OLUME
U.S. DEPARTM
               FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION

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       THE NATIONAL ESTUARINE



            POLLUTION STUDY




                  Volume II
           A Report to the Congress
U. S. Department of the Interior  • Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
                 NOVEMBER 3, 1969

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TABLE OF CONTENTS — VOLUME II j
PART IV. The Importance 0 f the Estuarine
Zone
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV—l
Chapter 1. The Estuarine System of the
United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV—3
Section 1. General Description . . . . . . . . . IV-5
Section 2. The Dominating Environ-
mental Factors . . . . . . . . . . . IV—lO
Section 3. The Biophysical Estuar—
me Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV—42
Section 4. The Land and the Water . . . . . . . IV-52
Section 5. The Life . . IV—76
Section 6. Energy and Management
in the Biophysical
Environment . . . . . . P1-91
Chapter 2. Use of the Estuarine Zone . . . . . . . . P1-95
Section 1. Sustenance: Use as a
Fish and Wildlife
Habitat . . . . . . . . IV—96
Section 2. Enjoyment: Use for
Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV114
Section 3. Use for Transportation . . . . . . . IV-124
Section 4. Use as a Human Habitat . IV-130
Section 5. Deliberate Modification
of the Estuarine Zone . . . . . . . . IV-141
Section 6. SulTinary . IV-149

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Table of Contents — Volume II
PART IV. (continued)
Chapter 3. The Social and Economic
Values of the Estuarine
Zone • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . IV—153
Section L Economic Development
of the Estuarine Zone . . . . . . . . IV-155
Section 2. The Values of Indi-
vidual Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV—165
Section 3. Reviews of Case Studies
of Uses of the Estuar-
me Environment • . . IV-179
Section 4. Measures of Value and
Importance of the
Estuarine Zone . . . . . . . . . . . IV—246
Chapter 4. Social and Economic Trends . . . . . . . . IV-251
Section 1. National Population
and Economic Trends . . • . • . . . IV-253
Section 2. Trends in the Estuar—
me Zone, Population
andEconomic ............IV-263
Section 3. Trends in Selected
Activities Associated
with the Estuarine
Zone . . • . • . • . • . . * . . • . IV—290
Section 4. Future Waste Discharge
impacts . . . . • . . • . . . . . IV—331
Chapter 5. Pollution in the Estuarine
Zone • • . • . • • . . . . . . . • . . • . IV—349
Section 1. Materials and Conditions
that Degrade the
Environment . . . • . . . . . . . . . IV—351
Section 2. Sources of Pollution . . IV-381

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Table of Contents — Volume II jjj
PART IV. (continued)
Chapter 5. (continued)
Section 3. Extent of Pollution
Effects . . . . . . . 1V403
Section 4. Examples of Estuarine
Systems Damaged by
Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . , • , IV—414
Section 5. Conclusions . IV—429
Chapter 6. Use Conflicts and Damages . . . . . . . . IV-433
Section 1. Nature of Use Conflicts . . . . . . IV-434
Section 2. Examples of Use Damage . . . . . . . IV-447
Section 3. Trends In Estuarine
Ecology Associated with
Man’s Activities . . . . IV—488
Section 4. Resolution of Use
Conflicts . . . . . . IV—500
Section 5. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV—507
Chapter7. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-509
Section 1. The Biophysical
Environment . . . . . . IV—511
Section 2. The Socioeconomic
Environment . . . . . . P1—532
Section 3. Pollution: The Impact
of Human Society on the
Estuarine Environment IV—557
Section 4. Use Conflicts and
Damages: Man’s Battle
with Himself and Nature . . . . . . . P1—568

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Part IV
IMPORTANCE OF THE ESTUARINE ZONE

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Iv-.l
PART IV
I MTRODUCT ION
The comprehensive management orograrn presented In Part III estab-
lishes a framework to regulate man’s activities in the estuarine
zone to preserve and develop the estuarine resource while achieving
full use of it. Effective management, however, must be firmly
based on an understanding of what the estuarine resource is, what
use it has to man, and what impact man’s activities have on it.
The comnrehensive management program is in essence a working rela-
tionship among the institutional, hiophysical, and socioeconomic
environments in the estuarine zone. This Part of the report deals
with the existing relationship between the biophysical environment
and the socioeconomic environment. It describes first the estuarine
zone without man then it considers how man uses the estuarine zone
and how these activities affect the land, the water, and the life.
Finally, it seeks to show what will happen to the estuarine zone
unless man controls his impact on this part of his environment.
The biophysical environment divides naturally into ten geographical
regions, each dominated by a different combination of environmental
conditions. The discussion revolves about these biophysical regions
as the primary subdivisions of the natural environment of the

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IV-2
estuarine zone. Because of the similarity 0 f envi ronmental conditions
within It, each region has estuarine systems, uses, and problems which
are typical of the region, if not unique to it.
The use of the biophysical regions as the basic units for discussion
illustrates regional similarities and differences. These serve not
only to point out the essential unity of the estuarine zone as a
unique resource, but also to emphasize how an effective national
management program can use knowledge gained in one region to solve
problems in another.
Certain photoqraphs of a purely illustrative nature, and not
essential to the continuity of the text, have been omitted in
this part of the report as presently duplicated.

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I V-3
Chapter 1
THE ESTUARINE SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES
Man uses and is influenced by tne
whole world ocean, but that narrow
zone where the land containing his
civilization meets the sea is unique.
This is the point where man, the sea --
his ininemorial ally and adversary --
and the land meet and challenge each
other. That narrow zone is the
subject of this chapter (IV-l-l).
The estuarine zone has many forms; nearly all are represented along
the coastline of the United States. These include the classic drowned
river mouth, exemplified by Delaware Bay and in greater variety by its
neighbor, Chesapeake Bay. There are the entrance cuts and deltas of
great rivers such as the Columbia and the Mississippi; there are the
marshlands of Georgia and the barrier island systems of North Carolina.
There are the coral formations of the Florida Keys and the fjords of
Alaska and Washington; there are the rocky coast of Maine, the bluffs
of California, and the sandy shores of Texas. There is infinite
variety but there is also the coninon theme of the sea, the land, and
along much of the United States coastline -- man.

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IV-4
The estuarine zone of the United States was the gateway to a
continent. The many deep, natural harbors of the Atlantic and
the Gulf coasts provided safe anchorages for the ships which
brought the first colonists to these shores and which carried the
produce of the land to distant markets. The teeming coastal waters
provided a never-failing supply of food to vary and supplement the
results of farming and hunting.
The great population and industrial centers which developed
around these seaports served as supply bases and take-off points
for those who moved west, north,and east to settle the enormous
heartland of North America, leaving the estuarine zone and its
problems far behind, but still using this zone to send their
produce across the sea.
This zone between land and sea is a unique environment deriving its
properties from both land and sea, but having characteristics resulting
from the existence of the interfacial zone itself and from the inter-
action of land and sea upon each other.

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I V- 5
SECTION 1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The estuarine zone is best characterized as a region of constantly
recurring change. The constancy of change and the dynamic equili-
brium associated with the changes comprise the visible features of
the estuarine environment. The obvious complexity of structure,
movement, and life in the estuarine zone hides the inherently simple
basic causes of the existence and character Of the estuarine environ-
ment.
All life is dominated by gravity and by the sun’s radiant energy,
but the effects of these are especially apparent in the estuarine
zone. The earth’s gravity pulls the rivers down to the sea; at sea
level the gravitational attraction of the earth itself reaches a
dynamic balance with the gravitational attraction of the sun and the
moon. The results of this are the unique estuarine water movement
patterns caused by the differences in density between fresh river
water and salt ocean water, and the tidal ebb and flow which is
noticeable only in the estuarine zone.
All forms of life on earth depend on the sun as their ultimate source
of energy. This energy is incorporated into plant material which in
turn supports all animal life. Plants need water and light to grow.
There is a profusion of both in the estuarine zone together with a
plentiful supply of dissolved nutrients derived from both land and
sea. These conditions make coastal areas the most productive environ-
ments in the world, and as a result very specialized biological
coimiunities have developed in the estuarine zone. Such communities

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IV—6
can not only tolerate the dynamic balance of conditions but actually
depend on the constantly recurring environmental variations to sustain
themselves.
The wide range of interaction of the two basic driving forces of
gravity and solar energy brings about a bewildering variety of
Individual environments in the estuarine zone, each being dominated
and controlled by a different combination of factors. Some may be
dominated by tidal range, some by river flow, some by geometry of
the coastline, some by climate, some by the sediments deposited,
and some by combinations of these. The variety is Infinite.
Yet, within this variety, there is order which lends itself to
measurement and through measurement to management of the estuarine
zone to preserve It for continuing multiple use. The purpose of
this discussion is not to present a detailed analysis of the
differences among the parts of the estuarine zone, but rather to
outline what these differences are, why they exist, and what must
be measured to establish a basis for sound technical management
within the overall framework 0 f wise institutional management.
It would be convenient if the state of knowledge were such that the
estuarine environment and its variety could be described in terms of
the primary forces which control it; then it would be possible to
manage each estuarine system efficiently and exactly for optimum use.

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‘v-i
Unfortunately, the oresent extremely limited state of knowledge
requires the measurement of a wide variety of attributes, and
management must be derived through the pragmatic application of
knowledge gained from such measurement.
There are six different kinds of characteristics that should be
understood to make a rational effort at sound technical management:
Shape and Size . Fresh water carries sediments eroded from the land
to the coast where they are deposited and molded along with the
original shoreline by the energy of ocean waves and currents. Shape
and size go far toward determining water movement, the life forms
present, and the speed with which pollutants can be absorbed or
passed through the estuarine zone. These are characterized by length
of shoreline, water and marsh area, and water volume.
Water Movement . The slight difference in density between fresh
water and ocean, combined with tidal, weather, and shape effects,
causes diversity of water movement patterns in the estuarine zone.
These patterns are important in pollution control and in determining
the ecological balance. Parameters of water movement are river
inflow, tidal range, currents, density difference, and volume of
tidal inflow.
Life Forms . The estuarine zone is recognized as the most oroductive
part of the natural environment. The many forms of life include

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IV-8
animals and plants which live in the bottom, on the bottom, in the
water, on the water, and in the marshes which border much of the
coast. The various communities in the estuarine zone are character-
ized by measuring the identity, distribution, and abundance of the
species present, ranging from bacteria and the minute phytoplankton
which are the primary users of solar energy to the fish, shellfish,
and other wildlife which are the final steps in the food chain con-
centrating solar energy for man’s use.
Water Quality . Even raw domestic sewage is over 99 per cent pure
water, but the Infinitesimal amount of dissolved and suspended
material has effects far out of proportion to its magnitude. While
ocean water contains dissolved solids measured in concentrations of
“parts per thousand,” water quality measurements, except for temper-
ature, are couched in terms of “parts per million” and “parts per
billion” whether they arerneasurements of dissolved oxygen, plant
nutrients, orqanic pollutants, toxic chemicals, or any of the other
parameters by which pollutional levels are characterized.
Upon the very delicate tests by which such minute concentrations are
measured depends the quantitative knowledge of pollution and how to
control it.
Nature of the Bottom . The land under the water in the estuarine
zone can tell much of the history of the water flowing over it.
Solids are deposited from the water on the bottom, and creatures

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IV-9
and plants living on and in the bottom draw their nourishment from
the water itself. Estuarine bottoms are characterized by the kind
and amount of sediments, vegetation, and animal life found there,
both near the surface and much deeper.
Aesthetic Apoeal . Mot all people enjoy the same things; the bustle
of the Port of Baltimore might not be appreciated by a salmon fisher-
man from Alaska, for example, nor miaht a shrimp fisherman from the
marshes of Louisiana appreciate the bluffs along the California coast.
Yet an estuary which has no debris along its edge or floating in it,
no smell of oil, or chemicals, or sewage, no dead fish, no floating
mats of algae, and no peculiar color is pleasing to all. These things
are generally subjective, and since they do not lend themselves to
quantitative measurement, are sometimes overlooked in evaluating the
quality of the estuarine environment.
Through measurement of these six kinds of characteristics, the domina-
ting environmental factors in the estuarine zone can be understood
and made to work for the ultimate benefit of mankind.

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‘V-iD
SECTION 2. THE DOMINATING ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
The diversity of the estuaries, bays, inlets, lagoons, marshes, and
other features which make up the estuarine zone presents a discon-
certing picture of apparent individual uniqueness and complexity
without evident unifying principles for technical and political
management. Such unifying principles do exist, however, and the
estuarine zone as an environment is governed by a small number of
often competing dominating factors, having interrelationships which
determine the nature of each individual estuarine system. Simi-
larities and contrasts among estuarine areas in different parts of
the coastline point out the limitations of technical management
in the various portions Of the estuarine zone, and show the realities
of nature within which the managing political entities must work.
CONTINENTAL SHELF
The submerged land next to the continent slopes gently to a depth of
about 600 feet, then it drops more rapidly to form the deep ocean
basins (see Figure IV.l.l). This fringe of slightly sloping sub-
merged land, which along much of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts would
appear quite flat to the naked eye, is called the “continental
shelf,” and its width and general configuration along the coastline
of the United States is one of the offshore conditions affecting
the estuarine environment.

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‘v -il
FIGURE IV.1.1 MAJOR OCEAN CURRENTS AFFECTING THE UNITED STATES
Continental Shelf
Labrador
Current
Current
California
Curie nt
— —

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IV—l2
The large ocean waves lose much of their energy in the relatively
shallow water depths over the continental shelves, thus reducing the
force with which they strike the shore (Figure P1.1.2). Where the
continental shelf is wide, waves reach the shore with greatly
decreased power and tend to move existing sediments around rather
than cutting the shoreline to produce new ones.
Along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the continental United States
the continental shelf is generally about 50 to 100 miles wide and
terminates at depths ranging from 300 to 900 feet. Within this
regime four significant differences in conditions on the shelf are
reflected in the estuarine zone:
(1) The Gulf of Maine forms an embayment between Cape
Cod and Nova Scotia, and the general configuration of deep
basins close to shore with broad banks seaward of them is
unique to this part of the coast (Figure IV.l.3). While
the shoal waters on the shelf serve to protect the New
England coast from the full force of the ocean swells, the
deep embayment near shore and the narrow trough which
connects it to the ocean cause the great tide ranges and
strong currents characteristic of the region. These
currents tend to reduce deposition of sediments close
inshore, particularly along the Maine coast where the tide
range is greatest and the currents strongest.

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IV—13
(2) Cape Hatteras is a region where the deposition of
sediments on the wide shelf at the meeting place of two
major ocean currents has resulted in the building of a
series of barrier islands out over the shelf and the
formation of a wide shallow embayment (Pamlico Sound)
behind them (Figure IV.l.4). This sedimentation process
has reduced the width of the continental shelf to less
than 20 miles at this point and created the infamous
Diamond Shoals seaward of the barrier islands.
(3) South Florida, from Miami to beyond the Florida Keys,
has virtually no continental shelf; this is probably related
to the passage of the Gulf Stream through the narrow
channel between the Bahama Islands, Cuba, and Florida
(Figure IV.l.5). These same islands, however, serve to
protect the southern part of Florida from heavy ocean
swells, while the steady current keeps sediments from
depositing on the offshore coral formations of the Florida
Keys and tends to spread coral growth northward along the
Florida coast.
(4) The Mississippi River, draining about 41 percent of
the continental United States, has built a delta entirely
across the continental shelf and now deposits most of its
sediments on the slope beyond (Figure IV.l.6). The
generally enclosed nature of the embayment forming the
Gulf of Mexico has permitted the formation of this delta

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IV— 14
and its associated channels and marshlands, as well as the
combination of barrier island and coastal marshland
formation which makes up the majority of the Gulf of
Mexico estuarine systems.
On the Pacific coast of the continental United States, the continen-
tal shelf Is 2 to 20 miles wide and terminates at depths of 300 to
600 feet. Pouring over this narrow, steep shelf is the full force
of the Pacific Ocean swell; this makes for excellent surfing, but it
also leads to considerable erosion of the shoreline. Shoreline
erosion by wave action with the development of a beach and bluff
configuration is typical of this part of the coastline (Figure IV.
1.2). Strong currents and turbulent waters near the shore tend to
remove eroded material rapidly, and extensive shoal areas rarely
occur.
The continental shelf along all the coasts of Alaska is wide; in
the Bering Sea it averages 400 miles. The Bering Sea shelf is the
flattest area of this size on the face of the earth, primarily
because of the fine silt deposited on an irregular rocky platform
by glacier-fed rivers.
OCEAN CURRENTS
The major ocean currents impinging on or passing close to the
continent exert strong, if subtle, effects on the estuarine zone;

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‘v-is
see Figure IV.l.l.
The best known of these is the Gulf Stream which moves northward
along the South Atlantic coast from Florida to Cape Hatteras, where
it turns east out across the Atlantic. Between Cape Hatteras and
Newfoundland, water from the Labrador Current moves slowly southward
between the Gulf Stream and the coast.
The Labrador Current, a cold water mass with abundant plant
nutrients, makes the Grand Banks off Newfoundland one of the most
productive fisheries of the world. While much of the Labrador
Current mixes with the Gulf Stream, some of its water enters the
Gulf of Maine as part of the strong tidal and wave-driven flow, and
still more drifts down the Middle Atlantic coast from Massachusetts
to North Carolina.
The Gulf Stream is very warm water from subtropical latitudes, and
carries with it subtropical life forms as well as heat. Its warming
effect on the land can be seen in the difference in vegetation
above and below Cape Hatteras, as well as in differences in kinds of
aquatic life (Figure IV.l.7).
A major part of the Gulf Stream emerges from the warm, subtropical
Gulf of Mexico and flows around the tip of Florida. These waters
nurture the great shrimp fishery and warm the coasts of northern
Europe as well as those of the southeastern United States.

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IV— 16
Along the west coast of North America the eastward-flowing warm
current of the Pacific Ocean (the North Pacific Current) splits at
about the latitude of the United States-Canadian border; the portion
moving south is called the California Current, while that moving
north into the Gulf of Alaska is called the Alaska Current.
The California Current exerts a moderating effect on contlental
temperatures as it moves southward; the major effect, however, occurs
during the spring and early sumer when the winds are such that in
some places the California Current moves away from the coast and
cold, nutrient-laden deep water comes to the surface near the shore.
Two major zones of this “upwelling” are off Santa Barbara and off
Cape Mendocino, near the northern part of California. During other
seasons a complex series of eddies and countercurrents develops, all
of which tends to make the nearshore areas very productive.
The Alaska Current exerts a warming effect on the southern part of
Alaska, similar to that of the Gulf Stream in northern Europe. The
Bering Sea, which receives some water from the Pacific Subarctic
Current, is the birthplace of the cold deep currents of the Northern
Pacific, and the waters within the Bering Sea are very cold and rich
in nutrients.
None of the effects of continental shelf and ocean current structure
are clearly visible and dramatic. They are a matter of slight dif-
ferences in degrees of temperature, of concentrations of certain

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IV—17
chemical compounds, or of speed of motion. Yet they help to explain
why lobsters grow in Maine and not along the coast of South Carolina,
and they form one basis for regarding the national estuarine system
as a unified whole, not as a group of unique coastal systems.
STRUCTURE OF THE COASTLINE
The configuration of the coastline itself, even though subject to
additional molding by the flow of rivers to the sea, is closely
related to the shape and structure of the continental shelf. A
wide continental shelf is generally associated with lowland next to
the coast, while a narrow shelf is associated with mountainous
terrain. These associations throughout the estuarine zone of the
United States have produced estuarine systems characteristic of
particular regions.
The northern part of the North American continent was once covered
by an ice sheet of continental dimensions, which left its impress on
the estuarine zone as far south as Uew York City on the Atlantic
coast and Puget Sound on the Pacific coast. These massive glacial
rivers, sometimes over one mile thick, cut their way to the ocean,
terminating somewhere in the vicinity of the edge of the continental
shelf on both coasts (Figure IV.1.8).
The result of their passage Is the sharply sculptured and generally
steep shoreline associated with the New England, Puget Sound, and
Southeast Alaska regions. The submarine topography of these regions

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P1—18
is similar to that above the water, except where earth and rock have
eroded from the land above the water and been deposited on the land
under the water. The estuarine zone along formerly glaciated coasts
is a region of deep, heavily indented embayments, many islands, steep
rocky shores, predominantly evergreen forests reaching nearly to the
water, irregular bottom topography, and vistas of great scenic beauty
(Figure IV.l.9).
The unglaciated parts of the Atlantic coast and of the Gulf coast con-
sist of relatively flat terrain in which coastal embayments and marshes
are the predominant estuarine features. These are coasts formed pri-
marily of sediments eroded from ancient mountains, and along which the
embayments and marshes form traps for sediments the rivers bring down
to the sea.
The estuarine zones along, these coasts may be of many forms, but the
general imoression is one of great expanses of shallow water and
aquatic vegetation, extensive sand dunes and sandy ocean beachfront,
and narrow and carefully maintained navigation channels with port
facilities well inland (Figure IV.1.lO).
The Pacific coast of the conterminous United States is actively being
eroded by wave action against the exDosed shoreline. The major
coastal feature is narrow beach or rocks at the base of steep bluffs.
Deep embayments behind headlands or shallow indentations in the coast

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Iv-lg
are typical of the estuarine zone.
The southern coast of Alaska is the only part of the United States
with glaciers existinci in the estuarine zone. Glacier-fed estuaries
have much floating ice, usually in the form of small icebergs, and
very steep sides. The water is icy cold and often milky with sedi-
ment from earth and rock ground to a fine flour by the movement of
the ice across the land (Figure IV.l.ll).
RIVER FLOW
The estuarine zone is also shaped through erosion and sediment trans-
port by fresh water making its way to the sea. Along the coastlines
of the continental shelf of the United States are streams and rivers
carrying water from land runoff to the sea. These waterways range
from the iississiDpi River down to the tiniest stream trickling
across the sands of a beach.
Figure IV.l.l2 illustrates typical seasonal variation in river flow
into the estuarine zones of the United States. Everywhere there is
a pronounced annual cycle: neakinc sharply in the spring in Alaska
and New England, peaking from early summer to earl.y fall along the
Atlantic and ( ulf coasts, and reaching a maximum in late winter
along the Pacific coast.

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FIGURE IV.1.12 EXAMPLES OF VARIATION IN RIVER FLOW
OCT JAM API JULY
SUSQUE04A A. PA.
PENO6 ° T
OCT M I S API LY
SAVANNAH. I .C.46.
OCT iAN API JULY
!V20
COL’J’w
(JAIPQ J 4
SAL INAS .
SANTA MARGARITA
sUSaUE
SUSITNA
.-.
‘I ’S .
‘ L’S.
1 S0
I L —
40.010
10.110
(4 10.000
)0.000
‘0.—
0 DII
Is”.
‘L ’ S .
IL
05. 5’.
11.100
14.555
1 0.
OCT UN API JULY
PVSOSHCOT. 40.
‘S....
I” —
‘S ..
AL—
15.551
‘S . .
‘I. —
‘S...
OCT 4AM API JULY
‘S . .
‘LOSS
7L.SI
S .M.
11551
IL . .
15. 505.
OCT 4*15 API JULY
MTAE(A PI.A.
IU,AMSSEE, PLA.
NOSILI. ALA.

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FIGURE IV.1.12 EXAMPLES OF VARIATION IN RIVER FLOW (continued)
OCT JAN APR JULY
110 GWANDE. YES.
100000
90,000
00.000
50000
U 40,000

20 ,000
10 .
OCT JAN API JULY
SANTA IOARGARITA. CALIF.
100000
R0,000
00,000
70,000
00.000
I-
40,000
30.000
20.000
10,000
OCT JAN APR JULY
SALINAS. CALIF.
OCT JAN APR JULY
1 00.000
N0. 5 00
40.000
00 .000
40.000

20.
10,
OCT UN’ API JU.Y
(INPQUA. ORE.
100.000
00.000
0
7&000
40.000
3c.000
20,000
10,000
COLUMRIA. 010.-WASH.
IV— 21
100.000
p0 .000
30.I0.
20.000
10,000
100,000
10,000
00.000
70,000
00.000
50.000
40,000
30.000
20.000
10,000
OCT JAN API JULY
OCT JAN API JULY
ELANATh. CALIF.
100.000
00,000
00.000
70.000
00.000
50.500
U 40,000
50
30.000
20.000
10,000
0
OCT JAN APR JULY
SUSITNA. ALASKA
YUKON. ALAS&A

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IV ..22
Annual cycles of river flow depend on the annual variation of
temperature as well as of precipitation, and the total volumes of
water and sediment moved reflect not only the total amount of pre-
cipitation, but also the sizes and slopes of drainage basins and the
types of soil over which the rivers flow in their fall to the sea.
All river flows begin as either rain, snow, or Ice. While rain
moves almost Immediately into the hydrologic system as ground water
and as surface runoff, snow and ice may remain for several months on
the qround until they melt under the warmer temperatures of spring.
This sudden influx of several months’ precipitation into the hydro-
logic system frequently results in severe erosion and flooding with
heavy transport of sediment into the estuarine zone.
River basin drainages unaffected by winter freeze-up conditions, such
as most -of those on the,Southeast Atlantic and Gulf coasts, also
erode and carry sediment loads, but their effects are distributed
more equally around the year. Coasts with low-lying drainage basins
tend to have marshes which trap sediments, reducing erosion In
coastal areas.
Table IV.Ll. shows the magnitude and distribution of river flows
entering the estuarine zone of the United States. Two river systems,
those of the Mississippi and the Columbia, drain 62 percent of the
land area of the conterminous United States and account for 50
percent of the land runoff passing through the estuarine zone. The

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REFERENCE: THE NATIONAL ESTUARINE INVENTORY
DATA SOURCES: U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY
TABLE IV.1.1 RIVER FLOW IN THE ESTUARINE ZONE OF THE UNITED STATES
3IOPHVSICAL REGIUNI D AINAGHT0T.FRFSHWATERIDRAINAGf AREA IRUMJFF PF NIIEIMAJOR RIVER 8ASP4S ( 10OO SQ 4L OR4INAE
AREA IRUNOFF (CUBIC IPEP/MILE OF IOF TDrAI. I IOAI . INRITOTAL GAGED 0RAINAGE1AVE (AGE A 4 d1ML RUN
I
NORTH ATLANTIC 40,700 12,000 I 30 I l b I 51 18,600 I
1— ——— I——I I
M IDI)LE ATLANTIC I 6 9 , 10fl I 106,000 I 54 15 I 35,300 I
I 1——I
HESAPEAKE oC,5 00 I 79,800 I 15 I 61 47,100 I
- I I——I
SOUTH ATLANTIC I 149,500 1 154,000 I 18? I 16 1121 68,500
— I I——I
CARIBBEAN 10,400 1 11,500 I 7 I I I CI 0
I — —I
52 1211 1,394,000
‘OLE (TUTALI 11,704 ,000 1 799,000 75r
EX0000INC . M15S.I 464,000 249,000 274
SUUTO EST PACIFIC I 94,300 1 83,400 I 79
NORTHWEST PACIFIC I 314,000 368,000 I 469
EXCL. COLLJRPIA I 56,000 I 133,000 I 84
ALASKA ITUTAL) I 700,00n INOT AVAILABLE I 47
FXCL. YUKON 1 340,000 1NOT AVAILABLE 1 2?
PACIFIC ISLANDS I 6,710 IMOT AVAILABLE I 6
‘9
27
77
?8
3), 9)0
51,400
55,530
10,200
0
7O ,, 0 )0
156,003
3D ,530
293,0)0
93,3)0
351,000
176,000
201 249,00 )
SI 49,000
91 275,000
Al
161 345,D0
151 6,00)
D l - ‘
TOTALS (INCLUDING I I I I
ALASKA AND PACIFICI3,1l6,BD0 1 2,000,000 I 124 1 1R3
ISLANDS) I I I I
tOTALS (EXCLUDING I I I I
ALASKA AND PACIFIC 12,410, 100 1 1,568,700 1 264 I 29 167
ISLANDS) I I I I
IOTALS (EXCLUDING I I I I
ALASKA, PACIFIC I 912,000 I 184,000 I 106 I 19
ISLANDS, MISS.R, I I I I
6 COIUr ’E31& 9.) I I I I
0
2,232,600 I 1,588,500
1,978,600 I 1,237,530
595,000 I 492,5)0

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IV-24
Yukon has a drainage area of about 360,000 square miles in Alaska
and Canada, about one—third that of the Mississippi, and ranks
between the Mississippi and Columbia as one of the three major river
systems of the Nation.
The mouths of these three rivers form estuarine systems unique in
the estuarine zone of the United States. The tremendous volumes of
water discharged* by each of these is the dominating environmental
factor where the river enters the sea.
The Mississippi and Yukon reach the ocean after passing through many
hundreds of miles of low-lying, easily erodable land. Immense
deltas formed at the mouth of each river as the great volumes of
suspended material accumulated in this passage were deposited at the
place where the river currents were slowed down by the sea (Figure
IV.l l2 and Figure IV.L6). The Columbia collects relatively
little sediment in its passage over rocky terrain, and is confined
near its mouth to a narrow channel where it has cut its way to the
ocean through coastal mountain ranges. The deposited sediments
form only an offshore bar which is continually cut away and re-
established by the ocean s iells and currents sweeping in over the
narrow continental shelf (Figure IV.1.12B).
In a little over an hour on an average day, the Mississippi
discharges into the Gulf of Mexico enough water to supply the
domestic water needs of the entire present population of the
United States.

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IV-25
There are 80 other river basins in the United States having drainage
areas of over 1000 square miles; these, with the three river systems
already mentioned, account for land runoff from 85 percent of the
entire land area draining to the estuarine zone. Over half of these
are in the Gulf, Alaskan, and South Atlantic biophysical reqions.
There are none in the Caribbean and Pacific Islands renions.
The ratio of drainage basin size to miles of ocean coastline in each
Region, as shown in Table IV.l_l, is an index of the relative impor-
tance of upland runoff conditions to the estuarine zone. In the
North Atlantic biophysical region, for example, runoff comes on the
average only from a distance of 30 miles inland. In the South
Atlantic region, however, runoff comes from an average distance of
182 miles, thus indicating that large river basins are far more
important to the estuarine zone in the South Atlantic reqion than in
the North Atlantic.
The ratio of runoff to total miles of tidal shoreline is an index of
the importance of land runoff in estuarine stratification and water
movement patterns. A low ratio means there is little runoff in pro-
portion to the size of the estuarine zone, as in the Caribbean
region, and water stratification generally is not significant in
this region; while hiqh ratios, as in the two Pacific rerlions, indi-
cate high proportionate land runoff and stratification-dominated
estuaries.

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IV—26
Regional averages like those in Table IV.l,l are important in that
they show that there are general unifying criteria through which
lessons learned in one part of the national estuarine system can be
applied to other parts of the estuarine zone.
SEDI MENTAT ION
The general outlines of the estuaries, lagoons, and ernbayments in
the estuarine zone of the United States were formed by erosion from
land runoff during the last ice age when sea levels were much lower
than they are now. As the sea level rose, the drowned river mouths
became zones of mixing, sediment deposition, and erosion where the
rivers and tidal currents met. These erosion and sedimentation
processes molded the estuarine zone into its present shape and con-
tinue to change it.
The greatest changes occurred in those regions where the surface
soils and clays on wide, gently sloping coastal plains rapidly
eroded from the land and came to rest in the estuarine zone or
farther out on the continental shelf. Least change occurred where
coastal plains and continental shelves are narrow or consist mostly
of resistant rock.
Figure IV.l.l3 illustrates the evolution of an estuary from a
drowned river valley to a coastal marsh. The estuarine zone of the
United States from iew York to Texas abounds with examples of this
evolutionary process (Figure IV.L14). Delaware Bay has not yet

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Figure IV.I.13
STAGES IN ESTUARINE SYSTEM MODIFICATION
DUE TO SEDIMENTATION
IV-27

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IV—28
been cut off from the sea by barrier Islands, Mobile Bay illustrates
the initial formation of offshore bars, Matagorda Bay shows the full
development of barrier islands, and the marshes around the mouth of
the Satilla River represent the ultimate stage in the filling of an
estuary.
The great ice sheet which once covered the estuarine zones of
New England, northwest Washington, and southeast Alaska scoured off
much of the readily erodable surface material in the coastal water-
sheds, thus, natural sedimentation has been a relatively minor
factor in modifying estuaries In these areas. Narragansett Bay and
Puget Sound, among many others, still maintain the great depths
typical of glacially formed embaynients.
Near the edge of the ice sheet, however, where the scoured-off earth
and rock carried along under and in the Ice finally stopped as the
glaciers met the sea and melted, small, shallow bays formed in the
glacial debris and subsequently developed offshore sand spits and
barrier Islands as illustrated by Moriches Bay (Figure IV.l.15) on
the south side of Long Island, which is formed of such glacial
debris.
Abundant sediment eroded from the coastal ranges along the Pacific
coast of the continental United States has nearly filled several
estuaries, and wide tidal flats are common in the few estuaries
along these coasts (Figure IV.l.16). The Columbia, however,

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IV—29
collects a proportionately less suspended load of sediment as it
comes down through the less-erodable volcanic mountains and pla-
teaus of the Pacific Morthwest.
The southern part of the Florida peninsula is far from the sources
of coastal plain sediment which has filled estuaries immediately to
the north. Locally derived sediments, combined with the results of
plant and animal activity, are the great estuarine modifiers in this
region. Mangrove swamps on the Southwest coast and coral reefs on
the Southeast (Figure IV.l.17) are typical coastal formations.
Table IV.l.2 gives estimated total quantities of suspended sediments
entering the estuarine zone and shows the kinds of sediments typical
of each region. The data leading to this table include the effects
of human activity as well as natural sedimentation. The most sfgni-
ficant thing about this table is the paucity of data leading to
these estimates. The sediments carried by only 26 of the rivers
entering the estuarine zone have been measured sufficiently well to
permit even these estimates (IV-l-2).
The great volume of sediments carried by the Mississippi, as
contrasted to the quantity carried by the Columbia, illustrates one
of the major differences between a river forming a delta and one
not forming a delta. The contrast between the sediment loads being
carried by the rivers of the Middle Atlantic and Chesapeake regions
and those of the South Atlantic and gulf also illustrate why the

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TABLE IV.1 .2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SEDIMENT LOADS ENTERING AND SEDIMENTS RESIDENT IN THE
ESTUARINE ZONE
BIOPHYSICAL REGION IAVERAGE ANNUAL SUSPENOED SEDiMENT LOAD I NUMBER OF RIVEPS I KI .U)S )F SE)IMFNTS IN TIlE FSIJAAINE ZONE
I (TONS/SQ. Mil J * TONS) I SAMPLED I
NORTH ATLANTIC INOT AVAILABLE NOT AVAILABLE I 0 IGL4C 81 )EIT IS— LITTLE INPUT FRJM iVERS
I I I CLAY SILT IN DEEP AREAS; SAN) L,UVEL
I I I (AROUND FD’ES.
MIDDLE ATLANTIC I 220 1 15,300,000 I 5 ISILT, CLAY 11 DEEP MEAS; FIlE SAN)
I I I IFLSFWHFRE
CHESAPEAKE BAY J 130 8,640,000 I 3 ISILT, CLAY IN OF:P AREAS; FINE SAND
I I I IFLSEWHERE
SOUTH ATLANTIC 389 58,100,000 I I IFINE SANE) PRF)DM!NATES; Qi ANIC
I I I IRIVFRS AND SWAMPS
CARIBBEAN INOT AVAILABLE (NOT AVAILABLE 0 IF INF SAND, EXEPT FUA QRAL 1E S AN)
I I I IMANGRUVFS
QULE I P I I
I1)EXCL. MISS. I 124 I 57,600,000 I 7 I(1)SILTS AND CLAYS WITH SANDS A UNOANE
I AI O1JND MARINS ONLY
(2JMISSISSIPPI I 244 I 305,000,000 1 I(?)FINE SILTS AND CLAYS, COVERED BY FINE
I I I I SAND WHERE DELTA—MAKING IS INACTIVE
PACIFIC SOUTHWEST I I
PACIFIC SLOPES I 398 J 21,000,000 2 (FINE SAND IN HANNELS, SILTS AN) CLAYS
CENTRAL VALLEY 71.4 I 3,000,000 2 IA3OUND EL)(’,FS AND ON TI)AL FL TS
PACIFIC NORTHWEST I I I
PACIFIC SLOPES I 3610 I 98,000,000 I 3 (FINE SAND IN 1$ANNELS, SILTS AN) CLAYS
COLUMBIA I 112 I 29,000,000 I 2 IA OU’O) FOSES AND UN TIDAL FLATS
ALASKA (NOT AVAILABLE (NOT AVAILABLE — I 0 IMIXTLJRE OF GRAVEL, SILT AND ..LN:KAL
I I IGLACIAL OFMIS ON SOUTHEAST, SDJTH.
I I I (EXTREMELY FINE ‘FLOUR’ UN SOME PARIS OF
I I $ $SOUTH AND Sr1JTIWFST.
PACIFIC ISLANDS (NOT AVAILABLE (NOT AVAILABLE I 0 I 58 ’lD, CORAL, SLIGHT AMOUNTS ii- SILT NEAR
I I I (RIVERS
EFE*ENCE: THE NATIONAL ESTUARIME INVENTORY
TA SOUNCES: U.S. (3POLOGICAL SURVEY

-------
IV—31
evolution of drowned river valleys has progressed farther in the
latter regions.
The two Pacific Coast regions are striking in that rivers with
drainage only from the coastal mountain ranges carry much greater
sediment loads than those which drain the interior ranges.
CLIMATE
Solar energy striking the earth sets up complex cycles of water and
energy flow from the oceans to the sky and the land and back again.
That part of the energy cycle occurring in the atmosphere gives
rise to the various combinations of weather phenomena which make up
local climates. Land, sea, and sky are mutually dependent in pro-
ducing specific climates, and the great ocean currents play their
Indirect roles in modifying the climates of the estuarine zone in
addition to their direct effects discussed earlier.
The annual distributions of temperature, precipitation, sunlight,
and prevailing winds as well as the total amounts of each are of the
greatest significance. Table IV.l.3 and Figure IV.l.18 sumarize
the major climate characteristics in the estuarine zone of the
United States.
Precipitation may fall as rain, snow, or other forms of ice,
depending on temperature; the form of precipitation has not only
local impact, but also affects annual patterns of river flow in

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TABLE IV.1.3 CLIMATOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
S * *HUM.3* PREVAILING WIND * SOLAR RADIATION
3IOPHYSICAL REGIONS MEAN TEMPERATURES (DEG. F) SPRECIP.(1N )*AN l’1* (KN)TS,DIRECTI)N) * IRS PER DAY /1 OF POSSIALE
* — —* S S *
JULY
68.1
67.5
76 • 8
78.0
79.1
JULY
3 T.
13.4/56 115.LI67II1.L/5
• ISNOW, ’ I * I
* ISLEET* I I
* NORMINORM * I * I
OCT.*TOTAI 1t31A1*AMI PM*JAN. IAPR.
I S, *
I SI * I
42.91 71.7*81160* AN I 9S
I ‘I ’ I
I S * I
43.7) 33.9 582171 513NW 1 13SW
42.41 29.7*72 157510NW 1 NW
54.5) 2.9*82 167*LOMFI I2SW
I S ) *
SI ’ I
44.21 22.7.71154’ 9SWILOSM
I • I * I
I SI *
49.21 0.1*87156* ASWI 9S
53.4) 0.1*87154* 7MW) ASE
46.3) 0.0*85)60* ONWI 9SF
I *1* I
I ‘IS I
40.01 0.O*80 167 511NE 1 11SF
64.21 0.0*83166* 7NFI ANE
I • I’
I * 1 *
51.6ITRACFS88IS7* AM
53.11 0.6*91 )62*ION I
26. 8ITR ACES 90’ 6 1*1 3 SF
JULY I)CT.
is
I OSd
7SW
9S
8 5W
7Sd
7 5W
7SF
9SF
PNF
SC. 1
82.6
81.8
*
* I
* I
* ANNUAL IJAN.
* I
NORTH ATLANTIC *
PDRTLANO,ME. * 45.01 21.8
* I
MIDDLE ATLANtIC S
NANTUCKET,NASS. 49.11 32.5
NEW YORK,N.Y. * 54.51 33.2
C. HATTERAS,N.C. ’ 62.21 46.6
* I
CHESAPEAKE BAY * I
BAITIMORE,ND. * 57.61 37.3
* I
SOUTH ATLANTIC *
CHARLESTOM,S.C. * 65.0) 50.3
JACKSONVILLE,FLA* 69.5) 55.9
MIAMI,FLA S 75.1) 66.9
* I
CARRIBEAN *
KEY WEST,FLA * 76.8) 69.6
SAN JUAN,P.ft. * 78.0) 74.4
* I
GULF S
TAMPA,FLA * 72.21 61.2
PORT ARTHIJR,TEX.* 68.5) 53.6
BROWNSVILLE,TEX.S 73.7) 6l.4i
S
PACIFIC SOUTHWEST *
SAN OIEGO,CAL. * 62.41 54.91
S.FRANCISCO,CAL.* 55.6) 47.91
* I
PACIFIC NORTHWEST *
ASTDRIA ,0R1. * 51.4) 40.1
SEATTLE,WASH. * 53.21 40.7
* I
PACIFIC ISLANDS * I
HOP4OLULU,H.I. 6 75.2) 72.0
S
ALASKA *
JUNEAU,A. S 40.6) 26.2
AMCHORAGE,A * 35.3) 13.0
WONE,A. • 26.3) 5.6
U$ROW,A. * 10.11—15.1
I APR.
I 42.5
I 43.8
51.4
59.3
I 55.7
64.3
68.7
74.2
75.81
76.6 )
71.41
68.2)
73.9)
60.5)
54.11
49.71
51.81
73.3 1
39.51
33.41
21.0 )
20.2)
I *
I *
(48.6*
I S
I *
153.85
158.35
165 • 4*
I *
I *
160 .0*
I *
I *
166. 2*
171.0*
77.8*
I *
I *
83.3 )79.0*
80.4 180.0*
I *
I *
81.6174.7*
81.9)70.3*
84.01 75.Q
I *
I *
69.3 165.0*
60.4 159.4*
I *
I *
60.8)54.1*
65.6 (54.4*
I •
77.9177. 5’
I *
I *
54.1 141.9*
37.1136. 0*
4 9. 6 130. 3’
39.7117.1’
* I
• I
* I
* JAN. I APR.
* I
• I
8N 5 9.3 1541
* I
* I
115W’ 9.S/40I13.3F55
8SW* .6F5 I13.3/5
L ONFS1 O.0/62 113.1/67
• I
* I
BSW* 9.7/48 113.2/59
• I
*
7ME*10.2/62 1 13.0/75
8NESl0.4 51I 12.9/73
8 NE 5 10. 7/68 )12. 8/72
*
* I
tONES 71) 80
6NF I1.1/65l 12.6/66
* I
* I
AME’13.b/67I 12.8/72
3M *10.5/44I12.9/5I
9SE*10 .7/47112. 8! 54
S
• I
SNW*10.2/S8 )13.0/61
8MW’ 9.9 113.2
• I
* I
6SF’ 9.0 I
S
S
14.9/63(t1.L/5
14.0/66) 1 1. [ IS
14.3 /70 111.3/7
14.7/65 111.2/6
14.1/69) 11.4/7
13.9/591 11.5/s
13. 6/62 (1 1.
69) S
13. 1/64)11. 1/6
1 3.8/60111.5/6
13.9 166 111.5 16
13.6/81 111. 6/6
14. 1/61) 11.4/6
14.5 111.3
9NFI 7E
115 I ‘75
13SF) LOSE
ANWI 6P4
1ONi I 12MW
10.9
17.4
76.0
31.9
23.9
56.9
14.3
10.7
4.1
c J
S
Si. I
* S
TRACE*61I61* SNE I
TRACE ’71 167 5 ÔNWI
• I * I
‘I * I
3•7*73 73* 7E
8.4*72160* iS
* I * I
* I • I
0. 0’ 73 I S 8 5
S’S
• I’
90.3*12182’ iN I
80.4*10162* SNEI
60.5 ’8 1 171*10E I
27.0*79) 77 5105E1
7MW
7 5
7MW
6KW
9MEI 11NEI IZNE
N SE
6W
9E
lONE
13.5 115.4 111.3
3. 6/4711 3.6/63)10.9/3
I I I
I I I
LONESII .0/46112.617 )113.3/77) 11.7/7
I I
I I I
7.1/29) 14.4/37I11.6/21 1 10.3/1
6. 4/ 3 0 (1 4. 1/50) 10. 5/42 (L a. 1/4
42) 32) *0 ) 3
0.0 )to.3 124.0 I 8.3
I *
iN I ASES
65 I SN S
9SWIION *
tOE I LZE S
REFERENCE: THE NATIONAL ESTUARINE INVENTORY
DATA $GJRCE: US. WEATHER SUNEAU

-------
IV-33
rivers draining to the coast. There is a tendency for precipita-
tion along the northern Atlantic coast to be heaviest during the
cooler months and for much of it to fall as snow; the Pacific
coast, except for Alaska, has a similar precipitation pattern
with much less snowfall. The southern Atlantic, Gulf, and
Alaskan coasts receive their heaviest precipitation in the summer
and fall, as do Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands.
Local air, water, and ground temperatures, which govern the form
In which precipitation occurs, are primarily a matter of solar
radiation, which becomes more intense in latitudes nearer the
equator. Local temperatures are, however, greatly moderated by
local precipitation, cloud cover, nearby ocean conditions, and
prevailing winds. Two examples serve to illustrate this point:
(1) Key West, Fla., on an island in the warm waters
of the Gulf of Mexico, has an average temperature
of 77°F.; Brownsville, Tex., in about the same
latitude but on the mainland, has an average tempera-
ture of 74°F. At Key West annual temperatures,
moderated by the marine environment, range over only
49 degrees, whereas the range at Brownsville Is 85
degrees.
(2) Astoria, Oreg., at the mouth of the Columbia
River, and Portland, Me., are both in the same
latitude in zones of prevailing westerly winds. At

-------
FIGURE IV.1.18 SEASONAL VARIATION IN CLIMATE AROUND
THE ESTUARINE ZONE
Portland, Maine
• 3 S ‘Cl i 52
A
4
5 3 31 S I I liii I?
MONTh
I,
4
4
Baltimore, Maryland
ma
-T

2
4 ’ . ,
I
— f-Is I sillS
2 I 2 3 4 S 7 I 1101112
MONTh
3
0
z
I -
4
0.
A
4
0
2
I V.34
2
V
A
MONTH
0 TTTTTT.. .
I 33 1 S 7 S 1C11 13
MONTH
N
3
0
2
4
0
I
A ”
4
e 11111551 i
2 123
4 • 7 $ I 1051 52
MONTH

-------
FIGURE IV.1.18
SEASONAL VARIATION IN CLIMATE AROUND
THE ESTUARINE ZONE (continued)
Cape Hatteras, North Carolina
1 2 3 4 5 1 $ 101112
MONTH
Jacksonville, Florida
0
I,
13
4
I
z
4
I
I
0
0
z
Puerto Rico & Virgin Is lands
I
10 ____________
r 1491111111
‘1 2 34 $ 6 7 $91011 ‘2
MONTH
Pensacola, Florida
I
0
4
12
I
0
I
I-
I
0
4
13
I
z
0
4
13
I
0
I
I
0
4
o •.
I
4
90
*
0
I
I
9..
(3
4
13
I
4
123416719101112
MONTH
I
0
I
I
13
4
I
4
90
*
I I I ” .
3 4 5 6 7 $ 9 1011 12
MONTH
IV- 35
I
4
I
MONTH
1
4
I
I
0
1
I
4
9.-
S.
U
I
S.
I
S
1
I—
4
U
I
I
S
1
MONTH
123
MONTH
MONTH
MONTH
I
U
z
1
0
0.
0.
I
S
1
MONTH
I
0.
U
I
I
S
1
I
13
0
I
I
0.
I
1
4
I
I
0
2
MONTH
MONTH

-------
IV-36
4
‘a
I -
z
4
I
I
0
z
FIGURE IV.1.18 SEASONAL VARIATION IN CLIMATE AROUND
THE ESTUARINE ZONE (continued)
Astoria, Oregon
0
I
0-
0 -
I
0
0-
4
0
I
4
*00 1* 1*004
1 2 3 4 S 7 I 1011 12
MOWTh
Anchorage, Alaska
I
4
0-
‘a
I
1
I—
0NTh
1
4
I
kr 14 1 1 1
0 2 34 S 7 10101112
Yukutat, Alaska
-!
8
I
S Sill •*UU T
1 2 3 4 3 6 7 I 1601 12
I—-
8
4
U
234 56’ I9’C 2
S ITK
2 1 2 3 4 5 7 S 1011 12
50 I 0Th
Borrow, Alaska
S
0
I 123456750
UO S4Th
10 1112
MONTH
0
I
I
0 3
4
0
I
MONTH
S
0
I
I
03
-a
4
0
I
1
0
4
00
* 02
MONTH

-------
FIGURE V.1.18 SEASONAL VARIATION IN CLIMATE AROUND
THE ESTUARINE ZONE (continued)
Corpus Chrisli, Texas
U
zo
z
0
4
U
0
— •-—-t-l 16111 • •
I 2 3 4 5 6 1 • 9 1011 12
MONTH
I— ,
U
00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I 9 1011 12
MONTH
I—
U
z o
z
0
4
U
0 $—$ I I S I I S I
I 2 3 4 5 6 1 I 9 10 II 62
MONTH
63
0
4
I
z
4
I
O
z
San Diego, California
0
4
*0
6-
I
I
00
0
2
2 3 4 5 6 7 I 9 10 Il 12
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Eureka, California
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-------
IV - 38
Astoria, where the winds are blowing off the Pacific
Ocean, there are 76 inches of precipitation, including
4 inches of snow At Portland the prevailing winds
blow off the continental land mass and there are 43
inches of precipitation, but 72 inches of snow.
TIDE
The tide stands alone as a controlling force In the estuarine envi-
ronment. The ebb and flow of the tide are the great facts of the
estuarine zone, and have determined much of man’s history from the
time Julius Caesar lost a fleet because of the tides in the English
channel to the time of D-Day in 1944, which was set because of the
right combination 0 f tide and moon.
Tides are easily understood. The sun, the moon, and the earth
mutually attract each other, according to Newton’s law of gravita-
tion*; the great masses of fluid in the ocean, being more sensitive
to tiny changes in gravitation force than the solid land, are pulled
about rather freely in a predictable fashion based on the relative
positions of sun, moon, and earth. They are predictable to such
an extent that tables of accurate predictions of tidal height are
*I is Interesting to note that observations of the rhythmic rise
and fall of the tide led to the mathematical concepts through
which the law was formulated.

-------
IV -39
published for each day of each year for each major port of the
world. Such predictions are valuable both to the captain trying
to dock a large oil tanker and to the fisherman who is trying to
find where the big ones are biting.
Perhaps because tides are so easily understood and predicted,
and are so easily observable everywhere, their importance in
the estuarine zone has been largely overlooked.
Table IV.l.4 gives typical tidal characteristics in several estua-
ries of the United States. It is in1T ediately apparent that tides
on each coast of the United States are different. Along the
Atlantic and Pacific coasts there are seinidiurnal tides, i.e.,
two complete tides in a little over one day, but the Atlantic
tides are equal and the Pacific tides are unequal. In the Gulf
of Mexico most places have one tide a day, i.e., diurnal, but
some places such as Tampa Bay exhibit both kinds of tides at
different times of the month.
Tide ranges, i.e., the difference between high water and low
water, are not so uniform. These are largely a matter of shape,
size, and bottom material in individual estuarine areas. Ranges
vary from the barely noticeable rises and falls of some lagoons
along the Gulf of Mexico to the tremendous 28-foot range in
Alaska’s Cook Inlet.*
*A tidal bore, a single breaking wave bringing in the flood tide,
is characteristic of Turnagain Arm of Cook Inlet at certain times.
This Is the only tidal bore in the United States.

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IV-40
TABLE IV.1.4 TYPICAL TIDAL CHARACTEAISTIc OF THE ESTUARINE ZONE OF THE UNITED STATES
MICULE ATLANTIC
DuM’LI! ROCBS(6J224P04 BAY)
1116 ! 4DwS(5.Y.1ARB0P)
CAP MAY 116R339,N.J.
Vi4 IN1A EACH, VA.
:HES4 EA.1F -lAY
.LF T4AP LI TILL . E8 SAVI
P01.1 5fl
Cr ES4PEA E SAY At
ASII\;T.0.:.( CT, B.)
SCUll-I ATLASTIC
)i lS T3N.’ .-.0. ) ApE )EAR .I
V’ ..Al RIVET ENTBACE.GA.
AY7flLT.T1A. )ST.JL lNS BIVE )
F1.’It C ISL IrT .11 A.
CA I3ILA’
LA.
.v . SI .I -L A.
S .N JJA\, .l .

-,ULI I R
$l.T.RUR ..f IA. )T#WPA BAY)
F SSAC 01. A 55Y F51I ANC € ,FL&.
RARATAIlA l-AY.LA.
ANSAS PASS,Tl-*.
PACIFIC SCuT*iW#ST
SAS 2)E .0 BAY ENTTAN(€.CALIF.
ML]ST R Y BAY,CALIF.
sAN PPANC1SC s*Y ENT..CALIF.
P1 ,.T ACSA.CALIV.
DIURNAL
0 1 U II SAL
DI URSA).
DI URNAL
2. 5 i.r’
1. ’ 1.s
1.1 1.3
2.? 2.4
1.? 2. 0
WrAK C VARIAALE
WEAK C VAP)ABLF
2.3 0.3 0.3
1. ) 1.9 2.1
(‘. 3 1.7 1.7
1.7 1.6
5.6 1.2 l.A
5.3 WFAK C VARIARIF
5.7 3.3 3.9
1.3 1.3
LINE QIJA!.
UNEQUAL
USE .IUAL
UNEQUAL
16.4
28.1
9.7
0.
2.3 2.3
3.3 3.3
2.5 2.4
4 A$( C VAP IAIRLE
PACiFIC ISLANDS
WA) I I 8R U I
IL ., IAl,Ai 1I -iAwAIlI
UNEQUAL SEMIDIIJ NA1 1.?
UNEQUAL SEWIDIJANAt l.
1.3
2.
BAA AA, .,.IAW
PA ij I’A - 1A8.LM.SAMUA
UNEQUAL SE.4IDIURSAL ND DATA
JRFQUAL SEMIt3IU5NAE 7.5
1.7
‘49 DATA
6 AN ‘ €.J5L sE’1 IU’-SAL 110€, II4E DIURNAL AANI,E IS
SAJENIIAI. 11.55 IN SLIGHTLY OVER ONE DAY.
YLEESENCE: 1,if SAII .JNAL. ESTUARPiE INVENTORY
DATA SOURCE uS COAST AND GEODETIC S1JRVEY
TI f f EXTAS 4 ’ 4&E OVER THE TWO
‘40614 ATLASTIC
EASTPORI,ME.(RAY CF FUSDY)
ISLE D l 4AUT,ME(?FNJBSI.01 8.)
PURTSWOUT,4 HA870A,N.H.
90510’. HAR .804,FASS.
JIOPi-IYSICAL . E ,l05 TYPE OF TIDE TIDAL RANGE (F l) MAX.TIDAI CURRENT VELOCITY
MEAN SPRING DIUR’IAL* BLOOD 693
EQUAL
E QUA).
EQUAL
EQUAL
EQUAL
E QUAL
EQUAL
F QUA).
F QUA).
EQUAL
EQUAL
EQUAL
EQUAL
EQUAL
EQUAL
C 0 iA L
SEM DIURNAL
SE MID ID RN AL
5EMI DI URNAL
SfN ID TURN AL
5fMI DIURNAL
S EM ID IUR HAL
S ‘ I DI URSA).
S F ‘4 ID IURN AL
SE’4 I OIJ6 14AL
SEMIDj U’RNAL
S EM IDE URSA).
SEMI DIURNAL
S EM blUR NA).
S F ‘4 ID IJ P S . AL
SE ’ 4 tOlD RN AL
SEMI DI URSA).
ls.2 20.7
9.3 10.7
8.7 10.0
9.5 11.0
3.7 4.4
4 . 5 5.5
4.4 5.7
3.4 .1
1.0 1.2
1.3 1.5
(I•3 Q )
2.3 3.3
5 9 8.1
4.5 5.3
2.6 3.5
3.5 3.5
1.6 1.7
1.4 2.1
2.0 1.5
(‘. 9 1.3
7. ” 2.3
2.1 2.5
1.3 0.9
1.8 7.2
“.5 0.7
(‘.9 1.10
“.1
P.r. 1.7
0
2 . 5 3.5
3.0 3.5
F JrJAL S ’ I iIJ NAt
F JLAL 51 ” ! IU”l .AI.
EQUAL 5I-ML3IJRNAL
DI JPNAL
USE UAL
tiNE .IUAL
USE .0 AL
UNEQUAL
PACIFIC . 3IIWEST
t-IUMAGLJT RAY FNTRAS(F.CAL!F. UNEQUAL
YADJISA t,AY E .1RANC€,3 E. UNEQUAL
. 5AYS IARADB TNT- ,ANCE ,WAS .1. UNEQUAL
P GCT 53J50(TLLIOTT IAAYI,,.AS4 U14EDJAL
SE ‘4 IO IUR SAL
S EM IDIUR SAL
SE Mt 0 108 SAL
SEMIDIUR NA ).
5PM 101 URNAL
S EM IDIUR HAL
SE M1DIURNAL
SE ’4 101 URNAL
3.3
3.5
4.0
4.0
4.5
5.9
4.9
7. 1 ,
ALASKA
JUNEALI(ASTIN€AU C1135P461)
ASCIUAAGEI030I( INLET)
G:0ONE45 11AYIBJSXJKWI ” RAY)
P01N1 SARBC. .
5.4
7.3
9.3
11.3
1.5 2.3
2.8 2.6
2.?
WEAR C VARIABLE
SEMIDIURFIAL 13.8
SEMIDIURNAL 25.1
SEMIDIU NAL 6.2
SEWIDIURNAL 0.3

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IV-4 1
Even with small tidal ranges and small estuaries, the volumes
of water being moved by tidal flow are fantastic. At Charleston,
for example, in 6.5 hours 25 billion cubic feet of water move
into or out of the harbor in one tidal cycle (IV-l-3). This is
more than enouqh volume of water to supply the entire population
of the United States with water for one day. The volume of water
flowing into or out of flreat south Bay on Lono Island in one
tidal cycle is adequate in volume to supply the City of New York
for one week.
The combination of tidal action and river flow nives rise to
that unique phenomenon called an “estuarine circulation pattern”,
which usually means that fresh water flows in one direction in
one layer and salt water flows in the opposite direction in
another layer with various degrees of mixing at the interface
between them. This tyoe of circulation pattern is of great inipor—
tance in some of the estuaries along the Atlantic and u1f coasts,
and to a large extent cioverns the capacity of such estuaries to
rid themselves of waste materials.

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IV-42
SECTION 3. THE 3IOPHYSICAL ESTUARIr E REGIU 1 S
Each estuarine system along the coastline is affected to some
extent by all of these dominating environmental factors. In
some cases, as in the example already given, the dominance of
one particular factor is readily apparent. It is much more often
the case that the competing environmental factors are so evenly
balanced that none can be said to dominate and the estuarine
zone appears to be composed of a bewildering variety of unique
Systems.
Yet, as an individual person can be identified as a member
of tue human species by general common characteristics and as
a member of particular race by more specific characteristics,
so can individual estuarine systems be recognized as belonging
to regional and national groupings.
Taole IV.l.5 summarizes tne dominating environmental factors
in t ie estuarine zone of the United States. Combinations of
environmental conditions characteristic of various parts of
the coastline permit the grouping of the national estuarine
system into ten biophysical estuarine regions of dissimilar
Environmental characteristics (Figure IV.l.l9).
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BIOPHYSICAL REGIO; S
i ortri Atlantic Estuarine Region : Canadian border to Cape Cod.

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TABLE IV ] .5 DOMINATING ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS OF THE ESTUARINE ZONE OF THE UNITED STATED
IV-43 .
1 :5 “AT)’.
HIDER EASINS
72, EE
TA 1DA
SFSPENU—ISFUIMFN-
J TUTIU N
‘LOT SF4—
i-RE A&3-.
ODE AT
I A A C UN T
ICE 4 1CC’,
CLI”ADE T I)
DL HP ,IAD LIkE
HER ’,
IJ P R E
I ’ LTER
V4ECA IAND IC” I
P.1 A AL
5’,,.,, ICE
iT
‘19
54
‘ . 5
YD E l
I 7 6
4 5 I 43
A?
TYPE IL TUL IL )U.AL IS )CAE F UlL IDUTAL ITIUR’LAL I UNE GUAL I .INFGUAL IUNTUJAL I TNSAJA
SEA!— ISEA!— !SEMT_ SEA!— I5S”l— I IDEA!— ISE I— SEMI— SEMI—
ID!URNAL IAIULNSL ITAIUR’LAL IEIUANUL ITIJANAL DIURNAL I3IAANAL ITIURAALIJIJTHA
“LAN 4ANUL TEA.) I IT i _1 — S - 2 I C I I_ T I U i I 7
IIIJATA TIRES ARE EUD SCUTHEASA ANT SOUT Y COASTS ISLE.
I2ITAAA G .E TYPICAL NLUHCOASTAL AALUFS FOE TUE Ri-UI.] ’ ., lA d LE EPH C-AESU’’S’S USA, A-ISAE ‘ADA AVE E2S DYE MITT S 2’
INS VAT.
I3IEEA& S’.s F ]’. S RCI’ TYPICAL OF THE VETION.
HEFEVENCEL TUE NSTICNSL ESTUARINE 154E’,TTUE
OATH SOURCE U.S COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, VA GEOLULTICAL SURVEY. US WEATHER AUREAS
ENEIPJNHENTAL I ‘LOATH I MIDDLE ICUESSPFAKEI SaUTE I I3ILL’ OF I PACIFIC I PACIFIC I IEIIPACFI
FSCT)IA ITTLA’LTICISTLANTITI DDE I ITLANTICICUDI E IE.SN IHEPAC ’ ID”UT3W DT INJRENREDT IALRS(A IS_AN)
I I I I I I
CENT INENTAL SALLE IANT—7’.T HO—I O U I I 3’—7T 3—I’ ECELAI E S—TAT I 2— 2 7 13—3D,HIT’1 I33—1AU I D, H )—
SlOTH RANGE IST.’MILESII IDHOOTFLLDI NOT IPTO. UICT,I ISDEAUTF IINTENTU— UN DL EICGN1C
II ’EG ISLDPING,I IS”’T’ATHIUIVS’R. IS.——IS TULYISETJT ‘ ITTTNS U’. lS.CCISSIILS_AN)
NCTI3R TYPE IULAA, ILSGDL.’L IS”PLICSRLEI SLTPINUII3V_,. iF j DL7PIN )I 1T4E OUTER 433—TN IRISINU
IRSICAD lUFF RJ I I IFLA. KFVD I Ii-3CE Iw.CUSSTIFV3M S
P I I I I I I I
I I I IAATEAD I ICALIFUA NIA I MV—PA
ILAHRADDAILDRTA000I GULF I GULF FORMING ICAITFTDNIRI—RLFUTIAN ALAS kA IF!:
IGEJTRL’SD ICLA3RLN3 1 NONE I STREAM I STAID ” TELL STR I CLI A RT ’ .T I CURRENT :JRREN I Ci :2 .
“ A 54 5 I I I 1 51 42 AT
I AD I 73 I H ’ I R I I I I A. 5 55 9j
I 32 36 I 34 I 1” I I I 4 5 33 73
I I I I I
I 3. ”D I 3.15 1.37 j L P I.TA 3. 1 91 3.
I 3.1 I 3,5L 5 . ,’ I I 1 3.25 3.211 3.
2.5 I 3.101 1.1’ 1 2.91 3.121 3.
I I P I
PITA LAST ALL 14755’
I:i ‘DL TT ITLA 11 1 7 1: 22
IS-’. OU S , I lATE ), ILAR sI
RL TEES A, I lITRE ). I USC iS
IOAT:-1Ss IFAC?T I
1 II’, 5.H.I
VT
AT
A l
TCEAN CUARENTS 121
INFLUENCED HY:
ITRPLIAATI3VL AF.I
MEAN I TO VT
DUMPER I VT SD
4 1 5T H ’ . I S ’ . 15
SALINITY I TI I
PEA’; 3.51 I 3.5’ 3.23, 3.’r,
L iRE SEUSUN C V ” I D.A”I D.’.V
HET USUSO’, , ‘. 25 I 3•49 ‘.731 3.9’
OCAS ALT 55 GA- ’ PC TJ A. I ’ JURY, I UHOLJA P HEAT I ’ — I 1I’T Y, I A F Li] ) — TR H “CA C I P T i i-VET
145115 1’— I PAVE 1 1 ;. VET AL AR, II — LV I H ANT V TV S , IA ‘ P 1 Y — I L H F T
ISCTULAP,IFRVDD— ITAT’.TIL Isi. :P_V11.TLL II’,T,AI ’IS-H”9’,
I MA ST I “ F ‘ITS IA AR 595 1 I’’ IA ’ SETH’ I A CE AS ‘ APP IF’ IRS BEES I,
IS’ 1AV_ I FAST 57) 1 VERSA,) I IAS AD S’S,I R EA C] ’ ’ ’
“EELS I I I I AA ’TC I I
I I I I I I I
HIV,’L FLU’ I I I I I I I I
‘ l I SLE VE)MIIi- ii I AAI IA’ ! AS I sI I “‘I 2’ I
71”AL 5pAPUL I.E—C’s I I I I I I I I
I I I I
I CII I
I I I
I I I I
I 11,5’ ]’ I 7DD,”’i’I “3,4 7’ I
I I
H
IIIDAL 4313FF LIFE)
GEUIRENAUT I.p’,
OUA’LAIID CF
EU LUAU 1132’]
4 I 17
ITs,TTTI 73,A’P
I1.3’O1 H.EsT
JA
36,3, O D d
53,l’T Is I DATA
I 3 62, ATT
BET. ELI I I I
I 1 I 54 I ‘ I S T
I SC I 154 I ‘T I N ’
I I C I C D I 3d I 42
I I I I
I 43 I —U I 1
I 72 I AS I 23 I 7
I I I I
All)! IT) I I I I
24,277 I 127.030 152
NIl 33141 53 34
AT I 3
NT JAAAI ST TA
TAAAINU DAT
4 ) I TA
64 I HA
5 1 s l
S . I U’.—14
H i I C
SD
73
95
9

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ALASKA
• • S ..
ALASKA
FIgure IVI 19
BIOPHYSICAL REWONS OF THE UNITED STATES
CHESAPEAKE
V
V
141
C.)
V
I
OF MEXICO
.0
GUAM
PACIFiC ISLANDS
HAWAII
PUERTO RICO VtROIN IS,
CARIBBEAN

-------
IV-45
Cool, fertile waters with a large tidal range strike a steep,
indented coast with deep water close inshore, but protected
from tne full force of the ocean waves by a wide continental
shelf. Moderate precipitation with neavy snowfall leads to
heavy spring river runoff which dominates local circulation.
Natural erosion and sedimentation are not severe problems,
and the evolution of drowned river valley estuaries is in an
early stage in this region.
Middle Atlantic Estuarine Region : Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras,
exclusive of Chesapeake Bay.
A wide, gently sloping continental shelf with a smooth shore-
line is cut by the entrances of several major river systems
carrying moderate amounts of sediments. The same cool,
fertile waters as in tile North Atlantic estuarine region wash
this coastline but with a smaller tidal range. The evolution
of drowned river valleys into coastal marshes is in a secondary
stage in the larger estuarine systems, with sand spits and
barrier islands forming.
Chesapeake 3ay Estuarine Region : All of the Chesapeake Bay
system from Cape Cnarles and Cape Henry inland.
Isolation from direct oceanic effects in much of the greatly
branched system, the many subsystems with major river flows,
and the reduced concentration of the ocean salt throughout the

-------
IV-46
Bay and its tributaries make this a unique estuarine system.
This is a drowned river valley with numerous similar tributary
systems in various stages of evolution.
South Atlantic Estuarine Region : Cape Hatteras to Fort
Lauderdale, Florida (about 26° North Latitude).
The generally wide continental shelf is brushed by the warm
waters of the well-defined Gulf Stream. The low-lying coastal
plain terminates in barrier islands and marshes in which large
amounts of sediments are being continually deposited by moderate
sized rivers fed by heavy summer rainfall. Many of the drowned
river valley estuaries have evolved all the way to coastal
marshes. Tidal ranges are small to moderate, depending on
local conditions.
Carribean Estuarine Region : Fort Lauderdale to Cape Romano
(the Florida penisula south of 26° North Latitude), plus
Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands.
High temperatures, heavy rainfall, and warm ocean currents along
practically nonexistent continental shelves result in tropical
estuarine environments throughout this region. Coral reefs
and mangrove swamps are the typical coastal features of south
Florida, while the islands are mountainous and are fringed with
coral reefs and beaches. Tidal ranges are small.

-------
IV—47
( ulf Estuarine Region : Cape Romano to the Mexican border.
A wide continental shelf extends all the way around this large
embayment, in which warm tropical waters are moved gently by
weak currents and small tidal ranges. Heavy rainfall over most
of tne area brings sediments from the broad coastal plain
to be deposited in the estuarine zone. Most of the drowned
river valleys have evolved to a point intermediate between
those of the Middle and South Atlantic Regions -- barrier islands
are extensive and have large shallow bays behinu them.
The Missippi forms one of the major deltas of the world. This
delta is unique among the estuarine systems of the United States,
ooth in its size and in the extent to which it has built out
over the continental shelf.
Pacific Southwest Estuarine Region : Mexican Dorder to Cape
lendoci no.
decause of the narrow continental shelf, perodic upwe]]ing of
deep water close inshore as winds force the California current
offshore brings cool, fertile water near the coast for several
months of the year. The coastline has a typical beach and bluff
configuration with only a few shallow embayments and the unique
earthquake-born valley of San Francisco Bay which, in tne delta
formed by tne confluence of the San Joaquin and Sacramento
Rivers, show what erosion and sedimentation might

-------
IV-48
have done along the southwest coast if rainfall were greater
in that area (Figure IV.l.20) of easily erodable mountains.
Pacific Northwest Estuarine Region : Cape Mendocino to the
Canadian border.
The continental shelf and coastal configurations are similar
to those of the Pacific Southwest, but ocean water temperatures
are lower here; the movement of the California current away
from the coast is not as pronounced, and heavier rainfall has
resulted in some major rivers cuttinq through the coastal
mountains to form deeply embayed estuarine systems. See
Figure !V.l.2l. Extensive erosion and sedimentation have
caused wide tidal flats, bars, and shoals to be typical of
these systems.
The straits of Jual de Fuca and Puget Sound, which were
glacier-formed, do not have as severe sedimentation as exists
along the ocean coast, and have retained much of their original
configuration.
Alaska Estuarine Reqion : All of Alaska including the Aleutian
and Bering Sea Islands.
The dominant factors in this region are temperature and preci-
pitation. Water temperatures are near freezing, and much of
the precipitation falls as snow. The continental shelf is wide
all through the region, and tide ranges are very large. The

-------
IV-49
southeast and south coasts have active glaciation and consist
primarily of glacier-cut embayments and fjords; the west and
north coasts are much flatter and have been modified to some
extent by sediments eroded from the interior, including glacial
silt, and by the grinding action of pack ice during winter.
Pacific Islands Region : The Hawaiian Islands, American Samoa,
Guam.
This region consists of tropical ocean islands of volcanic
origin. Dominating factors are lack of a continental shelf,
full exposure to oceanic conditions, and pleasantly warm
temperatures. Coral reefs and beach and bluff configurations
are typical (Figure IV.l.22).
MANAGEMENT AND THE BIOPHYSICAL REGIONS
The environmental factors upon which this subdivision of the
national estuarine system is made all represent transport of
solar or gravitational energy to the estuarine zone. Inherent
in this subdivision is acceptance of the fact that the input
of energy--upon which all life is based--differs in quantity
and type in the several regions of the estuaririe zone.
In managing estuaries for human benefit, these regional differ-
ences in energy form and quantity represent the environmental
realities within which management must ooerate. In the full-
ness of time and with greater understanding of the world it may

-------
IV-50
be possible to modify the environmental conditions to some
extent, but for the present the existing environmental limitations
must be accepted.*
This discussion has so far considered only those environmental
factors which dominate the estuarine environment, not the
environment itself. Management’s fundamental concerns, however,
are with the appearance and quality of tne inuividual environment
and with the variety and usefulness of the life forms a par-
ticular environment will support.
There are many life forms which exist throughout the estuarine
zone, most of them being particularly adaptable forms of plank-
ton, crustaceans, and fish. In addition to these, however,
tnere are some less adaptable life forms which require a limited
range of conditions to survive and yet others which need a very
specific environment to reproduce.
Maine lobsters, for example, are numerous in the 1orth Atlantic
estuarine region, scattered in the Middle Atlantic, and cannot
be found in other regions. The comercial shrimp, on the other
*One environmental factor, river flow, is already being freely
modified--sometimes with less understanding than may be desirable.
A case study on damages associated with river flow modification
in Charleston t arbor is presented in Chapter 5 (IV-l-3).

-------
‘v-si
hand, are abundant throughout the Gulf, Caribbean, and South
Atlantic Regions, but sparse beyond this range. Maine lobsters
thrive in the cold Labrador current waters, while the major
coim ercial species of shrimp need warm waters like those of tne
Gulf Stream to reproduce.
Within the general range of the regional estuarine environment
are specific local conditions with which management in particular
estuarine systems must deal. The next part of this discussion
considers local conditions of land and water interaction
and their relationship to the living communities present.

-------
IV-52
SECTIOU 4. THE LA i) A1D THE WATER
i’ owhere on the Eartn’s surface are land and water as intimately
related as in the estuarine zone, and nowhere are their inter-
actions so significant in the ultimate effect on man’s environ-
ment.
Concern with the quality of the environc ent is couched ultimately
in terms of its effect on life forms--whether it is safe for hwnan
beings to be near, whether it looks clean, and whether desirable
aquatic life forms can live and reproduce in it. These conditions
are measured in terms of the magnitudes of water quality parameters
wnicn tell indirectly what the water quality is. These niagnitudes
depend not only upon the character and concentrations of waste
materials, but also upon the rapidity with which a particular
system can purge itself of damaging agents.
The shape of lana along the land-sea interface goes far toward
determining what water movement and circulation patterns exist in
particular local areas, and, consequently, now fast a particular
estuarine system will rid itself of pollutants. Within the
estuarine regions discussed in tile preceding section, different
structural types define patterns of water movement typical of
particular structures, no matter what the external environa ent may be.

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IV—53
MORPHOLOGY OF THE ESTUARINE ZONE
Those characteristics shown in Table IV.l.6 describe differences
In structure and form of the estuarlne zone among the estuarlne
regions. The descriptive ratios presented in this table result
from combining areas and distances characteristic of the estuarine
zone of each region. Such ratios are numerical indices of the
relative sizes of the estuarine zone in each region and also give
quantitative measures of its relative composition among regions.
Their greatest value, however, is in comparing individual estuarine
systems so as to apply the lessons learned in one estuary to the
problems of another.
Alaska has by far the longest general coastline and tidal shoreline
as well as the greatest estuarine water area of any estuarine reqion,
but the Chesapeake Bay region has a much greater Droportion of estuarine
shoreline and area for its size than any of the other regions.
Estuarine systems within the Chesaoeake Bay recion consist of a
group of branched rivers enterinq the Chesapeake Bay itself, which
is in turn the former valley of the SusQuehanna River. The estuar-
me systems on the western side of the Bay tend to be surrounded
with somewhat hillier land and less extensive marsh areas than
those on the eastern shore, though nearly all systems tributary
to the Bay are drowned river valleys.

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TABLE IV.1.6 SIZE AND SHAPE COMPARISONS AMONG BIOPHYSICAL REGIONS
IOCEAN COASTLINE
I (MILES) I 1358
ITIDAL SHORELINE I
I (MILES) 4419
IESTIJARINE WATER
I AREA (SQ.MILESJ 3401
IMARSO AREA I
I ( SQ.M ILES) I 97.
ICOASTAE COUNTIES I
I AREA (S .MILFS) I 11177
I I
1 DESCRIPTIVE RATIOS:
ITIDAL SHORELINE I
IOCEAN COASTLINE I 3.3
2270
IGULF OF
IMEX IC C)
4815) 1 31168
6.8 1
I 4.8 I
I I
I I
I I
I .71 I
I I
1.7
.18 I .5 I
I I
I
15476
10944
84??
‘NORTH IMIDDLE
A TIANT ICIA TI ANT IC
I 1286
7992
5130
603. 1
19237
6.2
I I I
CHESA— IS0(JTH I CA IB—
I PEAKF IATLANTICI BEAN
RAY I
I I I
I I
11.31 817 I 1542
I I
5469 I 97 13 I 3437
I I
4554 I 3973 I 711
I 1
I 7267 1 616.4
I I
13859 I 24839 I 9869
I I
I I
408.0 I 12.0 I 2.2
I I
I I .46
I .21
I .40
I I I I
PACIFIC IPACIFIC 1 ALAS.XA IPACIFIC I T)TAI.
SOUTH— INDRTH— I I ISIAN)S I
WEST IWFST I I I
I I I
I I I I
1194 1 669 I 14899 I 1194 1 2523)
I I I I
3060 I 4793 I 33904 I 1323 I 89671
I I I
79 I I j946 I 14353 I 15 I 45832
I I
191 I 44.5I 1) DATA I 15 I 12841
I I I I
I 42768 1334413 I 6703 1552184
I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
7.5 I 7.? I 2.3 I 1.1 I 3.5
I I
I I
.sl I 2.9 .96 I .31 I 1.3
I I
I I
I I I
I .41 I .42 I .31 1
I I I I
I I I I
I 1 I
.16 I .37 I I .31 I .
I I I I
I I I
.06 I .r 1 I I .31 1 .1
I I I I
I I I I
1 I I
IESTUAPINE wATFR I I
IAREA / OCEAN COAST—I 2.5 I 4.0 I 403.0 4.9
ILINE I I I
I I I I
IESTUARINE WATER I I I
IAREA / TIDAL SHORE—I .17 I .64 I .83 I .41
IIINF I I 1
I I I
IMARSH AREA / OCEAN I I I
ICOASTLINE I .07 I .47 I 54.0 I 2.8
I I I I
1MAR 58 AREA / TIDAL I I I I
1580811181 I . 92 I .08 I .11 I .23 I
I I I I I
I I I I I
REfERENCE: NATIONAL ESTUARINE INVENTORY
DATA SOURCES: U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, BUREAU OF THE CENSUS
Lt5

-------
IV-55
The Middle Atlantic and Gulf estuarine reqions have about equal
amounts of tidal shoreline and estuarine water areas per mile of
ocean coastline, but in the ‘1lddle Atlantic region the estuarine
zone consists primarily of a few large drowned river valley embay-
ments (e.g. New York Harbor, Delaware Bay, and Narragansett Bay)
and some small marsh amd barrier beach systems receiving only
coastal fresh-water runoff. The estuarine zone of the Gulf region
on the other hand, consists mainly of moderate sized embayments
with barrier beaches and extensive marshes, but receiving river
flow from upland drainage areas and representing an Intermediate
state jn the evolution of drowned river valleys into coastal marshes
in the Gu’f region.
The Uorth Atlantic is unlike any of the other regions in overall
structure, but is similar to Puget Sound and Southeast Alaska.
Characteristic of the North Atlantic region are very irregular,
hilly coastlines with deep water close inshore and long, narrow
embayments with open access to the sea.
The South Atlantic region has two dominant types of estuarine
structure. From Cape Hatteras to about Jacksonville, there is a
c eneral input of uoland river drainage to the estuarine zone and
the estuarine systems are typical drowned river valleys in the
later stages of evolution represented by barrier beaches or
coastal marshes backed by extensive swamps. South of Jacksonville
fresh-water runoff comes primarily from local coastal drainage,

-------
IV—56
and there are uniform and extensive barrier beaches or coastal
marshes backed by extensive swamps. South of Jacksonville fresh-
water runoff comes primarily from local coastal drainage, and the
there are uniform and extensive barrier island beaches with long
narrow embayments behind them. Continuous but generally narrow
strips of marsh lie along the embayments. This structure fades
into the extensive swamplands of the Everglades farther down the
Florida peninsula.
Both the Pacific Northwest and Pacific Southwest regions have few
estuaries. The estuarine systems of the Northwest Pacific reqion
tend to be the mouths of rivers which have cut their way through
coastal mountain ranges, either of their own accord of aided by
glaciers as in the case of Puget Sound. Shallow coastal enibayments
with little and sporadic river flow are characteristic of the few
estuarine systems of the Southwest, except for San Francisco Bay,
which receives fresh water runoff from much of central California.
Alaska oresents the greatest variety In estuarine form and struc-
ture of any of the estuarine regions. Nearly all kinds of systems
typical of other regions are found there. In addition, Alaska has
the only glaciated coast and most of the fjords found in the United-
States.
The rivers entering the estuarine zone drain nearly 90 percent of
the U. S. land area. They carry to the sea sediments eroded from
this vast expanse and deoosit much of it in the narrow band of 274

-------
IV-57
counties which comprise the basic political subdivisions of the
estuarine zone. These coastal counties form a strip of land
averaging about 50 miles wide alonq the coast, except where the
large embayments of the Chesapeake Bay and Puget Sound make this
strip reach more than 100 miles from the ocean.
The total area of the coastal counties is 552,000 square miles
with the bulk of this in the Alaskan estuarine region and the
smallest part in the Pacific Island estuarine region. In the
Middle Atlantic, South Atlantic, and Gulf reqions, the coastal
strip is a low-lying plain composed of easily erodable materials
which tend to be deposited in the estuarine zone and moved about
by waves and currents. The ocean coast is mostly sand throughout
these regions, overlain near river mouths by some mud and clay.
The Mississthpi delta is entirely mud, clay, silt, and sand washed
down from the heartland of the continent. Sand, mud, and clay
predominate in the ernbayments, with sand characteristic of open
waters and mud common in marshes.
Rock, gravel, and sand are the common bottom materials along the
North Atlantic coast, with the rock overlain by fine mud and silt
in confined areas and sand common in the offshore areas.
The Pacific coast counties form mountainous strips along the
coast. Sediments reachinq the ocean in this region tend to be
deposited in broad tidal flats or bars where currents oermit, or
washed off into the ocean where wind and waves motion is suffi-

-------
IV-58
ciently vigorous. Bottom sediments are rock and clay covered in
some places with fine mud.
The characteristic sediment of the Alaskan estuarine region is
glacial flour, that extremely fine material ground from the land
and carried along by glaciers. Many of the estuaries and much of
the continental shelf off the western Alaskan coast are covered
with this material.
Coral reefs, sand, and rocks are typical of estuarine bottoms in
the Pacific and Atlantic Islands. Except in extremely sheltered
areas, sediments are rare because of the continuous wind and wave
action.
A MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE ESTUARINE ZONE
The estuarine zone can be classified according to its local
morphology into major categories, several of which exist in each
of the estuarine biophysical regions. Within each of these cat-
egories, the similarities in structure reflect similarities in
water movement, water quality, and ecology which make it possible
to apply lessons learned in managing an estuarine system in one
region to similar estuarine systems in other regions
Figure IV.l.23 illustrates each category. Table IV.l.7 shows the
numbers of different kinds of estuarine systems in each estuarine
biophysical region. Unrestricted river entrances and embayments
dominate and are rather evenly distributed throughout all the regions.

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TABLE IV.1.7 A MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE NATIONAL ESTUARINE ZONE
BY DOMINATING CHARACTERISTIC
(NUMBERS OF TYPES IN EACH BIOPHYSICAL REGION)
PACIFIC I
NORTH— I
I I4FST I
PAC IFI
ISLANDS
11
AL AS A
2
5
1D
33
I
I I I CI-4ESA— 1
PACIFIC
p
INORTH JMIDDLF I PEAKE ISOUTH I
IGUIF OFI SOUTH—
I CLASSIFICATION TYPEI&TLANTICIATLANTICI BAY IATLANTIClCARPI8FANI .1ExE0 I WEST
I
I I I I I
I I
ISMOCITH SHORElINE
I I I
I I
I WITHOUT INLETS
I 1 2
1
I I
I 1 I I
I WITH INLETS
I 2 1 7
I
7
I
I I I
I 5
I WITH SMALL EM 3AY—
I I
I
I
I
I I
I
Pi NT5
I 3 I B
I
I
I
6 I 7 I
I 14
I
I I
I
I
I I
I
I INDENTED SHORELINE
I WITHOUT ISLANDS
I I I I I I I
I 10 I 4 I I I 16 1
I I
I I
I
I 2
I WITH ISLANDS
I 15 I 5
I 2
2 1
1
1 I I
I
I I I I I I I
I
I
I
IMARSHY SHORELINE
I I 3 I 1 I 6 I I 13 I
I I I
I
IUNRESTRICTED RIVER
I I I I
I I I I I
I I
I I
I I I
I I I
ENTRANCE
I 7 I 7 I 7 I 8 I
I 34 I
A I 21 I 2 I
I
I I I I I
I
I I I
I
IEMBAYMENT
I
I I
I
I
I
I WITH ONLY COASTAL
I I I I I I
I
I I
I
I OR6INA E
I A I 24 136 I 41 4 I 91 I
21 I 3 I 12 I
9
I
WITH UPLAND RIVER
I I I I I
I I I
I
I INFLU
1 17 I 23 I I 12 I 2 I 54 1
19 I 27 I 23 I
I
I
I I
I
I
I I
I I
i
IFJ I)RD
I I I
I I I I
1 21 41
I
I
I
I
I I I
I I
I
I TOTAl
1 63 1
83 I
162 I
85 I 76 1 207 I
64 I 66 I 92 36
j
TOTAL
25
24
64
43
63
24
1 5
REFERENCE: THE NATIONAL ESTUARINE INVENTORY
DATA SOURCE: FWPCA

-------
IV-60
FIGURE IV.123 MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ESTUARIES
AND ESTUARINE ZONES
1.1 SMOOTH SHORELINE WITHOUT INLETS
1.2 SMOOTH SHORELINE WITH INLETS
1.3 SMOOTH SHORELINE WITH SMALL EMBAYMENTS
2.1 INDENTED SHORELINE WITHOUT ISLANDS
1?
2.2 INDENTED SHORELINE WITH ISLANDS

-------
FIGURE IV.1.23 MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ESTUARIES
AND ESTUARINE ZONES (continued)
4. UNRESTRICTED RIVER ENTRANCE
IV-61
3. MARSHY SHORELINE
5.1 EMBAYMENT WITH ONLY COASTAL DRAINAGE
5.2 EMBAYMENT WITH CONTINUOUS UPLAND RIVER INFLOW
6. FJORD

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IV—62
with the coninon type of estuarine system being a coastal embay-
ment with drainage from only the local coastal area. Many of
these latter embavments have large marsh areas, but the Middle-
Atlantic, South Atlantic, and Gulf are the regions in which marshes
are the predominant feature in some parts of the estuarine zone.
WATER MOVEMENT IN THE ESTUARINE ZONE
The unique nature of water movement and circulation patterns in
the estuarine zone is the result of the meeting and mixing of
fresh river water and salty ocean water of slightly greater den-
sity under the oscillating Influence of the tide. There may be
additional complicating factors such as temperature and wind act-
ion, but the resulting circulation nearly always reflects the
interaction of river flow and estuary shape with the tidal flow
of the ocean water.
General water movement patterns are predictable for each cate-
gory of estuarine shape. Where there Is little or no fresh water
inflow, water moves toward and away from the shore, being re-
flected Into currents paralleling the shore in some cases. On
ocean beaches, this parallel type of water movement builds sand-
spits and barrier islands to begin the transformation of drowned
river valleys into embayments and coastal marshes, as Illustrated
by Figure IV.l.24.
Where fresh water runoff reaches the sea as a series of small

-------
FIGURE IV.1.24
SAND SPIT BUILDUP (SANDY HOOK BAY, N.J.)
4
IV—63
— , -
COURTESY OF T.R. AZAROVITZ AND U.S.B.S.F. & W., SANDY HOOK MARINE LAB.

-------
P1-64
streams or as seepage across the surface, coastal iarshes often
form and circulation patterns are weak and undefined. This
situation may exist wnere local coastal drainage runs off to the
sea, where a drowned river valley nas filled in so much that the
river channel is no longer defined, or where sediment deposition
at the mouth of a large river forms a delta (Figure IV.l.6).
Fjords are formed where a glacier, having gouged out a deep
embayment, melts as it reaches the sea and deposits the entrained
dirt and rock as a shallow sill across the entrance of the
ernbayment (Figure 1V.l.25). This sill isolates the lower water of
the fjord from the sea; the only significant water movement is
in the layers above the sill level.
It is where moderately large rivers and streams meet the sea that
the unique estuarine circulation patterns occur most frequently.
Large fresh water flows in well-defined channels tend to slide
over the top of denser sea water without rapiJ mixing. Water
movement in such cases exhibits various degrees of stratification.
arrow channels and high fresh water flows result in a well-defined
sea water layer moving upstream along tne bottom of the channel
and a nearly fresh layer moving toward the sea along the surface
(Figure IV.l.26).
me Mississippi and Savannah Rivers are classic examples of this
“salt-wedg& 1 circulation pattern. With this type of water move-
ment, salt and water from the bottom layer mix constantly into

-------
Figure IV.I.25
CIRCULATION IN A TYPICAL FJORD
Open
Ocean
OUTFLOW
Ill)
300
Meters
Stagnant Water
U,

-------
Figure IV.I.26
TYPICAL SALT WATER WEDGE CIRCULATION PATTERN
Fresh Water
Inf lows
c
: . Salt
Wedge

-------
IV- 7
The Mississippi and Savannah Rivers are classic examples of this
salt-wedge” circulation pattern. With this type of water movement,
salt and water from the bottom layer mix constantly into the top
layer, and more salt water flows in from the sea to replace it so
that the total amount of water in motion may be many times the
river flow plus the tidal flow. Such estuarine systems purge
themselves very rapidly of waste discharcies.
With wider channels, smaller river flows, and greater tidal ranges
more mixing occurs and other forces come into play. Embayment
shape, bottom configuration and material, and the effects of the
Earth’s rotation all may play a role. In some estuarine systems
of this type, the degree of stratification may change with changes
in river flow, temperature, wind, or other transient conditions.
The James River is a drowned riyer valley in the Chesapeake Bay
Estuarine Region (Figure IV.l.27). Its lenqth of tidal influence
is great in proportion to its width, and it exhibits some vertical
stratification. Delaware Bay is much wider than the James and is
stratified laterally (Figure IV.l.28); that is, salt content along
the eastern shore tends to be higher than that along the western
shore. This phenomenon probably results from forces, associated
with the Earth’s rotation, which in large bodies of water tend to
cause lateral stratification as a result of the different rates of
slipping of salt and fresh water on the spinning earth’s surface.

-------
IV-68
Hilisborough Bay, an arm of Tampa Bay, Is nearly unstratified and
quite salty during much of the year. During high flows, however,
the Hiflsborough River pushes the salt out of the upper part of the
Bay and often kills heavy growths of a salt water plant which Is
not tolerant of fresh water.
Some very large embayments with small ocean entrances such as
Pamilco Sound have very small tidal ranges, very little stratifica-
tion, and throughout most of their area, very weak currents
(Figure IV.l.4). Only at the channels to the ocean are currents
strong, and there they are often extremely violent and dangerous.
Wastes discharged into such embayi ents tend to remain for long
periods and exert their effects in the estuary rather than moving
out to sea.
NATURAL WATER QUALITY IN THE ESTUARINE ZONE
Estuarine water quality is the product of both land and water. From
the land, erosion and solution In river water bring suspended and
dissolved minerals, while decaying vegetation adds dissolved organic
material. Sea water itself contains three percent dissolved salts,
but negligible quantities of organic matter.
In the estuarine zone these two different solutions meet and mix.
Salt concentrations range from that of the oceans to the almost
unmeasurable amounts present in some rivers. Where little stratification
exists, sea salt dominates mineral concentrations in estuarine

-------
JV-69
waters; in stratified systems, however, the small amounts of
minerals entering in the fresh water may be as important in some
parts of the estuarine zone as the much larger concentrations from
the sea are in others. The interface between fresh and salt water
is a region of complex chemistry where some material may be pre-
cipitated out or otherwise changed, much as lye soap used to be
1 ’salted out” when soap was made by boiling lard with wood ash extract
in the backyard. Organic matter from decaying vegetation is partic-
ularly susceptible to this type of chemical effect.
Climate also plays a direct role In determining estuarine water
quality. Excessive evaporation can drive salinities far above those
of ocean water, as in Laguna 1adre, and create an inverse estuarine
system. Sunlictht beating down on shallow embayments may raise
temperatures so hiqh that use of the estuarine waters for coolinq
may be seriously impaired.
Table JVl.8 sumarizes ocean and river water quality in each of the
estuarine regions. Ocean water quality itself varies in different
areas off the coast, generally reflecting ocean currents and climate
as discussed earlier. Ocean temperatures reflect not only the varia-
tion in latitude, but also the temperature differences of the cold
and warm currents around the coast. The temperature difference north
and south of Cape Hatteras is particularly striking, because the Gulf
Stream and Labrador Current water each dominate on one side of the Cape.

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TABLE IV..1.8 NATURAL OCEAN AND RIVER WATER QUALITY TYPICAL OF THE ESTUARINE ZONE
I OCEAN WATER QUALITY RIVF W8TF . JUALIIY
I —————.—— I I I ———————1
I I TEMP. IDJS I PH ISALIN— 8-6 ) 5— INITRA1FI TEMP. lOIS— *1 P -4 ISALII3— IPHJS— INITRATE
I IDEG.F. 1SOLVEI) I lIlY I PHATF 91131)— 1)16.1. ISOLVFO I I ITY I PHAEE I ’ It))-
I I IOXYGEN I I (CL—I I 83118— 019 1 ( I IKYGFM I I (CL— i I PH)S— GE ’l
I I (PPM) I I (PPM) IPHORLJS (PPM) I (PPM) j I (PPM) IPHUAJS I (PPM)
IBLUPIVSICAL REGION I I I (PPM) I I I I I I (PPI) I
I I I I
)NUPTH ATLANTIC I I I I I I I I I
I SUMMER I 65 1 7.93 .l5 I 17989 I 0.124 I 72 1.51 I 6. I 1.0 I .05 I 3.7
NINTER I 32 5.2? I 8.35 I 11989 1 I I 32 I 12.43 I 6.7 I 3. I .O I 3.2
I I I I I I I
I MIGOLE .TLANF (C I I I I I I I
SUMMER I 73 I 6.34 1 7.62 I 17335 I 1.053 I 0.231 I 71 I 7.60 7. 7 . I 9.5 I .2L I 4.6
I WINTER I 36 I 7.17 1 I 14022 I I I 55 1 11.99 I 1.3 I 12.) I .0) 1.1
I I I I I I I
ICHESAPIAKE BAY I I I i
I SUMMER 1 80 1 6.6 (5 I 1.65 I 10266 I 1.425 I 0.056 1 Rfl I .5.94 I 7.0 I 9.s I I
WINTER I I 8.13 I 7.53 I 7922 I ‘.7)2 I I 4 I 1 1.10 I . ) I 11.3 1 I 3.4
I I I I I I I I I I I
ISOUTH ATLANTIC I I I I I I I I I I I I
I SUMMER 81 6. . I 8.17 I 197?) I 0.434 I 1 I 7.15 I 7.) I 5.) I .1 . I
I WINTER I 50 1 5.14 I 8.00 I 19839 I 1.984 I I 55 I 9.16 I 4.’) I 6.2 I .26 I 3.6
I I I I I I I I I I I I
ICAPIBI3EAN I I I I I I I I I
I SUMMER I 87 I 6.70 I 8.1) I 18723 I 0.341 I I 3 I .6 3 I 1.4 I 44.3 I .12 1
I WINTER I 71 1 6.33 I 1.99 I 19903 I 0.434 I I 61 I 4.V I P. I 60.) I I .1
I I I I I I I I I
IGULFOFMEX IC )i I I I I I I I I I I
J SUMMER I s7 I 6.52 I I 10424 I 1.112 I 78 I s. 8 0 I 7.7 I 5.0 I .3) 1 3.s
I WINTER I 54 I 7.39 I 8.24 I 19945 0.37? I I 57 I 8.99 I 6.8 I 6.) I I 1.?
I I I I
IPACIEIC SOUTHWEST I I I I I I I I I I
I SUMMER I 69 I 5. 20 I 8.flS I 18504 I ?.5T 1 I I I 7.19 I .‘ I 6.1 I I k ..
I WINTER I 56 7.90 I 5.2 ) I 15489 I ?.2 ? 1 I 46 I 10.20 I 8.1 I 4. I 3. )
I I I I I I I I I I
IPAC IFICNURIHWEST I I I I I I I I I I I
SUMMER I 56 I 8.07 I 7.56 I 16017 I 6.04’) I I 7.?) I 7.5 I 3.3 I .25 $ 3.3
I WLNT E -4 I 46 I 8.76 I 3.35 I 14710 I 6.721 I I I 10.29 I 7.9 I 7.) I .11 I 3.1
I I I I I I I I I I I I I
IALASKA I I I I I I I I I I I I
$ SUMMER I 55 I 10.09 1 1.31 I 17596 I ?. 13 I 0.042 I I 9.?) I 7.5 I 3.7 I I 3.5
I WINTER I 31) I 3.84 I 7.81 I 17106 I I ‘401 .4 I 0616 I AVAIL—tABLE
I I I I I I I I I I I I
IPACII-ICISLANOS I I I I I I I I I
I SUMMER I AL I 3•99 I 8.24 I 14301 1 0.1 09 1 1 N f l I DATA I AVAIL —IARLE I
I WINIER I 73 I 6.97 1 8.23 I 19396 I 1.565 I I I I I
I I I I I I I——— I I
V4(U S ESTIMATEU AT 8S SATURATiON,
REFERENCE: THE NATIONAL ESTUARINE INVENTORY
DATA SOURCES: NATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHIC DATA CENTER. FWPCA
-4

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IV-71
Nearshore ocean surface salinities are stronqly
runoff and local precipitation. The effects of
the Gulf of Mexico are shown in Figure IV.l.29.
but nonetheless significant, are the effects of
Atlantic and of the Columbia on the Pacific.
The turbidity of
the shore; there
the intensity of
Dissolved oxygen is essential for all aquatic life. The amount of
dissolved oxygen present in surface ocean water is very close to the
total amount the water can contain. Since this saturation concentra-
tion depends on both temperature and salt concentration, the wanli,
saline waters of the Gulf contain far less oxyqen than the cold,
relatively fresh waters off the Alaskan coast.
The natural quality of water free from human impact in the rivers
entering the estuarine zone depends primarily on the nature of the
ground over which they flow. Minerals enter the water by dissolving
from soil and rock as the water flows over it or carries it along.
Water flowing over limestone or other sedimentary material usually has
greater concentrations of dissolved minerals than water flowing over
volcanic rock and sand. Insoluble minerals are carried along as
sediments, some dissolving slightly and others settling out in quiet
reaches of the rivers or in the estuarine zone.
influenced by river
the Mississippi on
Less dramatic,
the Hudson on the
ocean water is generally low except where it meets
the amount of turbidity is a direct reflection of
wave action and the nature of bottom material.

-------
N
‘.aI
29a -
FIGURE IV.1.29 SURFACE SALINITY DISTRIBUTION AROUND
THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA
I I
9Q0 890
88b
IV-72
Surface Salinity Distribution (%o)
November 9-16,1966
N
28c
910 W
25-29%o
fl.-3o 34%o
SOURCE Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Galveston, Texas

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IV—73
Decaying plant and animal materials also dissolve into the
flowing streams. These materials use oxygen in the decaying
process and in some streams, particularly in swampy areas, very
low dissolved oxygen concentrations are normal. Dissolved organic
material frequently has a very intense yellow-black color which
may make a water body appear jet black. This condition is comon
in the estuarine zones of the South Atlantic and Gulf regions.
Variable as estuarine water quality and water circulation are,
estuarine waters in each of the estuarine regions have typical
characteristics for different morphological categories. Table
IV.l.9 outlines such typical natural estuarine zone conditions.

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IV-74
TABLE IV.1.9 CHARACTERISTIC NATURAL ESTUARINE ZONE CIRCULATION
AND WATER QUALITY CONDITtONS
Sb—
physical (I) Smooth Shoreline (2) Indented Shoreline (3) Marshy Shoreline
Reaion
North Deep near shore, oceanic Deep near shore, oceanic Strong currents in many small
Atlantic water, longshore currents, water, erratic tidal currents; channels through marsh, s ee
s suspended sand and eddies end tidal pools turbidity, high oxygen
clay
Oceanic water, longshore Generally shallow, sus- Moderate currents In well-
Middle currents; suspended mud, pended mud and sand, oceanic defined channels, high dis-
Atlantic clay silt water solved oxygenic material,
little turbidity, high
oxygen
Longshore tidal currents Moderate tidal currents, Poorly defined channels,
Ches a- highly variable salinities, highly variable salinities, small currents, dissolved
peake small amounts of organic some turbidity organic material, moderately
material. fluctuation oxygen
Primarily tidal and wave Moderate tidal currents, Small currents, high color,
South induced currents, oceanic highly variable salinities, dissolved organics, highly
Atlantic water with aid, clay and some turbidity variable oxygen, some-
silt times low, high teeperatures
Clear ocean water, gentle Clear ocean water, gentle High dissolved organlcs,
Carib- currents • warm temperatures currents, eddies, warmer color, suspended aid,
bean throughout the year than ocean very small currents, hot
Very small currents, ocean High dissolved organics,
Gulf of Clear, generally warm water with slight turt idity, color, very small currents,
Mexico ocean water, longshore warmer than ocean slightly turbid, very
currents warm
Strong wave action, Moderate suspended solids, High suspended solids,
Southwest cool oceanic water, some erratic currents, high erratic tidal currents.
Pacific silt and clay turbidity oxygen, cool warmer than ocean and
rivers
High suspended solids,
Northwest Strong wave action. Moderate suspended solids, erratic tidal currents,
Pacific cold ocean water, some erratic currents, high warmer than ocean and
silt and clay turbidity oxygen, cold rivers
Very cold oceanic
water, usually ice, Very cold oceanic water, Very cold water, variable
Alaska salinitles slightly overlain by some fresh salinity, much fine silt,
depressed water, high oxygen debris from freezing
Pacific Clear, warm ocean Clear ocean water, gentle High dissolved organics.
Islands water, strong wave currents, eddes, warmer color, suspended aid,
action than ocean very small currents, hot
eferences: (1) ii. S. Coast end Geodetic Survey. Coast Pilots, Tidal Current Tables.
(2) U. S. Ar Project and Study Reports.
(3) F PCA Reports and unpublished data.
(4) National Estuarine Inventory.

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IV-75
TABLE IV.1.9 CHARACTERISTIC NATURAL ESTUARINE ZONE CIRCULATION
AND WATER QUALITY CONDITIONS (continued)
(4) Unrestricted River
Entrance
(5) En aynent, Coastal
Drainage Only
(6) tiebaymant, Continuous
Upland River Flow
(7) Fiord
Highly stratified, some
turbidity, high oxygen,
Little turbidity, water
of oceanic character;
Little turbidity, high oxygen.
may be stratified, upper layer
temperatures wanner i
sumaer, colder in winter
strong tidal currents
through Inlets
fresh, with temperatures
wanner in Imner, colder In
than ocean
winter than the ocean
Moderate stratification,
suspended mud and slit,
high oxygen, strong
Generally shallow, small
tides, clear water with
lowered salinity, high
Variable stratification,
suspended mud and silt, high
oxygen. small amounts of
currents
oxygen
organic material
Moderate stratification
Generally shallow, snail
Variable stratification,
suspended mud and silt,
high oxygen, strong
currents
tides, clear water with
lowered salinity, high
oxygen
suspended mud and silt, high
oxygen, small amounts of
organic material
Strong stratification,
Some color, small cur-
Slight and variable stratifi-
high suspended mud and
rents, generally shallow,
cation, river water cooler
clay, strong currents,
high dissolved organics,
than ocean, slight color,
dissolved organics.
highly fluctuating
some oxygen fluctuation
moderate oxygen
oxygen
Slightly turbid, strong
Very small currents,
Slightly turbid, eddying
currents, river cooler
generally shallow,
currents, slight stratification,
than ocean water
quite warm, clear
high oxygen
Slightly turbid. strong
curr.nts, river cooler
ocean water
Very small currents
except in inlet, shal-
Slight and variable strati—
fication, river water
than ocean water
low, wane, slight
turbidity from sand
and silt, highly
fluctuating_oxygen
cooler than ocean some
oxygen fluctuation
.
Strong stratification,
offshore bar formation,
cool, high oxygen
Some suspended silt,
erratic currents,
cool, high oxygen
Moderate to strong
stratification, high
suspended silt, strong
currents, high oxygen,
cool
Strong stratification,
offshore bar formation,
Some suspended silt,
erratic currents,
Moderate to strong
stratification, hiqh
suspended silt, strong
cold, high oxygen
cold, high oxygen
currents, high oxygen,
cold
Strong currents, high
suspended solids
frequently glacial in
origin, very cold
Very cold omeanic
water, much ice, surface
layer of fresh water,
high oxygen
High turbidity with glacial
debris, seasonal freeze-
ups, strong currents
during runoffs
Sta9nant below
silt depth, very
little oxygen,
high salinity
hydrogen sulfide
Slightly turbid, strong
currents, river cooler
Very small currents,
generally shallow,
Slightly turbid, eddying
currents, slight stratification,
than ocean water
quite warm, clear
ocean water
high oxygen

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IV-76
SECTION 5. THE LIFE
ENERGY AND LIFE IN THE ESTUAR1NE ZONE
It is in the variety and diversity of estuarine life that the input
of energy to the estuarine zone finds ultimate expression. Whether
energy comes directly, as in the solar radiation stimulating photo-
synthesis, or whether it comes Indirectly, as with tidal flows or
wind and rain pounding on the shoreline, its absorption and conver-
sion to other forms of energy (such as food) are essential steps in
the continuation of life in the water, in the marshes, and on the
land.
Energy input from gravitational forces, as illustrated by tidal
action and river flow, depends primarily on local or regional con-
ditions, but direct energy input from solar radiation depends largely
on the latitude, the tropics receiving more energy per acre than the
arctic. The relative amounts of energy entering an estuarine system
govern the kinds of life found there, and natural ecosystems show
systematic variations related to the sources and amounts of energy
received.
Estuarine zones with strong mechanical energy inputs from waves,
currents, tides, or river flows develop similar ecosystems no matter
whether in the tropics or the arctic. Exposed ocean beaches at all
latitudes have co mnunities of burrowing animals such as snails, worms,
clams, and crabs. Rocky sea fronts develop comunities of attached
algae and mollusks (Figure IV.l.30). Channels with strong currents
develop firmly attached comunities where bottoms are hard, and only

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IV-77
microbial life where sediments are constantly in motion or being
deposited. Where, however, such energy inputs do not dominate the
input of radiation solar energy, natural communities develop composi-
tions typical of Tropical, Temperate, or Arctic latitudes.
Tropical systems (Figure IV.l.31) are suoject to only slightly varying
warm temperatures; light energy input is both greater and more regu-
lar than in other latitudes. Jithin this qeneral oroup there are the
sparse populations alono coasts with deep clear water close inshore;
the teeming and colorful populations of coral reefs; and the man—
groves and the submerged grasslands associated with shallow, nutrient-
laden water. Only the southern part of Florida and the islands are
of this type.
Arctic systems are subject to wide fluctuation of sunlight and temper-
ature but ice is the key factor. Ecological systems develop in, on
and under the ice and in the fjords associated with glaciers. (Figure
iV.l.32). Only a small part of Alaska includes estuarine systems of
this type.
Temperature systems are subject to moderate solar energy inputs, tem-
peratures that change renularly ‘,iith the seasons, and aenerally larger
tide ranges and more wave action than either tropic or arctic systems.
Most of the estuarine systems of the United States lie in the tern-
perate zone, and the balancing of solar energy input against mechani-
cal energy input in this zone leads to a great variety of ecosystem
types, even within small geographic areas.

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I V-7 8
The tropical coral reefs have their counterparts in oyster reefs
where hard surfaces and constant currents exist, and where there is
sufficient particulate food in the water. The rnangroves and sub-
merged grasslands also have their counterparts in extensive marshes
and submerged algae and grass beds which are among the most product-
ive parts of the estuarine zone (Figure P1.1.33).
There are also intertidal ecosystems of burrowing animals, such as
clams, where bottoms are soft (Figure IV.l.16) and of attached ani-
mals and plants where they are not (Figure IV.l.34). The predomi-
nant influence of great amounts of .river flow and the associated
rapid salinity changes and stratification also result in ecosystems
specific for different salinity zones or types of stratification.
Where there is little river runoff, characteristic plankton and
attached algae communities develop (Figure IV1.35).
The ecosystems described relate primarily to organisms that tend to
stay in one place or move only short distances during their life.
Of these, the oyster, the clam, the crab, and the lobster are the
only economically significant animals. The great importance of such
ecosystems, however, lies in the fact that these con,itunities form
intermediate steps in the conversion of solar and gravitational energy
to forms useful to mankind; upon them depend the great pelagic fisheries
which the estuarine zone nurtures. Without these conviunities mankind
would be without shrimp, salmon, and menhaden, as well as the oysters,
crabs, and lobsters which spend all of their lives there.

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IV—79
The grouping of ecosystems outlined here describes a limited range
of recurring variation of chemical and physical properties to which
certain forms of life have adapted and on which they are now depen-
dent. The basic environmental needs for all living plants and ani-
mals in such zones are zones of salinity consistently fluctuating
over a limited range of concentration; solar energy; water tempera-
ture variation; water quality and nutrients favorable to their
propagation, growth, and survival; and, for some life forms, bottom
conditions suitable to their unique needs.
Many forms of plant and animal life can tolerate salinity ranging
from ocean concentrations (35 parts per thousand) to practically
zero. Other life forms must have a much narrower salinity range in
which to live and reproduce. There are animals which require dif-
ferent salinities at different parts of their life cycle and which
migrate to find it. Figure IV.l.36 shows the range of salinity
tolerance of some characteristic estuarine plants and animals.
Most of those with a limited salinity tolerance can also withstand
temporary exposure to salinities outside that range.
Solar radiation governs the photosynthetic process by which plants
manufacture the basic food upon which all life ultimately depends.
The primary producers of food in the aquatic environment are the
microscopic plants upon which the succession of more advanced life
forms feed. Planktonic communities exist in all ranges of salinity
and temperature, but their composition may vary even with constant

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FIGURE IV.1.36 COMMON SALINITY RANGES OF OCCUR ENCE FOR SOME
ESTUARINE DEPENDENT PLANTS & ANIMALS
Salinity Range
(parts per thousand)
Atlantic Oyster
Oyster Drill
Blue Crab
Adult Shrimp
Turtle Grass
Salt Marsh Grass
(Spartina)
2
2
11
-J
)
LI
d )
.
0
0
co
L
I I I
I
I
I
Source: Odum, H. 1.,
1
Op. c _ it .

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‘v-si
temperature and salinity. The rate of input of solar radiation is
greater in the tropics than in the arctic, and life in tropical en-
vironments is more prolific than in the arctic.
Although water temperatures in the estuarine zone are closely related
to the input of solar radiation, they are also greatly influenced by
the temperatures of nearby cold or warm ocean currents. Many plant
and animal species tolerate a wide enough temperature range to survive
in considerable stretches of the estuarine zone from north to south.
There are a considerable number of plants and animals that have adapted
to temperature ranges in the colder estuarine zone; others have adapted
to temperature ranges occurring in the warmer temperate and sub-tropic
waters of the estuarine zone; and there are some that have adpated to
the colder waters of the northern estuaries, the warmer waters of the
southern estuarine zone, and the gradations in between. Figure
IV.l.37 shows the temperature ranges tolerated by some characteristic
estuarine organisms.
The quality of water in the estuarine zone has sometimes dramatic,
sometimes subtle, effects on estuarine life. The dissolved and par-
ticulate nutrients so plentiful in the coastal zone make this area
very productive compared to other parts of man’s environment. The
coral reef communities of the tropics, where energy conversion is
primarily a matter of photosynthesis, are nowhere near as productive
as the oyster reefs and marshlands of the temperate zone, where par-
ticulate organic foods as well as solar energy are converted into plant
and animal tissue for use by animals higher in the food chain.

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Atlantic Oyster
Striped Bass
Chinook Salmon
Sockeye Salmon
C 1ifornia (runion
Turtl( Grics
Salt Marsh Grass
( partina )
FIGURE IV.1.37 COMMON TEMPERATURE RANGES OF OCCURENCE OF
SOME ESTUARINE-DEPENDENT PLANTS & ANIMALS
Temperature Range
(degrees F.)
c’J
C
‘
Sourc : Odum, H. 1., oi. cit .
“Industrial Waste auide on Thermal Pollution,”
FWPCA, p. 4 -42 (l96; )

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IV-83
DEPENDENCE OF FISH AND SHELLFISH ON THE ESTUARINE ZONE
Dependency is governed by particular environmental requirements for
reproduction, protection, food supply, or a combination of these.
Estuarine dependent species are of three types:
(1) Species Restricted to Estuaries
Among the relatively few species of fish and shellfish that
complete their entire life cycle in the estuarine zone is
the Atlantic oyster. It will die after long exposure to
freshwater although it can stand limited periods of such
exposure and can thrive in relatively high salinity water.
The spotted sea trout occupies the estuary for all its
life purposes and only occasionally leaves the estuary
under unusual extremes of salinity and temperature.
(2) Anadromous and Catadromous Species
Anadromous species pass through the estuarine zone on their
journey from the sea to the freshwater envirdnment where they
spawn. Some species, such as the Pacific salmon, die after
spawning and others, such as the striped bass, live to re—
turn to the estuarine zone and the sea. The young of all
anadromous species spend varying periods of time in the
freshwater areas where they were spawned, but all eventually
migrate to the estuaries and then the sea.
There are few truly catadromous species that mature in
the fresh or brackish water environments, and then migrate

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IV-84
to higher salinity waters of the estuary of the adjacent
sea to spawn. The American eel and the Blue crab are
examples of this type.
(3) Migratory Estuarine Species
The great majority of estuarine dependent species fall under
this classification. Some use the brackish and freshwater
areas of the estuarine zone for reproduction; some as a
source of food; some for shelter, either as adults or young;
and some for all these reasons. They all have in common
the basic need for both estuarine and ocean environments at
some point in their life cycle. This group includes the great
majority of fish and shellfish of direct importance to man,
such as shrimp, menhaden, flounders, and red drum.
Various types of dependency are illustrated by several examples.
SH RI tIP
The comercially important shrimp are of three kinds: brown, white,
and pink. These species are concentrated along the South Atlantic and
Gulf coasts of the United States. The pink shrimp spawns in offshore
waters at depths of 100 to 150 feet, salinity between 3.61 and 3.77 per-
cent, and temperatures between 64 and 77°F. After 13 or 14 hours, the
eggs hatch and the larval shrimp begin to pass through a series of
developmental stages, at the same time beginning to move or drift
towards the Florida mainland about 100 miles distant (Figure IV.7.38).

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IV—85
Figure IV.I.38
TYPICAL LIFE HISTORY
OF THE GULF OF MEXICO SHRIMP
I
a
0 Shrimp Eggs
b Nauplius Larva
C Protozoa
d Mysis
C Postmysis
f Juvenile Shrimp
g Adolescent Shrimp
h Adult Shrimp
GULF OF
MEXICO
Source: W.C. Guest, The Texas Shrimp Fishery , 1958.

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IV-86
Movement to the estuary probably takes from three to five weeks and,
despite the large numbers of oostlarvae entering the estuary, only
an estimated five out of every hundred eggs produce shrimp that
survive to this stage.
By the time the estuary is entered, the ostlarvae have developed
from planktonic to henthic feeders and have developed a wide
tolerance to varying salinity and temperature conditions. From
about two to nine months the ,juvenile shrimp grow rapidly from
perhaps one-half inch in length to comercial size before returning
to the sea and completing the life cycle.
The life cycle of the three primary comercial species are similar
but the species differ in their penetration of the estuary and their
utilization of the estuarine environment after the adult stage is
attained. The brown shrimp spawns in waters 150 to 230 feet in deoth
and remains a relatively short time in the estuary. The white
shrimp rarely is found in waters deeper than 100 feet and p ssesses
a greater affinity for fresh water than do the others.
The estuary fulfills two nrimary functions: (1) provision of
adequate nourishment during a period of rapid physical arowth and
(2) protection from predators. A large prooortion of the shrimp’s
diet aopears to consist of small, invertebrate animals, such as worms,
mollusk larvae, and small crustaceans, as well as fish larvae and
nematodes.

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IV-87
Shrimp is a primary food item for various estuarine animals, includ-
ing red drum, spotted seatrout, snook, and gray snapper; but the
estuary undoubtedly provides more vegetation and debris for protec-
tion than open waters, and sufficient alternative foods exist in
the estuaries to remove some of the pressure from the shrimp.
MENHADEN
Spawning occurs at sea along the continental shelf, and the eggs hatch
in the ocean after about two days. Larvae move into the estuaries
as far as the freshwater interface. A transformation of physical
characteristics accompanies the entrance into the estuaries as larvae
grow and shift from being selective, particulate feeders to being
non-selective, filter-feeding juvenile menhaden which can tolerate
wide variations in both salinity and temperature.
The menhaden population of a particular estuarine system seems to be
determined by the number of larvae entering the waters, food, oxygen,
competition, and predators. Because they are primary consumers,
feeding directly upon the natural vegetation, menhaden represent the
base of the food chain for many predators, such as the bluefish,
striped bass, and sharks.
SALMON
There are today only token runs of Atlantic salmon into a few rivers
in Maine to spawn, although in colonial times this species was
extremely abundant from the Housatonic River to the St. Croix River.

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I V-88
In the shallow estuarine areas of the Bay of Fundy and the coastal
bays and sounds of Maine they are frequently caught in herring weirs
set in shallow water. The waters in tnese estuaries provide an
abundance of food for the salmon in the form of the young sea herr-
ing and euphauslid shrimp.
All five species of salmon on the west coast have one basic difference
from the Atlantic salmon. They die subsequent to spawning. The
total spawning range of these species is from Monterey Bay, Calif.,
to the northwest tip of Alaska. Only the King salmon occupies the
spawning streams of the full range. The Silver salmon has the next
longest range along the coast extending from the Sacramento River to
the Bering Strait. The Red, Pink, and Chum salmon range from Washing-
ton State to the Bering Sea, and are rarely found south of this.
The distance upstream that the Pacific salmon migrates to spawn varies
from species to species, as well as within species, varying from the
extreme headwaters 1,500 miles from the estuarine zone to within a
few miles of the estuary. Both the young and adult salmon of all
species pass through the estuarine zone, either to reach the spawning
ground in fresh water or to reach the sea. During the passage through
the brackish estuary the adult ceases feeding, whereas the young of
all species utilize the food available in the estuarine zone as they
pass through to reach the sea. Young Silver salmon are known to
remain within the estuarine portions of their natal stream, growing

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IV-89
rapidly on the abundant food supply in this highly productive envir-
onment. Adult Silver salmon are caught throughout the year within
the estuarine zone. The Pink salmon fry enter the brackish estuarine
.
waters soon after hatching in the Spring, and are known to remain
there until August.
OYSTERS
The Atlantic oyster has evolved into an animal of broad adaptability
relative to salinity, temperature, and food requirements, as indicated
by its range, on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of North America from
the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Mexican coast.
The Atlantic oyster is most abundant in estuarine systems character-
ized by considerable inflows of freshwater, with constant water move-
ment, and fluctuating local salinities. The currents bring food to
these fixed animals and distribute the larvae. Two of the most pro-
ductive areas for the Atlantic oyster are the Chesapeake Bay and the
Louisiana bays and sounds affected by the great flow of the
Mississippi River.
The salinity range most favorable to the Atlantic oyster lies between
five and thirty parts per thousand. Below five little or no repro-
duction takes place and the feeding ability is affected. Oysters
occupying areas with salinities exceeding fifteen parts per thousand
are subject to a nw ber of predators such as the oyster drill.
The Atlantic oyster has adapted to wide ranges of temperatures. It
survives in temperatures of around 34°F. and in temperatures of up

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IV-.90
to 90°F. Intertidal oysters in the warm climate of Texas survive a
number of hours out of the water with internal temperatures of as
much as 120°F. This oyster ceases feeding when tenperatures fall
below 43°F. or rise above 107°F. Oysters spawn only when the tempera-
ture of the water rises above 68°F., whether in Long Island Sound or
Apalachicola Bay. In its southern range the oyster has a much
longer spawning period and feeds all year long.

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IV-91
SECTION 6 . ENERGY AND MANAGEMENT
IN THE BIOPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Solar energy and gravitational energy are the basis for everything
that happens naturally in the estuarine zone. This discussion of
the biophysical environment has been concerned primarily with the
transformation of these energies into forms useful in living pro-
cesses and exploitable by man. Three different sets of subdivisions
of the biophysical environment were used in this discussion (Figure
IV.1 .39).
Differences in the external environment divide the estuarine zone of
the United States naturally into ten geographic regions, each sub-
ject to a particular combination of the external influences of tide,
ocean currents, wave action, sedimentation, and climate. This sub-
division into estuarine biophysical regions gave broad ranges of con-
ditions in each region, but the importance of local coastal condi-
tions in determining energy flows via water movement paved the way
for a subdivision of the estuarine zone according to 11 morphologi-
cal groups having similarities in water movement, circulation, and
the ability to rid themselves of wastes.
A subdivision according to ecological coninunities is also based pri-
manly on geographical location, but again local coastal conditions
make it necessary to identify small ecosystems within each major
grouping. This subdivision rests not only on the shape and form of
coastal areas, but also on the composition of the estuarine bottom.

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[ V-92
J\s an illustration of the relationships of these groupinqs, consider
the ways to classify a group composed of all the deliverymen in the
United States. They work in 50 States (the biophysical regions);
they work in cities, towns, and rural areas (the morphological classi-
fication); they de1iver different kinds of things, such as groceries,
clothes, furniture, and hardware (the ecosystems).
Each of these different groupings of the estuarine zones is signifi-
cant to management. The bioohysical regions are contiguous çieographic
zones with similar general environmental conditions that would be
appropriate for an institutional management unit. The morphological
grouping can serve as a guide to useful physical modification and
necessary waste treatment, while the ecological grouping tells what
can and can’t be done with the living resource.

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IV-93
REF ERE MC ES
IV-1-l The material presented in this chapter was distilled
from a number of sources. While individual citations
are given in some cases, the complexity of the source
information precludes detailed references. The more
informative general references are these:
Kuenen, Ph. H., Marine Geology, New York, Wiley, 568
pp (1950)
Shepard, F.P., Submarine Geology, New York, Harper and
Row, 557 pp (1963)
Harvey, H.W.,, The Chemistry and Fertility of Sea Waters,
Cambridge, England, Cambridge University Press, 240 pp
(1963)
Sverdrup,H.V., M.W. Johnson, and R.H. Fleming, The Oceans,
Enqlewood Cliffs, flew Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 1087 pp
(1942)
Pjckard, G.L., Pescriptive Physical Oceanography, New
York, MacMillan, 199 pp (1963)
Von Arx, W.S., An Introduction to Physical Oceanography,
New York, Addison Wesley, 422 pp (1962)
Stommel, H., The Gulf Stream, Berkley, California, Uni-
versity of California Press, 202 pp (1958)
Encyclopedia Britannica, 1967 ed.
Encyclopedia Ar ericana, 1967 ed.
Odum, H.T., Coastal Ecological Systems of the United
States, North Carolina, (Report prepared by the Univer-
sity of North Carolina under FWPCA Contract No. 14-12-
429, for the National Estuarine Pollution Study), 1878
pp (1969). (In Press)

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IV-94
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Coast Pilot. Vol-
ume 1 (1965), 2 (1966), 3 (1966), 4 (1964), 5 (1967),
7 (1963), 8 (1962), 9 (1964). Washington, D.C.,
U.S. Government Printing Office.
Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the
United States. Washinqton, D.C., U.S. Government
Printing Office, P150 pp (1967)
U.S. Geological Survey, Surface Water Supply of the
United States. U.S. Geological Survey t 1 ater SupDly
Papers, Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing
Office. (Published annually)
IV-l-2 Carstea, D. L, W.S. Haushild, and N. 1. Baker, Anno-
tated Bibliography of Sedimentation in Coastal Bod-
ies of Water, (Prepared by U.S. Geological Survey,
U.S. Department of the Interior, under reimbursable
agreement with the Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration for the National Estuarine Pollution
Study), Washington, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey,
mimeooraphed copy), (1969)
IV-l-3 Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
Charleston Harbor Water Quality Study, Charleston,
S.C. Washington, D.C., U.S. Department of the Interior,
mimeograohed copy, 88 pp (1966).

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IV-95
Chapter 2
USE OF THE ESTUARINE ZONE
The predominant uses of any par-
ticular estuarine area depend on
historical and economic develop-
ment, population pressures, and
the kinds of natural resources
available for exploitation. The
socio-economic environment of
the estuarine zone is the direct
result of the value of the estu-
anne zone as a means of sustenance,
a place to live and work, a source of enjoyment, and a means of
transportation. This chapter describes that environment In terms
of how the biophysical environment is exploited to serve man’s
needs and howsconceptually how valuable it is to his society
(IV-2-l).
The major values of the estuarine zone to society from the framework
for discussing the relationships of individual uses, their compatibil-
ity with other uses, and the physical modification that has taken
place to support these uses.

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P1-96
SECTION 1. SUSTENANCE: USE AS A FISH AND WILDLIFE HABITAT
FISH
Estuarine dependence is a convenient term for describing a nor-
mally complex biological interrelationship between the estuarine
environment and an aquatic organism. This dependence includes a
vast spectrum of biological relationships. Practically all of
the sports fish species are dependent upon the estuarine zone for
one or more phases of their life development, and approximately
65 per cent of all commercial fish species are estuarine-dependent.
The discussion in Chapter 1 concerning life in the estuarine zone
described the nature of estuarine dependence and gave examples of
several estuarine-dependent species important to human society.
Many fish species live their entire lives in the estuarine zone
and are well-adapted to this type of environment. The oyster,
for example, has lived in the estuary for millions of years, as
evidenced by the huge deoosits of shell on the bottoms of bays.
The shallow water, salty substrate, and intermediate salinities
are Ideal for oyster culture.
Other species may use the estuary only as a passage zone on
their way to freshwater streams or to the open ocean. However,
In doing so, they also utilize the high production of food that is

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IV-97
characteristic of estuaries. Even some continental shelf species,
such as bluefish, and most marine predators (including tuna), can
be considered dependent upon the estuary as an ultimate source of
most of their food.
The economically important fish species are those sought by either
the sports fisherman or the commercial fisherman; however, the
sports fishes are usually taken by hook or with hand-held equip-
ment. Table IV.2.l lists some of the more important estuarine-
dependent species of sports and commercial fish and shellfish.
It also shows the type of dependency of each.
Figure IV.2.l illustrates the geographic ranges of some of the
estuarine—dependent sport and commercial fish throughout the
United States, and many of these different kinds of sports fish can
be caught as one goes from salt water to fresh water within an
estuary (Figure IV.2.2). Fishermen have nearly as much variety
as the fish they catch, as Figure IV2.3 demonstrates. Even the
ocean fisheries are to some extent related to the estuarine zone,
because most fishing and the most productive fishing grounds are
close to continents. Latitudinal ranges of some major commercial
fish off United States coasts are shown in Figure IV.2.4.

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IV-98
TABLE IV.2.1
Estuarine Dependence of Important Sport and Cocnvnercial Fish
Biophysical
Region
SPORTS FISH: TYPE OF DEPENDENCE
Permanent Residence
Passage Zone
Nursery Zone —
North
Atlantic
Croaker
Atlantic Mackerel
Bluefish
Atlantic Salmon
Shad
Striped Bass
Middle
Atlantic
Croaker
Drums
Atlantic Mackerel
Spot
Bluefish
Shad
Striped Bass
Chesapeake
Crabs
Croaker
D rums
Spot
Bluefish
Shad
Striped Bass
South
Atlantic
Crabs
Croaker
Drums
Spotted Sea Trout
Spot
Bluefish
Shad
Striped Bass
Carl bbean
potte ea trout
Spot
Bluefish
Gulf of
Mexico
Crabs
Croaker
Drums
Spotted Sea Trout
Spot
Bluefish
Shad
Striped Bass —
P acific
Southwest
Abalone
Rockfl sh
Barracuda
Pacific
Northwest
Abalone
Rockfish
Salmon (Chum,
Coho King, Red)
Pink Salmon
Alaska
Crabs
Salmon (Churn,
Coho, King, Red)
Pink Salmon
Pacific
Islands
Barracuda

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Iv—99
TABLE IV.2.1--(Cont’d.)
Estuarine Dependence of Important Sport and Comercial Fish
Biophysical
Region -
COMMERCIAL FISH: TYPE OF DEPENDENCE
Permanent Residence
Oysters
Passage Zone
Atlantic Salmon
Nursery Zone
MenT den —
North
Atlantic
Clams
Croaker
Flatfish
Eel
Lobsters
Middle
Atlantic
Oysters
Clams
Croaker
Flatfish
Eel
Menhaden
Chesapeake
Oysters Flatfish
Clams
Crabs
Croaker
Eel
tenhaden
South
Atlantic
Oysters
Crabs
Croaker
Flatfish
Eel
Shrimp
Menhaden
Carl bbean
Flatfish
Lobsters
Gulf of
Mexico
Oysters
Crabs
Croaker
Flatfish
Shrimp —
Menhaden
Pacific
Southwest
Clams
Abalone
Flatfish
Pacific
Northwest
Oysters
Abalone
Crabs
Flatfish
Salmon (Chum,
Coho, King,
Red)
Pink Salmon
Alaska
Crabs
Flatfish
Salmon, (Chum,
Coho, King,
Red)
Shrimp
Pink Salmon
Pacific
Isi ands
Oysters
Flatfish
Lobsters

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FIGURE IV.2.1 SPORTS FISH OF IMPORTANCE TO ESTUARINE FISHERMEN
-
‘4T T F
SABLE FISH
M 1 T<
E i 4 j4
TAU 7
SOURCES 1966 Silt Wilir Angling Swv.y, BSF&W
Fi,h,y Staijitics of the Unèt.d Shut, BCF
UiflStaIIy, 0$tc6 thd Ialcd iilIy. Blat ii. I,muua, $ SClN i found
on both coi t O, usually by diBitsut nhin
POL LOCK
TUNA
SALMON
HADDOCK
BL S
WHITE FISH
DRUM
SNOOK
BARRACUDA
T. ”
OOLPHIN BOWEFISH
(,ROUPER
SHELPSHLAU
cD
0
flanqus of I typ nay wifely

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Iv—1o1
FIGURE IV.2.3.a A YOUNG SALT-WATER FISHERMAN GETS HIS START
IN THE BAYOUS OF LOUISIANA
4
. ‘ ., .
r•
COURTESY LOUISIANA WILD LIFE AND FISHERIES COMM.
PHOTO BY J. H. BRITT
I
L
L
t S’

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FIGURE IV.2.3b
- _ j _
I
PROM
I
j 1L i .
4 - - - -
0
>

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FIGURE IV.2.4. LATITUDE RANGES OF SOME COMMERCIAL FISH*
1i ER RING
I SCALLOP
I ALEWIFE
I COD
I FLOUNDER
I HADDOCK
I PERCH
I POLLOCK
I BLUEFIN TUNA
WHITING
GROUPER
SNAPPER ______
SHRIMP
SPINY LOBSTER
MULLET
MAINE LOBSTER
ROCKFISH
PERCHES
OYSTERS
CLAMS
SHAD
MENHADEN
CRABS
MACKEREL
TUNA I
MULLET I 1
M(LKFISH I
GOATFISHI 01
RANGES VARY IN SOME CASES ACCORDING TO SEASON OF
YEAR OR OTHER FACTORS.
0
HALIBUT
SALMON
TUNA
FLOUNDER
ROC K FISH
SEA BASS
POLLOCK
CRABS
LINGCOD
MACKEREL
BONITO —
FLOUNDER
GROUPER
SHARKS
SPINY LOBSTER
P
-a
CA)

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IV-l 04
WILDLIFE
Estuarine wildlife can be classified into four categories with
differing economic significance: (1) fur bearing mammals,
(2) game waterfowl, (3) ornamental shore birds, and (4) the
common wildlife that can tolerate human presence. The relative
abundance of some characteristic species in the biophysical
regions is discussed below.
Fur Bearers
The primary estuarine fur bearers are the fur seal in Alaska,
nutria in the South Atlantic and Gulf States, the common eastern
muskrat in New Jersey, the Virginia muskrat in the Central Atlan-
tic States, and the Louisiana muskrat in Alabama, Mississippi,
Louisiana, and Texas. Secondary in importance are the raccoon,
mink, and otter. Foxes, weasels, opossum, and bobcats are not
sought for their fur but may occasionally be trapped (Figure IV.
2.5).
For economic levels of fur production, the marshes must be man-
aged specifically for the fur bearers. This means control of
undesirable plants, prevention of excessive populations and, in
some cases, control of predators. The primary food plants are
threesquare and cattails; these, however, are easily supplanted

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IV-105
by invading needleruch, cordgrass, sawgrass, and other undesirable
plants. Hence, the marshes are burned annually, usually In the
fall, and are subsequently flooded to eradicate the pest plants
and enhance growth of threesquare (Figure rv.2.6). Dikes or other
water control devices are used to help minimize the intrusion of
salt water into the fresh or brackish water of the producing
marshes. Thus, the marshes managed for fur production are not
normally available for other valuable aquatic species, especially
shrimp and estuarine-dependent fish (Figure IV.2.7).
Game Waterfowl
The dependence of waterfowl on the estuarine zone Is both complex
and not completely understood. The primary sport species, such
as mallards and canvasbacks, have been successfully adapted to
man-made changes in their environment, particularly those which
do not affect the nesting sites. In some cases, the construction
of roads, drainage canals, and other works have enhanced nesting
areas by stabilizing water levels, providing flood-proof nesting
sites and drought-proof rearing ponds. Furthermore, most species
do not appear particularly dependent on any aspect of the estua-
rine zone, being able to use freshwater marshes, lakes, and ponds
with equal ease. This ambivalence has been sharply enhanced in
the Gulf area by extensive rice cultivation and cattle farming

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IV— 106
which enable many species, such as the white-fronted geese, to
shift habitats away from estuarine marshes. Other species, such
as Canada geese and mallards, have demonstrated even more adapt-
ibility, many remaining the entire winter in the freshwater bodies
of the Midwest (Figure IV.2.8). Many sea ducks feed upon small
crustaceans, fish, and insects that are estuarine-dependent.
These ducks have not learned to feed on agricultural lands, and
tend to migrate to deeper saltwater environments during the
winter.
In suimiary, while game waterfowl are frequently observed in the
estuarine areas, they do not appear dependent upon specific estu-
anne conditions. There are some exceptions, such as the American
brant, but research has not determined the relationship between
altered habitat and declining numbers.
Ornamental Birds
Shore and sea birds are a particularly aesthetic attraction among
the national fauna. However, they rarely have a direct tangible
economic value, except as a component of the natural ecosystem.
These birds are generally more dependent upon estuarine conditions
than the more mobile waterfowl, and have demonstrated a greater
sensitivity to the overall encroachment of man. The saga of the
virtually extinct whooping crane is well known and docuiiented;

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Iv.- 107
and the trials of several other groups, such as the egrets, have
received periodic pt blicity. Among the bird life most threat-
ened by changing environmental conditions, especially in the
estuaries, are the larger fish-eaters of the Nation’s coast.
The brown pelican has already disappeared from the Gulf coast
of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, where it was a
common sight prior to 1960. This disappearance coincided with
the heavy fish kills of 1960-1964 in the Lower Mississippi River,
which were caused by excessive residues of pesticides. One
theory proposed that the dead and dying pelicans observed during
that period had accumulated lethal dosages (Figures IV.2.9).
This assumption, however, was not verified and another theory
used to explain the lack of any recovery was the destruction of
nesting grounds in black mangroves by the severe cold.
The 80 species of waders, which include the egrets, storks,
herons, ibis, and spoonbills, are predominantly residents of the
southern United States, particularly in Florida. The recent
drought and man-made changes in the Everglades have drastically
reduced the number of these species in Florida. For some species,
this represents a serious setback in their aradual recovery from
near extinction at the hands of the plume hunters. Waders else-
where on the southern coast have also diminished in numbers,
apparently because of irresponsible shooting and man-made envi-
ronmental changes.

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FIGURE IV.2.9.
0
ONE LESS BROWN PELICAN IN THE SOUTHEAST.
ONE OF OUR MORE SERIOUSLY THREATENED SPECIES AFFECTED BY DOT.

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IV- 109
AQUACULTURE
The great fish and shellfish resources of United States coastal
waters have adequately supplied the seafood demands of the
increasing population for over three hundred years. Now, how-
ever, the demand for some products is so large that the normal
fishing grounds and fisheries are in great danger of being exhaus-
ted, both from overfishing and from the indirect effects of man’s
encroachment into the estuarine environment. To supply future
needs of some fish products new approaches toward commercial fish-
ing are needed, both in harvesting the natural growth and in con-
trolling the entire fishery.
Aquaculture is defined as the rearinci of aquatic organisms, both
Diants and animals, under controlled conditions using the tech-
niques of plant and animal husbandry. It involves a variety of
operations: some are highly sophisticated where man exercises
control over the principal environmental factors affecting the
cultured species, and others are very simple with only minimal
control or manipulation of the habitat and the cultured animal.
The following examples illustrate the variety of aquacultural
activities that are now practiced:

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‘v-no
(1) Rearing aquatic species from selectively bred strains to
commercial size under controlled conditions where the opti-
mum requirements for food, temperature, salinity, and other
physiological and environmental needs are provided; predators
and competitors are eliminated and diseases controlled, and
highly mechanized methods are used to reduce labor costs.
This is the ultimate in aquacultural operations and has been
achieved only for a few species (e.g., carp).
(2) Rearing aquatic species in natural or artificial enclosures
to cornercial size, with or without supplemental feeding,
predator control, environmental adjustment, and selective
breeding. Enclosures may be man-made tanks, natural or
artificial ponds, or enclosed areas of the sea. Such tech-
niques are now used for the production of oysters, clams,
shrimp, catfish, carp, and baitfish. (Figure JV.2.lO).
(3) Rearing aquatic species in hatcheries through the juvenile
stages, the period of greatest natural mortality, to stock
natural areas. This effort nay he used to replenish stock
reduced by natural or artificial changes in the environ-
ment, overfishinçj or other factors, or to introduce new
species into an environment. Such methods are bein’ used
to maintain salt’on and trout fisheries and to provide sport
fish in areas of heavy fishing pressure.

-------
‘v—ill
(4) Transplantinq wild stocks as e gs, young, or spawning
adults from one natural area to another to provide more
suitable habitat for spawning, qrowth, or survival, and
to introduce species into new environments. This method
has been the backbone of present day oyster culture on
leased grounds. This method was also used to introduce
striped bass and shad from the east coast to west coast
waters. Widespread transplants of salmon have also been
made with varyinn success.
(5) A variety of other techniques have been developed to increase
abundance and survival of commercially valuable species,
e.g., cuitching oyster beds with shell to increase setting;
suspending shell strings from floats or piling to catch
larval oysters and qrow the adults using the total water
column (Figure IV.2.ll); moving oysters to predator or dis-
ease-free areas; construction of artificial reefs to pro-
vide more suitable habitat for oysters, lobsters, and fish
(Figure IV.2.12); and opening or closing breaches in barrier
islands to improve environmental conditions of essential
lagoons.
(6) Aquaculture is also practiced in the experimental rearing
of larval fish and shellfish to study the importance of
environmental factors on survival and to determine causes
of the marked variation in year-class size.

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IV— 1 12
Aquaculture, with a few minor exceptions, appears to be today
where agriculture was fifty or more years ago. True farming of
the sea is still in its infancy. At the present time almost all
of the oysters produced on the west coast of the U.S. have at
least one manipulation by man before they are harvested; on the
Atlantic seaboard approximately tifty per cent are manipulated
at least once before harvest. Other than oysters, there are no
known enterprises in marine aquaculture that are expecting a
significant profit. Many ventures are presently underway to
develop pilot plants for cornercial farming in the future.
Table IV.2.2 lists the range of species that are presently being
studied for marine aquaculture. Research is at private, univer-
sity, State government, and Federal Government laboratories.

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IV .-1 13
TABLE IV.2.2
Species Under Marine Aquaculture Research
Organism
State
Algae Fla.
Shrimp Ala., Fla., Tex., La., S.C.,
Calif.
Crabs Calif., Md., Ore.
Lobsters Me., Fla., Calif., Mass.
Crayfish La.
Freshwater Shrimp Fla., Ala., Haw.
Mussel Calif., Ore.
Oyster N.C., Del., Va., Conn., N.Y.,
Calif., Tex., La.,, Ala.,
Miss., Mass., Wash., Ore.,
R.I., Fla., Ga.
Scallops N.Y., Fla.
Clam N.Y., Ore.
Marine Worms Me., Fla.
Alligators La.
Freshwater Catfish La.
(brackish water)
Spot La.
Croaker La.
Mullet La., Haw.
Pompano Fla., La., Tex., S.C., Ala.
Sea Trout Fla.
Abalone Ore., Calif.

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IV— 114
SECTION 2. ENJOYMENT: USE FOR RECREATION
The demand for outdoor recreation has increased significantly over
the past decade. The trend toward higher personal income and more
leisure time has made it possible for a greater percentage of the
populace to seek new outlets. The advertising industry has cam-
paigned vigorously to sell the public on the need for recreation.
Companies manufacturinq equipment for outdoor recreation, and
service facilities to support the ‘recreationalist’ are blossom-
ing in all parts of the country. In addition, the unique availa-
bility of resources, in close proximity to large population centers,
offers an unparalleled recreational opportunity for many who pre-
viously could not afford to travel far from their homes.
Since there is this wide variety of land and water recreational
activities available in the estuarine zone, many estuarine sys-
tems are intensively used for these pursuits. This is primarily
because people rarely have a single activity as the sole objec-
tive of a recreational outing. Clusters of activities that
require similar environriental conditions, but differ in environ-
mental quality needs, can be grouped as follows: 1) Swirmiing
and associated shore activities, which include picnicing and
camping; 2) sports fishing from the shore or a small boat; 3)
boating which is one of the most popular water-based activities,
and boat-centered activities, such as fishing, water skiino,

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jv-.115
cruising, hunting, and even traveling or socializing; and 4) aesthetic
appreciation of the total environment.
Based on attendance, the most heavily used beaches in the United
States are Long Island in New York and the coastal beaches of
Maryland, Virginia, Massachusetts, Florida, and California. The
majority of these beaches face the open sea rather than an estu-
ary or coastal sound. It is estimated that less than 10 per cent
of the entire coastal swimming activity, or less than 3 per cent
of all swinining participation, occurs inside embayments. This
apparent lack of utilization of swinining is based on several factors
varying from personal preference to environmental quality. The
most significant reasons are these:
(1) There is a lack of large sandy beaches, surf, and expansive
seascapes.
(2) Public access is limited bacause of marshy terrain and pri-
vate development along the shoreline. (For example, of all
Maryland’s 41 State parks, including those authorized or
under construction, only five are on the estuaries. In
Connecticut only five of the 82 State parks are located on
the coast, despite a recreation shoreline of 162 Miles).
(3) Swiming is often prohibited or is disagreeable in embay-
ments because of low water quality.

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IV—I 16
The fishing aspects have been discussed previously, but are men-
tioned again because of the relationship between sport fishing
and recreation, especially as an associated activity. Pleasure
boating and shoreline activities are frequently extensions of
sport fishing trips or vice versa.
Boating is a major recreational use of the estuarine system. On
a per capita basis however, the coastal States do not have a high
propensity towards boating activities. While representino 61.5
per cent of the Nation’s population in 1966, the coastal States
accounted for only 55.4 per cent of the total sales in outboard
motors. Only about 25 per cent of all pleasure boating is esti-
mated to occur in the coastal waters, most of which is in protec-
ted areas.
Aesthetic enjoyment is probably the most widespread use of the
estuarine environment today. Tourists from the interior States
are always eager to view such sights as ships coming under the
Golden Gate Bridge into San Francisco Say, the lonely solitude
of Fort Stinter as it rests seemingly impregnable in Charleston
Harbor, and the parade of ships in and out of New York Harbor.
The attractive scenic vistas are not for the tourists alone, but
hold a certain magnetism for residents of the coastal cities as
well. One has only to scan the real estate advertisements to
realize the premium value on waterfront or waterview lots.

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[ V —i 17
Ilany of the coastal cities have had the foresight to reserve
the estuarine shoreline for parks and scenic parkways. The
George Washinciton Memorial Parkway in Virginia is a good example,
for it allows unparalleied view of the historic Potomac iver
near the Nation’s capital.
Aesthetic appreciation of the estuarine zone is not limited to
the enjoyment of the scenic orandeur, but also includes observa-
tion of its wide variety of ‘i1d1ife. This includes birds of
all types, the fascinating creatures of the tide pools, and play-
ful porpoises cavorting in the water with an enviable freedom.
A portion of the estuarine wildlife also serves another recrea-
tional use--hunting. Some of the estuarine marsh areas offer
unexcelled waterfowl huntinc opportunities. To a lesser degree
the estuarine areas in certain sections of the country offer
other types of hunting onportunities, such as coastal deer in
South Carolina and Florida and big game in Alaska.
There are certain ancillary facilities and services necessary to
realize the full potential of estuarine recreation. First and
foremost is adequate access to the reserved areas such as parks,
wildlife refuges, beaches and roadways, waterways, and paths.
The Chesapeake Bay is an excellent example of a large estuarine
system with united nuhlic access: most of the access sites
available to the public are privately controlled and charge user

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I V—il 8
fees.
Additional support services and facilities may range from nothing
but access trails for wilderness areas to expensive resort type
communities with shopping, hotel or motel accomodations, and
restaurants.
The activity on which the recreation area is based generally
determines the minimum support facility and service needs. Swim-
ming requires, in addition to beach, sanitary facilities and
life guards, as well as such items as food shops and beach equip-
ment rental booths. If the beach is extremely popular, motels,
specialty shops, and a whole spectrum of commercial enterprises
will develop. If boating is the prime activity, launching ramps,
marinas, and repair shops will be needed in addition to basic
sanitary facilities. If fishing is the prime activity, bait and
tackle shops are needed. It is evident that the extent of devel-
opment of support service is almost unlimited, depending on the
popularity of the recreational area (Figure IV.2.l3).
Just how the popularity or importance of a particular recreational
activity or area is measured presents another problem. Ideally,
the importance could be defined as the sum of all the individual
users’ values. Since this figure is difficult if not impossible
to obtain, some index of use must be developed. Table IV.2.3
shows some possible indices of use and some of their characteristics.

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TABLE IV.2.3 INDICES OF RECREATIONAL USE OF ESTUARINE AREAS
Number of Visitors
Duck Stamps Sold
Hunting Licenses Sold
Fishing Licenses Sold
Fishing Participation
Days
Yacht Club Memberships
Marina Slips
Direct indication of popularity
Readily available from records;
Gives a partial dollar value.
Same as above
Same as above
An indicator of one specific
type of recreational use; shows
pressure on a particular area.
Records available to supply info.
Info, readily available; indi-
cates a capacity figure; gives
indication ov value.
May hav’e to be estimated; does not indicate type of
activity. Difficult to evaluate economically.
Does not relate to estuarine area alone; not
always an indicator of use.
Same as above
Many States do not require licenses for salt-water
fishing.
No records to furnish figures; No indicator of
fisherman success. No monetary values attached.
May not be true indicator of participation in use.
Applies to only a small segment of total user group.
Not a true indicator of boating activity because
of the mobility of transient boats.
Parking Area at Launching
Ramps
Boat Registrations
Charter Boats Operating
Includln.g Tours & Passen-
ger Space Available
Non-Resident Hunting
and Fishing Licenses
Indicates estimated use Impor-
tance of popularity.
Available from records.
May be indicative of potential
traffic from given location or
of desirability of an area for
fishing or sightseeing.
Information readily available
from records, Indicates interest
by out of state residents.
Does not reflect actual use; no indication of number
of people or size of boats or type of use.
Not all boats required to be registered. Trailer
boats are extremely mobile & registrations do not
show area of use.
Could be difficult to obtain. Does not reflect
actual use, only capacity.
Not necessarily specific to estuarine zone; fishing
licenses may not be required in salt water areas.
—I
INDEX FACTOR ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

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IV- 120
The relative intensity of recreational use of the estuarine zone
varies in different sections of the country. Data pertaining
specifically to the estuaries are not available; however, some
information on the importance of recreation in the coastal area,
which serves as an index to estuary potential, is given in Table
IV.2.4. This table presents a breakdown of recreation shoreline
by shore type, ownership, and degree of development. The recrea-
tion shoreline is defined according to accessibility and useful-.
ness for recreational pursuits. It comprises about one-third of
the entire tidal shoreline of the United States.
Analysis of the data in the table shows the differences in shore-
line development in various sections of the country. The heavily
populated northeast section of the country, including the North
Atlantic and Middle Atlantic regions, has a fairly well-developed
coastal area. Of the total 5,912 recreation shoreline miles
(including the Great Lakes portion of New York) there are 5,654
miles under private or restricted public ownership, meaning that
97 per cent of the shore is inaccessible to the general public
(Figure IV.2.14). In the Chesapeake and South Atlantic regions
the state of shoreline developn ent is low to moderate. Of the
total 4,315 miles of recreation shoreline for the two regions,
only 154 miles are public recreational areas, a mere 4 per cent
of the total. The level of development of the Gulf coast is

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TABLE IV.2.4 ESTIMATED MILEAGE OF THE UNITED STATES RECREATION SHORELINE (STATUTE MILES)
I I I I I
I I I I I OWNERSHIP
I I IOTAL IEXTENT OF
IBTOPHYSICAL REGION I SIIORELPIE IOEVELOPMENTI TYPE OF Sl-4CREI INE I PUBlIC 1
I I I I I I I I
I I I I BEACH I RI 11FF I MARSH IRECREATION I RESTRICTED I PRIVATELY
I I I I I I I AREAS I AREAS I OWNEO
I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I
INJFTH ATLANTIC I 2.9M3 I HIGH I 158 I 2,683 I 142 I 43 I 3 I 2,937
I I I I p I I I I
IMIDDIE ATLANTIC * I 2 ,’ 2J I HIGH I 742 I 1,i’.5 I 1,041 I 147 I 66 I 2,717
I I I I I I I I I
ICHESAPFAicE RAY I 1.ics I mw I 157 I 941 I 699 I 5 I 125 I 1,667
I I I I I I I I
ISOIJIM ATLANTIC I 2,511 I MODERATE I 746 I 283 I 1,489 I 149 I 72 I 2,295
a a I a a I I
ICARIRBEAN (FLA.UNLY) I 8CR I LOW I 328 I 124 I 357 I 4Q I 37 I 722
I I I I I I I I I
IGJJLF OF MEXICO I 3.542 LOw I 1,247 I 586 1.809 I 81 I 4 I 3,46Q
I I I I I I I I I
IPACIFIC SOUTHWI:ST I 1,1 & I MODERATE I 253 I 788 I 95 I 133 I 8° I 913
I I I I I I I I I
IPACIFIC NORTHWEST I 2 , ’ 39 I MUDEPATE I 254 I 1,570 I 185 I 163 I 38 I 1,839
I I I I I I I I I
IALASKA I I NOI DATA AVAILABLE I I I I
a I a a I I I
IPACIFIC ISLANDS I I NJI DATA IAVAILARLE I I I
I I I I I I I
I TOTAL I 17,853 I I 3,915 I 8.121 I 5,817 I 770 I 524 16,559
I I I I I I I I
I—— I I I I I I I I
* MIDDLE ATLANTIC REGION MILE4I;FS INCLUDE NFWYORI< GREAT LAXES FRONTAGF AND EXCLUDES ALL PFNNSYIVANIA FRONTAGE.
REFERENCE: OUTDOOR RECREATION RESOURCES REVIEW COMMISSIONS REPORT NO.4
.
-a
-a

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FIGURE IV.2.14. EXTENSIVE SHORELINE DEVELOPMENT ALONG
A BAYOU IN LOUISIANA
c. J
C J
>
PHOTO BY: ROBERT N. DENNIE. COURTESY OF LOUISIANA WILD LIFE AND FISHERIES COMMISSION.

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tV—123
relatively low. Out of a total 3,642 miles of recreation shore-
line only 81 are dedicated to public recreational areas, a total
of only about 2 per cent. The Pacific coast, which is composed
of 75 per cent bluff type shoreline, in areas suitable for recre-
ation provIdes 10 per cent of this length for recreation, or
almost 300 out of 3,000 miles.
That so much of the recreation shoreline is in private ownership
indicates the high value placed on waterfront property and the
desire to own it, either for passive enjoyment or for more active
recreational pursuits.

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IV—124
SECTION 3. USE FOR TRANSPORTATION
The Nation’s estuaries provide the physical, social, and economic
conditions required for an effective system of: water terminals
serving International trade and coastal shipping; essential ele-
ments of the national defense system; areas used for airport devel -
opinent; and land transport.
According to a 1966 inventory of ports and terminals by the Mari-
time Aóninlstratlon, there were 1,626 marine terminal facilities
providing deep water berths in 132 ports on the Atlantic, Gulf,
and Pacific coasts. Table IV.2.5 shows the distribution of estu-
anne ports. The significance of these ports and terminal facil-
ities Is indicated by the 1965 statistics which show that they
handled 78 per cent of the U.S. foreign trade total, or 346,315,000
tons of foreign trade cargo. In addition, the port facilities
handled 332.1 million tons in coastal cargo and 288.2 million
tons In local shipping.
Table IV.2.5 also shows arrivals and departures for the major U.S.
ports for 1964. The traffic indicated by these statistics demon-
strates the competition for water surface and navigation channels.
In New York, for example, there are between two and three arrivals
or departures every hour. Portland, the 11th ranking port in the
estuanine zone, has an arrival or departure every two hours.
There is very little Information giving a breakdown in vessel

-------
flF
.IExlcn I
SOUTHWFST I
10
“4
S
1?
1 I
24 I
TABLE IV.2.5 ESTUARINE USE BY WATERBORNE COMMERCE. 1964
I 1 I - I T ____ T _T
I NUMBER I NtJM9ER I C(VIBP’JED IESTIMATEI,
BIUPHVSICAL I OF I I IARP!Vt*LS f I #‘S OF I
REGIJN I Ofl 1 ç ITERMINAIS iAJflR PflPT Ir)FPAPTURFSIWATER PAFTI
I I I I I I
I I I I
INO&TH ATLANTIC I 1C C l 1ST0N I 4 ,16B I 2,0P4 I
I I I I I I
(MIDDLE ATLANTIC I 4H NE YQR ( 24,580 l2,2QC I
I (PHIl APEIPHIA I 13,791 I 6,R95
I I I I
(CHESAPEAKE AY I 157 IHAMPTIr\ QflArS I 11,353 I 5,676 I
I I I8ALT!M(J1 E I 11,734 5,367 I
I I I I I
ISJUTH ATLANTIC I 1 5 ICHAFLESTON I I I
I I ISAVANNAI- I I
IJACKSONV!I U I I
I I I I
ICIB EAi IMI frI J
(SAN JUAN I I
I I I I
(GOLF OF INFW ORLEANS I 5,2CC I
I I HI1tJS T [ Th’ I 4 , I P6 I
(PACIFIC 19 I 222 ILflS ANCELES-LONGI I I
I I I I SIACH I 9,4 7 I 4,713 I
I I I (SAN FRANCISCO Q,OR1 I 4,640 I
I I I 1 I
(PACIFIC “4 I 2CC (SEATTLE I 4,171 I 2,0A5 I
I I IPORTLANI) I 4,OP1 1 2,041 I
I I I I I I
(ALASKA I 15 I 2 IANC (1R AC,F I
I I I I I I
(PACIFIC ISLANDS I 9 1 41 IHIJN(LULIJ 1 I I
I I I I I I I
I I I 1 I I I
I TOTAL I 133 I 1,634 I I I
$ I I I I I I
I I I I I I
REFERENCE: THE NATIONAL ESTUARINE INVENTORY
DATA SOURCES: MARITIME ADMINISTRATION, U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS
35 -
\iURTHWEST!
1 ,4C0 I
P,372 I
-a
01

-------
IV-126
types. Statistics for the year 1964 for the port of New York show
18,682 dry cargo or passenger arrivals and departures and 5,098
tankers.
The estuarine ports also serve as essential elements of the national
defense system. The deep water terminals exert a significant influ-
ence on the location of defense installations, as well as of the
Industrial complexes necessary for logistical support of the defense
effort. A direct indication of the use of estuaries by naval vessels
is the total number of ships in commission. During the Fiscal Year
1967 this number was 931 with a planned increase to 960 in the Fis-
cal Year 1969.
In addition to those commissioned ships, in Fiscal Year 1967 there
were 1,071 merchant ships in the National Defense Reserve Fleet.
These ships are stored in the estuarine areas as shown in Table IV.
2.6.
TABLE IV.2.6
Fiscal Year 1967
National Defense Reserve Fleet (Merchant Ships)
Location
Ships Not
Maintained
Ships Maintained In
Retention Status
Total
Hudson River
69
68
137
James River
164
122
286
Mobile
65
100
165
Beaumont
25
100
125
Suisun Bay
99
128
227
Olympia
Total
21

110

131
V,07l

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IV—127
Waterborrie transportation in the estuaries is not a completely
free gift. In all cases a large investment is required to sup-
port and sustain this activity. Adequate channels must be pro-
vided to carry the ship traffic. In almost all estuaries this
involves maintenance dredging to provide sufficient water depth
to float deep draft vessels (Figure IV.2.15). These channels
must be marked with navigation aids to prevent the ships from
inadvertently straying into shallow water. Terminal facilities
are necessary for loading, unloading, and storing cargo. There
must also by shipyards with all the equipment and facilities
necessary to repair, maintain, and fuel the large ships (Figure
IV. 2.16).
Besides the physical facilities needed there are certain envi-
ronmental considerations. Already mentioned is sufficient water
depth to keep the ships afloat. Since dock facilities and berth-
ing space are expensive and cannot be monopolized for long per-
iods of time by single ships, there must be safe anchorage areas
where ships can await their turn at the piers. These anchorage
areas also provide temporary safety during stor ny weather and
must, therefore, be sheltered from the direct force of the wind
and waves. The whole concept of a harbor is a port of safety
out of han s way.

-------
IV—128
The advent of nuclear powered ships has presented additional prob—
lems. The harbor areas must be protected from every possibility
of environmental contamination by radioactive substances, and
these ships must have easy access to the sea.
The use of the harbors for waterborne transportation is competi ti ye
in that it may cause other uses to be foregone. Heavy ship traffic
interferes with pleasure boating and related activities (Figure IV.
2.17). Maintenance of the ship channels may alter the ecology and
the surface area occupied by the large vessels may well interfere
with safe pleasure boating.
Transportation in estuaries is not limited to waterborne traffic.
Since a major percentage of large cities are located on estuarine
systems, there is considerable pressure to develop fill areas for
airports which then utilize the long overwater approaches to keep
the jet noise away from developed areas. San Francisco International
Airport is a good example, and in Washington, D.C., National Airport
uses fill areas and overwater approaches (Figure IV.2.l8).
As the airplanes get bigger and the air traffic gets heavier, it
appears that more cities will try to develop isolated airport facil-
ities. The planning of the Miami Jetport in the Big Cypress Swamp
is a good example. In cities where estuarine areas are available
a similar trend will probably develop. The last aspect of trans-

-------
IV—129
portation to be considered is that of land transport. A dichotomy
exists here. The water areas offer a barrier to land travel that
must be overcome with Causeways or bridge type structures which
can interfere with navigation or cause habitat damage. On the other
hand, peripheral roads offer some of the more scenic routes avail-
able and are frequently the only undeveloped area on which roads can
be built. Examples of these peripheral roads are Bayshore Drive
in Tampa, Florida; Bayshore Freeway south of San Francisco; and
Harbor Drive in San Diego (Figure IV.2.19).

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IV-l 30
SECTION 4. USE AS A HUMAN HABITAT
These are the uses that occur wherever people live and work in civi-
lized communities. They represent uses not unique to coastal areas,
although the estuarine zone places restrictions on some uses and
offers advantages in other activities.
MUNICIPAL AND INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLY
The water in the estuary can serve as a source of both domestic and
industrial water supply, but its utilization for domestic supply is
very limited at the present time. Normally the brackish water is
unpotable and treatment costs to render it potable are extremely
high; however, where the upstream freshwater inflow is sufficient to
repel salinity intrusion from portions of the tidal area, the water
is used for a domestic and agricultural water supply source. The
San Francisco Bay Delta area is an excellent example of this, although
there are few others.
The brackish estuarine water is also a poor source for industrial
process water. Here again a high degree of purity is normally
required in the process water and the cost of removing the dissolved
salts is prohibitive.
Estuarine waters are used extensively, however, as a source of indus-
trial cooling water. For this use the most important considerations
are ambient temperature and quantity. Wziter temperatures are generally

-------
IV—l31
well below the maximum for economical cooling, and since the ocean is
connected to one side of the estuary, the quantity is no problem.
Cooling water is required by both the manufacturing industry and
electric power generation plants; the greatest use is in the thermal
electric plants. Table IV.2.7 shows cooling water withdrawals in
the coastal counties. Not all of the amounts shown are taken from
estuarine waters, but almost all of these quantities find their way
back into estuarine waters.
The distribution of cooling water uses parallels population and
industrial development in the coastal counties, even though electrical
power can be transported economically over many miles. The greatest
concentrations of cooling water use are in the Middle Atlantic and
Pacific Southwest regions; these regions both have moderate water
temperatures which make possible efficient use of the available
cooling water.
Table IV2.7 also shows, however, that there are 47 nuclear power
plants built or scheduled for completion by 1976. All of these are
In the megawatt range, with a combined capacity of nearly 35,000
megawatts of electrical power. While the bulk of these will be in
the cooler parts of the Nation, 12 will be in the South Atlantic,
Gulf, and Caribbean regions. In these regions water temperatures
are high, greater volumes must be used to achieve proper cooling,
and the Increase in water temperature through the power plant may be
sufficient to cause environmental damage.

-------
TABLE IV.2.7 ESTIMATED CDT L!NG WATER USE IN T1 E Cfl ST#L COUNTIES, 1963
I I I I I I
I TGTAL I I EXISTING
I COOLING I I bR PLANNED
I WATER USE I POWER I MA1 UFAC— I NUCLEAR
I (MILLION IGENEPATINGI TI.JPTN I POWER
I GALLONS I PLANT ITNOUSTRIALl PLANTS I
BIIIPHYSICAL REGION I PER DAY) I USE I (JSE I (#)
I ——I I I
I I I I
I 1,480 1 1 ,2(( I 2q0 I 3 I
I I I I 1
I 11 ,03C I 9,000 I 2.030 I 20 1
I I I I I
I 1,04C I 85( I 190 I 5
I 1 I I
I 350 I 29( I 60 I 8 I
4 I I l I
I 330 I 270 I 60 I
I I I
1,020 1 P30 I 19C I 1
I I I I I
I 3,850 I 3,150 I 700 I 5
I I I I I
900 4 730 I 70 I 2 I
I I I I I
I NO DATA I NO DATA I NO DATA I NO DATA I
I I I I I
100 I 8C I 20 I NO DATA I
I I I I I
1 20.100 I 16,400 I 3 .700 I 47 I
I $ I I I
I I I I ———I I
REFERENCE: U.S.OEPT. OF CCMMERCE,BUREAU OF THE CFNSUS ,CENSUS OF MANIJ—
FAdERS, 1963
NATIONAL ESTIJ4PINE INVENTORY
INURT -1 ATLANTIC
IMIODLE ATLANTIC
ICHES4PEAKE RAY
ISOUTH ATLANTIC
ICARIBBE AN
JGULF OF MEXICO
IPACIF1C SOUTHWEST
IPACIFIC NORTHWEST
I ALASKA
IPACIFIC ISLANDS
ITOTAL ESTIJARINE ZONE
I

-------
IV-133
In addition to water temperature, there are other environmental
requirements and problems associated with the use of estuarine
waters for cooling. The potential user must have access to the
water, and the water ideally should have a low suspended load to
reduce maintenance on the cooling system. A major problem is that
use of the brackish waters can be accompanied by large growth of
mollusks and other clogging organisms which can result In costly
maintenance and repairs.
WATER POWER GENERATION
Many schemes have been promulgated to harness the energy of the tides
for the generation of electric power. In the Passamaquoddy arm of
the Bay of Fundy and in some parts of Cook Inlet, Alaska, the tide
range is in excess of 25 feet. If the vast amount of energy involved
in the water movement could be harnessed, a tremendous power source
would become available. Unfortunately, tidal electric plants cannot
compete economically with the fossil-fueled or nuclear thermo-electric
plants. Even more important, power generation peaks would vary with
tide fluctuations, not consumer demands. It appears there is very
little potential for economic development of tidal power.
WASTE DISPOSAL
The concentration of population and industrial development in the
estuarine zone has led naturally to the use of estuarine waters for
removal of the waste materials of man’s civilization from his ininedi-

-------
IV- 134
ate vicinity. It is unlikely that cities were built on the coastline
with any conscious consideration of the use of the estuarine environ-
ment for waste disposal, yet it has happened that this use has become
one of the major uses of estuarine waters and the associated land.
Virtually all of the cities and industries in the coastal counties
dispose of wastes either directly or indirectly into the estuarine
zone.
Liquid waste discharges to estuarine systems include domestic waste
products, industrial waste materials of all degrees of chemical com-
plexity and sophistication, used cooling water with its thermal load,
and storm runoff. These wastes affect the estuarine environment in
different ways and can eliminate other beneficial uses (Figure IV.2.
20).
Liquid wastes are not the only concern. The use of the estuarine
shoreline for refuse dumps and land fills results in considerable
debris getting into the water (Figure IV.2.21). Water leaching
through these dumps has a pollutional impact on the estuarine water.
Spoil disposal from dredging activities is another form of solid
waste material that contributes to estuarine degradation (Figure IV.2
22). Solid materials entering the estuary in the form of debris from
storm runoff can be significant in terms of damaging beneficial uses.
The impact of waste disposal on the estuarine environment will be
discussed in Part IV, Chapter 5. In the context of estuarine uses

-------
IV— 135
it is important to recognize, hc ever, that waste disposal is a
highly significant and universal use of the estuarine resource and
that it is likely to remain so. Along with the many other socio-
economic uses of the estuarine environment, it must be managed so
that it does not damage the biophysical environment.
EXPLOITATION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
Minerals within the water, on the bottom, and under the bottom are
a valuable part of the estuarine resource and are being exploited
widely. Table IV.2.8 shows the extent of such exploitation in the
estuarine zone.
Sub-bottom mining operations are limited to the recovery of sulphur,
petroleLln, and natural gas, with the major operations occurring in
Louisiana, Texas, California, and Alaska (Figure IV.2.23). These
operations exist both in the estuaries and out on the continental
shelves with the governing criterion for location being the location
of reserves; the carrying out of such operations does not require an
extensive amount of local installation or development after drilling
is finished.
Avery Island, Louisiana, for example, has over 100 oil wells tn active
production as well as some new drilling. Yet, the company exploiting
the oil reserves has restored all abandoned well sites and taken special
efforts to make their facilities blend into the natural enviroflm&it

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IV- 136
TABLE IV.2.8 MAJOR EXPLOITATION OF COASTAL MINERAL RESOURCES
1967
Biophysical Region 3
Com odity 1
No. of
Operations
Quantity Produced 2
Value 2
$
Rmount Units
North Atlantic
Metals
Sand and Grave1
Clay
45
116
7
1,668,058 Tons
10,068,000 Tons
34 Tons
7,251,772
10,611,000
99
Middle Atlantic
Metals
Sand and Gravel
Clay
73
232
24
8,805,909 Tons
12,299,000 Tons
419,549 Tons
15,878,611
20,193,000
1,149,331
Chesapeake Bay
Metals
LIme
Sand and Gravel
Clay
26
3
140
16
4,415,357 Tons
6,034 Tons
3,451,000 Tons
103,500 Tons
11,351,502
114,580
3,511,000
207,000
South Atlantic
Sand and Gravel
6
137,000
Tag,ooo
Gulf of Mexico
Petro leia
Natural Gas
Natural Gas LiquIds
Metals
Lime
Sand and Gravel
Clay
Salt
Sulphur
Other Non-Metals
Non—Metals
311
830
138
14
2
29
5
1
4
42
14
775,970 Barrels
12,977,008 Cu.Ft.
3,321,951 MG
37,946 Tons
3,051,318 Tons
3,848,950 Tons
6,724,608 Tons
2,743,450 Tons
16,569 Tons
16,261,084 Tons
4,315,639 Tons
92,138,579
22,540,516
64,513,281
21 ,081
23,413,877
6,991,125
36,036,697
21,337,860
528,590
32,316,421
12,516,395
Pacific Southwest
,
Undistrlbuted
Other Mineral Fuels
Petrolei
Sand and Gravel
Other Non-Metals
23
334
465
216
182
1,009,793 Tons
3,127,128 MG
214,807 Barrels
64,696,906 Tons
11,474,022 Tons
55,997,873
40,160,352
582,000
73,307,506
48,205,436

34,447,779
13,721,802
Pacific Northwest
Other Mineral Fuels
Sand and Gravel
Other Non—Metals
1
155
127
107,736 M I
26,750,606 Tons’
7,856,956 Tons
1. Ccodlty classifications from U. S. Bureau of Mines, ‘Minerals Yearbook’
2. Quantities and values of so.e coodlties are withheld to avoid disclosure
of tndiv1 kra1 operations.
3. Data are not available for the Caribbean, Alaska, slid Pacific Islands regions.
DATA SOURCE: U. S. Bureau of Mines

-------
IV—137
(Figure IV.2.24). This example is an exception to general practice,
but nevertheless points out the resource exploitation is not
necessarily synonomous with envi ronmental destruction.
Recovery of minerals from submerged estuarine zone bottoms by surface
mining, i.e., dredging, is primarily directed toward sand, gravel, and
oyster shell production. Sand and gravel operations are prevalent
throughout coastal areas wherever suitable deposits and a market exist.
Most sand and gravel dredging operations supply nearby users; therefore,
they tend to be distributed in relationship to construction and to
population.
The concentration of population and industrial development in the
estuarine zone, the accessibility of estuarine areas for sand and
gravel dredging, and the efficiency of barge transport to coastal
construction areas all tend to increase the pressure on submerged
estuarine sand and gravel deposits, particularly as coastal shore
deposits are exhausted. While no data are available on the present
relative importance of shore and submerged deposits in the various
biophysical regions, It is certain that all available sources of
sand and gravel deposits will be exploited intensively.
Oyster shell production is an extremely useful construction material
In the Gulf of Mexico biophysical region. Twenty of the twenty-two
million tons of annual U.S. production are in the Gulf States with
Texas and Louisiana producing the vast majority of it. The major

-------
IV-138
oyster shell deposits are in shallow embayments such as Galveston Bay,
Texas, and Mobile Bay, Alabama.
Phosphate rock is an important estuarine mineral resource; about
75 percent of the total U.S. production is in the estuarine zone of
Florida and North Carolina, particularly around Tampa Bay and Pamlico
Sound. Considerable deposits of phosphate rock underlie much of the
South Atlantic biophysical region, and these may be subject to future
exploitation.
Ocean water is a great reservoir of dissolved minerals, some of which
are extracted coninercially. Installations in the estuarine zone in
California, New Jersey, Texas, and Florida extract magnesium compounds
from coastal ocean water and supply the bulk of U.S. production. Large
ponds are used in California for the evaporation of saline water to
produce comercial salt; many of these have been built in marshes or
shallow estuarine waters.
SHORELINE DEVELOPMENT
The use or development of estuarine water either depends upon, or
governs, land or shoreline use. Examination of some of the purposes
of shoreline development illustrates this relationship.
Recreational shoreline development is based on potential water use.
Recreational facilities included: Marinas which support boating activ—
ities; beaches which are necessary for the swimmers; parks that cater

-------
IV-139
to those seeking aesthetic enjoyment of the water; fishing piers and
vacation cottages, motels, and hotels (Figure IV.2.13). Although the
motels and hotels are a commercial venture, their prime purpose is to
support the recreationalist. Finally, recreation sites provide the
access needed to enjoy the water.
Residential developments breed water use because of the proximity of
the water. In many con nunities the development of waterfront property
subjects the shoreline to intensive housing development. This, in
turn, is accon anied by a build—up of boat docks, fishing and swim-
ming piers, and private beaches which are representative of the owner’s
affluence (Figure IV.2.14). Whether or not the water use is the
primary motivation for the owner is not significant.
Comercial development of the shoreline includes docks and shipyards,
loading terminals, the smaller municipal and local piers, industrial
plants, and airports. These are all built to furnish a service and
a profit return for the investors (Figure IV.2.16).
Transportation, both coninercial and personal, is conmion to all other
activities. In addition it requires highways, coninercial port facil-
ities, and airports (Figure IV.2.lB). The land—water relationship of
airports has been discussed previously. Highways are not directly
related to water use but are an integrated part of land-water schemes.
Highways along the shoreline usually involve the development of bridges
and fills which provide a ready access to the water for aesthetic

-------
IV- 140
appreciation and for fisherman. In addition, their protective facil.-
ities preserve the shoreline and make it available for use. This
aspect is important because if the shoreline is not protected adequately,
development uses must be foregone and the water becomes inaccessible.
Other structures built to protect the shoreline include bulkheads to
hold the shore in place; dikes to prevent flooding and extend reclaimed
land, jetties to provide a protective barrier between the sea and ship
channels; and groins along beach areas to control sand movement
(Figure IV.2.25).

-------
IV-141
SECTION 5. DELIBERATE MODIFICATION OF THE ESTUARINE ZONE
DelTherate modification programs are developed to intensify and
support major uses. In the past many of these programs resulted in
use damages far beyond the intended benefits, but the trends in
present practice include attempts to predict unsought consequences.
The overall impact of any modification scheme depends on the type
and extent of the project.
The most common forms of modification are channel dredging for main-
tenance of navigation; construction of barriers to reduce damage from
storm waves and tsunamis; the construction of dikes, jetties, and
groins for navigation, storm protection, erosion control, and land
reclamation purposes; wetland filling through dredging spoil disposal,
land fill operations, and solid waste disposal; regulation of fresh
water inflow for upstream water use or flood protection; and the con
struction of highway fills, causeways, bridges for land transporta-
tion. These modification activities may occur singly or In combina-
tion, but In general the result is the same. The estuarine zone form,
structure, shape, salinity, and water movement patterns are affected
to some degree.
The greatest percentage of deliberate modification of the estuarine
zone is for the protection and maintenance of navigation. Almost
every harbor area in the United States requires some form of dredging

-------
IV-142
maintenance to maintain access and berthing space. This may take
the form of a channel six feet deep or one forty deep, depending
upon the ship traffic. Table IV.2.9 shows the amount of dredging
required by the Corps of Engineers to maintain the harbors of
United States Ports.
Jetties are a less convuon item on the coastal scene. These structures
are generally placed where it is necessary to protect a channel and
are usually built only where narrow harbor entrances are subjected to
shoaling and wave action. On the west coast of the United States jet-
ties are often used to form harbor enclosures as in Los Angeles Harbor
and Halfucon Bay (Figure IV.2.25).
Groins are not too frequently used in the estuarine environment. Nor-
mally they are built along sandy coastal beaches to help control beach
erosion. The groins effectively interfere with the littoral transport
phenomena by trapping materials that would be carried away; they are
used extensively along the east coast and in southern California.
Utilizing barriers to protect the land from the fury of storms at sea
is a procedure that has been frequently proposed but little used.
There are two examples of hurricane barriers along the east coast, in
New Bedford, Mass., and Providence, R.I. Schemes have been developed
for other hurricane barriers in Narragansett Bay and Tampa Bay but
have not materialized. Feasibility investigations of a tsunami

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IV— 143
TABLE IV.2.9
Annual Harbor and Channel Dredging and Maintenance Costs
North Atlantic
Middle Atlantic
Chesapeake Bay
South Atlantic
Caribbean
Gulf of Mexico
Pacific Southwest
Pacific Northwest
Alaska
Pacific Islands
751 ,000
5,241 ,000
6,123,000
5,668,000
123,000
30,880,000
166,200
992,000
6,900
74,200
1,959,000
5,542,000
3,140,000
1,488,000
41 ,000
4,840,000
156,000
507,500
5,400
157,400
REFERENCE: THE NATIONAL ESTUARINE INVENTORY
DATA SOURCE: Li. S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS
barrier for Hilo Bay in Hawaii were conducted by the Corps of
Engn*eers but no construction has taken place.
Major modifications of estuarine areas by land fill or marsh and wet-
land reclamation have occurred throughout the Nation. The area
reclaimed is generally the highly productive tidal marsh which is so
important to estuarine ecology. As an example, 80 percent of the
17
18
18
18
18
18
1$
17
19
18

-------
IV— 144
300 square miles of wetlands that originally surrounded San Francisco
Bay have been filled. San Francisco Bay is not unique. Table IV.2.
10 lists areas of basic marsh and wetland habitat filled in the past
20 years. (Figure IV.2.26.) Expanding residential and coninercial
needs for more shoreline land and navigation spoil disposal require-
ments are the major causes of dredging and filling operations.
Two-thirds of the total marsh and wetland areas are important fish
and wildlife habitat. Since the late 1940’s, seven percent of the
important habitat has been lost; the largest single block of this
has been in the San Francisco Bay system, where much of the tidal
marsh and shallow waters no longer exist.
The patterns of filling estuarine marsh and shallow water areas
closely parallel population and industrial development within the
estuarine zone. In North Atlantic and Middle Atlantic regions
comercial development has been the major cause of the filling of
estuarine areas; in Florida (which has parts in three biophysical
regions) residential development has been the major reason for
filling; in both Louisiana and Texas dredging and filling associated
with oil and gas exploration has been the major cause for estuarine
physical modification.
Estuarine modifications due to control and regulation of tributary
freshwater streams may be unsought consequences rather than delib-
erate developmental schemes. Many of the Nation’s major river

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TABLE IV.2.1O ESTUAKINE HABITAT REMOVED BY DREDGING AND FILLING OPERATIONS
I—I ———I—.--.————————-—-I
I I AVAILABLE HABITAT IN 1955 I HABITAT lOST, I
(ACRES) I 1941—1q61 I
I I I I
IAREA OF TOTAL IAREA OF IMPOR—P I I
I BIOPHYSICAL I MARSH AND PlANT WILDLIFE I AREA DREDGED I PERCENT OF I
I REGION $ WETLAND I HABITAT I AND/OR FILLED I HABITAT LOST I
4 I I I —— ———I—
I I I I I I
INORTH ATLANTIC 4 168,000 I 167,0CC 4 4,000 I 7.0 4
I I I I I I
IMIDOLE ATLANTIC 4 424,000 I 424,000 I 89,000 I 8.6 I
I I I I I I
ICHESAPEAKE BAY I 441,000 I 428,0CC I 3,000 I 0.5 1
I I I P V
ISOUTH ATLANTIC I 1,551,000 I 797,0CC I 25,000 I 2.3 I
I I P I I I
ICARIBBEAN I
I(FLORIDA ONLY) 469,000 P 99,000 15.000 P 7.5
I I I I P 1
IGUIF OF MEXICU 1 6,000,OCO I 3,426 ,0C0 1 167,0CC 4.8 I
I I I I I I
IPACIFIC SOUTHWEST 1 165,000 I 162,000 I 256,000 I 67.0
I I P 4 I I
IPACIFIC NORTHWESTI 174,000 1 98,000 5,000 1 4.0
I I I I I P
JALASKA INSUFFICIENTI OATA I 1,100 I 0.2 I
I I I ’ I I I
IPACIFIC ISLANDS I 10 I P
I I I I I I
I TOTAL I 9,392,000 I 6,175 0OO I 565,100 I 7.C P
$ I I I P
I I 1...
REFERENCES:LJ.s.O.I.,FISH C WILDLIFE CIRCULAR 39,’WETLANDS OF THE UNITED STATES.’
1956
U. S.D.I. .FISH C WILDLIFE SERVICE DATA PRESENTED IN CONGRESSIONAL
HE4RINGS,’ESTLJAR INE AREAS’,HOUSE SERIAL # 90—3.

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I V-i 46
basins have been subjected to some type of major waste resource
development, as shown in Table IV.2.ll. These include flood con-
trol, public water supply, power generation, or navigation projects.
Generally, the more densely populated and the more arid States have
accomplished, out of necessity, greater control of the surface water
resources.
California is investing over $2 billion to conserve the surplus water
in the northern half of the State and transport it to the southern
half. This great effort requires interbasin diversions from coastal
basins and results in much different fresh water inflow patterns in
the estuarine areas. Texas is also developing its water resources
according to a carefully developed plan. Florida has built numerous
flood control works which have affected the drainage from Lake
Okeechobee into the Everglades and have altered the estuarine environ-
ment. The Savannah River in Georgia is fairly well-regulated by two
upstream reservoirs. The Roanoke River In Virginia and North Carolina
is regulated, as is the Susquehanna in Maryland and Pennsylvania.
There are numerous control structures on small coastal streams in
New Hampshire and Oregon.
The Columbia River in Washington and Oregon is one of the most fully
developed large rivers in the country. This flow regulation has had
an impact on estuarine ecology, especially the anadromous fish runs.

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TABLE IV 211 MAJOR FLOW REGULATION STRUCTLJ9ES ON ESTAARINE-TEMMINATINO STREAMS
IV—’ 147
STATE RIVER NAME
MAINE ST.CROIA
GRINS LAEE STREAM
S E R EL
W.PT(• PENORSCSS
E.RR. EENORSLOT
WEBSTES BROOK
RENNEAEC
IS E NN ER E C
OSSI EEL
MASSACHUSETTS NASRUA
C IT HA S
MEER I MAC
WI NNEPESAKEE
CONNECTICSI NATCHANS
E.RR. EARMINSTON
AJAR. EARMINISTON
S RI ET—WES’EIELD
LI IOLE
RASCAl LICE
SALOSAT OCR
NEW JEASET ESSPCLS
N.JERSEH,SECARA—E.RR. OECEWAHE
RE .PENNSALRANIA
SOOTH CAROLINA SANTEE
COOPER
SAAAN NAH
SPL,IH CAROLINA,
SE ORS IA
ELSRI OS
AL ABAMA
TE ASS
RESINS
C C 0 AS LLT
RIO GRANITE
ROEFALu ROADS
( 1 4055045
SACRAMENTO
SO’. JECINTO
SANTA AMA
TuJLTNOE
SON L,ARRLEL
LI l A ANuELES
C LIP A U SA 1JO
SEFTWATFR CRIES
ALT bE
ST SE AGE
PSRPOSE VOLuME
LOS ORIRING,EORER 161,100
POWER 161,000
S I .400
LOS DRIAINS,EOWEE 344,000
LOS ORIRINS,PTWEE 61,000
LOS ORIAINS,PORER 516,000
PORES 60,000
LOS DETPINS,POWER 544,900
EOMER,RELREATION 23,000
RUNIC I PAL ,POWEP I i L,ATA
MLLNICIPAL.EOWER 16,600
FLOSS CONTROL 153,100
POWER,RECREST ION 39,000
FLOSS CONTROL,
RECREATION 52,000
MONICIPAC 65,110
MUNICIPAL 20,000
RONICIEAL,POWPA 1,236,000
MLLNICIPAL,ESWEA TO,000
EL000 CONTROL,
RECREATION 42.000
MUNICIPAL 15,600
MANIC I PAL,RECRRA—
TION 332,076
SONIC I PAL ,POWEE.
A ICREATION 453,100
RONIC(PAL,EIWER 70,000
TIUNIC IA AL , E EC 450—
TION 1 1,100
MANIC IEAC 173,115
MITNICIPAL 32,520
EL000 CONTROL,IN—
OCT50 AS ,00WER • A EC —
SEAT ION,LOM FLOW
ASSMENTATION 0,110,500
NAAISATION,POAER 1,063,900
RAAISATION,POWEE 361,530
FLOOD CONTEOL,NAA—
bLAT ION,POWPR 0,130,000
NSA ISA TI (TN, POWER.
RECREATION 425,300
POWER 1,335,000
NASISATION 117,000
IRRISAT ION , MI TN IC I —
PAL ,AECAEATION,
INDCSTRI AL 185,900
IRRISATION 254,0 50
FLOOD CANTROL,IEEI
S ATISN,MSNIC (PAL.
POWER, REC PS El ION.
INDUSTRIAL 1,322.000
IREISAT ION
PLODS CONTROL 127,900
MUNICIPAL 568,000
EL00 0 CONTAOL.POW
ER,IRSISATION 4,331,000
IPRIC2TI LS,RFCAEA-
TION 313,000
IAEISATITLN 17,000
FLOPS CONTROL 2 17,000
FLOSS CONTROL 32,000
4 L000 CONTROL 33,400
FLOOD CONTROL 07,300
MUNICIPAL 44,040
IRAISATION,MPNTCI
PAL 27,690
01,000
IS A, 000
140, 310
26,400
050,000
2 5. 0 00
03,060
10 6 • OAT
163,300
PACIFIC ISLANLIS HAWAII
ERESH 1 ATELHOLAINSWATER SUPPLY
SI ICFIES • RETENTION
NO INFORMATION AAIILAELE ON ADLUME
RIOT IC REGION
NORIM ATLANT IC
MIOOLE ATLANTIC
CEIESAPEAWE PAY MARYLANS SOSSAE, LANNA
PT 1 1SF NT
5.1SF. EATAESCO
LuIN PITROF H
Souls ATLANTIC NORTH CAROLINA ROANOEE
SIlL E
API L AC HI C (IL 0
0 A L L A P 0 1 )55
T 3Mp 100FF
N uECES
COOl SANA
PACIFIC S000UMAST CALIPOHNTI
PACIFIC NORTHWEST OREGON
AEA SEA
CTALOM5II—CAMLLGC5S NAPISATION,POWEP
WILLARATTELTOCKS NASISATION
WASHINGTON MATTE EL000 CONTROL
RISER PORER
WASR.,LRNAT)S WUATC!PM MUNICIPAL
ALESILA SOiW MILL CREEE OE5ILTING,INOSSTR—
(AL
E(IRPL - CASE POWER
ANNEA SPIES POWER
COOPER CAEEE POWER
EEL II IN0 POWRE,EECEEATIDN
REEEMENICE TIE NATIONAL SOTUAMINE INPENTORY
DATASOIJRCET 05 GEOLOGICAL SURAEY Oft RANTS CORPS SE ENGINEEMA

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I V - 148
There has been considerable modification in the estuarine systems
from freshwater flow regulation. Modification of the estuary was not
the primary objective of the regulatory projects but occurred a.s an
unsought consequence. Future water resource development schemes will
have to consider the estuarine impact to insure that detrimental
effects are kept at a minimum.

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IV-L49
SECTION 6. SUMMARY
The single great unique feature of the estuarine zone, which makes
It of primary importance to man and his civilization, is its role
in the life cycle of many animals which aid in converting solar
energy into more usable foniis. While no life form can be singled
out as irreplaceable, the kinds of life which need the estuarine
zone to survive represent essential links in the energy conversion
chain upon which man depends for survival.
Many of the uses catalogued in this cbapter occur only because the
historical growth of the country makes the estuarine zone the place
where people and industry are. Only conii ercial navigation, naval
use, and comercial fishing are uses which are primarily associated
with the estuarine zone, rather than other parts of man’s environment.
Uses such as water supply, waste disposal, and recreation are associ-
ated with civiligation wherever it exists; in the estuarine zone they
may have different values, different emphasis, or different impact on
the biophysical environment.
This chapter points out the intrinsic importance of the estuarine zone
as a feature of the human environment. The mere cataloguing of uses
gives no measure of the total value of the estuarine environment to
man and his civilization, because each identifiable use is merely a
single example of how man has found a way to exploit an estuarine

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IV-150
resource for his benefit.
Very rarely does an individual or an organization use an estuarine
area for only one purpose. Tourists may come for recreation, but
they also dispose of their wastes in the estuarine zone. An industry
may use an estuary for shipping and for waste disposal, but many of
its employees will be sport fishermen or boating enthusiasts who use
the estuary for recreation. The fishermen and oystermen who harvest
the living resources still need navigation channels and docks for
their boats.
The value and the Importance of the estuarine zone lie in the great
number of ways in which it can serve human society. Multiple use of
the estuarine resource is an intrinsic feature of the socioeconomic
environment of the estuarine zone, and those estuarine systems which
can be used intensively for many purposes are the most valuable com-
ponents of the national estuarine system.

-------
IV—151
RE FE RENC ES
IV-2-l Battelle Memorial Institute, The Economic and Social
Importance of Estuaries (a report prepared under con-
tract No. 14-12-115 with FWPCA, as part of the National
Estuarine Pollution Study). Columbus, Ohio, Battelle
Memorial Institute, 1968.

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IV- 153
Chapter 3
THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC VALUES OF ESTUARINE USE
Chapter 2 described the most
important uses of the estuarine
zone. There are a variety of uses
associated with demographic and
industrial development in the coastal
counties; each biophysical region
has very similar kinds of uses to
the others, but there are differences
in intensity of certain kinds of use
in different blophysical regions,
and also in individual areas within
regions.
Such differences tend to be related to the availability for exploita-
tion of a particular kind of resource; such as sunshine and beaches
in Florida, oil in Texas and Louisiana, deep safe harbors at New
York and San Francisco, salmon runs in Washington and Alaska. Each
of these stimulates emphasis in estuarine exploitation for a par-
ticular kind of use, sometimes to the extent of excluding all other
uses either by expropriating all available space or damaging the
environment for other uses.

-------
IV-154
Estuarine use Is a complex assortment of interlocking and overlapping
types of estuarine resource exploitation.
All of such uses have value, both Individually and as part of the
development and use of the entire estuarine resource for the benefit
of the present and future national coninunity. The mission of this
chapter is to show that the Importance and total value of any estu-
anne systan lie not in the measure of economic value for any par-
ticular use, but In multiplicity of use related to the needs of
people who live there or otherwise depend on the estuarine resource.
The approach used Is two fold. First, the overall economic develop-
ment of the estuarine zone and the economic values of several individ-
ual uses show the relationship of one use to other uses. Then the
balance of uses In several estuarine systems shows the relationship
of coninunity needs to estuarine uses.
The comon denominator In this discussion is people; their economic
needs combined with their social desires and values are what deter-
mines the socioeconomic demands on the biophysical estuarine environ-
ment.

-------
IV-155
SECTION 1. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE ESTLJARINE ZONE
Estuarine areas have been a key factor in the development of our
Nation. Long before the settlement of Plymouth, British, French,
and Spanish fishermen were exploring the North Atlantic fishery
resources including those in the Gulf of Maine and along Georges Bank.
The need for shore bases to support the cod fishery of the New
England coast was a significant factor in stimulating exploration
and settlement.
After colonization of New England, the fisheries were the sustaining
industry that provided the economic foundation for growth and develop-
ment. The role of the estuarine zone in supporting the fishery opera-
tions was extensive: By necessity most of the inhabitants settled
near the natural harbors; fish was the main food staple and the main
export; the harbors were the focal point for incoming ships and
served as the only coniuercial centers. The resources of the sea and
waterborne collinerce were the economic mainstay of the developing
Nation; much of the development of California was dependent on ships
sailing around the tip of Cape Horn, South America, and this develop-
ment of trade centered on the west coast opened up new vistas for
coninercial activity.
The estuaries were also the entry portal for the ininigrants that
came to this Nation looking for the land of opportunity. It is little

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IV-156
wonder that most of the major cities of the United States are posi-
tioned on a natural estuarine harbor.
As the population grew, the relative importance of the fishery pro-
gressively declined as economic growth In other industries out-
stripped the de iand for seafood as a staple diet iten, The growth
of industrial and population centers in the estuarine zone closely
paralleled the growth of the rest of the Nation, with the estuarine
zone beccmlng relatively more Important in International comerce
and less important in agricultural food production than the interior
of the country.
URBAN AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Table IV.3.l shows present population and agricultural development
in the estuarine zone* This table Illustrates very clearly the
existence of several distinct environments in the estuarine zone.
Population and agricultural data exist in political subdivision
geoupings, while the Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSA)
cross State and county boundaries to present unified economic groupings.
It happens that the classification by biophysical regions cuts across
the boundaries of some political subdivisions, but is compatible with
the SMSA economic units.
The differences in boundaries of these environments is one of the key
problens with which estuarine zone manag iient must deal; In the
*In this, as in many other tables requiring nationwide socioeconomic
statistIcs, 1960 is the last year for which consistent data are
available to support regional comparisons.

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IV-157
TABLE IV.3.1 POPULATION AND AGRICULTURE IN THE
ESTUARINE ZONE, 1960
I I I I I I I — I I
I I I I I COASTAL COUNTY TIDAL I I
I I I I I COASTAL SHORELINE DENSITY I
I STATE I I I COUNTIES I OCASTAL I I I I TOTAL
I 9IOPHYSICAL IPDPULATIONI I COASTAL •IPOPULNTI
I REGIONS I DENSITY I C OASTAL I LORAN I OCNSITVILNI COUNTY IPOEULATIDNI I I COASTAL
I L S() TN I DENSITY I IPOPULATIONI COUNTIES
I AND I (PEa S 155 I CLLJNT I CS AREAS II PEO5QN5 I FRAME II EASONS I F SPMLAND I IN SMSAI S IPOPULATION
I STATES IPEP SI RIIIP3 OLATLOSIPCPULAT1ONIPSA 53 MIII IPEECENT1IPER 50 8 1)4450 t41F8111 IPEPCENTII IPERCENTI
I— •—— — I I I I I I I
INJEIH ATI.ANTIC I I S.2S4,76F1 3.941.C rI 792 I 17.6 I 740 I .45 I DO S I 5.6
I IR AINE 1 3D I I I 61 I 21.6 I I I I
I SEw HAMPSHIRE I A l I I I 149 I 22.1 I I I I
IS MMASSACHUSFTIS I EN? I I I 397 I 1C. I I I
I I I I I 2,3CC ’ I .68 I 93 I 3 8.1
I 81031 E ATEANT IC I 22.487, 12’12 • 4Y 2. C CC I 1. l o S I 23.1 I I I
I SAMA SSACH US ETTS I 687 I I I 710 I 16.2 I I I
I A4IIQE 1513501 I 3 16 I I I 31 4 1 17, I I I I
I CTNNECT1CJT I 621 I I S ON I 11, 1 ’ I I I I
I NE W Y)8R I 331 I I I 5.2 79 I 4 ,E I I I
I SE s JERSEY I R;A I I I 362 4 11.1 1 I I I
I PE NN SYLAANIN I 261 I I I 2.01 1 76.4 I I I I
I CELAWARE I 224 I I I 225 I 54.8 I I I I
I BSMAAYLAND I 314 I I I 5 7 1 44.2 I I I
ISRWIROINIA I 5 )1 I I I 33? I I I I I
I**N URTPI 04421.1 58 I 13 I I 4 r I 78.4 1 I I I
I I I I I I I I I
ICI4RSAPEAKE NAY I I 5.177.3241 .95o.30CI 310 I 38.1 ’ I 840 I .96 I 97 I 8.8
ISRPA RTLANO I 314 I I I 3 37 I c1.5 I I I
IRS PIRA INIA I 105 I . I I 253 I 32.6 I I I
I C.CE COLUM8IA I 17.442 I I I 12.442 I 0.0 I I I
I I I I I I I I I I
ISUSITH ATLANTIC I I 2.2C2.E6 I i.s5 9. 00I 8 9 I 35, 0 4 225 I .80 I 75 I 3.8
10808741 CA AOLINA I 33 I I I I 27.5 I I I
I SUUTHC6RI1L1N6 I T N I I I 43 I 22.6 I I I I
I GEORGIA I A R I I I 92 I i5. I I I I
10 1 101 110* I 97 I I I 123 I 42.6 I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I
ICAPI RBEEN I I 3,632.6611 935, 0001 I 1,010 I I 25 I 6.3
10 110 8 10* I 32 I I I 2 11 I 11.7 I I I
I P’IP.RTURICS3 I 481 1 I 1 631 I I I I
I VIRGIN ISLANDS I 133 I I I 133 I 52.2 I I I I
I I I I I I I I I
jOULE OP MEXICO I I i.63 3 ,14tI 3.5 (9.0121 121 I 49.1 I NR C I 0.53 I 55 4 10.0
I* *ELORINA I N2 I I j 9 8 I 34.8 I I I
I ALANAMA I 64 I I I 1291 I I I I
I P 1SSISSIP 1 I 44 I I 1 25 I I 4 I I
I 10 0 15193 I 12 I I I 119 I I I I
I TELAS I 3 4 I I I 1461 I I I I
I I I I I I I I
IPACIFIC SOUTHSESTI I 54,198.C821 IC.991.CCCI 391 I 43.1 I 3, QRC I 6.90 I 90 I 20.1
I**CALIPC1RNI A I 100 I I 3°1 I 43.1 I I I I
I I I I I I I I I
IPACTEIC NLLETHWESTI I 3.12t..LOEl 2,414, 0 10 1 30 I 15.1 I 65C I 0.35 I 77 I 5.3
IS*C6CIPOANIA I 121 I I I 21 I 20.C I I I I
I O W E GO’ i I 1 3 I I I 581 18.5 I I I I
I RASHINSTON I 3 I I I 91 I 15.9 I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I
IALASI IA I ‘.4 I 163.1211 sS.5i11 3.51 (1.1 I 5 I 0.07 I ST I 0.3
I I I I I I I I I
IPACIPIC ISLANDS I I 432.1721 5 (0,0001 I 64.7 I 430 I 3.37 I 7 9 I 1.1
I PAwA II 1 39 I I I 09 I 44 .7 I I I
I GUAM I 316 I I I 316 I 24.0 I I I I
I AMERICAN SA MOA I 234 I I I 764 I I I I I
I I I I i I i I I I
I — — — I I I — — — I I I I I I
• BASED 33 SIANDARD MET9OPUL1TAN STATISTICAL AREAS IS”SAI,EXCEPT Fop AL5SEA, WHICH APP THOSE CflMMIINITIPS WITH A
POPULATION DENSITY 14 (LAYS 12Cc PERSONS PEE SQUARE MILE.
“STATES WITH flEA IN 116t THAN 1181 PIOPHYSICAL REGION.
REFERENCE: ThE NATIONAL ESTUARINE INVENTORY
SOURCE: US. DEPT. OF COMMERCE. BUREAU OF ThE CENSUS.
U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY

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IV—158
present discussion the primary concern is with the biophysical
environment of the estuarine zone, and the regions describing this
environment are the basic unit for analysts. Where necessary
political subdivisions have been broken at county boundaries as
required to present a consistent analysis.
The coastal counties contain only 15 percent of the land area of
the United States, but within this area is concentrated 33 percent
of the Natlonss population, with about four-fifths of it living In
primarily urban areas which form about ten percent of the total
estuarine zone area. Another 13 percent of the estuarine land area
Is farmland, but this accounts for only four percent of the total
agricultural land of the Nation. The estuarine zone, then, is nearly
twice as densely populated as the rest of the country, and supports
only one-fourth as much agriculture per unit area.
The magnitude of population and agricultural development in the
estuarine zone is shown in Table IV.3.1 by densities in terms of
tidal shoreline. The few estuarine areas in the Pacific Southwest
show the greatest shoreline development for both living and farming
as shown by the population density of 3,980 persons per mile of tidal
shoreline and a farmland density of 4.9 acres per mile. The Middle
Atlantic region, in contrast, has a very high population density and
a low farmland density, showing how in this region the estuarine
zone developed as a center of population while agriculture developed
elsewhere.

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IV-159
The difference in estuarine land use development between these two
regions probably results from the difference in rainfall. The low
rainfall in the Pacific Southwest required the intensive use for
farming of all land amenable to irrigation, of which a major part
was that near the mouths of the major rivers. The plentiful rain-
fall in the Middle Atlantic region, however, permitted the use of
much land away from the estuarine zone for farming, so the intensive
estuarine land use pattern of the Pacific Southwest did not develop.
In those regions lying between Cape Hatteras and Canada, as well as
in the Pacific Southwest, over 90 percent of the population lives in
urban areas; over much of the Atlantic estuarine zone stretches the
great Northeastern megalopolis with population densities averaging
over 1,000 persons per square mile. The remainder of the estuarine
zone of the United States exhibits a pattern of major centers of
population clustered around natural harbors and separated by
stretches of coastline which are either empty and inaccessible or
beginning to be sprinkled with private residences and resort com-
munities in the vicinities of population centers.
Agriculture in the estuarine zone itself tends to follow the crop
patterns typical of neighboring inland areas, although there are
some important crops which require special conditions of humidity or
soil dampness most easily found in the estuarine zone, if not
directly associated with estuarine waters themselves. Cranberries

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IV- 160
in New Jersey and Massachusetts, rice in Texas and Louisiana, and
sugarcane in Hawaii, Louisiana, Florida, and Puerto Rico are
examples.
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
Table IV.3.2 gives a general picture of the extent of Industrial
development in the estuarine zone. The coastal counties have
within their borders 40 percent of all manufacturing plants in the
United States, thus closely paralleling population concentration
Into the estuarine zone. The mixture of manufacturing types in the
estuarine zone is the same as the national composition with only
minor exceptions, such as the concentration of the apparel manufac-
turing industry In the Middle Atlantic region, particularly In the
New York area. Distribution of manufacturing types among the blo-
physical regions shows regional differences related to historical
development as well as raw material and market availability.
Over half of all plants in the coastal counties and one—fifth of all
manufacturing plants in the United States are located in the Middle
Atlantic biophysical region, which was the historical center of the
Nation’s industrial growth and is still one of the major market
areas. The Pacific Southwest is the major industrial center of the
Pacific coast, and its tidal shoreline now has the same intensity
of development as that of the Middle Atlantic region. Some
Industrial development in other regions tends to follow historical

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IV-461
TABLE I8 t EXTENT OF IIOTLLISIRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN TELE ESTUARINE ZONE
I NUMRER OF PLANTS M#ODY SSIOUST3IYS 118 SF0105 (PLANTS W1 H 520 EMPLOYEES jOEWSIFY
I I WITH >20 EMPL3YEES I i aoc (NB-
I I I I——I———-—I I I I t OF I OEAEL.
I I MAJOR WATER USE IN3IJSTRIES I I I TOTAL I It OF
I I I I I I I I I OP IINOOISIAEI PLANES
I $ jPAPEP ILLIEMI—IPETAD—I PSI— I INDUSTRY GATLIP I I TOTAL IOROJP 101 / NILE
RIO— MOTEL I I £ ICAL a LEAN El MARY I 4 FLANTS$ E53AA— IDE TIDAL
IPHNSILALIA SF I1OTAL IALLIEOIALLITOIALLIEOIMETAL SI I • JE I IN I NINE I A l i kE
10 (0104 5 IPLANISI IPEOOS.IPR005.IPFOOS.I ILlS. I PLANTS I 6(01341 ZONE I LINE
I I I l 1 I I I I 1
isotni 1 Ao12 1 2433$ 1321 861 131 AE$RPFAAEL,CLT1TER TEETILL P009ICTs 1 3 4 l 02.51 4.Nt 0.1
IATLANPICI I I I ILEATE4CA L LERIREA ND1UCTS I 3424 11.11 34.3$
I I I I I I I IFAAMICATEO METAL PETOUCTS I 2251 2.61 6.21
I 1 1 I I I IMAC8TSEEY L ELECTRICAL EQUIPMEMT I 4431 16.51 13.31
1 I I I I IEOLDO L AI 553ED PYOTLUCTS I 325? 1 1. 11 7.64
I I I I I I I I 1 1
I MIDDLE I 450004 210471 ToIl 8401 761 5321 AT PAT EL, DTHED TEXTILE PROTECT S 454 T I 30.01 TA.6( .1
IATLAA I IC I I I I I I P 5 1 53 1 55 PJ SLISELI NG 1 17011 2.81 56.54
I I I I I I I IF0 8 0ICOTT I METAL PU300CTS I 1677? 7.73 49.64
I I I I I I IPAC IISTR5 C LLETTEICAL TOOIRMTNT I 2353 I 10.81 48.14
I I I I I I I7ETSILE MILL PRODUCTS I 12311 5.91 7 8 4 1
I I I 1 I I I FOES £ KINDRED PR3DJCTS I 14131 6.5 1 3 3-ol
1 1 I I I I I I I I I
IL HESA— I SM5I 2044 1 661 1271 C II 4SIT000 L OSMOSET P D3C S I 5111 24.71 10.11 0.4
IPTAKE I I I I I I IPAISTI5C 1 PU4LISUISC I 2414 i1.oI 8.01
IRAY I I I I I I IE004 ICAIED METAL PADOACTS I 1531 7.01 4 .7?
I I I I I I APPAREl L OTRAEE TEXTELE PRODUCES I S SI 4.1 0.11
I I I I I I ILL -LAMER C 41101 PEITL ICIS I 1424 6.91 S.Tf
I I I I I I ISTONE.CLAY,C GLASS RA000TTS I 1331 6.41 N.NI
I I I I I I I I I I I
ISOUTI8 I 26051 AA3? 411? $91 121 ICIE025 C KT5OAED P400UCTS I 1 4 61 20.71 0.81 3,07
IETLA’MTICI I I I I I LOOSES C WOO l) P0053 535 I 97) 14.01 6.01
I I I I I I IOTDST,CLASS,E CLAY P800LJCTS I o il 3.TI 4-91
I I I I I I I I CREMILALS ANTI ALLIED PRTOIJICTA I 5X 6.51 0.4?
I I I I I I I IPEINTISI C PLIMLISRIINC 1 51$ 7.41 1.71
I I I I I I I I I I
ICAAI3— I 25541 554) SA l 1 41 51 9ITPEAREL L UT-ITS SRTSILE PRODUCTS I 1214 18.51 - I 3.0
IREAN I I I I I I IT&REICSTEO RTTSL PECIDE2CXS I 751 11.94 2.24
I I I I I I I 0 7 0NITARE C FIXT URES I sol 8.sI 4.81
I I I I I I PAINTING C PJBII5HING I 541 6.31 1.81
I I I I I I I IT30D C KIS7EE PRODUCTS I 911 12.44 1.9 1
I I I I I I I I I 1 I
MULE L IT I 49801 20131 1 I 1921 42 1 ASITODD L KINDRED p 2DjD5 I 499) 24.51 11.7? 3.1
IPFRICE I I I I I I IEA5 SI009T2 DTTAL TSDDETIS I 214? 10.71 6.44
I I I I I I I CILERICOLE INS lILIE S RAJ3LCTS I T 9?I 9.5$ 11.24
I I I I I I IRSCIISETY,ESCEPT ELOLORTLAL I lo ll 6.01 -5I
I I I I I I I I STO\E,CL4T.L GLOSS PAOT7CTS I 144? 6.31 17.51
I I 2 I I I ILLRRSTAA no s TR3IWCTS I 1231 5.11 7.4 1
I I I I —I I I I I I I I
IEACI1IC I 27009) 74331 24’I 33? ) 4I 7SEIFI3D C KI9OREI 5 509 3 :05 I 9451 11.11 23.11 1 ,5
ISC UT R— I I I I I I I#YTASLL C IIEHFU TrPTILE REDDUCTS I P451 11.11 13.31
IWES I I I I I I IPEI5TI5; L TUSLIS4I53 I S cSI 7.14 13.1?
I I I I I I I ITLECTRILAL EDUITMENO I 4041 8.71 28 .51
I I 1 1 I I I I T A9SICST D METAL TT ICULTT I A SPI 11.41 25.SI
I I I I I I I I TAANSTDETSTIDS E3tII0 ’EST I 4231 4.6? 13.11
I I I I I I I I I I I
MACtOIL I 19241 5414) 151 55) A ll 411E3D3 C 4IN7DED P 335 31 35 9 2931 14.2? 43.bI 3.4-
INCPTX— I I I I I I ILURAER C 8001 PTOTDC IS I 6021 34.71 43.81
303
AT 7
1247 94
l oT 51
IALASXA
1PALTF IC
I 151 ANUS
RUT AL
EAT U
AC NL
7 1SF
ICT AL
U4ITFD
STATES
134
33835
59355 )
0.1
JAT A
24
1449
3552!
SlIT IAEA [ LR1
81 57
I DATA
17171 251
33851
IEA I7ILATE9 RTTAL R ID IUCTS I 1141 4.4 1 1.41
1M8C-EISFOE. EXCEPT ELECTA [ CAL I 971 5.41 3.91
IEXI’8TISG C PJRLISSI9D I 95? 5. 2 1 3.11
IA PAPER C ALLIED PADOLILTS 1 141 4.2) 5.21
I I I I
SLE LEE S CIASTAL SEES OSLY I I I I
I I I
SD T [ 5 .JD C ,1I920E3 E53’DUCTS I 751 37.81 1.81
DATA ITEATILE MILL ‘REDUCES I 971 19.1? 2.31
IA PAPER C ALLIE3 PEDTULTS I 26? i3. I 1.61
ILUMAEA C 8303 PoDDUCTS I 13? 9.81 1.21
I I I I I
I I I I I
I 1 I I
IEA4IAPPA REL C 07-LEA TEXTILE P’E)UCTS I 8235? o.iI I
ITOO I C KI43RE D PA 9OUCTS I 4 1331 10.41 I
IE&E8SCSEEI MLTCC PSDTECIS I 3’ICI 8.51
IFAINTIND C U3LI5 1 5E I 31111 7.41
IMACIINERT.CPCERT ELECTRICAL I 2474) 4.24 I
IELECT’ICSL EDIIIPPEN I I 71151 5.81
I ’ C-ITAICALS C ALLIED PA1SULTE I 17131 4.31 I
1IuMR E C ALLIED PE3)UL3S I 16 1 9I 4.0? I
(TEXTILE MILL P5OIL I ICRS I 14131 4.0 1 I
[ 4 DATES C ALLIES PSD OLTLIS I 14491 3.sI
JSDDNT 1 CLSP,C GLASS PAISTLIACTS I 03451 3.4?
IEURSIT2AE C EITEUAES I 1175? 2.- lI
I I I I
1555 11003 C AINURE) PS3DJCTS I 141131 04 -Il
IAPPA1EL C OIlER TEXTILE PTTI3CTS I 131111 13.34 I
IE060ICRTEO METAl PRI3OLITIS I 202? 6.21
IFAC LI#EAP.EECE5T ELECTRICAL I 84201 0.41 I
IPAINTIND C LI3LlSlI53 I 7215? 7.I I
ILU3REA C WIOD R039IICTS I 51451 5.aI I
OEEECTAIC0L E3 UIP8ENT I 4722 1 4.71 I
I500SE,CLAP.C GLASS P800LJCIS I 4655? 4.71
ITERTILE MILL PADEILILTS I 4341? 4.NI I
4 * CTLCAICALS C ALLIED PP0002CTS I 33851 4.01
I ’ PRIMARY METAL I IIDUSTRIES I 3565? 3.6? I
I ’ PAPER C ALLIED PRODUCTS I 35521 3.61 I
I I I
I 1 1 I 1
REFERENCED 1.5. CR9435 OF MANJEACTUREAS.1944
NATIONAL ESR5APIAT INVENTORY
I I
I I
I I
MAJCR RATES USE INDUSTRIES

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IV-162
or present raw material availability. Leather product plants are
clustered in the North Atlantic region, and lumber manufacturing
plants are most plentiful in the Pacific Northwest. Food proces-
sing plants, however, follow closely the distribution of population.
While much of the industrial development located in coastal counties
affects the estuarine zone indirectly through use of adjacent land,
some of the water-using industries have an impact on the estuarine
zone far beyond their numbers. The paper, chemical, petroleum, and
primary metals industries are the major water users among manufactur-
ing establishments; these are listed separately in Table JV.3. to
show how universally these Industries are distributed throughout
the estuarine zone. The brackish estuarine waters may become an
increasingly important source of water supply for industries, and
for municipalities as desalting technology improves.
LAND OWNERSHIP
Out of the millions of acres of land contiguous to the estuarine
zone, only a relatively small amount Is relegated to urban develop-
ment and farmland. A considerable portion is in the form of unused
or undeveloped land, the ownership of which has an important bear-
Ing on future use of the estuarine environment. Privately owned
land Is subject to possible industrial or real estate development
which could add significantly to water quality problems. Publicly
owned land, on the other hand, represents the potential for

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IV- 163
development of a broad—based public use with proper controls. It
also indicates the potential for public access to the water. Table
IV.3.3 suninarizes land ownership in the coastal counties within
each biophysical estuarine region. Except for Alaska, the great
preponderance of estuarine zone land is in private ownership. The
North Atlantic, Middle Atlantic, and Chesapeake Bay regions in
particular have little land in these counties still remaining under
public ownership. Detailed information on actual or potential use
of these privately owned lands is not available; it is certain, how-
ever, that some coninercial or residential use exists or is Intended
in most cases.

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TABLE IV.3.3 LAND USE DISTRIBUTION IN THE ESTUARINE ZONE
IMETROPOL I
ILTAN AREASI
I —I
I I
I 1 .744 1
I I
1C.374 1
I I
IPARKS,REC.l NATIONAL IREMAINDEP
IAFEAS ,REF—I DEFENSE IOF AREA INI
IUGES,FOR— I INSTAL— I COASTAL
FARMS IESTS,ETC. I IATIONS * 1 COUNTIES I
I I.
I I I I
1.9651 347I IA 7,1211
I I I I
5.4C3 1 1,1721 51 I 2,28RI
I I
5,2721 621 52 I 2,5241
I I I I
7.8401 2,919 1 2A I 6.511 1
I I I I
7781 2 , 70l 3 1 3,9311
I I I
I I I
23,6201 ,275I ?1 6,327 1
I I I I
1S,21J 1 7,3241 59 I ** I
I I I I
6 ,440 1 18.7341 18 I 3,477%
I I I I
3,060 1 2C.626 1 5 I 323,7871
I I I
3.677 1 38170 1 14 I 3,2401
I I I I
$ I I
1 I———— — I
I I AREA (SQ. MI.) INCORPORATED !P4:
I I — 1
1 $
BIOPHYSICAL
I REGION
INORTH ATLANTIC
IMIDDLE ATLANTIC
ICHESAPEAIE BAY I
I I
ISOUTH ATLANTIC I
I $
ICARIBBEAN
I (FLORIDA (JNLY) I
I I
IG&JIF OF MEXICC I
I I
IPACIFIC SOUTHWESTI
$ I
IPACIFIC NORTHWESTI
I I
IALASKA I
I (TOTAL STATE)
I I
IPACIFIC ISLANDS I
I
5,401 I
7,569 I
2, 042 I
11,9291
16. 1921
14.1171
100:
598 I
I 1
* NUMBER OF INSTALLATIONS ONLY. AREAS CLASSIFIED.
** MUCH FARMLAND IS WITHIN SMSA BOUNDARIES, DISTORTING TOTALS.
REFERENCE: NATIONAL ESTUARINE INVENTORY
SOURCES: U.S. DEPARTMENTS OF HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT, AGRICULTURE, COP 4ERCE,
DEFENSE, ANO INTERIOR

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IV-165
SECTION 2. THE VALUES OF INDIVIDUAL USES
FISH AND WILDLIFE HABITAT
The value of the estuarine zone as fish and wildlife habitat both
depends on and augments its value for other uses, particularly
recreation and commercial fishing.
There is, in addition to these, the basic incalculable value of
the estuarine habitat as a link in the essential energy-conversion
chain which permits man to survive at all.
The trapping of fur bearers in the marshes of the Gulf and
Atlantic represents one of the few economic values directly attrib-
utable to estuarine habitat. Louisiana is the major producer; in
the 1965-1966 season total sales were 4.6 million dollars out of
the nationss 6 million-dollar total. These included the pelts
and some meat from nutria, muskrat, raccoons,mink, and otter,
with much of the harvest coming from marshes managed specifically
for that purpose.
The management of marshes for fur bearers requires periodic
burning over, means of controlling predators, and the control of
saline water intrusion. This makes the marshes so managed unsuita-
ble for some other forms of estuarine-depefldeflt life such as

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IV- 166
shrimp; so against the economic value of marsh management for
coimiercial trapping must be set the unknown cost of the loss of
habitat for other forms of life.
The harvesting of pelts in the estuarine zone is of small economic
value even when the four-million-dollar per year fur seal harvest
of the Pribiloff Islands is included. As a measure of the full
value of estuarine habitat this annual value is an excellent
Indicator of how the measurable economic worth of an estuarine
use may reflect very little of its actual Importance.
COMMERCIAL FISHING
The economic value of the estuarine zone to even such an obviously
estuarine-dependent industry as coninercial fishing can be estab-
lished only with numerous assumptions and approximations. Not
only is the existence of much of the harvestable crop dependent
on the estuarine habitat, but the estuarine zone also provides
the safe harbors without which the ocean fisheries could not exist.
In addition, the sea food processing plants which supply the
entire Nation are nearly all located in the estuarine zone and
derive economic benefit from the existence of the conunercial
fishing Industry.

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IV-167
In 1967 United States fishermen received $438 million dollars for
approximately 4.06 billion pounds of comercial fish and shellfish.
It has been estimated that two-thirds of the total value, or
approximately $300 million dollars, can be considered for estuarine-
dependent species. This is a conservative estimate of the direct
value derived from the estuarine fishery for it does not include
the value of fish harvested by foreign vessels off the United
States coast. Five of the six leading species by weight, repre-
senting over one-half of the United States comercial fish tonnage
in 1967, are estuarine-dependent (Table IV.3.4).
Table IV.3.5 shows the weight and values of the major estuarine-
dependent coninercial fish landings by biophysical region. The
Gulf of Mexico region fishery has by far the greatest volume and
value, primarily due to landings of shrimp and menhaden, which
use the estuarine zone as a nursery area. The anadromous salmon
fisheries of Alaska and the Pacific Northwest rank second, and
the fisheries of estuarine-resident oysters in the Chesapeake are
third in the Nation among the estuarine-dependent species.

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IV- 168
TABLE IV.3.4
Ranking of the Ten Most Important Coninercial
Fisheries in the United States
Sources: Charles H.
Stat. Dig,
Charles H.
C.F.S. No.
Lyles, “Fisheries of
59 (April, 1966), p.
Lyles ,“risherles of
4700 (April, 1968),
the United States... 1965,”
4
the United States..., 1967,”
p.4.
1965
Weight By Value
Pounds Thousand Dollars
Weight Rank Kind Value
1,726,104 1 Shrimp 82,409
334,599 2 Salmon 65,123
326,806 3 Tuna 41,734
318,895 4 Crabs 30,745
234,644 5 Oysters 27,867
180,121 6 Menhaden 27,073
133,892 7 Lobsters 25,584
HerrIng 110,293 8 Flounders 17,948
Perch 83,608 9 Clams 16,000
82,574 10 Haddock 13,630
3 540,536 348,113
1967
Weight By Value
Pounds Thousand Dollars
Weight
Rank Kind Value
1,165,800
329,000
316,000
312,200
206,400
110,900
98,500
Herring 85,100
Perch 71,500
69,600
2,765,000
1 Shrimp 103,100
2 Salmon 48,600
3 Tuna 44,514
4 Oysters 31,600
5 Crabs 27,100
6 Lobsters 24,100
7 Clams 19,000
8 Menhaden 15,200
9 Flatfish 13,600
10 Haddock 10,500
331,314
*The crab landings include the King Crab, which is not an
estuari ne-dependent specie.

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TABLE IV.3.5 COMMERCIAL LANDINGS OF MAJOR ESTUARINE-DEPENDENT FISH AND SHELLFISH
1965
( N THOUSANDS)
I SIOPHYSICAL. REGION
I I —— ————— —— I — I I I I I
I NORTH I MIOflIE I Cl-4ESA— I SOUTH I * I GULF OF I PACIFIC I PACIFIC I
NAME IATLANTIC IATLANTIC IPEAI ’ E 8A’YIATIAMTIC )CAPIB8EAN ) MEXICd ISr)UTHWFSTINORTHWESTI ALASKA I
I I I I I I I I I I
ISr4RIMP I I I I I
WFIGHTI 26 .120 1 14.8701 180,3941 264,4001 2641
VALUE I 1C.137 1 4.755) 66,1601 66.lor .I 281
I I I I I
)SALMCN I I I I I
WEIGHT) I I I I 4,2541
VALUE I 1 I I I 2,3741
I I I I p
IOYSIERS I I I I I I
WEIGHT) 20.8b9 1 4.0751 <11 19.1541 3761
VALUE I 16,2491 1,5081 <1, 5.7111 1051
I I I I I I
ICRABS I I I I I
I WEIGHTI 84.4161 37,6081 700) 37,385) 8971
I VALUE I 7.436) 2,0611 3241 2.566) 2311
I I I I I I
ILOBST ERSI I I I
I WEIGHT) 441 196) 5,5471 6) 4801
I VALUE I 17) 1Q11 3,1251 31 385)
I I I I I I
ICLAMS I I I I I
I WEIGHTI 1.C .351 1 4C4I $ 1141 
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IV-170
An entire complex of commerce and industry can rest upon one
primary producing industry such as commercial fishing, and Figure
IV.3.l illustrates in a very simple fashion some of the more direct
impacts of commercial fishing on the economy. Each time the basic
product changes hands it generates economic activity and gains in
value until by the time it reaches the ultimate consumer, its
price may be many times what the fisherman was paid for it.
The effect of such “value multiplier” factors will be such as to
make the actual values of specific commercial fisheries several
times the landed values such as those given in Table IV.3.4 and
Table IV.3.5.
Thus, the 438 million dollars received by United States fishermen
in 1967 probably represents a total input to estuarine zone
economic activity of over one billion dollars; exactly how much
it is impossible to say. Case studies discussed later in this
chapter assign multiplier values of about three and four to
commercial fishery landing values, but the magnitudes of such
multipliers depend on the structure of the local economy as well
as on other factors and generalities are likely to be misleading.
Consumption of both edible and industrial fish products continues
to Increase, but the part of the consumption supplied by domestic
fishermen continues to decrease. Imports represented 82 per cent
-------
FIGURE IV.3.1 EXAMPLE OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES RELATED TO ESTUARINE RESOURCES
Marginal Secondary
Activity Activity
- ,-__ •s ‘ 4 )
2 ’
- ___
FISHERMAN’S CAFE
• COMMERCIAL
Primary
Activity
— -— ,-.- —
- - — - -
FISH HARVESTING
-j
-------
IV-172
of the industrial fish supply and 53 per cent of the edible fish
supply in 1967. A primary cause of this loss of market is the
inability to compete economically with foreign fishing fleets
using the most advanced technology. Aquaculture is a potential
means for correcting this condition, and, as such, represents a
potential estuarine use of large but indeterminate value.
The relationship of the estuarine zone and comercial fishing
cannot be expressed by any simple economic index. This brief
discussion shows that the importance of comercial fishing in the
estuarine zone is related economically not only to estuarine
habitat, but also to transportation, conmierce, food processing,
and aquaculture.
RECREATION
Recreation is the one major estuarine use that is directly and
irretrievably related to individual people. It is a pursuit
carried out strictly on an Individual choice basis and has as
niich variety as individuals themselves have. Every estuarine
system where there are people is subject to recreational use,
whether it is of recreational quality or not.
When an estuarine system is of poor recreational quality, only
those people who cannot afford to go elsewhere will use it. When
-------
IV— 173
a system is of acceptable quality, many local people will use it
and it may even attract some tourists from less-favored areas.
When an estuarine system is not only of acceptable quality but has
other attractions such as beautiful scenery or pleasant weather,
recreation and tourism become major coim ercia1 enterprises.
Each kind of recreational use has its own economic impact.
Recreational boating supports a large boatbuilding, marina, and
boat repair industry. Sport fishing supports not only a certain
part of the boating industries, but also a very specialized
industry manufacturing and selling fishing tackle. For example,
the 1965 Survey of Fishing and Hunting shows that salt-water
anglers spent $800 million dollars in that year. Sightseeing and
swinvning support motel and restaurant services in the favored
areas, as do other overnight recreational activities. Table IV.2.3
gives the advantages and disadvantages of several indices of
recreational economic impact; as this table shows, there is no
single satisfactory index for showing the importance of the
estuarine zone in recreation, or vice versa .
In many cases the economic value of recreation may depend upon
the total economic structure of a particular estuarine system.
For example, the Biscayne Bay area in Florida is oriented toward
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IV- 174
the recreational pursuits of the vacationing tourist; the useful
Indices of recreational activity here would be motel, hotel,
charter boat, and marina revenues. The shoreline of the Chesa-
peake Bay in Maryland, in contrast, is almost entirely oriented
toward private residences or coimiercial marinas catering to the
regional resident, who needs permanent boat mooring facilities.
The significant indices of recreational activity here would
be boat sales and repairs, marina revenues, and waterfront
property values.
Attemots at the quantification of overall recreational economic
values are not yet well-developed. The user-day recreation
benefits approach has been used in some federal waterway and
reservoir orojects, but has been used in the estuarine system only
In an analysis of fisheries and recreation in San Francisco Bay.
Net benefits for general recreation activities, by this method, range
from $0.50 to $1.50 per day. Specific forms of recreation may have
higher values.
-------
IV— 175
Applying such a figure to the population of the coastal counties
suggests that the value of the recreational resource of the
estuarine zone is about 300 million dollars if each person has
about five days of recreational use. Such an estimate would
lncluoe only local use and no multiplier values and might there-
fore be regarded as minimum value of the entire value of the
entire estuarine recreation resource.
The major problems in defining the economic values of recreation
in the estuarine zone lie in the facts that recreation itself is
not an easily defined commodity nor can it be isolated from other
economic activities such as transportation, food and lodging
services, and equipment manufacturing.
COMMERCIAL NAVIGATION AND NATIONAL DEFENSE
The economic value of commercial navigation is easier to estab-
lish than the value of any other activity. Even here, however,
there is impact of this use on other estuarine uses, and the
estimates of economic value are not complete. Estimates of the
economic value of coninercial navigation are based on the direct
revenue to the port of handling a ton of cargo, generally $16 to
$20. Such estimates lead to a total value of the estuarine
resource of $4.7 billion annually for cargo revenues alone,
-------
IV-176
without multiplier values. An additional economic value of
$10 billion annually in salaries and wages has been estimated
for the eleven major ports listed in Table IV.2.5.
These estimates do not show the impact of comercial navigation
on land transportation, shoreline development, or the manufactur-
ing industries. Without the deep, safe harbors coninercial
navigation could not exist on a large scale, and without coninercial
navigation the great cities around these harbors would not have
developed.
Deep-water harbors are essential elements of the national defense
system. Furthermore, the location of these deep-water ports has
influenced the location of other defense installations as well as
the industrial complexes necessary for the logistical support of
the defense effort.
The cost of the national defense effort in the estuarine zone
for 1967 is estimated at about $900 million, exclusive of pay
and allowances for shore-based Navy and Marine Corps personnel.
The economic impact of national defense activity overlaps into
all other estuarine zone uses because of the massive payrolls
associated with it. This impact Is centered in the areas with
major defense installations, as will be shown In the case studies
-------
IV—177
presented later in this chapter.
WASTE DISPOSAL
The waters of the estuarine zone have received wastes from the
people and industries on their shores ever since the first cities
were founded. The economic benefit in the use of estuarine waters
for waste disposal has been fully utilized by nearly all indus-
tries and communities in the estuarine zone, and only the
tremendous capacity of estuarine waters to absorb and remove waste
materials has lept the estuarine zone from suffering severe
damage from such waste discharges.
All other uses of the estuarine zone result in the need to
dispose of some waste products, and the general practice has been
merely to dump them into the water and forget them. Chapter 5
discusses the sources and nature of pollutional materials and
activities, and how this use of estuarine zone waters can
affect other uses.
The economic benefit of this estuarine use is a real one and it
must be considered along with other established uses of the
estuarine zone. This benefit can be calculated in terms of the
difference between the cost of an advanced degree of waste treat-
ment needed when the waste assimilation capacity of the estuarine
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IV-178
system is fully utilized.
No overall estimate of the value of this use of the estuarine
resource is possible because the level of treatment necessary in
any particular case depends on many local factors.
While the use of estuarine waters for waste disposal may not be
aesthetically appealing, it is an existing estuarine use with
which other uses must compete, and it should be considered along
with them In the overall economic evaluation of estuarine uses.
-------
IV-179
SECTION 3. REVIEWS OF CASE STUDIES OF USES
OF THE ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENT
The preceding section discussed separately some important
estuarine uses and showed how the calculable economic estimates
fell short of showing the actual value of each use. This Section
describes several estuarine systems as socioeconomic environments
to show how the use balance in each may differ from the others and
how one use may dominate all others.
Almost all estuarine systems have either a multiplicity of uses at
the present time or such uses are available in the system.
Estuaries presently support such varied uses as military berthing
and associated activities, commercial port facilities, shipping
channels, industrial uses, commercial fisheries, sport fishing,
recreation, wildlife habitat, and purely aesthetic purposes. In
most estuaries one or two of the uses predominate while the others
take minor roles.
It is, however, important to understand that estuarine uses are not
mutually exclusive and that with sufficient planning and caution,
these uses can exist in hannony with one another. In fact, in
order to receive the maximum return from a natural resource such as
an estuary, all of the uses of the specialized environment should
be developed to the maximum with the detrimental uses minimized.
Minimizing detrimental uses does not, in most cases, mean that the
major activity must be stopped. Rather, it means that for most
-------
IV-180
uses only the harmful extent of such uses must be stopped or
restricted. For example, sanitary wastes discharged from ships
may be a harmful side effect of shipping that must be curtailed.
There is no need to conclude, however, that shipping must be
stopped. Similarly, water skiing or boat racing may be harmful
to sport fishing. However, a simple zoning of certain areas for
use of sport fishermen and not for high speed boating or water
skiing allows the use of an estuary for all these pursuits.
At the present time, the major uses of estuaries, in terms of gross
monetary return are: military use, shipping, and industrial
activities. These uses are, of course, historical and do not
necessarily reflect the uses that would be made of the estuary
under today’s conditions or future conditions, if each use were to
compete for the water use at the same time. In other words,
historical use has brought about the present use imbalance in many
estuarine systems. However, given the opportunity to develop,
other uses might attain equal importanc. economically while contri-
buting important social benefits.
Estuaries at the present time represent underdeveloped natural
resources that are important to the social as well as the economic
well—being of the Nation. Although lack of understanding of the
dynamics of an estuary and the inability to foresee the coming of
age of an industrial economy, with its resultant increase in
leisure time, may have combined to allow undesirable exploitation
-------
IV-181
of certain estuaries, such exploitation need not be allowed to
continue.
Based on present trends and d iiands, there is little doubt that
there will be a tremendous need for estuarine uses other than for
military, shipping, and industrial uses. That is, if the
facilities are available for recreation, sports, or aesthetic
enjoyment, they will be used and used to great advantage from an
economic standpoint as well as a social standpoint. Also, some
con nercial fishery ventures may again become not only feasible but
profitable if the detrimental uses of estuaries are curtailed.
NARRAGANSETT BAY
(IV—3—l)
The Narragansett Bay system in Rhode Island and Massachusetts
is an estuary of approximately 170 square miles with a total
shoreline of approximately 240 miles. Except for normal shoaling
towards shore, there are only very limited areas where the water
depth is less than six feet at mean low tide. Passages between
the islands have sufficient depths for large ships——channels need
only be dredged where they enter the Taunton and Providence Rivers.
Because of the islands in the Bay and the irregular coast,
Narragansett Bay has a long shoreline with coves and embayments
that are protected from the wave effects of major storms. The
tidal range is a moderate 3-4 feet but a favorable cross section
to length ratio of the basin helps to ensure reasonably good
-------
IV- 182
flushing. Figure IV.3.2 is a map of the Bay.
The population of Rhode Island is mainly clustered about the shores
of Narragansett Bay. A special census in 1965 enumerated the total
at 892,709 of which some 69 percent resided in towns and cities
touching the bay. The long term migration of the population appears
in a gradual movement from the upper bay towns to the lower bay
towns. In the total bay area, there are 69,160 areas of developed
land and 115,039 areas of land with development potential.
Table IV.3.6 shows the distribution of developed land.
TABLE IV.3.6
Percent of Use by Category of
Developed Land
Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island
USE
Proportion in Per
ent of Developed Land
URBAN
RURAL
Residential
41.2
42.4
Industrlal—Conmiercial
12.3
9.8
Governments, Institutions,
or Public Utilities
15.4
20.8
Recreational
9.9
9.3
Roads and Highways
21.2
17.7
-------
- 4I O 715W
CR AN STOW
FIGURE IV.3.2 NARRAGANSET BAY AND VICINITY
-.----..-----
-
CAST
S*CtNWICN
SOUTH
KING STOWN
NORTN
KINGSTOWN
M4RR4 WS(TT
SAY
IV-183
WAR WICK
I
C
(I)
m
-4
—I
U)
SACHUAST
p0*T
p
PU
5
I’ ,
Yr. 3
7 20
-------
IV- 184
From Colonial times, when perhaps the more important economic
activities were purely Bay—oriented (e.g., fishing and foreign
trade), industry and trade has clustered about the Bay and its
tributaries following the growth of population in these areas and
the concurrent growth of a pool of skilled labor. Within the
total socioeconomic environment of the area, seven estuarine—
dependent product-producing areas are examined to show some of the
methods Involved in deriving a value for a given use. The
categories include coninerciaI fisheries, defense establishments,
recreation, Bay transportation, marine—oriented industry and
conluerce, research and education, and waste disposal.
Table IV.3.7 shows the production, value and productivity of the
Narragansett Bay fisheries for 1939 and 1965. In order to
illustrate the former importance of a species, the oyster is
included although it Is no longer coninercially important.
There has been a reversal in the relative importance of the fin
fisheries and shelifisheries over the 25—year period due partially
to the decline in the oyster fishery resulting from the disappearance
of the wild oyster from Narragansett Bay for unknown reasons.
Improvement in finfishing methods together with a lack of improve-
ment in shelifishing methods have also contributed to this
reversal.
-------
IV- 185
TABLE IV.3.7
Commercial Fisheries of Narragansett Bay
I Shellfish 1
Fjnfish_j Oysters Clams Total
-1939-
r
101
-
924
lbs.
4,022,900
2,313,500
2,197,900
5,147,200
122,808
399,100
250,600
774,134
lbs.
38,830
-—
--
5,571
Value Per
$
1,216
--
838
Annual
$flb.
.035
--
——
.15
—1965-
116 -- -—
1 ,437
lbs.
lbs.
9,809,700
835,202
85,302
11,500
14,100
--
2,297,300.
1.062,700
--
2,695,000
1,372,653
1,875
Value Per
$
7,263
--
.955
Annual
$/lb.
.085
.
--
—
a
re
.509
I
eat weight only, except tor lobsters which
live weight
-------
IV-186
One of the most significant features shown in this table is that
earnings per fisherman from shellfish changed only slightly from
1939 to 1965, while earnings from finfish increased six times,
aU during a period when shellfish prices increased much more
than finfish prices. This suggests that the shelifishery in
Narragansett Bay is unable to compete economically with the f in-
fishery and that it may be declining as a significant resource
use.
DEFENSE ESTABL I SHMENTS
One of the oldest uses of Narraganset Bay, and certainly the most
Important today from the point of expenditures, is the role of the
Bay in the National military establishments. The strategic
location and excellent harbor led to its early use as a base for
Naval operations, and, with acconinodation to the changes and
innovations of modern warfare, so it remains today. Located at
Newport, where important fleet units and academic activities are
based, and at Quonset Point (North Kingstown), the United States
Navy in Rhode Island is the largest single employer in the State
and produces the highest level of dollar output direct attributable
to the Bay.
About 90 percent of the U.S. Navy expenditures in the Narragansett
Bay area are paid as wages and salaries to civilian and Military
personnel. Substantial suu s are also expended annually on contract
-------
IV - 187
construction, maintenance and repair, utilities and purchases from
local merchants. Finally, direct payments are made by the Federal
Government (in lieu of taxes) to school districts enrolling
children of military personnel.
Table IV.3.8 shows the contribution of the Naval establishment to
the Bay economy and the growth of this contribution between 1963
and 1967.
In spite of the size of the Navy operation, there are only two
areas of conflict between the military and other Bay uses. These
are problems created by sewage disposal and problems from oil
pollution. The shore installations of the Navy in Narragansett
Bay are either served by sewage disposal facilities on a par with
those in the surrounding con,nunities or share, on a user—charge
basis, with surrounding communities in disposal facilities which
meet the approval of the Rhode Island State Board of Health. The
sewage pollution problems that do exist are associated with the
discharge of untreated wastes from oceangoing vessels. The Bay is
home port for about 70 ocean going vessels and numerous other
smaller craft. Few vessels have sewage treatment facilities
aboard.
-------
lv- 188
TABLE IV.3.8
Spending by the United States Navy in the
Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island Area, 1963—1967
Item
Years
1963
Wages and Salaries to Civilan
and Military Personnel (1)
rotal
Only
197,274,605
Local Purchases of Goods
and Services (2)
N
II
10,516,557
Contractural Construction
N
5,163,502
Maintenance and Repair
and Utilities (3)
Federal Aid to Impacted
“
“
2,853,720
School Districts in R.I. (4)
TOTAL
$124,
240,000
$215,808,384
(1) May be somewhat inflated because 1967 report does not sep-
arate out fleet military personnel who may have been paid
elsewhere. Sum also includes allowance to dependents.
(2) Includes only those sums specifically mentioned as being
spent locally.
(3) Based on contracts awarded during the year, estimating most
or all small maintenance and report contracts. All assumed
to be with local contractors.
(4) School year 1967—68.
-------
IV - 189
Recreation
Six categories of activity are considered: swinining, boating,
sportfishing, waterfowl hunting, scuba and skin diving, and
sumer residences.
Swiming
There are state, municipal, and private beaches on the 31 miles of
sandy beach in Narragansett Bay. Table IV.3.9 shows the estimated
maintenance costs and intensity of use for each kind of beach.
TABLE IV.3.9
Swinining Beach Use in Narraganset Bay, 1967
State
Municipal
Private*
Total
Length of Beach,
Feet
3,829
16,150
19,979
Annual Expenditure
by owner, $
100,741
164,979
119,574
385,294
User-days
624,000
642,000
465,000
1
,731,000
Expenditure per
User-day, $
.16
.26
.22
User-days per
foot 0 f beach
163
40
87
*VaIue estimated from municipal
-------
I V.190
The estimated annual maintenance cost of $385,000 is the only
economic indicator available to show the value of this type of
recreational use.
Public beach use in Narragansett Bay appears to be heavily concen-
trated in a few State beaches, and other beaches seem to have
adequate space to support the swinining demand.
Boating
Estuaries favor recreational boating because of the relatively
protected waters and variety of activities possible. Narragansett
Bay, with its deep embayment and many protected waterways has been
a historically prominent recreational boating area. Not all boats
are registered, so that the total ntanbers of boats actually using
the estuarine system cannot be obtained directly. In 1965, however,
10,175 recreational boats were registered in the State of Rhode
Island. In addition many out—of-state boats use the Bay.
Surveys of boat owners as well as boatyard and marina operators
give an estimate of annual expenditures for boating of $5.2 million
dollars based on boat operating and maintenance costs. Table
IV.3.I0 shows the estimated participation in boating in Narragansett
Bay. This number of user-days appears excessive since It would
require 25 trips of each 15,000 boats with at least five persons
on each trip; It is included to show the difficulties of assembling
data to establish economic values for recreational pursuits.
-------
TABLE IV.3.l0
Estimated Participation in Boating-Narragansett Bay
1 965
IV-19 1
Percent
Persons
Days Per Person
User Days
Boating
Saihng
TOTAL
28
5
33
168,000
30,000
198,000
9.5
11.5
----
1,596,000
345,000
1,941,000
Based on estimates of a 600,000 population over 12 years of age in
Rhode Island.
Source: NThe 1965 Survey of Outdoor Recreation, Bureau of Out-
door Recreation, U. S. Department of the Interior, October, 1967
pp 45—52
Sport Fishing
Saltwater sport fishing is an extremely popular use of Narragansett
Bay and adjacent waters. About thirty-eight percent of boating
tima on Narragansett Bay and adjacent waters is allocated to sport
fishing, and there is considerable fishing from shore. This takes
place primarily in four types of areas: from bridges that cross
streams feeding into the Bay or connecting the Bay with other
smaller estuaries; from the breakwaters on piers that jut out into
Bay; along the rocky shoreline in the southern part of the Bay; and
the sandy beaches at the end of the swinhl1 flg season which ceincides
with the fall runs of B1uefiSh and Striped Bass.
-------
IV- 192
It is not possible to estimate the total expenditures for sport
fishermen in Rhode Island, for no reliable data are available
from which to estimate their number. What is significant, however,
is that a great many people engage in it, and that it is a
relatively low—cost outdoors activity within the means of many.
Waterfowl Hunting
In addition to coninercial fisheries, Narragansett Bay Is an impor-
tant feeding and resting area for migratory waterfowl. The Bay Is
considered to be a relatively large unit of high quality migration
and wintering habitat. The major species using the area include
many highly desirable game birds.
No formal data are available on the number of hunting trips that
were made annually by each purchaser of waterfowl stamps. Based
on data from other northeastern States and considering the water-
fowl counts and hunting regulations, it is estimated that each
hunter made about 3.5 trips per year on the average. Bag checks
by Rhode Island conservation officers indicate an average kill of
0.56 birds per trip. For 1968 it is calculated that 2,507 hunters
making 8,774 trips shot a total of 4,900 bIrds.
Skin and Scuba Diving
The popularity of this activity in Narragansett Bay has been
greatly enhanced by the natural advantages which are not present
in the adjacent coastal areas. The Bay’s ocean-front shoreline
-------
IV- 193
has some access ways which permit diving and spearfishing directly
from shore without a boat. Most sport diving is conducted in
waters shallower than 100 feet, and much of this area is within
swinluing distance of the shore. The Bay also attracts many sport
divers from outside the State.
Seasonal Residences
The last category of recreational use is that of seasonal
residences. Seasonal residences are defined as those houses
occupied generally for recreational purposes for a part of the year.
In Rhode Island, most, if not all, seasonal residences are si.nuer
residences. Based on building permits for 1961-1965, it is
estimated that in property tax revenue alone, sumer property
approaches an annual value of $1 ,000,000. Although the presence
of summer residents increases the municipal service loads, a
significant absence here is provision for educational services,
which generally comprise about 70 percent of municipal costs. Also
the expenditures of the part-time residences stimulate employment
and income of these towns. Accordingly, the total income resulting
from the inflow of persons in seasonal residences in the Bay area
during the sumer months is much greater than the costs incurred
by municipalities in providing services to such seasonal residences.
If it is assumed that five percent of the investment in property is
expended annually to cover repairs, maintenance, and insurance, and
-------
IV—194
if it is further assumed that the total assessed value of the Bay
suniner property represents a 70 percent of the actual investment,
then the total assessment of $27,418,059 would represent an invest-
ment of $39,168,600 with annual expenses of $1,958,430. Adding
the expenses to the tax revenues gives an estimated annual net
addition to the area of $2,870,875.
E AY TRA 1SPORTATIOU
f arragansett Bay is both an obstacle to and an avenue of coninerce.
The trans-state movement of people and goods is blocked by the
same body of water that serves as a natural well-sheltered roadway
for water-borne coninerce. However, the income, employment, and
expenditures generated in construction, operation, and maintenance
of ocean port facilities, bridges, and ferry facilities, justify
the inclusion of transportation as an economic factor.
The Port of Providence is Rhode Island’s major port and ranks
third in overall importance for The Uew England States. The economic
impact of the Port can be measured through all three categories of
activities - primary, secondary, and marginal (see Figure IV.3.l).
Table P1.3.11 shows estimates of economic impact of various comodi—
ties passing through the Port and multiplier factors from a nation-
wide study of the i laritime Administration.
-------
IV— 195
TABLE IV.3.1l
Estimates 0 f Economic Impact of Various Commodity Types Passing
Through the Port of Providence, Phode Island, 1968
Type of Cargo
Volume 1
(Short Tons)
Income Production 2
Per Ton ($)
Total
Impact ($)
General
Tanker (Crude
or refined)
Coal
509,353
8,280,954
41,391
18.46
4.38
3.02
9,402,656
36,270,579
1,257,501
Total Economic Impact 46,93 3,736
Computed from- -
1/ 4aterborne Commerce of the united States Calendar 1ear 1966,
Op, Cit., P. 26.
2/ From Correspondence with Chief, Division of Ports and Systems,
Office of Maritime Promotion, T aritinie Administration, U. S.
Dept. of Coninerce, dated September 27, 1968.
3/ Includes: 156,611 Short Tons of Iron and Steel Scrap
133,506 Short Tons of Building Cement
Table IV.312 shows the construction of the Port in terms of marine-
related employment. This Table emphasizes the importance of the
marginal activities.
The value of port improvement in facilities and navigational aids
must also be considered. Where cargo facilities are concerned, past
expenditures in the Port of Providence may be considered normal,
given the size of the port irid the cornp1e of facilities for general
-------
IV- 196
TABLE IV.3.12
Number of Firms, Average Annual Employment,
and Total Wages & Salaries for 1965,
Marine Related Occupations in Rhode Island
(Covered Employment)
.
Number
of
Firms
Average
Employment
Total Wages ($)
Deep Sea Foreign
Transportation
Deep Sea Domestic
Transportation
Local Water Trans-
portation (Ferries,
Lighterage, Towing
and Tugboat Service,
other NEC.)
Services Incidental
to Water Transporta-
tjon (Piers and Docks,
Stevedoring, Water
Transportation Services
WEC.)
2
1
4
36
3
7
412
248
.
5,252
65,184
481,880
1,183,772
.
TOTALS
43
299
1,736,088
Source: Records of the Rhode Island Department of Employment
Securl ty
2/Includes Jamestown Ferry Operation (Approximately 30 employees
$400,000 annual wages)
-------
IV—197
or specialized cargo handling. Based on an estimated straight line
depreciation over a 17 year period, the average addition to the value
of the Port is approximately $235,000 annually,
The value of channel ir iprovenents is more difficult to assess. With
expenditures totaling only 4 million over the lifetime of the various
rivers and harLiors projects up to 1963, this amount may largely be
written off. In essence, this assumes the income effects of these
expenditures do not significantly add to the value of the Port. On
the other hand, the much greater amount of investment in 1967, a 14.3
million-dollar dredging project over a shorter period of time, wifl
affect the economy of the port coriinunity. Since this dredging is to
enable the port to handle tne newer deeper draft vessels,it is neces-
sary to prevent port obsolescence. Again, using a 50-year straight-
line depreciation an average annual charge would amount to $268,000.
In addition to the commercial shipping aspects of transportation,
the impact of toll bridges must be considered. There are three toll
bridges, the Jamestown bridge from iorth Kingston to Connecticut
Island, the Mount Hope Bridge from Bristol to Portsmouth, and the
lewport-Jamestown Bridge, which will replace the ferry boats. The
Jamestown Bridge will hec’ me toll free in 1969 when its bonds are
redeei ed. The 1ount Hope was built in 1921 and its outstanding bonds
were retired in 1964. Tolls will corit.ir.ue to be collected until the
ewport-Jamesto in bridge is paid off. The ewport -JamestoWfl Bridge
is scheduled to open in 1969. The Bridge is being built at an
estimated cost of $60 million.
-------
IV-198
Table IV.3.13 shows a resume of the value of transportation to the
Narragansett Bay area.
TABLE IV.3.13
Annual Dollar Impact of Transportation
Jlarragansett Bay
ITEM
IMPACT ($)
Port of Providence
47,200,000
Jamestown Ferry
740 ,000
The Bridges
Jainestown-Uorth Kingston
233,000
Mount Hope
190,000
Newport-Jamestown
1 ,200,0002
Total Impact
49,563,000
V Oiscontinued after 1969
?/ 3ased on straight line depreciation of
oeriod.
50-year amortization
Marine-Oriented Industry and Comerce
A survey conducted in 1965-1966 showed 75 marine-oriented firms
located around Uarragansett Bay in addition to marinas and boatyards.
The finns are involved in such activities as ship and boat building,
marine electronics, sail making, and fishnet construction. At the
-------
IV-199
time of the survey, these firms employed 4,251 people and had annual
cash flows of $60,006,000. The revenue break down is shown in
Table LV.3.14.
TABLE IV.3.14
Cash Flow for iarine-Oriented Industry and Commerce
narragansett Bay 1965-1966
ITEM
AMOUNT
——_________
1,289,229
4,742,454
39,031,502
210,921
14,731,894
Purchases from Local 1arine Firms
Purchases from Local Non-Marine Firms
gages, Salaries, Interest, Profit, and Rent
.ocal Taxes
ederal Taxes and Purchases Outside Area
Eotal
60,006,000
1 esearch and Education
The area around L irragansett Bay is the base for considerable
research and education in the rtarine sciences. These are primarily
State and Federal programs even though some education and research
activity take place in marine-oriented commercial firms. The invest-
nient in and expenditure for marine-oriented educational activities
in the Bay area is steadily expanding. On a dnllar ranking basis,
the navy is first with various programs at the University of Rhode
-------
JY -200
Island c’osely following. For research the same situation exists
insofar as growth and dollar ranking. Table IV.3.15 gives a
suninary of estimated expenditures on research and education.
Marine-oriented research and educational activities on the Narrangan-
sett Bay area have little conflict with other uses of the Bay. They
exact no particular social costs in the form of unfavorable effects
on the Bay environment and are income producing. Areas of greatest
economic impact are under supervision of the military establishment
and are subject to the changing dictates of national military
policies.
Waste Disposal
It is estimated that approximately 150 million gallons per day
(tngd) of liquid wastes flow into Narragansett Bay through municipal
sewer systems or treatment plants. At the beginning of 1969, 20
percent of these wastes received primary treatment, 70 percent
received secondary, and 1 percent received tertiary treatment. The
remaining undetermined amount of wastes are either discharged un-
treated into the Bay or to individual treatment systems such as
septic tanks where the effluent may eventually seep or leak Into
the Bay.
The tidal action In the Bay and the Bay itself are in fact part
of the waste disoosal Drocess. With two excentions --harvesting
of shellfish and to a lesser deqree contact recreation —-this
-------
IV-201
TABLE IV.3.15
Estimates for Expenditures for Research and Education on or
Connected with Uarragansett Bay Rhode Island, 1967—63
ACTIVITY
U. S. navy
Naval Schools Command
Naval Oestroyer School
Naval War College
Naval Underwater Weapons Research
and Engineering Station
U.R.1 .
Graduate School of Oceanography
Department of Fisheries and
Marl ne Technology
Other U.R.IJJ
Department of Ocean Engineering
1i scel I aneous
ESEARCU / 1O EDUCATIOtL
17,323,379
13,146,662
2,322,000
150,000
513,000
375,000
Narragansett Marine Gamefish
Laboratory (USD1)
; ortheast 1arine Uealth Sciences
Laboratory (USPUS)
National 1arine hater Quality
Laboratory (USD 1)
.I. State Atomic Reactor
R.I. 1arine Fisheries Station
TOTAL
120,600
560,000
736,000
222,694
136 ,OflO
35,710,335
1/ Includes expendit ires under the Sea - Grant Program and marine
activities not e1se there classified.
-------
IV- 202
use of the Bay for waste assimilation is comnatlble with other uses
at the existing levels of waste treatment.
The capability of the Bay to assimilate waste products is a valuable
economic asset. Its worth can be estimated either in terms of the
increased value of the system for other uses or in terms of increased
costs for waste treatment if the Bay could not be used for this
purpose.
The only real economic damage to Bay resources by waste disposal
is the prohibition of shellfish harvesting in certain areas. This
is a damage to the coninercial shellfish industry rather than to the
shellfish themselves since the closures are a matter of public health
considerations and not habitat danacie. If the areaspresently barred
to commercial sheilfishing were opened, the value of the current
conwnercial crop might increase by as much as one million dollars,
assuming that there is this niuch additional economic demand for the
product.
If the Bay could not be used for disposal of partly treated wastes it
would be necessary to dispose of them to the ocean or else provide
advanced waste treatment. Based on the alternative costs of these
two disposal methods, the waste assimilation capacity of Narrangansett
Bay has an annual economic value of six to eight million dollars.
Total Economic Value of Narragansett Bay
Table IV.3.16 summarizes annual economic activity caused by
Narragansett Ray, Rhode Island.
-------
IV- 203
TABLE IV.3.16
Estimated Economic Activity and Personal Income
Generated by Primary Expenditures Associated
with Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island 1967_681
Economic Activity Generated!
Activity
..—
U.S . Navy
Primary
Expenditures
(j)
2T5,808,384
Multi-
Plier
2.73
Total
($)
589,156,888
Multi-
Plier
1.22
1 sona1
Income
($)
263 , 6,228
Marine In-
dustry
Transporta-
ti on
60,006,000
49,563,000
2.37
1.00
142,214,220
49,563,00&
.95
.64
57,005,700
31,720,320
Waste DIs-
posal
Research &
Education
6,200,000
5,235,294
1.69
1.95
10,478,000
10,208,823
1.29
.62
7,998,000
3,245,882
3,586,840
BoatIng
(Services)
3,815,788
2.76
10,531,574
.94
2,239,282
Sunvuer
Housing
2,870,875
2.35
6,746,556
1.18
2,605,268
Con rcial
2,207,855
2.96
6,535,250
Fishing
.96
369,882
Swiaining
—
385,294
2.68
1,032,587
72,057,4O2
[ T tal
346,092,490
— —
826,466,898
1 For multipliers see: Rorholm, Lampe, Marshall, and Ferrell “Eco-
n ic Impact of Marine Oriented Activities -- A study of the
Southern New England Marine Region.” Economics of Marine Reso-
urces No. 7, University of Rhode Island, Kingston (1967).
2The “primary” figure here is based on a multiplier value, hence
no additional multiplier effect is present.
3The “primary expenditure” here is actually an opportunity cost
(see the appropriate section). The multiplier that has been
used is that computed for “Households” since the saving occurs
%n household expenditures.
The accounting is incomplete in the sense that no attempt has been
made to include imputed “values” or expenditures per user-days for
various recreational activities’ notably swi m ing, hunting, skin
diving, and spearfishifl9. The expenditures incurred in these
activities were not included, for in none of the four cases were
-------
IY .204
not included, for In none of the four cases were both expenditures
per participant and the numbers of participants known. Also it was
not possible to derive adequate estimates of the value the Bay
contributes to the people of Rhode Island through its effect on
environmental quality. This includes air temperature modification,
open scenic space, and open space for low land aircraft approach and
takeoff. These features, which have been omitted from the calculations,
are unquestionably very valuable.
Spending generates Income and further spending. Multipliers
developed in an earlier study have been used to estimate the extent
to which the $346 million primary expenditure generates further
economic activity and personal Income in the area. It is estimated
that primary expenditures generate a total transaction of $826,466,898
of which over $372 million is personal income in the form of wages,
salaries, profit, interest and rent. The latter figure may also be
thought of as the local value added. The total transactions generated
are about 23 percent of the Gross State Product for Rhode Island
which was estimated at about $3.5 billion in 1964. The $372 million
personal income is about 13 percent of total personal income in the
State in 1967 which was estimated at $2.9 billion.
Narragansett Bay gives an example of an estuarlne- .oriented economy
which has grown up in an unorganized fashion as economic and social
pressures dictated. The major contributing monetary factor is the
-------
IV-205
expenditures of the U.S. Navy, which amcount for nearly two-thirds
of the economic activity generated in the Narragansett Bay area.
The least significant economic use is commercial fishinu, accounting
for less than one percent of the economic activity.
An estuary such as Narragansett Bay, through its effect on the
physical environment of the surrounding area, bestows a certain
value on this area. This is the only 11 cutput” of the Bay which does
not require combinations of labor and capital added to the Bay itself.
To be sure, it may be possible to increase this output or effect by
certain man-made iodifications, but since the evaluation of our
environn ent is to a large extent subjective, one cannot always be
sure that net results of man-made modifications are, in fact, posi-
tive.
There are two kinds of specific environmental effects involved:
(1) Climatic effects. Weather data indicate that
the Bay 1owers the mean maximum summer tenperature in
Providence as much as 4 degrees through the way the Bay
channels the afternoon sea breezes inland from the
ocean. Similarly the water gives off its stored heat
at a slower rate than does the land resulting in some
modification of mean low winter temperatures. This
can be observed on nunerouS occasions when the coast
will experience sleet or rain while it will he snowing
and driftinj some nibs inland.
-------
I V- 206
(2) Open Space. Open space serves a number øf
purposes in and around urban areas, all of which
are difficult to quantify. There is no doubt, however,
that the Upper Bay and Providence River North of
Conimicut Point as well as the Barrington and Warren Rivers,
provide the surrounding coninunities with open space
which they otherwise would have had to provide in the
form of parks or other open areas I n order to keep
the kind of environmental quality now given free by
these waters. The open space provided by the Bay also
serves as low-level flight space for approach and take-
off at the Quonset Point 1aval Air Station, saving the
conununity a great deal of noise pollution and a resultant
drop in property values.
The general effect of open space on residence values
has been observed frequently. It is connonly accepted
that property values increase markedly as a park or other
open area is approached. The same is the case as one
approaches the shoreline, even if the water itself is
not usable at that particular location. If higher
prices are paid for property on a shore which is not
suitable for either boating or swinining, then this value
must be caused by the marine environment in general.
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IV -207
The discussion of Narragansett Bay has been almost entirely from
an economic viewpoint. Such discussions are necessarily limited
to calculations based on individual values, and cannot consider
the value of the general marine environment. This can be established
only from the attitudes of an entire comunity to the estuarine
resource.
APALACHICOLA BAY
(IV.3.2)
Apalachicola Bay, located in Florida off the Gulf of Mexico, provides
a direct contrast with Narragansett Bay. This is important not
only in illustrating the diversity of uses to which estuaries cur-
rently are put, but also in providing a basis for evaluating an
estuary’s socioeconomic situation on a different, and possibly more
meaningful, basis.
Apalachicola Bay, unlike Narragansett Bay, is not a berthing place
for military vessels and, accordingly, does not have the type of
economy which a significant military complex engenders. Nor is the
coastal estuary a comercial port of importance. Rather, studies
have shown the present and potential importance of comercial fish-
ing, recreation, and tourism to this estuary.
Comercial Fisheries
The economic base of Franklin County, Florida, the land area upon
which the Bay is located, is unusually narrow. Dependence on
-------
IV-208
coimnercial fishing and on the processing and export of seafood
from the County is so great that serious pollution would be dis-
astrous to its inhabitants. In November 1963, for example, about
62 per cent of the employment in Franklin County was related
directly or indirectly to the oyster industry. Direct employment
Is made up of jobs as tongers and workers in shore installations,
while indirect employment consists of a variety of middleman
functions related to the Industry. This is only a partial view,
however, of the importance of unpolluted water to the economy of
Franklin County. Euployment, direct and indirect, associated with
other types of seafood -— to the extent that the catch is made in
the Bay or outside if the Bay was the “nursery” --- and much of
the employment based on tourism is attributable to adequate pollu-
tion control.
As an initial step in determining the economic value of Apalachi-
cola Bay, value and quantity statistics have been asseutled for
finfish and shellfish landings.
Table IV.3.17 sumarizes these figures for the four years, 1964
through 1967, for which complete data are available. Separate
statistics are presented for oysters, shrimp, crabs, and finfish.
Some shellfish are included with the finfish but in no year do
they amount to more than one per cent of the total quantity or
value figures for finfish.
-------
TABLE IV.3.17
Fish and Shellfish Landings and Values, Apalachicola Bay, 1964 - 1967
Species
1964 1966 1967
Oysters 1/
Shrimp 2/
Crabs j
Fin Fish
Catch
b.
1,415,600
7O ,l0O
552,500
1,887,300
Value
$
396,368
129,861
38,078
134,713
Catch
Lbs.
1,380,500
202,500
935,700
1,614,100
Value
$
463,301
52,396
51,082
129,372
Catch
Lbs.
2,191,100
271,800
610,100
937,600
Value
S
673,562
75,143
30,501
82,571
Catch
Lbs.
2,404,800
138,000
675,400
432,600
Value
S
730,578
35,501
36,668
58,159
I ll Species
(Total)
4,559,500 699,020 4,132,800 696,151 4,010,500 861,777 3,650,800 860,906
1/ Shucked Weight.
2/ ‘Heads-off” Weight
3/ Live t Jeiqht
Source: Apalachicola Office, Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Department of the Interior
-------
IV-2 10
The four-year totals show a total catch of 16,353,600 pounds, valued
at $3,117,854, for Apalachicola Bay. During the period, there was
a significant increase in oyster landings and value accompanied,
conversely, by a large decrease in shrimp catch over the period.
It should be recognized that the landings (fisherman t s) value
represented only a part of the total value of the fishing industry.
For Franklin County (Apalachicola) oysters for example, the final
value averaged four times the amount paid to the fisherman (and
dependent upon the final form In which the oysters were sold, this
multiple could exceed seven times the fisherman’s value).
In 1967, wholesale prices of oysters fluctuated between $4.50 and
$6.50 (per gallon, shucked) for standard oysters and between $5.50
and $7.50 for select oysters. The markup to truckers ranged from
$1.75 to $2.00 per gallon during the year averaging $1.50 per gallon
to dealers. All of the available information lends support to the
conclusion that the final value of the oyster industry is about four
times the fishermen’s value. For 1967, this total amount would be
$5,098,860.
The total value of shrimp landings in Franklin County in 1967 was
$431,018. However, all the landings were not directly related to
the Apalachicola River and Bay. Significantly, the shrimp caught
in the Gulf areas nearest the Apalachicola River and Bay are more
closely related to the estuary and it has been estimated by
-------
IV—21 1
oceanographers that approximately 90 per cent of all of the shrimp
caught in areas close to the Bay were originally inhabitants of
the estuary which served as a nursery” for these shrimp, a
reflection of the economic value of estuaries which is not always
recognized.
To illustrate the con iercial fishery value of the estuaries
further, shrimp prices (with head off) averaged $.92 per pound in
1967. Of the final retail average of $1.30 per pound, five cents
per pound represented the wholesalerss markup with the remaining
thirty-three cents being received by the retailer. With the
conversion factors provided by the price data it can be estimated
that the total retail value of the shrimp landings attributable, to
the Apalachicola estuary is approximately $471,260.
Table IV.3.18 contains the projects of the annual fishery landings
values attributable to the estuary. Projects are made for the
years 1975, 1980, and 2000. Because oysters and shrimp are highly
income elastic products, the value of their production should
increase at a rate at least equal to that of the national income.
This of course assumes no unusually extreme shifts in supply. A
rate of four per cent has been compounded to the base years to
approximate the future values of oyster and shrimp landings.
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IV-212
Finfish and, to a lesser extent, crabs have a much lower income
elasticity. Thus, a growth rate of only two per cent has been
used in extending their values forward to the years cited in the
table. Again supply variation and/or changes in processing
methods can affect estimates. For example, an increased use of
fishery products as a source of protein for underdeveloped
countries would have an impact on the demand side.
This material reinforces the contention that simple values of
fishery landings are a totally inadequate measure of the “true
value” 0 f the fishery resources Involved. Only by studying both
the values added in production and the income generated by the
Income multiplier can a realistic estimate be made.
TABLE IV.3.18
PROJECTIONS OF THE ANNUAL VALUE OF APALACHICOLA
ESTUARINE RELATED LANDINGS 1’
,
Oysters
$5,098,860
$6,975,240
$8,489,602
-
$18,600,641
Shrimp
$ 471,260
$ 644,633
$ 784,648
$1,719,156
Crabs
$ 285,452
$ 334,264
$ 369,089
$ 548,639
Finfish
All Species
$ 576,981
$ 675,645
$ 746,036
$ 1,108,957
$6,432,553
$8,629,832
$10,389,375
$21,977,393
Soecies
1 967
1975
1980
2000
If Values are in ter ns of final retail values.
-------
IV-213
Value of Tourism and Recreation
A reat deal of the economic value of clean water in ADalachicola
Bay derives frori its attraction to tourists. Salt and fresh water
fishing, swimminci, water skiina, surf boarding , boating, sunbathing,
and aathering oysters alona the shore are among the water-related
tourist activities. Tourists from Alabama, Georgia, and North Florida
are usually interested in water-related activities while residents
of the South and other regions are more likely only to be passing
through Franklin County. In order to estimate the prociortion of
water-related tourist stops on the mainland side of Apalachicola Bay,
the Economics Department of Florida State University asked owners of
the three larqest iote1s in Apalachicola and Eastpoint to have all
ciuests durina July l9 fill out a questionnaire. \ total of 173
1 families comDrisino 480 nersons filled out the auestionnaire. A
summary of results is shown in Table IV.3.19.
TABLE IV.3.19
Reasons Given for Tourist Interest in Franklin County, July 1968
Other
Home —
North Florida
Other Florida
Alabama-Georgia
Other South
Non-South
Water-Related Interest
9
7
27
9
3
55

Passing Through J
8
15
6
21
25
9
11
8
10
5
Total
75
—
43
—
—
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IV-214
Table IV.3.19 pertains only to travelers stopping on the mainland.
It is reasonable to assume that virtually all of the visitors to
the offshore Islands are there for “water-related” purposes and
that the same is true for residents of cottages built alongside
the Gulf (such as the 150 rooms in the Wilson’s Beach Cottages).
According to the Florida Hotel and Restaurant Commission there
were 248 rooms in 18 motels and 249 rooms In the rental cottages
within the County. Using the results of Table IV.3.l9 for the
motels, and assuming that all of the guests at the cottages are
“water-related” it appears for Franklin County as a whole that
about two-thirds of the tourist business is related to the estuary.
The 1967 Florida Tourist Study published by the Florida Development
Commission shows 5046 automobile tourists from out-of-state with
Franklin County as their destination. If arrivals by private
planes, boats, and buses are added, the figure might be in the
neighborhood of 5,200. Adding the estimated number that came from
Florida brings the 1967 total to 7,800, of which estimated 5,200
are “water-related.” The Florida Development Commission shows the
average tourist stay to be 14.8 days and the average expenditure
per person per day to be $17.20. Because of the lower-than—
average prices of accommodations in Franklin County, average
expenditures of $14 per day and average stay of 15 days appear
reasonable. For 1967, this would yield a total estimate of
-------
IV-215
$1,092,000. This source of income may be expected to continue In
the future at least commensurate with National or regional popu-
lation increases as well as other factors. It has been projected
to increase to $3,571,600 in 1975, to $5,077,020 by 1980, and to
$13,377,000 by the year 2000.
Effect on Local Residents
Table IV.3.20 summarizes projections discussed ealier of the
actual and potential economic benefits which may be expected with
proper pollution control efforts in the Apalachicola Estuary.
The main source of income in 1967 was derived from the commercial
fishing industry—$4,868,118-compared with $2,799,629 accruing to
total incomes of fish industry sources out of Franklin County and
$1,463,280 for tourism in Franklin County for a grand total of
$9,131,027. With the maintenance of satisfactory conditions in
the estuary’s waters, by the year 2000 it is anticipated that
income from tourism will increase by several magnitudes and that
a grand total in excess of $44 million will be generated.
Estimates of economic benefits to local residents indicated in
Table IV.3.20 are of particular importance to the area. because its
present relatively low economic status indicates the local popu-
lation is unable to better itself economically from pursuits other
-------
TABLE IV.3.20
Estimated Actual and Potential Income
Generated Nationally by Clean Water In
Apalachicola Estuary
Source of Income 1967 1975 1980 2000
Local Income Generated:
Seafood $4,868,118 $6,493,489 $7,781 ,773 $16,303,655
Tourism 1,463,280 4,785,944 6,803,207 17,925,180
Total $6,331,398 $11,279,433 $14,584,980 $34,228,835
Value Added Out of County:
Oysters, $2,549,430 $3,487,620 $4,244,801 $9,300,321
Shrimp 16,967 23,211 28,250 61,896
Crab 95,151 111,422 123,030 182,880
Flnfish 138,081 161 ,693 178,538 265,391
Total $2,799,629 $3,783,946 $4,574 l9 $W,810,488
Total National Contribution of
Apalachicola Estuary $9,131,027 $15,063,379 $19,159,598 $44,039,323
-------
IV-2 17
than those related to the estuary. However, in addition to the
economic improvement which may be anticipated locally, consider-
ation also should be given to the recreational advantages afforded
by the estuary to local citizens. It is reasonable to expect that
a direct relationship exists between socioeconomic level and the
distance which the members 0 f the population will travel to fill
their recreational needs. That is, the lower a person’s income
the shorter distance he is likely to travel for purposes of
recreation. Therefore, even with the increasing mobility which
Americans have experienced in the last several decades, there is
no question but that availability of adequate water recreational
facilities near the local population is of incalculable benefit
to those local citizens. These benefits can be expected to
increase with the shortened workweek predicted. for the future as
well as the increase in economic well-being projected for the
population with ready access to the Apalachicola estuary.
SAN DIEGO BAY
(Iv—3—3)
The San Diego area is an example of the multiple uses and develop-
ment of an estuarine system. The basic development and growth of
San Diego is attributable to the military uses of its deep water
estuary. However, later diversification of the economy into areas
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IV-218
of manufacturing, trade, tourism, and education has made the area
less dependent upon a single use of the estuary. In fact, the
relative value of the estuary to the entire population is shifting
toward recreation and aesthetic values. Indications of the value
of these recreational pursuits and aesthetic pleasures to the
general populace can be found in the estimated over $2 million
they are willing to spend annually to prevent pollution of the Bay
by municipal sources.
The San Diego study does not provide a complete economic accounting
analysis of the estuary’s total value but it does give some esti-
mates of the various components of the area’s economy. Also, there
are estlmatesof the costs of abating Bay pollution from municipal
sources and estimates of the monetary benefits resulting from such
pollution abatement.
Description of the Study Area
Statistical Study Areas
For purposes of the technical analysis, Bay-related land has been
divided into three geographic areas. Study Area I consists of
virtuaUy all land in nedlately adjacent to and surrounding the
Bay extending approximately four to eight miles inland from the
Pacific Ocean. Study Area II lies ininediately adjacent to Area I
-------
IV-2 19
and extends approximately 15 additional miles inland. Study Area
III includes the balance of the County.
General Description - San Diego County
San Diego Bay lies in the southwestern corner of the United States.
It is the prime economic factor in the development of San Diego
County which surrounds it. The County, which corresponds to the
San Diego Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area, is bordered on
the South by Mexico, on the East by Imperial County, on the North
by Riverside and Orange Counties, and on the West by 70 miles of
Pacific Ocean shoreline. It is approximately 80 miles wide and
encompasses 4,258 square miles (Figure IV.3.3).
The entire San Diego area has many valuable natural features, but
the one of greatest influence and value is San Diego Bay. The Bay
is crescent-shaped, approximately 15 miles in length, varies in
width from one-quarter to two and one—half miles, and has a
surface area of approximately 18.5 square miles. It is protected
on the west by the high ground of Point Loma and is separated from
the Pacific Ocean by a narrow sand spit called the Silver Strand.
North Island, once an actual island, forms the northern end of the
Silver Strand.
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FIGURE IV.3.3 SAN DIEGO BAY STUDY AREAS AND SUB-AREAS
I-I
AREA II
7. COASTAL S.D.
8. KEARNY MESA
IV-220
Ii
r L
L..
1 ___’
AREA I
1. CENTRAL SAN DIEGO
2. NORTH-WEST BAY
3. S.D. BAY (MILITARY)
4. NATIONAL CITY
5. CHULA VISTA
6. CORONADO
,
/
/
I --
,- “-• 10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
r
9. MISSION GORGE
EAST SAN DIEGO
SOUTH BAY
REAM (MILITARY)
SWEETWATER
LA MESA-SPRING
VALLEY
AREA III
BALANCE OF THE COUNTY
‘.,
‘
L r
SCALE IN MILES
012345
l ___ S _ I 1 I I
LEGEND
— ... — AREA BOUNDARY
SUB-AREA BOUNDARY
-- CITY BOUNDARY
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IV-221
San Diego Bay is one of the great natural harbors of the world.
Four cities and three naval military facilities line its shore-
line: the City of San Diego in the north, east, and south;
National City and Chula Vista on the eastern shore south of San
Diego; Coronado along the western edge of the Bay; North Island
Naval Station occupying the western half of North Island; the
Marine Corps Depot across the Bay to the north; and San Diego
Naval Station along the northeastern shore of the Bay. The City
of Imperial Beach lies just south of the Bay on the Pacific coast.
Three miles north of San Diego Bay and on the coast is Mission Bay.
Twenty-two years ago, 1ission Bay was a tidal mud flat. Extensive
development, which is still continuing, has converted it into an
attractive recreational waterl and.
Approximately 369,000 civilians are gainfully employed in San
Diego County. The County’s economy, which once depended primarily
on the military and the aircraft-aerospace industries, has
experienced considerable diversification. Today, other major
contributors to the economy are shipbUlldlflq , manufacturing,
tourism, education, agriculture, and construction.
Government agencies comprise the largest civilian employment
category in San Diego County. In 1967, 83,500 persons were in
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IV-222
government services. This is an increase of over 47.7 per cent
since 1960. There was a similar increase in the number of
persons employed in service industries. Public employment other
than in the defense sector is expected to increase in proportion
to the increase in the population of the County.
Today the United States Navy has modern facilities, equipment,
training camps, research laboratories, and a total naval personnel
of approximately 170,000 persons. An estImated 215,000 dependents
of these 170,000 naval men live in San Diego County. The majority
of the 100,00 shore-based military personnel are based at San
Diego installations or Camp Pendleton. Additional naval personnel
are based at the Ream and Miramar Naval Air Stations.
Density
Approximately 73 percent of the County’s civilian population lives
within 20 miles of San Diego Bay. Study Area I, adjacent to the
Bay, and with less than one per cent of the County’s total land
area, has approximately 19 per cent of the civilian population;
Study Area II, ininediately adjacent to Study Area I with 6.9
per cent of the County’s non-military land area, has 52 per cent
of the civilian population. In other words, the population is
more concentrated towards the Bay, and population density is
-------
IV—223
inversely proportional to the distance from the Bay. Figure
IV.3.4 shows the anticipated population growth of the three areas.
Municipal Wastes
By the mid-1950 ’s wastes discharges into San Diego Bay began to
exceed the assimilative capacity of the waters. In late 1960
local voters passed a $42.5 million bond issue for the construction
of new waste treatment facilities. As a result of the new
facilities, no domestic wastes have been discharged to San Diego
Bay since 1964. All sewage is now collected and pumped to the
treatment plant from which it is discharged into the Pacific Ocean.
Table IV.3.21 shows the estimated annual dollar costs and benefits
involved in the Bay clean-up. Annual costs of debt service, and
operation and maintenance of the facilities range from $2.3
million in fiscal year 1967-68 to a projected $3.3 million in the
year 2000. These estimated costs have been adjusted to exclude
costs not borne by the local residents or those costs not
exclusively associated with Bay clean-up. In other words, debt
service costs associated with the Federal contribution for con-
struction have been excluded along with those costs required
whether the wastes are disposed of in the Bay or in the ocean.
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IV—224
FIGURE IV.3.4 SAN DIEGO COUNTY POPULATION GROWTH BY
STATISTICAL AREA
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
z
1,000
0
800
z
z
630
D 500
3-
0
0
400
300
200
1960 1970 1990 2000
YEAR
1980
RLL i SOURCE: ? .EGIONAL GENERAL PLAN, SAN DIEGO COUNTY 1990.
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TABLE IV.3.21
Annual Costs J of and Direct Recreational Benefits Resulting From
Abatement of Municipal Pollution
San Diego Bay Clean-Up
FY 1967-68
($)
1975
($)
1980
($)
2000
($)
—
Costs
Bay Clean-Up Costs
2,312,000
2,613,000
2,848,000
3,296,000
Recreational Benefits
2,294,000
387,000
155,000
2,165,000
1,000,000
A
2,837,000
484,000
194,000
2,763,000
1,160,000
NA
3,225,000
553,000
222,000
3,190,000
1,274,000
NA
4,776,000
830,000
333,000
4,899,000
1,729,000
L A
J each Activities/Swinrning
Water Skiing
Sailing and Canoeing
Power Boating
Fishing & Wildlife Sports
Naval Use (amphibious
and other water contact
training)
TOTAL
6,001,000
7,438,000
8,464,000
12,567,000
1/ Includes debt service, operation, and maintenance. Excludes construction costs required whether
wastes are discharged into the bay or the ocean, also excluded debt service costs on Federal share
of construction costs.
)
( fl
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IV-226
Benefits shown in Table IV.3.21 are those directly attributable to
water related recreational activities. Estimated direct recreation
benefits range from $6.0 million in 1967—68, to $12.0 million in
the year 2000. These benefits are restricted to recreational
aspects only and do not include the impact of money spent for
recreation on the associated parts of the economic system.
Economy
Military
The United States Navy and Marine Corps contributed $1.2 billion
to the economy of San Diego County in 1967. This was an increase
of 17 per cent over 1966. Major factors in the increase were
greater military construction, the Viet Nam War buildup, and an
increasing number of dependents and retired military men moving
into the County. As described previously, an estimated 170,000
Naval men and Marines are stationed at military facilities in San
Diego County. An estimated 173 Navy ships are based In San Diego.
On an average, 90 Navy ships operate out of San Diego harbor every
day. The Navy spends approximately $300 million to support these
ships and the several other Naval coninands in the coninunity. For
utilities (gas, electricity, water, phone) alone, the Navy spends
more than $7 million every year. The Navy also employs civilian,
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IV -227
civil service employees, and blue collar workers who received
compensation of $201.8 million in 1967. Mi1itary construction in
San Diego County averages more than $20 million annually.
Comercial /Industrial
Maritime Coninerce
The continually expanding growth (Figure IV.3.5) of the maritime
industry’s use of San Diego as a harbor necessitates the con-
struction of a new terminal every 10 years.
For Fiscal Year 1967-68, iarine Terminals reported a total revenue
tonnage via port of San Diego of 1,107,060 tons. The total value
of cargo was $269.3 million, including bunker fuels. Inbound cargo
was valued at $203.3 million, and outbound at $65.6 million. The
largest single import categorywas toys and novelties with a value
of $38.3 million; second largest item imported was textile and
clothing valued at $30.2 million. The largest export category was
household goods with a value 0 f $15.2 million; the second largest
category among export goods was transportation equipment and
machines valued at $13.1 million. In terms of tonnage, however,
lumber had the greatest import tonnage, and potash the greatest
export tonnage.
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IV-228
FIGURE IV.3.5 TONNAGE SERVICED BY THE SAN DIEGO PORT
1,150,000
1,100,000
1,000,000
900,000
800,000
700,000
0
600,000
u - I
-J
0
z
500,000
0
0
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
1950
1970
YEAR
S(XJRCE: SAN DIEGO MY, CALIFORNIA. A REVIEW, BENEFICIAL USES, WASTE
DISPOSAL PRACTICES, WATER QUALIT!; IRVING TERZ ICR, 1965.
1955 1960 1965
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IV-229
Shipbui 1 ding
The shipbuilding industry provides employment for five times as
many workers today as it did less than 20 years ago. The current
labor force of almost 4,000 workers is expected to increase to
6,750 by the year 1990. This increase would, however, represent
no change in the industry’s percentage of the total San Diego
County labor forces , and is expected to remain constant at one
per cent. The economic value of shipbuilding has grown from $6.5
million in 1950 to $91.7 million in 1967.
Some 20 shipbuilding and repair firms scattered throughout the
Bay conduct operations ranging from the construction and repair
of large vessels to alterations on small fishing boats. Coimiercial
shipbuilding and repair operations have increased as the result of
the closing of the U. S. Naval Repair Facility in 1964. The
building and repair of naval vessels is now a major industry using
the Bay as a resource.
Fishing
San Diego Bay services the world’s largest annual tuna catch. It
is estimated to represent approximately 45 percent of the total
world catch and to have a value of $21.7 million. The number of
persons annually employed in fishing in the San Diego area has
decreased by almost half since 1950, from 2,050 to 1,100. This
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IV- 230
is expected to remain stable at approximately 1,300 for the pro-
jected years of 1975, 1980, and 1990. The fishing industry now
provides about 0.2 per cent of the County’s employment.
Fish canneries in the San Diego Bay area are primarily engaged in
the processing of tuna caught by a 100-boat fleet operating out of
the Bay. More than 4 million cases are processed annually by the
five canneries located in the area. Thawing and fiLming of fish
is done on the Bay shore.
San Diego Bay serves as a refuge, feeding, and nursery area for
fish. As such, it effectively influences the fishery resources of
the surrounding ocean. Approximately 100,000 persons, 80 per cent
from out of town, fish from coninercial fishing boats which operate
out of San Diego Bay.
Fish and Animal Reduction
In fish and animal reduction, solid and liquid wastes from fish
canneries and solid wastes of animal origin are processed for
oil and grease. The remaining solids are dried and converted to
chicken feed.
Animal entrails originally washed with Bay water are now flushed
with fresh water; however, a cooker and drier fumes washer is
operated with water from San Diego Bay.
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IV—231
Ke 1 p
There is an abundant supply of kelp in Pacific Ocean offshore
waters. Its chief value is as a source of iodine. The San Diego
Bay area is a natural location for the kelp-processing industry.
Chemical Industry
The San Diego Unified Port District operated an oil separation
unit at its Tenth Avenue Marine Terminal for processing ballast
and bilge water of ships using District facilities. The unit has
a capacity of 1.0 rngd, but has been used intermittently and far
below its capacity.
Manufacturing
Manufacturing is the largest civilian, non-governmental component
of the economy of San Diego County. It is largely dependent on
aircraft and ordnance production. In 1967, 32,200 of the
County’s 61,700 manufacturing employees (or slightly over 50 per
cent) were in aircraft and ordinance. The total manufacturing
payroll for 1967 was over $496 million.
Trade (Wholesale and Retail)
In 1967, total annual wages in the trade-industrial category were
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IV-232
approximately $339 million, or 24 per cent of the total San Diego
County civilian payroll. From 1960 to 1967, the wholesale-retail
trade payroll increased 151 per cent, with the qreatest increase
occurring between 1965 and 1967. Trade represents the second
largest civilian payroll category in San Diego County.
Tourism
The third largest industry in San Diego is tourism. Estimated
total visitor expenditures have increased approximately 50 per
cent between 1960 and 1967, with the sharpest rise occurring
during the 1965 to 1967 period. In addition to Bay clean-up,
opening of the San Diego Convention Center in 1965 undoubtedly
influenced this increase.
In 1967, 446 conventions met in San Diego and contributed approxi-
mately $42.5 million to the area’s economy. It has been estimated
that each delegate remained an average 0 f 4.18 days and spent
about $35.50 per day. San Diego County’s 1967 hotel-motel
occupancy rate of 75 per cent ranks among the highest in the
Nation.
Educati on
As previously mentioned, San Diego’s public and private schools
employed 33,900 or 8.9 per cent of all civilian employed persons
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IV-233
in 1967. During the last five years, 11,500 persons were added to
the education payrolls, an increase of 49.1 per cent.
Federal Civil Service
The number of Federal civilian government employees in 1967 was
83,500. This was 47 per cent higher than the 56,550 employed in
1960. The total wages paid to Federal civilian employees in 1967
was about $225.6 million.
Recreati on
San Diego County is fortunate in having an abundant supply of
mountains, beaches, and other places of recreational value. In
1965, according to the County Planning Department, a total of
17,157 acres of land was used for recreational purposes:
Study Area Acres
I 1,868
II 9,427
ii i ______
Total (County) 17,157
Beaches
Existing ocean beaches in the County are a major recreational
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IV-234
attraction for both residents and tourists. Of the 70 miles of
ocean shoreline, exclusive of bays and inlets, about 24 miles are
suitable for swinining activity, and half of this is accessible to
the public. The following future County beach area requirements
have been projected based on standards developed by the California
Public Outdoor Recreation Plan Comittee Report, Part II, 1960:
Year Acres
1968 225
1975 259
1980 291
2000 366
Current beach area capacity would therefore appear to be adequate,
although it may be necessary to develop access roads to those beach
areas which are now inaccessible to the general public.
Boating
The number of registered pleasure crafts using San Diego Bay was
approximately 4,000 in 1955; 20,000 in 1965; and more than 24,000
in June of 1968. San Diego Bay’s permanent mooring facilities can
currently accomodate 2,404 boats, and there are an addi ti onal 611
dry storage spaces. Plans are under way to almost double the
mooring facilities by provisions at Shelter and Harbor Islands.
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IV—235
Approximately 50,000 trailered pleasure craft use the waters of
San Diego Bay annually. Total investment in all pleasure craft
using the Bay has been estimated at $35 million. The full economic
impact of boating would also include fuel, boat maintenance,
visitor spending (food, hotels, entertainment, etc.), and rentals
for boats and their berths. A private developer in the Imperial
Beach area is planning a residential community of 3,500 units,
each with its own boat slip, to be constructed over a 10 year
period.
Swimming and Beach Use
According to the California Department of Parks and Recreation,
Planning Monograph No. 4, the most popular summer outdoor
recreational activity in the San Diego Metropolitan District is
swimming, with 84,000 participants; driving for pleasure is second,
with 54,000 participants; and walking for pleasure is third, with
49,000 participants. For persons of 12 years and older, the age
group of 12 to 17 years has the greatest number of outdoor
recreation participation days. Where available, beaches would
therefore seem to be the most useful summer recreational resource
for the population as a whole, and especially for the teenage
population. The requirement for swiming facilities is expected
to more than double by 1980 when a demand of 184,000 participants
is projected for the County.
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IV-236
Recreation Outlook
According to Outdoor Recreation Outlook to 1980 by the California
State Department of Parks and Recreation, population in the San
Diego area is expected to increase from 1,049,000 to 1,800,100
between 1960 and 1980, or 71.6 per cent. The number of recreation
participation days is projected to increase from 107,300,000 to
212,000,000, an Increase of 97.5 per cent based on population and
participation days data.
The total recreational benefit in 1970 is projected to be over
$135 million. Of this, $40 million is related to water oriented
sports such as swinining, boating, etc. An unknown percentage of
the approximately $80 million relating to walking, driving,
sightseeing, picnicking, etc., is attributable to the presence of
San Diego Bay. Total recreational economic benefits have been
projected as almost $280 million for 1980, a more than three-fold
increase in comparison with the estimated $91 million for 1960.
MISSION BAY
(IV-3-3)
The preceding presentation primarily reflected the situation in
San Diego County and reviewed that situation in light of the
economic base supplied by the Bay estuary. However, another very
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IV -237
important part of the San Diego scene is Mission Bay. This
particular bay is an excellent example of recreational possibili-
ties available in an estuarine system.
Mission Bay was formerly no more than a mud flat in a tidal area.
However, its development is comparable to the possibilities of
any large estuarine situation where a portion of the system can
be devoted to special recreational pursuits. The particular
value in such a situation is that the use of special areas need
not interfere with the major uses of the estuary, although the
amount of pollution in the estuary must be limited so as not to
preclude use of the recreational portion.
The following summary of the Mission Bay experience points up the
multitude of possibilities that are available for recreational
and economic development in an estuary given some initial invest-
ment of time and money.
Mission Bay Park is the Nation’s largest municipally owned aquatic
park and provides for public recreation in conjunction with land
reclamation, water conservation, and commercial enterprise. It
was dredged out of the large tidal mud flat located about two
miles north of the northwest section of San Diego Bay, and lies
entirely within the City of San Diego.
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IV -238
Development of the 4,600 acre aquatic playground was initiated in
1946 when the voters of the City of San Diego authorized a $2
million bond issue to finance it. Shortly thereafter, the U. S.
Army Corps of Engineers established a floodway separating the San
Diego River from Mission Bay. Subsequent dredging operation by
both the Corps and the City of San Diego opened up the entire Bay
and created the many coves and islands which form its land masses.
By the end of 1966, the City had invested a total of $14.5 million
in the development of Mission Bay: $9 million from three bond
issues, and $5.5 million in capital outlay funds. The State of
California contributed 2,900 acres of tidelands, and $3.5 million
for the realignment of public utilities and the construction of
new bridges. By the time of its anticipated completion it has
been estimated that a total of approximately $56 million in public
funds, and $50 million in private funds, will have been invested
in Mission Bay. In short, many public agencies and private groups
have been and will continue to be, instrumental in the development
of the $106 million water playground known as Mission Bay.
The Park is a multiple-use project covering 2,500 acres of water
and 2,100 acres of land area. Most of the Bay has a depth ranging
from 6 to 12 ft at mean lower low water. The Park includes six
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IV-239
islands, ten peninsulas, two small craft basins, ten coves, the
entrance channel from the Pacific Ocean, two large open water
areas, and Vacation Isle. Figure IV.3.6 shows the location of the
park-complex’s various recreational facilities.
There are approximately 27 miles of beaches at Mission Bay with
supervised swin,ning in seven areas. During the 1965-66 fiscal
year, the total recorded attendance was 484,702 persons exclusive
of the low-attendance winter months.
There is no charge for the use of the concrete launching ramps
which the City provides in designated sections of the Bay. An
estimated average of 200 boats are launched on weekdays, 600 over
weekends. A special area Is set aside for sail boating and
controlled-speed boating activities. Four large marinas - with
slips for 1,200 boats and dry storage acconiTiodations for 250
boats - serve the larger power boats and sailboats using the Bay
and the Ocean beyond. Ultimately, it is planned to construct slips
for a total of 12,000 boats. Power-boats racing on Mission Bay has
attracted wide interest. Fiesta Bay can accomodate all classes of
racing inboards including unlimited hydros.
Sport fishing is permitted anywhere in the Bay except for official
swini iing areas and those designated for water ski landing and take-
offs. Anglers from the metropolitan San Diego area make extensive
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FIGURE IV.3.6 EXISTING WATER RECREATION AREA MISSION BAY
SCALE I MILES
0000 WATER SKI LANDING AND TAKE-OFF AREA
• LIFE GUARD
• BOAT LALJNCHI* RAMP
SWI}QfING AREA
WATER SKI AREA
IV -240
0
LEGEND
V/ZA
OtJR E: CITY OF SAN DIEGO - RECREATION DEPARTMENT, AQUATIC DIVISION
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I”-241
use of Mission Bay waters where the following may be caught:
bonito, barracuda, spotfin, and yellowfin croakers, rubberlip and
shiner surfperch, California halibut, jacksmelt, and topsmelt. It
is anticipated that good fishing conditions will continue as long
as the waters remain free from pollution.
The University of California maintains a small wildlife preserve
near Rose Creek Inlet which is used primarily for bird watching
and bird study of waterfowl, gull, and shorebirds. Because it is
illegal to discharge firearms within the City of San Diego, there
is no waterfowl hunting on the Bay.
The quality of Mission Bay waters depends primarily on the physical
characteristics of the Bay. The temperature, clarity, and dis-
solved oxygen concentration in the entrance channel tends to
approximate that of the adjacent ocean. Although dissolved oxygen
nitrates and phosphates are low, the presence of phytoplankton and
suspension of bottom materials caused by water motion contribute
to turbidity. As measured by coliform indicators, the bacterial
quality of Mission Bay is excellent.
There is virtually no direct discharge of waste to Mission Bay
except for overflow from Sea World’s display tanks, and infrequent
overflows from the municipal sewerage system and boats. The use of
marine heads in the Bay is discouraged. There are drying beds for
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IV-242
liquid digested sludge on Fiesta Island. Their use conforms to the
requirements of the San Diego Regional Water Quality Control
Board, and their presence has created no known problems.
Sea World Aquatic Park is a unique, privately owned marine exhibit
located in Mission Bay Park. After filtering to improve clarity,
Bay waters are used in the exhibit and performance tanks.
There is a heavy demand for the 1,000 rooms offered by resort
hotels In or adjacent to Mission Bay Park. These are largely
classified as luxury accommodations. In addition, there are
trailer park accommodations of 653 spaces. Facilities for tourist
accommodations are expected to increase, and one hotel is p1 anni ng
to provide an additional 127 rooms for visitors as well as
additional convention rooms.
Summary of
Case Study Reviews
Narragansett Bay is an ideal example of an estuary that has
developed in an unbalanced fashion. That is, the economic value
of the estuary at the present time is largely associated with the
industrial, military, and transportation uses of its waters.
Other uses are, of course, made of the estuary but their economic
significance is dwarfed by the tremendous magnitude of the military
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IV-243
and commercial uses. However, it must be remembered that this
economic measure is merely an indicator of the value of the waters
and is not in any way related to the right or necessity of
polluting such waters in the process of achieving this value. In
fact, the only time that such an economic measure would be used
would be for comparing one total use of the estuary to another
total use. Of course, it is seldom that questions are so broad
as to cover either/or propositions for the entire activity.
Rather, the questions usually revolve around such things as the
benefits to be derived from reducing pollution caused by users of
the estuary compared with the costs of achieving the reduction in
pollution.
Franklin County, Florida, is dependent upon pollution-free waters
in Apalachicola Bay for its economic existence. The unpolluted
waters of the Bay provide the seafood caught by local commercial
fishermen and processed at shore-based installations. Additional
income for the area results from tourism engendered by the Bay’s
waters.
Both tourism and commercial fishing are prime potential sources of
income to any estuarine system. In the case of Apalachicola Bay,
these happen to be the major sources of income because of the
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IV-244
nature of the estuary and its location which prevent its develop-
ment as a comercial shipping facility.
The San Diego economy, although heavily dependent upon the military
and shipping activities in the Bay, has diversified to the extent
that it Is no longer completely dependent upon such uses of the
Bay. At the same time there has been a growing demand for
recreational uses of the Bay. Evidence of the local resident’s
Interest In the Bay for recreation, tourism, and coninercial uses
can be found In their willingness to invest substantial sums of
money in facilities to prevent pollution of the Bay by municipal
wastes.
Mission Bay, a separate estuary in the San Diego area, is an
example of the recreational potential to be found in an estuarine
system. However, this special study points up the fact that the
best use of an estuary may not come about naturally. Rather, it
shows that a planned development program with adequate investments
are necessary to achieve optimal use of an estuary.
In sumary, then, it can be seen that the major uses of estuaries
vary from one estuary to another, depending upon historical
development and suitability for specific uses. However, the
primary points indicated by these various estuary reviews are:
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IV-245
(I) estuaries are adaptable to several different uses; (2)
current use of any given estuary is not the sole indicator of the
estuary’s value; and (3) with adequate effort the recreational and
social aspects of an estuary can become vital parts of that
estuarine system.
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IV- 246
SECTION 4. MEASURES OF VALUE AND IMPORTANCE
OF THE ESTUARINE ZONE
The discussions of values of individual uses and the case studies
of specific estuarine systems present a confusing picture of the
relationship of estuarine uses to economic indicators.
Estimates of the direct gross economic benefit of the estuarine
zone to the residents of the coastal counties can be made. The
estimates of economic activity generated by the presence of
Narragansett Bay in Rhode Island give a conservative annual
economic benefit of $920 per capita, $420 of this in personal
Income. Average personal income for all of the coastal counties
is, according to Bureau of the Census figures, $500 per capita
greater than the average for the remainder of the country. The
total economic activity generated by this additional personal
income then amounts to about $1 ,lOO per person, using the
Narragansett Bay multiplier values.
The total direct economic benefit of the estuarine zone to the
residents of the coastal counties is then about 60 billion
dollars in terms of additional economic activity stimulated by
the presence of estuarine systems. This is not a measure of the
total economic activity of the estuarine zone, but only of the
“value added” to the total economic activity of the coastal
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IV-247
counties by the presence of the estuarjne zone.
Such gross means can give only an order-of-magnitude estimate of
even the direct economic value of the estuarine zone and cannot
possibly reflect either indirect benefits or the social importance
of the estuarine zone, much less its ecological value.
Valid criteria for evaluating the importance of the estuarine
environment or the value of individual estuarine uses, to a
community must, however, go beyond the reach of economic approxi-
mation and recognize the fundamental relationship between man and
his environment. Wherever there are people the environment will
be exploited to satisfy the needs and desires of man and his
civilization.
Increasing environmental pressures from demographic and commercial
development are paralleled in the same community by the increasing
desire for greater recreational use. That these can be compatible
is clearly shown by the San Diego Bay example. Such community
reactions as in San Diego and in San Francisco demonstrate that,
while people need commercial development and use, they want a
safe and enjoyable environment at the same time. Effective
management, therefore, should direct its efforts not toward
excluding some uses, but toward accomodating all uses without
environmental damage.
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I V-248
With such an objective, economic criteria of use importance are
of little value. Guidelines for estuarine management should
recognize man’s relationship to his environment and express his
determination that it shall be preserved.
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IV-249
REFERENCES
IV-3-1 Rorholm, N., “A Socio-economic Study of Narragansett Bay,’
(Report prepared for National Estuarine Pollution Study
under FWPCA Contract No. 14-12-93), KIngston, R.L,
University of Rhode Island, mimeographed copy, 200 pp,
(1969). (In press.)
IV-3—2 Colberg, 11. R., “The Social and Economic Values of
Apalachicola Bay, Florida,” (Report prepared for National
Estuarine Pollution Study under FWPCA Contract No.
14-12—117) by Tallahassee, Florida, Florida State
University, mimeographed copy, 58 pp (1968). (In press.)
IV-3-3 Ralph Stone and Company, “Estuarine-Oriented Couiiiunity
Planning for San Diego Bay,” (Report prepared for
National Estuarine Pollution Study under FWPCA Contract
No. 14-12—189) by Ralph Stone and Company, Los Angeles,
California, mimeographed copy, 178 pp (1969). (In press.)
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IV—25 1
Chapter 4
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC TRENDS
This part of the report emphasizes
the complex interaction among the
biophysical and Socioeconomic
environments within the estuarine
zone. The existing socioeconomic
environment is the subject of the
preceding chapter; this chapter
deals with trends associated with
the social and economic
environment.
The availability of certain resources in or near estuaries has
strongly Influenced patterns of population growth and economic
activity. Once initiated, these changing economic and demographic
patterns alter the nature of the estuaries themselves. For example,
the presence of plentiful timber resources was a factor in the
development of many coastal towns and cities. Long after the deple-
tion of the timber resource, the deep deposits of sediments carried
down from the scarred land to the estuary bottom alter the biophysical
System. Similarly, new sets of economic activity such as transporta-
tion, manufacturing, and commerce replace the initial extractive
lumbering activity and in turn affect the biophysical environment.
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IV-252
Other trends, stemming from pressures wholly or partially external
to the estuarine environment, may also have profound influence.
For instance, the changing economic demands of a dynamic society
affect the location and composition of economic activity and popu-
lations in the estuarine zone. Thus, changes in labor markets,
location of raw materials, and prices deterniinéd to a large degree
the shift of textile manufacturing from the New England coast to
the South.
Barring catastrophes or other unforeseen developments, certain trends
are expected to continue in the country at large. Rapid population
growth and continued development of urban-suburban areas are notable
among the demographic projections, while the economy is expected to
show continued diversification, technological change, and expansion.
To assess the impact of these trends on the estuarine zone, the rea-
Sons for the distribution of future population and economic growth
must be understood; and an understanding of past and present trends
indicates in a general way what may be expected.
The discussions in this chapter provide a basis for projecting the
changes that may be brought about by man’s continuing activities in
the estuarine zone.
This chapter was summarized from the report “Social and Economic
Trends associated with the Nation’s Estuarine Region,” prepared by
Harold F. Wise and Associates under contract with FWPCA as part of the
National Estuarine Pollution Study. The report is now being prepared
for publication.
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IV-253
SECTION 1. NATIONAL POPULATION AND ECONOMIC TRENDS
NATIONAL POPULATION GROWTH
America has experienced a continually high rate of population growth.
Today there are six times as many Americans as there were one hun.-
dred years ago, and more than twice as many as there were 50 years
ago. This growth Is expected to continue in the future, though
likely at a slower rate.
Figure IV.4.l provides clear evidence of the ‘population explosion”
which took place in the United States in the years following World
War II. In the decade 1950-1960, the total United States population
Increased by nearly 28 million persons, a growth rate of 15.6 percent
for the decade, or an annual population growth rate of nearly 1.6
percent. That growth is expected to continue at a rate of approxi-
niately 1.3 percent annually with the total population of the United
States increasing from a little over 205 million persons in 1970 to
about 400 million in 2020.
Figure IV.4.2 shows recent population Increases and decreases through-
out the Nation. Population decreases have occurred almost uniformly
In the period 1940 to 1960 in the predominantlY agricultural counties
of the Mid-West, the South, the Southwest, and Appalachia. In con-
trast, those counties in which metropolitan development has occurred
generally show steady increase during these years. Perhaps the most
striking growth record in this period appears in what may generally
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Figure IV.4.l
ESTIMATES AND PROJECTIONS OF THE POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES,
1940- 2015
In millions
500
400
300
200
100
0
1940
2020
U’
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Source. L S Surecu of the census.
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Figure 1V.4.2
POPULATION TRENDS IN U.S. COUNTIES) 1940-1960
I
_____ Population Increase,
1940-1960
Source: U S. Bureau of/he Census.
( 1
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IV-256
be designated as the coastal zone, where only a handful of some 274
coastal counties experienced any population decline during either
of the ten-year periods between 1940 and 1960.
URBAN-RURAL SHIFTS
The growth of population in urban areas and relative decline tn
rural areas has been a steady trend in America since the first Cen-
sus was taken. As Figure IV.4.3 shows, the 1920 Census marked a
symbolic turning point, with urban citizens outnumbering rural ones
for the first time. Metropolitanism is fast becoming central to
consideration of all aspects of American life. In 1965, 67 percent
of the country’s population lived In the 212 SMSA’s identified by
the Bureau of the Budget.
AGE COMPOSITION
The age composition of the population will also change in ensuing
years. Of particular significance Is the expected rise in the main
working age population (ages 25-64) from 86.4 million in 1966 to
about 90.1 million In 1970 and 123.9 million In 1990. From 1975 on,
the younger portion of this age group is expected to Increase rapidly,
while the number of elderly citizens shows only a slight increase.
NATIONAL ECONOMIC GROWTH
The amount of personal income generated in the economy indicates the
general capacity to purchase goods, services, and amenities.
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Figure IV.4.3
URBAN AND RURAL COMPONENTS OF TOTAL UNITED STATES POPULATION,
1790-1960
Percent
100
80---
60 -
40—
20
1790 1800 820
1840
1940 1960
Rural
Urban
0
Source. Li S Bureau of ffle Census.
1860 1880
1900 1920
0,
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IV-258
Figure IV.4.4 shows a steadily rising trend and projection of
United States personal income. Total personal income is expected
to rise at a 5.1 percent annual rate of growth from 1970 to 2020.
In terms of constant 1958 dollars, this represents an increase from
about $615 billion to nearly $5 trillion in 2020. Similarly, per-
worker earnings will increase substantially, rising from $6,000 in
1920 to $23,000 by 2020 as Figure IV.4.5 shows.
Within the economy, considerable variation in the rates of growth of
various sectors Is expected. uGoods_producingu industries such as
agriculture, mining, and manufacturing will decrease in relative
importance, while those which are service-producing” (e.g., contract
construction, trade and finance, and government) will increase. This
changing pattern of employment Is exhibited in Figure IV.4.6. This
figure gives a detailed account of percentages of national employment
by broad industrial category.
The fact that employment in agriculture, forestry, and fisheries is
expected to show a steady decline from 12.5 percent of total national
employment in 1950 to 1.2 nercent in 2020 is worthy of spelcal atten-
tion, for combining all three of these categories masks the changes
that are actually taking place. A Bureau of Labor Statistics study
which treats each of the three categories separately for the years
1960-1975 anticipates:
(1) 1,978,000 fewer agricultural workers in 1975 than in
1960 (a percentage drop from 8.6 percent to 4.2 percent);
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Figure IV.4.4
ESTIMATED AND PROJECTED TOTAL PERSONAL INCOME IN THE UNITED STATES,
950 -2000
Billions of dollars
3000
2000
1000
800
600
400
300
200
100
1950
1960 1970 1980 1990
Source. £15. Deportment of Commerce, Office of Bus/ness Economics, Regional Economics Div/s/on.
2000
N )
C ,
cO
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Figure IV.4.5
ESTIMATED AND PROJECTED PER-WORKER EARNINGS IN THE UNITED STATES,
1950 -2000
1980
2000
Dollars
30,000
8,000
1950 1960 1970
990
Source: 11.5. Deportment of Commerce, Off/ce of Bus/ness Economics, Regional Economics Division.
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Figur. IV.4.6
PERCENT OF TOTAL CIVILIAN EMPLOYMENT IN THE UNITED STATES
Represented by “Goods-Producing’: “Service- Producing’ and “Government” Sectors,
1940-2000
Government
Service - Producing
Goods - Producing
Percent
I00
80
60
40
20
0
r\)
-J
940 1960
1980 2000
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IV-262
(2) an increase in forestry employment from 48,000 to
70,000;
(3) growth in fisheries employment from 45,000 to 60,000.
Both forestry and fisheries maintain constant shares of national
employment of .7 per cent and .6 percent respectively.
Employment in the “service-producing” sector should exhibit the
greatest proportional increase in the foreseeable future. The
services group will surpass both manufacturing and wholesale-retail
trade in percent of national employment by 1980.
IMPLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL PICTURE
If normal circinstances prevail, the Nation’s population and general
high standard of living will continue to increase in the coming
decades. A moderate estimate projects a doubling of the national
population bY the turn of the century, with a significant proportion
of that growth occurring in urban areas.
The population will be made up of a large proportion of youth and
young persons of working ages, with only a moderate increase in the
elderly through the end of the century. Personal income will rise
dramatically. Estimates of leisure time vary considerably, but all
authorities agree that the workweek will shorten, from a conservative
estimate of 35 hours a week to as little as 20 hours per week. The
National Planning Association has projected that in 1990, ten perceflt
and in 2000, twenty percent of the men between the ages of 25 and 54
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IV-263
will be granted a one-year leave every seven years. Urban and
particularly suburban growth will expand greatly both to accommo-
date the growing population and to provide amenities that it
Increasingly demands: single—family dwellings, recreational areas,
transportation facilities, industrial developments, and so on.
These demands will place rapidly increasing burdens on the Nation’s
resources and Its environment. These burdens, in turn, will tax
the ability of decision-makers and the Nation’s population to cope
with the complexity and insistence of the problems generated by a
post-industrial, urbanized society.
SECTION 2. TRENDS IN THE ESTUARINE ZONE
POPULATION AND ECONOMY
FUTURE POPULATION GROWTH IN THE ESTUARINE ZONE
The estuarine zone economic region includes the coastal counties
plus a few non-coastal counties included as part of estuarine zone
SMSAIs*. The overall recent population growth rate in the estuarine
zone economic region has exceeded that of the Nation as a whole.
From 1930 through 1960, the oopulation of the coastal counties and
SNSA’s increased 78 percent, compared to a national growth rate of
46 percent. Future population growth is projected to continue above
the national average, but at a somewhat lower rate. Estuarine zone
population is expected to more than double between 1960 and 2020 from
*SlllSpuas are Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas.
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IV-264
60 mIllion to 139 millIon persons. Approximately 35 percent of the
Nation’s total population will then be located on the land area
encompassed by the national estuarine economic region.
This report focuses on the characteristics of the major urban regions
presented In Figure IV.4.7. Three of the four major urban regions
anticipated by the year 2000 front on the coastal zone: the Atlantic
Seaboard Region, the Florida Peninsula Urban Region, and the California
“Megalopolis.” The Lower Great Lakes Urban Region does not border
the marine coastal zone but is contiguous to the Great Lakes.
Major characteristics of the three coastal-related major urban
regions are set out below:
(1) The Atlantic Seaboard Region extended from Augusta, Me.
to Prince William County, Va., in 1960, covering 50,553
square miles with a total population of 37.5 million. By
the year 2000 it will increase in size to 64,800 square
miles and will contain 78 million persons. It will then
extend south to Hampton Roads, Va. and increase in density
from 741 persons per square mile to 1,050.
(2) The Florida Peninsula Urban Region Included 11,300
square miles in 1960 and contained 3.3 million persons.
By the year 2000 the region is expected to cover 20,000
square miles and contain nearly 14 million people.
(3) The California Megalopo1isu will close the gap
between the two major urban areas existing in Calif. in
-------
Figurs IV.4.7
California —
“Megalopolis”
Urban Regions in the Estuarine Zones in the Year 2000
_______ Major Regions
Urban Regions in 2000
Other Regions
N)
( 1
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IV—266
1960, the Southern California Urban Region which extends
from the Mexican border in the south to San Maria on the
north and has a population of 8.9 million, and the Bay
Area-Central California Region, extending from southern
Monterey County to Sonoma County In the north and inland
to Modesto with a population of 4.9 million. In 2000
it will be an agglomeration of urban and metropolitan
zones 600 miles in length with a population of 44.5 million
people.
Graphic presentation of the growth of these major regions is presen-
ted in Figures IV.4.8, IV.4.9, and IV.4.l0.
The three other urban regions which are expected to develop in the
estuarine regions by the year 2000 are described below:
(1) The Central Gulf Coast is expected to have a popula-
tion of 2.1 million by 1980. By 2000 the region is projec-
ted to reach from Baton Rouge, La, to Pensacola, Fla. and
contain 4.7 million people.
(2) The Texas-Louisiana Gulf Coast roughly parallels the
coast and has experienced substantial growth in recent
decades. The region extends from Houston to Lake Charles,
La., and is expected to grow In population from 1.8 million
in 1960 to 5 million in 2000.
(3) The Puget Sound which will expand its area to include
additional population to the Canadian border, will
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IV-267
Figure IV.4.8
Atlantic Seaboard
Urban Region
URBAN REGION
GROWTH
2000
To
To
1980
To
1960
To 1940
Before 1920
0
100
200 MILES
-------
Figure V.4.9
Florida Peninsula Urban Region
To 2000
To 1980
To 1960
To 1940
Before 1920
IV-268
Ti
URBAN REGION
GROWTH
05
20 30 40 MILES
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IV-269
Figure IV.4.IO
California
“Megalopolis”
URBAN REGION
GROWTH
_____ To 2000
L To 1980
I 101960
To 1940
Before 1920
0 20 40 60 80 100 MILES
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IV-270
increase in,population from 2.5 million persons in
1980 to 3.6 million in 2000.
Urban growth has both a direct physical impact on estuarine resources
in the usurpation of land for development purposes, and an indirect
Impact in increased runoff., changed water composition, and increased
demand for water supplies.
Other implications are also important. By and large, urban popula-
tions are those which most strongly feel the effects - - good and bad --
of Increased per capita income, leisure time, and mobility. There
are, speaking very generally, three segments of the urban population
affected by these forces, and they react differently in terms of
the estuarine environment. The groups and the implications are:
(1) High Income: Urban residents with high income place
pressure on the estuarine environment some distance from
their place of residence. They are able to afford either
second homes or extended stays at vacation resorts. Much
of the total national demand expressed by that segment
of the population in the upper middle and high income
brackets falls on the non-urban portions of the coastal-
estuarine zone.
(2) Middle Income: Those persons with middle range incomes
either opt for new housing in the suburban ring surrounding
the central city or choose to remain within the central
city. In either case, their mobility is increased by their
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IV-271
ability to afford leisure time activities removed from
their place of residence. The pressure is likely to fall
on public areas in the coastal—estuarine zone.
(3) Low Income: Residents of the central city with low
incomes are not able to leave the confines of the central
city. Their enjoyment of the coastal-estuarine zone
resources Is tied tightly to the quality of the coastal-
estuarine interface within the central city Itself.
FUTURE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION GROWTH
IN THE BIOPHYSICAL RE(IONS
Table IV.4.l gives a comparative breakdown of population growth
rates in the estuarine economic areas defined by the Office of Business
Economics (OBE) compared to national growth. Individual areas
showing a population growth rate lower than the Nation s during the
1930-1960 period are clustered in the North and Middle Atlantic bio-
physical regions and include the Maine coast, ‘1assachusetts -Rhode
Island coast, New York and Northeast New Jersey coast and the
Philadelphia-New Jersey-Delaware areas. These areas, with the
possible exception of the Maine coast, are mature areas which
experienced an early growth in population and reached a large popu-
lation density relatively c uickly. They are now growing comparatively
slowly. Highest relative growth between 1930 and 1960 (more than
100 percent above the national average) took place in four areas:
Florida, the Mississippi-Alabama—West Florida coast, Texas, and
California. These areas are expected to experience extensive
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IV -272
TABLE IV.4.l
Population Growth Rates in OBE Estuarine Economic Areas
Compared to National Growth
1930 - 1960
National Population Growth Rate: 46 percent
Total Estuary Economic Region Growth Rate: 78 percent
Percent Difference +32 percent
Percent
Percent Difference to
Individual Estuary Economic Areas Growth Rate National Growth
1. Maine Coast 26 - 20
2. Massachusetts-Rhode Island Coast 22 - 24
3. Connecticut Coast 48 + 2
4. New York-Northeast New Jersey 38 - 8
5. Philadelphia- N.J.-Delaware 44 - 2
6. Maryland-Virginia Coast 103 + 57
7. North Carolina Coast 45 - 1
8. South Carolina Coast 79 + 33
9. Georgia-Eastern Fla. Coast 312 +266
10. Southern Florida Gulf Coast 261 +215
11. Central Florida Gulf Coast 75 + 29
12. Miss.-Ala.-W. F1a. Coast 174 +128
13. Louisiana Coast 79 + 33
14. Texas North Gulf Coast 178 +132
15. Texas South Gulf Coast 153 +107
16. Southern Calif. Coast 206 +160
17. Central Calif. Coast 135 + 89
18. Uorthern Calif. Coast 156 +110
19. Oregon Coast 93 + 47
20. Washington Coast 87 + 41
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IV-273
short— and long—term growth in the future. Significantly, these
areas also reflect a change in life style toward a suburban, leisure-
centered existence with its attendant demands for land- and water-
related activities.
Actual trends and projections of numbers of persons by OBE estuarine
economic area are given in Table IV.4.2 Table IV.4.3 demonstrates
population pressure on the available coastline and associated
estuaries. That pressure can he summarized as follows:
(1) The New York—Northeast New Jersey Coast Area, OBE
area 4 with a population density of nearly 4,000 persons
per square mile in 1970 (more than twice as high as the
next most densely populated area projected for 2000),
will continue to be the most populous area in the
United States and exert the most concentrated pressure on
remaining coastal open space and water quality from
municipal and other wastes;
(2) The southern North Atlantic and Middle Atlantic
Biophysical region, OBE areas 2 through 6, will continue
to experience the greatest concentration of population
and economic activity;
(3) The distribution of major population densities will
change from a heavy preponderance located in the North
Atlantic and Middle Atlantic region, to a more even
distribution including Florida, Texas, and California in
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TABLE IV.4.2
Estuari ne
Economic Region
Population Total
Population Density
Estuarine Economic Region and
1950-2000
in the
Individual Areas
1950
219.1*
1960
280.2
1970
330.7
1980
384.9
N)
1990
449.4
2000
516.9
Estuarine Economic Area
Population Total
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
57.7
827.7
463.0
3054.7
533.8
242.7
43.0
54.6
92.5
69.3
16.7
71.9
93.3
137.4
54.7
309.7
207.0
17.0
56.2
72.4
61.2
911.1
568.7
3506.4
645.6
311.4
49.3
67.9
170.3
133.9
21.5
104.5
121 .6
194.6
69.8
486.7
279.3
26.7
65.7
89.0
65.1
987.1
642.9
3904.8
720.8
369.6
50.9
73.3
238.7
173.1
22.8
124.7
143.7
225.9
78.7
640.7
357.4
32.9
71 .5
104.9
70.6
1088.8
720.7
4295.4
808.3
435.3
52.6
78.5
303.3
210.3
25.5
144.9
156.4
277.4
87.2
804.1
441.5
41.0
82.5
122.9
77.6
1214.5
817.5
4732.8
918.2
519.4
56.1
86.8
371 .3
244.2
29.1
174.0
171 .8
338.2
98.1
1003.7
541 .1
50.1
95.2
144.1
84.3
1341.4
907.7
5173.6
1032.1
606.1
60.0
96.5
448.0
291.1
33.7
204.7
189.3
412.1
108.7
1206. 1
643.2
59.6
107.5
166.9
Source: Computed from Office of Business Economics population projections
County Land Area measurements.
and Department of Con nerce
*Densjtjes are expressed in persons per square mile
-------
TABLE IV.4.3
and Projections of Population In the
Economic Region and Individual Areas
(Thousands)
.ituarine E onomic
egion Total
1950
1960*
1970
1980
1990
2000
o pu1ation -—
45,302.1
57,946.2
68,396.9
76,606.7
92,940.0
106,900.3
:stuarine Economic Area
opulation Total 1
471.7
499.7
531.5
576.7
633.6
688.2
2
4,355.4
4,794.3
5,194.3
5,729.2
6,390.6
7,958.2
3
761.2
934.9
1,057.0
1,184.8
1,343.9
1,492.2
4
13,593.6 ‘
15,603.5
17,376.5
19,114.4
21,061.0
23,022.3
5
4,399.3
5,320.8
5,939.9
6,661.5
7,567.1
8,505.8
6
4,473.0
5,739.5
6,812.8
8,023.3
9,573.3
11,172.1
7
447.1
511.7
529.0
546.1
582.7
623.0
8
374.8
466.2
503.2
539.0
595.7
662.2
9
1,432.5
2,637.8
3,698.7
4,699.3
5,752.5
6,941.1
10
547.7
1,058.7
1,369.0
1,663.1
1,931.0
2,302.7
11
98.0
126.5
134.2
150.2
171.0
198.1
12
563.0
818.5
977.0
1,135.3
1,363.3
1,603.2
13
1,177.8
1,535.3
1,814.7
1,974.4
2,168.6
2,930.0
14
1,324.7
1,900.8
1,206.7
2,710.4
3.304.1
4,026.1
15
441.5
563.8
635.6
704.1
792.3
878.2
16
17
18
5,233.5
2,944.2
78.0
8,224.9
3,972.6
122.7
10,826.2
5,084.6
151.0
1

13,586.9
6,280.3
188.1
16,906.1
7,696.9
230.1
20,381.0
9,150.2
273.8
19
1,091.4
1,276.8
1,389.3
1,602.7
1,849.6
2,087.7
20
1,493.7
1,837.3
2,165.5
2,536.8
2,972.6
3,444.1
Estimates
Estuarine
* For purposes of uniformity, 1960 data is taken from April 1 enumeration.
1’ .,
2 1
Source: Office of Business Economics, Regional Economics Division
-------
1V-276
the South Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific regions. Examples
of this shift in population concentration are found in the
Central Calif. Coast, which is expected to grow from a
population density of a little more than 350 persons per
square mile In 1970 to nearly 600 in 2000, and In, the Tex.
North Gulf Coast which will experience a population density
growth from 225 persons per square mile tn 1970 to over
400 per square mile in that same thirty year period;
(4) Although some a ’eas in the United States will remain
relatively lightly populated, the pressures of increased
population will be felt in even the most remote coastal
areas, if not by local population growth, then by increa-
sing demands of more urbanized populations for the ameni-
ties of the coastal zone; often expressed in terms of
seasonal Influxes;
(5) The effects of increased population density will vary
according to a number of considerations such as the
employment structure, distribution of the population within
the area, the biophysical environment, institutional
constraints, and so on;
(6) Finally, many of the conflicts generated by competing
demands on the estuarine resource, which are most visible
In today’s metropolitan areas, will intensify in those
areas in the future and extend to estuarfne areas which
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IV-277
are now relatively unmodified and free of intense
competitive demands.
FUTURE ECONOMIC ACTIVITY IN THE ESTUARINE ZONE
The estuarine economic region tn recent decades exhibits a rate of
economic growth slightly greater than the national average. Personal
Income in constant dollars expanded 177 oercent from 1929 to 1962,
while national personal income rose 170 percent. Nearly all parts
of the region are expected to either maintain positions of relative
wealth in the future or to increase their relative wealth.
Manufacturing is the principal export activity of the region, and
the significance of the region as a focus for industry is shown
by the level of concentration of employment. In 1960, about one-
half of the manufacturing Industries had a level of concentration
greater than the national level. Significant degrees of overall
specialization in the region are indicated in transportation equip-
ment excluding motor vehicles, petroleum refining, apnarel, and
In both printing and publishing and chemicals.
Certain industries of minor importance to the overall estuarine
zone economy assume great importance in smaller areas. The pulp-and-
paper and lumber-and—furniture industries, for exarnnle, play central
roles in such estuarine economic areas as the Me. Coast, the North
Carolina Coast, and the northern California Coast. In the Central
Florida Gulf Coast and the Texas South Gulf Coast forestry and
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IV-278
and fisheries predominate. Many of these economic activities locate
in various estuarine areas to take advantage of the unique natural
resources of the estuarine environment found there. These activiti-
ties are discussed in the next part of this chapter.
The overall economic growth of the estuarine zone will continue at
a high rate in future decades. Significant concentrations of indus-
try will continue in the relatively mature Middle Atlantic biophy-
sical region, while significant expansion will occur in the Gulf of
Mexico and Pacific blophysical regions. Marked differences will
occur, however, in the smaller areas making up these biophysical
regions, both in economic activity and population distribution.
FUTURE DISTRIBUTION OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
IN THE BIOPHYSICAL REGIONS
Economic activities vary greatly throughout the estuarine zone. The
principal determinants of economic activity have been the location
of natural resources, historic circumstances, availability of
substantial markets, and changes in technology.
The North Atlantic and Middle Atlantic Biophysical Regions
The New England marine States saw the country’s first economic
development. Basic resources defined the parameters of activity -
forests, fish, fur, and farmlands. Shipbuilding and trade flourished
around major centers of ocean-going transportation. The major
metropolitan areas of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia developed
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IV-279
around those endeavors. Their presence led to further expansion
from Massachusetts to New Jersey. Today four of the five OBE econo-
mic areas fronting on the North and Middle Atlantic biophysical
regions (with the exception of the Maine coast) have become considera-
bly less dependent on the forests and fisheries and have developed
into diversified, mature economics, increasingly service-providing
rather than goods-producing in character.
Maine’s continuing dependence on the natural resources of fisheries
and forests, and on its location in the coastal zone, is indicated
by high relative concentrations of transportation equipment manufac-
turing excluding motor vehicles (mainly shipbuildinq), paper and
allied products industries; and forestry and fisheries activities.
These concentrations are noticeably higher in the Maine Coastal Area
than in the other four associated areas in the North and Middle
Atlantic biophysical regions.
The other OBE estuarine economic areas in the North and Middle
Atlantic biophysical regions exhibit economic activity that is
more closely related to suoplying the sophisticated and diverse
demands of urban markets. All economic areas in these regions,
however, are highly deoendent on the estuaries for port facilities
to move the goods produced within their boundaries. In the case of
the Philadelphia-New Jersey-Delaware Coast, the combination of
large nearby markets and adequate port facilities has combined to
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IV-280
Stimulate a large petroleum refining and chemicals industry, even
though the raw materials for those manufactures must be imported.
The Chesapeake Bay Biophysical Region
The OBE economic area of the Maryland-Virginia coast corresponds
totthe Chesapeake Bay Biophysical Region. Although some of the
earliest settlements occurred adjacent to the Bay and its related
rivers, the area’s economy has developed later than those located
in the North and Middle Atlantic regions. However, the area has
followed the pattern of beginning with extractive industries built
upon the coastal natural resources of agriculture, forests and
fisheries, and then proceeding to develop a diversified economy.
In recent decades, this area has grown faster than the national
average, with civilian and military government located primarily in
the Washington Metropolitan Area and Hampton Roads, Newport News,
respectively, providing the impetus for much of the growth. The
Chesapeake Bay continues to provide an Important fisheries input
to the regional economy, but its importance relative to other,
sometimes competing, economic activities such as primary metals,
transportation services and shipbuilding has declined and is pro-
jected to continue to decline in the future.
The existence of a large steel producing plant at Sparrows Point
in the Chesapeake Bay is a further example of the development of
an Industry highly dependent on the estuarine environment for trans-
port by ship, but not for other natural resources.
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IV-28i
The South Atlantic Biophysical Region
This region includes the OBE estuarine economic areas of the North
and South Carolina Coast and the Georgia—Eastern Florida Coast.
The economic areas in the region have traditionally been producers
of raw materials in the form of agricultural products (particularly
tobaccoand cotton and more recently soybeans), finfish and shell-
fish, and forestry oroducts. The North Carolina Coast, and to a
somewhat lesser degree, the South Carolina Coast, continue to
exhibit significant concentrations of economic activity in these
areas. National defense activities dominate both of these areas,
with Charleston being the focus for considerable Naval activity.
Recreation and tourist activities dominate portions of the North
and South Carolina Coastal areas, notably the Cape Hatteras, North
Carolina; and Myrtle Beach, South Carolina resort areas.
The Georgia—Eastern Florida Coast area is not as dependent on the
natural resources 0 f forests and fisheries as North or South
Carolina, although Savannah, for instance, is a major center for
the manufacturing of paper and allied products. The importance of
the land-water interface, particularly in the Florida portion of
this area, Is centered on its value as a retirement and recreation
area. The total economy of the area has thus moved increasingly
to a service—producing economy with significant growth in profes-
sional services, contract construction, amusements, and similar
activities.
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IV—282
The Gulf of Mexico Bloohysical Region
This region extends from the southern Florida Gulf Coast economic
area to the Southern Texas Gulf Coast. Economic activities within
this region are extremely diverse, ranging from a high dependence
on agriculture, forestry and fisheries in the Central Florida Gulf
Coast area to the hiably industrialized petro-chernical and manufac-
turing economy located in the florth Texas Gulf Coast and centered
on the Houston-Galveston complex.
The Southern Florida Gulf Coast contains many service industries
drawn to the Tampa-St. Petersburg retirement and recreation area.
A high degree of specialization In contract construction in the
area attests to the tremendous growth of the housing and building
Industry to acconrodate the vast in-migration of recent years.
Although forestry and fisheries is declining in this area’s economy,
there is a continuing relative concentration of these activities in
the Southern Florida Gulf Coast area.
Central Gulf Coast area economic activity presents a nicture of
relatively slow growth and one which has traditionally taken
advantage of the natural resources of timber, agricultural land,
and marine fish which occur in the area. Forestry and fisheries are
very highly concentrated into this area.
The Mississippi-Alabama-West Florida Coast are economy is highly
dependent on the Federal military, esrecially in Pensacola, Florida.
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IV—283
However, the area shows great internal diversity. 1obile Bay is
the center of increasing manufacturing activity and shipping. Tex-
tiles play an increasing role in this economy as well as the more
traditional shipbuildinu activity and fisheries centered in the
Mobile Bay area. Harrison County, Mississippi, is the focus of a
growing pertr-chemical complex and other heavy industry dependent
on availability of crude oil, Increasing developing of the inland
waterway, and artificial ship-channel construction.
The Louisiana and Texas North and South Gulf Coast areas have all
experienced greater-than_Nation_average growth in the recent past
and are projected to continue this growth in the future. Much of
this growth is attributable to the discovery and extraction of the
coastal shelf petroleum deposits throughthe use of new technologies.
All three economic areas show significantly high concentrations in
the extractive phase of petroleum recovery (mining), the processing
phase (refining), and in the production of secondary oroducts
(chemical and allied products). In contrast, the traditional
Importance of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries, particularly in
the Louisiana and Texas South Gulf coasts, has declined.
It is interesting to note that the impact of the new petro-chemical-
based economy differs markedly among these areas. The Louisiana
coast experiences ample rainfall and abundant inflows of fresh water
provided mostly by the Mississippi River and its tributaries. In
contrast, the Texas coastal areas experience considerably less
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IV-284
rainfall and fresh water inflow, particularly as one mover south
along the coastline. The availability of fresh and brackish water
for increasing up-stream agricultural irrigation, domestic, and
industrial uses will therefore be considerably different in the two
coastal areas of Louisiana and Texas. This in turn will affect the
desired quality and quantity of water, and increase the management
problems faced by local, State and Federal Governments.
The Pacific Southwest Blophysical Region
Two of the three California OBE coastal economic areas located in
the Southwest blophysical region have sustained phenomenal growth,
both in population and economic activity. The manufacturing activi-
ties of both the Southern California and Central California coasts
are well diversified and expanding. Most of these developments are
dependent on estuarine natural resources, primarily for port facili-
ties and for some oil extraction In the Southern California Coast.
However, tremendous pressure on remaining coastal open space for
housing and development already exists and will inevitably increase
in the future.
The Southern California coast area is water-scarce and dependent
for its supply on sources outside the area. Central California t s
major estuary, San Fransicso Bay, will be affected by these Southern
California water demands. The California Water Plan, which calls
for significant diversion of fresh water inflow, presents major
problems of water quality management for this area.
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JV—285
The Pacific Northwest Biophysical Region
This region includes the Northern California Coast, the Oregon Coast
and the Washington Coast areas. These coastal areas are relatively
undeveloped except for the Portland and Seattle metropolitan areas.
All three areas remain specialized in economic activities related to
the ample forest and fisheries resources of this region. This region
is expected to show moderate growth rates in the future, with much
of this growth occurring in the two metropolitan areas of major
Importance. The concentration of both population and economic growth
In the Portland and Seattle areas will place heavy demands on the
Columbia River and Puget Sound estuarine areas, particularly as
demand grows for increased port facilities and associated industry,
pulp and paper manufacturing, and the processing of food and kindred
oroducts.
Table IV.4.4 suninarizes in some detail the major economic indicators
of individual OBE estuarine economic areas. The areas are grouped
roughly by biophysical regions.
The analysis of high-water-use industries conducted by the Bureau
of the Census provides a framework for analysis of the impact of
present and future economic activities on the Nation’s estuarine
zone. In 1964, the Census 0 f Manufactures showed that the five
major water-use industries in the United States, in order of magni-
tude of gross water intake, were the following: primary metal
-------
Coi n til-Lutuary
Ccanomic
Are i
Philadelphia-
New Jersey-
Del aware
Coast
3. CHESAPLAK [ DAY
oMSAs in the Lcanomic growth Rate
Are e
baltimore,
Washington, D.C.
and Ricisnond,
Newport Sews-
lang, ton Roads
and Ilorfolk-
Portsmouth,
VI rgl ni a
Le Ss than national average
(from a high comparative
base level of ecovonic
activity)
Slightly declining, hut
continuing above the
national average
Moderate Increase, main-
taining relative potition
0 f wealth versus the
national average
Concentration end Growth of imjor ln ,Jastrles
in the Ara (with location quotients of over
Lb. tha ,iational Aneegge)
Misc. nenufuctaring 12.43
nLlectrical equlpu.ent (2 .i)
-lautiles (2.3)
Apparel (IS)
+Food
+Non- ltctricil natninery
°Forestry and fi her1eS (in)
hMisc. mnufacturin (2.6)
+FeE,ricatad ewtalu A ordnance (3.3)
•Trsno qqaipa.ent, eucladiny uotor vehicles (3.7)
Oem-C lectricil aachine jl j _
ai ary omti1flT T
Paper (1.4)
Cheuicilt (1.3)
Apparel (2.9)
+M1 . nwnafact.arin ’j (1.4)
vElectricil equi nt (3.4)
-Printing and publishing (1.7)
food
u.Chemicals (1.5)
vother transportation servicpt (2.2)
+Misc. manufacturing (In)
uliectrical equlement (1’)
ochenicels (2.9)
-Apparel (1+)
+food (1+)
+p,tro1eue refining T21F
Other transportation services (I.)
+ ljoverjsnent
Public Adein. (2.9)
Armed Forces (3.2)
+Trans. equipment, eacludin’, metor vehicles (1.5)
+Prir tIng and publishing (1.2)
Primary metals _______
-Fsrestry and fisherf (2.2)
Other transportation services (1.3)
Total manufacturing; Tentills
(though the importince of this
industry Is declining sharply)
Total manufacturing; Chemicals;
Paper; Primary Metals
TABLE IV.4.4 SUMMARY OF ECONOMIC INDICATORS IN THE ESTUARINE ECONOMIC AREAS,
SET OUT BY BIOPHYSICAL REGIONS -
Projected r,rewth Rat.
‘ -4
r’)
0 ,
C ’s
Significant ugh later tine
lndu tri m s
Misc. manufacturing (2.2)
hTrans. eq ,ai vnt. eaclading
Food and blared products
Paper md allied produCts
metor vehicles (3.3)
(1.2)
(3.6)
Paper and allied products
.
.T,otilis (2.0)
-L ,a ’t er and furniture 1.6
T
aFnrestry and flnher me
1.
lOATh AILNITIC
Main. Coast
Portland
Less thin nation.l average
(from a low comparative base
level of econe.”i activity)
Moderate increase,
reaching national average
Massachusetts-
Rhoda Island
io$ton, Lawrence-
uhaveriiill, Lowell.
Less than national average
(from a high comparative
Slightly declinin” hut
COntinuini abOve the
Coast
urocktoe, liw
ledford, Pall
River and Provi-
dence- Pawtucke
Warwick
base level of economic
activity)
national average
2.
MIDP..C ATLANTiC
Connecticut
Coast
dew London-
Groton -ilorwich,
Meriden, New
haven and
Waterbury
Less than national average
(from a high c(x arative
base level of economic
activity)
Slightly declining but
cvstlnuln ” above the
national average
Ncw furl,-
NortheCut
New Jersey
uhridgeport, Norwalk
and Stamford, Cons.,
end N,w York. sew
York & ,3.rE.y City,
Newark and Paterson-
Clifton-Passaic.
1 1mw Jersey
LeSs than nationvl average
(Iron a high coeiparatlve
babe level of economic
activity)
Slightly declining, but
likely to remain as the
focal point of American
economic activity in the
future
Philadelphia,
Wiln lngton,
Delaware &
Atlantic City,
Mew Jersey
Maryland-
Virginia
Coast
greater than national
average
Chemicals; Ipotile nill products
Total manufacturing; Food; Chemicals;
Paper and allied products and
petroleun refining
Primary metals
-------
TABLE IV.4.4 SUMMARY OF ECONOMIC INDICATORS IN THE ESTUARINE ECONOMIC AREAS,
SET OUT BY BIOPHYSICAL REGIONS (continued)
4, 50611 OTIAST IC
North Carolina dlloinytOn, ‘liyhtly 3reater than
Coast North Ljroli ’’a anoroir (Iron’ Inn base
level of evonovin aot.lvity)
‘lovlerate increate, hot
cotitineln . ’ helonu 1’,,
nation , t averiqe
Ames ’ Forces
—A ’ 3 ri c v i tune
-Lungver and furniture (C’.?)
I Sod
-Apparel
• leo t leo
p ’ 5 try and fli ) ( rT TT1T
Food; leotiles, Paper and paper
prodacts
South Carolina Charleston, r,rnicnn than 600na ’or (Iron,
Coast South Carolina a low has,’ level of rcono,’tic
aCtlultd (
Moderate lnrreanr, hut
continolni below top
notional mervin’
Arr d lorces
ejrlculturn
•Tr,nspontatlnr. equip’neel, end lie’,’ motor vehlcl s (3.1)
-Candor an ’ ; iurolturc 2.’))
pporavdMlindfrodocts
010rostry any fisheries T ,.4)
Paper a,]! paper products
S. Gulf uf o1to
vu them
Florida (0 ,10
CoaSt
Savannah, ia
Jackcn,nnilie,
Nest Pal’’ rich,
Ft. C aouerU lc’-
(01 iy’aooa I
Alan!. plo.
Conisldrrai.le increase,
,‘alntalnlnn wealth nOcitlOn
equal In thet or the nation.
Considerable Increase,
nvlntalnln,n a oealth i ’osltlen
toinnwhwt lets then that nf
the notion
o ’ uera ices
100 ],
4 1,uf act , ,rifl ’ )
P u nrU .4)
,restry an, fl (7erln Tl ,TT
4 services
yortraht c005t ruotj or
disc . ,eunulactvrlo 3
-T ’ 5 try an, fisher no I ,. iT
Cent ro
Florida hull
Coast
trcater than national
averaqe )Fror,r a Ito,
hooparatlen base lb’un,l 1,1
vcvec,vln activity
Consijeralle increase,
hot re , ,alnlo , 1 brloo tee
national avcrape
Soverrnren t
ArnoJ Services (5.2)
ohaper 00.5 paper products (1.6)
•Luoker aod furniture (23)
Food and kip lend roduc to
-Forestry and Fisheries (ITfJ
- 65 p Ic u Ito on
Paper and paper ornniucts; P0041 ansI
kindred products
.blsslssippi-
I,labav ,a-
yost Florida
Coast
Pensacola, non .a Sreatnr thy,, rallonol
an ,, foUlln, dlv. averaje )frc’’ a lo ,o
vol paralivi ‘rave level of
ec005, ,,in activity)
Louisiana . 5ev Orleans, treater thor nati oe,’l
Loas t Lafayette vol a ,c ’ra.p. (I mm , a rn, t I en Ii
Lake Liar leo hI ’jh Cqm ’ ,paraTi’ne base
load o t ncoooo ,tc
activity)
Otooer,s,mnn t
MOd forces
npaper and paper products (0.1)
olnansportution oqutpnent, eacloOln eotvr vehicles (1.9)
-Feod and kindred product S
vyvotiles (1.3)
Forestry And Fisferies (5.2)
Food and kindred productS (1.5)
vPetrvie ,uo , refinin 1 (4.3)
*Clnaoicvls (1.1)
Transportation
orlin ny
-Fvrvstry and fisherues (4.5)
-dqriculture
OI,ttoer transportatIon sereles (3.6)
Petrolevei refieinq, Chemicals; Food and
kindred products
teorqla-
Las tern
Florida
Coast
Cons 1 bra, ly ‘toni lrr than
tne no In anal .noeraqe
Cons 13,-rat, ly ‘jrrato’r
thin avnna’Je
ian ,pa-St.
Potorn .tuur ;
1 oper and falser prOdu t5
Food and kindred products
‘Itynrate lncroov , inCrnncln ,
In r,allonal averaqe
‘niatively stable, ,,dlntvinln. 1
a level nnv ,e,.,ha 0 less than Oh, I
vF tire ration
Paper and paper products, textiles
O ,nI,s .Il,v ,n ,e,nor vvhlriov
Co
-------
TABLE IV.4.4 SUMMARY OF ECONOMIC INDICATORS IN THE ESTUARINE ECONOMIC AREAS,
SET OUT BY BIOPHYSICAL REGIONS (continued)
Te,us dortil lout ton,
Only COa,t d i Ont
Port Arthur.
)ranye.
talo n ton-
l.nas CIty.
Tenas South Corpus Christi.
Gulf Coast Brownsville-
Harlingen-San
Bini to
Coos niably yre,ter than
the national aiim-jr (a
jn.paratinely renent
p ’mnoenon)
Considerably greater than
the national average (from
a low comparative baie level
of economic ictivity)
Potmoleun rif1ninq thunicals
nnlA alilid pmnduutl. Prinory
nnt al O
Moderate Increase, but
continuing below the national
average
o$ilniv 9 (mainly p.trvlon.)(2.9)
vP.trol...m ‘vfinin (13.0)
+Chemicall (3.1)
•ssva.Llect, -ical machit , L3
Oilier transportation oem con
Agrt culture
Food (1.1)
+Primary metals(l.l)
sChomicall (1.5)
•Pstrolauan refining (3.O
-Fortstry and fisheries (5.6)
s$ilnIn9 ( 3.4)
Petmoleaun refining; Chemicals and
allied products; Primary metals
Chemicals und allied products;
Petroleom refining; Primary metals
OD
Southern Los Angelan-
CalifOrnia 10mg Beach,
Coast San Diego, Santa
Barbara, Ounird
Ventura and
Anaheim—Santa Ave
-Garden Grove
Central San Francisco-
California Oakland, Vallejo
Coast Napa, Salinas-
Monterey and
San Jose
Greiter them the national
average
+Transportatiov equipment, edcludlmg motor vehicles (4.0)
+Fabricated metals and ordnance (1.8)
+tlectrical equipment (1.5)
+Ailuc. manufacturing
oman-Electrical machinery
*Food and kindred products
+5 .rvic,$ —_______
uPetroleuni refIning (1.5)
+Govsr tsnant
+Service s
Food (1.3)
+Fabricated metals & Ordnance (1.3)
Electrical equipmeat
Printing dnd publishing (1.1)
mOther Transportation Sernites (1.9)
Petroletan refining (1,8)
Oregon
Coast
Portland,
Eugene
Washington Seattle-
Coast Everett,
Tacoma
Somewhat greater than the
national uverape
Somewhat greater than
the national average
Moderate increase, equal
to that of the national average
Moderate increase,
maintalnini relative
wealth of the area versus
the natlomal average
Luwher and Furniture (7.0)
Food and kindred products
+Paper (2.7)
Forestry and TTsheries (4.2 )
Other transportation services (1.4)
+Trarss. equipment. eucludioç motor vehicles (6.7)
-Lus .r and furniture (3.0)
Food avG kindred products
Printing and publishing
Paper and allied products (1.7 )
Forestry and fisheries (3.?)
Other transportation services (1.8)
Paper amd allied products
Paper and allied products
4: Fast Growth Industries
-: Slow Growth or declining in regional importance
• Those economic activities listed under the
solid line are concentrated iv the Area, but are
NOT major contributors to Area employment.
6. PACIFIC SOUTMWESI
Considerably greater than
national average (from
relatively high base lanel
of economic activity)
Moderate increase,
maintaining a position of
wealth relative to the
nation
Greater than national average Moderate increase, maintainimn
(from a relatively high base a position of wealth relative
level of economic activity) to the nation
iAorthern
California
Coast
Total manufacturing activity; Fond and
kindred products. Petroleum refining
Food and kindred products
Moderate increase, maintain- Lcai er and Furniture (1gb)
ing relative wealth of the Food and kindred products
area versus the national average Forestry avG fisheries (11.6 )
-------
IV-289
industries; chemicals and allied products; paper and allied products;
petroleum and coal products; and food and kindred oroducts.
Ranked in order of brackish water use (which may Include use of
estuarine water), chemicals and allied products were overwhelmingly
the highest water user, nearly equalling the totals of the other
four highest users, which were the following: petroleum and coal
products; primary metal industries; paper and allied products and
food and kindred products. The two industries that exhibited signi-
ficant Increases in brackish water use between 1954 and 1964 were
chemicals and allied products, and primary metals.
-------
IV-290
SECTION 3. TRENDS IN SELECTED ACTIVITIES ASSOCIATED
WITH THE ESTUARINE ZONE
The discussions in the preceding sections give some indication of
the pressures placed on the estuarine resources in recent years
and those that may be expected in the future. This section presents
the discernible trends of some specific activities associated with
the estuaries. Where possible, projections are made of the likely
results of these trends.
For convenience of presentation and examination, different
activities are discussed separately; however, it must be emphasized
that these activities are closely interrelated and often place
additive and conflicting demands on the estuarine environment. In
short, because these activities all take place in the limited area
of the landwater interface, and affect the land frontage, water,
and blota of the zone, problems of management are inescapable.
The activities selected for detailed attention are those which have
a particularly close relationship to the resources that occur in
the estuaries, open coastline, and near-shore waters. Other activi—
ties that are found in the estuarine zone, but are not directly
tied to the natural resources existing there, are given less
attention. The corcepts of primary, secondary, and marginal activ—
Itles (Figure IV.3.l) are used with these definitions:
-------
IV-29l
(1) Primary activities are those uses which by their
nature are locationally tied to the estuarine zone;
(2) Secondary activities are those uses that are closely
associated with primary activities and as a consequence
have a significant tendency to locate in the estuarine
zone; and
(3) r 1 arginal activities are those uses which are not
directly tied to the estuary zone, but which tend to be
found in areas of urban-suburban development.
Harvesting finfish and shellfish for food and other uses is an
example of primary activity associated with the estuary zone, while
plants constructed to process the catch denote secondary activities.
Marine waterborne commerce is directly tied to the estuary port
system and is thus considered a primary activity. The naval arm of
the national defense capability is likewise firmly linked to existing
ports and harbors and is thus a primary activity. Specialized
facilities and provision of logistical support for these primary
coninercial shipping and naval activities are secondary activities.
Industries which require frontage on navigable waters to receive or
distribute bulk raw materials and/or processed goods by ship are
primary activities. Examples of this type of industry are petroleum
transportation (often closely tied to secondary processing activities),
-------
IV-292
export of bulk coninodities such as lumber and grain products, some
primary metal refining, and shipbuilding.
Many other activities compete for locations tn the estuary zone,
drawn by the inflow of raw materials, by extensive markets, or by
the availability of transportation networks in significant protions
of the zone. Examples of secondary activities which are located in
the estuarine zone are pulp and paper mills, fossil or nuclear power
plants —- where location must be balanced with the distance to con—
suiners of energy -— chemical and food processors, and primary metals
refineries.
Despite the fact that the estuarine environment supplies relatively
unique resources which attract many primary and secondary activities,
the greater part of economic activity, particularly in the relatively
mature economies of the Northeast, Middle Atlantic and West coasts,
is not directly dependent on the natural resources of the estuarine
environment. The service sectors of the economy dominate most of
these marginal activities and range from garbage collection to con-
struction of office buildings. Many other marginal activities are
drawn to the land—water interface for aesthetic reasons, such as
restaurants, hotels and specialty shops. The resulting mix of
many economic activities, with significant variations in proportional
make—up of primary, secondary and marginal activity, characterize
-------
IV293
the dominant urban-suburban environment which exists and will
increase in the estuarine zone and coastline of the Nation.
Trends and projections for marine fisheries, transportation and
national defense, marine mining and processing, recreation, and
waste discharge are presented here. Where appropriate, the dis-
cussion of these subjects is related to the biophysical regions and
OBE estuarine economic areas.
MARINE FISHERIES
The Nation’s fishing industry has been widely characterized as
relatively undeveloped in management and operation, inferior to the
competing fishing fleets of other nations in technology, under-
capitalized, and relatively weak in respect to both the national
economy and to foreign competition. This consensus of opinion is
supported by numerous comparative statistics.
The Industry has grown relatively slowly in productivity over the
years. From 1925 through 1966, the quantity of catch increased by
only 60 percent. During the same period, the rise in the amount
paid to fishermen for their catch was only slightly higher, increas-
Ing something less than 100 percent. In fact, the average annual
catch per fisherman has remained below the 1957—1959 average
since 1964.
-------
IV-294
The Industrial Fishery
Industrial uses of commercial fish, rather than human consumptive
uses have accounted for most of the increase in tonnage in the
recent past, as indicated in Figure IV.4ll, This trend Is
particularly evident in the more recent period between 1961 and
1966. Industrial uses of marine fish are primarily for fish oils,
fish solubles and fish meal. These basic products are used mainly
for industrial processing, pet food, agricultural feed (particularly
for chickens) and fertilizers.
The primary species caught for industrial use is the menhaden, an
estuarine—dependent fish. Productive areas for this fish have been
the Middle Atlantic, Chesapeake, South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico
biophysical regions. Production in the Middle Atlantic region has
decreased markedly in recent years, and the catch in the Chesapeake
Bay has fluctuated. Fishing pressure for menhaden in all regions
has Intensif led, and may have reached the point of overharvest in
some localized areas. This pressure has continued despite declines
in the wholesale price for fish meal partly brought on by foreign
competition, particularly from anchovies from the Humboldt Current
grounds off Peru. Figure IV.4.12 indicates the growing foreign
share of the industrial fish catch.
-------
Figure IV.4.lI
HUMAN CONSUMPTION AND INDUSTRIAL USE OF DOMESTIC FISH CATCH,
1925-1965
Pounds (millions)
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
925
965
930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960
Source. Bureau of Commercial F, her/es.
-------
Figure iV.4.12
FOE (iN AND DOMESTIC SHARES OF TOTAL INDUSTRIAL FISH CATCH,
1957-1967
0
Pounds (b Uions)
I0
8
6
4
2
0
1957 1958 1959
1960 1961 1962 1963 1964
(965 (966 (967
-------
IV -297
In 1958, imports of industrial fishery products accounted for
35 percent of the total United States supply; in 1967, imports
accounted for 82 percent of the total. This increasing share of
imported industrial fish products contributes to the balance of
payments problem In the national economy as well as directly affect-
ing the economic base of the domestic fishing industry.
It must be noted, however, that increased harvesting of industrial
fish is ultimately dependent on existing renewable supplies of the
resource. Mthough some sizeable stocks of under-utilized species
exist, such as the thread herring in the Gulf of Mexico, other
stocks may be over-fished, now or in the future. Further degrada-
tion or destruction of the estuarin nursery grounds for menhaden
could well reduce or eliminate this major domestic source of
industrial fish.
The Edible Comercial Fishery
Despite the growth on the industrial fish sector, edible fish
continue to dominate the overall fisheries market in terms of value,
as Table IV.3.4 indicates.
Shrimp
Penaeidean shrimp, the most valuable commercial fish resource, are
dependent upon the estuary for nursery grounds and are then harvested
-------
IV-298
in coastal shelf waters. Almost all domestic harvesting of this
shellfish occurs in the Southern South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico
biophysical regions. Particular estuarine economic areas that sup-
port this fishery and allied processing are the Georgia-Eastern
Florida Coast, the Louisiana Coast, the Mississippi-Alabama—West
Florida Coast and the Texas North and South Gulf Coasts.
Recent and projected trends show a strong and increasing demand
for shrimp although prices have Increased rapidly. The ability to
supply these increasing demands In the future is dependent, to a
great extent, on the continuing supply of domestic shrimp. It is
estimated that the shallow water shrimp fishery is already fully
utilized and perhaps over—fished in the traditional South Atlantic
and Gulf of Mexico grounds. While the deep water shrimp supplies are
estimated to be large and are relatively untapped, there are con-
siderable technological problems in locating and harvesting these
shrimp.
The continued existence of domestic shrimp to meet rising market
demands is uncertain. Recent declines in shrimp landings have been
noted in estuarine areas of relatively little industrial and popula-
tion pressure and in areas of considerable economic and population
concentration. For example, in Florida’s Apalachicola Bay, the
shrimp fishery experienced a dramatic decrease in the short period
-------
IV—299
between 1964 and 1967. The 1967 catch was less than 17 percent of
the 1964 landings. Nearby St. George Sound experienced a similar
decline during the same period. The decline in local supplies of
shrimp forced Apalachicola fishermen to extend their operations to
the Tortugas Area of Florida, which not only increased their opera-
ting costs, but —— more significantly -- added to the heavy pressure
already applied to the Tortugas shrimp fishery.
Galveston Bay, a steadily growing population and industrial center,
has been a prime nurse ground for shrimp and a major area of shrimp
harvesting and processing. These primary and secondary fishery
activities are threatened by the degradation of the Galveston
estuarine environment by industrial and municipal pollution, by
dredging and filling, and by decreases in the quantity and quality
of freshwater inflows. Although market demand and prices rose
steadily from 1962 through 1966, and fishing pressure increased,
the total Galveston catch declined drastically from 4,192,900 pounds
in 1962 to 1,941,000 in 1966. Although a direct causal relation-
ship between estuary degradation and this decline in catch cannot
be demonstrated at this time, it is reasonable to conclude that the
cumulative effect of degradation acts to reduce available supplies
of shrimp.
-------
IV-300
Oysters
The record of the oyster industry in the United States is a continu-
ing story of depletion in absolute quantity and decline in the use-
fulness of remaining beds. Declines have taken place in nearly all
estuary areas that naturally supported oyster populations. Depletion
has occurred for many reasons, both natural and man-induced.
Natural catastrophes have depleted the oyster beds over time. The
hurricane of 1954 in Narragansett Bay, for example, Is considered
the prime factor In the destruction of beds and the decline of the
secondary processing Industry in that location. By 1956 the oyster
harvest from Narragansett Bay had declined to 31,000 pounds, from
252,000 pounds in 1953. In 1957, the last remaThing oyster dealer
went out of business.
Most of the reduction in domestic oyster production, however, can
be attributed to man’s activities in the estuaries. Examples of the
diminution or extinction of this resource are many. New Jersey’s
Raritan Bay, an outstanding producer of oysters for the New York
market in the nineteenth century, is now almost barren of this
shellfish, mainly due to municipal and industrial waste discharge.
A study in Shelton, Washington, Indicated that suiphite waste dis-
charge from paper pulp manufacturing almost surely brought about a
serious decline in the oyster population.
-------
V-3O1
Many areas of oyster production for human consumption are closed
because municipal wastes contaminate oysters with bacterial matter.
Silting due to dredge operations has appreciably diminished the
quality of many former oyster—producing areas. The silt may actu-
ally smother the beds, or may so seriously disturb the estuary floor
as to cause deleterious effects from lowered amounts of dissolved
oxygen. This process, which has been observed in parts of Galveston
Bay, produces hydrogen sulfide and releases concentrated amounts of
toxic chemicals in bottom sediments.
The decrease in production and consumption of oysters due to natural
or man-induced causes is exacerbated by changes in consumer prefer-
ence, lack of mechanized shucking and packaging procedures, and
increasing labor costs. Perhaps the most difficult problem is
presented by the legal labyrinth surrounding ownership and use of
oyster beds. Management and sound overall economic use of the oyster
resource is almost impossible under present institutional constraints
which range from public ownership in Massachusetts to a tangle of
leasing and private ownership in such areas as Georgia, the Chesa-
peake Bay, and James River estuaries.
The future of a viable oyster industry, and the continued availability
of a delicate and nutritious food, is thus linked not only to the
quality of the biophysical environment, but to the workings 0 f the
economic and institutional environment as well.
-------
I V -302
Anadromous Fish
Landings of anadromous fish, particularly those of economic
importance such as the salmon and shad, have declined in numbers,
while retail markets have generally shown a steady improvement.
The diminution of the continental salmon fishery provides a classic
example of the damage inflicted on fisheries by biophysical modif I-
cation. As dam—building, lumbering, and ot’-e ’ kinds of man’s
activities Increased, the once-abundant salmon catches declined.
The Atlantic Salmon has almost completely disappeared from the east
coast. On the west coast, reduction in the quality and quantity
of freshwater, sedimentation in spawning areas, pollution of the
transitional zones in estuaries, and heavy fishing pressure by both
sport and coninercial fishermen have combined to reduce the once-
flourishing salmon industry.
Most of the domestic catch now comes from salmon dependent on the
streams, rivers and estuaries of Alaska, since that State is for
the most part free of the physical and biological modifications made
by man in the other Pacific Coast States. Growth of logging, oil,
natural gas, and hydroelectric activities may alter this situation
drastically in coming decades. Even without these modifications,
which have little-known effects on the possible sustained yield of
Alaskan Salmon, this fishery faces serious economic and institutional
-------
IV-303
problems. Fishing pressure is rising significantly because of
increased numbers of fishermen and improved harvesting technology,
while catch per fisherman has declined greatly. Increases in
market price sustained this odd circumstance, as Figure IV.4.13 shows.
Future Prospects
Examples of the historical decline and projected pressures on the
domestic coniiiercial fishery could be multiplied many times. The
market demand for fishery products is growing and is projected to
rise sharply in the near future, but the amount of that market
which will be supplied by imports is not yet clear.
It is the conclusion of many experts in the field that a harsh
choice must be made in the near future: either the management of
the Nation’s estuarine resources will be substantially strengthened,
institutional constraints relieved, and the trend toward degradation
of the estuarine environment stemmed, or the supply of commercially
valuable finfish and shellfish to meet rising demands will diminish.
Mariculture, the manipulation of the estuarine or marine environment
to increase production of commercial species, is often cited as a
method to overcome the depletion of natural stocks and fill
increasing market demands for fish products. The ability of
artificial culture to significantly increase yields has been
-------
FIGURE IV.4.13 TOTAL ALASKA SALMON CATCH
(POUNDS & VALUE), 1927-67
IV-304
(0
0
Year
S rce: Bure i or Commercial Ftsherles
-------
IV-305
proven in countries such as Japan where shrimp, oyster, and certain
finfish are raised on a profitable basis. However, the economic
use of mariculture is in its infancy in the United States. Although
the ultimate impact of quaculture practices would appear great,
increasing yields from five to as much as twenty times, the present
economic and social climate would seem to indicate that the impact of
mariculture will be relatively slight In immediate future decades.
When other ancillary values are added, it would apoear that proper
management of the natural estuarine environment is a preferable
course of action both to oreserve and perhaps enhance the production
of fish and maintain the quality of this unique environmental
resource.
COMMERCIAL AND NATIONAL DEFENSE TRANSPORTATION
Commercial
An environment favorable to transportation has been one of the
most significant historical factors in coastal and estuarine
development. Settlements originated at the sites of coastal
harbors and at the mouths of rivers because of the accessibility
of these areas to trading vessels. The coniiierce which passed
through these centers encouraged further growth and development.
The coastal and estuarine areas also saw rapid development of air,
rail, and highway systems because the main demand was located there
-------
IV- 306
and the terrain presented few obstacles. Connecting links were
needed between the coastal trade centers and the hinterlands, and
the level land available along the coasts, bays and rivers was the
natural location for railroads and highways for both engineering
and economic reasons. Airports also require large tracts of level
land, and a waterside location affords the benefits of unobstructed
and unpopulated approach zones. This concentration in coastal and
estuarine centers has continued as these areas have maintained
their growth and thereby further stimulated the maximum utilization
and exapnslon of transport facilities.
Airborne comerce has experienced considerable growth. Some
statistics are available to relate it to estuarine locations.
Figure IV.4.l4 gives some historical data on airborne import and
export conrerce by coastal Customs Districts. Airport location on
or near an expanse of water is desirable because it affords un-
obstructed approaches and reduces noise problems. Airports are
presently located in estuarine areas in Boston, New York (both
Kennedy and La Guardia), Washington, Norfolk, San Diego, San
Francisco and Oakland.
A further element which will almost certainly affect the estuarine
zone Is the development of new ports. For example, if the proposed
free port in Maine becomes a reality there will be a rapid prolifera-
tion of all types of conrercial transportation to service that port
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Figure IV.4. 14
AIRBORNE EXPORTS AND IMPORTS AT COASTAL CUSTOMS DISTrICTS,
1963-1966
IMPORTS
York
1963 1964 1965 1966 1963 1964 1965 1966
Source: Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States; /966 and /967
EXPORTS
Pounds (millions)
400
300
—San Francisco
Angeles
200
100
0
San Francisco
S-Los Angeles
York
-------
IV-308
area and to provide a network for distribution. Since major refin-
ery operations are part of the proposed plans, this development will
Include pipelines and associated petro-chemical facilities, and other
modes of land transport. Such a free port could have far-reaching
effects on the present distribution of cargo tonnages at east coast
ports as well as develop an estharine area which is now relatively
pristine.
Another factor which could significantly affect the trade distribution
of all ports Is the development of the suoer-tanks and larger dry
cargo vessels. These carriers require up to sixty-foot channel and
berthing depths. This will call for an enormous dredqing operation
In most ports, where maximum dredqecj channel depth now is around forty
feet. Some places, like New York, have already been dredged to bed-
rock level, so blasting would be necessary to go deeoer. An alterna-
tive solution is to establish offshore dockina facilities for the
super-ships and bring their cargoes ashore through oi elines or in
lighter-type ships. The bottom clearance reauirements of these ships
are considerably smaller, which would mean far less dredging for chan-
nel maintenance. However, the current world merchant fleet will no
doubt continue to operate for at least another 20 years, which means
that channels would have to be maintained at least until this genera-
tion of shios has been phased out.
It has also been suggested that a decrease in the number of norts
might prove more economical in the handling of the suoer fleet because
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IV-309
of its enormous cargo capacity. Improved off-loadlnq technology and
larger warehouses will be necessary to handle the increased tonnage,
and it would be Inefficient to develop a whole network of these faci-
litles, some of which might lie idle part of the time. Furthermore,
many smaller ports probably could not generate enough demand to warrant
development of suner shin capabilities.
The expansion of land transportation can be exoected to Darallel
port development in the future as it has In the nast. Pipeline cons-
truction will develor, concurrently with oil production--probably at
a rapid rate since the demand for natural gas and netroleum products
Is expected to triple over the next thirty years. The future of rail
transport is difficult to assess, not so much because of demand fac-
tors but because the roads (oarticularly in the East) are undergoing
a period of administrative restructuring and a consolidation of service.
The Houston-Galveston Bay complex demonstrates how a good harbor can
encourage the growth and develooment of an area and begin a demand
spiral that leads to more intensive utilization of the harbor and the
development of other transport facilities. The Port of Houston is now
the third largest U.S. seaport in terms of total tonnage moved. In
1963, approximately one—third of Houston’s economy was linked to the
ship channel, the port and the resultant industry. Total investment
flowing from the nort facilities and related industries exceeded $2.5
billion that year The dredging of the Houston Ship Channel and the
development of cargo facilities has thus been of major consequence in
the development of this area.
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IV—310
Table P1.4.5 shows the significance of transportation and its con-
comitant, wholesale trade, for the Houston-Galveston Bay area for the
years 1956 and 1967. The Port of Houston is served by six trunkline
railroads, 38 motor freight carrIers, 8 barge lines, 11 export packers,
35 freight forwarders, 19 stevedorlng companies, and a large number of
marine outfitters and ship chandlers. More than 100 steamship lines
offer service to all free-world ports. Future demand for all types of
transportation Is expected to increase as the population grows and
industry expands.
The San Francisco Bay Conservation and Develooment Comission has done
an excellent case study of the transportation pressures being exercised
in its estuarine area. San Francisco was founded as a port city, and
shipping is still of primary importance to the entire economy of the
Bay area. In addition to the economic impact of the shipoing industry
Itself, there are many other businesses and industries that have been
drawn to the region because of the availability of water transport.
In 1965, Checchi and Company estimated that 50,000 jobs were attribut-
able to general-cargo shipping and industries deoendent on shipping.
This represented a payroll of about $820 million.
By tonnage, the principal cargo passing throuqh the San Francisco Bay
is petroleum. This tonnage Is expected to increase significantly in
the future, and bring with it deep draft tankers with drafts as much
as 60 feet. At this time, however, there are no reliable estimates of
the impact of this future increase in San Francisco port traffic, nor
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IV-3 11
TABLE IV.4.5
Transportation—Wholesale Trade Industries
Bay Area, 1956 and 1967
1956
1967
384,891
608,865
Trade 62,790
96,550
Percentage
16.3
15.9
$1,535.6
$3,053.6
Trade 255.6
637.2
Percentage
16.7
18.2
25,465
34,187
Trade 2,977
4,269
Percentage
11.7
l2.
Source: County Business Patterns , 1956, 1967.
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IV-312
are there reliable methods to measure the conflictino values and costs
presented by this pehnomenon.
NATIONAL DEFENSE
The use of estuarine and coastal ports has always been an essential
need of the national defense system for the movement of weapons,
troops, and supplies to and from overseas bases and operations zones.
Table IV.4.6 itemizes amounts of military cargo and passengers tran-
shipped by area for two recent years. Tons and dollar value of cargo
went up appreciably from FY 1966 to FY 1967, while numbers of passen-
gers decreased. The impact of the Vietnam war can be seen In the com-
parison of figures for the Eastern and Western areas for the two years.
However, it Is a primary item of Defense policy that facilities be
available for use In all coastal areas to meet particular military
logistics requirements at any time.
Future demands for the use of estuarine and coastal areas by the
Department of Defense are difficult to project since they will vary
greatly according to the state of International affairs and the impact
of technological developments. The Office of Business Economics has
regarded military employment as a constant after the year 1980 because
of this lack of predictability. The examples qiven in Chapter 3 of
the impact of Naval activity on Narragansett Bay and San Diego Bay
give at least a general Idea of the magnitude of present and future
military activities In the Nation’s estuaries.
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1V-313
TABLE IV.4.6
Military Cargo And Passengers Transhipped through
Continental United States Water Ports*
Part l
Cargo Areas
FY 1966 FY 1967
Total all areas
Eastern area
Atlantic ports
Gulf ports
Western area
N. Pacific Coast
(Wash.—Oreg.)
S. Pacific Coast
Iëasurement 4easurement
Ton (a) Dollars Ton (a) Dollars
thousands millions thousands millions
5,965.4 134.0 20,835.5 184.6
7,777.3
5,723.5
2,030.0
8,188.1
1,625.2
6,562.9
52.0
39.9
12.0
82.0
14.5
67.5
8,973.5
6,243.3
2,635.5
1,862.0
3,275.5
8,586.5
66.8
49,1
17.0
117.8
29.1
88.7
Part 11
Passenger —
FY 1 966
FY 1967
(b)
Total all areas
Eastern area
Atlantic ports
Gulf ports
Western area
N. Pacific Coast
(Wash.-Oreg.)
S. Pacific Coast_
i eñgers, Dollars,
thousands thousan
213.7 *80.5
assengers,
thousands thousands
izo.5 366.6
121.2
120.0
1.2
92.5
(C)
92.5
365.9
361.2
4.7
114.6
(C)
114.6
28.6
27.8
0.8
92.2
10.2
82.0
171.8
166.4
5.4
194.8
21.6
173.2
* With the exception of the Great Lakes
Source: Quarterly progress report. Fourth Quarter FY 1967. RCSDD-
IL (Q) 493. Military Traffic Management and Terminal
Service. Washington, D. C.
(a) One measurement ton 40 CU ft.
(b) Dollars amounts represent cost, not revenue, which is computed
on predetermined billing rates.
(c) No movement reported.
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IV-314
ESTUARINE MINING AND PROCESSING
Actual extraction of both hard and soft minerals from the estuaries
is presently limited. By far the most valuable and potentially pro-
fitable mining activities in the estuary areas are petroleum extrac-
tion, gas and sulphur recovery, and sand, gravel, and shell dredging.
It is Important to note that the primary activity of extraction, with
the exception of sand and gravel dredging, has had relatively little
effect on the estuarine environment. Such secondary activities as
petroleum refining, transport by pipeline or ship, and petro-chemical
processing have had much greater impact. Finally, the marginal acti-
vities which grow up to support the populations drawn to areas of heavy
petroleum extraction and secondary industry also place a heavy burden
on the quality of the estuarine zone.
Petroleum (oil and gas) dominates present and projected mining activity
in the offshore regions of the United States, accounting for over 84
percent of offshore mineral production in 1966. Offshore sources supply
a relatively small, but rapidly increasing, share of the total domestic
oil output.
As Table JV.4.7 illustrates, offshore oroduction of petroleum has grown
steadily In the past decade, rising from less than 3 percent of total
production in 1958 to nearly 10 percent in 1967. If exoloration, tech-
nologies of recovery, and demands advance at expected rates, it is pro-
jected that 20 percent of total domestic production In 1980 -- about
one billion barrels -- may come from the offshore marine region.
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IV- 315
TABLE IV.4.7
Crude Oil Production From The Continental Shelf*
(million barrels)
Location
Total
on
Shelf
Percent of
production
total
ter-
Year
Calif.
La.
Alaska
(Cook Inlet)
1948
14.4
---
—-
14.4
•restrjal and
0.72
marine
1953
14.8
3.0
——
17.8
0.75
1956
16.5
11.0
——
27.5
1.05
1958
15.8
55.1
—-
70.9
2.90
1960
15.2
84.2
0.6
100.0
3.92
1962
17.8
126.9
10.3
145.0
5.45
1964
20.9
163.3
11.1
195.3
7.00
1965
n.a.
197.3
11.1
208.4
7.25
1966
n.a.
243.1
14.4
257.5
8.50
1967
n.a.
291.3
29.3
320.6
9.85
Source: National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering
Development, “The Economic Potential of the Mineral and Botanical
l sources of the U.S. Continental Shelf and Slope”, Report By
Economic Associates, Inc.. . 2 6, 1968.
*fl should be noted that totals from Texas are not included in
this summary. It is thus a conservative picture of offshoDe oil
productj on.
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IV-316
Nearly one-quarter of present U.S. reserves are found on the continen-
tal shelf. Those reserves found under water depths of 200 feet or less
are of particular importance to the estuarine zone; major areas identi-
fied as having significant crude oil deposits in near-shore water are
listed in Table IV.4.8.
Sulphur mining Is another major estuarine activity. Presently, most
of the sub-surface extraction is concentrated in three mines, two
located on the Continental Shelf several miles off the Louisiana coast,
and the third in a coastal bay off the same State. By 1970, these
three mines are projected to suDply about 2.5 million tons of Frasch
sulphur, or about one-fourth of total projected domestic demand.
Significant expansion of this Industry In the estuarine zone seems un-
likely In the near future, since there are large and economically com-
petitive land—based sulphur sources in western Texas, as well as
competition from gypsum byproducts and from probable byoroduct recovery
under new air pollution restrictions.
The mining of sand and gravel from the estuary floor does not compare
in economic importance to the extraction and orocessing of petroleum
and sulphur. The present value of sand and gravel nroduced in coastal
bays and estuaries is estimated to be between 18 and 30 million dollars
a year. Marine shell deposits, particularly oyster shell, have been
harvested for years, mainly in the Gulf of Mexico and San Francisco
Bay. Production of shell was estimated to be about 21 million tons in
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IV-317
TABLE IV.4.8
U. S. Areas With Significant Crude Oil Deposits
Region
Estimated Ultimate Reserves of
Offshore Crude Oil (billion barrels)
Atlantic Seaboard
(excluding Florida)
1.0
Florida, Nort
hem Gulf Coast
3.2
Mississippi a
nd Alabama
2.9
Louisiana
17.9
Texas
7.0
Southern Cali
fornia
1.3
Alaska, Pacific Coast, and
Gulf of Alaska
24.0
TOTAL
57.0
Source: The E
Resou
op. c
conomic Potential of the Mineral and Botanical
rces of the U.S. Continental Shelf and Slope,
it. p. 221.
These figures reinforce those already cited and identify the Gulf
of Mexico biophysical region as the probable future focus of
Continental United States petroleum recovery and secondary processing
growth. Alaska, perhaps including the Bering Sea and Arctic margins,
is also certain to be an area of increasing exploration, recovery, and
ref i fling.
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IV-318
1966, with a value of approximately 33 million dollars.
Yet, the mining of sand, gravel, and shell has a siqnificant impact
on estuarine conditions wherever it is practiced. Unlike petroleum,
the mining of these aggregates is not the spur for industrial and
population expansion. The reverse Is true. Demand for coastal and
estuarine deposits of aggregates is the direct result of metropolitan
growth and related urban demands for cheap construction material in
the form of concrete and other building products.
Since suitable construction aggregates are found nearly universally
on the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts, and transportation of these
materials often makes up one-half or more of the costs to the consumer,
present and future growth of this industry in the coastal-estuary zone
will be dependent on Increasing urban developments, and the availability
of competing deposits on the land surface. Thus, projections of growth
of coastal-estuarine extraction of aggregates are difficult due to the
fact that local demand and supply conditions are now and will continue
to be the major determining factor in decisions to exploit marine
aggregate resources.
Sources of aggregate extracted from supplies in coastal rivers and
estuaries already provide the principal source of sand and gravel for
such metropolitan areas as New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore,
Washington, D.C., Norfolk, Mobile, and New Orleans. Oyster shell is
a major source of cement and associated lime requirements in Galveston.
Bay, texas. Significant quantities are also mined in the San Francisco
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tV-319
Bay. It seems reasonable to conclude that as urban areas continue to
grow through suburban expansion, as land values rise and as zoning
restrictions are tightened, that the demand for estuary reserves of
sand, gravel, and shell will grow. Offshore dredging on a massive
scale Is presently precluded due to the high cost of building suitable
dredges, technological difficulties of deep water recovery, and com-
peting resources on land and the estuaries.
Salt Is an obvious yet relatively Insignificant oroduct extracted
from estuarine water. Only three of over one hundred salt producing
operations are located in estuarine areas. Their total production
In 1967, valued at $17 million, was about 7 percent of the total U.S.
production. Such activity in estuarine areas is bound to decline as
pressure is exerted by more cornoetitive uses of estuarine land.
Current interest in exploiting phosphorite and manganese nodules and
contiguous deposits of nickel, cobalt, and copoer is limited by avail-
able technology. Gold and platinum metals exist in submerged beach
and placer deposits off Alaska, California, and Oregon hut it is un-
likely that maining will be undertaken for them in the near future.
Diamonds, gold, and zircon have also been identified in the estuarine
sands of various States, but extraction appears unlikely.
Magnesium metal, magnesium oxide, and bromine are all extracted from
seawater and plants are oresently located mainly in the estuarine zones
of Texas and California. Production is adequate for projected demand
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IV-320
and little exDansion is anticipated, at least within the estuarine
area. Relatively little modification of the estuarine environment
results from these activities.
In review, the future of mining In the estuarine zone and near coastal
waters will center on two categories of minerals that may give rise
to serious and Increasing pressures on that environment: petroleum,
gas and sulphur, and sand, gravel, and shell. Improved management
of estuarine resources must take these primary and the associated
secondary and marginal activities into account in any rational scheme
to balance and optimize the values of the Nation’s coastal resources.
OUTDOOR RECREATION
Historical Trends
Outdoor recreation awareness has existed since the establishment of
the first comunities in the United States with their typical coniiions
and public parks. Parks and their value to an urban society were re-
emphasized by the great city planning movement of the latter decades of
the 19th century. This revival was accompanied by an awareness on the
part of urban scholars that natural resources were not inexhaustible
and should receive a measure of protection. The effect, of course,
was the establishment of the national park and national forest systems
largely centered In the western States and areas of very light popula-
tion. The advent of the state park movement in the 1920’s was augmented
by a variety of national initiatives during the 1930’s which tended to
establish some balance in the distribution of land areas managed by
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IV-32 1
public agencies for a variety of public purposes includinq outdoor
recreation. The objectives werelargely resource-protection oriented
and the facility development which took olace durinq the 1930’s was
directed far more at providing employment than meeting, in a planned
fashion, identified outdoor recreation needs.
The years of World War II and a suddenly released affluence during
the decade following the cessation of hostilities combined to pro-
duce an enormous awareness o -i the art of a rapidly changing society
that the opportunities afforded by the public stock of resource areas
was lnadeouate to meet their needs. A variety of landmark investi-
gations Into the status of outdoor recreation were undertaken and
published during that decade. Principal among them were: intensive
studies of the shorelines of the United States by the National Park
Service, and a preparation of Operations Outdoors Program by the
United States Forest Service. These investigations sulminated in
the establishment of a California Outdoor Recreation Study Committee
and the National Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission.
Measures of Demand
Both these studies for the first time demonstrated the basic causal
factors In outdoor recreation demand. In effect, they found that
adequate planning for outdoor recreation required larger concerns
than the biophysical environment; that the economic environment --
expressing the preference of society for goods and services -- and
the institutional environment —- decisions about the focus and
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IV- 322
characteristics of agencies charged with the protection of resources
and the provision of outdoor recreation facilities -- were equally
important.
The principal causal factors noted and docuñiented by the Outdoor
Recreation Resources Review Commission Reports were:
(1) Growth In total population;
(2) Growth in leisure time;
(3) Increased mobility of the total population including
transportation;
(4) Changing population characteristics of the total popu-
lation; and
(5) Concentration of population in urban or metrooolitan
centers.
It was concluded that as the levels of these factors rose, the growth
of outdoor recreation denand for specific activities or opportunities
would accelerate faster than the net increase in total pooulation.
Sections 1 and 2 showed that these orincioal factors in the growth of
outdoor recreation demand will exhibit sustained growth both nationally
and within the estuarine zone. Therefore, although no specific quan-
tification is presently available to project actual recreational demands
on and uses of the Nation’s estuarine resources, they will certainly
increase at substantial rates In the future. It is uncertain at whe-
ther the supply of recreation resources will in fact be sufficient to
meet this large, if unquantified demand. Continued degradation and
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IV-323
restriction of recreation resources, particularly those in the
estuarine zone, may well mean that some of the potential demand will
be cancelled by overcrowded, unattractive areas already much in
evidence.
Although specific estuarine projections are not available, It has
been generally concluded by experts in the field that one indicator --
attendance in public parks -- has risen at about 10 percent annually
for many years. Thsi is a rate more than five times the rate of the
“population explosion’ noted in Section 1. There are Indications that
this comparative rate of growth for the outdoor recreation experience
In public park areas must level off, but the immediate future would
seem to maintain the trend toward more overcrowding and use and the
modifying pressures these entail as Figure IV.4.15 indicates.
Recreation demands are expressions of desire for certain activities
and thus are dtfficult to translate into requirements for particular
quantities of bay shoreline, acres of marsh, and so on. Thus the mag-
nitude of future demands and the conseouerit requirements for associa-
ted estuarine resources is extremely difficult to oinnoint.
Perhaps the most coninon indicator of recreation c rowth is expressed
by “user days” of some particular activity. An example of this is
orovided by the national trends and projections developed by the
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation. Figure IV.4.16 indicates the projections
for five outdoor recreation activities that occur in the estuarine
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IV-324
ATTENDANCE
Figure IV.4.15
Visits in rnilkcns
400
300
AT MAJOR TYPES OF OUTDOOR
RECREATION AREAS
200
100
80
80
40
20
l0
B
6
4
2
0.6
0.4
02
9I0 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 965
Source: Marion Clowson ond Jock 1. Kultsch, Economics of Outdoor Recreoton (Baltimore:
John Hopkins Press, 1966), P. 44.
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Figure IV.4.16
PERCENT INCREASES IN SELECTED
OUTDOOR RECREATION AREAS
Percent Increase (I965 100%)
400
Water Skiing
Camping
Booting
Nature Walks
Fishing
IV-325
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1965
Source: Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
1980
2000
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IV-326
environment although, obviously, the.y can be accomodated in other
areas as well. Numerous other inventories indicate similar exoon-
ential projections of recreation activity in coming decades. Of
particular note here are the Inescapable conflicts generated among
recreation users themselves, and on the finite land and water resour-
ces of the Nation. For example, the tremendous rise in water skiing
and high sDeed motor boating directly conflicts with the more quiet
pursuit of sport fishing which is Increasing simultaneously.
It is necessary to distinguish between actual demands and potential
demands. The actual demands for certain recreation activities such
as hunting, sight—seeing, and boatina can be, in a general way,
obtained from areas in which these activities are well-established and
monitored. However, in many areas the potential for certain recrea-
tional activities is much higher than indicated by present use. For
example, the Delaware Estuary Comprehensive Study (1966) estimated
that the upper Delaware estuary alone had a capacity of over 8,000,000
activity days for boating, while only 1,800,000 activity days are
currently being used, which amounts to a utilization of the boating
potential of only 23 percent. Similarly, only 8 oercent of the sport
fishing capacity in the upper Delaware estuary appeared to be realized.
Even though the definition of “capacity” used In this and similar
studies is open to serious question, future demands will place great
pressures even on those areas which appear to be under-utilized”
today.
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IV —327
On the other hand, it is known that the huntjnq opportunities in
State and Federal reserves are not as good as they are on carefully
Mnaged private areas. This is due to the special characteristics
of waterfowl, their sensitivity to overhunting. and the necessary
latitudes of hunting pressures on publicly managed lands. It appears
unlikely, however, that privately owned and manacied lands, particu-
larly those fronting on the estuaries, can maintain sufficient oppor-
tunities for future outdoor recreation let alone expand them.
This points out that while there may be ample present opportunities
for some recreation activities in certain areas, on others the system
and use demands impose severe limitations. rt must be one of the
prime concerns of the management of the estuarine resources that while
they will be used increasingly for all ourposes, the resource base that
satisfies recreation demands must be retained. Destruction of the
resource base would constitute the final absurdity of destroyinq the
objects of increasing demand for the satisfactions of this environment.
User Groups
The recreation oressures on estuarine resources are aenerated by three
basic user groups. They are:
(1) Periodic: Those who either reside in the estuarine zone
or within short travel distance from the estuarine zone and
who travel from their olace of residence to the estuary resour-
ces, participate in outdoor recreation activities, and return
to their niace of residence within a single day.
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IV- 328
(2) Seasonal: Seasonal recreation users are those who
maintain residences at another place but who spend more
than one day at a time in the estuarine zone. These users
may range from those who spend a single weekend to those
who spend one or two weeks or several months in some form
of residence, I.e., campground, hotel-motel, or cottage in
the estuarine zone.
(3) Permanent: Those who maintain permanent recreation
residences In the estuarine zone.
The demands for, and use of, the recreation resources in the estuarine
zone by all three user groups will increase substantially in the fu-
ture. Periodic users already overburden recreation facilities near
metropolitan areas as anyone who attempts to reach near shore areas
on weekends Is well aware. With the growth of megalopoll from fAaine
to Virginia, both coasts of Florida, northern Texas and California in
the near future, pressures from day-use participants is certain to
rise.
In addition, both the periodic and seasonal user arouos concentrate
the bulk of their nressures on the estuarine and coastal environment
In the short sun ner months span. Thus, the greatest use is made of
the shoreline and water in the period of maximum vegetal growth, and
often the time when supplies of fresh water for all purposes such as
drinking, carrying municipal wastes, etc., are least available. In-
structive In this regard Is the growth of resort comunities, such as
Ocean City, Md., from sleepy towns of 25,000 persons in April, to
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IV—329
“cities’ of 350,000 on weekends in the summer months.
Perhaps the greatest recent change in user group pressure results
from the tremendous growth of permanent residences constructed in
coastal and estuarine locations. Recreation amenities provided
by these areas is a orime factor in this trend. Although growth
figures are not uniformly available, the growth of permanent and
“second” homes appears to he general throughout the Nation, parti-
cualrly in outlying “suburbs” tied to metropolitan job centers by
expanding transportation networks. This growth of permanent users
of the estuarine zone is further increased by the phenomenal expan-
sion of retirement communities in such areas as Florida, Texas, and
California.
Figure IV.4.17 summarizes the orojections of leisure time which con-
tribute heavily to the pressures discussed above.
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Figure IV.4.I7
NATIONAL TIME BUDGET AND TIME DIVISION
OF LEISURE, 1900, 1950, AND 2000
Thousand Billion Hours
3
2
0
National Time
Division of Leisure
IV-330
Budget
1900 1950 2000
Billion Hours
250
1000
750
500
250
0
900 950 2000
Source: Marion Clawsort, How Much Leisure: Now ond in the Future , (Woshinqton, D.C.:
Resources for the Future, Inc., 1964), P II.
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IV—331
SECTION 4. FUTURE WASTE DISCHARGE IMPACTS
The amounts and impact of wastes generated by man’s activities
are a function of population growth, urbanization, industrial
and coninerclal development, changing technologies, and consump-
tion of goods and services -- even those associated with leisure
time activities. The following discussion defines trends and
the probable future course of events related to waste discharge
affecting the estuarine zone. However, In most cases, only an
indication of the magnitude of the problem can be set out here
due to the lack of comparable long-term data, the complexity
of the waste discharge assimilation process and the unknown
quantity and composition of future waste discharges
The emphasis in the following discussion is on those trends in
waste discharge that most directly affect water quality, although
It must be recognized that the problems associated with wastes
affect the total environment, and extend well beyond the defined
area of the estuarine zone, both landward and seaward.
LIQUID UASTES
Fresh t1ater Inflows
Many of the sources that determine estuarine water quality are
and will be external to the estuarine zone. The quantity, as
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IV-332
well as quality, of fresh water inflows to the estuaries is larqely
determined by upstream water use. Water diversion for irrigation,
Impoundment for flood control, and a host of other uses tend to
cut the natural stream flow necessary to the successful assimila-
tion and diffusion of both natural and man-made wastes. An example
of upstream diversion of water is provided by the Texas Water Plan,
which Is projected to alter streamfiows radically into such pro-
ductive estuaries as Galveston Bay and those situated in the southern
Texas coast. Even if a tremendous planned diversion from the
Mississippi River for fresh water inflows to the estuaries is corn-
pleted on a timely basis, these estuarine systems are projected to
face overall reduction of fresh water supply and the accompanying
stresses both on the natural assimilative capacities of these estua-
ries and the blotic colm1unlties presently existing there.
Pressures for Increased upstream diversion and use of fresh water
are certain to Increase In all biophysical regions, but the relatively
arid and high growth Western Gulf and the Southwest Pacific coasts
are projected to experience the greatest pressures on present estua-
rine systems for at least three main reasons:
(1) Much of the upstream water is used to support Irrigation
with accompanying actual loss of water to the inflow systems
by evaporation, transpiration, and absorption, as well as
mineralization through leaching.
(2) The amount of rainfall and snow oack is highly variable
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IV-333
and often results in extended periods of flooding and
drought in these Regions.
(3) Consumption of water other than for irrigation is
bound to Increase at a high rate in resoonse to exoected
population growth considerably above the national average.
It should be noted, however, that these diversion projects may also
allow Increased control of water inflows that could be beneficial to
intenance of existing estuarine productivity. Furthermore, some
proposed projects may merely shift the major nortion of existing In-
flows from one area to another as in the case of the proposed diver-
sion of Delaware River inflow from Delaware Bay, throuqh the Hudson
River, to Raritan Bay and New York Harbor.
Municinal Wastes
P rnicipal waste water disoosal is the most frequently cited examole
of water quality degradation. The major impact of municipal waste
Water discharge Is calculated on the basis of the amount of
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), bacterial indicator organisms, gen-
erally coliforms, and suspended and dissolved solids reaching both
fresh and estuarine water. The magnitude of the future extent of the
Water pollution problem is indicated by the projection that even if
secondary treatment were provided for all urban and sewered popula-
tlon in the United States by 1980, the amount of residual wastes
reaching the Nation’s waters would be about the same as today when
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IV-334
much of this Dopulation is not served by secondary treatment faci-
lities. From. aporoximate coefficients developed by the Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration for municipal wastes gen-
erated by man in areas served by sewers, a rough estimate of the
overall yearly municioal sewered waste loads may be computed for
the estuarine zone as shown in Table IV4.9.
Although these figures are aooroximate, and understate the magnitude
of the municipal waste load In the estuarine zone, they Indicate the
tremendous pressure increasing population itself will place on the
water quality of the estuarine zone In the future. It does not take
into account the increasing use of high water use appliances such as
washing machines, dishwashers, and garbage disoosals which will con-
tribute significantly to higher per capita water wastes in the
future.
TABLE IV.4.9
Approximate Municipal Wastes Generated Yearly By The
Estuarine Zone PopulatIon, 1960-1980
1960
1970
1980
Numeri cal
Increase
1960-1980
iaste water,
1,611.7
1,902.3
2,130.7
519 billion
gallons
1Illon gallons
standard BOO,
2,229.5
2,631.5
2,947.4
718 million
millions of pounds
ettleable and Sus-
2,686.1
3,170.5
3,551.1
865 million
pounds
ended Solids,
nillions of pounds
-
-_
—
These projections are based on formulae found In the FWPCA publica-
tion, The Cost of Clean Water , Vol. II, “Detailed Analysis’,
(Washiii ton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968), p.68
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IV -335
These figures are reasonable statements of pressures from urban
populations, but the exterior suburban and rural poriulations pre-
sently not served by sewers will undoubtedly contribute further
significant liquid-bearing wastes to the estuaries. For example,
beach front and estuarine communities, particularly resort-oriented
developments, have traditionally and continue to depend In large
degree on septic tank disposal of municipal wastes. Problems of
waste seepage from seotic treatment have been noted in such places
as the north and south shores of Long Island, Florida resort and
retirement comunitles, and the Delaware-Maryland-Virainia shoreline.
Furthermore, many coastal communities were originally sewered with
primary treatment facilities. These facilities, often discharoinçj
directly into shallow back bays, are no lonqer adeouate to meet
Increased develooment, density pressures and the lonqer duration of
stays caused by burgeoning “second home” markets. The communities,
limited to residential tax bases, are hard-oressed to finance facili-
ties adeauate to handle peak loads reached for relatively short
periods in the critical summer months.
A final indicator of the magnitude of the municipal waste problem is
provided by Table P 1.4.10. The marine coastal states are orojected to
require an outlay of five and one-half billion dollars between 1969
and 1973 to adequately treat municipal wastes during that period.
This represents 63 percent of the national total of 8.693 billion iwo-
jected for 1969 through 1973. The estuarine portions of the marine
states (basically the coastal counties) are estimated to require 60
percent of the Marine states’ total outlay, or somethina over two and
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IV-336
TABLE IV.4.l0
Capital Outlays Needed to Obtain Adequate Municipal
Waste Treatment for Urban Populations in Marine
Coastal States and Estimates for Estuarine Associated
Portions of Those States, 1969-1973
State
(Mi
Entire State
illons of Dollars)
Estuarine Portions of Staté
(Millions of Dollars)
Alabama
137.0
15.2
•
Alaska
14.5
Unk.
California
732.2
574.0
Connecticut
188.3
118.0
Delaware
31.5
31.5
District of
23.0
23.0
Columbia
Florida
369.6
286.3
GeorgIa
223.1
15.1
Hawaii
40.1
40.1
Louisiana
195.0
91.1
Maine
47.0
21.3
Maryland
136.1
124.4
Massachusetts
200.0
149.0
Mississippi
New Hampshire
57.0
35.0
49
9.2
New Jersey
561.1
507.7
New York
1070.1
682.0
North Carolina
101.5
11.4
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
145.3
331.6
41.5
92.1
105.2
41.5
South Carolina
100.0
19.6
Texas
342.5
88.1
VIrginia
Washington
206.6
173.3
114.1
121.0
Totals
5,503.0
3,285.8
(60%)
(M1 lons of
.
Source: Computed from Table 1-3A in The Cost of Clean Water ,
op.cit., p. 13.
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IV—337
a quarter billion dollars during the same period.
As one might expect, the heavily—Dopulated estuarjne-assocjated States
such as California, New York, New Jersey, and Florida will require
bulk of expenditures in the near future (nearly two—thirds of the
total). Similarly, the estuaririe portions of the ‘larine states loca-
ted in the Middle Atlantic biophysical region (New York to Delaware)
will account for nearly 44 Dercent of the national total for these
areas. These and other urban-dominated areas will require the ful-
lest possible resources, technology and planning of private, local,
state, and Federal establishment if estuarine water quality is to be
maintained, and perhaos enhanced.
Industrial Wastes
Although municipal wastes are shown to be a major and projected source
of pollution, both nationally, and associated with the estuarine zone
manufacturing is the orincipal source of controllable waterborne
wastes.
In terms of the generally quoted measurements of strength and volume,
the FWPCA estimates that manufacturing establishments are resoonsible
for about three times as great a loadino as that caused by the Nation’s
Dopulation. Moreover, the volume of industrial production, which
gives rise to industrial wastes, is increasing at about 4.5 percent a
year, ov three times as fast as the population growth rate.
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IV- 338
ApproxImately 85 percent of the 14.2 trillion gallons of water used
by manufacturing plants in 1964 was accounted for by four major
industry groups. Namely: Primary Metal Industries, Chemical and
Allied Products, Paper and Allied Products, and Petroleum and Allied
Products. Most of the growth in manufacturing water demands between
1954 and 1964 may be attributed to these four industry groups. This
may be expected to continue in at least the near future. Blast fur-
naces and steel mills alone accounted for 27 Dercent of the total:
industrial chemicals for about 21 percent of the total. Relatively
large Industry units account for nearly all measured industrial uses;
3 percent of the firms inventoried by the Census of Manufactures made
up 97 percent of the total industrial water used for the Nation.
Estuarine economic areas identified as having significant concentra-
tions of high water use industries are:
(l) Chemicals and allied oroducts: New York-Northeast
New Jersey, Philadelphia—New Jersey-Delaware Coast and the
Texas North Gulf Coast.
(2) Petroleum refining: Philadelohia-New Jersey-Delaware
Coast, Louisiana Coast, Texas North Gulf Coast and Texas
South Gulf Coast, and California Coast.
(3) Paper and allied products: Marine Coast, South
Carolina Coast, Georgia-Eastern Florida Coast, Central
Florida Gulf Coast, Mississippi-Alabama-West Florida
Coast, Oregon Coast and Washington Coast.
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IV-339
AU of these industries have high growth potential and may be ex-
pected to intensify their activities In the future.
Other high water use industries of importance to individual estuarine
areas are:
(1) Textiles: Massachusetts-Rhode Island Coast,
New York-Northeast New Jersey Coast, North Carolina Coast,
and Mississippi-Alabama-West Florida Coast.
(2) Primary metals: Connecticut Coast, Maryland-Virginia
Coast and the Texas North and South Gulf Coasts.
(3) Food and kindred products: Philadelphia-New Jersey-
Delaware Coast, North Carolina Coast, Southern Florida
Gulf Coast, Central Florida Gulf Coast, Louisiana Coast,
the California Coasts and the Oregon and Washington
Coasts.
Thermal Wastes
Although heated effluents may come from a variety of sources,
electric power generation Is estimated to produce 81 per cent of
the total heat discharged to the Nation s waters. Demand and
production of electric power in this country has doubled every
ten years during this century, with most of the increase coming
through use of herma1_gefleratiflg methods. Power requirements
of electrical systems in 1980 wIll be three times what they were
in 1963.
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IV-340
As Table IV.4.ll indicates, overall expansion of electric generating
capacity for the Nation will average about 6 per cent annually
during the period 1959-1980. Areas of particularly rapid growth
include Florida, parts of the Gulf coast, Texas, and PUerto Rico.
Modern plants being installed presently, and in the near future,
will be larger in unit size, thereby increasing plant efficiency,
but concentrating heat effects to a significant degree. Hydro-
electric power generation, with the exception of the Pacific
Northwest, Is projected to decline in Importance. Fossil and
particularly nuclear power generation will expand tremendously to
meet expected demands. It is estimated, for example, that by
1975 about half of the generation capacity will be nuclear fueled.
The growth of nuclear power is significant, not only because of the
large unit size (800 megawatts or larger), but because they must
presently operate at lower, and therefore, less efficient temper-
atures. In sum, it will take more heat to generate a given amount
of electrical energy in the future, and more of that heat will
have to be dissipated somehow into cooling waters. Figure IV.4.l8
gives an indication of the growth of new nuclear generating plants
to 1973.
Although the actual future number of fossil and nuclear plants
located on the coasts and estuaries of the United States is unknown,
an indication of future thermal alteration potential is provided
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XV.4 .11
Ei iCt f cal Generet4ng Cspacit3’ in the United states
Areas Associated with the Estuarine Zone. 1959-1980
Electrical Fleqawatts
Power Supply Area
Total
Installed
at End
of 1959
Additions
Installed
in 1960
thru 1966
Additions
Expected
for 1967
thru 1973
Addit1ons
Forecast
for 1974
thru 1980
Average I
Percent
Increas
per Yeai
New England (PSA 1 & 2) . . 6,700 2,300 5,500 6,900 5.7
New York (PSA 3 &. ‘4) 11,600 5,800 6,100 9,900 5.2
New Jersey; Delaware; most of Pennsylvania & Maryland;
District of Columbia (PSA 5 & 6) 12,800 6,000 11,200 15,900 6.3
Most of Virginia; North Carolina; South Carolina
(PSA 18 & 21) . . 8,400 5,300 7,900 13,000 7.0
Most of Florida (PSA 24) 3,300 4,300 6,700 15,400 11.1
Northwestern Florida; Georgia; most of Alamama &
Mississippi; Louisiana; Western Arkansas (PSA 22,
23, & part of 25, 33, & 35) 8,300 5,900 10,900 18,600 8.2
Oklahoma; Texas; New Mexico (PSA 36-39, & rest of
33 & 35) . . 11,700 8,100 15,600 26,100 8.2
Washington; rest of Idaho & Oregon (PSA 42-45) . . . 9,300 4,500 9,300 13,300 6.7
California (rest of PSA 46-48) 12,800 8,500 9,200 16,500 6.4
Alaska 200 —————
Hawaii..... 500 —-——— 200 200 2.8
Puerto Rico . . 400 200 600 900 8.2
Total for United States 158,000 75,000 139,000 207,000 6.3
Source: Unf ted States AtoiT Energy Coniiiission, Forecast of Growth of Nuclear Power .
-J
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Figure IV.4.18
TOTAL NUCLEAR-FUELED GENERATING CAPACITY OPERATIONAL IN YEARS
Total Capacity (Megawatts)
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
I 0,000
1967-1973
0
967 1968
1969 1970 1971
1972 1973
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IV- 343
by future operation of the following plants affecting coastal waters:
TABLE IV.4.l2
Expanded or Projected Power Plants Affecting Estuarine Waters
Project
ilegawatts
First
Electricity
Maine Yankee Atomic Power Plant
Lincoln, Maine 790 1972—73
Pilgrim Station
Plymouth, Massachusetts 625 1971
Connecticut Yankee Atomic Power Plant
Haddam Neck, Connecticut 462 1967
Indian Point Station - Unit 1
Buchanan, New York 265 1962
Indian Point Station - Unit 2
Buchanan, New York 873 1970
Oyster Creek Nuclear Power Plant
Oyster Creek, New Jersey 515 1969
Oyster Creek Nuclear Power Unit #2
Oyster Creek, New Jersey 815 1972
Peach Bottom Atomic Power Station Unit #1
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 40 1967
Peach Bottom Atomic Power Station Unit #2
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1065 1971
Peach Bottom Atomic Power Station Unit #3
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1065 1973
Surry Power Station Unit #1
Surry County, Virginia 7.3 1971
Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plants Unit #1
Maryland 800 1973
Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plants Unit #2
Maryland 800 1973
Brunswick Steam Electric Plant Unit #1
Brunswick County, North Carolina 821 1976
Brunswick Steam Electric Plant Unit #2
Brunswick County, North Carolina 821
Crystal River Plant Unit #3
Crystal River, Florida 825 1972
Hunbolt Bay Power Plant
San Onofre, California 430 1967
Malibu Nuclear Plant Unit #1
California 462 1973
Rancho Seco Nuclear Generating Station
California 800 1973
Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant Unit #1
San Luis Obispo, California 1060 1971
Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant
San Luis Obispo, California 1070 1974
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I V.. 344
SOLID WASTES
Solid wastes, particularly those associated with urban areas and
concentrations of industry, must be recognized as major hazards
to the maintenance of a desirable estuarine environment. The
problem of disposal of solid wastes becomes particularly acute as
available land surrounding central cities is built up. Tradition-
ally, wetlands have been considered convenient sites for the
disposal of all types of unwanted material, from demolition wastes
to tricycles. It is estimated that the amount of land necessary
to store and/or process solid wastes for ultimate disposal will
nearly double from 1966 to 1976.
A recent report conducted for the Regional Plan Association studied
the New York Metropolitan area generation and handling of wastes.
The study found that in 1965 the residential solid wastes generated
per capita per year averaged from about a half a ton to nearly
two-thirds of a ton. Thus, nearly eleven million tons of residen-
tial solid wastes were generated in the New York Metropolitan area
In 1965. By the year 2000, it is estimated that residential solid
wastes may triple.
Solid waste by business was also found to be significant. An
estimated six and a half million tons were generated in the study
area in 1965 and the high projection for 2000 indicates a solid
waste load for that year of over 22 million tons.
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IV-345
Within comparative limits, the New York example is being repeated
throughout the Nation, and particularly in metropolitan areas asso-
ciated with the estuaries.
Factors affecting the extent of the solid waste disposal problem,
Including Internal processing techniques and external changes
arising from social, economic, marketing and consumption trends,
Indicate that solid wastes will expand at a rate substantially
exceeding population growth in the foreseeable future and radically
change both in volume and character. This projected situation Is
graphically highlighted by Figure IV.4.19. It should be noted that
the gross amounts of non-degradable packaging materials such as
plastics will also greatly expand, and the trend toward disposable
containers will also contribute to the solid waste that must be
accomodated by the environment.
This brief review of the future of the estuarine zone as a receptacle
for man—caused wastes leads to the concluS Ofl that the continuation
of current trends will ultimately bring about the destruction of
much of the estuarine system as we know it. A great coninitment of
money, manpower, and technology will clearly be required to alle-
viate the ill effects of current practices and to prevent damages
in the future.
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IV-346
FIGURE IV4.19 CONSUMPTION OF PACKAGING MATERIALS BY WEIGHT
1958-1976 (BILLIONS OF POUNDS)
Total 47.0
-
117% Miscellaneous
130 - =0.2%= lèxtiles —
6.0% WOOd
Total 119.0 —
12C-
Plastics
113°!.
110 - —
6.2% Gloss
tOC - 1b 91 0 7f 0/
3.0%
90 —
=0.5%
c 16.0% Metals
- 80 - ar% 11.4%
:I.9%. _____
C aI 7
70- 6.6% 62%
=O.8%= l2.7%
102% _____
60-
162%
Paper &
50.2% Paperboard
40- 173%
______ 49.I°k
30 -
48.4%
2( -
46.8%
10—
0— — ____ — -—
l9 8 1965 1970 1976
Sci,ceMd eSt Reeeaivh bistifuPe ______________________
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IV—347
SUMMARY
The anticipated continuing increase in population and industrial
development in the estuarine zone will increase the strong pressures
presently existing on the estuarine biophysical environment. The
economic pressures will lead as coastal resources are exploited in
re ways and more intensively, and as comercial exploitation of
the deep ocean makes itself felt through use of the estuarine
zone as a staging area.
As the economic pressures increase, more and more estuarine areas
will be preempted for comercial purposes, to the detriment of the
intrinsic social value of the estuarine zone. The anticipated
great increase in recreational need will tend to follow economic
development; therefore, recreational use may very well be relegated
to small areas useless for other purposes unless effective overall
management of the entire resource can be established and maintained.
The great projected increases in waste discharges from all sources
may do far more than usurp other uses -- these wastes can destroy
part of the environment itself and thereby damage the very eco-
system of which man is an integral part and from which his suste-
nance comes.
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IV-34
Chapter 5
POLLUTION IN THE ESTUARINE ZONE
Man has always used the biophysical environment as he needed it for
survival and thrown back into it his waste products and anything else
he did not need. As long as civilization was limited to small towns
and villages the impact of such treatment on the environment was not
noticeable and apparently insignificant. With the development of a
civilization based on a complex socioeconomic environment, however,
his impact on the estuarine environment has increased until now the
most accurate term to exoress the relationship of man to the biophy-
sical environment is ‘ pollution”.
V
-------
IV -350
“Pollution” is the degradation of the biophysical environment by
man’s activities; it is no longer limited to the discharge of
sewage and Industrial wastes, but now includes direct or indirect
damage to the environment by physical, chemical, or biological
modification.
This chapter shows the relationship between man’s presence in and use
of the estuarine environment and its degradation. The kinds of
materials and types of changes that tend to degrade the environment
are the first topics of discussion, then the relationship of
pollutional conditions to the various socioeconomic activities are
described. The chapter concludes with a description of the impact of
the socioeconomic environment on the biophysical environment and
specific examples of pollutional effects.
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IV-351
SECTION 1. MATERIALS AND CONDITIONS
THAT DEIRADF THE ENVIRON!IENT
Environmental degradation is the result of often minute changes in
water quality, water circulation, or other conditions which are
part of the biophysical estuarine environment. Brightly colored
or otherwise visible waste materials (Figure IV.5.l) have obvious
pollutlonal implications, but by far the deadliest pollutants are
those that are invisible and often unsuspected until the damage Is
done. These pollutants can be found only by the most delicate and
sensitive tests; even then, the presence of some highly dangerous
.aterials or conditions can only be inferred from indirect evidence.
DECOMPOSABLE ORGANIC MATERIALS
One major constituent of municipal and many industrial wastes is
deconposable organic material. Suchrnaterials consist primarily of
carbohydrates from plants and paper, proteins from animal matter,
and miscellaneous fats and oils (Figure IV.5.2). The decomposable
organics are not necessarily detrimental by themselves, but they
exert a secondary effect by reducing dissolved oxygen in the water.
This oxygen resource depletion results from the biochemical reactions
Involved In microbial utilization of organics for food.
The biochemical oxygen demand (BOO) is the standard test for this
component. It is an index of the availability of organic matter for
biological food and the amount of oxygen utilized by organisms in
-------
IV-352
the metabolism of this food. BOD is generally expressed as
(milligrams per liter) mg/i of 5-day BOD at 68°F. while natural
waters have values around 1, untreated dcinestlc sewage may average
around 300.
The flow of oxygen resources in an estuary is analogous to the flow
of money in a bank if the estuarine system is viewed as a dissolved
oxygen bank. There is a certain amount of oxygen in the system just
as there are certain assets In a bank; the oxygen is invested in
supporting and renewing the blota, while the bank assets are invested
to earn money. There Is a constant flow of oxygen into and out of the
estuarine system, both to and frun the atmosphere and the ocean. In
the bank there Is a cash flow to and from the depositors. Large
waste discharges may exert an abnormal demand on the oxygen resources
such as an embezzler exerts on the cash resources of a bank. If
enough dissolved oxygen is utilized In stabilizing wastes the system
goes bankrupt.
The amount of organic wastes that can be assimilated in the estuarine
system without stressing the biota is dependent on the oxygen balance
or the flow of oxygen in the system. The rate of oxygen renewal is
dependent on the tidal driving force causing new oceanic water to
flood into the system, the fresh water inflow, the wind, the surface
area and the amount of turbulence generated by the fresh-oceanic
water mixing. The more turbulent the system the greater opportunity
for atmospheric exchange with the attendant ability to assimilate
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IV-353
amre wastes (Figure IV.5.3). Severely depressed dissolved oxygen
levels, which result from an excess of oxygen-consuming organic
wastes, affect many categories of beneficial uses. With aquatic
habitat damage, pollution-tolerant plants and animals replace the more
sensitive types. Desirable game and food fish may be completely
eliminated; areas of low dissolved oxygen may block the passage of
anadromous fish, thereby affecting the reproduction cycle. If
oxygen is totally depleted, noxious odors may develop, completely
eliminating such uses as boating, swimming, and esthetic appreciation.
The level of dissolved oxygen in the water is one direct index of the
healthiness of the system. High levels generally indicate a healthy
system which will support a diverse biota and multiple use. The
lower the concentration of dissolved oxygen becomes, the sicker the
system is, and the less desirable it is for habitat or use.
FLESH-TAINTING SUBSTANCES
Another class of materials, primarily organic, which can have con-
siderable impact on the estuarine ecosystem, are the flesh-tainting
substances. Generally these materials are contained in industrial
waste effluents and they result in offensive tastes, odors and colors
of fish and shellfish. The most common culprits are the oils or
petroleun products. These materials in slight amounts will impart
an oil or kerosene flavor to a wide variety of fish and shellfish,
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FIGURE IV.5.3
FACTORS AFFECTING ESTUARINE DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONCENTRATION
ADVECTIVE
TRANSPORT
OF HEAT
ENERGY
CHANGE IN
FLOW DIRECTION
v///////’TI DE j
I ____ RIVER—TIDE ____ ____ ___ J
LEGEND•.
REPRESENTS PRIMARY DRIVING FORCES
TURBULENT
TRANSPORT
REPRESENTS END RESULT OF ALL DRIVING FORCES
OXYGEN
PRODUCTION
AND
CONSUMPTION
TEMPERATURE I RADIANT ENERGY
CHANGE IN SATURATION
CONCENTRATION
F/ I/I //I //I / I/ / I / i
V//RIVER D
V//I,i,iui, ////iiIi
v///III//////IIf/f////
-1 7,SOLARI /
7RADIATION
RADIANT
ENERGY
- ADVECTIVE TRANSPORT
OF OXYGEN
SCHARGEV,1
tiiiiiiiiiJiii////A
::::s -rREAM:::
:: DISSOLVED::
:OXyGEN:::
r,
TURBULENT
REAERATION TRANSPORT
TURBULEN 1
TRANSFER
ROCESSES
BIOLOGICAL
PHOTOSYNTHETIC
ACTIVITY
TURBULENT
MIXING
PROCESSES
OXYGEN ORGANIC INORGANIC
CON SUMP TION ___ ___ — — NUIRIENT .TRIENT1
.ORGAN S •1
I MAT E1 ALS
WASTE LOAD ____ ____ ___ ____ ____ ____
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IV-355
Including mullet, mackerel, oysters, clams, and mussels
(Figure IV5.4).
Another source of tainting substances directly related to organic
waste discharges can develop when some areas the receiving waters
reach septicity, i.e., all of the dissolved oxygen is depleted.
Under such anaerobic conditions the decay of the benthic sludge deposits
can result in the production of hydrogen sulfide, which has a very
strong “rotten egg” odor. This gas, highly soluble In water, causes a
black discoloration of bivalve shells and imparts an offensive taste
and odor to their flesh when water carrying it moves across shellfish
beds.
HEAVY METALS
The heavy metal salts are fairly soluble and stable in solution.
Consequently, they will persist for extended lengths of time. Many
of these are highly toxic to the aquatic biota. Since many marine
organisms acctsnulate and concentrate substances within their cell
structure, the presence of these metals in small concentrations can
have deleterious effects. Table JV.5..l lists the more comon metals
that are of environmental concern (IV-5-l).
The toxic concentrations listed in the table represent the lowest
values for the particular species tested and not absolute minimians.
Also, these toxic levels do not consider the synergistic effect that
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TABLE IV.5.1
Characteristics of Coninon Metals of Concern
In the Estuarine Enviromient
Lfl
Metal
Chemical
Symbol
Con
in
Natural
centration
Sea Water
(Mg/i)
Concentrations
in Marine Organisms
Range of Concentrations
that have Toxic
Effects on Marine
Life (mg/i)
Plants(mg/1)
Anlmais(mg/lJ
Silver
Ag
.0003
0.25
1 to 3
Highly Toxic
Arsenic
As
.003
30.0
0.005 to 0.3
2
Cadimum
Cd
.08
0.4
0.15 to 3
0.01 to 10
Chromium
Cr
.00005
1.0
0.2 to 1.0
1.0
opper
Cu
.003
11.0
4 to 50
0.1
lercury
Hq
.00003
0.03
0.1
.ead
Pb
.00003
8.4
0.5
0.1
lickle
Ni
.0054
3.0
0.4
0.1
! lnc
Zn
.01
150.0
6 to 1500
10.0
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IV-357
iay occur with the presence of other metals. For example, the toxic
effects of mercuric salts are accentuated by the presence of trace
nounts of copper. The table does indicate the minute quantities of
setal salts that can damage an estuarine system.
INORGANIC NUTRIENT SALTS
Aquatic life forms require trace amounts of some minerals and vitamins
for growth and reproduction. Elimination of such materials from the
environment or their reduction below minimum levels can limit the
growth and reproduction of some biota. Conversely, an oversupply of
all necessary trace mineral salts and vitamins can retard growth or
stimulate it; providing satisfactory conditions of temperature,
salinity, and dissolved oxygen also exist. An oversupply of inorganic
nutrient salts, such as those of nitrogen and phosphorus, may be
associated with drastic shifts in the composition of the aquatic
coniiiunity.
There may be shifts in population as the growth of one kind of life
Is stimulated more than that of others by additional nutrients,
there may be increases in the general productivity of the entire
ecosystem, or there may be no changes at all if one necessary factor
Is missing. When there is excessive growth with associated changes
In distribution patterns and predator-prey relationships, some
Organisms may reach a state of “nuisance growths.” This condition
Is defined as a density of growth that interferes with a desirable
Water use or the growth and reproduction of organisms desirable to
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IV -358
man. Examples of these situations are: (1) excessive drifting
plant growths that make bathing beaches unattractive, produce
unpleasant odors, foul the bottoms of boats, and spoil the esthetic
appearance, and (2) dense populations of rooted aquatics which
Interfere with the movement and reproduction of fish (Figure IV.5.5).
In any case it must be stressed that some other environmental condi-
tion, and not nutrients alone, may be the controlling factor in
such growths. The estuarine ecosystem is highly complex; its compo-
sition Is dependent on a large number of variables, many of which are
as yet not understood.
PATHOGENIC ORGANISMS
One unfavorable consequence of municipal and some industrial wastes
Is the contamination of the receiving environment with bacteria,
viruses, and other pathogens with public health significance. The
organisms, especially those from the Intestines of warm blooded
animals, frequently persist for sufficient periods of time and dis-
tance to pose a threat to the health and well-being of unsuspecting
water users. Secondary channels of exposure to these organisms
exist through the contamination of shellfish which can be harvested
for food.
Multiple use of any estuarine zone requires careful consideration of
the potential for contact with disease-producing agents. The
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IV-359
problem of finding pathogenic organisms in water is difficult. The
*ethods available for detennining the numbers of these micro-
organisms in sewage and receiving water are not practical for
routine use; nor Is it possible to decide which organisms should be
Included in the testing procedures.
Evaluation of the microorqanism density in water receiving waste
discharges is based on the test for the total number of viable
coliform bacteria present. This test procedure may be further extended
differentiate between the total numbers and those of probable
focal origin. The coliform bacteria in this instance are used
strictly as indicator organisms. Although the coliform organism has
been associated with infant diarrhea, it is generally considered as
non-pathogenic in water. The organism is present in fecal material
In large numbers, is highly viable in water, and is relatively easy
to Identify. The use of an indicator organism is justified on the
prenise that if coliforms of fecal origin are present, other
pathogens of fecal origin probably are present also.
Although most human enteric pathogens do not survive for extended
periods outside the host’s body, evidence indicates that they may
renain sufficiently viable in all types of aquatic environment to
relnfect healthy individuals. Although considerable investigative
work has been done on fresh water and on oceanic water, many questions
are yet to be answered where the two meet in the estuarine zone.
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IV -360
Some of the factors affecting the survival of pathogenic organisms
are:
(1) Environmental conditions such as salinity, temperature,
amount of sunlight, and degree of dilution.
(2) Biological agents antagonistic to the survival of
the waste borne organisms.
(3) Bacteriophages or viruses.
(4) Protozoan and other lower animals which consume
pathogens for survival.
(5) SedImentation and adsorption of pathogens with and
by particulate matter In the receiving water.
(6) The amount of nutrient material available to support
or stimulate multiplication of the organisms.
The presence of the collfonn organisms,especially the fecal coliform,
is an index to the degree of public health hazard. The two main
avenues of exposure for hiinans In the estuarine environment are through
body contact during recreation and through ingestion of contaminated
food harvested from the estuary. In the former, the problem becomes
one of balancing reasonable safeguards for public health and well-
being against undue restrictions on the availability of waters for
contact recreation. In estuarine recreation water, this problem is
complicated by the lack of definitive epidemiological studies corre-
lating the incidence of waterborne disease with degrees of bacterial
pollution. To develop rational bacterial standards for contact
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IV-361
recreation, the most promising approach appears to be through
intensive monitoring of indicator organisms coupled with salinity
studies.
Shellfish contamination presents another problem in that the major
concern is the ingestion and harboring of pathogenic enterovirus and
bacteria by the organism. These viruses can then be passed on to a
hiinan host, especially if the shellfish are eaten raw. The relation-
ship between the densities of colifonn indicator organisms and the
presence of enteroviruses is still ill-defined and needs further
definitive investigation to assure the adoption of rational public
health protecting criteria. At present shellfish closures are based
on very stringent colifonn bacteria concentration standards designed
to provide a safety factor to insure public health.
TOXIC MATERIALS
hnong the waste products frequently introduced into the estuarine
envirorinent are some directly toxic to marine organisms. Toxic
materials may exhibit a short catastrophic impact or a more subtle
long-term interference with growth and reproduction processes. The
end result is the creation of a biological desert in which no
organism can survive.
The short—term catastrophic type of toxicity usually results from an
accidental spill or slug discharge of materials into the water. The
Impact is invnediate and the results are dramatic.
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I V.- 362
The long-term type of toxicity is manifested through the gradual
destruction of the natural biota. The effects of sub-lethal con-
centrations of toxic materials are amplified through biological
magnification. Many animals, especially shellfish, can remove
these materials from the environment and store them in their tissues.
This magnification phenomenon has been docu ented with such pollu-
tants as pesticides, heavy metals, and radionuclides. The body
concentration of the toxicant may reach such a level that death
results in the host organism when the material is released to the
blood stream by physiological activity. Any higher carnivore con-
stai ing an organism with high tissue concentrations of toxic
materials may be subject to acute or fatal poisoning. Table IV.5.2
lists the biological magnification factors of five mollusks for
specific pesticides (IV-5-2).
The pesticide group is of particular concern in the estuarine zone.
Estuaries are the terminus for most of the major river systems,
and as such they tend to concentrate the waterborne materials
carried in by the large terrestrial drainage systems. The biological
magnification capability of estuarine animals significantly increases
the hazard and destructive potential of any contributed pesticides.
Table IV.5.3 shows the concentration of selected pesticides that
will kill 50 percent of exposed shrimp within 48 hours. Shrimp are
one of the most sensitive groups of marine organisms (IV-5 .-l).
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TABLE IV.5.,2
Magnification Factors of Five Selected Mollusks*
IV-363
Pesticide
Magnificati
on Range
Lindane
10 —
250
Endrin
500—
1250
Methoxychior
300 -
1500
Dleldrin
700 -
1500
Heptachlor
250 -
2500
Idrin
350 -
4500
DDT . . . .
1 200 —
9000
* Mention of any trade name in this report does not constitute
endorsement of the product by the Federal government.
Many other materials have a toxic effect on estuarine biota. These
materials may be present in various industrial wastes or be by-products
of interaction within the estuary. Examples are cyanides from metal-
plating wastes and sulfides from the anaerobic decomposition of
sewages and industrial wastes.
Wastes from the chemical industry are highly variable and potentially
toxic. Ever-changing chemical technology leads to many new products,
each creating a new complex waste disposal problem.
Included in the consideration of toxic materials are radionuclides
discharged to the estuarine waters. Ionizing radiation, when absorbed
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IV-364
TABLE IV.5.3
The 48-hour TLm for Shrimp for Selected Pesticides
(in micrograms/liter)
Organochioride Pestici des
Aidrin 0.04 Dleldrin 0.6
BHC 2.0 Endosulfan 0.3
Chiordane 2.0 Methoxychior 4.0
Endrin 0.2 Perthane 3.0
Heptachior 0.2 TOE 3.0
Llndane 0.2 Toxaphene 3.0
DDT 0.6
Organophosphorous Pesticides
Coumaphos 2.0
Dursban 3.0
Fenthion 0.03
Naled 3.0
Parathion 1 .0
Ronnel 5.0
TLm concentration which will kill 50 per cent of exposed animals.
in living tissue in quantities substantially above that of natural
background, is recognized as Injurious (IV-5-l). Since some isotopes
may be extremely long-lived, and radionuclides may be cycled through
the food chain or recycled to the environment if the host expires,
the biological magnification factor is important. The potential con-
sequences of each particular radioisotope discharge must be evaluated
individually. The best rule is to minimize the nount of these
materials cycling in the environment.
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IV-365
Toxic materials directly kill the biota, interact in the food chain,
or deleteriously affect the reproduction or growth processes. The
ultimate damage is to stress or eliminate parts of the energy-
conversion chain in the estuarine environment (Figure IV.5.6).
HEAT
The preceding discussion emphasized the many environmental factors
affecting the impact of various types of wastes on the estuarine
environment. Water temperature was mentioned in almost every
instance. Thus the addition of large quantities of heat from
Industrial cooling water constitutes a form of pollution which must
be considered (Figure IV.5.7).
The impact of heat pollution on the environment appears in several
different ways:
(1) Heat affects the physical properties of water such as
density, viscosity, vapor pressure and solubility of
dissolved gases. Consequently, such processes as the
settling of particulate matter, stratification, circulation,
and evaporation can be influenced by changes in temperature.
Since the solubility of oxygen in water decreases as
temperature increases, thermal pollution reduces the oxygen
resources. Most aquatic organisms depend on dissolved
oxygen to maintain growth and reproduction.
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IV-366
(2) Heat affects the rate at which chemical reactions
progress, and it can speed up the formation of undesirable
compounds or change dynamic chemical equilibria. It also
affects biochemical reactions and can result in a more
rapid depletion of the oxygen resources. If sufficient
heat is added, temperatures can be elevated enough to
sterilize the envirorinent by killing all living organisms.
(3) Envirorinental temperatures are Important to the living
resources. Physiological processes such as reproduction,
development, and metabolism are temperature dependent.
The range of many species of fishes and the species corn-
position of comunities are governed to a great extent by
the envirorinental temperature. Temperature anamolies also
can block the passage of anadromous fish, greatly reducing
future populations.
(4) An increase In temperature can result in synergistic
action; that is, the simultaneous effects of separate agents
Is greater than the total sum of individual effects. Prime
examples are Increased toxicity of some materials, Increases
in susceptibility of fish to diseases, and Increased
virulence of fish pathogens.
(5) Thermal pollution affects other aquatic organisms such as
the aquatic plants, the benthos, and the bacterial popula-
tions. Increased temperatures may reduce the numbers of
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IV-367
species in the coirmiunity and stimulate excessive populations
of individual species to nuisance conditions.
The entire ecosystem may be stressed by thennal pollution. The
mount 0 f damage is dependent on the resulting temperature of the
envirormient and the species composition of the biotic comunity.
The total range of detriments should be carefully considered on an
individual case basis before heat is released to the envirorwient.
SEDIMENTATION
The estuarine zone serves as a repository for the suspended material
carried by the Nation’s rivers. From a pure mass standpoint, a
significant percentage of these materials is comprised cf the sediment
load which is measured in billions of tons annually. For example, a
conservative estimate of the sediment carried by the Mississippi
River through its delta complex is five hundred million tons annually.
Man’s activities may purposely or inadvertently upset the natural
balance of Inflow, deposition, and outflow. If upstream erosion is
increased due to poor land management practices, the load carried In
suspension will increase. Conversely activities along the coast can
result in increased shore erosion, removing more sediment than is
contributed. The primary pollutional problem from sediment, however,
results from increased influx and accelerated deposition.
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IV-368
The detrimental effects of sedimentation are reflected in an impair-.
ment of uses such as navigation, recreation, water supply, and fish
propagation. Navigational interests are damaged by the accretion of
materials in ship channels and near docking facilities; millions of
dollars are expended each year in channel dredging to maintain
navigation. Recreational interests suffer from the loss of safe
boating water, increased maintenance of marinas, and from the loss
of fishing areas (Figure IV.5.8). The cost of diversion and use for
water supply purposes may be significantly Increased because of the
need to remove excess sediment.
Fishery loss stems from the destruction of suitable habitat. This
damage results from loss of suitable breeding areas, loss of food
chain organisms because of change in benthic characteristics, and
fish kills from excessive turbidity.
Channel maintenance adds to the sedimentation problem. The cost of
dredging is greatly influenced by the selection of spoil areas; if
the spoil is redeposited in the water enviroment, changes in bottom
characteristics are transferred to other areas, thus expanding the
scope of impact. Dredging spoil disposal results In increased
turbidities as well as changing bottom configuration. Both occurrences
can adversely affect the aquatic habitat. Natural sedimentation is an
integral part of the estuarine environment. Man-made sedimentation
problem Is a fon t of pollution that is significant in tenus of dollar
damages and must be considered in the overall management scheme.
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IV-369
CATASTROPHI C ACCIDENTS
One great threat to the estuarine ecosystem is the ever-present
chance of a catastrophic spill of oil or other hazardous materials.
The large volumes of petroleum and chemical products transported
through the estuarine zone by ships, barges, pipelines, trucks, and
railroads present a continuing opportunity for accidental bulk spills.
The consequences of these spills depend on the amount and type of
terial released and the characteristics of the receiving water.
They may range in magnitude from tragic loss of human life to little
re than economic loss for the transporter (Figure IV.5.9).
When a significant spill occurs, the results can be dramatic. A
large quantity of material is suddenly disgorged into the system;
the fate of this material depends on its miscibility with water,
Its solubility In water, and its density, stability, and volatility.
The fate of the environment depends on what segments contact the material
and the inherent toxicity of the material.
The potential magnitude of the problem is staggering. The quantities
and varieties of oils and other hazardous materials transported or
‘stored are reflected in the following statistics:
(1) Almost 4 billion barrels of petroleum and natural gas
liquids are used annually in the United States.
(2) Twenty-five billion pounds of animal and vegetable oils
are consumed or exported annually.
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IV - 370
(3) Almost 80 billion pounds of synthetic organic chemicals
are produced annually by some 12,000 chemical companies.
These chemicals, many of which are toxic or have unknown
effects on aquatic or human life, range from everyday food
flavorings to lethal pesticides.
The damage to water uses can be demonstrated by consideration of a
catastrophic oil spill. Water birds are attracted by the slick on
the surface. Once they contact the oil, their feathers become matted
and oil soaked. The birds either drown, are killed by toxicosis from
ingested oils or by exposure from the loss of body Insulation, starve
to death from inability to fly and search for food, or are eaten by
predators (Figure IV.5.1O).
Fish become coated with oil and their gills become clogged, resulting
In death. If the exposure is sublethal, their flesh becomes tainted
rendering them unfit for human consumption for a considerable time.
Toxic oil fractions in the water can kill the larval and adult fonns
of invertebrate marine life necessary for a balanced ecosystem.
Aquatic vegetation is destroyed. An extreme fire hazard can exist,
depending on the type and extent of the oil blanket. Recreational
use of the water is impaired. Swimers become coated with oil which
is difficult to remove; boat hulls are stained; beaches with oil
deposits become virtually unusable. Apart from the physical
damage, there is also a esthetic damage. Noxious odors may permeate the
shoreline areas; and waterfront properties are despoiled (Figure IV.5.ll).
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I V -371
The direct damage is not the total economic impact. The cost of
cleanup must be added and is considerable. The ever-present threat
of a catastrophic spill places the estuarine treasure house of resour-
ces in jeopardy.
DELIBERATE PHYSICAL MODIFICATION
Building a bridge, dredging a channel, and filling land for a housing
development are not ordinarily regarded as forms of pollution, yet
they can cause damage to the biophysical environment far more
devastating than the most potent industrial or municipal waste.
Physical modification is permanent; once an estuarine habitat Is
destroyed by dredging or filling, it Is gone forever. No waste
treatment can correct or even minimize the damage. The destruction
of a marsh or part of the estuarine shallows has an obvious effect
on habitat value, but equally severe damages can be associated with
apparently minor physical alterations.
The effect any pollutant has on an estuarine environment depends on
where it goes, how strong it is, and how rapidly it is assimilated or
flushed out of the environment. These conditions depend on water
movønent and circulation patterns, which are in turn governed by the
relationship of tide and river flow to estuarine shape and size.
Dredging of new or deeper navigation channels, building of causeways
or jetties, and even construction of bridge piers can cause subtle
changes in water mov nent that can alter the balance of environmental
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IV-372
conditions in an estuarine system and result in gradual undesirable
changes In the ecosystem.
Table IV.2.1O shows the amount of estuarine habitat lost by filling;
Tab’e IV2.I1 lists the major river flow regulation structures
affecting rivers In the estuarine zone; Table IV.54 gives a general
idea of the niinbers of miscellaneous structures in the estuarine zone.
These three tables indicate only of the extent of modification, not of
Its effects. While destruction of habitat by filling is measurable,
the envlrorwental changes wrought in an estuarine system by external
flow regulation or by internal structures are so closely associated
with its morphology that generalization is impossible. Table IV.5.4
shows that there are in the estuarine zone 752 jetties, dikes, and
breakwaters averaging nearly 1000 feet in length. These are all
solid structures specifically designed and placed to modify flow
patterns. While habitat damage may have been considered in the design
of many of these, it is unlikely that effects on the estuarine
enviroment were considered seriously in the placement of many of the
989 causeways and pier bridges within the estuarine system.
Physical modification of estuarine systems may enhance the usefulness
of the biophysical environment. In fact, many modifications are made
deliberately to improve or protect an estuary for a specific use, but
often without consideration of the d fects on other uses. The side
effects of such modifications may be good or bad, depending on local
conditions. For example, the piers and abutments that support
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TABLE iv.3.4 ARTIFICIAL MODIFYING STRUCTURES
—I-I-i— I—I ——_———-—.——I
IJETTIES, DIKES & CAUSE— I PIER I DREDGED I TOTAL I
bREAKWATERS I WAYS IBRIOGES I CHANNELS ISTRUtTURES I
I I I I I(EXCLUULNGt
I bIOPHYSICAL I NUMBER ILENGIH I NUMBER I NUMBER I NUMBER (LENGTH * 1 CHANNELS)I
REGION I I(AV——FTII I I 1 (FEET) I
I I I I I I I 1
fNORTH ATLANTIC t0 I 2600 I 4 $ 48 I 146 I 48640 I 156 1
I $ I I I I I I I
IMLL)DLE ATLANTIC 17 ]. 1 16C I 53 58 269 18340 I 2 2
$ I I I I I I I I
JOtIESAPLAKE BAY I 63 I N. 4. I 19 I 37 37 I 99724 I 119 I
I I I I I I I I I
ISOUTH ATLA1’ TIC I 44 1 1130 I 43 I 46 I 68 40746 I 133 I
I I I I I I I I I
IL AkIdBE4N 1 31 I 960 I 32 34 1 43 I 18500 I 97 I
I I I I I I I I I
IuULF OF MEXICO 196 260 I l’.6 I 170 I 308 I 22702 51 I
I I I I I I I I I
IP, ClFIC SOUTH ESTj 37 I 1100 I 2 I 30 I 55 I 12820 I 89 I
I I I I I I I I I
JPACIf-IC NURTHY ESTI 51 I 60 1 30 I 37 I 9 I 8800 I 118 1
I. I I I I I I. I I
(ALASKA 62 l 930 44 I 41 I 73 I 0 I 147
I I I I I I I I I
IPACIFIC ISLANDS $ 37 1140 I 27 1 24 I 75 I 13000 I 88 1
1 1 1 I I I. I I
TOTAL I 752 I 930 1 464 I 525 1165 I 283272 I 1741 I
I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I
* FOR DEPTHS GREATER THAN 35 FEET.
REFERENCE: NATIONAL ESTUAKINE INVENTORY
SOURCE: U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS
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IV-374
bridges are frequently excellent fishing grounds, yet the same
piers can have adverse effects on water movement.
A Public Health Service study of Great South Bay on Long Island, N.Y.,
in 1961 found that water circulation west of the Bay Bridge was greatly
restricted, dye tracers showed that the bridge piers acted as a
partial barrier to water movement. Figure P1.5.12 shows the Bay Bridge
and schematically illustrates the movement of dye near the Bridge.
This study concluded that the restricted circulation west of the Bay
Bridge was a contributing factor to the degradation of water quality
In this area (IV-5-3).
The Insidious nature of environmental damage associated with physical
modification makes It difficult to assess and predict the effects of
specific physical changes on the estuarine environment. Three exam-
ples of the results of physical modification illustrate how flow
regulation can damage an estuary, what the results of progressive
filling can do, and how physical modification can improve the
envi rorinent.
Charleston Harbor, South Carolina
As part of the national plan to minimize unemployment during the
depression of the 1930’s, the South Carolina Public Service
Authority was formed. Its purpose was to build a large dam, water
supply, flood control, navigation, and recreation complex that would
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IV—375
FIGURE IV.5.12
WATER MOVEMENT NEAR A PIER BRIDGE,
GREAT SOUTH BAY, LONG ISLAND, N.Y.
BOTTOM:
DYE MOVEMENT THROUGH THE BAY BRIDGE ON
A WINDLESS EBB TIDE. GREATEST WATER DEPTH
NEAR THE BRIDGE WAS 9 FEET.
RECENT PHOTOGRAPH OF BAY BRIDGE. NOTE
THAT DYE MOVEMENT WAS DIRECTLY TOWARD
THE OPEN PART OF THE BRIDGE. (SECOND
BRIDGE WAS BUILT AFTER THE 1961 DYE STUDY)
TOP:
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IV-376
generate emp1oyment opportunity. This complex, called the Santee—
Cooper Project, involved the diversion of the Santee River into the
Copper River through Lake Marion and Lake Moultrie. The outflow from
Lake Moultrie would go through a hydroelectric plant into the Cooper
River. In addition to the creation of large recreation lakes the
project would open a navigation channel to Coltmibia, S. C. It was
felt the increased flow in the Cooper River would benefit Charleston
Harbor, because it would help flush pollutants from the harbor and
improve water quality (Figure IV.5.13).
The project was completed and placed in operation in 1942. By 1947,
shoaling rates in the Harbor had increased to the point where dredging
was a full time operation. Hydraulic model studies found the answer
to the increased channel maintenance; the higher fresh water inf low had
markedly increased salinity stratification and resulted in the forma-
tion of a salt wedge. Particles were entrapped In the wedge, and
deposition of sediments Increased.
The intended modification changed the circulation patterns and instead
of Improving conditions in the Harbor, created more serious problems.
There l ’s now a recoimnendatlon to divert the flow back Into the Santee.
The net long run effect, regardless of the outcome of this recomenda-
tion, will be the complete alteration of two estuarine systems with
an unknown total effect on the ecosystem (IV-5-4).
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IV-377
San Francisco Bay, Calif.
San Francisco Bay Is the largest of all natural harbors on the
Pacific coast south of Puget Sound (Figure IV.5.14). The fresh
water inflow to San Francisco Bay is primarily the drainage from the
central valley of California; the Sacramento River from the north and
the San Joaquin from the south fonn a huge rich delta which Is con-
i*cted to the Bay. The overall size not including the tidal delta
area is about 435 square miles at mean high water.
In 1850, when California was a iiitted to the Union, San Francisco
Bay was even larger than it Is today. More than 300 square miles of
sarshiands along its shores gave it the appearance of being
extraordinarily vast, particularly during maximum spring tides when
the Bay waters flooded far inland, drowning all but the tips of reeds
and marsh grasses. Since those early days more than 240 square miles
of the salt marshes have been reclaimed, chiefly for agriculture and
salt ponds. In addition, approximately seventeen square miles of
tidal and submerged lands have been filled, mostly along the water-.
fronts of San Francisco, Oakland, and Richmond; In Richardson and San
Rafael Bays in Mann County; and along the northern bayshore of
San Mateo County. And yet the Bay still seems so immense that it
Intrigues many minds with the possibilities of reclaiming additional
square miles for industrial and residential developments, recreation
areas, airports, highways, and coirnnercial establishments.
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IV-378
The Bay presents few obstacles to reclamation through land fill, It
Is shallow throughout much of its area, with 80 percent of the water
less than 30 feet deep and 70 percent less than eighteen feet deep
at low tide references. About 248 square miles of tidal and sub-
merged lands in the Bay are still susceptible to reclamation. If
these areas were filled and used for urban purposes, only 187 square
miles of the Bay would ramain as deepwater channels for ships and
many portions of the Bay would be reduced almost to rivers.
This example shows the magnitude of reclamation that can occur with-
out consideration of future consequences. A total damage assessment
has not been made, but there has been a drastic decline or elimination
of clam and shrimp fishing within the Bay. When nursery areas of the
size of San Francisco Bay are damaged this damage must be reflected
in the life of the adjacent coastal waters (IV-5-5).
Mission Bay, San Diego, Calif.
Mission Bay in California is one of the better examples of deliberate
modification to intensify use. In fact, this unique case demonstrates
what can be accomplished through coordinated Federal, State, and local
planning and construction. The end result has added considerable value
to the community and has preserved a portion of the estuarine environ-
ment in a metropolitan area (Figure IV.S.15).
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IV-379
Mission Bay and San Diego Bay lie tn the delta of the San Diego
River. Prior to about 1825 the river would switch channels and flow
Into one or the other depending on the whims of nature. Between
1825 and 1877, history shows the San Diego River Channel emptying
into San Diego Bay. Since San Diego Bay was one of the best natural
harbors on the Pacific coast, the shipping interests became very
concerned over the sediment load deposited in the harbor. It was
felt that if this sedimentation process were not controlled, the Bay
would become too shallow for navigation.
Consequently, in 1877 the San Diego River was permanently diverted
Into Mission Bay. The period from 1900 to 1950 was one of exceptional
growth for Southern California. Private and Federal developments in
the San Diego Bay portion of the delta were of sufficient magnitude
to warrant flood control works on the River. Subsequently, a
separate flood control channel, which empties into the ocean, was
built for the San Diego River, and some navigation dredging was done
In Mission Bay.
During the same period of time (1900-1959), changes were occurring
In Mission Bay. In 1929, California incorporated Mission Bay into
Its State park system. In 1945, title to the tidelands and submerged
lands was granted to the city of San Diego. The city passed a $2
million bond issue for improvement of Mission Bay. It also cooperated
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IV-380
with the Corps of Engineers, complying with all conditions neces-
sary to obtain a multipurpose flood control and navigation project
for the San Diego River and Mission Bay.
Since 1946, the venture has accomplished a completely separate flood
channel for the San Diego River, a superbly planned recreational
development in Mission Bay including private Investments totalling
over $22,500,000 for support and service facilities, an orderly
preservation of habitat necessary for coastal fisheries, and open
water recreation areas with water quality sufficiently high for
all water-contact sports. The Bay has been zoned for various
activities, banks have been stabilized, and beaches have been created.
All of this area is just a few minutes drive from the center of San
Diego.
The total dredging effort in Mission Bay since 1946 has cost over
$6,500,000 and over 9,500,000 cubIc yards of material have been
removed. Mission Bay stands today as a shinning example of what
determined community effort can achieve (IV-5-6, IV-5-7).
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IV-381
SECTION 2. SOURCES OF POLLUTION
I arly all of man’s activities can result in environmental degrada-
tion. The pollutants and polluting conditions outlined in the pre-
ceding section are rarely unique to a particular use or specific
sctivity, but they result from man’s existence in the estuarine
zone as well as his use of it. The major sources of pollution
described in this section fall into three broad categories:
(1) Those sources associated with the extent of
development of the estuarine zone, including waste
discharges from municipalities and industries, and
land runoff from urban and agricultural land.
(2) Those sources associated with particular activities
of great pollutional significance, specifically dredg-
I ng and filling, watercraft operation, underwater
mining, and heated effluent discharges.
(3) External sources having impact derived through flow
regulation and upstream water quality.
MUNICIPAL WASTES
Over eight bfl lion gallons of municipal wastes are discharged daily
Into the waters of the estuarine zone. While most of this volume
Is domestic sewage, many municipal waste discharges also contain
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IV - 382
significant amounts of industrial wastes, which may add to their
variability and complexity.
Municipal waste discharges have four important effects on receiving
water quality.
(1) The decomposable organic matter of municipal waste
discharge exerts a demand on the oxygen resources of
the receiving water. This demand can result in depletion
of dissolved oxygen to the point where desirable biota
cannot tolerate the environment; they disappear or are
killed. Complete depletion can result In noxious odors
with destruction of esthetic values.
(2) Municipal wastes may contain pathogenic organisms
dangerous to human beings. The coliform bacteria
measurement is an Index of the possible presence of
pathogens. The basic premise is that if fecal Indicator
organisms are present, there is a high probability of
pathogens being present; this condition is a public
health hazard for anyone ingesting or contacting the
water. There are many documented cases of waterborne
epidemics and water transmitted diseases to support
the health hazard premise.
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IV-333
(3) The settleable material In municipal wastes may be
deposited on the bottom, resulting in large sludge banks
of organic content. These sludge banks can also deplete
the oxygen resources through biochemical reactions. The
suspended materials, if sufficient in quantity, can
reduce the depth to which sunlight penetrates,. altering
that portion of the ecosystem dependent upon photo-
synthetic activity.
(4) Dissolved salts can make the water less desirable
for other uses and the fertilizer or nutrient portions
are sometimes implicated in stimulating nuisance growths
of algae and other aquatic plants. These aquatic growths
in an enriched stream can cause severe fluctuations In
dissolved oxygen concentrations and can interfere with
other legitimate uses.
Table IV.5.5 suni arizes municipal waste discharge volumes into
the blophysical regions. While the Middle Atlantic region has by
far the largest volume of municipal waste discharge, the potential
1 act on the estuarine zone Is greatest in both the Pacific
$outhwest and in the Pacific Islands because of the small estuarine
ter areas In these two regions. This potential impact is les—
ened by the ability to use deep ocean outfalls, an approach made
practicable by the narrow continental shelf in these regions.
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IV-384
Table IV.5.5
Municipal Waste Discharges In The
Estuarine Zone
Biophysical Region
Total Volume of
Municipal Wastes(l)
Percent of
Sewered Population
with Secondary
Treatment, 1968(2)
Volume per
Square Mile
of Estuarine
area(gals./
North Atlantic
550
25
160,000
Middle Atlantic
3500
60
680,000
Chesapeake Bay
640
90
140,000
South Atlantic
270
75
70,000
Caribbean
160
N.A.(3)
220,000
Gulf of Mexico
760
75
70,000
Pacific Southwest
1900
30
2,380,000
Pacific Northwest
390
50
200,000
Alaska
13
25
1,000
Pacific Islands
(Hawaii Only)
85
25
5,700,000
Total
8300
50
180,000
(1) Based on 150 gallons per capita per day of total population In Stan-
dard Metropolitan Statistical Areas, 1965. Volume In mgd.
(2) Data from USD1, FWPCA, TM Cost of Clean Water, 1969.e
(3) N.A. means data are not available.
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T V -385
Sewage treatment reduces and alters the impact of municipal waste
on the environment. Primary treatment with chlorination removes
part of the decomposable organic material, removes nearly all of
the settleable and suspended solids, and almost eliminates the
possibility of pathogens in the effluent. Secondary treatment
can almost eliminate decomposable organic material, and some
special processes can eliminate certain dissolved salts. About
half the municipal wastes discharged to estuarine waters receives
secondary treatment, with the most extensive use of secondary
treatment being in the Chesapeake Bay estuarine region.
INDUSTRIAL WASTES
Associated with the major metropolitan developments are large
numbers of industrial complexes with their attendant waste products.
Many of these wastes, especially from the chemical and petroleum
industries are so complicated that it is difficult both to
identify them and to assess their effects on the receiving streams.
Table IV.3.2 gives a sumary of the major manufacturing industries
in the estuarine zone. Table IV.5.6 presents the basic character-
istics of wastes from each major industrial category. Table IV.5.7
and Table IV.5.8 show the waste discharges and levels of waste
treatment associated with this industrial development.
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IVT386
TABLE IV.5.6 POLLUTION CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE
Type of Industry Origin of Major Wastes
(b’dance and Accessories P S ’ plant. Stick washing. leaching fr IshOs. lubrication and hydraulic oil spillage,
surface cleaning, treatiwT. and painting, plating operations, trllng and buffing
operations, n.illinq with cutting oils. Repair and rework operations.
Food and Kindred Products Washing of raw products, slaughtering, separation of skins, peels • pits, scales, feathers
and other inedible fractions of crude products, rendering of fats, blanching, cooking
operation, curing and pickling operations, byprodacts of too little value to Market,
spills, floor and equipeent cleaning, diffusion eutraction operations, wet grinding
Operations, steep tOok liquors, still bott and coo 1 log water -
Tobacco Manufactures Mainly dry operations, s incidental cleanup operations.
Teutile Mill Prodects Wool scouring, deslzin’ 1 operations. cleaning, dyeing and bleaching.
Apparel and Other Finished Products Made fran Fabrics
and Similar Materials Ory Operations.
L er and Wood Products, Facept tarniture Leaching of logs being fioatn-d to millS and held in ponds for edi I tnT. Sa,.dvst is
potentially a heavy polluting agent if disposed so that it is washed into surfic waters
by 5 50aM runoff or if storOd so that leacisite reaches surface waters. Preservatives and
glues.
Furniture and Fintures Water cartiio utilized to pick up uasto from varnishing. painting and finithing opratioflt.
Paper and Alli,d Products Pulping operations, including irithing of logs and chips, chen.ical pulping troateents, and
bleaching operationS. Debarking processes. Condensate free reagent recenery evaporatorS
ylspooed fibers from yaper-n.ainq. Glue. Ink and coloring agent spills. ‘many contani-
nation from productien of Rival storhs.
Printing, Publishing, and Allied Indestries Mainly dry operation. S waste fria. glaRing and preparation of plates.
Chonicals and Allied Products Bleedino of recede streaon to avoid buildup of impurities, wet scrubbing of stacks and
condenser euhausts. side reactions In Many processes, acid, alkaline and organic eutrac—
tin Ogeets. inourities I c raw Materials, catalysts. unreacced nunoners and other feed
reagents, stabilizers. cortlnaced cooling water, dispersing agents, spent culture nediu.
cleanup and spills.
Petroleun RefialaR .wd Related ledustries Crude oil and process brines. cooling witer from heat euthangers. Leaky beat euchange
egoipeent. Side reaction products free cracking and synthesizing operations. Fractions
that escane collection by distillation coline,s. Stack washing. storage tank drainoff
and spills.
Mubber and Miscellaneonas Plastic Products Phast processes dry, Cooling water used in considerable quantity. Acid or alkali digesti..
of reclaimed rubber and washIng of digested product Acid, salt and alcohol coagulunts for
lateo processes. Wash water for lutes processes. Lubricating and hydraulic oil spills.
Reagent spills and cleanup operations. tOtes and reclaim peocesses greatest polluters.
Leither and Leather Products Wastes occur almost exclusively in tanning and finishing operation. Salting of bides,
machate and scraping free hides, green fleshing, unhiring. bating. pickling, degreosieg
and tanning.
Stcme. Clay, Glass and Concrete Products trading 0 f sand, clay and other mined ceeponents is Major wastewacer contoninatlon source.
Prinms’y Metal Industries Cleaning and pickling acids. Serious cleaning solutions and detergents. Oils for foreleg
olmeeltians. Coke quenching and stack washing water. cool imp ,nater. lding and ore sands,
.lchining operation-s. Leaching agents for ores, flotation process, ore purifying.
Fabricated Maui Products, Exc* t Ordloce, Machinery, Lubricating imid hydraulic oil spills free processing eqoipoent. Machining operations, flue
and Transportation tguI nt gas washing, metal cleaning operations paint spraying operation, electroplating anodizing.
Machinery Eacept Electrical Water wash of stacks, blnudeuwl of boilPr, cooling tOwer residues, ion eochinge wastes,
‘aieage fran cinder and ash catting oils, lubricating c Ound spills and rinse.
ls drav1ic oil leaks, sand blist dusts, dispersions. metal chips. etul surface cl.aners.
Corrosion prevention reagents, painting and plating operations.
Machinery. Equlpeent and Supplies Metal fReeing operations, metal cleaning, plating and painting operations. Cutting
and thilling Of insulators.
Transportation (qui nt Stars washing. Cutting oils, spills of labricatieg oils and hydrauiic oils, pickling and
cleaning operations, plating operations, cooling outer. blowdouc of boilers, corrosion
protection, pointing operations. and sanding.
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TABLE IV.5.6 POLLUTION CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE
(continued)
m problem.
VIØ I. heat and suspended solids, acids, bases, bleaching agents, deter-
ts atid dyes with high coloring activity. Many waste ccnponeaits haee
biacidal actioe.
lee, little water pollution
tarqe aewunt Pf ROD in leachate fr ye. loss and from sawdust. tone
biacadal contaminant in leachate and in oreseroatior snills.
Saleewts. niq.eent, narnish solids, dish SOP and bincidvi oo.nnooeots.
Very hioh sasnendrd solids, SlIP, heat, oil, acid, alkali, color and
biacidal cowioeewt problem. The anlame is large and treatment difficult.
S 5tIi qlaeieg and acidic metal solutions from plate preoaratio.n.
ieee limited source of cyanide froe. nlatinn operations.
¼lds. alkalies, salts, flamoat.le and bincidal nroanic conoawnds in
yeaS earieto, nasnended solids, oils, nhosnhorous. sulfides, cyanides.
lava atals detergents, elastye.er disnersions and fluorides. High
loads.
iariaiat ally coapomento. Pheoclic coogounds. Sour waters containino sul—
tides and arcaptaos. iamnaoia. tyanide. Pyridioe. Spent caustic solutions.
Thlaas detergents. Hot streams. Various sludge components. thrunates. Dio-
tidal agents. Chemicals that caase fish flanors. a major wastewater problem.
tueqe quantity of hot water. Sulfur ziec caegaoaaods and wide variety of
bincidal organic c ounds. Organic acids and BOO components. Siscolora-
tia f m carbon black. Detergents and saspended solids.
Sagt, toital fluids. proteioaceoas coapooods. fat, suspended flesh,
alfide and amiia salts, detergents, organic soleents, negetahie and
S’ tanning agents. Very high WlO and naisance proaaotiae components.
tawaneets with biacidal action.
iaieeded onlids fm mineral grading in large guaetity, adsen mining asso-
ciated with maoofactore. Small amount of sospesded solids from grinding
ad cwttlng operatioes.
Fly ash, .etal chips and powder, iron salt solutions, acids, bases,
Swine, variety of organic chemicals, cyanide. nils, detergents,
alfides, awnsoia, fluorides and heat. tulane hugh.
ills, atals powder and chins, detergents. yaiot solvent and solids,
cVaic acid, phosphoric acid, cyanide and heavy metals.
!aapeeded solids, ails, detergents, acidic eetal salts, organic soloents.
cpwalde, ania, fga.rIde, ptneoolic ccaepoonds, phosphoric and chrunic
acids. hang substances unfavorable to ugsuatic organisms.
Vetal chips and powder. other suspended solids, oils, acids, detergents.
tgaalde, heany metals, point solvents and solids, these indostries are
at eegarded as heaey polluters hot carry on operations that consistently
lead to polluted water. Plating baths are a serious hazard and demand
claw comtrol,
Oils, atal chips, detergents, acids, Iron salts, cyanide, heaoy metals.
tip ash. paiet solvent and solids and alkaline waste. Many components
wilt biacidal activity.
troatanent
IV-387
Plant control. til separators, flocculation and sediment action. toolisg
systems. Baffer lagoons. Verubic biological treatment.’ Poe of m nitipal
system.
Process control, keeping water use at a ninilman and aatlusion from waste-
ater stronns, fat separators, sedimentation, biological treatment and
nuwicipal plancs, separation of solids for laodfitl or barging to sea,
disinfection.
Municipal plants.
Process control, physical, che mical biological, particularly actinated
sludge and aerated lagoon. Municipal plant.
aunicinal nlant.
Process control
Process control chemical, sedimentation, boi-ooidatiue, naunitipol ploot.
Process control, chemical nmecinitaoion, neutralization, sedimentation and
centrifunation, 01-1 tunes of biological treatment, Lagoons, landfill and
irrigation. tontrollrd discharge on oo100inn tides.
Process control, chemical. ohysical , municipal olant.
Process cuntrol , chemical, neutralization, nuidation, precipitation, sedi-
mentation, oil srnaratinn. bio.nwidaciae treatment with adapted systems,
nar gicularlo attieated sludged and aerated lagoons. Many wastes require
isolotion and c.seciag treatment. tutfnr lesoons belt handle difficult
loads. Ourning of separated solids or oils.
Physical, chemical, auidatian, cooling, neutralization, oil separation,
sedimentation, hio-oaidatioo in odapted systems, particularly actiaated
sludge and aerated lagoons. Flotation, electrostatic separators and
ceotrifagation.
Process control, physical, acclimated bio—ooidatioe system.
Major Wastes tisaracteristics
Sasemded salids as fly ash, metal poader, paint solids, daneestic wastes
aadwiscellameoas cleamap solids, tatting, lahricatiog and hydraulic oils.
beleegeets and organic cleaning ageats. Cyanide and heany metals.
leat, high BOO and suspended solids, detergents, nitrogenous substances,
Pat. wrgaaic acids. salts, large operations cause severe nuisance growth;
aai.al pathogen hazard.
Process control, chmnical coagulation, sedimentation, blo-owidative
greatasseots.
Sedin.entotioo.
Process control, chemical, physical nmotralizatian, precipitation, nil
separation, flotation, magnetic separation, acclimated bio—aaidatiee systems
particularly attieatrd sludge uod aerated lagoons. ugh speed mills and
deterioration ore guality leadiny to mere caste. ‘Deep wells, ‘Do
separation of fluorides.
Process control, chemical, sedimentation, oil separation, biu-ouldation,
noinltipal plants.
Process control, chemical, oil separation, seiinentatioo, l’io-ooidation,
municipal plant.
Process control, double tankins of cyanide baths, cheoical. oil separation,
sedimentation, hio—owldation and municipal plant.
Process control, chemical, physical sedimentation, oil emulsion, breaking
and separation, stwoial isolation and destruction of cyonide wastes,
bio—ooidatioe treate.mnt aith acclimated systems.
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TABLE (V.57 INDUSTRIAL WASTE DISCHARGES IN COASTAL STATES, 1963
I I I
I TOTAL TREATED
I I WASTE DISCHARGE WASTE DISCHARGE
I I I I I
I NUMBER I VOLUME NUMBER I VOLUME
STATE PLANTS 4 (MGO) PLANTS I (MGDJ
I I I I
4MAINE 64 447 21 I 55
INEW HAMPSHIRE 4 40 9o 4 12 4 14
IMASSACHUSEITS 304 I 395 I 18 I 44
4RHOLaE ISLAND 67 I 44 I 11 I 8
ICUNNE:C.TICUT 209 I 319 4 65 I 25
INEW YORK * 4 85 I 1559 176 I 576
INEW JERSEY I 421 I 1082 I 148 I 361
IPENNSYLVANIA * 4041 $ IC 1008
IDELAWARE 4 45 I 499 I i 318
4 MARYLAND 143 I 1099 I 48 I 258
IVIRG INIA $ 141 4 753 9 189
IDISTUICT of COLUMt IAI I I I
JNORTH CAROLINA I 238 I 4 (0 I 86 P
(SOUTH CAROLINA I IS a 4 277 4 60 I
UNTREATED
WASTE DISCHARGE
NUMBER I VOLUME
PLANTS I (MGO)
I I I
151 I 152 I 249 I
38 1 98 I 239 I
296 I 80 I 638 I
208 142 I 376 I
219 I 57 I 411 I
249 I 110 I 414 I
66 I 48 112 $
737 I 174 I 3249 I
819 I 103 I 1491 I
526 I 348 I 331 I
93 I I 321 I
200 I 584 58
I 116 I 630 I 59
I 154 I 663 I 44
I 71 I 178 23
I 343 I 3980 I 169
I 171 I 2310 $ 68
I 578 I 85? I 230
I 414 I 49
934 I
I I 83 I I 11 I I 72 I
I 279 I I 41 I I 238 I
I I I I I I I
TOTAL I 4034 I 21879 I 1505 I 6312 I 2668 I 15567 I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I
* INCLUDES SOME DISCHARGES TO THE GREAT LAKES (. THE OHIO RIVER.
REFERENCE; NATIONAL ESTUARINE INVENTORY
SOURCE: U.S. DEPT. OF COMMERCE, BUREAU OF ThE CENSUS
NOTE THE ESTABLISHMENTS INCLUDED IN THIS TABLE ARE THOSE HAVING WATER USE OF 20
MILLION GALLONS OK MORE ANNUALLY. THIS REPRESENTS 97 Of TOTAL INDUSTRIAL
MANUFACTURING WATER USE.
43
28
226
56
144
389
273
24
95
78
392
82
351
36
294
981
721
3033
131
841
564
TOTAL I
WASTES
TREATEJ I
PERCEN TI
1 I
15
LI I
18 I
8
37 I
33 4
25 I
11 I
23 I
25
38 I
14
32 I
3o I
35 I
38 I
37
18 I
35 $
22 I
13 I

29 I
I EORG1A
I FLOR IDA
I ALABAMA
4MLSSLSSLPPI
TEXAS
ILOUISANA
ICAL IFORNIA
I UREGON
4WASI4 INGTON
IALASKA
4 HAwA! I
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TABLE IV.5.8 WASTE DISCHARGES OF MAJOR WATER USE INDUSTRIES IN THE COASTAL STATES*
(VOLUME IN MGD)
1963
PR1MAr Y METAL 4
LNt.)USTRIES I
I I I
I 4U — I
4 T hEA—I T 4—
T [ JTALITEL) $T U
I I I
I I 4
I I
334 I 304
i l l I 111
I I t 3i
L 8I 2b3I 2224
e i 3!
28114 5 7I 214I
I I I
1 1
31 I 31
I I 4
1. 1 I I I
1 4 I
I I I
I I I
o 4 bbI
I 1
I I I
I I
281 s4
33$ UI 194
714 414 361
I I I
I I I
37461 10601 14 4
I S
27 4
15
I I I I
IFuQO AND KINURED IPA ’1R APIL) ALLIED $CI-IEMICALS L.A1LIEDI FTRULEUM f CUAL
I PRODUCTS I PRODUCTS I PRODUCTS I PRUCIJCIS
I I I I I I I I I I I
I IuN— I 4 luN— 4 IUN— I I 4UN—
I I $TREA— ITREA— $ $TREA—ITREA—I $1REA—I1 cA—I ITkEA—jTREA—
I STATE ITUTAL ITEC ITED $161-ALl TED 11-ED 1101-ALlIED ITEL) II(1TALITEU 41-ED
I I I I I I I I I I I I
IMAIME I 34 I 31 3951 251 370I I I I I I
4N [ 1AMPSr 1kE I I I I I I $ 4 I I I
IMASSACHUSETIS I 30$ I 30$ 1234 304 931 45$ I 3r I I
IRHODE ISLAND I 51 I SI I I I I I I I I
ICIJNNECTILUT I 3$ I 34 174 141 34 2I 254 I 1
INEW YORK I 874 54 824 3431 414 3071 3484 1321 1LI
INEW JERSEY I 41$ UI 30$ 661 301 364 1924 22 11(1 3594 M I 2714
IPENPISYLVANIA I 801 31 771 1871 881 991 4141 1ij 3 5I 301 I 2684 334
IDELAWARE 4 64 34 31 114 lii I 1151 81 IC7I I I I
IMARYLAPIL) I I I 331 $ I I 1 I I I
IVIR 1NLA I 6$ 34 31 1751 631 1124 438$ 49! 3 9I I -
IDISTRICT UF COLUMt3IAI I I I I I I I I I I
$NURTFi CARULINA 4 114 il SI 178$ lid 68$ 33$ ill 22$ I
4 SOUTH CAROLINA I 31 I 34 4 I I 914 31 I I $ I
I OEURDLA I 241 51 194 4221 1564 2664 744 271 474 4 I I
IILOR1DA I 574 51 524 3594 1671 1921 2064 ‘s4I 1621 I I I
IALABAMA I 54 I 4 3071 162$ 145$ 1784 111 1674 I
$MISSISsLPPI 4 64 34 34 I I 4 491 I 4N 1 I I
ITEXAS I 19$ 51 144 761 60$ 161 2852$ 6b 1 27844 5954 5184 794
ILUU ISANA I 304 304 4 1544 1291 25$ 9311 524 oflt 6634 6031 554
ICM.LFURNIA $ 148$ 36$ 112$ 661 471 194 851 38) 471 37 I 307$ 71$
IUREGUN I 244 51 194 1944 524 1424 I I I I
IWASH INGTUN I 334 111 224 6464 1784 4661 774 4I 3 1 5$ SI
4ALASKA I I I I I I I I I
I ItA WAIL I I I I I I I I 4 I 1
I I I I 4 I I I I I I I I I
1-DIAL 4 6574 1311 SZoI 37241 13634 23614 61531 5431 101 23031 17944 5091
I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I (iF TOTAL TREATED I 20 4 37 $ I 78 I
I 4 1 I I I
4—. 4 I I I I I
SEE FOOTNOTES TO TABLE IV.5.7
9
(A)
0
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IV-390
These tables show Industrial water use for the coastal states, not
for the coastal counties only, but nearly all wastes discharged into
the waters of these states ultimately reach estuarine waters. Only
4000 of the more than 200,000 manufacturing plants in the coastal
states account for 97 percent of the total liquid wastes discharged.
Of the nearly 22 billion gallons of industrial wastes discharged
daily, only 29 percent receive any waste treatment. The Pacific
Southwest blophysical region has the greatest percentage of
industrial wastes treated, while the North Atlantic biophysical
region has the least.
Of the major water use industries shown in Table IV.5.8 the petrol-
eum and coal products industries have the highest percentage of
wastes treated and the chemical industries have the least. These
five industrial groupings are responsible for 76 percent of the
total volume of Industrial wastes discharged in the coastal states.
The primary metals and petroleum and coal products Industries are
centralized in the Middle Atlantic, Gulf, Pacific Southwest, and
Pacific Northwest regions, but the other major water use industries
are distributed throughout all regions. The kinds of wastes
associated with food, paper, and chemical manufactures are there-
fore universal problems, while the other major industrial waste
types concern only particular estuarine environments.
-------
IV—391
This considers only the volumes of wastes either treated
or not treated; it does not consider the level of treatment pro-
vided. Some industrial wastes, including those from all major
Water use industries, require extensive treatment before disposal
to the environment. Others do not require anything othe.r than
settling and clarification. The precentages of wastes treated,
however, do give an idea of relative concern for the environment
expressed in action by the industrial and institutional comunities.
Desalination operations and the ever-growing nuclear power facili-
ties are new kinds of Industry representing potential environmental
Problems. Salt water conversion plants remove dissolved materials
from water to make it fit for municipal consumption and industrial
process use. In the case of sea water, where salt concentrations
are as high as 33,000 mg/i, the purification of each million gal—
lOfl of water results in a waste containing almost 300 pounds of
impure salts. Nuclear operations present a completely different
Problem -- that of protecting the environment from exposure to
harmful ionizing radiation. Since environmental exposure must be
held to a minimum, careful control and monitoring of existing and
Potential radiological waste sources are essential.
DREDGING AND FILLING
Intensification of use of the estuarine zone has resulted in many
-------
IV—392
artificial changes being made in Its physical structure. Shore-
line areas have been filled to create more land area for residefl
tial and corTI1 ercial use; channels have been dredged and maintained
to permit safer and better navigation; harbor facilities have been
dredged; bridges and causeways have been built. All of these
activities have Impact on the coastal zone ecosystem, but the actiV
ities having the most impact on water quality are dredging and
filling. The potential for pollution of the system exists in both
filling and dredging; both can introduce foreign materials into
the water, destroy aquatic habitat, and alter physical circulatiOfl
patterns. In the case of dredging, exposed bottom materials, if
sufficiently high in organic content, can adversely affect oxygen
resources. Disposal of dredged materials often creates another
problem -— unless the materials are used for land fill, dredged
material creates water quality problems in the disposal area.
The general magnitudes of dredging and filling activities are
shown in Tables IV,2,9 and IV.2.lO. These generalities hide the
slow attrition of estuarine areas by the small bulkheading, fill-i
Ing, and dredging activities associated with statistically small
operations such as those associated with improvement of numerous
private residences. Probably few such operations create notice-
able habitat damage, but the total effect in local areas may be
severe over an extended period.
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IV -393
HEATED WASTE DISCHARGES
Waste heat is another type of pollutant that is discharged to the
Water environment as an expediency. Heat energy can be equally
as danger 5 to aquatic environment as the other more obvious
forms of pollution. The primary source of heat energy is from
lfldustrial cooling water effluents Table IV .5.9 Is asuniitary of
the cooling water use by industry for the United States. Power
Plants are the major users of cooling water in the estuarine zone
as ShOWn in Table IV . 2.7.
ROWer generation capacity has approximately doubled each decade
during this century. The impact of this growth on the estuarfne
areas is evidenced by the fact that in 1950 22 percent of the
Dower plants were in the coastal zone; it is anticipated that over
30 percent of the plants will be located there in the late 1970’s.
Ihe existing cooling water use and waste heat discharges are
SUfl marized in Table IV.2.7. The contrasts among the various
regions are related to differences In factors such as the degree
Of urbanization and industrialization and the availability of
hydroelectric power.
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IV-394
Industrial
TABLE IV.59
Use Of Cooling Water During 1964(1)
Industry -
Cooling Water Intake in -
Billions of Gallons
Percent oU

Electric Power 40,680 81.3
Primary Metals 3,387 6.8
Chemicals & Allied 3,120 6.2
Products
Petroleum & Coal 1,212 2.4
Products
Paper & Allied 607 1.2
Products
Food & Kindred 392 0.8
Products
MachInery 164 0.3
Rubber & Plastics 128 0.3
Transportation 102 0.2
Equipment
All Other — Z7 0.5
TOTAL 50,065 100.00
(1) Data from U. S. Dept. of Contnerce, Bureau of the Census,
“Census 0 f Manufactures, Industrial Water Use, ’ 1964.
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IV —395
WATERCRAFT OPERATION
EStuarine areas are Important highways of comerce; thousands
Of Commercial vessels, foreign and domestic, from ocean liners
to barges, traverse the coastal waterways each year. Added to
this traffic are many of the 1500 Federal vessels and many of
nearly eight million recreational vessels. All of these water-
Craft carry people and/or cargo, and they are a real or potential
Oll ti source. Just based on an occupancy rate alone, the
waterways of this Nation received untreated wastes from vessels
to a city of 500,000. Added to these wastes are the
many gallons of oils, bilge water, ballast water, wash water,
Chemicals, and accidental cargo spills.
Recreational boat usage creates a somewhat different waste impact
from that of commercial traffic. These craft are generally con-
gregated near large population centers, and boat usage Is most
1 fltense on the weekends when the boat owners have free time. In
addition to the human waste and garbage, there are large quantities
Of unburnt fuel products exhausted from boats, particularly from
the two-stroke cycle outboard motors (Figure IV.516).
MINERAL EXPLOITATION
tOflltflercjal exploitation of the mineral resources in estuarine
areas is another potentially significant waste source. Three
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IV - 396
Figure IV.5.16
INFLUENCE OF THE USE OF THE
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENG(NE ON
DIFFERENT MEDIA AND ON THE ESTUARIES
Estuaries
*
Aquatic
Terrestrial
-------
r V- 397
types cif extractive activities exist in the estuarine zone:
(1) Sub-bottom mining of sulfur and petroleum, (2) mining of
materials such as sand, gravel, and oyster shell from the estu—
anne bottom, and (3) mineral extraction directly from the water.
EaCh creates a different water—quality problem.
Ihe sub-bottom operations, especially for petroleum, interfere
With the aquatic habitat in several ways. tn the exploration
Phase, the use of seismic explosions can be detrimental to the
biota In the Imediate vicinity. Drilling activities always
Present the potential threat of a blowout or rupture resulting in
a Wild well (Figure IV.5.17). Potential problems in the production
Phase include the possibility of collision or storm damage to the
n1 9 and the disposal of the oil well brine. Transportation of
Oil whether by ship or pipeline poses an additional pollution
threat
1 fl Sulphur mining, the Frasch process is generally used; super—
heated water (325°F,) is pumped into the sulfur formation and
‘flolten sulfur is pumped out. The bleedoff waters must be vented
om the deposit, and these waters are highly saline with a rather
high hydrogen sulfide content (Figure IV.5.18).
ROth petroleum and sulfur mining cause a secondary impact due to
the shoreline support facilities that accompany their development.
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IV-398
The shoreline development creates problems similar to those
discussed under municipal and Industrial waste sources.
Mining from the estuary floor causes alteration of the estuarifle
shape and water circulation characteristics. A secondary effect
is the turbidity problem associated with material removal. Minifl9
of sand and gravel from the estuarine floor is universal, while
oyster shell dredging in any great quantity is restricted to the
Gulf coast. These operations remove part of the estuarine floor
with a concomitant destruction of habitat and life. There are
also great amounts of suspended and settleable solids frequentlY
released into the water, from which they are redeposited in other
places. Phosphate mining, conron in North Carolina and Florida,
may Introduce nutrient phosphates and toxic fluorides into the
water.
Extraction of minerals from sea or estuarine water is the third
type of mining activity. Minerals extracted include coninon salt,
magnesium oxide, magnesium metal and bromine. Available informa
tion indicates that the pollutional impact of the water extracti0fl
process Is Insignificant.
The extent of estuarine mining activities is shown in Table IV.2.R
On a nationwide basis the sub—bottom mining Industry is restricted
to the Gulf coast øf Texas and Louisiana, and the coasts of
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IV-399
California and Alaska. Isolated areas of the other types of mining
activity also are shown in the table. The economics of bottom
mining and of water extraction compared to the availability of ma-
terials from other sources seems to preclude extensive development,
except for materials such as sand and gravel.
FRESH WATER INFLOWS
The quality of estuarine areas is dependent not only on direct
Waste sources but also on the quality of the streams and runoff
entering the system. Tributary Influent quality is generally a
9Ood index of the type and intensity of land use in the surround—
irig area and upstream from an estuarine system, and it can be a
major cause of ecological stress within the system. The complex
Interactions between fresh and salt water may magnify the effects
Of pollutants carried into the tidal regime, resulting in quality
anomalies completely alien to either fresh or oceanic environments.
It is, therefore, imperative to examine the secondary or relatively
Uncontrollable pollutant source of tributary inflow.
Ihe first item to be considered is the quality of major rivers
8fld streams entering the estuarine area. Many streams are sub-•
jected to various uses and abuses in their upstream reaches; by
the time they reach the coastal area the full cumulative effects
Of pollution are exerted. If no regulatory actions were taken,
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IV-400
there probably would be severe quality deterioration throughout
the coastal regions of the country. However, the implementation o1
the water quality standards program through joint Federal_State
effort has provided a two-pronged attack on pollution with two
levels of regulatory power. Rigid enforcement of this program
should result in a steady improvement of the quality of water enter
ing the estuary systems. Table IV.5.lO sumarizes the tributary
inflow quality from upstream pollution for selected streams eflter
ing the estuarine zone. These data are for the first station above
tidal influence and show the baseline for management planning.
These data may be contrasted with natural river water quality shOWfl
in Table IV.l.8.
The second item to consider is the quality of the inflow from land
runoff. The pollutional potential of this source is dependent O
land use patterns, the rainfall—land runoff relationship, and
rainfall intensity. If the land is essentially natural marshland
or covered by natural vegetation, runoff does not pose a seriouS
water quality problem. Runoff from agricultural land, however, can
be a threat, depending upon the amount of chemical fertilizers
and pesticides used and the degree to which the land can be eroded.
If the land is urbanized with large paved areas, the runoff can b
up to twice as strong as normal domestic sewage because of the Oil
and other materials carried from the streets and yards (Figure IV. 5
.18).
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IV-40 1
TABLE IV.5.lO
Examples of River Water Quality as
Streams Enter the Estuarine Zone
Typical Observed Water Quality
— 2ipn River Conditions in Inflowing River
Nort Atlantic Merrimack Bacterial Counts (MPN) above
1 ,000,000
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) below
50% saturation
Middle Atlantic Connecticut MPN above 10,000
DO near saturation
Chesapeake Potomac MPN less than 1 ,000
DO near saturation
High turbidity during moderate
to high flows
SOUth Atlantic Savannah High turbidity during moderate
to high flows
High natural dissolved organic
load, low DO
Caribbean Canals from High natural dissolved organic
Everglades load, low DO
GUlf of Mexico Mobile MPN above 10,000
Pascagoula MPN above 10,000
Pearl High natural dissolved organic
load, low DO
PaCifiC Southwest Russian MPN above 5,000
Pacjfj Northwest Willamette MPN above 10,000
1 laska Yukon Very high turbidity
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IV-402
Figure IV.l.18 shows the seasonal variation in precipitation for
selected coastal stations. This figure shows a rather varied dis-
tribution of precipitation throughout the national coastal areas
and Indicates the seasons when runoff could present problems.
In addition to the pollutants carried in the runoff, the fresh
water itself may stress the ecosystem through dilution of the
salinity to concentrations lower than those necessary to support
some life forms. A case in point is the annual killing of aquatic
vegetation in Tampa Bay with the onset of summer rains (Figure IV.
5.19).
Last in runoff consideration Is the degree of flow regulation or
water resource development upstream from the tidal environment.
These upstream impoundments, with the attendant flow regulation,
may have both beneficial and detrimental effects. The reservoirs
can serve as equalizing basins, providing a rather constant qualitY
of estuarine fresh water inflow. The difference between regulated
flows and natural flows however, may cause ecological stress
through alteration of the salinity regime or the circulation pat-
terns. Table IV.2.1l is a compilation of flow regulation structures
on major estuarine streams.
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IV-403
SECTION 3. EXTENT OF POLLUTION EFFECTS
Environmental damage from human activities manifests Itself In changes
In water quality and in changes in living comunities. Either or
both may be caused by any of the kinds of pollution or sources of
POlluti ,n already discussed.
This section contains separate discussions of degradation of water
quality and damage to living communities, but water quality is an
1 fltegral part of estuarine ecosystems and changes in one are usually
reflected in the other. An accurate and thorough analysis of the
“ lationsh1p of pollution to environmental damage must recognize
these related factors. The compartmentation of discussion in this
section is necessary because water quality studies and ecological
Studies are rarely conducted simultaneously in the same system. This
5 ltuation, indeed, Is one major existing deficiency in the present
aPproach toward study 0 f the estuarine environment.
DEGRADATION OF WATER QUALITY
One key to the degree of environmental Impact is measurement of
8lteratjon in water quality. Extensive data have been collected on
a few of the estuaries with the most severe problems, and limited
Is available on other estuarine systems to outline the
emergence, or document the existence, of water quality problems.
For the majority of the Nation t s estuarine systems, however, there
V’e little or no data to describe existing water quality conditions.
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IV-404
The Northeastern coast of the United States is the most intensively
used and the best studied part of the estuarine resource (Figure iv
5.21). From the Virginia—North Carolina border to the tip of Maine
there are 10 coastal states encompassing 15 major estuarine systefliS
and harboring an estimated 1966 population of 45,416,000. EconOmic
development includes a wide variety of coim erc1al, industrial,
and governmental activities. Nearly all waste products from this
all—encompassing megalopolis are discharged to the estuarine
systems. The Chesapeake Bay system, which is one of the largest
estuarine complexes tn the country, has many areas o’ water qualttY
impact. The problems in the Potomac River downstream from the
Nation’s capitol are documented by numerous scientific studies.
Pollution in Baltimore Harbor and noxious conditions in the JameS
River have been recorded in detail. (TV—5-10)
The Delaware River and Bay system has been the subject of con-
siderable study for the development of a water quality restOrati0fl
program. Likewise Boston Harbor, Penobscot Bay, New York Harbor.
and Narragansett Bay have been studied in detail to quantify water
quality changes and to provide a technical base for developing
remedial measures.
The estuarine zones along the coast from North Carolina to
Florida have not been studied as extensively as those in the
Northeast (Figure IV.5.21). Except for Charleston Harbor and the
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FIGURE IV.5.21
DISTRIBUTION OF SOME ESTUARIES WITH DEGRADED WATER QUALITY
‘it z
td
J i o 11 (0
I
ISLANDS
D
(7 ,
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IV-406
Savannah River, little concerted effort has been expended in
documenting quality changes. The rapid growth of the Miami area
focusing attention on the estuarine waters of southern Florida.
The water quality of estuaries of the U.S. Gulf coast is weildef ’
by field Investigation only in several critical problem areas.
Tampa Bay, the Mississippi Delta to a lesser extent, the HouStOfl
Ship Channel, and parts of Laguna Madre in Texas, have been
investigated from the water quality standpoint.
stbe
The geomorphology of the Pacific coast is different from that 0’
Atlantic and Gulf (Figure IV.5.21 ). The coast, for the most part.
is composed of steep rocky bluffs with little or no beach. The
estuaries are natural watercourses cut through bluffs and are
generally enclosed to some degree by an oceanward sandbar.
Because of this rugged coast line, intense urbanization has occured
only near the major estuarine systems that form natural harbors.
This unique settlement pattern has been reflected in the concefltr
ation of estuarine water quality work along the Pacific coast.
Systems such as San Diego Bay, San Pedro Bay, Santa Monica Bay,
Monterey Bay, San Francisco Bay, and Puget Sound have been t d1
rather intensely, to either define localized problems, or to reflect
long term degradation. Examples are the studies of San Diego Bay
that led to the construction of a metro—sewage system with disposal
through a deep ocean outfall; investigations of pulp and paper
industrial pollution of Puget Sound; studies of the effects On the
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IV-407
Columbia River of radioactive wastes from Hanford, Washington; and
the effect of agricultural drainage from the Central Valley of
California on San Francisco Bay.
Møst of the estuarine zones of Alaska are still unknown quantities
from the water quality standpoint (Figure IV.5.24). Pollution has
made some impact on isolated areas but the degree of damage is not
Well...documeflted In Hawaii the situation is very similar. Except
for Pearl Harbor and Kaneohe Bay there Is an extreme paucity of data
Ofl the estuarine areas. Guam, Samoa, and the Virgin Islands have
not yet felt intense development. The potential of these areas is
Still to be explored. The scope of existing water quality problems
as Well as extent of water quality change is not known. Puerto
Ri 0 has development concentrated in separated coastal areas.
San Juan Harbor has been studied rather extensively and is in poor
water quality condition (Figure IV.5. l). Pollution surveys have
also been carried out in th,e estuaries serving other coastal cities
Such as Ponce, Mayaguez, Arecibo, Fajardo, and Aguadilla which all
have sufficient populations to create estuarine pollution problems.
Ihe great variety of kinds of pollution and the different ways In
WhiCh the many components of waste materials interact with the
estuarine environment to damage water quality preclude the choice
a single parameter to define the overall extent of water quality
degradation. Damage to water quality can be a direct and obvious
thing such as paper and solids from a sewage discharge
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IV-408
(Figure IV.5.25) or as subtle and invisible as the pathogenic
organisms which may accompany It.
Table IV.5,ll lists some estuarine systems with severely degraded
water quality. While not exhaustive, this list shows the extent of
water quality degradation in many of the estuarine systems of the
United States, and it gives a general appreciation of the kinds Of
water quality damage that now exist. The data in this table show
only that water quality degradation exists In the estuarine system 5
listed. In many cases the data available are not sufficient to
determine specific sources of the pollution or how to correct it.
DAMAGE TO ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEMS
Pollutlonal damage to estuarine ecosystems may be sudden and draflhltiC
as fish or other aquatic life forms suddenly dying, or It may be 50
gradual as not to be noticed for many years.
Fish kills such as those shown in Figure IV.5.26 are readily
apparent even to the casual observer; their causes are sometimes
not so easy to determine. Industrial wastes appear to be respofl
sible for the majority of fish kills In 1966, the last year for
which data are available, with food processing being the most
comon Industrial activity responsible. The estuarine brackish
and salt waters, however, had less than one percent of the fish
casualties reported; probably one reason is the enormous volumes
waters available for dilution of waste discharges. (IV—5—ll)
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IV-409
The effects of physical destruction of habitat are also easy to
assess, at least in terms of the iniuedlate damage caused. The more
Subtle related effects of damage to organisms dependent indirectly
Ofl the habitat for food supply are more difficult, sometimes
ImPossible, to determine.
Many studies of different aspects of estuarine biology have been
made, but there are only a very few cases in which comprehensive
ecological studies have been made of pollutional effects. The
available information on the extent of ecological damage is
Sufliflarized in Table IV.5.12. The information base for this table is
exceedingly sparse; most studies were done when there was apparently
Some damage or other kind of ecological problem. Therefore, It is
hot possible to say whether 38 percent of the Nation’s estuarine
Systems are undamaged or merely present no identifiable problems at
this time (IV-5-lO).
Ihe estuartne systems of the Middle Atlantic blophysical region
have suffered the most damage; 83 percent exhibit some ecological
damage, but only In a few cases is the extent known in any quanti- .
flable sense. The Chesapeake Bay and Gulf of Mexico regions have
the largest numters of heavily damaged systems, probably because of
the Intensity of use of the estuari.ne systems In these regions.
OPty percent of the estuaries of the Pacific Southwest region are
heavii damaged; this reflects the Intensive development of the
Pelatively few estuarine systems of this region.
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TABLE IV.5ll
SOME ESTUARINE SYSTEMS WITH DEGRADED WATER QUALITY (1)
Biophysical Region Major Source of Water Quality Degradation 2 )
Low Dissolved Oxyqen BacterTal Contamination 0thir
(under 50% sat.) (over 1000 MPN Total)
North Atlantic
Penobscot Bay X X Toxic materials
Salem, Marblehead, Nahant Bays X X
Boston Harbor X X
Middle Atlantic
Providence River X X
Connecticut River X
Port Chester - Stamford X X
Moriches Bay X Excess nutrients
New York Harbor X X
Raritan Bay X
Cape May Inlet X
Delaware River X X
Chesapeake Bay
James River x
Potomac River X X
Baltimore Harbor X X
Choptank River X X
South Atlantic
Cooper River (Charleston, S.C.) X Sedimentation
Savannah River X X
Altamaha River X
St. Johns River X X.
Caribbean
% cay te %ay
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74 L ( C P7 C
fifophys fca 1 Req Ion Major Source of b/a ter Qua 71 ty DegradatIon (2 )
Low Disso7ved Oxygen Bacterial Contamination Other
(under 50% sat.) (over 1000 MPN Total)
Gulf of Mexico
Tampa Bay X X
St. Joseph Bay X X
Pensacola Bay X
Mobile Bay X X
Mississippi River X
Galveston Bay X X
Matagorda Bay X
Corpus Christi Bay X
Laguna Madre X
Pacific Southwest
San Francisco Bay X
Monterey Harbor X
Los Angeles Harbor X X
San Diego Bay X
Pacific Northwest
Columbia River X
Elliot—Bellingham Bays(Puget Sound) X Toxic materials
Alaska
Silver Bay X
Pacific Islands
Hilo Harbor X Sugar cane debris
(1) Inclusion in this table means only that there are zones within this system where water quality is degraded
in the manner shown. It does not mean that the entire estuarine system is of degraded quality. The
evaluations presented are based on water quality data in the National Estuarine Inventory, and on addi-
tional reported data.
(2) The most obvious and severe type or types of degradation are indicated; other forms of pollution may be
present.
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-
• I,
(N
>
COURTESY LOUISIANA WILD LIFE & FISHERIES COMM. PHOTO BY ROBERT N. DENNIE.
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TABLE IV5.12
Ecological Damage in the Estuarine Zone
(A)
Biophysical Region
Exten t fuamage
No Damage or
No Information
Number Percent
Total
Heavy
Moderate -
Number
Percent Number
Percent
North Atlantic
5
8
34
56
22
36
61
Middle Atlantic
Chesapeake Bay
23
40
21
25
68
61
62
39
19
57
Il
36
110
158
South Atlantic
11
14
35
44
34
42
80
Caribbean
1
4
18
72
6
24
25
•
Gulf of Mexico
65
30
102
48
47
22
214
Pacific Southwest
22
40
13
24
20
36
55
Pacific Northwest
6
10
24
40
30
50
60
Alaska
2
2
5
6
79
92
86
Pacific Islands
4
12
5
16
23
72
32
Total
179
20
365
42
337
38
881
(1) Dati from Reference IV.5.l0
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IV-414
SECTION 4. EXAMPLES OF ESTIJARINE SYSTEMS DAMAGED BY POLLUTION
Even though water quality damage and ecological damage are diffiCUlt
to quantify in terms of exactly how much damage has been done and
what was Its cause, many estuarine systems have felt the deleterioUS
impact of human exploitation. Examples showing the impact of one
particular source of pollution or of one kind of pollutant are rare,
because use of the estuarine resource Is seldom confined to a jng1e
type of activity. The estuarine systems discussed here were chosen
because one particular kind of pollutional situation or effect seen ’ 5
to dominate the environment; but, nevertheless many other conditiOfl 5
contribute to the total environmental damage in each case.
MUNICIPAL WASTES
Raritan Bay
Raritan Bay between New York and New Jersey is a prime example of a
polluted estuary surrounded by an Intensively developed area (Figure
IV.5.27). The Raritan system, which Is composed of the Bay itself,
the Raritan River, the Arthur Kill, and the Narrows receives appr0’ 1
mately 1,500,000,000 gallons of wastes per day which contain over
1,300,000 pounds of BOD. Although 75 percent of the waste volume 15
from Industry, the major Impact on the estuary is from the rutrient
and bacteriological content of the municipal sewage. The densities
of bacteriological Indicator organisms along the shorelines of the
Bay and In the confluences of the tributary systems indicate grOSS
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IV-4 15
Contamination with human wastes, and the nutrient materials con-
tributed by municipal sewage systems have been sufficient to upset
the ecological balance in the system.
1 fl Some portions 0 f Arthur Kill and the Raritan River dissolved
OXYgen values reach zero in suniner conditions, and the western part
Of Raritan Bay also has depleted dissolved oxygen. High photo-
5 Yflthetjc production by algae counteract these effects in the larger
Part of the Bay itself.
COlif 0 p . bacteria counts are high throughout much of the Bay and
have forced the closing of some public bathing beaches; dye tracer
Studies showed that unchiorinated human waste discharges from the
Upper Bay (New York Harbor) reached beaches on Staten Island within
hours. In 1961 an outbreak of infectious hepatitis was traced
to raw shellfish taken from Raritan Bay in the areas within influence
Of these human wastes.
Ihe investigations of the Raritan system have been in progress for
a Sufficient length of time to document both the polluted conditions
the beginning of recovery due to the construction of pollution
abatement facilities. Bacterial contamination still exists but the
bio1 gj comunity is recovering to form a more diversified and
Stable aquatic population (IV-5-8).
Potomac River, D. C., Md., Va.
The head of the Potomac estuary near Washington, D. C., is severely
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IV-416
polluted by the municipal wastes of the Washington metropolitan
area. Nowhere is there such a clear example of the effects f
massive municipal waste discharges on an estuary. During the lO
flow periods of the warm sumer months, dissolved oxygen levels
approach zero In some reaches, being kept from total deplet1O
by heavy production from large algae growths. The effects Of
these waste discharges are measurable along twenty miles Of the
river (IV-5-9).
James River, Va.
Another example of sewage wastes in an estuarine system i the
James River In Virginia (Figure IV.5.28). The James River
most southerly major tributary of the Chesapeake Bay. It is ar
proximately 400 miles in length and varies in width from five miles
at the mouth to less than 0.1 mile in its upper extremities. The
River is tidal from its mouth to the city of Richmond, a distance
of 90 nautical miles. The freshwater - saltwater interface
migrates between river mile 24 and 60, depending on tide and rivet
flow conditions.
Richmond, Va., is the major waste source on the upper James.
Wastes from this city have caused an over enrichment of the upper
river section which has resulted In nuisance growths of algae
typical of polluted water. The saline sections of the River have
not reflected hyper-fertilization and are in the transitional Stay
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IV-417
However, brief flareups of nuisance biological growths have oc-
curred and it appears that these nuisance conditions will remain
for longer periods of time until a noxious stability Is reached
(IV.5_ 10 )
Upper Biscayne Bay, Fla.
Thj 5 is one of the many bays on the Florida coast in which the
Shallow depths allow light penetration sufficient for the growth
0? Submerged vegetation (such as grasses) and algae. Among the
imPacts of raw sewage discharges into such systems are the
limitation of light penetration due to suspended solids and the
settling of organic material to the bottom. Both of these impacts
affect the submerged vegetation and algae.
Upper Biscayne Bay is located between Miami and Miami Beach. It
IS flOfl..ufljfom in width (2 to 4 nautIcal miles) and is approxi-
mately 6 nautIcal miles in length. The Miami River enters the
Southwest portion of the bay (Figure IV.529). The total number of
wage outfalls entering Upper Biscayne Bay was 70. The Miami
River, carrying the sewage from 29 outfalls, was the major pollutant
SOUrce. It is estimated that 30 to 50 mgd raw sewage flows into
the bay.
ifld 5 of fixed vegetation divided the bay into two major zones.
the Miami shoreline was a zone of red algae, which can survive
low light intensities, and most of the surrounding bay was a zone
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IV-418
of grasses and other vegetation requiring much sunlight. No life
was found at locations above the Miami River mouth in areas near
sewage outfalls, and there was a zone In mid-bay containing no
fixed vegetation. V
The softest sediments were found along the Miami shoreline just
north of the Miami River mouth. Soft sediments also occurred i
mid-bay with harder sediments along the shores of Miami and Miami
Beach where the currents are stronger.
The oxygen consumption of the sediments was highest in the softest
sediments just north of the Miami River mouth, in the northwestern
portion of the bay, and In the deep water south of the Miami River
mouth. These zones were relatively deep, had poor bottom circUl ’
tion and were zones of major deposition of organic-rich material V
Both harmful and fertilizing effects were observed in Biscayne
Bay. The harmful effects were Indicated by the absence of life.
These areas were within 200 yearss of sewage outfalls, were greeter’
than average depth and had soft, sticky mud with high amounts Of
oxidizable organic matter. The fertilizing effects were most
pronounced in areas 200 - 600 yards from outfalls in shallow water
with good tidal circulation in firm sandy mud. Species associat1° 5
within definite coninunities were found to be Indicative of both
the harmful and fertilizing effects (IV-5-l0).
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IV-419
INDUSTRIAL WASTES
Los Angeles Harbor, Calif.
The Los Angeles Harbor portion of San Pedro Bay, Calif.,, provides
an example of an estuarine system receiving oil refinery wastes,
These Wastes were discharged Into enclosed basins or slips which
had Very limited tidal circulation and flushing. The, effects Ofl
the receiving system were reflected in progressive studies of the
benthic biological cornmi.rnlty. Initial investigations showed the
bottom to be composed Of black oily material with the odor of
hydrogen sulfide, a characteristic of anaerobic conditions. The
Peceiving area was subsequently bridged, and a diverse population
0? bottom organisms began to populate the area. The continuous
discharge of the refinery waste, however, eliminated the blota
after a relatively short time. This example demonstrates the
abi lit)9 to recover If proper management techniques are utilized
Silver Bay, Alaska
Aflother example of the water quality changes caused by Industrial
wastes Is the Silver Bay system of Alaska. A paper pulp mill
located on the Bay discharges sulfite waste liquor to the waste
Surface. Water quality sampling of the bay demonstrated extensive
degradation of the surface water stratum as Indicated by depressed
dissolved oxygen concentrations, changes in pH (hydrogen ion
Concentration), and Increase in turbidity. Vertical profiles of
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IV-420
these water quality parameters indicated that the waste materials
renamed on or near the surface In a low-density layer. The
concentrations of the sulfite waste liquor were sufficient to be
toxic to many of the natural food chain organisms and to cause
abnormalities to oyster larvae and fish eggs (IV-5-lu).
Honokaa, Hawaii
Located on the north coast of the island of Hawaii (largest of
the Hawaiian Islands) Is a complex of six sugarcane processing
plants. These mills are renotely situated along an Inaccessible
shoreline characterized by steep cliffs one hundred to two hundred
feet high. The alongshore currents push the wastes long distances
along the shore and then out Into the ocean.
The main effects of the sugarcane wastes have been the shading of
coral by the highly turbid waters, the occurrence of high phos-
phorus and coliform concentrations, and the lowering of fish
diversity and productivity. The slope of the ocean floor near-
shore Is steep and great depths are reached in a short distance.
Thus, the mixing and dilution capacity of the deep water minimizes
the effects within a shore distance offshore, while some wastes
drift along shore with the currents.
With the mixing and current structure of the steeply sloping ocean
bottom, the effects of the sugarcane mill wastes on the hydrOgraPhY
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JV-42 1
of the area is negligible. There Is no significant difference
in the oxygen concentration, temperature or salinity in the
outfall area. The color of the waste from the sugar mill is
that of the soil carried with the cane from the fields (the coninon
mode of harvesting sugarcane is with the aid of a bulldozer and
considerable soil Is scraped up with the cane and hauled to
the processing mill). The soil Is a bright red-brown color,
and this color, plus the turbidity produced by washing the cane
before crushing, is discharged into the ocean producing a vivid
contrast to the surrounding blue water. The alongshore currents
carry this turbidity great distances along the shore instead of
allowing it to be diluted further out at sea.
One of the more distinguishing characteristics of a tropical coast
Is the large quantity of coral. In the sugar mill waste disposal
area at Honokaa, the coral has been completely covered with sludge
(composed mainly of bagasse, and settleable solids) within a
radius of one-quarter mile from the outfall. For the next quarter
mile on either side of the sludge deposit, the coral coverage has
been reduced to about 10 percent total coverage. For the third
quarter mile down current from the outfall, the coral coverage Is
between 10 and 55 percent. The coral coverage on the down current
side of the outfall does not reach normal density until about
three-fourth mile from the outfall, where coverage is about 55
percent (considered normal for comparable areas). There is little
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P 1-422
doubt that the reduced coral density is a result of the increased
turbidity, since coral relies upon light penetration for its
formation and maintenance.
At many sugarcane mills, the normal procedure is to combine
htsnan sewage with the sugarcane wastes. This practice results
in very high concentrations of coliform bacteria, because the
bacteria in the warn sugar-laden waste multiply rapidly. At
the outfall of the Honokaa mill, the collform count was 100,000
per 100 milliliters ( ml). The coliform concentration was still as
high as 1000 per 100 ml at a distance of one mile down current from
the outfall.
Many tropical fish are dependent upon the coral reef structure
for protection from predators and on the organisms symbiont with
coral reefs for food. Since the coral in the Honokaa sugar mill
outfall area was destroyed, it is reasonable to expect that the
fish population also deteriorated. The diversity of fishes in
the outfall area decreased to 16, as compared to a normal 60 found
two miles away. The blomass of fish was also reduced near the
waste disposal area; 160 pounds per acre (lb/acre) during the
sugarcane grinding season, compared to 600 lb/acre two miles
away (IV-5—l0).
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IV-423
DREDGING AND FILLING 0PERATIO 4S
Laguna Madre
One good example of water quality changes from dredging and
filling operations is South Bay of the Laguna Madre system in
Texas (Figure IV.5.30). The dredging and redredging of the
Brownsville ship channel resulted in almost complete enclosure
of the South Bay from Laguna Madre. Settlement of suspended
sediment has caused a 60 percent reduction in depth in South Bay
and has changed the bottom characteristics from desirable vegeta-
tive habitat to soft mud. The water circulation has been reduced
and salinities have increased, and composition of the biological
COii nunlty has been altered in terms of number and density of
species (IV-5-lO).
UI DERSEAS MINING OPERATIONS
Petroleum production in the estuarine areas of the Nation is now
big business. The pollution potential of this extraction industry
Is staggering to the imagination. The damage that could occur to
fish, wildlife recreational utilization, and shoreline structures
from well blows and broken pipelines is immense. The oil industry
Is well aware of this hazard, and since 1955 there have been only
eight such incidents. The primary pollutional effects of these
occurrences to date have been high mortality of waterfowl in the
area of the oil slick and nuisance contamination as a result of
oil washing onto shoreline areas.
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IV-424
The 1956 blowout in Louisiana was accompanied by a rather
severe fire. The crude oil spill was out .of control for approxi-
mately two weeks. Ecological studies for two years after the
spill did not demonstrate any significant damage to the biological
comunity In the spill area as contrasted to control areas outside
the sphere of Influence (IV-5-l0).
The well publicized blowout in Santa Barbara is another example
of water quality impact from mining operations. As a result of
this accident, in January (969, large numbers of waterfowl were
killed by contact with the oil and some prime recreational beaches
were contaminated. The total extent of damages to the ecosystem
have not been assessed and will await the findings of extensive
studies.
HEATED EFFLUENTS
As population centers develop in the estuarine zones of the
country, demand for electric power Increases. This growing power
demand is usually met through the construction of either fossil-
fueled or nuclear-powered thenno-electric plants. Since these
plants are only between 20 and 40 percent efficient In the conver-
sion of thermal energy to electric energy, tremendous quantities
of heat must be wasted to the enviroment. Ihere are many examples
of water quality changes due to thermal discharges.
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P 1—425
The Chalk Point nuclear power plant on the Patuxent River estuary
In Maryland has altered the temperature regime considerably. The
Contra Costa and Plttsburg, Calif., plants have created a new
temperature environment on the San Joaquin River in the delta
area of San Francisco Bay. Cooling water from Turkey Point plant
In Biscayne Bay, Fla, and the Morrow Bay plant in southern
California has created thermal structures that may be as high as
100F above ambient temperature.
These examples represent only a few of the many thermal discharges
from power plants. Other industrial manufacturing processes
utilize considerable quantities of cooling water and may cause the
same type of environmental changes in addition to generating wastes.
LAND USE AND RUNOFF
Indiscriminate use of land areas contiguous to estuaries has
resulted in severe water quality problems (P1-5-10). There are
many documented cases of pollution from land runoff. One of the
most serious is the tremendous impact created by the widespread
application of insecticides to control fire ants in the southeast.
The spraying programs were apparently initiated without considera-
tion of the potential unsought consequences, and the heavy toll of
birds, fish, and other maninals was phenomenal.
Runoff from such uninhabited areas is not the only culprit. In
1968, Endrin released in storm sewers found its way into Northeast
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IV-426
Cape Fear River in North Carolina. Thousands of fish, Including
many anadromous species, were killed (IV-5-lO).
Studies of the pollutlonal effect of storm runoff in Boston Harbor
have shown significant Increases in deoxygenating substances, as
well as bacterial indicator organisms. Control of storm runoff Is
extremely costly, but it is a very real part of polIutf on control.
Runoff from phosphate mining areas In North Carolina and Florida
has added large quantities of nutrients to estuarine systems. The
phosphate material combined with sewage and other nutrient sources
forms a unique, enriched aquatic envirorinent with a real nuisance
potential.
STREAM FLOW REGULATION
Stream flow regulation structures have been built on many of the
rivers directly tributary to estuarine systems. For the most part
these structures have had a beneficial Influence on estuarine
water quality. The regulated stream flow provides a more uniform
source of fresh water with fairly constant quality which aflows
the estuarine system to reach a dynamic equil1bri . In addition,
the reservoirs act as settling basins, reducing the sediment load
in the estuaries. In a few cases the flow regulation has so
restricted the fresh water Inflow that the estuarine salinity
structure has changed.
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IV-427
Water quality changes resulting from the construction of flow
regulation structures are demonstrated in the following examples:
(1) In the San Francisco Delta, upstream
salinity intrusion is controlled by releases from
reservoirs on the Sacramento River. Conversely,
regulation of flow in the San Joaquin River is
partially responsible for recurring quality problems
in the Stockton area of the Delta; and
(2) The construction of Santee-Cooper complex
in South Carolina resulted in the diversion of
the combined flows of the Saritee and Cooper Rivers
into Charleston Harbor. This flow regulation created
a complex sedimentation problem and changed the
vertical salinity in Charleston Harbor.
Upstream Water Quality
Among the more significant considerations in the quality of any
estuarine environment is the quality of the inflowing stream.
If the freshwater inflow is polluted, the impact may be felt
throughout the entire system. A good example of this phenomena
is the St. Johns River in Florida. The St. Johns carries large
quantities of municipal and industrial wastes into the tidal area
(Iv—5-1o).
The poor quality is further degraded by additional waste dis-
charges from the urbanized area near the estuary mouth. The total
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IV-428
impact is a grossly polluted estuarine system which also affects
the portions of the coastal beaches around the mouth.
Wastes from Watercraft
Commercial and recreational boating on estuarine waters is the
most visible and picturesque water use. These watercraft, however,
constitute a continual threat to the quality of the estuarine
environment. An ocean liner with 1000 passengers is a small float-
ing city and accordingly has wastes that must be discharged. A
sailboat represents only one of the millions of pleasure craft
In this country and when large numbers of the craft are congregated
ma small area) a significant waste source is created.
The pollutants discharged include sewage, oils, chemicals, and
other wastes, not infrequently involving accidental spills of
valuable and/or dangerous cargoes. The uncertainty of discharges
as to number, time, place, and frequency adds to the hazard and
control problem. Recent activities by both Federal and State
government agencies to combat pollution from vessels should rectify
this situation by requiring waste treatment devices (IV-5—l1).
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IV-429
SECTION 5. CONCLUSION
The complex nature of pollution in the estuarine zone prevents
the separation of sources of pollution, kinds of pollution, and
types of environmental damage into neat compartments of cause
and effect. All human activities in the estuarine zone can damage
the environment, and most of them do.
Wherever people live, work, and play in the estuarine zone their
social and economic activities place stresses on the biophysical
environment. These stresses frequently result in degradation of
that environment, perhaps not imediately or even in a few years,
but nonetheless certain in its devastating final impact.
Environmental degradation is not a necessary feature of man’s
association with the estuarine zone. The examples discussed in
Chapter 2 of the results of community effort as in San Diego Bay,
and of industrial responsibility as in the management of Avery
Island, show that pollution and socioeconomic activity need not
be synonomous. The massive planning effort just completed in San
Francisco t3ay shows that even the most complex use and pollution
problems can be resolved with careful, determined study.
Pollution in the estuarine zone has been largely a matter of a
lack of concern and a lack of knowledge combined with nebulous
nagement authority and responsibility. Continuing use of the
estuarine zone for all human needs and desires is a fact of man’s
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l v - 430
existence. Accommodating all uses while preserving the environ-
ment is a matter of knowledge, concern, and determination.
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IV—43 1
REFERENCES
IV-5-l Anon., “Report of the Committee on Water Quality Criteria”,
U.S.D.I., F.W.P.C.A., Washington, D.C., pp 83-80 (1968).
JV-5-2 Butler, P. A., “Pesticide Residues in Estuarine Mollusks”,
National Symposium on Estuarine Pollution, Stanford
University, Stanford, Calif., p 107-121 (1967).
IV-5-3 Anon., “A Study of Water Circulation in Parts of Great South
Bay, Long Island”, U.S. Public Health Service, unpublished
report, Cincinnati, Ohio, 25 pp (1962).
IV-5—4 Anon., “Survey Report on Cooper River, S.C. (Shoaling in
Charleston Harbor) 11 , U.S. Army Coros of Enciin ers, Charleston
District, Charleston, S.C. (1967).
IV-5-5 “The San Francisco Bay Plan’, San Francisco Bay Conservation
and Development Commission, San Francisco, 1968.
IV-5-6 “A Case Study of Estuarine Sedimentation in Mission Bay -
San Diego Bay, California”, a Report prepared by Marine
advisers for F.W.P.C.A. under Contract No. 14-12-425,
200 pp (1969). In Press.
IV-5-7 “Estuarine-Oriented Community Planning for San Diego Bay”
a Report prepared by Ralph Stone and Co. for F.W.P.C.A.
under Contract No. 14-12-189, 178 pp (1969). In Press.
IY-5-8 Anon., “Proceedings of the Conference on the Pollution of
Raritan Bay and Adjacent Waters”, U.S.D.I., F.W.P.C.A.,
Northeast Region, Boston, Mass., 448 pp (1967).
IV-5-9 Anon., “Report on Pollution of the Potomac River in the
Washington Metropolitan Area”, U.S.D.I., F.W.P.C.A.,
Middle Atlantic Region, Charlottesville, Va., 150 pp (1969).
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IV-432
IV-5-1O Odum, H. T., “Coastal Ecological Systems of the United
States”, a Report prepared under Contract No. 14-12-429
by the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.C.,
1878 pp (1969). In Press.
IV-5-l1 Anon., “Statistical Abstract of the United States’, U.S.
Dept. of Connerce, Bureau of the Census (1967).
IV-5-12 Anon,, “Report on Water Pollution Caused by the Operation
of Vessels”, U.S.O.L, F.W.P.C.A., Washington, D.C., 20 pp
(1966).
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Chapt.r 6
USE CONFLICTS AND DAMAGES
IV-433
The consequence of damage to the biophysical environment is loss of
use either ininedlately or at some time In the future. Loss of use,
however, may also be associated with the appropriation of part of
the estuarine resource for one exclusive use even when no damage to
the environment itself occurs.
Institutional management copes with the problems of responsibility
and authority In achieving maximum multiple use of the estuarine
resource. Within this comprehensive framework technical management
must resolve the problems surrounding conflicts of use, competition
for the resources of the estuarine zone, and environmental damage.
The primary objective of technical management is to achieve the best
Possible combination of uses to serve the needs of society while
protecting, preservini, and enhancing the biophysical environment
for the contjnujnq benefit of oresent and future generations.
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IV-434
This chapter deals with the problems of use conflicts and damages and
relates these to probable trends in estuarine ecology as the basis
for guidelines within which technical management can function
effectively to achieve its primary objective.
SECTION 1. THE NATURE OF USE CONFLICTS
The uses of estuarine zone grew and changed in consonance with
population growth and industrial development. Not until recent
years was a concerted attempt made to understand and resolve the
ct,nfllcts that arose in the competition to use and exploit these
land and water resources. During the past three hundred years of
growth and Industrial expansion with its emphasis on economic growth
and direct monetary gain, large parts of the estuarine zone were pre-
empted or usurped to serve the individual needs of commercial enter-
prjses. The net result has been less a conflict in existing uses than
an exclusion of some uses.
Nearly all estuarine uses involve both land and water, either
directly or Indirectly. For example, the construction of a manu-
facturing plant on the shore of an estuarine system may not involve
any direct use of the water (even for waste disposal), yet it limits
access by its occupation of the shoreline and so may interfere with
other uses. Conversely, the disposal of liquid waste into the water
may make the shoreline unusable for recreation as well as making the
water itself unsafe.
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IV-435
The Impact of one estuarine use on another may be either ‘prohib1tive
or “restrlct1ve depending on the kind of use and sometimes on the
manner in which it is carried out.
PROHIBITIVE IMPACTS
These involve permanent changes in the environment and thereby
prohibit all uses unable to cope with such changes. The geo-
graphical range of such impacts may be from the limited area In
which they occur to an entire estuarine system, depending on the
nature and size of the change. The impact may be temporary, if
it is possible to return the environment-to its original form,
or it may be permanent.
Any use or activity requiring physical modification of the
shoreline, marshes, or bottom of an estuarine system may have a
prohibitive impact. Modification of water circulation also tends
to be prohibitive when it has any conflicting impact.
Navigation Channel Dredging
This is probably the most widespread and constant permanent
modifying activity in the estuarine system. It is carried out
solely to maintain and improve navigation needed for commercial
and recreational purposes and for national defense. Dredged
navigation channels must be kept clear for navigational purposes,
and the bottom is constantly being removed. Both of these
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IV-436
conditions preclude the large-scale use of such areas for purposes
other than navigation.
The disposal of dredging spoil may also be a prholbitive estuarine
use when it is deposited in other parts of the system or on adjacent
marshes or land. The destruction of habitat which can result from
such disposal will at a minimum remove the areas used for pro-
ductive participation in the estuarine ecosystem.
The prohibitive impact of navigation dredging may, however, affect
an entire system. particularly where a major channel realignment or
channel deepening occurs. The prohibitive impact of such
modification may not be in direct destruction of habitat, but may
result from a change in water circulation patterns.
For example, a change in current structure associated with channel
deepening In the James River prevented the upstream transport of
oyster spat to the beds where they normally settled and grew to
edible size ( P 1-6 -i).
Such prohibitive use impacts are not always associated with the
dredging of navigation channels; in fact, such activities can
enhance the environment by improving water circulation and crea-
ting new habitat. When there is an impact, however, it is prohibitive
in that it permanently excludes other uses while the channel exists.
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IV-437
Land Fills
The operations of dredging and filling associated with the creation
of dry land from marshes and estuarine shallows may have severe
prohibitive impact on other estuarine activies. The massive areas
filled for large residential and industrial developments destroy
Much of the environment directly; and, in many cases, the areas
involved are large enough to make a significant impact on water
circulation and even on the total volume of water in an estuarine
system.
Large fills, such as those made for airports, also limit access
to estuarine waters, thereby permanently limiting the recreational
potential of such areas.
Solid Waste Disposal
The use of undeveloped estuarine shoreline areas for final disposal
of garbage and other solid waste materials is not only prohibitive
in the same sense as other filling operations, but also the drainage
and runoff from such sites can have a severe and continuing impact on
water quality.
Although reliable figures showing the impact of solid wastes on the
estuarine environment are lacking, a situation from the San Francisco
Bay Area is instructive: “In some instances, Bay water has leaked into
old dumpsites; when the tide goes out, black sludge is carried into
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IV-438
the water and hydrogen sulfide gas escapes into the air. In every
dump, even including those where no garbage is buried, an increase
in temperature plus an amount of decay produces hydrogen sulfide.”
(IV-6-2). In combination with salt water this produces a vile odor
that produces numerous complaints from residents near such dumps.
In short, the cost of cheap dumping of solid refuse despoils not only
the land surface to the west and the air for miles, but ult mate1y the
water quality of the Bay itself.
Such use has prohibitive impact because of the uncontrollable nature
and permanent damage caused by such activities.
Bridges, Jetties, Dikes, Breakwaters, Causeways
The prohibitive impact of such structures, when it occurs, is
usually far more gradual than the impact of large land fills. The
group of structures discussed here are either deliberately placed
in an estuary to control water movement or else cross the system to
carry land transportation. In either case they are long narrow
structures which affect water movement patterns. Their effects may
be beneficial to the environment or they may be the reverse.
The construction of a highway through the coastal area of Louisiana
and Mississippi effectively separated the Inland areas of the coastal
marshes from the outer marsh areas, completely altering the
circulation patterns of the entire marsh system. The result has
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IV-439
been saltwater intrusion into the outer marsh system (in the absence
of the freshwater inflow from inland sources now prevented by the
highway), with the subsequent results of soil alteration and
eventual alteration of the marsh vegetation (IV-6-3).
Such alterations may permanently change ecosystems and therefore
exclude the estuarine uses which depend on them. Commercial fishing
and sports fishing are particularly impacted by such changes.
Shoreline Development
Estuarine shorelines are extremely valuable for both commercial and
resiaential development. The shorelines of large cities are
extensively built up, primarily for navigation access and other
commercial development, but with considerable areas of shoreline
drives and residential developments. Nearly all of such kinds of
development extend up to, and sometimes beyond, the natural shore-
line ano terminate in bulkheads, docks, or other permanent structures.
The individual impact of such development is probably minimal except
In extremely confined areas, but the total effect of the shoreline
development of a large city can be to drastically and irretrievably
change the natural environment, even to the extent of damaging the
uses for which the changes were made.
Reduced currents and changes in water circulation may result in
increasing rates of dedimentation and added expense for channel
maintenance.
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IV-440
Changes in circulation associated with both spoil disposal and
manufactured residential islands in parts of Tampa Bay were followed
by changes in sedimentation patterns and an apparent decrease in
productivity in some areas (IV-6—4).
Mi n I ng
The taking of materials from the estuarine bottom immediately
destroys the local habitat and the movement and settling of suspended
material may extend the damage to other areas. Sand and gravel dredg-
ing are universal activities in the estuarine zone; oyster shell dredg-
ing exists in several areas along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts.
Phosphate sand or rock mining in estuarine systems may raise the
concentration of phosphorus in the water and change the ecological
balance of the entire estuarine environment, as well as directly
killing fish and other aquatic organisms.
Mining operations exploit a non-rLnewable resource, and even after
mining operations have ceased, the hole in the bottom of the estuary
may affect water circulation throughout the estuarine system.
Flow Regulation
The ecological balance of an estuarine system is the result of inter-
action of the dominating environmental factors discussed in Part IV.,
Chapter 1. Among these factors are the amount and annual distribution
of fresh water inflow. Upstream flow regulation lay have many
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IV—441
beneficial effects, but radical changes in the annual river flow
pattern may cause drastic changes in both water circulation and in
ecological balance.
The harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, was a deepwater port with
freshwater inflow from only coastal drainage until the flow of the
Santee River, averaging 15,000 cubic feet per second, was diverted
into it. This caused salinity stratification to set in and sedimenta-
tion became a severe problem. Dredging requirements grew from 120,000
cubic yards per year to over 7,000,000 cubic yards per year and many
of the docks had to be abandoned because adequate depths could not be
maintained. The prohibitive aredging costs have resulted in a Corps
of Engineers proposal to redivert the Santee River away from
Charleston Harbor. (see case study p. IV-1. 4)
Some of the more productive oystering areas in tne Potomac River
are in a reach where high springtime river flows reduce salinities
enough to kill the oyster drills (a predator) but not kill the oysters.
Flow regulation to reduce the high spring flows would probably change
this relationship.
RESTRICTIVE IMPACTS
Some estuarine uses may restrict use for other purposes but do not
automatically exclude other uses. These are those activities which
do not require a permanent modification of the estuarine system; they
generally include those uses directly involved with the estuarine waters
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IV-442
and other renewable resources.
Restrictive impacts may involve damage to water quality, living
organisms, or aesthetic quality; such impacts may also result
from the exclusive appropriation of space. The key feature
of uses which cause restrictive impacts is that they may, with
proper management, be carried out simultaneously with other uses.
Liquid Waste Disposal
Although not generally regarded as a beneficial use, the
discharge of liquid wastes to estuarine waters is and is likely
to continue to be one of the major universal uses of the estuarine
zone. The present discussion considers liquid waste disposal
as one of many uses of the estuarine environment which has the
potential of conflicting with other uses but which will probably
have to be acconiodated within the overall use patterns of nearly
all estuarine environments.
The major restrictive impacts of liquid wastes arise from the
disposal of untreated or inadequately treated wastes in massive
quantity to estuarine waters. The discussion in Part IV,
Chapter 5, pointed out the various pollutional effects different
types of municipal and industrial wastes can have, and presented
some typical examples of pollutional effects. Six types of
impacts tend to restrict other uses:
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IV-443
1. Floating or settleable materials make the system
unpleasant or destroy bottom-living organisms.
2. Decomposable organic materials deplete oxygen
necessary for aquatic life and may cause nuisance
conditions.
3. Toxic materials destroy living organisms by killing
thaiu directly, damaging their reproductive ability,
or poisoning their food supply.
4. Nutrient materials cause over-production of some
ecosystem components causing adverse effects on others
5. Pathogens create public health hazards.
6. Heated waste discharges reduce available oxygen and
cause other adverse effects on the ecosystem.
These kinds of impacts adversely affect the living resources or
aesthetic quality or create a public health hazard. The damage
to living resources can be catastrophic when waste discharges
are large in volume, strong in concentration, or prolonged in time.
Such discharges are restrictive rather than prohibitive, however,
in that removal or significant reduction of the waste discharge
will permit a healthful ecosystem to slowly reestablish itself with
consequent full reestablishment of the formerly restricted uses.
San Diego Bay, discussed earlier, is an excellent example of this.
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IV-444
Commercial fishing, recreation, and water supply are the major
uses restricted by pollution from liquid waste discharges.
Commercial Fishing
Fisheries may be affected adversely either by damage to fishery
resources or by imposing a public health hazard which makes the
harvestable product unsafe. The fishery resource, whether finfish
or shellfish, may be damaged by the direct killing of marketable
species, by the killing or poisoning of a necessary food supply,
or by damage to the reproductive capability of any part of the
food chain. Any or all of these may occur, depending on the waste
discharge characteristics.
Oysters, mussels, and clams are susceptible to these damages; in
addition, their meats may be made unsafe for human consumption by the
suspected presence of wastes containing pathogenic organics or toxic
materials which such animals tend to concentrate in their tissues.
It is important to recognize that the conflict in use arises from
the inability to market the shellfish product because 0 f necessary
public health considerations, and that there may be no damage at all
to the shellfish habitat, particularly if the waste is treated
domestic sewage, which contains excellent nutrients for shellfish.
Recreation
Liquid wastes may have restrictive impacts on both body contact
and non-contact forms of recreation. The invisible dangers of
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IV-445
waterborne pathoqenic organisms are as important in restricting
recreational use as the floatina scum and oil which da iaqe
aesthetic quality and cause people to go elsewhere.
Recreational use is never entirely eliminated. Even around the
most polluted estuarine areas can be found an occasional fisherman
or boating enthusiast. The people who cannot go elsewhere will
use their local estuarine zone in whatever fashion is possible,
even if there is a public health danger or the environment is
unpleasing. The dangers inherent in such use fall primarily on
children, who tend to play in any available cuddle, not caring
whether it is the local swimming hole or New York Harbor.
Water Supply
The use of estuarine waters for municipal and industrial process
water supplies is not extensive because its primarily brackish
Quality makes it difficult to threat adequately and economically.
[ stuarine waters are used extensively for industrial cooling
water use, and waters with susoended solids, high acid or alkali
concentrations, or high nutrient concentrations are difficult to
use. Such waters clog screens, corrode nipes, or develop slimes
which require added maintenance expense.
With increasing population and industrial growth in many coastal
areas and increasing demands for potable and industrial process
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IV-446
water, the use of fresh estuarine waters for water supplies may
become an imDortant estuarine water use. Fresh waters in the
estuarine zone occur near where the rivers reach sea level, and
it is here at the natural head of navigation that many of the
large ports are located and discharge their wastes.
Commercial Fishing
Some kinds of commercial fishing require the use of trawis or the
setting of traps or nets that must be left for some time. The use
of such devices restricts other uses .ihile the devices are in place,
but there is no permanent appropriation of estuarine waters or space.
The major conflict is with recreation in that recreational boating
must be excluded from areas where fishing gear is near the surface.
Shell-fishing is restrictive in the sense that commercial oyster and
clam beds require the waters above them to be of far better quality
than is required for safe body contact. This has been a significant
impact UD to the present only in that waste treatment requirements
of son municipal and industrial wastes have had to be set higher
than would otherwise be necessary. With increasing numbers of
watercraft in estuarine waters the potential additional human wastes
from these boats may require restriction of some waters to recre-
ational traffic in order to protect shellfish beds.
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IV-447
SECTION 2. EXAMPLES OF USE DAMAGE *
Where there is conflict, the scene is set for trade-off, i.e., a
willing substitution of one activity for another. The scene is
equally set for uncompensated damage where one user group precludes
the activities of a second unrelated user group but does not reim-
burse them for damage. Several examples will demonstrate the types
of damages and the difficulties in quantifying them. Essentially,
the damage is the value of the use which is precluded or foregone,
and the same type of use valuation problems as discussed earlier
are applicable.
Actual documented examples of use damages are difficult to find.
One major reason is the basic fact that has permeated much of the
discussion of economic and social values: Many estuarine values
are not quantifiable. While damages to a commercial enterprise,
such as commercial fishing, can be quantified in terms of the
economic loss, the essentially intangible values of recreation and
estuarine habitat are difficult to measure.
* Much of the material in this section was provided through an inten-
sive literature search by: Wasserman, L.P., t t&di LQf
Pollutional Damage to Estuari , report on FWPCA Contract No.
14—12-473, by Infinity, Ltd. In Press.
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T I AA
1 V f’IO
Recreational loss would have to be measured in terms of how many
people don’t swim or go boating in the Potomac River because it
is polluted. It is far easier to find out how many people do go
there even if it is polluted; even these values are hard to find.
The value of estuarine habitat is just as difficult to establish.
There are now about 5.5 million acres of important estuarine marsh
and wetland habitat remainina in the estuarine zone of the United
States. Perhaps each acre is not valuable by itself, but the total
habitat is irreolaceable. The problem of measuring the value can
be illustrated by this example:
A poor worker had been given a loaf of bread for
his supper. On his way home he met along the road
several friends who each asked for a slice of bread.
Being generous, and since a single slice of bread is
a small thing, he gave each of them a slice. When he
arrived home he had only the wrapping left. Since his
family couldn’t eat that, they went supperless to bed.
How valuable is a slice of bread?
How valuable is an acre of estuary?
DAMAGE TO MARSH HABITAT
Delaware Bay
The following example shows how, in the Delaware Bay system, there
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IV-44 J
has been a steady attrition of estuarine marsh area for industrial
development in recent years. The example is taken from testimony
presented by Mr. Aliston Jenkins, representing Philadelphia
Conservationists, Inc., before a Congressional Subcommittee in
larch, 1967.
(1 ) ‘In 1955 The Tidewater Oil Company started acquiri nq
some of the finest estuarine marshes in the State
of Delaware for the purpose of constructing a large
refinery in the vicinity of Delaware City about 30
miles north of the Bombay Hook ational Wildlife
Refuqe. State conversation officials and citizen
grouDs endeavored to persuade the company to locate
its refinery on land other than the estuarine
marshland. It was of no avail. Some 1,000 acres
of productive estuarine marshes were purchased,
filled-in, and lost as a natural resource.
(2 ) In 1961 the Shell Oil Company started a similar
acquisition of estuarine marshes in Delaware upon
which to construct a large refinery in the vicinty
of Smyrna about 5 miles north of the Bombay Hook
\lational iildiife Refuge. Efforts of State conser-
vation officials and citizen grouns to persuade the
company to locate on the upland instead of on the
marshes have proved futile. The comoany has ac-
quired some 1,000 acres of natural estuarine marsh
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IV-4b0
and is continuing a program of further acquisition. I am told that
the vote of one member of a si all township zoning board was the
decisive factor in deternining whether there should be 1 ,000 acres
of prime estuarine resources or 1,000 acres of bottom silt landfill.
(3 ) Recently the 13. F. Goodrich Company applied to the
Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, for a permit to
dredge in the Chesapeake-Delaware Canal (the connect-
ing link between the Delaware River Estuary and the
Chesapeake Bay Estuary) for the purpose of construct-
ing a dock and berthing facilities for a plant to be
constructed on the edge of the canal. Over 1,000
persons attended a public hearinn on the application
on February 9, Over 90 of those attending were
opposed to the granting of a permit. Yet this ay
not be decisive with the Corps of Engineers. The
Corps is concerned primarily, almost soley, with the
effect on navigation of the proposed dock and berth-
ing facilities. If the company can show that the
proposed facilities would not seriously hamper
navigation it is not at all unlikely that the Corps
will grant a dredging and filling permit.
(4 ) Two or three years ago the Sinclair Oil Company
acquired 300 acres of estuarine marsh near 1i1ford
Neck, Delaware, 18 miles south of the ornbay Hook
National Wildlife Refuge, for use as a tank farm
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IV-451
and unloading port.
(5 ) A recent newspaper article, confirmed by the
1ew Jersey Division of Fish and Game, states
that the Atlantic City Electric Company has
acquired 4,500 to 5,000 acres of marsh between
Stowe Creek and the Cohansey River along the
Delaware River near Bridgeton, I.J. The company
intends to construct a nuclear energy plant and
industrial complex. The New Jersey Green Acres
Program and the Division of Fish and Game had
both marked this area for preservation. These are
some of the finest estuarine marshes of the
estuary.
Connecticut Coast
Connecticut Slate Board of Fisheries and Game Tidal 1arsh Area-—
A Surnarv as of February 1965 says that the earliest record that
seems to have been accurately obtained gives a figure of 36.5
square miles. This fiqure was published in 1914 in the First
Annual Report of thei ew Jersey Nosouito Extermination Association.
In the 1954 Wetlands of Connecticut, published by the U. S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, about 21.7 square miles of this area remained,
a reduction of 9,500 acres in 40 years. This reduction averages
slightly less than 240 acres per year, slightly less than 1 per
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IV-4 2
cent per year.
A resurvey in 1959 led to the publication of a second ‘Wetlands of
Connecticut, Revised June 1959’. At that time these areas had
been further reduced to about 20.2 square miles - 12,937 acres.
This reduction averaged about 190 acres per year, slightly less
than 1.4 per cent a year, 6.8 per cent for the five year period.
Hence, while the actual acreage lost during this period is less
than in similar periods, earlier, the percentage lost each year
is increasing. A second resurvey in 1964 shows a further re-
duction to about 18.6 square miles - 11,900 acres for the areas of
the 1914 survey. This reduction averaged about 200 acres per year,
1.6 per cent per year of the 1959 acreage, 7.9 per cent reduction
in acreage over the 5 year period. Both percentage-wise and in
actual acreage lost the 1959-1964 period is higher than was
1954-1959.
The data in the Wetlands publications are not directly comparable
to those given above, since some upriver tidal marshes are grouped
with the saline marshes, These are, in some cases, somewhat less
vulnerable to destruction.
About 20,500 acres of tidal marsh in the State were rated for their
value to wildlife in 1954. The high and moderate value acreage
totalled about 13,000 acres, about 63 per cent of the area. The
resurvey in 1959 showed a reduction of more than 1,300 acres,
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IV -453
leaving a total of 19,200 acres. Of the high and moderate value
areas 12,600 acres remained, which represents a 3 percent loss in
the more valuable tidal marsh during the 5 year period, a reduction
in total area of about 6 nercent. However, this is not the complete
picture.
While more than 3 percent of the tidal marshes were completely or
partially destroyed during this 5 year period, their value for
waterfowl was not reviewed in 1959 or 1964, and much of the area
that was of hiqh or moderate value in 1954 may have been reduced in
quality making the loss more severe than that recorded.
The total loss of tidal marsh tabulated in the 1954 and 1959 surveys
is about 6 percent for the five year period. The loss for the five
years 1959 to 1964 is about 7 percent.
The data on causes of marsh destruction do not fall into well-
defined categories. Dredging for a marina and placing the fill
on adjoining marsh represent two classes of destruction, but the
figures do not senarate the. Similarly, there are little data
on the use to which filled areas are put--in housing, factories,
boat storage, dunins. 1ajor causes of this loss involved miscella-
neous fill (482 ); waste disposal (14’1); roads and parkinn (9%);
industry (7 i); marinas (6%); housing (5°f); recreational develop-
ments (3%); and schools (1%).
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IV-454
The loss of these marshlands can only be partly justified as needed
for our economic growth and the demand of a growing population.
Much of it has been the permanent destruction of an irreplaceable
natural resource for a very temporary economic advantage. The
accumulative effect has been change in the ecology of the
Connecticut shoreline with the decline of formerly abundant species
of fish and shellfish as well as the total disappearance of certain
species of shell and finfish In specific areas.
DAtIAGE TO FISH AND WILDLIFE
Chesapeake Bay
At the request of the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife conducted a study of
“Fish and Wildlife Resources as related to Water Pollution” in the
Chesapeake Bay Area. The report was issued in 1968; its results
are sumarized here.
The study area covered by biological considerations in this report
included Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries, except the Susquehanna
River Basin. This area includes the major drainages of the James,
Rappannock-York, and Potomac Rivers as well as Chesapeake Bay and
its minor tributaries. These drainages encompass virtually all of
Maryland, a sizable portion of Virginia, and small segments of Dela-
ware, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia.
To evaluate the relative effect of pollution on fish and wildlife
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IV—455
resources, the total resource rotential under polluted conditions
was compared with what would be available if pollution were elimi-
nated. These resources potentials, both with and without pollution,
were then compared to the exlected user demand to determine their
relative availability under both conditons. Specific data on pre-
sent, future, or projected conditions are often minimal or lacking.
Therefore, data analysis must be made on a general basis. This dic-
tates that study results should be recognized as beinq relative in
nature and utilized to gain an insight into problem areas. Figures
quoted in the remaining portions of this narrative represent round-
ed data.
The 1960-1964 average annual comercial fishery harvest from the
study area included 288,740,000 pounds of finfish and 107,584,000
pounds of shellfish for a total of 396,324,000 pounds.
Wetlands wildlife habitat occupied approximately 614,000 acres of
the study area in the rnid-1950’s. Since that time, losses result-
ing from drainage, land fill, hiqhwav construction, and similar de-
velopments have reduced wetland habitat to a current area 0 f about
558,000 acres or less. Wetland loss is thus 56,000 acres.
Pollution affects approximately 432,000 acres of finfish habitat and
42,000 acres of shellfish grounds for a total of 463,000 surfaces
acres (adjusted for overlap), or about 14 percent of the study area’s
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IV-4 6
fish habitat.
verage annual losses from significant pollution effects on 101,000
acres of finfish habitat and 42,000 acres of shellfish habitat amount
to $1,861,000 and $1,090,000, respectively, or a total fishery loss
of $2,951,000. No losses were assigned to 331,000 acres of neglibly
polluted finfish habitat. Projected demand for both sport and com-
mercial fishery harvest presently, or in the near future, will ex-
ceed the average annual sustained harvest capability from most in-
dividual habitat classes under existing pollution levels.
Table 23 of the report (Table I v 6.1) shown on the next paqe, gives
the loss broken down by drainaqe basins. Finfish resource plus shell-
fish resources equals fishery resource.
I udson giver (Wappinqer Creek)
The naterials for this case study was obtained from the New York
State Conservation eiartment. Fish and Game Division, Albany, Zew
York. They nraciously orovided a legal case from their records. The
case study ouoted here is one of less than a half dozen situations
during the past 40 years in which legal evidence, sufficient to be
assured of a successful court case, could be obtained. Faced with
the evidence an out-of-court settlement was reached.
The fact that in forty years less than six legal cases could be ob-
tained along a river—estuary system as well developed as the Hudson
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I V-45 7
River points out the extreme difficulty in obtaininq positive
confirmation of a use damage.
On June 27, 1962 a delivery of No. 6 fuel oil was made to a storaqe
tank which was not emptied sufficiently to accommodate all the oil
delivered. An unknown auantity was sDilled in Wappinqers Creek, a
direct tributary of the lower Hudson River, The Oil Company receive-
ed complaints from property owners along the stream and decided, a-
fter skimminQ and pumpinr failed, to use a chemical, Ozene, which
would be sprayed on the oil. It is estimated that about 30 qallons
of zene was actually used in the stream sprayinq operation. It can
safely be assumed that at least 20 qallons went directly into the
waters of Waopinners Creek.
An abundance of dead fish was observed from the site of the spraying
operation to about one mile downstream. Occasional dead fish were
observed as far as four miles downstream. The fishkil1 was estimated
at 10,000 fish, with about 75 percent beinn rough fish and minnow,
15 nercent pan fish, anu 10 percent trout.
A hio-assy was conducted usirlo a solution of Ozene at the Rome Hatch-
ery usinq sprinn water, and a solution concentration of 4.5 ppm ortho-
dichioroberizene. c)ne hundred percent of test fish were killed in
ei ht hours. On this basis, 20 gallons of Ozene would be capable of
makina toxic approximately 5,125,000 gallons of water. Since spray—
mc ’ would result in even higher local concentrations before complete
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TABLE IV.6.l
Sumary of Polluted Fish Habitat
Chesapeake Bay Area and Tributaries (Except Susquehanna River Basins)
Finfish Resources* CO
Pollution Effects (Acres) Total Average Annual Loss
Chesapeake Bay Area
James River Basin
‘1egligib1e
51
Light
4,578
Moderate
427
Intense
17,905
Severe Acres Percent Dollars Percent
4 22,965 3.3 —s 687,971 37.0
87,047
24,976
19,385
1,541
73
133,022
30.8
768,927
41.3
Rappahannock-York
River Basins
593
199
792
0.2
13,549
0.7
Potomac River Basin
TOTAL STUDY AREA
243,543
330,641
28,796
58,943
1,902
21,714
174 390
19,819 467
274,305
431,584
63.7
100.0
390,290
1,860,737
21.0
100.0
Percent
76.6
13.7
5.0
4.6
0.1
100
*Area not cumulative o iinq to overlap.
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TI\ [ JLE IV..61--(Cont’d.)
Summary of Polluted Fish Habitat
Chesapeake Day Area and Tributaries (Except Susquehanna River Basin)
Closed Areas
Ac es Percent
26,429 62.5
12,571 29.8
*f rea not cumulative owing to overlap.
Average Annual Loss
Dollars Percent
549,583. 50.5
361,151 33.1
p - I
4, -
SHELLFISH RESOURCES
FISHERY RESOURCES
Chesapeake Bay Area
James River Basin
Rapoahannock-York
River Basins
Potomac River Basin
TOTAL STUDY AREA
Polluted Habitat
!\cres* Percent
8.3
145,593 31.5
Average
Annual Loss
Dollars
Percent
3, 1077
178
42,255
7.3
0.4
100.0
t 7 ) A’
I I J tL)
S , 767
1,089,981
15.9
0.5
10’) .0
1,237,551
1,133,076
1B7,032
395,057
2,950,713
3,869
274 ,805
462 ,521
0.8
59.4
100.0
42. 0
)
6.3
13.4
103.0
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IV-460
mixing, the high concer tration would kill in a time period of ten
minutes or less.
The fishkill was the direct result of the application of a material
called OZENE to the surface of WapDinger Creek. A $500 settlement
for violation of Section 180 “Pollution of Streams Prohibited’ of
the Uew York State Conservation laws effected by out-of--court settle-
ment. The oil spill itself was a violation of the classification
standard established by the Water Pollution Control Board for Wapp—
ingers Creek.
DAMAGE TO WILDLIFE FR0 1 OIL SPILLS
New Haven Harbor, Connecticut
The following quotation is from a release by Mr. 0. E. Beckley, Super-
visor, same lanagement, board of Fisheries and Game, State of Connec-
ticut, dated March 28, 1961, and describes the death and value of duck
life destroyed by oil resulting from a tanker with a rupture in her
hull;
‘On December 17, 1960, the S. S. Sister Katinqo, a supertanker owned
by the Nautilus Petroleum Corporation of r4ew York, carryirm a cargo
of Bunker hCU oil, reportedly struck a submerged object somewhere off
Brenton Reef, Rhode Island, causinq a runture in her port side.
‘According to the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, a large
quantity of oil was lost at the time of the impact, which
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IV-461
resulted in the blackenino of ‘aritucket Island, The ship
proceeded to ner destination, ew Haven Harbor. and arriv-
ed during the eveninq of )eceriber 17. Pumpina activities
were started early the next norninr’ and were conmieted by
noon the following day.
it has been estimated that upwards of 240,000 gallons of
Bunker C oil was lost, with a conservative estimate of
over 42,000 aallons spillinci into the confines of the ew
Haven Harbor, The oil quicLly spread itself outupon the
waters of the Harbor. breakin” up into pools and slicks,
coating bulkheads, seawalls, and beaches with black. In-
coniinri tides carried it to u per shore reaches and then
receded. leavina nools which in some areas were 4—5 inches
ieen, pproxin ate1y 10 miles of shoreline were blackened
in the Great New Haven Harbor area. Within a week, marks
of the spillage could ue observed extendinci along approxi-
nately 20 miles of shoreline from uilford to ilford. Evi-
dence of the spillage was present on many of the off shore
islands in the entire area.
The Cor.necticut State Goard of Fisheries and Game became
aware of the problem on Tuesday evening, Gecenber 20. In-
vestiqations were initiated the following morning to deter-
nine the extent of the damage to wildlife.
The first affected birds observed, while few in number,
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IV-462
served for Department qanie biologists as a grim warning
of what mi’ ht be expected in the days to come. Immed-
iate efforts were made to initiate a clean-up operation
and a series of contracts with the oil company and mun--
icipal officials and landowners was made in an attempt
to expedite clean-up. But as neqotiations proceeded
the death to1l grew. Dead, oi1 -encased birds appeared
with greater frequency along the shore. Except for body
form, these black, shrouded shapes with not a feather
visible could hardly be r coqnized as ducks.
I’, census of dead ducks was started on December 21.
At the end of the first week of the investi iation, 995
dead ducks had been counted in the Greater ew Haven
Harbor area. Of the dead ducks counted, approximately
400, or 40 percent were dabbling ducks, and 695, or 60
percent were diving species. Virtually all of the dab-
blers seen were black ducks with only a few (one) ma]—
lard and (two) baldpate observed, The dead diving ducks
counted included approximately 300, or 30 percent scaup.,
140 or 14 percent aoldeneyes, 60, or 6 percent canvas-
backs, and the remaininc 10 percent included 35 scoters,
30 old squaw, 20 bufflehead,and 10 rrergansers.
ln additon to ducks, other species affected included
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IV-463
herrino pulls, horned rebe, loon, purple sandpiper, cor-
morant, clapper rail, and kildeer,
l3iologists estimated throuqh reports and observations
that at the tir e when the count of dead birds in the Har-
bor area was completed, an additonal 3,000 ducks had been
affected. flf the total 4,000 birds affected, includini
995 known dead at the end of the first week after census-
mg was started, it was estinated that 2,860, or 72 per-
cent consisted of scaup, 500, or 12 percent of black ducks,
includinq only a few mallard and baldpate; 340, or 9 per-
cent goldeneyes, and the renaininq 7 percent were made up
of 35 canvasbacks, 80 scoters, 90 old squaw, 30 bufflehead,
and 15 nerqansers.
Spot checks of hnuter baqs were r ade from december 22,
1960, through the end of the gunning season on January 7,
1961. These ban checks, which were taken in an area ex-
tendin anproxi ate1y 21) u iles both east and west from the
‘ ew Haven Harbor, disclosed 125 oiled ducks of the 358
ducks killed, or aoproxi rate1y 52 percent oiled ucks for
the entire area. uring the period from decerther 22 to
7ecember 31, 1D63, 55 percent of 233 ducks killed were
oiled. rin the period from January 2. through Januar.v
7, 1961, 35 percent of 5 birds killed were oiled.
)urinn the aerial inventory of waterfowl by Department
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IV-464
personnel on ianuary 9, 1961, 33,187 ducks were observed
in the 20 n ile oi1-conta inated area froTr Guilford to 1il-
ford. Species represented in this count consisted of:
1,462 blacks, 200 r al1ards, 20,150 scaup, 220 canvasbacks,
112 scoters, 28 goldeneyes, 8 old squaw, 5 r erqansers, 2
buffi enead.
It is a reasonable assumption that many of these ducks
seen in the oil-contaminated area were affected by oil to
varyinn deqr es and could raise the total affected by many
thousand.
‘From observations conducted when the oil spillage first
occured, throuqh the end of the huntinq season and during
the abnormally cold period in January and February, it is
conservatively estimated that at least 3,000 ducks perish-
ed as a result of beinn oiled,
“Comercial gare breeder’s quotations on the followinq spe-
cies how that blacks sell for $3 each, scaup $30 each,
qoldeneyes $100 each, and canvasbacks $53 each. 10 prices
were available for scoters, old squaw, bufflehead, and
r ’ergansers since they are ver difficult, if not inoossible,
to raise. It is estfr;ated that replacer’ent costs, if re-
placerent were possible, would run well in excess of $130.
000, based on current c a ne breeder’s prices.
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IV -46
Durinq the early staqes of the investigation, approxi-
nately 400 live (lucks, oiled to varyinq degrees 1 , were
collected by Department personnel and shore residents.
Various types of cleaning agents were experimented with;
many of these cleansed birds were returned to the water.
Some were kept penned at a game breeder’s farm to observe
survival rates. Of 22 penned that were cleansed, only
six were surviving at the end of a three-week period.
Despite the efforts made to rehabilitate ducks, it is
felt that their chance for survival is very poor.”
Thames River, Connecticut
The information for this case study is quoted directly from the
“Connecticut rIewsietter: of the Connecticut Audubon Council dated
February 15, 1969, Vol. 2, No. 8.
“An industrial oil barge ran aground, Thursday, January 16,
1969, on Bartlett’s Reef near Waterford, Connecticut,
causing an undetermined amount of heavy bunker “C” oil
to he spilled in Long Island Sound. The Coast Guard
apparently did not hear about this spillage until
Saturday despite the fact that all oil ruptures are to be
reported at once.
The beaches and rocky shore areas from Niantic to coastal Rhode
Island were blackened with large globs of gooey tar-like oil.
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IV-466
Isihe Thames Science Center, 622 William Street,
New London, was notified and were first on the scene with
their three—man professional staff to appraise the
situation. Several oiled-horned grebes were picked up
completely covered and unable to fly. Red-breasted
merganser, black duck, greater scaup, corcmon goldeneye,
bufflehead, surf scoter, Canada Geese, mallard, mute
swan, con non loon, herring gull, and greater black-backed
gulls were all found oiled in various stages in their
struggle for survival. As of January 30 the following is
a summary of accurate figures of birds observed by the
Thames Science Center Staff.
Oil Covered, 1n
Known Natural Habitat
Species Captivity Dead Recovery Questioned Totals
Common Loon 0 19 8 27
Horned Grebe 4 140 2 146
Mute Swan 2 3 18 23
Mallard 1 1 30 32
.B lackDuck 0 3 6 9
Greater Scaup 0 0 1 1
Common Goldeneye 0 1 18 19
tufflehead 1 8 19 28
Red—breasted Mer-
ganser 13 13 36 62
Herring Gulls 0 0 31 31
Surf Scoter 0 1 0 1
Black—8ack Gull 0 0 3 3
Canada Geese 0 0 85 85
White Winged Scoter 1 0 0
TOTAL 22 189 257 486
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IV-467
uOn January 22, all beaches from the Connecticut River
at Griswold Point, Oil Lyrne to the Harkness Memorial
State Park south of New London at the mouth of the
Thames River were visually checked. The only beaches
still with noticeable oil was Harkness Memorial State
which was fairly cleared of the heavy oil. A policeman
in Niaritic said the tides cleared most oil from their
beach.
As of Friday, January 24, the Thames Science Center
Executive Director, lohn Gardner, sumarized the situation
as follows:
‘ The oil pollution was not severe because of the limited
volume of pollutant in the water, the tendency of the oil
to remain in globular form, its rapid mixing with sand,
and dissipation by waves action. Beaches appear in good
condition on the surface. Marine life seems to have
minimal problems. Because of wintering populations most
waterfowl suffered moderate losses. However, we know that
80 percent of the loons, 90 percent of the horned grebes
and 23 percent of the red—breasted mergansers wintering
in the survey area have been affected.’”
“A revised appraisal on January 30 concludes that:
“‘At this time beaches are relatively clean, although
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IV-468
rocky beaches still contain varying amounts of oil. Marine
life seems to have minimal problems. Algae on rocky shores
Is expected to die, but regrow by spring. Waterfowl
deaths now stand at 189 (known and verified). Two-
hundred and fifty—seven birds have been sighted with
some oil fouling, and we expect that the majority of
these will not survive. Seventy-four birds reported last
time are unaccounted for at this time. It is normal for
injured or sick birds to move into grassy areas or dense
marsh areas where they die or are preyed upon by predators.
Consequently, we assume the 74 birds not accounted for are
dead. (If these are added to confirmed deaths it brings
the death toll to 263). The 257 birds sighted with oil
covering parts of their body are not expected to survive.
Deaths are attributed to oil ingestion. All data based
on actual field studies and confirmed reports. No
estimates or projections included.
DAMAfE TO CO14IERCIAL SHEILFISHERIES
Raritan Bay, New York and New Jersey
Exhaustive studies In Raritan Bay were carried out by the Public
Health Service as part of the investigations resulting from shell-
fish bed closures and public health hazards resulting from pollution
of Narragansett Bay. Most of the information presented in this
case study was taken from the enforcement conferences which resulted
from these Investigations.
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IV-469
An outbreak of hepatitis in 1961 was traced to consumption of raw
shellfish from the Raritan Bay. In 1963 the Public Health Service
found the same level of pollution as in 1961 and the project
scientist concluded that in that year this health hazard “precluded
a safe shellfish industry and interfered with legitimate use of the
waters of Raritan Bay. t
The Bay was closed in 1961 to all shellfishtng by order of the
? ew Jersey State Commissioner of Health, Dr. Kandle.
Bathing has been restricted on most of the beaches on Staten Island
along this bay (see case study on Staten Island beaches).
A total of 3,789 fishermen lost their livelihood in all of New
Jersey due to closings, as of 1965. The Raritan Bay closing, there-
fore, would represent a maximum of 3,000 men out of work.
All 1961 and 1962 water samplings by the Public Health Service show
a heavy FECAL bacteria count, both on mean average as well as for
spot samples. (Lowest mean 50/lOOmi, highest 9,700/lOOmi.) The
origin was traced to many insufficiently treated sewerage plants
particularly at Atlantic Highlands, and Keansburg and raw sewerage
from the Earle Ammunition Depot (N.J.,) and seven sewerages serving
a total of 3,000 inhabitants in Tottenville, Staten Island. Besides
these, three additional sources of pollution are (1) the Narrows
where sewerage from New York City passes through a “funnel,” (2) the
Raritan River, and (3) Arthur Kill.
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IV—470
Great Kills Park was a man-made landfill, where garbage was dumped
as a fill. It was impossible to ascertain how much pollution could
be attributed to this fill operation. Only the statement by witnesses
that the landfill operation caused pollution of the adjacent water
Is available.
Raritan Bay covers roughly 90 square miles of which an estimated
5 percent was once harvested for shellfish. Thus, about 2,850
acres (A.S. Merrill) are suitable for shellfish. At the rate of
2,000 bushels of oysters on one acre (A.S. Merrill p.334, 1967
Conference--Pollution of the Navigable waters of Eastern New
Jersey--, November 1967 FWPCA) or 2,000 bushels of clams per acre
(Jerome, Chesmore and Anderson, 1967, Study of Marine Resources
of Beverly-Salem Harbor, Page 49) combined with a dockside price
per bushel øf $1.50, the loss per acre per year is $3,000. If
2,850 acres of the Bay were so utilized that total loss would amount
to $8.5 million annually. These figures will vary as follows:
(1) 2,000 bushels per acre represents the upper limit
of current bottom harvest yields. Three dimensional
farming is already yielding over twice this amount per
acre. On the other hand, a more average bottom yield
would be on the order of a few hundred to 1,000 bushels
per acre.
(2) The $1.50 figure is very low since a bushel of oysters
currently (1968) brings about $10.00 in the New England
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IV-471
area. This would be the dockside landing value of the
bushel. Then there is the expanded value of bushel or
that represented by the flow of money and jobs generated
by people employed in processing and marketing the product.
The expanded value runs from five to ten times the dock-
side value.
The pollution of shellfish beds in Raritan Bay has resulted, there-
fore, in the following:
(1) loss of employment and loss of an industry
(2) an epidemic of hepatitis
(3) loss of recreational shellfish harvest
(4) loss of $8.5 million annually and five to ten times
this amount if the expanded value is used.
From 1948 to 1960 Raritan Bay shellfish reaching the New York City
market of 20,000 to 30,000 bushels a year brought $6.00 per bushel
or $120,000 to $180,000 annual dockside value. A survey by the
Northeast Shellfish Sanitation Research Center (circa 1965) indic-
ated a standing crop of some 5,000,000 bushels of clams which agrees
with the estimate made above.
Penobscot Bay, Maine
The “Report on Pollution--Navigable Waters of the Penobscot River
and Upper Penobscot Bay in Maine”, Merrimack River Project—
Northeast Region, Boston, Masschusetts, February 1967, Federal
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IV-472
Water Pollution Control Administration, provided the Information
for this case study.
Penobscot Bay and River are troubled with at least four major types
of pollution which affect the shellfish beds. Untreated or insuf-
ficiently treated sewage, poulty processing wastes, sulfite waste
liqour, and heavy metal contamination from mining operations have
compounded the problem of trying to reopen the closed shellfish
beds.
The long axis of the Penobscot River—Ray—Estuary system is approxi-
mately 35 mIles in length. Shellfish growing areas of the upper
bay were first closed in 1946. Since that time, more and more
closures have been required along the entire upper perimeter of
the bay and the lower estuary. Increases in poultry processing and
other industrial and conii ercial expansion have required a drastic
increase in the acreage of flats and waters closed because of
pollution. Some of the problem is due to heavy metals mining.
Levels of toxic metals are at or above the maximum of the normal
range for shellfish. In the case of lead, the concentration is
double or triple the maximum guideline reconinended by the U. S.
Public Health Service.
In addition to the high coliform counts, there is a problem in the
Penobscot Bay area due to poultry processing. The following infor-
mation gives a picture of the problems caused by the poultry
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IV-473
industry (Report on Pollution—r4avigable Waters of the Penobscot
River and Upper Penobscot Bay in Maine).
“On June 28, 1966, the Maine Sea and Shore Fisheries
reported finding floating chicken entrails in Stockton
Harbor at the northeast side of Sears rsland. They
reported that these entrails had a total coliforni value
greater than 170,000 MPN/lOOrnl. Again on July 8, 1966,
floating chicken entrails were found by Fisheries
personnel in Stockton Harbor at the same location. They
also reported that on June 28, 1966, an animal fat film
was found on the waters from the south tip of Sears
Island to the north tip of Sears Island in Stockton
Harbor. Large amounts of feathers have been reported
found on Sears Island and Islesboro Island. A ferry
running from Isleboro Island to Lincoinville, which is
south of Northport, reported that their water intake screen
had to be cleaned at least once a week in the past, due
to chicken feathers clogging the screen. In the past,
chicken entrails have been found all along the banks of
Belfast Bay. During the period samples were being
collected by the Merrimack River Project, there is no
significant discharges of either feathers or entrails,
indicating that either the new screening devices were
working properly or that closer attention was given to
maintenance of these screens.
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IV-474
uSterile gauze swabs were placed at 21 stations for
about five days. Salmonellae were found at five of the
stations (poulty plant effluent). The United States
Public Health Services Comunicable Disease Center
determined the serotype. The results clearly pointed out
that poulty plant wastes are pathogenic to man since all
Salmonella bacteria are pathogenic. Salmonellae were
isolated from both swabs placed in the Penobscot River.
“The Maine Water Improvement Comission found that the
dissolved oxygen placed the Penobscot River either in the
nuisance condition or in Class 0 (Suitable for trans-
portation of sewage and industrial waste without causing
a public nuisance.) from Bangor to Rucksport. Zero
D,O was found from Bangor to Winterport during the summer
of 1963, with the oxygen sag curve moving downstream at
low tide and upstream at high tide. This dissolved
oxygen condition limits usage of the entire river below
Bangor and prevents fish, including anadrornous fish such
as salmon, from Dassing through these waters.”
Another problem is Sulfite Waste Liquor resulting from the processing
of pulp using the sulfite process. Bloassays of Pulp Mill Wastes
with Oysters, Biological Problems in Water Pollution , U.S. Depart-
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1965
showed that concentration of SWL above 10 ppm prevented the embryonic
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IV-475
development of the Olympic oyster from eggs to shelled larvae.
Upper Penobscot Bay area had SWL concentration near 60 ppm and at
low tide near Fort Point the value was about 100 ppm.
In Uovember 1954, about five miles of shoreline and a fivefold
increase in the total area of flats and overlying waters were added
to the original Belfast Bay closure. Prior to this time, 50
comercial diggers had been licenced in the Belfast area alone.
Additional closures have been made periodically since 1954. Finally,
by July 1, 1966, the last remaining open areas were closed, makinq
the closure complete from Great Spruce Head in I4orthport up the
Penobscot River and down the east shore to Castine.
For the total area of Penobscot Bay affected by the recent shell-
fish area closures, the estimated population was placed at 96,000
bushels of marketable soft clams, valued from a consiiunity stand-
point (note: this is the concept used in other case studies as the
expanded value...it is generally 2.5 to 7 times the dockside or
landing value) at 1,876,O00 to $5,216,400. Potential harvest
during a second season was estimated to be 46,200 bushels. These
would have a value to the community of from $896,800 to
$2,494,800.
DAMAGE TO SHELLFISH HABITAT
Great Bay, ew Hampshire
Two documents provided the information for this case study:
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IV-476
“Coastal Watershed” by the New Hampshire Water Pollution Comission,
July 1965, Staff Report No. 51, and “A Biological Survey of Great
Bay, New Hampshire by the Marine Fisheries Comission, No, 1,
Physical and Biological Features of Great Bay and the Present
Status of its Marine Resources,” CF. Jackson, Director, Biological
Institute, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire,
March 1944.
Historical data indicate that the Great Bay area was at one time
especially rich in natural resources, such as salmon, shad, cod,
and vario s shellfish. Rapid decline or ultimate disappearance of
many of these food fishes dates from the beginning of the industrial
development of this region about 1800.
Great Bay and the tidal rivers afford some 2,815 acres of potential
clam flats. Most of these are non-productive due to pollution,
silt or the growth of Spartina. The situation in reference to
oysters parallels closely that of clams. In early days the oyster
fisheries probably exceeded in comercial importance those of the
clam. In later years, however, this situation has been reversed,
due first, to the growing scarcity of the oyster, and secondly,
to restrictive legislation.
Clams and oysters were once harvested in Great Bay Estuary. In
1938 the estuary was closed to the comercial production of clams
due to bacterial pollution. In his biological survey of Great Bay
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IV —477
in 1944, C. F. Jackson estimated a loss of $2 million annually on
clams in Great Bay. Thus with no commercial ilization of clams
in Great Bay over the last thirty years, a loss can be calculated
at $60 million since it is based on a per bushel value of $1.50 and
the 1944 price of clams. The current per bushel price of clams in
the New England area is nearly $10.00. Thus the loss, dockside,
may be nearly seven times greater or nearly $420 million since 1938.
Oyster production in Great Bay Estuary has also been closed
commercially since 1938. A recent survey estimated the total
acreage of oyster beds at roughly 25 acres in Great Bay. At a
production of 500 bushels per acre, this would result in a loss of
12,500 bushels annually. Oysters at $10 per bushel would then
bring in $125,000 annually. Over the thirty-year period since
harvesting has been closed this loss due to pollution amounts to
nearly $4 million.
All tributaries of Great Bay are dammed. Many of these dams have
existed since 1800 and provide a block for fish such as salmon,
alewives, and American shad, which need freshwater areas to complete
their life cycles. The lost value of such fisheries over the years
would run into many millions of dollars to both corn nercia1 and,
more recently, sport fishermen. It should be pointed out that no
definite estimate of this loss has been made but it is definitely
measurable.
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IV-478
Moriches Ray and Great South Bay, Long Island
Information for this case study was supplied by contract investi- .
gations conducted as part of the National Estuarine Pollution
Study, two federal enforcement conference proceedings and a report
of the Nassau—Suffolk Regional Planning Board (IV-6 —5).
Up to 7 million ducks annually live in farms located on 1oriches
Bay and parts of Great South Bay. These ducks are a source of
pollution to the Bays. In one form, they cause the closing of
valuable shellfish beds due to high coliform counts. Another form
of pollution they create is ROD and eutrophication due to the
ducks sludge which covers the bottom of the bay in some sections.
Studies conducted by the Division of Laborators and Research 0 f the
New York State Department of Health on duck wastes have shown them
to be high in solids, BUD, nutrients, bacterial content, and
constitute a public health hazard. It was found that the strength
and volume of the wastes reaching the waste stream depended on the
number, age, activity, position of ducks in the pens, amount of
rainfall, runoff area, normal water use at the farms, and avail-
ability of water to the ducks.
Coliform densities were found to vary from a median MPN of 5.8 x
per 100 ml to 60 x 106 per 100 ml. Typical water usages ranged
from 0.290 mgd to 3.0 mgd per farm and from 14 gal. to 120 gals.
per day per duck.
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IV-479
Since 1940, there has been a decline in the oyster and fish pro-
duction of Great South Bay. These conditions have coincided with
the buildup of the duck industry in the areas surrounding Moriches
Bay...The wastes from the duck farms effectively fertilized these
waters but with a low ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus.
As a result of the increased nutrients, especially phosphrus, the
waters of Great South Bay have exhibited increased algal populations.
Heavy growths of algae developed in the early spring and persisted
through summer and fall. At its peak, the concentration of algal
cells exceeded 10 million/mi. The dominant bloom algae was a small,
unicellular species often termed “small form.” This algae differed
greatly from the flora typical of bays and estuaries in the same
region and its persistence over long periods of time eliminated the
typical seasonal succession of forms in the bay.
The decline of the oyster industry was directly correlated with the
increase in the “small form.” This was due to the fact that the
optimum conditions for oyster growth included a mixed algal popul-
ation. Although oysters do feed on the “small forms,” these algae
are an inadequate nutrient source. Serpulid worms which are cap-
able of effectively utilizing the “small forms” for food have over-
run the oyster beds periodically and thereby adversely affected
oyster production by competitive exclusion.
The report of the Nassau-Suffolk Regional Planning Board, “The
Status and Potential of the Marine Environment,” states that “the
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IV-480
oyster industry has declined 99 percent in the past 50 years from
50 million dollars to 1/2 million dollars .” (p. 2—7)
In addition to the habitat damage caused by the duck farm wastes,
there are productive areas of shellfish beds closed because of
bacterial contami nation.
The closed acreage, about 6,000 acres with 4,500 usable acres at 5
bushels per acre at $10 per bushel, is estimated to be capable of
producing clams with a dockside value of $225,000 and an expanded
value In excess of $2,250,000 annually. This loss has been in
effect for 25 years. Adjacent open waters provide the proof of use
and the dollar values used to estimate the loss.
DAMAGE TO RECREATION
Staten Island Reaches
The Information presented in this case study were obtained through
interview of the Manager of the Parks Department, Staten Island,
F. D. R. Boardwalk, the Manager of Wolfe Pond Park, Staten Island,
in April 1969. Additional information pertaining to average coliform
density on the Staten Island Beaches was obtained from the New York
City Department of Health. Former uses of the beaches are a matter
of record and can be verified through old newspaper clippings of the
Staten Island Advance as well as discussion with older residents of
New Jersey and Staten Island. These statistics are not available in
published form and have been verified and rechecked by interview and
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I
investigation as part of the contract studies of the National
Estuarine Pollution Study.
The F. D. R. Boardwalk Midland Beach, Great Kills Park, and South
Beach are regularly posted in the sui ier season. The signs read
“Not Recomended for Bathing,” and are posted by the Board of
Health of the City of New York. When this happened in 1968, it
resulted in a drop of 50 percent in the use of these facilities.
Bathhouses and parking facilities were originated in the 1930’s.
The construction which is now evident dates from a reconstruction
in 1950.
South Beach has two parking facilities for 800 cars each, Midland
Beach for another 800 cars, amounting to a total of 2,400 cars
parking facilities.
On a non—posted average day, 1,300 cars will use these lots. On a
holiday, 2,000 cars will be using them. The admittance per car is
50 cents, therefore, $650 and $1,000 are paid for parking respectively.
When the beach is posted “Not Recomended for Bathing,” an average
day’s parking fees amount to $325 and a peak day yields $500.
The beaches are open from May 24 to the weekend after Labor Day.
With Memorial Day, July 4th, and Labor Day offering a total of 9
days peak activity at a loss of $500 per day in parking fees, a
total loss of $4,500 per season for peak activity is attributed
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IV -482
to pollution. In June, July, and August, weather and conditions
permitting 25 days average usage per month is available. If the
loss of use due to pollution runs at $325 a day, the loss computes
to $8,125 per month and for the total season to about $24,000 in
round figures. Conservatively speaking, the total annual loss
amounts to $30,000 in parking fees alone
It is most important, however, that these figures in dollars by no
means reflect the true loss in recreational facilities due to
pollution. Fifty cents is charged whether one car with one passen-
ger or a whole family parks in the parking lots. Most of the time
whole families are affected in this figure of 50 cents per car,
usually most families from modest if not low socio-economic back-
ground whose residences are within easy reach of these beaches,
such as Newark, lizabeth, Manhattan, and Staten Island.
The economic loss resulting from loss in corollary sales is not
included: soft drinks, ice cream, and snack sales which constitute
a business for many seasonally employed people are not included
in this case study but have to be con idered.
The present condition of loss in recreational facilities was
reported by officials of the Park Department and verified through a
direct interview on April 1969, with the Manager of the Parks
Department, F.D.R. Boardwalk. The pollution was verified by N.Y.C.
Department of Health. Coliform count at Midland and South Beach
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IV-483
is in the order of 7,000 to 9,000 MPN/lOO ml; the greatest
pollution exists at the Narrows.
The sewage and human waste from New York City area decreases by
dilution towards the middle of Staten Island shore and increases
where contact with the Jersey shore is greater. The human waste
materials emanating from these two points causes the lowest
coliform density point at Wolfs Pond Park. The latter is never
posted according to the guard interviewed on location. However,
when the word spreads that the other beaches have been posted, the
attendance at Wolfs Pond Park also drops up to 25 percent in spite
of Wolfs Pond Park not being posted.
The fact that the parking lots, and hence the beaches themselves,
are hardly ever used to full capacity indicated that even when the
beaches are not posted, public opinion cannot react on a “day-to-.
day” posting basis and people consider the beaches as “polluted”
at all times. The loss damage estimates could use the full parking
lot capacity because the Staten Island area is in the midst of the
largest metropolitan complex in the world with a corresponding need
for any and all recreation facilities especially during the hot
sumer season when the requirement for providing activity for
teenagers and unemployed is most critical.
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I V -484
Santa Barbara, California
An emission of oil originating In the vicinity of an offshore
drilling platform operated by Union Oil Company began on January 28,
1969, and was not contained until 12 days later; subsequently,
additional oil began leaking through the ocean floor.
The oil came ashore in the vicinity of Santa Barbara and covered
beaches that are a major recreational resource of the area. The
Union Oil Company accepted responsibility for cleaning the beaches
and other property damaged by the oil, and by June 1, 1969, had
spend $4,600,000 for this purpose. (IV-6—6, IV—6-7).
DAMAGE TO NAVIGATION
Charleston Harbor, South Carolina
The Information for this case study was obtained from the U. S.
Army Corps of Engineers Report “Survey Report on Cooper River,
South Carolina (Shoaling in Charleston Harbor),” 1966, and from
“A Retrospective Economic Analysis of the Santee-Cooper Project,”
December 1967, by William Augustus Ward.
As part of the national plan to minimize unemployment during the
great depression of the 1930’s the South Carolina Public Service
Authority was formed for the purpose of building a large dam, water
supply, flood control, navigation lock, recreation and employment
opportunity complex. Cost—benefit analysis was needed to show that
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1V—4 35
the project meri:ed the loan of federal funds. The construction
complex is referred to as the Santee-Cooper Project.
In 1967 a study to check on the effectiveness of a cost—benefit
analysis made twenty—five years previously was undertaken. Part
of this analysis revealed that as a result of construction and
hydraulic rerouting of rivers the silting in Charleston Harbor
increased from what was estimated at $18,000 annual’y to an actual
cost of over $2,029,756 annually. For every year in the future
that the hydraulic regime of the Harbor is not restored to a more
suitable mode of circulation there will be a dredging cost of
roughly the same magnitude incurred.
The diversion of the Santee River into the Cooper River constituted
a remarkable engineering experiment. The designers of the diver-
sion apparently foresaw no adverse effects. To the contrary, they
felt that the effects of the added flow would be to flush out the
harbor and prevent any serious pollution from every occurring.
As a result, the discovery that the shoaling rates were increasing
in the harbor apparently came as a complete surprise to everyone.
By 1947 the Corps of Engineers was undertaking model studies to
try to determine a solution to the problem.
The finding of the Corps in their model studies at Vicksburg,
Mississippi, indicated that the increased flow into the harbor area
had created a partially—mixed estuary. That is, the ratio of
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IV-486
freshwater to salt water in the harbor area was such that a definite
interface developed which moved longitudinally up and down with the
tide. The dense saltwater was overlain by the freshwater inflow.
As the freshwater flow increased to 15,000 c.f.s., the bottom flood
currents became grecter in duration over the bottom ebb currents.
The effect was to create a net upstream movement of the bottom
currents in the saline region of the harbor area, a condition which
created a trap at the bottom of the estuary preventing the movement
of settling materials out to sea.
At about the same time the Santee—Cooper Project began operations,
the project depth of the Charleston Harbor was changed from 30 feet
to 35 feet. This further complicated the dredging problem for two
reasons: first, the Corps had 5 additional feet of depth to
maintain and second, the dredging itself loosened the accumulated
silt outside of the shipping channels and allowed it to slip into
the channels. The Corps maintained, however, that the natural
depth of the Charleston Harbor had exceeded 35 feet, and that the
greater project depth in itself would not have constituted much of
a problem.
From its study of the shoaling problem In the Charleston Harbor,
the Corps estimated that the Santee—Cooper Project was responsible
for approximately 85 percent of the shoaling in the harbor. The
rest, they said, would have occurred without the project.
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IV-437
In 1965, dredging by the Corps was done at a cost of $2,237,949.
It was estimated by the Corps that coiiuiercial shippers spend
$100,000 on dredging operations while the Navy spent $50,000.
Assigning 85 percent of this cost of the Santee-Cooper Project, a
negative benefit of $2,029,756 was attributed to operation of the
project is 1965.
The most competent engineering firms in the nation were employed in
designing and constructioning the project, and the design was
checked and approved by the United States Army Corps of Engineers.
Still, the analysis by the planners and engineers of the project
yielded estimates of benefits and costs which were substantially
different from those which actually occurred. Part of the discre-
pancy was due to simple optimism and even some bias on the part of
the analysts. An equally large part seemed to be due to the
inability of man to see even 25 years into the future. In the case
of silting, the state—of—the—art was such in 1930 that no adverse
effects were envisioned. As a result the dredging bill jumped
from $18,000 to $2,029,756 annually.
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IV-488
SECTION 3. TRENDS IN ESTUARINE ECOLOGY ASSOCIATED
WITH MAN’S ACTIVITIES
The future character of estuarine ecological systems in the United
States will be determined by present and future pressures affecting
the estuarine zone, public decisions, and by the actions resulting
from public policy. Thus, the future nature and operation of the
total biophysical environment will be shaped primarily by the
socioeconomic and institutional environments discussed in this
report.
Existing estuarine ecological systems will continue to operate
either in long-established dynamic patterns of chemical cycling,
water circulation and species behavior, or these activities will be
increasingly dominated by man’s activities. Man’s activities
generally result in great stresses on established plant, animal
and chemical processes, if not total system modification. These
activities may be controlled by decisions made in the socioeconomic
and institutional environments to minimize impacts on the existing
estuarine systems, thus retaining their structure and operation;
or, the energy sources and stresses associated with man’s
activities may be allowed to dominate estuarine processes and, in
effect, create wholly or partially different systems.
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IV-489
From a strictly empirical or descriptive viewpoint, the emerging
new systems associated with manes activities are neither good nor
bad Se; the determination of values relating to these modified
systems must be made within the existing or potential socioeconomic
and institutional frameworks. Values will be set in the market
place, which include all the mechanisms whereby society normally
measures the worth of goods, services and wages, which in turn
largely determine the pressures placed on estuarine systems. The
non-market system also determines values through the expression of
choices expressing social costs and benefits not measured in
standard economic terms. These two major components of
value-setting must be balanced if modification and ultimate
destruction of existing estuarine ecosystems is to be avoided.
STRESS AI D ESTUARIN ECOLOGY
Estuarine ecological systems consist of populations of organisms,
flows of water, pathways of cycling chemical elements, and
organizing mechanisms which are all tightly interrelated. These
systems constantly adjust as the principal elements in their
operation change in character, quantity and composition. Thus,
estuarine ecological systems, as with all ecological communities,
are subject to change, and either successfully adapt, or are
replaced by other systems.
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IV-490
Maintenance of estuarine ecological systems is dependent on an
effective flow of energy and mineral cycles; it is these factors
that most fundamentally determine the important features of system
yield, system stability and water quality, rather than the presence
of large, visible forms of life. In estuaries, the sun operating
plant production processes and the mineral and organic fuels enter-
ing from fresh water inflows are the most important energy bases.
Both the ecosystem components and overall energy flows primarily
originating from these sources must be maintained without acute
shortages or excesses. If the balance of cycling fails, estuarine
ecological systems become less effective in processing food energies
and are subject to replacement, either as a whole, or by substitu-
tion of their parts.
A stress on an estuary is a process which drains available energy.
Stress can be either direct as in the case of harvesting fin fish
or shellfish from the system, or indirect as happens when increased
turbidities shade out light or when some substance such as phenol
is added to the aquatic system, either causing mortality or demand-
ing special adaptive work on the part of surviving organisms to
sustain life. Energy drains on existing organisms may also occur
when excesses of nutrients added to the system deplete the
available oxygen necessary for respiration.
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IV - 491
In general 1 estuarine system diversity and organization is highest
where energy inputs are high and stresses are low as in many
relatively unmodified temperate and tropical estuarine areas.
Conversely, those systems where stresses are high and sources of
energy low are characterized by low species diversity and
relatively simple organization as in the case of artic systems or
those greatly modified by man. Thus, the relative diversity and
organization of estuarine systems are due to both “natural”
occurrences, such as sunlight, temperature fluxes and nutrient
inflows, as well as those associated with man’s activities such as
modification of circulation regimes, addition of pollutants to the
water, and thermal waste heating.
Estuarine systems in the United States are almost universally
stressed by both natural and man-induced processes. The relative
mixture of man—caused and naturally occurring stresses, and their
respective roles in estuarine modification, are presently little
known, and difficult to separate. It is certain, however, that the
stresses resulting from manss present and potential activities in
the estuarine zone play a decisive and increasing role in the
foreseeable future operation of estuarine ecologies. Therefore,
the fol1owlng discussion focuses upon manss activities as they
relate to modification of existing estuarine systems.
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IV-492
NAN’S ACTIVITIES AND ESTUARIi E SYSTEM STRESS
Part IV, Chapter 4 showed the presently identifiable trends
associated with population and economic development and with
specific activities affecting the estuarine zone. At present,
however, the rate of change effected by these trends on estuarine
ecological systems is little known. The most recent work by
ecologists is generally concerned with identification of system
types, the development of general theory, and the measurement of
system characteristics and operating phenomena. Much is known about
certain elements of estuarine ecological systems, such as tem-
peratures, salinities, abundance of certain biotic communities,
but the specific processes and causal relationships of complex
whole systems and interacting subsystems have only recently been
partially understood.
Modification of estuarine ecological systems is nevertheless a
trend which can be qualitatively, if not quantitatively, observed.
Figure IV6.l indicates the general relationships between man’s
activities and estuarine ecological system modification.
The Nation’s population and economy have expanded rapidly in the
recent past and will continue to grow substantially in the foresee-
able future. Moderate projections indicate a cloubi ing of national
population by the turn of the century. Much of this growth,
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F 6URE IV.6.l
SELECTED ELEMENTS OF ESTUARINE ECOLOGICAL
CHANGE DUE TO MAN’S INFLUENCE
Economic and Population Growth Some
of Mo
Major Resulting
dification

Agents
Identified Stressed
Systems Related to
These Activities
The Multiple—Stressed
System: Ecology of
The Future?
Some Components
in the Resulting
Multiple-Stressed
System
1. Urban-Suburban Expansion \
in Response to Population
Growth and Economic Opportunity
1.
Waste Discharge
Municipal
Industrial
Sewage Wastes
Seafood Wastes
Pesticides
Example of One Major
Economic Component
Development of
Petrochemical
Complexes
Resulting Activities
2. General Economic Growth
Diversification, and Sophistica-
tion
Agricultural
Thermal Wastes
Radioactive Wastes
Papermill Wastes
Sewage Waste
Waste Discharge
3. ExpansIon of Specific
Nav loation
——Municipal
--Industrial
Dredging Spoil
Activities Related to the
Estuarine Zone 2.
——Marine Fisheries
——Civilian and National
Defense Transporation
--Marine Mining and
Processing
—-Outdoor Recreation 3.
-—Waste Discharge
Dredqino
PhysIcal
Structures
Mlninq and
Processino
Land Develop-
cent
Fresh Water
Impoundment
Diversion, etc.
Piers, jetties,
Hurricane
Barriers, etc.
Dredging Spoil
Phosphate Waste
Destruction of
Wetlands
Altered Currents
Salinities, etc.

Impoundments
Acid Waters
Brine Pollution
--Ships
Transportation
Dredging and
Filling
Population Growth
and In—migration
Development of
Secondary and
Marginal Activities
Shoreline Develop-
ment, etc.
Impoundments
Petroleum Stores
Pilings
Brine Pollution
Petrochemicals
Etc.
Aids to
Navigation
LO
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IV-494
probably more than one-third, will occur in the estuarine zone.
Population growth will spur the expansion of urban and suburban
developments. Major portions of urban development will develop
along all major coastlines of the Untied States -- particularly the
Atlantic Coastline north 0 f North Carolina, Florida, the middle
portions of the Gulf of Mexico and California. The economy will
also expand both in scope and diversity to meet the demands of an
increasing, wealthy population. Much of this economic activity will
be centered on or closely adjacent to the Natiori s estuaries and
coastal shoreline. These economic activities will vary from place
to place due to the location of natural resources and the demands
for these resources, historic circumstance, availability of markets
and changes in technology.
The general growth of both the population and economy is reflected
in expanding trends noted for more specific activities related to
the estuarine environment: marine fisheries, civilian and national
defense transportation, marine mining and processing, outdoor
recreation and waste discharge. All 9f these activities, as well
as the associated secondary and marginal activities located in the
estuarine zone, will intensify in future years. Marine fisheries
and outdoor recreation are highly dependent upon naturally
occurring properties of estuarine ecological systems. Transporta-
tion, mining and waste discharge are much less tied to these
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IV-4Y5
systems, although at some point in the continuum of degradation
these too would be adversely affected.
The case has been made that although all of these activities vary
in their impact and dependence on estuarine systems, they all tend
increasingly to modify those systems in a multitude of ways.
There appear to be at least three forms of estuarine system modi-
fication corrinon to the specific activities described above: waste
discharge, dredging, and construction of physical structures. In
other words, these activities, and many others, contribute signif-
icantly to not only one identified form of estuarine system
modification, but are usually responsible for a number of
alterations of the biophysical environment.
Although generalizations about the effects of man’s activities on
estuarine ecology are hazardous at best, the following results
generally characterize the modifications associated with significant
waste discharges, dredging and filling, and construction of physical
structures either on fresh water inflows or in the estuaries
themsel yes:
(1) Productivity of biotic communities is generally
reduced. This is due to many factors including
reduction or over provision of nutrients, abrupt
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IV-406
changes in temperatures and salinities, changes in
circulation patterns, and destruction of physical
components of the system.
(2) Species diversity and organization is simplified.
(3) Trends toward severely modified ecosystems are
established.
A review of recent literature indicates, however, that although
these effects appear to be generalized, individual estuarine eco-
logical systems nLlst be studied in detail to establish precisely
the parameters of change involved. Due to the complexity of the
systems themselves, and of the causal interactions attributed to
man’s activities, no attempt can be made to establish national and
regional trends in estuarine ecology. At this stage of knowledge
such trending, based on scientifically tested information, is
impossible. Yet one kind of estuarine ecological system does seem
to be increasingly prevalent in the estuarine zone, and may become
the predominant type if the impact of the socioeconomic environment
on the biophysical environment continues unchecked.
THE I1ULTIPLE—STRESSED SYSTEM:
ESTUARIa E ECOLOGY OF THE FUTURE?
It seems clear that most, if not all major estuarine areas in the
continental United States are now or soon will be affected by
disturbances of more than one identifiable type. These systems are
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IV-497
characterized by heterogeneous patches of chemicals, fertilized
waters, waters low in available oxygen, turbidities, acids and other
conditions alien to normal life of estuarine ecosystems. The
multiple stressed situation is possibly the Nation’s most urgent
estuarine problem because the condition is a mixture and the causes
several. The stress of many different kinds of wastes may be more
difficult for an ecosystem to adapt to than separate types of wastes
acting alone. The continual fluctuations require more kinds of
adaptation than there may be food energies to support. Some bays
receiving mixed wastes which are primarily nutrient of non—toxic
nature may develop extremely high metabolic rates and high rates of
photosynthetic production. Such bays are almost micro—organism
cultures, but have active larger animal populations too. Poten-
tially such fertile waters are a food producing resource, although
we know relatively little about the conditions for management of
these mixtures which will channel energies into products of use to
man, effectively mineralize the wastes, and stabilize the ecosystem.
Areas already noted as exhibiting these characteristics are, not
surprisingly, those systems associated with concentrations of popu-
lation and economic activity such as Boston Harbor, New York Harbor,
Raritan Bay, portions of Chesapeake Bay, Tampa Bay, Galveston Bay
and San Francisco Bay.
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IV-498
In a typical example, which is found in Galveston Bay, one major
development alone, the petro—chemical complex, is identified as
contributing twelve major sources of modification to this naturally
rich estuarine complex. At least seven identifiable stressed
systems result: sewage waste, dredging impoundments, petroleum
shores, pilings, brine pollution and petrochemis a1 wastes (IV-6-8).
Situated at the upper end of Galveston Bay, Texas, is the Houston
Ship channel along which are located dozens of major industries that
release wastes. Refineries, petrochemicals, sanitary wastes, and
many others go into waters that pass out into Galveston 3ay. The
dredged channel is 40 feet deep, floored with waste sludge and
generally black, and sometimes stratified with more saline waters
on the bottom. Conditions are patchy, often low in oxygen, and
often with high concentrations of oxidants and reducing compounds.
Similarly, one of the most fertile estuaries in America is Tampa
Bay, that receives municipal wastes, food processing wastes, the
outflows from phosphate district of Florida, and many other wastes.
There are high concentrations cf cells, nutrients, and other
organisms. High fertility persists from low salinities in small
headwaters to the full salinities at the mouth under the Skyway
bridge. The Florida red tide is a recurring phytoplankton bloom of
a dinoflagellate Gymnodinium breve that is poisonous to fish. This
red water develops fish-killing blooms in high salinity waters off
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I V - .499
the west coast of Florida and sometimes within the lower bay. The
relationship of the fertile bay culture waters to the red tide out-
side is still uncertain and under study. However, the high
fertility has not destroyed the general middle salinity character-
istics of the ecosystem of the main bay where oysters, copepods,
pinfish and young shrimp are abundant. Much of the area has been
disturbed in dredqirig and filling although there are still large
areas of shallow ecosystems that serve as fertile nurseries
(IV-6-9).
Examples of severe modification and the resulting multiple
stressed systems could be multiplied many times. The point is that
nearly every trend noted in the socioeconomic environment in the
recent past, and in the future, indicates that much of the
estuarine zone is ke1y to receive these multiple man-caused
stresses. Thus, the estuarine ecological system of the future
appears likely, if past use trends continue, to be characterized
by a new emerging “stinko” environment. Clearly, reliance upon
existing use, management, planning, economic restraints, and
technology to provide solutions to this trend are inadequate. It
is essential that the socioeconomic and institutional environments
be mobilized to reverse this seemingly inexorable destruction of
the irreplaceable estuarifle ecologies of the Nation.
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IV-530
SECTION 4. RESOLUTIOU OF USE CONFLICTS
Use damage and eco1oc ical disasters are not necessary features of
civilization in the estuarine zone, but use conflicts will continue
to exist as more and more demands are made on the natural environ-
meat. The ability of any management authority to prevent use
damage and to resolve use conflicts depends not only upon its
institutional composition and legal authority, but also upon the
social, economic, and bioDhysical characteristics of the estuarine
management unit within its authority is exercised.
The analyses of social and economic values of the estuarine zone
examined concurrently with the sinilar analyses of use conflicts,
pollutional effects, and use damages form the basis for this
discussion of those means by which use conflicts can be resolved
through the application of technical knowledge, i.e., technical
aui ye le at.
The pri nary objective of technical management is to accomodate the
needed and desired uses of any estuarine r.ianager ent unit within that
system without overall damage to the biophysical environment. The
ability to achieve this objective depends on the boundaries of the
management unit and unon the means available for resolving both
prohibitive use conflicts and restrictive use conflicts.
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IV-f 1
MANAGEMENT UNIT BOUNDARIES
The Impact of the social and economic requirements of civilization
on the natural estuarine environment is the technical problem with
which management must deal, and effective control of this impact can
be maintained only if both the major sources of damage and the
geographic range of their influence are subject to unified control.
Estuarine use conflicts and damages involve activities and effects
concerning both land and water.
Many of the wastes which damage the estuarine environment originate
from cities, industries, and other activities on the land, and control
of the wastes from such sources is essential to effective management.
Shoreline development limits access to estuarine areas as wells modifying
some parts of the estuarine environment.
An estuarine management unit, therefore, should consist not only of
the estuarine waters, bottoms, and associated marshlands; but it should
also include all of the shoreline surrounding the estuarine waters
themselves and as much of the adjoining land as is necessary to regulate
the discharge of wastes into estuarine waters.
Effective control of water quality is one key to effective technical
management, and one essential requirement in accomplishing this is the
-------
tV—5cj2
ability to monitor water quality constantly and consistently. While
the details of water quality monitoring are based on needs within
individual estuarine systems, it is necessary that management unit
boundaries be chosen so that the managing authority can measure both
the quality and quantity of water entering and leaving the management
unit. This is essential both to give warning of any incoming water
quality degradation and to safeguard other estuarine environments by
warning of any outgoing water quality degradation.
The size of the estuarine management unit Is In itself a highly important
factor In the technical management of estuarine systems. In a very
small management unit it may be impossible to accommodate more than
one use, thus making futile efforts to resolve use conflicts and achieve
multiple use. For example, the maintenance of a commercial oyster
fishery in the midst of a dredged navigation channel might offer the
same problems in achieving multiple use as would the maintenance of
a coninercial chicken ranch in the middle of Kennedy International
Airport. Conversely, tn very large, highly developed, management units
it becomes difficult to deal with individual problems in sufficient
detail to control use conflicts effectively.
The boundaries of viable estuarine management units are generally
governed by social, economic, and political factors rather than the
sizes of the estuarine systems they include. Thus, the capability of
technical management to resolve use conflicts in some management units
-------
IV -503
may be severely limited by external factors and it may therefore be
necessary to forego some uses because of the small size of the estuarine
resource available for use.
RESOLUTION OF PROHIBITIVE USE CONFLICTS
Those uses which exclude other uses generally involve modification of
the shoreline, marshes, or bottoms by dredging, filling, or the building
of a permanent structure. Such activities may not only immediately
affect the estuarine morphology and habitat, but they may also cause
widespread, long-range changes in the ecosystem.
The evaluation of the effects of prohibitive uses on the estuarine environ-
ment Is probably the most difficult problem currently facing technical
management. The immediate and obvious effects of the habitat loss
associated with such uses can be measured and described fairly easily,
but the ultimate results of the modification of water movement patterns
and flushing characteristics can only be estimated in general terms.
The need for research on such problems is discussed in Part VI, Chapter 3;
until a sufficient amount of knowledge is accumulated, however, the only
useful guide is comparison with occurrences in similar systems.
In nearly every problem associated with prohibitive use conflicts, how-
ever, the area of primary concern is the effect on the estuarine ecosystem
-------
T ’ :‘
J ‘- J J’+
of any physical modifications proposed; the limitations of knowledge
outlined above, therefore, present a critical problem in present
efforts to resolve prohibitive use conflicts.
The great amount of modification that has already occurred in the
estuarine zone has already resolved the problem of use conflicts in
some estuarine systems by pre-empting or usurping a part of the
estuarine resource for a single purpose, in many cases making modifications
too expensive or otherwise too difficult to change in spite of their
effects on the local environment.
There is little that can be done directly to correct environmental
damage associated with past changes, but future demands for prohibitive
use in a management unit can be resolved through application of past
experience.
Allocation of part of the estuarine resource for an exclusive single-
purpose use is a necessary fact of estuarine management. The shoreline
is a necessary location for shipping docks and for swiming beaches,
but they cannot both occunv the same place on the shoreline.
Similarly, frequently dredged channels and oyster beds cannot occupy
the same space at the same time. Resolution of such conflicts can be
achieved by allocation of adequate space to each use through whatever
institutional mechanism Is established.
-------
JV-505
A more difficult problem arises where there is involved a massive
dredge or fill operation with its concomitant immediate effect on the
ecosystem. When such modifications are a necessary or desirable
development of the environment it may be necessary to forego the habitat
use; however, in many cases it may be possible to create new, equivalent
habitat in a different part of the management unit, or it might be
possible to restore part of the damaged environment.
For example, in recent negotiations concerning the dredging of
phosphate rock along the Georgia coast, the company involved proposed
to rebuild over 3,000 acres of the marsh that would be destroyed in
the mining operation.
While the resolution of prohibitive use conflicts requires the abandoning
of one use in favor of another, the potential for carrying out any
modifications necessary so as to increase habitat value as well as
economic value should be a key factor in the resolution of such problems.
RESOLUTION OF RESTRICTIVE USE CONFLICTS
Disposal of liquid wastes to the estuarine environment is the major
restrictive use impact of the socio-economic environment. This use
conflict can be resolved completely either by treating all wastes to
such an extent that they do not interfere with any other uses or else
removing them entirely from the environment.
-------
Technology exists to provide thorough treatment for nearly every kind
of municipal and industrial waste, and there is no reason not to provide
treatment sufficient to protect the environment from damage and to
peniiit other uses. Treatment requirements for different wastes may
vary from place to place according to local conditions, but damage to
the environment and restriction of other uses can be prevented.
Water quality standards have been set and are now being implemented in
all the coastal states. These standards are the foundation upon which
the effective control of estuarine pollution rests, and they provide
the framework within which technical management can effectively operate.
As pointed out earlier in this chapter, however, estuarine waters even
in busy harbors are used for recreational purposes by those who cannot
afford to go elsewhere, regardless of whether the waters are safe for
body contact or not. Also the role of the estuarine zone as a nursery
for some fish, passage for others, and a residence for still more is
readily apparent although its full implications in the energy conversion
chain are not understood. For these reasons the water quality goal of
estuarine management should be to keep all waters safe for direct
contact by humans and also usable as a fish and wildlife habitat.
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IV-507
SECTION 5. SUMMARY
Loss of use and use damage in the estuarine environment are the direct
results of unrestrained exploitation of estuarine resources. The
examples presented, limited as they are by the difficulty of
measuring use damages, show clearly the impact of one use on another and
give a foretaste of the extensive damage that will occur if unrestrained
exploitation continues.
Effective technical management of the estuarine zone requires the
application of all pertinent existing knowledge to the resolution
of use conflicts in estuarine management units.
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IV-508
RE FE REUCE S
IV-6-l Hargis, W. J., “Final Report on Results of Operation
James River”, Special Report No. 7, Virginia Institute
of Marine Sciences, Gloucester Point, Va., 73 pp (1966).
IV—6-2 Stevens, D. M., Solid Waste Disposal and San Francisco
Bay”, San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development
Commission, p. 6 (1966).
IV-6-3 Odum, H. 1., “Coastal Ecological Systems of the United
States”, Reoort on FWPCA Contract No. 14-12-429, p. 1109
(1969). In Press.
IV—6—4 Anon., “Case Studies of Estuarine Sedimentation and its
Relation to Pollution of the Estuarine Environment”,
Report on FWPCA Contract ‘1g. 14-12-445 by Gulf Universities
Research Corporation, p. D-18 (1969). In Press.
IV-6-5 Odum, pcit, p. 1006-1013
IV—6-6 Basye, 0. E., “Santa Barbara Sparkling in Wake of Oil
Cleanup”, Oil and Gas Journal, p. 33 (August 25, 1969).
IV-6-7 Klaus, R. L.., “In the Case of Santa Barbara”, Our Sun,
p. 4 (Sumer, U69).
IV-6-8 Odum, pcit, p. 1331
IV-6-9 Odum, cit, p. 1335
IV-6-10 Anon, “A Report on Proposed Leasing of State Owned Lands
for Phosphate 1ining in Chatham County, Georgia”,
Advisory Conirittee on Mineral Leasing, Univ. of Ga.,
p. C-22 (1968).
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Chapter 7
SUMMARY
IV -509
The estuarine zone is an ecosystem. That is, it is an environment
of land, water, and air inhabited by plants and animals that have
specific relationships to each other. This particular ecosystem
is the interface between land and ocean, and one of its key cornpo-
ents is human society.
The social and economic environment that forms human society must
be regulated by rnan-riade laws intended to nrovide justice to each
individual and part of the socioeconomic environment. The biological
-------
IV-5 10
and physical environment of the estuarine zone, in contrast, obeys
natural laws which are equally complex and less flexible than man-
made laws. The welfare of American society now demands that man-
made laws be extended to regulate the impact of man on the biophysi-
cal environment so that the national estuarine zone can be preserved,
developed, and used for the continuing benefit Of the citizens of
the United States.
To apply man-made laws and regulations to the natural estuarine
environment, It Is necessary first to understand what natural
conditions govern that environment, and then to understand how the
socioeconomic and biophysical environments affect each other. Only
then can there be developed an institutional environment which can
effectively weld all three environments into one smoothly function-
ing self-sustaining ecosystem.
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IV-5 11
SECTION 1. THE BIOPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Laws regulating the socioeconomic environment exist at several
levels of governmental authority. The Constitution presents
general guiding principles, State constitutions operate within this
framework while establishing a more detailed body of law designed
to satisfy the needs of the statewide socioeconomic environment,
and local ordinances regulate in detail the activities carried out
in specific locations.
The biophysical environment is also subject to a hierarchy of
laws, regulations, and conditions. The general guiding principles
are those fundamental natural laws which govern all life on the
earth; at the interfacial zone between land and sea the effects of
these laws appear as universal dominating environmental factors.
The structure of the coastline, formed and modified in obedience
to these general conditions, imposes a second level of natural law
which exerts its primary effects on water movement in the estuarifle
zone; and, within each structural form exists a host of organisms
living according to specific natural ordinances which govern their
relationships.
DOMINATiNG ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
The natural estuarine environment is based on the conversion of
radiant solar energy into other forms of energy with the assistance
of the mechanical effects of gravitational energy. This conversion
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IV-512
is accomplished by an intricate array of prey--predator relationships
among living organisms, from the microscopic plants and animals
which convert solar energy directly and are eaten by other organisms,
to the fish and wildlife which are the ultimate life forms in the
manless estuarine environment.
Solar radiation and gravitational forces control the natural environ-
ment through a complex series of mechanisms. In the estuarine zone
this control exhibits itself through seven major environmental
factors that exist throughout the estuarine zone.
(1) Continental Shelf . The submerged land next to the
continent slopes gently to a depth of about 600 feet, then
it drops more rapidly to form the deep ocean basins. This
fringe of slightly sloping submerged land, which along
much of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts would appear quite
flat to the naked eye, is called the “continental shelf;”
its width and general configuration along the U.S. coast-
line affects the force with which ocean waves strike the
shore and consequently the manner and degree of shoreline
erosion and accretion.
(2) Ocean Currents . The major ocean currents passing
near or impinging on the continent exert strong, if
subtle, effects on the estuarine zone through their
temperatures, which affect continental land temperatures,
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IV—5 13
and through their nutrients, which govern the nature
and productivity of offshore and estuarine fisheries.
The cold Labrador Current water from Maine to Virginia,
warm Gulf Stream water along the South Atlantic and Gulf
coasts, and the California Current along the Pacific
coast all have noticeable effects on coastal land and
water.
(3) Coastline Slope . The configuration of the coastline
itself, even though subject to additional molding by the
flow of rivers to the sea, is closely related to the
shape and structure of the continental shelf. A wide
continental shelf is generally associated with lowland
next to the coast, wtitle a narrow shelf is associated with
mountainous terrain. These associations throughout the
estuarine zone of the United States have produced estuarine
systems characteristic of particular regions. Glaciation
in New England, Washington, and Alaska; old mountain
ranges and a sedimentary coastal plain from New Jersey to
Texas, and the young, steep ranges of the Pacific coast
are all continental features having different impacts on
the estuaririe zone.
(4) River Flow . The estuarine zone is also shaped through
erosion and sediment transport by fresh water making its
way to the sea. All along the coastlines are streams and
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IV-514
rivers carrying water from land runoff to the sea. These
waterways range from the Mississippi River, which drains
41 percent of the conterminous land mass of the United
States, down to tiny trickles across a beach. The volumes
of water and sediment moved reflect not only the total
amount of precipitation and its annual cycle, but also
the sizes and slopes of drainage basins and the types of
soil over which the rivers flow.
(5) Sedimentation . The general outlines of many estuaries,
lagoons, and embayments in the estuarine zone were formed
by erosion from land runoff during the last ice age when
sea levels were much lower than they are now. As the sea
level rose, the drowned river mouths became zones of
mixing, sediment deposition, and erosion where the rivers
and tidal currents met. These erosion and sedimentation
processes molded the estuarine zone into its present shape
and continue to change it.
(6) Climate . Solar energy striking the earth sets up
complex cycles of water and energy flow from the oceans to
the sky and the land and back again. That part of the
energy cycle occurring in the atmosphere gives rise to the
various combinations of weather phenomena which make up
local climates. Land, sea, and sky are mutually dependent
in producing specific climates, and the great ocean currents
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IV-.515
play their indirect roles in modifying the climates of the
estuarine zone.
(7) Tide . The tide stands alone as a controlling force
and symbol of the estuarine environment. The combination
of tidal action and river flow gives rise to that unique
phenomenon called an “estuarine circulation pattern,” which
means the fresh water flows in one direction in one layer
and the salt water flows in the opposite direction in
another layer with various degrees of mixing at the inter-
face between them. This type of circulation pattern is of
great importance in some of the estuaries along the
Atlantic and Gulf coasts, and to a large extent governs
the capacity of such estuaries to rid themselves of waste
materials.
THE bIOPHYSICAL [ STUARINE REGIONS
Each estuarine system along the coastline is affected to some extent
by all of these dominating environmental factors. In some cases
the dominance of one particular factor is readily apparent. It is
much more often the case that the competing environmental factors
are so evenly balanced that none can be said to dominate and the
estuarine zone appears to be composed of a bewildering variety of
unique systems.
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IV-516
Yet, the dominating environmental factors listed above form a set
of natural guiding principles which govern the general character-
istics of the estuarine zone of the United States, and the occurrence
of various combinations of these environmental factors permits the
grouping of the national estuarine system into 10 geographical zones,
each governed by a different combination of environmental conditions.
Characteristics of the Biophysical Regions
North Atlantic _ Estuarine R gion : Canadian border to Cape Cod.
Cool, fertile waters with a large tidal range strike a steep,
Indented coast with deep water close Inshore, but protected from
the full force of the ocean waves by a wide continental shelf.
Moderate precipitation with heavy snowfall leads to heavy spring
river runoff which dominates local circulation. Natural erosion
and sedimentation are not severe problems, and the evolution of
drowned river valley estuaries is in an early stage in this region.
Middle Atlantic Estuarine Region : Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras,
exclusive of Chesapeake Bay.
A wide, gently sloping continental shelf with a smooth shoreline
is cut by the entrances of several major river systems carrying
moderate amounts of sediments. The same cool, fertile waters as
In the North Atlantic estuarine region wash this coastline but
with a smaller tidal range. The evolution of drowned river valleys
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IV-.517
into coastal marshes is -in a secondary stage in the larger estuarine
systems, with sand spits and barrier islands forming.
Chesapeake Bay Estuarine Region : All of the Chesapeake Bay system
from Cape Charles and Cape Henry Island.
Isolation from direct oceanic effects in much of the greatly branched
system, the many subsystems with major river flows, and the reduced
concentration of the ocean salt throughout the Bay and its tributaries
make this a unique estuarine system. This is a drowned river valley
with numerous similar tributary systems in various stages of evolution.
South Atlantic Estuarine Region : Cape Hatteras to Fort Lauderdale,
Florida, (about 260 North Latitude).
The generally wide continental shelf is brushed by the warm waters
of the well-defined Gulf Stream. The low-lying coastal plain
terminates in barrier islands and marshes in which large amounts of
sediments are being continually deposited by moderate-sized rivers
fed by heavy suniner rainfall. Many of the drowned river valley
estuaries have evolved all the way to coastal marshes. Tidal ranges
are small to moderate, depending on local conditions.
Carribean Estuarine Region : Fort Lauderdale to Cape Romano (the
Florida peninsula south of 26° North Latitude), plus Puerto Rico
and the Virgin Islands.
High temperatures, heavy rainfall, and warm ocean currents along
practically nonexistent continental shelves result in tropical
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IV-518
estuarine environments throughout this region. Coral reefs and
mangrove swamps are the typical coastal features of south Florida,
while the islands are mountainous and are fringed with coral reefs
and beaches. Tidal ranges are small.
Gulf Coast Estuarine Region : Cape Romano to the Mexican border.
A wide continental shelf extends all the way around this large
embayment, in which warm tropical waters are moved gently by weak
currents and small tidal ranges. Heavy ral nfal 1 over most of the
area brings sediments from the broad coastal plain to be deposited
in the estuarine zone. Most of the drowned river valleys have
evolved to a point intermediate between those of the Middle and
South Atlantic Regions--barrier islands are extensive and have
large shallow bays behind them.
The Mississippi, carrying drainage from 41 percent of the conter-
minous land mass of the United States, forms one of the major deltas
of the world and is unique among the estuarine systems of the
United States, both in its size and in the extent to which it has
built out over the continental shelf.
Pacific Southwest Estuarine Region : Mexican border to Cape
Mendocino.
because of the narrow continental shelf, peridoc upwelling of deep
water close inshore as winds force the California current offshore
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IV-51 9
brings cool, fertile water near the coast for several months of
the year. The coastline has a typical beach and bluff configuration
with only a few shallow einbayments and the unique earthquake-born
valley of San Francisco Ray, which, in the delta formed by the
confluence of the San Joaquin and Sacramento Rivers, shows what
erosion and sedimentation might have done along the southwest
coast if rainfall were greater in that area of easily erodable
mountal ns.
Pacific Northwest Estuarine Re _ gion : Cape Mendocino to the Canadian
border.
The continental shelf and coastal configurations are similar to
those of the Pacific Southwest, but ocean water temperatures are
lower here; the movement of the California current away from the
coast is not as pronounced, and heavier rainfall has resulted in
some major rivers cutting through the coastal mountains to form
deeply embayed estuarine systems. Extensive erosion and sedi-
mentation have caused wide tidal flats, bars, and shoals to be
typical of these systems.
The straits of Juan de Fuca and Puget Sound, which were glacier-
formed, do not have as severe sedimentation as exists along the
ocean coast, and have retained much of their original configuration.
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Alaska Estuarine Region : All of Alaska including the Aleutian
and Bering Sea Islands.
The dominant factors in this region are temperature and precipita-
tion. Water temperatures are near freezing, and much of the
precipitation falls as snow. The continental shelf is wide all
through the region, and tide ranges are very large. The southeast
and south coasts have active glaciation and consist primarily of
glacier—cut embayments and fjords; the west and north coasts are
much flatter and have been modified to some extent by sediments
eroded from the Interior, Including glacial silt, and by the grinding
action of pack ice during winter.
Pacific Islands Region : The Hawaiian Islands, American Samoa,
and Guam.
This region consists of tropical ocean Islands of volcanic origin.
Dominating factors are lack of a continental shelf, full exposure
to oceanic conditions, and pleasantly warm te eratures. Coral
reefs and beach and bluff configurations are typical.
ThE LAND AND THE WATER
Within the general domination of broad-scale environmental factors
are smaller scale governing conditions that, through their effects
on water movement and circulation, determine what kind of local
enviroNnent can exist in a particular estuarine system.
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IV—521
THE LAND
The shape of the land along the land-sea interface goes far toward
determining what water movement and circulation patterns exist in
particular local areas and, consequently, how fast a particular
estuarine system will rid itself of pollutants. Within the general
compass of the estuarine regions discussed in the preceding section
there are different structural types which define patterns of water
movement typical of particular structures, no matter what the
external environment may be.
Alaska presents the greatest variety of estuarine form and structure
of any of the estuarine regions. Nearly all kinds of systems
typical of other regions are found there. In addition, Alaska has
the only glaciated coast and most of the fjords found in the United
States.
Characteristic of the North Atlantic region is a very irregular,
hilly coastline with deep water close inshore and long, narrow
embayments with open access to the sea. Estuarine systems within
the Chesapeake Bay region consist of a group of branched rivers
entering the Chesapeake Bay itself, which is in turn the former
valley of the Susquehanna River.
In the Middle Atlantic region the estuarine zone consists primarily
of a few large drowned river valley embayments (e.g., New York
Harbor, Delaware Bay, Narragansett Bay) and some small marsh and
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IV-522
barrier beach systems receiving only coastal fresh-water runoff.
The estuarine zone of the Gulf region, on the other hand, consists
mainly of moderate-sized embayments with barrier beaches and
extensive marshes, but receiving river flow from upland drainage
areas and representing an intermediate state in the evolution of
drowned river valleys into coastal marshes.
The South AtI anti c region has two dominant types of estuari ne
structure. From Cape Hatteras to about Jacksonville, Florida,
there is a general input of upland river drainage to the estuarine
zone and the estuarine systems are typical drowned river valleys
in the later stages of evolution represented by barrier beaches
or coastal marshes backed by extensive swamps. South of Jacksonville
fresh-water runoff comes primarily from local coastal drainage,
and there are uniform and extensive barrier island beaches with
long narrow embayments behind them having continuous but generally
narrow strips of marsh along the embayments. This structure fades
into the extensive swamplands of the Everglades farther down the
Florida Peninsula.
Both the Pacific Northwest and Pacific Southwest regions have few
estuaries. The estuarine systems of the Northwest Pacific Region
tend to be the mouths of rivers which have cut their way through
coastal mountain ranges, either of their own accord or aided by
glaciers as In the case of Puget Sound. Shallow coastal embayments
with little and sporadic river flow are characteristic of the few
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IV—523
estuarine systems of the Southwest, except for San Francisco Bay,
which receives fresh water runoff from much of central California.
Estuarine systems of the islands, both Atlantic and Pacific,
are few and consist mostly of emba,yments without major river
i nfl ows.
The estuarine zone can be classified according to its local
morphology into ten major categories, several of which exist in
each of the estuarine bioohysical regions. Within each of these
categories, the similarities in structure reflect similarities in
water movement, water quality, and ecology which make it possible
to apply lessons learned in managing an estuarine system in one
region to similar estuarine systems in other regions. The
morphological categories are:
1.1 Smooth shoreline without inlets
1.2 Smooth shoreline with inlets
1.3 Smooth shoreline with small ernbayments
2.1 Indented shoreline without islands
2.2 Indented shoreline with islands
3 Marshy shoreline
4 Unrestricted river entrance
5.1 Embayment with only coastal drainage
5,2 Embament with continuous upland river inflow
6 Fjord
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IY—524
Unrestricted river entrances and embayments dominate the estuarine
zone and are rather evenly distributed throughout all the regions,
with the courion type of istuarine system being a coastal enbayment
with drainage from only the local coastal area. Many of these
latter embayments have large marsh areas, but the Middle Atlantic,
South Atlantic, and Gulf are the regions in which marshes are the
predominant feature in some parts of the estuarine zone.
THE WATER
The unique nature of water movement and circulation patterns in
the estuarine zone are the result of the meeting and mixing of
fresh river water and salty ocean water of slightly greater density
under the oscillating influence of the tide. There may be additional
complicating factors such as temperature and wind action, but the
resulting circulation nearly always reflects the interaction of
river flow and estuary shape with the tidal flow of the ocean
water. General water movement patterns are predictable for each
category of estuarine shape.
It is where moderately large rivers and streams meet the sea that
the unique estuarine circulation patterns occur most frequently.
Large fresh water flows in well-defined channels tend to slide
over the top of the denser sea water without rapid mixing. Water
movement in such cases exhibits various degrees of stritification.
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IV—525
With wider channels, smaller river flows, and greater tidal ranges.
more mixing occurs and other forces come into play. Embayment
shape, bottom configuration and material, and the effects of the
Earth’s rotation all may play a role, In some estuarine systems
of this type, the degree of stratification may change with changes
in river flow, temperature, wind, or other transient conditions.
Estuarine water quality is the product of both land and water.
From the land, erosion and solution in river water bring suspended
and dissolved minerals, while decaying vegetation adds dissolved
salts, but negligible quantities of organic matter.
In the estuarine zone these two different solutions meet and mix.
Salt concentrations range from that of the oceans to the almost
unmeasurable amounts present in some rivers. Where little
stratification exists, sea salt dominates mineral concentrations
in estuarine waters; in stratified systems, however, the small
amounts of minerals entering in the fresh water may be as important
in some parts of the estuaririe zone as the much larger concentrations
from the sea are in others.
TIlE LIFE
The governance of the dominating environmental factors, as modified
by estuarine shape and water quality, result in an input of energy
into individual estuarine systems, and it is in the variety and
diversity of estuarine life that the input of energy to the estuarine
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IV—526
zone finds ultimate expression. Whether energy comes directly, as
in solar radiation stimulating photosynthesis, or whether it conies
indirectly, as with tidal flows or wind and rain pounding on the
shoreline, its absorption and conversion to other forms of energy
(such as food) are essential steps in the continuation of life in
the water, in the marshes, and on the land.
Energy input from gravitational forces, as illustrated by tidal
action and river flow, depends primarily on local or regional
conditions, but direct energy input from solar radiation depends
largely on latitude, the tropics receiving much more energy per
acre than the arctic. The relative amounts of energy entering an
estuarine system govern the kinds of life found there, and natural
ecosystems show systematic variations related to the sources and
amounts of energy received.
Estuarine zones with strong mechanical energy inputs from waves,
currents, tides, or river flows develop similar ecosystems no
matter whether in the tropics or the arctic. Where, however, such
energy inputs do not dominate the input of radiant solar energy,
natural conrunities develop compositions typical of Tropical,
Temperate, or Artic latitudes.
Tropical systems are subject to unvarying warm terrnperatures; light
energy input is both greater and more regular than in other
latitudes. Within this general group there are the sparse popula-
tions along coasts with deep clear water close inshore; the teeming
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rv-527
and colorful populations of coral reefs; and the mangroves and
the submerged grasslands associated with shallow, nutrient—laden
water. Only the southern part of Florida and the islands are of
this type.
Arctic systems are subject to wide fluctuations of sunlight and
temperature but ice is the key factor. Ecological systems develop
in, on, and under the ice and in the fjords associated with glaciers.
Only a small part of Alaska includes estuarine Systems of this type.
Temperate systems are subject to moderate solar energy inputs,
temperatures which change regularly with the seasons, and generally
larger tide ranges and more wave action than either tropic or
arctic systems. iost of the estuarine systems of the United States
lie in the temperate zone, and the balancing of solar energy input
against mechanical energy input in this zone leads to a great
variety of ecosystem types, even within small geoqraphic areas.
The grouping of ecosystems outlined here describes a limited range
of recurring variation of chemical and physical properties to
which certain forms of life have adapted and on which they are now
dependent.
The basic environmental needs for all living plants and animals in
such zones are zones of salinity consistently fluctuating over a
limited range of concentration; solar energy; water temperature
variation; water quality and nutrients favorable to their
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IV-.528
propagation, growth, and survival; and, for some life forms,
bottom conditions suitable to their unique needs.
The dependence of fish arid shellfish on the estuarine zone is
governed by particular environmental requirements for reproduction,
protection, food supply, or a combination of these. Estuarine
dependent species are of three types:
1. Species Restricted to Estuaries
Among the relatively few species of fish and shellfish
that complete their entire life cycle in the estuarine
zone is the Atlantic (American) oyster. It will die
after long exposure to freshwater although it can stand
limited periods of such exposure and can thrive in
relatively high salinity water. The spotted sea trout
occupies the estuary for all its life purposes and only
occasionally leaves the estuary under unusual extremes
of salinity and temperature.
2. Anadromous and Catadromous Species
Anadromous species pass through the estuarine zone on
their journey from the sea to the freshwater environment
where they spawn. Some species, such as the Pacific
salmon, die after spawning and others, such as the
striped bass, live to return to the estuarine zone and
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IV-529
the sea. The young of all anadromous species spend
varying periods of time in the freshwater areas where
they were spa ined, but all eventually migrate to the
estuaries and then the sea.
There are few truly catadrornous species that mature in
the fresh or brackish water environments, and then migrate
to higher salinity waters of the estuary of the adjacent
sea to spawn. The American eel and the Blue crab are
examples of this type.
3. ‘ ligratory Estuarine Species
The great mainrity of estuarine dependent species fall
under this classification. Some use the brackish and
freshwater areas of the estuarine zone for reproduction;
some as a source of food; some for shelter, either as
adults or young; and some for all these reasons. They
all have in common the basic need for both estuarine and
ocean environments at some point in their life cycle.
This group includes the great majority of fish and
shellfish of direct importance to man, such as shrimp,
menhaden, flounders, and red drum.
Estuarine wildlife can be classified into four cateqories: (1) fur
bearing animals, (2) game waterfowl, (3) ornamental shore birds,
and (4) the comon wildlife that can tolerate human presence.
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IV—530
The primary fur bearers are the fur seal in Alaska, nutria in the
South Atlantic and Gulf States, the coninon eastern muskrat in
New Jersey, the Virginia muskrat in the Central Atlantic States,
and the Louisiana muskrat in Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana,
and Texas, Secondary in importance are the raccoon, mink, and otter.
The dependence of waterfowl on the estuarine zone is both complex
and incompletely understood. The primary sport species, such as
mallards and canvasbacks, have been successfully adapted to man-
made changes in their environment, particularly those changes not
affecting the nesting sites.
The ornau ental shore and sea birds are a particularly aesthetic
attraction among the national fauna. These birds are generally
more dependent uoon estuarine conditions than the more mobile
waterfowl and, in addition, have demonstrated a considerably greater
sensitivity to the overall encroachment of man. These birds
include whooping cranes, pelicans, bald eagles, egrets, ibis, and
many others.
GOVERNING SUBDIVISIONS OF THE BIOPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Solar energy and gravitational energy are the basis for everything
that happens naturally in the estuarine zone. This discussion of
the biophysical environment has been concerned primarily with the
environmental conditions surrounding the transformation 0 f these
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IV—531
energies into fonns useful in living processes and exploitable by
man. Three different sets of subdivisions of the biophysical
environment were used in this discussion.
Differences in the external environment divided the estuarine zone
of the United States naturally into ten geographic regions, each
subject to a particular governing combination of the external
influences of tide, ocean currents, wave action, sedimentation,
and climate. This subdivision into estuarine biophysical regions
gave broad ranges of conditions in each region, but the importance
of local coastal conditions in governing energy flows via water
movement paved the way for a subdivision of the estuarine zone
according to ten morphological groups having similarities in water
movement, circulation, and the ability to rid themselves of wastes.
A subdivision according to ecological communities was also based
primarily on geographical location, but again coastal conditions
made it necessary to identify small ecosystems governed by
specific local conditions within each of the major groupings.
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IV—532
SECTION . THE SOCIOECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT
The socioeconomic environment of the estuarine zone is the direct
result of its value as a means of sustenance, a p’ace to live,
a source of enjoyment, and a route of transportation. The laws
regulating man’s activities in this zone are historical ly intended
to protect and serve Individual and group interest in dealing with
each other. Only recently has it become apparent that the laws
protecting man from himself must be extended to protect the
natural environment from man.
This extension of the Institutional environment must recognize
not only the realities of how the biophysical environment operates,
but it must also recognize the need of huuan society for the
estuariñe zone and Its value to civilization both as an essential
part of his ecosystem and as an exploitable resource.
POPULATION AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE ESTUARINE ZONE
The Importance of the estuarine zone of the United States to the
national conmiunity is shown most clearly by the ntaiibers of people
that use it. Population concentration in the coastal counties
began when the first European colonist arrived. This concentration
brought about the development of a corresponding amount of manu-
facturing industry In the estuarine zone, while the great harbors
gave the estuarine zone its dominating position as the coninercial
center of the Nation.
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IV - 533
Long before the settlement of Plymouth, liritish, French, and
Spanish fishermen were exploring the North Atlantic fishery re-
sources including those in the Gulf of Maine and along Georges
i ank; after colonization of New England, the fisheries were the
sustaining industry that provided the economic foundation for growth
and development. The estuaries were also the entry portal for the
imigrants that came to this Nation looking for the land of
opportunity.
As the population grew, the relative importance of the fishery
progressively declined as economic growth in other industries
outstrioped the demand for seafood as a staple diet item. The
growth of industrial and population centers in the estuarine zone
closely paralleled the growth of the rest of the Nation, with the
estuarine zone becoming relatively more important in international
comerce and less important in agricultural food production than
the interior of the country.
The coastal counties contain only 15 percent of the land area of
the United States, but within this area is concentrated 33 percent
of the Nation’s population, with about four-fifths of it living in
primarily urban areas which form about ten percent of the total
estuarine zone area. Another 13 nercent of the estuarine land
area is farmland, but this accounts for only four percent of the
total agricultural land of the !ation. The estuarine zone, then,
is nearly twice as densely populated as the rest of the country,
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IV —534
and supports only one-fourth as much agriculture per unit area.
In those regions lying between Cape Hatteras, N. C., and Canada
as well as in the Pacific Southwest, over 90 percent of the
population lives in urban areas; over much of the Atlantic
estuarine zone stretches the great northeastern megalopolis with
population densities averaging over 1,000 persons per square mile.
The remainder of the estuarine zone of the United States exhibits
a pattern of major centers of population clustered around natural
harbors and separated by stretches of coastline which are either
pty and Inaccessible or beginning to be sprinkled with private
residences and resort comunities In the vicinities of population
centers.
The coastal counties have within their borders 40 percent of all
manufacturing plants in the United States. The mixture of manu-
facturing types In the estuarine zone Is the same as the national
conposition with only minor exceptions, such as the concentration
of the apparel manufacturing industry in the Middle Atlantic Region,
particularly In the New York area. Distribution of manufacturing
types among the blophysical regions shows regional differences
related to historical development as well as raw material and market
availability.
Over half of all plants in the coastal counties and one-fifth of all
manufacturing plants in the United States are located in the Middle
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IV-535
Atlantic biophysical reaion , which was the historical center of the
Nation’s industrial growth and is still one of the major market
areas. The Pacific Southwest is the major industrial center of the
Pacific coast and is developed as intensively as the Middle
Atlantic region. Some industrial development in other Regions tends
to follow historical or present raw material availability. Leather
product plants are clustered in the North Atlantic region, and
lumber manufacturing plants are most plentiful in the Pacific North-
west. Food processing plants, however, follow closely the distribu-
tion of population.
While much of the industrial development located in coastal counties
affects the estuarine zone indirectly through use of adjacent land,
some of the water-using industries have an impact on the estuarine
zone far beyond their numbers. The paper, chemical, petroleum, and
primary metals industries are the major water users among manu-
facturing establishments and are distributed universally throughout
the estuarine zone.
USE F THE ESTUAPINE ZONE
flany of the uses cataloqued in this reoort occur only because the
historical growth of the country i ’akes the estuarine zone the
place where the peorle and the industry are. Only commercial
navigation and comercial fishirq are uses which are primarily
associated with the estuarine zone rather than other narts of man’s
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IV—536
environment. Uses such as water supply, waste disposal, and
recreation are associated with civilization wherever it exists; in
the estuarine zone they may have different values, different emphasis,
or different impact on the biophysical environment.
The great unique use of the estuarine zone, which makes it of
primary importance to man and his civilization, is its place in
the life cycle of many animals which aid in converting solar energy
into more usable forms. While no life form can be singled out as
Irreplaceable, the kinds of life which need the estuarine zone
to survive represent essential links in the energy conversion
chain upon which man depends for survival. Many of the human uses
of the estuarine zone depend directly or indirectly on the existence
of the estuarine zone as a healthy habitat.
FISH I IG
The imortant fish species are those sought by either the sports
fisherman or the comercial fisherman. Practically all of the
sports fish species are dependent upon the estuarine zone for one
or more phases of their life development, and approxImately 65
percent of all comercial fish species are estuarine-dependent.
In 1967 United States fishermen received S438 million dollars for
approximately 4.06 billion pounds of comercial fish and shellfish.
It has been estimated that two-thirds of the total value, or
approximately $300 million dollars, can be considered for
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IV—537
estuarine-dependent species. This is a conservative estimate of the
direct value derived from the estuarine fishery for it does not
include the value of fish harvested by foreign vessels off the
United States coast. Five of the six leading soecies by weight,
representing over one—half of the United States commercial fish
tonnage in 1967, are estuarine-dependent.
PECREATION
The demand for outdoor recreation has increased significantly over
the past decade. The trend toward higher Dersonal income and
more leisure time has made -it possible for a qreater percentage of
the populace to seek new outlets. Companies manufacturing equinment
for outdoor recreation have sprung up by the hundreds.
The advertising industry has campaigned vigorously to sell the
public on the need for recreation, and service facilities to support
the recreationalist are blossoming in all parts of the country.
There are a wide variety of land and water recreational activities
available in the estuarine zone and many estuarine systems are
intensively used for recreational pursuits. The unique combination
of available resources in close proximity to large population
centers offers an unparalleled recreational opportunity for
many people who could not afford to travel far from their homes.
Each type of recreational activity has a certain sensitivity to
the quality of the environment in which the activity takes place.
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IV—538
Clusters of activities that require similar environmental conditions
but differ in environmental quality needs can be grouped as
follows: 1) swinming and associated shore activities, including
picnicing and cai ping; 2) sports fishing from shore or small
boat; 3) boat—centered activities, such as cruising or water
skiing; and 4) aesthetic appreciation of the total environment.
The Nation’s estuaries provide the physical, social, and economic
conditions required for an effective system of water terminals
serving international trade and coastal shioping. According to
a 1966 Inventory of ports and terminals by the Maritime Administration,
there were 1,626 marine terminal facilities providing deep water
berths In 132 ports on the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts.
The significance of these ports and terminal facilities is indicated
by the 1965 statistics which show that these ports handled
346,315,000 tons of foreign trade cargo which was 78 oercent of the
U. S. foreign trade total. In addition, the port facilities handled
332.1 mIllion tons in coastal cargo and $288.2 million tons in
local shipping.
The estuarine ports also serve as essential elements of the national
defense system. The deep water terminals exert a significant
Influence on the location of defense Installations as well as of
the Industrial complexes necessary for logistical supoort of the
defense effort. A direct indication of the use of estuaries by
naval vessels is the total number of ships in corrrnission. Uuring
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!V-539
the Fiscal Year 1967 this number was 931 with a planned increase
to 960 in the Fiscal Year 1969.
The use of the harbors for waterborne transportation is cornoetitive
in that it may cau c other uses to be foreg3r.e. Heavy ship
traffic interferes with Dleasure boating and related activities
(Figure IV.55). iaintenance of the ship channels may alter the
ecology and the surface area occupied by the large vessels may
well interfere with safe leasure boatinq.
Water transportation is not the only type of transportation con-
sideration for estuaries. Since a major percentage of large cities
are located on estuarine systems, there is considerable pressure
to develop fill areas for airports which then utilize the long
overwater approaches to keep the jet noise away from developed
areas. The water areas offer a barrier to land travel that
must be overcome with cause ’ays or bridge type structures which
can interfere with navigation or cause habitat damage. On the
other hand, peripheral roads offer some of the more scenic routes
available and are frenuently the only undevelo ed are on which
roads can be built.
1U 1CIPAL AN fl4DUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLY
The water in the estuary can serve as a source of both domestic
and industrial water supoly; hut utilization of estuarine water for
domestic su oly is very limited at the oresent time. Normally
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IV-540
the brackish water is unpotable and treatment costs to render it
potable are extremely highe The brackish estuarine water is
also a poor source for industrial process water. Here again a
high degree of purity is normally required in the process
water and the cost of removing the dissolved salts is pro-
hibitive.
Estuarine waters are used extensively, however, as a source
of industrial cooling water. For this use the most important
considerations are the auantlty and the antient temperature.
Water temperatures are generally well below the maximum for
economical cooling, and since the ocean is connected to one side
of the estuary, the quantity is no problem. Cooling water is
required by both the manufacturing industry and electric power
generation plants; the greatest use is in the thermal electric
plants.
The distribution of cooling water use parallels population and
industrial development in the coastal counties, even though
electrical power can be transported economically over many miles.
The greatest concentrations of cooling water use are in the Middle
Atlantic and Pacific Southwest Regions; fortunately these regions
both have moderate water temperatures which make possible efficient
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IV-54 1
use of the available cooling water.
There are, however, 47 nuclear power plants built or scheduled for
completion by 1976. All of these are in the megawatt range, with
a combined capacity of nearly 35,000 megawatts of electrical power.
While the bulk of these will be in the cooler parts of the Nation,
1Z will be in the South Atlantic, Gulf, and Caribbean Regions where
water temperatures are high, greater volumes must be used to
achieve proper cooling, and the increase in water temperature
through the power plant may be sufficient to cause environmental
danage.
WASTE DISPOSAL
The concentration of nopulatiori and industrial development in the
estuarine zone has led naturally to the use of estuarine waters
for removal of the waste materials of nans civilization from his
immediate vicinity. It is unlikely that cities were [ .uilt on the
coastline with any conscious consideration of the use of the
estuarine environtient for waste disposal, vet it has haprened that
this use nas beco ie one of tne iajor uses of estuarine iaters and
the associated land. Virtually all of the cities and industries
in the coastal counties disrose of wastes either directly or
indirectly into the estuarine zone.
Liquid waste discharges to estuarine systems include domestic
waste products industrial waste materials of all degrees of
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chemical complexity and sophistication, used coolinq water with
Its thermal load, and storm runoff. These wastes affect the
estuarine environment in different ways and can eliminate other
uses.
Liquid wastes are not the only concern. The use of the estuarine
shoreline for refuse dtanps and land fills results in considerable
debris getting into the water; water leachinq through these dumps
has a pollutlonal impact on the estuarine water. Spoil disposal
from dredging activities is another form of solid waste material
that contributes to estuarine degradation, and solid materials
entering the estuary in the form of debris from storm runoff can
be significant in terms of damaging beneficial uses.
Waste disoosal is a highly significant and universal use of the
estuarine resource and it is likely to remain so. Alona with the
many other socioeconomic uses of the estuarine environment, it
must be managed so that it does not damage the biophysical environ-
ment.
EXPLOITATION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
Ilinerals within the water, on the bottom, and under the bottom are
a valuable part of the estuarine resource and are being exploited
widely.
Sub—bottom mining operations are limited to the recovery of sulfur,
petroleun, and natural gas, with the major operations occurring in
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IV-543
Louisiana, Texas, California, and Alaska. These operations exist
both in the estuaries and out on the continental shelves with the
governing criterion for location beinq the location of reserves.
Recovery of minerals from submerged estuarine zone bottoms by
surface mining, i.e., dredginq, is primarily directed toward sand,
gravel, and oyster shell production. Sand and gravel operations
are universal throuqhout coastal areas wherever suitable denosits
and a market exist.
Oyster shell is an extremely useful construction material in the
Gulf of Mexico biophysical Renion. Twenty of the twnety-two
million tons of annual U. S. production are in the Gulf States :ith
Texas and Louisiana producing the vast majority of it.
Phosphate rock is an important estuarine t ineral resource; about
75 percent of the total U. 5 production is in tne estuarine zone
of Florida and north Carolina, particularly around Tampa ay and
Pamlico Sound.
AQ UACULT U RE
The great fish and shellfish resources of United States coastal
aters have adequately supplied the seafood demands of the increasing
pooulation for over three hundred years. iow, however, the demands
for some products is so nreat that the normal fishinn grounds and
fisheries are in preat danger of being exhausted, both from overfishinr
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1 V .544
and fr an the indirect effects of man’s encroachment into the estuarine
env1rom ent. To supply future needs of some fish products new
approaches toward coninercial fishing are needed, both in harvesting
the natural growth and in controlling the entire fishery. Aquaculture
is defined as the rearing of aquatic organisms, both plants and
animals, under controlled conditions using the techniques of plant
and animal husbandry. It involves a varelty of operations, some that
are highly sophisticated where man exercises control over the principal
envlromental factors affecting the cultured species, and others that
are very simple with only minimal control of manipulation of the
habitat and the cultured animal.
SHORELINE DEVELOPMENT
The use or development of estuarine water either governs or depends
on land or shoreline use.
Ccnnerclal development of the shoreline includes loading terminals,
docks and shipyards, airports, industrial plants, and the smaller
municipal and local piers. Recreational facilities include marinas,
beaches, parks, fishing piers, and vacation cottages, motels, and
hotels. Although the motels and hotels are a comercial venture,
their prime purpose Is to support the recreatlonist. Residential
development of waterfront property in many comunities places on the
shoreline intensive housing development accompanied by boat docks,
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I V -545
fishing and swirning piers, and private beaches. Coninercial and
personal transportation requires airports, highways, and commercial
port facilities.
Structures built to protect or conserve the shoreline include bulk-
heads to hold the shore in place, dikes to prevent flooding and to
extend reclaimed land, jetties to provide a protective barrier
between the sea and ship channels, and groins along beach areas to
control sand movement.
THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC VALUES OF ESTUARINE USE
All uses have value, both individually and as part of the development
and use of the entire estuarine resource for the benefit of the
present and future national community. The importance and total value
of any estuarine system lie not in the measure of economic value
for any particular use, but in multiplicity of use related to the
needs of people who live there or otherwise depend on the estuarine
resource.
FISH AND WILDLIFE HABITAT
The value of the estuarine zone as fish and wildlife habitat both
depends on and augments its value for other uses, particularly
recreation and coninercial fishing.
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There is, in addition to these, the basic incalculable value of the
estuarine habitat as a link in the essential energy-conversion
chain which permits man to survive at all.
The trapping of fur bearers in the marshes of the Gulf and Atlantic
represents one of the few economic values directly attributable to
estuarine habitat. Louisiana is the major producer; in the 1965-
1966 season total sales were 4.6 million dollars out of the Nation’s
6 million-dollar total.
Coninercial Fishing
An entire complex of comerce and industry can rest upon one primary
producing industry such as comercial fishing. Each time the basic
product changes hands It generates economic activity and gains in
value until by the time it reaches the ultimate consizner, its
price may be many times what the fisherman was paid for It. The
effect of such “value multiplier” factors will be such as to make
the actual values of specific coninercial fisheries several times the
landed values.
Thus, the 438 mIllion dollars received by United States fishermen in
1967 probably represents a total input to estuarine zone economic
activity of over one billion dollars; exactly how much It is
Impossible to say. Case studies assign multiplier values of about
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three and four to commercial fishery landinp values, but the magni-
tudes of such multipliers depend on the structure of the local
economy as well as on other factors and generalities are likely to
be misleading.
The relationship of the estuarine zone and commercial fishing cannot
be expressed by any simple economic index. The importance of
commercial fishing in the estuarine zone is related economically
not only to estuarine habitat, but also to transportation, commerce,
food processinc, and aouaculture.
ecreati on
Each kind of recreational use has its own economic impact.
Recreational boating supports a large boatbuilding, marina, and
boat repair industry. SDort fishing supports not only a certain
part of the boating industries, but also a very specialized industry
manufacturing and selling fishing tackle. For example, the 1965
Survey of Fishing and Hunting shows that salt-water anglers sDent
5800 million dollars in that year. Sightseeing and swinhilinçi support
motel and restaurant services in the favored areas, as do other over-
night recreational activities.
Attempts at the quantification of overall recreational economic
values are not yet well developed. The user-day recreation benefits
approach has been used in some federal wate a.y and reservoir projects,
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but has been used in the estuarine system only in an analysis of
fisheries and recreation in San Francisco Bay. Net benefits for
general recreation activities, by this method, range from $0.50 to
$1.50 per day. Specific foniis of recreation may have higher values.
Applying such a figure to the population of the coastal counties
suggests that the value of the recreational resource of the estuarine
zone Is about 300 millIon dollars if each person has about five days
of recreational use. Such an estimate would include only local use
and no multiplier values and night therefore be regarded as mlnimisri
value of the entire value of the entire estuarine recreation resource.
The major problems in defining the economic values of recreation in
the estuarine zone lie In the facts that recreation itself is not an
easily defined comodity nor can it be isolated from other economic
activities such as transportation, food and lodging services, and
equipment manufacturing.
Conrercial Navigation and National Defense
Estimates of the economic value of conunercial navigation are based
on the direct revenue to the port of handling a ton of cargo,
generally $16 to $20. Such estimates lead to a total value of the
estuarine resource of $4.7 billion annually for cargo revenues alone,
without multiplier values. An additional economic value of SlO
billion annually In salaries and wages has been estimated for eleven
major ports.
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These estimates do not show the impact of commercial naviqation on
land transportation, shoreline development, or the rnanufacturina
industries. Without the deeo, safe harbors comercial navigation
could not exist on a large scale, and without commercial navigation
the great cities around these harbors would not have developed.
Deep-water harbors are essential elements of the national defense
system. Furthernore, the location of these deep-water ports has
influenced the location of other defense installations as well as
the industrial conpiexes necessary for the logistical support of the
defense effort.
The cost of the national defense effort in the estuarine zone for
1967 is estimated at about 9flO million, exclusive of pay and allow-
ances for shore-based Navy and Marine Corps personnel. The economic
impact of national defense activity overlaps into all other estuarine
zone uses because of the massive payrolls associated with it. This
impact is centered in the areas with major defense installations.
Uaste Disposal
The waters of the estuarine zone have received wastes from the people
and industries on their shores ever since the first cities were
founded. The economic benefit in the use of estuarine waters for
waste disposal has been fully utilized by nearly all industries and
communities in the estuarine zone, and only the tremendous capacity
of estuarine waters to absorb and remove waste materials has kept
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the estuarine zone from suffering severe damage from such waste dis-
charges.
No overall estimate of the value of this use of the estuarine
resource Is possible because the level of trea ent necessary in any
particular case depends on many local factors.
While the use of estuarine waters for waste disposal may not be
aesthetically appeallna It Is an existing estuarine use with which
other uses must compete, and it should be considered alona with them
in the overall economic evaluation of estuarine uses.
Examples of Socioeconomic Envlror nents in the Estuarine Zone
Almost all estuarine systrtes have either a multiplicity of uses at
the present time or such uses are available in the system. Estuaries
presently support such varied uses as military berthina and associated
activities, commercial port facilities, shippinc channels, industrial
uses, commercial fisheries, sport fishing, recreation, wildlife
habitat, and purely aesthetic purposes. In most estuaries one or
two of the uses predominate while the others take minor roles.
Narragansett Bay Is an Ideal example of an estuary that has developed
in an unbalanced fashion. That is, the economic value of the estuary
at the present tic e is larqely assoicated with the industrial, mil-
itary, and transportation uses of its waters. Other uses are, of
course, made of the estuary but their economic significance is
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1V-55 1
dwarfed by the tremendous magnitude of the military and commercial
uses. However, it must be remembered that this economic measure is
merely an indicator of the value of the waters and is not in any way
related to the right or necessity of polluting such waters in the
process of achieving this value. In fact, the only time that such
an economic measure would be used would be for comparing one total
use of the estuary to another total use. Of course, it is seldom
that questions are so broad as to cover either/or propositions for
the entire activity. Pather, the questions usually revolve around
such things as the benefits to be derived from reducing pollution
caused by users of the estuary compared with the costs of achieving
the reduction in pollution.
Franklin County, Florida, is dependent upon pollution-free waters
in Apalachicola Bay for its economic existence. The unpolluted
waters of the Bay provide the seafood caught by local commercial
fishermen and processed at shore-based installations. Additional
income for the area results from tourism engendered by the Bay’s
waters.
Both tourism and commercial fishing are prime potential sources of
income to any estuarine system. In the case of Apalachicola Bay,
these happen to he the major sources of income because of the nature
of the estuary and its location which prevent its development as a
commercial shipping facility.
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The San Diego economy, although heavily dependent upon the military
and shipping activities in the Bay, has diversified to the extent
that It is no longer completely dependent upon such uses of the Bay.
At the same time there has been a growing demand for recreational
uses of the Bay. Evidence of the local resident’s interest in the
Bay for recreation, tourism, and coninerical uses can be found in
their willingness to Invest substantial sums of money in facilities
to prevent pollution of the Bay by municipal wastes.
Mission Bay, a separate estuary in the San Diego area, is an example
of the recreational potential to be found in an estuarine system.
However, this special study points up the fact that the best use of
an estuary may not come about naturally. Rather, it shows that a
planned development program with adequate investments are necessary
to achieve optimal use of an estuary.
Measures of Overall Value and Importance
The discussions of values of individual uses and the case studies of
specific estuarine systems present a confusing picture of the
relationship of estuarine uses to economic indicators.
Estimates of the direct gross economic benefit of the estuarine zone
to the residents of the coastal counties can be made. The estimates
of economic activity generated by the presence of Narragansett Bay
in Rhode Island give a conservative annual economic benefit of $920
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IV-553
per capita, $420 of this is personal income. Average personal income
for all of the coastal counties is, according to Bureau of the Census
figures, $500 per capita oreater than the average for the remainder
of the country. The total economic activity enerated by this addi-
tional personal income then amounts to about $1,100 per person, using
the narragansett Bay Multiplier values.
The total direct economic benefit of the estuarine zone to the
residents of the coastal counties is then about 60 billion dollars
in terms of additional economic activity stimulated by the presence
of estuarine systems. This is not a measure of the total economic
activity of the estuarine zone, but only of the value added t to the
total economic activity of the coastal counties by the presence of
the estuarine zone.
Such gross means can give only an order-of--magnitude estimate of
even the direct economic value of the estuarine zone and cannot
possibly reflect either indirect benefits or the social importance
of the estuarine zone, much less its ecological value.
Valid criteria for evaluating the importance of the estuarine environ-
ment or the value of individual estuarine uses, to a coniuunity must,
however, go beyond the reach of economic approximation and recognize
the fundamental relationship between man and his environment. Where-
ever there are people the environment will be exploited to satisfy
the needs and desires of man and his civilization.
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IV—554
Increasing environmental pressures from demographic and commercial
development are paralleled in the same comunity by the Increasing
desire for greater recreational use. That these can be compatible
is clearly shown by the San Diego Bay example. Such community
reactions as in San Diego and in San Francisco demonstrate that,
while people need commercial development and use, they want a safe
and enjoyable environment at the same time.
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC TRENDS IN THE ESTUARINE ZONE
At the present time, the major uses of estuaries, in terms of gross
monetary return are: military use, shipping, and Industrial activi-
ties. These uses are, of course, historical and do not necessarily
reflect the uses that would be made of the estuary under today’s
conditions or future conditions, if each use were to compete for the
water use at the same time. In other words, historical use has
brought about the present use imbalance in many estuarine systems.
However, given the opportunity to develop, other uses might attain
equal Importance economically while contributing important social
benefits.
Estuaries at the present time represent underdeveloped natural
resources that are Important to the socall as well as the economic
well-being of the Nation. Based on present trends and demands, there
is little doubt that there will be a tremendous need for estuarine
uses other than for military, shipping, and industrial uses. That is,
if the facilities are available for recreation, sports, or aesthetic
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enjoyment, they will be used and used to great advantage from an
economic standpoint as well as a social standpoint.
If nornal circumstances prevail, the Nation’s population and general
high standard of living will continue to increase in the coming
decades. A moderate estimate projects a doublino of the national
population by the turn of the century, with a significant proportion
of that Qrowth occurinq in urban areas.
The population will be made up of a large proportion of youth and
young persons of working ages, with only a moderate increase in the
elderly through the end of the century. Personal income will rise
dram tically. Estimates of leisure time vary considerably, but all
authorities agree that the work week will shorten, from a conser-
vative estimate of 35 hours a week to as little as 20 hours per week.
The National Plannirio Association has projected that in 1990, ten
per cent, and in 2000, twenty Der cent of the men between the ages
of 25 and 54 will be granted a one-year leave every sever, years.
Urban and particularly suburban nrowth will expand greatly both to
accommodate the growing population. and to provide amenities that it
increasingly demands: single family dwellings, recreational areas,
transportation facilities, industrial development, and so on. These
demands will place rapidly increasing burdens on the Nations
resources and its environment. These burdens, in turn, will tax the
ability of decision-makers and the flation’s population to cope with
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P 1—556
the complexity and insistence of the problems generated by a post-
industrial, urbanized society.
Information provided by this analysis of national population and
economic trends gives only the grossest Indication of the activities
and expected pressures of population and economic activity on all of
the Nation’s environment. Analysis of these indicators can only pro-
vide a general Indication of the magnitude of the demands which will
be generated by these forces in the near future on the estuarine zone.
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SECTION 3: POLLUTION: THE IMPACT OF HUMAN SOCIETY
ON THE ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENT
Man has always used the biophysical environment as he needed it for
survival and thrown back into it his waste products and anything else
he did not need. As long as civilization was limited to small towns
and villages the impact of such treatment on the estuarine environ-
ment was not noticeable and apparently insignificant with the
development of a civilization based on a complex socioeconomic
environment, however, his impact on the natural environment has
increased until now the most accurate tenn to express the relationship
of man to his biophysical environment is ‘pollution.”
“Pollution” is the degradation of the biophysical environment by
man’s activities; it is no longer limited to the discharge of sewage
and industrial wastes, but now includes direct or indirect damage to
the environment by physical, chemical, or biological modification.
Environmental degradation is the result of often minute changes in
water quality, water circulation, or other conditions which are part
of the biophysical estuarine environment. There are brightly colored
or otherwise visible waste materials which have obvious pollutional
implications, but by far the deadliest pollutants are those which are
invisible and often unsuspected until the damage is done. These
pollutants can be found only by the most delicate and sensitive tests
and, even then, the presence of some highly dangerous materials or
conditions can only be inferred by indirect evidence.
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P 1—558
MATERIALS AND CONDITIONS WHICH DEGRADE THE ENVIRONMENT
One of the major constituents of municipal and many industrial
wastes is decomposable organic material . Such materials consist
primarily of carbohydrates from p1 ants and paper, protei ns from
animal matter, and miscellaneous fats and oils. The decomposable
organics are not necessarily detrimental by theT selves but exert
a secondary effect by reducing dissolved oxygen In the water. The
level of dissolved oxygen Is one direct index of the healthiness of
the system. High levels are generally indicative of a healthy
system which will support a diverse biota and multiple use. The
lower the concentration of dissolved oxygen becomes, the sicker the
system Is, and the less desirable It Is for habitat or use.
Another class of materials, primarily organic, that can have consider-
able impact on the estuarine ecosystem are the flesh-tainting substances.
Generally these materials are contained in industrial waste effluents
and they result In offensive tastes, odors and colors of fish and
shellfish.
The salts of heavy metals are fairly soluble and stable in solution.
Consequently, they will persist for extended lengths of time. Many
of these are highly toxic to the aquatic biota, and since many marine
organisms exhibit the ability to accumulate and concentrate substances
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within their cell structure, the presence of these metals in small
concentrations can have deleterious effects.
Aquatic life forms require trace amounts of some minerals and
vitamins for growth and reproduction. Elimination of such materials
from the environment or their reduction below minimum levels can
limit the growth and reproduction of some biota. Conversely, an
oversupply of all necessary trace mineral salts and vitamins can
stimulate growth; providing satisfactory conditions of temperature,
salinity, and dissolved oxygen also exist. An oversupply of inorganic
nutrient salts, such as those of nitrogen and phosphorus, may be
associated with drastic shifts in the composition of the aquatic
conimuni ty.
One of the many unfavorable effects of municipal and some industrial
wastes is the contamination of the receiving environment with bacteria,
viruses and other organisms of public health significance. Pathogenic
organisms , especially those from the intestines of warm blooded
animals frequently persist for sufficient periods of time and distance
to pose a threat to the health and well-being of unsuspecting water
users. Secondary chances of exposure to these organisms exist through
the contamination of shellfish which can be harvested for food.
Among the waste products that are frequently introduced into the
estuarine environment are some directly toxic to marine organisms.
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Toxic materials may exhibit a short catastrophic impact or a more
subtle long-term interference with growth and reproduction processes.
The end result Is to create a biological desert in which no organism
can survive. The pesticide group is of particular concern in the
estuarine zone. Estuaries are the terminus for most of the major
river systems, and as such they tend to concentrate the waterborne
materials carried in by the large terrestrial drainage systems.
The biological magnification capability of estuarine animals
significantly increases the hazard and destructive potential of any
contributed pesticides. The ultimate damage is to stress or
eliminate parts of the energy conversion chain in the estuarine
envi rorinent.
The addition of large quantities of heat from industrial cooling water
constitutes a form of pollution which must be considered. The entire
ecosystem may be stressed by thermal pollution . The amount of damage
is dependent on the resulting temperature of the environment and
the species composition of the blotic coninunity. The total range of
detriments should be carefully considered on an Individual case basis
before heat Is released to the enviroi nent. Heat affects the
physical properties of water, the rates at which chemical and
biological reactions progress, and can kill living organisms.
Man’s activities may affect the rate at which the natural balance of
inflow, deposition, and outflow is reached by purposely or
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or inadvertently upsetting this balance. If upstream erosion is
increased due to poor land management practices, the load carried in
will increase. Conversely activities along the coast can result in
increased shore erosion, removing more sediment than is contributed.
The primary pollutional problem from sediment, however, is from
increased influx and accelerated deposition. The detrimental
effects of sedimentation are reflected in an impairment of uses such
as navigation, recreation, and fish propagation.
One of the greatest threats to the estuaririe ecosystem is the ever-
present chance for a catastrqphic spill of oil or other hazardous
materials. The large volumes of petroleum and chemical products
transported through the estuarine zone by ships, barges, pipelines,
tracks, and railroads present a continuing opportunity for accidental
bulk spills. The consequences of these spills depend on the amount
and type of material released and the characteristics of the receiving
water. They may range in magnitude from tragic loss of life to
little more than economic loss for the transporter.
The effect any pollutant has on an estuarine environment depends on
where it goes, how strong it is, and how rapidly it is assimilated
or flushed out of the environment. All of these conditions depend
on water movement and circulation patterns which are in turn
governed by the relationship of tide and river flow to estuarine shape
and size. Physical modifications such as the dredging of new or
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domestic sewage, many municipal waste discharges also contain
significant amounts of industrial wastes, which may add to the
variability and complexity of the wastes discharged. Municipal waste
discharges have four important effects on receiving water quality:
depletion of dissolved oxygen, and introduction of pathogenic
organisms, sittleable material, and Inorganic nutrients.
Sewage treatment reduces and alters the impact of municipal waste
on the envirorinent. Primary treatment with chlorination will remove
part of the decomposable organic material, nearly all of the settle-
able and suspended solids, and almost eliminate the possibility of
pathogens in the effluent. Secondary treatment can almost eliminate
decomposable organic material, and some special processes can
eliminate certain kinds of dissolved salts. About one half the
municipal wastes discharges to estuarine waters receive secondary
treatment, with the most extensive use of secondary treatment being
In the Chesapeake Bay estuarine region.
Associated with the major metropolitan developments are large ntznbers
of industrial complexes with their attendant waste products. Many of
these Industrial wastes , especially from the chemical Industry, are
of such a complicated nature that It is difficult both to Identify
then and to assess their effects on the receiving streams. Only
4000 of the more than 200,000 manufacturing plants in the Coastal
States account for 97 percent of the total liquid wastes discharged.
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deeper navigation channels, building of causeways of jetties, and
even construction of pier bridges can cause subtle changes in water
movement that can change the balance of environmental conditions in
an estuarine system and result in gradual undesirable changes in the
ecosystem in addition to direct habitat damage.
SOURCES OF POLLUTION
Nearly all of man’s activities can result in environmental degrada-
tion. Pollutants and polluting conditions are very rarely unique to
a particular use or specific activity, but may result from man’s
existence in the estuarine zone as well as his use of it. The major
sources of pollution.
(1) Those sources associated with the extent of development
of the estuarine zone, including waste discharges from
municipalities and industries, and land runoff from these
as well as agriculture;
(2) Those sources associated with particular activities of
great pollutional significance, specifically dredging and
filling, watercraft operation, underwater mining, and heated
effluent discharges;
(3) External sources having impact derived through flow
regulation and upttream water quality.
Over eight billion gallons of municipal wastes are discharged daily
into the waters 0 f the estuarifle zone. While most of this volume is
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I V—S 64
Of the nearly 22 billion gallons of industrial wastes discharge
daily, only 29 percent receive any kind of waste treathient.
Intensification use of the estuarine zone has resulted in many
artificial changes being made in the physical structure. Shoreline
areas have been filled to create more land area for residential and
comercial use; channels have been dredged and maintained to pennit
safer and better navigation; and harbor facilities have been dredged
and bridges and causeways have been built. Mi of this activity has
had impact on the coastal zone ecosystem, but the activities having
the most impact on water quality are dredging and filling . The
potential for pollution of the system exists in both filling and
dredging; both can introduce foreign materials into the water,
destroy aquatic habitat, and alter physical circulation patterns.
The primary source of thermal pollution is from industrial cooling
water effluents. Power plants are the major users of cooling water
in the estuarine zone, and power generation capacity has approximately
doubled each decade during this century. The Impact of this growth
on the estuarine areas is evidenced by the fact that in 1950 22 per-
cent of the power plants were in the coastal zone; it is anticipated
that over 30 percent of the plants will be located there in the late
1970 ‘s .
Estuarine areas are also very important highways of ccimnerce, and
thousands of conjnercial vessels, foreign and domestic, fran ocean
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liners to barges, traverse the coastal waterways each year. Added
to this are many of the 1,500 Federal vessels and many nearly
eight million recreational vessels. All of these watercraft carry
people and/or cargo, and are a real or potential pollution source.
Mining from the estuary floor causes alteration of the estuarine
shape and water circulation characteristics, with a secondary effect
being the turbidity problems associated with material removal.
Mining of sand and gravel from the estuarine floor are universal
while oyster shell dredging in any great quantity is restricted to
the Gulf coast. These operations remove part of the estuarine floor
with a concomitant destruction of habitat and life. There are also
great amounts of suspended and settleable solids frequently released
into the water, from which they are redeposited in other places.
The water quality of estuarine areas is dependent not only on direct
waste sources but also on the quality of the inflowing streams and
runoff entering the system. Tributary influent quality is generally
a good index of the type and intensity of land use surroundings and
upstream from estuarine system and can be a major cause of ecological
stress within the system. The complex interactions between fresh and
salt water may magnify the effects of pollutants carried into the
tidal regime, resulting in quality anomalies completely alien to
either fresh or oceanic envirormlentS.
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IV—566
EXTENT OF POLLUTION EFFECTS
Enviromental danage from htinan activities nanifests itself in
changes In water quality and in changes in the living connunitles.
Either or both may be caused by any of the kinds of pollution or
sources of pollution mentioned earlier. One key to the degree of
enviromental Impact is measurement of alteration in water quality.
Extensive data have been collected on a few of the estuaries with
the most severe problems, and limited information is available on
other estuarlne systems to outline the emergence, or doctinent the
existence, of water quality problems.
Examples of estuarine systems that show definite docunented water
quality degradation as a result of httnan activities are these:
Penobscot Bay, Boston Harbor, Moriches Bay, New York Harbor,
Raritan Bay, Delaware Estuary, (laltimore Harbor, Potomac River,
James River, Charleston Harbor, Savannah River, Biscayne Bay, San
Juan Harbor (P.R.), Tampa Bay, Pensacola Bay, Mississippi River,
Galveston Bay, Laguna Madre, San Diego Bay, Santa Monica Bay, San
Francisco Bay, Colianbia River, Puget Sound, Silver Bay (Alaska),
and Hilo Harbor (Hawaii).
Pollutional damage to estuarine ecosystems may be sudden and
dramatic as fish or other aquatic life forms suddenly dying, or
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it may be so gradual as not to be noticed for many years. Many
studies of different aspects of estuarine biology have been made,
but there are only a few cases in which comprehensive ecological
studies have been made of pollutional effects.
All of the 25 estuarine systems listed above also show some ecological
damage, but in 38 percent of the estuarine systems of the United
States there is not sufficient information to decide whether there
is no ecological damage, or whether there is just no easily
identifiable pollution problem present.
The complex nature of pollution in the estuarine zone prevents the
separation of sources of pollution, kinds of pollution, and types
of environmental damage into neat compartments of cause and effect.
All of h nan activities in the estuarine zone can damage the
environment and most of them do.
Wherever people live, work, and play in the estuarine zone the demands
of their social and economic activities place stresses on the blo-
physical environment. These stresses frequently result in degradation
of that environment, perhaps not Imediately or even in a few years,
but nonetheless certain in its devastating final impact.
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SECTION 4. USE CONFLICTS AND DAMAGES:
MAN’S BATTLE WITH HIMSELF
AND NATURE
The consequence of damage to the biophysical envirormient is loss of
use either inmedlately or at some time in the future. Loss of use,
however, may also be associated with the appropriation of part of
the estuarine resource for one exclusive use even when no damage to
the envirorinent itself occurs.
Institutional management must cope with the problems of responsibility
and authority in achieving maximtan multiple use of the estuarine
resource. Within this comprehensive framework technical management
must resolve the problems surrounding conflicts of use, competition
for the resources of the estuarine zone, and enviromiental damage.
The primary objective of technical management is to achieve the best
possible combination of uses to serve the needs of society while
protecting, preserving, and enhancing the biophysical envirooment for
the continuing benefit of present and future generations.
The uses of the estuarine zone grew and changed in consonance with
population growth and industrial development. Not until recent
years was a concerted attempt made to understand and resolve the
conflicts that arose in the competition to use and exploit these
land and water resources. During the past three hundred years of
growth and Industrial expansion with its emphasis on economic growth
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and direct monetary gain, large parts of the estuarine zone were
pre-empted or usurped to serve the individual needs of commercial
enterprises. The net result has been less a conflict in existing
uses than an exclusion of some uses.
Nearly all estuarine uses involve both land and water, either
directly or indirectly. For example, the construction of a manu—
facturing plant on the shore of an estuarine system may not involve
any direct use of the water (even for waste disposal), yet it
limits access by its occupation of the shoreline and so may interfere
with other uses. Conversely, the disposal of liquid wastes into the
water may make the shoreline unusable for recreation as well as
making the water itself unsafe.
The impact of one estuarine use on another may be either prohibitive
or “restrictive”depending on the kind of use and sometimes on the
manner in which it is carried out.
Prohibitive impacts involve penTlanent changes in the enviror nent and
thereby prohibit all uses unable to cope with such changes. The
geographical range of such impacts may be from the limited area in which
they occur to an entire estuarine system, depending on the nature and
size of the change. The impact may be temporary, if it is possible
to return the environment to its original form, or it may be permanent.
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I V-.570
Any use or activity requiring physical modification of the shoreline,
marshes, or bottom of an estuarine system may have a prohibitive
impact. Modification of water circulation also tends to be prohibitive
when It has any conflicting impact. Examples of estuarine uses and
activities generally having prohibitive impacts are navigation dredging,
other dredging and filling, solid waste disposal, construction of
bridges, dikes, jetties, and other structures, shoreline development,
mining from the estuarine bottom, and flow regulation.
Some estuarine uses may restrict estuarine use for other purposes
but do not automatically exclude other uses. These are those activities
which do not require a permanent modification of the estuarine
system; they generally include those uses directly involved with the
estuarine waters and other renewable resources.
Restrictive impacts may involve damage to water quality, living
organisms, or aesthetic quality; such impacts may also result from
the exclusive appropriation of space. The key feature of uses which
cause restrictive Impacts is that they may, with proper management,
be carried out simultaneously with other uses.
Any kind of municipal or Industrial waste discharge may have a
restricted Impact and often does. Coomercial fishing, recreation, and
water supply are the major uses restricted by pollution from liquid
waste discharges.
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IV-571
Some kinds of conii ercial fishing require the use of trawis or the set-
ting of traps or nets that must be left for some time. The use of such
devices restricts other uses while the devices are in place, but there
is no permanent appropriation of estuarine waters or space. The major
conflict is with recreation in that recreational boating must be
excluded from areas where fishing gear is near the surface.
Where there is conflict, the scene is set for trade-off, i.e., a willing
substitution of one activity for another. The scene is equally set for
uncompensated damage where one user group precludes the activities of a
second unrelated user group but does not reimburse them for damage.
Actual documented examples of use damages are difficult to find. One
major reason is the basic fact that has permeated much of the discussion
of economic and social values: Many estuarine values are not quantifi-
able. While damages to a commercial enterprise, such as comercial
fishing, can be quantified in terms of the economic loss, the essentially
intangible values of recreation and estuarine habitat are difficult to
measure.
Recreational loss would have to be measured in terms of how many people
don’t swim or go boating in the Potomac River because it is polluted.
It is far easier to find Out how many people do go there even if it is
polluted; even these values are hard to find.
The value of estuarine habitat is just as difficult to establish. There
are now about 5.5 million acres of important estuarine marsh and wetland
habitat remaining in the estuarine zone of the United States. Perhaps
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IV—572
each acre is not valuable by itself, but the total habitat Is
irreplaceable.
Use damage Is not a necessary feature of civilization in the estuarine
zone, but use conflicts will continue to exist as more and more
demands are made on the natural enviroiinent. The ability of any
management authority to prevent use damage and to resolve use con-
flicts depends not only upon its institutional cenposition and legal
authority, but also upon the social, economic, and blophysical
characteristics of the estuarine management unit within which Its
authority is exercised.
The analyses of social and economic values of the estuarine zone
examined concurrently with the similar analyses of use conflicts,
pollutional effects, and use damages form the basis for resolving
use conflicts through the appFication of technical knowledge, i.e.,
technical management.
The primary objective of technical management is to acconnodate the
needed and desired uses of any estuarine management unit within that
system without overall damage to the blophysical envirorinent. The
ability to achieve this objective depends on the boundaries of the
management unit and upon the means available for resolving both
prohibitive use conflicts and restrictive use conflicts.
The Impact of the social and economic requirements of civilization
on the natural estuarine envirorunent Is the technical problem with
which management must deal, and effective control of this impact can
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rv-573
be maintained only if both the major sources of damage and the
geographic range of their influence are subject to unified control.
An estuarine management unit, therefore, should consist not only of
the estuarine waters, bottoms, and associated marshlands; but it
should also include all of the shoreline surrounding the estuarine
waters themselves and as much of the adjoining land as is necessary
to regulate the discharge of wastes into estuarine waters.
Allocation of part of the estuarine resource for an exclusive single-
purpose use is a necessary fact of estuarine management. The
shoreline is a necessary location for shipping docks and for swinwing
beaches, but they cannot both occupy the same place on the shoreline.
Similarly, frequently dredged channels and oyster beds cannot occupy
the same space at the same time. Resolution of such conflicts can
be achieved by allocation of adequate space to each use through
whatever institutional mechanism is established.
The evaluation of the effects of prohibitive uses on the estuarine
environment is probably the most difficult problem currently facing
technical management. The immediate and obvious effects of the
habitat loss associated with such uses can be measured and described
fairly easily, but the ultimate results of the modification of water
movement patterns and flushing characteristics can only be estimated
in general terms.
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IV-574
In nearly every problem associated with prohibitive use conflicts,
however, the area of primary concern is the effect on the estuarine
ecosystem of any physical modifications proposed; the limitations of
knowledge mentioned above, therefore, present a critical problem in
present efforts to resolve prohibitive use conflicts.
A more difficult problem arises where there is involved a massive
dredge or fill operation with its concomitant iniiiediate effect on
the ecosystem. When such modifications are a necessary or desirable
development of the envlrorwnent It may be necessary to forego the
habitat use; however, in many cases It may be possible to create new,
equivalent habitat In a different part of the management unit, or
it might be possible to restore part of the damaged envirorinent.
While the resolution of prohibitive use conflicts requires the
abandoning of one use in favor of another, the potential for carrying
out any modifications necessary so as to increase habitat value as
well as economic value should be a key factor in the resolution of
such problems.
Disposal of liquid wastes to the estuarine environment is the major
restrictive use impact of the socioeconomic environment. This use
conflict can be resolved completely either by treating all wastes to
such an extent that they do not interfere with any other uses or else
removing them entirely from the environment.
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IV .-575
Technology exists to provide thorough treatment for nearly every
kind of municipal and industrial waste, and there is no reason not
to provide treatment sufficient to protect the environment from
damage and to permit other uses. Treatment requirements for
different wastes may vary from place to place according to local
conditions, but damage to the environment and restriction of other
uses can be prevented.
Water quality standards have been set and are now being implemented
in all the coastal states. These standards are the foundation upon
which the effective control of estuarine pollution rests, and they
provide the framework within which technical management can effectively
operate.
As pointed out earlier in this chapter, however, estuarine waters
even in busy harbors are used for recreational purposes by those
who cannot afford to go elsewhere, regardless of whether the waters
are safe for body contact or not. Also the role of the estuarine
zone as a nursery for some fish, passage for others, and a residence
for still more is readily apparent although its full implications
in the energy conversion chain are not understood. For these reasons
the long-range achievable water quality goal of estuarine management
should be to keep all waters safe for direct contact by huiians and
also usable as a fish and wildlife habitat.
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