/A . .
0.166/A.
slope corn.
Surface irrigation
Sylvester, 1960 .
.
2.5-24.0
0.9-3.9 lb/A/yr
0.27 to 4.0/A -
0.3 to 1.3/A
diversified
lb/A/yr.
farming.
Rainwater
Killed algae
(summer
maximum).
Hutchinson, 1957
Birge and Juday,
1922.
.
5.5 lb/A
15 lb/A
1.5 lb/A . .. .
0.6 to 0.9/A .
1.7 to 2.5/A . .
0.5/A.
Killed submerged
Rickett, 1922 . ..
.
32 lb/A
3.2 lb/A . ...
3.6 to 5.3/A ..
1.1/A.
plants.
Killed fish
Beard, 1926
50 lb/ton . . . .
4 lb/ton
5.6 to 8.3/ton.
1.3/ton.

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from 2.82 to 8.67 percent and averaged 4.55 percent. Forty to 87
percent of the total nitrogen was in the available form. Total
phosphorus ranged from 0.92 to 1.57 percent and averaged 1.26
percent.
Gerloff and Skoog (1954) found the total phosphorus (P) and
mean total nitrogen (N) of 7 samples of Microcystis aeruginosa ,
collected from heavy algal blooms in three lakes in the vicinity
of Madison, Wisonsin, to be 6.83 and 0.69 percent dry weight,
respectively.
In Upper Klamath Lake, Phinney and Peek (1961) found that
partial analysis of freshly dried algae contained 61.1 percent crude
protein, 5.73 percent ash, and 0.60 percent phosphorus. Floating
blue-green algae collected on May 16, 1965 from Lake Sebasticook,
Maine, contained 39 percent carbon, 6.1 percent organic nitrogen
and 0.64 percent total phosphorus on a dry weight basis. A float-
ing mass of blue-green algae collected on July 25, 1965, contained
0.50 percent phosphorus on a dry weight basis.
Submerged aquatic weeds were found by Harper and Daniel
(1939) to be 12 percent dry matter and to contain an average of
1.8 percent total nitrogen (dry weight) and 0.18 percent total
phosphorus. Plants that were hand-picked, air-dried, and desic-
cated at 60°C were found to contain the following percentages
of nitrogen and phosphorus by Schuette and Alder (1928 and
1929).
Sand-free b
asis (Units expressed as
percent)
.
Vallisneria
Potamogeton
Castalia
Najas
Ash
25.19
11.42
11.21
19.16
Total
nitrogen
(N)
1.88
1.28
2.78
1.86
Total
phosphorus (P). .
. .23
.13
.27
.30
In an examination of the chemical composition of Eurasian
water milfoil, Anderson et al. (1965), determined that the per-
centage of the dry weight for nitrogen (N) was 3.0 in freshwater
and 2.2 in brackish water; the percentage for phosphorus (P)
was 0.5 in freshwater and 0.35 in brackish water.
ANIMALS
Birge and Juday (1922) determined the percentages of total
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nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) on a dry weight basis for a
number of aquatic animals as follows:
Organism
Percentage of the dry
weight
N
P
Cyclops
Limnocalanus
9.57
7.18
1.02
.78
Daphnia pulex
Daphnia pulex
Daphnia pulex
Leptodora
Cambarus
6.55
8.61
7.55
9.28
6.60
1.60
1.54
1.48
1.56
1.16
Hyalella
Hirudinea
7.37
11.13
1.20
.76
Zygoptera
Siatis
10.62
8.07
.66
.64
Chironomus tentans
7.36
.93
To determine the amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus removed
from lakes by aquatic insects which leave the water in the adult
stage, Vallentyne (1952) made a study of the concentration of
total nitrogen and phosphorus in adult insects trapped as they
emerged from the water in Lake Opinicon, Ontario. On an average,
136 insects emerged per day per square meter of surface; they
had a fresh weight of 69.2 mg and contained 2.26 mg of total
nitrogen and 0.15 mg of total phosphorus. It was calculated that
in Winona Lake, indiana, where the amount of organic sediment
has been determined, the loss of organic matter by emergence
of insects was less than 1 percent of the amount of organic sedi-
ment deposited annually.
Animal excretions are a major source of plant nutrients in the
sea and contribute to the nutrients in freshwater. According to
Johannes (1964), the rate of excretion of dissolved phosphorus
per unit weight increases as body weight decreases. As a result
microzooplankion may play a major role in planktonic nutrient
regeneration. Although data are not available on quantitative nu-
trient excretions from these organisms in the freshwater ecosys-
tem, the importance of this as a continuing nutrient source should
be considered.
The phosphorus (P) content of fish flesh on a wet weight basis
has been given by various authors as follows:
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Percent Phosphorus (P)
Reference
0.20
Beard, 1926
0.18 to
0.49
Borgstrom, 1961
0.19
Love etal., 1959
0.20
McGauheyeta l., 1963
0.292
Sylvester and Anderson,
1964
0.lSto
0.24
Ingal ls eta!., 1950
Based on selected data on standing crops of various organisms
and values of nitrogen and phosphorus within the crop selected
from the literature, the following tabulation (Table 6) may be
made, and an estimate may be made of that amount that is har-
vestable.
NUTRIENTS IN BOTTOM DEPOSiTS
McGauhey et al. (1963) report the results of 14 samples of the
sediments of Lake Tahoe indicating total carbon of 0.6 to 19.8 per-
cent, organic nitrogen of 0.6 to 1.6 percent, and carbon-nitrogen
ratios from 3.7 to 28.4. Black (1929) and Juday et al. (1941)
report on samples collected from 39 lakes in Wisconsin and Alaska.
The organic carbon ranged from 4.4 to 40.5 percent, organic ni-
trogen from 0.55 to 3.58 percent, and carbon-nitrogen ratios from
7.5 to 14.4. The total phosphorus (P) ranged from 0.12 to 0.61
percent of the dry weight. The authors could not explain their
high organic carbon concentrations in the bottom sediments be-
cause many of the lakes sampled would not be considered fertile
lakes. Sawyer et al. (1945) found the nitrogen and phosphorus
content of the Madison Wisconsin eutrophic lakes to be 0.7 to 0.9
percent nitrogen dry weight, and 0.1 to 0.12 percent phosphorus.
The N—P ratio was 6 to 9. Sylvester and Anderson (1964) found
the uppermost layer of bottom mud of Green Lake in Seattle to
be 0.6 percent nitrogen dry weight and 0.167 percent phosphorus.
The N—P ratio was 4.2.
The dry weight carbon in Lake Sebasticook, Maine, benthic
sediments ranged from 10.1 to 34 percent and the dry weight or-
ganic nitrogen ranged from 0.3 to 1.8 percent. Carbon-nitrogen
ratios ranged from 8 to 44. The dry weight phosphorus (P) in
Lake Sebasticook bottom sediments ranged from 0.06 to 0.16 per-
cent. The nitrogen-phosphorus ratio was 5.0 to 15.8. A 19-inch
129

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Table 6. THE STANDING CROP PER LAKE WATER ACRE
PHYTOPLANKTON
ATTACHED
ALGAE
SUBMERGED
VASCULAR
PLANTS
FISH
MIDGES
Wet Weight
(Ibs)
1,000 to
3,600’
2,0002
14,000’
150 to
6OO
200 to
400’
Dry Weight
(Ibs)
100 to
360
200
1,800
—
40 to
80
Percentage N
(dry wgt)
6.8’
2.8’
1.81
2.5’
74 1
Percentage P
(dry wgt)
0.69
0.14
0.18
0.2
0.9
N in crop (Ibs)
7 to
25
6
32
3.8 to
15
3 to
6
Pincrop(lbs)
0.7 to
2.5
0.3
3.2
0.3to
1.2
0.4to
0.7
Harvestable N
(Ibs)
—
—
16
1.0 to
3.8
0.2 to
0.4
Harvestable P
(Ibs)
—
—
1.6
0.1 to
0.3
0.02 to
0.04
‘Birge and Juday, 1922 ‘Dineen, 1953 and Harper and Daniel,
2 Neil, 1958 Moyle, 1940 1939
‘Rickett, 1922, 1924 • Gerloff and Skoog, ‘Beard, 1926 (wet wgt)
Swingle, 1950 1954 ‘Borutsky, 1939

-------
sediment core was collected from a depth of 53 feet in Lake Se-
basticook. Segments of the core were oven dried and analyzed
for the percentage of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus. The 0—I
inch segment of the core contained 11 percent carbon dry weight,
0.6 percent nitrogen, and 0.15 percent phosphorus. At greater
depths in the core, the percentage of carbon gradually decreased
until at 7 inches it was 1.0 percent or approximately 10% of the
surface value. There was little change in the organic carbon per-
centages from 7 inches to the 19-inch stratum. The greatest car-
bon change in the sediment core occurred between the 0- to 2-inch
stratum and between the 6- to 8-inch stratum. Likewise, the per-
centage of nitrogen decreased from 0.6 percent in the 0—1 inch
segment to about 0.1 percent in the deeper strata. The demarca-
tion zone of greatest change in nitrogen coincided roughly with
the carbon and occurred between the 8- and 9-inch strata (from
0.3 percent to 0.1 or 0.2 percent). The dry weight phosphorus
(P) in the 0—i inch stratum was 0.15 percent. The 1—2 stratum
contained 0.09 percent phosphorus. Beneath the 1—2 inch stratum
the phosphorus content ranged from 0.06 to 0.09 percent on a
dry weight basis.
Critical Factors for Aquatic Plant Production
Important factors affecting aquatic growths include tempera-
ture; sunlight; size, shape, type of substratum, and slope of lake
basin; and waler quality. The total supply of an available nutrient
depends on the total volume of water, as well as the concentration
of the element in the water. Gerloff and Skoog (1957) in labora-
tory investigations determined that 5 units of nitrogen plus 0.08
unit of phosphorus (a ratio of 60:1) would produce 100 units of
algae. The N—P ratio, as it naturally occurs in algae and sub-
merged plants, is more nearly 10:1. Allen (1955) found that the
maximum algal crop that can be grown on the nutrients present
in domestic sewage was 1 to 2 g/l (dry weight); to obtain any
appreciable increase it was necessary to supplement the sewage
with nitrogen as well as carbon.
Sawyer (1947) studied the southeastern Wisconsin lakes and
concluded that a 0.30 mg/l concentration of inorganic nitrogen
(N) and a 0.01 mg/i concentration of soluble phosphorus (P)
at the start of the active growing season could produce nuisance
algal blooms. Nitrogen appears to be the more critical factor limit-
ing algal production in natural waters (Gerloff and Skoog, 1957),
131

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since phosphorus is stored in plankton as excess and may exceed
the actual need.
A continued high rate of nutrient supply is not necessary for
continued algal production. After an initial stimulus, the recycling
of nutrients within the lake basin may be sufficient to promote
algal blooms for a number of years without substantial inflow
from contributing sources.
Algae and other plant growths in lakes, ponds, and reservoirs
eventually die and many of them settle to the bottom where they
are subjected to aerobic or anaerobic decomposition. Some of the
nutrient elements that are soluble become immediately available
and are passed into solution in the epillimnion. The remainder
become part of the stabilized bottom deposits. The amount of nu-
trients back-feeding from bottom deposits is directly related to
the rate of deposition. Back-feeding from bottom deposits con-
tinues for some time even though further additions to the decom-
posing mass are prevented, since a considerable lag is imposed
by the slow rate of the involved reaction, which is comparable to
sludge digestion at low temperatures (Sawyer, 1954).
Sawyer (1954) dicusses various factors that influence the de-
velopment of nuisance algal growths in lakes. The surface area
is important since the accummulations of algae along the shore-
line of a large lake under a given set of wind conditions could
easily be much larger than on a small lake, under equal fertiliza-
tion per acre. The shape of the lake determines to some degree
the amount of fertilizing matter the lake can assimilate without
algal nuisances since prevailing winds blowing along a long axis
will concentrate the algal production from a large water mass
into a relatively small area. The most offensive conditions develop
during periods of very mild breezes that tend to skim the floating
algae and push them toward shore. Shallow lakes, too, respond
differently than deep stratified lakes in which the deeper waters
are sealed off by a thermocline. In the nonstratified waters all the
nutrients dissolved in the water are potentially available to support
an algal bloom. In stratified waters, only the nutrients confined
to the epilimnion are available except during those brief periods
when complete circulation occurs.
Lund (1965) in his thorough literature review states that “Ni-
trogen and phosphorus can still be considered as two of the major
elements limiting primary production. In some tropical and highly
132

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eutrophic temperate lakes, nitrogen may be a more important
limiting factor than phosphorus. In many other lakes phosphorus
is present in very low concentrations and seems to be the major
factor limiting production. Evidence from the addition of fertiliz-
ers to fish ponds and from what is known about the eutrophication
of lakes by sewage supports the view that phosphorus plays a
major role in production.”
Chu (1943) found that optimum growth of all organisms stud-
ied in cultures can be obtained in nitrate-nitrogen concentrations
from 0.9 to 3.5 mg/I and phosphorus concentrations from 0.09
to 1.8 mg/i, while a limiting effect on all organisms will occur
in nitrogen concentrations from 0.1 mg/i downward and in
phosphorus concentrations from 0.009 mg/i downward. The
lower limit of optimum range of phosphorus concentration varies
from about 0.018 to about 0.09 mg/i; and the upper limit from
8.9 to 17.8 mg/i when nitrate is the source of nitrogen, while it
lies at about 17.8 for all the planktons studied when ammonium
is the source of nitrogen. Low phosphorus concentrations may,
therefore, like low nitrogen concentrations, exert a selective limit-
ing influence on a phytoplankton population. The nitrogen con-
centration determines to a large extent the amount of chlorophyll
formed. Nitrogen concentrations beyond the optimum range in-
hibit the formation of chlorophyll in green algae.
Experiments by Ketchum (1939) with the diatom, Phaeodac-
tylum, show a reduction in rate of cell division when phosphate
present in the medium is less than 17 g/1 P. Strickland (1965)
states that the limiting phosphorus concentration in some cul-
tures has been found to be less than 5 )Lg/1. The problem is com-
plicated because auxiliar compounds may affect the availability
of phosphate to a plant cell. Sylvester (1961) found that nuisance
algal blooms were observed to commence in Seattle’s Green Lake
(a very soft-water lake) when nitrate nitrogen (N) levels were
generally above 200 .tg/ 1 and soluble phosphorus (P) was
greater than 10 tg/l.
Muller (1953) concludes that excessive growths of plants and
algae in polluted waters can be avoided if the concentration of
nitrate nitrogen is kept below about 0.3 mg/i and the concentra-
tion of total nitrogen is not allowed to rise much above 0.6 mg/i.
The question is sometimes asked, how much algae can be grown
from. a given amount of phosphorus? Allen (1955) found that
133

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the maximum that could be grown in the laboratory on sewage
was 1 to 2 g Il (dry weight) and in the field in sewage oxidation
ponds the maximum was 0.5 g/l. Thus, assuming optimum growth
conditions and maximum phosphate utilization, the maximum
algal crop that could be grown from 1 pound of phosphorus would
be 1,000 pounds of wet algae under laboratory conditions or 250
pounds of wet algae under field conditions. Considering a phos-
phorus (P) content of 0.7 percent, 1 pound of phosphorus could
be distributed among 1,450 pounds of algae on a wet weight basis.
Micronutrients, Growth Stimulators and Depressants
It is generally conceded that abundant major nutrients in the
form of available nitrogen and phosphorus are an important and
a necessary component of an environment in which excessive
aquatic growths arise. Algae, however, are influenced by many and
varied factors. Vitamins, trace metals, hormones and auxins, ex-
tracellular metabolites, autointoxicants, viruses, and predation
and grazing by aquatic animals are factors that stimulate or re-
duce algal growths. Some of these may be of equal importance
to the major nutrients in influencing nuisance algal bloom pro-
duction.
Several vitamins in small quantities are known to be required
as growth factors by certain species of algae. In the fresh water
environment this requirement is variously considered to be met
by the vitamin supply contained in soil runoff, in lake and stream
bed sediments, as solutes in the water, and as produced by actino-
mycetes, certain fungi, many bacteria, several algae, and domestic
sewage.
Harder, in 1917, is credited with first connecting growth in-
hibiting substances with algae. As early as 1931, autoinhibiting
substances were recognized (Akehurst, 1931). These papers
gave rise to a common belief that a plant can create its self-
destruction through the production of growth inhibiting sub-
stances that it cannot tolerate but which may, in turn, stimu-
late other growths. Natural waters contain these acive agents
that are secreted and excreted by fresh-water algae. The toxicity
of these agents to other algae and bacteria and to fish varies
constantly and is not well understood in the natural aquatic
environment. It has been postulated that algae secrete not just
one substance but several, some antibiotic, others stimulating.
The amount secreted and the net result of the secretions would
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be determined by the prevalence of one group of substances
over the other. Thus, sequences of algal blooms may be expected
to occur under conditions of a nutrient supply far in excess of
critical values.
In man’s quest to reduce major nutrients enriching waters,
such as nitrogen and phosphorus, and thereby restore such wa-
ten to a greater water use potential without attendant algal
pests, other algal population-influencing factors will have a role
in the ultimate success of the restoration efforts. This role is
presently neither dearly defined nor understood. It does seem
clear that the constant progression of the geologic clock cannot
be substantially altered. Despite man’s most ardent dreams, lakes
now fertile and abundantly productive of algae will never again
attain their crystal-clear, pristine appearance so well imprinted
in the minds of long-time local residents. The old swimmin’-hole
lingers on in local folklore. Recently defiled waters can be im-
proved substantially, however, by reducing or removing the
varying causes of algal productivity. By placing all known algal
population influencing factors in their proper perspective and
by intensifying investigative efforts directed towards the inter-
relationships of factors most likely to effect population controls,
knowledge and nuisance reducing efforts will be enhanced. Lakes,
reservoirs, ponds, flowing streams, estuaries, and bays will be
improved, and the using public will be benefited.
Eyster (1964) divides the elements required by green plants
into macronutrients and micronutrients. Macronutrients include
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus , sulfur, potas-
sium, magnesium, calcium (except for algae where it is a mi-
cronutrient) , and sodium. Micronutrients include iron, manga-
nese, copper, zinc, molybdenum, vanadium, boron, chlorine, co-
balt, and silicon.
Manganese is one of the key elements in photosynthesis and
manganese-deficient cells have a reduced level of photosynthe-
sis and a reduction in chlorophyll. Iron is associated with nitro-
gen metabolism. Arnon (1958) confirmed that chloride is a
coenzyme of photosynthesis specifically concerned with oxygen
evolution. Vanadium and zinc appear to be involved in photo-
synthesis. Calcium and boron are involved in nitrogen fixation.
Molybdenum is necessary for nitrate utilization and nitrogen
fixation. Cobalt is associated with the nutritional functions of
vitamin B .
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Fitzgerald (1964) discusses the sequences of algal blooms that
occur under conditions of nutrient supply in sewage stabiliza-
tion ponds far in excess of those found in natural lakes. He
also reviews some of the factors other than nutrition that might
influence the alga! population. These factors include grazing and
the production of inhibiting extracellular products. It is pointed
out that there is evidence that an inverse relationship fre-
quently exists between the density of phytoplankton and zoo-.
plankton. This might be the result of over-grazing in specific
areas and a lack of grazing in adjoining areas, or it may be
due to an “exclusion” effect on zooplankton produced by ex-
tracellular plant metabolites. Gibor (1957) has shown evidence
that algae can at times pass through the zooplankton without
being affected by digestive processes.
In situations where the algae are so abundant that their con-
trol may be required by chemical means, it appears that animal
predation or attacks by microorganisms are not enough to cause
a shift in the dominant species. Once the dominant species is
eliminated, however, other species increase in numbers and be-
come dominant , Factors thought to contribute to species dom-
inance include secreted - or excreted inhibiting extracellular
products (Rice, 1954).
Léfevre (1964) states that when an algal species develops ex-
tensively in standing waters causing waterblooms, it eventually
become intoxicated by its own accumulated excretion products
and dies. When the water is renewed slowly, this phenomenon
does not occur because the extracellular products are constantly
removed. Also, when one species of algae predominates in stand-
ing water, other species appear only sporadically and the num-
ber of bacterial species decreases. Léfevre et al. (1952) suggest
that this phenomenon is due to antagonistic substances pro-
duced by the predominant species. Léfevre (1964) states that
the production of extracellular active agents is conditioned
by: (1) nature of strain; (2) composition of culture medium;
(3) nature and size of inoculum; (4) temperature; (5) illum-
ination; (6) agitation of medium; (7) duration of culture; and
(8) season of the year.
Of 154 algal species, 56 require no vitamins and 98 species
require vitamin B , thiamin and biotin, alone or in various com-
binations (Provasoli, 1961). Those blue-green algae not requir-
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ing B employ it readily as a cobalt source; since cobalt is gen-
erally scarce in water, even organisms not requiring B 12 may
compete for it. A great part of the vitamins in freshwaters
and in the littoral zone of the sea can be assumed to come from
any soil run-off especially during the spring floods. Muds are
another source of vitamins. A third source is the vitamins pres-
ent as solutes in water.
Vitamins are synthesized by several organisms. Chiorella has
been found to produce as much as 6.3 g B per 100 g of dry
algae and Anabaena as much as 63 to 110 per 100 g of dry
algae (Brown et al., 1955). Burkholder (1959) studied the pro-
duction of B vitamins by 344 bacteria isolated from waters
and muds from Long Island Sound and found that 27 percent
of these gave off vitamin B 12 , 50 percent gave off biotin, 60
percent thiamine, and 11 percent nicotinic acid. Sixty-five per-
cent of the actinomycetes studied were found by Burton and
Lockhead (1951) to produce vitamin B 12 . Robbins et al. (1950)
reported that fungi and many bacteria, isolated from the water
and mud of a pond in which Euglena blooms, produced B 12 ;
they demonstrated also that these bacteria, grown with Euglena
on agar plates of a medium deprived of B 12 , diffused sufficient
vitamin to support growths of Euglena. And Robbins and Kay-
anagh (1942) state that the ability of a fungus to synthesize
vitamins essential for their metabolic processes! may be com-
plete, incomplete, or absent.
Photosynthetic Oxygen Production
Purdy (1916) showed that great masses of submerged plants
covering the Potomac River flats functioned as oxygenators of the
water. He demonstrated a different oxygen saturation level be-
tween night and day, and between forenoon and afternoon. Ru-
dolts and Huekelekian (1931) noted the effects of sunlight and
green organisms on the reaeration of streams and found that
the dissolved oxygen in water containing large quantities of
algae decreased from supersaturation to 17 percent saturation
by placing the water in darkness, and increased to 282 per-
cent saturation by subjecting it to diffused light.
In recent years, the measurement of primary production has
stimulated interest among investigators (Ryther, 1956). Sever-
al methods of determination are applicable where the inflows
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of energy and material balance the outflows. These include (a)
the oxygen method (light-dark bottle, diurnal oxygen curve,
and oxygen deficit in the hypolimnion); (b) the carbon dioxide
method; (c) determinations with radioactive materials; and (d)
the chlorophyll method (Odum, 1959).
Green algae, utilizing energy from the sun, produce carbohy-
drates from carbon dioxide and water, and then assimilate these
carbohydrates together with the liberated ammonia and other
essentials to produce additional algal cells. Oswald and Gotaas
(1956) found that the growth of 1 pound of algae is usually
accompanied by the production of a minimum of 1.6 pounds
of molecular oxygen. In stabilization ponds, it has been found
that a photosynthetic efficiency of 1 percent is equivalent to the
production of about 25 pounds per acre per day of organic matter
with the liberation of about 40 pounds of oxygen. Photosynthetic
efficiencies in pilot plant sewage stabilization ponds have ranged
from 2 to 9 percent under varying conditions of depth, deten-
tion time, recirculation time, and mixing (Oswald and Gotaas,
1956). The production of Ch lorella to many controlled growth
factors in the laboratory and in a pilot plant is detailed by
Burlew (1958).
Light-dark bottle data on sewage stabilization ponds in the
Dakotas indicated gross oxygen production of 231 pounds per
acre per day, respiration of 169 pounds, or a net oxygen
production of 62 pounds per acre per thy (Bartsch, 1960).
Gross production was highest during mid-morning at Lemmon,
South Dakota (18.7 pounds per acre per hour) and lowest during
early evening (0.3 pounds per acre per hour). Highest net oxy-
gen production was 10.7 pounds per acre per hour. There is gen-
erally no measurable oxygen production under winter ice in
stabilization ponds.
In measuring in situ aeration of Wisconsin’s sewage stabiliza-
tion ponds, McNabb (1960) found net oxygen production
proceeding at a rapid rate in the morning, and oxygen consump-
tion by biota exceeding production throughout most of the after-
noon in spite of light intensities favorable for photosynthesis.
Highest oxygen production was 21.4 pounds per acre per hour
with a phytoplankton population of 180 ppm (by volume) and a
nutrient inflow of approximately 4.0 pounds per acre per day
total nitrogen arid 1.8 pounds per acre per thy total phos-
phorus.
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Verduin (1956) summarized the literature on primary produc- .
don in lakes and concluded that the net photosynthetic rate of
autotropic organisms under optimum light was 35 x l0
pounds of 02 per ml of organisms per hour. Lakes with -an
epilimnion layer of the order of 1 meter are likely to have
standing crops of about 5 ppm by volume. Computations of
photosynthetic oxygen production for several lakes yielded values
lying mostly between 42 and 57 pounds per acre per day.
An increase in the hypolimnetic oxygen deficit has been taken
as evidence of increased lake productivity. In Lake Washington
near Seattle, the hypolimnetic oxygen deficit was determined to
be 105 pounds per acre per month (3.5 pounds per acre per day)
in 1933, 178 pounds per acre per month in 1950, and 279
pounds per acre per month in 1955 (Edmondson et al., 1956).
The standing crop of phytoplankton in the top 20 meters of
water in 1950 was 0.6 ppm (by volume), and in 1955, 1.6 ppm
(by volume) (Anderson, 1961).
The Price of Eutrophy
Lackey (1958) lists benefits, at least from sewage fertilization
that arise because of algal growths. These include (a) reoxygen-
ation, (b) mineralization, and (c) production of a food chain.
Three well recognized ills are: (a) algal toxicity, (b) aesthetic
harm, and (c) buildup of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
Green algae (Micra ctinum) growing in sewage in an experi-
mental lagoon at the University of Florida had a BOD of 77.8
mg/I in five days. These algae, harvested from 500 ml of water
produced a dry weight of 0.0848 gram representing protoplasm,
cellulose, and starch. Lackey et al. (1949) are cited to the effect
that, after the oyster industry was well established in Great
South Bay, the Long Island duck industry located around the
Bay. The duck excreta at once began to fertilize the Bay. A
heavy algal bloom resulted but the algae were not suitable food,
or they produced external metabolites that adversely affected
the oysters; thus, an annual four million dollar industry was
destroyed. Letts and Adeney (1908) were cited as reporting on
the pollution of estuaries and tidal waters by sewage and trade
wastes in Ireland and Great Britain and relating the destruc-
tion of salmon and sea trout fisheries to the growth of vast beds
of macroscopic green alga, Ulva, and its subsequent decay. That
139

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decay produced intolerable odors, blackened paint and silver in
homes, and generally was damaging to real estate values.
The disadvantages of algae as a source of oxygen have been
summarized by Bartsch (1961). Algae respond to com-
plex, changing, unpredictable environmental factors includ-
ing solar radiation, opacity of the medium, rate of bacterial
activity, rise and fall of nutrients, climatic phenomena, and
ecological succession. When algal cells die and sink to the hy-
polimnion, oxygen is used in decomposition. The nutrients’ stim-
ulation of algal production can lead to the formation of a
mass of organic matter greater than that of the original waste
source (Renn, 1954). In an enriched environment, algae respond
so well to incoming nutrients that the oxygen required for
the respiration of the resultant algal mass alone surpasses the
BOD of the incoming food material. Lake Winnebago, Wis. (area
213 square miles) produces heavy algal populations. In July,
when the lower Fox River carried a heavy algal load from Lake
Winnebago, the ultimate BOD in the river above the sources
of industrial and municipal wastes ranged to 660,000 pounds of
oxygen demand each day.*
Enrichment often results in domination of the algal mass by a
relatively small group of blue-green algae that become well es-
tablished. Most of the adverse effects resulting from an algal
mass occur when one species of alga dominates the population.
Fish kills have been reported as attributable to supersatura-
tion of oxygen (Woodbury, 1941). A heavy loss of fish was
accompanied by a dense algal bloom and extremely high dis-
solved oxygen (30 to 32 mg/l) in the surface water. Gas
emboli were reported to be present in the gill capillaries and gas
bubbles in the subcutaneous tissues. Death of the fish was at-
tributed to the blocking of the circulation through the gills
by the gas bubbles with subsequent respiratory failure. Fish
kills have also resulted from a natural dep!etion of oxygen
(Mackenthun et al., 1948) - For example, in October 1946,
tremendous quantities of the blue-green a!ga, Aphanizomenon
flos-aquae (Linnaeus), entered the Yahara River from Lake
Kegonsa near Madison, Wisconsin, decomposed in passing down-
stream, and caused oxygen depletion resulting in the death of
tons of fish.
• Scott, R. H. . B. F. Lueck, T. F. Wisniewski and A. J. Wiley, 1956. Evaluation of
Stream Loading and Purifi tion Capacity, committee on Water Pollution, Madison,
Wit, Bull. No. 101 (mimeo).
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Provost (1958) indicated that overproduction of tendipedids
(midge larvae or bloodworms) in lakes is caused by excessively
nutritious waters. Midgeflies have become a nuisance in several
areas where conditions are especially suitable for the concen-
tration of a swarming mass of adults following an emergence
(e.g. Clear Lake California; Lake Winnebago, Wisconsin;
and several lakes in Florida). Larval development is no doubt
fostered by the deposition of the dead cells of a rich plankton
population on the bottom sediments.
Both weed and algal nuisances develop in enriched water;
fishing may be impaired, and bathing, boating, and water skiing
often must be indefinitely postponed in waters that otherwise
offer maximum multiple recreational use. Industrial or munici-
pal water treatment is hampered or made inefficient by extensive
aquatic growths; property values are lowered, and resort trade
may be cancelled as a result of these nuisances.
Excessive submerged aquatic vegetation often develops in shal-
low enriched waters. A critical time in development occurs in
the early spring during seed germination. When sufficient light
reaches the lake bottom at this time, weeds will develop. Weed
development utilizes local nutrients and often will limit exces-
sive algal growth in the area inhabited by the submerged aquatic
plants. Elimination of a substantial area of weed growth, in
turn, often gives rise to localized algal development.
- Rapid decomposition of dense algal scums with associated
organisms and debris gives rise to odors and hydrogen sulfide
gas that create strong citizen disapproval; often the gas stains
the white lead paint on residences adjacent to the shore to ugly
hues of grey and even black.
Efforts to minimize conditions leading to water enrichment
necessitate an understanding of the basic problem and the co-
operation of all who use the water. Ideally , sewage and decom-
posable organic industrial wastes, the effluents from which con-
tain concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus, should not be
discharged into a watercourse where the impact of nutrients
will manifest in nuisance growths of aquatic plants. Runoff
and drainage from land on which leeching fertilizers have been
used should be minimized. Drainage from garbage or trash
dumps should not enter water. Private sewage treatment units
serving shore-line dwellings should not discharge into recta-
141

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tional waters. Those who use the water for recreational purposes
should observe good housekeeping and not litter beaches and
waterways with the trash and remains of recreational pursuits.
Long-term remedial measures might be focused on reducing
the nutrient concentration in troublesome areas or in altering
some aspect of the topography that concentrates, or fosters the
development of, nuisance algae or aquatic weeds. Such measures
often involve costly physical modifications to correct existing
conditions, as well as future planning to assure wise use of the
area’s natural aquatic resources.
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6
Aquatic Plant Pests
p LANT nuisances affecting recreational waters may curtail or
eliminate bathing, boating, water skiing, and sometimes fishing;
perpetrate psychosomatic illness in man by emitting vile stenches;
impart tastes and odors to water supplies; shorten filter runs or
otherwise hamper industrial and municipal water treatment; im-
pair areas of picturesque beauty; reduce or restrict resort trade;
lower water front property values; interfere with the manufacture
of a product in industry, such as paper; on occasion become toxic
to certain warm-blooded animals that ingest the water; and cause
skin rashes and hay-fever-like symptoms in man. These plant nui-
sances may be grouped into the algae and the higher aquatic plants.
Algae appear as floating scums; suspended matter giving rise to
murky, turbid water or water having a “pea soup” appearance; at-
tached filaments; and bottom dwelling types that may be confused
with the rooted higher aquatic plants. The higher aquatic plants
grow as submerged, floating, or emergent plants. There are many
different kinds of both algae and higher aquatic plants, the
vast majority of which can be properly identified only by experts
in the field.
Algae
Most algal problems occur when growth conditions permit
the formation of a “bloom.” A bloom is an unusually large
number of cells (usually one or a few species) per unit of sur-
face water, which often can be discerned visually by the green,
blue-green, brown or even brilliant red discoloration of the
water. Lackey (1949) arbitrarily defined a bloom as 500 individ-
uals per ml of raw water. He found bloom conditions 509
times during a 2-year survey of 16 southeastern Wisconsin lakes
and of S rivers in 1942-43. Of this number, only 13 percent were
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blue-green algae, generally the most troublesome nuisance-pro-
ducing group. Diatoms are rarely obnoxious except in water
supplies; they predominated in 40 percent of the blooms. The
lake with the highest concentration of inorganic nitrogen (N)
and inorganic phosphorus (P), 0.79 and 0.38 mg/l respec-
tively, had the most blooms.—l 12 during the 2-year period.
Prescott (1960) points out that when a bloom develops, a
single species usually predominates. A phanizomenon flos-aquae
(Linnaeus), for example, is never in abundance, or scarcely
present at all, when Micro cystis aeruginosa Kuetzing is in peak
production, and vice versa. Prescott (1960) further states that
of the countless species of fresh-water algae, only a few
produce disturbances which attract our attention.” Some of
the American freshwater trouble-forming species are listed as
follows;
I. Cyanophyta (blue-green Dinobryon sertularia
algae) Ehrenberg
Microcystis aeruginosa D. sociale Ehrenberg
Kuetzing Synura uvella Ehrenberg
Coelosphaerium Kuetz- Fragilaria
ingianuin Nageli Tabellaria fenestrata
Oscillatoria rubescens De Kuetzing
Candolle Asterionella gracillima
0. lacustris (Klebahn) (Hantzsch)
Anabaena circinalis Coscinodiscus s / i/i.
Kuetzing Melosira granulata
A. flos-aquae (Linnaeus) (Ehrenberg)
A. Lammerrnanni Richter Ste phanodiscus niagarae
Anabaenopsis Elenkini Ehrenberg
Miller
III. Pyrrophyta (dmoflagellates)
II. Chrysophyta (yellow-green Ceratiurn h irundinella
algae and diatoms) (Mueller)
In further discussion, Prescott states, “It follows that lakes
which have been enriched by various kinds of pollution from
human habitats, runoff from agricultural lands, wastes from farm
animals, etc. are the ones in Which blooms appear. Accordingly,
blue-green algae follow man about as he colonizes and pioneers,
creating situations favorable for his worst aquatic pests.”
Algae are found in the fresh water of ponds, lakes, rivers,
brooks, ditches, pools, and swamps, and in the salt water of
the oceans. Constituting a primary source of food for fish and
other aquatic animals, they may be free-floating and free
swimming, or attached to the bottom substratum.
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Palmer and Ingram (1955) point out a lack of agreement and
a resulting nonuniformity of classification existing among bot-
anists and zoologists as to a definite line of demarcation between
algae and protozoa important in the field of sanitary science.
They recommend that the presence or absence of photosynthetic
pigments (indicating the ability or inability to produce oxygen)
be used to separate the flagellates into the pigmented (agal)
and nonpigmented (protozoan) types.
There exist some 1,500 genera and 17,400 species of algae,
according to Fuller and Tippo (1954). Fresh-water algae fall
into major groups including (a) blue-green algae; (b) green
algae; (c) yellow-green algae; (d) golden-brown algae and dia-
toms; (e) red algae; (f) euglenoids and (g) dinoflagellates.
The blue-green algae (Cyanophyta) are extremely primitive
in several respects. The plant body is a single cell; colonies
may be formed that are loose aggregations of similar cells among
which there is little or no differentiation. Then nuclear material is
not organized into a definite nucleus, but is scattered throughout
the center of the cell. Green chlorophyll is not localized in
definitely lormed bodies, but is diffused throughout the peri-
pheral portion of the cell. In addition to the green chloro-
phyll there is a blue pigment and sometimes a red pigment.
Reproduction is by simple division (fission) - Blue-green algae
produce “water blooms”, “pea soup” appearance, septic “pig-
pen” odors; impart a “fishy taste”; and cover rocks with slimy
gelatinous masses.
Green algae (Chlorophyta) have pigments that are prin-
cipally chlorophyll confined to chloroplasts or definite bodies.
There is an organized nucleus, and the motile cells, either vege-
tative or reproductive, have flagella.
The yellow-green algae, golden-brown algae, and diatoms
(Chrysophyta) have the pigment confined to definite bodies.
There is a greater proportion of yellow or brown pigment than
chlorophyll. The cell wall of the diatoms is composed of silica.
The euglenoids (Euglenophyta) are unicellular, motile, and
bear one to four flagella. They have a definite nucleus with
grass-green chlorophyll localized in definite chlorophyll bear-
ing bodies (Plastids).
TEhe group of dinoflagellates (Pyrrophyta) includes a great
diversity of mostly pigmented and mobile unicellular organisms.
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Two flagella are present. Brown pigments predominate, although
chlorophyll is present.
Algae have also been grouped according to their ecological
association (Prescott, 1956). These may be classified according
to: (1) their position in water, such as those drifting in the
open water, those occurring near shore intermingled with other
vegetation or forming floating mats, those growing attached
to the bottom substratum in water deeper than 15 feet, and
those attached to shoreline rocks in the littoral region; (2)
the chemical composition of their habitat, such as those in alka-
line waters as opposed to those in acid waters; and (3) their
relationships with other organisms, such as those living on host
organisms that serve as attachment sites, those actually para-
sitic on or inducing pathological conditions in a host plant
(parasitism) and those in which an exchange of benefits ap-
parently occurs between the attached alga and a host plant
(sy mbiosis)
TASTES AND ODORS
From a nationwide survey reported in 1957 (Sigworth, 1957),
it was indicated that algae were considered by 241 water-
works officials to be the most frequent causes of tastes and
odors in water supplies, with other types of decaying %egetation
second in importance. Decay or decomposition is brought about
by fungi and bacteria, including the actinomycetales. Often a
considerable proportion of the decaying vegetation is composed
of dead algal cells. The odors that are produced through the
activities of fungi and bacteria may be either from the inter-
mediate products formed during the decomposition or from
special substances that are synthesized within the cells of the
microorganisms. The latter appears to be true in the case of
actinomycetales. Algae were listed as the causative agent in 82
percent of the reports, decaying vegetation in 67 percent, industrial
wastes in 38 percent, and other causes in 23 percent.
A few algae are well known for the production of specific
distinctive tastes and odors, while a larger number of others
are associated with tastes, and odors that vary in type accord-
ing to local conditions. Often certain diatoms, blue-green algae,
and pigmented flagellates are the principal offenders but green
algae may also be involved. Thirty-nine species have been selected
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by Palmer (1959) as representative of the more important taste
and odor algae. They are listed alphabetically under their respec-
tive groups in Table 7. Other genera and species, in addition to
the ones selected, must be considered also as potential offenders.
Silvey (1963) noted a relationship between summer blooms of
blue-green algae and rapid growths of actinomycetes three to
four weeks later. Most concentrated tastes and odors appear as-
sociated with the latter. Silvey and Roach (1964) state that
• . . it has been observed for many years in the literature
that the degradation of algal remains may result in a multi-
tude of types and intensities of odors and tastes in the water
supply. Some odors are contributed directly by the algal de-
gradation products dissolved in the water, whereas others are
merely described as decaying vegetation.” Disintegrating algae
are associated with increases in gram-negative heterotrophic
bacterial populations following which there is generally a new
growth of algae, either diatoms or blue-green algae. When
blue-green algae predominate and algal mats form on the sur-
face or in protected water areas, actinomycetes attack the re-
mains of the algae thus reducing the gram negative hetero-
trophic bacteria. Various odors are released, depending upon the
predominant organism, its degradation products or metabolites.
Silvey and Roach (1964) point out that when a stream or
reservoir is highly polluted, one cycle may impinge upon another
to the extent that total confusion results if attempts are made
to determine what stage of the microbiotic cycle is operating
in a particular water supply at a specific time.
Symons (1956) states that 500 to 1,000 areal standard units
of odor-producing organisms are generally conceded to cause
trouble in water supplies but the range varies widely for differ-
ent organisms. The Metropolitan Water Commission of Boston
was quoted by Symons as setting maximum allowable limits of
troublesome algae before control treatment was instigated. For
some genera (e.g., Chiamydomonas) the level was as low as 10
standards units per ml. For other flagellates such as Cry pto-
monas, Synura, and Uroglenopsis it was 200; for the blue-
green alga, Aphanizomenon, the level was 1,000 areal standard
units per ml.
FILTER CLOGGING PROBLEMS
As water passes through a sand filter in the water treat-
ment plant the spaces between the grains of sand become filled
153

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Actinastrum
Anabaena
Anabaenopsis
Anacystis
Aphanizomenon
Asterionella
Ceratium
Chara
Chiamydomonas
Chiorella
Chrysosphaerella
Cladophora
(Clathrocystis)
Closterium
(Coelosphaerium)
Cosmarium
Cryptomonas
Cyclotella
Cylindrospermum
Diatoma
Dictyosphaerium
Dinobryon
Eudorrna
Euglena
Fragilaria
Grassy? nasturtium,
musty.
Grassy
Grassy, nasturtium,
musty.
Geranium, spicy
Fishy
Skunk, garlic
Musty, grassy
Violet
Geranium
Grassy
Grassy, nasturtium
Violet
Grassy, musty
Septic
Grassy
Septic
Septic
Fishy
Septic
Spoiled, garlic
Fishy, septic
Musty
Fishy
Septic
Grassy
Grassy
Violet
Fishy
Septic
Aromatic
Fishy
Fishy
Fishy
Fishy
Musty
Sweet
Sweet Dry.
Table 7. ODORS, TASTES, AND TONGUE SENSATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH ALGAE IN WATER
Algal genus
Odor when algae
Tongue
are — Taste sensation
Abundant
Moderate
Bitter
Sweet Slick.
Sweet
Slick.
Sweet
.. Geranium

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Tabellaria .
Tribonema
(Uroglena)
Uroglenopsis
Ulothrix
Volvox
Grassy
Musty
Grassy
Cucumber
Grassy
Geranium .
Grassy
Cucumber, muskmelon,
spicy.
Geranium
Cucumber
Fishy
Fishy
Septic
Grassy
Grassy
Fishy
Septic
Fishy
Musty
Spicy
Grassy, septic
Septic
Musty, spicy
Fishy
Grassy
Fishy
Fishy
Musty
Grassy
Grassy
Grassy
Fishy
Musty
Fishy
Fishy
Fishy
Fishy
Grassy
Fishy
Grassy .
Violet . .
Geranium
Gtenodiniurn
(Gloeocapsa)
Gloeocystis . .
Gloeotrichia
Gom phosphae na
Gonium
Hydrodictyon
Mallomonas
Melosira
Meridion
(Microcystis)
Nitella
Nostoc
Osci llatoria .
Pandonina
Pediastrum .
Penidinium .
Pleurosigma
Rivulania
Scenedesmus
Spirogyra
Staurastrum
Stephanodiscus
Synedra
Synura
Sweet
Bitter
Bitter
Slick.
Slick.
Slick.
Slick.
Dry,
metallic,
slick.
Slick.
‘ — I
(a’

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with colloidal and solid particles which have been dispersed in
the water. When the raw water comes from a surface supply
such as a reservoir, lake, or stream, the algae that are in-
variably present will be well represented in the material col-
lected by the sand filter. They are frequently the primary causes
of filter clogging.
Efficient coagulation and sedimentation may remove 90 to 95
percent of the algae from the water. The algae remaining in the
water may still be sufficient to cause gradual or even rapid
loss of head in the sand filter. The clogged filter must then be
backwashed. Filter runs may often extend for 30 to 100 hours
before backwashing is required, or may be shortened to less
than 10 hours when algae are present (Tar lton, 1949). In Chi-
cago, when the water to be filtered contained approximately 700
microorganisms per ml., principally two diaioms Tabellaria and
Fragilaria, the filter runs were 4.5 hours. Three days later,
when the count was down to approximately 100 per ml., the
filter run increased to 41 hours (Baylis, 1955). In Washington,
D.C. filter runs were reduced from an average of 50 hours to
less than 1 hour because of a sudden influx of the diatom Syne-
dra, which occurred in the raw water, reaching 4,800 cells per
ml (Lauter, 1937).
At Kenosha, Wisconsin microstraining equipment was installed
at the water plant at an initial cost of $330,000 primarily to
reduce microorganisms prior to filtration (Nelson, 1965). The
output of finished water from this plant has been increased by
up to 25 percent, thereby providing 5 mgd of extra water for
sale to the public during peak demand periods which otherwise
would have been used to backwash filters. Algal removals by
microstraining have ranged from 46 to 97 percent.
CORROSION PROBLEMS
Algae sometimes contribute to corrosion either directly in lo-
calized places where they may be growing or through their modi-
fication of the water by physical or chemical changes. Green
and blue-green algae, growing on the surface of submerged con-
crete, have caused the concrete to become pitted and friable. The
effect has been most pronounced when the percentage of SO in
the mortar was 0.6 or higher. It has been assumed that the
gelatin present in the living plants, together with the carbonic,
156

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oxalic, and silicic acids produced by them, are adequate to
corrode the cement (Oborn and Fligginson, 1954).
Algae have been reported to cause corrosion in metal tanks
and basins open to sunlight. Oscillatoria growing in abundance
in water in an open steel tank has caused serious pitting of
the metal. The pits were bright and clean, the iron apparently
going into solution and not producing any covering compound
such as an oxide or sulfide. The algal growth permitted the pit-
ting to take place by releasing oxygen which combined with
the protecting film of oxide over the steel. When the steel tank
was covered to prevent entrance of light, the algae disappeared
and the corrosion stopped (Myers, 1947).
Indirectly, algae may affect the tate of conosion in a number
of ways. Increases in organic deposits in the pipe, increases
in the dissolved oxygen in the water through photosynthesis in
the raw water supply, and changes in the pH, CO 2 content, and
calcium carbonate content of the water can all be stimulated by
algae. Such changes can, in turn, affect the rate of corrosion.
TOXIC ALGAE
More and more interest is being aroused in the toxic effects
of fresh-water algae on animals. This interest stems partly from
a recent upswing in the number of reported cases of animal
poisonings related to algal blooms, and from a growing appre-
ciation of the strictly scientific and biological problems involving
the physiology of algae, especially those that produce toxic sub-
stances (possibly toxins), antibiotics, and growth-stimulating
excretions (Ingram and Prescott, 1954).
Ingi’am and Prescott summarize their review as follows: “Out-
breaks of human gastroenteritis have not been positively traced
to algae. Algae that have been responsible for mammalian,
avarian, and fish deaths through some toxic action are all to be
found in the blue-green algal group, the Cyanophyta. The Cyano-
phyta species that have been associated with animal deaths
belong in the genera: Microcystis, Aphanizornenon, Anabaena,
Nodularia, Coelosphaerinm, and G loeotrichia. Often when deaths
of animals occur, a wind has been reported blowing, thus tend-
ing to concentrate algae in lee-shore areas. Cattle that drink
only small quantities of water containing Microcystis may not
die but do show a series of illness symptoms, one of which is a
drop in milk yield. Symptomatic treatment has been recom-
mended by Steyn (1945) for cattle poisoned by algae. Various
157

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writers have made reference to several toxic substances asso-
ciated with blue-green algae. Substances that are toxic enough
to cause illness or death in animals are not present in all blue-
green algae. Water in which certain blue-green algae have
bloomed may produce death in mammals and fish when the
algal cells themselves are excluded. The toxic material from
certain algae may survive the laboratory equivalent of water
treatment using alum coagulation, filtration and chlorination. It
may survive activated carbon treatment in amounts correspond-
ing to that used in water treatment plants, and after massive
treatment with Norite A.”
Wheeler et al. (1942) state that no human outbreaks of
gastroenteritis have ever been traced to algal contamination of
drinking water, and that it is probable that the tastes and odors
almost invariably associated with severe algal pollution would
cause humans to seek other sources for drinking water before a
harmful amount of the polluted water would be consumed. These
authors state: “It should be noted that the presence of algae in
drinking water, in addition to causing tastes and odors, may
have some importance from the standpoint of the allergist as
algae may, on occasion, liberate considerable amounts of protein
in water. If allergic reactions to algae proteins do occur, they
would be as uncommon as they would be obscure and hardly
likely to occur as a public health problem.”
Schwimmer and Schwimmer (1955) chronologically summate
38 incidents of animal intoxications by phytoplankton from
1878 to 1951. In most cases the attacks occured after the
animals had drunk from lakes or ponds containing heavy algal
growths, usually during successive days of hot weather. The re-
ported symptoms of algae intoxications vary but the most strik-
ing clinically are the involvements of neuromuscular and res-
piratory systems in cattle. As aptly described by Francis (1878),
“the animals developed stupor and unconsciousness, falling and
remaining quiet, as if asleep unless touched, when convulsions
came on, with the head and neck drawn back by rigid spasm
which subsided before death.”
During the past 25 years, phytoplankton have also been incrim-
inated in human reactions resulting in dysenterial disorders, sys-
temic allergic reactions, and local allergic eruptions (Tables 8,
9 and 10). The epidemic intestinal disorders of the early 1930’s
158

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involved many thousands of people, however, it was pointed out
that the outbreaks were of no known specific etiology, but,
significantly enough, were always concomitant with the presence
of extensive algal blooms in the local raw water supply sources.
Heise (1949) described two cases in one of which itching,
conjunctivitis, blocked flares, and bronchial asthma occurred fol-
lowing swimming in Wisconsin lakes, and in the other swollen
eyelids, nasal stuffiness, and a severe generalized urticarial
eruption. Cohen and Reif (1953) reported phycocyanin, the blue
pigment in Anabaena, as the cause of an erythematous papulo-
vesicular contact dermatitis in a 6-year-old child who had bathed
in a Pennsylvania lake.
Dr. Robertson* reported from Regina, Saskatchewan, on a
physician who vent for an evening swim and failed to recognize
that an algal scum had blown onto his shore. He slipped on
the diving board, fell in, swallowed several mouthfuls of lake
water, and within a few hours suffered severe gastrointestinal
distress that caused him to be hospitalized for 36 hours. Algae
were recognized in his stool specimen and no bacterial or en-
teric viruses were discovered despite a thorough search.
Fitch et al. (1934) observed that when samples of toxic algae
were fed in the fresh state to guinea pigs, rabbits, and chickens,
death occurred in a very short time. When toxic algae were
stored for a brief period at ice box temperature, or dried, it
was further observed that it was almost impossible to produce
death by feeding, but with a similar dose, animals could be killed
quickly by inoculating intraperitoneally. The specific alga or algae
used are not listed.
The syndrome of symptoms described by Fitch et al. (1934) ex-
hibited by guinea pigs from the feeding or from the inoculation
intraperitoneally of a fatal dose of toxic algae was: (1) restless-
ness; (2) urination; (3) defecation; (4) deep breathing; (5)
weakness in the hind quarters; (6) sneezing; (7) coughing;
(8) salivation; (9) lachrymation; (10) clonic spasms and death.
En studying experimental deaths of guinea pigs, it was noted
that they occasionally show symptoms of intoxication and then
Personal communication, dated Feb. 5, 1960, to K. M. Macken thun from Dr. H. E.
Robertson, Director, Division of Laboratories, Department of Public Health, Province
of Saskatchewan.
159

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Table 8. HUMAN GASTRO-INTESTINAL DISORDERS ASSOCIATED WITH ALGAE*
1842 London, England (Farre,
1844; KUchenmeister,
1857).
1930 Puerto Rico (Ashford ,
Ciferri and Dalmau,
1930).
1930 Puerto Rico (Ashford,
Ciferri and Dalmau,
1930).
1930 Suburbs of Washington,
D.C., U.S.A. (Tarbett and
Frank cited in Tisdale,
1931).
1930 Charleston, W. Va.,
U.S.A. (Tisdale, 1931;
Veldee, 1931; Tarbett
cited in Tisdale, 1931).
1931 Ironton and Portsmouth,
Ohio, U.S.A. (Waring
cited in Tisdale, 1931;
Veldee, 1931).
1930- Louisville, Ky ., U.S.A.
1931 (Tisdale, 1931; Veldee,
1931).
1930- Weston, W. Va., U.S.A.
1931 (Tisdale, 1931).
1930- Sisterville, Ohio, U.S.A.
1931 (Tisdale, 1931).
• .. . do Prototheca portoricensis
var. trispora.
Many families unidentified algae
8,000 to 10,000 people Blue-green algae
“Suspicious of sprue.”
Sudden onset of nausea,
vomiting, epigastic pain,
diarrhea with cramps of
1-4 days duration.
do.
“Intestinal influenza.”
Year Locale and Author Victims Algae involved Manifestations of toxicity
35-year-old married fe-
male
Oscillatoria intestini
KUchenmeister
Dyspepsia,
obstruction.
griping, bowel
Woman
Prototheca portoricensis
“Atypical sprue.”
Many people unidentified algae
do
“Intestinal disorders.”
do.
do.

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1925, Yellowstone National 500 people Nausea, vomiting, diar-
1929, Park, Wyo., U.S.A. rhea, cramp, pains of 6-
1930 (Spencer, 1930). 48 hours duration. Frontal
headaches.
1931 Huntington, W. Va., Ash- Thousands of people . . “Algae” Abdominal pain, nausea,
land, Ky.; Cincinnati, vomiting and diarrhea.
Ohio, U.S.A. (Veldee,
1931).
1940 New Jersey, U.S.A. Humans Anabaena “Gastrointestinal dis-
(Nelson in Monie, 1940). orders.”
1959 Gull Lake, Saskatchewan, Oregon tourist Microcystis Headache, nausea, and
Canada (Dillenberg, gastrointestinal upset.
1959; Dillenberg and
Dehnel, 1960; Senior,
1960).
1959 Govan, Long Lake, Ten children at a camp. . Anabaena Diarrhea and vomiting.
Saskatchewan, Canada
(Dillenberg, 1959;
Senior, 1960).
1959 Fort Qu’Apelle, Echo Dr. M., a physician, 1. Microcystis Crampy stomach pains,
Lake, Saskatchewan, practicing part-time. 2. Anabaena circina!is. nausea, vomiting, painful
Canada (Dillenberg, diarrhea, fever, headache,
1959; Dillenberg and weakness, pains in mus-
Dehnel, 1960; Senior des and joints.
1960).
1960 Regina, Saskatchewan, Physician’s 4.year-old Aphanizomenon Abdominal pain, nausea,
Canada (Dillenberg, son. vomiting, diarrhea, woozi-
1962). ness, headache, thirst.
1961 Saskatchewan, Canada Four students 1. Microcystis Headaches, general mal-
(Dillenberg, 1962). 2. Anabaena aise, loose stools.
See footnotes at end of table 10.

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Table 9. HUMAN RESPIRATORY DISORDERS ASSOCIATED WITH ALGAE*
Texas Coast, U.S.A.
(Lund, 1935).
Muskego Lake, Waukesha
County, Wis., U.S.A.
(Heise, 1949).
1936- North Lake, Waukesha
1946 County, Wis., U.S.A.
(Heise, 1949).
1945 Lake Keesus, Waukesha
County, Wis., U.S.A.
(Heise, 1949).
. ,..do
Captiva Island, Fla.,
U.S.A. (Gunter, Williams,
Davis and Smith, 1948).
1946- Captiva Island, and other
1947 islands off the west coast
of Florida, (Ga ltsoff,
1948).
Sneezing, coughing,
chest tighteness, dyspnea,
sore throat, stuffed nose.
Irritation.
Itching of eyes, complete
blockage of nose.
eyes, complete
of nose, plus
Nasal discharge and
blockage asthma.
Swollen eyelids, blocked
nares, generalized
urticaria.
do.
Burning of eyes, stinging
of nostrils, hard cough.
throat, nostrils
sneezing and
c a
1916 West Coast of
U.S.A. (Taylor,
Year Locale and Author Victims Algae involved Manifestations of toxicity
Florida,
1917).
1934-
1935
1934
Many people
Humans
42-year-old man
1935 . . . . do Same man, 1 year later.
Dinoflagellates
“Heavy inshore plankton
growth.”
Osci /Iatoriaceae
....do
.. ,.do
Gymnodinium brevis
1946
1946-
1947
Itching of
blockage
mild asthma.
Same patient
39-year-old woman
Same patient
Humans
Burning of
and eyes,
coughing.

-------
1946- West Coast of Florida, . .. . do do irritation of respiratory
1947 U.S.A. (Hunter and Mc- tract.
Laughlin, 1958).
1947 Venice, Fla., U.S.A. ... do Gymnodinium sp Hard cough, burning in
(Thompson cited in respiratory tract.
Woodcock, 1948).
1947 Venice, Fla., U.S.A. Author and two do.
(Woodcock, 1948). companions.
1947 Venice Beach, Fia., . . . . do do Throat irritation.
U.S.A. (Woodcock,
1948).
1947 Lower west coast of People near shoreline . . Gymnodinium b 1 revis .. . Irritation of eyes, nose and
Florida, U.S.A. (Ingle, throat.
1954).
See footnotes at end of table 10.
C . )
( o

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Table 10. HUMAN••• SKIN DISORDERS ASSOCIATED WITH ALGAE’
1937- Lower east coast of
1949 Florida, U.S.A. (Sams,
1949).
1950 Lake Carey, Pa., U.S.A.
(Cohen and Reif, 1953).
1951 Lake Carey, Pa., and
Canada (Cohen and Reif,
1953).
1952 ....do
1953 Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
(Cohen and Reif, 1953).
1958 Qahu, Hawaii, U.S.A.
(Grauer, 1959; Banner,
1959; Grauer and
Arnold, 1962).
1959 Oahu, Hawaii, U.S.A.
(Grauer and Arnold,
1962).
*Tabular data and the special references at the end of this
chapter were graciously supplied by Dr. Morton Schwimmer
on Jan. 13, 1964. Table 5 is a modification of data in;
(1) Schwimmer, M. and D. Schwimmer, 1955. The Role
of Algae and Plankton in Medicine. Grune and Stratton, N.Y.,
85 pp.
Erythematous wheals (in
areas covered by bathing
suit) itching, fever.
Erythematous papulo-ve
sicular dermatitis.
do.
do.
Itching, swelling and red-
ness of conjunctivae.
Itching and burning of
skin, erythema, blisters,
desquamation in areas
covered by bathing suit.
do.


Idocean organism” . . . . do.
(2) Schwimmer, D. and M. Schwimmer. Algae and Medi-
cine. Presented Aug. 2, 1962, NATO Advanced Institute,
“Algae and Man” at Potamological Institute, University of
Louisville, Louisville, Ky.
(3) Schwimmer, D. and M. Schwimmer. Algae and Dis-
ease. To be published.
Year Locale and Author Victims Algae involved Manifestations of toxicity
67 ocean bathers
“Plankton”
4-year-old girl Ariabaena
Same patient 1 year later . . . . do
Blue-green algae
Lyngbya majuscula
Gomont.
Same patient 2 years
later.
Swimmers
125 cases received treat-
ment; hundreds of mild
unreported cases.
31-year-old medical
officer.
Nine-year-old niece . .
Two other adults
People who swam in sea-
water off Florida coast.
1959
1959
1961
....do

Georgia, U.SA. (Hardin,
1961).
do.
do.

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recover. The syndrome of symptoms in pigeons observed by
Fitch et al. (1934) was: (1) immediate restlessness; (2) imme-
diate blinking of eyes; (3) immediate repeated swallowing, at
times accompanied by regurgitation; (4) in from 9 to 10 min-
utes loss of balance; falling on breast; head drawn back; (5)
clonic spasms and death.
Wheeler et al. (1942) working with animals and fresh Micro-
cystis aeruginosa filtered from sample water and resuspended
in just enough water to flow through a 16 gauge hypodermic
needle, made the following observations: (1) mice were invar-
iably killed when either a subcutaneous or intraperitoneal dose
was more than 0.25 ml, death occurring rarely in less than 16
hours or more than 36 hours; (2) a guinea pig given a 2 ml
intraperitoneal dose died in 24 hours; (3) a rabbit given a 5
ml intraperitoneal dose showed no ill effects; (4) guinea pigs
given 4 ml oral doses showed no ill effects; (5) mice given
algae orally by a blunt needle or by adding algae to drinking
water nearly always survived; and (6) injections of pond water
after the alga was filtered off did not affect animals.
Olson (1952) points out that the toxicity of unpurified algal
material from field collections varies a great deal. For example,
0.02 ml injected into mice intraperitoneally may kill a 20-
gram individual in an hour, whereas of another sample it may
Tequire 2.0 to 3.0 ml to produce death in 18 hours. Certain
samples of toxic algae (0.1 ml fatal dose) taken from a lake I
day may kill mice in 20 minutes, whereas 9 days later, sam-
ples from the same lake with a greatly increased dosage (2.0
ml) may require 5 hours to produce death.
The poisoning of wild and domestic animals by a toxic water-
bloom of Nostoc rivulare Kuetz from a pond in central
Texas has been described by Davidson (1959). Cattle, fish, frogs,
and fowl that drank the water containing a heavy growth of
the alga became acutely ill, and many died within a short period
of time. Most of the accompanying symptoms were similar to
those described for a number of other toxic waterblooms. Intra-
peritoneal injections of albino mice with fresh algal material or
with extracts prepared from preserved material produced symp-
toms that were uniform. The characteristic symptoms were rest-
lessness, increased respiratory rate, renal and intestinal disor-
ders, decrease in blood sugar, decrease in blood coagulation time,
165

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decrease in red blood cell count, increase in the rate of heart
beat, and paralysis of the hindquarters. Subcutaneous injections
resulted in complete necrosis of the abdominal wall, including
the skin. The mice that survived developed tumors on the shoul-
ders; two experienced evisceration; and the eye of one com-
pletely atrophied.
The minimal lethal dosage of the fresh alga was found to be
0.0933 mg/g of body weight in mice. The toxic factor was
soluble in ethanol or water and was rendered inactive when
autoclaved at 15 psi pressure for 20 minutes. It affects the neuro-
muscular and respiratory systems of albino mice.
Toxic algae as a public health hazard are reviewed by Gor-
ham (1964). He concludes that the fish and livestock poisons
produced by waterblooms are nuisances and economic hazards
rather than public health hazards. It was estimated that the
oral minimum lethal dose of decomposing toxic Microcystis bloom
for a 150-pound man would be 1- to 2-quarts of thick, paint-likc
suspension. Gorham states that this amount would not be in-
gested voluntarily; however, in the case of an accident, such a
quantity might be ingested involuntarily.
Aquatic Vascular Plants
In the long-term cycle of the change in the aquatic terrain
there is a continuing tendency for the land to encroach upon
shallow ponds and shallow areas of lakes, decrease their
size, make them more shallow, and eventually return them to
dry land. Rooted aquatic vegetation plays a prominent role in
this gradual process by invading shallow water areas through
entrapment of particulate silt that is carried into lakes and
ponds. The rooted vegetation will continue to spread as water
areas become more shallow and the bottom mud provides suitt
able anchorage for roots. Plants contribute also to the filling in of
lakes through both the precipitation of calcium carbonate and
the accumulation of their remains upon death and decay.
While these lake invasion and encroachment activities by
higher aquatic plants may sometimes be sufficiently rapid to be
recognized by those who habitually use the lake, the common
objections to rooted vegetation stem from their immediate inter-
ference with recreational use such as outboard motor propeller
clogging, and encroachment on navigation channels and swim-
166

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ming beaches. The depth of water determines the adjustment of
aquatic seed plants into three principal categories. Emergent
weeds are those that occupy shallow water, are rooted in bot-
tom mud, and support foliage, seeds and mature fruit one or
more feet above the water surface. Cattails and rushes are
familiar examples. Surface or floating weeds generally grow in
deeper water at the front of (and oftentimes commingling with)
the emergent weeds. The larger floating weeds are waterlilies
that may be rooted in the mud of the bottom and bear large
leaves that float upon the surface. Smaller types such as the
duckweeds are free-floating. Submerged aquatic growths often
form a belt or zone of herbage farthest from shore. Except for
those forms that dwell in quiet waters, they are rooted to the
bottom. Depth varies considerably within this zone and may ex-
tend down to the limits of effective light penetration. Submerged
varieties are those which often create the most severe nuisance.
Physical factors, such as light intensity, water temperature,
wave action, flow velocity, water depth and type of substrate,
all interact to govern establishment of weed beds or weed spars-
ày, and determine the rate at which they grow. Many submerged
plants continue active in winter, provided ice and snow cover
are not sufficiently opaque to reduce light penetration so that
growth is impeded. Once established in an area, rooted aquatic
plants exhibit a high degree of persistence and efficiency of
propagation. Some reproduce only by means of seeds formed
in insect-pollinated flowers borne at or above the water surface;
others may propagate by buds, tubers, roots, and node frag-
ments in addition to producing viable seeds. Factors that limit
growth include lack of sufficient light, insufficient nutrients,
physical instability because of water level fluctuation and cur-
rent and wave action, an unsuitable bottom stratum, and compe-
tition by other plants and animals.
Higher aquatic plants are most abundant in old lakes or
those fertile water bodies in which there has been thick depo-
sition of soil from land erosion. Higher plants provide food,
shelter and attachment surfaces for other organisms, and dis-
solved oxygen to the water under favorable light conditions
(from their underwater green portions), remove and temporarily
store nutrients, and serve as spawning or as schooling areas
-for some fish. Plant populations may become sufficiently dense
to limit or restrict water use by physical obstruction, to remove
167

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large quantities of water through transpiration, and to contrib-
ute to the stunting of fish populations. Upon death and decay,
stored nutrients are released for the development of new genera-
tions of aquatic biota.
Dispersal of water plants is accomplished largely by water
transport, migratory birds, and, to a lesser extent, domestic and
other animals. Seeds may remain viable after passing through
the digestive tract of animals, and seeds and other means of
propagation may be carried externally. Water plants usually
produce an abundance of seeds, but propagation through vegeta-
tive means is a most effective method of distribution. A small
broken portion of a healthy plant may soon reestablish itself,
when, in settling out of water, it roots again on a suitable sub-
strate. Most aquatic plants are perennials and are well adapted
to withstand heavy cropping by animals.
When green plants are actively growing in sufficient light,
they produce more oxygen through photosynthesis than they
use in respiration. This is important to aquatic organisms since
the excess oxygen production comes at a time when high water
temperatures preclude maximum oxygen retention within the
water and, concurrently, maximum organism production utilizes
a maximum amount through respiration. On the other hand, ex-
tensive plant mortality in a pond or small lake may cause an
oxygen depletion through plant decomposition.
Ducks commonly feed on the seeds, tubers, rootstocks, and
foilage of water plants. Martin and Uhler (1939) in a summary
based on a study of the stomach contents of 7,998 ducks of 18
species collected in 247 localities scattered in all but 6 of the
States and in 1 Canadian province reported that nearly half the
food consumed was derived from the higher freshwater
plants (table 11).
For many years, aquatic and bank weeds in irrigation and
drainage systems in the western States have caused serious
financial losses annually (Timmons, 1960). Submerged water-
weeds such as pondweeds (Potarnogeton spp.) reduce the flow
in channels, causing higher water levels, breakage in canal
banks, increased seepage into adjoining croplands, greater losses
of water by evaporation and inadequate delivery of irrigation
water to farms or inadequate drainage of water from crop-
lands. Decreased flow velocity causes increased sedimentation;
168

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Table 11. Plants That Constitute Over 1 Percent of the Total Game
Duck Food. (From Martin and Uh ler, 1939)
Plant
Percent
Plant
Percent
Pondweed Potamogeton
11.04
Wild rice Zizania
1.95
Bulrush Scirpus
6.42
Chufa Cyperus
1.41
Smartweed Polygonum.
4.71
Watershield Brasenia ..
1.36
Wigeongrass Ruppia . .
4.27
Spikerush Eleocharis ..
1.25
Muskgrass Chara
2.47
Duckweed Lemnaceae .
1.23
Wild millet Echinochola
2.38
Waterlily Nymphaea . .
1.07
Wild celery Va llisneria
2.33
Coontail Ceratophy llum
1.04
Naiad Na/as
1.98
this reduces capacity and makes more frequent mechanical
cleaning necessary. Algae and weed fragments clog sprinklers,
pumps, screens, valves, and pipes, and create problems at pump-
ing plants in irrigation and drainage systems. Emergent aquatic
weeds such as cattails (Typha spp.) and bank weeds, and phrea-
tophytes like willows (Salix spp.) and salt cedar (Tatnarix ten-
tan dra) transpire tremendous quantities of water from canals
and reservoirs into the dry air. Weeds prevent proper inspection
and maintaince of irrigation and drain canals.
A survey conducted in 1948 by the Bureau of Reclamation of the
U. S. Department of the Interior (Balcom, 1950) showed that
nearly 150,000 acre-feet of water was lost each year by evap-
otranspiration in the Bureau’s 14,075 miles of canals and lat-
erals because of weeds. By assigning a productive value of $20
per acre-foot to this lost water and adding the cost for ditch-
bank repairs and damage to flooded crops attributed to weeds,
the loss in irrigation systems built by the Bureau of Reclama-
tion was estimated at nearly $3 million annually. When these
losses were projected to all irrigation systems in the 17 West-
ern States, by using the 1940 Census figures of 120,386 miles of
unlined canals, an estimate of $25.5 million loss annually be-
cause of weeds was obtained.
in 1957 these figures were updated (Timmons, 1960). The total
annual water loss from transpiration, increased evaporation, and
overflows because of aquatic weeds in the 17 Western States was
estimated at 1,966,068 acre-feet; this would have been sufficient
to irrigate 330,000 to 780,000 acres of cropland depending upon
169

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the length of the growing season, evaporation losses, and other
factors. The total cost of losses caused by weeds for the 17 West-
ern States was estimated at $5,739,164.
The total cost of weed control in the 17 Western States was
$8,113,297. The expenditure for control of ditchbank weeds was
more than three times the expenditure for aquatic weed control.
The average cost per mile of treating aquatic weeds ranged from
$11.08 in one region to $121.42 in another averaging $42.36 for
all regions. The cost per mile also varied greatly for different
species of aquatic weeds and methods of control. The methods used
included drying, handcutting and cleaning, and chaining, drag-
lining, and treating with chemicals. The cost of ditchbank weed
control averaged $21.45 per acre for all regions. Methods of con-
trolling ditchbank weeds included hand cutting, mowing, burning,
and spraying. When losses from weeds of $5,739, 164, are added
to the cost of weed control, $8,113,297, the total expenditure re-
lated to weed pests was $13,852,461 in the 17 Western States for
1957. This is the actual cost to the water user of water lost and
other direct costs caused by weeds and expenses involved with
weed control in irrigation systems.
Infestations of Eurasian watermilfoil have become a serious
threat to ponds, lakes, and tidewater areas by reducing their use
for recreation, as well as hampering navigation, diminishing the
size of open waterfowl feeding areas and reducing the value of
waterfront real estate (Anon., 1966). Since 1961, watermilfoil
has doubled its water surface covetage in the Maryland tidewater
area and now inhabits an estimated 100,000 acres. Heavy con-
centrations of this weed also have been found in the waters of
New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Alabama, Indiana, Ohio,
California, and Texas. In the Tennessee Valley Authority water-
shed, reservoir infestations have demanded major control pro-
grams. Eurasian watermilfoil was first found in this country in
1902. It can sprout from seeds, creeping rhizomes, or from a stem
having a single joint or node. Seeds have been found to remain
viable even after passing through the digestive tracts of migra-
tory waterfowl.
A summary of aquatic nuisance control activities on Wisconsin
Lakes for 1965 indicates the use of 101,947 pounds of arsenic
Lloyd A. Lueschow, personal correspondence.
170

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trioxide and 71,279 pounds of commercial copper sulfate on 130
water bodies. Thus, minimal control of aquatic nuisances to pro-
tect recreational use of water in this one State can be estimated
to approach $70,000 annually.
References Cited
ANON. 1966. Eurasian Watermilfoil Reduces Waterway Weeds, Trees and Turf
(June). pp. 12—14.
ASHE-ORD, B. K., R. CIFERRI, AND L. M. DALMAU, 1930. A New Species of Prototheca
and a Variety of the Same Isolated from the Human Intestine. Arch. f. Pro-
tistenkunde 70: 619.
Bnco x, R. B. 1950. Weeds—Water Robbers. Jour. of Soil and Water Conservation,
5: 165—168.
BANNER. A. H. 1959. A Dermatitis-Producing Alga in Hawaii; Preliminary Report
Hawaii Med. J. 19: 35.
BAYLIS, J. R. 1955. Effect of Microorganisms on lengths of filter runs. Water Wks.
Eng. 108: 127—128. 158.
COHEN. S. C. AN!) C. B. REIF, 1953. Cutaneous Sensitization to Blue.green Algae.
Journ. Allergy, 24: 452.
DAVIDSON, F. F. 1959. Poisoning of Wild and Domestic Animals by a Toxic Water-
bloom of Nostoc rivulare Kuetz. Jour. American Water Works Association, 51
(10) : 1277—1287.
DILLENBERC, H. 0. 1959. Toxic waterbloom in Saskatchewan. Presented before the
14th Annual Meeting INCDNCM, August 26—29, 1959, at Washington State
College. Pullman.
DILLENBERG, H. 0. 1961. Case reports of algae poisoning. Personal communication.
DILIINBERG. H. 0. 1962. Case reports of algae poisoning. Personal communication.
DII.LENBERC, H. 0., AND M. K. DEHNEL, 1960. Toxic waterbloom in Saskatchewan,
1959. Canad. M. A. J. 83: 1151.
DILLENBERG, H. 0., AND M. K. DEHNEL, 1961. “Waterbloom poisoning.” Fast and
“slow death” factors isolated from blue-green algae at Canadian N R C Lab-
oratories. World-Wide Abstr. (ien. Med. 4 (No. 4): 20, April.
FaRE, A. On the minute structure of certain substances expelled from the human
intestine, having the ordinary appearance of shreds of lymph, but consisting
entirely of filaments of a Confervoid type, probably belonging to the genus
Oscillatoria. Tr. Roy. Microscop. Soc., London 1: 92, 1844. idem. In: Kuchen-
meister, G. F. H. On animal and vegetable parasites of the human body. Transl.
from the 2. German edit. by E. Lankester. London. Sydenham Soc. 1857, v. 2.
p. 264.
Frat, C. P., L. M. BISHOP ET AL. 1934. “Water bloom” as a cause of poisoning
in domestic animals. Cornell Veterinarian 21 (1): 30—39.
F NcIs, C., 1878. Poisonous Australian Lakes. Nature, 18: 11—12.
FULLER, H. J. D 0. Tino, 1954. College Botany. Henry Holt & Co., New York,
993 pp.
GALTSOFE, P. S. 1949. The mystery of he red tide. Sci. Month. 68: 109.
GORHAM, P. R. 1964. Toxic algae as a public health hazard. Jour. American Water
Works Assoc., 56 (11): 1481—1488.
171

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GRAUER, F Fl. 1959. Dermatitis escharotica caused by a marine alga. Hawaii Med. J.
19: 52.
GRALER, F. H., AND H. L. ARNOLD, 1961. Seaweed dermatitis; first report of a
dermatitis producing marine alga. Arch. Derinat. 84: 720. Abstracts in: J.A.M.A.
378: 194, November 18, 1961; Modern Med. 30 138, April 2, 1962.
GUNTER, G., F. G. W. $MmI AND R. H. WILLIAMS, 1947. Mass mortality of marine
animals on the lower west coast of Florida, November 1946-January 1947. Science
105: 256. Mar. 7.
GUNTER. G., R. H. WILLInts, C. C. DAvts, AND F. G. W. SMITH. 1948. Catastrophic
mass mortality of marine animals and coincident phytoplankton bloom on the
west coast of Florida, November 1946 to August 1947. Ecol. Monogr. 18: 309.
HARDIN, F. F. 1961. Seabather’s eruption. J.M.A. Georgia 50: 450.
Hnsr, H. A., 1949. Symptoms of Hay Fever Caused by Algae. Journ. Allergy, 20 (5)
385—384.
HEI5E. H. A. 1951. Symptoms of hay fever caused by algae. II. Microcystis. Ann.
Allergy 9: 100,
HUNTER, S. H., AND J. J .A. MCLAUGHLIN. 1958. Poisonous tides. Sci. Amer. 199 (2)
92.
INGLE, R. M. 1954. Irritant gases associated with red tide. University of Miami,
Coral Gables, Fla. Marine Laboratory. Special Service Bull. No. 9, 4 pp.
INGRASI. W. M. A D G. \V. PREScO1T, 1954. Toxic Fresh-water Algae. The American
Midland Naturalist. 52 (I) : 75—87.
KCcHENMEIs’rn, C. F. H. 1855. Oscillaria intestini. In his: Die in und an dem
Korper des lebenden Menschen vorkommenden Parasiten. 2. Abt. Die
pflanzlichen Parasiten. Leiprig, B. C. Teubner. v. 2. p. 26.
KCCHENMEI5T E R, C. F. H. 1857. Osci l laria intestini. In his: On animal and vegetable
parasites of the human body. Trans l. for the 2. German edit. by E. Lankaster,
London, Ssdenham Soc. v. 2, p. 136.
LACKEY, J. B., 1949. Plankton as Related to Nuisance Conditions in Surface Water.
In Limnological Aspects of Vater Supply and Waste Disposal. Am. Association
for the Advancement of Sd., pp. 56-63.
LAtTER, C. J. 1957. The significance of microorganisms in plant design. Proc. 11th
Ann. Conf. Md..De I. Water and Sewerage Assn., pp. 67—74.
LUND, E. J. 1935. Some facts relating to the occurrences of dead and dying fish
on the Texas coast during June, July and August 1935. Ann. Rep. Texas Came,
Fish. O)ster Comm. 1934—35, p. 47.
MARTIN. A. C. AND F. M. Urnn, 1959. Food of Game Ducks in the United States
and Canada. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin No. 634, 156 pp.
MYERS, H. C. 1947. The role of algae in corrosion. Jour. Amen Water Wks. Assn.
39: 522—524.
NELSON, 0. F. 1965. Kenosha increases plant capacity with microstrainers, 2 (7):
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1941, at the New Jersey Section Meeting. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 33: 716.
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Rept. Field Crops Res. Branch, Agric. Res. Service, U.S. Dept Agric., and Bur.
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PALMER, C. M., 1959. Algae in Water Supplies. U. S. Public Health Services Pub!.
No. 657,88 pp.
172

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PALMER, C. M. AND IV. M. INGRAM, 1955. Suggested Classification of Algae and
Protozoa in Sanitary Science. Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 27 (10) : 1183—1188.
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of the Algae. Botanical Review, 22 (3) : 167—240.
Pitr.scon, G. W., 1960. Biological Disturbances Resulting from Algal Populations
in Standing Water. In The Ecology, Pymatuning Laboratory of Field Biology,
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Medicine. Grune and Stratton, Inc., New York City, 85 pp.
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SILVEY, J. K. G. 1963. The Relationship Between Aquatic Organisms and Tastes
and Odors. Public Works, 94, 106—108, 192—194.
SELVEY, J. K. G. AND A. IV. ROACH. 1964. Studies on Microbiotic cycles in Surface
Waters. Jour. American Water Works Assoc., 56 (1) : 60—72.
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Pub. Health Rep. 45: 2867.
STEYN, D. G., 1945. Poisoning of Animals and Human Beings by Algae. So. African
Journ. Sci., 41: 243—244.
SYMONS, G. F. 1956. Tastes and Odor Control—Part 2. Water and Sewage Works,
103: 348—355.
TARLTON. E. A. 1949. Algae control at Danbury, Connecticut. Jour. New England
Water Wks. Assn. 63: 165—174.
TAYLOR, H. F. 1917. A mortality of fishes on the west coast of Florida. Science
48: 367.
TAYLOR. H. F. 1917. Mortality of fishes on the west coast of Florida. Rep. U. S.
Comm. Fish. app. III. 24 pp.
TIMM ON S, F. L. 1960. Weed control in Western Irrigation and Drainage Systems.
Joint Rept., ARS 34—14, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture
and Bureau of Reclamation, U. S. Dept. of the Interior, pp. 1—22.
TISDALE, F. 5. 1931. Epidemic of intestinal disorders in Charleston, W. Va., occurring
simultaneously with unprecedented water supply conditions. Am. J. Pub. Health
21: 198.
TISDALE, E. 5. 1931. The 1930—1931 drought and its effect upon public water supply.
Am. J. Public Health 21: 1203.
VELDEE, M. V. 1931. An epidemiological study of suspected water-borne gastre-
enteritis. Am. J. Publ. Health 21: 1227.
WHEELER, R. F., J. B. LACKEY AND S. ScHon, 1942. A Contribution on the Toxicity
of Algae. Public Health Reports, 57 (45) : 1695—1701.
WOODCOCK, A. H. 1948. Note concerning human respiratory irritation associated
with high concentrations of plankton and mass mortality of marine organisms.
J. Marine Res. 7 (1): 56.
173

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7
Recognizing some Aquatic
Nuisance Algae
AN ARTIFICIAL key is presented for some of the algal genera
commonly encountered in recreational waters. Because of a
preponderance of genera associated with the fresh-water envi-
ronment, other English-language publications useful in supplying
descriptive details and pictures for identification are listed. These
indude Forest (1954), Palmer (1959), Patrick and Reimer
(1966), Prescott (1951), Prescott (1954), Smith (1950), Taft
(1961) , and Tiffany and Britton (1952).
An Artificial Key to some Aquatic Nuisance Algae*
To use the key, the specimen must be observed under a micro-
scope to determine its pertinent characteristics. These character-
istics are compared against the first couplet in the key. Choosing
the one that best fits the specimen, one must proceed to the desig-
nated couplet following and repeat the operation until a genus
is reached.
I. Plant consisting of a thread, strand, ribbon, or mem-
brane composed of cells; frequently visible to the un-
aidedeye 2
1. Plants of microscopic cells that are isolated or in irreg-
ular spherical, or microscopic clusters; cells not grouped
into threads 25
2. Heterocysts present. (Heterocysts are specialized cells,
larger, dearer, and thicker walled than the regular cells
in a filament; they separate from other algal cells per-
* Modified from Palmer. C. M. (1959)
174

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width
6. Heterocysts and
thread width
mitting portions of chains to grow into completely new
individuals) 3
2. Heterocysts absent 8
3. Threads gradually narrowed to a point at one end,
appearing as radii, in a gelatinous bead or mass 4
3. Threads same width throughout 5
4. Spore (an asexual reproductive structure) present, ad-
jacent to the terminal heterocyst Gloeotrichia
4. No spore present Rivularia
5. Branching absent, heterocysts contained within the fila-
ment, threads encased in a gelatinous bead or mass
Nostoc
5. Threads not encased in a definite gelatinous mass 6
6. Heterocysts and vegetative cells shorter than the thread
Nodularia
vegetative cells not shorter than the
7
Plate 15. Nuisance Algae. 1. Rivularia, 2. Nodularia, 3. Anabaena,
4. Oscillatoria, 5. Lyngbya, 6. Aphanizomenon.
2
4
5
175

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7. 1-Jeterocysts rounded Anabaena
7. Heterocysts cylindric . A phanizornenon
8. Branching absent 9
8. Branching (including “false” branching) present 20
9. Cell pigments distributed throughout the protoplasm 10
9. Cell pigments limited to plastids (bodies within plant
cell that contain photosynthetic pigments) 12
10. Threads long, not forming a spiral, one thread per
sheath; sheath or gelatinous matrix present 11
10. No sheath or gelatinous matrix apparent Oseillatoria
11. Sheath distinct; no gelatinous matrix between threads
Lvngbya
11. Sheath indistinct or absent; threads interwoven with
gelatinous matrix between Ph onn idi urn
12. Cells forming a thread or ribbon, cells separating
readily into discs or short cylinders, their circular face
showing radial markings Cyclotclla, Stephanodiscus
12. Cells either not separating readily. or if so, no circular
end wall with radial markings 13
13. Cells in a ribbon, attached side by side or by their
corners 14
13. Cells in a thread, attached end to end 15
14. Numerous regularly spaced markings in the cell wall
Fragiiaria
14. Numerous markings in the cell call absent Seen edesm us
15. Plastid in the form of a spiral band Spirogyra
15. Plastid not a spiral band 16
16. Plastids two per cell, cells with a smooth outer wall
Zygnema
16. Plastids either one or more than two per cell 17
17. Plastids close to the cell wall, occasional cells with one
to several transverse wall lines near one end. .. . Oedogoniurn
17. Occasional terminal transverse wall lines not present . . . . 18
1$. Cells with one plastid that has a smooth surface, cells
with flat ends Uiothrix
18. Cells with several plastids or with one modular plastid 19
19. Iodine test for starch positive, one plastid Per cell,
threads when broken separating irregularly or between
cells Rhizocioniurn
19. Iodine test for starch negative, several plastids per cell,
side walls of cells straight, not bulging. A pattern of fine
176

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lines or dots present in the wall but often indistinct
Illelosira
20. Branches reconnected, forming a distinct net.. .Hydrodictyon
20. Branches not forming a distinct net 21
21. Each cell in a conical sheath open at the broad end
Diuobr)’on
21. No conical sheath around each cell 22
22. Branching commonly single or in pairs, cells green,
threads not surrounded by a gelatinous mass, light and
dense dark cells intermingled in the thread Pithop/zora
22. Most of cells essentially alike in density 23
2: . Branches few in number, and short, colorless . . Rhizoclonium
‘ . ‘
Plate 16. Nuisance Algae. 7. Phormidium, 8. Cyclotella, 9. Stephanodiscus,
10. Fragilaria, 11. Scenedesmus, 12. Spirogyra, 13. Zygnema,
14. Oedogonium, 15. Ulothrix.
LL
10
I
Is
4.
I
I5
U
.7
1 P—
.11 /

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23. Branches numerous and green .24
24. Terminal attenuation (a continuous decrease in width
of a filament, often to a point or thin hair) gradual, in-
volving two or more cells Stigcocloniurn
24. Terminal attenuation absent or abrupt, involving only
one cell Cladophora
25. Cells in colonies generally of a definite form or ar-
rangement 26
23. Cells isolated, in pairs or in loose, irregular aggregates 31
26. Cells without transverse rows of markings, cells ar-
ranged as a layer one-cell thick 27
26. Cells without transverse rows of markings. cell cluster
more than one-cell thick and not a flat plate 28
27. Cells elongate, united side by side in one or two rows
Scenedesin us
27. Cells about as long as wide, not immcrsed in colorless
matrix, cells angular with spines. projectionS or inci-
sions
Plate 17. Nuisance Algae. 16. Melosira, 17. HydrodictyOfl , 18. DinobryOfl.
19. Rhizoclonium, 20. Stigeodonium. 21. Cladophora , 22. Pediastrum.
Pediastrum
7
I
22
178

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28. Cells sharp-pointed at both ends; often curved like a
bow, loosely arranged or twisted together. .. . AnkistrOdesmus
28. Cells not sharp-pointed at both ends; not bent as a bow. .. .29
29. Flagella present, cells touching one another in a dense
colony, cells arranged radially, facing outward, plastids
brown Synura
29. Flagella absent 30
30. Cells not elongate, often spherical, plastids absent, pig-
ment throughout, cells equidistant from center of
colony Coelosphaerium
30. Cells irregularly distributed in the colony, not equi-
distant from the center, cells rounded Microcystis
31. Cells with an abrupt median transverse groove or inci-
sion; cells brown, flagella present . . . . armored flagellates (e.g.
Ceratium)
31. Cells
with
an abrupt
median transverse groove
or
inci-
sion;
cells
green, no
flagella ..
. . Desmid (e.g.
Staura trum)
+
Plate 18. NuisanCe Algae. 23. Ankistrodesmus, 24. Synura, 25.
26. Microcystis, 27. Ceratium, 28. Staurastrum.
Coelosphaerium,
23 24 25
26
28
179

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References Cited
FOREST. H. S., 1954. Handbook of Algae. University of Tennessee, Knoxville. 467 pp.
PALMER, C. M., 1959. Algae in Water Supplies. U. S. Public Health Service Publi-
cation No. 657, 88 pp.
PATRIck, It. AND C. 1%’. REIMER, 1966. The Diatoms of the United States, Vol. 1,
The Academ of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Monograph No. 13, 688 Pp.
Parscorr, G. IV., 1951. Algae of the Western Great Lakes Area. Cranbrook Inst.
Sci., Bloomlield Hills, Mich., 946 pp.
Pnscorr, C. W., 1954. flow to Know the Fresh Water Algae. Win. C. Brown Co.,
Dubuque, iowa, 211 pp.
SMIm. G. M., 1950. The Fresh-Water Algae of the United States. McGraw Hill
Book Co., New York, 719 pp.
TAn, C. E., 1961. A Revised Key for the Field Identification of Some Genera of
Algae. Turtox News, 39 (4): 98—103.
TIFFANY, I.. W AND M. E. Bnrrox, 1952. The Algae of Illinois. University of
Chicago Press, Chicago, 407 pp.
180

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8
Recognizing Some Common Higher
Aquatic Plants
s PECJFIC identification of aquatic plants is possible sometimes
only through the examination of minute plant parts by
specialists.
A key is presented that will aid the non-systematist in the identi-
fication of the common plant groups. It is divided as follows:
A. Plants floating on water surface.
B. Plants submerged beneath water surface.
C. Plants erect and emergent; rooted to the substratum and ex-
tending upward out of the water.
Other manuals supplying descriptive comments and pictures as
an aid to more specific identification include: Eyles and Robert-
son (1944), Fassett (1960). Martin et al. (1957), Mason (1957),
Morgan (1930), and Muenscher (1944).
An Artificial Key to some Common Aquatic Plants
To use the key, one must select the proper group and read the
description in the first couplet. The description that best fits the
unknown specimen will indicate either the plant group or genus
to which the specimen belongs or an additional couplet. in which
case the process is repeated until the description for a particular
plant or genus best fits the unidentified specimen.
Plants floating on water surface.
1. A lobed or regularly forked plant body, usually small in
size, roots usually suspended free in the water, with no
connection to lake bottom; capable of drifting 2
181

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S. ____
. ,a&
I
C
0
t
p
E
Plate 19. Duckweeds (Lemnaceae) A. Big duckweed [ Spirodela polyrhiza (Lin-
naeus)]; B. Star duckweed (Lemna trisulca Linnaeus); C. Duckweed (Lemna);
D. Watermeal (WoIffia); E. Woliflella; F. Big duckweed on a Maryland pond.
B
k ‘\ ‘
182

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The duckweed group includes the smallest of the aquatic flow-
ering plants. They have neither true leaves nor stems, but the
floating green plant body, usually possessing tiny roots that pene-
trate the water, looks like a leaf and is often so-called. Duckweed
floats on the surface of pools, marshes, and ponds, and may grow
abundantly in enriched streams; from such streams it may enter
standing water areas and become a nuisance as it is held by plant
and other obstructions. It may become sufficiently dense to pro-
hibit sunlight from penetrating the water, thus killing algae and
other aquatic plants. It physically obstructs water use, creates
an unsightly condition, and upon decomposition produces odors.
It is difficult to kill because of the waxy sheen to the plant body
and the characteristic “layering” of one plant upon another. Wind
or currents aid greatly in dispersing production providing the plant
mass is not held in place by obstructions.
Occasionally the layman may confuse duckweed with algae.
Close observation or the examination of any object removed from
the water surface will clearly show the clinging bright green plant
bodies to be much larger than nonfilamentous miscroscopic algae.
I. Floating-leafed plants with leaves attached to the bot-
tom by a bare unbranched stem of varying length 6
2. Plants consisting of forked or cross-shaped, long-stalked
segments, floating below the surface; often many en-
tangle to form clumps Star Duckweed, Lemna triscula
Linnaeus
2. Plants rounded, not stalked 3
3. Plants with roots 4
3. Plants without roots 5
4. Plants red on the lower surface, each joint with two
or more roots Big Duckweed, S pirodela polyrhiza
(Linnaeus)
4. Plants green on the lower surface, each joint with one
root Duckweed, Lemna
5. Plants globular, pea green, the size of a pinhead
• Watermeal, Wolff ia
5- Plants thin, sickle-shaped or elongated . - Duckweed, Wolff iella
6. Stem attached to middle of leaf 7
6. Stem attached at the summit of a deep notch in the leaf.... 8
7. Leaves oval, not more than 3 inches wide, with supple
stem au.ached to the middle of the leaf
Watershield, Brasenia schreberi Gmelin
7. Circular leaf with a long, fairly rigid stem attached to
the middle of the leaf, leaves 6 inches or more wide
sometimes supported by the stem above the water
level American Lotus, Nelumbo
183

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.. . -;;tci!
—
--. - ‘-? .‘
‘ •:: - ;‘
S
;•
Plate 20. Watershield (Brasenia schreberi Gmelin) X %.
S. Circular or heart-shaped leaf with the veins radiating
from the mid-rib nearly to the margin without forking;
floating yellow flowers Yellow Pond Lily, Nupizar
8. Circular leaf with much-forked veins radiating to the
margin, white, or pink floating flowers
White Water Lily, Xv mph a ca
I
.1 .
.1
I;
- _ - _ j----- - - —
p -— - —. -
184
Plate 21. American Lotus (Nelumbo).

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Plants Submerged beneath water surface.
1. Plant body made up of stems bearing whorled, smooth,
brittle branches, easily snapped with a slight pressure;
plants with a musky odor, no roots, often with a limy
encrustation Green Algae, Muskgrass, Chara
I. Plant body not brittle 2
2. Submerged leaves bearing small bladders, leaves irreg-
ularly forked Bladderwort, Utricularia
2. Submerged leaves not bladder bearing 3
3. Submerged leaves compound, made up of narrow seg-
ments or leaflets 4
3. Submerged leaves simple, made up of a single narrow
blade 7
4. Submerged leaves with one central axis, leaves feather-
like, branches in whorls about the stem, stems usually
very lax Water Milfoil, Myriophyllum
4. Submerged leaves irregularly forking 5
5. Submerged leaves singly and alternately or irregularly
borne; leaves many branched, irregularly forked and ap-
pearing as tufts of numerous thread-like projections at-
tached to the center stem Water Buttercup) Ran unculus
5. Submerged leaves borne opposite each other on stem or
whorled 6
6. Leaves stalked, fan-like, extending from opposite sides
of the stem; leaflets not toothed Fanwort, Caboi-nba
6. Stems with whorls of stiff, forked leaves; leaflets with
toothed or serrated margins (small barbs) on one side;
plant without true roots Coontail, Ceratophyllum
7. Submerged leaves long and ribbon-like, at least 1/10
inch wide S
7. Submerged leaves not ribbon-like; often thread-like but
if wider than 1/10 inch, less than 1 inch long 18
8. Leaves scattered along the stem 9
8. Leaves all borne from one point 17
9. Leaves with mid-ribs evident s iicn held against bright
light, many species with great diversity in leaf forms
Pondweed, Potamogeton 10
9. Leaves without mid-ribs evident when held against
bright light Water Star Grass. Heteranthera
185

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Plate 22. Muskgrass Plate 23. Bladderwort
(Chara) (An Alga) (Utrlculana)
10. Plants with both floating and submerged leaves, the
floating leaves with expanded blades and differing from
those submerged 11
10. Plants with all leaves alike and submerged 14
11. Floating leaves,: heart-shaped at the base, 1 to 4 inches
long, waxy in appearance
Floating-leafed Pondweed, Potamogeton natans Linnaeus
11. Floating leaves rounded at the base 12
12. Floating leaves with 30 to 50 nerves; submerged leaves
about three times as long as broad
Large-leafed Pondweed, Po tarn ogeton amplifoliws
Tuckerman
12. Floating leaves with less than 30 nerves 13
13. lTpper submerged leaves with long stalks
Pondweed, Potamogeton nodosus Poiret
13. Submerged leaves not as above but with an abrupt awl-
shaped tip . . Pondweed, Potamogeton angu tifolius Berchtold
14. Margins of the thin leaves crimped and toothed, the
marginal serrations visible to the naked eye
Curly-leafed Pondweed, Potamogeton cris pus Linnaeus
14. Margins of leaves not visibly toothed 15
4 I
P 4 P ,4b
%A $4
186

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Plate 24 Water MiItoàI X ½: A. Myriophyllum spicatum Linnaeus;
B. M. verticillatum Linnaeus; C. M. heterophyllum Michaux.
I
I
I
A
II
()
187

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I
-
188
Plate 25. Coontail (Ceratophyllum) X %.

-------
• q

‘ .‘ j
Plate 26. Water Buttercup
(Ranunculus)
Plate 28. Floating-leafed Pondweed
(Potamogeton natans Linnaeus).
Plate 27. Water Star Grass
(Heteranthera).
Plate 29. Large-leafed Pondweed
(Potamogeton amplifolius Tuckerman)
I
189

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Plate 32. Flat -stemmed Pondweed
(Potamogeton zosteriformis Fernald)
Plate 31. Robbins Pondweed
(PotamogetOn robbinsii Oakes).
Plate 33. Sago Pondweed (Pota-
mogeton pectinatus Unnaeus).
a
S
ft
Plate 30. Curly-leafed Pondweed
(Potamogeton crispus Linnaeus).
190

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Plate 34. Wild Celery (Vallisneria) X 14: A. Specimen with fruit and tubers;
C. Northern form; D. Southern form.
15. Leaves minutely toothed on the margins, visible when
magnified; leases extending stiffly in opposite direc-
tions so that whole plant appears flat; only midvein
prominent Robbins Pondweed, Potamogecon robhinsii
Oakes
15. Not as above 16
16. Stems much flattened and winged, about as wide as the
leaves; leaves 1/12 to 1/5 inch wide
Flat-stemmed Pondweed, Potam ogeto n zosteriform is Fernald
16. Leaves threadlike, long, rounded, and slender, rarely
exceeding 1/10 inch wide, oriented into a lax, diffuse,
branched spray. The “bunched” appearance of the
threadlike rounded leaves as they float in the water
readily distinguished sago pondweed from others of
group . .. . Sago Pondweed, Potanio ge/on ectinatus Linnaeus
17. Leaves very long and ribbonlike; when examined with
hand lens, showing a central dense zone and a peri-
pheral lc s dense zone: flowers borne on a long stem that
forms a spiral after fertilization. . . . Wild Celery, Vallisneria
17. Leaf, when examined with hand lens not showing zones
as above Water Plantains, Aiisrnataceae
IS. Leaves opposite, all leaves elongated and narrow, many
times longer than broad, and enlarged or dilated at base.
Bunches of smaller leaves near the leaf base
Bushy Pondweed, Najas
iS. Leaves whorled, usually 3 in each whorl, (sometimes 4)
Waterweed, A nacharis (Elodea)
I
I
P
I
191

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9
(
,lf
fr,
1/
ci ’
‘I-
1’ I
I
Plate 35. Bushy Pondweed (Najas) X %.
- t
I
V
N’
/ I
I ,
‘F
I.
p
7
192

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‘ -1 ’
B
1 .
‘.- 4,
‘

Plate 36. Waterweed X %: A. Anacharis canadensis Michaux,
B. A. occidentalis Pursh.
Plants erect and emergent; rooted to the substratum
md extending upward out of the water.
1. Leaves more than 10 times as long as broad 2
1. Leaves less than 10 times as long as broad 9
2. Base of stem triangular in cross section, the three angles
in some cases so rounded as to make the stem appear
almost round 3
2. Base of stem not triangular 5
3. Three cornered seeds, usually straw colored, enclosed
within a loose elongated sac; a low-growing gTasslike
plant Sedge, Carex
3. Seeds not enclosed in a loose elongated sac 4
4. A single flower or seed-bearing structure on the tip of
the stem Spike Rush, Eleocharis
4. Stem with one or more leaves extending beyond the
spike or seed-bearing structure Bulrush, Scirpus
(The hardstem bulrush has long, hard, slender, dark
olive-green stems, 1/8 to 3/8 inch at the base, extending
3 to 5 feet above the water surface; the softstem bulrush
has soft stems of light green color, 3/10 to I inch thick
at the base.)
/
A-
..
193

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I,
I
I ,
I
A
(p
Jb
194
Plate 37. Spike Rush (Eleocharis).

-------
V
P ,
f / I
Ii
- /1/
!! 1
/
Plate 38. Bulrush
(Scirpus)
5. Leaf with a collarlike appendage, membranous or com-
posed of hairs at the junction of the leaf blade and that
part of the leaf that is wrapped around the stem 6
5. Leaf without collarlike appendage mentioned above 8
6. Seed or flower-bearing structure composed of scales with
fringed margins and overlapping in a single row
Cut Grass, Leersia
6. Flower-bearing structure not as above 7
7. Flowering heads composed of small seeds with long silky
hairs, appearing as a silky mass. The rootstocks are stout,
making it a difficult plant to pull up. Plants are 6 to
12 feet tall Reed Grass, Phragmite.s
/
- b
/1
195

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/1
.i .
I
Plate 39. Wild Rice (Zizania): A. Stand of Broad-leaved form;
a. broad-leaved; b. narrow-leaved form.
7. Flowering part of plant much branched, but not as
closely packed as in Phrag?nites. Seeds much larger,
about 3 4 inch long. Plants with short roots and easily
pulled up Wild Rice, Zi:ania
8. Flowers borne in closely packed cylindrical spikes, seeds
very small Cattail, Typha
(The common cattail has flat leaves about 1 inch wide;
the narrow-leaved cattail has leaves somewhat rounded
on the back that are 1 ’S to 7 8 inch wide.)
S. Flowers in spherical heads, seeds larger, up to size of
corn kernel; leaves shallowly and broadly triangular in
cross-section Burreed, Sparganiu m
9. Leaves arising at intervals along the stem 10
. Leaves arising at base of the plant 11
10. Plants with jointed stems. swollen at the joints, or with
creeping rootstocks; stems with alternate, simple leaves
Smartweed, Polygon urn
10. Stems prostrate or creeping. branched, and often
jointed and rooted at the joints; leaves opposite;
spreading plant. often forming floating mats over ex-
tensive water areas crowding out other plants: broken-
off branch fragments root readily, and stems may
F ; ‘
I
f 1
196

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elongate as much as 200 inches in one season
Alligatorweed, Alternanthera
11. Fleshy or tuber-bearing rootstocks and rosettes of sheath-
ing basal leaves; leaves variable, some kinds arrowhead
shaped Duck Potato, Sagittaria
11. Not as above, floating plants 12
12. Plants floating with fibrous, branched roots and rosettes
of stalked leaves, the leaf stalks often inflated and
bladderlike Waterhyacinth, Eich horn Ia
12. Plants with floating rosettes of stalked leaves, commonly
several rossettes produced on branches of the same plant
at the end of flexible, cardlike, sparsely-branched sub-
merged stems; plant thrives at depths of 2 to 5 feet
and favors muddy bottoms with high organic content;
leaf stalks inflated, but not as conspicuously as in water-
hyacinth Waterchestnut, Trapa
*
Plate 41. Alligatorweed
Plate 40. Burreed (Sparganium). (Alternanthera).
197

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Plate 42. Smartweed (Polygonum) X 34.
1.—a- --
A
198

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t_ -. c
Plate 43. WaterhyaCiflth (Eichhornia).
199

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I
(P
Plate 44. Waterchestnut (Trapa) X ‘A.
References Cited
Eyw, C. E. AND J. L. ROBERTSON, 1944. A Guide and Key to the Aquatic Plants
of the Southeastern United States. U. S. Public Health c1\ u Bulletin No. 286.
151 pp.
F srrr, N. C., 1960. (Revised Edition) A Manual of Aquatic Plants. University
of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 405 pp.
M TIN, A. C., R. C. ERICKSON AND J. H. Srrisis, 1957. Improving Duck Marshes
bs Weed Control. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior,
Circular No. 19 (Revised) , 60 pp.
MASON, H. L., 1937. A Flora of the Marshes of California. University of California
Press, Berkeley, SS pp.
MORGAN, A. H., 1930. Field Book of Ponds and Streams. G. P. Putnam’s Sons,
New Yoik, 448 pp.
M I F.NSCHER, W. C., 1944. Aquatic Plants of the United States. Comstock Publishing
Co., Inc., New York, 374 pp.
200
/1

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9
Some Aquatic Animal Pests
‘LI THEN aquatic animals become abundant, they become pests
V V and nuisances to men because of their biting habits and their
sheer mass of numbers. Some aquatic animals serve as interme-
diate hosts for parasites that may attack man directly and some
service as vectors of diseases that affect the health of man. The
more important oganisms and the associated problems that they
cause are discussed in this and the following chapter.
Midges
Midges or blind mosquitoes, have created nuisance problems
around the shores of a number of lakes. The creation in New
York City during 1936 and 1937 of Fountain and Willow Lakes,
high in organic content, on what had previously been salt marsh
meadow open to tidal action, apparently created optimal condi-
tions for the breeding of a number of species of chironomids. As
a result, midge adults were present in enormous numbers near
the shores of these lakes within the World’s Fair site during the
summer of 1938 (Fellton, 1940). The waters apparently were
very rich because the organic matter originally present on the
bottom began decomposing as soon as flooding occurred. Raw sew-
age was added to the lakes, and much of the fertilizer applied on
grass and ornamental plants near their shores was soon washed
into the water. Laboratory experiments to guide control opera-
tions were performed with a number of chemicals, resulting in
the use of rotenone as a control agent at concentrations of 6 and
10 ppm. Concurrently, copper sulfate was applied to control the
algae.
For a number of years Winter Haven, Florida, has experienced
blind mosquito problems from two adjacent lakes that receive
raw sewage and treated effluent from the city. The midge involved
was identified as Glyjbtotendipes paripes (Edwards); Provost
201

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(1958) attributed its overproduction to excessively fertilized
waters. Because midges feed almost exclusively on algae, lakes
rich in algal production are likely also to be high in midge pro-
duction.
Sadler (1935) found the breeding season of Chironomus ten tans
(Fabricius), another troublesome midge, extended from the last
of April to about the first of October in the vicinity of Ithaca,
New York. The immature stages of the midge are aquatic. The
species overwinters in the larval stage, commonly called the blood-
worm; the larvae o bloodworms develop from eggs and undergo
several growth and development stages before they stop feeding
and develop into pupae. Pupation and emergence of the adult are
closely associated with the warming of the water in the spring and
early summer.
Since emergence of the adults takes place from the entire sur-
face of a lake at approximately the same time, nuisances result
from the mass of numbers. Sadler (1935) describes the swarming
of the adults, “.. . the adults appear on the wing in late afternoon
and early evening for their mating flight. The swarm, which is
composed almost entirely of males, begins with a few individuals,
and increases in proportion as others join its ranks. Like a single
unit, the mass moves forward for a short distance, and then drifts
back with the wind, then forward again, and then back, and so
on and on in endless repetition. There is much weaving in and out,
up and down, among the individuals; also a somewhat regular
rise and fall of the whole mass in the vertical plane, unless the
wind is strong.” The hordes of adult midges have been known to
get into children’s eyes and noses, turn houses black with insects,
and literally stall traffic along lake shore roads in the evening. Also,
because of this abundant food supply, spiders increase in number
and their webs drape the trees, bushes and buildings, and create
an additional nuisance.
The periodic appearance of a large number of gnats, Chaoboruc
astictopwc Dyar and Shannon, during the summer has presented a
problem to residents of Clear Lake, Lake County, California, for
many years and has adversely affected a large resort business
(Hunt and Bischoff, 1960). Clear Lake has an area of over 41,600
acres. Walker* found that emergence took place from late April
to early October with peak emergence in late July or early August.
A series of tests over 2 years showed the average total seasonal
202

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emergence to exceed 500 gnats per square foot. Walker calculated
that the total seasonal production on the upper arm of the lake,
comprising 44 square miles, approximated 712 billion gnats or
356 tons of organisms. One night’s emergence was estimated at
-½ billion, and bottom samples contained as many as 1,000 per
square foot.
To control these gnats, Clear Lake was treated in September
1949 with a chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide DDD (dichioro-
diphenyl dich loroethane) at a concentration of 1 part of active
insecticide to 70 million parts of water. It was determined that
a 99 percent kill of larvae resulted. A second chemical application
was necessary in 1954 and a third in 1957. These latter applica-
tions were calculated to produce a concentration of one part in 50
million parts of water. Following both the 1954 and 1957 applica-
tion, 75 to 100 western grebes were found dead along the shore.
Results of chemical analysis of the fatty tissue from the grebes
in 1958 indicated DDD was present at the unusually high con-
centration of 1,600 ppm (Hunt and Bischoff, 1960). The amount
of DDD found during March 1958 in the visceral fat of the brown
bullhead ranged from 40 to 2,500 ppm. To prevent the possibility
of increasing the present hazard of DDD poisoning of wildlife, Clear
Lake will receive no further treatment with DDD.
Serious outbreaks of the midge, Chironomus plumosus (Linna-
eus), have plagued residents and industries in the Lake Winnebago
area of Wisconsin for years. Winnebago is a large. shallow, fertile
lake of 137,000 acres. Hilsenhoff (1959), in laboratory tests,
screened 16 commercially available organophosphate insecticides
to determine their relative toxicity to the bloodworm. Dipterex
and malathion incorporated into granules produced an 80 percent
mortality of the larvae at concentrations of 0.1 lb. per acre of
the technical material. These insecticides have a low toxicity to
fishes, water fowl and mammals. Field tests on Lake Winnebago
with malathion granules, however, did not prove conclusive at
low concentrations; the feasibility of chemical control on a large
body of water with a nonaccumulative insecticide is questionable.
Various species of midges have become established as signifi-
cant nuisance problems in San Mateo County and many other
suburban areas throughout California (Whitsel et al., 1963).
S \%Talker, J. R., 1949. The Clear Lake Gnat, Chaoborus asticto pus—A Review of
Investigations and the Proposed 1949 Clear Lake Treatment Program. Bureau of
Vector Control, Department of Public Health, California, 12 pp. (mimeo).
203

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Midge production at all stations in a study of the problem area,
was preceded by a pronounced increase in accumulated organic
matter. Water known to be polluted with sewage wastes was found
to have over 1100 larvae per square foot of substrate. Man-made
drainageways were found to produce greater midge infestations
than natural drainage creeks. Localized chemical applications were
reported to be successful in control practices. “Chemical control
by granular Baytex 0.1 and 0.2 lb. per acre provided fairly effec-
tive reduction of Chironoinus larvae in impounded and slowly-
moving waters, with no harm to mosquito fish, Ga in busia off mis.
Granular dieldrin showed promising control in slowly-moving
waters, with little harm to Gambusia and aquatic invertebrates
at 0.5 lb. per acre.”
The use of carp and goldfish stocked at rates of 150 to 500
pounds of fish per acre for midge control in water-spreading ba-
sins was found to be of only short-term advantage (Bay and
Anderson, 1965). Other factors, including pond siltation, l ila-
mentous algae , and natural enemies tended to maintain the larval
populations at the same level as did the carp.
Mayflies And Caddisflies
Mayflies and caddisflies are among those organisms to which
water pollution biologists apply the term “clean-water-associated”
animal assemblages. Because of biological or climatic phenomena,
or both, these organisms may cause nuisances.
There are over 550 species of mayflies known from North
America north of Mexico (Burks, 1953). Occasionally, reports
Burks, over a period of years, adult mayflies have caused damage
in certain local areas. Unusual hordes of these insects may leave
the water on the first suitable day after adverse weather condi-
tions. The adults are fragile insects that die within a few hours;
when occurring in hordes their dead bodies may clog ventilator
ducts and sewers and may also cause temporary traffic difficulties.
On July 23, 1940, at Sterling, Illinois, mayflies piled as high as
4 feet blocked traffic over the Fulton-Clinton highway bridge for
nearly 2 hours. Fifteen men in hip boots used shovels and a snow
plow to clear a path.
Fremling (1960) reports on mayfly problems caused by the large
burrowing mayfly [ Hexagenia bilineata (Say) J in some areas
of the Mississippi River. Upon emerging “. . . the mayflies rest on
204

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terrestrial objects during the day, and under their weight tree
limbs become pendulous and even break. Residents of summer
homes along the river find their houses covered and their yards
littered by the insects. A constant rustle is heard as the insects
are disturbed and fly up from their resting places. The dead in-
sects and their cast nymphal exuviae form foul-smelling drifts
where they are washed up along the shore. . . . Crews of the tow-
boats which transport freight on the Upper Mississippi River
find mayflies to be a navigation hazard. . . . Visibility is greatly
reduced by the mass of insects in the searchlight beams. The
crushed insects render the decks, ladders and equipment of the
boats slippery and dangerous. The towboats must of necessity be
completely hosed off with water after each encounter with a large
swarm of mayflies.”
Caddisflies have created serious nuisance and health problems
at Keokuk, Iowa (Fremling, 1960). They swarm around the city
lights during most of the summer and often blanket store win-
dows. Masses of the insects dart into the faces of passersby, flut-
ter under their eye glasses and fly down open-necked clothing
The minute setae that are dislodged from the wings and bodies
of the caddisflies cause swelling and soreness in the eyes of hy-
persensitive individuals. Many Keokuk residents have become
hypersensitive to caddisfly emanations and have developed typi-
cal hay fever symptoms. Fremling goes on to say that it is inadvis-
able to paint houses alo9g the river bluff during the caddisfly
season, and outdoor lighting is impractical. Spider webs become
pendulous with captured caddisflies, making the riverside homes
unsightly. Allergic reactions to caddisfiies in the Fort Erie area
have been reported by Parlato (1929 , 1930, 1932, 1934), Parlato
etal. (1934) andby Osgood (1934, l957a, l957b).
Wilson (1913) was first to cite mayflies as a cause of allergic
distress. Allergies caused by mayflies have also been reported by
Figley (1929 and 1940) and by Parlato (1938). In 1929, the first
report was made of allergic distress caused by caddisflies (Par-
lato, 1929). Osgood (l957b) tested 623 allergic patients for sen-
sitivity to caddisflies and found that 12 percent showed a strong
reaction. Most allergic patients are not sensitive to caddisflies
alone; some showed a stronger reaction to caddisflies than to
mayflies, and vice versa. Parlato found the incidence of allergic
reaction to caddisflies sufficiently high as to state that this insect
was not a rare cause of allergy (Parlato, 1934).
205

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Plate 45. Mosquito [ Psorophora ciliata (Fabncius)], one of the largest
of Illinois mosquitoes.
Mosquitoes
Ross (1947) estimates the nation’s annual “mosquito bill” at
Sl0O million because of mosquito-borne diseases, and close to S50
million for screening, pest control programs, and depressed real
estate values. Mosquitoes cause an economic loss both as nuisances
and as disease carriers.
Mosquitoes in the nuisance group inflict financial loss in var-
ious ways. In some sections they restrict the vacation season by
inflicting painful bites, with subsequent loss of patronage to re-
sort establishments. They attack domestic animals and fowl and,
when bites are inflicted in large numbers, cause loss of weight
and health. It has been estimated that 500 mosquitoes will draw
1 :20 of a pint of blood per day from an exposed animal (Ross.
1947). Sometimes mosquitoes become so abundant as to inter-
fere with or stop work by man, with a consequent loss of labor
and accomplishments. Mosquitoes are among the worst nuisances
of the out-of-doors and prevent enjoyment of recreational facili-
ties by many people seeking exercise and relaxation.
Most mosquitoes breed in still water; small ponds and pools of
many types, the shallow edges of lakes, and the still water in shal-
low, dense weed beds along the edges of streams and lakes, and
in accumulated algal masses, serve as ideal habitats. They
prefer areas with little wave action, an abundant cover in the
form of aquatic vegetation, an abundant food in the form of
humus or other organic matter on the bottom, and surface floating
particles of microorganisms. The mosquito production of a lake
or reservoir appears to be directly proportional to the amount of
intersection line between plants (or flotage) and the water
surface. Likewise, the relative mosquito production potential of
206

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aii-terent plant types is in direct proportion to their relative
amount of intersection line per unit area of water surface, other
factors being equal. Situations with an abundance of intersection
line provide mosquito larvae with food and protection from natu-
ral enemies and also furnish adult mosquitoes with an ideal envi-
ronment for the deposition of eggs.
In a study of the effect of plants on mosquito production,
Bishop and Hollis (1947) found a difference in the relative inter-
section values among the various types of aquatic vegetation. For
a given plant species the intersection value, and therefore the
mosquito production potential, varies according to the percentage
of vegetation cover occurring at the water surface. The highest
intersection values are usually produced with an intermediate
cover: low intersection values may be associated with either low
or high covers. When the cover at the water surface approaches
IU() percent, the intersection line is almost completeR eliminated.
Submerged speies are not important except during periods of
low water or tlowering. when the ’ may break the water surface
and create high intersection values. Leafy erect species may have
low production potentials when the water surface intersects the
naked lower portions of the stems, but production of mosquitoes
may be greatlv increased when the water rises into the upper leafy
portions of the plants. On impounded water, terrestrial species
occur mainly in the upper portion of the zone of fluctuation; wet-
land species usually occur down to the lower limit of summer
Figure 17. Generalized contour distribution of basic plant types on the shore
line of a main-river reservoir (from Bishop and Holtis, 1947).
Ta Flood Succllof 4 .
M. Mooa o O .oobo - aoo U n.
M , %um Mo.oullo-cooV l £iooMlon
LLG€ lD
t Woods
2 Co g.c.
3 L.at (root
4 fl.s us
3 Nod (r.ct
6 Cvp.t
7 flo.ts t 16.1
S foiling (sit
9 Subrn.’u .d
10 P16uston
207

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-a
MEDIUM
Re’ative trnersecbon Values
Figure 18. Anopheles quadnmaculatus Say production potentials of basic
plant types (from Bishop and HoIlis, 1947).
drawdo vn; aquatic sl)c1es often overlap with wetland species
and usualI extend out into the reservoir below the lower limit of
summer diiwdown 17 and iS;
The three principal arthropod-borne viru cs in the United
States are western equine. eastern equine and St. Louis encepha-
litis (Hess and Holden, l95 ). Western equine and ‘ t. Louis en-
cephaliti ’ ciir pi imari1y in the 22 western States, whereas east-
ern equine encephalitis occurs primari’y in the Atlantic and Gulf
coast tate . Birds serve as natural hosts. and mosquitoes as vec-
tors. for all three viruses. Man is an accidental host, but clinical
disease in man is produced by all three viruses.
Mosquitoes are implicated in the transmission of parasitic dis-
eases. Elephantiasis. characterized by massive glandular swelling,
is a disease that occurs commonly among the people of Puerto
Ri. (Faust. 1939 . The disease is caused by filarial worms, Wu-
chereria bancroffi which are slender nematode parasites that in-
vade the circulatory and lymphatic systems, muscles, connective
tissues or serous cavities of vertebrates. Wuchereria bancrofti
tre carried by 4 1 species of mosquitoes.
Other Insects
The attacks on man and other animals by btackthes, zmuIzuin
are described by Beldim (194T’. The bite, at first painless
____ ____z.
0
-j 0
-)
20S

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except for a slight prickling sensation, later produces an ulcer-
like sore that is due to the salivary toxin. In susceptible individ-
uals there may be marked inflammation, local swelling, and gen-
eral incapacity. Exposed portions of the body such as head, neck
and legs are most frequently attacked. The flies also have the
habit of crawling beneath the clothing. They are a pest to fisher-
men and woodsmen and may incapacitate both man and animals.
Large numbers of cattle, horses and other domestic animals have
perished from the depredations of these flies in Europe and Amer-
ica. As carriers of human diseases, blackflies are not serious in
this country, although many persons get severe dermatitis or al-
lergic reactions from the bites (Anon., 1952).
Deer flies and horse flies, Chrysops spp. are of medical import-
ance not only as aggressive bloodsucking pests, but also because
certain species transmit diseases to man and animals. As mechan-
ical vectors they may carry pathogenic organisms on their mouth
parts and bodies. Chrysops discalis Williston, the western deer fly,
can transfer tularemia, Paste t ire/la turalenses, to both man and
animals and remains infective for at least 2 weeks (Belding, 1942).
Occasionally anthrax germs also are carried on the beaks of
horse flies and deer flies between diseased and healthy animals
and sometimes to man. Deer flies often attack man. In the sum-
mer of 1935, 170 men of the Civilian Conservation Corps were
preparing a game refuge on salt marshes near Bear Lake, Utah.
The deer flies were very annoying; 30 men contracted tularemia
in 2 weeks, and the camp had to be closed (Anon., 1952).
Anthrax, an acute disease caused by Bacillus anthracis, is highly
infective to all classes of mammals including man. Infections in
livestock are acquired generally during grazing. Incidence is espe-
cially high during the fly season, and outbreaks in cattle have
been ascribed to fly transmission. The vectors of this disease are
the horseflies, the stable fly, mosquitoes, and several nonbiting
insect species (Anon., 1952)
The stable fly, Stoinoxys calcitrans (Linnaeus), resembles a
housefly in appearance; its mouthparts are adapted for piercing
and for sucking blood (Comstock, 1936). It attacks man viciously.
In some of the TVA impoundments, extensive breeding areas have
been created for this organism by the aquatic weeds and algae
that reach or concentrate on the water’s surface in dense mats
of decomposing vegetation.* In some waterways in Kentucky this
Dr. Gordon Smith, Aquatic Biologist, TVA, Wilson Dam, Alabama.
209

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pest breeds prolifically in flotage created by the bodies of dead
mayflies and aquatic vegetation. Stableflies threaten the recrea-
tional resource. One 180,000-acre recreational area had to be
dosed in 1965 because of this pest.
Leeches
Leeches abound in warm, protected shallow water where there
is little wave action and where plants, stones, and debris offer
concealment. They are chiefly nocturnal in their activities and
remain hidden under stones and vegetation in daylight. The ma-
jority of specimens are found from the water’s edge to a depth
of approximately 6 feet. Leeches require substrates to which they
can adhere and consequently are rare on pure mud or clay bottoms.
Some species persist in intermittent ponds by burrowing into the
mud bottom where they construct a small mucous-lined cell in
which they live. Leeches are dormant in winter, burying them-
selves in the upper part of the bottom material just below the
frost line.
According to Pennak (1953), Macrobdella, the northern blood-
sucker, and Philobdella, the southern bloodsucker, are the only
common American leeches that regularly take human blood. Like
all other bloodsuckers, they attach to the host with the caudal
sucker and explore with the anterior end until a suitable spot is
located, especially where the skin is thin. The oral sucker is then
attached tightly and S fine painless incisions are made by back-
and-forth rotary motions of the jaws. Suflicient blood is taken
to distend the stomach so that the leech may be five times as heavy
as it was when it began feeding. When the leech has filled its
digestive tract it leaves the host voluntarily, but the incisions
keep on bleeding for a variable time because of the persistence
of the salivary anticoagulant, hirudin, which the leech injects
into the incision and which causes a more or less intense and
prolonged itching. If the leech is permitted to complete its meal,
this substance is largely or entirely withdrawn from the wound;
but if the meal is curtailed, it acts as an irritant. Some persons
are much more sensitive to the irritant qualities of leech bites
than others, just as some are more sensitive to the poison of mos-
quitoes or other insects. True bloodsucking leeches require only
an occasional full meal. Specimens have been kept for more than
2 years without feeding.
Pennak (1953) records species of the following genera as ones
that take blood from man: Helobdella, Placobdefla, Er pobdella,
210

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Macro bdel la, Philobdella, and Haemopis. Distinguishing charac-
teristics are as follows:
Helobdella stagnalis (Linnaeus) —Pond or Common Snail Leech
This species is identifiable by the small brown or yellow cuticu-
lar plate on the anterior dorsal surface. The color is brownish,
greenish-gray or pale pink; it is translucent or nearly transpar-
ent. The leech has one pair of eyes that are simple and close to-
gether. Its size is small; the body is elongate oval, very narrow
at the anterior end, and moderately depressed. Maximum length
is 34 inch, although the usual extended length varies between 3 %
and ½ inch. It is predaceous, feeding on small aquatic snails,
bloodworms, aquatic annelid worms, and insect larvae. It will also
take blood and flesh from excoriated surfaces of all kinds of living
and dead animals if the opportunity arises. Helobdella stagnalis
(Linnaeus) inhabits ponds, lakes and sluggish streams, attaching
to undersides of rocks, logs, boards, and other objects submerged
in the shallow waters. It sometimes attaches itself to small snails.
Placobdella rugosa (Verrill) —Rough Turtle Leech.
Placobdella rugosa (Verrill) may be readily recognized by its
numerous rough and high papillae and dull color; it is opaque to
translucent, dark greenish-brown, and spotted with yellow and
green. It has 1 pair of compound eyes. The leech is medium to
large; the body firm, broad, thin, and flat, and is much depressed.
The maximum length is 3 inches when extended, although the
usual extended length is l-½ to 2 inches. These leeches are tem-
porary parasites clinging to the legs and necks of water turtles,
snapping turtles and western painted turtles, but are generally
predaceous and freeliving, feeding on aquatic worms, snails and
insect larvae. If the leech is living a parasitic life on a turtle, it
will leave its host during periods of reproduction and live a free
life in ponds, lakes and streams. It will take a meal of human
blood if the opportunity arises. It is found attached to the under-
sides of rocks, logs and boards submersed in the shallows of
lakes, ponds, and streams.
Erpobdclla punctata (Leidy) —Common Worm Leech
The large forms are distinguished by the 2 to 4 dorsal longi-
tudinal rows of black, irregular spots. These are separated by
paler bands; the medium 2 are very pronounced, and the outer
2 are often lacking in mature forms and are generally absent in
immature forms. Erpobdella p unct at a (Leidy) has a firm, moder-
211

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ately contractile body. It is opaque, dark olive-green or light choc-
olate brown to black dorsally and paler ventrally; the color tone
varies considerably. It has 3 pair of eyes; the first pair on somite
II are largest, and the other 2 pair are at the sides of the mouth.
on somite IV. The body is slender, elongated, moderately firm,
and moderately contractile. The maximum extended length is 4
inches, whereas the usual extended length is 2 to 3 inches. The
leech feeds on small worms, smaller leeches, aquatic snails and
eggs, aquatic insect larvae, and nymphs. It will take human blood
when the opportunity arises. It is found in lakes, ponds, and
streams, attached to rocks, logs, old tree stumps, plants, and other
objects submerged in the shallow waten.
Macrobdella decora (Say) —American Medicinal Leech
Macrobdella decora (Say) may be identified by its bright strik-
ing color pattern, large size and soft, slimy, very contractile body.
It has a median longitudinal row of 20 to 22 orange or light red
spots, a similarly arranged series of small black spots on each
side close to the margins, and a rich orange ventral surface some-
times plain but usually spotted with black. Five pairs of eyes are
arranged in a regular arch near the anterior dorsal margin; the
last 2 are especially difficult to see in pigmented specimens. The
body is elongated, flattened, smooth, very soft and slimy, and
very contractile. The maximum extended length is 7 to 8 inches,
whereas the usual extended length is 4 to 6 inches. It is vora-
ciously predaceous, feeding on earthworms, aquatic worms, snails,
insect larvae, and frog eggs; it is even cannibalistic. At times it
is a fierce bloodsucker, attacking wading birds, fishes, frogs and
tadpoles, turtles, wading animals and humans. Normally it in-
habits the shallows and areas along the muddy shoreline where
land and water meet. Often the leech is found attached to floating
logs, boards and limbs, and is in abundance on the moist, wave-
washed shores, hidden beneath algae, pondweeds, logs, limbs,
and other debris.
Haemo is marmoratis (Say) —Mottled Hone Leech
The color of Haemopis marmoratis (Say) is variable and usually
blotched. Sometimes the dark blotching is barely distinct, black-
ish-green, dark olive-green or brown, and paler ventrally; some-
times light blotching is very distinct, olive-green, yellow-green
blotched with irregular darker brown or black spots that are often
confluent (marbled mottled), and paler ventrally. Sometimes the
color is plain dark green or yellow. Dorsally, little conelike ele-
212

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A
D
p
1 ;

•
,
t
.3
E
Plate 46. Blood Sucking Leeches (from Moore, 1923)
A. Helobdella stagnalis, E. Haemopis grandis,
B. Glossiphonia complanata, F. Erpobdelfa punctata,
C. Macrobdella decora, G. Haemopis marmoratis.
t .
k* 11\
B
F
A
j
C
G
D. Placobdella parasitica,

-------
vations (sensillae) or sensory annuli are noticeable, even to the
naked eye in larger specimens. Eye arrangement is the same as
in Macro bdeli!a decora (Say). The maximum extended length is
6 inches; the usual extended length varies between 2 and 5 inches.
The leech is usually predaceous, feeding upon earthworms, aquatic
worms, snails, insect larvae, and even its own species. It will occa-
sionally take a meal of blood from the legs of wading animals,
from frogs, tadpoles, aquatic birds, and humans. It is less active
than Macrob delta decora (Say). It abounds in the mud at the
side of pools, lakes, streams and ditches and also occasionally on
land. It is found attached to floating logs, boards and limbs near
the shoreline, also in abundance on the moist, wave-washed shores,
hidden beneath algae, pondweeds, limbs, twigs and other debris.
Haemopis marinoratis (Say) and Macrobdella decora (Say) are
often found in close association.
The leech of greatest concern to bathers is Macrobdella decora
(Say) - It is principally a swamp animal and normally inhabits
the shallows in the vicinity of the shoreline where land and water
meet. It may be found concealed under stones and logs where,
when well fed, it rests quietly or, when hungry, lies in wait for
frogs or warm-blooded animals.
Any disturbance of the water, such as is caused by a wading
animal, attracts the leeches partly because of the mechanical dis-
turbance that stimulates the tactile organs and partly because of
the animal emanations that stimulate the organs of chemical
sense. Thus, leeches are attracted by bathers and tend to congre-
gate and remain about the docks and stones of the bathing area.
They are strong and rapid swimmers and can invade a particular
area from other sections of the lake. They are most active at
maximum water temperatures, and the period of greatest preva-
lence in the bathing area corresponds with that of maximum
water temperature in August.
Moore (1923) describes methods of leech control through freez-
ing in their winter quarters. As water temperatures fall with the
onset of winter, leeches become more and more sluggish and finally
bury themselves in the mud or beneath stones on the bottom of
shallow water. Leeches are readily killed by exposure to a tempera-
ture of 200 F for a few hours. When the first thin ice starts to
form and it is certain that the water temperature has attained
its minimum, Moore recommends that the water be drawn off as
rapidly as possible until the water level is lowered 4 feet, and
213

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that this level be maintained for at least 5 or 6 weeks during the
coldest part of the winter. He reasons that, under these circum-
stances, the exposed flats would be frozen hard to a considerable
depth, and temperatures would be well below the fatal minimum
for the imprisoned leeches. This method of control was effective
in Can Pond, Palisades Interstate Park near New York City.
Pennak (1953) states that leeches may be temporarily con-
trolled in localized bathing beach areas by applying 100 lbs. of
powdered lime per acre per day in the shallows. In general, chem-
ical controls have not proved successful, although chemicals such
as copper sulfate will kill leeches that are exposed to it. The
measures employed in snail control have been used with some
success in leech control. Weekly distribution of a slurry composed
of 10 lbs. of copper sulfate and 5 lbs. of copper carbonate or lime
per acre of bathing area has shown some success. Chelated copper
compounds applied marginally as a spray at concentrations sub-
lethal to fish have also been of value.
CLAMS
Ingram (1959) discussed nuisances caused by the Asiatic clam,
Corbicula fluminea (MUller) in California. He states: “In 1953
C. S. Hale, general manager of the Coachella Valley County Water
District, Coachella, California, stated in correspondence that an
apparently serious infestation of Corbicula flu minea had devel-
oped in the water district’s underground distribution system. Irri-
gation water is taken from the Colorado River at Imperial Dam,
transported through 123 mi. of open canal, and distributed
through approximately 500 mi. of underground pipe. Accumula-
don of live clams and clam shells causes serious impairment of
water delivery at farmers’ turnout valves, at ends of laterals, and
in irrigation sprinkler systems. Clams were appearing in irriga-
tion water in Riverside County and Imperial Valley distribution
systems.”
“In January 1958, correspondence from Lowell 0. Weeks, gen-
eral manager and chief engineer of the Coachella Valley County
Water District, reviewed the troubles cited in Hale’s letters and
brought the clam situation up to date. Weeks stated that an 8-ft.
diameter lateral is opened each January at its distribution point.
In 1953, perhaps 100-200 clams were found in this structure. In
1954 about 3 cu. yd. of clams were removed, but during the sum-
mer the dam nuisance to farmers greatly subsided. In January
1955 only about ½ cu. yd. had accumulated in the lateral. Suc-
214

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ceeding seasons have revealed only slight accumulations in this
structure and no farmers have complained. Weeks commented
that 86 mi. of unlined canal, which brings water into the Coach-
ella Valley from the All-American Canal, was emptied of water in
November 1957 after approximately 10 years of continuous flow.
It was noted that various sections were heavily infested with
clams, and that for a distance of ½ mi. the bottom appeared to
be heavily graveled with clams. This observation led him to be-
lieve that recurrence of the 1953 summer clam infestation was
entirely possible if and when the correct conditions occurred.”
In the Tennessee Valley, the economic problem posed by COT-
bicuta has been centered chiefly in the sand and gravel industry
(Sinclair, 1964). Approximately 12 such plants operate on the
Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers. The Asiatic clam has been a
nuisance to these companies. Clams present in river gravel de-
posits are naturally introduced into the aggregate. Mechanical
separation is almost impossible. Their number does not exceed
the 1 percent limit specified for such gravel; the problem lies,
rather, in the clams’ response to being poured with concrete ag-
gregate. The live clams move toward the surface, leaving a void.
Sinclair quotes one sand and gravel company executive as stating
that, “seeing moving concrete can be unnerving.” In addition, the
clam is troublesome because it gets past the intake screens in
steam plants, grows to larger size inside the pipes and necessi-
tates expensive periodic boiler-cleaning procedures.
Animals in Drinking Water Supplies
Organisms in potable water supplies in which interest has been
expressed are as follows (Ingram and Bartsch, 1960)
Single-celled animals (Protozoa) Segmented worms (Annelida)
1 Paramecium ltsTais
Ciliates
) tflulfllfltfl \Vater fleas (Cladocera
lA rcella Daphnia
Amebas , nm -
i.nytugza Bosm ina
Sponges (Porilera) Copepods (Copepoda)
Meyenia Cyclops
Hydras and jellyfish Aquatic sow bugs (Isopoda)
(Coelenterata) Aseuus
Hydra . Insects (Insecta)
Craspedacusta sowerbu Bloodworm, C / i iron omus
Lankester (Diptera)
215

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Rotifers (Rotatoria) Predacious diving beetle,
Philodina Dytiscus (Coleoptera)
Brachionus Whirligig beetle, Gyrinus
Roundworms (Nematoda) (Coleopter a)
Diplogaster n udica pitatus Water strider, Gerris
Steiner (Hemiptera)
Moss animals (Bryozoa) Faucet snails and Asiatic clams
Paludicella (Mollusca)
Fredericella Bythinia ten taculata
Plumatel la Linnaeus
Pectinatella Corbicula flu rn inea Muller
Bahlman’s papers (1931, 1Q32) are among the early ones that
report bloodworms from finished water that had been thoroughly
treated in a filtration plant. lie first discovered these organisms
in an uncovered clear well on the grounds of the Cincinnati,
Ohio plant and concluded that they multiplied by feeding on
algal growths and decaying leaves that had accumulated, form-
ing a bottom sludge. He noted that “ . . . a complete covering
of the clear-well reservoir is the only means of maintaining an
aesthetic supply.” Bloodworms were eventually reported emerg-
ing from bathtub faucets and in toilet bowls in a suburban
family hotel.
Hechmer (1932) reported that Chironomous plumosus was
found in finished-water tanks in the filtration plant of the
Washington, D.C.—Maryland Suburban Sanitary District. He states
that they did not pass through the sand filters, but developed in
the finished water from eggs that were deposited directly
on the finished-water tanks. Larvae discharged from faucets
caused consumer complaints. The bloodworm problem was
eliminated for the householder by covering the filtered finished-
water tanks.
Brown (1933) discussed a bloodworm infestation of a distribu-
tion system and found the point of development to be a reservoir
of the Stockton, California potable supply. The reservoir had a
collapsed roof.
Clam nuisances have not yet been reported in distribution
systems in the United States (Ingram and Mackenthun, 1963)
however, one species, Corbicula fluminea, introduced from Asia
and bordering Pacific Islands, has been recorded as causing trou-
ble in raw drinking water supplies and in the canal transporta-
tion system of the LaVerne water softening plant of the Metro-
politan Water District of Southern California (Ingram, 1956,
216

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1959). This clam has a life cycle that, in prognostication, should
eventually cause it to be listed as a nuisance in treated supplies.
It is established as a pest in pipes of irrigation systems in
California. Since the time of the first published record of its dis-
tribution in the United States as an inhabitant of certain
streams in California and Washington (Ingram, 1948), it has
spread to waterways in Arizona, Oregon, Idaho, Tennessee, and
Ohio.
The snail, Bythinia ten taculata, as the mollusk invader of
bathtubs and kitchen sinks, has been named the faucet snail.
Baker (1902), while studying drinking water from Lake Michi-
gan, first collected this snail in the United States in 1898 as
an intermittent household guest. The snails were pumped into
the distribution system of the Chicago area, which was supplied
by the Lake View crib intake. During this infestation they were
found occluding small water pipes in residences; in a number
of instances tumblerfuls of snails issued from faucets.
References Cited
ANoN., 1952. Insects. The Yearbook of Agriculture, Supt. of Documents. washington ,
D.C., 780 pp.
BAHIMAN, C., 1931. Larval Contamination of a Clear Water Reservoir. Ohio Con-
ference on Water Purification, State Department of Health. Columbus, Ohio,
pp. 56—58.
BAHLMAN, C. 1932. Larval Contamination of a Clear Water Reservoir, Journal
American Water Works Association, 24 (5): 660—664.
BAKER, F. C., 1902. The Mollusca of the Chicago area. II. The Gastropoda, Bulletin
3, Natural History Survey, Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago, Illinois,
pp 328—330.
BAY, E. C. AND L. D. ANDERSON, 1965. Chironomid Control by Carp and Goldfish.
Mosquito News, 25 (3): 310—316.
BELDING, D. L., 1942. Textbook of Clinical Parasitology. D. Appleton-Century Co..
New York, 888 pp.
Bisnop, E. L. AND M. D. HOLLIS, 1947. Malaria Control on Impounded Water.
Federal Security Agency, U. S. Public Health Service and Tennessee valley
Authority, Health and Safety Department, 422 pp.
BaowN, K. \V., 1933. Experiences with Well Water in an Uncovered Reservoir.
Journal American Water Works Assoc., 35 (3): 337—342.
Bnics, B. D., 1953. The Mayllies, or Ephemeroptera, of Illinois. Bull. Ill. Nat.
Hist. Surv., 26: 1—216.
CoMsTocK, J. M., 1936. An Introduction to Entomology. Comstock Publishing Co.,
Inc., Ithaca, N. Y., 1044 pp.
FAUST, E. C., 1939. Human He lminthology. Lee and Febiger, Philadelphia, 780 pp.
FELLTON, H. L.. 1940. Control of Aquatic Midges with Notes on the Biology of
Certain Species. Jour. of Economic Entomology, 33 (2): 252—264.
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Ficin, K. D., 1929. Asthma due to Mayflies. Amer Jour. Med. Sd., 178: 338.
Ficriy, K. D., 1940. Mayfly (Ephemerida) Hypersensitivity. Jour. Allergy, 11 (4):
376 —387.
FREMUIqC, C. R 1960. Biology of a Large Mayffy, Hexagenia bilineata (Say), of
the Upper Mississippi River. Agricultural and Home Economics Experiment Sta.,
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pp. 842—851.
Fmsuric, C. R., 1960. Biology and Possible Control of Nuisance Caddisflies of
the Upper Mississippi River. Agricultural and Home Economics Experiment
Station, Iowa State Univ. of Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa, Research Bull.
483, pp. 856—879.
HEC MMER, C. A., 1932. Chironomus in Water Supply. Journal American Water
Works Association, 24 (5): 665-668.
Hrss, A. D. . r.in P. Houtw, 1958. The Natural History of the Arthropodborne
Encephalitides in the United States. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,
70 (3):294—31l.
HHSENHOFF, W. L., 1959. The Evaluation of Insecticides for the Control of Ten di/ritS
p luuzosta (Linnaeus). Jour. of Economic Entomology 52 (2): 331 —332.
HUNT, E. G. AND A. I. Btscuorp, 1960. Inimical Effects on Wildlife of Periodic
DDD Applications to Clear Lake. California Fish and Game, 46 (1): 9 1— 1 06.
INGRAM, W. M., 1948. The Larger Freshwater Clams of California, Oregon, and
Washington. Journal of Entomology and Zoology, 40 (4): 72—92.
Iwaun, W. M., 1956. Snail and Clam Infestations of Drinking-Water Supplies.
Journal American Water Works Association, 48 (3): 258—268.
INGRAM, W. M., 1959. Asiatic Clams as Potential Pests in California Water Supplies.
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Supplies: Operator’s Identification Guide. American Water Works Assodation-M7,
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the Leeches of Palisades Interstate Park. Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin, 2 (1):
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10
Swimmer’s Itch and Human Blood
Flukes
ORT (1928) first demonstrated that certain larval trematode
worms peculiar to the United States (schistosome cer-
cariae) of birth and mammals can penetrate the skin of man
and produce a dermatitis characterized by papular eruptions.
“Swimmer’s itch,” schistosome dermatitis, or “water rash” has
attracted increasing attention since 1928, particularly in the
lake regions of the North-Central United States where tourist
trade has been affected.
Life Cycle of Swimmer’s Itch
Organism
The cercariae causing swimmer’s itch are free-swimming, col-
orless, and about 0.7 mm in length. With proper illumination
they are just visible to the unaided eye as they swim rapidly
in an irregular manner or hang suspended in water (Bracken,
1941). The adults are parasitic in the hepatic, portal, and mesen-
teric veins of birds and mammals. The fertilized female migrates
to the smaller intestinal veins and deposits eggs that work their
way through the intestinal wall into the lumen, from which they
are passed with the feces. Each egg contains an embryo which,
upon hatching, develops into a ciliated free-swimming organism
termed a miracidium. If a suitable snail is located, the miraci-
dium penetrates into its soft tissues, and a further type of
development takes place in which a sporocyst stage and then
cercariae are produced. Following this period of development,
the cercariae emerge from the snail host and swim about in
search of the proper vertebrate host to penetrate in which they
can develop to maturity in the blood vessels to complete the
life-cycle.
220

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This cycle is interrupted accidentally by the occasional penetra-
tion of cercariae into the epithelial layer of the skin of bath-
ers, resulting in swimmer’s itch. Following such penetration,
the cercariae are soon destroyed, perhaps by unsuitability of
human body fluids, with their bodies remaining at the pene-
tration site to cause acute inflammatory reactions. Apparently
the cercariae do not penetrate completely until the bather has
emerged from the water; however, a few minutes after emer-
gence the : ictim experiences a tingling sensation in exposed
parts of the body. Soon, minute red spots can be seen at the
points where the organisms have penetrated the skin. The tin-
gling sensation may then disappear, and it may be a number
of hours before a distinct itching is felt. and the minute spots
enlarge to form discrete red elevations of the skin to 1,4 inch
in diameter. Ocassionaily the elevations become pustular. The
\\)
Agure 19. Life cycle of swimmer’s itch cercariae. E. Egg M. Miracidium;
S. Sporocyst; R. Redia; and C. Cercariae.
/• j
C
//
/
-
221

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degree of discomfort and bodily reaction resulting from infesta-
tion varies with the sensitivity of the individual and the degree
of infestation. With particularly sensitive persons. considerable
pain, fever, and severe itching may occur along with noticeable
swelling of the affected areas; in others the discomfort may be
only minor and transitory, and some bathers appear immune
to infestation. The skin elevations typically disappear within a
week, but the redness may persist for some time longer.
Several characteristics of swimmer’s itch are constant:
it is always associated with bathing or wading in natural
waters; it is found less commonly on parts of the body pro-
tected by bathing suits or clothing and almost never on the
face; each lesion is discrete and does not spread; and the con-
dition clears up within a few days if there is no further con-
tact with the cercariae. Thus schistosome dermatitis can usually
be differentiated from other common skin afflictions such as
poison ivy, which continues to spread after contact, chigger
bites, which characteristically occur where clothing constricts
the body, and bites of other insects, which often occur on the
head and face” (Brackett, 1941).
Cercariae may live in the water from 24 to 60 hours or
more after emerging from the snail host (Brackett, 1941). It
is probably safe to assume that under natural conditions the
life span is only 24 hours or less, and in wind-agitated water
it may be considerably shorter. The types of cercariae capable
of producing swimmer’s itch typically emerge from the snail
host quite regularly at a definite and more or less restricted
period each thy. The majority of forms emerge about 4:30
a.m., and 1 type emerges at about 9:30 p.m. Because cercariae
probably survive at least 24 hours under conditions in nature,
it appears during an outbreak that the causative organisms may
be present in water at all times of the day. The typical emerg-
ence activity of the cercariae may be influenced to some extent
by factors existing in the water. A sudden rise in temperature
may be followed by sudden emergence of many cercariae ir-
respective of the time of day. On the other hand natural star-
vation of the snail host may delay or prevent the shedding of
cercariae.
There is evidence that submerged aquatic plants promote in-
fections of swimmer’s itch. Some of the species of snails capable
of harboring the causative organism live in and upon stands
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of submerged aquatics that often grow adjacent to or in the
vicinity of bathing areas. Also, at least 2 species of cercariae
attach themselves to objects and may cling to such vegetation.
Under these circumstances, the removal of the submerged vege-
tation will usually eliminate infections to bathers by the parasite.
Cercariae emerge in greatest numbers during the warmest
weather. Infected snails kept at low temperatures cease to shed
cercariae; however, if these snails are brought into a warmer
environment, cercariae emerge suddenly in large numbers re-
gardless of light conditions. Cercariae are also attracted by light
and swim actively in the direction of the greatest light intensity.
Although active swimming by the cercariae may be limited to 50
feet or less, it is thought that they may be carried distances of
¼ mile or more by the movement of surface water. In many
places bathers are troubled only when there is an inshore wind
of not too great intensity, and only those who bathe in the
shallow water close to shore are affected. Those who swim in the
deeper water farther from shore are scarcely bothered even
though they swim directly over an infected bed of snails.
Olivier (1949) presented clear evidence that schistosome der-
matitis is essentially a sensitization reaction. He found that pri-
mary exposure to the cercariae produced only mild reactions;
with repeated exposures, the reactions became progressively
stronger. There is some evidence that sensitization may persist
for several years, since 3 persons who had their last exposure
8, 10. and 12 years previously developed severe dermatitis follow-
ing exposure to very small numbers of cercariae.
Cort (1950) lists 18 species Of schistosome cercariae, exclud-
ing those that develop to maturity in man in other areas of the
world, that have been reported to cause dermatitis. Bracken
(1941) states that “one of the most striking and clear-cut fea-
tures of schistosome dermatitis outbreaks is the fact that prob-
ably over 90 percent of the more severe outbreaks are caused
by (2ercaria slagnuolac in varieties of the snail Stagnicola ernar-
gina/a.” The relationship between this snail and the most severe
outbreaks of swimmer’s itch is promoted by: (1) clean, sandy
beaches ideal for swimming and preferred by the snail; (2)
peak populations of the snail host that develop in sandy-bottomed
lakes of glacial origin; (3) the greatest development of adult
snails that do not die off until toward the end of the bathing
season; and (4) the cycle of cercarial infection so timed that
223

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the greatest numbers of cercariae emerge during the hot weather
in the middle of the summer when the greatest amount of
bathing is done.
According to Con (1950), the dermatitis-producing schistosome
cercariae have been shown to develop either under natural or
experimental conditions from the following intermediate snail
hosts in the United States:
Lymnaea (Lymnaea) stagnalis (Linnaeus)
Lyrnnaea (Radix) auricu/aria (Linnaeus)
Lymnaea (Stagn icola) palustris elodes (Say)
Lymnaea (Stagnicola) emarginata (Say)
Physa parkeri Currier
Physa am/nil/area Gould
Gyranlus pawns (Say)
in the Lake States the seasonal cycle of the parasite in relation
to the life cycle of the intermediate host snail determines
the seasonal variation in the dermatitis infections. The first case
on the bathing beaches usually occurs in late June or early July
when the snails infected in the fall begin to give off cercariae
in appreciable numbers. Exact dates may vary somewhat with
the season and with water temperature. During July, the peak
of cercarial production is reached, and the infections reach
their highest intensities. Production is especially influenced by
hot spells that speed up the development of the cercariae and in-
crease the numbers that escape. Later in the summer the der-
matitis cases lessen, chiefly because of the death of infected
snails; in many places there is a complete cessation before the
end of the swimming season. Where the adult snails die early
the dermatitis season is shortened since there is practically no
infection of juvenile snails during the summer.
Schistosome dermatitis is widespread. As summarized by Cort
(1950). it has been reported from the United States, Asia,
Japan, Australia, IVales, France, Switzerland, Cuba, Mexico, and
Canada. In the United States, schistosome dermatitis has caused
greatest problems in the North Central lake region. In addition to
Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan, schistosome dermatitis has
been reported from North Dakota, Illinois, Nebraska, Texas, Flor-
ida, Washington, Oregon, Nevada, Oklahoma, California, Con-
necticut, Rhode Island, New York, and Iowa.
In Nevada, Oklahoma, Alabama, Tennessee, Texas and Florida,
cases of dermatitis have been reported in which the diagnoses
224

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were based on clinical evidence without laboratory confirma-
tion (Jarcho and Van Burkalow, 1952). The existence of these
outlying areas and the crossing over of birds from one flyway
to another in addition to the creation of new impoundments sug-
gests that the dermatitis may spread to still other areas where it
has not so far been known. This is what appears to have hap-
pened among the TVA Reservoirs which have attracted birds
from the Mississippi flyway. These authors conclude by saying,
“Thus the silent zone of cercarial dermatitis seems to be spread-
ing into man-made lakes farther south. And in the endemic
areas, where the lakes are being made increasingly accessible,
larger and larger numbers of summer visitors are entering the
silent zone. More often, therefore, and in more localities, man
is being added to the worm-snail-bird association to form the
four-factor pathogenic complex called ‘cercarial dermatitis’.”
CONTROL
The simplest method of control for the individual bather is the
rubbing of the body with a rough towel before the water film
dries on the surface. Such action will crush the cercariae before
they have an opportunity to penetrate the skin. A fresh-water
shower taken immediately after leaving the water is also effec-
tive. The common practice of alternately swimming and sun-
bathing provides an excellent opportunity for a bather to re-
ceive a severe infection if infective cercariae are abundant in
the water.
Knowledge of the relationship between schistosome cercariae
and snails indicates the point in the cycle at which extensive
control measures should be aimed. Since the developmental cycle
is interrupted unless these larvae find the proper type of snail
and penetrate its tissues, the elimination of snails from bathing
areas will result in the immediate disappearance of swimmer’s
itch. The problem, therefore, reduces itself to one of destroy-
ing all snails capable of harboring cercariae in and around
the bathing beach. Such destruction, with chemicals, is one of
the most severe controls on the lake ecology; some of the other
fish food organisms as well as the snails are killed as a result
of the toxicity of the chemicals used. The general ecology of
the area is disrupted and the “balance of nature” is destroyed
with a successful treatment. Treatment, therefore, should be
applied only to areas extensively used by man for swimming and
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confined to the minimum area that will provide adequate con-
trol of the snails.
The area treated is usually very small in relation to the
total area of the lake; thus the loss of fish food organisms in
the treated area and the resulting effect upon the fishery is
negligible when compared with the lake as a whole. Generally,
a.
4
7
3.
Plate 47. Snails known to harbor
swimmer’s itch cercanae.
t
,
6. 7.
Plate 48. Snails known to harbor
swimmer’s itch cercariae.
Collector
Bri ant Walker
F. C. Baker
L. H. Streng
L. H. Streng
H. B. Baker
\V. Westgate
J.P.E. Morrison
Location
Detroit, Mich.
Greenhouse,
Lincoln Park,
Chicago, Ill.
Grand Rapids,
\tich.
Lake Houghton,
Mich.
I)ouglas Lake,
Mich.
Kiamath Falls,
Oreg.
Boulder Junction,
“-is.
4.
5.
I.
U.SX.M. ’.
V Snail
1. 2544; Lyrnnaea (Lymrzdea)
stagnalis (Linnaeus).
2. 569286 L’ mnaea (Radix)
auricularia Linnaeus)
3. 30255 Lymnaea (Stagnicola)
patu.stri clodes Say)
4. 30252 Lymnaea kStagnicola
emarginata (Say).
5. 251214 Pii sa parkeri Currier.
6. ° 92 Physa ampi l1acea Gould
7. 4322 ) Gyraulus parvus (Say).
‘United States National Museum
226

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treatments are accomplished on sandy beaches that are good
for swimming . but are very low in the production of fish food
organisms.
The time of year that chemical treatment is undertaken is
important, since it involves the life cycle and habits of the
snails and fish. Studies indicate that very few young snails are
infected. Early in the summer, numerous immature infections are
present in the adult snails that have survived the winter. The
majority of the cercariae complete their development and first
begin to emerge in late June and early July. The infected snails
in most cases continue to give off cercariae until their death in
late summer or early fall. In the North Central lake States,
the optimum time to apply controls occurs between mid-June
and July 4.
In 1937 Con and his coworkers experimented by treating a
small area on a large lake with copper sulfate to kill the snails and
prevent further cases of water itch (McMullen, 1941) . Early ex-
periments centered around broadcasting copper sulfate crystals
of pea size and spreading a solution of copper sulfate along the
bottom with a T-shaped pipe. Later it was found that a copper
sulfate-copper carbonate mixture precipitated more copper on
the bottom where it would make direct contact with the snails,
and that this treatment was effective longer than any other
treatment tried. To reduce cost. fresh hydrated lime has since
been substituted for copper carbonate and has been found to be
effective.
Lake waters with a total methyl orange alkalinity of 50 mg ‘1
or gTeater have been successfully treated with the following mix-
ture: 2 lbs of copper sulfate (snow grade) plus 1 pound of
copper carbonate for each 1.000 square feet of bottom. Lake
waters with a methyl orange alkalinity of less than 50 mg/I
have been successfully treated with 2 lbs of copper carbonate
per 1,000 square feet of bottom. For example, an area 1,000 feet
long and 200 feet wide would require 400 lbs of copper sulfate
and 200 lbs of copper carbonate in a hard water lake. or 400
pounds of copper carbonate in a soft water lake (\iackenthun,
1958).
For small-scale operations. very simple equipment will suffice
to distribute the chemical mixture. An open end, 50-gallon drum
is half filled with lake water and placed in a suitable boat.
Fifty pounds of copper sulfate “snow” is added and stirred
227

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until dissolved. To this solution, 25 pounds of copper carbonate
is added slowly and stirred in to make a suspension of the car-
bonate in the sulfate solution. A vigorous reaction takes place
inside the drum and froth is caused by the carbon dioxide
produced. When all of the copper carbonate has been added
and the chemical action has subsided, the drum is filled with
water and the solution is ready for use. It should be borne in
mind that these chemicals are irritating to the mucous mem-
branes of the eyes, nose, and throat. Prolonged exposure
of the skin to this concentrated mixture should be avoided.
The chemical solution is allowed to flow by gravity through a
“T” pipe and is distributed evenly over the bottom of the
areas to be treated. The boat is propelled siowiy back and
forth so that the mixture is distributed as evenly as possible.
The speed of the boat must be regulated so that the calculated
quantity of chemicals covers the area. A drum filled as described
is sufficient to treat 25,000 square feet. To insure the proper dis-
tribution it is advantageous to stake out the area to be covered
by each barrel of the mixture. For large-scale operations, minor
adjustments may be made to the equipment used for algal con-
trol and pump and motor may be successfully used in distributing
the chemical solution.
5’
Figure 20. Diagram of gravity flow equipment used in distributing
chemical mixture for snail control.
CLAMP
HOSE
T
‘ HOLES
4
228

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Over many years, swimmer’s itch has been controlled success-
fully in Michigan with motor-powered units that distribute a
mixture of copper sulfate and fresh hydrated lime. The units
are mounted in ordinary flat-bottom row boats. Dilution water
is taken from the lake by a pump and into this water is in-
jected a mixture of dry chemicals that consists of 8 parts of
copper sulfate (snow grade) to 1 part of fresh hydrated lime.
The mixture passes through a discharge pipe from the pump over
the stern of the boat and is fed from a pipe “header” attached
to the stern onto a strip of lake bottom 10 to 12 feet wide.
A number of lengths of hose attached to the header and trailing
from the rear of the boat are weighted at the outlet end so as
to introduce the chemical solution directly onto the bottom
(Adams, 1945).
On some shallow bottom shelves it may be difficult to float
a loaded boat over the snail beds near the shore. Here. the
sowing of copper sulfate crystals by hand, at the same rate of
2 pounds of copper sulfate per 1,000 square feet of area, has
been successful in killing snails in water up to 2 feet deep.
The chemicals should be applied beneath the surface of the
water directly over the snail beds when the water is very calm.
Even slight ripples on the surface indicate sufficient water move-
ment to decrease the efficiency of the treatment. Applying the
chemical beneath the surface of the water concentrates the
Plate 49. Combination mixer-distributor unit for underwater chemical applica-
tion, top view. The dry chemical is injected into water stream on suction
side of pump.
I
229

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Plate 50. Combination mixer-distributor unit for underwater chemical
application, side view.
chemical within the treatment area and reduces the adverse
effet upon the ecology of the uriounding area. Areas to be
treated should be caret ullv marked and subdivided into small
enou.W ‘ c .tiOfls to in ure even distribution of the calculated
amount of chemical.
Swimming should be prohibited for at least 2 hours after
treatment to prevent undue dispersion of the chemical; since
snails are on the bottom of the lake, the longer the chemical
remains undisturbed on the bottom the more effective the treat-
ment will be. Any fish trapped within the treated area will be
killed. It is wise to remove all minnow boxes and traps from
the general area before treatment is begun. If there are no
underwater currents within the area, there will be little “drift”;
however, if currents are present, chemical “drift” will occur.
To reduce dermatitis appreciably it has been found necessary
to apply chemicals to at least 300 to 400 feet of lake frontage
to a width of ?( 0 feet or to the dropoff: it is desirable to
treat up to 1,000 uninterrupted shoreline feet. Treatment should
be conducted from the shoreline outward until the entire area
is covered. One treatment is effective during a season and often
throughout a ‘ ul)scquent season. Control experience in Wisconsin
indicates that treatment every other ear successfully reduces
the snail population within the bathing area and thus controls
swimmer’s itch.
__
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Howard*, following research in British Columbia, reports that
commercial coppeE sulfate used alone at a rate of 2 lbs per
1,000 square feet of treated bottom area may be optimal for
the control of snails in lakes with > 50 mg/i of bicarbonate.
Little advantage was noted in the use of lime as an additive.
Howard et al. (1964) state that in lake waters where hardness
is 10 to 50 mg/i bicarbonate, cupric sulfate dissolves yielding
ionic copper concentrations of 0.3 to 6.8 mg/I. Excess copper
forms the bicarbonate, which can remain colloidally dispersed as
a suspension. Under these conditions ionic copper concentrations
are high enough to kill in relatively short periods of time. In
hard waters, granular cupric carbonate is too insoluable to kill
snails. In softer waters cupric carbonate does go into solution
slowly, producing toxic levels of ionic copper.
Dermatitis Causing Organisms
Attacking Man
Four species of animal schistosomes have been associated with
cercarial dermatitis in man (Belding, 1942): (1) Cercaria elvae
(Miller) whose intermediate hosts are Lymnaea stagnalis vars.
appressa, perampla, li i i ianae, sanctaemariae and jugularis and
Stagn icola pal us! ris elodes; (2) Cercaria stagn icolae (Talbot)
whose intermediate hosts are Stagnicola emarginata vars. angu-
Ia (a, erna rgina ta, vilasensis, wisconsin ensis and canadensis; (3)
Cercaria physe!Jae (Taibot) whose intermediate hosts are Phy-
sella park en and P. magnalacustris; and (4) Schistosoma douth-
itti (Cort) whose intermediate hosts are Lymnaea stagnalis
vars , appressa, jugu lanis, lillianae, sanctaernariae and perampla,
L. palztstris, L. reflexa and Physa ancillania parkeri.
The pathology and symptomatology of schistosome dermitis is
described by Belding (1942): “The resistance of man, an ab-
normal host, to these cercariae explains the severe reaction , Its
nature indicates that the cercariae are walled off by the host and
destroyed in the epithelial layers of the skin. Penetration of the
skin occurs when the film of water evaporates. The cercariae
adhere with the ventral suckers and enter in about 5 minutes
through the action of their anterior spines and lytic secretions,
either between or through the pores. After 29 hours no cer-
T. E. Howard. Division of Applied Biology, British Columbia Research council,
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, personal correspondence, May 5, 1965.
231

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cariae remain but the reaction persists around the burrows.
They evoke an acute inflammatory response with edema, early
infiltration of neutrophils and lymphocytes, and later invasion
of eosinophils. As the water evaporates a prickling sensation is
followed by the rapid development of urticarial wheals, which
subside in about half an hour leaving a few minute macules.
After some hours severe itching, edema and the transformation
of the macules into papules and occasional pustules occurs, reach-
ing maximal intensity in 2 to 3 days. The papular and some-
times hemorrhagic rash heals in a week or more, but may be
complicated by scratching and secondary infection. Individuals
vary in susceptibility and show slight or severe reactions.”
Schistosomiasis, the Blood fluke
Disease of Man
Schistosomiasis caused by Schistosoma mansoni, is widely dis-
tributed throughout Puerto Rico and is an important health
problem there. It has been estimated that up to 12 percent
of the population are infected (Anon. 1946). The 2 types of en-
vironments responsible are the streams and pools used for bath-
ing and other domestic purposes, and the irrigation systems. The
intermediate host, Australorbis glabratus, prefers the quiet
waters of stream pools, irrigation ditches, and reservoirs. The
habits of the people play an all important role in the spread of
the infection. The natives commonly use the snail-infested waters
for bathing and washing and there is excessive human pollution
of the water and diversion of untreated sewage into streams.
In the human, cercarial penetration may give rise to a more
or less intense local reaction. The immature worms then find
their way to the veins and are carried to the lungs; this requires
2 or 3 weeks. From the lungs the developing worms find their
way to the liver lobules. Nausea, vomiting, headache, and ab-
dominal pain may be the systemic complaints. After becoming
nearly mature in the liver the worms migrate against the blood
stream to the small veins in the mesenteric venules draining
the colon and the terminal section of the small intestine. The
adults of themselves seem to produce virtually no pathologic
process in the mesenteric venules. They feed on serum and cells
but not so gluttonous!y as to create any noticeable effect. Egg
deposition is initiated within an average of 10 weeks follow-
232

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ing infection. Abdominal pain, tenesmus, dysentery, bloodflecked
stools, and remittent fever are results of the intestinal egg
deposition process. The eggs are equipped with a lateral spine
that aids in tissue penetration. Severe liver damage is typical.
The liver becomes involved and enlarged because of the drift
of the eggs back through the portal blood stream into the liver.
Enlargement of the liver results in abscesses around infiltrated
eggs. Tissue damage in unarrested and progressive cases is se-
vere, and in all moderately heavy infections would be enough
alone to cause death. The liver becomes a gigantic mass of scar
tissue. Accompanying symptoms are daily fever, extreme weak-
ness, diarrhea, loss of appetite and weight, emaciation, and, in
untreated cases, death from exhaustion.
The density of Schistosoma mansoni cercariae in Puerto Rican
waters undergoes marked daily fluctuation (Rowan, 1958). The
peak of cercarial abundance occurs between 11:00 a.m. and 1:00
p.m. Few cercariae were present in the water before 9:00 a.m.
or after 4:00 p.m.
The destruction of snails theoretically offers the best method of
attack, but the practical application of control measures is far
from satisfactory (Belding, 1942). Snails may be destroyed by
chemicals, desiccation, collection, removal of vegetation, and
natural enemies. Periodic clearance of plants and snails in
Egyptian irrigation canals was effective in reducing the snail
population over a period of 3 years. Desiccation is ineffective
unless the snails are kept dry over 3 months, but reduces their
parasitic infestation. Agricultural workers may be protected
by clothing and boots from exposure to water, but economic con-
siderations, convenience of working, and ignorance tend to make
such efforts impractical. Likewise prohibition of bathing in in-
fected waters cannot be enforced.
When copper sulfate or sodium pentachlorophenate is applied
for prolonged periods and in relatively high concentrations (30
and 10 ppm respectively), snail populations are at least mark-
edly reduced (McMullen and Many, 1958). However, the snails
that survive or are introduced into the habitat have little diffi-
culty in repopulating it in 3 to 5 months. Repopulation is usually
slower when sodium pentachiorophenate is employed, because
of its greater efficiency. With both chemicals the “knockdown”
value is high; they also cause drastic temporary reductions in
other biota in the habitat. The population recovery made by these
organisms depends on their vagility and capacity for reproduc-
233

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tion. In an irrigation system snails can be brought in from up-
stream and, because of their reproductive capacity, may repopu-
late an area within 3 months. If the molluscicide is not applied
for 2 years the snails repopulate the area. It has been demon-
strated that the introduction of sodium pentachiorophenate into
irrigation systems in Egypt 3 times a year at 10 ppm is very
effective in controlling the snail population and preventing trans-
mission. Although snails and eggs are introduced from upstream,
there is insufficient time for young snails to develop and acquire
mature infections. The introduction of previously infected snails
would be the only source of cercariae. Under such conditions
it would be expected that transmission would be prevented as
Long as the control measures were continued.
Goodnight (1942) points out the toxicity of sodium penta-
chiorophenate and pentachiorophenol to fish, stating that the more
sensitive species are killed in concentrations above 0.2 mg/I
although hardier species will survive 0.4 and 0.6 mg/i. Inverte-
brates such as those used by fish as food are relatively insensi-
tive to these compounds; the most sensitive invertebrates will
live at concentrations at which fish will survive. There are
dangers involved to those who use and handle sodium penta-
chiorophenate (Blair. 1961). In 1959 when the chemical became
more easily available through commercial channels and when it
was used as a molluscicide by farmers using their own laborers
in Southern Rhodesia, fatalities occurred.
Another chemical, acrolein, has been found to have a dual
purpose in that it eliminates both submersed weeds and snails.
At the concentration of acrolein required for destroying sub-
mersed weeds (20 to 25 ppm), the resurgence of snails to pre-
treatment levels was delayed by 8 to 12 months, and submersed
weeds did not reappear until 8 months after treatment (Unrau
et al., 1965). The chemical is toxic to fish and invertebrates.
Acrolein has been used successfully in Puerto Rico against A us-
tralorbis glabratus (Ferguson et al., 1961).
Jobin and Ippen (1964) point out that it may be possible to
devise a control method based on engineering the snail’s micro-
environment. For Australorbis glabratus, a velocity exceeding 33
cm per sec at shell height produces a hydrodynamic drag force
sufficient to dislodge the snail from its position on the solid
boundary of a canal.
Abbott (1948) notes that one species of Tropicorbid snail
capable of acting as an intermediate host of the human blood
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fluke has been found in Louisiana and Texas. To date, the disease
has not been able to establish itself in the United States. Abbott
postulates that the disease was introduced into Puerto Rico
during the era of the slave trade.
References Cited
Angorr, R. T. 1947. Mollusks and Medicine in World War H. Smithsonian Report
for 1947, Smithsonian Institution, Washington. D.C., pp. 325—338.
ADAMS, M. P., 1945. The 1945 Water Itch Program. Michigan Public health, 33 (7):
123—125, 128.
ANON. 1946. Schistosomiasis the Blood Fluke Disease. U. S. Public Health Service,
Atlanta, Georgia, 19 pp.
BELDINC, 0. L. 1942. Textbook of Clinical Parasitology. D. Appleton.Century Co.,
New York, 888 pp.
BLAIR, D. M. 1961. Dangers in Using and Handling Sodium Pentachiorophenate as
a Molluscicide. Bull. of the World Health Organization, 25 (4—5) : 597—601.
BRACKEn, S. 1941. Schistosome Dermatitis and Its Distribution. A Symposium on
Hydrobiology, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, pp. 360—378.
CORT. W. W., 1928. Schistosome Dermatitis in the United States (Michigan). Jour.
Am. Medical Association, 90: 1027—1029.
COaT, W. \V., 1950. Studies on Schistosome Dermatitis. Xl. Status of Knowledge
after more than Twenty Years. Am. Jour. Hygiene, 52 (3); 25 1—307.
FERGUSON, F. F., C. S. RICHARDS AND J. R. PALMER. 1961. Control of Australorbis
glabratus by Acrolein in Puerto Rico. Public Health Reports, 76: 461—468.
GOODNIGHT, C. J. 1942. Toxicity of Sodium Pentachiorophenate and Pentach loro-
phenol to Fish. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 34 (7): 868—872.
HOWARD, T. F., H. N. HALVORSON AND C. C. WALDEN. 1964. Toxicity of Copper
Compounds to the Snail Vector Hosts of the Agent of Schistosome Dermatitis,
in Waters of Differing Hardness. American Jour. of Hygiene, 79 (3) : 33—44.
JARCHO, S. AND A. VAN BURKALON. 1952. A Geographical Study of “Swimmer’s
Itch” in the United States and Canada. The Geographical Review, 42 (2)
212—226.
JOBIN. W. R. AND A. T. IPPEN. 1964. Ecological Design of Irrigation Canals For
Snail Control. Science, 145 (3638) : 1324—26.
MACKENTHUN, K. M., 1958. The Chemical Control of Aquatic Nuisances. Comm. on
Water Pollution, Madison, Wisconsin, 64 pp.
MCMULLEN, D. B., 1941. Methods Used in the Control of Schistosome Dermatitis
in Michigan. A Symposium on Hydrobiology, University of Wisconsin Press,
Madison, pp. 379—388.
MCMULLEN, U. B. AND H. W. HARRY. 1958. Comments on the Epidemiology and
Control of Bilharziasis. Bull. World Health Organization 18: 1307—1347.
OI.IvIER, L. 1949. Schistosome Dermatitis, a Sensitization Phenomenon. Am. Jour.
of Hygiene, 49 (3): 290—302.
ROWAN, IV. B. 1958. Daily Periodicitv of Scliistosoma mansoni Cercariae in Puerto
Rican Waters. American Jour. of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 7 (4):
374—381.
UNRAU, G. 0.. M. FAROOQ, I. K. DAWOOD. L. C. Micra AND B, C. DAZO. 1965.
Field Trials in Egypt with Acrolein Herbicide-Molluscicide. Bull, of the World
Health Organization, 32 (2): 249—260.
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11
Slimes
The Problem
JJ PON the introduction into water courses of waste nutri-
tive materials, biological slimes may develop to the ex-
tent that visible masses appear. These are woolly coatings on
submerged objects or tufts and strands, sometimes 15 inches
or more long, streaming in the current from point of attach-
ment. They vary in color from milky white in fresh new growth
to dull grey-white, brown or rusty-red, depending on age, nu-
trition, and type and amount of solids they entrap from the
passing water. in many cases, a rather heterogenous population
makes up what is commonly called the slime floc. For example,
Tiegs (1938) described the “sewage fungus”* community as
including the following organisms: Sphaerot i/us natans, Beg-
giotoa a/ba, Thiotbrix nivea, Fusariurn aquaeductum, Leptomi-
Ins lacteus and Mueor sp. The two organisms that have been
described repeatedly as ecologically dominant are Spliaero ti/us
natans and Laptomitiis lacteus. Butcher’s (1932) description of
his “sewage fungus” community also included the fungus She-
nospora and the protozoan Carchesium.
Numerous problems arise from the presence of slime growths
in streams. Where commercial or game fishing exists, drifting
Sphaerot i/us may foul gill nets rendering them ineffective (Lin-
coln and Foster, 1943*4; Ingram and Towne, 1960; Wilson et al.,
1960), interfere with fish hatching by coating fish eggs (Lin-
coin and Foster, 1943**), and smother aquatic fauna that serve
• Sphaerutilu5 is not a genus of a fungus. but is a filamentous bacterium; for years
in the literature of sanitar science it has been referred to incorrectly as a fungus.
Lincoln. J. H. and Th F. Foster, 1943. Report on the 1n estigation of Pollution
in the Lower co lwubia River. Washington State Pollution Commission and the
Oregon State Sanitan Authority.
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Plate 51. Slirnes in the Columbia River render gill nets useless as fishing tools.
237
—
r -
1’.
4 ’
liilIlt
— .--
-I
I

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as food for fish. Biological slimes and the materials they entrap.
such as plant fibers, wood chips, and debris, blanket the stream
bed destroying the homes of clean water associated organisms.
Because organic food is usually abundant where slime growths
occur, pollution tolerant organisms such as sludgeworms may
become abundant in association with the slime growth. These
organisms do not offer the fish food potential that clean water
associated species do. Conditions may become so severe that all
benthos are eliminated.
Kramer and Smith (1965) found that suspended conifer
groundwood fibers had no effect upon egg survival, respiration
rate of embryos, or growth rates of alevins and juveniles from
eggs incubated in fiber but hatched and grown in clean water
When alevins were held in wood-fiber suspensions, survival was
reduced from 98 to 100 percent in controls to 0 to 72 percent in
250-ppm fiber. Walleye (Stizostedion vitreum vitreurn) eggs were
incubated in a temporary jar hatchery using Rainy River
water taken downstream from paper mills discharging sulfite,
kraft, insulating board, and groundwood wastes (Smith and
Kramer, 1963). Eggs were also incubated in trays held on and
off the bottom in the river downstream from the mills, upstream
from the mills, and in tributary streams. in two years, survival
of eggs in jar controls was 31.2 to 73.5 percent. Survival to
hatching of eggs jar-incubated in polluted water was 0.02 to
6.0 percent. At river stations down stream from the mills sur-
vival of tray eggs on the bottom did not exceed 1.2 percent:
and off-bottom, 3.5 percent. Eggs held on the bottom upstream
from the mills had maximum survivals of 37.6 percent; and off
the bottom, 49.1 percent. In most experiments in polluted Rainy
River water the principal cause of mortality was Sphaerotilus
growths on the eggs which prevented successful emergence of
fry. Prior to hatching, egg survival rate in jars was similar in
controls and in experiments. Chemical treatment to remove slime
increased the hatch of eggs. Sphaerotilus-covered eggs removed
to fresh water lost the bacterium and hatched at a high rate.
Biological slimes bring about an aesthetically unpleasant
stream. To the public, they are an obvious sign of stream pollu-
tion. Prolific slime growths destroy the recreational potential of
the water, thus interfering with one of the major public-asso-
ciated uses of water.
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Slimes may develop from well waters, particularly those from
deep wells that contain dissolved iron and carbon dioxide, and
may accumulate in pipes and distribution systems. Complaints
of “red water” are a consequence of rust clogging, associated
with iron bacteria, which reduces the carrying capacity of pipes.
Masses of rust and bacteria break off and are carried in the water
to the consumer. Growths sometimes occur in sewer pipes and
break loose and descend on the treatment plant, clogging screens
and choking filter nozzles and stone filter beds (DeMartini,
1934).
The filamentous sewage bacterium, Sphaerotilus natans, has
been implicated in the bulking of activated sludge (Lackey and
Wattie, 1940). Ruchhoft and Kachmar (1941) concluded that
S haero1illLs was a delicate indicator of disturbances of the bio-
logical equilibrium of activated sludge but not a primary cause
of bulking. It has been found in paper machine wet felts, and
clogging of the felts with Sp/iaerotilus was experimentally pro-
duced (Drescher, 1957 . It has created problems by clogging in-
take screens and cooling water lines in power plants.
The secondary effects of biological slimes in streams may be
even more serious. The stream slime community is composed of
a variety of microorganisms that are held together as a mat prin-
Plate 52. Slimes form as waving masses in polluted streams destroying the
habitat for animals.
r
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cipally by Sphaerotilus. Such interwoven mats entrap silt, sand,
fibers, and chips. The filamentous masses offer shelter and sup-
port for other organisms such as bacteria, protozoans , nematodes,
rotifers. and occasionally midge larvae. During the process of
decomposition, or because of physical disturbances, mats some-
times as laroe as 3-feet in diameter “boil” to the water’s surface
in an unsightly foul-smelling eruption. These “boils” may settle
at or near the point of origin or be carried downstream to areas
where the flow velocity permits settling. Here sludge banks are
formed that give rise to anaerobic conditions with subsequent
offensive effects. These sludge banks may be formed many miles
downstream from the initiating pollution source, thus increasing
the stream reach of pollution.
Because most bacteria respond directly to the introduction of
organic materials to the water course, they may be considered the
major factor in the self-purification processes occurring in most
natural waters. Slime growths in natural waters function simi-
larly to those in treatment plants in the stabilization of organic
materials. In simulated stream studies, biochemical oxygen de-
mand (BOD) reductions as high as 87 percent were obtained at
waste retentions as low as 33 minutes after extensive slime
growths had developed. In one experiment, 11.5 mg l BOD
were removed during this short time interval. Similar high purifi-
cation rates have also been observed in many shallow, turbulent
streams in which slime growths were the major force in the self-
purification process (Amberg and Cormack, 1960).
SPHAEROTILUS
Dondero (1961) cites a number of quantitative measurements
that have been made on Sphaerotilus infestation of streams. Al-
though the productivity of polluted streams is difficult to esti-
mate, some measurements on detached masses of floating Sphaero-
tilits have been made from which the amount of material passing
the river cross section has been calculated, for example: (a) in
the Danube and Main Rivers, about 64 tons wet weight per day
of drifting Sphaerotilus (Demoll and Liebmann, 1952); (b) in
the Main 325 tons. wet weight per day (Liebmann, 1953) ; and
(c) in the Oker River, 12.5-100 gm. dry weight per cubic meter
of water (Popp and Bahr, 1954). By using the factor 7 percent
(Popp and Bahr, 1954; Liebmann, 1952, used 8 percent), the wet
weight values can be converted to 4.5 and 22.7 tons dry weight.
respectively. Such values indicate the potential for the deposition
240

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w*
nate Di. iumes growing on stream animals makes them less effective to
compete for existence in the environment.
241
‘4

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of large amounts of decomposing Sphaerotilus. Popp and Bahr
(1954) measured deposition in layers 1 to 2 meters thick in areas
of high oxygen deficiency. There was a high degree of secondary
pollution resulting from the decomposition of the Sphaerotilus
sludge for months after heavy pollution with sugar waste. The
oxygen demand of dead Splzaerotihis sludge was about 11 times
that of the same amount of living Sphaerotilus.
There are at least 3 kinds of slime or biological masses affect-
ing gill nets in the Columbia River: (a) slimes composed mostly
of wood fibers, stuck together by Sphaeroti lus which is very dif-
ficult to remove from nets when wet and nearly impossible to
remove when dry because it hardens to a substance resembling
plastic wood; (b) biological masses, principally plant trash and
leaf and grass fragments, which adhere to nets when wet, but
crumble away when dry; (c) masses composed almost entirely of
Sphaerotilus.
The appearance of Sphaeroti lus in streams as the dominant or-
ganism has repeatedly been correlated with the entry of industrial
wastes (Harrison and Fleukelekian, 1958). Butcher (1932) states
that it is associated with effluents from the following industriest
beet sugar, paper, rayon, glue, and flour mills. Other observers
have noted its occurrence following waste discharges such as tex-
tile bleach, by-product coke, dairy wastes, and spent sulfite li-
quors. Wuhrmann (1949) asserts that the organism does not grow
in undiluted sewage. DeMartini (1934) reports the organism in
sewers carrying very dilute sewage, and Agersborg and Hatfield
(1929) note that it is present in raw sewage, Imhoff tanks, and
aention tanks. Amberg and Cormack (1960) state that Sphaero-
tilus grows on kraft effluents as well as on spent suiphite liquor.
No slime growth was obtained from the kraft bleach plant efflu-
ents. They state further that slime growths may be expected in
discharges of weak wash waters and evaporator condensate from
evaporation and burning of spent su lphite liquor. Amberg and
Cormack cite Scheuring and Hbhnl (1956) to the effect that
Sphaerotilus no tans will grow at su lphite waste liquor dilutions
of 1:700,000 or at BOD levels in the range of 0.05 to 0.10 mg/l.
The ability of slime growths to extract nutrients from large
volumes of flowing water at extremely low waste concentrations
presents a difficult problem in obtaining adequate control.
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Sphaerotiizzs can assume a variety of different appearances that
are correlated with different nutrient conditions. The organisms
giving rise to the Sphaerotilus slime growths must be present in
the flowing stream at all times because of the sudden appearance
of slimes following the introduction of pollution.
Naumann (1933) is quoted by Harrison and Heukelekian (1958)
as early investigating the possibility of Cladothrix dichotoma
being transformed into Sphaerotihts natans under certain condi-
tions. These organisms are similar, except that Cladothrix dicho-
torna exhibits regular dichotomous branching of the filaments
and does not have the slimy sheath of Sphaerotilus. Pringsheim
(1949) showed that Sphaerotilus natans, Cladothrix dichototna,
and the ecologically distinct Leptothrix ochracea could give rise
to similar cultures by appropriate treatments.
Factors that Stimulate Sphaerotilus Growths
Under laboratory conditions the most important food require-
ments necessary for heavy growth seem to be sugars and organic
nitrogen (Lackey and Wattie, 1940). These authors and others
(Ruchhoft and Kachmar, 1941) describe a culture method with a
medium that was found to contain ample quantities of all the
nutrient materials for the growth of Sphaerotilus natans. This
medium contained the following materials:
mg
Dextrose 1,000
Peptone 600
Meat extract 200
Urea 50
Na 2 HPO 4 50
NaCI 15
CaC 1 7
MgSO 4 5
KC I 7
Distilled water to make 1 liter
The media was sterilized, seeded with Sphaerotilus and aerated
continuously through a ball diffuser. Growth occurred in 24 hours.
There is general agreement that the luxurious growths similar
to those found under stream conditions cannot be reproduced in
the laboratory with inorganic sources of nitrogen. There are many
references in the literature to the necessity of a supply of amino
acids by Sphaeroti lus. The organism does not require accessory
243

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growth factors such as vitamins (Wuhrmann and Koestler, 1950).
Harrison and Heukelekian (l95 ) state that cultural experiments
show growth of 5phaerotilus when nitrate is the nitrogen supply.
There is some evidence that the utilization of ammonium com-
pounds depends on the carbon supply. For luxurious growth, an
organic nitrogen supply is necessary.
Hölinl (1935) concludes that visible Sphaerotilus growths do
not occur as long a the pH is below 5.3. A pH of 6 to 7 is favor-
able for growth. Optimum temperature is 10 to 15 C. Amberg
and Cormack (1960 observed excellent slime growths in the Co-
lumbia River where stream velocities ran ecI from 0.4 to 2.0 feet
per second. Increases in velocity at constant concentrations in-
crease the amount of food passing a unit growing surface. These
authors stress the importance of both phosphorus and nitrogen
for optimum ..wwth. \Vorking on the Columbia River, they ob-
served active competition between filamentous and planktoni
algae and .\p/iaerotilus for available phosphorus.
Plate 54. Dried wastes from pulp and paper making operations. These fibers
are often held together by Sphaerotilus and other slimes, forming a blanket
over the stream bed.
•r.E •J’ -
£

- :? •
244

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Control of Sphaerotilus
Lackey and Wattie (1940) tested substances for toxicity for
Sphae;-otilus in activated sludge or in heavy cultures and found
that the following were toxic at the doses indicated (mg/i)
chlorine (0.5 residual), silver nitrate (0.5—2.0), phenol (5.0),
acetic acid (50), brilliant green (5.0), malachite green (5.0),
Janus green (20), methylene blue (20), and gentian violet (10).
Chlorine was considered to be the most feasible substance for
large scale use, as in water and sewage treatment plants.
In water treatment plants, high initial doses of chlorine are
required to remove established slimes. Repeated dosing to 50 to
100 mg/i residual chlorine followed by high-pressure air and
flushing has been used (Alexander, 1944). After dislodgment of
the slimes, 0.75 to 1.0 mg/l residual chlorine was maintained in
the effluent water. DeMartini (1984) recommended 2 mg/i in
wastes for Sphaerotilus control in sewers.
Amberg and Cormack (1960) found, in laboratory studies, that
intermittent discharge of spent sulphite liquor for 24 hours fol-
lowed by 5 days of storage was very effective in reducing slime
growth by more than 80 percent. Field studies showed that by
discharging 24 hours every 6 days, growth was lower than growth
obtained from % the total liquor discharged continuously.
Sphaerotilus infestations were controlled downstream from a
southern Kraft pulp mill by retaining all black liquor from enter-
ing the river during optimum conditions for slime growth. The
liquor was held for a period of 5 to 6 days and released over a
1- to 2-day period, which was insufficient time for an infestation
to materialize (McKeown, 1962).
Leptomitus
Leptomitus lacteus is a member of the most abundant order of
aquatic fungi, the Saprolegniales. No cells are visible in the orga-
nism, although characteristic constrictions give it a pseudoseptate
appearance. The constrictions are a result of the presence of
cellulin plugs, whose function is unknown. Harrison and Heukeie-
kian (1958) state that Leptomitus requires high molecular weight
compounds of nitrogen to supply its needs for this element.
Schade (1940) has confirmed that no growth occurs with ammo-
245

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nium, nitrate, or nitrite compounds, even in the presence of avail-
able carbon compounds. The optimum pH for luxuriant growth is
5.4 to 6.0 and the suitable pH range is 4.3 to 7.5.
Fouling Bacteria
[ ron bacteria are typically aerobic organisms, widely distrib-
uted in nature, and commonly observed in most water habitats.
They are generally considered fouling organisms and not agents
of corrosion, but they may indirectly contribute to the latter.
Energy is derived from the oxidation of ferrous iron to the ferric
state and in the process, ferric hydrate is accumulated on the
sheaths and cells of the organisms.
The occurrence of iron bacteria was observed in northern Wis-
consin drainage waters in which deposits had accumulated to a
depth of 2 ft throughout several miles of drainage ditch. Control
was effected with a 3-ppm copper sulfate application. Also,
springs often have reddish-brown deposits produced by the ac-
tivity of iron bacteria, and stagnant marshes may produce a red-
dish scpm resulting from this activity. As early as the middle of
the nineteenth century. iron bacteria in potable water supplies
were reported to be the causative organisms of taste and odor
problems. and the condition was called a “water calamity.”
Starkey (1945) reviews the transformation of iron by bacteria
in water and states that iron bacteria are some of the most im-
portant fouling organisms because they not only produce trouble-
some accumulations of cell material but also produce still greater
quantities of ferric hydrate. In addition to the iron bacteria there
are various other bacteria, induding sulfur bacteria and sulfate-
reducing bacteria, which are responsible for various transforma-
tions of iron. Some bring iron into solution, others cause its pre-
cipitation and some are responsible for corrosion.
The development of iron bacteria may manifest itself in sev-
eral ways. There may be hard deposits that tend to fill up pipes
and reduce their water-carrying capacity. Slimes and accumula-
tions of filamentous bacteria may form on the walls of pipes and
water holders and scums may be produced on the water surface.
These bacteria may cause turbidity and discoloration of water
and be responsible for some of the unpleasant tastes and odors
that are produced either directly or indirectly as the dead bac-
246

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terial cells are decomposed by other micro-organisms. Water
color may be used as a very rough criterion of abundance because
very clear water may reveal only 1 or 2 organisms per milliliter,
whereas the number of organisms in reddish and turbid waters
may exceed 10,000,000 per milliliter (Lueschow arid Mackenthun,
1962). From the examination of 76 municipal wells in Wisconsin,
53 percent revealed iron bacteria at various concentrations. Gen-
erally, Ga/lion ella sp. occurred more regularly than Leptothrix
sp., and usually in greater numbers. Iron concentrations did not
appear to be related to the occurrence of iron bacteria, but very
high concentrations of iron bacteria revealed substantially higher
concentrations of iron than the general mean. The occurrence of
iron bacteria in the distribution systems was considered inde-
pendently from the occurrence in wells. Generally, the occurrence
was under 100 organisms per milliliter, but two outlets revealed
concentrations as high as 10,000,000 organisms per milliliter.
These two samples were from a fire hydrant and a relatively un-
used tap. Under circumstances of high organism population, the
water contains a dense red sediment, and settling indicated that
¼ to i/ of the sample volume were iron or iron bacteria.
Harder (1919) reports active development of iron bacteria in
pipes carrying water with 1.3 mg/i iron. Halvorson (1931) found
them in springs having 1 to 10 mg/I. Schorler (1906) records
incrustation of 3 centimeters thickness in pipes carrying water
with from 0.2 to 0.3 mg/I iron during 30 years of usage. The
amounts of nitrogen required by the iron bacteria are very small
compared to the requirements for iron and it is probably that the
nitrogen content of most waters meets their needs.
Cljlorination of water appears to be the most satisfactory method
of controlling the development of iron bacteria (Clark, 1963).
Duchon and Miller (1948) found that chlorine and hypochiorite
were the most effective chemical agents for controlling growths
of Crenothrix. Blair (1954) stated that maintaining free residual
chlorine throughout the distribution system was an effective
means of combating infestation. He warned that even though the
kill was effective, tastes and odors were still possible.
Some of the sulfur bacteria are encountered occasionally in
water, particularly in water containing sulfide or elemental sul-
fur. One of the typical sulfur bacteria, Thiobacillus thiooxidans,
may bring large amounts of iron into solution under conditions
247

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favorable for its development. It is an aerobic bacterium that
has the capacity to oxidize sulfur, and has been linked to the
corrosion of iron pipelines.
Sulfate-reducing bacteria are of importance in water distribu-
tion systems because they produce sulfide which is dissolved in
the water and makes the water objectionable by reason of the
odor, the presence of suspended black particles, and the corrosive
effect of the sulfide on steel and other metals. In cases where the
water in iron pipes and concrete conduits contains sulfide or
where sulfide is produced as in sewage, and the pipe is only partly
filled so that there is an air blanket over the water, some of the
sulfide becomes dissolved in the moisture film on the upper walls
of the pipe. Here it undergoes oxidation, caused principally by
sulfur bacteria, and the sulfuric acid that is formed attacks the
pipe, causing its disintegration (Starkey, 1945).
Alexander (1944) stresses that in controlling slime-forming
iron and sulfur organisms in a water supply, control is only partly
attained when the plant effluent is made sterile. It is equally
important to clean up and maintain a distribution system free
from iron and sulfur organisms, a system in which chlorine resid-
uals will be carried to the remotest part of the distribution system.
References Cited
Ac sBORC. H. P. K. AND W D. HATFIELD, 1929. The Biology of a Sewage Treat-
ment Plant—A Preliminary Survey—Decatur 1 Illinois. Sewage Works Journal , .1
(4): 411.
AIyLkND , L. J., 1944. Control of Iron and Sulfur Organisms by Super-chlorination
and De-chiorination. Journal American Water Works Association. 36 (12):
1349—1355.
AMBERG . H. It. ANt) J. F. CORMACK, 1960. Factors Affecting Slime Growth in the
Lower Columbia River and Evaluation of Some Possible Control Measures. Pulp
and Paper Magazine of Canada. 61 (2): 70-81.
Btsw. G. V., 1954. Combating Pipeline Growth by Maintaining Chlorine Residual
Throughout a Distribution System. Journal American Water Works Association,
46: 681—683.
Bncata. R. W., 1932. Contribution to Our Knowledge of the Ecology of Sewage
Fungus. Transaction British Mycological Society , 17: 112.
Cuin. F. M.. 1963. Iron Bacteria. Proceedings. Fifth Sanitan Engineering Confer-
ence on Quality Aspects of Water Distribution Systems. University of Illinois
Engineering Experiment Station Circular No. 81, pp. 85—89.
DEMAJtTLN I, F. E.. 1934. Slime Growths in Sewers. Sewage Works Journal. 6 (5):
950.
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DEMOLL, it AND H. LIEBMANN, 1952. The Distribution of Sp/ aerotilus no tans in
Rivers. Schweiz. Z. Hydrol., 14: 289.
DONDERO, N. C., 1961. Sphaerotilus, its Nature and Economic Significance. In:
Advances in Applied Microbiology ( IV. M. Umbreit, ed.) Academic Press, New
York, pp. 77—107.
DREScHER, R., 1957. Tappi, 40: 904—910.
DUCHON, K. AND L. B. MILLER, 1948. Effect of Chemical Agents on iron Bacteria.
Paper Trade Journal, 126: 47—58.
HALVORSON, H. 0.. 1931. Studies on the Transformation of Iron in Nature. III.
The Effect of CO 2 on the Equilibrium in Iron Solutions. Soil Science, 32: 141.
HARDER, E. C., 1919. Iron-Depositing Bacteria and their Geologic Relations. U. S
Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 113, 89 pp.
HARRISON, M. E. AND H. HEUKELEKIAN, 1958. Slime Infestation-Literature Review.
Sewage and industrial Wastes 30 (10): 1278—1302.
HöHNL, G., 1955. Nutritional and Metabolic Investigations of the Physiology of
Sphaerotilus natans. Archiv fur Mikrobiologie, 23: 207—250.
INCRAM, IV. M. AND W. W. TOWNE, 1960. Effects of Industrial Wastes on Stream
Life. Purdue University Engineering Bulletin, 14 (5): 678—710.
KRAMER, R. H. AND L. L. SMITH, JR., 1965. Effects of Suspended Wood Fiber on
Brown and Rainbow Trout Eggs and Alevins. Transactions American Fisheries
Society, 94 (3) : 252—258.
L.%cKEy, J. B. AND E. WAnW, 1940. Studies of Sewage Purification. XIII. The
Biology of Sphaerotilus natans Kutiing in Relation to Bulking of Activated
Sludge. Public Health Reports, 55 (22): 975—987.
LWBMANN, H., 1953. The Biological Community of Spaerotilus Flocs and the Physico-
Chemical Basis of Their Formation. Vom Wasser, 20: 24.
LuEscHow, L. A. AND K. M. MACKENTHUN, 1962. Detection and Enumeration of
iron Bacteria in Municipal Water Supplies. Journal American Water Works
Association, 54 (6): 751—756.
McKE0WN, J. J., 1962. The Control of Spltaerotilus no tans by a Southern Kraft
Mill. Proc. 17th Industrial Wastes Conference, Purdue University, 17 (2): 440.
NAUMANN, E., 1933. Is Cladothrix dicliotorna identical with Sphaerotilus natans
(Kutzing) ? Zentr. Bakteriol. Parasit. 2, Abs. 88.
Popp, L. AND H. BA I-IR, 1954. The Massive Development of Sphaerotilus natans and
its Entry into the River System of the Oker During the Sugar Campaign of
1952. Wasserwirtschaft, 45 (2): 29.
PRJNC5HEIM, E. G., 1949. The Filamentous Bacteria Sphaerotilus, Leptothrix,
Cladothrix, and their Relation to iron and Manganese. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc.
London, Ser. B, No. 605, 233: 453.
RUCHHOFT, C. C. AND J. F. KACHMAR, 1941. Studies of Sewage Purification. XIV.
The Role of Sphaerotilus no tans in Activated Sludge Bulking. Public Health
Reports, 56 (35) : 1727—1757.
ScHADE, A. L., 1940. The Nutrition of L€ 107flitI4S. American Journal of Botany,
27: 376.
SCHEURING, L. AND G. HÔHNL, 1956. Sphaerotilus ratans Seine Okologie und Physio-
logie. Schriften Des Vereins der Zellstoff and Paper-Chemiker und Ingenieure, 26.
SCHORLER, B., 1906. Die Rostbildung in den Wasserleitungsröhren. Center. Bait. II,
15, 564.
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SMrru, L. L., JR., AND R. H. KLkMa, 1963. Survival of Walleye Eggs in Relation
to Wood Fibers and Sphaerotilus natans in the Rainy River, Minnesota. Trans-
actions American Fisheries Society, 92 (8): 220—234.
STARKEY, R. L., 1945. Transformation of Iron by Bacteria in Water. Journal Amer-
ican Water Works Association, 37 (10): 968—984.
Tjrcs, E., 1938. Sewage Fungus and the Condition of Water. Vom Wasser, 13: 78.
Wu.soN, J. N., R. A. WAGNn, G. L. TooMBs, AND A. E. BEGUn, JR., 1960. Methods
for the Detennination of Slimes in Rivers. J. Water Pollution Control Federation,
32 (1): 88-89.
WUURMANN, K., 1949. Amino Acid Content of Raw and Purified Sewage. Verh.
mt. Ver. Limnol., 10: 580.
WUKRMANN, K. AND S. KorsTIia, 1950. The Vitamin Requirements of the Sewage—
Bacterium, Sphaerotilus natans. Ver. Schweiz. Naturf. GeselI., 177.
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12
Control of Excessive
Production
15 NQUESTIONABLY the control of aquatic nuisances should
be directed to the basic cause. Uncontrolled drainage from
heavily fertilized farmland, from forest soils, and natural soils
varied in mineral wealth, the discharges of untreated or partially
and inadequately treated domestic wastes from shoreline cottages,
the discharge of effluents from municipal and industrial treat-
ment plants, drainage from garbage dumps, or the discharge of
untreated industrial and municipal wastes each contributes its
share of fertility and thus accelerates the aging of a water body.
The process of growing old limits the life span of some lakes
to a comparatively short time in the geological calendar. As the
aging process advances, the water becomes enriched and the lake
gets shallower because of accumulated sediments from upstream
sediment transport, bank erosion and from in situ organic and
inorganic debris, and the anchoring of it by rooted aquatic plants.
The enriched water gives rise to offensive weed and algal growths
that in turn hinder or reduce the potential for multiple use of
the water. Enrichment of the water under primeval conditions
would be a slow process when measured against man’s life span,
but natural enrichment augmented by man-associated enrichment
may increase the fertility of the water to such an extent that
the aging process can be observed over such a period. Most of
our lakes are affected by some form of manmade enrichment.
To control developing nuisances by correcting the basic causes,
each individual connected with a given watershed must practice
pollution abatement. The discharge of sewage and effluents from
sewage treatment operations, industrial wastes or effluents, and
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land erosion into the watercourse must be curtailed unless re-
search can produce processes that will tie up nutrients that serve
as fertilizers. Prodigious advancements must be made in the han-
dling of street and storm drainages, runoff from fertilized crop-
lands, other agricultural wastes, and municipal and private refuse
dumps; these, also, contribute to the fertilization of receiving wa-
ters. Over the years, progressive accomplishments have been made
by a number of States in water pollution abatement and preven-
tion. The problem, however, is of great magnitude, and solutions
may be slow in coming. Great harm has been and is being done
to many waters, and nature’s repair process is slow even after
the underlying cause is partially or completely corrected. Nui-
sance controls, even though temporary, are necessary if man is
to enjoy and utilize the great aqueous natural resource to the
fullest extent.
The maintenance concept must be considered by all users of
streams, lakes, or reservoirs. The waterfront is an aquatic ex-
tension of the surrounding land. To achieve the most lasting
beauty. it must be maintained periodically in a fashion similar to
that of the adjoining lawn or the abutting parkway; otherwise
nuisances and unsightliness will prevail. Controls developed to cure
water ills are not singular operations. The mechanism triggering
nuisance development is usually such that it will reestablish it-
self another year. Thus, continuous surveillance as well as main-
tenance are necessary items of lake or reservoir management.
Methods have been developed and perfected that effect an ade-
quate temporary reduction and control of plant nuisances under
a number of circumstances. Controls may be either mechanical
or chemical, and their selection and use depend upon the nature
and scope of the problem, the type and extent of the control de-
sired and comparative costs. Mechanical controls are limited prin-
cipally to rooted aquatic vegetation, whereas chemical controls
have been developed for algae, rooted aquatic vegetation, and
other nuisance organisms. Every control has its limitations, based
upon the dimensions of the area to be treated; these limitations
are broad and do not exclude over-all utilization of the water.
Controls that are recommended most generally have not been
shown to seriously disrupt general lake ecology.
Of the various algal control methods, chemical treatment has
proved most rapid, economical, and effective. Selection of an algi-
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cide depends on its effectiveness to kill the majority of the orga-
nisms responsible for the nuisance; control materials must not
affect seriously the production of zooplankton, the production of
fish and the existing fish population or the benthic invertebrates,
or pose a health hazard.
Aquatic vegetation has a definite role in the development and
maintenance of a balanced aquatic community. A certain amount
of aquatic vegetation in a given body of water is of value to the
fishery and waterfowl, although no one has determined the pro-
portion of plant area to water area that is necessary for optimum
fish production.
An overproduction of aquatic vegetation has been shown to in-
hibit fish production. Bennett (1948) studied a pond in which the
area of open water was reduced by more than 50 percent of the total
surface area by a dense stand of pondweed+ Concurrently, the fish
harvest was reduced to 58.1 percent of the yield taken during
the year that aquatic vegetation was largely absent, although
fishing intensity by nets was increased 359 percent and the angling
intensity was increased 157 percent at the time of the low har-
vest of fish.
Controls should be confined to nuisance areas, and should not
attempt complete elimination of aquatic vegetation from a water
body. The primary aim is to control organisms that relate to
water-use nuisances, and to leave areas in the natural state that
do not interfere with varied uses. It is important, therefore, to
understand the ecology of aquatic vegetation and to use this to
the best advantage in maintaining the water environment for
fishing, hunting, and other recreational pursuits.
State Control Programs
The problem of algal and weed nuisances varies considerably
from State to State. Many State agencies receive requests from
laymen for aquatic nuisance control and generally carry out some
type of control program. The program may be limited to field
experiments with various chemicals or to the limited control of
nuisances in State-owned waters. Some States report that no
problem exists; some report a much reduced problem and cite as
reasons the general high turbidities of the water and fluctuating
water levels. Many States are conducting research and field trials
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with newer chemicals to find better control measures in anticipa-
tion of developing problems.
In 1956, about 40 percent of the States regulated the introduc-
tion of chemicals for the control of aquatic nuisances by statute
or executive order.* Another 40 percent regulated by informal
supervision, and about 20 percent reported no regulation of any
type. Many in the latter group also reported the nonexistence of
a problem. The Wisconsin State legislature in 1941 was the first
to pass an act authorizing the State Committee on Water Pollution
to supervise chemical treatment of waters to suppress algae,
aquatic weeds, swimmer’s itch, and other nuisance-producing
plants and organisms (Mackenthun, 1958). A State permit is re-
quired for the introduction of chemicals in 40 percent of the
States; approximately 60 percent require no permit.* About 57
percent of the States, however, report complete supervision of
field application of chemicals, 21 percent report spot checks on
the application of chemicals, about 7 percent report supervision
principally by a control over commercial spraying operators, and
the remaining 15 percent report that no supervision is provided.
Many of the States that report complete supervision of field chem-
ical application are also included in the group reporting no re-
quired permit. Presumably, notification of control measures is
based principally on cooperation between those applying the
chemical and the governmental agency. Nearly 45 percent of the
States report that complete costs of the treatment is paid by the
State; however, these are generally small-control operations,
many of which are experimental, performed on State-owned
waters.
A questionnaire to all States in 1960 revealed that over 2,000
aquatic vegetation control projects were conducted annually and
that most States consider aquatic vegetation control to be a serious
and growing problem** Currently 78 percent of aquatic weed
control is performed by chemicals and 18 percent by mechanical
harvesting. Principal advantages of chemical control include ease
in application, relatively low cost, lasting effect, and the covering
of a large area in a short time. Mechanical harvesting of the
vegetation will not usually endanger fish, animals, and humans,
• Moyle. J. B. and B. R. Jones. 1957. Summary of Aquatic Nuisance Control Activi-
ties in the United States in 1956. pp. 1-9 (mimeo.).
McCarthy, H., 1961. Survey Study on Methods of Controlling Aquatic Weeds
and their Effectiveness. FWD Corp., Clintonville, Wis., pp. 1 —27 (mimeo.).
254

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and can be used in water supply reservoirs. Main disadvantages
of mechanical control methods are the temporary benefit and the
high cost of labor and equipment; removal of cut vegetation poses
a problem since there is little or no commercial value for vege-
tation removed from the water.
Harvesting The Crops
From the standpoint of nutrient removal, harvesting the aquatic
crops annually would be advantageous. The economics of present
methods of harvestim. and the scope of the problem, however,
necessitate a critical appraisal of benefits versus costs. The ex-
pected standing crop of algae approaches 2 tons per acre (wet
weight) containing 15 lbs of nitrogen and 1.5 lbs of phosphorus.
Submerged aquatic plants would be expected to approach at least
7 tons per acre (wet weight) containing 32 lbs of nitrogen and
3.2 11)5 of phosphorus. Values may be higher under severe nui-
stnce conditions. The eflIcacv of removing nutrients by harvest-
ing the aquatic crops is discussed in the chapter, NUTRIENTS
AND BIOLOGICAL GROWTHS.
Some methods and equipment used for the physical and me-
:hanical removal of water weeds are reservoir drawdown and
Plate 55. Mechanical weed cutting and removal
Pr ‘ I,
1
-I -’
- _-#_
- .‘— . *_%
255

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drying, burning, hand-pulling, hand-cutting, hand-raking, chain-
dragging, hand-operated underwater weed saws, and power-driven
underwater weed cutting and weed removal units. The type of
control employed depends on the field situation, the extent of
control desired, and the labor and cost involved. The mechanical
han’esting of aquatic weeds involves equipment capable of han-
dling large tonnages of materials (Livermore, 1954). Mechani-
cal controls are especially valuable in the reclaiming of shallow
nuisance areas by dredging and filling.
Microstrainers have been employed to remove algae from raw
water at water treatment installations. Kenosha, Wisconsin,
which receives its water from Lake Michigan, employs a micro-
strainer with apertures of 35 microns; algal removals have ranged
from 46 to 97 percent (Nelson, 1965).
On 29 sampling dates extending from July 22 through Septem-
ber 6, 1961, water pumping rates varied from 10 to 27 mgd and
from 1½ to 10 hours of sustained pumping.* The efficiency of
the microstrainer depends on the number, size, and shape of the
algal cell, and whether or not the cells occur singly or in chains.
Rate of pumpage did not appear to affect efficiency in this study.
The microstrainer was very efficient in removing those algal cells
occurring in chains, since the water following the strainers con-
tained only single cells or chains of 2- or 3-cells in length. The
algal mass was reduced from 141 ± 10 to 11 ± 3 lbs per day
(wet weight) in passing through the microstrainers for an over-
all volumetric efficiency of 91.9 percent. The number of individual
algal cells was reduced from 47 ± 11 trillion per day to 5 ± 1
trillion in passing through the microstrainers for an average re-
duction of 88.8 percent. The efficiency of the microstrainer varies
from one species of alga to another. For example, there was little
reduction in Ste phanodiscus sfl. with the passage of water
through the microstrainer, because the species occurring in these
waters were small enough to pass with ease through the 35-micron
mesh of the microstrainer.
In testing a pilot microstrainer of 35 micron aperature on Lake
Winnebago, Wisconsin raw water in 1957, it was found that the
poorest reduction performance by the fabric was experienced on
the dates when the plankton counts were the highest. Blooms of
• Nelson, 0. F.. K. M. Mackenthun, and L. A. Lueschow, 1961. Microstraining at
kenosha. Paper Presented at Wisconsin Section, American Water Works Association.
Milwaukee. Wisconsin (September 28) 15 pp. (mimeo.).
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Anabaena and MiCIOCyStZS were occurring. Five algal genera con-
sistently passed through the microstraining fabric. These were
the blue-g-reens Anabaena and Aphanizomenon, the diatoms
Cyclotetla and Navicula, and the green flagellate, Phacotus. On
July 25, 1957, the algal count on the intake water to the micro-
strainer was 10,030 organisms per ml and the reduction through
the microstrainer was 41 percent; on August 21, the raw water
count was 47,270 organisms per ml and the reduction was 25 per-
cent; on August 22 with a raw water count of 30,350 the reduc-
tion was 16 percent (26,600 Anabaena spp. per ml); and on Au-
gust 28 the reduction was 37 percent with 4,740 organisms per
ml in the intake water.
Chemical Control
Chemical control measures are dependent upon the type of nui-
sance and local conditions. A good algicide or herbicide must:
(1) be reasonably safe to use, (2) kill the specific nuisance plant
or plants, (3) be nontoxic to fish, fish-food organisms and terres-
trial animals at the plant-killing concentration, (4) not prove
seriously harmful to the ecology of the general aquatic area, (5)
be safe for water contact by humans or animals, or provide suit-
able safeguards during the unsafe period, and (6) be of reason-
able cost. Some of these factors assume added significance, based
primarily on the physical aspects of a particular control opera-
tion. What might be suitable from both a cost and toxicity stand-
point in a control program for a pond might not be feasible in a
control program for specific areas on a large body of water.
Certainly more scientific information is needed on the use of
pesticides as fish management tools; on the physiological activi-
ties and habitat limitations of aquatic plants; on the effect of
presently known chemical formulations on a wider variety of
plant species; and on the development, use, and effectiveness of
soil sterilants in an aquatic environment.
For many years, recommended chemicals have included copper
sulfate or blue vitriol for algal control, and sodium arsenite for
submerged aquatic vegetation control. Within the past 5 years,
additional chemicals have been used with varying success in the
control of aquatic plants. Specialization of chemicals is develop-
ing to the extent that some are more effective on specific plant
species. Recommendations usually should be directed to the specific
problem within a specific body of water.
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For algal control it is usually necessary to know only the acre-
age of water requiring treatment and, for weed control, the vol-
ume of water. To ascertain the volume of water, the surface area
is multiplied by the average depth. The latter is determined by
frequent soundings at regular intervals across the area to be
treated. Accurate soundings are best made in the winter through
ice cover when it is a simple matter to determine exact positions.
The volume of water in cubic feet is used to determine the quantity
of chemical needed:
Length (ft.) X Width (ft.) X Average Depth (ft.)
X 62.4 (wgt. of a Cu. ft. of water ) —
1,000,000 —
pounds of chemical (active ingredient) needed to give a concen-
tration of 1 mg/l. This, multiplied by the required chemical con-
centration in milligrams per liter required for treatment equals
the pounds of chemical needed for the measured area. Various
formulations may be purchased. For example, a formulation con-
taining 2 lbs of active ingredient per gallon would necessitate
dividing the pounds of chemical by 2 to arrive at the gallons of
commercial formulation required to control the nuisance.
Algal Control
From 1904 (Moore and Kellerman, 1904) to the present, the
chemical that has most nearly met specifications for the control
of algae has been copper sulfate (blue vitriol). Despite its exten-
sive usage, copper sulfate has shortcomings in that it may, in
excessive concentrations poison fish and other aquatic life, it may
accumulate in bottom muds as an insoluble compound following
extensive usage, and it is corrosive to paint and equipment
(Bartsch, 1954).
Definite dosages of copper sulfate for the control of various
types of algae were first prescribed by Moore and Kellerman
(1905); these have been reprinted extensively in tabular form
with specific dosages for some 70 organisms (Hale, 1954). The
practical application of such a table is limited, however, because
of the many variables encountered in nature. Because the solubil-
ity of copper in water is influenced by pH and alkalinity as well
as temperature, the dosage required for control depends upon the
chemistry of the water itself, as well as on the susceptibility of
258

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particular organisms to the copper. Thus, rather arbitrary dosage
rates have been successfully used, especially in the midwestern
States, for a number of years (Bartsch, 1954; Mackenthun, 1958).
Since a total alkalinity of 40.0 rng ‘1 seems to be a natural separa-
tion point between soft and hard waters (Moyle, 1949a), those
lakes that have a total methyl orange alkalinity of 40 mg/i or
greater are treated with blue vitriol (commercial copper sulfate)
at a rate of 1 mg/i for the upper 2 feet of water regardless of
actual depth. On an acreage basis, the concentration would
amount to 5.4 lbs of commercial copper sulfate per surface acre.
The 2-foot depth has been determined to be about the maximum
E
0
8
6
4
0 2 4 6 8
AVERAGE DEPTH (FEET)
10
Figure 21. Chemical Dosage Chart. To achieve a chemical con-
centration of 1 mg/i in water having an average depth of
8 feet requires 10 pounds of the active chemical for an
area 200 feet by 100 feet, or 21.8 pounds per acre.
24
22
20
18
t6
2
0
I-
w
L&J
L .
0
0
w
a.
0
w
0
w
w
z
U)
0
2
0
a-
2
259

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effective range of a surface application of copper sulfate in such
water, since algae will be killed with increasing depth only if the
rate of downward diffusion exceeds the rate of copper precipita-
tion. The algae killed by such a treatment are those that are sus-
pended near the water surface and occur commonly as blooms
in calm weather. For lakes with a total methyl orange alkalinity
below 40 mg/l, a concentration of 0.3 mg/l commercial copper sul-
fate for the total volume of water has been recommended. This is
comparable to 0.9 lb of copper sulfate per acre foot of water. It is
obvious that if a low-alkalinity lake has an average depth of
about 6 feet, the dosage would be about the same as in a high-
alkalinity lake having the same area. When lesser average depths
are involved, a greater concentration of chemical results in the
high-alkalinity lakes , This apparent paradox would be even more
striking were it not for the fact that in low-alkalinity lakes the
algae frequently are of the filamentous types that may lie at the
bottom and, therefore, the entire volume of water must be calcu-
lated to insure that a sufficient concentration of the chemical
reaches the algae to effect a kill. In high-alkalinity lakes, algae
frequently are planktonic and tend to concentrate near the sur-
face, which is the only stratum in which appreciable concentra-
tions of soluble copper can be produced. Certainly, when copper
sulfate is used as the algicide, the best and most lasting control
will result if the lake water has a total alkalinity around 50 mg/l
or less.
Algal control treatments can be marginal or complete, the type
applied to a given body of water must be determined by the size,
shape, and relative fertility of the water, and the estimated cost
of the project. Complete treatment in which the calculated amount
of copper sulfate is systematically applied over the entire surface
area is the most satisfactory. It insures that a major portion of
the total algal population is eliminated at one time, so that a
longer recovery period is required before an algal bloom condition
recurs. The interval between necessary treatments will be directly
correlated with climatological conditions and the available nu-
trients utilized by the remaining algal cells that are not killed
as a result of chemical application. One to three complete treat-
ments per season may be sufficient to give reasonable control.
Marginal treatment, on the other hand, is a method designed to
obtain temporary relief in a restricted area where more extensive
activity is not feasible or financially possible. In this procedure
260

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PHES J E HOSE
AND NOZZLE WITH
HOSE RETURN— ‘ DISCHARGE
TO WASH CRYSTALS 8
I I
Ill Il
II
‘S
‘,pI
STAINLESS STEEL
STRAINER WITH
HOLES
Figure 22. Equipment design for algal control. Small blue vitriol crystals
are placed over perforated drum in chemical solution tank.
a strip, 200 to 400 feet wide, lying parallel with the shore, and all
protected bays are sprayed in the same manner as in complete
treatment. No other part of the area is treated even though many
algae may be present. As a result of treatment, the algal popula-
tion and the intensity of odors along the periphery of the lake
are reduced. The duration of freedom from the algal nuisance
following marginal treatment is dependent upon the density of
the algal population in the center of the lake and its ability to in-
filtrate the treated area through the action of wind, waves, and
currents. Any marginal control operation should definitely be con-
sidered on a periodic repeat basis. If fertility is not excessive,
large bodies of water might gain enough relief from marginal
treatment to warrant this type of control; however, it probably
would be a waste of money for a large, fertile lake that is long
and narrow and subject to considerable wind and wave action. In
the latter case, complete treatment might be the only present
answer, the cost of which might be prohibitive.
Copper sulfate may be applied in a variety of ways: bag-drag-
ging, dry feeding (Monie, 1956), liquid spray (Mackenthun,
1958), and airplane application of either dry or wet material.*
Because rapid and uniform distribution of the algicide is essential,
* Great Lakes Newsletter. Great Lakes Commission, Rackham Bldg., Ann Arbor,
Mich., 3 (6): 1—10, July 1959.
LINE
PUMP POWER
SOURCE
261

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the size and scope of the problem determine to some extent the
method employed. In general, liquid spraying systems operated
from a boat or barge have been most widely used. Because copper
sulfate is a highly corrosive chemical, materials that are used in
the construction of spraying equipment should be resistant to its
corrosive nature.
The effect of copper sulfate on an algal population can be noted
soon after treatment. Within a few minutes, the color of the water
changes from dark green to grayish-white. Although at no time
are all the algae in the lake entirely eliminated, (Domogalla,
1926), the water should be visibly free of cells 2 or 3 days follow-
ing a complete application. Treatment has proven beneficial both
in large bodies of water (Domogalla, 1935 and 1941) and in small
fish-rearing ponds (O’Donnell , 1945). Both in Wisconsin and
Minnesota (Moyle , l949b) there is an indication that certain algae,
particularly Aphanizoinenon , seem to have acquired an increased
tolerance to copper as a result of many years of treatment; 2
to 5 times as much copper sulfate must now be used as was neces-
sary some 26 years ago to achieve similar control.
Much has been recorded on the toxicity of copper sulfate to
various forms of aquatic life (Doudoroff and Katz, 1953; Ellis,
1937; Marsh and Robinson. 1910; Prescott, 1948; Rushton, 1924;
and Schaut, 1939). Extensive field and laboratory studies have
shown that fish are not killed by copper sulfate at the minimum
concentrations used for algal control, and that fishing and fish
yields have not deteriorated in lakes that have been treated over
a long period of time (Moyle, 1949b). It is well known that copper
salts accumulate upon the lake bottom following repeated treat-
ments and that the greatest accumulation is found in the pro-
fundal region (Nichols, Henkel, and McNall, 1946). Attention has
also been directed to the possible deleterious effect of this accu-
mulation on lake ecology (Hasler, 1947). It has been shown exper-
imentally, however, that the concentration of copper salts in
bottom muds as a result of the use of nearly 2 million pounds of
copper sulfate to control algae in a hard-water lake over a 26-
year period was considerably lower than the concentration deter-
mined to have a deleterious effect on profundal bottom-dwelling
organisms (Mackenthun and Cooley, 1952).
Algal control measures should be undertaken before the maxi-
mum development of the algal bloom. If, for some reason, a given
262

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area is not treated until the algal population has become dense,
judgment must be used in determining the area that should re-
ceive treatment at a given time, lest sufficient organic matter is
killed to result in decomposition and oxygen removal, it is good
practice to subdivide the total area into sections and control the
nuisance in 1 section at a time. Other sections may be treated
after an interval of 7 to 10 days to ensure that sufficient dissolved
oxygen is present to satisfy the demand of the decomposing algae.
Other methods of distributing copper sulfate have been devised;
one of these is to blow a chemical dust rather than use a slurry
or solution (Anon., 1965). The principal advantage of the blower-
type machine is the ability to treat large surface areas rapidly
with a light dosing of material.
The blower operates at 3,000 to 3,500 rpm, which has the
tendency to grind the commercial-grade CuSO 4 snow into smaller
particles. These small particles are blown into the air, and wind
currents assist in spreading them over the surface of the water.
Certain disadvantages are found in the blower-type machines.
For example. the larger machines are heavy enough to reduce the
permissive load of chemical in the boat; and two or more men are
required to transport the units in and out of the watercraft. The
,
Plate 56. Liquid spray distribution of herbicide by small boat.
263

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machines also need continual adjustment by a trainer operator,
such as a contract applicator, to maintain a constant feed and to
obtain an even distribution of copper. An excessive rate of feed
may clog the discharge spout. Use of these blower-type machines
is dependent upon the wind for distribution of chemical, and with
shifting winds the boat crew as well as the reservoir may be
dusted with the material. There is always the loss of varying
amounts of copper sulfate dust that is carried away by the wind
and then settles upon the above-water shoreline of the reservoir.
Helicopters have also been used in chemical distribution (Ros-
enberg, 1964) . The East Bay Water Company, Oakland, California,
found that a more efficient treatment could be obtained with a
helicopter and that, as a result, fewer treatments were required
per season for a particular reservoir. The cost of chemical dis-
tribution was slightly more by helicopter than by boat.
Menasha, Wisconsin draws its water from Lake Winnebago, an
algal-laden surface supply. Taste and odor problems were severe
in 1939 based upon Marx’s (1951) statement, “. . . as an example
of how bad the water can get. during August of 1939 the water
temperature was 85, the algae count reached 50,000 units per ml.,
turbidity was 200 ppm and the odor reached 300. A treatment
of over 100 ppm of carbon and 9 grains of alum, cut the odor
down to about 15 and the turbidity down to about 10, in the fin-
ished water. This water was obviously not satisfactory for use,
but nothing could be done about it.” In 1946, a 25-million gallon
pretreatment basin, giving a detention period of 7 or 8 days, with
concrete baffles to “. . . force the water from one shore of the
basin to the other five times as it travels from the inlet to the
outlet” was placed in operation. As the water flows into the basin
it is given a dosage of 2 mg /I of copper sulfate throughout the
alga ! season regardless of type of algae, pumpage, or any other
variable (Marx, 1951). By the time the water reaches the water
treatment plant inlet, the algae have been killed, they have de-
composed, the odors have been reduced an average of 67 percent
and just a very fine turbidity is left. In five years of use, less
than an inch of material settled on the bottom of the basin, ac-
cording to Marx.
Control of Submerged Aquatic Weeds
In the control of submerged aquatic plants, it is often desirable
to chemically treat localized areas along the shoreline, such as
264

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bathing beaches and around piers, and to develop channels
through weed beds so that boats will have access to deeper water.
Sometimes it is advantageous to treat an extensive area in an
effort to curtail an advancing population of a weed species, such
as Eurasian watermil foil (My riopliyllu rn s i cat urn Linnaeus)
Best results are obtained when the shoreline areas are treated
because currents and wave action are usually minimized, and the
diffusion of the chemical can take place only in one direction—
into the lake. There are limitations below which it is usually not
feasible to attempt chemical weed control. The recommended min-
imum area to be treated is 200 feet by 200 feet. The treatment
of very small areas permits the diffusion of the chemical on 3
sides, thus reducing the concentration of the chemical within the
area to a point below the toxic level for rooted plants. An excep-
tion to this recommendation might be a small slough, bay, or
stagnant channel with an area of less than 40,000 square feet.
For many years, arsenic trioxide as a sodium arsenite solution
has been effectively used to control submerged aquatic weeds.
Domogalla (1926) used it first in 1926 in the Madison, Wisconsin
lakes to control a nuisance and to enhance the recreational value
of the area. Surber (1931) was the first to adopt this means of
control in fish management work, stating that preliminary exper-
iments with sodium arsenite during the summer of 1929 indicated
that this chemical can be used effectively at low cost in controlling
submerged aquatic plants without doing apparent injury to either
large or small fish and without exterminating or seriously dimin-
ishing the supply of natural foods.
Surber (1949) found that dosages of 1.7 to 4.0 mg/I white ar-
senic equivalent were effective in controlling practically all sub-
merged flowering plants in fish ponds, but did not affect the fish.
Because the water bodies treated in ‘Wisconsin were larger lakes,
somewhat higher arsenic concentrations were used (Mackenthun,
1950). To treat a small body of water a dosage of 5 mg/l white
arsenic equivalent was used. In treating fish management ponds
containing walleye fry a two-part treatment was found to be effec-
tive; one-half of the pond was treated 1 week later than the other
half. In the treatment of the shoreline area of a large body of
water protected from wind and wave action and having an aver-
age depth not exceeding 5 feet and a maximum depth not exceed-
ing 8 feet, a dosage of 7.5 mg/i white arsenic equivalent was rec-
265

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Figure 23. Diagram of equipment suitable for liquid spray
distribution of chemical.
ommended: a dosage of tO mg I was found effective against
submerged e tation in the treatment of a shoreline area of a
large hod’ of water unprotected from wind and wave action and
having an a erage depth not exceeding 5 feet and a maximum
depth not exceeding ft. The majority of the projects in Wisconsin
required the higher dosage to ensure effective control.
Because arsenical compounds are recognized poisons, their use
necessitates a number of handling precautions. In the hands of
untrained and irresponsible individuals they could become e 1 -
tremely dangerous to the appliers, to the water users, and to all
forms of aquatic life. With proper precautions, however, there is
no danger either to humans or animals. Children and animals
should not have access either to the chemical or empty containers.
Containers should be thoroughly washed and rinsed with water
when emptied. As a safety measure. for 2 days following treat-
ment no bathing is allowed in a treated area and the water is
not used for watering lawns, for livestock, or for any other pur-
pose; aku. pets of all kinds are kept from the water. At the end
of that time, the chemical should be sufficiently dissipated by
dilution and absorption to make these precautions unnecessary.
Cattle and other grazing animals should be excluded from the
treated area until rains have washed the shore vegetation. Al-
though domestic animals probably would not drink enough of the
PIPE
PRESSURE
HOSE
PRESSURE HOSE
AND NOZZLE WITH
3; DISCHARGE
B
GATE
I’
GATE
VALVE
LINE—
END OF PIPE
PUMP POWER
SOURCE
266

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treated water to be injured, it is almost impossible to spray a
pond or similar area thoroughly and not leave a certain amount
of poison on the shore plants. Stock may be attracted by the salty
taste and eat eu u .. h of the treated shoreline vegetation to be
poisoned.
Arsenicals accumulate in lake bottom muds, plankton, unkilled
submerged vegetation and, to some extent, in fish. Analyses of
bottom muds from a 2,500-acre lake that had received 195,548
pounds of arsenic (As) over a 1 2-year period indicated an arsenic
concentration in excess of 180 jAg As (dry weight) /g mud in some
samples. Plankton analyses in another lake revealed a concentra-
tion of ¶)65 As (dry weight) g plankton 2 weeks after treat-
ment. Those weeds or portions ot weeds that remained alive after
the initial shock of treatment appeared to be able to take from
the surrounding water substantial quantities of arsenic without
suffering severe ill effects. Weeds that appeared to be normal and
healthy adjacent to a treated area contained 660 ig As/g on a
dry weight basis. Ullmann et al. (196fl reported that the arsenic
concentration in fish fillets ranged from 0.22 to 0.47 jig while
that in the viscera ringed from 0.10 to 0.7 in a treated lake,
compared to 0.10 to 0.12 Hg As ‘g in a control lake.
In recent years, the number of herbicides available for aquatic
weed control has increased. These include some 25 compounds,
Plate 57. An air boat serves as a steady transport vehicle for
spraying equipment.
267

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many of which are specific in their herbicidal action (Surber,
1964) * Many of the compounds are availab!e in liquid and granu-
lar formulations, the latter being suitable for broadcasting on the
water surface. Many of these compounds are in the experimental
and developmental stage, and problems of specific toxicity to other
aquatic life have not been clarified. Data on the effects of many
aquatic herbicides on algae, on various aquatic weeds, and on fish
and other aquatic organisms have been reviewed in great detail
by La’t%Tence (1962).
A few details should be kept in mind in the application of a chem-
ical. It has been found advantageous, for example, to divide a
large area to be treated into a convenient number of small sub-
areas and to accurately determine the volume of water each con-
tains- Since the quantity of the chemical used is proportional to
the water volume to be treated, it is a simple matter to properly
adjust the chemical application and evenly distribute the correct
amount of chemical into the subarea. This procedure is then re-
peated in successive subareas. Spraying should be intiated at the
shoreline so that fish will not be trapped in shallow water.
Chemical control of aquatic vegetation must currently be re-
garded as a temporary remedy although it should last for the
season in which it is applied. Under certain conditions, the re-
moval of a vascular plant population may promote the growth of
a bottom dwelling alga such as Cliara. The alga must then be
attacked with a suitable algicide. Since C/iara grows on the bot-
tom, the algicide usually must be dispersed just above the bottom
so that it can come immediately in contact with the plant. It is
most important not to disrupt too much of the lake ecology at
one time lest another nuisance develop in place of the one being
treated.
Biological controls are currently being tested in the control of
aquatic weeds. Preliminary studies on use of grass carp. Cteno-
pharyngodon idellus. (Cuvier and Vallenciennes), for aquatic
weed control have recently been completed at Auburn University
Agricultural Experiment Station. When stocked at a rate of 685
Mackentitun, K. M.. 1959. Summary of Aquatic Weed and Algae control Re-
search and Related Activities in the t’nited States. Committee on Water Pollution,
Madison, Wisconsin, pp. 1-14 (mimeo.) -
Ecologs Is Keynote to Successful Waterweed control. Delegates to 3d Aquatic
Weed Socien. Meeting Told. Weeds and Turf (April), pp. 14—16 (1963).
268

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per acre, the fish eliminated 12 species of weeds gTowing in
plastic-lined pools within 6 weeks. In ponds. S species of rooted
weeds were significantly reduced or eliminated in 1 month after
being stocked with 20 to 40 grass carp per acre (Avault, 1965).
Stevenson (1 J6 3) reports that early rowth of the grass carp
(Ctenophar ’ngodon idelliis) at the Fish Farming Experimental
Station. Stuttgart, Arkansas, compared favorably with that re-
ported in semi-tropical countries. The average weight at 18 months
was 1. l6 grams; the length. 50 centimeters. The fish were given
a supplemental ration of commercial fish pellets and cut grass.
Observations of the feeding habits indicate that this carp may
not be a strict herbivore; it is recommended that a thorough
study be made before the fish is released in natural waters. Steven-
son calls it the most efficient aquatic plant-eating fish, but cau-
tions that it might become another carp problem if introduced.
The destructiveness of aquatic vegetation by the German carp
ihis long been rec guized (Black. l! 46: Cahu, 1929; Threinen and
Helm, l! 54: and Trvon. 1 14) : (rizzell and Nee1 (1962) recom-
mend six or more muscovv ducks per acre to control duckweed
in ponds.
Plate 58. Chemical distribution through pressure spraying from a barge.
—
269

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Control of Emergent Weeds
Rapid advances are also being made in research on the control
of marsh weeds and other aquatic forms that project above the
water surface. Two factors explain the growing interest in the
control of these weeds: one is the advent of new and better herbi-
cides for the purpose; the other is the increasingly critical situa-
tion facing the Nation’s waterfowl hunting resource—a sport on
which 2 million Americans spend 89 million dollars annually.*
Already more than half of the country’s original 125 million acres
of wetlands have been spoiled for waterfowl use. As the national
population approaches the 200-million mark, more and more of
the places where ducks feed, breed, and are hunted will have to be
converted to the needs of advancing civilization. In other words,
prospects are for fewer hunting places and fewer ducks for a
large number of hunters.
To help offset this trend, it is important to make the best use
of available waterfowl habitat. Thousands of poor or fair areas
in the United States can be made more attractive for ducks and
duck hunters by replacing marsh weeds with plants that furnish
food or cover for waterfowl. Commonly, the costs involved are not
prohibitive (Martin et al., 1957).
In Florida recently, water hyacinths and other pest plants were
cleated from 20,000 acres of ponds and lakes by the Game and
Fresh Water Fish Commission. Numerous other programs, both
large and small, are being waged against phragmites, cattails,
waterchestnut, and other marsh weeds in various States. In the
Federal refuge system, more than 2,000 acres of marshlands are
treated with herbicides annually to make them more productive
for waterfowl. All this is small, however, compared with what
can be done.
Chemical Usage
Slightly over I million pounds of arsenic trioxide (As 2 0 3 ) in
a sodium arsenite solution have been applied to lakes in Wiscon-
sin for the control of submerged aquatic vegetation from 1950
through 1962. About 50 lakes involving about 1,500 surface acres
of recreational water annually receive treatment. Other chemi-
* National Survey of Fishing and Hunting. U. S. Department of the Interior, Bu-
reau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, circtthr 120, 73 pp. (1960).
270

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Plate 59. Barge distribution of granular herbicide.
cals are applied, but on a much smaller scale. Approximately 1.1
million pounds of commercial copper sulfate for algal control were
applied to 6,000 acres of recreational water over the same period
of time.
The results of a questionnaire circulated in 1959 indicated that
many States do not keep accurate records on the extent of use
of chemicals for aquatic weed and algal control. The most com-
plete records were kept by Wisconsin and Minnesota, the States
that, along with Michigan, accomplished the greatest amount of
large-scale control of submerged aquatics at that time. Of some
32 states reporting control activities on aquatic weeds, Minnesota
reported the use of 94.570 pounds of arsenic trioxide in 1958.
Michigan reported that 31 lakes recei e sodium arsenite, and 30
additional lakes receive either 2.4—D or Kuron for the control
of submerged aquatic weeds. . cveral states (Colorada, Georgia,
New Jersey. North Carolina, Ohio, and Pennsylvania) reported
an extensive number of small acreage operations, the majority
of which presumably were confined to control in ponds. The re-
ported amount of arsenic trioxide (As O: ) used by Minnesota and
\\‘isconsin comprise 92 percent of the reported total amount used
by all States. Many States undoubtedly do much more control
work than was indicated on the questionnaires, but do not have
available the specific chemical application figures.
— -
271

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Plate 60. Helicopter application of a granular herbicide.
This questionnaire indicated that, at that time, sodium arsenite
w. . by iar the most common herbicide used in the control of
submerged aquatis. The concentrati n used varied from 4 to
1? m2/l As:0 3 ; the lower concentrations were used in pond con-
trol. and the hLher concentrations for area treatment in large
bodies of water. E Jiteen states reported the use ()f 2.4—D gran-
tilec. generally on a limited scale at a concentration of approxi-
matelv ‘‘ lb of active inLTe(lient acre. Florida reported the
control of 150 acres of cattails with 2.400 lbs of Dalapon alon:4
with the use of 4 ,0O0 lbs of 2,4—D on 21,750 acres for water
hyacinth control.
Twenty-one t,itc reported the use of copper sulfate for the
control of algae. Minnesota in l 3S used 167,464 pounds of copper
sulfate in the treatment of 12.379 acres of water on 41 lakes. In
-
272

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Wisconsin in 1959, 6,270 acres on 29 lakes received 54,765 lbs
of copper sulfate for algal control. Other States reported the use
of lesser amounts.
Snail control was reported by Alabama, Michigan, Minnesota,
and Wisconsin. The two latter States also reported some attempts
at leech control. Generally, a heavy, localized concentration of cop-
per sulfate and lime or copper carbonate is applied for this
purpose.
The explosive spread of Eurasian watermilfoil in two Tennessee
Valley Authority reservoirs during 1960 and 1961 and its real
and potential threat to mosquito control, recreation, and other in-
terests dictated that an immediate all-out effort be made to stop
its further spread (Smith, 1963) . Efforts were made to treat all
known colonies of milfoil in both Watts Bar and Chickamauga
Reservoirs. In 1962, 175,000 pounds (87.5 tons) of 20-percent ,
2,4—D granular herbicide, at a rate of 20 pounds acid equivalent
per acre, was applied by helicopter to approximately 2,075 acres
in the two reservoirs. Smith reported the treatment as “. . . highly
successful . . .“ and stated further that “. . . under certain TVA
reservoir conditions, our experience indicates that either delivery
of an adequate dose of granular 2,4—D herbicides to the plant or
dewatering of the plant [ winter drawdown] will be effective
in controlling watermilfoil. Furthermore, the chemical appears
to be effective at the water temperatures which exist during the
winter and spring drawdown period.”
The application of a chemical to water involves certain hazards
which must be understood and against which public rights must
be protected. Factors that must be considered are the short- and
long-range toxicity to all aquatic life; the deposition and possible
accumulation of the chemical upon the lake bottom, and the sub-
sequent reaction upon the community of bottom organisms; the
impact resulting from the destruction of too much biological
growth at one time; and the possible disturbance of the general
aquatic environment.
References Cited
AxON., 1965. New Ways to Apply Aquatic Herbicides. Weeds. Trees, and Turf, I
(2) 18, 19, 24, 25.
AVAULT, W., JR. , 1965. Preliminary Studies with Grass carp for Aquatic Weed
Control. Progressive Fish-Culturist, 27 (4) 207—209.
273

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Bnncn, A. F., 1954. Practical Methods for Control of Algae and Water Weeds.
Public Health Reports, 69 (8) : 749—757.
Brxxrn, C. W., 1948. The Bass-Bluegill Combination in a Small Artificial Lake.
Ill. Nat. Hist. Sur. Bull. 24 (3): 377—412.
BLACK, J. D., 1946. Nature’s Own Weed Killer, the German Carp. Wisconsin Con.
servation Bulletin, 11 (4): 3—7.
CMIX, A. R., 1929. The Effect of Carp on a Small Lake: Carp as Dominant. Ecology.
10: 271—274.
DOMOGALLA, B. P., 1926. Treatment of Algae and Weeds in Lakes at Madison, Wis.
Engineering News Record, 97 (24): 950—954.
D0M0GAU S . B. P., 1935. Eleven Years of Chemical Treatment of the Madison
Lakes—Its Effects on Fish and Fish Foods. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 65: 115-120.
D0M0GALLS, B. P.. 1941. Scientific Studies and Chemical Treatment of the Madison
Lakes. A Symposium on Hsdrobiology. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison,
Wis.. pp. 303—310.
Douvogoi-r. P. AND M. KArZ, 1953. Critical Review of Literature on the Toxicity
of Industrial Wastes and their Components to Fish. II. The Metals, as Salts.
Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 25 (7): 802—839.
Ertis, NI. M., 193L Detection and Measurement of Stream Pollution. Bulletin No.
22. U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, 48: 365-437.
Gnzztu.., R. A., Ja., AND W. W. NEELY, 1962. Biological Controls for Waterweeds.
Transaction of the Twent .seventh North American Wildlife and Natural Re-
sources Conference, Wildlife Management Institute, Washington 5, 1).C., pp. 107—
113.
H.sti. F. E.. 1954. Use of Copper Sulphate in Control of Microscopic Organisms.
Phelps Dodge Refining Corp., New York, 30 pp., 6 plates.
HAstn, A. D.. 1947. Antibiotic Aspects of Copper Treatment of Lakes. Wis. Acad.
Sd., Arts & Lett., 39: 97—103.
LAWRENCE, 3. NI., 1962. Aquatic Herbicide Data. Agricultural Handbook No. 231.
Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture , 133 Pp.
LnrnMoltr, D. F., 1954. Hanesting Underwater Weeds. Water Works Engineering
(February Issue , 4 pp.
MACKENTHUN, K. M., 1950. Aquatic Weed Control with Sodium Arsenite. Sewage
and Industrial Wastes, 22 (8): 1062—1067.
MACKENTHUN, K. NI., 1958. The Chemical Control of Aquatic Nuisances. Committee
on Water Pollution, Madison, Wis., pp. 1-64.
MACKENTHtN. K. NI. AND H. L. Coorty, 1952. The Biological Effect of Copper
Sulphate Treatment on Lake Ecolog. Trans. Wis. Acad Sci., Arts & Lett., 41:
177 —187.
M asn, NI. C. AND R. K. Rosixsox, 1910. The Treatment of Fish-Cultural Waters
for the Removal of Algae. Bulletin Bureau of Fisheries 28 (Part 2): 871—890
(1908).
MtRrLs, A. C., R. C. ER icKsoN AND 3. H. Smxis. 1957. Improving Duck Marshes
by Weed Control. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior,
Circular 19—Revised: 1-60.
MAn, A. J., 1951. Pre.treatment Basin for Algae Removal. Taste and Odor Control
Journal, 17(6): 1—8.
M0NW, W. D.. 1956. Algae Control with Copper Sulphate. Water and Sewage-Works.
103 (9j: 392—397.
274

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MooRE, G. T. AND K. F. KELLERMAN, 1904. A Method of Destroying or Preventing
the Growth of Algae and Certain Pathogenic Bacteria in Water Supplies. Bulletin
No. 64, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture. -
MooRE. G. T. AND K. F. KELLERMAN, 1905. Copper as an Algicide and Disinfectant
in Water Supplies. Bulletin 76, Bureau of Plant industry, U.S. Department of
Agriculture: 19—55.
Monr. J. B., l949A. Some Indices of Lake Productivity. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 76:
322—334 (1946).
Moyci, J. B., 1949B. The Use of Copper Sulfate for Algae Control and Its Bio-
logical Implications. Limnological Aspects of Water Supply and Waste Disposal.
Pubi. Am. Association for the Adv. of Sci., Washington , D.C.: 79—87.
NnsoN, 0. F., 1965. Kenosha Increases P)ant Capacity with Microstrainers. Water
Works and Wastes Engineering, 2 (7) : 43 — 46.
NIcI-loLs, M. S., T. HENKEL ANt) D. MCNALL. 1946. Copper in Lake Muds from Lakes
of the Madison Area. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts & Len., 38: 333—350.
O’DONNELL, D. J., 1945. Control of Hydrodictyon reticulatum in Small Ponds. Trans.
Am. Fish. Soc., 73: 59—62 (1943).
PREscon, C. IV., 1948. Objectionable Algae with Reference to the Killing of Fish
and Other Animals. Hydrobiol.: 1—13.
ROSENBERG, D. U., 1964. Helicopter Application of Copper Sulfate. Taste and Odor
Control Journal, 30 (8 ) : 2—7.
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SO-tAUT, C. C.. 1939. Fish Catastrophes During Droughts. Jour. Am. Water Works
Association, 32 (5): 77 1—882.
SMITH, C. E., 1963. Control of Eurasian \Vatermilfoil (M. spicaturn) in TVA Reser-
\.Oirs. Paper presented at Southern Weed Conference, January 17, 1963, Mobile,
Ala.
STEVENSON, J. H., 1965. Observations on Grass Carp in Arkansas. Progressive Fish-
Culturist, 27 (4) : 203—206.
SCRBER, E. W., 1931. Sodium Arsenite for Controlling Vegetation in Fish Ponds.
Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 61: 143—148.
SURRER, F. IV., 1949. Control of Aquatic Plants in Ponds and Lakes, U. S. Depart-
ment of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Fishery Leaflet 344: 1—20.
SURSER, F. W., 1961. Improving Sport Fishing by Control of Aquatic Weeds. U.S.
Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Sport Fisheries
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THRi INEN, C. IV. AND IV. T. HELM, 1954 Experiments and Observations Designed to
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275

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Ar.RoElc ORGANISM—An organism that
thrives in the presence of oxygen.
ANAEROBIC ORGANIsM—A microorganism
that thrives best, or only, when de-
prived of oxygen.
AuTorltoPmc—Self-nourishing: denoting
the green plants and those forms of
bacteria that do not require organic
carbon or nitrogen. but can form their
own food out of inorganic salts and
carbon dioxide.
BENI-HIC REGIoN—The bottom of all
waters: the substratum that supports
the benthos.
BEN rims— Bottom -dwelling organisms:
the henthos comprise: (Ii sessile ani-
mals such as the sponges. barnacles,
mussels, and oysters, some of the
worms, and maits attached algae; (2)
creeping forms, such as snails and
flatworms: and (S burrowing forms
which include most clams and worms.
BioMAss—The weight of all life in a
specified unit of environment, for ex-
ample. a square foot of stream bot-
tom. An expression dealing with the
total mass or weight of a given popu-
lation, both plant and animal.
cncsn&r—The tailed, immature stage
of a parasitic flatworm.
CntcuLsR PLAn—A hard chitinous or
calcareous plate on the epidermis or
outer horny laser of the skin.
Eccwocv—The branch of biolog-v that
deals with the mutual relations of liv-
ing organisms and their environments.
and the relations of organisms to each
other.
EcosysTEM—The functioning together of
the biological community and the
non-living ens ironment.
EntisiNiox—That region of a both of
water that extends from the surface
to the thermocline and does not have
a permanent temperature stratifica-
tion.
EPITHELIAL lAYER—The purely cellular.
non-vascular layer covering all free
both surfaces.
EUTROPHIC wsrns—Waters with a good
supply of nutrients; they may support
rich organic production. such as algal
blooms.
EUTROPH iCATION—The intentional or un-
intentional enrichment of water.
FLOC—A small, light, loose mass, as of a
fine precipitate.
Finccuirxr—Resemhling tufts of cotton
or wool: denoting a fluid containing
numerous shreds of fluffy, gras-white
particles: containing or consisting of
flees.
CrLArtxots sisratx—Jelly-like intercel-
lular substance of a tissue; a semisolid
material surrounding the cell wall of
some algae.
Ci OBUt AR—Having a round or spherical
shape.
HE:PATLC srix—The vein leading from
the liver.
HLrraocvsr—. specialiied vegetative cell
in certain filamenous blue-green al-
gae: larger. clearer, and thicker-walled
than the regular vegetative cells.
HtRunxN—A substance extracted from
the salivary glands of the leech that
has the property of preventing coagu-
lation of the blood.
HoMorunMous—Having the same tem-
perature throughout.
H’srouMxtoN—The region of a body of
water that extends from the thermo-
dine to the bottom of the lake and
is removed from surface influence.
INStRTEBRATES—Animals without a back-
bone.
LSRvA—The worm-like form of an insect
on issuing from the egg.
LtMxoLocv—The study of the physical,
chemical, and biological aspects of in-
land waters.
Low Ftow AU.M ENrAT1ON—I ncreasing of
an existing flow. The total flow of a
stream can seldom be increased but
its ability to assimilate waste can gen-
erally be improved b storage of flood
flows and their subsequent release
when natural flows are low and water
quality conditions are poor.
276

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LUMEN—The space in the interior of a
tubular structure, such as an artery
or tile intestine.
MESENTERIC VEIN—The large vein lead-
ing from the intestines in the ab-
dominal cavity.
MIRACIDIUM—The ciliated free-swimming
larva of a trematode worm.
OLIGOTROPHIC wATERS—Waters with a
small supply of nutrients; hence, they
support little organic production.
PAPILLk—: nv small nipple-like process.
PEAKING—The use of hydropower to
meet maximum or rapid changes in
power demands.
PEN5TOCK—A sluice for regulating flow
of water, a conduit for conducting
wa ter
PHoTosvxTuEsIs—The process by which
simple sugars are manufactured from
carbon dioxide and water by living
plant cells with the aid of chlorophyll
iii the presence of light.
PIIvroPttxKToN—Plant microorganisms,
such as certain algae. living unat-
cached in the water.
Pt&x KTON—Organisms of relatively small
size, mostly microscopic, that either
have relatively small powers of loco-
motion or drift in the water subject
to the action of waves and currents.
PLASTIDS—A body in a plant cell that
contains photosynthetic pigments.
PORTAU VEIN—The large vein carrying
the blood from the digestive organs
and spleen to the liver.
PUPA—An intermediate. usually qui-
escent, form assumed b ’ insects after
the larval stage. and maintained until
the beginning of the adult stage.
SLCCI-II DISC—A circular metal plate, 20
cm in diameter, the upper surface of
which is divided into four equal
quadrants and so painted that two
quadrants directly opposite each
other are black and the intervening
ones white.
SicKLE-sHAPED—Curved or crescent
shaped.
SrsroN—The living and nonliving bodies
of plants or animals that float or swim
in the water.
SNAIL—An organism that typically pos-
sesses a coiled shell and crawls on a
single muscular foot. Air breathing
snails, called pulmonates, do not have
gills but typically obtain oxygen
through a “lung” or pulmonary cav-
ity. At variable intervals most pul-
Iflonate snails come to the surface of
the water for a fresh supply of air.
Gill breathing snails possess an in-
ternal gill through which dissolved
oxygen is removed from the surround-
ing water.
SpEctEs (both singular and plural) —An
organüm or organisms forming a nat-
ural population or group of popula-
tions that transmit specific character-
istics from parent to offspring. They
are reproductively isolated from other
populations with which they might
breed. Populations usually exhibit a
loss of fertility when h bridizing.
Si’ojtr—A reproductive cell of a proto-
zoan, fungus, or alga. In bacteria,
spores are specialized resting cells.
TRntAT0DE—The common name for a
parasitic worm of the class Trema-
toda, a fluke.
THERMOCLINE—The layer in a body of
water in which the drop in tempera-
ture equals or exceeds one degree
centigrade for each meter or approxi-
matelv three feet of water depth.
TROPHOGENIc REGION—The superficial
laer of a lake in which organic pro-
duction from mineral substances takes
place on the basis of light energy.
TROPHOLvTIC REGION—The deep layer
of the lake where organic dissimila-
tion predominates because of light
deficiency.
TUBIncWAE—Aquatic segmented worms
that exhibit marked population in-
creases in aquatic environments con-
tain ing organic decomposable wastes.
\‘ENTRAL—Relating to the belly or the
abdomen; opposed to dorsal.
ZOOPLAN ET0N—Animal microorganisms
living unattached in water. They in-
clude small crustacea, such as daphnia
and cyclops, and single-celled animals
as protozoa, etc.
277

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Author Index
PAGE
234
2
229
39
139
45,242
134
127
245, 248
131, 133
20
240,242,
244,245
70,108,
Anderson. L. D.
Anderson, It. R.
Andrews, J. D.
Andrews, W. B.
Arnold, H. L. . -.
Arnon, D. I
.ksh lord, B. K
A ault, W. Jr
Bahiman, C
Bahr, H
Baker, F. C
Ealcom, It. B
Ball. It. C
Banner, A. H
Bartsch, A. F
Bay, C. E
Baylis. J. R
Beard, H. It
Beak. T. W
Beck, W. M. Jr
Beeton, A. M
Belding. D. L
Bellrose, F. C. Jr
Bennett, G. W
Benoit, It. J
Eere, R
Berg, K
Berrian, W
Biglane, K. E
Birge. E
Bischoff, A. I.
Brown, F
Brown, K. W
Bunge, W. W
Burdick, G. E
Burkholder, P. It
Burks, B. D
Burlew, J. S
Burlington, It. F
Bursche, E. M
Burton, M. 0
Bush, A. F
Butcher, H. W
Butcher, It. W
Cahn, A. R
Cairns, J. Jr
Calhoun, A. J
Campbell, H. J
Carlander, H. B
PAGE
37
27,43,
44,253
121
62
35
27
81
11, 17,
34,111,
121, 123,
124, 126,
127, 130
202,203
207
70
129
269
234
247
35
129
38, 130
220,222,
223
69
174
137
216
19
47
137
204
138
86
20
137
107, 126
35
236,242
269
35
39
27
2
Abbott, It. T
Achorn, E
Adams, M. P
Adamsione, F. B
Adeney. W. E
Agersborg, H. F. K
Akehursc, S. C
Alder, H
Alexander, L. J
Allen, M. B
Allum, NI. 0
Aniberg. H. R
Anderson, G. C.
121, 125, Bishop, E. L
129, 139 Bishop, J. S
204 Black, C. S
127 Black, J. D
42 Blair, U. M
109 Blair, G. Y
164 Blum, J. L
135 Borgstrom, C
i so Borutskv, E. V
Brackett, S
216 Brehmer, M. L
240,242 Britton, M. E
217
169
38,39
164
20,81,
8t86,
138, 140
258,259
108, 126,
204
156
126, 129,
130
8t86
84
20
208,209,
231,233
279

-------
Carnahan. C. T.
Chandler, D. C
Chandler, ft. F. Jr
Chu, S. P
Churchill, Is !. A
Ciferri. ft
Clark, F
Clarke, 6. L
Coffin. C. C
Cohen, S. 6
Coker, ft. £
Comstock, J. M
Cooke. W. B
Cooley, H. L
Cooper, A. L
Cooper. 6. P
Cooper. L. H. N
Cordonc. A , J
Cormack, J. F
Con, W. W
Coutant, C. C
Creitz, 6. I
Crook, M. W
Curry, J. J
Dalmau, L. NI
Damann, K. E
Daniel, H. B.
Davidson. F. F
Dasidson. ft. C
Davis, C. C
Davis, C. £
Dc, P. K
Deevey, £. S
Dehnel, N I. K
Delaporte. A. V
DeMartini. F. £
Demoll, ft
Dendy. J. S
Dice, L. ft
Dillenherg. H. 0
Dineen, C. F
Debit, J
Domogaila. B. P
Donahue, ft. L
Dondero, N. C
Doudoroff, P
Drescher. ft
280
160
62
127, 130
165
47
156, 162
47
112
70
161
81
59,239,
242,245
240
29,72,94
17
161
39j30
58
121,261.
265
uS
240
21.262
239
Duchon, K
Dugdale, ft. C
Dugdale. V
D’,mond, J. ft
F.ck. P
Edmondson. 1%’. T
Eggleton. F. E
Ekman, S
Elliott. A. NI
Ellis. NI. NI
Engelbrecht. B.. S
Eschme%er. R. W
EvIes, C. E
Essier. C
PAGE
247
112,116
116
81
108, 126
159
38
73
119
25.26.
47, 262
106. 110.
120
44
181
135
160
181
208
201
234
205
109
159, 165
136
I I ?
112
174
256
158
39,204,
205
151
162
27,81
127, ISO.
131
156
113
234
166
138
164
20
84
269
69
162
PAGE
59
35,121,
123
116
133
4,28,29
160
247
19
54
159, 164
54
209
69
39, 262
47
47
1 19
25,26
240,242,
244,245
220.223.
224.227
4 1
70
38
121
Farrec
Fasseti. N. C
Faust. E. C
Fel lton. 11. L. ...
Ferguson. F. F
Figle’.. K. 1)
Fippin. £. 0
Fitch, C. P
Fitzgerald. 6. P
Flaig g, N. 6
Fogg. 6. £
Forest, H. S
Foster, ft. F
Francis. 6
Fremling. C. ft
Fuller, H. J
Calisoff. P. S
Gaulin. A. R
Gerloff, 6. C
Gibor
Goering. 3. 3
Coodnight. C. J
Gorham. P. ft
Cotaas. H. II
Grauer. F. H
Greenbank, j. T
Greenberg, A. £
Grizzell. ft. A. Jr
Grzenda. A. ft
Gunter. G

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Hale. F. F,
Halvorson, H. 0
Harder, F. C
Harder, R
Hardin, F. F
Harkness. W. J. K
Harper, H. J
Harrison. M. E
Harry, H. \V
Harvey. H. IV
Hasler, A. D
Hatfield, IV. D
Haves. F. R
Haves, 0. £
l-la’ne. I). IV
Hechrner, C
Wise. H
Helm, IV. T
Henderson. C
Henkel. T
Hess, A. 1)
Hester, F. £
Heukelekian, H
Higginson, F. C
Hilsenhofi, IV. L
Hirsch
Hiihnl, C
Holden. A. I’
Holden, P
Hollis. NI. D
Hooper. F. F
Hoskins. J. T
Howard. T. F
Hunt. E. C
Hunt. G. S
Hutchinson, C. £
Hunter, S. H
H nes. H. B. N
Ingalls, R. L
Ingle. R. M
Ingram. V. N I
Jackson. H. IV
Jackson, M. L
Jarcho
Jobin, IV. R
johannes, It. £
Jones,’B. R
Jones, J. R. F
Juday. C
Judas. R. £
Kachmar, J. F
Katz, M
Kavanagh, I’
Kelley, D. IV
Kellermann. K. F
Kemp. H
kerchum. B. H
Kittuell, F. IV
K iugh
Knox, S. K
Koestler, S
Kozminski, ‘ 1
Kramer. It. H
Kratz. IV
Krocker, F
Kilchenmeister, G. F. H
kutkuhn,, J. H
Lackey, J. B
Lafleur. R
Lamer, C. J
Lawrence, J. NI
Lefevre. NI
Lenz, It. T
Letts, £. A
Liebmann, H
Lincoln, J. H
Livermore, D. F
Lloyd, J. T
Lockhead, A. C
Love, It. NI
Love. S. K
Low, J. B
Ludwig. H. F
Lueck. B. F
PAGE
61
108, 126
225
234
128
254
45,47
17, 34,
111, 121,
123, 124,
126, 127,
129, 130
70
239,243
21. 262
137
26
258
26
133
13
43
25
244
70
238
112
42
160
61
35, 36,
63, 108,
125, 139,
149,239,
243, 245
81
156
268
136
108
139
240
236
256
54
137
129
29
37
125
140
281
PAGE
258
247
247
134
164
39
127, 130
242,243,
244, 245
233
70, 118
42.114
262
242
54, 117
108. 126
38
216
159, 162
269
23
262
74,208
72,94
137, 242,
243, 244,
245
157
203
21,81
242,244
114
208
207
119
59
231
202, 203
23.24
54,113.
118, 119.
121, 122,
123, 126
163
81
129
163
61. 81,
84, 86,
151,157.
214,216,
217, 236
234
Ippen. A. T

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Maloney, T. E.
Mandal, L. N.
Manning, W. M.
Marsh, M. C
Martin, A. C
Marx, A. J
Mason. H. L
Matheson, D. H
Mccarthy, H
McGauhes. P. I I
McKee, H. S
Mckeown, J. J
McLaughlin, J. J
McMullen, D. B
McNabb, C. D
McNaIl, D
Metzler, D. F
Miller, L. B
Monie, W. D
Moore, K W
Moore, G. T
Moore, H. B
Moore, J. P
Moore, W. H
Morgan. A. H
Morgan. J. J
Moyle, J. B
Muegge, 0. J
Muenscher, %%‘ C
Mutton!, S. F
MUller, W
Myers, H. C
Myers, 5
Naumann, F
Needham, J. G
Needhani, P. R
Neel, 5. K
Neely, W. IV
Neess, J. C
Neil, J. H
Nelson, 0. F
Nelson, T. C
Nichols, M. S
Nicholson. H. P
Oborn, E. T
O Donnell, D. J
Odum, E. P
Odum, H. T
Olivier, L
Olson, T. A
Osgood, I - I
Oswald, IV. J
Owen. R
Palmer, C. M
Paloumpis. A
Parlato, S. J
Parr, S
Pate, V. S. Y
Patrick. R
Peek, C
Pennak, It. W
Pennoyer, S
Pentelow, F. T. R
Petersen, C. G. J
Pfitzer, D. IV
Phillips, J. E
Phinney, H. K
Pinter, I. 5
Popp. I
Poretzkii. V. S
Porges, R
Porterfield, J. D
Prescott, G. W
Pringsheim. E. G
Provasoli, L
Provost, M. W
Purdy, W. C
Putnam, H. D
Raphael. J. M
PAGE
243
54
39,42,75
15,21
269
19,112,
113
34, 130
156, 256
161
262
21
157
262
54, 138
70
223
120, 165
205
107, 138
107
61.66,
151. 153.
174
108. 126
205
27
42
69, 86,
174
127
210,214
25
81
73
29
118
127
117
240. 242
35
53,83
10
150, 152,
157. 262
243
117, 136
141, 201
41, 137
120
16
Lueschow, L. A
Lund, J. W. G
Mackenthun, K. M
PAGE
170,247,
256
132, 162
20,39,
66,106
107, 123,
125, 140,
216,227,
247, 254,
256,259,
261,262.
265,268
66
112
70
262
168,181,
270
264
181
113
254
20. 107,
115,129
113
245
163
227,233
20,6L
106, 138
262
107, 126
247
261
61
258
118
213
47
181
106, 107,
110,120
21,39,
43,58,
12L 130,
254,259.
262
I
181
107,126
133
157
112
282

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Rawson, D. S.
Reid, G. K.
Reid, G. W
Reif, C. B
Reimer, C. W
Renn, C. E
Rice, T. R
Richards, F. A
Rickett, H. I V
Rigler, F. H
Riley, G
Roach, A. W
Robbins, W. J
Robertson, H. E
Robertson, J. L
Robinson, R. K
Rosenberg, D. G
Ross. H. H
Rowan, IV. B
Ruchhoft, C. C
Rudolfs, W
Rushton, W
Runner, F
Ryther. J. H
Sadler, W. 0
Sams, W. 14
Sanderson, W. W
Sawyer, C. N
Schade, A. L
Schaut, C. C
Scheuring, L
Schorler, B
Schuette, H
Schwimmer, D
Schwimmer, M
Scott, R. H
Seabloom, R. %%T
Senior, V. E
Shapovalov, L
Shelford, V. E
Sigworth, E. A
Silvey, J. K. G
Sindair, R. M
Skoog, F
Smith, F. C. W
Smith, G. E
Smith, G. 14
Smith, L. L. Jr
Smith, 14. W
Snyder, C. R
Spencer, R. R
Sprague, J. B
Starkey, R. L
Starren, IV. C
Stevenson, J. H
Stesn, D. G
Strawbridge, D
Strickland, J. 0. H
Stroud, R. H
Stuart, T
Stumm, IV
Stirber, E. IV
Swingle, H. IV.
Sylvester. R. 0.
S mons, C. E
Taft, A. C
Taft, C. E
Tariton. F
Tarzwell, C. 14
Taylor, H. F
Tebo, L. B
Thompson, U. H
Thompson, T. G
Threinen, C. %V
Tiegs, E
Tiffany, L. H
Timmons, F. L
Tippo, 0
Tisdale, E. S
Towne, IV. IV
Tressler, W. L
Tryon, C. A. Jr
Tucker, A
Uh ler, F. M
Ullmann, IV. W
Unrau, C. 0
Usinger, R. L
PAGE
273
174,209
238
109
27
161
42
246,248
47, 108,
126
269
157
86
133
29
26
107
42, 74,
82, 265,
268
43, 130
15, 16,
17,27,
108, 109,
110,111.
125, 126.
129, 133
153
27
174
156
27,47
162
39
27
70
269
236
174
168, 169
151
160
236
62
269
70, 122
168
267
234
75
PAGE
20, 39,
54,55,
56, 57
54
117
35, 159,
164
174
140
118,136
70
37, 126,
130
123
20,70
153
137
159
181
262
264
206
233
239, 243
106, 137
262
54, 119
70, 137
202
164
108, 126
108,110,
125, 129,
131, 132
245
262
242
247
124, 127
158
158
140
27. 110
161
27
42
152
153
215
127, 130,
131
162
283

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Vallennne, J. B. .
Van Burkalow .
Van Horn, ‘ i v. M
Van Vuran. J. P. J
Veldee, M. V
Verduin. J
Voigt. G. k
Walker. J. B.
Wallace. N. ‘ if
Warner, B.. W
Washburn. 6. N
Watanabe
Watt. W. D
%Vanie, £
‘it’cber, C. I
%ebster. C ;. (
Weeks, 0. B
Weitwi. S. R
245
Welch. P. S
Wheeler. R. £
Whipple, 6. C
\Vhitsel, R. H
Wiebe, A. H
Wielding, S
Wiley, A. J
Williams, L. G
Williams, B.. H
Wilson. H
‘ iVilson. J. N
Wisniewski, T. F
Woodbur’. L
Voodcock. A. H
\Vuhrmann. K
\Vurtz, C. B
18 entsch. C. S
117
121.125 licker. £. 1
1 10 /iebell, C. D
PAGE
54, 60
158, 165
18,20
203
15
112
140
60,61
162
205
236
140
140
163
242, 244
84
70
115
25
PAGE
128
225
81
108
160, 161
18,20,
139
113
203
35
37
47
112
117
239. 245.
284

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Subject Index
Acid Mine
Algae, effect on
Benthos, effect on
Actinomscetes
Aging of Lakes
Algae
Blooms, definition of
Group
Nuisance Aspects
Algicide
Attributes
Copper sulfate
Alkalinity
Aquatic Vascular Vegetation
Biological control
Chemical control
Chemicals used
Emergent weed control
Submerged weed control
Overproduction, effects of.
Blackflies
Caddisifies
Chemical Nuisance Control
Complete algal treatment
Dosage calculation
Herbicide application
Marginal algal treatment..
Chlorophyll
Clams, Asiatic
Copper Sulfate
Application
Effects of Treatment
Toxicity
Corrosion
Cycles
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Deerilies
Dissolved Oxygen
Photosynthetic production.
Relationship to fish
Epilimnion
Eutrophication
Benefits
Causes
Liabilities
Results of
Fish Sampling
l1 )polimnion
Iron Bacteria
Control
Lakes
Blue
l)ouglas
Erie
Green
Linsley Pond
Lizard
klamath
Mendota
Michigan
Monona
Nagawicka
Nipigon
Okoboji
Pewaukee
Shakespeare Island
Semco
Sebasticook
Superior
Tahoe
Washington
Leeches
Legislation
Light
Absorption through Ice
and Snow
Photometer vs. Secchi
Disc
Tropogenic zone
PAGE
11—12
103
139
104
140 —141,
149
103
‘a
13
246
247
39
122
18, 20,
121
37, 129
121
39
127
37,39,
121
20
39
39
39
18
39
38
39
20,110,
117, 129
20
20, 129
121
210—214
7—9
19—20
19—20
20
19
PAGE
35—36
95
153
251
149
151—1 52
149
257
257—263
21—22
268
264
270—271
270
264—269
253
208—209
204-205
260
258—260
267—268
260—261
69—7 0
214-216
257
261
262
262
156
119
119—120
209
17—19
17—18
47
285

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Mayflies -
Microstraining .
Midges .
Mosquitoes
Nitrogen Fixation
Nuisance Control
Maintenance
Mechanical controls
State programs
Nutrieuts (Nitrogen and
Phosphorus)
Critical Values
Concentration in:
Animals vaned)
Duck excrement
Oil
Organic Wastes Effects
Oxygen, Phos’snthetic
Production 137—139
Periphs ton
Pesticides
pH
Phosphorus
Nomenclature and
synonym 22
Ratios (total to soluble)
Relationship to fish pro-
duction
Plankton
Analyses
Chlorophyll
Detergent settling
Diatom slides
Diatometer
Drop count
Centrifugation
Constable tube method . . -
Membrane filter method
Preservation
Sand filtration
Sedgwick—Ralter count
Volumetric determination
(microscopic)
Plants, Vascular
Definition
Limiting lactors
Problems caused
Pollution Biology.
Definition
Purification by Organisms
Sludgeworms
Sewage bacterium
(filamentous)
Recreation
Boating
Swimming
Value
Reservoirs
Characteristics
Chickamauga
Effects on Receiving
Streams
Geist
Fontana
Kentucky
Main Stream
Norris
Ross J. Barnett
Site Preparation
Storage
Responses of Organisms
(Environmental)
Algae
Bottom associated
organisms
P Ac; E
123
43
61—69
69—70
66
68
69
63
66—67
67
64
60-61
62
61—63
66
166
167
168—170
1
40
240
15
4
28—29
87. 110,
123
29
4
11—12
15
110
27—28
14
33—37, 88
38—43,
88—95
PAGE
2 64—205
156,256
201 —204,
216
206—208
112—113 ,
116—117
251—252
252
254
253-254
131—133
128
108
128—129
111—112
108
121
108—111
124
115
113-1 14
115
129
120—121
106-108
116
106
125
134—137
124, 126
114—115
125
105
106
116—119
116-117
117—118
24
40
Fish
Groundwater
Human excrement
Lakes
Land runoff
Plants
Pollen
Precipitation
Sawdust
Sediments
Streams
Sewage
Tree leaves
Trickling filters
Loading to lakes
Microstrainers
Population equivalents
Released from sediments..
Retention in lakes
Sources of nitrogen
Sources of phosphorus
Nutrient Utilization
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
3
3
3—5
69
23
21
286

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Fish
General
Lake algae in rivers
River algae
Submerged aquatic plants.
River Surve}s
Bear
Chatrooga
Cheat
Menominee
Sampling
Artificial substrates
Benthic techniques
Benthos
Ekman dredge
Fists
l.akes
Petersen dredge
Plankton presenation
Sediments
Station location
Streanis
Submerged aquatic
egetation
Surber square foot
\Vinter
Schistosomiasis
Control
Snail hosts
Ssmptomolog ’
Sediments
Deposition, effect of
Effects on:
Algae
Benthos
Biota
Nutrients
Sampling
Sphaerorilus-Type
Organisms
Community composition
Controls
Growth stimulating
factors
In streams
In sewers
Problems caused
Wastes causing
Stable Flies
Standing Crops
Algae
Benthos
Cladophora
Submerged aquatic
plants
Sulfur Bacteria
Control of
Surveys, Field
Collecting samples
Data analyses
Interpretation
Organization
Reporting
Swimmer’s Itch
Causative organisms
Characteristics
Control
Distribution
Life cycle
Snail hosts
Tastes and Odors
Taxonomic Field Revs
Algae
Emergent plants
Floating plants
Submerged plants
Temperature
Density currents
Effects of:
Distance of flow
Impoundments
Irrigation
Water and sewage
plants
Effects on:
Algae
Benthos
Fish
Stratification
Thermocline
Toxic Algae
Symptoms of toxicity
Turbidity
Vitamins
Water Pollution
Causes
Definition
Effects
\% T ater Use
Weed Cutters
PAGE
33
38—41
34
37—38
247—248
248
53—77
80
81—87,95
51—53
82—87
231
222, 231
225—230
224
220
224
152—153
174—179
193—199
181—184
185—192
14—lb
16
15—16
16—17
16
35
41
44—45
11,13
13
157—166
159
24, 27
134, 137
2
2
10
3
255—256
U.S. Government Printing 0ffice 1967—0 263—402
PAGE
43—47
33
34
35
37—38
92 —94
91
95
88
72—73
74
ai
73
73, 78
73
61
58
76
71
a ,
74
78
232
233
232
232—233
25
37
41
25
27
70
236, 243
245
243—244
240, 242
242
2 36-238
242
207
287

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