United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Ecosystems
Protection and Remediation
U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
Region VIII
EPA908-K-01-001
August, 2002
&EPA
Tools for Addressing
Riverbank Erosion
Guidelines for Communities
and Landowners along the
Upper Missouri River
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‘TooIslór Addressing Riverbank Erosion
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A Publication of the Office of Ecosystems Protection and Remediation
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 8
999 18th Street, Suite 300
Denver, Colorado 80202
August, 2002
(EPA 908-K-O1-OO1)
Contents Page
How this Booklet Helps You 1
Part 1 The Upper Missouri and its Banks and Shorelines 2
Part 2 How Stable Rivers Function 8
Part 3 Planning and Prevention Ideas to Consider Before Problems Occur 10
Part 4 A Tool Box for Decision-Making 11
Part 5 The Methods Up Close 14
Part 6 Appendices 21
A. Stakeholders and Resources in the Upper Missouri 21
B. Glossary 23
C. In-state Sources for Upper Missouri Native Plants 24
D. References and Suggested Additional Reading 25
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The Missouri River valley is land beset by
many pressures. Not only is it rich in cultural
resources and stunning scenery, it has been
sculpted to meet the demands of many water
uses. Efforts to tame the river have produced
both blessings and burdens for the river and
those who depend on it.
The Missouri, called the "Big Muddy" by the
Algonquin Indians for its meandering, slow-
flowing and sediment-carrying ways, has
changed over the last century. Yet people who
live and work along the Upper Missouri can
take a variety of actions that will go a long
way toward preserving and restoring it to
health.
This booklet distills a great deal of technical
information for easy reference. It describes the
natural processes of a large river like the
Missouri, and lists tools that landowners and
local governments can use to protect these
enormously valuable riverbank lands and
habitats. It reviews the erosion issues along the
Upper Missouri River, then lays out available
options and resources to protect and restore
degraded banks along the mainstem.
Missouri River Overlook near Bismarck, ND
If you'd like to
know more
about an
italicized
word,
you'll find its
definition in
the Glossary
on page 23.
Part 1 describes the character of the Upper Missouri River,
with its large federal dams, where shifts in flow conditions
have changed the nature of erosion along the river.
Part 2 is a primer that describes how stable rivers function.
Part 3 outlines methods for keeping healthy river reaches healthy
before excessive erosion occurs.
Part 4 suggests planning steps for bank restoration for
communities and landowners already faced with dire
erosion problems.
Part 5 describes the protection and restoration methods in general
terms. A professional consultant can help you put any of
these alternatives into action.
Part 6 lists the resources needed to take action.
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The Missouri River has a story like no other
river, beginning with migrations to its lands by
at least 20 American Indian tribal groups by the
1500’s. During the next century, France laid
claim to the region, eventually selling it as the
Louisiana Territory to the United States in 1803.
Without hesitation, President Jefferson
commissioned the great explorers Lewis and
Clark to find out more about this uncharted
territory. They used the Missouri’s rich braided
channels from 1804 to 1806 as a pathway to and
from America’s western shores. Inevitably, their
findings initiated a migration of dynamic men
and women inspired by fur trapping and steam
navigation who, in turn, brought others to the
basin. Eventually, steadfast agricultural
communities sprouted along the river’s vast
reaches. Today the Upper Missouri Basin alone,
from Montana to the Dakotas, is home to 2.3
million residents, several urban areas, sixteen
Indian reservations, and 3.6 million acres of
irrigated agriculture.
The Missouri is America’s longest river, flowing
from the high-elevation northern Rocky
Mountains in rural Montana, to only 420 feet
above sea level in the \Tid vest grasslands near
urban St. Louis, Missouri. The 2,466 mile-long
Missouri River mainstem flows through seven
states — Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota,
Nebraska and Iowa, Kansas and Missouri —
before it joins the Mississippi just north of St.
Louis. Major tributaries also drain parts of
Minnesota, Colorado, Wyoming and Canada. In
total, the river drains 530,000 square miles of the
Great Plains, roughly one-sixth of the
contiguous United States.
Major federal legislation 1 in the 1940’s
consolidated earlier attempts to manage the
river for flood control and improvement of
downstream navigation. These laws authorized
the construction of six large-scale dams and
reservoirs on the Upper Missouri between 1933
and 1965, to manage the river for hydroelectric
Federal, State and Private Dams and Reservoirs on the Mainstem Missouri
Year Completed Storage Capacity
Toston Dam, MT 1940 Run of River
Hauser Lake/Hauser Dam, MT 1907 .06 MAF**
Holter Lake/Holter Dam, MT 1918 .08 MAF
Five PPL Dams at Great Falls, MT 1891-1958 Run of River
Canyon Ferry Reservoir/Dam, MT 1950 2.0 MAF
*Fort Peck Reservoir! Dam, MT 1937 18.7 MAF
*Lake Sakakawea/Garrison Dam, ND 1955 23.8 MAF
*Lake Oahe/Oahe Dam, SD 1958 23.1 MAE
*Lake Sharpe/Big Bend Dam 1963 1.8MAF
*Lake Francis Case/Fort Randall Dam 1953 5.6 MAF
* Lewis and Clark Lake/Gavin’s Point Dam 1955 .5 MAF
* the six major federal dams of the “Missouri Mainstem Reservoir System”
**MAF = million acre feet
2
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power generation, navigation, flood control,
irrigation, public water supply, recreation, and
fish and wildlife. The creation of the six
reservoirs inundated over one million acres of
lands to produce the Missouri Mainstem
Reservoir System that can store 73 million acre
feet of water, 57 million of which can be
managed for multiple uses. Accounts of the
river’s total length tell us that it is now one-
third channelized, one-third impounded and one-
third free-flowing.
Problems along the Missouri stem from several
competing, and often conflicting, water uses.
Within constraints of the Master Water Control
Manual, the Army Corps of Engineers must
consider all uses as it manages flows from the
federal dams. The Missouri currently supports
irrigation; hydroelectric power production,
flood control and water supply throughout the
basin; angling and recreation at the reservoirs
and on the river; water for cattle; navigation
from Sioux City to St. Louis; habitat
management for fish and wildlife and their
endangered species; and protection of Wild and
Scenic reaches. Managing for one use, like flood
control, can lead to impacts on other uses such
as habitat preservation.
The Reclamation Act of 1902 encouraged irrigation
and western settlement; the Rivers and Harbors Act
of 1912 authorized a navigation channel six feet deep
between St. Louis and Kansas City; Fort Peck Dam in
Montana was authorized by the Public Works
Administration Act of 1933; the 1944 Flood Control
Act authorized basinwide development of five other
mainstem dams and initiated the Pick Sloan Plan; the
1945 Rivers and Harbors Act extended the
navigation channel to Sioux City.
I,
V
fl-u
Riprap near Bismarck ND
3
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1
A river channel and it sediments, flows, and floodplain are in a
constant state of change, working as one system to seek balance.
Ironically, this process of perpetual redefinition is a mark of a
stable river. In an ideal world, erosion along a river will be met
over time with equal sediment deposition at other locations along
the river.
This is not so in a highly-regulated river like the Missouri.
Essentially confined to a single channel today, the Missouri
mainstem was once a system of braided channels and riffles that
migrated more than 2,000 feet across a resilient floodplain, a
series of rich backwaters and ever-changing sandbars, and a haven
of dense wetlands and bottomland forests.
Today, the Missouri in many places is an incised river that has
abandoned its floodplain due to a chiseling of the channel, and
subsequent lowering of the channel slope. Although the dams
brought new opportunities to develop roads, homes, and
irrigated lands close to the river, some riparian buffers were lost
along with their ability to naturally control flood and erosion
impacts.
Use of riprap has accomplished the immediate goal of protecting
local land uses and future development along the river, but it
has also transferred some impacts of erosion to other places on
the river’s banks, further downstream.
Trailer in Trouble
Garrison Reach, North Dakota
4
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locations without sediment deposition in other
locations along the river
è Delta build-up and sediment trapping at upstream ends
of reservoirs
é Inundation of lands and habitats when the large
reservoirs were filled
A lowering, or sometimes a raising at deltas, of local
ground water tables
Channel straightening with losses of sandbars, wetlands,
and natural riparian habitats
Much less formation of rich, productive soils from floods
é Local decreases in native fish populations due to habitat
losses from changes in river velocity, turbidity, and
backwaters
è Little fluctuation in water volume and depth. For
example, the loss of March and June high flows have led
to destruction of nesting endangered or threatened
species like the least tern and piping plover
ó Shoreline slumping at the reservoirs due to wind and
wave erosion
è Poor natural flood control and loss of natural beauty
A picture of the
than ed M s ur
I.
River would be
incomplete withoi4t
some knowledge of
how a ‘healthy’ river
operates.
This topic: is
discussed next.
Eroded Bank
Lake Oahe Dam, Fern Island
Other changes seen today in the upper basin include:
Accelerated degradation and channel deepening in some
, —<.
rp v, •- :-. - - -
—
- -—. -.
5
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A Closer Look At The Upper Missouri
The Missouri River, known
by many as “the Big Muddy,”
has its beginnings in the
Northern Rockies where the
rapid currents of the Gallatin,
Jefferson, and Madison rivers
converge near farmlands of
Three Forks, Montana. Twenty
miles north the river meets its
first instream structure, a low
irrigation diversion dam at
Toston. Another 20-miles later,
the river flows into Canyon
Ferry reservoir, a popular
recreational area foranglers
and boaters.
Just downstream of
Canyon Ferry Dam and 15
miles from Helena, a water-
supply reservoir impounded
by Hauser Dam captures
flows. Still running north, the
river squeezes into the
confines of the Gates of the
Mountains, a lovely canyon
area a mere fraction of a
football field wide, until it
breaks out behind Holter Dam
further downstream.
Five private dams built
between 1891 and 1958 at
Great Falls, Montana
harness the Missouri for
hydropower in a particularly
high-gradient section of the
river. One of these dams,
Ryan, was constructed on
the site of the Great Falls of
the Missouri, poignantly
described by Lewis and
Clark in their journals. From
Great Falls to Fort Benton,
Montana, the river begins to
course eastward through
agricultural lands and the
Missouri Wild and Scenic
River, the longest stretch of
the river not channelized or
modified by dams.
Fort Peck, initiated in
1933 and completed in 1937
by thousands of workers, is
the first of the huge federal
Pick Sloan dams managed by
the Army Corps of Engineers.
This earthen dam impounds
the 134-mile-long Fort Peck
Reservoir, and is the first and
largest dam on the Missouri
River. An amazing
feat in its time,
Fort Peck Dam is
the second largest
earth-fill dam in the
world; its embankment
stretches four miles
across the Missouri Valley.
The reservoir is a
destination walleye fishery,
also noted by archaeologists
as a superior location for
prehistoric specimens.
The Milk River flows partly
through Canada and enters the
Missouri below Fort Peck dam,
creating deltas and sandbars on
its entrance to the mainstem.
Then, just east of the
Montana/North Dakota border
near Williston, the Missouri’s
largest tributary, the Yellowstone,
joins in. Here, huge sediment
deposits from theYellowstone
are forced to settle in the
sluggish backwaters of Lake
Sakakawea just downstream.
This reservoir, formed by
Garrison Dam, is the largest in
the basin; its construction
inundated 156,000 acres of Fort
Berthold Indian Reservation
lands. In fact over 550 square
miles of Native American lands,
including entire towns, are now
covered by the mainstem
reservoirs.
Before Garrison
was completed in 1953, the
Missouri River flowed
unrestricted for about 390
miles through North Dakota.
Now about only 80 river miles
flow free between Garrison
Dam and the beginnings of
Lake Oahe, downstream.
Although releases from the
depths of Lake Oahe and
Sakakawea make the
downstream segments cold
and clear, there is great
concern over the deltas
forming at the reservoir
headwaters where slower
flows cause sediment loads to
t
N
IL
Fort Peck
Reservoir
WYO G
drop out. The deltas bring
about local navigation
problems and raise the 100-
year floodplain. Local
increases in water table
levels, in turn, create
chronic sewer system
flooding problems, notably
near Bismarck and Pierre.
6
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Mainstem From Montana To South Dakota
Lake Oahe takes its name
from the Oahe Indian Mission
established in 1874 just above
the present dam site.The lake
and its 2,250 miles of shoreline
span from capitol to capitol, from
just south of Bismarck, North
Dakota to Oahe Dam near Pierre,
South Dakota. It is a world class
walleye and Chinook salmon
fishery. Currently, the Cheyenne
River Sioux and Standing Rock
Siouxlribal reservations occupy
much of the land on the west
side of the lake.
Lake Oahe at Devils Gulch Boat
Launch near Bismarck, ND
Lake Sharpe at Pierre, SD
Six more miles downstream
from Oahe Dam, which was
competed in 1962, the Missouri
enters 25-mile-long Lake
Sharpe. The lake is impounded
by Big Bend Dam, which lies 45
miles southeast of Pierre and
was completed in 1963.The
Lower Brule Indian Reservation
is situated on the southern
shore, and to the north
the Crow Creek Indian
Reservation. Between the
headwaters of Lake Sharpe
and Big Bend Dam, the
river takes a mighty
26-mile turn, for which
the dam is named.
The headwaters ot 14u-
mile-long Lake Francis Case
begin just downstream of Big
Bend Dam. Lake Francis Case
is impounded by Fort Randall
Dam (completed in 1953),
where you can still see the
remains of its namesake, Fort
Randall Military Post.The post
was established in 1856 to
serve as a navigation link on
the river. The free-flowing
National Recreational River of
the National Wild and Scenic
River system extends
downstream from Fort Randall
dam for another 39 miles. One
of America’s largest wintering
concentrations of bald and
golden eagles reside just
below the dam, roosting in
cottonwood trees on the
lookout for fish in the ice-free
waters.
• Massive silt deposits mark
the entry of the Niobrara River
a few more miles from the end
of the National Recreational
River section.Twenty-five-mile-
long Lewis and Clark Lake and
its recreational area draw
thousands to enjoy fishing,
boating, and sailing. Marked
by chalkstone bluffs and
woody draws of cedar and oak,
the lake covers what was once
a heavily wooded bottomland
floodplain. It is impounded by
Gavins Point Dam, an earthen
structure completed in 1957.
Water released from the five
upstream dams is used at
Gavins Point for the production
of hydropower. The town of
Yankton, just downstream of
Gavins, was a major
steamboat landing until 1881
and is now a major recreation
destination.
A second section of the
National Recreational River
system extends another 59
free-flowing miles, reminiscent
of the Missouri a century ago.
Sandbars, backwaters, eddies,
islands abound until Sioux
City, Iowa. From here
downstream, over 8,000 stone
wing dams intersperse
throughout the 720-mile
stretch of the lower Missouri’s
navigation channel until the
Missouri unites with the
Mississippi River near St.
Louis.
7
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If there is any basic truth about stable, healthy
rivers, it is that they are always in a state of
dynamic equilibrium. A stable river is one that
naturally adjusts its width, depth and slope.
Significant changes in the river’s flow and in
the sediments it carries will disrupt balance in
river form and structure. However, in a stable
system, the balance is naturally restored.
A stable alluvial river system may have
meandering channels, eroding banks on
outside bends, many vegetated banks, and
instream features such as riffles and pools. its
land surface adjacent to the channel, otherwise
known as the floodplain, floods frequently
during high flow periods. Ideally, the
meandering river within this floodplain will
deposit sediments to create sandbars, timbered
islands, side channels, backwaters and
marshes—all of which comprise a very
biologically rich system. The stable river will
maintain its basic physical characteristics and
shape if natural flow rates are maintained
(called bankfull).
Erosion is a process that shapes and reshapes
rivers as they adjust and readjust to a variety
of forces. It occurs when soil particles are
removed from riverbank zones (especially bank
and toe zones) by moving water. Erosion in
Hood Prone UeeaDon
Bank Zone
and
to
and of itself is not always a “bad” thing, but
can become a “problem” when sediment
removal exceeds its deposition. Naturally,
over time, the river channel will become
deeper, wider, and incised, and it will begin
permanently transfer the riverbed and bank
material. In a typical incised channel, the
riverbed degrades until the critical bank height
is exceeded and the bank fails. When this
happens, the channel width increases and
sediments are added to the river.
Erosion becomes worrisome when it causes
significant, expanding degradation annually to
the same riverbanks. When activities like road
building, dam regulation, or structural bank
alterations disturb the equilibrium of a river
reich, the river will respond with a series of
adjustments that may cause additional
concerns. That’s when it is time to consider
some of the options listed in Part 5.
Transitional Zone
ural ourc Coflsen tfi Se
Ov bank Flevaflon
Rankfufl Di hatge (k’iaiion i:
I
I -
8
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,
Thaiweg .
Pools
I
The thaiweg is the path formed by the deepest portion of
the channel. At outside bends in the river where natural
erosion occurs, flow is greatest and deep pools form.
Point bars form at places of deposition on inside bends.
Wide Valley Bottom Stream
• slope less than 2%
• point bars, riffles, pools
• flood flows spread over
broad floodplain and ,‘
riparian area
• wide, shallow
• sinuous
iA 4
• horizontal
(lateral) ,‘
Reservoir Shorelines
flood-
pmne
area
Stable natural lake shorelines withstand the
impacts of erosion due to wave action, but
often constructed reservoirs have
shorelines with easily-erodable soil. Wave
action and ice heave perpendicular to
shorelines removes material from the shore
In systems regulated by
dams, the tendency is
for the river’s steepness
to increase and sediment
load to decrease,
resulting in higher
velocities and erosion
rates and, ultimately, a
straightening of a
portion of the river
below a dam.
Where river flows are
slowed down at the
heads of reservoirs,
sediments tend to
unload.
toe, causing banks to erode. Freezing and
thawing, as well as runoff from nearby
uplands, may also cause shorelines to
erode. Although not covered extensively in
this booklet, Part 5 lists some ways to
address severe shoreline erosion. You can
find more information on shoreline
stabilization methods in Part 6.
Low energy water
deposits sediment
High energy water
erodes sediment
_— Point Bars
1onIana Department c f
ivironmenttd Quidity
/‘I
Meanders shape
healthy rivers
and riparian
areas.
Wit ho ut proper
management,
rivers can shift
I
I
from this...
channel
no access to
plain
...tothis
flood-
p
area
bank full sfege
bankfull
stage
9
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V
__ Planning and Prevention
What can you do to prevent bank erosion
‘
Move from harm’s way
o Not a direct erosion prevention measure, but an
option for addressing the issue, is to relocate
incompatible land uses and structures outside of
the floodplain and at-risk river reaches. Examples
include:
O The Natural Resource Conservation Service
(NRCS) Flood Risk Reduction Program allows
farmers who voluntarily enter into contracts to
receive payments on lands with high flood
potential. These contract payments provide
incentives to move farming operations from
frequently flooded land.
O The Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA) sponsors Project Impact, helping
communities reduce flood losses through pre-
disaster mitigation, including avoidance of
development in floodprone areas.
O You can establish local riparian setback zoning
ordinances, sloughing easements and
development easements. These options can
preserve riparian areas and can compensate
land owners for not developing river frontage
with severe erosion potential. See
www.cwp.org for sample setback ordinance
language, and the example in Part 5.
Restore natural conditions
and protections
0 Protect and introduce vegetation. Whenever
possible, reintroduce native riparian vegetation,
like willow and cottonwood, that has a good
chance of re-establishing along degraded banks
with proper management. Appendix C lists
sources for plantings native to the Upper
Missouri. In addition, some projects can be
modified by adding new plantings over and in
existing riprap.
0 Where determined feasible by an expert,
mitigate by removing failed hard structures.
When structures are moved out of the active
floodplain, native vegetation may reestablish
and the river channel can adjust to a more
suitable, stable configuration.
Add your ideas to the pool
0 Have a voice in water management activities
along the Missouri River by contacting the U. S.
Army Corps of Engineers at (402) 697-2528
Conserve healthy riverbanks by initiating policy
change
0 Request information from well-designed
watershed education programs such as the
Montana Watercourse, the North Dakota Water
Education Foundation, and the South Dakota
Education Association (see Appendix)
Improve land use practices
0 Practice best management of your grazing,
development, and timber operations, like
fencing to keep livestock out of the riparian
zone and cluster hi in . Visit your local
Extension agent or NRCS office.
10
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The most critical step is to first determine the
condition of your local banks and shorelines. Then
ask whether it’s reasonable to restore the area, both
economically and physically. On quick study, are
banks and shorelines eroding? Do you notice bank
instability? Is there agricultural and urban
flooding? Is development too close to erosion
areas? Does it appear that the river is naturally
seeking a stable condition, or are other upstream or
downstream factors at play?
Who Can Help?
There are many trusted methodologies for
assessing the nature and magnitude of bank and
riparian condition. For example, the Bureau of
Reclamation has developed a widely-used
checklist that helps determine the “proper
Jinictioning condition” of riparian areas. This
checklist assesses 17 points regarding the hydrology,
vegetation and geology of a river area, then scores
its potential for restoration (USD1 Bureau of
Reclamation, 1998).
Study Team near Bismarck,
Try to determine the cause of the significant
changes, then you can set proper solutions into
motion. Causes might include vegetation removal
or upstream development. These mostly human-
induced problems can lead to natural
mechanisms of failure (see next page). Expertise
is needed to determine if the river bank is in a
stable condition and, if it is not, to find the
upstream or downstream causes of the excessive
erosion.
Corps of Engineers Demonstration Project
Wolf Point, MI, Pipel Ranch
11
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What’s
your goal?
A
If prevention ideas suggested in Part 3 have not
worked, is your goal to restore the river to its
natural floodplain dynamic? Or do you want to
further stabilize the banks and shoreline to protect
current land uses? Is enhancing riparian and fish
habitat a goal? Regardless of your goal, whenever
you intervene, strive for a maximum range of
benefits to gain support from a diverse range of
interests. Put as much definition and detail into
your goal as you can by asking:
o Will the restored bank configurations be
self-sustaining?
0 How much maintenance will it require?
o Is it possible to reintroduce native plants?
o Can physical and biological functions be
restored?
Find out what materials, funds, and knowledge are
available to you. What are the sources of state and
federal assistance? It may become clear early on in
your planning process that a particular federal,
state, or local program will be the ideal funding
source for your project. If not, study the appendix
for sources of assistance. It is also essential at this
juncture to establish project leadership to assure
smooth sailing. Federal and state permits will be
required to carry out your project as well. Those
regulations and comments received during the
permitting process, will have a bearing on project
direction.
Step 5
While there is a wealth of assistance from state and
federal resources, your project may require
additional design work. With the financial
resources you have pooled, you may choose to hire
a consultant to gather data needed on channel
slope and width, flood frequency, wetted
perimeter, sediment load, bed material, riverbank
soil conditions, habitat characteristics, water
quality, and so on. Contract with a project designer
who has thorough understanding of river
processes, someone who can make an accurate
professional assessment of river channel
conditions. When assessing reservoir shoreline
conditions, the consultant will study beach
steepness, offshore depth and wave frequency,
average high water line, and bank soil type and
vegetation.
n
I
0 What techniques could help improve
water quality or connect riparian areas?
How Riverbanks Fail
Major gradual changes to riverbanks usually start
with:
0 Erosion — the removal of small particles
from a bank or its toe by wind or water
0 Scour — localized erosion pockets due
to flowing water and/or ice
o Mass failure — the downward
“dumping” of a bank that occurs when
the weight of bank materials exceeds
bank strength
Causes of failure can be:
o Natural channel migration
o Dam, bridge or road construction
o Removal of vegetation for land
development on the floodplain
0 Saturated soils or rapid water level
changes
o Hard bank protection upstream
o Instream debris that alters flow,
causing erosion of adjacent banks
Adapted from Washington DFW. 2000.
12
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Step 6
Situation suitability is an examination of the technically and
economically feasible options most suitable for your site.
Knowing the strengths of one technique over another will
help you select the proper solution to address the cause of
erosion. Will the bank slope require regrading before
installing a stabilization measure? Is there a drainage
problem? Do you want the approach you use to withstand
certain “design flows” such as the 100-year flood? Should it
withstand certain flow velocities? What is the minimum
length of riverbank protection you want to assure? Study the
costs of land acquisition, planning, materials, financing,
cleanup, and maintenance. Identify the downriver
consequences of your proposed erosion mitigation project,
then choose the best alternative presented in Part 5.
For any project involving the movement of bank and
shoreline materials, you will require a Federal 404 permit for
discharge of dredge and fill material, and a Section 10 permit
from the Corps of Engineers for work in navigable waters.
Activities requiring a Federal Clean Water Act Section 404
permit include discharge of dredge material, fills, groins,
breakwaters, road fill, riprap, vegetation removal, ditching,
and jetties. You may need to submit a preconstruction
notification (PCN). The Corps could take 45 to 120 days to
review and give authorization, with possible additional
delays if there are wetland delineation problems. A Section
10 permit, authorized under the U.S. Rivers and Harbors Act,
is required for work in navigable waters such as dredging,
fill, piers, and pilings. Check with your state agencies or local
conservation district for a listing of other possible state
regulations.
For obvious reasons, access is key. If bank or shoreline work
will require movement of equipment through adjacent
private or public land, get permission to do so early on. Some
federal projects on private land will be maintained with
federal dollars, but some may not. These are important issues
to discuss early on, especially if success of the project hinges
on obtaining funding for maintenance and long-term access.
Set up a timeline and identify the roles of the
team. The project plan should list all supplies
and tools. In addition, your team or the
project manager will need to:
hold a pre-construction meeting with
inspectors responsible for permitting
è obtain easements from adjacent
landowners and erect boundaries at the
project site
troubleshoot unforeseen problems and
adhere to the work schedule
o assure that construction materials or
vegetation are of ideal quality and
specifications
0 effectively track use of materials
o minimize site disturbance during
implementation
0 develop safety rules for workers and
observers
0 maintain a neat and debris-free work
site, especially in public and
residential areas.
Even when your project is complete, you’ll
still need to monitor the site to make sure
vegetation is growing adequately and
irrigated as needed, that rocks have not
been displaced, and that the treatment is
doing the job it was designed to do. Then,
you can bask in a job well done!
Determin.
the “situation
suitability.”
obtain permits,
13
-------
Floodplain development and land-use practices have
already occurred along much of the Upper Missouri.
But along sections with only minimal disturbances,
non-structural techniques should be considered
FIRST to prevent future destabilization of the river.
These techniques bring with them many benefits,
such as improved
habitat and
reduced
downstream
erosion. Non-
structural options
for maintaining a
stable river
system are listed
in Part 3.
When possible, give priority to restoring the river’s
connection to its natural floodplain or re-creating
the river’s stable pattern within the existing
floodplain. This work requires planning and
execution by a professional restoration team. On
the Upper Missouri River, the chances of fulfilling
this option are slim primarily because of pre-
existing private property rights and current
management requirements of the mainstem dams.
Therefore, landowners and communities often look
to stabilizing the channel in place to offset erosion. It
is often the most costly option, and least favored
with respect to aesthetics and biological diversity.
However, new bioengineering methods highlighted
next in Option 3 can help mitigate these conditions.
Local Setback Ordinance at Work
Classify and Restore
The City of Missoula, Montana has adopted a
Riparian Zoning Ordinance requiring a minimum
setback of all new construction from riparian
areas. This ordinance deems hazards such as
bank erosion unmitigable, and riprap is not a
viable option. Therefore, no new construction is
allowed in riparian areas, indirectly causing a
setback from the river. The long and detailed
ordinance states that:
“The geomorphological approach to
stream restoration involves an
understanding of the dimension,
pattern and profile of natural, stable
channels that can occur in specific
valley types and landforms, and
recreating these conditions on the
unstable form. Unsuccessful
stabilization projects often involve
“patching in place” various reaches,
or treating symptoms rather than the
cause of the problems.” Rosgen, 1997.
(t)he intent of this chapter is to
ensure that no construction, as defined
in this document, shall be approved
which is determined by the governing
body to be unsuitable by reason of
flooding, inadequate drainage, soil and
rock formations with severe limitations
for development, severe erosion poten-
tial, unfavorable topography, damag-
ing to areas of riparian resource or any
other feature likely to be harmful to the
public health, safety and welfare of the
future residents of the City of
Missoula
Missoula Codes, Chapter 19.51. For samples of other similar
ordinances, check www.cwp.org, or www.lg.an.org.
There are many river classifications available for
use. David Rosgen is one expert who has
developed a classification system defining eight
primary river types in terms of their quantitative
hydrology and geology. For rivers classified as
incised, his system defines four ways to restore
them:
1. re-establish the channel on the degraded
floodplain
2. re-establish the floodplain at existing level or
higher
3. convert to a new river type
4. stabilize channel in place
-------
If the damage is already done and reverting
to a non-regulated system is not an option,
there are many vegetative and structural
measures to consider.
Vegetative Plantings
Native plants - grasses, forbes, dogwoods,
cottonwoods, willows — can be positioned in
various elevational bank zones based on their
ability to withstand certain frequencies and
durations of flooding. Vegetative plantings
are the preferred alternative if restoration of
riparian functions is the goal. You will need
an area with ideal soil type and moderate
flows, and access to native rooted vegetation
that has a good chance of being established.
Advantages include low cost, aesthetic
improvement, and habitat enhancement.
Disadvantages include labor intensity and
high initial maintenance until vulnerable
plants are established. This is a very effective
method for stabilizing upper bank slopes.
Possible species to plant by zone on the Missouri River
Crested Wheatgrass
Intermediate Wheatgrass
Redtop
Smooth Brome
Reed Canary Grass
Creeping Foxtail
Western Wheatgrass
Little Bluestem
Switchgrass
Kentucky Bluegrass
White Sweetciover
Yellow Sweetclover
Cottonwood
Green Ash
Boxelder
BANK ______SPLASH
ZONE ZONE
ZONE 1
Cattail
Softstem Bulrush
Hardstem Bulrush
Common Reed
American Bulrush
TOE ZONE
ABOVE NORMAL STAGE
I-
CD
AVE. NORMAL STAGE
Mod y t led from LISACOE
Option #3
Plantings along the Yellowstone
4— TERRACE ZONE
ZONE 3
Reed Canary Grass
Creeping Foxtail
Prairie Cordgrass
Crownvetch
White Sweetclover
Yellow Sweetclover
Peachleaf Willow
Yellow Willow
Red Osier Dogwood
15
-------
Method
When to install
Position on bank
Drawbacks
l -
.wi.flmm nfIGfI
U
Cost
—
Summary of various bank stabilization methods
Brush layers
plants are dormant
at or above
high water
construct during low flow
sites needing fill; scour holes
moderate
Brush mattress
plants are dormant
at or above
high water
not useful on steep slopes
construct during low flow
areas of high velocity/gradient
where slopes can be graded
4 hrs per
square yd
Joint planting
plants are dormant
at or above
high water
thick riprap may be
difficult to stake
where riprap is required or
already in place
5 hrs per
square yd
Live cribwall
plants are dormant
below channel bed;
plants above high
water
work in channel bed;
construct during low flow
in limited space, strong
currents, steep banks
varies
Facines (Wattles)
plants are dormant
at or above
high water
where movement of water
downslope is needed
low
Live stakes
plants and cuttings
are dormant
medium to above
high water
labor intensive; vulnerable
to vandalism
areas with minor scour,
fertile soil; sites with limited
equipment access
low
Rooted stock
fall to spring
above high water
summer planting may need
irrigation
where large plants for cover
is desired
varies
Herbaceous
ground cover
spring/early summer;
or late summer/fall
above high water
variable seeding rates;
variable permissible velocities
where fast cover is needed
varies
Rock riprap
any season
normal water levels
and below
not useful in steep slopes
(greater than 2H:1V)
where toe armor is needed;
high velocity areas; at flood
emergency areas
high
Tree revetment
any season
normal water
levels
must be replaced periodically
for protection against bank
scour and undercutting
varies
Vegetated geogrid
plants are dormant
plants above high
water
work in channel bed
construct during low flow
limited space; steep slopes;
high velocity
varies
(Modified from King County, 1993, Table 7.4).
-------
Live Stakes
Soil Bioengineering Systems:
“Soft” Treatments
Soil bioengineering is a system of using
shrubs and trees as structural components,
with a goal of stabilizing eroding slopes with
native plant root structure. These methods
date back to 12th century China when brush
bundles were used to stabilize slopes.
Bioengineering methods have been used in
Germany for over 150 years, and were first
applied in the United States in the 1920’s.
Typically, unrooted vegetation is placed in
configurations that offer immediate bank
stability. Sometimes bioengineering methods
are used in combination with more traditional
“hard” structures like riprap. Many agencies
refer to bioengineering as a “living approach”
to bank protection. Two important notes:
bioengineering plantings must be
accomplished during the plants’ dormant
season; and a great deal of initial work is
involved, including harvesting, bundling, and
soaking the vegetative materials. Again, the
causes of erosion (e.g.; fluctuating flows from
management of the dams) will greatly
influence the treatment used.
This effective means of securing vegetative cover for
control of soil erosion involves planting unrooted
cuttings large enough to be tamped into the ground
as stakes, later creating a living root mat. The most
common species used as live stakes are poplars,
cottonwoods, and willows. Often, live stakes are
placed in a triangular fashion, 2 to 4 per
square yard. They can be
installed alone or in
combination with
surface-
protecting
straw and
coconut
mesh.
Live. woody cuttings which are tamped
into the soil to root, grow and create a
living root mat that stabilizes the soil
by reinforcing and binding soil particles
together, and by extracting excess soil
moisture.
Live fascines (or wattles)
Better suited for smaller streams or slower
sections, these are long, snake-like bundles of
branch cuttings up to 2 feet wide, tied together end
to end. Wattles are placed in shallow trenches
excavated 3 to 5 feet apart parallel to the channel.
They are secured with live stakes and often
enhanced with jute or coir mesh which covers the
surface areas between the facines. The long cable of
overlapping branches should equal the length of
the degraded area. Steps include placing boulders
at the toe, adding fabric, laying the wattle in a half
trench, and stretching the fabric in place. This
method is an ideal choice for degraded slopes of
3:1 or less where overland
flow is a problem; for
steeper slopes,
plantings
should be
closer
together.
Dormant branch cuttings are bound
together into long sausage-like,
cylindrical bundles and placed in shallow
trenches on slopes to reduce erosion
and shallow sliding.
stabilization at Williston, Norm
17
-------
Brush Mattresses
Brush Layering (or bra nchpacking)
A combination of live stakes, live facines, and
mattress-like dead branch cover, brush mattresses
create an anchor on degraded slopes. Brush
mattresses work best along eroded riverbanks
between 2 and 7 feet high where banks can be
graded to a slope of 3:1. They are effective where
debris and sediment needs to be captured, but not as
effective where bank
undercutting is
the problem.
Brush
mattresses can
establish in one
to two seasons.
Combination of live stakes, live facines,
and branch cuttings are installed to
cover and physically protect
streambanks; they eventually to sprout
and establish numerous individual
plants.
Vegetated Geogrids
Similar to brush layering, vegetated geogrids use
natural or synthetic geotextile materials wrapped
around the soil layers for stability. This method is
useful when banks cannot be sloped back and where
erosive flows are strong. Thus, they can be placed at
steeper angles while rapidly rebuilding the bank.
Alternating layers of live branch
cuttings and compacted soil with
natural or synthetic geotextile
materials are wrapped around each soil
lift to rebuild and vegetate eroded
streambanks.
This treatment employs alternating layers of soil
and immense bundles of live branches in
horizontal rows on the bank. Brush layering
provides immediate repair to highly eroded banks
and scour holes, and is sometimes installed in
combination with toe
protection, willow
plantings, and fabric
placement.
ma
layers of live
branches and
compacted backfill stabilize and
revegetate slumps and holes in
streambanks.
Live Cribwall
This boxlike mass of untreated logs and timber,
filled alternately with backfill and live cuttings is a
useful method when banks cannot be graded and
space is limited. It is often applied to restore lost
banks, and usually on lower banks where fascines
and brush layers may not be appropriate. Cribwa!ls
are constructed during the low flow season when
the channel is easily
accessed.
Hollow, box-
like interlocking arrangements of
untreated log or timber members are
filled above baseflow with alternate
layers of soil material and live branch
cuttings that root and gradually take
over the structural functions of the
wood members.
18
-------
Coconut Fiber and Geotextile Rolls
These cylindrical structures are made of coconut
husk fibers bound together with twine woven from
coconut. Plants and shoots are then placed inside
the roll and the entire unit is secured at the toe of
the slope to capture sediment and encourage plant
growth. It is best to
use this technique
in areas where
sediment
deposition is
high. Hay bales
can also be
wrapped in the roll.
Cylindrical structures composed of
coconut husk fibers are bound together
with twine woven from coconut
material to protect slopes from erosion
while trapping sediment. This
encourages plant growth within the
fiber roll.
Joint Planting (or vegetated riprap)
To add root structure and aesthetics to riprap, live
stakes can be tamped into joints or open spaces in
the rock places on a slope. Usually
the live stakes are tamped in
so that their growing tips
protrude slightly
from the
finished rock
face.
Live stakes
are tamped into joints or openings
between rock which have previously
been installed on a slope or while rock
is being placed on the slope face.
A landowner
in South
Dakota has
applied root
and tree
revetments
to stabilize
the bank.
Surface Armor:
r
“Hard” Treatments r
__
Armor or revetment is hard, protective material in
direct contact with the riverbank. Constructing
rock barriers using rock riprap along the riverbank
is a traditional method of deflecting the erosional
force of high water flows. Sometimes these rock
embankments are paired with vegetative cuttings
or seedlings, though the rocks are the true barrier to
erosion. Advantages to these methods are that
results are immediate. Ironically, the disadvantages
lie in outcomes. Hard treatments “fix” the
channel in place, with potential impact to the
downstream banks and the cottonwood forest
habitat. These methods are often costly and
require heavy equipment.
Tree, Root wad, and Boulder
Revetments
This is an organic version of riprap using a
combination of logs, root wads, and boulders.
Rootwads function by moving the stream current
away from the bank, subjecting it to less erosion.
The streamside energy reduction allows for faster
revegetation. Usually whole trees 10 to 12 inches in
diameter are cabled together, then anchored and
buried in the bank. Additional protection is
provided by jamming live stakes and branches in
behind the trees. Over time, this structure will
collect sediments and initiate revegetation, but if
the cabled trees
deteriorate,
tree
revetments
must be
replaced.
Boulders and
logs with root
masses
attached are
placed in and on
streambanks to
provide
streambank
erosion, trap
sediment, and
improve habitat
diversity.
19
-------
Rock Revetments or Riprap
Instream Flow
Riprap is large rock or concrete structures placed
on eroded banks to prevent erosion. Riprap may
be applied at the toe of a bank to minimize scour,
or directly over the bank slope. Riprap is
particularly effective at sharp river bends, at
bridge constrictions, and along opposite banks at
points of confluence with tributaries. Limitations
of this approach include its impacts on aesthetics
and on fish and wildlife habitat. Riprap is used on
the Missouri where rapid erosion rates, high
velocities, large depth of flow and rapid
fluctuations are common. Improperly sized riprap
may wash away or cause increased bank scour.
Redirection Techniques
These channel structures divert flow away from
banks and shores. Toe keys are installed on the
riverbed to stabilize bed material and scour.
Dikes, retards, weirs, jetties, and barbs are all
names for indirect methods that extend into the
river channel to redirect and deflect flow away
from the bank, causing sediment deposition
near the bank. While these methods protect the
banks near the device, they require superior
knowledge of channel hydraulics because these
deflectors greatly influence downstream flows.
Barbs can be used successfully in combination
with bioengineering methods.
A blanket of appropriately sized stones
extends from the toe of slope to a
height needed for long term durability.
Riprap should be well-graded with rock
sizes ranging evenly between 6 and 36
inches. Slabs of concrete will not work.
Reservoir Shorelines
Reservoir shorelines have a different set
of problems, like heavy wave action
and undertow. Besides efforts to
revegetate eroded areas, other
approaches are:
è Soil bioengineering - live stakes,
live fascine, brush mattresses, reed
clump, coconut fiber rolls
e Groins - fingerlike structures
installed perpendicular to the
shore to trap floating debris
è Bulkheads - vertical structures of
timber, concrete, steel or
aluminum sheet piling installed
parallel to the shoreline
Revetments (riprap) - protective
structures of rock, concrete,
cellular blocks installed to fit the
slope and shape of a shoreline
e Offshore breakwaters using rocks,
live cribs or hay bales
To avoid use of these methods, leave
shoreline vegetation intact, take great
care siting houses and septic systems,
and modify yard care methods.
20
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Alternative Stream Research, a
photo study showing 190 photos
of stream projects from 17 states
www.tostreams.org
American Rivers, founded in 1973,
is a national non-profit
conservation organization
dedicated to protecting and
restoring America’s rivers and to
fostering a stewardship ethic.
www.americanrivers.org
Center for Watershed Protection,
founded in 1992, provides tools
to help communities protect
streams, lakes and rivers. Website
contains sample ordinance
language.
www.cwp.org
Local Government Environmental
Assistance Network, providing
environmental management,
planning, and regulatory
information for local
governments and staff
www.lgean.org
Minnesota Shoreland Management
Resource Guide providing
information about best shoreland
management practices for lakes
and rivers
wwwshorelandmanage
ment.org
Missouri River Basin Association,
a coalition of Missouri River
Basin states, tribes, and federal
agencies collaborating on the
management of the Missouri
River flows
ó www.mrba-missouri-
river.com
Missouri River Basin Consortium,
a group of institutions of higher
learning coordinating basin-wide
interdisciplinary research,
education, and outreach
programs relevant to the needs of
citizens, agencies and
organizations within the basin
è mrbc.missouri.edu
Missouri River Communities
Network based in Columbia, MO,
increasing awareness and
involvement of citizens in
Missouri River planning that
considers multiple water uses
é www.moriver.org
è mrcn.missouri.org
Missouri River Coordinated
Resource Management Program
(CRMP), formed in North Dakota
(sponsored by the BOMMM Joint
Water Resource District Board,
ND) to develop a long-range
strategic plan for the Garrison
Reach of the Missouri River
missouririver.state.nd.us/
CRMF.htm
Missouri River Corridor Program,
designed to identify, protect, and
enhance the natural, cultural and
public recreational resources
along the upper Missouri River
é www.onida.org/mrcp.htm
Missouri River Institute,
University of South Dakota,
promoting scholarly research,
education and public awareness
related to the natural and cultural
resources of the Missouri River
basin.
é www.usd.edulmri
Montana Watercourse citizen water
education program, Bozeman, MT
è www.montanawatercourse.org
National Audubon Society,
founded in 1905 to conserve and
restore natural ecosystems,
focusing on birds and other
wildlife for the benefit of
humanity and the earth’s
biological diversity.
www.audubon.org
National Institutes for Water
Resources is a network of
research institutes in every state
conducting research to solve
water problems unique to their
area.
è wrri.nmsu.edulniwr
Nature Conservanc!,s, preserving
the plants, animals and natural
communities that represent the
diversity of life on Earth by
protecting the lands and waters
they need to survive.
www.nature.org
Project WET Water Education
Program, a national program for
teachers
è www.projectwet.org
River Network, helping people
understand, protect, and restore
rivers and their watersheds.
www.rivernetwork.org
Sierra Club, a national
organization with a mission to
explore, enjoy, and protect the
wild places of the earth, and to
practice and promote the
responsible use of the earth’s
ecosystems and resources
è www.sierraclub.org
South Dakota Lakes and Streams
Association’s mission is to
preserve the aesthetic and
recreational values of lakes and
lakeshore properties.
o www.sdlakesand
streams.com
River And Citizen Assistance
Organizations
Stakeholders and Resources in
21
-------
Federal Water Management
Federal Emergency Management
Agency
è www.fema.gov
National Park Service
é www.nps.gov
LI. S. Army Corps of Engineers
é www.usace.army.mil; search
in this site for links to the
Montana, South Dakota and
North Dakota offices
è www.wes.army.mil/el/emrrpI
tnotes.html; U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers Waterways
Experiment Station’s technical
publications on stream & river
stabilization
è www.nwo.usace.army.mil;
Omaha District
U. S. Bureau of Reclamation
é www.usbr.gov
U. S. D. A. Forest Service Stream
Systems Technology Center
è www.stream.fs.fed.us/
U. S. D. A. Natural Resources
Conservation Service
o www.nrcs.usda.gov; Natural
Resources Conservation
Service main page
o Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov;
the NRCS Plant Materials
Center website for publications
on riparian plant revegetation
0 www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/wtec/
soilbio.html; the NRCS
Watershed Technology
Electronic Catalog on soil
bioengineering techniques,
with diagrams
U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Region 8, Denver, CO
0 www.epa.gov/region8/water/
missouri; Region 8 web page
on Missouri River projects
0 www.epa.gov/region8/
community_resources;
community technical support
page
0 www.epa.gov/0WOW/npS/
ordinance; EPA Office of
Water’s model ordinances for
protection of local water
resources
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
0 mountain-prairie.fws.gov/
missouririver; the U. S.
Department of the Interior Fish
and Wildlife Service Mountain-
Prairies Region Missouri River
information page
o www.r6.fws.gov; Fish and
Wildlife Services web page
for Region 6
Western Area Power
Administration
o www.wapa.gov
Federal Reference
Federal Interagency Stream
Corridor Restoration Group’s
downloadable Stream Corridor
Restoration Guide;
o www.usda.gov/
stream_restoration/
newgra.html
Firstgov, a clearinghouse web
page with all you need to
know about addresses and
contacts with federal agencies
nationwide;
0 www.firstgov.gov
U. S. Department of Commerce
National Technical Information
Service, the central source for
scientific, technical, and
business-related government
information;
0 www.ntis.gov
U. S. Geological Survey, on
behalf of several agencies,
compiles and manages this
Missouri River Infolink page;
0 infolink.cr.usgs.gov
State Water Management
Montana Department of Natural
Resources and Conservation,
CRD Division
0 www.dnrc.state.mt.us/cardd/
cardd.htm
Montana Department of
Environmental Quality
0 www.deq.state.mt.us/index.asp
North Dakota State Water
Commission
o www.swc.state.nd.us
North Dakota Department of
Health
0 www.health.state.nd.us
South Dakota Department of
Environmental and Natural
Resources
o www.state.sd.us/denr
South Dakota Department of
Health
0 www.state.sd.us/doh
State Conservation Districts
O macdnet.org; Montana
Association of Conservation
Districts
0 www.ag.ndsu.nodak.edu;
North Dakota Association
of Soil Conservation Districts
0 www.sd.nacdnet.org; South
Dakota Association of
Conservation Districts
Tribal Water Management
Mni Sosi Intertribal Water Rights
Coalition, helping Tribes protect
rights to the use of Missouri River
water located on, near, and under
their respective reservations. The
Coalition also addresses all
matters related to reserved water
rights.
0 www.mnisose.org
22
-------
Glossary
acre foot — the amount of water
needed to cover an acre to a
depth of one foot, or 43,560 cubic
feet, or 325,828 gallons
alluvial — deposited by moving
water
armor — the artificial application of
rocks, concrete, or other hard
materials to protect a riverbank
from erosion
bankfull discharge — the flow at
which channel maintenance is
most effective at moving and
depositing sediment in a manner
that maintains the morphologic
character of the river; it is the
flow that transports the greatest
amount of sediment over a long
period of time and controls the
channel geometry
backwater — a rise in the water
level upstream of an obstruction
or construction in the channel
bank stabilization — the use of
inert materials to offset erosion
and secure the bank
bank zone — the area between the
average high water level and the
bankfull discharge level; this area
will experience periodic erosive
flows
bioengineering — the use of living
and inert material to stabilize
slopes and reduce erosion while
enhancing the ecosystem;
integrating living woody and
herbaceous materials with
organic and inorganic materials
to increase the strength and
structure of the soil
braided channel - interlacing
network of branching and
recombining channels separated
by islands or channel bars
breakwater - a barrier that protects
the shore from the full impact of
waves
brush mattress — a mattress-like
covering of rootable plant
material placed on top of the soil
to secure it
buffer — vegetated areas located
between riverbanks and adjacent
cultivated areas that capture and
filter runoff
bulkhead — a vertical retaining wall
supporting a streambank
channel — a waterway, defined by
its bed and banks, that
continuously contains moving
water
channelize — the alteration of
stream channels
coir — a woven mat of coconut
fibers used for soil erosion control
cribwall — a frame structure filled
with rocks, stones, and earth
designed to deflect flow from a
bank
degradation — the process by which
streambeds lower in elevation
delta — a flat and often triangular
deposit of sediments often in
areas of low flow or where
tributaries converge
deposition — the settlement of
sediments out of the water
column onto riverbanks or beds
design flow — the steady flow used
to define the upper boundary of
the operating range of discharges
for a project
erosion — the wearing away of the
land and soil particles by wind
and water
fascine - long, rounded bundles of
live rootable woody cuttings, tied
together for placement in long
trenches
flood frequency — the frequency of
a selected flooding event, often
considered in the design of
various bank stabilization
measures
floodplain — a lowland that borders
a river and is periodically
inundated by its waters
gabion — a hinged, galvanized wire
basket filled with stones and
rocks, and used for bank
stabilization
geomorphology — the study of the
configuration of landforms
geotextile — fabric or matting made
from natural fibers such as
coconut or jute, sometimes
woven into a mesh
groin a structure build
perpendicular to the shoreline to
retard erosion
hard engineering techniques —
techniques that employ hard,
non-living materials such as rock,
cement, and cut timber
hydrology — the behavior of water
as it occurs in the atmosphere, on
the surface of the ground, and
underground
impound - to hold back, as in
storage of water behind a dam
incised channel — a stream that has
cut its channel into the bed of a
valley
instream — within the main channel
flow
jetty — structures that project from a
streambank into a stream channel
to deflect or maintain the
direction of flow
joint planting — the process of
placing live woody plant cuttings
in the spaces between pieces of
rock riprap
23
-------
littoral — nearshore but out from
shore to the depth of the euphotic
zone where it is too dark on the
bottom for macrophytes to grow
mainstem — The main part of a
river into which all tributaries
flow
meander — a broad looping bend in
a river channel
overland flow — surface runoff
point bar — a bar located on the
inside bank of a river bend
proper functioning condition - an
interdisciplinary stream channel
and floodplain stability
assessment tool for analyzing the
condition of stream riparian areas
and prioritizing the need for
further detailed inventories and
treatments
regulated — streamfiow that is
altered by the operation of dams
to meet several water uses
restoration — the process of
restoring site conditions as they
were before disturbances
revetment — a facing of stone or
wood constructed on a bank as
protection against flows and
wind
riffle — oxygenated areas in a river
where water runs swiftly over
rocks
riparian habitat — a continuous
strip of vegetation adjacent to a
river
riprap — layer of stones and rocks
placed on a bank to serve as
protection against wind and
water current action
rootwad — combination of
interlocking tree materials where
a mass of tree roots is used with
other tree parts and revegetation
methods to stabilize streambanks
and provide aquatic habitat
sandbar — a bar of sand formed in a
river by the action of currents
scour — concentrated erosive action
of flowing water that removes
material from bed and banks
sediment — soil particles that have
been transported or deposited by
wind and water action
slope — the degree of deviation
from the horizontal to the
vertical; the higher the slope of a
river bed, the faster the velocity
of flow
soft engineering techniques —
techniques that employ a
combination of bioengineering
and hard techniques in a manner
that re-establishes some of the
riparian habitat
thalweg — the line following the
deepest part of the channel of a
river
toe — the break in slope at the foot
of a riverbank where the bank
meets the river bed
toe zone — the portion of the
riverbank that is between the
average high water level and the
bottom of the bank at the toe of
the bank; this zone is the most
susceptible to erosion
undertow — any strong subsurface
current moving in a direction
different from that of the surface
current, usually a subsurface flow
opposite from the direction of
waves breaking on the beach
upland - land above the level
where water flows or where
flooding occurs
water table — the upper surface of
the ground water reservoir
wattle — dormant branch cuttings
bound into long bundles and
placed into shallow trenches for
erosion control
wetted perimeter — the length of the
wetted contact between a stream
of flowing water and the stream
boundary, measured in a vertical
plane at right angles to the
direction of flow
InState Sources For Upper
1. Ogle, D., J.C. Hoag, and J.
Scianna. 2000. Technical Note 32:
Users guide to description,
propagation and establishment of
native shrubs and trees for riparian
areas in the intermountain west.
USDA-NRCS, Boise, ID and
Bozeman, MT. 22 p. (573KB) (ID#
401)
2. Ogle, D. 1999. Technical note #33.
Plant vendors in CO. ID, KS, MT,
NE, NM, ND, OR, SD, UT, WA.
Natural Resources Conservation
Service, Boise, ID.
3. USDA NRCS. 1999. Directory of
wetland plant vendors in the
United States. Jamie L. Whitten
Plant Materials Center
é PlantMaterials.nrcs.usda.gov/
pubs/mspmcpuvendO999pdf
24
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Miller, Dale F. 1999. L)efrmahk’
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26
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NOTES
271
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NOTES
28
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Stakeholder Advisory Committee
Mark Albers, Americait kiveis
Joel Bich, Lower Brule Sioux Tribe, South Dakota
Felicia Felix, Three Affiliated Tribes, North Dakota
Karl Forestar, Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes, Montana
Ron Sando, BOMMM Board, North Dakota
Boone Whitmer, Wolf Point, Montana
State and Federal Government Advisory Committee
Dennis Buechler, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Peter Ismert, Environmental Protection Agency
Jean MacKenzie, Environmental Protection Agency
Ayn Schmidt, Environmental Protection Agency
Duane Murphy, South Dakota I )partment of Environment and Natural Resources
John Paczkowski, North Dakota State Water Commission
Wayne Werkmeister, National Park Service
Mary Ellen Wolfe, Montana Watercourse
We are grateful to others who have provided information or served as reviewers:
Donald Becker, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Bill Bicknell, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Forrest Berg, Natural Resources Conservation Service
John Davidson, University of South Dakota
Liz Galli-Noble, Yellowstone River Task Force
David LaGrone, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Andy Mork, Mandan, North Dakota
Richard Opper, Missouri River Basin Association
Rebecca Seal Soileau, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers
Mike Sprague, Trout Headwaters, inc.
Chad Smith, American Rivers
Laura Temp. U.S. Army (or s of Engineers
Manuscript prepared by: Susan Higgins for The Montana Watercourse,
Bozeman, Montana
Design created by: Becky Sheehan, Graphic Artist, mediawks4u.com, Bozeman, MT
Photo credits: cover and pages 1, 3,4, 5-top, 11-top, 14, & 17, EPA Region 8;
pages 5-right & bottom, 15, 21, & 22, Trout Headwaters, Inc.; pages 6, 10, 11-
bottom, Susan Higgins; page 19, National Park Service
Illustration cri’dits on pages 17- 20: Natural Resources Conservation Service
29
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