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£jinno logical Aspects
of Recreational Lakes
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by
Kenneth NT. Mackenthun, Biologist
William Marcus Ingram, Biologist
Ralph Porges, Sanitary Engineer Director
Technical Advisory and Investigations Section
Technical Services Branch
Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center
Cincinnati, Ohio
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF
HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control
1964
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0
4;
Public Health Service Publication No. 1167
(1964)
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S.
.
*
1793
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents. U .S. Government Printing Office
Washington. D.C. 20402 - Price $1.25 (Paper covers
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Foreword
Clean lakes are not inalienable gifts of nature. The en-
richment of waters in these natural basins often brings about
biological excesses that are inimical to recreational and other
water uses. The demand for clean, nuisance-free water, ever
increasing with more leisure time and the growing population,
will exert pressure for development of greater understanding and
control of this natural resource for maximum use. These con-
trols involve pollution abatement and water management to
minimize nuisances.
This book is written for persons faced with interpreting
and managing the biological problems and associated phenomena
of recreational lakes.
GORDON E. MCCALLUM,
Doctor of Science, Assistant Surgeon General,
Chief, Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control
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Preface
“Limnological Aspects of Recreational Lakes” considers
the many problems associated with the recreational use of lakes,
reservoirs, and ponds. These standing-water bodies receive the
most concentrated and varied recreational use of any waters, and
provide enjoyment to the greatest number of people. Lakes,
reservoirs, and ponds serve as settling basins and intensify the
many problems associated with water and water use. They are
the center of many divergent and conflicting interests and desires;
competition is increasing for the pursuit of such water sports as
fishing, waterfowl hunting, skin diving, skiing, swimming, and
high-speed boating.
Accelerating populations with an increased amount of
leisure time are placing continuously heavier recreational de-
mantis on standing bodies of water suitable for a variety of water
sports. Individuals using such areas soon become aware of asso-
ciated biological problems and often demand remedial measures
to alleviate developing nuisances or the prevention of them before
they arise. This book is written for the person faced with prob-
lems of interpretation and management in dealing with the
phenomena of recreational lakes.
Individually, the chapters acquaint the reader with the
general problem of aquatic nuisances; review the ecology of lakes,
reservoirs, and ponds and present information on biotic produc-
tion, leading to an understanding of the scope and magnitude of
the basic nuisance problems; discuss nutrients and their impact
on biological growths; review plant and animal pests affect-
ing recreational water and present simple keys for the identifica-
tion of some common aquatic plants; discuss the mechanics of
establishing a sampling program for a lake, reservoir, or pond to
determine the present state of biological growths and possibly
predict future trends; and present information leading to the con-
trol or alleviation of excessive production of biological nuisances.
General recommendations for control will not fit all spe-
cific nuisance problems. In most States, a permit or permission
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must be obtained from an appropriate agency prior to the institu-
tion of controls. When controls are instituted, the recommended
controlling agent and its field application must be tempered with
a scientist’s astute knowledge of both the problem and the
ecological ramifications of a control program.
The Authors.
CINCINNATI, OHIO,
January 1, 1964.
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Contents
Page
FOREWORD
PREFACE V
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xii
I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM I
II. THE ENVIRONMENT OF LAKES,
RESERVOIRS, AND PONDS 9
Temperature 9
Light 13
Dissolved Oxygen 16
Other Chemical Factors 17
Algae 18
Submerged Aquatic Plants 19
Bottom Fauna and Submerged Aquatic
Plants 20
Bottom Organisms 21
Fish 22
The Effect of Stream Inflows on the Water
Body 23
The Effect of Reservoir Discharge on the
Receiving Stream 25
III. NUTRIENTS AND BIOLOGICAL
GROWTHS 31
Basic Nutrient Suppliers 31
Nutrient Utilization 34
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Page
Production in Abundance . 37
Photosynthetic Oxygen Production 39
The Price of Eutrophy 41
IV. PLANT PESTS AFFECTING
RECREATIONAL WATER USE 47
Algae 47
Toxic Algae 56
Higher Aquatic Plants 58
V. ANIMAL PESTS AFFECTING
RECREATIONAL WATER USE 97
Midges 97
Mosquitoes 99
Leeches 100
Swimmer’s Itch 106
VI. SAMPLING AND DATA EVALUATION.... 119
Why? 120
What 2 121
How 7 124
Where? 132
When 2 135
Reporting the Results .135
VII. CONTROL OF EXCESSIVE PRODUCTION. 140
State Control Programs 142
Harvesting the Crops 144
Chemical Control 144
Algal Control 146
Control of Submerged Aquatic Weeds 151
Control of Emergent Weeds 154
Chemical Usage 156
GLOSSARY 160
REFERENCES CITED 163
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Plate Index
Page
1. Pleasing recreation on Lake Geneva, Wis.—a lake
with few biological nuisances 3
2. Swimming is an increasingly popular outdoor
recreational activity 4
3. A recreational pursuit enjoyed by millions 7
4. Industrial wastes degrade water for recreational
use 24
5. Algal scums often result from warm temperature,
abundant sunshine, and nutrients 37
6. Nuisance Algae 50
1. Rivularia, 2. Nodularia, 3. Anabaena,
4. Oscillaloria, 5. Lyngbya, 6. Aplianizo-
men on
7. Nuisance Algae 51
7. P llormidium , 8. Cyclotella, 9. Stepliano-
discus,
tO. Fragilaria, 11. Scenedesrnus, 12. Spirogyra,
13. Zygnema, 14. Oedogonium, 15. Ulothrix,
8. Nuisance Algae 54
16. Melosira, 17. Hydrodictyon, 18. Dinobryon,
19. R/zizoclonium, 20. Stigeoclonium, 21. Cladophora,
22. Pediastrum
9. Nuisance Algae 55
23. Ankistrodesmus, 24. Synura,
25. Coelosphaerium, 26. Microiystis,
27. Ceratium, 28. Staurastrum
10. Duckweeds (Lemnaceae) 65
11. Water Shield (J3rasenia schreberi)... . 66
12. American lotus (Nelwnbo) 67
13. Musk Grass (Chara) 68
14. Bladderwort (Utricularia) . 69
15. Water Milfoil (Myriophyllum) . 70
16. Water Buttercup (Ranunculus) 71
17. Coontail (Ceratophyllum) 72
18. Water Star Grass (Heteranthera) 73
19. Floating-leafed Pondweed (Potamogeton natans). 74
20. Large-leafed Pondweed (Potamogeton amplifolius).. 75
21. Curly-leafed Pondweed (Fotamogeton crispus) 76
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P a ge
22. Robbins Pondwecd (Potamogeton robbinsii) . 79
23. Flat-stemmed Pondweed (Potamogeton .zosteriformis). 80
24. Sago Pondweed (Potamoge/on pectinatus) 81
25. Wild Celery (Vallisneria) 82
26. Bushy Pondweed (Najas) 83
27. Waterweed (Anacharis) 84
28. Spike Rush (Eleocharis) 85
29. Bulrush (Scirpus) 86
30. Wild Rice (Zizania) 87
31. Burreed (Sparganium) 88
32. Smartweed (Polygonum) 89
33. A lligatorweed (Alternant/zera) 90
34. Waterhyacinth (Eichhornia) 91
35. Waterchestnut (Trapa) .. . 92
36. Mosquito (Psorophora cilia/a), one of the largest of
the Illinois mosquitoes 100
37. Blood Sucking Leeches 104
38. Snails known to harbor swimmer’s itch cercariae. 112
39. Snails known to harbor swimmer’s itch cercariae. . 113
40. Combination mixer-distributor unit for under-
water chemical application, top view 116
41. Combination mixer-distributor unit for under-
water chemical application, side view 116
42. Interior of 26 ft. USPFIS mobile laboratory—
facing forward 122
43. Interior of 26 ft. USPEIS mobile laboratory—
facing the rear 124
44. Mobile biological laboratory, USPHS 125
45. Biological sampling equipment 130
46. Sorting, enumeration, and identification equip-
ment 131
47. Mechanical weed cutting and removal 143
48. Liquid spray distribution of herbicide by small
boat 150
49. An air boat serves as a steady transport vehicle
for spraying equipment 152
50. Chemical distribution through pressure spraying
by barge 154
51. Barge distribution of granular herbicide 155
52. Helicopter application of granular herbicide. .. . 157
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Charts and Diagrams
Page
1. Lake zones with seasonal temperature and dissolved
oxygen changes 11
2. Approximate depth distribution of fish in several
TVA Storage Reservoirs (Cherokee, Douglas, and
Norris) onJune2, 1946 14
3. Approximate depth distribution of fish in Norris
Reservoir, Tenn., in late July, 1946 15
4. Generalized contour distribution of basic plant
types on the shoreline of a main-river reservoir 101
5. Anopheles quadrimaculatus Say production potentials
of basic plant types 102
6. Life cycle of swimmer’s itch cercariae 108
7. Diagram of gravity flow equipment used in dis-
tributing chemical mixture for snail control 115
8. Diagrammatic sketch of a natural lake basin
showing suggested sampling sites 134
9. Diagrammatic sketch of a long, narrow shallow
water reservoir showing suggested sampling stations. . 135
10. Chemical Dosage Chart 147
11. Diagrammatic sketch of equipment, suitable for
liquid spray distribution of chemical 149
Table Index
1. Recreational use of 24 TVA lakes 2
2. Nutrient population equivalents 36
3. Nutrient loading and retention in lower Madison
lakes, 1942—1944 39
4. The receiving stream “before” and “after” the
entrance of treated sewage, Madison, Wisconsin 39
5A. Human gastrointestinal disorders associated with
algae 59
SB. Human respiratory disorders associated with
algae 61
SC. Human skin disorders associated with algae.... 62
6. Plants that constitute over one percent of the
total game duck food 63
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Acknowledgments
The writers are indebted to Dr. David G. Frey, Professor
of Zoology, University of Indiana, Bloomington, whose helpful
comments followed a technical review; to Dr. Edward H. Graham,
Director, Plant Technology Division, Soil Conservation Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, E. H. Dustman, Acting Director
and to Dr. Francis M. Uhler,* Biologist. U.S. Department of
the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and Wildlife, who graciously permitted reproduction of several
plates from U.S.D.A. Bulletin No. 634, “Food of Game Ducks in
thc United States and Canada ;“ to Dr. Ralph T. King, Director,
Roosevelt Wildlife Forest Experiment Station, College of Forestry
at Syracuse State University, who loaned the color plates of leeches
originally used in J. Percy Moore’s paper in Roosevelt Wildlife
Bulletin, Vol. 2, No. 1 (1923); to Dr. Harald Rehder, Curator
of Mollusks, and Dr. J. P. E. Morrison, Associate Curator of
Mollusks, U.S. National Museum, who gave generously of their
time and talents in the preparation of plates 38 and 39; and
James S. Ayars, Technical Editor, Dr. Herbert H. Ross, Ento-
mologist, and Dr. Carl 0. Mohr. Artist, Illinois Natural History
Survey, for permission to reproduce the frontispiece from the Illi-
nois Natural History Survey, Vol. 24, Article 1, “The Mosquitoes
of Illinois.”
Plates were obtained from the following sources: 1. Lake
Geneva Civic Association, Walworth, Wis.; 2. Wisconsin Con-
servation Department; 3. California Department of Fish and
Game; 6 to 9. Palmer, C. M., Algae in Water Supplies (1959);
10 to 35. Martin and Uhier, Food of Game Ducks in the United
States and Canada (1939); 36. Ross, H. H., The Mosquitoes of
Illinois (194fl; 37. Moore, J. P., The Control of Blood-Sucking
Leeches of Palisades Interstate Park (1923) ; 40 and 41. Michigan
Water Resources Commission; 47, Aquatic Controls Corporation,
Hartland, Wis.: 49. Northwest ‘Weed Service, Tacoma, Wash.;
50. Applied Biochemists, Butler, Wis.; 51. Wisconsin Committee
on Water Poflution; 52. Dr. John E. Gallagher, Amchem Prod-
ucts, Ambler, Pa.
Table 5 and the Special References following Chapter IV
were graciously supplied by Dr. Morton Schwimmer, 76 East 94th
Street, New York 28, N.Y.
with the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
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CHAPTER I
Statement of the Problem
Next to prayer, fishing is the most personal relationship of man.
—HERBERT HOOVER.
Investigation and study of standing waters require a knowledge
and an understanding of the mutual relations between organisms and
their environment. The production of specific types of aquatic life must
be considered. Overproduction, or too much of any one thing, does
not serve man’s best interests. It often results in the development of
aquatic nuisances that, in turn, impair or curtail legitimate water uses.
Overproduction has often been correlated with overenrichment (ferti-
lization by nutrients) resulting in eutrophication or aging of water.
Eutrophication most often results from man-induced nutrients that enter
the water body and eventually become a part of the cycle of events that
are basic to plant and animal growths.
Investigation necessitates a program of sampling to determine a
base for future observations and management. Sampling often entails
a comprehensive study followed by periodic monitoring to keep abreast
of changes taking place within the water body. Sampling is a broad
term, and no approach can be itemized to meet all needs; a sampling
program must be tailored to the particular problem.
The control of excessive production is of prime importance to
those who use the water for recreation. Once biological nuisances de-
velop, controls are indicated. Controls are often costly, time consuming,
and usually temporary. Overproduction is likely to remain a curse
unless basic causes can be reduced or eliminated. And the problem of
altering basic causes has not been fully solved at the present time. The
high cost of control logically should be borne by the water user in much
the same manner as a property owner bears the cost of keeping his back-
yard presentable and usable.
According to the Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Com-
mittee, 41 percent of this country’s population prefers water-based
recreation over any other. Swimming is now one of the most popular
outdoor activities, and boating and fishing rank among the top 10.
During the past 9 years, the number of residential swimming pools has
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increased 4,800 percent. Camping, picknicking, and hiking are more
attractive near water. A national survey of fishing indicates that one
household in every three has one or more fishermen; it is a $3 billion
annual business. 1 Water skiing has a following of over 6 million persons.
Enthusiasts of the relatively new sport of skin diving spent more than
$15 million for equipment in 1959.
Recreational use of the 24 Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)
lakes, estimated for the calendar year 1962, as well as the average annual
increase over the past 16 years, is shown in table I (Churchill, 1963).
Guntersville Reservoir ranks first in number of person-day visits for
recreational purposes with a total of 10,647,500; its total number of boats
in 1962 was 11,239. The average annual increase in recreational use in
the TVA Reservoirs attests to the increasingly great multiple-use demands
placed upon waters of suitable quality for various recreational pursuits.
Table I. Recreational Use of 24 WA Lakes
1962
Average annual
increase since
1947
Number of inboard recreation boats
Number of all other recreation boats
Total value of boats
Number of privately owned summer cottages
Number of person-day visits to reservoirs For recrea-
tional purposes
3,035
48,859
$42,356,655
9222
44,963,1 81
118
2,701
$2,466,467
576
2,508,295
A recent survey of boating in Wisconsin 2 indicated more than
200,000 pleasure boats were licensed by the State of Wisconsin. Ap-
proximately 130,000 were registered by individual residents of the State,
20,000 by nonresidents, and 50,000 by boat liven’ operators. Ninety-
three percent of all registered boats were outboards. The average boater
uses approximately 80 gallons of gasoline annually and boats an average
of 32.5 days per year.
The need for recreation and the demands for fulfillment of this
urge will continue to increase as population pressures become greater.
Keeping the water safe and usable for these many purposes is one of the
objectives of the Public Health Service program in Water Supply and
Pollution Control.
‘National Survey of Fishing and Hunting. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau
of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Circular 120. 73 pp. (1960).
Pleasure Boating in Wisconsin. Department of Resource Development. State
Capitol, Madison, Wisconsin, 17 pp. (1962).
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The single purpose use of water may seriously conflict with other
desired uses, affecting either the quality or quantity requirements of
those uses. Reservoirs for flood control, for instance, lose their effective-
ness unless the water held back during floodflow is released as soon
thereafter as possible to reestablish storage capacity for subsequent flood
waters. Theoretically, this detracts from the efficient use of such waters
for hydroelectric power generation. or for longtime storage for subsequent
release for irrigation and flow augmentation during periods of low
streamfiow.
Hydroelectric power for peaking purposes, which may be the most
efficient use of this power source, often results in intermittent storage and
release of the entire streamfiow. This can conflict with downstream and
upstream use of a stream for fish and wildlife propagation, water supply,
and waste disposal.
Diversion of stream flows for irrigation can likewise interfere
with other water needs downstream. Deep reservoirs often produce
stratification that results in oxygen depletion in the bottom waters. The
water released is frequently from the lower depths and lacks the dissolved
Plate 1. Pleasing recreation on Lake Geneva, Wisconsin—a lake with
few biological nuisances.
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oxygen essential to support fish life or to oxidize organic wastes in a
reach of the stream below the impoundment.
The u c of a stream for municipal and industrial waste disposal.
and agricultural return flows. may conflict with almost all other uses.
The best treatment methods available cannot effect 100 percent removal
of all constituents contributed by munipical and industrial wastes. Resid-
ual nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus stimulate aquatic plant
growths to the detriment of recreation, water supply. and other uses
These examples of conflicts in use clearly demonstrate the close
interrelation of water quality and quantity. As water quantity and
quality become critical, increased demands can be met only by multiple-
purpose use and reuse of the water resource. This requires effective
control and abatement of pollution and the incrporation of essential
quality control measures in all future water resources planning.
In addition to tho c pollutants associated with the activities of
man, there arc natural sources of water pollution. Water. the universal
solvent, takes into solution some part of the many things it contacts.
Plate 2. Swimming is an increasingly popular outdoor recreational
activity.
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As it percolates through the earth’s crust, it dissolves minerals in concen-
trations that may make the water unsuitable for many uses. Salt springs,
ollfield brines, and acid mine drainage are examples of this phenomenon.
The physical force of flowing water can add undesirable constituents such
as silt eroded from open cuts, from hill sides, fields, and streambanks,
which is carried along with the surface runoff to be deposited in stream
beds and flood water reservoirs. Drainage from land, as well as natural
runoff, may carry residuals of pesticides and chemical fertilizers used
in agriculture.
Federal water-resources planning has been developing over the
past half century. President Theodore Roosevelt first conceived multiple
usage of water in 1906, stating: “Every stream should be used to its
utmost. No stream can be so used unless such use is planned for in
advance.” Until the enactment of the Water Pollution Control Act of
1948, the Federal role in water pollution was defined in three acts—the
Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, the Public Health Service Act of
1912, and the Oil Pollution Act of 1 924. A section of the Rivers and
Harbors Act of 1899 prohibited the discharge or deposit into any navi-
gable waters of any refuse matter except that which flowed in a liquid
state from streets and sewers. This provision, designed primarily to
prevent impediments to navigation, constituted the first specific Federal
water pollution control legislation. The Public Health Service Act
of 1912 contained provisions authorizing investigations of water pollution
related to the diseases and impairments of man. The Oil Pollution Act
of 1924 was enacted to control oil discharges in coastal waters that
might be damaging to aquatic life, harbors and docks, and recreational
facilities.
In the early 1930’s, the National Resources Commission ap-
proached the water resource problem on a watershed, multiple-use basis.
Multiple-use planning is the key to our current development program.
In 1948, the first Federal Water Pollution Control Act was
passed as Public Law 845, 80th Congress. It provides for water pol-
lution control activities in the Public Health Service of the then Federal
Security Agency and in the Federal Works Agency. Section 2 of this
Act stated: “In the development of such comprehensive programs due
regard shall be given to the improvements which are necessary to con-
serve such waters for public water supply, propagation of fish and
aquatic life, recreational purposes, and agriculture, industrial, and other
legitimate uses.” Comprehensive water pollution control legislation was
finally enacted by the 84th Congress, which passed the Federal \Vater
A Study of Pollution—Water. A Staff Report to the Committee on Public Works,
U.S Senate. Pat McNarnara, Chairman. U.S. Government Printing Office, Wash-
ington, D.C., 100 pp. (1963).
7 —349 O—&4-------2 5
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Pollution Control Act, Public Law 660, on July 9, 1956. The 1956
Act extended and strengthened the 1948 Act, which expired on June
30, 1956, and was administered by the Surgeon General of the Public
Health Service under the supervision and direction of the Secretary of
Health, Education, and Welfare. Further amendments to the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act were signed into law on July 20, 1961, as
Public Law 87—88, 87th Congress. The 1961 amendments improved
and strengthened the Act by extending federal authority to enforce
abatement of pollution in intrastate, as well as interstate or navigable
waters.
A definition of comprehensive planning is contained in one of
the recommendations of the National Conference on Water Poflution held
in Washington, D.C., December 12 to 14, 1960, which states:
“Planning for the comprehensive development of each major basin
or water resource area should be established as a fixed national policy.
By comprehensive development we mean the application of integrated
multiple-purpose design, planning and management which include the
joint consideration of ground and surface waters, systematic conserva-
tion by water users, and the treatment and management of waters hav-
ing substandard quality. Consideration of every appropriate technique
would be a routine part of planning for such detelopment.
“Such planning, insofar as feasible, should include consideration of all
important industrial plant sites. An early and important objective
should be a systematic program of flow regulation. State initiative
toward comprehensive planning should be encouraged, and participa-
tion by all major interests should be encouraged. The objective should
be one of eventually producing maximum total benefits from all eco-
nomic and social uses.”
Associated with the municipal and industrial wastes resulting
from the activities of man are pathogenic organisms including bacteria,
viruses, leeches, worms, and other parasites that affect the use of these
waters for recreational pursuits. On the other hand, swimming, boating,
and other related recreational activities, as welt as commercial boating
and fishing, may in themselves cause pollution by contributing organic
wastes, pathogens, inorganic wastes, toxic substances from motor ex-
hausts, and just plain trash.
Water oriented recreation contributes to man’s well-being and
good health. A report on water pollution in the Missouri River Basin
states. “Of probably greater value is the relaxation and mental well-
being achieved by viewing and absorbing the scenic grandeur of the
great and restless Missouri. Many people crowd the ‘highline’ drives
along the bluffs to view this mighty river to achieve a certain restfulness
from the proximity of nature.”
Porterfield (1952) lists the following effects from severe water
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pollution: (1) transmission of enteric diseases by water inadequately
treated, (2) transmission of diseases by insects from polluted streams,
(3) harmful reduction of individual water intake because of water pota-
bility, (4) possible toxicity of chemical and metallic wastes, (5) neuroses
caused by noxious odors from polluted streams, (6) spread of diseases by
cattle and other animals having access to polluted streams, (7) loss of
extensive recreational areas, and (8) economic changes.
The Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare has the re-
Plate 3. A recreational pursuit enjoyed by millions.
sponsibiitv of supporting the States in preventin and controlling water
pollution. He is charged with the development of comprehensive pro-
grams for the elimination or the reduction of pollution of interstate
waters and tributaries thereof. Considered among other uses are the
propagation of fish and other aquatic life and wildlife, and the use of
the water for recreational purposes. As the agcncy designated by the
Secrctarv to administer the Water Pollution Control Act, the Public
Health Service ha an overall, direct, vital, and continuing concern in
water; it is expected that this interest will lead toward the maintenance
of our water resources for maximum benefit.
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REFERENCES
Churchill, M. A. Personal Communication (August 1, 1963’).
Porterfield, J. D., 1952. Water Pollution, Its Effect on the Public Health.
Proc. First Ohio Water Clinic, Ohio State University Engineering Series
Bulletin No. 147, Columbus, pp. 34-39.
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CHAPTER II
The Environment of Lakes,
Reservoirs, and Ponds
“A lake is a landscape’s most beautiful and expressive feature;
it is earth’s eye on looking into which the beholder measures
the depth of his own nature.”
—THOREAU, “WALDEN,” 1854.
The aquatic environment of a standing body of water is a com-
plex focal point for the interaction of many physical, chemical, and
biological forces often influenced by meteorological phenomena. To
achieve an understanding of the water environment and to project
future trends, a comprehensive knowledge of these forces is essential.
Water is a heavy substance, weighing 62.4 lb. per cubic foot, or
8.345 lb. for each gallon at 4° C (39.2° F). It is approximately 0.2 lb.
per cubic foot lighter at 80° F than at 40° F. At a depth of 100 ft. the
water pressure is 58 lb. per square inch, or approximately four times the
pressure at the surface. Pure water reaches its maximum density at
39.2° F (4° C); it becomes lighter as it cools or warms.
TEMPERATURE
Early in the science of limnology, Birge (1904, 1 907a and
190Th) and others recognized that physical factors are interrelated in
the overall ecology of a body of water. The seasons induce a cycle of
physical and chemical changes i i i the water that are often conditioned
by temperature. For a few weeks in the spring, water temperatures
may be homogeneous from the top of a water body to the bottom. Ver-
tical water density is also homogeneous, and it becomes possible for the
wind to mix the water in a lake, distributing nutrients and flocculent
bottom solids from the deeper waters. Oxygen is mixed throughout the
water during this time. The advance of summer quickly checks circu-
lation by warming the surface waters; as they warm they become lighter,
resting over colder water of greater density. Thus a permanent thermal
stratification is formed. In natural deep bodies of water three layers
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eventually form. The upper layer, or epilimnion, represents the warm,
more or less freely circulating region of approximately uniform temper-
ature, and may vary in thickness from 10 feet or less in shallow lakes to
40 feet or more in deeper ones. The middle layer, or thermocline, is the
region of rapid change usually defined by a change in temperature of
1.8° F for each 3.28 feet variance in depth. The lower layer, or hypo-
limnion, is the cold region of approximately uniform temperature. It
is cut off from circulation with upper waters and does not receive oxygen
from the atmosphere during stratification.
As autumn comes the standing body of water cools; the epiim-
nion increases in thickness until the lake becomes homothermous, and
again a period of complete circulation begins. This occurs from late
September to December, depending upon the area and depth of the lake
and its geographic and climatic location. It lasts until changes in density
reestablish stratification, or until the lake is frozen over. This commonly
occurs from November to January, varying with lake and season and
geographic location. Circulation then ceases until spring.
During the greater part of the year . free circulation of water and
exchange of gases with those in the atmosphere are restricted. The
lake is saturated, or nearly so, with atmospheric gases in the fall and in
the early spring. As soon as thermal stratification occurs and until the
overturn, only the water of the epilimnion has direct contact with the air.
Thermal stratification in reservoirs may assume many patterns
depending on geographical location, climatological conditions, depth,
surface area, and type of dam structure, its penstock locations, and its
power use. Reservoirs or impoundments have been separated into two
basic types: main stream and storage (Kittrell, 1959).
The main stream (“run-of-the-river”) reservoir is typically an
impoundment formed by a relatively low dam that rarely exceeds 60 to
80 feet in height. Much of the impounded water is restricted to the
original channel, and water retention ranges from a few days to a few
weeks. Man-regulated fluctuations in surface levels usually are con-
trolled within a range of 2 to 3 feet. Main stream impoundments are
used principally for navigation and for power production. Thermal
stratification often consists of a small but fairly regular gradient of 5° to
10° F from top to bottom during summer. This gradient is most likely
to occur in a reservoir with limited surface area where wind action is
moderate and velocities are low. Temporary thermoclines have been
recorded where the temperature gradient is steep through a rather narrow
band of water.
Another form of thermal stratification in main stream resenDirs
involves the inflow of a stream of water that is colder than the normal
surface water. Since the penstock intake (discharge) may extend from
10
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TEMPERATURE ‘F
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
I 2 4 £ 8 10 12
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (mg/I)
TEMPERATURE ‘F
30 40 50 60 70 80
1 2 4 6 2 I C 2
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (mg/i)
TEMPERATURE ‘F
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 1 I
10 - D0/ Temp
20 - /
: - 1 ’
- AUG. 24 . 1906
60-
70 -
8o _L____J I
0 2 4 6 8 0 ‘2 4
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (mg/i)
I0
20
30
U -
= 40
I—
0
oSO
TEMPERATURE ‘F
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
7
00 Temp.
\!
60
70 OCT11, (906 N.
I I I I I I
0 2 4 6 8 10 2 14
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (mg/I)
Figure 1. Diagrammatic sketch showing lake zones with seasonal tem-
perature and dissolved oxygen changes observed in Lake Mendota,
Wis. (from Birge and Juday, 1911).
11
I I 1 I
Temp DO -
FEB. 25, I906 ’
I I I I I
j LITTORALJ ILIM NETIC I
EP LPMNION
10
20
40
50
60 -
70 -
80
0
20
3D
L i-
t 40
I-
a-
Li i
0 50
14
90
I I i I 1 1
Temp DO
APR 20, 1906
I I ’ I
ED
70
PR OF U NOA h ]
I4
-------
near the bottom to within 15 to 20 feet of the water surface, the cold
stream of water flows through the impoundment, creating a thermo-
clime below the water surface at the dam and extending upstream paral-
lel to the bottom of the reservoir.
The storage reservoir, as its name implies, is used to impound
water when surface runoff is high (i.e. flood flows) for release when
runoff is low. As a result the surface water level varies over a wide
range, sometimes 70 feet or more during the year, and is generally highest
at or near the end of a rainy season and lowest just before the next rainy
season. The drawdown of the reservoir requires that the discharge
intake be located deep in the reservoir, below the minimum level to
which the water will be drawn.
The storage reservoir is often located at the headwaters of a
stream that frequently has a steep slope. The dam is high, often more
than 100 feet. The stored water spreads far beyond the former river
channel into numerous fingers or embayments to provide a large surface
area. Vertical cross sections of the reservoir are large in relation to
stream flow, and flow velocities are negligible. Water may be retained
in the reservoir for many months. Passage of water through the reservoir
may be discontinuous, and significant portions of the water may remain
in storage for nearly a year.
Most storage reservoirs exhibit the classical type of thermal strati-
fication described for natural deepwater bodies. Reservoirs that do not
store substantial volumes of water at winter temperatures or that dis-
charge such water before warm weather occurs do not develop thermo-
dines; neither do shallow reservoirs with broad expanses of surface areas
exposed to strong winds that mix the waters. In the southern portion
of the country where surface water temperatures rarely drop below 4° C,
thereis no stratification in winter and temperatures are nearly uniform
throughout the impoundment.
Density currents have been defined at the gravity flow of a fluid
within a medium of the same phase. They are caused by differences in
temperature; differences in the concentration of electrolytes, especially
carbonates; and differences in the silt content. A reservoir that is rela-
tively deep, long, and narrow favors the development of density currents
(Wiebe, 1939a, l939b and 1941). The waters of Norris Reservoir,
Tenn., contain four well-defined horizontal zones with respect to dis-
solved oxygen during thermal stratification. These include a well-
aerated surface stratum, a zone of stagnant water within the thermocline,
a second stratum of water rich in dissolved oxygen below the thermocline,
and a bottom layer of stagnant water. In some instances, density cur-
rents have been detected from 60 to 80 feet below the surface. Density
currents affect the fish population since game fish orient themselves both
12
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to the stratum of stagnant water caused by density currents and to the
temperature range that suits them best. Often they become trapped by
a lack of oxygen within this zone.
The gradual expansion in depth of any temperature zone is
largely the result of water withdrawal from the storage reservoir. As the
cold water is removed from a deep penstock at the dam, and the water
level drops, the warmer surface water moves downward into the reservoir,
increasing the depth of the epilimnion and decreasing the depth of the
hypolimnion.
The distribution of fish is greatly influenced by water temperature.
Results of TVA netting studies (Eschmeyer, 1950) show that a species
with preference for water temperatures of 700 to 80° F would be near the
surface in late April and May. By early September, it would be 40 to
60 feet deep. By late October, when water temperatures are uniform
at nearly all depths, fish such as bass might be found anywhere between
the surface and a depth of 60 or 70 feet.
LIGHT
Rooted, suspended, and floating aquatic plants require light for
photosynthesis. Light penetration into waters is exceedingly variable in
different lakes. Clarke (1939) pointed out that the diminution of the
intensity of light in its passage through water follows a definite mathe-
matical formula. The relationship between the depth of water and the
amount of light penetrating to that depth can be plotted as a straight
line on semilogarithmic paper. Even the clearest waters impede the
passage of light to some extent; light passed through 100 meters of
distilled water is reduced to I or 2 percent of its incident value.
The principal factors affecting the depth of light penetration
in natural waters include suspended microscopic plants and animals,
suspended mineral particles such as mineral silt, stains that impart a
color, and detergent foams, or a combination of these. The region
in which light intensity is adequate for photosynthesis is often referred
to as the tropogenic zone, the layer that encompasses 99 percent of the
incident light. The depth of the tropogenic zone may vary from 5 to
90 feet.
The length of daylight in water varies inversely with the depth
of the water. The seasonal variation in the intensity of solar radiation
influences the potential rate of photosynthesis. In winter the presence
of ice with an over layer of snow further limits the amount of relatively
poor incident light energy that reaches the water. The work of Birge,
reported by Neess and Bunge (1957), indicates that the absorptive quality
of clear ice is very similar to that of water, although the addition of air
13
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DEPTH
IN BASS VALLEYE SAUGER
FEET _______________ __________ __________
- 4
20-
- -
30
40 — - -
-
50 -
Figure 2. Approximate depths of water in which fish were found in
several TVA storage reservoirs (Cherokee, Douglas, and Norris) on
June 2, 1946. The figure refers to abundance of fish at that level,
not to the size of the fish. Most largemouth bass were near the sur-
face; walleye tended to be 10 feet or more deep; most sauger were
over 30 feet deep (from Eschmeyer. 1950).
14
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DEPTH
IN BASS WALLEYE SAUGER
FEET _______________ _______________ __________
0
10-
- ‘
20 -
30-
-
40-
-
50 -
Figure 3. Approximate depths at which fish were distributed in Norris
Reservoir, Tenn., in late July. 1946. Note the distribution differs
from that of June 2 (fig. 2 . Some bass were still near the surface,
but the species was spread about evenly from the top to 20 feet or
more in depth. Most walleye and sauger were in deeper water (from
Eschmeyer. 1950).
15
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bubbles or particulate matter reduces the transmission of light. Snow
further reduces light penetration through ice. Greenbank (194 ) found
84 percent light transmission through 7’/2 inches of very clear ice, and 22
percent transmission through 7’/2 inches of very cloudy ice. A I-inch
snow cover permitted only 7 percent light transmission through the ice
and snow; 2 inches of snow permitted only I percent light transmission.
Bartsch and Allum (1957), studying sewage stabilization ponds, found
that in the absence of snow 20 to 55 percent of the incident light passed
through 10 to 12 inches of ice, whereas, with a 1- to 3-inch snow cover
93 to 99 percent of the incident light was absorbed by ice and snow, when
the ice was 1 to 2 feet thick. Mackenthun and McNabb (1961) found
less than 1 percent of light passed through 16 inches of ice covered by 2
inches of snow.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN
Interrelated with temperature and light, living and decaying
organisms, and decomposable man-produced wastes, is the dissolved
oxygen in the water. Oxygen enters the water by absorption directly
from the atmosphere or by plant photosynthesis. That derived from
the atmosphere may be by direct diffusion or by surface water agitation
by wind and waves. In referring to the ineffectiveness of diffusion as a
factor in the distribution of oxygen in a lake, Birge and Juday (1911)
cite Hu.ffner. 4 “According to his [ Huffner] calculations, if the Bodensee
which is 250 meters deep should lose its supply of dissolved oxygen, and
should then acquire a new supply from the air by diffusion alone, it
would require over a million years for the entire body of water to become
saturated with this gas.”
In photosynthesis, aquatic plants utilize carbon dioxide and lib-
erate a corresponding amount of oxygen. Since energy is required in
the form of light, photosynthesis is limited to that depth of water having
adequate light. According to Dice (1952), “. . * the ultimate limit of
productivity of a given ecosystem is governed by the total effective solar
energy falling annually on the area, by the efficiency with which the
plants in the ecosystem are able to transform this energy into organic
compounds, and by those physical factors of the environment which
affect the rate of photosynthesis.” Verduin (1956) summarized the
literature on prima production in lakes and, based on computations of
photosynthetic oxygen production, found that the yields of several lakes
were mostly between 42 arid 57 pounds of oxygen per acre per day. A
Arch. für Anat. und Physio l. (Physiol. Abteil.) 1897, p. 112.
16
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year-round study under completely natural conditions in western Lake
Erie showed winter yields of about 11 pounds of oxygen production per
acre per day, and summer maxima of about 85 pounds per acre per day.
The annual oxygen production curve closely followed the solar radiation
curve. The net oxygen production rate for East Okoboji Lake in Iowa,
a producer of large plankton populations, was 79 lbs. per acre per day,
with production largely confined to the first 2 meters (Weber, 1958).
Whipple et al. (1948) noted that supersaturation in the upper waters is
not cumulative to a great extent because circulation is maintained by
wind action and convection currents both of which promote contact of
the water and the air with a consequent loss of oxygen. Higher satura-
tion is frequently found in the upper region of the thermocline in infertile
oligothropic lakes. Wind action seldom disturbs the water of this zone,
convection currents are absent, and diffusion is a slow process. Plants
find an abundant supply of carbon dioxide and sufficient light in this
area to stimulate photosynthesis, resulting in supersaturation values that
may exceed 300 percent.
During respiration and decomposition, animals and plants con-
sume oxygen and liberate carbon dioxide at all depths where they occur.
Because excreted and secreted products and dead animals and plants
sink, most of the decomposition takes place in the hypolimnion; thus,
during lake stratification there is a gradual decrease of dissolved oxygen
in this zone. After the oxygen is depleted, anaerobic decomposition con-
tinues with evolution of carbon dioxide, methane, and hydrogen sulfide.
In the epilimnion, during thermal stratification, dissolved oxygen
is usually abundant and is supplied by atmospheric aeration and photo-
synthesis. Phytoplankton are plentiful in fertile lakes and are responsible
for most of the photosynthetic oxygen. The thermocline is a transition
zone from the standpoint of dissolved oxygen as well as temperature.
The water rapidly cools in this region, incident light is much reduced, and
photosynthesis is usually decreased; if sufficient oxygen is present, some
cold water fish abound. As dead organisms that sink into the hypolim-
nion decompose, oxygen is utilized; consequently, the hypolimnion in
fertile lakes may become devoid of oxygen following a spring overturn,
and this zone may be unavailable to fish and most benthic invertebrates
at this time. During the two brief periods in spring and fall when lake
water circulates, temperature and dissolved oxygen are the same from top
to bottom and fish can use the entire water depth.
OTHER CHEMICAL FACTORS
Whipple et al. (1948) stated that hard-water lakes in which the
bicarbonate content is high contain a store of carbon dioxide not found
17
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in soft water, although the amount of free carbon dioxide present in the
upper water may or may not be greater than in soft water. Bicarbonates
may indirectly furnish a large amount of carbon dioxide for plant growth.
This is taken from the air when bicarbonates have been largely changed
to normal carbonates, for water containing much normal carbonate will
absorb carbon dioxide more rapidly than water containing little or none.
Neel et al. (1961), in studying raw-sewage stabilization ponds,
found that pH values above 8.0 are produced by a photosynthetic rate
that demands more carbon dioxide than the quantities furnished by respi-
ration and decomposition: pH levels below 8.0 indicate failure of photo-
synthesis to utilize completely the amounts of carbon dioxide so produced.
Also, photosynthesis decreases alkalinity by producing weakly soluble
calcium carbonate that tends to precipitate; decomposition and respira-
tion increase alkalinity by bringing lost normal carbonate back into solu-
tion as calcium bicarbonate. Fish are most commonly found in water
with a pH range from about 5 to 9. “Much more extreme pH values,
perhaps below 4.0 and well above 10.0. also can be tolerated indefinitely
by resistant species. However, regardless of the nature of acid or alkaline
wastes responsible, such extreme conditions, associate&with industrial
pollution, are evidently undesirable and hazardous for fish life in waters
which are not naturally so acid or alkalin&’ (Doudoroff and Katz, 1950).
A total alkalinity of 40.0 mg/i seems to be a natural separation
point between soft and hard waters (Movie, I 949a). Movie classified
fish and plant productivity of natural lakes in Minnesota on the basis of
total alkalinity as measured to the methyl orange endpoint at approxi-
mately pH 4.0. Lakes with a total methyl orange alkalinity below 20
mg/I were low in fish and plant productivity; between 20 and 40 mg/I
productivity was low to medium; between 40 and 90 mg/I productivity
of both fish and plants was medium to high; and above 90 mg/I pro-
ductivity was high.
ALGAE
Following the spring overturn and throughout the warm summer
period, algal populations often play a deciding role in the recreational
use of fertile waters. They develop in open water as well as in shallow,
warm, shoreline bays and, if conditions are suitable, spread to the re-
mainder of the lake. Algal masses are moved by wind and waves, and
thus often create localized nuisances that may be acute. Algal popula-
tions are influenced by climate: they tend to rise to the surface during
hot, humid days and disperse .to greater depths during rain storms or
turbulent water conditions. Several successive dark or cloudy days may
18
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be sufficient to kill a portion of a dense population, and subsequent de-
composition may bring about localized dissolved oxygen depletion that
may result in fish kills from suffocation.
It is difficult to estimate the standing plankton crop of a particu-
lar body of water because of the diverse horizontal and vertical dispersion
of the organisms and the fact that they are transported by water move-
ment. Birge and Juda (1922) found that the largest crop of spring
plankton in Lake Mendota, Wis., was approximately 360 pounds per
acre on a dry weight basis (10 percent dry matter), and the largest crop
of autumn plankton, 324 pounds per acre. The summer and winter
minimums were 124 and 98 pounds per acre, respectively. Bluegreen
algae are approximately 6.8 percent nitrogen and 0.69 percent phos-
phorus on a dry weight basis çGer loff and Skoog, 1954). Thus a plank-
ton population of these proportions could theoretically tie up about 15
pounds of nitrogen and 1.5 pounds of phosphorus per acre. Neil (1958)
found that 1 ton or more per acre of the green filamentous alga, Clado-
phora, was produced on a suitable substrate. When the filaments of this
alga are washed ashore and decompose in the shallow water, a typical
pigpen odor is produced.
SUBMERGED AQUATIC PLANTS
Studies of the standing crop of submerged aquatic plants in Lake
Mendota and Green Lake, Wis. (Rickett, 1922, 1 924), indicate a wet
weight of 14,000 pounds per acre and a dry weight of 1,800 pounds per
acre. In Lake Mendota the 0- to 1-meter zone contained 1,600 pounds
per acre of submerged plants on a dr weight basis; the 1- to 3-meter
zone, 2,400 pounds; and the 3- to 7-meter zone, 1,300 pounds. In
Green Lake the 0- to 1-meter zone contained 600 pounds per acre of
submerged vegetation on a dry weight basis; the 1- to 3-meter zone,
1,960 pounds; and all deeper areas to the lower limit of plant growth,
1,580 pounds per acre. Low and Bel lrose (1944) found similar produc-
tions in the Illinois River Valley. Coontail growths approached 2,500
pounds per acre (dry weight); sago pondweed. 1,700 pounds per acre;
and duckweed, 244 pounds per acre. They found that the seed produc-
tion of wild rice approached 32 bushels per acre; of pondweed, Potamo-
geton americanus Chamisso and Schlechtendal, 20 bushels per acre;
of sago pondweed, 1.5 bushels per acre; and of coontail, 0.8 bushel per
acre. Harper and Daniel (1939) found that submerged weeds were
12 percent dry matter and contained an average of 1.8 percent total
nitrogen (dry weight) and 0.18 percent total phosphorus. Schuette and•
Hoffman (1922) and Schuette and Alder (1928, 1929) found similar
19
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results, except that some species such as water milfoil (Myriophyllutn)
may run as high as 3 percent nitrogen and 1.1 percent total phosphorus
on a dry weight basis. Thus, a normal population of submerged aquatic
plants could contain and liberate on decomposition 32 pounds per acre
of nitrogen and approximately one-tenth as much of phosphorus.
BOTTOM FAUNA AND
SUBMERGED AQUATIC PLANTS
Investigations show that the production of invertebrates is closely
related to aquatic plants that provide living space, food, and shelter.
Invertebrates tend to select the particular aquatic plant with leaves that
are finely branched and that are compact enough to give suitable pro-
tection to the animal. Andrews and Hasler (1943) found coontail and
water milfoil in Lake Mendota “most productive,” Chara and sago
pondweed “moderately productive,” the wide-leafed pondweeds “less
productive,” and wild celery “poorly productive.” The number of
animals per pound of dry weight plant ranged from 3,000 to 29,000.
Surber (1930) showed that snails were six times more abundant in weedy
areas than in nonweedy areas, mussels 1.5 times more abundant, and
larger insects about 10 times more abundant. Needham K 1929) found
37.5 times as many invertebrates living in weedy areas as in bare pool
bottoms. Needham (1938), in studying bottom fauna production as-
sociated with several kinds of aquatic plants in slow streams of New
York, observed standing benthic crops of 3,500 pounds per acre for
Chara, and 300 pounds per acre for sago pondweed. Shelf ord (1918),
rated Elodea as excellent in the production of animals; Myriophyllum
as good, and water lilies and Chara only fair. Pate (1932, 1934)
found that plant beds were 17.5 times as productive as bare pools, and
6.7 times as rich as the average stream bottom. Elodea beds offered
a potential food supply about six times the average supply in the ordinary
bottom of a similar type. Krocker (1939) did a quantitative population
study on several types of aquatic vegetation. His method of sampling
was reaching down in the water as far as possible and cutting off a single
plant at a time. As the severed portion was lifted clear of the water,
it was placed in a glass dish and water was added, and the plants were
measured. He found the animal population on Myriophyllurn species
was about two and one-half times as high as on Elodea, and nearly four
times as high on Myriop/tyllum as on Najas. Krocker states that the
chemical composition of the plants and the morphological features are
the bases for the population difference.
Klugh (1926), who reviewed much of the early literature on
20
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the relationship of invertebrates to aquatic plants, concludes that since
plants provide both living space and food for invertebrates the abundance
of aquatic plants can be used as an “index of productivity” for fish
production.
BOTTOM ORGANISMS
Much attention has been given to the bottom invertebrates in
lakes and ponds. Data in the literature usually pertain to the standing
crop at a specific sampling period. The total production of bottom
fauna over the year is several times the standing crop. Many benthic
species produce several generations in a year. Hayne and Ball (1956)
estimated the total production in two 1-acre ponds to be 17 times the
standing crop. Borutsky (1939), working on the deepwater benthos of
a lake in Russia, concluded that throughout the year 6 percent of the
biological productivity was lost as emerged insects that perished outside
the lake basin, 14 percent was eaten by fish, 55 percent was returned
to the lake as dead larvae, cast skins, etc., and 25 percent remained
to assure the continuation of the species the following year. Eggleton
(1934) compared the benthic population in four lakes in northern
Michigan that are closely situated geographically, but differ widely
ecologically. He concluded that the bottom populations in each of
the lakes varied qualitatively and quantitatively with the seasons of the
year, and from year to year in the same lake. The bottom fauna was
not evenly distributed over the floor in any of the lakes studied, but
varied somewhat differently with depth in each of the lakes and very
differently with the four seasons of the year. He determined that there
was a concentration zone that shifted up and down the slope of the
lake floor with the change of seasons. The largest number of organisms
that was collected in the greatest depths occurred in November and
ranged from 300 to 7,200 per square meter.
Croak (1932), in his studies of the bottom fauna of Shakespeare
Island Lake, Ontario, found an average of 1,320 benthos per square
meter. There was little variation among the depths studied.
Rawson (1930) found that chironomid (midge) larvae formed
the bulk of the bottom organisms of Lake Simco and dictated the curve
trend of the total population. The average number of macroscopic bot-
tom organisms over all of the depths studied was 820 per square meter;
the greater number occurred in the deeper water. He listed factors
affecting bottom fauna production including the type of lake, the fertil-
ity of the water, the composition of the benthos, and the size of the lake.
A lake of large area, in general, supports a smaller population per unit
than a small lake.
730—349 o—64—--——3 21
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Mackenthun and Cooley (1952) studied bottom fauna in four
Wisconsin lakes. The average number of organisms per square meter in
Lake Mendota was 7,500; Lake Monona, 1,100; Lake Nagawicka,
2,000; and Lake Pewaukee, 1,600.
Adamstone and Harkness (1923) and Adamstone (1924), in a
study of Lake Nipigon in Canada, found the number of all kinds of ani-
mals per square meter of lake bottom averaged from 750 to 1,000.
Moyle (1961) quotes a number of investigators converting their
data on bottom fauna standing crop to pounds per acre (wet weight).
Some typical values include 248 pounds per acre from a Minnesota pond
(Dineen, 1953); 67 to 82 pounds per acre in an unfertilized Michigan
pond, and 101 to 127 pounds per acre in a fertilized Michigan pond
(Ball, 1949); 124 pounds per acre in Lizard Lake, Iowa (Tebo, 1955);
398 pounds per acre in the Mississippi River system with no weeds, and
1.143 pounds per acre in the Mississippi River system in weeds (Moyle,
1940); and as much as 3,553 pounds per acre in a Chara bed in a slow
stream in New York (Needham, 1938).
FISH
Bennett (1962) states that the fish carrying capacity of a lake or
pond may vary with (1) variations in the fertility of water; (2) the age
of the water, if this represents age in chemical composition; (3) a change
in the fertility of the watershed soil, caused by erosion or artificial fertili-
zation that is carried to the pond in runoff water; and, (4) changes in
the kinds of fishes or in the relative abundance of certain kinds and sizes
of fishes. Moyle (1956) reasons that the size of a mixed fish population
is related to the water fertility and conditions associated with it and that
the structure of a fish population adjusts itself until it consists of those
species that can best utilize a specific degree of fertility and conditions
associated with it.
Moyle found a relationship between the total phosphorus concen-
tration and the standing crop of fishes in Minnesota surface waters. It
has been estimated on the basis of surveys that the Mississippi headwater
lakes support about 90 pounds of fish per acre; the summer surface
waters of these lakes have a mean total phosphorus content of about
0.034 mg/I. In central Minnesota the mean total phophorus content of
fish lakes is 0.058 mg/I and the average fish capacity is estimated at
about 150 pounds per acre. In southern Minnesota, the total phosphorus
content is 0.126 mg/I; seining in 40 fish lakes showed an average stand-
ing crop of 280 pounds of rough fish per acre plus about 90 pounds of
other fishes, a total of 370 pounds per acre.
Swingle (1950) cites one Alabama pond that was stocked with
22
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140 gizzard shad, 1,500 bluegill fingerlings, and 100 advanced bass fry
per acre. Two years later, the pond was drained and 1,079 pounds of
fish were recovered: 304 pound of bluegills, 758 pounds of gizzard shad,
and 17 pounds of bass. In some 20 ponds with balanced fish popula-
tions, the pounds per acre of fishes ranged from 146 to 611, and several
ponds were in the 400-pound-per-acre group.
Bennett (1962) states that standing crops of fishes in Illinois
ponds varied from 75 pounds per acre in the soft-water ponds in the
Ozark hills of southern Illinois, where the population was largemouth
bass and green sunfish, to 211 pounds per acre in the blacksoil ponds
in the flood plains of central Illinois, where the population was composed
of crappies and big mouth buffalo.
THE EFFECT OF STREAM JNFLOWS
ON THE WATER BODY
The extensive use of organic pesticides and recent controversies
associated with the programs for the control of the fire ant, the spruce
bud worm, the gypsy moth, and other forest insects, and extensive pesti-
cidal application on food crops have focused attention on the problems
created for those interested in the preservation of the aquatic habitat.
Most pesticides are toxic to aquatic life: some are highly toxic (e.g.
0.6 pound of Endrin in 120 million gallons of water will kill bluegill
sunfish [ Henderson et al., 1959]; some are cumulative in the fat and
flesh of organisms and in the bottom muds and usage has resulted in the
death of fish and waterfowl as well as invertebrates, such as crabs, cray-
fish, and aquatic insects that are important in food chains.
Pesticides must be considered individually rather than collectively,
and the beneficial and harmful effects of each compound must be
weighed. The total effect of a proposed application upon the aquatic
environment must be assayed, which necessitates a knowledge of the
toxicity and associated hazards of the control agent. Rigid controls must
govern usage and adequate safeguards must be taken against “careless
use” that has so often resulted in unwarranted aquatic-animal mortalities.
Environmental changes caused by industrial waste effluents can be
detrimental to aquatic life in varying degrees. These include decreases
in dissolved oxygen to harmful levels; increases in turbidity; formation
of sludge deposits by settleable solids; increases in chemicals to toxic
levels; changes in pH toward extremes in acidity or alkalinity; increases
in temperature; tainting of fish flesh; and production of nutrients result-
ing in undesirable aquatic growths.
Turbidity, which is an expression of the optical property of water
23
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that causes light rays to be scattered and absorbed rather than trans-
mitted in straight lines, is caused by a variety of suspended particulate
matter. Such matter may be living or dead phvtoplankton or zooplank-
ton cells. a algae, protozoans. bacteria, and small crustaceans, or silt or
other finely divided inorganic and organic waste materials Many indus-
trial operations contribute turbidity and seuleable solids to water: the
resuItin bottom deposits affect aquatc life in varying degrees.
Fine particulate imr anic and organic waste materials that re-
main in suspension limit the penetration of sunlight, thus restricting the
growth of attached bottom plants. as well as suspended algae. Also.
solids flocculate planktonic algae and animals out of water and carry
them to the bottom to die. Thus, in limiting growths of aquatic plant
meadows, food chains are interrupted, which results in a sparsitv of
animal life. As particulate matter ‘ cttle to the bottom, deposits of
settleable solids blanket the substrate and form undesirable physical en-
vironments for Mrgamsms.
Many thousands of waterfowl have been destroyed by the poilu-
ti n i1 effects if oil Hunt. 1961 ). This wasteful lvss has deprived nature
lovers, waterfowl hunters, and bird ‘ at. hers of immeasurable enjoyment.
Plate 4. Industrial wastes degrade water for recreational use.
— . - - -
- - - . i- : -- *
1 .
-
24
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The destruction of ducks such as the canvasback, redhead, and scaups
comes at a critical period for these species, which are fighting for survival
against the forces of nature and man. Additional waterfowl will be
destroyed if oil dumping is continued, especially in late winter. In this
age of technical development, the discharge of oil into a river system
indicates man’s irresponsibility in the preservation of our natural
resources.
Oil causes matting of the feathers so that ducks become water-
logged, lose their ability to fly, and drown if they cannot get out of the
water soon enough. It breaks down the insulating power of the feathers;
body heat and stored reserves of energy are rapidly lost. Diving ducks
may starve, and following the preening of oil off contaminated feathers,
bleeding ulcers may be produced in their digestive tracts causing morfl
tality (Hunt, 1958).
Wastes with concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus (ferti-
lizers) increase certain organism populations to such magnitudes as to
interfere with water uses and create nuisances. Organisms that respond
to such nutrients are certain floating and attached algae and rooted
aquatic plants. If streams, lakes, and manmade impoundments con-
tinue to be enriched with industrial, municipal, and agricultural wastes,
existing biological nuisance problems will intensify in many areas, and
develop in others that do not now have them.
THE EFFECT OF RESERVOIR DISCHARGE
ON THE RECEIVING STREAM
Water flowing from a natural lake would be expected to be
of a quality similar to that of the water in the uppermost stratum of the
lake. When water in a free-flowing stream is impounded in a large
storage reservoir, marked changes are produced in the physical, chemical,
and mineral quality of the water.
Churchill (1958) discusses the effect on downstream water
quality of large storage reservoirs with discharge intakes located deep
within the reservoir. Because the reservoirs are operated primarily for
flood control and power production, the magnitude of high stream flows
is reduced and the general level of low flows is increased. Discharge
releases are usually reduced over weekends and during other periods of
off peak power loads. The temperatures in the receiving stream are sub-
stantially lowered, sometimes to 550 ; and may not exceed 68° F even
in the summer. Because stratification beginning in March or April
stops the vertical circulation that exists all winter, discharge through the
low-level power intakes removes cold water from the near intake level.
25
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As the supply of cold water at this level is exhausted from the pool,
warmer water from above sinks down and is gradually discharged. By
this process the discharged water gradually warms to temperatures ap-
proaching 77° F during the summer and fall. Turbidity resulting from
intense summer rains of short duration is reduced. Odors of hydrogen
sulfide from decaying organic materials in the deeper portions of the
resenoir may be a problem.
The dissolved oxygen concentration of the discharged water is
lower than that normally present in the inflow and may often approach
zero at the point of discharge. “Low rates of released flow are re-
aerated in relatively short distances downstream from the dam, whereas
higher discharges require many miles of open-channel flow before oxygen
saturation is reached” (Churchill. 1958).
The ecology of the receiving stream is drastically altered as a
result of the low-level discharge water characterized by low temperatures
and reduced oxygen concentrations. Dendy and Stroud (1949) noted
that the warm-water habitats that formerly supported a bass and walleye
fisheries below Fontana Resen oir, rrenn no longer exist. The highest
water temperature recorded was 68.5° F and the lowest concentration
of dissolved oxygen was 1.6 nig 1. both reached in late October. Pfitzer
(1954) in estigated a number of resen’oir tailwaters in Tennessee.
He found that many of the minnow species had disappeared, and only a
few of those remaining were reproducing successfully. The bottom fauna
pattern had changed from one dominated by large immature stoneflies
and hellgrammites to an assortment of cold-water species such as im-
mature midges , blackflies, and caddisflies along with the scud. Ga in-
mann. and snails. The plant populations were dominated entirely by
algae of several species.
REFERENCES
Adamstone. F. B.. 1924. The Distribution and Economic Importance of
the Bottom Fauna of Lake Nipigon. with an appendix on the Bottom Fauna
of Lake Ontario. University of Toronto Studies. Publication Ont. Fish.
Res. Lab.. 24: 33-400.
Adanistone, F. B. and SV. J. K. Harkness, 1923. The Bottom Organisms of
Lake Nipigon. Universit’v of Toronto Studies. Publication Ont. Fish. Res.
Lab., IS: 123—1 70.
Andrews. J. D. and A. D. Hasler. 1943. Fluctuations in the Animal Popula-
tions of Littoral Zone in Lake Mendota. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci.. Arts &
Len.. 35: 175—186.
26
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Ball, R. C.. 1949. Experimental Use of Fertilizer in the Production of
Fish-Food Organisms and Fish. Michigan State College Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, East Lansing, Tec. Bull. 210,28 pp.
Bartsch, A. F. and M. 0. Allum, 1957. Biological Factors in Treatment of
Raw Sewage in Artificial Ponds. Lirnnologv and Oceanography, 2(2):
77—84.
Bennett, G. W., 1962. Management of Artificial Lakes and Ponds. Rein-
hold Publishing Corp., New York, 281 pp.
Birge, E. A., 1904. The Thermocline and its Biological Significance.
Trans. Am. Micro. Soc.. 25: 5—33.
Birge, E. A., 1 907a. The Oxygen Dissolved in the Waters of Wisconsin
Lakes. Report of the Wisconsin Commissioners of Fisheries, pp. 118—139.
Birge. E. A., 190Th. The Respiration of an Inland Lake. Trans. Am. Fish,
Soc., pp. 223—241.
Birge. E. A. and C. juday. 1911. The Inland Lakes of Wisconsin: The
Dissolved Gases of the Water and their Biological Significance. \Vis. Geol.
Nat. Mist. Sur. Bull. 22, Scientific Series 7, 259 pp.
Birge, E. A. and C. Juday, 1922. The Island Lakes of Wisconsin: The
Plankton. I. Its Quantity and Chemical Composition. Wis. Geol. Nat.
Hist. St ir. Bull. 64, Scientific Series 1, No. 13, 222 pp.
Borutsky, E. V.. 1939. Dynamics of the Total Benthic Biomass in the
Profundal of Lake Be loie. Proc. Kossino Limn. Sta. of the Hydrometeor-
ological Service of the USSR, 22: 196—218. Trans. by M. Ovchynnyk,
edited by R. C. Ball and F. F. Hooper.
Churchill, M. A., 1958. Effects of Storage Impoundments on Water
Quality. Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Engs., 123: 419—464.
Clarke, G. L., 1939. The Utilization of Solar Energy by Aquatic Or-
ganisms. Prob. Lake Biology, A.A.A.S. Publication, /0: 27—38.
Cronk, M. W., 1932. The Bottom Fauna of Shakespeare Island Lake,
Ontario. University of Toronto Studies. Publication Ont. Fish. Res.
Lab.. 43: 3 1—65.
Dendy, j. S. and R. H. Stroud. 1949. The Dominating Influence of
Fontana Reservoir on Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen in the Little
Tennessee River and Its Impoundments. Jour. Tennessee Acad. Sci., 24
(1): 41 — S i.
Dice, L. R., 1952. Natural Communities. University of Michigan Press,
Ann Arbor, 547 pp.
Dineen, C. F., 1953. An Ecological Study of a Minnesota Pond. Am.
Mid I. Nat., 50(2): 349—356.
27
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Doudoroff, P. and M. Katz, 1950. Critical Review of Literature on the
Toxicity of Industrial Wastes and their Components to Fish. I. Alkalies,
Acids, and Inorganic Gases. Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 22(11) 1432—
1458.
Eggleton, F. E., 1934. A Comparative Study of the Benthic Fauna of
Four Northern Michigan Lakes. Papers of the Mich. Acad. Sci., Arts and
Lett., XX: 609--634. published in 1935.
Eschmeyer, R. IV.. 1950. Fish and Fishing in TVA Impoundments. Ten-
nessee Department of Conservation, Nashville, pp. 1—28.
Gerloff, G. and F. Skoog, 1954. Cell Count of Nitrogen and Phosphorus as
a Measure of their Availability for Growth of Microcystis aeruginosa.
Ecology, 35(3); 348—353.
Greenbank. j. T., 1945. Limnological Conditions in Ice-covered Lakes,
Especially as Related to Winter-Kill of Fish. Ecological Monographs.
15(4); 343—392.
Harper. H. J. and H. R. Daniel. 1939. Chemical Composition of Certain
Aquatic Plants. Bot. Gaz.. 96: 186.
Hayne. i i W. and R. C. Ball. 1956. Benthic Productivity as Influenced by
Fish Predation. Limnology and Oceanography. 1(3); 162—175.
Henderson. C., Q. H. Pickering and C. M. Tarzwell, 1959. Relative Toxic-
ity of Ten Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides to Four Species of Fish.
Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 88: 23—32.
Hunt, G. S., 1958. Causes of Mortality Among Ducks Wintering on the
Lower Detroit River. Ann Arbor. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Ph. D. thesis.
Hunt. G. S., 1961. Waterfowl Losses on the Lower Detroit River Due to
Oil Pollution. Publication No. 7, Great Lakes Research Div., Inst. Sci.
and Tech., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 10—26.
Kittrel l, F. IV.. 1959. Effects of Impoundments on Dissolved Oxygen Re-
sources. Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 31 (9); 1065—1078.
Klugh, A., 1926. The Productivity of Lakes. Quart. Rev. Biol., 1(4);
522—577.
Krocker, F., 1939. A Comparative Study of the Animal Population of
Certain Submerged Aquatic Plants. Ecology, 20(4); 553 —562.
Low. J. B. and F. C. Bel lrose, Jr., 1944. The Seed and Vegetative Yield
of Waterfowl Food Plants in the Illinois River Valley. Jour. Wildlife
Management,8(1); 7.
Mackenthun, K. M. and H. L. Coolev. 1952. The Biological Effect of Cop-
per Sulphate Treatment on Lake Ecology. IVis. Acad. Sci., Arts & Lett.,
41: 177—187.
28
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Mackenthun, K. M. and C. D. McNabb, 1961. Stabilization Pond Studies
in Wisconsin. jour. Water Pollution Control Federation, 33(12): 1234—
1251.
Moyle, J. B., 1940. A Biological Survey of the Upper Mississippi Rivet
System (in Minnesota). Minn. Dept. Cons. Fish. mv. Rept. No. 10, 69 pp.
Moyle, j. B., 1949a. Some Indices of Lake Productivity. Trans. Am. Fish
Soc., 76: 322—334 (1946).
Moyle, J. B., 1956. Relationships between the Chemistry of Minnesota
Surface Waters and Wildlife Management. Jour. Wildlife Management,
20(3): 302—320.
Moyle, J. B., 1961. Aquatic Invertebrates as Related to Larger Water
Plants and Waterfowl. Minn. Dept. Cons. mv. Rept. No. 233, pp. 1—21
(mthiea).
Needham, P. R., 1929. Quantitative Studies of the Fish Food -Supply in
Selected Areas. A Biological Survey of the Erie Niagara System. Suppi.
19th Annual Report, New York Cons. Dept., pp. 214—227.
Needham, P. R., 1938. Trout Streams. Comstock Publishing Co., Ithaca,
N.Y., 233 pp.
Neel, J. K., J. H. McDermott and C. A. Monday, Jr., 1961. Experimental
Lagooning of Raw Sewage at Fayette, Missouri. jour. Water Pollution
Control Federation, 33(6): 603—641.
Neess, J. C. and \V. \V. Bunge, 1957. An unpublished manuscript of E. A.
Birge on the Temperature of Lake Mendota. Part II, Trans. Wis. Acad.
Sci., Arts & Lett., 46: 31—89.
Neil, N. H., 1958. Nature of Growth in a Report on Algae, Cladophora.
Report of Ontario Water Resources Commission, pp. 3—7.
Pate, V. S. Y., 1932. Studies on the Fish Food Supply it; Selected Areas.
A Biological Survey of the Oswegatchie and Black River Systems, Suppl.
2lst Annual Report, New York Cons. Dept., pp. 133—149.
Pate, V. S. Y., 1934. Studies on the Fish Food Supply in Selected Areas of
the Raquette Watershed. A Biological Survey of the Raquette Watershed.
Supp l. 23rd Annual Report, New York Cons. Dept., pp. 136—157.
Pfitzer, D. W., 1954. Investigations of Waters below Storage Reservoirs in
Tennessee. Trans. Nineteenth North American Wildlife Conference, pp.
271—282.
Rawson, D. 5., 1930. The Bottom Fauna of Lake Simcoe and its Role in
the Ecology of the Lake. University of Toronto Studies, Publication Ont.
Fish. Res. Lab., 40: 1—183.
29
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Rickett, H. W., 1922. A Quantitative Study of the Larger Aquatic Plants
of Lake Mendota. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts & Lett., 20: 50 1—522.
Rickett, H. W., 1924. A Quantitative Study of the Larger Aquatic Plants of
Green Lake, Wisconsin. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts & Lett., 21: 381—414.
Schuette. H. A. and A. E. Hoffman, 1922. Notes on the Chemical Com-
position of Some of the Larger Aquatic Plants of Lake Mendota. I. Clado-
phora and M3’riophyllum. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts & Lett, 20: 529.
Schuette. H. A. and H. Alder, 1928. Notes on the Chemical Composition
of Some of the Larger Aquatic Plants of Lake Mendota. TI. Val lisneria
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Schuette, H. A. and H. Alder. 1929. Notes on the Chemical Composition of
Some of the Larger Aquatic Plants of Lake Mendota. I II. Castalia odorata
and .Vajas flexilis. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts & Lett.. 24: 135—139.
Shelford, V. R.. 1918. Conditions of Existence. Ward and Whipple’s
Fresh-Water Biology. John Wiley and Sons. New York, pp. 21—60.
Surber, E. \V., 1930. A Method of Quantitative Bottom Fauna and Facul-
tative Plankton Sampling Employed in a Year’s Study of Slough Biology.
Trans. Am. Fish Soc., 60: 187—198.
Swingle, H. \V.. 1950. Relationships and Dynamics of Balanced and Un-
balanced Fish Populations. Agricultural Experiment 5th., Alabama Poly-
technic Institute. Auburn. Ala., Bull. No. 274. pp. 1—74.
Tebo. L. B.. 1955. Bottom Fauna of a Shallow Eutrophic Lake, Lizard
Lake, Pocahontas County, Iowa. Am. MidI. Nat., 54(l): 89—103.
Verduin. J.. 1956. Primary Production in Lakes. Limnology and Ocean-
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Weber. C - I., 1958. Some Measurements of Primary Production in East
and %Vest Okoboji Lakes, Dickinson County, Iowa. Proc. Iowa Academy
olSci.,65: 166—173.
Whipple. G. C.. G. M. Fair and M. C. Whipple. 1948. The Microscopy
of Drinking Water. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 586 pp.
Wiebe. A. H.. l939a. Dissolved Oxygen Profiles at Norris Dam and in the
Big Creek Sector of Norris Reservoir (1937), with a Note on the Oxygen
Demand of the Water (l938L Ohio Jour. Sci., 39(1\: 27—36.
Wiebe, A. H.. l939b. Density Currents in Norris Reservoir. Ecology,
20 3): 446—450.
Wiebe. A. H., 1941. Density Currents in Impounded Waters—their Signifi-
cance from the Standpoint of Fisheries Management. Trans. Sixth North
American Wildlife Conference, pp. 256—264.
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CHAPTER III
Jsfutrients and Biological Growths
“Fixed like a plant on his peculiar spot to draw nutrition,
propagatc and rot.”
—POPE.
Reservoirs or lakes arc the settling basins of drainage areas.
The potential productivity of a body of water is determined to a great
extent by the natural fertility of the land over which the runoff drains
and by the contributions of civilization. Biological activity within the
lake influences such chemical characteristics as dissolved oxygen, pH,
carbon dioxide, hardness, alkalinity, iron, manganese, phosphorus, and
nitrogen; it is varied through temperature fluctuations and stimulated
by nutrient variations (e.g., phosphorus and nitrogen). A lake’s basin
gives dimension to biological activity and may, because of unique
physical characteristics, concentrate the nutrients it receives as well as
the developing biomass.
BASIC NUTRIENT SUPPLIERS
Basic sources of nutrients to lakes and reservoirs are (a) tributary
streams carrying land runoff and waste discharges, (b) the interchange
of bottom sediments, and (c) precipitation from the atmosphere.
Sewage and sewage effluents enrich tributary streams. Rudo lfs
(1947) studied the content of sewages from 12 separate sources and
concluded that the annual per capita contribution of phosphorus ranged
from 0.6 to 1.5 pounds. Studies of Wisconsin waste stabilization ponds
indicate annual per capita contributions of 4.1 pounds of inorganic
nitrogen and 1.1 pounds of soluble phosphorus (Mackenthun and
McNabb, 1961). The Nine-Springs Sewage Treatment Plant provides
primary and secondary treatment for all wastes from Madison, Wis.,
metropolitan area of 85 square miles with a population of about 135,000.
The effluent from the secondary processes—one-fourth settled sewage
from trickling filters and three-fourths from activated sludge—has an
annual per capita contribution of 8.5 pounds of inorganic nitrogen and
3.5 pounds of soluble phosphorus. By diverting its treated sewage effluent
around Lakes Waubesa and Kegonsa, this city reduced the inflow of
31
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nutrients into those waters by 3,000 pounds per day of inorganic nitrogen
and 1,300 pounds per day of soluble phosphorus (Mackenthun et al.,
1960).
Lakes and reservoirs located on heavily used duck flyways receive
“flying” or “bombed in” nutrients from a transient duck population.
Sanderson (1953) found the annual raw-waste contribution of a domestic
duck to be 2.1 pounds of total nitrogen and 0.9 pound of total phos-
phorus. Paloumpis and Starrett (1960) applied a factor of 0.5
to these data to compensate for dietary differences of wild ducks, and
determined that the annual nutrient contribution to Lake Chautauqua ,
Ill. , from the wild duck population was 12.8 pounds of total nitrogen
and 5.6 pounds of total phosphorus per acre.
Land runoff may often be the major contributor of nutrients to
the tributary stream. The annual loss of nitrogen and phosphorus per
acre from a planting of corn on a 20-percent slope of Miami silt loam
was found to be 38 pounds and 1.8 pounds respectively; on an 8-percent
slope, this was reduced to 18 pounds of nitrogen and 0.5 pounds of phos-
phorous. In a study of the lower Madison lakes, Sawyer et al. , 6 and
Lackey and Sawyer (1945) found that the annual contribution of inor-
ganic nitrogen per acre of drainage area tributary to Lake Monona was
4.4 pounds , Lake Waubesa, 4.9 pounds, and Lake Kegonsa, 6.4 pounds.
Sylvester (1960) tabulated the results of analyses of samples col-
lected from gutters on Seattle, Wash., streets anywhere from 30 minutes
to several hours after a rainstorm had commenced. The mean nitrate
nitrogen (N) was 0.53 mg/I, total phosphorus (P) 0.21 mg/I and solu-
ble phosphorus 0.07 6 mg/I. Nutrient values in three streams emerging
from forested areas where no human habitation contributes any signifi-
cant amount of waste water averaged 0.065 to 0.20 mg/l nitrates as N
and 0.004 to 0.009 mg/I soluble phosphorus as P. Surface irrigation
return flows from diversified farming in Yakima Valley, Wash., con-
tained 1.19 to 1.90 mg/I nitrate nitrogen as N, 0.165 to 0.360 mg/I
total phosphorus as F, and 0.127 to 0.210 mg/i soluble phosphorus. In
the surface drains, the total phosphorus in the drainage water varied
from 0.9 to 3.9 pounds per acre per year while the total nitrogen varied
from 2.5 to 24 pounds per acre per year.
Eck , P., M. L. Jackson , 0. E. Hayes and C. E. Bay, 1957. Runoff Analysis as a
Measure of Erosion Losses and Potential Discharge of Minerals and Organic Matter
into Lakes and Streams. Summary Report, Lakes Investigations, University of Wis-
consin, Madison, 13 pp. (mimeo.).
Sawyer, C. N., J. B. Lackey and R. T. Len ; 1945. An Investigation of the Odor
Nuisances Occurring in the Madison Lakes, Particularly Monona, Waubesa and
Kegonsa from July 1942—July 1944. Report of Governor’s Committee, Madison,
Wis.,2vols. (mimeo).
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Inorganic nitrogen compounds are present in small amounts in
rainwater, predominantly as nitric acid and ammonia. These com-
pounds come from the atmosphere and are the products of electrical
discharges, terrestrial decomposition, and volcanic eruptions. If the
concentrations quoted by Hutchinson (1957) are used and a 30-inch
annual precipitation is assumed, the contribution of ammonia and x l i-
trate nitrogen in the temperate region would be 5.5 pounds per acre. In
an 18-month investigation at Hamilton, Ontario, Matheson (1951)
determined the annual fall of atmospheric nitrogen to be 5.8 pounds per
acre. Sixty-one percent of the total nitrogen fell on the 25 percent of the
days when precipitation occurred; the balance was attributed solely to
the sedimentation of dust.
As fixed nitrogen enters the reservoir, it is incorporated in the
biomass as an element of protein. Upon death or excretion, nitrogen is
liberated for reuse. During this process some is lost: (a) in the lake
effluents (as much as 40 percent), (b) by diffusion of volatile nitrogen
compounds from surface water, (c) by denitrification in the lake, and
(d) in the formation of permanent sediments.
Likewise, phosphorus, taken up in the web of life, is liberated for
reuse upon death of the organism (Cooper, 1941) Some may settle
into the hypolimnion with the sedimentation of seston (all living and
nonliving floating or swimming plants or animals) or in fecal pellets, and
some may be released at the mud-water interface (Hooper and Elliott,
1953).
Ruttner (1953) states that phosphorus occurs in the biosphere
almost exclusively in a fully oxidized state. It comes from the weather-
ing of phosphatic rock and from the soil. In contrast, however, phos-
phate is avidly held by the soil and is not so easily leached by rainwater
as are the nitrates. When ferrous iron and phosphate occur together in
the bypolimnion of a lake, an insoluble ferric phosphate is precipitated
at times when oxygen is introduced and the reaction is made alkaline.
Thus, the whole phosphorus content of a lake may be carried to the bot-
tom at the time of the fall overturn. When there is a lack of oxygen in
the sediments, the iron can be reduced from the ferric to the ferrous form
and the phosphorus freed to go into solution.
During extreme stratification in a lake during the summer, the
phosphorus cycle ma)’ involve the following processes (Ruttner, 1953):
1. Liberation of the phosphorus in the epilimnion from the decay
of littoral vegetation.
2. Uptake of phosphorus from water by littoral vegetation.
3. Uptake of liberated phosphorus by phytoplankton.
33
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4. Loss of phosphorus as a soluble compound from the phyto-
plankton, probably followed by a slow regeneration of ionic phosphate.
5. Sedimentation of phytoplankton and other phosphorus-
containing seston, perhaps largely fecal pellets, in the h polimnion.
6. Liberation of phosphorus from the sedimenting seston in the
h poIimnion, or the liberation of phosphorus when it arrives at the mud-
water interface.
7. Diffusion of phosphorus from the sediments in the water at
those depths at which the superficial layer of the mud lacks an oxidized
microzone.
Sawyer et al. 7 found the nitrogen and phosphorus content of
bottom muds in the Madison lakes to be 7,000 to 9,000 p g/g (micro-
grams per gram) dry weight and 1,000 to 1,200 .izg/g dry weight respec-
tively. Some of thi.s is recirculated through mixing of the lake waters at
the time of lake overturns twice a year from the bottom ooze into the
upper lake water, and some is recirculated by the movement of organisms
and eddy diffusion.
NUTRIENT UTILIZATION
Important factors affecting aquatic growths include temperature;
sunlight; size, shape, type of substratum, and slope of lake basin; and
water quality. The total supply of an available nutrient depends on
the total volume of water, as well as the concentration of the element in
the water. Gerloff and Skoog (1957) in laboratory investigations deter-
mined that 5 units of nitrogen plus 0.08 unit of phosphorus (a ratio of
60: 1) would produce 100 units of algae. The N—P ratio, as it naturally
occurs in algae and submerged plants, is more nearly 10: 1. Allen (1955)
found that the maximum algal crop that can be grown on the nutrients
present in domestic sewage was 1 to 2 g/l (dry weight); to obtain any
appreciable increase it was necessary to supplement the sewage with
nitrogen as well as carbon.
Sawyer (1947) studied the southeastern Wisconsin lakes and con-
cluded that a 0.30 mg/i concentration of inorganic nitrogen (N) and
a 0.01 mg i concentration of soluble phosphorus (P) at the start of
the active growing season could produce nuisance algal blooms. Nitro-
gen appears to be the more critical factor limiting algal production in
Sawyer, C. N., J. B. Lackey and R. T. Lenz, 1945. An Investigation of the Odor
Nuisances Occurring in the Madison Lakes. Particularly Monona, Waubesa and
Kegonsa from July 1942—July 1944. Report of Governor’s Committee, Madison,
Wis.. 2 cob. (rnimeo.)
34
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natural waters (Gerloff and Skoog, 1957), since phosphorus is stored
in plankton as excess and may exceed the actual need.
A continued high rate of nutrient supply is not necessary for con-
tinued algal production. After an initial stimulus, the recycling of nutri-
ents within the lake basin is sufficient to promote algal blooms for a
number of years without substantial inflow from contributing sources.
Algae and other plant growths in lakes, ponds, and reservoirs
eventually die and many of them settle to the bottom where they are
subjected to aerobic or anaerobic decomposition. Some of the nutrient
elements that are soluble become immediately available and are passed
into solution in the epilimnion. The remainder become part of the
stabilized bottom deposits. The amount of nutrients back-feeding from
bottom deposits is directly related to the rate of deposition. Back-feeding
from bottom deposits continues for some time even though further addi-
tions to the decomposing mass are prevented, since there is a considerable
lag imposed by the slow rate of the involved reaction, which is comparable
to sludge digestion at low temperatures (Sawyer. 1954).
Provasoli (1961) points out that many algae require vitamins
for growth in addition to inorganic salts. The most important vitamins
appear to be B 12 , thiamine, and biotin, alone or in various combinations.
A great part of the vitamins in fresh waters come from soil runoff espe-
cially during spring floods, from bottom muds, and from domestic sew-
age as solutes in the water. Basic nutrient suppliers and nutrient utiliza-
tion through existing food chains form a natural cycle of events. Jn
appraising nutrient impact on the environment, the engineer needs a
figure representing a given contribution that may be compared to some
base. A population equivalent (PE) is appropriate for such purposes.
The population equivalents suggested in table 2 recognize variability in
both the base (domestic contribution in sewage) and the selected
contributions.
Sawyer (1954) discusses various factors that influence the devel-
opment of nuisance algal growths in lakes. The surface area is important
since the accumulations of algae along the shoreline of a large lake under
a given set of wind conditions could easily be much larger than on a small
lake, providing the fertilization per acre were equal. The shape of the
lake determines to some degree the amount of fertilizing matter the lake
can safely assimilate since prevailing winds blowing along a long axis
will concentrate the algal production from a large water mass into a rela-
tively small area. The most offensive conditions develop during periods
of very mild breezes that tend to skim the floating algae and push them
toward shore. Shallow lakes, too, respond differently than deep stratified
lakes in which the deeper waters are sealed off by a thermocline. In the
35
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Table 2. Nutrient Population Equivalents
1 Eck, P., M. L. Jackson, 0. E. Hayes and C. E. Bay, 1957. Runoff
Analysis as a Measure of Erosion Losses and Potential Dischargç of
Minerals and Organic Matter into Lakes and Streams. Summary
Report, Lakes Investigations, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1 3
pp. (mimeo.).
Nutrient source
Basic reference
Contribution
-
N P
Population equivalent (PE per year)
N
P
Treated domestic contribution
in sewage.
Bush and Mulford, 1954. . .
Mettier et al., 1958.
6—12k (9 Ib/yr)
6**lb/yr
2—4(3 Ib/yr)
2.25 lb/yr.
} i
1.
Domestic duck
Sanderson, 1953
2.1 lb/yr
0.9 lb/yr
0.23 to 0.35....
0.3.
Wild duck
PaloumpisandStarrett,1960.
1.0 lb/yr
0.45 lb/yr
0.11 to 0.17....
0.15.
Runoff—20 percentslopecorn..
Eck etal., 1957’
38 lb/A/yr
1.8 lb/A/yr
4.2 to 6.3/A....
0.6/A.
Runoff— S percent slope corn...
Eck etal., 1957’
18 lb/A/yr
0.5 lb/A/yr
2.1 to 3.0/A....
0.166/A.
Surface irrigation diversified
farm i ng.
Sylvester, 1960
2.5 —24.0 lb/A/yr.
. . .
0.9—3.9 lb/A/yr
0.27 to 4.0/A...
0.3 to 1.3/A.
Rainwater
Hutchinson, 1957
5.5 lb/A
0.6 to 0.9/A
Killedalgae(summermaximum).
Birge and Juday, 1922
24 lb/A
2.4 lb/A
2.7 to 4.0/A....
0.8/A.
Killed submerged plants
Rickett, 1922
32 lb/A
3.2 lb/A
3.6 to 5.3/A....
1.1/A.
Killed fish
Beard, 1926
50 lb/ton
4 lb/ton
5.6 to 8.3/ton...
1.3/ton.
* Normal range of domestic sewaje for 1 5 California communities
was given as 20 to 40 mg/i N and P0 4 .
** The concentration in treated water was subtracted From the con-
centration in sewage to obtain domestic contribution.
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nonstratified waters all the nutrients dissolved in the water are potentially
available to support an algal bloom. In stratified waters, only the nu-
trients confined to the epilimnion are available except during those brief
periods when complete circulation occurs.
PRODUCTION IN ABUNDANCE
The literature records many lakes capable of excessive algal pro-
duction (Hasler 1947). It is clear that any increase in the rate of eutro-
phy, even if this involves only the acceleration of a natural and inevitable
process is, from a human point of view, thoroughly undesirable.
Anderson (1961) discusses recent eutrophication of Lake \Vash-
ington near Seattle. In 1950, the standing crop of phytoplankton was
0.6 ppm (parts per million wet measure by volume); in 1955, 1.6 ppm;
and in 1956, 4.2 ppm. The phosphate accumulation in the hypolimnion
was 23 ppb (parts per billion) in 1950, 89 ppb in 1957, and 74 ppb in
1958. These factors were correlated with changes in the flora, especially
the initial observation in 1955 of Oscillatoria rubescens DeCandolle,
“. . . a notorious indicator of pollution in man lakes.” Hasler (1947)
describes eutrophication in the Zürichsee and Hallwilersee, Switzerland,
Lake \Vindermere, England, and in several other lakes. Phinney and
Peek (1961) discussed Kiamath Lake. Oreg. and Benoit and Curry
(1961). Lake Zoar, Conn.: Deevey and Bishop (1942) found Linsley
Pond to be the most biologically productive of 30 lakes studied in Con-
necticut. Here, again, evidence was found of rapid eutrophy in com-
paratively recent times.
Plate 5. Algal scums often result from warm temperature, abundant
sunshine, and nutrients.
-------
The Madison Lakes problem at Madison, Wis., has been a subject
of nationwide discussion, intensive investigation, and legislative and
legal action for many years. The series of Yahara River lakes at Madi-
son, Wis., includes Lake Mendota, Lake Monona, Lake Waubesa, and
Lake Kegonsa, respectively. Madison, Wis., is located between Lake
Mendota and Lake Monona. In the early history of the city, Lake
Monona received raw sewage and later treated sewage effluent from the
City of Madison. In 1926, the Nine-Spring Sewage Treatment Plant
was placed in operation and the effluent from this installation was car-
ried via Nine-Springs Creek to the Yahara River above Lakes Waubesa
and Kegonsa. The enrichment of these lower Madison Lakes by the
highly nutritious effluent produced nuisance algal growths, offensive
odors, and periodic fish kills. These conditions led to innumerable com-
plaints, much debate, and eventually, in December 1958, legislative and
legal action forced the diversion of the effluent from the Madison Metro-
politan Sewerage District’s Nine-Springs Treatment Plant around the
lower Madison Lakes.
The 1942—43 report to the Governor’s Committee on a study
of the Madison Lakes S contained results of over 15,000 chemical de-
terminations mostly on nitrogen and phosphorus, along with appropriate
flow data. Algal counts were also made and correlated with nutrients
found. Major conclusions reached were that (1) the biological produc-
tivity of the local lakes is a function of the loading of inorganic nitrogen
on each lake. (2) the soluble phosphorus content of the water may be a
factor in limiting the rate of biological activity and in determining the
nature of the growths when its concentration drops below 0.01 mg/i,
(3) drainage from improved marsh land is approximately two to three
times as rich in inorganic nitrogen as drainage from ordinary farm land,
and (4) high biological productivity and nuisance conditions do not
always occur simultaneously.
The 1943—1944 report, which gives the results of over 21,000
chemical determinations and complementary biological studies,
strengthen the conviction that inorganic forms of nitrogen and
phosphorus are the main factors in providing fertilizing elements for
algal blooms.”
The annual average nutrient loading and retention within the
lakes are present d in table 3.
On 26 biweekly sampling dates, samples were collected from
Sawyer. C. N.. J. B. Lackey and R. T. Lenz. 1945. An Investigation of the Odor
Nuisances Occurring in the Madison Lakes, Particularly Monona, Waubesa and
Kegonsa from July 1942—J uly 1944. Report of Governor’s Committee, Madison,
Wis., 2 vots. (mimeo.)
38
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Table 3. Nutrient Loading and Retention in tower Madison Lakes,
1942—1944
Lake
Inorganic nitrogen
inorganic phosphorus
Loading
lbsfacre/yr
Retention in
lake, percent
Loading
lbs/acre/yr
Retention in
lake, percent
Monona
Waubesa
Kegonsa
90
448
156
70
64
61
9
64
38
88
25
12
the receiving stream both before and after diversion [ December 1958)
of the effluent around the lower Madison Lakes (Mackenthun et aL,
1960). Analyses of these data (table 4) from a station midway down
the receiving stream show the quantity of nutrients removed from the
lower lakes following diversion.
Table 4. The Receiving Stream Before and After Diversion of Treated
Sewage, Madison, Wisconsin
Before
After
Phytoplankton, lb/day
Organic Nitrogen, lb’day
Inorganic Nitrogen, Ibday
Soluble Phosphorus, lb/day
DOD, lb ’day
DO,lbday
Average Flow, cis
259
30
110
9
75
475
8.7
622
286
3,153
1 ,351
1,602
904
43.0
The characteristics of eutrophication are many; most important
to the layman on the scene are those readily noted through visual in-
spection. The secchi disc is a polished measure of visual inspection.
The vertical dissolved-oxygen concentrations, the increase in nutrients
in the hvpolimnion. significant changes in the algal population and
in the fishery, and increases in rooted weed beds, are all factors closely
correlated with enriched conditions in a lake basin.
PHOTOSYNTHETIC OXYGEN PRODUCTION
Purdy (1916) showed that great masses of submerged plants
covering the Potomac River flats functioned as oxygenators of the water.
39
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He demonstrated a different oxygen saturation level between night and
day, and between forenoon and afternoon , Rudolfs and Huekelekian
(1931) noted the effects of sunlight and green organisms on the re-
aeration of streams and found that the dissolved oxygen in water con-
taining large quantities of algae decreased from supersaturation to 17
percent saturation by placing the water in darkness, and increased to
282 percent saturation by subjecting it to diffuse light.
In recent years, the measurement of primary production has
stimulated interest among investigators (Ryther, 1956). Several methods
of determination are applicable where the inflows of energy and material
balance the outflows. These include (a) the oxygen method (light-
dark bottle, diurnal oxygen curve, and oxygen deficit in the hypolim-
nion); (b) the carbon dioxide method; (c’} determinations with radio-
active materials; and (d) the chlorophyll method (Odum, 1959).
Green algae. utilizing energy from the sun, produce carbohydrates
from carbon dioxide and water, and then assimilate these carbohydrates
together with the liberated ammonia and other essentials to produce addi-
tional algal cells. Oswald and Gotaas (1956) found that the growth
of 1 pound of algae is usually accompanied by the production of a
minimum of 1.6 pounds of molecular oxygen. In stabilization ponds,
it has been found that a photosynthetic efficiency of 1 percent is equiva-
lent to the production of about 25 pounds per acre per day of organic
matter with the liberation of about 40 pounds of oxygen. Photosynthetic
efficiencies in pilot plant sewage stabilization ponds have ranged from
2 to 9 percent under varying conditions of depth, detention time, recircu-
lation time, and mixing. (Oswald and Gotaas, 1956.)
Light-dark bottle data on sewage stabilization ponds in the Da-
kotas indicated gross oxygen production of 231 pounds per acre per day,
respiration of 169 pounds, or a net oxygen production of 62 pounds per
acre per day (Bartsch, 1960). Gross production was highest during
midmorning at Lemmon, S.D. (18.7 pounds per acre per hour) and
lowest during early evening (0.3 pounds per acre per hour). Highest
net oxygen production was 10.7 pounds per acre per hour. There is
generally no measurable oxygen production under winter ice in stabiliza-
tion ponds.
In measuring in situ aeration of Wisconsin’s sewage stabilization
ponds, McNabb (1960) found net oxygen production proceeding at a
rapid rate in the morning, and oxygen consumption by biota exceeding
production throughout most of the afternoon in spite of light intensities
favorable for photosynthesis. Highest oxygen production was 21.4
pounds per acre per hour with a phvtoplankton population of 180 ppm
(by volume) and a nutrient inflow of approximately 4.0 pounds per acre
per day total nitrogen and 1.3 pounds per acre per day total phosphorus.
40
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Verduin (1956) summarized the literature on primary produc-
tion in lakes and concluded that the net photosynthetic rate of auto-
trophic organisms under optimum light was 35 x 1fY 6 pounds of Oz per
ml of organisms per hour. Lakes with an epilimnion layer of the order
of 1 meter are likely to have standing crops of about 5 ppm by volume.
Computations of photosynthetic oxygen production for several lakes
yielded values lying mostly between 42 to 57 pounds per acre per day.
An increase in the hypolimnetic oxygen deficit has been taken as
evidence of increased lake productivity. In Lake Washington, near
Seattle, the hypolimnetic oxygen deficit was determined to be 105 pounds
per acre per month (3.5 pounds per acre per day) in 1933, 178 pounds
per acre per month in 1950. and 279 pounds per acre per month in 1955
(Edmondson et al., 1956). The standing crop of phytoplankton in the
top 20 meters of water in 1950 was 0.6 ppm (by volume), and in 1955,
1.6 ppm (by volume) (Anderson. 1961).
THE PRICE OF EUTROPHY
The disadvantages of algae as a source of oxygen have been sum-
marized by Bartsch (1961). Algae respond to complex, changing,
unpredictable environmental factors including solar radiation, opacity
of the medium, rate of bacterial activity, rise and fall of nutrients, cli-
matic phenomena, and ecological succession , When algal cells die and
sink to the hypolimnion, oxygen is used in decomposition. The nutrients’
stimulation of algai production can lead to the formation of a mass of
organic matter greater than that of the original waste source (Renn,
1954). In an enriched environment, algae respond so well to incoming
nutrients that the oxygen required for the respiration of the resultant algal
mass alone surpasses the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of the
incoming food material. Lake Winnebago, Wis. (area 213 square
miles) produces heavy algal populations. In July, when the lower Fox
River can-led a heavy algal load from Lake Winnebago, the ultimate
BOD in the river above the sources of industrial and municipal wastes
ranged to 660,000 pounds of oxygen demand each day. 9
Enrichment often results in domination of the algal mass by a
relatively small group of blue-green algae that become well established.
Indications are that many species of fresh-water algae are capable of
producing physiologically active metabolites that may function as toxins,
Scott , K. H., B. F. Lueck, T. F. Wisniewski and A. J. Wiley, 1956. Evaluation
of Stream Loading and Purification Capacity. Committee on Water Pollution
Madison, Wis., Bull. No. 101 (mimeo.).
41
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growth inhibitors (autointoxication), or growth stimulators to them-
selves or to associated algae (Hartman, 1960). Most of the adverse
effects resulting from an algal mass occur when one species of algae
dominates the population.
Fish kills have resulted from a supersaturation of oxygen (Wood-
bury, 1941). A heavy loss of fish was accompanied by a dense algal
bloom and extremely high dissolved oxygen (30 to 32 mg/I) in the sur-
face water. Gas emboli were present in the gill capillaries and gas bub-
bles occurred in the subcutaneous tissues. Death of the fish was
attributed to the blocking of the circulation through the gills by the gas
bubbles with subsequent respiratory failure. Fish kills have also resulted
from a natural depletion of oxygen (Mackenthun et aL, 1948). An
example occurred in October 1946 when tremendous quantities of blue-
green algae, Aphanizomenon fibs aquae (Linnaeus), entered the Yahara
River from Lake Kegonsa near Madison, Wis.. decomposed in passing
downstream, and caused oxygen depletion resulting in the death of tons
of fish.
Provost (1 958 indicated that overproduction of tendipedids
midge larvae or bloodworms in lakes is caused by excessively nutri-
tious waters. Midgeflies have become a nuisance in several areas where
conditions are especially suitable for the concentration of a swarming
mass of adults following an emergence (e.g., Clear Lake. Calif.; Lake
Winnebago, Wis.; and several lakes in Florida). Larval development is
no doubt fostered by the deposition of the dead cells of a rich plankton
population on the bottom sediments.
Both weed and algal nuisances develop in enriched water; fishing
may be impaired, and bathing, boating, and water skiing often must be
indefinitely postponed in waters that otherwise offer maximum multiple
recreational use. Industrial or municipal water treatment is hampered
or made inefficient by extensive aquatic growths; property values are
lowered, and resort trade may be cancelled as a result of these nuisances.
Excessive submerged aquatic vegetation often develops in shallow
enriched waters. A critical time in development occurs in the early
spring during seed germination. If sufficient light reaches the lake
bottom at this time, weeds will develop. Weed development utilizes
local nutrients and often will limit excessive algal growth in the area
inhabited by the submerged aquatic plants. Elimination of a substan-
tial area of weed growth. in turn, often gives rise to localized algal
development.
Rapid decomposition of dense algal scums with associated organ-
isms and debris gives rise to odors and hydrogen sulfide gas that create
strong citizen disapproval: often the gas stains the white lead paint
on residences adjacent to the shore to ugly hues of grey and even black.
42
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Efforts to minimize conditions leading to water enrichment neces-
sitate an understanding of the basic problem and the cooperation of all
who use the water. Ideally, sewage and decomposable organic industrial
wastes, the effluents from which contain concentrations of nitrogen and
phosphorus, should not be discharged into a watercourse where the im-
pact of nutrients will manifest in nuisance growths of aquatic plants.
Runoff and drainage from land on which leeching fertilizers have been
used should be minimized. Drainage from garbage or trash dumps
should not enter water. Private sewage treatm nt units serving shore-
line dwellings should not discharge into recreational waters. Those
who use the water for recreational purposes should observe good house-
keeping and not litter beaches and waterways with the trash and remains
of recreational pursuits.
Long-term remedial measures might be focused on reducing the
nutrient concentration in troublesome areas or in altering some aspect
of the topography that concentrates or fosters the development of nuisance
algae or aquatic weeds. Such measures often involve costly physical
modifications to correct existing conditions, as well as future planning
to assure wise use of the area’s natural aquatic resources.
REFERENCES
Allen, M. B., 1955. General Features of Algae Growth in Sewage Oxida-
tion Ponds. California State Water Pollution Control Board, Sacramento,
Publication No. 13, pp. 11—34.
Anderson. G. C.. 1961. Recent Changes in the Trophic Nature of Lake
Washington—A Review. Algae and Metropolitan Wastes, Robert A. Taft
Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, pp. 27—33.
Bartsch. A. F., 1960. Algae in Relation to Oxidation Processes in Natural
Waters. The Ecology of Algae. Pvmatuning Lab. of Field Biology, Uni-
versity of Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh, Pa., Special Publication No. 2, pp. 56—71
Bartsch, A. F.. 1961. Algae as a Source of Oxygen in Waste Treatment.
Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 33(3): 239—249.
Beard, H. R., 1926. Nutritive Value of Fish and Shellfish. Report for U.S.
Commission of Fisheries for 1925, pp. 501—502.
Benoit, R. 3. and 3. C. Curry, 1961. Algae Blooms in Lake Zoar, Conn.
Algae and Metropolitan Wastes, Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering
Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, pp. 18—22.
43
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Birge, E. A. and C. Juday, 1922. The Inland Lakes of Wisconsin. The
Plankton. I. Its Quantity and Chemical Composition. Wis. Geol. Nat
Hist. Sur. Bull. 64, Scientific Series 1, No. 13, 222 pp.
Bush, A. F. and S. F. Mulford, 1954. Studies of Waste Water Reclama-
tion and Utilization. California State Water Pollution Control Board:
Sacramento. Publication No. 9,82 pp.
Cooper. L. H. N., 1941. The Rate of Liberation of Phosphates in Sea Water
by Break-down of Plankton Organisms. Jour. Marine Biological Associa-
tion. United Kingdom, 20: 197—220.
Deevev. E. S. and J. S. Bishop, 1942. Limnology. Sec. II, A Fishery Sur-
vey of Important Connecticut Lakes. State Board of Fish & Game, Lake
and Pond Survey Unit Bull. No. 63, State of Connecticut Pubi. Doc. 47,
pp. 69—12 1.
Edmondson. W. T., G. C. Anderson and D. R. Peterson, 1956. Artificial
Eutrophication of Lake Washington. Limnologv and Oceanog aphy.
:47—53.
Gerloff. G. and F. Skoog. 1957. Nitrogen as a Limiting Factor for the
Growth of ..%ui roc ’stis aerugi7zosa in Southern Wisconsin Lakes, Ecology.
38(4 : 556—561.
Hartman, R. T., 1960. Algae and Metabolites of Natural Waters. The
Ecology of Algae Special Publication No. 2, Pvmatuning Lab. of Field
Biology. University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa., pp. 38—55.
Hasler. A. D., 1947. Eutrophication of Lakes by Domestic Drainage
Ecology. 28(4): 383—395.
looper, F. F. and A. M. Elliott, 1953. Release of Inorganic Phosphorus
from Extracts of Lake Mud by Protozoa. Trans. Am. Micr. Soc., 72(3):
276—281.
Hutchinson. G. E.. 1957. A Treatise on Limnology. John Wiley and Sons,
New York. 1015 pp.
Lackey. J. B. and C. N. Sawyer, 1945. Plankton Productivity of Certain
Southeastern Wisconsin Lakes as Related to Fertilization. Sewage Works
Jour., 17(3): 573—585.
Mackenthun, K. M., E. F. Herman and A. F. Bartsch, 1948. A Heavy
Mortality of Fishes Resulting from the Decomposition of Algae in the
Yahara River, Wis. Trans. Am , Fish. Soc., 75: 175—180.
Mackenthun, K. M., L. A. Lueschow and C. D. McNabb. 1960. A Study of
the Effects of Diverting the Effluent from Sewage Treatment upon the
Receiving Stream. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts & Lett., 49: 5 1—72.
44
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Mackenthun, K. M. and C. D. McNabb, 1961. Stabilization Pond Studies
in Wisconsin. Jour. Water Pollution Control Federation, 33(12): 1234—
1251.
Matheson, D. H., 1951. Inorganic Nitrogen in Precipitation and Atmos-
pheric Sediments. Canadian Jour. Technology, 29: 406—412.
McNabb, C. D., 1960. A Study of the Phytoplankton and Photosynthesis in
Sewage Oxidation Ponds in Wisconsin. University of Wisconsin, Madison ,
Ph. D. thesis.
Metzler. D. F., et al., 1958. Emergency Use of Reclaimed Water for
Potable Supply at Chanute, Kans. Jour. Am. \Vater Works Association,
50(8): 1021—1060.
Odum. E. P., 1959. Fundamentals of Ecology. W. B. Saunders Co., Phila-
delpia. 546 pp.
Oswald. IV. J. and H. B. Gotaas, 1956. Discussion—Photosynthesis in the
Algae. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 48(9): 1457—1458 .
Paloumpis, A. A. and W. C. Starrett, 1960. An Ecological Study of Benthic
Organisms in Three Illinois River Flood Plain Lakes. Am. Midl. Nat.,
64(2): 406—435.
Phinney, H. K. and C. A. Peek, 1961. Klamath Lake, an Instance of
Natural Enrichment. Algae and Metropolitan Wastes, Robert A. Taft
Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, pp. 22—2 7.
Provasoli.. L., 1961. Micronutrients and Heterotrophy as Possible Factors
in Bloom Production in Natural Waters. Algae and Metropolitan Wastes,
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, pp. 48—56.
Provost, M. W., 1958. Chironomids and Lake Nutrients in Florida. Sew-
age and Industrial Wastes, 30(11): 1417—1419.
Purdy, IV. C., 1916. Potomac Plankton and Environmental Factors. U.S.
Public Health Service Hygenic Lab. Bull. No. 104, Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C.. pp. 130—191.
Renn, C. E.. 1934. Allowable Loading of Potomac River in Vicinity of
Washington, D.C.. A Report on Water Pollution in the Washington Metro-
politan Area. Sec. Ill—appendixes. February 1954: AB—1-—AB—17.
Rickett, H. IV., 1922. A Quantitative Study of the Larger Aquatic Plants
of Lake Mendota. Trans. IVis. Acad. Sci., Arts & Lett., 20: 501—522.
Rudo lfs, IV., 1947. Phosphates in Sewage and Sludge Treatment. I.
Quantities of Phosphates. Sewage Works Jour., 19: 43—47.
Rudolfs, IV. and H. Heukelekian. 1931. Effect of Sunlight and Green
Organisms on Reaeration of Streams. Industrial and Engineering Chem-
istry, 23: 75—78.
45
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Ruttner, F., 1953. Fundamentals of Limnology. University of Toronto
Press, Toronto, Ontario, 242 pp.
Ryther, J. H., 1956. The Measurement of Primary Production. Limnology
and Oceanography, 1(2): 72—84.
Sanderson, W. W., 1953. Studies of the Character and Treatment of
Wastes from Duck Farms. Proc. 8th md. Waste Conf., Purdue Univ. Ext.
Ser..83: 170— 176.
Sawyer, C. N., 1947. Fertilization of Lakes by Agricultural and Urban
Drainage. Jour. New England Water Works Association, 61: 109—127.
Sawyer, C. N., 1954. Factors Involved in Disposal of Sewage Effluents to
Lakes. Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 26(3): 317—325.
Sylvester, R. 0., 1960. Nutrient Content of Drainage Water from Forested,
Urban. and Agricultural Areas. Algae and Metropolitan Wastes. Robert
A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center. Cincinnati, Ohio, pp. 80—87.
Verduin. J.. 1956. Primary Production in Lakes. Limnology and Ocean-
ographv. 1(2: 85—91.
\Voodburv, L. A.. 1941. A Sudden Mortality of Fishes Accompanying a
Supersaturation of Oxygen in Lake Waubesa. Wis. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.,
7/: 112—117.
46
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CHAPTER IV
Plant Pests Affecting
Recreational Water Use
“A weed is a plant whose virtues have not yet been determined.”
—EMERSON.
Plant nuisances affecting recreation waters may curtail or elim-
inate bathing, boating, water skiing, and sometimes fishing; impart
tastes and odors to water supplies: shorten filter runs or otherwise hamper
industrial and municipal water treatment; impair areas of picturesque
beauty; reduce or restrict resort trade; lower water front property values;
interfere with the manufacture of a product in industry, such as paper;
and on occasion become toxic to certain warm-blooded animals that
ingest the water. These plant nuisances may be grouped into the algae
and the higher aquatic plants. Algae appear as floating scums; sus-
pended matter giving rise to murky, turbid water or water having a “pea
soup” appearance; attached filaments; and bottom dwelling types that
may be confused with the rooted higher aquatic plants. The higher
aquatic plants grow as submerged, floating, or emergent plants. There
are many different kinds of both algae and higher aquatic plants, the
vast majority of which can be properly identified only by experts in the
field.
ALGAE
Most algal problems occur when growth conditions permit the
formation of a “bloom.” A bloom is an unusually large number of
cells (usually one or a few species) per unit of surface water, which often
can be discerned visually by the green. blue-green, or brown discoloration
of the water. Lackey (1949) arbitrarily defined a bloom as 500 indi-
viduals per ml of raw water. He found bloom conditions 509 times
during a 2-year survey of 16 southeastern Wisconsin lakes and of three
rivers in I 942—43. Of this number, only 13 percent were blue-green
algae, generally the most troublesome nuisance-producing group. Dia-
toms are rarely obnoxious except in water supplies; they predominated
47
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in 40 percent of the blooms. The lake with the highest concentration
of inorganic nitrogen (N) and inorganic phosphorus (P),. 0.79 and 0.38
mg/i respectively, bad the most blooms—i 12 during the 2-year period.
Prescott (1960) points out that when a bloom develops, a single
species usually predominates. Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (Linnaeus),
for example, is never in abundance, or scarcely present at all, when
Microcystis aeruginosa Kuetzing is in peak production, and vice versa.
Prescott (1960) further states that”. . . of the countless species
of fresh-water algae, only a few produce disturbances which attract our
attention.” The American freshwater species are listed as follows:
1. Cyanophyta (blue-green algae)
111 icrocystis aeruginosa Kuetzing
Coelosphaeriutn Kuetzingianunt Nageli
Oscillatoria rubescens D c Candolle
O.lacustris (K lebahn)
A naboena circinalis Kuetzing
A. fios-aquae (Linnacus)
A. Latnmermanni Richter
Anabaenopsis Elenkini Miller
II. Chrysophyta (yellow-green algae and diatoms)
Dinobryon sertularta Ehrenberg
D. sociale Ehrenberg
Synura uvella Ehrenberg
Fragilaria spp.
Tabellaria fenestrata Kuetzing
Asterionella gracillima (Hantz.sch)
Coscinodiscus spp.
Melosira granulata (Ehrenberg)
Stephanodiscus niagarae Ehrenberg
III. Pyrrophvta (dinoflagellates)
Ceratiuni him ndinella (Mueller)
In further discussion, Prescott states, “It follows that lakes which
have been enriched by various kinds of pollution from human habitats,
runoff from agricultural lands, wastes from farm animals, etc. are the
ones in which blooms appear. Accordingly, blue-green algae follow
man about as he colonizes and pioneers, creating situations favorable
for his worst aquatic pests.”
Algae are found in the fresh water of ponds, lakes, rivers, brooks,
ditches, pooLs, and swamps, and in the salt water of the oceans. Con-
stituting a primary source of food for fish and other aquatic animals,
they may be free-floating and free-swimming, or attached to the
bottom substratum.
48
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Palmer and Ingram (1955) point out a lack of agreement and
a resulting nonuniformity of classification existing among botanists and
zoologists as to a definite line of demarcation between algae and protozoa
important in the field of sanitary science. They recommend that the
presence or absence of photosynthetic pigments (indicating the ability
or friability to produce oxygen) be used to separate the flagellates into
the pigmented (algal) and nonpigmented (protozoan) types.
There exist some 1,500 genera and 17,400 species of algae, ac-
cordthg to Fuller and Tippo (1954). Fresh-water algae fall into major
groups including blue-green algae; green algae; yellow-green algae;
golden-brown algae and diatoms; euglenoids and dinoflagellates.
The blue-green algae (Cyanophyta) are extremely primitive
in several respects. The plant body is a single cell; colonies may be
formed that are loose aggregations of similar cells among which there
is little or no differentiation. The nuclear material is not organized
into a definite nucleus, but is scattered throughout the center of the cell.
Green chlorophyll is not localized in definitely formed bodies, but is
diffused throughout the peripheral portion of the cell. In addition to
the green chlorophyll there is a blue pigment and sometimes a red
pigment. Reproduction is by simple division (fission). Blue-green
algae produce “water blooms”, “pea soup” appearance, septic “pigpen”
odors; impart a “fishy taste”; and cover rocks with slimy gelatinous
masses.
Green algae (Chlorophyta) have pigments that are principally
chlorophyll confined to chloroplasts or definite bodies. There is an or-
ganized nucleus, and the motile cells, either vegetative or reproductive,
have flagella.
The yellow-green algae, golden-brown algae, and diatoms
(Chrysophyta) have the pigment confined to definite bodies. There is a
greater proportion of yellow or brown pigment than chlorophyll. The
cell wall of the diatoms is composed of silica.
The euglenoids (Euglenoph ta) are unicellular, motile, and bear
one to four flagella. They have a definite nucleus with grass-green
chlorophyll localized in definite chlorophyll bearing bodies (plastids).
The group of dinoflagellates (Pyrrophyta) includes a great di-
versity of mostly pigmented and mobile unicellular organisms. Two
flagella are present. Brown pigments predominate, although chlorophyll
is present.
Algae have also been grouped according to their ecological as-
sociation (Prescott, 1956). These may be classified according to (1)
their position in water, such as those drifting in the open water, those
occurring near shore intermingled with other vegetation or forming
floating mats, those growing attached to the bottom substratum in water
49
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deeper than l feet. and those attached on shoreline rocks in the littoral
region: (2) the chemical composition of their habitat, such as those
in alkaline waters as opposed to those in acid waters: and (3) their
relationships with other organisms, such as those living o i host organisms
that serve as attachment sites, those actually parasitic on or inducii g
pathological conditions in a host plant. and those in which an exchange
of benefits apparentl - occurs between the attached alga and a host plant.
1. Rirularia,
-L Oscillatoria,
6
3. Anabaena,
6. Aphanizomenon.
I
2
3
4
5
Plate 6. Nuisance Algae
2. odu14ria,
5. Lingb a.
50
-------
An artificial key is presented for a few algal genera that the
writers have commonly encountered in recreational waters. Because of
a preponderance of genera associated with the fresh-water environment,
other publications useful in supplying descriptive comments and pictures
r
L
fI: . j
$tIJ
t ! L L
I0
/1
I d
5
7. Phormid unz.
10. Fragilaria,
13. Zygnema,
Plate
8.
11.
14.
7. Nuisance
C)’clotella,
Scenedesmus,
Oedogonium,
Algae
9. Stephanodiscus,
12. Spiro g ra,
15. Ulothrix
8
9
7
II
12
13
14
51
-------
for identification are listed. These include Forest (1954), Palmer
(1959), Prescott (1951),Prescott (1954), Smith (1950),Taft (1961),
and Tiffany and Britton (1952).
An Ar4ficial Key to Some Aquatic
Xuisance A lgae*
To use the key, the specimen must be observed under a microscope
to determine its pertinent characteristics. These characteristics are com-
pared against the first couplet in the key. After the one that best fits the
specimen is chosen, one must proceed to the designated couplet following
and repeat the operation until a genus is reached.
I. Plant consisting of a thread, strand, ribbon, or membrane com-
posed of cells; frequently visible to the unaided eye 2
1. Plants of microscopic cells that are isolated or in irregular,
spherical, or microscopic clusters; cells not grouped into threads . 25
2. Heterocysts present. (Heterocysts are specialized cells, larger,
clearer, and thicker walled than the regular cells in a filament;
they separate from other algal cells permitting portions of chains
to grow into completely new individuals) 3
2. Heterocysts absent 8
3. Threads gradually narrowed to a point at one end, appearing as
radii, in a gelatinous bead or mass 4
3. Threads same width throughout 5
4. Spore (an asexual reproductive structure) present, adjacent to
the terminal heterocyst G(oeotrichia
4. No spore present Rivularia
5. Branching absent, heterocysts contained within the filament,
threads encased in a gelatinous bead or mass Nostoc
5. Threads not encased in a definite gelatinous mass 6
6. Heterocysts and vegetative cells shorter than the thread
width Nodularia
6. Heterocysts and vegetative cells not shorter than the thread
width 7
7. Heteroc’vsts rounded Anabaena
Modified from Palmer, C. M. (1959)
52
-------
7. Heterocysts cylindric - Aphanizomenon
8. Branching absent 9
8. Branching (including “false” branching) present 20
9. Cell pigments distributed throughout the protoplasm 10
9. Cell pigments limited to plastids (bodies within plant cell that
contain photosynthetic pigments) 12
10. Threads long, not forming a spiral, one thread per sheath;
sheath or gelatinous matrix present 11
10. No sheath or gelatinous matrix apparent Oscillatoria
11. Sheath distinct; no gelatinous matrix between threads- - - - Lyngbya
11. Sheath indistinct or absent; threads interwoven with gelatinous
matrix between Phormidium
12. Cells forming a thread or ribbon, cells separating readily into
discs or short cylinders, their circular face showing radial mark-
ings Cyclotella, Stephanodiscus
12. Cells either not separating readily, or if so, no circular end wall
with radial markings 13
13. Cells in a ribbon, attached side by side or by their corners 14
13. Cells in a thread, attached end to end 15
14. Numerous regularly spaced markings in the cell wall____ Fragilaria
14. Numerous markings in the cell wall absent Scenedesrnus
15. Plastid in the form of a spiral band Spirogyra
15. Plastid not a spiral band 16
16. Plastids two per cell, cells with a smooth outer wall Zygnema
16. Plastids either one or more than two per cell 17
17. Plastids close to the cell wall, occasional cells with one to
several transverse wall lines near one end Oedogonium
17. Occasional terminal transverse wall lines not present 18
18. Cells with one plastid that has a smooth surface, cells with
flat ends U lothrix
18. Cells with several plastids or with one modular plastid 19
19. Iodine test for starch positive, one plastid per cell, threads
when broken separating irregularly or between cells_ Ritizoclonium
19. Iodine test for starch negative, several plastids per cell, side
walls of cells straight, not bulging. A pattern of fine lines or dots
present in the wall but often indistinct Melosira
20. Branches reconnected, forming a distinct net Hydrodictyon
730—349 O—64—----S 53
-------
20. Branches not forming a distinct net - 21
21. Each cell in a conical sheath open at the broad end Dinobryon
21. No conical sheath around each cell 22
*
16
,L) 1
Plate 8. Nuisance Algae
19. Rhizoclonium,
20. Stigeocloniurn,
21. Cladophora,
22. Pediastrurn
17
19
401
20
2
22
16.
17.
18.
Melosira,
H3drodict on,
Dinobr-, on,
54
-------
22. Branching commonly single or in pairs. cells green. threads
not surrounded by a gelatinous mass, light and dense dark cells
intermingled in the thread Pithophora
22. Most of cells essentially alike in density 23
23. Branches few in number, and short, colorless Rhizoclonium
Plate 9. Nuisance
23. Ank strodesmus, 26.
24. S nura, 27.
25. Coelosphaerium, 28.
Algae
A’licrocystis,
Ceratium,
Staurast rum
23 24
25
26
27
28
55
-------
23. Branches numerous and green - 24
24. Terminal attenuation (a continuous decrease in width of a
filament, often to a point or thin hair gradual, involving two or
more cells Stigeoclonium
24. Terminal attenuation absent or abrupt, involving only one
cell Clado phora
25. Cells in colonies generally of a definite form or arrangement_ - 26
25. Cells isolated, in pairs or in loose, irregular aggregates_ _ 31
26. Cells without transverse rows of markings, cells arranged as
a layer one-cell thick 27
26. Cells without transverse rows of markings, cell cluster more
than one-cell thick and not a flat plate 28
27. Cells elongate, united side by side in one or two rows Scenedennus
27. Cells about as long as wide, not immersed in colorless matrix,
cells angular with spines, projections, or incisions Pediastrurn
28. Cells sharp-pointed at both ends; often curved like a bow,
loosely arranged or twisted together A nkistrodesrnus
28. Cells not sharp-pointed at both ends; not bent as a bow . 29
29. Flagella present, cells touching one another in a dense colony,
cells arranged radially, facing outward, plastids brown Synura
29. Flagella absent 30
30. Cells not elongate, often spherical, plastids absent, pigment
throughout, cells equidistant from center of colony .__ Coe losphaerium
30. Cells irregularly distributed in the colony, not equidistant
from the center, cells rounded Microcystis
31. Cells with an abrupt median transverse groove or incision;
cells brown, flagella present armored flagellates (e.g. Ceratium)
31. Cells with an abrupt median transverse groove or incision;
cells green, no flagella Desmid (e.g. Staurastrum)
TOXIC ALGAE
More and more interest is being aroused in the toxic effects of
fresh-water algae on animals. This interest stems partly from a recent
upswing in the number of reported cases of animal poisonings related
to algal blooms, and from a growing appreciation of the strictly scientific
56
-------
and biological problems involving the physiology of algae, especially those
that produce toxic substances (possibly toxins), antibiotics, and growth-
stimulating excretions (Ingram and Prescott, 1954). Ingram and Pres-
cott summarize their review as follows: “Outbreaks of human gastro-
enteritis have not been positively traced to algae. Algae that have been
responsible for mammalian, avarian, and fish deaths through some toxic
action are all to be found in the blue-green algal group, the Cyanophyta.
The Cyanophyta species that have been associated with animal deaths
belong in the genera: Microcystis , Aphanizotnenon, Anabuena, Nodu-
la na, Coelosphaeriuin, and Gloeotrichia, Often when deaths of animals
occur, a wind has been reported blowing, thus tending to concentrate
algae in lee-shore areas. Cattle that drink only small quantities of water
containing Microcystis may not die but do show a series of illness symp-
toms, one of which is a drop in milk yield. Symptomatic treatment has
been recommended by Steyn (1945) for cattle poisoned by algae. Vari-
ous writers have made reference to several toxic substances associated
with blue-green algae. Substances that are toxic enough to cause illness
or death in animals are not present in all blue-green algae. Water in
which certain blue-green algae have bloomed may produce death in
mammals and fish when the algal cells themselves are excluded. The
toxic material from certain algae may sun’ive the laboratory equivalent
of water treatment using alum coagulation, filtration and chlorination.
It may sunive activated carbon treatment in amounts corresponding
to that used in water treatment plants, and after massive treatment with
Norite A.”
Wheeler et al. (1942) state that no human outbreaks have ever
been traced to algal contamination of drinking water, and that it is prob-
able that the tastes and odors almost invariably associated with severe
algal pollution would cauce human beings to seek other sources for drink-
ing water before a harmful amount of the polluted water would be con-
sumed. These authors state: “It should be noted that the presence of
algae in drinking water, in addition to causing tastes and odors, may
have some importance from the standpoint of the allergist as algae may,
on occasion, liberate considerable amounts of protein in water. If aller-
gic reactions to algae proteins do occur, they would be as uncommon
as they would be obscure and hardly likely to occur as a public health
problem.”
Schwimmer and Schwimmer (1955) chronologically summate
38 incidents of animal intoxications by phvtoplankton from 1878 to
1951. In most cases the attacks occurred after the animals had drunk
from lakes or ponds containing heavy algal growth, usually during hot
weather , The reported symptoms of algae intoxications vary but the
most striking clinically are the involvements of neuromuscular and respi-
57
-------
ratorv systems. As aptly described by Francis (1878), “the animals
developed stupor and unconsciousness, falling and remaining quiet, as
if asleep unless touched, when convulsions came on, with the head and
neck drawn back by rigid spasm which subsided before death.”
During the past 25 years, ph toplankton has also been incrim-
inated in human reactions resulting in dysenterial disorders, systemic
allergic reactions, and local allergic eruptions (tables 5A, SB and SC).
The epidemic intestinal disorders of the early 1930’s involved many
thousands of people; however, it was pointed out that the outbreaks
were of no known specific etiology, but, significantly enough, were always
concomitant with the presence of extensive algal blooms in the local water
supply.
Heise (1949) described two cases in one of which itching, con-
junctivitis, blocked nares, and bronchial asthma occurred following
swimming in Wisconsin lakes, and in the other swollen eyelids, nasal
stuffiness, and a severe generalized urticarial eruption. Cohen and Reif
(1953) reported phvcocvanin. the blue pigment in Anabaena as he
cause of an er thematous papulo-vesicular contact dermatitis in a 6-year-
old child who had bathed in a Pennsylvania lake.
Dr. Robertson* reported from Regina. Saskatchewan, on a physi-
cian who went for an evening swim and failed to recognize that an algal
scum had blown onto his shore. He slipped on the diving board, fell in,
swallowed several mouthluls of lake water, and within a few hours
suffered severe gastrointestinal distress that caused him to be hospitalized
for 36 hours. Algae were recognized in his stool specimen and no
bacterial or enteric viruses were discovered despite a thorough search.
HIGHER AQUATIC PLANTS
Higher aquatic plants are most abundant in old lakes or those
fertile water bodies in which there has been sedimentation. Higher plants
provide food, shelter and attachment surfaces for other organisms, add
dissolved oxygen to the water under favorable light conditions, remove
and temporarily store nutrients, and serve as spawning areas for some
fish. Plants also contribute to the filling in of a lake through both the
precipitation of calcium carbonate and the accumulation of their remains
upon death and decay. Plant populations ma become sufficiently dense
to limit or restrict water use by physical obstruction, to remove large
*Penonaj communication, dated Feb. 5, 1960, to K. M. Mackenthun from Dr.
H. E. Robertson. Director, Division of Laboratories, Department of Public Health,
Province of Saskatchewan.
58
-------
Table 5A. Human Gastro-Intestinal Disorders Associated With Algae*
Year Locale and Author
1842 London, England (Farre, 1844
K .ichennieister, 1857).
1930 Puerto Rico (Ashford, Ciferri and
Dalmau, 1930).
1930 Puerto Rico (Ashford, Cilerri and
Dalmau, 1930).
1930 Suburbs of Washington, D.C.,
U.S.A. (Tarbett and Frank
cited in Tisdale, 1931).
1930 Charleston, W. Va., U.S.A.
(Tisdale, 1931 Veldee, 1931;
Tarbett cited in Tisdcile, 1931).
1931 Ironton and Portsmouth, Ohio,
U.S.A. (Waring cited in us-
dole, 1931; Veldee, 1931)
1930— Louisville, Ky., U.S.A. (Tisdale,
1931 1931; Veldee, 1931).
1930— Weston, W. Va., U.S.A. (us-
1931 dale, 1931).
1930— Sisterville, Ohio, U.S.A. (Tisdale,
1931 1931).
1925,1929, Yellowstone National Park,
1930 Wyo., U.S.A. (Spencer, 1930).
See footnotes at end of table.
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,
cramp, pains oF 6—48 hours
duration. Frontal headaches.
Victims
Algae involved
35-year-old married Female..
Woman
• . . .do
Many families
8,000 to 10,000 people
Many people
do
do
do
500 people
Oscillatorici intestini Küchen-
moister
Prof of heca portoricensis
Prototheca port oricensis var.
trispora.
unidentified algae
Blue-green algae
unidentified algae
do
do
do
Manifestations of toxicity
Dyspepsia, griping, bowel ob-
struction.
“Atypical sprue.”
“Suspicious of sprue.”
Sudden onset of nausea, vomit-
ing, epigastric pain, diarrhea
with cramps oF 1—4 days dura-
tion.
Do.
“Intestinal influenza.”
‘‘Intestinal disorders.”
Do.
Do.
L i i
-------
Table 5A. Human Gastro-Intestinal Disorders Associated With Algae*_Continued
Year
Locale and Author
Victims
Algae involved
Manifestations of toxicity
Huntington, W. Va.; Ashland,
Ky.; Cincrnnati, Ohio, U.S.A.
(Veldee, 1931).
New Jersey, U.S.A. (Nelson in
Monie, 1940).
Gull Lake Saskatchewan Cana-
da (Dillenl,erg, 1 959; Dillenberg
and Debnel, 1960; Senior, 1960).
Govan, Long Lake, Saskatche-
wan, Canada (Dillenberg, 1959;
Senior, 1960).
Fort Qu’Appelle, Echo Lake,
Saskatchewan, Canada (Dillen-
berg, 1959; Dillenberg and
Dehnel, 1960; Senior 1960).
Re9ina Saskatchewan, Canada
(Dillen erg, 1962).
Saskatchewan, Canada (Dillen-
berg, 1 962).
1. Microcystis
2. Anaboenci circinalis
1. Microcystis
2. Anaboena
Abdominal pain, nausea, vom-
iting and diarrhea.
“Gastrointestinal disorders.’’
Headache, nausea, and gastro-
intestinal upset.
Diarrhea and vomiting.
Crampy stomach pains, nausea,
vomiting, painful diarrhea, Fever,
headache, weakness, pains in
muscles and joints.
Abdominal pain, nausea, vom-
iting, diarrhea, wooziness, head-
ache, thirst.
Headaches, general malaise,
loose stools.
1931
1940
1959
1959
1959
1960
1961
‘AIgae”
Anabaena
Microcystis
Anabaeno
Thousands of people
Humans
Oregon tourist
Ten children at a camp
Dr. M., a physician, practicing
part-time.
Physician’s 4-year-old son
Four students
Aphanizomenon..
See footnotes at end of table.
-------
Table 5B. Human Respiratory Disorders Associated With Aigae*
do
do
do
do
Gymnodinium brevis
do
Manifestations of toxicity
Sneezing, coug ing, chest tight-
ness, dyspnea, sore throat,
stuffed nose.
irritation.
itching of eyes, complete block-
age of nose.
Itching of eyes complete block-
age of nose, plus mild asthma.
Nasal discharge and blockage
asthma.
Swollen eyelids, blocked nares,
generalized urticaria.
Do.
Burning of eyes, stinging of nos-
trils, hard cough.
Burning in throat, nostrils and
eyes; sneezing and coughing.
Irritation of respiratory tract.
Hard cough, burning in respira-
tory tract.
Do.
Throat irritation.
Irritation of eyes, nose and
throat.
Year
Locale and Author
Victims
Algae involved
Dinoflagel lates
“Heavy inshore plankton
growth.”
Oscil latoriaceae
1916
1934—1935
1934
1935
1936—1946
1945
1946
1946—1947
1946—1947
1946—1947
1947
1947
1947
1947
West Coast of Florida, U.S.A.
(Taylor, 1917).
Texas Coast, U.S.A. (Lund,
1935).
Muskego Lake Waukesha
County, Wis., LJ’.S,A. (Heise,
1949).
do
North Lake, Waukesha County,
Wis., U.S.A. (Heise, 1949).
Lake Keesus Wciukesha County,
Wisconsin, U.S.A. (Heise, 1949).
do
Captiva Island, Fla., U.S.A.
(Gunter, Williams, Davis and
Smith, 1948).
Captiva Island, and other islands
off the west coast of Florida,
(Galtsoff, 1948).
West Coast of Florida, U.S.A.
(Hutner and McLaughlin, 1958).
Venice, Fla., U.S.A. (Thompson
cited in Woodcock, 1 948).
Venice, Fla., U.S.A. (Woodcock,
1948).
Venice Beach, Fla., U.S.A.
(Woodcock, 1948).
Lower west coast of Florida,
U.S.A. (Ingle, 1954).
Many people
Humans
42-year-old man
Same man, 1 year later
Same patient
39-year-old woman
Same patient
Humans
.do
do
do
Author and two companions...
do
Gymnodinium sp
do
do do.
People near shoreline
Gymnodinium brevis
See footnotes at end of table.
-------
Table 5C. Human Skin Disorders Associated With Algae*
1950
1951
1952
1953
1958
1959
1959
1959
1961
Lower east coast of Florida,
U.S.A. (Sams, 1949).
Lake Carey, Pa., U.S.A. (Cohen
and Reil, 1953).
Lake Carey Pa., and Canada
(Cohen and heir, 1953).
do
Pennsylvania, U.S.A. (Cohen
and ReiF, 1953).
Oahu, Hawaii, U.S.A. (Grauer,
1959; Banner, 1959; Graver and
Arnold, 1962).
Oahu, Hawaii, U.S.A. (Graver
and Arnold, 1962).
do
do
Georgia, U.S.A. (Hardin, 1961).
1 25 cases received treatment;
hundreds of mild unreported
cases.
Nine-year-old niece
Two other adults
People who swam in seawater
off Florida coast.
Manifestations of toxicity
Erythematous wheals (in areas
covered by bathing suit) itching,
fever.
Erythematous papulo-vesicular
dermatitis.
Do.
Itching, swelling and redness of
conjunct i va e.
Itching and burning of skin,
erythema, blisters 1 desquama-
tion in areas covered by bathing
suit.
*Tabular data and the special references at the end of this chapter
were graciously supplied by Dr. Morton Schwimmer on jan. 13,1964.
Table 5 is a modification of data in:
(1) Schwimmer, M. and D. Schwimmer, 1955. The Role of Algae
and Plankton in Medicine. Grune and Stratton, N.Y., 85 pp.
(2) Schwimmer, D. and M. Schwimmer, Algae and Medicine.
Presented Aug. 2, 1962, NATO Advanced Institute, “Algae and Man”
at Potamological Institute, University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.
(3) Schwimmer, D. and M. Schwimmer. Algae and Disease. To
be published.
0 )
Year
Locale and Author
1937—1949
Victims
Algae Involved
67 ocean bathers “Plankton”.
4-year-old girl Anabaena
Same patient 1 year later do
Same patient 2 years later do
Swimmers Blue-green algae
Lyngbya inajuscula Gomont...
Do.
31-year-old medical officer do....
do....
do
“Ocean organism”
Do.
Do.
Do..
Do.
-------
quantities of water through transpiration, and to contribute to the stunt-
ing of fish populations. Upon death and decay, stored nutrients are
released for reuse.
Factors that limit growth include lack of sufficient light, insuffi-
cient nutrients, physical instability because of water level fluctuation and
current and wave action, an unsuitable bottom stratum, and competition
by other plants and animals.
Dispersal of water plants is accomplished largely by water, migra-
tory birds, and, to a lesser extent, domestic and other animals. Seeds
may remain viable after passing through the digestive tract of animals,
and seeds and other means of propagation may be carried externally.
Water plants usually produce an abundance of seeds, but propagation
through vegetative means is a most effective method of distribution. A
small broken portion of a healthy plant may soon reestablish itself as
another healthy individual, when, in settling out of water, it roots again
on a suitable substrate. Most aquatic plants are perennials and are well
adapted to withstand drought and heavy cropping by animals.
When green plants are actively growing in sufficient light, they
produce more oxygen through photosynthesis than they use in respiration.
This is important to aquatic organisms since the excess oxygen production
comes at a time when high water temperatures preclude maximum oxy-
gen retention within the water and, concurrently, maximum organism
production utilizes a maximum amount through respiration. On the
other hand, extensive plant mortality in a pond or small lake may cause
an oxygen depletion through plant decomposition.
Ducks commonly feed on the seeds, tubers, rootstocks, and foliage
of water plants. Martin and Uhler (1939) in a summary based on a
study of the stomach contents of 7,998 ducks of 18 species collected in
247 localities scattered in all but six of the States and in one Canadian
province reported that nearly half the food consumed was derived from
the higher freshwater plants (table 6).
Table 6. Plants That Constitute Over 1 Percent of the Total Game Duck
Food. (From Martin and Uhler, 1939)
Plant
Percent
Plant
Percent
Pondweed Potamo get-on
Bulrush Scirpus
Smart-weed Polygonum
Wigeongrass Ruppia
Muskgrass Chara
Wild millet Echinochola
Wild celery Va ltisneria
11 .04
6.42
4.71
4.27
2.47
2.38
2.33
Wild rice Zizania
Chufa Cyperus
Watershield Brasenia
Spikerush Eleocharis
Duckweed Lemnaceae
Waterlily Nymphaea
Coontail Ceratophyl(um
1 .95
1 .41
1.36
1.25
1.23
1 .01
1.04
Naiad Najas
1 .98
63
-------
Specific identification of acquatic plants is possible sometimes oniy
through the examination of minute plant parts by experienced
individuals.
A key is presented that will aid in the identification of the common
plant groups. It is divided as follows:
A. Plants floating on water surface.
B. Plants submerged beneath water surface.
C. Plants erect and emergent; rooted to the substratum and extending
upward out of the water.
Other manuals supplying descriptive comments and pictures as
an aid to more specific identification include: Evies and Robertson
(1944), Fassett (1960), Martin et al. (1957), Morgan (1930), and
Muenscher (1944).
An Artificial Key to Some Common Aquatic Plants
To use the key, one must select the proper group and read the
description in the first couplet. The description that best fits the unknown
specimen will indicate either the plant group or genus to which the
specimen belongs or an additional couplet, in which case the process is
repeated until the description for a particular plant or genus best fits the
unknown specimen.
A. Plants floating on water surface.
1. A lobed or regularly forked plant body, usually small in size,
roots usually suspended free in the water, with no connection to
lake bottom; capable of drifting 2
The duckweed group includes the smallest of the aquatic
flowering plants. They have no true leaves nor stems, but
the floating green plant body, usually possesshig tiny roots
that penetrate the water, looks like a leaf and is often so-
called. Duckweed floats on the surface of pools, marshes,
and ponds, and may grow abundantly in enriched streams
from where it may enter standing water areas and become
a nuisance as it is held by plant and other obstructions.
It may become sufficiently dense to prohibit sunlight from
penetrating the water, thus killing algae and other aquatic
plants. It causes physical obstruction to water use, creates
an unsightly condition, and upon decomposition produces
odors. It is difficult to kill because of the waxy sheen to
the plant body and the characteristic “layering” effect of one
upon another. Wind or currents aid greatly in dispersing
64
-------
I’
• \
A
p
B
4 ‘ k
c T
‘a
-f
dN
Plate 10. Duckweeds (Lemnaceae) A. Big duckweed [ Spirodela pol-
yrbiza (Linnaeusfl; B. star duckweed (Lemna trisulca Linnaeus); C.
duckweed (Lemna); D. watermeal (W 7 olfJIa); E. Wolfjiella; F. big
duckweed on a Maryland pond.
r-
. .,I
1 - -
65
-------
production providing the plant mass is not held in place
by obstructions.
Occasionally the layman may confuse duckweed with
algae. Close observation or the examination of any object
removed from the water surface will clearly show the cling-
ing bright green plant bodies to be much larger than non-
filamentous microscopic algae.
1. Floating-leafed plants with leaves attached to the bottom by
a bare unbranched stem of varying length 6
2. Plants consisting of forked or cross-shaped. long-stalked seg-
ments. floating below the surface: often many entangle to form
clumps Star Duckweed, Lemna trisuica Linnaeus
2. Plants rounded, not stalked 3
3. Plants with roots 4
3. Plants without roots 5
4. Plants red on the lower surface, each joint with two or more
roots Big Duckweed, Spirodela poivrhi:a (Linnaeus)
4. Plants green on the lower surface, each joint with one
root Duckweed, Lemna
5. Plants globular, pea green. the size of a pinhead__Watermeal. J1 olffia
• .
.
c — ..‘ :-
..
- .-
- - - r - •
Plate 11. Watershield (Brasenia scbreberi Gmelin) X 3 /s.
66
-------
5. Plants thin, sickle-shaped or elongated - Duckweed, Woiffiella
6. Stem attached to middle of leaf 7
6. Stem attached at the summit of a deep notch in the leaf 8
7. Leaves oval, not more than 3 inches wide, with supple stem
attached to the middle of the leaf
Watershield, Brasenia schreberi Gmelin
7. Circular leaf with a long, fairly rigid stem attached to the mid-
dle of the leaf, leaves 6 inches or more wide sometimes sup-
ported by the stem above the water level____ American Lotus, Nelumbo
8. Circular or heart-shaped leaf with the veins radiating from the
mid-rib nearly to the margin without forking: floating yellow
flowers Yellow Pond Lily, Nuphar
8. Circular leaf with much-forked veins radiating to the margin,
white, or pink floating flowers White Water Lily, Nvmphaea
B. P/ants submerged beneath water surface.
I. Plant body made up of stems bearing whorled, smooth, brittle
branches, easily snapped ith a slight pressure; plants with a
musky odor, no roots, often with a limv encrustation
Green Algae, Muskgrass, Chara
1. Plant body not brittle
Plate 12. American lotus (Nelumbo).
-------
Plate 13. Muskgrass (Chara) X
68
-------
2. Submerged leaves bearing small bladders, leaves irregularly
forked Bladderwort, Utricularia
2. Submerged leaves not bladder bearing 3
3. Submerged leaves compound, made up of narrow segments
or leaflets 4
3. Submerged leaves simple, made up of a single narrow blade__ 7
730-349 O—64-----—-6 69
Plate 14. Bladderwort (Utricularia)
-------
Plate 15. Water Milfoil X ‘A: A. M)riopbyllum spkatum Linnaeus;
B. Al. zerticillatum Linnaeus; C. 7% !. beterophyllum Michaux.
t
1/
A
(p
70
-------
S 1
I
.tY.
\ //.
k
1,
Plate 16. Water Buttercup (Ranunculus) X 2 ,4.
a
\
71
-------
4 ’
4%,
Plate F ’. Coontail (Ceratophyllum) X .
72
-------
Plate 18. Water Star Grass (Heteranthera).
(
,1
73
-------
Plate 19. Floating-leafed Pondweed (Potamogeton ndtans Linnaeus
74
-------
Plate 20. Large-leafed Pondweed (Potamogeton amplifolius Tucker-
man) X ½.
75
-------
Plate 21. Curly-leafed Pondweed (Potamogetcen crispus Linnaeus).
I
- 4
76
-------
4. Submerged leaves with onc central axis, leaves feather-like,
branches in whorls about the stem, stems usually very lax
Water Milfoil, Myriophyllum
4. Submerged leaves irregularly forking 5
5. Submerged leaves singly and alternately or irregularly borne;
leaves many branched, irregularly forked and appearing as tufts
of numerous thread-like projections attached to the center
stem Water Buttercup, Ranunculus
5. Submerged leaves borne opposite each other on stem or whorled 6
6. Leaves stalked, fan-like, extending from opposite sides of the
stem; leaflets not toothed Fanwort, Cabotnba
6. Stems with whorls of stiff, forked leaves; leaflets with toothed
or serrated margins (small barbs) on one side; plant without true
roots Coontail, Ceratophyllum
7. Submerged leaves long and ribbon-like, at least 1/10 inch wide 8
7. Submerged leaves not ribbon-like; often thread-like but if wider
than 1/10 inch, less than 1 inch long 18
8. Leaves scattered along the stem 9
8. Leaves all borne from one point 17
9. Leaves with mid-ribs evident when held against bright light,
many species with great diversity in leaf forms
Pondweed, Pot amogeton 10
9. Leaves without mid-ribs evident when held against bright
light WaterStarGrass,Heteranthera
10. Plants with both floating and submerged leaves, the floating
leaves with expanded blades and differing from those submerged 11
10. Plants with all leaves alike and submerged 14
11. Floating leaves, heart-shaped at the base, 1 to 4 inches long,
waxy in appearance Floating-leafed Pondweed,
Potarnogeton natans Linnaeus
11.Floating leaves rounded at the base 12
12. Floating leaves with 30 to 50 nerves; submerged leaves about
three times as long as broad Large-leafed Pondweed,
Potamogeton amplif olius Tuckerman
13. Floating leaves with less than 30 nerves 13
13. Upper submerged leaves with long stalks Pondweed,
Potamogeton nodosus Poiret
13. Submerged leaves not as above but with an abrupt awlshaped
tip Pondweed, Potamogeton angustifolius Berchtold
77
-------
14. Margins of the thin leaves crimpled and toothed, the marginal
serrations visible to the naked eye Curly-leafed Pondweed,
Potamogeton cris pus Linnaeus
14. Margins of leaves not visibly toothed 15
15. Leaves minutely toothed on the margins, visible when magni-
fled; leaves extending stiffly in opposite directions so that whole
plant appears flat; only midvein prominent Robbins Pondweed,
Potamogeton robbinsii Oakes
15. Not as above 16
16. Stems much flattened and winged, about as wide as the
leaves; leaves 1/12 to 1/5 inch wide Flat-stemmed Pondweed,
Potamogeton zosteriformis Fernald
16. Leaves threadlike, long, rounded, and slender, rarely exceed-
ing I / 10 inch wide, oriented into a lax, diffuse, branched spray.
The “bunched” appearance of the threadlike rounded leaves as
they float in the water readily distinguishes sago pondweed from
others of the group Sago Pondweed,
Pota mogeton pectinatus Linnaeus
17. Leaves very long and ribbonlike; when examined with hand
lens, showing a central dense zone and a peripheral less dense
zone; flowers borne on a long stem that forms a spiral after
fertilization Wild Celery, Vallisneria
17. Leaf, when examined with hand lens, not showing zones as
above Water Plantains, Alismataceae
18. Leaves opposite, all leaves elongated and narrow, many times
longer than broad, and enlarged or dilated at base. Bunches of
smaller leaves near the leaf base Bushy Pondweed, Najas
18. Leaves whorled, usually 3 in each whorl, (sometimes 4)
Waterweed, Anacharis (Elodea)
C. Plants erect and emergent; rooted to the substratum and
extending upward out of the water.
1. Leaves more than 10 times as long as broad 2
I. Leaves less than 10 times as long as broad 9
2. Base of stem triangular in cross-section, the three angles in
some cases so rounded as to make the stem appear almost round__ 3
2. Base of stem not triangular 5
3. Three cornered seeds, usually straw colored, enclosed within a
loose elongated sac; a low-growing grass-like plant Sedge, Carex
3. Seeds not enclosed in a loose elongated sac 4
78
-------
Plate 22. Robbins Pondweed (Potarnogeton robbinsii Oakes).
79
-------
Plate 23. Flat-stemmed Pondweed (Potamogeton zosteriforinis
Fernald) X ½.
80
-------
v&
fd
I I
‘I
ii; !
I.
‘Ii ’
/
/
jt ,
“\l
7
—
I
I ’
Plate 24.—Sago Pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus Linnaeus).
81
-------
Plate 25. Wild Celery çaliisneria) x ¼: A. Specimen with fruit and
tubers; C. Northern form; D. Southern form.
4. A single flower or seed-bearing structure on the tip of the
stem Spike Rush, Eleocharis
4. Stem with one or more leaves extending beyond the spike or
seed-bearing structure Bulrush, Scirpus
(The hardstem bulrush has long, hard, slender. dark olive-green
stems, ‘/8 to /8 inch at the base, extending 3 to 5 feet above the
water surface: the softstem bulrush has soft stems of light green
color. o to 1 inch thick at the base.)
5. Leaf with a coilarlike appendage, membranous or composed of
hairs at the junction of the leaf blade and that part of the leaf that
is wrapped around the stem 6
5. Leaf without collarlike appendage mentioned above 8
6. Seed or flower-bearing structure composed of scales with
fringed margins and overlapping in a single row____ Cut Grass, Leersia
6. Flower-bearing structure not as above 7
T. Flowering• heads composed of small seeds with long silky hairs.
appearing as a silk mass. The rootstocks are stout, making it a
difficult plant to pull up. Plants are 6 to 12 feet tall Reed Grass,
Ph ragmites
7. Flowering part of plant much branched, but not as closely
packed as in Phragmites. Seeds much larger. about 3/4 of an inch
long. Plants with short roots and easily pulled up..._ Wild Rice, Zi:ania
I
/
t
82
-------
y
/
p .,
\
Plate 26. Bushy Pondweed (Najas)
‘V
/
‘. ‘ /,
I
2
r
V I
1
7/
S
/
1
‘p. — -
p
1
y ,/
/
/
//
X 5 /s.
83
-------
-J
‘— ‘V
V
YS
I
Plate 27. Waterweed X 3/5: A. (Anacharis cana4ensis Michaux),
B. (A. occidentalis Pursh).
8. Flowers borne in closely packed cylindrical spikes, seeds very
small Cattail, Tvpha
The common cattail has flat leaves about 1 inch wide: the nar-
row-leaved cattail has leaves somewhat rounded on the back that
are V8 to /8 inch wide.)
8. Flowers in spherical heads, seeds larger. up to size of corn
kernel; leaves shallowly and broadly triangular in cross-
section Burreed, Sparganium
9. Leaves arising at intervals along the stem 10
9. Leaves arising at base of the plant 11
10. Plants with jointed stems, swollen at the joints, or with creep-
ing rootstocks; stems with alternate, simple leaves — Smartweed,
Polygonum
10. Sterns prostrate or creeping, branched, and often jointed and
rooted at the joints; leaves opposite; spreading plant, often form-
ing floating mats over extensive water areas crowding out other
plants: broken-off branch fragments root readily, and stems
may elongate as much as 200 inches in one season Alligatorweed,
Alternanthera
11. Fleshy or tuber-bearing rootstocks and rosettes of sheathing
basal leaves; leaves variable, some kinds arrowhead shaped Duck
Potato, Sagittaria
)
4-
4
B
84
-------
I
/
/
Plate 28. Spike Rush (Eleocharis )( ½..
I
730—349 O—64--———7
85
-------
4
4
4f
I:
I
1
(I
Plate 29. Bulrush (Scirpus) X ½.
V
‘a
p
ji
\
86
-------
Plate 30. Wild Rice (Zizania): A. Stand of broad-leaved form;
a. broad-leaved; b. narrow-leaved form.
11. Not as above, floating plants 12
1 2• Plants floating with fibrous, branched roots and rosettes of
stalked leaves, the leaf stalks often inflated and bladder-
like \Vaterhyacinth, Eichhornia
12. Plants with floating rosettes of stalked leaves, commonly
several rosettes produced on branches of the same plant at the end
of flexible, cardlike, sparsely-branched submerged sterns; plant
thrives at depths of 2 to 5 feet and favors muddy bottoms with
high organic content: leaf stalks inflated, but not as conspicuously
as in waterhyacinth Waterchestnut, Trapa
7/
.1
ii
19
‘I
, ‘It
(I
6
87
-------
I
Plate 31. Burreed (Sparganium) X i/s.
‘ I ‘,
88
-------
r
I .
- - - - -
Plate 32. Smartweed (Pol3’gonum) x 2/5.
89
-------
Plate 33. Aliigatorweed (Alternanthera) X ‘2.
I
90
-------
Plate 34. Waterhyacinth (Eichhornia).
91
-------
Plate 35. Waterchestnut (Trapa) X 14•
4
z
09
-------
REFERENCES
Cohen, S. G. and C. B. Reif, 1953. Cutaneous Sensitization to Blue-green
Algae. Journ. Allergy, 24: 452.
Eyles, C. E. and J. L. Robertson, 1944. A Guide and Key to the Aquatic
Plants of the Southeastern United States. U.S. Public Health Service
Bulletin No. 286, 151 pp.
Fassett, N. C., 1960. A Manual of Aquatic Plants. University of Wiscon-
sin Press, Madison, 405 pp.
Forest, H. S., 1954. Handbook of Algae. University of Tennessee, Knox-
ville, 467 pp.
Francis, G., 1878. Poisonous Australian Lakes. Nature, 18: 11—12.
Fuller, H. J. and 0. Tippo, 1954. College Botany. Henry Holt & Co.,
New York, 993 pp.
Heise, H. A., 1949. Symptoms of Hay Fever Caused by Algae. Journ.
Allergy, 20(5): 383 —385.
Ingram, W. M. and G. W. Prescott, 1954. Toxic Fresh-water Algae. The
American Midland Naturalist, 52(1): 75—87.
Lackey, J. B., 1949. Plankton as Related to Nuisance Conditions in Surface
Water. In Limnological Aspects of Water Supply and Waste Disposal.
Am. Association for the Advancement of Sci., pp. 56—63.
Martin, A. C., R. C. Erickson and J. H. Steenis, 1957. Improving Duck
Marshes by Weed Control. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department
of the Interior, Circular No. 19 (Revised), 60 pp.
Martin, A. C. and F. M. Uhler, 1939 , Food of Came Ducks in the United
States and Canada. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin
No. 634, 156 pp.
Morgan, A. H., 1930. Field Book of Ponds and Streams. C. P. Putnam’s
Sons, New York, 448 pp.
Muenscher, ‘N. C., 1944. Aquatic Plants of the United States. Comstock
Publishing Co., Inc., New York, 374 pp.
Palmer, C. M., 1959. Algae in Water Supplies. U.S. Public Health
Service Publication No. 657, 88 pp.
Palmer, C. M. and W. M. Ingram, 1955. Suggested Classification of Algae
and Protozoa in Sanitary Science. Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 27(10):
1183—1 188.
Prescott, G. W., 1951. Algae of the Western Great Lakes Area. Cran-
brook Inst. Sci., Bloomfield Hills, Mich., 946 pp.
Prescott, C. W., 1954. How to Know the Fresh Water Algae. Wm. C.
Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa, 211 pp.
93
-------
Prescott. G. W., 1956. A Guide to the Literature on Ecology and Life
Histories of the Algae. Botanical Review, 22(3): 167 —240.
Prescott, G. \V.. 1960. Biological Disturbances Resulting from Algal Popu-
lations in Standing Water. In The Ecology of Algae. Pymatuning Labora-
ton’ of Field Biology, Special Publication No. 2, University of Pittsburgh,
Pittsburgh, Pa., pp. 22—37.
Schwimmer. M. and D. Schwirnmer. 1955. The Role of Algae and Plank-
ton in Medicine. Grune and Stratton, Inc., New York City, 85 pp.
Smith. G. M., 1950. The Fresh-Water Algae of the United States. Mc-
Graw Hill Book Co., New York. 719 pp.
Steyn. D. G.. 1945. Poisoning of Animals and Human Beings by Algae.
So. African journ. Sci., 41: 243—244.
Taft, C. E.. 1961. A Revised Key for the Field Identification of Some
Genera of Algae. Turtox News. 39(4) : 98—103.
Tiffany. L. H. and M. E. Britton. 1952. The Algae of Illinois. University
of Chicago Press, Chicago , 407 pp.
Wheeler. R. E.. J. B. Lackey and S. Schott. 1942. A Contribution on the
Toxicity of Algae. Public Health Reports, 57(45): 1695—1701.
SPECL L REFERENCES FOR DATA APPEAMNG ZN TABLE 5
References are arran.&d in the order of their a earance in the
table.
Farre, A. On the minute structure of certain substances expelled from the
human intestine, having the ordinary appearance of shreds of lymph, but
consisting entirely of filaments of a Confen oid type, probably belonging to
the genus Oscillatoria Tr. Roy. Microscop. Soc.. London 1: 92, 1844. idem.
In: Kflchenmeister. G. F. H. On animal and vegetable parasites of the
human body. Transl. from the 2. German edit. by E. Lankester. London.
Sydenham Soc. 1857. v. 2, p. 264.
Küchenmeister. G. F. H. Oscillaria intestini. In his: Die in und an deni
Körper des lebenden Menschen -orkommenden Parasiten. 2. Abt. Die
pflanzlichen Parasiten. Leipzig, B. G. Teubner. 1855. v. 2, p. 26.
Kuchenmeister, G. F. H. Oscillaria intestini. In his: On animal and
vetretable parasites of the human body. Trans l. for the 2. German edit. by
E. Lankaster, London . Sydenham Soc. 1857. v. 2, p. 136.
Ashford, B. K.. Ciferri, R.. and Dalmau. L. M. A new species of Prototheca
and a variety of the same isolated from the human intestine. Arch. f.
Protistenkunde 70: 619, 1930.
Tisdale, E. S. Epidemic of intestinal disorders in Charleston. W. Va.,
occurring simultaneously with unprecedented water supply conditions. Am.
J. Pub. Health 21: 198, 1931.
94
-------
Tisdale, E. S. The 1930—1931 drought and its effect upon public water
supply. Am. J. Pub. Health 21: 1203, November 1931.
Veldee, M. V. An epidemiological study of suspected water-bome gas-
troenteritis. Am. J. Pub. Health 21: 1227, November 1931.
Spencer, R. R. Unusually mild recurring epidemic simulating food infec-
tion. Pub. Health Rep. 45: 2867 (Nov. 21) 1930.
Nelson . T. C. Discussion of “Algae control” paper presented by W. D.
Monie. 1941. at the New Jersey Section Meeting. J. Am. Water Works
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Dillenberg, H. 0. Toxic waterbloom in Saskatchewan. Presented before
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Dillenberg. H. 0.. and Dehnel, M. K. Toxic waterbloom in Saskatchewan,
1959. Canad. M. A. J. 83: 1151, November 26, 1960.
Dillenberg, H. 0.. and Dehnel, M. K. “Waterbloom poisoning”. Fast
and “slow death” factors isolated from blue-grcen algae at Canadian N R C
Laboratories. World-Wide Abstr. Gen. Med. 4 (No. 4): 20, April 1961.
Dillenberg, 1-1. 0. Case reports of algae poisoning. Personal communica-
tion. 1961.
Dillenberg. H. 0. Case reports of algae poisoning. Personal communica-
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Senior, V. E. Algal poisoning in Saskatchewan. Canad. J. Comp. Med.
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Taylor, H. F. A mortality of fishes on the west coast of Florida. Science
48: 367, 1917.
Taylor, H. F. Mortality of fishes on the west coast of Florida. Rep. U.S.
Comm. Fish. 1917, app. III. 24 pp.
Lund. E. J. Some facts relating to the occurrences of dead and dying fish
on the Texas coast during June, July and August 1935. Ann. Rep. Texas
Game, Fish. Oyster Comm. 1934—35, p. 47.
Heise. H. A. Symptoms of hay fever caused by algae. J. Allergy 20:
383, 1949.
Heise. H. A. Symptoms of hay fever caused by algae. IT. Mycrocystis.
Ann. Allergy 9: 100, 1951.
Gunter, G., Smith, F. G. \V., and Williams, R. H. Mass mortality of marine
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mass mortality of marine animals and coincident phytop lankton bloom on
95
-------
the west coast of Florida, November 1946 to August 1947. Ecol. Monogr.
18: 309, 1948.
Galtsoff, P. S. The mystery of the red tide. Sci. Month. 68: 109, 1949.
Hutner, S. H., and McLaughlin, J. J. A. Poisonous tides. Sci. Amer. 199
(2): 92, August 1958.
Woodcock, A. H. Note concerning human respiratory irritation associated
with high concentrations of plankton and mass mortality of marine orga-
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Ingle, R. M. Irritant gases associated with red tide. University of Miami,
Coral Gables, Fla. Marine Laboratory. Special Service Bull. No. 9, March
1954. 4pp.
Sams, W. M. Seabather’s eruption. Arch. Derrnat. & Syph. 60: 227, 1949.
Cohen, S. G., and Reif, C. B. Cutaneous sensitization to blue-green algae.
J. Allergy 24: 452, 1953.
Hardin, F. F. Seabather’s emption. J.M.A. Georgia 50: 450, 1961.
Grauer, F. H. Dermatitis escharotica caused by a marine alga. Hawaii
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Hawaii Med. J. 19: 35, 1959.
96
-------
CHAPTER V
Animal Pests Affecting Recreational
Water Use
Great fleas have little fleas,
upon their backs to bite ‘em,
And little fleas have lesser fleas,
and so AD LYFLYITUM.
—ANON.
MIDGES
Midges, or blind mosquitoes, have created nuisance problems
around the shores of a number of lakes. The creation in New York City
during 1936 and 1937 of Fountain and Willow Lakes, high in organic
content, on what had previously been salt marsh meadow open to tidal
action, apparently created optimal conditions for the breeding of a num-
ber of species of chironomids. As a result, midge adults were present in
enormous numbers near the shores of these lakes within the World’s Fair
site during the summer of 1938 (Fellton, 1940). The waters apparently
were very rich as the organic matter originally present on the bottom
began decomposing as soon as flooding occurred. Raw sewage was
added to the lakes, and much of the fertilizer applied on the shores was
soon washed into the water. Laboratory experiments to guide control
operations were performed with a number of chemicals, resulting in the
use of rotenone as a control agent at concentrations of 6 and 10 ppm.
Concurrently, copper sulfate was applied to control the algae.
For a number of years Winter Haven, Fla., has experienced blind
mosquito problems from two adjacent lakes that receive raw sewage and
treated effluent from the city. The midge involved was identified as
Glyptotendipes paripes (Edwards) and Provost (1958) attributed its
overproduction to excessively nutritious waters. Because midges feed
almost exclusively on algae, lakes rich in algal production are likely also
to be high in midge production.
Sadler (1935) found the breeding season of Tendi pes tentans
(Fabricius), another troublesome midge, extended from the last of April
97
-------
to about the first of October in the vicinity of Ithaca, N.Y. The imma-
ture stages of the midge are aquatic. The species ovenvinters in the
lan-al stage, commonly called the bloodworm; the larvae or bloodworms
develop from eggs and undergo several growth and development stages
before they stop feeding and develop into pupae. Pupation and emer-
gence of the adult are closely associated with the warming of the water
in the spring and early summer.
Since emergence of the adults takes place from the entire surface
of a lake at approximately the same time, nuisances result from the mass
of numbers. Sadler (1935 describes the swarming of the adults,
• • the adults appear on the wing in late afternoon and early evening
for their mating flight. The swarm, which is composed almost entirely
of males, begins with a few individuals, and increases in proportion as
others join its ranks. Like a single unit, the mass moves fonvard for a
short distance, and then drifts back with the wind, then forward again,
and then back, and so on and on in endless repetition. There is much
weaving in and out, up and down, among the individuals; also a some-
what regular rise and fall of the whole mass in the vertical plane, unless
the wind is strong.” The mass of adult nudges gets into children’s eyes
and noses, turns houses black with insects, and literally stalls traffic along
lake shore roads in the evening. Also, because of this abundant food
supply, spiders increase, in number and their webs drape the trees, bushes
and buildings, and create an additional nuisance.
The periodic appearance of a large number of gnats, Chaoborus
ac /fr /opus D ar and Shannon, during the summer has presented a prob-
lem to residents of Clear Lake, Lake County, Calif.. for many years and
has adversely affected their large resort business (Hunt and Bisehoff,
1960). Clear Lake has an area of over 41,600 acres. Walker 10 found
that emergence took place from late April to early October with peak
emergence in late July or early August. A series of tests over 2 years
showed the average total seasonal emergence to exceed 500 gnats per
square foot. Walker calculated that the total seasonal production on
the upper arm of the lake, comprising 44 square miles, approximated 712
billion gnats or 356 tons of organisms. One night’s emergence was esti-
mated at 3 billion, and bottom samples contained as many as 1,000
per square foot.
To control these gnats, Clear Lake was treated in September
1949, with a chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide DDD (dichloro
diphens l dichloroethane’ at a concentration of one part of active insecti-
‘° Walker. ,J. R.. 1949. The Clear Lake Gnat, Chaoborus asticto pus—A Review
of Investigations and the Proposed 1949 Clear Lake Treatment Program. Bureau
of Vector Control, Department of Public Health. California, 12 pp. (mimeo.).
98
-------
cide to 70 million parts of water. It was determined that a 99 percent
kill of larvae resulted. A second chemical application was necessary in
1954, and a third in 1957. These latter applications were calculated to
produce a concentration of one part in 50 million parts of water. Fol-
lowing both the 1954 and 1957 application, 75 to 100 western grebes
were found dead along the shore. Results of chemical analysis of the
fatty tissue from the grebes in 1958 indicated DDD was present at the
unusually high concentration of 1,600 ppm (Hunt and Bischoff, 1960).
The amount of DDD found during March 1958 in the visceral fat of the
brown bullhead ranged from 40 to 2.500 ppm. To prevent the possibil-
ity of increasing the present hazard of DDD poisoning of wildlife, Clear
Lake will receive no further treatment with DDD.
Serious outbreaks of the midge. Ten dipes plurnosus (Linnaeus),
have plagued residents and industries in the Lake Winnebago area of
\t%Tisconsin for years. Lake Winnebago is a large (137,000 acres), shal-
low, fertile lake. Hilsenhoff (1959), in laboratory tests, screened 16
commercially available organophosphate insecticides to determine their
relative toxicity to the bloodworm. Dipterex and malathion incorpo-
rated into granules produced an 80 percent mortality of the larvae at
concentrations of 0.1 lb. per acre of the technical material. These insec-
ticides have a low toxicity to both fishes and mammals. Field tests on
Lake Winnebago with malathion granules, however, did not prove con-
clusive at low concentrations; the feasibility of chemical control on a large
body of water with a nonaccumulative insecticide is questionable.
MOSQUITOES
Most mosquitoes breed in still water; small ponds and pools of
many types, the shallow edges of lakes, and the still water in shallow,
dense weed beds along the edges of streams serve as ideal habitats. They
prefer areas with little wave action, an abundant cover in the form of at
least moderate aquatic vegetation, an abundant food in the form of hu-
mus or other organic matter on the bottom, and floating particles of
microorganisms at the surface. The mosquito production of a lake or
reservoir appears to be directly proportional to the amount of intersection
line between plants (or flotage) and the water surface. Likewise, the
relative mosquito production potential of different plant types is in direct
proportion to their relative amount of intersection line per unit area of
Water surface, other factors remaining equal. Situations with an abun-
dance of intersection line provide mosquito larvae with food and protec-
tion from natural enemies and also furnish adult mosquitoes with an
ideal environment for the deposition of eggs.
99
-------
In a study of the effect of plants on mosquito production, Bishop
and Hollis (1947) found a difference in the relative intersection values
among the various types of aquatic vegetation. For a given plant
species the intersection value, and therefore the mosquito production
potential, varies according to the percentage of vegetation cover occur-
ring at the water surface. The highest intersection values are usually
produced with an intermediate cover; low intersection values may be
associated with either low or high covers. When the cover at the water
surface approaches 100 percent the intersection line is almost completely
eliminated. Submerged species are not important except during periods
of low water or flowering, when they may break the water surface and
create high intersection values. Leafy erect species may have low pro—
duction potentials when the water surface intersects the naked lower
portions of the stems, but production of mosquitoes may be greatly in-
creased when the water rises into the upper leafy portions of the plants.
On impounded water, terrestrial species occur mainly in the upper por-
tion of the zone of fluctuation; wetland species usualI occur down to the
lower limit of summer drawdown; aquatic species often overlap with
wetland species and usually extend out into the reservoir below the lower
limit of summer drawdown (figs. 4 and 5).
LEECHES
Leeches abound in warm, protected shallow water where there
is little wave action and where plants. stones, and debris offer conceal-
ment. They are chiefly nocturnal in their activities and remain hidden
under stones and vegetation in daylight. The majority of specimens are
Plate 36. Mosquito (Psorophora ciliata (Fabricius)), one of the largest
of Illinois mosquitoes.
100
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found between the water’s edge and at a depth of approximately 6 feet.
Leeches require substrates to which they can adhere and consequently
are rare on pure mud or clay bottoms. Some species persist in inter-
mittent ponds by burrowing into the mud bottom where they construct
a small mucous lined cell in which they live. Leeches are dormant in
winter, burying themselves in the upper part of the bottom material
just below the frost line.
6 Carpet
7 Floating Mat
8 Floating Leaf
9 Su&nergeci
10 Pleuston
Figure 4.—Generalized Contour distribution of basic plant types on the
shore line of a main-river reservoir (from Bishop and Hollis, 1947).
According to Pennak (1953), Macrobdella, the northern blood-
suckers, and Philobdella. the southern bloodsuckers, are the only common
American leeches that regularly take human blood. Like all other blood-
suckers, they attach to the host with the caudal sucker and explore with
the anterior end until a suitable spot is located, especially where the skin
is thin. The oral sucker is then attached tightly and three fine painless
incisions are made by back-and-forth rotary motions of the jaws. Suffi-
cient blood is taken to distend the stomach so that the leech may be five
times as heavy as it was when it began feeding. When the leech has filled
its digesitve tract it leaves the host voluntarily, but the incisions keep on
bleeding for a variable time because of the persistence of the salivary
anticoagulant, hirudin. which the leech injects into the incision and
which causes a more or less intense and prolonged itching. If the leech
is permitted to complete it meal, this substance is largely or entirely
withdrawn from the wound; but if the meal is curtailed, it acts as an
lop Flood Surcharge
Maximum Mosquito-Control—Basic Clearing Line
Mininium Mosquito-Control Elevation
LEGE ND
1 Wo c
2 Coooice
3 Leaf Erect
-
5 Naked Erect
730—3490---61 5
101
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Larvae per Square Foot
Figure 5. Ano beles quadrimac:ilatus Say production potentials of basic
plant types (from Bishop and Hollis, 1947).
irritant. Some persons are much more cnsitive to the irritant qualities
of leech bites than others, just a some are more sensitive to the poison of
mosquitoes or other insects. True bloodsucking leeches require only an
occasional full meal. Specimens have been kept for more than 2 years
without feeding.
Pennak (195 ) records species of the following genera as ones
that take blood from man: Helobdella. Piacobdella. Erpobdella, Macrob-
della, Philobdella. and Haemopis. Distinguishing characteristics are as
follows:
HELOBDELLA sTAGN;\Lls (Linnaeus) (Pond or Common Snail
Leech
This species is identifiable by the small brown or yellow cuticular
plate on the anterior dorsal surface. The color i brownish, greenish-
gray or pale pink; it is translucent or nearly transparent. The leech has
one pair of eyes that are simple and close together. Its size is small; the
body is elongate oval, very narrow at the anterior end, and moderately
depressed. Maximum length is three-fourth inch. although the usual
extended lengt.h varies between three-ei hths and one-half inch. It is
predaceous, feeding on small aquatic snails. bloodworms, aquatic annelid
worms, and insect larvae. It will also take blood and flesh from excori-
ated surfaces of all kinds of living and dead animals if the opportunity
arises. Helobdella stagnalis Linnaeus) inhabit ’.. ponds. lakes and slug-
MEDIUM
Relative Intersection Values
102
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gish streams, attaching to undersides of rocks, logs, boards, and other
objects submerged in the shallow waters. It sometimes attaches itself
to small snails.
PLACOBDELLA RUGOSA (Verrill) (Rough Turtle Leech)
Placobdella rugosa (Verrill) may be readily recognized by its
numerous rough and high papillae, and dull color; it is opaque to trans-
lucent, dark greenish-brown, and spotted with ellow and green. It has
one pair of compound eyes. The leech is medium to large; the body
firm, broad, thin, and flat, and is much depressed. The maximum length
is 3 inches when extended, although the usual extended length is 1 ¼ to
2 inches. These leeches are temporary parasites clinging to the legs and
necks of water turtles, snapping turtles and western painted turtles, but
are generally predaceous and freeliving, feeding on aquatic worms,
snails and insect larvae. If the leech is living a parasitic life on a turtle,
it will leave its host during periods of reproduction and live a free life
in ponds, lakes and streams. It will take a meal of human blood if the
opportunity arises. It is found attached to the undersides of rocks, logs
and boards submersed in the shallows of lakes, ponds, and streams.
ERPOBDELLA PUNCTATA (Leidv) (Common Worm Leech)
The large forms are distinguished by the two to four dorsal longi-
tudinal rows of black, irregular spots. These are separated by paler
bands; the medium two are very pronounced, and the outer two are
often lacking in mature forms and are generally absent in immature
forms. Erpobdella punctata (Leidy) has a finn, moderately con-
tractile body. It is opaque, dark olive-green, or light chocolate brown to
black dorsally and paler ventrally; the color tone varies considerably.
It has three pair of eves; the first pair on somite II are largest, and the
other two pair are at the sides of the mouth on somite IV. The body
is slender, elongated, moderately firm, and moderately contractile. The
maximum extended length is 4 inches, whereas the usual extended
length is 2 to 3 inches. The leech feeds on small worms, smaller leeches,
aquatic snails and eggs, aquatic insect larvae, and nymphs. It will take
human blood when the opportunity arises. It is found in lakes, ponds,
and streams, atached to rocks, logs, old tree stumps, plants, and other
objects submerged in the shallow waters.
MACROBDELLA DECORA (Say) (American Medicinal Leech)
Macrobdella decora (Say) may be identified by its bright striking
color pattern, large size and soft slimy, very contractile body. It has a
103
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104
Plate 37. Blood Sucking Leeches (from Moore, 1923)
A. Helobdella stagndis, E. Haernopis grandis,
B. Glossiphonia corn planata, F. Erpobdella punctata,
C. A{acrobdella decora, G. Haemopis marmoratis.
D. Placobddlla parasitica,
-------
6
I
U
VD
t
‘ ‘i ’’
4’
Ii
A
I
!
C
Plate 37. Blood Sucking Leeches (from Moore, 1923)
A. Helobdella .ctagnalis, E. Haemopls grandis,
B. Glossiphonia com/ilanata , F. Erpobdella punctata,
C. i%lacrobdella decora, G. Haemopis marmoratis.
F
E
D. Placobdella parasitica,
-------
median longitudinal row of 20 to 22 orange or light red spots, a
similarly arranged series of small black spots on each side close to the
margins, and a rich orange ventral surface sometimes plain but usually
spotted with black. Five pairs of eyes are arranged in a regular arch
near the anterior dorsal margin; the last two are especially difficult to see
in pigmented specimens. The body is elongated, flattened, smooth, very
soft and slimy, and very contractile. The maximum extended length is
7 to 8 inches, whereas the usual extended length is 4 to 6 inches. It
is voraciously predaceous, feeding on earthworms, aquatic worms, snails,
insect larvae, and frog eggs; it is even cannibalistic. At times it is a
fierce bloodsucker, attacking wading birds, fishes, frogs, and tadpoles,
turtles, wading animals and humans. Normally it inhabits the shallows
and areas along the muddy shoreline where land and water meet.
Often the leeeh is found attached to floating logs, boards and limbs,
and is in abundance on the moist, wave-washed shores, hidden beneath
algae, pondweeds, logs, limbs, and other debris.
HAEMOPIS MARMORATIS (Say) (Mottled Horse Leech)
The color of Haemopis marinoratis (Say) is variable and usually
blotched. Sometimes the dark blotching is barely distinct, blackish-green,
dark olive-green or brown, and paler ventrally; sometimes light blotching
is very distinct, olive-green, yellow-green blotched with irregular darker
brown or black spots that are often confluent (marbled mottled), and
paler ventrally. Sometimes the color is plain dark green or yellow.
Dorsally, little conelike elevations (sensillae) or sensory annuli are notice-
able, even to the naked eye in larger specimens. Eye arrangement is the
same as in Macrobdella decora (Say). The maximum extended length
is 6 inches, and the usual extended length varies between 2 and 5 inches.
The leech is usually predaceous, feeding upon earthworms, aquatic
worms, snails, insect larvae, and even its own species. It will occasionally
take a meal of blood from the legs of wading animals, from frogs, tad-
poles, aquatic birds, and humans. It is less active than Macrob de lla
decora (Say). It abounds in the mud at the side of pools, lakes, streams
and ditches and also occasionally on land. It is found attached to
floating logs, boards and limbs near the shoreline, also in abundance
on the moist, wave-washed shores, hidden beneath algae, pondweeds,
limbs, twigs, and other debris. Haemopis marmoratis (Say) and Ma-
crobdella decora (Say) are often found in close association ,
The leech of greatest concern to bathers is Macrobdella decora
(Say). It is principally a swamp animal and normally inhabits the
shallows in the vicinity of the shoreline where land and water meet. It
may be found concealed under stones and logs where, when well fed,
105
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it rests quietly or, when hungry, lies in wait for frogs or warm-blooded
animals.
Any disturbance of the water, such as is caused by a wading
animal, attracts the leeches partly because of the mechanical disturbance
that stimulates the tactile organs and partly because of the animal
emanations that stimulate the organs of chemical sense. Thus, leeches
are attracted by bathers and tend to congregate and remain about the
docks and stones of the bathing area. They are strong and rapid swim-
mers and can invade a particular area from other sections of the lake.
They are most active at maximum water temperatures, and the period
of greatest prevalence in the bathing area corresponds with that of
maximum water temperature in August.
Moore (1923) describes methods of leech control through freez-
ing in their winter quarters. As the temperature of the water falls with
the onset of winter, leeches become more and more sluggish and finally
hun themselves in the mud or beneath stones on the bottom of shallow
water. Leeches are readily killed by exposure to a temperature of 200 F
for a few hours. When the first thin ice starts to form and it is certain
that the water temperature has attained its minimum, Moore recom-
mends that the water be drawn off as rapidly as possible until the water
level is lowered 4 feet, and that this level be maintained for at least 5 or
6 weeks during the coldest part of the winter. He reasoned that under
these circumstances the exposed flats would be frozen hard to a consid-
erable depth, and temperatures would be well below the fatal minimum
for the imprisoned leeches. This method of control was effective in Can
Pond, Palisades Interstate Park near New York City.
Pennak (1953) states that leeches may be temporarily controlled
in localized bathing beach areas by applying 100 lb. of powdered lime
per acre per day in the shallows. In general, chemical controls have not
proven successful, although chemicals such as copper sulfate will kill
leeches that are exposed to it. The measures employed in snail control
have been used with some success in leech control. Weekly distribution
of a slurry composed of 10 pounds of copper sulfate and 5 pounds of
copper carbonate or lime per acre of bathing area has shown some suc-
cess. Chelated copper compounds applied marginally as a spray at
concentrations sublethal to fish have also been of value.
SWIMMER’S ITCH
Cort (1928) first demonstrated that certain lan’al trematode
worms (schistosome cercariae) of birds and mammals can penetrate the
skin of man and produce a dermatitis characterized by papular eruptions.
106
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“Swimmer’s itch,” schistosome dermatitis, or “water rash” has attracted
increasing attention since 1928, particularly in the lake regions of the
North-Central part of the United States where tourist trade has been
affected.
The cercariae causing swimmer’s itch are free-swimming, color-
less, and about 0.7 mm in length. With proper illumination they are
just visible to the unaided eye as they swim rapidly in an irregular man-
ner or hang suspended in water (Brackett, 1941). The adults are para-
sitic in the hepatic , portal, and mesenteric veins of birds or mammals.
The fertilized female migrates to the smaller intestinal veins and deposits
eggs that work their way through the intestinal wall into the lumen, from
which they are passed with the feces. Each egg contains an embryo
which, upon hatching, develops into a ciliated free-swimming organism
termed a miracidium. If a suitable snail is located, the miracidium
penetrates into its soft tissues, and a further type of development and
reproduction takes place in which eercariae are produced. Following
this period of development, the cercariae emerge from the snail host and
swim about in search of the proper vertebrate host to penetrate in which
they can develop to maturity in the blood vessels to complete the cycle.
This cycle is accidentally interrupted by the occasional penetra-
tion of cercariae into the epithelial layer of the skin of bathers, resulting
in swimmer’s itch. Following such penetration, the cercariae are soon
destroyed, perhaps by unsuitability of human body fluids, and their
bodies remain as the site and stimulus of acute inflammatory reactions.
Apparently the cercariae do not penetrate completely until the bather
has emerged from the water, but a few minutes later the victim experi-
ences a tingling sensation in exposed parts of the body. Soon, minute
red spots can be seen at the points where the organisms have penetrated
the skin. The tingling sensation may then disappear, and it may be a
number of hours before a distinct itching is felt, and the minute spots
enlarge to form discrete red elevations of the skin one-sixteenth to one-
fourth inch in diameter. Occasionally the elevations become pustular.
The degree of discomfort and bodily reaction resulting from infestation
vanes with the sensitivity of the individual and the degree of infestation.
In certain persons, considerable pain, fever, and severe itching may occur
along with noticeable swelling of the affected areas; in others the dis-
comfort may be only minor and transitory, and some bathers appear
immune to infestation. The skin elevations typically disappear within a
week, but the redness may persist for some time longer.
Several characteristics of swimmer’s itch are constant: “. . . it
is always associated with bathing or wading in natural waters; it is found
less commonly on parts of the body protected by bathing suits or clothing
and almost never on the face; each lesion is discrete and does not spread;
107
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-E
c
Figure 6. Life cycle of swimmer’s itch cercariae. E, egg; M, miracidium;
S, sporocyst; R, redia; and C, cercariae.
R
C
C
108
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and the condition clean up within a few days if there is no further con-
tact with the cercariae. Thus schistosome dermatitis can usually be
differentiated from other common skin afflictions such as poison ivy,
which continues to spread after contact, chigger bites, which characteris-
tically occur where clothing constricts the body, and bites of other insects,
which often occur on the head and face” (Brackett, 1941).
Cercariae may live in the water from 24 to 60 hours or more after
emerging from the snail host (Brackett, 1941). It is probably safe to
assume that under natural conditions the life span is only 24 hours or
less, arid in wind-agitated water it may be considerably shorter. The
types of cercariae capable of producing swimmer’s itch typically emerge
from the snail host quite regularly at a definite and more or less restricted
period each day. The majority of forms emerge about 4:30 a.m., and
one type emerges at about 9:30 p.m. Because cercariae probably survive
at least 24 hours under conditions in nature, it appears during an out-
break that the causative organisms may be present in water at all times
of the day. The typical emergence activity of the cercariae may be
influenced to some extent by factors existing in the water. A sudden rise
in temperature may be followed by sudden emergence of many cercariae
irrespective of the time of day. On the other hand, natural starvation
of the snail host may delay or prevent the shedding of cercariae.
There is evidence that submerged aquatic plants promote infec-
tions of swimmer’s itch. Some of the species of snails capable of harbor-
ing the causative organism live in and upon stands of submerged aquatics
that often grow adjacent to or in the vicinity of bathing areas. Also, at
least two species of cercariae attach themselves to objects and may cling
to such vegetation. Under these circumstances, the removal of the sub-
merged vegetation will usually eliminate infections to bathers by the
parasite.
Cercariae emerge in greatest numbers during the warmest
weather. Infected snails kept at low temperatures cease to shed cer-
cariae; however, if these snails are brought into a warmer environment,
cercariae emerge suddenly in large numbers regardless of light conditions.
Cercariae arc also attracted by light and swim actively in the direction
of the greatest light intensity. Although active swimming by the cer-
cariae may be limited to 50 feet or less, it is thought that they may be
carried distances of one-fourth mile or more by the movement of surface
water. In many places bathers are troubled only when there is an in
shore wind of not too great intensity, and only those who bathe in the
shallow water close to shore are affected. Those who swim in the deeper
water farther from the shore are scarcely bothered even though they
may swim directly over an infected bed of snails.
Olivier (1949) presented clear evidence that schistosome derrna-
109
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titis is essentially a sensitization reaction. He found that primary ex-
posure to the cercariae produced only mild reactions; with repeated
exposures, the reactions became progressively stronger. There is some
evidence that sensitization may persist for several years, since three per-
sons who had their last exposure 8, 10, and 12 years previously developed
severe dermatitis following exposure to very small numbers of cercariae.
Cort (1950) lists l B species of schistosome cercariae, excluding
those that de ’elop to maturity in man, that have been reported to cause
dermatitis. Brackett (1941) states that “one of the most striking and
clear-cut features of schistosome dermatitis outbreaks is the fact that
probably over 90 percent of the more severe outbreaks are caused by
Cercaria stagnfrolae in varieties of the snail S/a guicola emar gina/a.”
The relationship between this snail and the most severe outbreaks of
swimmer\ itch is promoted by (I) clean, sandy beaches ideal for swim-
ming and preferred by the snail; (2) peak populations of the snail host
that develop in sandy-bottomed lakes of glacial origin; (3) the greatest
developnient of adult snails that do not die off until toward the end of
the bathing season; and (4) the cycle of cercarial infection so timed that
the greatest numbers of cercariae emerge during the hot weather in the
middle of the summer when the greatest amount of bathing is done.
According to Cort (1950) the dermatitis-producing schistosome
cercariae have been shown to develop either under natural or experi-
mental conditions from the following intermediate snail hosts in the
United States:
Lyrnnaea (Lyrnnaea) stagnalis (Linnaeus)
Lyrnnaea (Radix) auricularia (Linnaeus)
Lvmnaea (S/a gnicola) patustris elodes (Say)
Lvrnnaea (Stagnicola) emarginata (Say)
Physa parkeri Currier
Physa ainpullacea Gould
Gvrauius parvus (Say)
In the Lake States region the seasonal cycle of the parasite
in relation to the life cycle of the intermediate host snail determines the
seasonal variation in the dermatitis infections. The fIrst case on the
bathing beaches usually occurs in late June or early July when the snails
infected in the fall begin to give off cercariae in appreciable numbers.
Exact dates may vary soniewhat with the season and with water temper-
ature. During July. the peak of cercarial production is reached, and
the infections come to maturity. Production is especially influenced
by hot spells that speed up the development of the cercariae and increase
the numbers that escape. Later in the summer the dermatitis infection
110
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becomes less, chiefly because of the death of infected snails, and in many
places it disappears before the end of the swimming season. Where
the adult snails die early the dermatitis season is shortened since there is
practically no infection in the juvenile snails during the summer.
Schistosome dermatitis is widespread. As summarized by
Con (1950), it has been reported from the United States, Asia, Japan,
Australia, Wales, France, S vitzerland, Cuba, Mexico, and Canada.
In the United States, schistosome dermatitis is principally endemic in the
North Central lake region. In addition to Wisconsin, Minnesota, and
Michigan, schistosome dermatitis has been reported from North Dakota,
Illinois, Nebraska, Texas, Florida, Washington, Oregon, Nevada, Okla-
homa, California, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, and Iowa.
The simplest method of control for the individual bather is the
rubbing of the body with a rough towel before the water film dries on
the surface. Such action will crush the cercariae before they have an
opportunity to penetrate the skin. A fresh-water shower taken im-
mediately after leaving the water is also effective. The common prac-
tice of alternately swimming and sun bathing provides an excellent
opportunity for a bather to receive a severe infection if infective cercariae
are abundant in the water.
Knowledge of the relationship between schistosome cercariae and
snails indicates the point in the cycle at which extensive control measures
should be aimed. Since the developmental cycle is interrupted unless
these larvae find the proper type of snail and penetrate its tissues, the
elimination of snails from bathing areas will result in the immediate
disappearance of swimmer’s itch. The problem, therefore, reduces itself
to one of destroying all snails capable of harboring cercariae in and
around the bathing beach. Such destruction, with chemicals, is one of
the most severe controls in lake ecology; some of the other fish food
organisms as well as the snails are killed as a result of the toxicity of the
chemicals used. The general ecology of the area is disrupted and the
“balance of nature” is destroyed with a successful treatment. Treatment,
therefore, should be confined to areas extensively used by man for swim-
ming and the size of the area should be kept to the minimum that will
provide adequate control of the snails.
The area treated is usually very small in relation to the total area
of the lake; thus the loss of fish food organisms in the treated area and
the resulting effect upon the fishery is negligible when compared with the
lake as a whole. Generally, most treatments are accomplished on sandy
beaches that are good for swimming, but are very low in the production
of fish food organisms.
The time of year that chemicar treatment is undertaken is im-
Ill
-------
_4. ‘
‘If
a.
q•4 IW
3;
Plate 38. Snails known to harbor swimmer’s itch cercariae
Location
Detroit. Mich.
Greenhouse,
Lincoln Park,
Chicago. Ill.
Grand Rapids 1
Mich.
U.S. Y. M. N .
1. 28448
2. 569286
Snail Collector
Lymnaea (Lymnaea) Bryant Walker.
stagnalis (Linnaeus).
Lyrnnaea (Radix) F. C. Baker....
auricularia (Linnaeus).
3. 30255 Lymnaea (Stagni- L. H. Streng...
cola) palustris elodes (Say).
4,.
I
112
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ft.
5q
4.
L.
p
6.
Plate 39. Snails known to harbor swimmer’s itch cercariae
U.S.N.M. No.
4. 30252
5. 251214
6. 334392
‘. 432259
Snail
Lymnaea (Stagni-
cola) emarginata (Say).
Physa parkeri Cur-
ncr.
Physa ampullacea
Gould.
Gyraulus parvus
(Say).
Collector
L. H. Streng...
H. B. Baker....
W. Westgate...
J. P. E.Morrison
Location
Lake Houghton,
Mich.
Douglas Lake,
Mich.
Kiamath Falls,
Oreg.
Boulder Junction,
Wis.
7.
113
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portant, since it involves the life cycle and habits of the snails and fish.
Studies indicate that very few young snails are infected. Early in the
summer, numerous immature infections are present in the adult snails
that have survived the winter. The majority of the cercariae complete
their development and first begin to emerge in late June and early
July. The infected snails in most cases continue to give off certain
cercariae until their death in late summer or early fall. In the North
Central lake States, the optimum time to apply controls occurs between
mid-June and July 4.
In 1937 Cort and his coworkers experimented by treating with
copper sulfate a small area on a large lake to kill the snails and prevent
further cases of water itch (McMullen, 1941). Early experiments cen-
tered around broadcasting copper sulfate crystals of pea size, and spread-
ing a solution of copper sulfate along the bottom with a T-shaped pipe.
Later it was found that a copper sulfate-copper carbonate mixture pre-
cipitated more copper on the bottom where the snails could get it, and
that this treatment was effective longer than any other treatment tried.
To reduce cost, fresh hydrated lime has since been substituted for copper
carbonate and has been found to be effective.
Lake waters with a total methyl orange alkalinity of 50 mg/I or
greater have been successfully treated with the following mixture: 2
pounds of copper sulfate (snow grade) plus 1 pound of copper carbonate
for each 1,000 square feet of bottom. Lake waters with a methyl orange
alkalinity of less than 50 mg/i have been successfully treated with 2
pounds of copper carbonate per 1,000 square feet of bottom. For exam-
ple, an area 1,000 feet long and 200 feet wide would require 400 pounds
of copper sulfate and 200 pounds of copper carbonate in a hard water
lake, or 400 pounds of copper carbonate in a soft water lake (Macken-
thun, 1958).
For small-scale operations, ver simple equipment will suffice to
distribute the chemical mixture. An open end, 50-gallon drum is half
filled with lake water and placed in a suitable boat. Fifty pounds of
copper sulfate “snow” is added and stirred until dissolved. To this solu-
tion, 25 pounds of copper carbonate is added slowly and stirred in to
make a suspension of the carbonate in the sulfate solution. A vigorous
reaction takes place inside the drum and froth is caused by the carbon
dioxide produced. When all of the copper carbonate has been added
and the chemical action has subsided, the drum is filled with water and
it is ready for use. f t should be borne in mind that these chemicals are
irritating to the mucous membranes of the eyes 1 nose, and throat. Pro-
longed exposure of the skin to this concentrated mixture should be
avoided.
The chemical solution is allowed to flow by gravity through a
114
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VALVE
PIPE
PIPE
Figure 7. Diagram of gravity flow equipment used in distributing
chemical mixture for snail control.
“T” pipe and is distributed evenly over the bottom of the areas to be
treated. The boat is propelled slowly back and forth so that the mixture
is distributed as evenly as possible. The speed of the boat must be regu-
lated so that the calculated quantity of chemicals covers the area. A
drum filled as described is sufficient to treat 25,000 square feet. To in-
sure the proper distribution it is advantageous to stake out the area to be
covered by each barrel of the mixture. For large-scale operations, minor
adjustments may be made to the equipment used for algal control and a
pump and motor may be successfully used in distributing the chemical
solution.
Over many years, swimmer’s itch has been controlled successfully
in Michigan with motor-powered units that distribute a mixture of cop-
per sulfate and fresh hydrated lime. The units are mounted in ordinary
flat-bottom row boats. Dilution water is taken from the lake by a pump
and into this water is injected a mixture of dry chemicals that consists of
8 parts of copper sulfate (snow grade) to 1 part of fresh hydrated lime.
The mixture passes through a discharge pipe from the pump over the
8’
HOSE CLAMP
RUBBER HOSE
I I
I
‘ HOLES
4
5’
115
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Plate 40. Combination mixer-distributor unit for underwater chemical
application, top iew. The dry chemical is injected into water stream
on suction side of pump.
Plate 41. Combination mixer-distributor unit for underwater chemical
application, side view.
j &Ar ‘;
L
116
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stern of the boat and is fed from a pipe “header” attached to the stem
onto a strip of lake bottom 10 to 12 feet wide. A number of lengths of
hose attached to the header and trailing from the rear of the boat are
weighted at the outlet end so as to introduce the chemical solution
directly onto the sand bottom (Adams, 1945).
On some shallow bottom shelves it may be difficult to float a
loaded boat over the snail beds near the shore. Here, the sowing of cop-
per sulfate crystals by hand, at the same rate of 2 pounds of copper sul-
fate per 1,000 square feet of area, has been successful in killing snails in
water up to 2 feet deep.
The chemicals should be applied beneath the surface of the water
directly over the snail beds when the water is very calm. Even slight
ripples on the surface indicate sufficient water movement to decrease the
efficiency of the treatment. Applying the chemical beneath the surface
of the water concentrates the chemical within the treatment area and
reduces the adverse effects upon the ecology of the surrounding area.
Areas to be treated should be carefully marked and subdivided
into small enough sections to insure even distribution of the calculated
amount of chemical.
Swimming should be prohibited for at least 2 hours after treat-
ment to prevent undue dispersion of the chemical; since snails are on the
bottom of the lake, the longer the chemical remains undisturbed on the
bottom the more effective the treatment will be. Any fish trapped within
the treated area will be killed. It is wise to remove all minnow boxes and
traps from the general area before treatment is begun. If there are no
underwater currents within the area, there will be little “drift”; however,
if currents are present, chemical “drift” will occur.
Bottom organisms are very much affected by chemical treatment;
crayfish, leeches, tubificids, and some of the insect larvae are usually
killed. Most of the bottom organisms killed are fish food, but the area
treated usually is an insignificant portion of the total shoreline of a body
of water or of the total bottom area capable of supporting a population
of fish food organisms, and the killing of leeches on beaches where they
cause considerable trouble is distinctly advantageous.
To reduce dermatitis appreciably it has been found necessary to
apply chemicals to at least 300 to 400 feet of lake frontage to a width of
200 feet or to the dropoff; it is desirable to treat up to 1,000 uninter-
rupted shoreline feet. Treatment should be conducted from the shore-
line outward until the entire area is covered. One treatment is effective
during a season and often throughout a subsequent season. Control
experience in \Visconsin indicates that treatment every other year suc-
cessfully reduces the snail population within the bathing area and thus
controls swimmer’s itch.
117
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REFERENCES
Adams, M. P., 1945. The 1945 Water Itch Program. Michigan Public
Health, 33(7): 123—125, 128.
Bishop, B. L. and M. D. Hollis, 1947. Malaria Control on Impounded
Water. Federal Security Agency, U.S. Public Health Service and Tennessee
Valley Authority, Health and Safety Department, 422 pp.
Bracken, S., 1941. Schistosome Dermatitis and its Distribution. A Sym-
posium on Hydrobiology, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, pp.
360—378.
Cort, W. W., 1928. Schistosome Dermatitis in the United States (Michi-
gan). Jour. Am. Medical Association, 90: 1027—1029.
Con, W. W., 1950. Studies on Schistosome Dermatitis. XI. Status of
Knowledge after more than Twenty Years. Am. Jour. Hygiene, 52(3):
251—307.
Fe llton, H. L., 1940. Control of Aquatic Midges with Notes on the Biology
of Certain Species. Jour. of Economic Entomology, 33(2): 252—264.
Hilsenhoff, W. L., 1959. The Evaluation of Insecticides for the Control of
Tendipes plumosus (Linnaeus). Jour. of Economic Entomology 52(2):
331—332.
Hunt, E. G. arid A. I. Bischoff, 1960. Inimical Effects on Wildlife of
Periodic DDD Applications to Clear Lake. California Fish and Game,
46(1): 91—106.
Mackenthun, K. M., 1958. The Chemical Control of Aquatic Nuisances.
Committee on Water Pollution, Madison, Wisconsin, 64 pp.
McMullen, D. B., 1941. Methods Used in the Control of Schistosome
Dermatitis in Michigan. A Symposium on Hydrobiology, University of
Wisconsin Press, Madison, pp. 379—388.
Moore, J. P., 1923. The Control of Blood-Sucking Leeches with an Ac-
count of the Leeches of Palisades Interstate Park. Roosevelt Wild Life
Bulletin, 2(1 ): 7—53.
Olivier, L., 1949. Schistosome Dermatitis, a Sensitization Phenomenon.
Am. Jour. of Hygiene, 49(3): 290—302.
Pennak, R. W., 1953. Fresh-Water Invertebrates of the United States.
Ronald Press Co., New York, 769 pp.
Provost, M. WI., 1958. Chironomids and Lake Nutrients in Florida. Sew-
age and Industrial Wastes, 30(11): 1417—1419.
Sadler, WI. 0., 1935. Biology of the Midge Clzironornus tentans (Fabricius)
and Methods for its Propagation. Cornell University Agricultural Experi-
ment Station Memoir 173, Ithaca, New York, 25 pp.
118
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CHAPTER VI
Sampling and Data Evaluation
Xothing useless zs or low;
each thing in its place is best;
and what seems but idle show
strengthens and supports the rest.
—HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW.
Sampling and data collection are governed by physical features,
chemical factors, and biological communities. Physical features include
water temperature, turbidity, color, water movement, light penetration,
wind velocity and direction, bottom deposits, and the size, shape and
slope of the lake basin. Chemical factors include alkalinity, pH, dissolved
oxygen, free carbon dioxide, hardness, nitrogen (organic, ammonia nitro-
gen, nitrite and nitrate), phosphate (ortho and total), as well as other
specific elements that may be of interest in a particular problem. Bio-
logical communities include the littoral community composed of rooted
vegetation, attached algae, fish, and a host of invertebrates; the limnetic
community, principally fish and plankton; and the benthic community
of midge larvae, sludgeworms, fingernail clams, and other bottom dwell-
ing organisms.
Lake sampling and data collection entail:
a definition of the problem,
a determination of the types of samples necessary to delineate a
solution,
a selection of sampling sites,
a judgment of the necessary number of samples,
a decision on the proper time, periodicity, and extent of sample col-
lection, and
a knowledge and understanding of the science of limnology.
Basically, this discussion may be summarized in the questions why?,
what?, how?, where?, and when? (Porges, 1960).
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WHY?
The purposes of a sampling program are to point toward a logical
and satisfactory solution to a specific problem, to correlate physical, chem-
ical, and biological phenomena, to understand the interrelationships of
the biota with the environment, and to evaluate biological productivity.
Predictions of productivity yet are as but crude estimates because of the
variability among lakes and reservoirs, the present limited knowledge of
lake ecology, and the physical magnitude of a comprehensive sampling
program. Too often the public is impatient with a study program de-
signed to investigate the water body as an entity, since paramount interest
usually centers in certain kinds of desirable fish and in the control of
oppressive aquatic nuisances. Authors who contribute an insight into
problems associated with productivity include Coker (1954), Hutchin-
son (l957),NeedhamandLlo d (1937),Reid (l96l),Ruttner (1953),
and Welch (1952).
Odum (1959) describes the pond complex in four basic units:
abiotic substances such as basic inorganic and organic compounds in-
cluding water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, calcium, nitrogen and phosphorus
salts, etc.; producer organisms such as rooted plants and algae; con-
sumer organisms such as animal plankton, bottom-dwelling insect larvae,
crustacea, and fish; and decomposer organisms such as aquatic bacteria
and fungi. Odum quotes Hayes and Coffin (1951) who said that a
pond or lake “is not, as one might think, a body of water containing
nutrients, but an equilibrated system of water and solids, and under
ordinary conditions nearly all of the nutrients are in a solid stage.” Odum
emphasizes that the rate of release of nutrients from solids is one of the
most important processes that regulate the rate of function of the entire
ecological system.
Complicated food chains are established that transfer energy from
one organism to another. Odum (1959) describes three types of food
chains: the predator chain that starts from a plant base and goes from
smaller to larger animals; the parasite chain that goes from larger to
smaller organisms; and the saprophytic chain that goes from dead matter
into microorganisms.
The primary purpose of a sampling program is, then, to shed
light on the physical-chemical-biological complex within a body of water
or within a particular segment of that water body, and to understand
the meteorological phenomena that are interrelated. To achieve this
aim, cognizance must be given to the environment and the ecology of
the organisms within that environment.
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WHAT?
Rawson (1958) considers lake and reservoir (measurement) in
three broad groups: a morphometric group, a group of physical and
chemical determinations, and a unit on biological conditions. A ref-
erence list for the morphometric group includes the following:
Area Shore length Drainage area
Mean depth Shore development Rate of runoff
Maximum depth Littoral development Average inflow
Area of depth zones Littoral slope Average outflow
Volume of depth strata Number of islands Time of “flushing”
Altitude Area of islands Water levels
Latitude Shore length, islands
Rawson’s somewhat conservative list of physical and chemical determi-
nations includes:
Weekly temperature Summer heat income Total alkalinity
series Duration of ice cover Calcium
Highest mean tern- Average bottom DO Magnesium
perature Lowest percent saturation Bicarbonates
Highest bottom tern- DO Sulfates
perature Average pH surface Chlorides
Mean temperature 0 to Average pH bottom
10 meters Color
Degree of stratification Secchi disk average
Duration of stratifica- Secchi disk range
tion Total dissolved solids
He states, “It would seem desirable to reduce the number of de-
terminations to the minimum which would provide a general grasp of
the physical and chemical conditions in the lake. Bimonthly or pref-
erably weekly temperature series, secchi disk, surface and bottom pH
and dissolved oxygen, and mineral analysis once or twice during the
summer should provide most of this information.”
To augment the list of tests proposed by Rawson, the plotting of
the vertical dissolved oxygen curve and a knowledge of the nutrient in-
flows, outflows, and retention within the basins is indicated. The latter
would involve flow measurements of influents and effluents, as well as
determinations for organic nitrogen, ammonia, nitrate, and nitrite nitro-
gen, total phosphorus, and soluble phosphorus. In deep reservoirs and
lakes, iron and manganese are important considerations especially if
downstream domestic water supplies are involved.
Rawson considers the biological conditions with the following
reference list:
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Plankton
Bottom Fauna
Fish
Average standing crop Average standing crop Average catch per stand-
(dry wt. basis); qualita- (dry wt. per unit area); ard net-number and
tive data such as water percent composition of weight; relative growth
blooms, percent predomi- major benthic forms. rates: sustained commer-
nant species composition, cial yields.
etc.
“Looking back now over the three groups of ‘factors,’ which do we
regard as most significant, to be included in our minimum required
list? No doubt each limnologist will have some special preferences
and will assign different importance to the various measures. Never-
theless, a solid core of information can be selected. Let us assume that
for any lake you can cite the following 10 items: area, mean depth,
thore development, highest mean temperature, average near bottom
oxygen at midsummer, average depth for secchi disk, total dissolved
solids, average standing crop of plankton and bottom fauna per unit
area, average catch of fish in a standard gillnet, and a list of a few
dominant plankters, bottom organisms and fish. An experienced lini-
nologist would feel that he had a considerable grasp of what was going
on in such a lake and would probably make some definite suggestions
concerning the level of fish production to be expected.” (Rawson,
1958)
Submerged aquatic vegetation has become a problem in many
standing bodies of water used for recreation. It is important. therefore.
to conduct a reconnaissance of the standing crop of submerged aquatics
during the period of maximum growth to determine the immediate
Plate 42. Interior of 26-foot U.S. Public Health Service Mobile Labora-
tory—facing fo ?ard
4 :k4
-
122
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potential nuisance problem, as well as secure base line data against
which future observations can be compared to determine relative changes
in the standing crop and predict future potential nuisances. This is done
best by mapping the standing crop as accurately as possible, both as
to kinds present and relative abundance.
Dobie and Moyle (1956) state that “. . . . there have been
many attempts to evaluate fish-rearing ponds on the basis of fish popu-
lations and production. Too often basic limnology and chemistry of
pond water and soil have been neglected by fisheries workers . . . knowl-
edge of the aquatic habitat is essential for understanding the mechanics
of fish production.” Based on 10 years of experience in Minnesota,
they set up a typical pond study to include analysis of pond soil; analysis
of pond water including total alkalinity, sulfates, chlorides, ammonia,
organic, nitrate and nitrite nitrogen, total nitrogen, and total and soluble
phosphorus; the protein nitrogen and phosphorus; and a measure of
plankton production.
The Public Health Service has established a National Water
Quality Network currently involving 128 stations on the rivers of the
United States. All Network samples are examined for: 11 ’ 12, 13, 14
Radioactivity (weekly): (1) Gross alpha; (2) Gross beta; (3)
Strontium 90.
Plankton populations (semimonthly).
Coliform organisms (weekly).
Organic chemicals (monthly).
Biochemical, chemical, and physical measurements, including bio-
chemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, chemical oxygen de-
mand, chlorine demand, ammonia nitrogen, pH, color turbidity,
temperature, alkalinity, hardness, chloride, sulfate, phosphates,
and total dissolved solids (weekly).
Trace elements.
‘ National Water Quality Network, Annual Compilation of Data, Oct. 1, 195 7—
Sept. 30, 1958. U.S. Public Health Service Publication No. 663 (1958 Edition),
239 pp. (1958).
“National Water Quality Network, Supplement 1, Statistical Summary of Selected
Data, Oct. 1, l957—Sept 30, 1958. U.S. Public Health Service Publication No. 663,
Supplement I, 164 pp. (1959).
13 National Water Quality Network, Annual Compilation of Data, Oct. 1, 1958—
Sept 30, 1959. U.S. Public Health Service Publication No. 663 (1959 Edition),
323 pp. (1959).
14 National Water Quality Network, Annual Compilation of Data, Oct. 1, 1959—
Sept. 30, 1960. U.S. Public Health Service Publication No. 663 (1960 Edition),
424 pp. (1960).
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A survey that measures many water characteristics necessitates
planning and organization of equipment (Hoskins. 1938; Carnahan,
1941). DeMartini (1941) described one of the first mobile laboratory
units used in a survey of the Ohio River. Since that time, mobile labora-
tories have increased in size and in instrumentation. The U.S. Public
Health Service uses a 40-foot mobile trailer laboratory, a 26-foot compact
mobile laboratory, and a smaller unit designed especially for biological
studies. The larger units contain a hot water heater. BUD incubator,
air conditioner, electric muffle furnace, hot air sterilizer, electric water
still, bacteriological incubators and water baths, refrigerator, steam ster-
ilizer, fume hood, ice machine. glassware washer, exhaust fan, and a
110-volt generator. The small mobile biological laboratory contains a
sink, counter space. cupboard and shelves for holding sampling cases,
electrofishing unit, dredges, nets, and miscellaneous equipment.
HOW?
The techniques of sample collection and analysis have been well
documented in the ‘ Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Wastewater” Anon., 1960). This has been used for many years
as a guide to the physical and chemical examination of water, sewage,
and industrial wastes, the radiologic and bacteriologic examination of
water, and the biologic examination of water, sludges, and bottom mate-
rials. The first edition of “Standard Methods” was published in 1905.
In its letter of transmittal, the committee developing the first edition
stated: ‘The methods of analysis presented in this report as ‘Standard
Plate 43. Interior of 26-foot U.S. Public Health Service Mobile Labora-
tory—facing the rear.
-------
r . I(r - :•: .-. •c ’- -k’.
Plate 44. Mobile biological laboratory with electrofishing unit, Petersen
dredge, Ekman dredge, and other equipment in interior.
Methods’ are believed to represent the best current practice of American
water analysts, and to be generally applicable in connection with the
ordinary problems of water purification, sewage disposal and sanitary
investigations. Anahsts working on widely different problems mani-
festly cannot use methods which are identical, and special problems ob-
viously require the methods best adapted to them; but, while recognizing
these facts, it yet remains true that sound progress in analytical work will
advance in proportion to the general adoption of methods which are
reliable, uniform and adequate.” The foresight of the original com-
mittee is evident in comparing its statement with our present beliefs.
Another book, “Limnological Methods” (Welch, 1948) is worthy
of special mention since it ‘ . . . presents the essentials of those basic
methods necessary for (a) entry into the subject of limriology, (b) limno-
logical surveys of lakes and streams, and (c) fundamental information
upon which specialized researches depend.”
Water samples for chemical analyses are obtained from a particu-
lar location within the water body. The location will depend upon the
problem under investigation, but the sample should represent the water
volume from which it was obtained and for which the sampling program
was devised. Sampling equipment designed especially for lakes or
streams aids in sampling; a Kemmerer water bottle is widely used in
[ imnological investigations.
U i”
1, T
125
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Flow data for the inlets, putlets, and contributing sources, which
can be correlated with sampling dates, are of utmost importance. Such
data permit, for example, a calculation of the amount of nutrients enter-
ing, remaining, and being discharged from a body of water. These data
are necessary to the full understanding of a particular problem and
permit a better evaluation of feasible remedial measures.
Samples of water for plankton examination are secured in much
the same fashion as samples for chemical analyses. In most cases, a vol-
ume of water from a particular location is sufficient; in special studies it
may be advantageous to use one of the specialized plankton samplers
described in “Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater” and “Limnological Methods.” Again, the sample must be
representative of the ecological niche for which the sampling program
was planned. Unless the samples are examined soon after collection they
must be preserved with either 4-percent formalin or one of the special
plankton preservatives.
Williams (1961) describes the method used by the Public Health
Service Water Quality Laboratory, Cincinnati, Qhio. Each sample is
taken directly from the river or lake, or from a continuously flowing in-
take (as at a water treatment plant) receiving the river or lake water.
The sample. consisting of 3 liters of untreated water, is added to 100 ml.
of preservative (thimerosal, 0.16 percent, plus Lugol’s solution, 1 per-
cent) in a polyethylene bottle. The Lugol’s solution stains parts of the
cells making identification easier. It also aids in settling the plankton
since the iodine causes some of them to lose gas and, therefore, their
buoyancy. This preservative has been found to be effective for approxi-
mately 1 month during the warm seasons and longer during cool weather.
One gram of sodium borate is added for each gram of thimerosal to help
keep the thimerosal in solution.
Various laboratory methods have been employed to estimate
plankton populations within a sample and simplified procedures have
been presented (Ingram and Palmer, 1952’). Calibration of plankton
counting equipment is essential at the start of any counting program and
methods for calibration and calculation of results have been recorded
(Jackson and Williams. 1962). Statistical precision of the results re-
ported have also been given thoughtful treatment (Moore, 1952; Kut-
kuhn, 1958). Researchers recognize the many errors inherent in deter-
niining a theoretical plankton population. The investigator should pre-
cisely record the procedure he has followed in both sample collection
and sample examination to permit the reader to judge the report against
past literature on the subject and to repeat a method if an area may
someday be restudied.
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Three analyses, each requiring 1 liter, are made per sample at
Cincinnati, Ohio (Williams, 1961):
(1) the genera of ph toplankters are identified and enumerated
with the Sedgwick-Rafter slide technique; (2) the genera of micro-
invertebrates, mostly rotifers and crustaceans, are settled, identified to
genus, and counted in a special microslide; and (3) the diatoms are
settled, washed, and made into a permanent hyrax slide from which are
made proportional counts of the species and some of the varieties. These
determinations are also used to qualitate to genus the diatoms recorded
in the Sedgwick-Rafter (step one) procedure and to make the propor-
tional counts in step three. Phvtoplankters counted in the Sedgwick-
Rafter slide include forms measuring 4 microns or more. Clump counts
are made of fungi and sheathed bacteria. The Sedgwick-Rafter counts
for total algae that were alive when collected are made as clump counts
in which each single-celled individual or natural clump or colony of cells
is enumerated as one. The count is made in a Sedgwick-Rafter slide
from unconcentrated or undiluted raw water samples, with 20-power
objectives and 10-power oculars, and is accomplished by counting two
lengthwise strips (about 500 microns) the width of the Whipple square.
These two strips represent a volume of about 0.05 ml. To obtain the
number of plankters per ml., a factor of 20 to 22 is used, varying with
the correction for presenative dilution and differences in calibration of
the microscopes. Diatom shells without chromatophores are tallied sep-
arately from presented diatoms with chromatophores.
In a survey of the Delaware-Susquehanna watershed (Tressler
and Bere, 1935), a 10-liter plankton trap, a Kemmerer water sampler,
a Foerst centrifuge, and a Sedgwick-Rafter counting cell were used. The
results of the counts were correlated with depth and with the amount
of organic matter in the water.
Damann (1941) described results of quantitative studies of the
phytoplankton of Lake Michigan in which water samples were filtered
through sand supported upon 200-mesh bolting cloth discs and the num-
ber of organisms from the concentrate calculated. Later Damann
(1950), found that a direct count without concentration in a Sedg-
wick-Rafter counting cell yielded a considerably higher average plankton
number in all of the population densities than that obtained by the
standard concentration method.
Lackey (1938) used a drop counting method in his examination
of Scioto River, Ohio, phvtoplankton. In this method, the sample is
first centrifuged and”.. . after thorough agitation by alternately sucking
it in and spurting it out of the pipette, the exact number of drops was
counted and a sufficient number of drops of the decanted portion was
added, so that one drop of catch bore a definite relationship to the
127
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amount centrifuged.” One drop of sample was put on a glass slide and
a cover glass added. Advantages of the method include inclusion of all
organisms in the catch, simplicity and ease of manipulation, and instant
use of the high power magnification where identification with the low
power is questionable. Use of the high power objective is also possible
when ph’vtoplankton are concentrated on the membrane filter (McNabb,
1960). McNabb developed a method in which a 1 -inch membrane
filter was used to concentrate the sample and the frequency of occurrence
of specific organisms in a specified number of microscopic fields was
noted. The frequency-percentage was converted to a theoretical average
number of individuals per quadrat through the use of a frequency-density
table.
Plankton samples from the Madison, Wis., sewage treatment
plant effluent diversion study (Mackenthun et al., 1960) were concen-
trated by settling with a liquid detergent and were counted by the drop
technique. The number of a particular type of organism in 1 liter of
water was determined by the following formula:
No , 1 _ (Avg No./fleid) (No. fields/coverslip) (No. drops/mi) X 1,000
Concentration factor
ml of original sample
The concentration factor=
(ml of concentrate) (0.94)
where 0.94 accounts for the dilution of the sample by the addition of
formaiin and the detergent
The volume contributed by each species was expressed in parts per
million by use of the following formula:
Volume (ppm) = (No. org/I) (avg species vol in p 5 ) X I0 .
Palmer (Palmer and Maloney, 1954), developed a new counting
slide for nannoplankton.
Patrick et al. (1954) developed a slide-carrying device, termed
the Catherwood cliatometer, to sample the diatom populations of streams.
It consists of a plastic base mounted on a lead bar shaped like a boat.
On the plastic base are mounted two floats designed so that the depth to
t,%rhich the diatometer is sunk can be varied. Between the floats, behind
a plastic V-shaped vane, the plastic slide holder slotted to hold six
slides vertically is mounted edgewise to the current. The vane prevents
excess washing of the slides. It was stated that I week was sufficient
to expose the slides and that the population of an unpolluted stream could
be estimated as adequately with this method as with the usual methods
of collecting diatoms. Calculations upon which these estimates are
based have to be corrected when dealing with polluted streams.
Periphyton include that assemblage of organisms that grow upon
free surfaces of submerged objects in water and cover them with a slimy
coat. Cooke (1956) gives a comprehensive review of the literature on the
128
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subject. Periphyton play an important role in flowing waters because
these organisms are the major primary producers in that environment.
Thus, they are an important part of a lake or reservoir study of both
the influent and receiving streams. A number of substrates have been
proposed with which to stud)’ attached organisms including glass slides,
cement blocks, wooden shingles, and plexiglass plates (Grzenda and
Brehmer, 1960).
Artificial substrates have been successfully employed in studying
bottom fauna in the flowing stream. One multiple-plate sampler con-
structed of tempered hardboard (Hester and Dendy, 1962) has been
especially suitable for studying stream inhabitants in those streams that
do not possess a natural substrate suitable for the attachment of benthic
forms. A sampler constructed of eight 3-inch squares separated by
seven 1-inch squares and held in place by a bolt or threaded rod exposes
slightly more than 1 square foot of surface to which organisms can
attach .
Bottom samples in lakes usually may be collected with an Ekman
dredge, although the physical composition of the bottom determines to a
great extent the type of sampler that must be used to collect an adequate
sample. The Ekman dredge (Ekman, 1911) consists of a square box of
sheet brass 6 x 6 inches in cross section. The lower opening of this
box is closed by a pair of strong jaws so made and installed that they
oppose each other. When open, the jaws are pulled apart so that the
whole bottom of the box is open; the jaws are held open by chains at-
tached to trip pins. To close the dredge, the trip pins are released by a
brass messenger sent down the attachment rope and the jaws snap shut by
two strong external springs. The hinged top of the box is equipped with a
permanent 30-mesh screen to prevent loss of organisms if the sampler
sinks in to mud deeper than its own height. The sampler is especially
adapted for use in soft, finely divided mud and muck; it does not
function properly on sand bottoms or hard substrates.
The Petersen dredge (Petersen, 1911) is widely used for sampling
hard bottoms such as sand, gravel, marl, clay, and similar materials.
It is an iron clam-type dredge, sampling when open an area of 0÷6 to
0.8 square foot, and weighing between 35 and 70 pounds depending
on the use of additional weights that may be bolted to the sides of the
operating dredge. The dredge is slowly lowered to the bottom, and as
the tension is eased on the rope the mechanism holding the jaws apart
is released. As the rope is again made taut, a sample is secured. By
maintaining tension on the rope until the dredge is placed, the operator
maintains control of the dredge. This is especially helpful in sampling
gravel or rubble, as the operator can determine through sound and touch
the type of bottom and can, through careful manipulation of the dredge,
129
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secure a better sample than would otherwise be possible. After the
dredge is ‘set”. alternate application and release of tension on the rope
aid in working the dredge into the bottom substratum.
After the bottom sample is collected by one of the deepwater
sampling devices, it is brought to the surface and placed in a large pail
or tub. Water for sample dilution is added to the pail. the sample is
mixed into a slurry. and the sluny passed through a U.S. Standard
N0. 30 mesh sieve while the sieve is being rotated in the water. The
washing operation is repeated until all fine material has passed through
the sieve, and all organisms are washed from the sample and are trapped
in the sieve. The organisms and coarser debris from the sieve are then
removed and may be preserved. The sand and rubble in the original
sample from which the organisms have been removed are discarded. It
is often easier to sort the organisms from the debris when the organisms
arc alive. Time schedules and extensive field operations, however, often
dictate that sample collection and examination take place at different
times during the ‘ear. Thus, after the samples are preserved in the field
they are returned to the laboratory where the organisms are separated
from the debris, placed in respective groups, identified, and enumerated.
To sample riffle areas in streams, a stream-bottom sampler, origi-
nally described by Surber (1936). is widely used. It consists of two
1-foot-square frames hinged together at right angles; one frame supports
the net, the other encloses the sampling area. In field operation, the
sampler is so placed that organisms dislodged by hand from the sub-
stratum within the sampling frame will be carried into the net by the
current.
Hess (1941) described another form of circular square-foot sam-
pler suitable for gravd and rubble stream bottoms. It consists of a cylin-
Plate 45. Biological sampling equipment. From left to right, a Kern-
merer water sampler, Ekman dredge, U.S. Standard No. 30 sieve,
washing bucket, and Petersen dredge.
-------
der about 18 inches tall, streamlined in cross section and tapered to a
bottom hoop whose inside diameter encloses exactly 1 square foot of area.
The sampler is so constructed that it may be thrust into the bottom and
the organisms dislodged and captured in a downstream net in much the
same manner as in the Surber square-foot stream-bottom sampler.
Needham and Usinger (1956) studied the variability in the
organisms of a single riffle in Prosser Creek. Calif.. as indicated by the
Surber sampler. Results of 100 bottom samples indicated that an exces-
sive number of samples would be required to provide significant data on
total weights and total numbers of bottom organisms. The data showed.
however, that only 2 square-foot samples are necessary to be reasonably
certain of obtaining representatives of principal groups of organisms
present.
Fish samples may be collected by nets, seines, poisons. and electro-
fishing. Electrofishing is conducted by means of an alternating or direct
electrical potential applied to water that has a resistance different from
the fish. This difference in resistance to pulsating direct current stimu-
lates the swimming muscles for short periods of time, causing the fish to
orient and be attracted to t.he positive electrode. An electrical field of
Plate 46. Sorting, enumeration, and identification equipment used in
analyzing benthic samples.
//
N
-------
sufficient potential to demobilize the fish is present near the positive elec-
trode, but decreases in intensity with distance. After the fish are identi-
fied, weighed, and measured, they can be returned to the water
uninjured.
The electrofishing unit may consist of a 110 volt, 60 cycle, heavy
duty generator, an electrical control section, which is a modified com-
mercially-sold variable voltage pulsator, and electrodes. The electrical
control section provides selection of voltages from 50 to 700 volts AC
and 25 to 350 volts DC. The AC current acts as a standby for the DC
current and is used in cases of extremely low water resistance. The
variable voltage allows control of field size in various types of water.
WHERE?
Proper location of sampling points depends primarily upon the
particular problem under investigation. Sampling may be also closely
correlated with the particular niche of the environment that appears to
contribute most to the study problem.
A lake or reservoir is the receiving basin of its inflowing waters.
It is thus greatly influenced by influent streams, which must be critically
studied to measure the input of the water body. Sampling stations should
be established on major influent streams, at points where they are not
influenced by the lake’s basin, to determine nutrient loadings, biological
productivity, and other pertinent water properties. Flow data are essen-
tial to determine the pounds of nutrients contributed from the drainage
basin. Biological productivity involves principally a determination of
the plankton population, attached algae, rooted higher aquatic plants,
benthos, and fish. A biological reconnaissance of the area will assess its
suitability as a fish habitat and spawning area. The environmental con-
ditions of the inflowing water and its contribution to the basin proper
will thus be determined.
The plankton population can be ascertained by the examination
of periodic plankton samples normally collected at midstream 1 to 2 feet
below the surface. Attached algal growths should be qualitatively as-
sessed wherever they occur. Bottom fauna should be collected at a mini-
mum of three points across the stream (mid and two quarter points);
a minimum of three individual samples should be collected from each
point and retained separately. An attempt should be made to determine
the fish population within a specified area. Points at which samples are
collected for routine chemical determinations or stream monitoring for
chemicals should match those for biological samplings.
Likewise, the receiving waters from the lake or reservoir should
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be studied in a fashion similar to that of the influent streams. The efflu-
ent of a natural lake will usually give a good composite of the epiimni-
onic waters of the lake. The discharge from a penstock located below
the thermocline, however, will not give a representative sample of the
productive zone of the reservoir but shows water quality in a portion of
the hypolimnion instead. A study would be indicated to show the effect
of the low-level discharge on the receiving waters.
Within the lake or reservoir, a number of sampling sites may be
chosen depending on the problem under investigation and the conditions
to be studied. An investigation of the kinds and relative abundance of
aquatic vegetation would naturally be limited to the littoral area. A
mapping of aquatic plants often proves useful for future comparisons.
Fish sampling also is usually more profitable in shallow water areas, al-
though gill nets set in the region of the thermocline and below may
sample a fish population not usually observed in shallow water.
The use of transections in sampling a lake bottom is of particular
value because there are changes in depth and because benthos concentra-
tion zones usually occur. Unless sampling is done systematically and at
relatively close intervals along transections, especially those that extend
across the zone between the weed beds and the upper extent of the hypo-
limnion, concentration zones may be missed entirely or inadequately
represented. High benthic productivity may occur in the profundal
region. Because depth is an important factor in the distribution of bot-
tom organisms, productivity is often compared on the basis of samples
collected from similar depth zones. Collections from a transection will
sample all depth zones, and a sufficient number of samples must be taken
to make the data meaningful.
A circular lake basin should be sampled from several transections
extending from shore to the deepest point in the basin. A long narrow
basin is suitable for regularly spaced parallel transects that cross the basin
perpendicular with the shore beginning near the inlet and ending near
the outlet. A large bay should be bisected by a transection originating
near shore and extending to the lake proper.
There are definite advantages in sampling the benthic population
in winter beneath the ice cover. Samples can be collected at definite,
spaced intervals on a transection, and the exact location of sampling
points can be determined. Also, collections are at a time of peak
benthic population when emerging insects do not alter the benthic
population.
Transections also aid in sampling the plankton population.
Because of the number of analyses necessary to appraise the plankton
population. however, more strategic points are usually sampled, such as
water intakes, a site near the dam or discharge, constrictions within the
730-349 (j—64----.-1O 133
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water body, and major bays that may influence the main basin. Because
of significant population variation, plankton samples must be taken
vertically at periodic depths. and at different times over the 24-hour day.
Samples of bottom muds are useful to detcrmine the concentra-
tion of specific elements within the bottom deposits. Heavy metals, for
example, are known to be concentrated in the deeper portions of the
lake, and copper and arsenic used in aquatic vegetation control have
been found in significant quantities in such deposits. Core samples
from the bottom present a historical background of bottom sediments,
from which determinations can be made of the relative rate of deposition
for a period of time.
Figure 8. Diagrammatic sketch of a natural lake basin showing sug-
gested sampling sites. Inlet and outlet samples give valuable data.
Samples taken from points on transection lines on a periodic or sea-
sonal basis are valuable in determining vertical water characteristics
and the benthic standing crop.
/
• RC’ T NE SAMPLING SITES
o TRA1’ SECT SAMPLING SITES—
PER C’DIC OR SE . S N . L COLLECTIONS
134
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WHEN?
The periodicity with which samples are collected during a par-
ticular season will depend on the time and personnel available. In special
studies, samples are often collected daily or even periodically during a
24-hour day.
To measure plankton populations and chemical constituents that
may change rapidly, weekly collections, as a minimum, are desirable
throughout the season of active biological growth. A reconnaissance
and mapping of the aquatic vegetation should be accomplished during
maximum vegetation growth, usually in midsummer. Bottom fauna
should be sampled during the annual seasons; the standing crop
will be highest, however, during the fall and winter periods when there
is no insect emergence and one of the sampling dates should reflect
this period.
REPORTING THE RESULTS
A report represents the end result of all the efforts put forth
to accomplish the study. A poor report frequently negates the results
of a meticulous field program while a good report does much to enhance
the study. The report should be as carefully planned as the field
operations. The type of report vill depend upon two basic considera-
tions: (1) the purpose of the report, and (2) who will use it. The
report may be only a record of the findings. It may be an exposition
MULl -LEVEL
V TER SUPPLY
NTAK E
ROADWAY
• ROUTINE SAMPLING SITES
O TRANSEC T SAMP N3 STES—
PEP OiC OR SEASONAL COLLECTIONS
Figure 9. Diagrammatic sketch of a long, narrow, shallow water reservor
showing suggested sampling stations.
135
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of existing causes and effects and projections to other considerations
that may reasonably occur, or predictions of conditions that might occur
and reconimendations for action to be taken. The report should be con-
sidered as a document permanently recording all essential facts in the
study to meet the needs of all concerned including technical agencies,
political representatives who may be for or against the conclusions and
recommendations, and the public.
In all instances the report adds to the existing record. All field
notes, observations, and laboratory data should be included in the report
for permanent recording. This information provides valuable baseline
data for future studies of an area.
The first step in the development of the report is an outline.
It should be thought out very carefully and cover all necessary items in
logical continuity. A good outline will prevent omission of necessary
material and save considerable time in report writing. Outlines vary
with objectives of the reports; however, most reports of water studies
will contain the following major items:
Introduction
Acknowledgment
Summary and conclusions
Recommendations
Historical background of study
Physical description of study area
Geography
Topography
Climate
Hydrology
Use of water resources
Water resource conservation program
Municipal and industrial needs
Navigation
Fish and wildlife
Recreation
Survey methods
Field ihvestigation
Laboratory operations
Results of study (data presentation)
Discussion
Bibliography
Appendixes
136
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The discussion sl ouId be used for the evaluation of the data ,
There is room in this section for aggressive and imaginative thinking.
The analysis and interpretation of results, including methods of attack
and validity of data, should be discussed. Detailed description of any
statistical method used should be placed in an appendix. Wherever
possible, references should substantiate reports of contradicting results;
an effort should be made to explain discrepancies (Porges, 1960).
Graphic expression of biological data has been used to advantage
(Bartsch, 1948; Bartsch and Ingram, 1959; and Greenberg, 1962) and
has been summarized by Ingram and Bartsch (1960). Graphics add
impact to the findings and give the reader a broad picture in clear,
concise form. Pertinent biological information has little value or utility
to the general reader unless presented in a form that is readily visualized
and understood. Information from a great many reports is disseminated
to the general public since the public decides, in a broad sense, the
monies allocated for particular studies. Thus, reports should be so
written that they can be understood by the public, and still contain
sufficient scientific terminology to accurately define the results of the
study.
REFERENCES
Anon., 1960. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste-
water. Am. Public Health Association, Am. Water Works Association,
Water Pollution Control Federation, 11th Ed., 626 pp.
Bartsch, A. F., 1948. Biological Aspects of Stream Pollution. Sewage
WorksJour.,20(2): 292—302.
Bartsch, A. F. and W. M. Ingram, 1959. Stream Life and the Pollution
Environment. Public Works, 90(7): 104—110.
Carnahan, C. T., 1941. Mechanical Aids for Stream Surveys. Public
Health Reports, 56(16): 815—821.
Coker, R. E., 1954. Streams, Lakes, Ponds. University of North Carolina
Press, Chapel Hill, 327 pp.
Cooke, W. B., 1956. Colonization of Artificial Bare Areas by Microorga-
nisms. Botanical Review, 22(9): 613—638.
Damann, K. E., 1941. Quantitative Study of the Phytop lankton of Lake
Michigan at Evanston, Ill. Butler University Botanical Studies, Indian-
apolis, Ind., 5: 27—44.
Damann, K. E., 1950. A Simplified Plankton Counting Method. Trans.
Ill. Acad. Sci., 43: 53—GO.
137
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DeMartini, F. E., 1941. Mobile Laboratory Units of the Ohio River Pollu-
tion Survey. Public Health Reports, 56 ( 15 ) : 754—769.
Dobie, J. and J. Moyle, 1956. Methods Used for Investigating Produc-
tivity of Fish-Rearing Ponds in Minnesota. Minn. Dept. of Cons. Special
Publication No. 5, PP. 1—54.
Ekman, S., 1911. Neue Apparate zur Qualitativen und Quantitativen
Erforschung der Bodenfauna der Seen. Ixtternatl. Rev. HydrobioL, 7:
164—204.
Greenberg, A. K, 1962. Stream Plankton Data Presentation. Water and
Sewage Works, 109(12): 474.
Grzenda, A. R. and M. L. Brehmer, 1960. A Quantitative Method for
the Collection and Measurement of Stream Periphyton. Limnology and
Oceanography, 5 (2): 190—194.
Hayes, F. R. and C. C. Coffin, 1951. Radioactive Phosphorus and Ex-
change of Lake Nutrients. Endeavor, JO: 78—81.
Hess, A. D, 1941. New Limnological Sampling Equipment. Limnologi-
cal Society of America, Special Publication No. 6, 5 pp.
Hester, F. E. and J. S. Dendy, 1962. A Multiple-Plate Sampler for Aquatic
Macroinvertebrates. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 91(4): 420—421.
Hoskins, J. K., 1938. Planning the Organization and Conduct of Stream
Pollution Surveys. Public Health Reports, 53(18): 729—735.
Hutchinson, G. E., 1957. A Treatise on Limnology. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, 1,015 pp.
Ingram, W. M. and A. F. Bartsch, 1960. Graphic Expression of Biological
Data in Water Pollution Reports. Jour. Water Pollution Control Federa-
tion,32(3): 297—310.
Ingram, W. M. and C. M. Palmer, 1952. Simplified Procedures for Col-
lecting, Examining, and Recording Plankton in Water. Jour. Am. Water
Works Association, 44(7): 617—624.
Jackson, H. \V. and L. G. Williams, 1962. Calibration and Use of Certain
Plankton Counting Equipment. Trans. Am. Micro. Soc., 81(1): 96—103.
Kutkuhn. 3. H., 1958. Notes on the Precision of Numerical and Volumetric
Plankton Estimates from Small-Sample Concentrates. Limnology and
Oceanography, 3(1): 69—83.
Lackey, J. B.. 1938. The Manipulation and Counting of River Plankton
and Changes in some Organisms Due to Formalin Preservation. Public
Health Reports, 53(47): 2080—2093.
Mackenthun. K. M., L. A. Lueschow and C. D. McNabb, 1960. A Study
of the Effects of Diverting the Effluent from Sewage Treatment upon the
Receiving Stream. Wis. Mad. Sci., Arts & Lett., 49: 51—72.
138
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McNabb, C. D., 1960. Enumeration of Freshwater Phytoplankton Con-
centrated on the Membrane Filter. Limnology and Oceanography, 5(1):
57—61.
Moore, E. W., 1952. The Precision of Microscopic Counts of Plankton
in Water. Jour. Am. Water Works Association, 44(3): 208—216.
Needham, J. G. and J. T. Lloyd, 1937. The Life of Inland Waters. Com-
stock Publishing Co., Ithaca, N.Y., 438 pp.
Needham, P. R. and R. L. Usinger, 1956. Variability in the Macrofauna
of a Sing’ Riffle in Prosser Creek, Calif., as Indicated by the Surber
Sampler. i-Iilgardia, 24(14): 383—409.
Odum, E. P., 1959. Fundamentals of Ecology. W. B. Saunders Co.,
Philadelphia, Pa., 546 pp.
Palmer, C. M. and T. E. Maloney, 1954. A New Counting Slide for
Nannoplankton. Am. Soc. Lirnnology and Oceanography, Publication No.
21, pp. 1-6.
Patrick, R., M, H. Hohn and J. H. Wallace, 1954. A New Method for
Determining the Pattern of the Diatom Flora. Notu lae Naturae, 259: 1—12.
Petersen, C. G. J., 1911. Valuation of the Sea. Danish Biol. Sta. Rpt. I,
20: 1—76.
Porges, R., 1940. Report Preparation—Water Pollution Surveys. Robert
A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, 10 pp.
Rawson, D. 5., 1958. Indices to Lake Productivity and their Significance
in Predicting Conditions in Reservoirs and Lakes with Disturbed Water
Levels. The Investigation of Fish-Power Problems. H. R. MacMillan
Lectures in Fisheries, P. A. Larkin, Editor, University of British Columbia,
pp. 27—42.
Reid, G. K., 1961. Ecology of Inland Waters and Estuaries. Reinhold
Publishing Corp., New York, 375 pp.
Ruttner, F., 1963. Fundamentals of Limnology. University of Toronto
Press, Toronto, Ontario, 242 pp. Third Edition.
Surber, E. W., 1936. Rainbow Trout and Bottom Fauna Production in
One Mile of Stream. Am. Fish. Soc., 66: 193—202.
Tressler, W. L. and R. Re x -c, 1935. A Limnological Study of some Lakes in
the Delaware and Susquehanna Watersheds. Suppl. to 25th Annual Re-
port, New York State Cons. Dept., pp. 222—236.
Welch, P. S., 1948. Limnological Methods. The Blakiston Co., Philadel-
phia, 381 pp.
Welch, P. 5., 1952. Limnology. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York,
471 pp.
Williams, L. G., 1961. Plankton Population Dynamics. Public Health
Service Publication No. 663, Supp l. 2, pp. 1—90.
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CHAPTER VII
Control of Excessive Production
Man cannot change a single law of nature,
but can put himself into such relations to
natural laws that he can pro/it by them.
—EDWIN GRANT CONKLIN.
The control of aquatic nuisances unquestionably should be di-
rected to the basic cause. Uncontrolled drainage from h avilv fertilized
farmland, the discharge of untreated or partially and inadequately
treated domestic wastes from shoreline cottages, the discharge of effluents
from municipal and industrial treatment plants, drainage from garbage
dumps, or the discharge of untreated industrial and municipal wastes each
contributes its share of fertility and thus accelerates the aging of a body
of water.
The process of growing old limits the life span of some lakes to
a comparatively short time in the geological calendar. As the aging
process advances, the water becomes enriched and the lake gets shallower
because of accumulated sediment from erosion and organic debris, and
the anchoring of it by rooted aquatic plants. The enriched water gives
rise to offensive weed and algal growths that in turn hinder or reduce
the potential or multiple utilization of the water. Enrichment of the
water under primitive conditions would be a slow process when measured
against the life span of man, but natural enrichment augmented by man-
made enrichment may increase the fertility of the water to such an extent
that the process can be observed over a period of an average life span.
Most of our lakes are affected by some form of manmade enrichment.
To control developing nuisances by correcting the basic causes,
each individual connected with a given watershed must practice pollu-
tion abatement. The discharge of effluents from sewage treatment opera-
tions, and of industrial wastes or effluents into the watercourse must be
curtailed, unless research can pmduce processes that will tie up nutrients
that sent as fertilizers. Over the years. progressive strides have been
made by many of the States in water pollution abatement and prevention.
The problem. however, is of great magnitude, and the solution will be
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slow in coming. Great harm has been and is being done to many waters,
and nature’s repair process is slow even after the underlying cause is
partially or completely corrected. Controls, even though temporary, are
necessary if man is to enjoy and utilize this great natural resource to
the fullest extent.
The concept of maintenance must be considered by all users of
lakes or reservoirs. Controls developed to cure water ills are not singular
operations. The triggering mechanism responsible for nuisance develop-
ment is usually such that it probably will reestablish itself another year.
Thus, continuous surveillance as well as maintenance are necessary items
of lake or reservoir management.
Methods have been developed and perfected that effect an ade-
quate temporary reduction and control of the nuisance under a number
of circumstances. Controls may be either mechanical or chemical, and
their selection and use depend upon the nature and scope of the problem,
the type and extent of the control desired, and comparative costs. Me-
chanical controls are limited principally to rooted aquatic vegetation,
whereas chemical controls have been developed for algae, rooted aquatic
vegetation, and other nuisance organisms. Every control has limitations
based upon the dimensions of a proposed area to be treated; however,
the limitations are broad and do not exclude overall utilization of the
water. Controls that are most generally recommended have not been
shown to seriously disrupt general lake ecology.
Of the various algal control methods, chemical treatment has
proven most rapid, economical, and effective. Selection of an algicide
depends on its effectiveness to kill the majority of the organisms respon-
sible for the nuisance; control materials must not, however, seriously
affect the production of zooplankton, the production of fish and the
existing fish population, or the benthic invertebrates.
Aquatic vegetation has a definite role in the development and
maintenance of a balanced aquatic community. A certain amount of
aquatic vegetation in a given body of water is of value to the fishery and
waterfowl, although no one has determined the proportion of plant area
to water area that is necessary for optimum fish production.
Bennett (1948) studied a pond in which the area of open water
was reduced by more than 50 percent of the total surface area by a dense
stand of pondweed. Concurrently, the fish harvest was reduced to 58.1
percent of the yield taken during the year that aquatic vegetation was
largely absent, although fishing intensity by nets was increased 359 per-
cent and the angling intensity was increased 157 percent at the time of the
low harvest of fish.
Control should be confined to a nuisance area, and should not
involve an attempt at complete elimination of aquatic vegetation from
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a given body of water. The primary aim is to control organisms that
relate to water-use nuisances, and to leave areas in the natural state that
have not been proven to interfere with varied uses. It is important,
therefore, to know the ecology of aquatic vegetation and to use it to the
best advantage in maintaining the water environment for fishing,
hunting, and other recreational pursuits.
STATE CONTROL PROGRAMS
The problem of algal and weed nuisances varies considerably
from State to State. Most States receive requests for aquatic nuisance
control and generally carry out some type of control program. The pro-
gram may be limited to field experiments with various chemicals or to the
limited control of a nuisance in State-owned water. Some States report
that no problem exists; some report a much reduced problem and cite as
reasons the general high turbidities of the water and fluctuating water
levels. Many States are conducting research and field trials with newer
chemicals to find better control measures in anticipation of the developing
problem.
About 40 percent of the States regulate the introduction of chem-
icals for the control of aquatic nuisances by statute or executive order.’ 5
Another 40 percent regulate by informal supervision, and about 20 per-
cent report no regulation of any type. Many in the latter group also
report the nonexistence of a problem. The Wisconsin legislature in 1941
was the first State legislature to pass an act authorizing the Committee
on Water Pollution to supervise chemical treatment of waters to suppress
algae, aquatic weeds, swimmer’s itch, and other nuisance-producing
plants and organisms (Mackenthun, 1958). A State permit is required
for the introduction of chemicals in 40 percent of the States; approxi-
mately 60 percent require no permit. About 57 percent of the States,
however, report complete supervision of field application of chemicals,
21 percent report spot checks on the application of chemicals, about 7
percent report supervision principally by a control over commercial
spraying operators, and the remaining 15 percent report that no super-
vision is provided. Many of the States that report complete supervision
of field chemical application are also included in the group reporting no
required permit. Presumably, notification of control measures is based
principally on cooperation between those applying the chemical and the
governmental agency. Nearly 45 percent of the States report that com-
‘ SMoyle. J. B. and B. R. Jones, 1957. Summary of Aquatic Nuisance Control Ac-
tivities in the United States in 1956. pp. 1 —9 (mimeo.).
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plete cost of the treatment is paid by the State; however, these are gen-
erally small-control operations many of which are experimental,
performed on State-owned waters.
A questionnaire to all States in 1960 revealed that over 2,000
aquatic vegetation control projects were conducted annually and that
most States consider aquatic vegetation control to be a serious and grow-
ing problem. 16 Currently 78 percent of aquatic weed control is per-
formed by chemicals and 18 percent by mechanical harvesting. Princi-
pal advantages of chemical control include ease in application, relatively
low cost, lasting effect, and the covering of a large area in a short time.
Mechanical harvesting will not usually endanger fish, animals, and
humans, and can be used in water supply reservoirs. Main disadvantages
of mechanical control methods are the temporary benefit and the high cost
of labor and equipment; removal of cut vegetation poses a problem since
there is little or no commercial value for vegetation removed from the
water.
McCarthy, H., 1961. Survey Study on Methods of Controlling Aquatic Weeds
and their Effectiveness. FWD Corp., Clintonville, Wis., pp. 1—27 (mirneo.).
—
. .— a
Plate 47. Mechanical Weed Cutting and Removal
-
; %• -
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HARVESTING THE CROPS
From the standpoint of nutrient removal, harvesting the aquatic
crops annually would be advantageous. The economics of present
methods of harvesting and the scope of the problem, however, necessitate
a critical appraisal of the benefits versus the costs. The expected stand-
ing crop of algae approaches 2 tons per acre (wet weight) containing 15
pounds of nitrogen and 1.5 pounds of phosphorus. Submerged aquatic
plants would be expected to approach at least 7 tons per acre (wet
weight) containing 32 pounds of nitrogen and 3.2 pounds of phosphorus.
Values may be higher under severe nuisance conditions.
Bottom-dwelling bloodwornis (midge larvae) might be expected
to occur in population densities of 300 pounds per acre (‘vet weight).
If 6 percent of this population is annually lost as emerged insects outside
the lake basin (Borutsky, 1939), this removes only ¼ pound per acre
of nitrogen and possibly 1 / 10 as much phosphorus.
The nitrogen content of fish flesh is 2.5 percent (wet weight)
and the phosphorus content 0.2 percent (Beard, 1926). Thus, it would
be necessary to harvest I ton of fish to remove 50 pounds of nitrogen
and 4 pounds of phosphorus.
The inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations occurring
during the period of early spring growth that are believed to cause algal
nuisance are 0.8 and 0.04 pound respectively per acre foot of water.
Thus, if a mean water depth of 15 feet is assumed, 12 pounds per acre
of inorganic nitrogen and 0.6 pound per acre of soluble phosphorus
available for organism utilization in early spring might be expected to
stimulate troublesome nuisances. Harvesting an aquatic crop would be
expected to remove a portion of the nutrients in a body of water. It,
therefore, is an important consideration in reservoir or lake management.
Ultimately, harvesting techniques that are effective, feasible, and finan-
cially practical must be perfected.
Some methods and equipment used for the physical and mechani-
cal removal of water weeds are reservoir drawdown and drying, burn-
ing, hand-pulling, hand-cutting, hand-raking, chain-dragging, hand-
operated underwater weed saws, and power-driven underwater weed
cutting and weed removal units. The type of control employed depends
on the field situation, the extent of control desired, and the labor and
cost involved. Mechanical controls are especiall valuable in the rec-
lamation of shallow nuisance areas by dredging and filling.
CHEMICAL CONTROL
Chemical control measures are dependent upon the type of
nuisance and local conditions. A good algicide or herbicide must: (1)
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be reasonably safe for the applier to use, (2) kill the specific nuisance
plant or plants, (3) be nontoxic to fish and fish-food organisms at the
plant-killing concentration, (4) not prove seriously harmful to the ecology
of the general aquatic area, (5) be safe for water contact by humans
or animals, or provide suitable safeguards during the unsafe period, and
(6) be of reasonable cost. Some of these factors assume added signifi-
cance, based primarily on the physical aspects of a particular control
operation. What might be suitable from both a cost and toxicity stand-
point in a control program for a pond might not be feasible in a control
program for specific areas on a large body of water. Certainly more
scientific information is needed on the use of algicides and herbicides as
fish management tools; on the physiological activities and habitat limita-
tions of aquatic plants; on the effect of presently known chemical formu-
lations on a wider variety of plant species; and on the development, use,
and effectiveness of soil sterilants in an aquatic environment.
For many years, recommended chemicals have included copper
sulfate or blue vitriol for algal control, and sodium arsenite for submerged
aquatic vegetation control. Within the past 5 years, additional chemi-
cals have been used with varying success in the control of aquatic plants.
Specialization of chemicals is developing to the extent that some are more
effective on specific plant species. Recommendations usually should be
directed to the specific problem within a specific body of water.
For algal control it is usually necessary only to know the acreage
of water requiring treatment and for weed control, the volume of water.
To ascertain the volume of water, the surface area is multiplied by the
average depth. The latter is determined by frequent soundings at regu-
lar intervals across the area to be treated. Accurate soundings are best
made in the winter through ice cover when it is a simple matter to deter-
mine exact positions. The volume of water in cubic feet is used to deter-
mine the quantity of chemical needed:
Length (ft.) X Width (ft.) X Average Depth (ft.)
X62.4 (wgt. ofacu. ft. of water) =
1,000,000
pounds of chemical (active ingredient) needed to give a concentration of
1 mg/i. This, multiplied by the required chemical concentration in
milligrams per liter required for treatment equals the pounds of chemical
needed for the measured area. Various formulations may be purchased.
For example, a formulation containing 2 pounds of active ingredient per
gallon would necessitate dividing the pounds of chemical by two to arrive
at the gallons of commercial formulation required to control the nuisance.
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ALGAL CONTROL
From 1904 (Moore and Kellerman, 1904) and up to the present,
the chemical that has most nearly met specifications for the control of
algae has been copper sulfate (blue vitriol). Despite its extensive usage,
copper sulfate has shortcomings in that it may in excessive concentrations
poison fish and other aquatic life, it may accumulate in bottom muds as
an insoluble compound following extensive usage, and it is corrosive to
paint and equipment (Bartsch, 1954).
Definite dosages of copper sulfate for the control of various types
of algae were first prescribed by Moore and Kellerman (1905); these
have been extensively reprinted in tabular form with specific dosages
for some 70 organisms (Hale. 1954). The practical application of such
a table is limited, however, because of the many variables encountered
in nature. Because the solubility of copper in water is influenced by
pH and alkalinity as well as temperature, the dosage required for control
depends upon the chemistry of the water itself, as well as on the sus-
ceptibility of particular organisms to the copper. Thus, rather arbitrary
dosage rates have been successfully used, especially in the midwestern
States, for a number of years (Bartsch, 1954; Mackenthun, 1958).
Since a total alkalinity of 40.0 mg /I seems to be a natural separation
point between soft and hard waters (Moyle, 1949a), those lakes that
have a total methyl orange alkalinity of 40 mg/i or greater are treated
with blue vitriol (commercial copper sulfate) at a rate of 1 mg/i for the
upper 2 feet of water regardless of actual depth. On an acreage basis,
this concentration would amount to 5.4 pounds of commercial copper
sulfate per surface acre. The 2-foot depth has been determined to be
about the maximum effective range of a surface application of copper
sulfate in such water, since algae will be killed with increasing depth
only if the rate of downward diffusion exceeds the rate of copper precipi-
tation. The algae killed by such a treatment are those that are suspended
near the water surface and commonly occur as blooms in calm weather.
For lakes with a total methyl orange alkalinity below 40 mg/i, a con-
centration of 0.3 mg l commercial copper sulfate for the total volume
of water has been recommended. This is comparable to 0.9 pound of
copper sulfate per acre foot of water. It is obvious that if a low-alkalinity
lake has an average depth of about 6 feet, the dosage would be about the
same as in a high-alkalinity lake having the same area. When lesser
average depths are involved, a greater concentration of chemical results
in the high-alkalinity lakes. This apparent paradox would be even
more striking were it not for the fact that in low-alkalinity lakes the
algae frequently are of the filamentous types that may lie at the bottom
146
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and, therefore, the entire volume of water must be calculated to insure
that a sufficient concentration of the chemical reaches the algae to effect
E
0
U-
I-
w
U i
LL
0
0
a:
L i i
a-
U i
UJ
Ui
z
C ’,
0
z
0
a-
I0
8
6
AVERAGE DEPTH (FEET)
Figure 10. Chemical Dosage Chart. To achieve a chemical concentra-
tion of 1 mg/I in water having an average depth of 8 feet requires
10 pounds of the active chemical for an area 200 feet by 100 feet, or
21.8 pounds per acre.
2a
20
8
6
2
4
2
0 2 4 6 8
I0
147
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a kill. In high-alkalinity lakes, algae frequently are planktonic and tend
to concentrate near the surface, which is the only stratum in which ap
preciable concentrations of soluble copper can be produced. Certainly,
when copper sulfate is used as the algicide, the best and most lasting
control will result if the lake water has a total alkalinity around 50 mg/I
or less.
Algal control treatments can be marginal or complete; the type
applied to a given body of water must be detennined by the size, shape,
and relative fertility of the water, and the estimated cost of the project.
Complete treatment in which the calculated amount of copper sulfate is
systematically applied over the entire surface area is the most satisfactory.
It insures that a major portion of the total algal population is eliminated
at one time, so that a longer recovery period is required before an algal
bloom condition recurs. The intcn’al between necessary treatments will
be directly correlated with climatological conditions and the available
nutrients utilized by the remaining algal cells that are not killed as a
result of chemical application. One to three complete treatments per
season may be sufficient to give reasonable control.
Marginal treatment, on the other hand, is a method designed to
obtain temporary relief in a restricted area where more extensive ac-
tivity is not feasible or financially possible. In this procedure a strip,
200 to 400 feet wide lying parallel with the shore, and all protected
bays are sprayed in the same manner as in complete treatment. No
other part of the area is treated even though many algae may be present.
As a result of treatment, the algal population and the intensity of odors
along the periphery of the lake are reduced. The duration of freedom
from the algal nuisance following marginal treatment is dependent upon
the density of the algal population in the center of the lake and its
ability to infiltrate the treated area through the action of wind, waves,
and currents. Any marginal control operation should definitely be
considered on a periodic repeat basis. If fertility is not excessive, large
bodies of water might gain enough relief from marginal treatment to
warrant this type of control; however, it probably would be a waste of
money for a large, fertile lake that is long and narrow and subject to
considerable wind and wave action. In the latter case, complete treat-
ment might be the only present answer, the cost of which might be
prohibitive.
Copper sulfate may be applied in a variety of ways: bag-dragging.
dry feeding (Monie , 1956), liquid spray (Mackenthun, 1958), and air-
plane application of either dry or wet material.’ 7 Because rapid and
“Great Lakes Newsletter. Great Lakes Commission, Rackham Bldg., Ann Arbor,
Mich., 3(6) :1—10, July 1959.
148
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uniform distribution of the algicide is essential, the size and scope of the
problem determine to some extent the method employed. In general,
liquid spraying systems operated from a boat or barge have been most
widely used. Because copper sulfate is a highly corrosive chemical,
materials that are used in the construction of spraying equipment should
be resistant to its corrosive nature.
The effect of copper sulfate on an algal population can be noted
soon after treatment. Within a few minutes, the color of the water
changes from dark green to grayish-white. Although at no time are
all the algae in the lake entirely eliminated (Domogalla, 1926), the
water should be visibly free of cells 2 or 3 days following a complete
application. Treatment has proven beneficial both in large bodies of
water (Domogalla, 1935: and Domogalla, 1941) and in small fish-
rearing ponds (O’Donnell. 1945). Both in Wisconsin and Minnesota
(Movie, 1949b) there is an indication that certain algae, particularly
iphaniwmenon. seem to have acquired an increased tolerance to copper
a a result of many years of treatment: two to five times as much copper
sulfate must now be used as was necessary some 26 years ago to achieve
similar control.
Much has been recorded on the toxicity of copper sulfate to
various forms of aquatic life (Doudoroff and Katz, 1953; Ellis, 1937;
Marsh and Robinson. 1910: Prescott, 1948; Rushton, 1924; and Schaut,
1939). Extensive field and laboratory studies have shown that fish
PRESSURE HOSE
AND NOZZLE WITH
‘ DISCHARGE
8
3” PRESSURE
HOSE
I GATE
SEE INSERT
INSERT
SHOWING NOTCHEC
END OF PIPE
Figure 11. Diagrammatic sketch of equipment suitable for liquid spray
distribution of chemical.
GATE
VALVE
LINE—
PUMP POWER
SOURCE
730—349 O—64—-—---11
149
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are not killed by copper sulfate at the minimum concentrations used for
algal control, and that flshin and fish yields have not deteriorated in
lakes that have been treated over a long period of time Moyle. 1949h).
It is well known that copper saks accumulate upon the lake bottom
following repeated treatments and that the greatest accumulation is
found in the profundal region kNichols, Henkel, and McNall, 1946).
Attention has also been directed to the possible deleterious effect of this
accumulation on lake ecology Hasler. 1947). It has been shown
experimentally, however that the concentration of copper salts in bottom
muds as a rc ult of the use of nearly 2 million pounds of copper sulfate
to control algae in a hard-water lake over a 26-year period was con-
siderahlv lower than the concentration determined to have a deleterious
effect on profundal bottom-dwelling organisms ‘Mackenthun and
Cookv. l952’ .
In recent ‘ars, there has been a constant search for a chemical
replace copper sulfate that ouId be more effective. nonaccumulativc.
and perhaps even 1c costly over an extended period of time. Some
newer algicides are just now entering the field-testing phases following
preliminary work. These will require many Le ts and observationc under
varying conditions found in nature before their future potential can be
determined.
Algal cinrol measures should be undertaken before the maxi-
mum development of the algal bloom. If. for some reason, a given area
Plate 48. Liquid spray distribution of herbicide by small boat.
t . . _____________
__ ,
V _____________
1a
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is not treated until the algal population has become dense, judgment
must be used in determining the area that should receive treatment at
a given time lest sufficient organic matter is killed to result in decomposi-
tion and oxygen removal. It is good practice to subdivide the total
area into sections and control the nuisance in one section at a time.
Other sections may be treated after an interval of 7 to 10 days to ensure
that sufficient dissolved oxygen is present to satisfy the demand of the
decomposing algae.
CONTROL OF SUBMERGED AQUATIC WEEDS
In the control of submerged aquatic plants, it is often desirable
to chemically treat localized areas along the shoreline, such as bathing
beaches and around piers. and to develop channels through weed beds so
that boats will have access to deeper water. Sometimes it is advanta-
geous to treat an extensive area in an effort to curtail an advancing popu-
lation of a weed species, such as Eurasian watennilf oil (Myriophylluin
s iratum Linnaeus). Best results are obtained when the shoreline areas
are treated because currents and wave action are usually minimized,
and the diffusion of the chemical can only take place in one direction—
into the lake. There are minimum limitations below which it is usually
not feasible to attempt chemical weed control. The recommended
minimum dimensions of an area to be treated are 200 feet by 200 feet.
The treatment of very small areas permits the diffusion of the chemical
on three sides, thus reducing the concentration of the chemical within
the area to a point below the toxic level for rooted plants. An exception
to this recommendation might be a small slough, bay, or stagnant chan-
nel with an area of less than 40,000 square feet.
For many years. arsenic trioxide in a sodium arsenite solution
has been effectively used to control submerged aquatic weeds. Domo-
galla (1926) used it first in 1926 in the Madison, Wis. lakes to control
a nuisance and to enhance the recreational value of the area. Surber
(1931) was the first to adopt this means of control in fish management
work, stating that preliminary experiments with sodium arsenite during
the summer of 1929 indicated that this chemical can be used effectively
at low cost in controlLing submerged aquatic plants without doing ap-
parent injury to either large or small fish and without exterminating
or seriously diminishing the supply of natural foods.
Surber (1949) found that dosages of 1.7 to 4.0 mg/i white arsenic
equivalent were effective in controlling practically all submerged flower-
ing plants in fishponds, but did not affect the fish. Because the water
bodies treated in Wisconsin were larger lakes, somewhat higher arsenic
151
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concentrations were usea f .\1ackentflun, I 3U). 10 treat a small ouy
of water a dcsi e of 5 mg/i white arsenic equivalent was used. In
treating fish management ponds containing walleve fry a two-part treat-
ment was found to be effective; one-half of the pond was treated I week
later than the other half. In the treatment of the shoreline area of a
large body of water protected from wind and wave action and having
an average depth not exceeding 5 feet and a maximum depth not ex-
ceeding 8 feet, a dosage of 7.5 mg/i white arsenic equivalent was rec-
ommended: a dosage of 10 mg/I was found effective against submerged
ve ctation in the treatment of a shoreline area of a large body of water
unprotected from wind and wave action and having an average depth
not exceeding 5 feet and a maximum depth not exceeding 8 feet. The
majority of the projects in Wisconsin required the higher dosage in order
to ensure effective control.
Because arsenical compounds are recognized poisons, their use
necessitates a number of handling precautions. In the hands of un-
trained and irrcsp usible individuals they could become extremely
dangerous to the appliers, to the water users, and to all forms of aquatic
life. With proper precautions. however, there is no danger either to
humans or animals. Children and animals should not have access either
to the chemical or empty containers. Containers should be thoroughly
washed and rinsed with water when emptied. As a safety measure, for
two days following treatment no bathing is allowed in a treated area
and the water is not used for watering lawns, for livestock, or for any
other purpose: also. pets of all kinds are kept from the water. At the
Plate 49. An air boat serves as a steady transport vehicle for spraying
equipment.
• .:
..
:
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end of that time, the chemical should be sufficiently dissipated by dilution
and absorption to make these precautions unnecessary. Cattle and
other grazing animals should be excluded from the treated area until
rains have washed the shore vegetation. Although domestic animals
probably would not drink enough of the treated water to be injured,
it is almost impossible to spray a pond or similar area thoroughly and
not leave a certain amount of poison on the shore plants. Stock may he
attracted by the salty taste and eat enough of the treated shoreline
vegetation to be poisoned.
Arsenicals accumulate in lake bottom muds, plankton, unkilled
submerged vegetation, and to some extent fish. Analyses of bottom
muds from a 2,500-acre lake that had received 195,548 pounds of
arsenic (As) over a 12-year period indicated an arsenic concentration
in excess 180 zg As (dry weight)/g mud in some samples. Plankton
analyses in another lake revealed a concentration of 965 jig As (dry
weight) /g plankton 2 weeks after treatment. Those weeds or portions
of weeds that remained alive after the initial shock of treatment appeared
to be able to take from the surrounding water substantial quantities of
arsenic without suffering severe ill effects. Weeds that appeared to be
normal and healthy adjacent to a treated area contained 660 jig As/g
on a dry weight basis. Ullman et a1. (1961) reported that the arsenic
concentration in fish fillets ranged from 0.22 to 0.47 g!g while that
in the viscera ranged from 0.10 to 0.78 in a treated lake compared to
0.10 to 0.12 ,‘g As/g in a control lake.
In recent years, the number of herbicides available for aquatic
weed control has increased. These include some 25 compounds, many
of which are specific in their herbicida l action (Surber, 1961) 18, 19
Many of the compounds are available in liquid and granular formula-
tions, the latter being suitable for broadcasting on the water surface.
Many of these compounds are in the experimental and developmental
stage, and problems of specific toxicity to other aquatic life have not
been clarified.
A few details should be kept in mind in the application of a
chemical. It has been found advantageous, for example, to divide a
large area to be treated into a convenient number of small subareas and
to accurately determine the volume of water each contains. Since the
quantity of the chemical used is proportional to the water volume to be
treated, it is a simple matter to properly adjust the chemical application
iSMackenthun, K. M., 1959. Summary of Aquatic Weed and Algae Control Re-
search and Related Activities in the United States. Committee on Water Pollution,
Madison, Wis., pp. 1—14 (mimeoD.
Ecology Is Keynote to Successful Waterweed Control. Delegates to 3d Aquatic
Weed Society Meeting Told. Weeds and Turf (April), pp. 14-16 (1963).
153
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and evenly distribute the correct amount of chemical into the subarea.
This procedure is then repeated in successive subareas.
Chemical control of aquatic vegetation must currently be regarded
as a temporary remedy although it should last for the season in which it
is applied. Under certain conditions, the removal of a vascular plant
population may promote the growth of a bottom dwelling alga such as
Chara. The alga must then be attacked with a suitable algicide. Since
Chara grows on the bottom. the algicide usually must be dispersed just
above the bottom so that it can come immediately in contact with the
plant. It is most important not to disrupt too much of the lake ecology
at one time lest another nuisance develop in place of the one being treated.
CONTROL OF EMERGENT WEEDS
Rapid advances are also being made in research on the control
of marsh weeds and other aquatic forms that project above the surface
of the water. Two factors explain the growing interest in the control of
- -
I
- —---. I
Plate 50. Chemical distribution through pressure spraying from a barge.
154
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these weeds: one is the advent of new and better herbicides for the
purpose; the other is the increasingly critical situation facing the Nation’s
waterfowl hunting resource—a sport on which 2 million Americans
spend 89 million dollars annually. 20 Already more than half of the
country’s original 125 million acres of wetlands have been spoiled for
waterfowl use. As the national census continues climbing toward the
predicted 2 00-million mark, more and more of the places where ducks
feed, breed, and are hunted will have to be converted to the needs of
advancing civilization. In other words, prospects are for fewer hunting
places and fewer ducks for a large number of hunters.
To help offset this trend, it is important to make the best use
of available waterfowl habitat. Thousands of poor or fair areas in the
United States can be made more attractive for ducks and duck hunters
by replacing marsh weeds with plants that furnish food or cover for
waterfowl. Commonly, the costs involved are not prohibitive (Martin
etal., 1957).
In Florida recently, water hyacinths and other pest plants were
cleared away from 20,000 acres of ponds and lakes by the Game and
Fresh Water Fish Commission. Numerous other programs, both large
and small, are being waged against phragmites, cattails, waterchestnut,
and other marsh weeds in various States. In the Federal refuge system,
more than 2,000 acres of marshlands are treated with herbicides an-
nually to make them more productive for waterfowl. All this is small,
however, compared with what can be done.
National Survey of Fishing and Hunting. U.S. Department of the Interior,
Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Circular 120, 73 pp. (1960).
Plate 51. Barge distribution of granular herbicide.
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CHEMICAL USAGE
Slightly over 1 million pounds of arsenic trioxide (As 2 Os) in
a sodium arsenite solution have been applied to lakes in Wisconsin for
the control of submerged aquatic vegetation from 1950 through 1962.
About 50 lakes involving about 1,500 surface acres of recreational water
annually receive treatment. Other chemicals are applied, but on a
much smaller scale. Approximately 1,100,000 pounds of commercial
copper sulfate for algal control were applied to 6,000 acres of recreational
water over the same period of time.
The results of a questionnaire circulated in 1959 indicated that
many States do not keep accurate records on the extent of use of chemicals
for aquatic weed and algal control. The most complete records were
kept by Wisconsin and Minnesota, the States that, along with Michigan,
accomplished the greatest amount of large-scale control of submerged
aquatics at that time. Of some 32 States reporting control activities
on aquatic weeds. Minnesota reported the use of 94,570 pounds of arsenic
trioxide in 1958. Michigan reported that 31 lakes receive sodium
arsenite, and 30 additional lakes receive either 2,4-D or Kuron for the
control of submerged aquatic weeds. Several States (Colorado, Georgia,
New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, and Pennsylvania) reported an ex-
tensive number of small acreage operations, the majority of which pre-
sumably were confined to control in ponds. The reported amount of
arsenic trioxide (A&0 3 ) used by Minnesota and Wisconsin comprise
92 percent of the reported total amount used by all States. Many States
undoubtedly do much more control work than was indicated on the
questionnaires, but do not have available the specific chemical application
figures.
This questionnaire indicated that at that time sodium arsenite
was by far the most common herbicide used in the control of submerged
aquatics. The concentrations used varied from 4 to 12 mgI 1 As 2 Os;
the lower concentrations were used in pond control, and the higher
concentrations for area treatment in large bodies of water. Eighteen
States reported the use of 2,4-D granules, generally on a limited scale
at a concentration of approximately 20 pounds of active ingredient per
acre. Florida reported the control of 150 acres of cattails with 2,400
pounds of Dalapon along with the use of 48,000 pounds of 2,4-D on
21.750 acres for water hyacinth control.
Twenty-one States reported the use of copper sulfate for the
control of algae. Minnesota in 1958 used 167,464 pounds of copper
sulfate in the treatment of 12,579 acres of water on 41 lakes. In Wis-
consin in 1959, 6,270 acres on 29 lakes received 54,765 pounds of
copper sulfate for algal control. Other States reported the use of lesser
amounts.
156
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Snail control was reported by Alabama, Michigan, Minnesota,
and Wisconsin. The two latter States also reported some attempts at
leech control. Generally, a heavy, localized concentration of copper
sulfate and lime or copper carbonate is applied for this purpose.
The explosive spread of Eurasian watermilfoil in two Tennessee
Valley Authority reservoirs during 1960 and 1961 and its real and
potential threat to mosquito control, recreation, and other interests
dictated that an immediate all-out effort be made to stop its further
spread (Smith, 1963). Efforts were made to treat all known colonies
of milfoil in both Watts Bar and Chickamauga Reservoirs. In 1962,
175,000 pounds (87.5 tons) of 20-percent 2,4-D granular herbicide, at
a rate of 20 pounds acid equivalent per acre, was applied by helicopter
to approximately 2,075 acres in the two reservoirs. The treatment
was “. . . highly successful . . .“ Smith states that “. . . under cer-
tain TVA reservoir conditions, our experience indicates that either de-
livery of an adequate dose of granular 2,4-D herbicides to the plant or
dewatering of the plant [ winter drawdown] will be effective in con-
trolling watermilfoil. Furthermore, the chemical appears to be effec-
tive at the water temperatures which exist during the winter and spring
drawdown period.”
The application of a chemical to water involves certain hazards
which must be understood and against which public rights must be
protected. Factors that must be considered are the short- and long-range
toxicity to all aquatic life: the deposition and possible accumulation of
Plate 52. Helicopter application of a granular herbicide.
1
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the chemical upon the lake bottom, and the subsequent reaction upon
the community of bottom organisms; the impact resulting from the
destruction of too much biological growth at one time; and the possible
disturbance of the general aquatic environment.
REFERENCES
Bartsch. A. F., 1954. Practical Methods for Control of Algae and Water
Weeds. Public Health Reports. 69(8): 749—757.
Beard. H. R.. 1926. Nutritive Value of Fish and Shellfish. Report for
U.S. Commission of Fisheries for 1925. pp. 501—502.
Bennett, G. \V.. 1948. The Bass-Bluegill Combination in a Small Artificial
Lake. Ill. Nat. Hist. Sur. Bull. 24(3): 377—412.
Borutsky. E. V., 1939. Dynamics of the Total Benthic Biomass in the
Profundal of Lake Beloic. Proc. Kossino Limn. Sta. of the Hydrometeoro-
logical Service, USSR, 22: 196—218. Trans. by M. Ovchynnyk, edited by
R. C. Ball and F. F. Hooper.
Domogalla, B. P., 1926. Treatment of Algae and Weeds in Lakes at Madi-
son. Wis. Engineering News Record, 97(24): 950—954.
Dornogalla. B. P., 1935. Eleven Years of Chemical Treatment of the
Madison Lakes—Its Effects on Fish and Fish Foods. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.,
65: 115—120.
Domogalla. B. P., 1941. Scientific Studies and Chemical Treatment of
the Madison Lakes. A Symposium on Hydrobiology, University of Wis-
consin Press. Madison, Wis., pp. 303—310.
Doudoroff, P. and M. Katz . 1953. Critical Review of Literature on the
Toxicity of Industrial Wastes and their Components to Fish. II. The
Metals, as Salts. Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 25(7): 802—839.
Ellis. M. M.. 1937. Detection and Measurement of Stream Pollution.
Bulletin No. 22, U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, 48: 365—437.
Hale. F. E.. 1954. Use of Copper Sulphate in Control of Microscopic
Organisms. Phelps Dodge Refining Corp., New York, 30 pp. . 6 plates.
Hasler, A. D., 1947. Antibiotic Aspects of Copper Treatment of Lakes.
Wis. Acad. Sci.. Arts & Lett., 39: 97—103.
Mackenthun, K. M., 1950. Aquatic Weed Control with Sodium Arsenite.
Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 22(8): 1062—1067.
Mackenthun, K. M., 1958. The Chemical Control of Aquatic Nuisances.
Committee on Water Pollution, Madison, Wis., pp. 1—64.
158
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Mackenthun, K. M. and H. L. Cooley, 1952. The Biological Effect of
Copper Sulphate Treatment on Lake Ecology. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci.,
Arts & Lett., 41: 177—187.
Marsh, M. C. and R. K. Robinson, 1910. The Treatment of Fish-Cultural
Waters for the Removal of Algae. Bulletin Bureau of Fisheries 28 (Part 2),
pp. 871—890 (1908).
Martin, A. C., R. C. Erickson and J. H. Steenis, 1957. Improving Duck
Marshes by Weed Control. Fish and Wildlife $ervice, U.S. Department
of the Interior, Circular 19—Revised, pp. 1—GO.
Monie, W. D., 1956. Algae Control with Copper Sulphate. Water and
Sewage Works, 103(9): 392—397.
Moore, G. T. and K. F. Kellerman, 1904. A Method of Destroying or Pre-
venting the Growth of Algae and Certain Pathogenic Bacteria in Water
Supplies. Bulletin No. 64, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of
Agriculture.
Moore, G. T. and K. F. Kellerman, 1905. Cooper as an Algicide and
Disinfectant in Water Supplies. Bulletin 76, Bureau of Plant Industry,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, pp. 19—55.
Moyle, J. B., 194 9 a. Some Indices of Lake Productivity. Trans. Am.
Fish. Soc., 76: 322—334, (1946).
Moyle, J. B., 1949b. The Use of Copper Sulphate for Algae Control and
Its Biological Implications. Limnological Aspects of Water Supply and
Waste Disposal. Publication Am. Association for the Adv. of Sci., Wash-
ington, D.C. pp. 79—87.
Nichols, M. S., T. Henkel and D. McNall. 1946. Copper in Lake Muds
from Lakes of the Madison Area. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts & Lett.,
38: 333—350.
O’Donnell, D. J., 1945. Control of Hydrodictyon reticulatum in Small
Ponds. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 73: 59—62, (1943).
Prescott, G. \V., 1948. Objectionable Algae with Reference to the Killing
of Fish and Other Animals. Hydrobiol., pp. 1—13.
Rushton, W., 1924. Biological Notes. Salmon and Trout Magazine, No.
37, pp. 112—125.
Schaut, G. C., 1939. Fish Catastrophes During Droughts. Jour. Am.
Water Works Association, 3 1 ( 5 ): 771—882.
Smith, C. E., 1963. Control of Eurasian Watermilfoil (M. spicatum) in
TVA Reservoirs. Paper presented at Southern Weed Conference, Jan-
uary 17, 1963, Mobile, Ala.
Surber, E. W., 1931. Sodium Arsenite for Controlling Vegetation in Fish
Ponds. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 61: 143—148.
159
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Surber, K W., 1949. Control of Aquatic Plants in Ponds and Lakes. U.S.
Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Fishery Leaflet 344,
pp. 1—20.
Surber, E. \V., 1961. Improving Sport Fishing by Control of Aquatic
Weeds. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau
of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Circular 128, pp. 1—37.
UlIman, IV. W., R. IV. Schaefer and W. W. Sanderson, 1961. Arsenic
Accumulation by Fish in Lakes Treated with Sodium Arsenite. Jour. Water
Pollution Control Federation, 34(4): 416—418.
Glossary
Aerobic organism—An organism that thrives in the presence of oxygen.
Anaerobic organism—A microorganism that thrives best, or ânly, when de-
prived of oxygen.
Autotrophic —SeIf-nourishing: denoting the green plants and those forms
of bacteria that do not require organic carbon or nitrogen, but can form
their own food out of inorganic salts and carbon dioxide.
Benthic region—The bottom of all waters; the substratum that supports
the benthos.
Benthos—Bottom-dwelling organisms; the benthos comprise: (1) sessile
animals such as the sponges, barnacles, mussels, and oysters, some of the
worms, and many attached algae; (2) creeping forms, such as snails and
fiatworms; and (3) burrowing forms which include most clams and worms.
Biomass—The weight of all life in a specified unit of environment, for ex-
ample. a square foot of stream bottom. An expression dealing with the
total mass or weight of a given population, both plant and animal.
Cercariae—The tailed, immature stage of a parasitic flatworm.
Cuticular plate—A hard chitinous or calcareous plate on the epidermis
or outer horny layer of the skin.
Ecology—The branch of biology that deals with the mutual relations of
living organisms and their environments, and the relations of organisms
to each other.
Ecosystem—The functioning together of the biological community and the
nonliving environment.
Epilimnion—That region of a body of water that extends from the surface
to the thermocline and does not have a permanent temperature stratification.
160
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Epithelial layer—The purely cellular, nonvascular layer covering all free
body surfaces.
Eutrophic waters—Waters with a good supply of nutrients; they may support
rich organic production, such as algal blooms.
Eutrophication—The intentional or unintentional enrichment of water.
Floe—A small, light, loose mass, as of a fine precipitate.
Flocculent—Reassembling tufts of cotton or wool; denoting a fluid con-
taining numerous shreds of fluffy, gray-white particles; containing or
consisting of flocs.
Gelatinous matrix—Jellylike intercellular substance of a tissue; a semisolid
material surrounding the cell wall of some algae.
Globular—Having a round or spherical shape.
Hepatic vein—The vein leading from the liver.
Heterocyst—A specialized vegetative cell in certain filamentous blue-green
algae; larger, clearer, and thicker-walled than the regular vegetative cells.
Hirudin—A substance extracted from the salivary glands of the leech that
has the property of preventing coagulation of the blood.
Homothermous—Having the same temperature throughout.
Hypolimnion—The region of a body of water that t xtends from the ther-
mocline to the bottom of the lake and is removed from surface influence.
Invertebrates—Animals without a backbone.
Larva—The wormlike form on an insect on issuing from the egg.
Limnology—The study of the physical, chemical, and biological aspects of
inland waters.
Low Flow Augmentation—increasing of an existing flow. The total flow
of a stream can seldom be increased but its ability to assimilate waste can
generally be improved by storage of floodflows and their subsequent release
when natural flows are low and water quality conditions are poor.
Lumen—The space in the interior of a tubular structure such as an artery
or the intestine.
Mesenteric vein—The large vein leading from the intestines in the abdominal
cavity.
Miracidium—The ciliated free-swimming larva of a trematode worm.
Oligotrophic waters—Waters with a small supply of nutrients; hence, they
support little organic production.
Papilla—Any small nipplelike process.
Peaking—The use of hydropower to meet maximum or rapid changes in
power demands.
Penstock—A sluice for regulating flow of water, a conduit for conducting
water.
161
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Photosynthesis—The process by which simple sugars are manufactured from
carbon dioxide and water by living plant cells with the aid of chlorophyll
in the presence of light.
Phvtoplankton—Plant microorganisms, such as certain algae, living unat-
tached in the water.
Plankton—Organisms of relatively small size, mostly microscopic, that either
have relatively small powers of locomotion or drift in the water subject to
the action of waves and currents.
Plastids—A body in a plant cell that contains photosynthetic pigments.
Portal vein—The large vein carrying the blood from the digestive organs and
spleen to the liver.
Pupa—An intermediate, usually quiescent, form assumed by insects after
the larval stage, and maintained until the beginning of the adult stage.
Sen -hi disk—A circular metal plate, 20 cm in diameter, the upper surface
of which is divided into 4 equal quadrants and so painted that 2 quadrants
directly opposite each other are black and the intervening ones white.
Sickle-shaped_ —Curved or crescent shaped.
Seston—The living and nonliving bodies of plants or animals that float or
swim in the water.
Snail—An organism that typically possesses a coiled shell and crawls on a
single muscular foot. Air breathing snails, called pulmonates, do not have
gills but typically obtain oxygen through a “lung” or pulmonary cavity.
At variable intervals most pulmonate snails come to the surface of the
water for a fresh supply of air. Gill breathing snails possess an internal gill
through which dissolved oxygen is removed from the surrounding water.
Species both singular and plural)—An organism or organisms forming a
natural population or group of populations that transmit specific char-
acteristics from parent to offspring. They are reproductively isolated from
other populations with which they might breed. Populations usually exhibit
a loss of fertility when hybridizing.
Spore—A reproductive cell of a protozoan, fungus. or alga. In bacteria,
spores are specialized resting cells.
Trematode—The common name for a parasitic worm of the class Trema-
toda. a fluke.
Thermocline—The layer in a body of water in which the drop in tempera-
ture equals or exceeds I degree centigrade for each meter or approximately
3 feet of water depth.
Trophogenic Region—The superficial layer of a lake in which organic pro-
duction from mineral substances takes place on the basis of light energy.
Tropholytic Region—The deep layer of the lake where organic dissimilation
predominates because of light deficiency.
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Tubiflcids—Aquatic segmented worms that exhibit marked population in-
creases in aquatic environments containing organic decomposable wastes.
Ventral-_-Relating to the belly or the abdomen; opposed to dorsal.
Zooplankton—Animal microorganisms living unattached in water. They
include small crustacea, such as daphnia and cyclops, and single-celled
animals as protozoa, etc.
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