EPA-600/4-7* 001
MARCH 1974
Environmental Monitoring Series
POLLUTED GROUNDWATER: A REVIEW
OF THE SIGNIFICANT LITERATURE
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Reseorch reports of the Office of Research and Development, Environmental Protection
Agency/ have been grouped into five series. These five broad categories were esta-
blished to facifitate further development and application of environmental technology.
Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously planned to foster technology trans-
fer and a maximum interface in related fields. The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING series. This
series describes research conducted to develop new or improved methods and instru-
mentation for the identification and quantification of environmental pollutants at the
lowest conceivably significant concentrations. It also includes studies to determine
the ambient concentrations of pollutants in the environment and/or the variance of
pollutants as a function of time or meteorological factors.
EPA REVIEW
This report has been reviewed by the Office of Research and Development,
EPA, and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the
contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Environmental
Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products
constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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2 April 1974
ERRATA -
EPA-600/4-74-0O1
POLLUTED GROUNDWATER:
A REVIEW OF THE SIGNIFICANT LITERATURE
Page 18
First paragraph:
Bouwer 4 should be Bouwer 5
Second paragraph:
5 6
Vorn and Stephenson should be Born and Stephenson
Third paragraph:
Martin should be Martin
Fourth paragraph:
Dvoracek and Wheaton 7 should be Dvoracek and Wheaton 4
Page 23
Sentence beginning on Line 10 should read:
Chemical analyses of 25 test wells monitored at various depths
and of sampling pans beneath the basins revealed satisfactory
degradation of ABS under aerobic conditions, while nitrates
and chlorides met USPHS standards.
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EPA-600/4-74-001
March 1974
POLLUTED GROUNDWATER:
A REVIEW OF
THE SIGNIFICANT LITERATURE
by
David K. Todd
and
Daniel E. McNulty
for
TEMPO
General Electric Company
Center for Advanced Studies
P.O. Drawer QQ
Santa Barbara, CA 93102
Contract No. 68-01-0759
Task 1
Program Element No. 1H1325
Project Officer
George B. Morgan, Director
Monitoring Systems Research and Development Laboratory
National Environmental Research Center
Las Vegas, Nevada
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
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ABSTRACT
Thk report is a selective review of the literature on man—caused groundwater
pollution, including causes and occurrence, procedures for control, and methods
for monitoring. No attempt was made to develop a comprehensive bibliography on
the subject. Rather, references were selected for inclusion on the basis of their
significance and relevance.
Bibliographies, important general references, abstracts, and European ref-
erences are discussed separately. Thereafter the literature is described in essay
form on a subject basis. References cited by number in the text are listed in com-
plete bibliographic form at the end of the report together with an author index.
With few excepiloris, the material reviewed is limited to relatively recent published
items in the United States. Administrative regulations, legal reports, and unpub-
lished materials such as theses have been omitted.
This report was submitted in partial fulfillment of Task 1, Contract
Number 68—01—0759, by General Electric—TEMPO under the sponsorship
of the Environmental Protection Agency. Work was completed as of
December 1973.
III
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
During the course of this review, extensive use was made of the libraries of
the University of California, Berkeley, and particularly the Water Resources Center
Archives.
Mr. Charles F. Meyer of General Electric —TEMPO was the manager of the
project under which this report was prepared.
The following officials of the Environmental Protection Agency were respon-
sible for technical guidance and direction of the project:
Office of Research and Development (Program Area Management)
Mr. H. Matthew BUls
Dr. Henry F. Enos
Mr. Donald B. Gilmore
NERC — Las Vegas (Program Element Direction)
Mr. George B. Morgan
Mr. Leslie C. McMillion
iv
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CO NT E NT S
Page
Abstract i ii
Acknowledgments
Section
I Conclusions 1
H Introduction 3
(II Bibliographies 6
IV Important General References 9
V Abstracts 13
VI European Literature 15
VII Urban Pollution 17
Effluent Recharge 17
Landfills 24
Road SuIts 34
Septic Tanks 36
VIII Industrial Pollution 39
Waste Disposal 39
Industrial and Petroleum Products 41
Metal Wastes 44
Mines 46
Oil Field Brines 48
Pits and Lagoons 55
Radioactive Materials 58
V
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IX Agricultural Pollution 66
Agricultural Wastes 66
Animal Wastes 68
Irrigation Return Flows 75
Pestk ides and Herbicides 77
X Pollution from Wells 82
Disposal Wells 82
Injection Wells 83
Recharge Wells 90
Well Construction Effects 92
Xl Salt Water and Surface Water 95
Salt Water Intrusion 95
Surface Water 106
XII Pollutants and Effects 108
General Pollution Studies 108
Bacteria and Viruses 116
Detergents 118
Nitrates and Phosphates 120
Health 127
Miscellaneous 128
XIII Evaluating Pollution 131
Geology and Tracers 131
Pollution Travel 133
Monitoring 139
XIV References Cited 145
XV Author Index 208
vi
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SECTION 1
CONCLUSIONS
Recent literature on groundwater pollution is fairly extensive.
The causes and sources of subsurface pollution are numerous, embrac-
ing a wide variety of activities by man.
References tend to document information for a given site, aquifer,
or problem; although a number of bibliographies have been published.
there have been few attempts to review data critically and to prepare
overviews of the subject.
Research projects tend to be reported in detail and often in sev-
eral publications, whereas field problems are sometimes limited to
sketchy descriptions of subsurface conditions.
Although the published coverage on the various sources of ground-
water pollution is uneven, it appears that the number of locations where
pollution occurs is very large; however, the area affected is believed to
be quite small. Thus, pollution from point sources tends to be re-
stricted to small distances so that the volume adversely affected repre-
sents only a very small percentage of the total groundwater volume.
Exceptions are areas of salt buildup in the irrigated West and coastal
regions of sea water intrusion.
Field experiments suggest that with proper hydrogeologic condi-
tions and with appropriately designed facilities, selected wastes can be
disposed into the ground without appreciably modifying groundwater
quality. Effective pollution prevention and control, however, whether
1
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CONCLUSIONS
by disposal of wastes or otherwise, appear to be impossible without
adequate monitoring programs.
Governmental regulatory policies to control subsurface pollution
vary widely, as do monitoring programs.
2
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SECTION II
INTRODUCT ION
This literature review was performed in support of a contract,
between the Environmental Protection Agency and General Electric—
TEMPO, for development of a strategy for monitoring the quality of the
nation s groundwater. Of interest are causes and occurrence of ground-
water pollution, procedures for its control, and methods for monitoring
its quality.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this review is not to develop a comprehensive
bibliography on groundwater pollution but rather to identify and to com-
ment upon the significant and relevant published literature in the field.
A number of abstracts and bibliographies are available, but these sel-
dom provide any interpretive analyses pertaining to the significance and
the detailed subject matter of the literature. Material included in this
review has been selected as that which is most useful for a study of
evaluating, controlling, and monitoring groundwater pollution.
SCOPE
Only man-caused groundwater pollution is considered in this
review.
All groundwaters contain salts in solution, the local concentra-
tion depending upon the previous history of the water as well as upon
geologic and hydrologic influences. Natural sources may have intro-
duced more pollutants into a given groundwater body than have the
activities of man—but the activities of man, rather than those of nature,
3
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INTRODUCTKN
are the ones addressed by the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
Amendments of 1972 (Public Law 92-500; 86 Stat. 816). Thus, the
concern of EPA and the States, under P. L. 92-500, is to control the
activities of man so as to prevent, reduce, and eliminate groundwater
pollution, and to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and
biological integrity of the Nation T s groundwaters.
APPROACH
Literature included in this report was selected on the basis of its
significance and relevance from a variety of bibliographies, general
references, and abstracts. Where an abstract was not available to
judge the value of the reference, the original reference was consulted
to determine its pertinence. In some cases, only the title of a refer-
ence could be located in available libraries and within the time con-
straints of this study. Where the title appeared to so warrant, the
reference was included at the end of the tt References Cited list.
Excluded from consideration are all unpublished materials, ad-
ministrative regulations at all governmental levels, and legal reports.
The study has been limited to the literature of the United States, with
the exception of a few Canadian reports and a recent report on the
European groundwater pollution situation. Items of historical interest
have also been excluded because they have limited bearing on the cur-
rent and future pollution situation; only a few references were included
that predate 1950.
In the area of research repo rts, selections were restricted to
those directly concerning changes in groundwater quality. Numerous
works which indirectly relate to the subject, including flow and mixing
phenomena in porous media, infiltration and clogging rates, adsorptive
and ion exchange properties of soils, etc., were excluded.
4
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ORGANIZATION
ORGANIZATION
Sections III through VI contain annotated listings of bibliographies,
important general references, abstracts, and European references.
Thereafter, the literature is reviewed in essay form on a subject basis.
Seven subject headings are covered in Sections VII to XIII. Under
each of these, several subsections review literature on a given topic.
Each of the 595 references reviewed is classified under one of the 30
topical headings. Many papers and reports embrace more than one
subject; these have been assigned to the section which seemed most ap-
propriate. Consequently, in using this review a reader is advised to
consider closely related topics which may contain reviews that trove
pertinent to his particular interest. Note also the ‘General’ category
in Section X l i, which contains references on all facets of roundwater
pollution.
At the end of the report all references cited h number in Sections
VII to XIII are listed in complete bibliographic form. in the order men-
tioned in the text. Finally, an author index of the references cited is
included to facilitate location of particular materials.
5
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SECTION III
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
The following recently published bibliographies are closely related
to the subject of groundwater pollution. Annotations describe the scope
and extent of material included in each bibliography.
(A) Subsurface Water Pollution—A Selective Annotated Bibliog-
rap y , Pt. I—Subsurface Waste Injection, Pt. Il—Saline Water Intrusion,
Pt. II I — Percolation from Surface Sources. U. S. Environmental Pro -
tection Agency, Washington, D.C. March 1972. 156 p., 161 p., 162 p.
These three volumes contain a total of 319 references; all are
directly related to groundwater pollution. References include
abstracts and are arranged according to WRSIC accession num-
bers. Each part of the bibliography includes a significant descrip-
tor index and a comprehensive subject index.
(B) Bader, J. S., and others. Selected References —Ground-
Water Contamination, The United States of America and Puerto Rico .
U.S. GeologicalSurvey. Washington, D.C. 1973. lO3p.
This contains 834 references without abstracts. Numerous co..
operative area investigations by the U.S. Geological Survey are
listed alphabetically by author. Particularly valuable are indexes
according to geographic areas, states, kinds of contamination,
sources of contamination, and general discussions.
(C) Rima, D.R., E.B. Chase, andB.M. Myers. Subsurface
Waste Disposal by Means of Wells —A Selective Annotated Bibliography .
6
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BIBLIOGRAPHIES
Water-Supply Paper 2020. U.S. Geological Survey. Washington, D.C.
1971. 305 p.
A total of 692 references with abstracts covering source mate-
rials through 1969 are included. The references are about equally
divided among three topics: disposal of oil-field brines, research
on disposal of radioactive wastes, and case histories of industrial
injection wells. Abstracts are arranged alphabetically by author.
Geographic and subject indexes conclude the bibliography.
(D) WRSIC Bibliographies. In 1971 the Water Resources Scien-
tific Information Center began publication of a series of bibliographies
in water resources produced from the extensive information base com-
prising Selected Water Resources Abstracts .
Each bibliography includes a significant descriptor index, a com-
prehensive subject index, and an author index. References include
abstracts and are arranged according to WRSIC accession numbers.
The following bibliographies have been selected as being those
which may or do contain references pertaining to groundwater pollu-
tion. The three bibliographies listed under the heading Subsurface
Water Pollution are identical to those described in (A) above. For
identification purposes the WRSIC numbers follow the titles. The
PB numbers indicate availability from the National Technical In-
formation Service.
Strontium in Water WRSIC 71-201 PB 201268
Arsenic and Lead in Water WRSIC 71-209 PB 202578
DDT in Water WRSIC 71 -211 PB 212262
Detergents in Water WRSIC 71-214 PB 206527
Dieldrin In Water WRSIC 72-2 02 PB 207339
Aidrin and Enoirin in WRSIC 720203 PB 210922
Water
Chromium in Water WRSIC 72-205 PB 210921
7
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B BLIOGRAPHIES
Mercury in Water WRSIC 72-207 PB 206535
Soil Nitrogen Cycle WRSIC 72-208 PB 209931
Sanitary Landfills WRSIC 72-214 PB 211565
Subsurface Water Pollution
1. Subsurface Waste
WRSIC 72-220E PB 211340
Inj ection
II. Saline Water Intrusion WRSIC 72-221E PB 211341
Ill. Percolation from
WRSIC 72-222E PB 211342
Surface Sources
PCB in Water WRSIC 73-201 PB 217859
Artificial Recharge
WRSIC 73-202
of Groundwater
Cadmium in Water WRSIC 73-209 PB 218829
Water Reuse 1 Volume I WRSIC 73-2 15
Water Reuse, Volume 2 WRSIC 73-215
8
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SECT ION IV
IMPORTANT GENERAL REFERENCES
Among the numerous references relating to groundwater pollution,
a few view the subject broadly and comprehensively. Because such
general references are important for persons wishing to obtain an intro-
duction to the subject, these publications have been specially listed and
described below.
(A) Ground Water Contamination, Proceedings of the 1961 Sympo-
sium . Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare. Tech. Rept. W61-5. 1961. 218 p.
This report summarizes papers and discussions of a Public Health
Service symposium on groundwater contamination. A total of 38
papers were presented, organized around five topics: (1) Hydro-
geological aspects of groundwater contamination, (2) Types of
contaminants, (3) Specific incidents of contaminants in ground-
water, (4) Regulations and their administration, and (5) Research
on groundwater contamination. Some 192 references are included.
This is the earliest comprehensive analysis of the many facets of
groundwater pollution.
(B) Ballentine, R.K., S.R. Reznek, and C.W. Hall. Subsurface
Pollution Problems in the United States . U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Washington, D.C. Tech. Studies Rept. TS-OO-72-O2. May
1972. 2 9p.
A general discussion of the subject is presented under the headings
of deep well injection, percolation from surface sources, salt
water intrusion, and controls.
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IMPORTANT GENERAL REFERENCES
(C) Fuhriman, D. K., and 3. R. Barton. Ground Water Pollution
in Arizona, California, Nevada, and Utah . Fu.hriman, Barton and
Assocs. Washington, D.C. Water Pollution Research Series Rept.
16060 ERU 12/71. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. December
1971. 24 9p.
This report covers groundwater pollution problems in Arizona,
California, Nevada, arid Utah. Natural mineralization is men-
tioned as the most important influence on groundwater quality.
Significant man-caused effects include irrigation return flows, sea
water intrusion, solid wastes, and disposal of oil field brines.
Research needs to control pollution are discussed. The report
includes a list of 241 references, a glossary of terms, a summary
of water quality standards for various water uses, and a bibliog-
raphy of 1132 items.
(D) Scaif, M.R., J.W. Keeley, and C.J. LaFevers. Ground
Water Pollution in the South Central States . US. Environment Protec-
tion Agency. Corvallis, Oregon. Rept. EPA-R2-73-268. June 1973.
181 p.
This report describes present and potential groundwater pollution
problems of Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and
Texas. Mineralization due to natural causes is listed as the most
influential factor on groundwater quality, while oil field activities
constitute the greatest man-made cause. Research needs to solve
problems associated with various causes of underground pollution
are enumerated. The report includes a list of 132 references, a
glossary of terms, a summary of water quality standards for
various water uses, and a bibliography of 385 items.
(E) Ground-Water Contamination—An Explanation of Its Causes
and Effects . Geraghty & Miller, Inc. Port Washington, N.Y. May
1972. 15 p.
10
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IMPORTANT GENERAL REFERENCES
This pamphlet gives a general description of groundwater pollu-
tion. Included are causes and types of contamination, geologic
influences and the movement of pollutants, governmental regula-
tion, and investigations for control. A suggested reading list of
33 items concludes the report.
(F) Pettyjohn, W.A. (editor). Water Quality in a Stressed En-
vironment . Minneapolis, Minn., Burgess, 1973. 309 p.
This book consists of a collection of previously published papers
on water pollution. Geologic controls associated with ground-
water pollution are the subject of five papers, while seven others
describe examples of groundwater pollution. Included in the
examples are reports on pollution from industrial plants, chemi-
cal plants, oil field brines, sewage lagoons, horse stables, septic
tanks, and bacteria and viruses.
(C) Campbell, M. D., and J. H. Lehr. Ground Water Pollution.
In: Water Well Technology . New York, N.Y., McGraw-Hill, 1973.
p. 11-28.
This chapter gives a brief review of the causes of groundwater
pollution with emphasis on effects of wells. A list of 32 references
is included.
(H) Meyer, C.F. (editor). Polluted Groundwater: Some Causes,
Effects ontrols, and Monitoring . General Electric Company. Santa
Barbara, Calif. Rept. EPA-600/4-73-OOlb. U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency. July 1973. 264 p.
This comprehensive report describes methods for controlling
groundwater pollution resulting from injection wells into saline
water and freshwater aquifers; land disposal and septic systems;
sewer, tank, and pipeline leakage; surface waters, the atmo-
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IMPORTANT GENERAl. REFERENCES
sphere, and urban areas; salt water intrusion in coastal and in-
land aquifers; and spills and artificial recharge. In addition, for
each causal factor the environmental consequences, pollution
movement, and monitoring procedures are discussed. The report
includes 33 figures, 29 tables, and 256 references.
(I) WPCF Research Committee. 1972 Water Pollution Control
Literature Review— Effects on Groundwater. Jour. Water Pollution
CojitrolFederation . 45: 1296-1301, June 1973.
This annual review (which appears in each June issue) summarizes
briefly the recent groundwater pollution literature. A total of 30
references are discussed, almost all having appeared in 1972.
(It should be noted that other sections of the review may also con-
tain pertinent material: continuous monitoring, automated anal-
ysis, and sampling procedures; lagoons and oxidation ponds;
detergents; water reclamation and reuse; deep-well injection;
agricultural wastes; solid wastes and water quality; and radio-
active wastes.)
12
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SECTION V
ABSTRACTS
WRSIC
Abstracts of most current literature in the water resources field
are prepared on a continuing basis by contractors for the Water Re-
sources Scientific Information Center (WRSIC) of the Office of Water
Resources Research. The abstracts are computerized and can be re-
trieved by using descriptors. As of February 1973 the data base con-
tained more than 53,000 abstracts. The service began in 1969, but an
effort has been made to include important earlier references.
For a nominal fee WRSIC will search any topic, using appropriate
descriptor words, and deliver a printout of the resulting abstracts.
WRSIC abstracts for the current study were obtained using the following
descriptors:
Aquifers Oil Wells
Artificial Recharge Pollutants
Brines Pollution Abatement
Deep Well Pumping Salt Water Intrusion
Deep Wells Springs
Farm Wastes Waste Disposal
Ground Water Waste Water Disposal
Injection Wells Water Quality
Land Disposal Water Reuse
Monitoring Water Spreading
Oil Wastes Water Wells
Wells
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ABSTRACTS
NTIS
The National Technical Information Service (NTIS) of the U. S.
Department of Commerce has a data base consisting of more than
300,000 document records dating back to 1964. Occasionally, lists of
abstracts are prepared on a subject basis from these extensive holdings.
In November 1972 NTIS issued Subsurface Water Pollution by Percola-
tion —Selected Abstracts (Rept. NTIS-PK-134), which contains 35 ref-
erences and abstracts.
14
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SECTION VI
EUROPEAN LITERATURE
The European literature relating to groundwater pollution is ex-
tensive. Much of it is not available in English. No attempt was made
in this review to evaluate European contributions; however, a recent
international conference on the subject provided a convenient and use-
ful insight to the European situation,
In September 1972, the Water Research Association of England
organized a Groundwater Pollution Conference in Reading, England.
The 23 papers and 12 case histories presented at the conference
covered all aspects of groundwater pollution with emphasis on European
problems and practices. Three conference volumes were published,
containing papers, case histories, and discussions and bibliographies.
These were issued in a limited edition and are not available in the
United States. Subsequently, a conference summary was prepared in
this country, of which a few copies are available:
Todd, D. K. Groundwater Pollution in Europe —A Conference
Summary . General Electric Company—TEMPO. Santa Barbara,
Calif. Rept. GE73TMP-l. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. January 1973. 79 p.
The conference made it clear that groundwater pollution is a
problem in the heavily populated and industrial portions of Europe.
Governmental bodies are working to formulate legislative and regula-
tory mechanisms to prevent and control pollution. In England new
(1972) legislation will aid in stemming pollution from hazardous wastes;
15
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EUROPEAN LITERATURE
the pollution probeims in fissured chalk (limestone) aquifers are par-
ticularly troublesome.
Groundwater pollution caused by oil and petroleum products is a
significant problem in Europe. Efforts to minimize and control the
problem are most advanced in Sweden and Switzerland.
In West Germany the use of protective zones which govern land
use around groundwater supply installations appears to be an effective
pollution preventative. An English language translation of an authorita-
tive German document on the subject is included in the above conference
Summary.
16
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SECTION VII
URBAN POLLUTION
EFFLUENT RECHARGE
Effluent from municipal wastewater treatment plants often is dis-
charged into surface waters. However, in some instances the treated
water is reclaimed by percolating it into the ground to recharge aquifers.
The groundwater pollution possibilities inherent in water reclamation by
artificial recharge projects have been explored frequently. In 1955
the University of C lifornia Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory
gathered and evaluated pertinent studies, and reviewed methods and
statistics of recharge by effluent spreading and injection. Data on infil-
tration rates and pollution travel were cited, along with the engineering
and economic aspects involved.
In 1968 Popkin and Bendixen 2 summarized studies on the applica-
tion of liquid waste to the soil, in which continuing hydraulic acceptance
and percolate quality were stressed. Results suggested that design and
operation of a soil adsorption system could be improved by weekly dosing
and/or by use of improved pretreatment processes.
Tchobanoglous and Eliassen 3 in 1969 discussed various factors
related to the indirect cycle of water reuse. Methods of treated waste-
water recharge were surface spreading, direct injection, and pits and
leach field seepage. Recharge operations required consideration of the
rate, quality, and quantity of wastewater application; site characteris -
tics; and available treatment processes. Finally, a cost-benefit analy-
sis for economic feasibility of indirect reuse of reclaimed water was
outlined.
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URBAN POLLUTION
In 1969 Bouwer 4 described how aerobic percolation and subse-
quent lateral movement of low quality water could remove biodegradable
materials, pathogenic organisms, and certain inorganic substances.
With respect to problems of recharge basin management, the report
warned against allowing accumulation of suspended materials on the
basin bottom and against insufficient oxygen reaching the soil during
dryups. Basins also needed to avoid excessive water table buildup while
achieving maximum recharge per unit area. Nitrate reduction by
denitrification was identified as a major problem in renovating sewage
effluent.
The geohydrology of liquid waste disposal by irrigation was re-
viewed by Vorn and Stephenson 5 in 1969. The thickness, nature, and
distribution of unconsolidated surface deposits determined infiltration,
adsorption storage, and downward movement of wastewater. The uses
of infiltrorneter tests, laboratory examinations, and flow systems were
explained as methods of monitoring wastewater recharge.
Additional monitoring and control methods were analyzed by
Martin 6 in 1969. The importance of soil surveys in minimizing leach-
ing, erosion, and groundwater contamination was stressed, and a
Minnesota soil survey was included. Nitrogen contamination problems
could be controlled by anaerobic conditions, plant growth, holding
lagoons, and rotation spreading. In addition, several successful land
waste disposal systems were described.
Dvoracek and Wheaton 7 in 1970 presented various localized
examples of groundwater contamination by artificial recharge due to
poor quality recharge water. Various methods of recharge were de-
scribed (including wells, shafts, holes, pits, trenches, spreading, and
‘clean” nuclear explosions), and the contamination potential of each was
discussed.
18
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EFFLUENT RECHARGE
More recently, in 197Z and 1973, planning and design criteria for
specific waste disposal methods have been presented. The Pennsylvania
Bureau of Water Quality Management 8 published a manual on spray irri-
gation methods and designs. The design and engineering aspects of a
proposed operation, site selection criteria, and essential groundwater
quality monitoring data were all detailed.
Similarly, Bernhart 9 analyzed various soil infiltration and evapo-
transpiration methods of wastewater disposal. Project design and area
calculations for seepage beds were included, and the effectiveness of
septic tanks, aeration tanks, conventional tile fields, and seepage beds
were charted. The study also considered the ‘horizontal protective dis -
tance required for water supply wells under various conditions.
More localized studies of effluent recharge and disposal problems
and practices have also been done in many states since 1950. Two
Pennsylvania State University studies in 1967-68 dealt with the renova-
tion of wastewater effluent by irrigation of forest land. Pennypacker,
et al. conducted a field study of treated sewage effluent sprayed on
forest land, and found that while ABS and phosphorus were removed in
the top soil layers, greater depths were required to remove nitrate,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sodium. Sopper 1 applied treated
municipal wastewater to forested areas, and achieved satisfactory reno-
vation at rates up to four inches per week during April-November.
MBAS concentration in the effluent exceeded standards for potable
water, but was decreased to safe levels after passing through the forest
floor and six inches of mineral soil. Approximately 90 percent of the
applied wastewater was recharged to the groundwater reservoir at an
application rate of two inches per week.
A review of the sewage disposal system of St. Charles, Charles
County, Maryland, appeared in Ground Water Age’ 2 in 1973. Waste-
water had been renovated to approximate drinking water by means of
sewage lagoon systems supplemented by spray irrigation procedures.
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URBAN POLLUFION
In 1968 Bendixen, et al. 13 reported on the monitoring of a munici-
pal ridge and furrow liquid waste disposal system in Westby, Wisconsin.
Four one-acre basins disposed trickling filter effluent into the soil, and
a heavy stand of unharvested grass apparently contributed to successful
operation. The changes in infiltration rates and infiltrate quality due to
season and various loading and operating conditions were examined.
Ketelle’ 4 in 1971 presented a general discussion of hydrologic
and geologic factors relating to liquid waste disposal, with a case study
in Southeastern Wisconsin. The geography, climate, geology, soils,
and groundwater of a seven-county region were analyzed, and a final
map of the area was developed indicating suitability of areas for liquid
waste disposal.
Muskegon County, Michigan, was the site of research preparations
by Chaiken, et al. 15 in 1972 to study the land disposal of treated sewage
by spraying. A detailed observation well network was set ap consisting
of about 300 wells along the storage lagoon ditches and the site periphery.
Samples were to be analyzed for 43 physical, biological, and chemical
water quality parameters.
In 1968 Harvey and Skeltonl 6 summarized a field study at a Spring-
field, Missouri, sewage plant. Secondary treated effluent traveled
underground where aeration was impossible. The turbidity and odor of
the groundwater made it unsuitable for most purposes. Seepage runs,
dye studies, and a seismograph survey were used to determine the source
of the pollution.
Brown and Signor’ 7 in 1972 surveyed the principles and methods
of groundwater recharge in the Southern High Plains of New Mexico and
Texas. Artificial recharge pollution hazards included recharge waters
with high particulate matter concentrations and faulty design and con-
struction of wells.
20
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EFFLUENT RECHARGE
An ‘overland flow’ sprinkler irrigation system successfully dis-
posed of the wastewaters of a cannery plant in Paris, Texas. A 1973
article in Water and Sewage Works’ 8 reported a 99 percent reduction in
BOD and up to 90 percent reduction in nitrogen from vegetable and
grease wastes. The 640 acres were designed to accept an application
rate of one-quarter to one-half inch per day. No underground migration
of pollutants occurred due to downslope percolation, terrace collection,
and channels to a receiving stream.
An experimental project on reclaiming water from secondary
sewage effluent with infiltration basins in the dry Salt River bed near
Phoenix, Arizona, has been uniquely successful (the Flushing Meadows
Project). Bouwer’ 9 ’ 21, 22 and Bouwer, et al. 23 ’ 24 have de-
scribed this project from 1 968 to 1 972. The hydrogeology of the Salt
River bed was very suitable for high rate wastewater reclamation by
groundwater recharge. The project contained six recharge basins, with
infiltration rates decreasing from grass to gravel to bare soil basins.
Effective removal of 90 percent of nitrogen was obtained with long
inundation periods, and the usual reductions in BOD, coliforms, and
phosphorus were observed. In addition, these studies indicated that
the cost of surface-spreading renovation of wastewater for groundwater
recharge was comparable to tertiary in-plant treatment costs.
Hydraulic properties of the Salt River aquifer (including anisot-
ropy) were evaluated by electric analog, and plans for a large scale
project consisting of central collection wells flanked by strips of re-
charge basins on both sides of the river bed were developed. Bouwer 2 ’
in 1970 presented criteria for design of such a system: (1) a maximum
limit for the elevation of the water table mound beneath the spreading
areas; (2) a minimum limit for underground detention time and travel
distance to the wells; and (3) a minimum contamination of the ground-
water in the aquifer outside the recharge system.
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URBAN POLLUTION
In 1968 Wilson, et al. examined the dilution of an industrial
waste effluent with river water in a thick vadose alluvium during pit re-
charge near the Santa Cruz River, Arizona. Water content profiles and
groundwater hydrographs were observed near the recharge site and an
abutting ephemeral stream. The report concluded that recharging of
highly ccncentrated waters should coincide with periods of fully de-
veloped river recharge mounds and/or when ephemeral streams were
discharging, and recommended evaluation of pumping as a mixing and
blending procedure. The significance of groundwater quality monitoring
was also emphsized.
Sewage reclamation projects by artificial recharge throughout
California have been extensively documented since 1950. Stone and
Barber 26 described the infiltration of sewage effluent through a spread-
ing basin in Los Angeles County in 1951. It was found that if aerobic
conditions were maintained in the percolating fluid, successive increases
in TDS were small enough to allow the wastewater to be reused two to
five times. Standards for dissolved oxygen and BOD contents in the
percolated fluid to insure satisfactory groundwater were also discussed.
In 1953, the California State Water Pollution Control Board 27 re-
ported on bacterial and chemical pollution at a wastewater reclamation
project at Lodi. Bacteriologically safe water from settled sewage or
final effluent resulted from passage through at least four feet of soil,
and water of satisfactory chemical quality was achieved when the raw
sewage did not contain high concentrations of undesirable industrial
wastes. Maximum safe percolation rates, various spreading techniques,
and side effects (e.g. mosquitoes, algae, and odors) of wastewater
reclamation were also discussed.
Stone 28 in 1953 surveyed methods of land disposal of domestic
sewage and industrial wastes throughout California. The need for an
aerobic environment was stressed in every method, and standby lagoons,
22
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EFFLUENT RECHARGE
spreading basins, and irrigation fields were recommended for peak and
emergency effluent loads. No cases of groundwater contamination were
reported in 69 communities having sewage farms.
In 1958 the California Department of Water Resources 29 presented
data on sewage treatment facilities and the status of existing and pro-
posed reclamation projects. Examples included proposed spreading
basins to recharge the San Lois Ray groundwater basin.
McMichael and McKee 3 ° conducted a 1962-65 field investigation
and laboratory study of percolation of municipal wastewater effluents at
Whittier Narrows, Los Angeles County, California. Chemical analyses
of 25 test wells monitored at various depths and of sampling pans be-
neath the basins revealed satisfactory degradation of nitrates, chlorides,
and ABS under aerobic conditions. The successful control methods
consisted of activated sludge plants combined with a six-inch layer of
pea gravel on the spreading basins.
In 1966 Doneen 31 summarized a field investigation of the native
salts in the substrata of the west side and trough of the San Joaquin
Valley of California. A proposed program of cyclic use and storage of
groundwater involving recharge of underground storage basins in the
area was shown to be extremely hazardous. A summary of data at three
typical sites disclosed that gypsum, salines, and exchangeable sodium
in the substrata would cause percolating or recharge waters reaching
the groundwater to be of very poor quality.
In 1971 Matthews and Franks 32 reported on tests at the 11 Cinder
Cone sewage disposal area at North Lake Tahoe, California. Geologic
and hydrologic features of the region were evaluated, and results of
drill hole testing indicated that the subsurface would accept the sewage
effluent. Trenches were made in the area, and percolation rates were
studied to discover effective filtration and treatment. In general, no
change in groundwater quality was detected in the sampling areas.
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URBAN POLLUTION
Boen, et al. in 1971 completed a project which investi-
gated the feasibility and safety of neutilizing wastewater recycled through
the groundwater of the Hemet-San Jacinto Valley of California. An addi-
tional objective of the six-year study was to analyze any benefits to the
area salt balance problem caused by recharging. Yearly quantities of
wastewater reclaimed were given, and the lack of groundwater pollution
at surrounding water wells was attributed to the inhomogeneous nature
of the basin geology. The study added invaluable knowledge to the tech-
nology of intermittent wastewater percolation and associated monitoring
techniques. In addition, a novel feature of the project was the employ-
ment of highly sensitive temperature probes to trace the lateral migra-
tion of the recharged water.
In 1972 Young, et al. 36 outlined a planned study of wastewater
reclamation by irrigation on Oahu, Hawaii. Wastewater recharge by
sprinklers was contemplated, and the effects of virus and salt movement
on groundwater quality were to be analyzed.
LA ND FILLS
Municipal dumps and sanitary landfills have long been recognized
as potential sources of groundwater pollution; however, little quantita-
tive information as to their specific effects was available. To rectify
this situation a series of studies was undertaken in California under
sponsorship of various state agencies. The earliest of these was a
study of the sanitary landfill at Riverside, California, in 1953-54. 37.38
Field measurements showed that pollution was limited to small increases
in total dissolved solids wherf. the water table was in contact with the
landfill. Rainfall at that location was not sufficient to produce leachate.
Pollution moved in the direction of groundwater flow, showed limited
vertical mixing, and was confined to the shallowest portion of the aquifer.
Pollution was detected as far as one-half mile downstream of the land-
fill. Most gas formed in the landfill escaped to the atmosphere.
24
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LA ND FILLS
In a California review of groundwater pollution from refuse dumps
in 1961, the causes of pollution were identified as infiltration and
percolation of surface water, refuse decomposition, gas production and
movement, leaching, and groundwater movement. Research proj ects
were recommended to provide information so that pollution could be
minimized.
A field investigation of the production of gases in a landfill and
its effect on groundwater quality at Azusa, California was reported in
1965.40 Sizable CO 2 concentrations can be expected in the bottom layer
of refuse for many years. The concentration of CO 2 in groundwater de-
pended upon the depth to the water table and the groundwater flow rate.
Forms of gas control considered were liners, fill, soil injection, venti-
lation, and burning.
In 1969 the California Department of Water Resources reported
on four experimental landfills in California, 41 while Coe summarized
the results in 1970. 42 Groundwater impairment was typified by tem-
porary increases in organic material and permanent increases in total
dissolved solids, chloride, sulfate, and, in addition, hardness and
bicarbonate from effects of CO 2 . It was recommended that sanitary
landfills should be designed as a system with primary concern given to
site selection, materials to be deposited, construction and operation
techniques, and use of the completed fill. A classification scheme was
described for physical characteristics of a site according to the degree
of protection afforded receiving waters and to the type of refuse to be
disposed.
A detailed study of the hydrogeo logic aspects of solid waste
disposal sites was conducted in Northeastern Illinois by the Illinois
State Geological Survey during the period 1 967-70. Results of the
study have led to a series of reports on hydrogeology of refuse sites,
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URBAN POLLUTION
groundwater pollution, site selection, and design criteria. The initial
report 43 described geologic environments in Northeastern Illinois and
their relation to those considered safe for refuse disposal, namely, low
permeability, relatively dry areas, and hydrologically protected sites.
Hughes, et al. evaluated the hydrogeologic environments in the
vicinity of four existing landfill sites in the Chicago area. Movement
and dissolved solid contents of groundwater were determined; informa-
tion obtained can be used by regulatory agencies to define suitable land-
fill sites. It was emphasized that groundwater flow systems must be
determined if movement of refuse leachate is to be predicted and that
this may be difficult except in homogeneous materials.
The problem of leachate pollution either from rainfall or high
water tables was discussed based on the Illinois study by Landon in
1 969. ‘ He mentioned that liners for landfills are often impractical,
costly, and can lead to problems when leaks develop. Preferred con-
trol alternatives are based on site selection and include: (a) knowledge
of existing hydrogeologic conditions which would favorably control rate
and direction of leachate migration, (b) engineering the landfill to col-
lect and treat leachate, and (c) construction of limited collection
facilities to supplement natural conditions.
A comprehensive report on the Illinois study was prepared by
Hughes, et al. 46 in 1971. The distribution and concentration of dis-
solved solids in the vicinity of four landfills in Northeastern Illinois
were measured and found to be controlled by the groundwater flow sys-
tem. Attenuation of dissolved solids in groundwater after leaving the
landfill was primarily influenced by the particle size of earth materials
and the distance traveled. Precipitation was adequate to leach a com-
pleted landfill. It was concluded that where the natural environment is
not capable of containing or assimilating leachate, a landfill can be
made safe by lining the disposal site, by collecting and treating the
leachate, or by other relatively simple engineering procedures.
26
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LANDFILLS
A summary report of the same study 47 pointed out that 90 percent
of Illinois is suitable for sanitary landfills because of fine-textured
surficial materials and favorable locations within hydrogeologic flow
systems; however, the remaining 10 percent contains most of the pro-
posed landfill sites. It was stressed that although technology is avail-
able to handle solid waste disposal problems, regulations and their im-
plementation are major needed requirements.
A by-product of the Illinois landfill study was a report by Cart-
wright and McComas in 196848 on the use of electrical resistivity and
soil temperature surveys to measure groundwater pollution from land-
fill leachates. Comparisons were made with groundwater quality mea-
surements in monitor wells. One resistivity survey traced mineralized
water from a landfill for a distance of more than 1, 000 feet and flow
patterns agreed with interpretations based on monitor well data. The
geophysical surveys showed, in general, that chemically altered water
is traceable in uniform earth materials where the depth of the water
table is constant. The soil temperature survey indicated the presence
of a halo of higher temperatures around the landfill as well as areas of
surface recharge.
The Illinois study produced detailed site evaluation criteria for
landfills. 9 To protect groundwater and surface water, landfills should
be located in relatively impermeable material to retard Jeachate move-
ment, and there should be at least 30 feet of impermeable material be-
tween the bottom of the landfill and the shallowest aquifer. Proper site
topography is important to avoid surface drainage contamination. Lime-
stone quarries and sand and gravel pits make poor sites, as do poorly
drained swampy areas. Strip mines, clay pits, and gravel pits with a
high percentage of natural clay binder do make good disposal sites if
kept dry. Flat upland areas are also good sites if a clay barrier is
present above any aquifer. It was concluded that careful selection of a
landfill site will result in little, if any, danger of groundwater pollution.
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URBAN POLLUTION
In 1969 Farvolden and Hughes, ° using the Illinois study data,
suggested sanitary landfill design criteria to minimize pollution of
groundwater. Most important is to keep the landfill unsaturated. If
this isnot possible, hydrologic conditions must prevent fast migration
of leachate or provide convergent flow toward collection sites; these
could be natural slopes or ditches, drains, and pumping wells. Where
refuse is piled to form a hill (for subsequent recreational use) ground-
water flow in the vicinity is controlled by the groundwater mound that
develops under the hill of refuse. Springs of objectionable leachate
should be anticipated where the hill method is employed.
A comprehensive study of the effects of a landfill on groundwater
quality was conducted at Brookings, South Dakota, during the period
1964-72. by Andersen and Dornbush. ‘ , E Initial results led to con-
clusions that chloride, sodium, and specific conductance were the
most useful parameters for detecting contamination and that because
ionic concentrations increased during rainy seasons, effects of leaching
overrode those of dilution. Water quality improved with distance down-
stream from the landfill; also, a trench constructed to intercept ground-
water as it moved from the fill area acted to improve the water quality.
Later results led to recommendations that disposal sites within the in-
fluence of pumping wells should be avoided, that deposition of refuse
into ponds and at depths touching the water table should be avoided, that
burning be minimized because it increases the permeability and hence
the leaching of wastes, and that tight cover soils and good drainage
should be provided to reduce leaching.
A survey of information on landfill pollution by Weaver in 1 64
led to statements that leaching of refuse can produce organic, mineral,
and bacteriological pollution, and that where refuse is in contact with a
water table, the water may become unfit for domestic or irrigation use.
Although bacterial and organic pollution may be limited in extent,
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LA NI FILLS
chemical pollution—including methane, CO 2 , ammonia, and hydrogen
sulfide —may range over long distances.
In 1968 Lane and Parizek 55 reported on a detailed field investiga-
tion of a landfill near State College, Pennsylvania. The landfill is
situated on steep slopes over a dry valley bottom with the water table
about 250 feet deep. To monitor water quality, leachate was intercepted
by a plastic sheet and carried to an infiltration trench. Suction lysim-
eters were installed at various depths in the soil beneath the landfill
trench. Movement of a wave front of leachate-polluted soil water could
be traced in the soil, indicating that severe pollution of soil water in the
immediate vicinity of a landfill can result even though the landfill isnot
in direct contact with a water table and even before the refuse has be-
come saturated to field capacity.
A later field study of landfill leachate at the same State College,
Pennsylvania, site was reported by Apgar and Langmuir in 1 971. 56
Samples of the leachate in the unsaturated sandy-clay to sandy-loam
soils beneath the landfill were collected. The quantity and quality of
leachate varied considerably with the topographic setting of landfill
trenches. High values of specific conductance, chloride, BOD, nitrate-
nitrogen, and iron were reported. Leachate moved downward at the
rate of 6-11 ft/yr and was found to be highly contaminated at depths of
50 feet or more.
Remson, et al. ‘ ‘ in 1968 analyzed the water movement in an un-
saturated sanitary landfill. Moisture-routing methods were applied to
predict vertical movement of moisture through a hypothetical 1ar 1fill
based upon climatological techniques and hydraulic properties of the
fill and the overlying soil cover. Results showed that the time elapsed
before the appearance of leachate depended on the season of emplace-
ment and the initial moisture content.
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URBAN POLLUTION
A short review paper by Dair 58 in 1969 pointed out that although
landfills in Southern California have been intensively investigated,
problems of discovering feasible yet sanitary methods of depositing
refuse in direct contact with groundwater, of evaluating the amount of
leachate to water tables, and of developing barriers to prevent the
escape of refuse-produced gases in groundwater still remain to be
solved.
Qasim and Burchinal 59 in 1970 reported on analyses of leachate
from simulated landfills consisting of 3-ft. diameter cylinders filled
with mixed refuse, saturated with water, and with additional water
added at two-week intervals. The concentration of leachate increased
initially, began to decrease after four weeks, and increased again after
eight weeks. Reports were presented on 18 organic and inorganic
compounds over the 163 days of the study. Leach samples tended to
undergo bacteriological and chemical self-purification.
Two existing sanitary landfill sites in Madison, Wisconsin, were
examined by Kaufman 6 ° in 1 970. He found that groundwater adjacent to
the landfills received pollutants although adverse effects were limited.
Groundwater recharge was between 35 to 50 percent of annual precipi-
tation with lateral discharge to adjacent groundwater and surface-water
resources. The increase in dissolved solids was high but restricted to
local areas.
The basic pollution problems of solid waste disposal were re-
viewed in 1970 by Schneider. 61 The 1400 million pounds of solid wastes
produced each day in the United States are disposed of by one of four
methods: open dumps, sanitary landfill, incineration, and onsite dis-
posal. Each method carries an inherent potential for water pollution.
Seepage of rainwater through wastes leaches undesirable constituents
which may then cause biological and chemical pollution of groundwater.
Pollution potential is highest in permeable areas with a shallow water
30
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LANDFILLS
table where wastes are in direct contact with groundwater. Site selec-
tion for solid waste disposal must be based on adequate water resources
information if pollution is to be minimized.
A similar survey of the hydrogeological aspects of selecting refuse
disposal sites in Idaho was made by Williams and Wallace 62 in 1970.
They recommended environments with low permeabilities, deep water
tables, and protective engineered sites such as impermeable liners and
covers.
A comprehensive review of groundwater pollution due to munici-
pal dumps was prepared in 1971 by Hughes, et ai. 6 Topics covered
included groundwater pollution by solid wastes; significant research in
this field; regulations; criteria for site selection; safeguards; and ob-
servation, detection, and identification of pollutants. Two bibliographies
of over 600 references completed the report. It should also be noted
that a bibliography on sanitary landfill leachate travel was prepared by
Emery 6 in 1971.
Design procedures for controlling groundwater pollution from
sanitary landfills were described by Salvato, et al. 65 in 1971. Pri-
mary pollutants are BOD, COD, iron, chloride, and nitrate. Leachate
originates as groundwater, surface water drainage, or precipitation;
moisture within the refuse itself is only rarely adequate to produce
movement. Detailed descriptions of means to control leachate from
each source were presented, including impermeable barriers, surface
and subsurface drains, and sumps with pumps. Diagrams illustrated
the procedures.
Technical and economic aspects of community disposal systems
and their effects on the environment were described by Sheffer, et al. 66
in 1971. Seven landfills in the United States were reviewed. A landfill
stabilization project at Santa Clara, California, showed that aeration of
sanitary landfills eliminated vermin and bacteria by high-temperature
oxidation.
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URBAN POLLUTION
Fungaroli 67 ’ 68, 69 developed a laboratory and a field sanitary
landfill to provide information on the behavior of sanitary landfills in
an environment common to the northeastern states. The long-range
objectives of the study were: (1) to provide means for predicting move-
ment of pollutants in subsurface regions under sanitary landfill sites;
(2) to develop hydrologic, geologic, and soil criteria for the evaluation
of site suitability for sanitary landfill operations; and (3) to appraise
design methods and remedial procedures for reducing any undesirable
contaminant movement. The reports described experimental facilities
and contained experimental data.
A comprehensive and critical review of the important literature
on the pollution potentials of groundwater from sanitary landfills and
dump grounds was prepared by Zanoni 70 ’ 71 in 1971. He reported that
landfill leachate has highly pollutional characteristics; however, once
in the underground the attenuating mechanisms of dilution, adsorption,
and microbial degradation tend to reduce the impact on groundwater.
Landfill practices in 21 states of the United States were described. A
series of recommendations was presented for regulatory agencies
concerned with approving and licensing solid waste disposal sites. Site
selection, disposal, and construction procedures were included. It
was emphasized that an agency should have a geologist to assist in site
selection processes. Extreme caution should be exercised before
approving ground disposal of industrial wastes. Monitor wells should
be used where doubt exists as to the future effects of a landfill on
groundwater. An agency should endeavor to minimize water percolation
through refuse, thus encoura,ing leachate attenuation. The use of
rock, gravel, or sand quarries for refuse disposal should be prohibited.
Field observations on a landfill at Moscow, Idaho, in 1970 by
Seitz 72 provided information on groundwater pollution effects. It was
found that groundwater in direct contact with solid waste exhibits
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LANDFILLS
dramatic increases in dissolved ions. But downgradient from the
landfill, the leachate caused only a doubling of natural ionic concentra-
tions and thus was still well below critical contamination levels. The
reduction downgradient was attributed to low aquifer transmissivities,
soil filtering, cation exchange, dilution, and utilization of ions by
plants and soil bacteria. In the area studied leachate production and
movement could be minimized if weathered granite could be avoided for
landfill trenches, and if not, impermeable linings should be installed to
retard water movement. Besides sampling from piezometers. the
electrical resistivity method was tested and found satisfactory, pro-
vided traverses were nearly horizontal.
In a study of geohydrologic environments for solid waste disposal
in Maryland, Otton 73 in 1972 reported on landfill leachate analyses
from other states. The applicability of the five types of terrane in
Maryland to solid waste disposal were described, including their soil
and hydrologic characteristics. Suggested criteria for groundwater
protection from landfill leachate included classifying sites and corre-
lating them with the types of waste allowed. Landfill design, such as
providing relatively impervious cover material, was also stressed. It
was recommended that chemical and bacterial quality monitoring of
groundwater be undertaken at three selected sites.
The most recent thinking on the effects of sanitary landfills on
groundwater quality was contained in a summary of an engineering con-
ference on the subject held in l972. Reviewing all available informa-
tion, it was the opinion of participants that landfill leachate can be con-
trolled and need not cause groundwater pollution. To achieve this goal,
however, requires a properly engineered sanitary landfill involving site
selection, cover material, and surface and subsurface leachate collec-
tion systems.
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URBAN POLLUTION
ROAD SALTS
In 1970 Hanes, et al. presented a literature review on the ef-
fects of salts and deicing salt additives on groundwater quality. Road-
side groundwater and shallow well water samples revealed the effects
of high chloride contents on plants and animals. The human health
hazards still appeared speculative. Methods of control discussed in-
cluded diversion ditches, better landscaping, and limited use of salts.
Surveys of the chloride in groundwaters of the Northeast due to
the application of salts to highways have been done by Walker 76 and
Struzeski. Both included examples of threats and damages to do-
mestic and industrial water supplies. In addition, Walker 76 suggested
the inspection of salt storage sites and more efficient salt spreading
equipment and procedures as means to control the problem.
In 1973 Field, et a!. 78 surveyed groundwater pollution due to road
salting in the Northeast and discussed various alternatives to present
chemical melting proceJures. These included: “snow melters”, com-
pressed air or high speed fluid streams in conjunction with snowplow
blades or sweepers, snow/ice adhesion reducing (hydrophobic/icephobic)
substances, and improved vehicular and/or tire design. Moreover,
various types of salt storage facilities designed to reduce pollution were
detailed and diagrammed.
Since 1970 numerous field studies of specific road salt pollution
problems have been reported. Walker 79 detailed a 1955-70 investiga-
tion of chloride in the groundwater from pumping wells in Peoria,
Illinois. The source of pollution was found to be a city street salt
storage facility; control required containment of the salt and pumping
of the chloride-affected groundwater to waste.
A 1965-69 study by Hutchinson 80 attempted to determine the
environmental pollution resulting from an average annual application
34
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ROAD SALTS
of 25 tons of sodium chloride to each mile of paved highway in Maine.
Analyses of groundwater samples indicated that wells and farm ponds
were seriously contaminated with chloride ions, while soil sample
analyses revealed that soils contiguous to highways contained sodium
levels that threatened vegetation and soil drainage.
In 1971 Broecker, et al. 81 summarized measurements of chloride
ion content of ground and surface waters in the suburban area northwest
of New York City. The purpose was to determine whether the temporal
and geographic distribution of the chloride ion resulting from applica-
tions of road deicing salts could be used to determine the time constant
for groundwater renewal. The preliminary study clearly showed that
chloride ion added to the groundwaters of the New York area provided
a valuable indicator of the retention time of soluble pollutants in the
groundwater. Based on the tonnage of salt applied and the percent of
precipitation appearing as runoff, the average chloride increase would
be 40 ppm. Observations at one reservoir in the area showed a value of
30 ppm.
Chloride groundwater pollution by road salts in Massachusetts was
reviewed by Coogan 82 and Huling and Hollocher. 83 Coogan 82 surveyed
the problem since 1940 and concluded the sources of contamination were
salt storage piles and road drainage. He recommended storage of salts
in buildings, not piles, and away from groundwater supplies. Huling
and Hollocher 83 sampled existing wells in the suburban area of Boston,
and found chloride contents up to 100 mg/i, with higher values expected
in wells near roads. A gradual increase up to 1970 was observed, and
the groundwater had exceeded salt limits for persons on low-sodium
diets.
In 1973 Dennis 84 reported on a 1967-73 examination of high
chiorinity groundwater in shallow wells of Indianapolis, Indiana. Run-
off from large quantities of deicing salts in 1966 was the cause of
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URBAN POLLUTION
pollution. Removal of the salt piles in 1968 was expecte l to restore the
groundwater to acceptable concentration levels by 1974.
SEPTIC TANKS
The problem of groundwater contamination in unsewered areas of
Minnesota from 1950- 1959 was attributed by Woodward, et al. 85 to the
widespread use of individual water supplies and sewerage systems
(septic tanks and seepage pits). By 1959, over 40 percent of the water
supplies of one Minneapolis suburb yielded groundwater of high chemical
content. The report included results of a 1959 field study of 98 indi-
vidual water supplies in the city of Coon Rapids and 63, 000 wells in the
metropolitan Minneapolis area. Water samples were analyzed for ni-
trate, surfactant, coliform, and chloride contents, and 47 percent of the
63,000 wells were found to be contaminated. Proposed control methods
included regulation of individual construction, installation of a central
water supply system, and establishment of a central sewage disposal
and collection system.
Polta 86 presented a 1959 discussion of septic tanks as a potential
source of nitrogen and phosphorus contamination due to effluent dis-
charge by means of tile fields and seepage pits. Many soils reduced
possible phosphorus contamination by their phosphorus-fixing capa-
bilities. The extent of nitrogen flow in groundwater was affected by
the adsorption-ion exchange phenomena exhibited by soils, along with
the action of nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria. Phosphorus was not
seen as a serious contamination threat, but nitrogen in groundwater
caused risks of eutrophicatior and methemoglobinemia.
Hall 87 described a l9 8-1970 laboratory study of phosphorus re-
tention by three Maine soil types. Soil column studies were conducted,
using both an aqueous solution of known phosphorus concentration and
a natural septic tank effluent so that the effects of the soil biota on the
retention of phosphorus could be determined. All three soils exhibited
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SEPTIC TANKS
a significant capacity for phosphorus retention, but this capacity was
not inexhaustible. Therefore, extreme care should be exercised in
locating septic tank-drainfield wastewater disposal systems near ground-
water resources.
A detailed literature review of septic tanks and their public health
and environmental quality influences by Patterson, et al. 88 appeared in
1971. The consistently poor performance of septic tanks indicated that
other waste disposal methods were necessary in densely populated areas,
and that more rigorous regulation of design criteria, installation, and
operation were required in sparsely inhabited areas. The bibliography
of the report contained 127 items.
89
In 1971 Crosby, et al. recorded the findings of a six- year hy-
drogeologic investigation of pollution hazards involved with the use of
septic tanks and drainfields in the Spokane Valley of eastern Washington.
Extensive sampling and analysis revealed no evidence of any ground-
water contamination.
In 1972 Waltz 9 ° reported on problems encountered in developing
mountain homesites in the Rocky Mountains of Central Colorado. The
homesites often required individual water wells and sewage disposal
systems, but the septic tank—leach field system generally was not suited
for use in the mountainous terrain where soils were thin or missing.
Contamination of groundwater from these malfunctioning septic tank—
leach fields had become a problem as sewage effluent directly entered
bedrock fractures and travelled large distances without being purified.
Consideration of geologic conditions in the site selection of septic tanks,
leach fields, and wells was seen as a method of significantly decreasing
water well contamination in the area.
Baker and Rawson 91 conducted a field study of groundwater quality
in the Toledo Bend Reservoir area of Texas in 1972. Twenty test wells
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URBAN POLLUTION
were installed down the land-surface slope from septic tank systems,
between the septic tanks and the reservoir. In the spring of 1972,
coliform density of shallow groundwater samples ranged from 0. 0 to
1,800 colonies/mi. At least one sample from 18 of the wells revealed
some coliform presence, and at least one sample from 12 of the test
wells contained more than 100 coliform colonies/mi.
38
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SECTION VIII
INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
WASTE DISPOSAL
The problem of underground disposal of industrial wastes and its
relation to groundwater pollution was the subject of general studies by
92.
a task group of the American Water Works Association in 1953 and
by Ives and Eddy 93 in 1968. The task group study assessed the effects
of industrial waste disposal on groundwaters, noted increasing threats
to groundwaters across the nation, and recommended statutory control
measures. Ives and Eddy surveyed underground waste disposal policies
and practices in the states, and specifically the pollution problems pre-
sented by individual subsurface waste disposal wells. The nature and
extent of the pollution problems, as well as treatment methods, were
reviewed. in addition, recommended practices and procedures in
establishing administrative guidelines for the use of disposal wells were
given.
Ulrich 94 in 1955 described a field situation involving high chloride
contamination of wells at Massillon, Ohio. Chloride contents rose from
8 ppm to 670 ppm and 1700 ppm in two wells. The cause was under in-
vestigation and was believed to be industrial wastes infiltrating from an
adjacent river: however, upward movement of deeper saline water was
also a possibility.
In a 1954-56 study at Indian Hill, Ohio, Parks 95 reported on brine
being discharged from a water softening plant which percolated 850 feet
to pumping wells. The chloride concentration in the well waters rose
from 20 ppm to 744 ppm. The brine discharge point was moved 1, 000
39
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INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
feet farther away, the most polluted of the four wells was pumped to
waste, and a large pit was dug in gravel into which river water was
pumped. As a result, the chloride content in the wells fell to 26 ppm
by 1956.
Waste disposal practices and the resultant contamination of ground-
water in the Rocky Mountain Arsenal area of Colorado were reviewed in
two significant studies since 1950. In a 1954-56 study, petrj 6 reported
on chloride increases in groundwater of the area of up to 200 percent due
to infiltration from disposal ponds. The control method employed was to
line these ponds to stop the infiltration of wastes. Walker 97 in 1961
described the improper waste disposal practices of spreading basins as
being responsible for groundwater contamination through unintentional
artificial recharge. The contaminated groundwater was toxic to crops
and unpotable for humans. Despite corrective measures attempted, the
area of toxicity was expanding as the polluted groundwater migrated
laterally.
tn 1962 Swenson 98 reviewed the tT Montebello incident t ’ and its
aftermath. A chemical plant which produced weedkiller in Montebello,
California, discharged dichloropheriol into the groundwater. Within
seventeen days all city wells were grossly contaminated, and although
the plant stopped the waste discharge within thirty days, foul tastes
and odors in the well waters persisted for five years up to 1950. The
only corrective measure taken was the treatment of the groundwater
with chlorine dioxide.
99
Evans presented a 19( 5 analysis of the possibilities of break-
down and dangers of industrial waste treatment and disposal facilities.
Particular emphasis was placed on the peculiarly diverse nature of
industrial wastes and on the effects of deep well disposal and lagoon
systems on groundwater quality.
40
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INDUSTRIAL AND PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
A 1965 study of the water quality in the Fresno-Clovis area was
conducted by the California Department of Water Resources. 100 Gen-
eral groundwater quality was excellent, but the groundwater near the
Fresno sewage treatment plant, where effluents were discharged on or
under the land surface, was of lower quality. It was found that this
groundwater might move toward the city if the water table continued to
be lowered, and recommendations were made for conservation measures.
In 1967 Price’ 0 ’ reviewed the contamination of an alluvial aquifer
in Keizer, Oregon. Late in 1946, industrial waste from an experimental
aluminum reduction plant was dumped into a borrow pit, and at one time
the concentration of sulfate in groundwater exceeded 1, 000 ppm. Well
water samples were analyzed for hardness as the principal indicator of
contamination. Although becoming naturally diluted in the immediate
vicinity of the borrow pit, during the period 1947-64 the contaminant
spread within the aquifer downgradient for slightly more than one mile.
In 1969 Bergstrom ’° 2 discussed specific waste disposal operations
in illinois, including: landfills and dumps, radioactive waste burial
grounds, sewage treatment and waste storage ponds, disposal wells,
and sewage-stormwater tunnels. Waste management proposals intended
to aid in the protection of groundwater centered on waste disposal site
selection criteria, hydrogeologic data necessities, and investigations
relating to saturation and water movement in typical geologic terrains.
INDUSTRIAL AND PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
Maehler and Greenberg ’° 3 presented a 1962 report on a special
study undertaken to evaluate organic pollutants in groundwaters. The
volume and means of disposal of various petroleum industry wastes were
analyzed, and the results indicated the value of organic analyses in pollu-
tion studies. The wells sampled were grossly polluted with organic com-
pounds, and the organic compounds discovered were clearly related to
the compounds in oil field wastes.
41
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INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
In 1962, Deutsch’° 4 reported on phenols in the groundwater of
Alma, Michigan, from 1945 to 1960. WeU waters gave off a foul taste
and odor, and led to the discovery of refinery wastes being discharged
into a pit and percolating to the aquifer. The glacial drift deposits al-
lowed substantial vertical and horizontal migration of pollutants, and
two wells were abandoned as a result of deep percolation to the under-
lying aquifers. To control the contamination, the pit was sealed and
pumping was restricted to decrease the hydraulic gradients. Phenol
continued to be present in small quantities up to 1959, however, and
the possible use of scavenger wells was discussed.
A detailed statistical survey of worldwide pollution due to petro-
leum products was presented by Zimmerman’° 5 in 1964. The sources,
extent, and effects of petroleum products contaminated were detailed,
as were control and detection techniques.
In 1970 Grubb 6 described a 1967 break in an industrial waste
discharge line which, coupled with a 49-foot rise in the Ohio River,
allowed hydrochloric acid to enter a Pleistocene outwash aquifer used
by a Kentucky industry. Chloride conc entrations in excess of 30 , 000 mg / 1
were observed in water discharged from the industrial well nearest
the break, and within a year that well was abandoned. Fluctuations of
chlorides in an industrial well near the river for a sixteen-month period
indicated a persistent body of highly mineralized groundwater near the
acid source. The movement of this body of water was restricted at low
river stages by the inclined surface of the shale bedrock.
Van der Waarden, et al. 107 in 1971 reported on laboratory studies
conducted on the transfer of hydrocarbons from a residual oil zone to
trickling water. The study attempted to model oil spills in soils, and
a pack of nonadsorbing glass particles was used as a soil model to study
42
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INDUSTRIAL AND PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
the general transfer processes of oil components to groundwater. When
the glass particles were replaced by natural dune sand, the transfer of
oil components was delayed by adsorption and their concentration in
the drain water decreased correspondingly. It was thought that
adsorption effects under field conditions might be stronger, and that
oxidation and evaporation might also determine the fate of oil in soil to
some extent.
In 1971 and 1972, both Williams and Wilder and McKee, et
al. 109 reviewed the effects of a gasoline pipeline leak near Los Angeles,
California. Since 1968, 250, 000 gallons of gasoline had seeped into a
valuab1e groundwater supply. Remedial responses included extensive
analytical studies of the two-fluid flow system, as well as clean up
and restoration attempts. As of 1971, a system of skimming wells had
removed about 50, 000 gallons of free gasoline from the aquifer.
A survey of petroleum contamination of groundwater in Maryland
was presented by Matis ” 0 in 1971. Most counties recorded some
cases of contamination, with the coastal plain region exhibiting the
fewest. Throughout the state, however, problems were very
localized. Because it was virtually impossible to remove the petroleum
products from the groundwater, legal and regulatory problems con-
tinued long after the original complaints.
Collins” undertook a 1971 review of the pollution potential of
oil and gas well drilling. The mechanisms by which brines, crude oil,
or gas may infiltrate and pollute groundwaters were discussed, as were
current disposal techniques. The conclusions of the review centered
on the need for improved control methods and safe, permanent disposal
techniques for the residues of oil and gas well drilling.
43
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INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
In 1972, the Committee on Environmental Affairs of the American
Petroleum Institute’ 12 published a survey on the migration of petroleum
products in soil and groundwater. General aspects of petroleum products
contamination were discussed, and several incidents of oil pollution
were listed. The report contained detailed material on controlling oil
spills, the recovery of oil, and the detection of hydrocarbons, along
with numerous valuable illustrations.
METAL WASTES
The discharge of plating wastes by aircraft manufacturing plants
in Nassau County, Long Island, New York, has been a continuing topic
of study since 1950. Davids and Lieber 3 in 1951 reviewed the situa-
tion since 1942 and examined the problem of chromium contamination
by diffusion wells and shallow pits. AU large industrial consumers of
chromic acid were required to install treatment facilities to remove
hexavalent chromium from their waste streams prior to disposal.
The results seemed encouraging since existing treatment facilities
were capable of almost completely removing the toxic elements before
the wastes were returned to the ground. Groundwater quality was ex—
pected to improve because of this treatment,by the constant dilution by
recharge from rainfall, and by diffusion as the water traveled through
the ground.
However, in 1954 Lieber and Welsh’’ 4 reported on the discovery
of cadmium, a heavier and presumably more toxic metal than chromium,
in the groundwater of the area. Test wells were constructed and
sampled, and the cadmium ccncentration ranged from 0.01 to 3.2 ppm.
The revealed path of the contaminant also coincided with the direction
of groundwater flow. The appearance of cadmium as a groundwater con-
taminant, believed to be unique, created a need to ascertain safe and
reasonable limits for cadmium in potable waters, based on the physio-
logical effects of continuous ingestion of minute particles of the substance.
44
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METAL WASTES
Again in 1962, Lieber, et al. 115 conducted a field study of both
cadmium and hexavalent chromium in the groundwater near South
Farmingdale, Long Island, New York. Contamination from a metal
plating plant since 1942 was summarized, and the present condition was
analyzed through the use of ninety observation wells and water samples
at five-foot depth intervals. The best methods of control seemed to be
improved treatment facilities at the source of the contamination.
A similar study in the South Farmingdale area in 1962 by Pen-
mutter, et al. 116 monitored the characteristics and movement of a
slug of contaminated groundwater beneath a metal plating plant. Test
wells were drilled to 140 feet and sampled at 5-foot depth intervals.
Concentrations of chromium, determined by use of S-diphenylcarbazide
colorimetric comparison, and of cadmium, determined by dithizone
extraction, were high, but less than in the past. The slug was diluted
greatly as it discharged into a nearby creek, and there was no danger
to the nearest public supply wells, Improved treatment procedures
were expected to reduce cadmium and chromium concentrations even
further.
In 1970 Perlmutter and Lieber 117 reviewed the contamination by
plating wastes in the area since 1941 and described the extent of the
pollution in the Upper Glacial aquifer. The seepage of plating wastes
containing cadmium and hexavalent chromium into the aquifer had
formed a plume of contaminated water 4300 feet long, 100 feet wide,
and 70 feet thick. After attaining a maximum concentration of 49 mg/i.
in 1949, chromium concentrations had decreased to less than 5 mg/i.
in most of the plume. No public supply wells had been contaminated by
the meta1 plating wastes. The report also discussed in some detail the
factors contributing to the longitudinal, lateral, and vertical spread of
the contaminants.
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INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
MINES
A report on the problem of acid mine drainage in the Appalachian
Mountain region was presented by Rice and Co. 118 in 1969. Cost curves
for various techniques of controlling such pollution were developed. In
addition, the effectiveness of control techniques was studied in terms of
the degree to which mine drainage pollution was controlled, and the
quality characteristics of the post-technique water. The recommended
techniques were neutralization, reverse osmos, streamfiow regula-
tion, deep well disposal, land reclamation, revegetation, pumping and
drainage, water diversion, mine sealing, refuse treatment, and irn-
poundrrient of acid water.
Emrich and Merritt 119 reported in 1969 on the degrading effects
of mine drainage on groundwater in Appalachia. Oxidation and leaching
connected with coal mining produce high iron and sulfate concentrations
and low pH in groundwater. Even with cessation of mining, decades are
required before the groundwater again becomes usable. In the Toms
Run drainage basin in northwestern Pennsylvania, the effects of coal
mining and oil and gas well drilling were studied. The oil and gas
wells, along with the natural joints and fractures of the rocks, permit
acid mine drainage to move downward from strip mines into underlying
aquifers, thereby increasing the iron and sulfate content of the water.
Application of the principles of groundwater hydrology to pollution
problems facing the mining industry was examined by Moulder 12 ° in
1970. Costly treatment of acid mine drainage might be avoided by di-
verting the source of groundwater to an abandoned mine. In addition,
the development of a large groundwater supply near an ore deposit might
enhance the possibilities of a leaching operation.
In 1970 Ahmad’ 21 presented a pilot plan intended to solve the
serious problem of acid mine irainage pollution of Lake Hope, Ohio.
The coal mines of the area were continually being flushed by the dis-
46
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MINES
turbed natural groundwater flow system and produced sulfuric acid.
Clay layers under the coal in one mine did not allow water to leak into
the underlying aquifer. However, three separate aquifers existed near
the Todd mine, and the plan proposed was to discharge the uncontami-
nated water from the upper to the lower aquifer, thus stopping the flow
of water through the mine.
Ahmad’ 22 also edited the 1971 Proceedings of the Acid Mine
Drainage Workshop, dealing with acid mine drainage pollution problems
in the Ohio and Appalachian area. The need for analysis of drainage
water samples was stressed, and suggested control methods included
neutralization and mine sealing.
Mink, et al. 123 conducted a 1969-70 study of the water quality
of the Coeur d’ Alene River Basin of idaho. Groundwater samples
were generally within acceptable limits, and there was no apparent
problem from abandoned mine drainage. Nevertheless, the groundwater
in certain areas was high in zinc and, to a lesser extent, lead content.
More particularly, however, a 1969-71 study by Mink, et al. 124
of the Coeur D’ Alene District near Wallace, Idaho, revealed high
zinc, lead, and cadmium concentrations occurring in the groundwater.
The pollution resulted from the leaching of old mine tailings that were
intermixed with the upper part of the sand and gravel aquifer. The
problem was compounded by a nearby settling pond which recharged the
groundwater, raised the water table, and caused more leaching.
In 1972 Galbraith 125 presented the results of a field study at
Cataldo Mission Flats, near Coeur d T Alene, Idaho. The leaching of
heavy metals by groundwater passing through mine tailings was caused
by the oxidation of sulfides through the action of microorganisms. The
report analyzed the chemical processes involved and the relationship
between the concentrations of elements and the pH of the groundwater
and tailings.
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INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
Merke1 6 conducted a resistivity survey in an area of good geo-
logic control to determine if resistivity was a viable technique for
delineating aquifers contaminated with acid mine drainage. Based on
the results, he presented in 1972 techniques for the periodic monitoring
of groundwater through surface resistivity techniques to determine both
the extent and degree of acid mine drainage contamination.
OIL FIELD BRINES
In 1967 a subcommittee of the Interstate Oil Compact Commis-
sion’ 27 published a survey of water problems associated with oil produc-
tion in the United States. The nature and extent of the problems, as
well as current disposal methods, were outlined, and detailed reports
on individual state& regulations and enforcement policies were
presented.
Also in 1967, articles appeared in Petroleum Equipment and
Services 128 and Petroleum Engineer’ 29 which dealt with federal, state,
and local regulatory agency attempts to control pollution resulting
from mishandling of oil field brines. Current disposal techniques dis-
cussed included disposal wells, open pits, and lined reservoirs. The
most serious mishandling of salt water from oil field brines was due to
disposal in unlined pits, a practice which was being outlawed in state
after state. New disposal techniques in the field of waste water dis-
posal were also reviewed.
Groundwater pollution from natural gas and oil production in New
York was analyzed by C rain’ 30 in 1969. Leakage of natural gas wells
resulted in groundwater po11u .ion in the form of salt water or gas, but
the effects were very localized and were difficult to separate from
natural contamination. Oil and salt water in the groundwater was due
to oil production, especially the secondary recovery of oil by the water
flooding method. Pollution from active oil fields was caused by sepa-
rator units that disposed wastes on the ground, and by well leakage and
48
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OIL FIELD BRINES
spillage. Pollution in abandoned fields was usually caused by the up-
ward movement of the contaminants under artesian pressure through
uncapped or leaking wells. The groundwater pollution problems from
oil production were expected to increase substantially in the future.
In 1970 Bain’ 3 ’ detailed the brine storage and disposal problem
in the Pocatalico River Basin of West Virginia. Salt brine, oil, or gas
were present throughout the shallow salt sands of the region. An in-
crease in brine disposal well drilling threatened upward movement of
these pollutants to fresh groundwater unless all wells tapping the salt
sands were permanently and properly cased.
Groundwater contamination due to oil field brines in Morrow and
Delaware Counties, Ohio, was reported by Boster 132 in 1967 and
Lehr’ 33 in 1969. Saline oil field wastes were introduced to evaporation
pits, unlined bulldozed pits, and two creeks in the area. Both studies
focused on the sources, severity, areal extent, and future movement
of the polluted groundwater. Surface resistivity and conductivity tech-
niques supplemented normal chloride analysis, and established the im-
portance of the ion exchange formula which could greatly extend the
time period required for natural clearing of saline enclaves. Pettyjohn’ 34
surveyed the same problems of oil field brine disposal in evaporation
pits in Morrow, Delaware, and Medina Counties in 1971, employing
shallow observation wells.
The lack of groundwater pollution from oil wells, gas wells, and
dry holes drilled in Michigan was analyzed by Eddy 135 in 1965. One
exception was in the Saginaw Valley where abandoned wells drilled for
salt, coal, and oil remained unplugged. Special emphasis was placed
on proper plugging of wells as the most important phase of groundwater
protection. The success of Michigan s flexible oil and gas conservation
law was also discussed.
49
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INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
Krieger and Hendrickson 1 6 reviewed the effects of Greensburg
oilfield brines on groundwater in the Upper Green River Basin of
Western Kentucky from 1950-59. Periodic sampling of about twenty
wells and springs revealed that after the 1958 development of the oil-
field and the discharge of brine into the groundwater 1 chloride contents
jumped from less than 25 ppm to over 10,000 ppm. The chloride in-
creases were observed as far as 100 miles downstream from the area
of heaviest oil production.
A 1960-6 1 field study by Hopkins 137 in the Upper Big Pitman
Basin, near Greensburg, Kentucky, supplemented the Krieger and
Hendrickson’ 36 survey. Deep well injection of the oil field brines
was carried out, but abandoned oil and gas test wells allowed the
brines to move upward and contaminate fresh groundwater. Potable
groundwater was changed to a sodium chloride type with chloride
content as high as 51, 000 ppm (compared to less than 60 ppm before
oil production). The contamination declined as the oil production de-
creased, but secondary recovery methods threatened even greater
pollution if the abandoned wells were not plugged. The author
recommended that residual brines be injected into a permeable zone
separated from a fresh groundwater zone by impermeable material,
and that several wells and springs be sampled peridodically for chemi-
cal analyses and water level measurements.
In 1963 Wait and McCollum’ 38 reported on the contamination of
fresh water aquifers in Glynn County, Georgia, through an unplugged
oil test well. The well was explored with a current meter to 1780 feet.
The well penetrated salt and fresh water aquifers and allowed upward
migration of salt water resulting in a chloride content of up to 7780 ppm.
The chloride appeared to extend 1. 5 miles along the hydraulic gradient,
and any additional pumping in the area would hasten the contamination
50
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OIL FIELD BRINES
of nearby wells. The study stressed the need for better well construc-
tion, plugging of abandoned wells, and the location of well fields away
from the test well.
Fryberger ’ 39 conducted a 1967-72 field investigation of a brine-
polluted aquifer in Miller County, Southwest Arkansas, from an oil
field disposal pit and disposal well. A 4. 5 square mile area was af-
fected, and the pollution was expected to last 250 years. Attempts at
rehabilitation included pumping the brine into the Red River and deep
well disposal techniques, but none of the control methods was con-
sidered economically justified.
In 1963 Powell, et al. 140 summarized a field study of oil field
brines in six Alabama oil fields. Groundwater contamination problems
were observed in four fields, with the major sources being disposal
pits above permeable sands and leaks from pipelines and well heads
allowing brine percolation. A detailed chart was presented for the four
problem fields showing (a) identified and/or possible pollution sources
and locations, (b) control recommendations, (c) monitoring require-
ments, and (d) future problems. The control recommendations centered
on the sealing, enlarging, or closing of evaporation pits, proper dis-
posal wells, and continual well maintenance to prevent leaks.
Knowles’ 4 ’ discussed the hydrologic aspects of Alabama oil field
brine disposal in 1965. Groundwater contamination occurred in all
Alabama oil fields, with the Pollard field serving as a typical example.
Disposal of brines and other wastes in the Pollard field occurred by
injection into disposal pits or discharge into evaporation pits. Proper
lining of the pits and maintenance to prevent brine and oil leaks were
seen as effective methods of contamination prevention.
Irwin and Morton’ 42 in 1969 produced hydrogeologic information
on the Glorietta Sandstone and the Ogallala formation in the Oklahoma
51
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INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
Panhandle and adjoining areas as related to underground waste disposal.
Permits for 147 oil field brine disposal wells had been issued in the
area, and increased vertical permeability between the two formations
could result in the upward movement of brine under hydrostatic head
from the Glorietta sandstone into the overlying fresh water aquifers,
particularly the Ogallala.
In 1965 McMillion 143 surveyed the hydrologic aspects of disposal
of oil field brines in Texas. The magnitude of crude oil and accompany-
ing salt water production was noted, as were current disposal methods.
Some brines were disposed of into unlined earthen pits and seeped or
overflowed to pollute fresh water, while more were injected into the
subsurface where inadequate wefl completion methods could constitute
a longer range problem than surface disposal. The need for brine
pollution control programs with the objective of maximum oil and gas
conservation and development was emphasized.
Payne 144 in 1966 centered on the effects of brine injection and
other disposal techniques in Texas. Drilling, production, and aban-
donment problems in oil and gas operations were discussed. In addi-
tion, guidelines were offered for design, operation, and control of
effective salt water injection systems.
In 1966-67 Burke’ 45 and Page 146 reviewed Texas Railroad Com-
mission regulations of 1965, imposing strict controls over salt water
disposal. The Commissionts regulations hoped to: (1) place greater
emphasis on proper well completions; (2) encourage controlled sub-
surface injection; (3) e1imin te all earthen pits; (4) strictly enforce
plugging procedures; and (5) closely inspect completion techniques of
water injection wells. Page 146 also discussed a number of recommenda-
tions intended to serve as guidelines for effective and economical sub-
surface fluid injection and disposal.
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OIL FIELD BRINES
Burnitt, et al. 147 conducted a 1957-6 1 field study of salt water
disposal in three oil fields in Limestone County, Texas. Brines were
disposed of in large surface pits, and the resulting degradation of
groundwater quality was compounded by 600 abandoned oil and gas wells
which were improperly plugged. A detailed co ring and sampling pro-
gram was recommended to determine the overall degree of groundwater
contamination in the area.
A 1962 study by Burnitt - 48 of soil damage and groundwater
quality in Fisher County, Texas, revealed serious soil damage prob-
lems on 25 farms due to rising water levels and a general increase in
groundwater salinity. In some areas, the presence of sodium chloride-
type shallow groundwater suggested brine contamination from a great
number of bore holes with improper plugging. The report recom-
mended stricter well construction and plugging standards, the discon-
tinuation of unlined surface pit disposal and injection disposal in the
area, and a comprehensive water sampling program.
In 1965 Fink 149 reported on chemical analyses of water from
water and oil wells near Harrold, Wilbarger County, Texas. Highly
mineralized contaminants could come from subsurface disposal of oil
field brines, poor casing or cementing in oil wells, inadequately
plugged abandoned wells, and seepage from unlined pits formerly used
for brine disposal. Possible control methods included prohibition of
brine injection into oil wells which permit upward migration, discon-
tinuance of unlined disposal pits, and periodic tracer surveys on all
disposal wells.
In 1969 Preston’ 5 ° surveyed groundwater occurrence and quality
in Shackelford County, Texas. Small amounts of groundwater, used
mostly for household needs and livestock watering, were produced from
formations of Permian age and from Quaternary alluvial deposits. Oil
field brine disposal methods were thought to be the probable cause of
some of the poorer quality groundwater of the area.
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INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
Rice’ 5 ’ in 1968 discussed salt water disposal techniques in the
Permian basin of Texas and New Mexico. In order to prevent further
groundwater contamination, systems of reirijecting produced water into
brine bearing formations were analyzed. Various design, installation,
and operation factors were considered for safe and economical field-
wide systems.
In 1968-69 McMillion’ conducted a field investigation of
mineralized groundwater from oil field brine pits in Eastern New
Mexico. It was suggested that the poor quality groundwater be pumped
and used for the secondary recovery of oil. In addition, three cor-
rective measures for the thousands of discontinued brine pits in the
region were offered: (I) restrict fresh water pumping in zones where
groundwater movement would influence the pollutants; (2) remove the
highly mineralized water from the area; and (3) develop and pump the
poor quality groundwater so that its movement is held in check.
In 1971 Ro1d 153 surveyed pollution problems in the ‘ 1 o11 patch t of
the arid West. The sources of groundwater contamination included
evaporation pits, insufficient surface casing, any injection system,
abandoned wells, and seismic shotholes. Constant planning, monitor-
ing, and policing of oil field operations were necessary to prevent
increases in total dissolved solids and released crude oil in the
groundwater.
The problem of contaminated groundwater due to oil field brines
in Elm Creek Valley, Barber County, Kansas, was investigated by
Williams and Bayne 154 in 1946. The groundwater quality varied ac-
cording to the location in the valley, and the possibility existed of
further salt water encroachment under heavy pumping conditions. The
report concluded that pumping tests should be conducted before ground-
water supplies are developed in the parts of the valley where the
alluvium is thickest and most permeable.
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PITS AND LAGOONS
The general fresh water pollution hazards related to the petroleum
industry in Kansas were outlined by Jones 155 in 1950 and Latta 156 in
1963. The causes of oil field brines in groundwater included inadequate
well casing, abandoned holes with improper or no plugging, and seepage
from brine ponds. In 1963 most disposal was by means of disposal or
repressuring wells with only a few surface ponds. There was also the
added possibility of groundwater contamination due to escaping gas
from petroleum storage cavities. The state pollution control regulations
appeared adequate to meet the oil production and brine disposal problems.
A 1953-55 field study of the Raisin City oil field in Fresno County,
California, by the State Division of Water Resources’ 57 revealed con-
taminated groundwater due to oil field waste water disposal techniques.
Chloride contents as high as 2680 ppm were detected in area wells. In-
jection wells seemed to be a satisfactory disposal method, but it was
recommended that the discharge of brines to unlined evaporation-
percolation sumps be halted.
A 1957 article in the Oil and Gas Journal 158 dealt with brine dis-
posal problems in the San Joaquin Valley in California. The worst
potential pollution spots appeared to be under control through injection
and percolation, but some oil operators were changing or correcting
disposal techniques. The objectives of a waste water disposal system,
as well as operating costs, were also discussed.
PITS AND LAGOONS
In 1963 Harmeson and Vogel 159 surveyed the physical, chemical,
bacterial, and radioactive pollutants produced by artificial recharge
through recharge pits. They also reported on the 1951-59 experience
of Peoria, Illinois, in treating river water with chlorine and dis-
charging it into recharge pits. Existing water quality standards were
met, but the presence of ABS and radioactivity in the groundwater was
seen as posing an increasing threat. The report contained charts of a
full range of water quality analyses.
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INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
Wichman and Ahlers’ 6 ° reported on the methods used by the
Brookhaven Laboratory in Upton, New York, to conserve nuclear re-
actor cooling water by recharge without disturbing the natural ground-
water balance. A simple well water recycling system was employed.
The used warm water was piped into one of two recharge basins, con-
sisting of ordinary precast drainage domes placed over perforated
concrete slabs. With the continuous disposal of the warm water, no
measurable increase of the groundwater temperature had been found
from 196Z to 1967. Little maintenance was required due to daily
changeover of the basins.
In 1968 Preuj.’ 61 described field observations made over a three-
year period on nutrient concentration in groundwaters near ten waste
stabilization lagoons in Minnesota which treated domestic wastewater
from small municipalities. Subsurface soils were sandy or silty, and
the ponds had high percolation rates. Ammonia nitrogen concentrations
were largely adsorbed within about 200 feet of a pond. Phosphates
were not found in significant concentrations, being adsorbed by soils
over a wide pH range. Alkyl benzene sulfonate, however, was found
in the range of 0. 5 mg/i as far as 200 feet from a pond, which could
be true of other organics resistent to biodegradation.
A 1970 discussion of lagoon technology and treatment methods by
Middletown and Bunch ’ 62 concentrated on the water pollution drawbacks
of lagoons and the place of lagoons in the future. The main threat to
groundwater quality from lagoons was seen as the difficulties involved
in sealing them.
According to a 1970 report by Tossey 16 disposal of digested
sludges in sludge lagoons had been an accepted practice in the city of
Dayton, Ohio, for 35 years. The success of sludge lagooning was
found to depend upon the quality of sludge entering the lagoon. No docu-
mented evidence of groundwater deterioration had been found, but a
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PITS AND LAGOONS
system of testing was being organized to determine the current ground-
water status.
Hackbarth 16 in 1971 presented a new method for supplementing
data from pi.ezometers to monitor waste disposal sites. The method
involved examination of a time sequence of resistivity measurements
at fixed points in a disposal area. Spent sulfite liquor movement
away from a seepage pit was studied using this method. The study also
listed the conditions to be met for the method to provide results which
correlate with specific conductivity of water samples from piezometers.
Wells’ 65 reported in 1971 on an attempted study of the effect of
unlined treated storage ponds on groundwater quality in the Ogallala
aquifer near Lubbock, Texas. The research was focused on nitrate
as a pollutant, but did not accomplish its stated objective because the
complexity of the problem was underestimated. Recommendations for
a similar successful project included: careful metering of all water
utilized; a dense network of observation wells, not production wells,
for sampling and monitoring; analysis of representative groundwater
samples; and additional research on the nitrogen concentration—
percolating water quality relationships involv ed.
A study by Leggat, et al. 166 on the disposal of liquid wastes into
unlined pits at the Linfield disposal site in South Dallas, Texas,
showed waste materials percolating into the underlying groundwater
reservoir. Upon reaching the high water table, the effluent mixed
with the groundwater and moved down the hydraulic gradient, eventually
to be discharged to the Trinity River. The heterogeneous groundwater
quality observed in the test wells resulted from different types and
volumes of liquids placed in the pits and from the random cycle used
in filling the pits. Waters from all test wells were highly mineralized,
and continued use of the pits was expected to result only in further
degradation of groundwater quality.
57
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INDUSTRiAL POLLUTION
RADIOACTIVE W TERIALS
In 1957 deLaguna and Blomeke’ 67 discussed the disposal of
radioactive wastes from the processing of solid fuel elements and
from solid blanket elements. The report covered several methods of
uranium extraction, removal of element jackets, treatment of uranium-
zirconium fuel elements, deep well disposal problems, well hydraulics,
thermal considerations of disposal aquifers, regional hydrology, po-
tential deep well disposal areas in the United States, and disposal
Co sts.
Roedder’bS in 1959 detailed problems in the disposal of acid
aluminum nitrate high-level radioactive waste solutions by injection
into deep, brine-saturated aquifers salaquifers). The concept of a
t zone of equilibration t was developed to aid in discussing the
mechanics of the interaction of moving wastes with salaquifer minerals.
The width of the zone 1 controlled the usable storage capacity per well
of the salaquifer. It was shown experimentally that reactions occur
with carbonates, limonite, clays, and other typical salaquifer materials,
most likely causing precipitation of aluminum and ferric hydroxide
gels, effectively blocking further injection. It thus appeared that only
under certain very special conditions would the injection procedure
be economically feasible.
The injection of low- and intermediate-level radioactive wastes
into deep geologic formations was seen as a feasible and economic ap-
proach by Kaufman, et al. 169 in 1961. Deep injection was considered
in general a less satisfactory alternative than disposal by dilution into
rivers and oceans, and the necessity of pretreatment (holdup and blend-
ing, chemical precipitation, filtration, pH adjustment, and chlorina-
tion) of wastes to insure compatibility with the receiving formation was
stressed.
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RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
Belter 17 ° in 1963 reported on radioactive waste management
activities of the Atomic Energy Commission. Two basic approaches
to effluent control were defined: ‘dilute and disperse, and concen-
trate and contain.” The role of specific environments in waste disposal
practices was discussed, as was the distinction between basic radia-
tion protection standards and performance criteria of control operations.
Examples of radioactive waste disposal practices for various types of
wastes were also described. Finally, the current status of research in
the area was noted, as well as general economic factors relating to
radioactive waste handling and disposal.
In 1965 Mawson’ 7 ’ reviewed the principles and problems of
radioactive waste management. His book covered the sources and
nature of radioactive wastes, treatment of gaseous, liquid, and solid
wastes, various methods of storage and disposal, and monitoring and
control problems. Geologic formations recommended for radioactive
waste disposal were salt formations, deep wells in fractures produced
between bedded strata by high pressure injection, and deep caverns in
original caves or mined cavities where no danger of groundwater con-
tamination existed.
Clebsch and I3altz’ 72 in 1967 examined the basic technology of
the petroleum and chemical industries for deep well disposal and of
liquid and gaseous radioactive wastes. An understanding of the physical
and geologic characteristics of the disposal reservoir, the effects of
chemical reactions between waste and reservoir rock, and the hydraulic
effects of long term injection on mass transport rate and direction and
on the integrity of bordering geologic units was considered essential
for safe and effective disposal. The prospects were considered better
for injecting gaseous wastes into unsaturated rocks and for routine
disposal of waste gases that could be separated as a low-volume stream.
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INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
Theoretical aspects of the transport of radionuclides by ground-
water from the site of a nuclear detonation to points of potential water
use were studied by Lynch’ 73 in 1964. Analyses of water transport
and contaminant movement were made, and equations presented for
predicting transport time and dispersion in uniform systems. The
equations indicated that dispersion should have a negligible effect on
transport time, but observed cases of dispersion in granular rocks
suggested that geologic inhomogeneities play an important role.
Stead’ 74 in 1964 also reported on the distribution in ground-
water of radionucides from underground nuclear explosions. Radio-
active waste disposal operations revealed groundwater transport of
radjonuclides for considerable distances, and the necessity for hydro-
geologic analyses of proposed disposal sites was stressed. The
report also discussed precautions available to prevent post-explosion
movement into groundwater of long-lived and biologically significant
radjonuc JAdes.
In 1968 Champlin and Eichholz 175 reported on a specific labora-
tory study of the movement of radioactive sodium and ruthenium.
Radioactive solutions were injected into a model aquifer, and the appear-
ance of the radioactivity in the effluent correlated with increases in sus-
pended particulate matter, potassium and calcium concentration, and
overall conductivity. Both studies indicated that significant amounts of
radioactivity were transported through the test bed on particulate matter,
despite the high solubility of the sodium ion used.
176
Witkowski and Mannesclimidt in 1962 described a decision to
discontinue the ground dispcsal of liquid wastes at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Tennessee. Remote long range possibilities of serious
ground and surface water contamination, along with public relations
problems, were cited as factors influencing the decision.
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RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
The waste disposal facilities of the Savannah River Plant near
Aiken, South Carolina, were described by Reichert’ 77 in 1962 and by
Reichert and Fenimore 178 in 1964. The hydrogeologic, climatic, and
demographic characteristics of the area did not encourage the disposal
of radioactive wastes to the environment. Thus, ground disposal had
been limited to the burial of solid wastes and the discharge of very low-
level liquid wastes to seepage basins. No radionuclides had been detected
in groundwater due to leaching of the solid wastes, but strontium-90 was
observed in sand layers up to 500 feet from the seepage basins. Wherever
soils did not contain sandy strata or sand filled clastic dikes, radionuclide
migration was slow.
In 1965 Proctor and Marine’ 79 reported on an investigation which
established the technical feasibility and the high degree of safety attain-
able by storage of high-level radioactive wastes in unlined vaults exca-
vated in crystalline rock 1,500 feet beneath the surface of the Savannah
River Plant. The most significant force aiding radionuclide migration
from the storage site was derived from the natural groundwater move-
ment, coupled with effects due to dispersion and ion exchange. Three
factors prevented radionuclide migration, however: the very low
permeability of the crystalline rock, the virtually impermeable clay
layer separating the rock and overlying sediments containing prolific
groundwater zones, and the ion exchange properties of the sediments.
Any one of the three barriers could contain the radionuclides longer
than the 600 years required to render the wastes innocuous.
In 1971 Gardner and Downs ’ 8 ° evaluated the Project Dribble site,
Hattiesburg, Mississippi, in terms of radioactive waste disposal and
groundwater quality. The fresh water aquifers of the region were found
to have very slow rates of movement, and no excessive radionuclide
concentrations were forecast. However, the need for an expanded water
quality monitoring program was stressed. Release of the land for agri-
cultural pursuits was recommended, but drilling and mining restrictions
were still suggested.
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INDUSTRIAl. POLLUTION
Lynn and Arlin’ 81 in 1962 described a deep well injection system
near Grants, New Mexico, for the disposal of uranium mill tailing water
by The Anaconda Company. The reservoir sandstones contained water
similar to the injected wastewater, and were isolated from overlying
fresh water aquifers by an evaporite barrier zone. The mill tailing wa-
ter was decanted, filtered, and introduced into the well by gravity at an
average rate of 400 gpm. The life expectancy of the reservoir was put
at ten years.
A Los Alamos, New Mexico, disposal area for liquid radioactive
wastes was the subject of a 1966 study by Purtyman, et al. 182 The
fine particles in the alluvial materials had a greater affinity for radio-
nuclides than the more abundant coarse particles. The radioactivity in
the alluvium was dispersed by wastewater and storm runoff and decreased
with distance from the point of effluent outfall. Most of the radionuclides
were retained in the upper three feet of the deposits, resulting in very
little groundwater quality change.
Since 1961 numerous studies have been presented on the disposal
of liquid radioactive wastes to a leaching pond at the National Reactor
183 to 187 183
Testing Station in Idaho Peckham in 1961 concluded that
the saline waste solutions were moving in the direction of normal ground-
water flow at average rates of 15-50 feet per day. Jones and Shuter’ 84
in 1962 described seepage from the pond since 1957 and the resulting
body of perched water on an extensive sedimentary bed about 150 feet
underground. The observed tritium content of the perched water was
thought to be much too low, given the annual discharge rates. Morris,
et al. 185 in 1964 investigated the chemical and radiometric changes that
occurred as groundwater containing radioactive wastes moved through
the basalt and unconsolidated sediments of the region. Water level and
test hole sample analyses were detailed.
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RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
In 1972 Schoenh8 6 reported on a hydrochemical study of the NRTS
area groundwater. Thermodynamic analysis of the data indicated the
possibility of calcite and dolomite precipitation during utilization of the
groundwater or during waste disposal. Subsurface disposal of liquid
waste with a high pH could cause rapid precipitation and well plugging.
Finally, in 1972 Nebeker and Lakey 187 surveyed the liquid waste
management system of the NRTS test reactor area. Liquid radioactive
waste disposal practices, problems, solutions, and proposed system
changes were discussed. In addition, detectable concentrations of var-
ious radioactive wastes in the groundwater were presented.
Geological and hydrological aspects of the disposal of liquid radio-
active wastes at the Atomic Energy Commission’s Chemical Separations
Plants at Hanford, Washington, have been the general subject of many
188 to 1Q2 188
studies since 1956 . In 1956 Brown, et al. reported on the
rate and direction of flow of groundwaters in the area and the effects of
disposal operations. Much emphasis was placed on microgeologic and
microhydrologic procedures and concepts of prediction. Raymond and
Bierschenk 189 in 1957 described the hydrologic, geologic, and radio-
logic monitoring data obtained from several hundred wells in the area
over twelve years.
1QO
In 1958 Bierschenk discussed the location, extent, and hy-
draulic characteristics of groundwater mounds created by the infiltra-
tion of large volumes of radioactive effluents. The natural hydraulic
gradients had been reversed in certain locations and migration rates
had increased. Such data were valuable in determining the most effec-
tive placement of monitoring wells to permit prediction of low-level
radioactive waste behavior in the zone of saturation.
In 1959 Bierschenk’ 9 ’ also reported on general aquifer charac-
teristics and groundwater movement at Hanford. Large amounts of
intermediate-level radioactive wastes had been discharged to the ground,
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INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
and ten times as much (35 billion gallons since 1944) uncontaminated
process cooling water had been discharged into open ponds or swamps.
The semiarid climate, permeable surficial sediments, and the deep
water table formed a situation wherein most of the radioactive materials
in the waste were trapped by electrochemical bonds in the sediments
during percolation. Those wastes that reached the water table moved
with the groundwater, but their path and concentration depended largely
on heterogeneity and anisotropy of the aquifer, and the dispersal of the
wastes in the groundwater.
192
Brown and Raymond in 1962 described methods used at Hanford
to measure geohydrologic features affecting radioactive waste disposal.
Basic concepts discussed included vertical groundwater movement, dis-
persion of contaminants, aquifer anisotropism, groundwater flow rates,
and the hydrologic continuity between well and aquifer.
Also in 1962 Brown and Raymond’ 93 summarized Hanford 1 s radio—
logic monitoring program. Significant increases in groundwater flow
information and improved equipment and methods for determining radio-
contaminants in the groundwater were described.
In 1964 Raymond and McGhan 194 employed scintillation well probes
to monitor subsoil contamination beneath the Hanford ground disposal fa-.
cilities. Results indicated that significant lateral spread of radioactive
wastes occurred in the sediments of the study region, and that the down-
ward migration rates of gross gamma emitters was relatively slow.
Brown’ 95 in 1967 detailed the migration characteristics of vari-
ous radionuclides through the Hanford sediments from information gath-
ered through an extensive network of monitoring wells and sophisticated
monitoring equipment. Sediment samples obtained by core drilling
showed that over 99. 9 percent of the long-lived radionuclides were
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RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
contained within the first ten meters of the sixty-meter partially satur-
ated sediment column underlying the disposal facility. Three radio-
nuclides (ruthenium-10 6 , technetium-99, and tritium) were traced in
the groundwater for distances up to fifteen miles, but at only 2 1/2 miles
from the disposal sites all radionuclide concentrations were below esta-
blished drinking water limits.
From January 1968, to June 1971, the radiological status of the
groundwater beneath the Hanford Project was summarized every six
months (with the exception of June-December, 1968)196 to 201 Bet-
ween 300 and 500 wells were employed for surveillance, and the reports
summarized beta, ruthenium, tritium, uranium, and nitrate ion concen-
trations in unconfined and confined aquifers of the area.
In 1971 LaSala and Doty 202 presented a preliminary evaluation of
the hydrologic factors related to the feasibility of storing high-level
radioactive wastes in deeply buried basaltic rocks at Hanford. Key
factors included the rate and direction of local groundwater movement,
the characteristics of groundwater discharge, and the geochemical na-
ture of the waste-rock-water system that might affect radionuclide move-
ment. A test well was drilled in 1969 to about 5, 600 feet, but hydraulic
testing was not completed due to the caving of well sections. However,
under prevailing head relationships, and assuming observed geohydro-
logic conditions were widespread, it was considered feasible to store
radioactive wastes safely in mined cavities in thick impermeable rock
layers below 1,200 feet.
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SECTION IX
AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION
AGRICULTURAL WASTES
In 1967 Stewart, et al. analyzed cores from fields and corrals
in the Middle South Platte Valley of Colorado to determine the distribu-
tion of nitrates and other water pollutants in the area. Significant quan-
tities of nitrate were found in most cores from irrigated fields with row
crops or cereal grains, as opposed to low nitrate content in cores from
irrigated alfalfa fields. The authors concluded that much of the nitrate
under feedlots probably will never reach the water table due to denitri-
fication. Amounts of nitrogen as nitrate found under corrals varied
from almost none to over 5,000 pounds/acre in a twenty-foot profile.
Large amounts of organic carbon and ammonia were discovered in wa-
ter samples beneath several corrals, and bacterial counts under corrals
were considerably higher than under other areas. The findings indicated
some pollution of groundwater by deep percolation was occurring from
corrals, but further study was recommended to determine its magni-
tude.
Again using analyses of soil profiles, Stewart, et al. 204 in 1968
detailed the contributions of fertilizers and livestock feeding wastes to
groundwater pollution in the Middle South Platte River Valley in Colo-
rado. Amounts of nitrate in profiles varied widely with land use, and
the results were summarized. Feedlots located near homesteads had
a much greater effect on nitrate content of domestic well water than did
cropped land.
Robbins and Kriz 205 presented a 1969 survey of the relation of
agriculture to groundwater pollution. In this survey paper, with
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AGRICULTURAL WASTES
97 references, various agricultural sources of pollution were reviewed,
including animal wastes, fertilizers, pesticides, plant residues, and
saline waste waters. Included also were different types of solutions to
pollution control problems.
A 1969 paper by SmithZO 6 dealt with the contribution of fertilizers
and livestock feeding operations to groundwater pollution. Many shallow
wells in Missouri were contaminated with nitrates as a result of leach-
ing from livestock feeding operations. The percentage of nutrients ap-
plied in chemical fertilizers moving into the groundwater was thought
to be relatively small, and good fertilization practices were thought to
lessen nutrient losses to below that lost on unfertilized soils.
207
Biggar and Corey in 1969 presented a comprehensive review
of numerous aspects in the relationship of agricultural drainage to wa-
ter eutrophication. Particular attention was given to the chemical
reactions undergone by nitrogen and phosphorus in the soil-water sys-
tem. The fate of nutrients transported by deep percolating water was
analyzed, and illustrations of plant nutrient loss from harvested areas
and contributions of fertilizing elements from agricultural lands were
included.
A report by Moore 208 in 1970 discussed the water geochemistry
of the Hog Creek Basin in central Texas. The field study described
water quality changes in the upper part of the basin along a nineteen-
mile reach of the stream. Analyses were made of water samples from
each of the major rock formations in the area. The Edwards Lime-
stone, a shallow aquifer, was subject to pollution from agricultural
fertilizers, as revealed by unusually high nitrate concentrations.
The movement of agricultural pollutants in groundwater was the
subject of a 1970 discussion by LeGrand 209 . In it he concluded that
sufficient safeguards were available to minimize groundwater pollution
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AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION
to the extent that good agricultural practices should not be deterred.
The unsaturated zone above the water table attenuated almost all of the
foreign bodies that were potential pollutants of the underlying ground-
water. Environmental factors tending to reduce the pollution of ground-
water from wells and springs were presented. These were: (1) a deep
water table which allowed adsorption, slowed subsurface movement of
pollutants, and facilitated oxidation; (2) sufficient clay in the path of
pollutants to favor retention or sorption of pollutants; (3) a gradient
beneath a waste site away from nearby wells; and (4) a great distance
between wells and wastes.
210.
An essay by Viets in 1971 focused on the many proposals for
restricting fertilizer use because of the resultant leaching of nitrogen
and phosphorus to the groundwater. He maintained that the data were
too scanty and the problem too complex to immediately blame fertilizer
use for many pollution problems. He pointed out alternate sources of
groundwater pollution in agricultural areas, including sewage, animal
wastes, and irrigation. He recommended taking cores from the land
surface to the water table and analyzing them for nitrate and rate of
water movement before a specific fertilizer restriction could be justi-
fied. In general, the author doubted that widespread restrictions on
fertilizer use would improve groundwater quality enough to compensate
for the risk of a less abundant, more costly food supply.
ANIMAL WASTES
In 1969-70 Resnik and Rademacher 2 ’ presented an over-
view of the causes and effects of animal waste runoff. Since feedlots
have been located without regard to soil inventory and topographic
characteristics, high BOD waste runoff was common. The infiltration
of nitrates from manures to well waters was also well documented.
The extent of the problem and the present status of regulatory legisla-
tion were discussed, along with additional legislative proposals.
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ANIMAL WASTES
In addition, Rademacher and Resnik 213 put forward a model pro-
file for action in 1969. The essential elements of the program were
re-education, research, and regulation. Emphasis was placed on pro-
per feedlot location and research devoted to the institutional problems
of animal waste management. Animal waste disposal problems required
an organized, coordinated, interdisciplinary approach.
In 1970 Miner and Willrich 214 also discussed the pollution po-
tential of animal wastes. Livestock operations and field-spread manure
were seen as prime sources of pollutants, and controls through proper
animal waste management were examined. In the same publication,
McCalla, et al. 215 detailed the possibilities of excessive mineralization
of animal wastes in soils resulting in the leaching of nitrate to the ground-
water and nitrogen and phosphorus runoff.
Given the nature and extent of the groundwater pollution problem
caused by animal wastes, much work has been done on possible methods
of control. In 1967 LoehrZl 6 analyzed the quality of liquid and solid
effluents from anaerobic lagoons treating feedlot wastes. Even under
ideal equilibrium conditions, the liquid effluent from such lagoons con-
stituted a serious groundwater pollution threat. However, when used in
combination with subsequent treatment units, anaerobic lagoons could
be an effective process for treating livestock and feedlot wastes that
have a high solids content.
217
Webber and Lane presented a 1969 discussion on the nitrogen
problem in the land disposal of liquid manure. They outlined the crop-
land requirements for the utilization and disposal of nitrogenous corn-
pounds. The land spreading objectives were to achieve optimum use-
efficiency application rates and to insure that the application rates
achieved disposal ends without contributing to environmental pollution.
Recommendations were given on how much land was required for crop
utilization and pollution control for various livestock operations.
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AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION
In 1970 Overman, et al. 218 reported on the effectiveness of a soil
plant system in renovating waste water from farm animal operations.
Plots of ground were seeded with oats, and wastes from 160 cows were
applied up to one inch per week. Weekly chemical analyses to a depth
of 60 cm. for nitrate and orthophosphate content showed that nitrogen
and phosphorus removal was greatly enhanced by plant growth. It was
even suggested that a more intense application rate could be used.
Data on the quality and quantity of runoff from beef cattle feedlots
were presented by Loehr 21 in 1970. Because of the intermittent na-
ture of this runoff, minimum drainage control was possible using re-
tention ponds. Resulting groundwater pollution problems were briefly
discus sed.
220
In 1971 Fogg reviewed the criteria for an effective animal
waste management system. A proper system should: (1) divert clean
water from livestock waste areas; (2) provide controlled drainage or
runoff from such areas; (3) prevent leaching of contaminants; (4) collect
polluted runoff; and (5 treat or safely dispose of collected runoff. Solid
manure should be removed and stockpiled until it can be safely spread
on or deposited in the land. Liquid manure could often be disposed of
by a water spreading or irrigation system utilizing the soil and plant
cover for treatment, sometimes preceded by the use of aerobic or
anaerobic lagoons.
Concannon and Genetelli 22 ’ reported in 1971 on a study of four
specific methods of disposing of organic manures which utilized soil as
the ultimate disposal media. Lagooning, sanitary landfilling, sub-soil
injection, and the PFC method all posed possible groundwater pollution
dangers due to heavy loadings of organic and inorganic materials. Chem-
ical and bacteriological analyses were performed for four loading rates
of dry poultry solids in field plots and in laboratory soil columns. Total
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ANIMAL WASTES
organic carbon concentration levels were high, nitrate and sulfate con-
centrations exceeded USPHS limits, and all fecal coliform tests were
negative. No significant difference was observed between laboratory
and field results, leading to the conclusion that soil columns were an
effective controlled means of studying the soil as a disposal media for
solid waste.
In 1971 Viets 222 discussed the problems engineers face in de-
signing feedlot facilities that minimize runoff or dispose of it economi-
cally and beneficially. Groundwater pollution resulting from returning
the solid waste to the ground was seen as a predominantly local pheno-
menon. Since only about 10 percent of the land needed to produce food-
stuffs for cattle was needed for productive waste disposal, zoning was
seen as one of the best solutions to the feedlot problem.
Numerous studies have also been done on specific animal waste
pollution problems in particular localities. In 1967 Stewart, et al. 2Z3
reported on an investigation of nitrate pollution of groundwater in the
South Platte Valley of Colorado, an area intensively farmed with many
concentrated livestock feeding operations, The average total nitrate-
nitrogen content in soil profiles for various kinds of land use was re-
ported. Groundwater samples often contained high concentrations of
nitrate, and those obtained beneath feedlots contained ammonium nitro-
gen and organic carbon. The data revealed that nitrate was moving into
the groundwater supply under both feedlots and most irrigated fields,
excluding alfalfa.
In 1969 Evans 224 detailed research on pollution abatement and
management of organic wastes from cattle feedlots in northeastern
Colorado and eastern Nebraska. Feedlots had the highest nitrate levels,
but irrigated land probably contributed more total nitrate to the ground-
water due to its much larger acreage. A rapid dying of the coliform
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AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION
population in feedlot soils indicated little danger of groundwater conta-
mination by coliforms.
In 1970 Mielke, et al. reported on the groundwater quality in
the proximity of a level feedlot on a permeable soil with a fluctuating
high water table in the Platte River Valley of Nebraska. Six observa-
tion wells, six water level measuring wells, and two recording wells
were employed in the investigation. Soil cores were taken to determine
the quantity of nitrate which could move into the water table. Core
sample analyses indicated that downward movement of nitrates and other
forms of nitrogen in the soil was minor. The 12-15 inches of manure
pack decreased the actual penetration depth of the nitrogen into the pro-
file.
Gilbertson, et al. 22 discussed runoff, solid wastes, and nitrate
movement on beef feedlots in Nebraska in 1971. It was found that run-
off quality and quantity depended more on rainfall than on slope or cattle
density, but high density lots yielded about 150 percent more winter run-
off than low density lots. After one year nitrate movement in soil was
minimal.
In 1972 Lorimor, et al. 22 reported on a field investigation of
nitrate concentration in groundwater beneath a beef cattle feedlot in
Central City, Nebraska. Daily sampling of wells near the feedlot re-
vealed that the start of irrigation pumping resulted in no significant
increase in nitrate levels. The levels were found to be well below the
USPHS limit.
In addition to these Coiorado-Nebraska studies, a 1969 overview
of the problem of animal waste pollution by Radernacher 228 reported
that of 6,000 groundwater samples analyzed in Missouri, 42 percent
contained more than S ppm nitrate as nitrogen.
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ANIMAL WASTES
229, 230
Giliham and Webber examined a case of nitrogen contam-
ination of groundwater by barnyard leachates in 1969-70. From piezo-
metric potential and hydraulic conductivity measurements, quantitative
flow nets were drawn permitting groundwater discharge calculations.
During a five month study period, 4. 4 pounds of inorganic nitrogen from
the barnyard was contributed to the groundwater. The concentration of
nitrogen was related to the direction of groundwater flow and was de-
pendent on the presence of conditions suitable for leaching and the dilu-
tion potential of the local groundwater flow system.
In 1970 Frink 23 ’ presented analyses of nutrient cycling on dairy
farms in the Northeast showing that significant quantities of nitrogen
may be lost to groundwater. Calculations of the efficiency of nitrogen
conversion on these farms revealed that losses to the environment in-
creased dramatically as farm size decreased. It appeared that a de-
crease in the total nitrogen imported onto the smaller farms would not
seriously reduce productivity. In addition, nitrogen loss could be re-
duced by foliar applications to the growing crop, selection of varieties
with high yield and nitrogen content, increased plant populations, and
more extensive use of cover crops.
In 1971 Miller 232 ’ 233 reported on detailed field and laboratory
studies on infiltration rates, nitrate distribution, and groundwater
quality beneath cattle feedlots in the Texas High Plains. Infiltration
of feedlot liquid waste to the water table below feedyards was insigni-
ficant in most localities. Infiltration of feedlot runoff and subsequent
concentration of dissolved ions in groundwater were dependent on,
among other things, surface and subsurface geology, depth to water,
thickness of the groundwater zone, and differences in the lateral and
vertical permeabiities of the Ogallala formation. No direct correla-
tion of groundwater quality existed with feedpen-runoff slope, cattle
load, or surface area ratios of drainage basins to collection systems.
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AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION
No regional subsurface pollution problem from cattle feedlot runoff was
found to exist, nor was one foreseen.
Crosby, et al. 234 in 1971 analyzed a test drilling program at a
dairy in the Spokane Valley of Washington to study the effects of feedlot
operation on groundwater quality. Coliforms were found to disappear
within a few feet of the ground surface, but chlorides and nitrates were
persistent in depth and could actually reach the groundwater. The low
natural moisture content of the soil, coupled with apparent high moisture
tensions, suggested that soil moisture was not presently moving down-
ward in the system. It was concluded that formation of organic matters
in near surface layers would arrest the downward migration of inorganic
chemicals from the feedlot environment in time.
235 Z36
Adriano, et al. conducted a 1969-71 field and laboratory
study on the fate of nitrate and salt from land disposal of dairy manures
in the Chino-Corona Basin near Los Angeles, California. Soil and water
samples were taken from sites representing corrals, irrigated croplands,
and pastures used as disposal areas. Considerable amounts of NO and
salt were found in soil profiles beneath the disposal areas, although the
magnitude was not as high as in profiles under corrals. Average NO -N
concentrations in groundwater samples generally exceeded the USPHS re-
commended limit of 10 ppm for safe drinking water. It was suggested
that a reduction in cow population from ten to three per acre would keep
NO -N levels in soil within acceptable limits. In addition, maximization
of NH 3 volitization from manure before incorporation into the soil was
thought to increase the chances for a reduction in N0-N content in soil.
In 1972 Hutchison, et al. 237 summarized a research project con-
ducted in Maine to determine the maximum acceptable rates of manure
application in an excessively drained glacial outwash, a well drained gla-
cial till, and in poorly drained Maine soils. Using field plots and a lysi.-
meter study, results indicated safe nitrogen application rates of 350,
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IRRIGATION RETURN FLOWS
1, 400, and 200 pounds per acre for Windsor loamy sand, Chariton fine
sandy loam, and a poorly drained Scantic silt loam, respectively.
IRRIGATION RETURN FLOWS
Oahu, Hawaii, has been the focus of several studies on the effects
of irrigation on soils and groundwater. In 1962, Mink 238 reported on an
increase of silica and nitrate in the groundwater beneath heavily irrigated
sugar cane. The contamination was due to percolation of nitrate fertilizer
and the leaching of silica through water-logged soil.
Tenorio, et al. 239 summarized the results of a 1967-69 investi-
gation of the physical and chemical characteristics of irrigation return
water in Pearl Harbor-Waipahu and Kahuku, Oahu, and central and west
Maui. Well samples, profile samples, and composite samples were ob-
tained in areas used for tropical agriculture. The well waters were eval-
uated according to Visher and Minks index constituents (silica, sulfate,
and nitrate) and other significant ionic compositions. Analysis indicated
a cyclical trend in concentrations of major constituents, either related
to seasonal rainfall or irrigation practices, or both.
Tenorio, et al. 240 reported on phase III of the previous study in
1970. Basal water quality of aquifers in Kahuku, Oahu, and Kahului and
Lahaina, Maui, were examined, and the effects of prevailing agricultural
practices on groundwater were discussed. The presence of irrigation
return water indices in groundwater was traced to both fertilization and
heavy pumping and recycling of the basal water.
In 1 970 Leonard 241 presented a paper on the effects of irrigation
on the chemical quality of ground and surface water in the Cedar Bluff
Irrigation District of west-central Kansas. One hundred observation
wells were monitored, and the chemical quality of the groundwater was
found to vary from well to well. Calcium, sulfate, and bicarbonate ions
dominated, and the chloride content was found to increase as the irrigation
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AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION
continued. The data suggested that the original groundwater in the dis -
trict was being diluted and displaced by irrigation water.
Law, et al. 242 in 1 970 analyzed the degradation of water quality
in irrigation return flows. The study centered on the increase in total
dissolved solids in percolating soil water and on the salinity status of a
saltwater irrigated clay loam soil. In general, draining and percolating
waters were found to adversely affect groundwater quality. In particu..
lar, percolating irrigation water transported about ten tons of salt per
acre-foot.
243
ALfaro and Wilkins reported on a 1970 laboratory model study
on salt distribution and effluent concentration in soil profiles. Results
indicated that modeling profiles according to the design conditions spec-
ified by the theory may be useful in predicting quality changes of irriga-
tion return flows.
In 1971 Thomas, et al. described the development of a hybrid
computer program to predict the water and salt outflow from a river
basin in which irrigation was the major water user. A chemical model
which predicted the quality of water percolated through a soil profile
was combined with a general hydrologic model to form the system simu-
lation model. The model was tested on a portion of the Little Bear Basin
in northern Utah, and it successfully measured simulated measured out-
flows of water and of each of six ions for a two-year period. The only
discrepancies were in predicted values of small concentrations of sodium
ions, which comprise only 2 percent of the total salt outflow. Prelimin-
ary results indicated that the available water supply could be used to
irrigate additional land witb ut unduly increasing the salt outflow from
the basin. With minor adjustments, it was thought the model could be
applied to other areas.
In 1971 Law 245 presented the status of the National Irrigation
Return Flow Research and Development Program. Current research
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PESTICIDES AND HERBICIDES
projects were discussed, along with a number of potential control mea-
sures. Improvements in the water delivery system, on-the-farm water
management, and the water removal system were considered with re-
spect to improving the quality of irrigation return flows and decreasing
the degradation of receiving waters. The need for research and field
investigations to evaluate the effectiveness of potential control measures
was stressed.
Fitzsirnmons, et ai. 2 6 summarized results of a 1970 field study
in the Boise Valley of southwestern Idaho. Inorganic materials were
discovered in surface- and groundwater in the intensively farmed, gra-
vity irrigated area. The groundwater contained more nitrate-nitrogen
(4. 92 ppm) than other water sources, perhaps due to leaching of perco-
lating irrigation water, or from feedlots, dairies, and septic tank drain
fields in the area. The groundwater also contained relatively large con-
centrations of both ortho- and total phosphorus (.11 and .58 ppm, re-
spectively), a surprising discovery since it was generally assumed
phosphorus was not readily moved through soil by flowing water.
PESTICIDES AND HERBICIDES
In 1962 Bonde and Urone 247 summarized the results of a study
of over 225 wells in Adams County, Colorado. Plant toxicants (chlorate
and a toxicant with effects similar to 2,4 dichiorophenoxyacetic acid)
were found in the groundwater of almost one quarter of the wells sampled.
All contaminated wells were northwest of the Rocky Mountain Arsenal
waste disposal basins in the direction of groundwater flow. Chemical,
x-ray, and bioassay techniques were employed to identify the chlorate;
high concentrations of sodium chloride were found to coincide with tox-
icant presence.
Two studies have been done on the general adsorption and mo-
bility characteristics of pesticides in soils. McCarty and King 248 found
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AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION
a positive correlation between the extent of adsorption and the clay con-
tent of the soils, and an inverse correlation between the extent of adsorp-
tion and the rate of pesticide movement. They emphasized that both
adsorption and degradation effects had to be considered in predicting the
leachability of pesticides in soils. Huggenberger, et al. 249 presented
a mathematical model to predict the distribution of pesticides in a soil
profile through the use of an adsorption coefficient, but concluded no
accurate prediction could be made of the depth of maximum pesticide
concentration.
Eye 25 ° conducted research on the problem of aqueous transport
of dieldrin residues in soil. He concluded in 1968 that the adsorptive
capacity of soil to dieldrin was so great that penetration through soil
was negligible, and no threat of groundwater pollution existed.
A laboratory study on the adsorption of lindane and dieldrin on
natural aquifer sands from Portage County. Wisconsin, by Boucher and
Lee 25 ’ in 1972 corroborated Eye’s 250 theory. After three successive
washes of distilled water, less than 20 percent of the dieldrin adsorbed
by the aquifer sands was removed. However, nearly 70 percent of the
adsorbed lindane was leached after similar washes.
In 1969 Robertson and Kahn 252 reported on four experiments of
aidrin (a representative member of the chlorinated hydrocarbon insec-
ticide group) infiltrating through columns of Ottawa sand. They con-
cluded that the penetrability of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides
through soils was dependent upon the type of formulation applied, the
frequency of its application, soil conditions, and the frequency and rate
of rainfall or irrigation.
Dregne, et al. 253 studied the movement of 2,4 dichiorophenoxy-
acetic acid (2,4-D) in three soils to determine the extent to which herb-
icides applied in the field enter the surface and groundwater systems.
Primary emphasis was placed on the effect of exchangeable cations on
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PESTICIDES AND HERBICIDES
2, 4-D movement. A variety of analytical techniques indicated that
2, 4-.D in the salt or acid form was only slightly adsorbed by soil particles.
The ease of 2, 4-D leaching was found to depend on the relative permea-
bility of the soils.
In 1971 Mansell and Hammond 254 detailed a further experiment
on the influence of physical and chemical soil properties upon the trans-
port of 2, 4-D and paraquat in columns of organic and sandy soils. Mis -
cible displacement of aqueous solutions of these herbicides through columns
of Everglades mucky peat resulted in most of the 2, 4-D and all of the para-
quat being adsorbed. Similar thorough removal of the herbicides was
observed in the fine sands, although the presence of large concentrations
of potassium chloride in the soil solution decreased the quantity of para-
quat adsorbed. A mathematical transfer function theory was used in
connection with statistical hydrodynamics to develop a technique for
analysis and prediction of herbicide elution from soil columns during
miscible displacement experiments.
In 1967 Johnston, et al. 255 reported on the type and quality of
insecticide material found in irrigated agricultural soils in the San
Joaquin Valley of California. Relatively small quantities of chlorinated
hydrocarbon residues were found in the tile drainage effluent, but higher
concentrations were found in effluent from open drains where both sur-
face and subsurface drainage waters were collected. Effluent samples
from seven tile drains and samples of applied water and tailwater con-
tained about ten times the amount of residue as the applied water when
DDT was used and 85 times as much when lindane was used. Large
concentrations of residue were found in the surface soil although there
was no direct application.
A 1 970 report of the Working Group on Pesticides 256 examined
the problem of ground disposal of pesticides and the extent of resulting
well and groundwater contamination. Types of pesticide wastes were
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AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION
discussed, and the interactions between pesticides and soils and ground-
water considered. Criteria were provided for establishment of guide-
lines on pesticide waste disposal practices and monitoring. The magni-
tude of the threat to groundwater was dependent on the properties of the
pesticide waste, the hydrological characteristics of the disposal site,
and the volume, state (liquid or solid), and persistence of the waste.
Particular emphasis was placed on the application of the technology of
groundwater occurrence and movement to these problems. Nine specific
recommendations on the problem of pesticide waste disposal were
offered.
257
Schneider, et al. in 1970 described an experiment designed
to study the movement and recovery of herbicides in the Ogallala aquifer
at Bushland, Texas. Water from an irrigation well was used to inject
three common herbicides (picloram, atrazine, and trifluralin) into a
dual purpose well. The well was then pumped long enough to recover
essentially all of the recharged water. Nitrate was used to trace the
movement of the recharged water. Water samples pumped from obser-
vation wells at radial distances of 30 and 66 feet from the dual purpose
well showed that the herbicides moved through the aquifer with the re-
charged water. Coliform bacteria and DDT were effectively filtered or
adsorbed by the fine Ogallala sand.
In 1971 Olsen 258 surveyed problems in both natural and artificial
groundwater recharge employing surface water that had been subjected
to mild pesticide contamination. Two specific examples of the ground-
water contamination effects of s’ich recharge were discussed, one in
Colorado and one in Texas.
Swoboda, et a!. 259 in 1 971 summarized research on the distri-
bution of DDT and toxaphene in Houston black clay in three watersheds
at Waco, Texas. Soil samples indicated that some of the DDT was not
adsorbed by the clay and moved downward with water.
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PESTICIDES AND HERBICIDES
In 1971 LewallenZ 6 O reported on a 1967-71 field study of pesti-
cide contamination of a shallow bored well in the southeastern coastal
plains. Pesticide-contaminated soil had been used as a backfill around
the well casing. Water, sediment, and soil samples were taken. The
contamination of the well water had remained relatively low, probably
because of the very low solubilities of the pesticides (DDT, DDE, and
toxaphene) in water. The contamination of the well actually occurred
through the movement of surface soil containing adsorbed pesticides to
the water table.
DixonZ 6 l collected four detailed studies on the adsorption and
decomposition of pesticides (amiben, diquat, endrin, dieldrin, and al-
drin) by clay minerals and soils in the same southeastern United States
area. The soils of the region were acidic, contained vermiculite and
kaolinite as major clay minerals, and had high percolation rates. The
studies suggested that these soils were more effective in decomposing
organic molecules than neutral or alkaline soils and were less likely to
permit leaching of organic ions into groundwater than less weathered
soils.
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SECTION X
POLLUTION FROM WELLS
DISPOSAL WELLS
Live Oak and Orlando, Florida, were the sites of 1948 investigations
by Telfair 262 to evaluate the effect of diffusion of surface drainage, sewage,
and trade wastes through drainage wells into the permeable Locene lime-
stone aquifers. The report gives the results of bacteriological findings,
as well as summaries and conclusions concerning pollution and its effects,
possible remedies, and future prospects.
in 1952 Reck and Simmons 263 reported on groundwater in the
Buffalo-Niagara Falls region of New York. They found that quality was
generally good; however, large sections of the Onondaga Limestone
aquifer had been polluted by individual and industrial wells drilled for
the discharge of waste materials. Many of these wells became clogged,
losing their efficiency to absorb waste. Health officials discouraged the
practice of drilling drainage wells.
More recently, a 1968 study by Sceva 264 concentrated on drilled
disposal wells in the Middle Deschutes Basin in Central Oregon. The
Basin is underlain by basaltic lava flows that restrict the construction
of conventional drain fields for liquid waste disposal. Large quantities
of groundwater beneath this region were threatened by the liquid waste
injection and by the construction of deep uncased water wells. Recom-
mendations included the prevention of further drain well construction
and the casing of all deep water wells.
Abegglen, et al. 265 have also studied the effects of drain wells on
groundwater quality of the Eastern Snake River Plain aquifer of Southern
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INJECTION WELLS
Idaho, the principal domestic water supply resource in the area. Some
3, 000 drain wells in Lincoln, Jerome, and Gooding Counties extend into
fractured basalt aquifers, and were being used for the disposal of sewage,
street drainage, irrigation excess water, and industrial wastes. A bac-
terial pollution problem existed on a local scale, and corrective measures
were necessary to protect the public health in several areas of the Plain.
Effective alternatives to the use of drain wells include municipal sewerage,
above-ground and subsurface soil absorption systems, and sedimentation-
recirculation systems.
iNJECTION WELLS
Groundwater pollution problems related to the subsurface disposal
of liquid wastes by means of deep well injection have been reviewed in
detail in the literature since 1950.
warner 266 in 1965 concluded that deep well injection was techni-
cally feasible and, if properly planned and implemented, a safe method
for liquid waste disposal. Areas of further research needed were out-
lined. In 1967 the results of a comprehensive study on injection wells
and industrial waste disposal by the Interstate Oil Compact Commis-
sion 267 ’ 268 were presented. Treatment methods, compatibility of fluids
and rock, geological aspects, injection pressures and rates, and legal
considerations were reviewed. Current injection well systems were
summarized, and guidelines established for well applications, drilling
practic es, monitoring, and well abandonment.
Walker and Stewart 269 and Talbot 27 ° in 1968 reviewed state deep
well disposal practices and regulations. The necessity for a suitable
disposal stratum and a waste physically and chemically compatible with
the resident material in the disposal formation was stressed. In 1969
Manning 271 detailed similar requirements and suggested that areas under-
lain by sedimentary rocks were potential disposal reservoirs due to gen-
erally large areal formations. Caswell 272 in 1970 also reviewed the
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POLLtJflON FROM WELLS
technology, hydrology, and legal status of deep disposal wells, and
warned that in many cases injection was not feasible due to long-lived
273
wastes or to the bydrogeology of the disposal horizon. In 1972 Cook
collected and edited 37 studies on deep well waste disposal and related
subjects.
All types of water desalinization schemes have the problem of
concentrated brine disposal, and Manning 271 in 1969 suggested that
injection wells might provide safe and convenient disposal. Boegly,
et al. 274 reviewed the literature on this problem in 1969, and found
deep well injection was technically feasible if satisfactory pretreatment
was provided. A suitable site for such injection required a permeable
sedimentary formation capped by an impermeable formation. This study,
as well as Rinne 275 in 1970, stressed the need for detailed geologic and
hydrologic investigations in insure site suitability and proper system
design.
In 1967—69, Warner 276 ’ 277 Water Well Journal , 2 8 and Environ-
mental Science and Technology 279 summarized data on 110 injection wells
in use mainly in North-Central and Gulf Coast areas. Some of the char-
acteristics of industrial waste injection wells reviewed were: operation,
location, well depth, depth of injection horizon, geologic formation,
chemical and physical character of waste, injection pressure and rate,
and information sources.
The cost factors involved in deep well disposal were analyzed by
Sehn and Hulse 28 ° in 1960. The nature of pretreatment required, the
depth of the hole, waste corrosi’iity, state regulations, geology of the
formation, and many other considerations were discussed. The presence
of intolerable amounts of dissolved salts was considered mandatory before
deep well disposal was definitely more economic than surface disposal
techniques. Stewart 28 ’ in 1968 concluded that in general the cost of
deep well disposal was about one-third of any other method of waste
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INJECTION WELLS
neutralization. In 1969 Manning 271 suggested that the great expense of
injection disposal made it best suited for disposal of relatively small
quantities of particularly noxious wastes. Also in 1969 Boegly, et al. 274
reported on the costs of deep well oil field brine disposal systems.
Problems of design, control, and monitoring of deep well injection
systems have also been examined. In a 1966 laboratory and theoretical
study, Warner 282 linked the amount of reaction between injected and
interstitial solutions to the dispersive character of the porous medium.
The concept of a buffer zone of nonreactive water between injected waste
and aquifer water was also proposed.
Basic design principles for disposal well systems were presented
283 281 26Q 270
by Marsh, Stewart, Walker and Stewart, Talbot, Slagle
284 285 286
and Stogner, Rima, and McLean in 1968 and 1969. Design
requirements for aquifer protection included: selection of a zone bounded
by aquicludes; strict drilling, casing, and sealing procedures; waste
quality and application rate controls; proper surface injection and treat-
ment equipment; stand-by wells; knowledge of hydraulic gradients and
bydrodynamic dispersion factors; and a comprehensive system of monitor-
270 286
ing wells. Talbot and McLean also stressed the need for pre-
construction testing. Injectivity tests of the formation’s hydrologic
properties were urged, and a method for calculating the radius of injec-
tion capacity of the formation was described.
The effects of deep injection are complex, and some geologists
have felt that the little information available was misunderstood or mis-
287 . .
applied. Sheidrick in 1969 summarized the criticism of the geologic
criteria on which feasibility rnd safety of injection wells were evaluated.
Knowledge of the hydrodynamics of underground formations and under-
ground monitoring techniques were thought to be completely inadequate
to permit waste injection.
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POLLUTION FROM WELLS
Citing this lack of knowledge, Piper 288 in 1969 and the National
.289.
Industrial Pollution Control Council in 1971 proposed a canvass of
the United States and immediate research to establish: (1) geological,
hydrological, and geochemical factors involved in deep well disposal;
(2) areas suitable for injection disposal; (3) a categorization of all wastes
based on their suitability for deep well disposal; (4) the legal status of
the problem; and (5) effective monitoring procedures for deep wells and
disposal areas. These proposed studies were not completed by 1972.
Miller 290 also warned of the lack of data on possible groundwater pollu-
tion hazards of deep injection wells.
In 1971 Tofflemire and Brezner 291 summarized existing deep well
injection practices in the United States, with particular reference to
New York State. Site selection, well construction, waste quality, and
well-monitoring criteria were explored. Salt water, industrial wastes,
and radioactive wastes were the three major types of liquid amenable to
deep well disposal. A listing of pertinent current literature was also
included.
Rudd 292 in 1972 reviewed Pennsylvania injection wells handling
all types of wastes. Drilling and well construction criteria were exam-
ined, and the monitoring of system operations, formation pressures,
and fluids was discussed. Geologic and hydrologic factors bearing on
subsurface disposal of liquid wastes were also detailed by Otton 293 in
1970 for eight major subregions of Maryland.
In 1968 Water Well Journal 294 reported on the construction of an
injection well in Middletown, Ohio, to dispose of spent steel mill pickle
liquor. The well met rigid state design specifications and, considering
the favorable geology, was thought to pose no threat of groundwater
contamination.
Only Ohio, West Virginia, and Texas have specific legislation
295,296
regulating industrial wastewater injection. Cleary and Warner
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INJECTION WELLS
presented a monograph on underground wastewater disposal for the Ohio
River Basin in 1969. Insight into public policy is sues was provided, and
administrative and regulatory guidelines were offered to aid in evaluating
the location, design, construction, operation, and abandonment of injec-
tion wells. Most of the Ohio Valley was considered amenable to waste
injection, but it was recommended that only limited quantities of wastes
be regarded as eligible for subsurface disposal and that monitoring needs
were of great importance.
Two examples of successful drilling and operation of deep injection
- 297.
wells in Indiana were presented by Hundley and Matulis in 1963 and
I-lartrnan 298 in 1968. The Newport, Indiana, well disposed of inorganic
waste into a sandstone reservoir capped with a sandstone of near zero
permeability. In addition, deep well injection at a Midwest Steel Mill
plant in Portage, Indiana, was very effective in reducing sludge accumu-
lation. Monthly lime neutralization costs at Portage were reduced by
about 80 percent. Design and construction of the well were described.
299,300 . . .
In 1968 Bergstrom studied the criteria for feasibility of
industrial waste disposal by injection wells in Illinois, and reviewed the
suitability of various geologic formations for disposal. Favorable geo-
hydrologic conditions made disposal by injection wells feasible in much
of the southern two-thirds of illinois. However, exhaustive testing,
substantial proof of acceptable site conditions, and incorporation of
optimum engineering safeguards were still considered necessary before
any well installation could be authorized. The eight basic design policies
incorporated into this construction permit system were discussed by
Smith 30 ’ in a 1971 survey of subsurface storage and disposal in the state.
Berk 302 in 1971 described the methods used and problems encoun-
tered in drilling two deep injection wells in Chicago, Illinois, and
Bakersfield, California, for the disposal of industrial liquid wastes.
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POLLUTION FROM WELLS
In addition, in analyzing drilling equipment, the study revealed the
physical and economic advantages of a combination well casing and
injection tubing in the form of saran-lined steel pipe over the standard
casing and plastic injection tube design.
An early study by Jones 303 in 1947 of injection wells for the sub-
surface disposal of Kansas oil field brines emphasized the protection
afforded groundwater supplies and the added benefit of repressurizing
played-out” oil fields. It warned of the constant battle with corrosion
of brine handling equipment in the use of injection wells.
In 1970 Grubbs, et al. 304 evaluated the geologic and engineering
parameters governing the disposal of liquid wastes by deep well injection
in Alabama. A study was made of geological and hydrological factors
to identify favorable subsurface reservoirs for waste confinement. A
design and cost procedure was supplemented by a computer program to
provide rapid feasibility studies of proposed sites, and an extensive
bibliography was included. Alverson 305 in 1970 reported on a similar
evaluation of conditions in Baldwin, Escaxnbia, and Mobile Counties
which favored effective deep well injection and outlined criteria to insure
against groundwater contamination. In 1971 Tucker 306 reviewed opera-
tions of five injection wells over a six-year period, and described effec.-
tive well design criteria and well monitoring techniques.
Since 1963, a deep injection well system has been operated by
Chemstrand Company at Pensacola, Florida, for the disposal of aqueous
307 308
process wastes from the manufacture of nylon. Batz, Dean.
Barraclough, 309 and Goolsby 310 reported on this situation between 1964
and 1971. Without pretreatme it, the wastes were injected at low pres-
sures and high rates into the lower limestone of the Floridan aquifer
between two thick beds of clay. Dean 308 described the design criteria
(especially the casing program), the construction, and the operation of
this system in detail. Goolsby 31 ° employed monitor wells in 1971 to
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iNJECTION WELLS
reveal that the waste extended outward about one mile from the two
injection wells and that pressure effects extended outward over 25 miles.
No detection of wastes above the formation was reported. Lateral travel
rates of waste were observed.
In 19 9 Garcia-Bengochea and Vernon described deep-well
disposal of industrial wastes in the highly saline boulder zone of the
Floridan aquifer in Southern Florida at Belle Glade. No trace of ground-
water contamination had been found in the overlying aquifer, and the
potential of the zone for similar uses, if the hydrogeological conditions
were typical of the region, was discussed.
In 1970 Vernon 312 surveyed brine disposal and waste injection wells
in Florida. The use of zones of high transmissivities was stressed, and
a permit system was described based on proper design and treatment
criteria. An extensive monitoring system was considered essential to
effective regulation of injection wells. Kaufman 313 in 1973 analyzed
data on deep well injection of industrial and municipal effluents and con-
cluded that injected wastes seemed to remain confined in the receiving
stratum, at least in Northwest Florida. The crucial need for close mon-
itoring of future hydraulic and geochemical effects was emphasized.
In 1951 and 1953 de Ropp 314 and Henkel 315 followed the development
of a waste disposal system at the DuPont Company’s adiponitrile plant
near Victoria, Texas. Concentrated liquid chemical wastes were injected
into a deep well to subterranean sands, and both studies described the
untested control techniques employed. Well construction procedures
(cementing and anti-corrosive ;asing) and the entire brine treatment
operation (aeration, induced irecipitation, filtration, and chlorination)
were detailed.
In 1967 eir ’ 6 and Lockett 317 reported on o deep wefl disposal
systems in Bay City and Odessa, Texas. Both were successful, but the
Odessa injection operation proved to be expensive. Geologic and hydrologic
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POLLUTtON FROM WELLS
sampling programs were discussed, along with details of well construction
and equipment and waste pretreatment processes.
McMiUion and Maxwell 318 in 1970 reported on field studies conducted
in Texas County, Oklahoma, on the pollution potential of the Ogallala aqui-
fer by oil field brine injection. The Glorieta sandstone beneath the Ogallala
received the injected brines, and the hydraulic characteristics of the
Glorieta were needed to determine the fluid relationship between strata.
As a result, a technique was developed for making aquifer tests in brine
disposal wells.
319 320 -
Evans and Evans and Bradford in 1966 and 1969 examined the
connection between Denver, Colorado, area earthquakes and a deep injec-
tion well at the Rocky Mountain Arsenal which was disposing wastes from
the manufacture of poison gas. Both reports pointed to the unknown dan-
gers and possible effects of disposal wells, and Evans and Bradford 32 °
warned that deep injection well techniques offered only temporary safety
from the many permanently toxic wastes being injected.
The problems of deep well disposal of industrial and radioactive
wastes in Canada were surveyed by McLean 32 ’ in 1968 (with emphasis
on Ontario) and van Everdingen and Freeze 322 in 1971. Geological and
hydrological features of site selection, well construction and abandonment
requirements, waste quality criteria, and monitoring needs were treated.
RECHARGE WELLS
The University of California Sanitary Engineering Research Lab-
oratory 323 ’ 324 detailed a study of pollution travel from direct well
recharge. A well field consisting of a recharge well and 23 observation
wells penetrating a confined aquifer 100 feet underground was located
in Richmond, California. Both fresh water and water degraded with
settled sewage were injected at various rates. Chemical, bacteriological,
and radiological methods were employed to determine rates of travel of
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RECHARGE WELLS
the recharged water. The bacterial pollutants travelled a maximum of
100 feet in the direction of normal groundwater movement even though
steep gradients were imposed. The nature of well clogging was examined,
and methods of well redevelopment were studied.
In 1967 Mitchell and Samples 325 reported on an investigation of
high rate treatment facilities to polish standard rate activated sludge
effluent to make it suitable for use as a water supply for recharge through
injection wells. A three-phase investigation (polishing, recharge, mon-
itoring), conducted at the City of Los Angeles Hyperion treatment plant,
concluded that either rapid sand filtration with pretreatment or diatoma-
ceous earth filtration could be used to produce water from Hyperion
secondary effluent which was acceptable for injection. Cost estimates
of the process and suggestions for cooperation with fresh water barrier
projects were included in the report.
— 326 32.7
In 19 tO and 1971 Wesner and Bajer ‘ reported on the research
of the Orange County Water District in California on wastewater reclama-
tion and subsurface injection. Objectives of the research were to deter-
mine (1) the hydraulic characteristics of the proposed injection barrier
system of multi-point injection wells; (2) the long term fate of reclaimed
wastewater in the injection system; (3) the feasibility of utilizing wastewater
for a barrier; and (4) the chemical composition of blended reclaimed water
and deep groundwater. The performance of the system was found to be
generally satisfactory, but the persistent odor and taste in the injected
reclaimed water was probably the most serious deterrent to utilizing that
source for injection in a barrier system.
Since 1966 numerous studies 328 to 338 have been completed on a
plan of Nassau County, Long Island, New York, to reclaim water from
the effluent of its wastewater treatment plants and inject this treated
water through wells into aquifers furnishing most of the public water
supplies in the county. The injection would create a hydraulic barrier
91
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POLLUTION FROM WELLS
to prevent salt water intrusion and would allow increased withdrawals
from existing water supply wells. A series of artificial recharge exper-
iments has been conducted to determine the feasibility of a proposed
fifteen-mile network of barrier injection wells. Ultimately, the plan
was to establish numerous water reclamation plants throughout the
County for direct injection.
An experimental recharge well was drilled to a depth of 500 feet.
It consisted of two fiberglas casings with a 62-foot long stainless steel
well screen attached to the bottom of each casing. Hydraulic head
changes and water quality were evaluated at several points within the
well and filter pack. Geochemical reactions related to the head changes
were monitored by means of instruments within each screen.
Various studies of the proposed project have dealt with alternative
methods of waste water renovation and comparisons of recharge wells
with recharge basins; 329 area withdrawal rates, tertiary treatment
costs, and other salt water barrier and advanced waste treatment proj-
332
ects; and recharge water quality standards and methods for achieving
333
them.
In general, experiments since January 1 968, have shown that the
Magothy aquifer of Long Is land can be recharged with reclaimed water
through the use of injection wells. Restricted bacterial travel through
the aquifer was primarily due to the high filtering efficiency of the
fine to medium aquifer sand and to bacterial capture by a filter mat and
slime deposits that form around the well during injection. The studies
also showed the stringent quality requirements on the injected water
334 to 338
were necessary to minimize w;ll clogging and redevelopment.
WELL CONSTRUCTION EFFECTS
The connection between groundwater pollution problems and well
construction has been explored in recent years. In 1948 Williams 339
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WELL CONSTRUCTION EFFECTS
summarized a field investigation of contamination of deep water wells in
Crawford and Cherokee Counties, Kansas. Three pumping tests revealed
the intrusion of highly mineralized saline water (both natural and oil brine)
into municipal and industrial wells. The cause was defective well con-
struction; the author recommended proper casing and grouting of new
deep wells.
Johnson National Drillers Journal 340 reported on a 1955-56 coli-
form bacteria problem in water pumped from house wells in a suburb of
St. Paul, Minnesota. Contaminated surface water had been permitted
to drain into the aquifer through a series of drainage wells drilled into
limestone. Three possible solutions to the problem were construction
of a community water system, drilling of deeper individual wells and
casing off of the limestone, and individual chlorination equipment.
A 1963 publication of the U.S. Public Health Service 34 ’ reviewed
the problems of installation of chlorinated equipment on individual
water systems. The manual was in part intended for use by state and
local health authorities, well drillers, and industry groups concerned
with the design, construction, and operation of such water supply systems.
Another article in Johnson Drillers Journal 342 in 1967 surveyed
problems of control and monitoring of bacterial pollution in well water.
Chlorinated water only was recommended for drilling, along with chlor-
ination of the gravel pack before installation. Sterilization of sampling
materials was also stressed. Standard monitoring procedures for dis-
covery of coliform bacteria presence were reviewed and a new filtration
procedure was discussed,
A field study of the water quality in the municipal well of Aron,
South Dakota, was detailed by Jorgensen 343 in 1968. A marked dif-
ference appeared between water quality from the municipal well and
nearby wells tapping the same aquifer. An aquifer test and analyses
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POLLUTION FROM WELLS
of water samples showed the anomaly to be caused by leakage from a
nearby abandoned well tapping another aquifer.
In 1971 Ham 344 surveyed the general problem of groundwater pollu-
tion through wells and presented diagrams of various avenues of pollution
via wells. A list of eleven items dealing with statutory and administrative
control measures was included.
Also, in 1971 Jones 345 concluded that since most groundwater aqui-
fers have multibarrier natural defenses, the path of entrance for most
contamination was the well itself. Only rarely did circumstances econom-
ically justify substitution of disinfection techniques for adequate protection
of the groundwater source. Poorly constructed and abandoned wells served
as unauthorized and uncontrolled recharge points and had a degrading effect
on groundwater quality. In order to achieve water quality improvement,
well drillers, water conditioning dealers, and county and state health
departments had to accept as the ideal goal the exclusion of water of un-
desirable quality from sources of groundwater supply.
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SECTION XI
SALT WATER AND SURFACE WATER
SALT WATER INTRUSION
Salt water intrusion is characterized by the movement of saline
water into a freshwater aquifer. Almost all of the literature in recent
years has been devoted to sea water intrusion of coastal aquifers, while
the upward movement of brackish or saline waters from connate sources
in inland aquifers has been relatively neglected.
Parker 346 in 1955 presented a general discussion of sea water
intrusion together with examples from various locations in the United
States. Five years later Todd 347 surveyed the coastal intrusion situa-
tion in the United States, prepared a map of intrusion locations, and
mentioned control efforts in Los Angeles, California. In 1968 a sym-
348
posiurn on the subject was held at Louisiana State University; papers
covered salt water encroachment into aquifers in Florida, New York,
and California, management of aquifers, encroachment control, hydro.-
geology, and legal aspects of encroachment.
The most recent report on U. S. saline intrusion was prepared in
1969 by a Task Group of the American Society of Civil Engineers. 349
General mechanisms responsible for intrusion include (a) reversal or
reduction of groundwater gradients, (b) accidental or inadvertent de-
struction of natural barriers that prevented movement of salt waters,
and (c) accidental or inadvertent disposal of waste saline water. The
occurence of saline water was described in terms of geologic and hydro-
logic conditions. The extent of intrusion was listed with 68 examples
from inland and coastal aquifers throughout the United States, Major
control efforts underway in some areas were also mentioned.
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SALT WATER AND SURFACE WATER
A field investigation of sea water intrusion on the southern coast
350
of Long Island, conducted in 1958-61, found that saline groundwater
occurred both in permeable deposits and clay deposits. Chloride con-
tents were only slightly less than that of sea water, and a broad transi-
tion zone was present. Movement of the saline water inland and down-
ward was very slow; there was no danger of public supply wells being
affected within the next two decades. Data were obtained by test drill-
ing, extraction of water from cores, electric logging, water sampling,
and water level measurements. New concepts of environmental-water
head proved useful in defining hydraulic gradients and flow rates of
groundwater having a variable density. A suggested control mechanism
was artificial recharge of imported water to create hydraulic barriers.
A follow-up study on the same Long Island area by Cohen and
Kirnmel 351 in 1969 covered the period 1960-69. Landward movement
of a deep wedge of salty groundwater in the area was minimal; signifi-
cant changes in chloride content were noted in only 3 of 30 outpost wells.
These increases resulted from local heavy pumping near the zone of
diffusion. No increases were noted in the underlying Lloyd aquifer,
except where leaky casings permitted downward flow of saline water.
The status of sea water intrusion in Delaware aquifers was re-
ported by Woodruff 352 in 1969. Brackish water was present in nearly
all aquifers, but the depth and location of the fresh-salt interface varied
with each aquifer. Intrusion in shallow water table aquifers was spotty.
It was stated that properly located monitor wells were necessary for
detection of future chloride mo’ ements. To control intrusion heavy
pumping should be avoided netr brackish water areas.
Three reports in 1964 documented the salt water intrusion situa-
tion in the Savannah area of Georgia and South Carolina. ‘
Fresh water in the principal artesian aquifer was being contaminated
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SALT WATER INTRUSION
by two sources—in the upper zones by sea water intrusion, and in the
lower zones by incompletely flushed water of Pleistocene Age. The
rate of salt water movement was slow, so that intrusion was not ex-
pected to reach Savannah for nearly 100 years. It was recommended
that additional deep observation wells should be drilled to define the in-
trusion pattern. To control intrusion pumping should be regulated and
rearranged over a wider area; furthermore, surface water should be
developed as a supplemental source,
sipie 6 in 1965 described a detailed investigation of sea water
intrusion in the limestones along the South Carolina coast. Geological,
hydrological, and geochemical methods were employed. Carbon- 14
measurements of groundwater at Hilton Head, South Carolina, were
used by Back, et al. to define trends and areas of sea water intru-
sion there.
Along the coast of Georgia gamma-radiation logs were used by
Wait 358 to identify phosphate zones. It was concluded that mining of one
phosphate zone would breach the confining layer above the principal
artesian aquifer and allow sea water intrusion to occur. In a study of
water-level declines in the principal artesian aquifer in Glynn County,
Georgia, by Gregg, a head imbalance was found between the aquifer
and an underlying brackish-water zone. Leaks of brackish water up-
ward into the aquifer occur through breaks in the confining layer. A
relief well drilled into the brackish-water zone was pumped at 3, 000
gpm to create a hydrostatic equilibrium with the aquifer. The pumping
was apparently successful as Fuccessive water samples from the
aquifer showed a decrease ir chloride content. More relief wells may
ultimately be needed to control the intrusion.
Wait and Callahan 30 in 1965 made a survey of sea water intru-
sion along the southern U. S. Atlantic Coast. Intrusion was attributed
to lateral and vertical encroachment due to adverse hydraulic gradients,
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SALT WATER AND SURFACE WATER
percolation, inundation of fresh water lenses in storms, overpumping,
connate saline water, and drainage canals. Detailed descriptions of
fresh-salt water conditions in five areas, extending from North Carolina
to Miami, Florida, were presented.
Florida, with its long and heavily populated coastline, has been
severely affected by sea water intrusion in its coastal aquifers. An
early comprehensive analysis of the situation was prepared by Black,
et al. 361 in 1953. The history, extent, theoretical basis, factors
responsible, and examples were described. High chloride contents of
groundwater resulted both from connate waters and from sea water.
Intrusion was a direct result of large withdrawals for cities, agricul-
ture, and industries, which lowered pie zorrietric heads. In addition,
excessive drainage in areas of low piezometric head was a contributing
factor. Chloride was the most reliable index of salt water encroachment.
In the Miami area of Florida, sea water intrusion was caused by
inadequately controlled tidal drainage canals which reduced fresh ground-
water heads and provided access paths for sea water to move inland
during dry periods. In a study of the problem Klein 362 reported that
properly placed water control structures, such as tide gates, retarded
and reversed the encroachment. Similarly, Kohout 363 described how
construction of a storm sewer in Miami caused localized sea water
intrusion. To control the problem a sheet pile dam was built at the
sewer outlet: observation wells in the vicinity showed salinity variations
occurring before and after construction of the dam.
Field measurements on the Biscayne aquifer of the Miami area in
Florida were made by Kohout and Klein. 364 With heavy rainfall a
pulse recharge of fresh water occurred which contributed to the full
thickness of the aquifer, whereas in other periods fresh water flowed
outward through only about one-third of the aquifer thickness.
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SALT WATER INTRUSION
An unusual hydrologic phenomenon involving sea water intrusion
was reported in 1969 at Tarpon Springs, Florida, by Stringfield and
LeGrand. 365 Here deep vertical sinkholes serve as openings into a
carbonate aquifer. Sea water entering the sinkholes caused fluctuations
in the dynamic equilibrium between fresh water and salt water in the
aquifer. As a result the flow of salt water from the spring (a sinkhole)
to a lake two miles away was sometimes reversed.
In 1972 Sproul, et al. 366 described how upward leakage of saline
water from an artesian aquifer 1500 feet deep raised chloride contents
and temperatures of groundwater in the Lower Hawthorn aquifer of Lee
County, Florida. The water moved through wells or along a fault or
fracture system and spread laterally over a 2.5 square mile area.
Saline water then moved upward into the Upper Hawthorn aquifer, which
is the principal source of public water supplies, through wells connect-
ing the aquifers and by infiltration of water discharged at land surface
from wells tapping the Lower Hawthorn aquifer. To prevent upward
movement of saline water, cement plugs should be set in well bores to
separate the aquifers.
Ground Water Age 367 in 1973 discussed the use of 3000-foot in-
jection wells to prevent salt water intrusion at St. Petersburg, Florida.
Secondary treated domestic wastewater, surface runoff, or shallow
aquifer seepage water could be injected to create an artificial shallow
aquifer mound to retard intrusion of sea water.
Southwestern Louisiana has been affected by sea water intrusion,
according to several investigators. In the Baton Rouge area three re-
368,369,370
ports have concerned intrusion. Saltwater encroachment
had advanced northward due to heavy pumping. Previous estimates of
salt water reaching Baton Rouge in 5 to 10 years, however, no longer
applied; a fault was discovered which acts as a barrier to protect pump-
ing centers from the pollution. Removal of the small amount of salt
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SALT WATER AND SURFACE WATER
water north of the fault will result in natural replenishment with fresh
water.
The feasibility of a scavenger-well system to solve vertical salt
371
water encroachment was studied by Long at Gonzales, Louisiana, in
1965. An existing well screen was divided with a packer so that fresh
water was pumped from the upper section and saline water from the
lower. The system was effective, but it was believed that two separate
wells would be better. The chloride content of water from a nearby
supply well varied with the ratio of pumping rates of the scavenger well.
Harder, et al. prepared a detailed report on intrusion in
Southwestern Louisiana. Heavy groundwater pumping lowered water
levels and caused sea water encroachment from the south and east toward
concentrated withdrawal areas. The advancement was occurring at 20
to 300 feet per year. There was no serious threat to water users, but
some deep wells were abandoned. The saline water contained signifi-
cant quantities of bromide and iodide. To minimize the intrusion new
well fields should be located away from centers of heavy withdrawals.
In Texas a study in the 1950’s was concerned with sea water
intrusion in the Houston area. The encroachment was attributed
to a heavy concentration of pumping which reversed the natural hydraulic
gradient. Less probable potential sources included upward movement
of salt water from below, vertical movement around salt domes or
along faults, downward seepage from surface sources, and pollution
through leaking wells. The rate of advance was very slow; the closest
salt water was probably 5 miles from a pumping center in the deepest
sands. Strategically placed observation wells were needed in addition to
70 wells which were periodically sampled over the last 20 years.
The California coastline contains numerous localities affected by
sea water intrusion. One of the earliest detailed studies was that of
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SALT WATER INTRUSION
the Santa Ana-Long Beach area by Piper, et al. in 1953. The poten-
tial sources of salt-water pollution were defined (the ocean, connate
water, oil field waste fluids, and industrial fluid wastes in streams),
the lateral extent of intrusion was described, and the tendency to further
reductions in groundwater quality was analyzed. Base-exchange sub-
stitution of calcium and magnesium for sodium was common, making it
usually impossible to discriminate among various salt-water sources.
Iodide or borate were seldom reported, but it was suggested that these,
together with barium, should be reported in future analyses to aid in
identifying pollution sources.
Beginning in 1953 the California Department of Water Resources
studied sea water intrusion with particular emphasis on Los Angeles
376,377 378
County. The entire intrusion situation m California was
reviewed; in some areas salt water had moved up to 4 1/2 miles inland,
and continued pumping would allow further encroachment. 376 Control
methods considered included (1) reduction in pumping, rearrangement
in the areal pattern of pumping,or both, (b) direct recharge, (c) main-
tenance of a fresh water ridge above sea level along the coast, (d) con-
struction of an artificial subsurface barrier, and (e) development of a
pumping trough along the coast. It was emphasized that suitable standards
for well construction and abandonment should be established and enforced;
existing laws were inadequate.
A second phase of the study 377 was a field investigation of the
feasibility of controlling intrusion. A 5,000-foot line of recharge
wells was constructed in a coniined coastal aquifer at Manhattan Beach,
California. Injection of trea ed imported fresh water was found to re-
verse the landward hydraulic gradient and to prevent further intrusion.
The recharged water will aid in replenishing the aquifer, and formerly
polluted portions of the aquifer can be reclaimed. Detailed information
was presented on the quality of recharge water, effect of aquifer
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SALT WATER AND SURFACE WATER
transmissibility, chlorination of recharge water, geology, hydrology.
maintenance problems, and project costs.
378
The third phase of the study included a literature review 1
theoretical analyses of the mechanics of sea water intrusion and its
control, and a laboratory study on the feasibility of subsurface barriers.
Alter the extensive Los Angeles study of intrusion, the California
Department of Water Resources began a continuing series of local
investigations at other localities along the California coast. As part of
the San Dieguito River investigation in 1959, sea water intrusion was
found along the coastal margin because of overdraft on the limited
- 379
aquifer.
In 1960 a report was issued on intrusion in Southern Alameda
County. 380 The intrusion was caused by sea water entering through
aquifer gravels exposed to tidal currents of San Francisco Bay, by
aquiclude leakage to the underlying aquifer, and by sea water entering
through abandoned, defective, and improperly constructed wells. The
need for suitable standards for well construction and sealing of abandoned
wells was emphasized. The search for and sealing of problem wells was
to be continued.
A report on intrusion in the Oxnard Plain of Ventura County,
California, appeared in 1965. 381 Here salt water in the upper aquifer
had moved 2 miles inland, was advancing at about 1, 000 feet per year,
and had rendered 44 wells useless. There was no evidence of intrusion
in the underlying aquifers; however, degraded water may move down-
ward through wells or natural breaks in confining beds.
Later a test of the pumping trough method of intrusion control
382
was made in the same Oxnard Basin. Five experimental extraction
wells operating for two years reduced the areal extent of degraded
water by 15-20 percent. The barrier was shown to be technically
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SALT WATER INTRUSION
feasible; however, more study was needed to determine well spacings
and pumping rates. A further report 383 in the same area, released
in 1971, involved field, laboratory, and theoretical analyses of the
influence of aquitards on sea water intrusion.
In 1966 a study on the Santa Ana Gap in Orange County, California,
was published. 384 Sea water intrusion due to overpumping extended 4
miles inland; other sources of degradation included improperly dis-
charged oil field brines and upwelling of connate waters. Salinity con-
trol barriers considered were static, pumping trough, injection ridge,
and combination of pumping trough and injection ridge. The combination
barrier was regarded as most practical to avoid problems of water-
logging and subsidence. Treated wastewater was the most economical
source of continuously available water for the injection phase of the
bar rier.
The nearby Bolsa-Sunset area in Orange County, California, was
the subject of a 1968 report. 385 The Newport-Inglewood fault, which
approximately parallels the coast, forms a hydraulic barrier across the
area except in late Recent deposits. Pumping in 1945-57 caused sea
water intrusion through permeable portions of the fault and through aqui-
dude discontinuities. Artificial recharge of the forebay caused a re-
covery of piezometric levels during 1959-65. Intrusion and brine wedges
have retarded or have become stabilized since 1961.
In 1970 intrusion in the Pismo-Guadalupe area of San Luis Obispo
County, California, was reported. 386 increasing chloride concentra-
tions in wells penetrating shallow aquifers were traced to the natural
salinity of the geologic environment, salt concentration by evapotrans-
piration, and downward percolation of sea water entering tidal channels
at times of extremely high tide. There was evidence of intrusion in
three deeper aquifers but no danger to water supplies. Data were ob-
tained from a grid of monitoring wells sampled semiannually and
annually.
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SALT WATER AND SURFACE WATER
The most recent intrusion report by the California Department
of Water Resources appeared in 1972 on the Morro Bay area, also in
San Liuis Obsipo County, California. 387 Several wells were abandoned
due to intrusion, primarily due to lowered water levels from intensive
pumping. The extent of intrusion had been controlled by seaward under-
flow during periods of low pumpage. Heavy purnpage from lower aquifers
could induce downward migration of sea water through low permeability
layers.
Other California sea water intrusion publications include a paper 388
in 1 964 on the proposed use of reclaimed water for injection to control
intrusion in Orange County, two reports 389 390 on the West Coast Basin
barrier project in Los Angeles County, a report on the Alamitos barrier
391.
project in Los Angeles and Orange Counties, and an analysis of
economic and legal implications of intrusion in Salinas Valley. 392
The problem of sea water invading aquifers in Hawaii has been
recognized since early in the century. Lau 393 in 1967 studied the equi-
librium conditions existing between fresh and salt waters, particularly
as they apply to Oahu conditions. Todd and Meyer 394 analyzed aquifer
conditions in Honolulu, related pumping rates to increases in chloride
content, found that vertical displacement of salinity near pumping wells
varied inversely with salt concentration, and computed natural re-
charge rates as a guide to maximum pumping rates so as to avoid in-
creased intrusion.
Intrusion was described at Summerside, Prince Edward Island,
Canada, by Tremblay, et al. 395 in 1973. Salt water movement occurred
in an upper zone due to overpunping and in a lower zone by intermittent
pumping which caused a thickening of the diffusion zone. Control mea-
sures suggested included limiting the depth of wells, avoiding inter-
mittent pumping, and pumping salt water from the lower zone.
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SALT WATER NTRUS1ON
Research on salt water intrusion has been active in recent years;
consequently, several important contributions to a better understanding
of intrusion have appeared. A series of field and theoretical investiga-
tions by the U.S. Geological Survey were reported by Cooper, et al. 396
in 1964. The five parts included a concept of circulation of sea water
due to dispersion of salts in the zone of diffusion, results of a field
investigation of the phenomenon at Miami, Florida, two mathematical
solutions for the position of a sharp interface that would occur without
diffusion, and the effects of dispersion.
The effectiveness of a fresh-water canal to act as a barrier to
salt water intrusion was treated in two papers in 1967. 398 Numeri-
cal results were presented for a canal paralleling the sea. Solutions
showed that fresh-water flow from a canal acts as a dam, forcing the
fresh-salt water interface to a lower elevation. Use of a canal for
reclamation of salt-water intruded deltas and marshes for agricultural
purposes was discussed.
Laboratory studies of a method for flushing salt water from aquifers
into subsurface drains by applying fresh water to the surface were de-
399. . .
scribed by Carison and Enger in 1969. With the drains in operation,
a stable interface was formed. Reducing the drain spacing reduced the
amount of salt water removed. A numerical technique for calculating
the transient position of a salt-water front in a coastal aquifer was re-
ported by Pinder and Cooper 40 ° in 1970. The method of characteristics
was used to solve the solute transport equation, and the alternating di-
rection iterative procedure led to solutions of the groundwater flow
equation for two_dimensional flow in nonhomogeneous aquifers with ir-
regular geometry.
40 402 403
During the period 1970-72 Kashef ‘ published three papers
on sea water intrusion. The first described viscous flow models and
their utility as well as other types of hydraulic models for intrusion
105
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SALT WATER AND SURFACE WATER
problems. The second stressed the roles of groundwater management
and basic research in solving intrusion problems, and the third pro-
vided a historical review of different approaches to the analysis of
intrusion.
Peek 404 in 1969 studied the effects of large-scale phosphate mining
in Beaufort County, North Carolina. Field data showed that overpumping
for the mining led to salt water encroachment from three sources. Con-
trol measures advocated included reduction in pumping, new well
spacings, withdrawal of brackish water, and artificial recharge.
In a study of Chaves County, New Mexico, Hennighausen 405 found
that salt water intrusion, presumably from connate sources, was oc-
curring both laterally and vertically by overpumping which was reducing
the artesian head. To control intrusion pumping would have to be
reduced.
SURFACE WATER
Brine effluent discharged from a municipal water treatment plant
in Lancaster, Ohio, into a river above the municipal water supply
aquifer was the subject of a 196Z-64 field investigation by Norris. 406
The resulting chloride concentrations in the groundwater remained low
(38 ppm) because discharged muck, organic debris, and iron deposits
had resulted in a low strearnbed permeability, allowing only a low rate
of direct surface water infiltration. Some of the wells at the 100-foot
depth levels revealed organic contamination in the form of red slime
deposits and strong sulfide odors. Suggested control methods included
halting discharge of brine wastes, restoring streambed permeability by
dredging, construction of an off-channel recharge pond, and the widening
of levees.
407 . . .
In 1963 Klaer discussed the process of induced infiltration of
water from surface streams to aquifers. In such cases, natural sand
106
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SURFACE WATER
and gravel deposits served as large natural filter beds, effectively re-
moving or reducing turbidity, organic material, and pathogenic bacteria.
The paper analyzed the general processes by which such removal was
accomplished, as well as the significance of certain changes in chemical
characteristics of the water as it passed from a surface source to an
underground point of collection.
408
Preul and Popat in 1967 presented predictive mathematical
models to determine the quantity and quality of recharge from the Great
Miami River in Southwest Ohio to two collector wells in an adjacent
aquifer. The concentration of pollutants was determined as the sum of
concentrations introduced by the convective flux between the river and
the wells. Calculated pollutant concentrations were tabulated and com-
pared with measured concentrations. It was concluded that a high
percentage of the water recharging the two collector wells originated
from the river, and that the adsorption and ion exchange capabilities
of the aquifer were nearly exhausted.
In 1970 Randall 409 reported on the presence of coliform bacteria
in a municipal well in Binghamton, New York. The well produced from
beds of coarse sand and gravel 10 to 80 feet below land surface, and had
had 19 years of trouble-free operation until 1964. The coliform bacteria
traveled at least 1 80 feet to the well from a reach of the Susquehanna
River polluted by sewage. The cause seemed to be the excavation of the
riverbed in an area already geologically favorable for induced infiltration.
107
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SECTION XII
POLLUTANTS AND EFFECTS
GENERAL POLLUTION STUDIES
A large number of references pertaining to groundwater pollution
generally or to pollution in an area or region from multiple causes have
appeared in the literature within the last 20 years. This subsection
briefly reviews these contributions.
The American Water Works Association has been concerned with
underground waste disposal and contamination of groundwaters since 1932.
A task group on this subject has made periodic assessments of the prob-
lem. In 1952410 it reported that the problem was of rather wide distri-
bution, that it varied in severity from region to region, and that much
more data would need to be assembled. By 1957411 it described under-
ground pollution as a national problem with many variations; tabulated
sources, contaminants, statutory controls of states, and pollution travel
distances; and suggested that pollution trends were related to population
412 413
and industrial activity. Finally, in 1960 two reports ‘ appeared.
The first stated that industries and legislative bodies were becoming
increasingly aware of the problem, that much work and many precautions
were necessary to insure satisfactory conditions, and that flexible stan-
dards should be developed for guides in evaluating disposal techniques.
The second was a survey of all types of subsurface pollution with lists
of sources and statutory contiols for all states. Special comments were
addressed to synthetic detergents, well regulation, and sewage lagoons.
The World Health Organization 414 in 1957 discussed the danger of
groundwater pollution by disposal of wastes into wells or pits. It was
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GENERAL POLLUTION STUDIES
mentioned that such practices should be restricted to where the receiving
aquifer is unfit for other uses and there is no possibility that the waste
will move into other water-bearing strata. Once groundwater is polluted,
the chances of effective remedial programs are remote. It was suggested
that each country should proceed toward the adoption of a national water
policy.
Rorabaugh 4 ’ 5 in 1960 discussed problems of waste disposal and
groundwater quality. He pointed out that wastes reach aquifers both
intentionally and unintentionally. Analysis of pollution underground can
only be approximated because of problems of head differences between
aquifers, differences in temperature and density, and diffusion. In the
following year Bolton 416 listed sources of groundwater contamination.
A frequent cause is the storage of wastes on ground surface. A national
master plan for preventing pollution of water resources was proposed.
An analytic survey of the salt balance problem in groundwater was
reported in 1963 by Meron and Ludwig. 417 Salt increases result from
importations, irrigation, fertilizers, municipal and industrial use, oil
brines, and sea water intrusion. Detailed quantitative data were pre-
sented for groundwater basins in Los Angeles and Orange Counties,
California. Control methods discussed included evaporation of highly
saline wastes, transport of wastes to the sea, control of waste-producing
operations, importations of high quality water, injection wells, and
demineralization.
In a series of papers LeGrand 418 to 421 discussed the problems
and management of groundwa 4 er pollution. He stressed the need for
understanding pollution as a first step to control. Management of the
problem requires that hydrogeologic environments be classified along
lines of the interdependence of factors such as permeability, sorption,
hydraulic gradient, position of water table, and distance from contam-
ination source. Long-range plans for urban areas and suburbs should
109
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POLLUTANTS AND EFFECTS
include recognition of the deterioration of groundwater quality made
possible by waste disposal practices, artificial recharge, accidents,
and the presence underground of salt water. Technically trained per-
sonnel capable of determining the best use of land for water supply and
waste disposal are rarely part of administrative procedures. Specific
problems are more often treated than long-range planning.
Finally, in 1965 LeGrand 422 evaluated patterns of contaminated
tones of groundwater. A wide variety of pollution plumes from point
sources were diagramed and explained. Attenuation effects due to dilu-
tion, decay, and sorption were described for various types of pollutants.
423
A survey by Rainwater in 1965 covered all types of groundwater
pollution. He reported that 36 states had anti-groundwater pollution laws.
Control mechanisms described included skimming wells, specially con-
structed and sealed wells, brine pumping, and isolation of brine springs.
In 1966 itman 42 surveyed research underway on groundwater
pollution under the Water Resources Research Act of 1964. Projects
included hazards of water supply and sewage disposal systems, sanitary
landfills, nutrients in sewage effluents, viral pollution, leaching effects,
and algal growth.
The hazards to groundwater from addition of manmade wastes were
reviewed by McGauhey 425 in 1968. Experiments showed that bacteria
and viruses generally do not move more than a few hundred feet in soil.
Dissolved products of biodegradation of wastes move freely and increase
salt concentrations of groundwater. Chemicals added include metal
ions, phenols, tars, brines, and exotic organic compounds. Agriculture
may enrich water with dissolved soil constituents, nutrients, and pesti-
cide residues. Leaching from landfills may involve chemicals, oils,
iron, and earth constituents. The most serious contamination hazard
in groundwater is the increase of dissolved solids to levels unfavorable
for beneficial uses.
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GENERAL POLLUTION STUDIES
The pollution of groundwater viewed from a legal standpoint was
discussed in 1969.426 Waste disposal and salinity were described as
the two major sources of pollution. The problem of tracing pollution
underground makes it difficult to set disposal standards. Natural puri-
fication processes should not be relied on for protection from contami-
nation. Archaic legal doctrines hamper the effectiveness of control
programs. A reevaluation of the current water-rights doctrine is neces-
sary, and workable means to control aquifer withdrawals to prevent
intrusion must be developed.
In 1970 the editors of Water Well Journal devoted an entire issue
to the subject of groundwater pollution. 427 The 12 essays cover the
occurrence, use, and protection of groundwater resources; classifica-
tion of pollutants; sources of pollution; purification of groundwater; and
regulatory controls by government agencies.
A survey of municipal water supply systems led to a report in
1970428 on biological problems encountered in water supplies. Iron
bacteria in wells was the most common groundwater problem reported.
Evidence of the increasing attention being focused on groundwater
pollution was the fact that eight papers on the general subject appeared
429
in 1972. Nazmann explained that aquifers can be used for many
purposes other than as water supply sources and that these activities
can be safely accomplished if provisions for monitoring are made to
detect their impact on water supplies before deleterious effects occur.
Pettyjohn 43 ° described how pollution problems have been caused by
inadequate waste disposal in the past, including examples of a livery stable.
a gas works, a burial ground, an outdoor privy, and cavernous limestone.
Callahan 43 reported on the role of the U. S. Geological Survey in study-
ing groundwater pollution and on the new program of the Survey to study
the fate of wastes deliberately or accidentally placed in the subsurface.
Wood 432 reviewed the causes of groundwater pollution, the recent
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POLLUTANTS AND EFFECTS
innovation of injection wells, and the need for monitoring; he emphasized
that the most satisfactory cure was prevention. Lewicke 433 surveyed
the various problems of subsurface pollution and suggested the develop-
ment of a national policy for groundwater protection. Hughes and
Cartwright 434 reviewed research on the contamination effects of land-
fills and septic tanks and suggested that controls should involve geologic
site selection and proper design of disposal systems. In a literature
review of nonpoint rural sources of water pollution, Lin 435 summarized
information on various agricultural activities that affect groundwater
436
quality. Finally, Walker discussed mechanisms of toxic chemical
disposal; the need for factual information, corrective measures, and
governmental regulations; and the fact that economical and readily
accessible measuring equipment for all toxic chemicals have not been
developed.
Turning now to groundwater pollution occurrences in various states,
two reports by Motts and Saines 437 ’ 438 analyzed the causes and trends
of groundwater pollution in Massachusetts. From 1850 to 1966 a 4— to
10-fold increase of chlorides occurred throughout the state, accompanied
by an accelerated increase from 1954 to 1966. If this trend continues,
numerous aquifers could become unusable. Fecal pollution had occurred
locally where rocks had fracture porosity.
A report on groundwater quality in a portion of Suffolk County,
Long Island, New York, in 1970 by Perimutter and Guerrara 439 showed
that detergents (MBAS) were widely distributed through the aquifers,
had increased during the period 196 1—66, and were largely stabilized
thereafter until 1968. Chloridr. concentrations had an upward trend,
presumably due to sewage effluent and deicing salts. Nitrates were
slightly higher. Sewer systems should improve the quality of groundwater.
A field study of groundwater quality near Raleigh, North Carolina,
over the period 196Z—65 was summarized by Chemerys. 440 Detergents
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GENERAL POLLUTION STUDIES
were found to be insignificant, probably due to the thick sandy clay soil
which limited water movement from septic tanks to wells. New biode-
gradable detergents should prevent future detergent problems. Water
from one-sixth of the 60 wells sampled showed high chloride and nitrate
contents.
441
In 1971 Parizek discussed the influences of land use on ground-
water quality in carbonate terranes of Southeastern Pennnsylvania.
Included were comments on agricultural activities, solid and liquid
waste disposal, and gasoline leaks. In West Virginia Wilmoth 442
described saline groundwater problems at five sites. Salt concentrations
before, during, and after subsurface industrial activities and road salt
piling were detailed. After stoppage of contaminating sources, chloride
concentrations returned to former levels within about 10 years.
For Michigan an early discussion of sources and problems of
subsurface pollution was presented by Billings. 443 Later in 1963
444
Deutsch prepared a definitive report on the sources and causes of
groundwater contamination within the state. In spite of the numerous
sources, he found that the total volume of adversely affected groundwater
was only a small part of the total resource. Pollution due to oil and
gas production had been virtually eliminated by government supervision
of construction and operation of wells. Sewers, treatment plants, and
abandonment of septic tanks were necessary to limit pollution. More
data and legal controls were required to regulate saline intrusion of
445
aquifers. Recently Burt described the interrelationships between
an industrial plant in Michigan and a shallow aquifer. The effects of
industrial and human wastes in the aquifer were presented together with
the corrective actions taken to protect the groundwater resource.
Sources of groundwater pollution in Indiana were surveyed by
446
Jordan in 1962. En Kentucky the problem of waste disposal into
447
karst aquifers was reviewed by George in 1973. To control the
1 13
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POLLUTANTS AND EFFECTS
situation he suggested education of the public, planning, discontinuance
of dumping, and government supervision of sanitary landfills.
Hackett 448 in 1965 discussed the sources of pollution in urbanized
Northeastern Illinois. Regional planning, development of hydrogeologic
criteria, and establishment of engineering specifications were advocated
449
to cope with groundwater contamination. Four years later Walker
summarized Illinois groundwater pollution and precautionary measures.
The contamination hazards of aquifers in the state were shown by maps
which can be used to guide planning of locations of wells, oil wells, and
garbage disposal sites. Hazards were highest in highly permeable glacial
outwash and in outcropping cavernous carbonate rocks, and lowest in
buried consolidated fine sandstones.
450 -
in Minnesota Wikre presented a comprehensive paper in 1973
on the groundwater pollution problems of the state and suggested the
need for source regulation and in some instances of pumping polluted
groundwater to waste. Williams 45 ’ described the subsurface pollution
situation for Missouri. Pollution hazards were widespread in Southern
Missouri where permeable soils and cavernous bedrock exist, whereas
they are more localized in Northern Missouri. The problems can be
eliminated by an awareness of geology, by planning, by adequate funding,
and by authority to follow planning. In Kansas Foley and Latta 452 in
1966 surveyed the saline contamination from various industrial sources.
Regulations for brine disposal, well construction, and well abandonment
were necessary for control.
Four studies have reported on underground contamination in Cob—
rado. Gahr 453 in 1961 described gasoline and sewage, chemical, and
industrial waste pollution near Denver. To control these problems
pumping of gasoline, lining disposal pits, constructing deep injection
wells, and treating all wastes were proposed. Later in the same area
Page and Wayman 454 conducted a field and laboratory study of ABS ,
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GENERAL POLLUTION STUDIES
bacteria, and dissolved solids from sewage sources. ABS was not
significantly reduced by most soils, bacteria removal was high 1 and
dissolved solids were unchanged.
Aquifer pollution near Windsor, Colorado, was analyzed in 1966
by White and Sunada. 455 The several pollution sources were identified
in the area, and an overall study of the basin was made using a mass
balance approach. Pollution sources contributed very little contamina-
tion; the primary cause of the increase in total dissolved solids, estimated
at 173 ppm/yr, was the high evapotranspiration rate in relation to the
groundwater and surface water outflows. The final Colorado study was a
field investigation of groundwater pollution by oilfield brine, ABS, and
nitrate in the Middle and Lower South Platte River Basin 6 .
For three areas in Utah,Handy, et al. described increases in
total dissolved solids in the groundwater. Responsible factors included
application of irrigation water, disintegration of crop debris, fertilizers,
transpiration, reuse of water, and subsurface saline water migration
caused by pumping. In Oregon, Brown 458 reported in 1963 on deteriora-
tion of groundwater quality in part of Portland. Causes were overpump-
ing, which had produced an upward movement of saline water into the
basalt aquifer, and artificial recharge of industrial cooling water. Need
for more studies and for a comprehensive control plan was stated.
In California several studies have been made by the State Depart-
ment of Water Resources on changes in groundwater quality at various
locations. A field investigation in Ventura County 459 attributed degrada-
tion to infiltration of surface water, sea water intrusion, interaquifer
flow, and movement through wells. On the west side of the Lower San
Joaquin Valley salinity increases resulted from upward movement of
connate water and from lack of drainage facilities on irrigated lands. 460
In the Mojave River Valley 46 users of groundwater complained of tastes,
odors, and foaming from sewage plant effluents and railroad wastes. In
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POLLUTANTS AND EFFECTS
the Lompoc area of the Santa Ynez River Valley 462 increasing sulfate
and chloride concentrations were noted; they resulted from irrigation
return flows and/or upward intrusion of connate water.
A study of the San Diego Region in Caiifornia 6 revealed ground-
water quality impairment from sea water and connate water intrusion,
wastewater disposal practices, and irrigation return flows. The control
needed to improve quality was flushing of the aquifers with imported,
desalinized, or reclaimed water. An analysis in the Santa Clara River
Valley 464 showed that groundwater was being degraded by agricultural
practices and by urbanization. Because the natural quality was already
marginal, a management program to control pollution was recommended.
Finally, a recent paper by Orlob and Dendy 465 applied a systems
approach to water quality management in the Santa Ana Basin of California.
Beginning with a recognition of sea water intrusion and wastewater return
flows as primary poUution sources, a management plan was described
incorporating quality standards and costs.
BACTERIA AND VIRUSES
Many waterborne outbreaks of viral diseases have involved small
well-water supplies contaminated by effluents from subsurface wastewater
disposal systems. Recent studies have investigated the extent to which
soil acts as an agent in the transmission of waterborne viruses.
A 1956—1957 study by Ritter and Hausler 466 of coliform and
enterococci organisms in 13 rural wells near Lawrence, Kansas, showed
wide variation in MPN values per month for all wells. In addition,
enterococci were found more requently than coliforms in wells of good
location and construction, suggesting that one sampling is not sufficient
to evaluate the sanitary quality of well water.
In 1968 Drewry and Eliassen 467 reported on experiments showing
that virus retention by soils is an adsorption process characterized by
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BACTERIA AND VIRUSES
linear adsorption isotherms. Water containing radioisotope-tagged
viruses was passed through columns of various soils, and the adsorption
was dependent on the pH of the soil-water system, with maximum adsorp-
tion at 7.0-7. 5 pH. The adsorption by some soils was enhanced by the
cation concentration in the liquid, but in general the ability of a soil to
adsorb viruses cannot be judged by the normally measured soil charac-
teristics. The authors concluded that virus movement through saturated
soils should present little hazard to groundwater supplies, provided soil
strata are continuous and the usual public health practices of separation
of wells and disposal systems are followed.
468
Results of a similar study by Drewry also show that virus
adsorption by soils is greatly affected by the pH, ionic strength, soil-
water ratio of the soil water system, and various soil properties. Virus
movement through soils seemed to be unaffected by the degree of pollu-
469
tiori of the water. Carison, too, has conducted research on the ad-
sorption of two types of viruses, measuring various clay and chemical
effects.
Laboratory experiments have been conducted on the migration of
viruses in percolating water through three Oahu, Hawaii, soil types.
Wahiawa, Lahaina, and Tantalus cinder soils were subjected to concen-
470
trations of bacteriophage T4 by Tanimoto, et al. and of poliovirus
471
type 2 by Hon 1 et al. and studied for their ability to adsorb the viruses.
The studies simulated the action of a cesspool leaching into the ground.
The Wahiawa and Lahaina soils adsorbed 100 percent of the bacteriophage
at depths greater than 2 1/2 inches and at a concentration of 2.5 X 106
virus per ml of feed solution. Likewise, the removal of the poliovirus
was 97 percent at soil thicknesses of 6 1/2, 2 1/2, and 1 1/2 inches and
virus concentration of 150,000 PFU/ml of feed solution. The Tantalus,
however, was ineffective in retaining the bacteriophage at thicknesses
up to 15 inches, and removed only 22 to 61 percent of the poliovirus at
the three depths studied.
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POLLUTANTS AND EFFECTS
Coliform bacteria from unspecified sources have been detected
within two miles of Portales, New Mexico, in a recent preliminary
examination of the Ogallala aquifer in that vicinity by Bigbee and Taylor. 4:fl
The coliform organisms were seen as bacterial indicators of fecal pollu-
tion, and their presence in the water table indicated pollution by aquifer
recharge.
Poliovirus and coliform organisms were found in a well water
supply in Monroe County, Michigan, in 1970. The well penetrated
a limestone formation beneath a shallow layer of glacial drift. Pollution
could have entered through surface openings of the well or from a septic
tank 100 feet away. Corrective measures included construction of a
new well and the banning of shallow disposal wells in the county.
DETERGE NTS
In 1960 Delutz 474 summarized the results of a study of synthetic
detergents in the well waters of Portsmouth, Rhode Island, and in wells
across the state. The presence of synthetic detergents was the result
of leaching, with septic tanks and absorption fields effecting only partial
removal. Groundwater samples from 72 wells contained detergents;
furthermore, a high correlation was found between degree of chemical
and bacteriological contamination and proximity to sewage disposal
units. Thorough analyses of the Portsmouth wells showed 24 of 25 with
detergents, indicating seepage from a sewage disposal field. Lot sizes
of at least two acres were recommended where no public water facilities
existed, and a minimum distance of 100 feet between any well and any
sewage disposal unit was considered a necessity.
In 1962 Perlmutter, et al. 4Th conducted a field investigation of
detergent contamination of groundwater in the South Farmingdale area,
Long Island, New York. Concentrations up to 32 ppm of alkylbenzene
sulfonate (ABS) were found in the upper twenty feet of the water table
aquifer by means of tentative methods using methylene blue dye,
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DETERGENTS
chloroform extractions, and colorimetric comparisons. Most of the
remaining groundwater contained less than 1 ppm ABS and did not foam.
The sources of contamination were hundreds of randomly distributed
cesspools and septic tanks in the area. As of 1964, the movement of
the contaminated groundwater was lateral, but it was feared overpump-
ing might induce downward movement to public supply well depths. The
only practicable remedy was seen as the construction of a public sewer
system. Dilution of the ABS in the groundwater was then expected to
follow.
From 1966 to 1970 Perlmutter and Koch 476 conducted a similar
study on the distribution of rnethylene blue active substance (MBAS) and
phosphate in the groundwater of Nassau County, Long Island, New York.
The MBAS, a detergent constituent, entered the groundwater in the sew-
age effluent from several hundred thousand ces spools and septic tanks.
The phosphate had a mixed origin. The MBAS was a significant problem
in the public water supply aquifer, and the generally iow concentrations
of both constituents were not known to be toxic.
In a 1965 Federal Housing Administration publication, Wayman,
et al. concentrated on the mechanisms and physical principles of
detergent (principally ABS) movement underground. The chemical
characteristics of ABS , its movement with sewage effluent into ground-
water, and its pollution tracing capabilities were analyzed.
Holloway 478 wrote a 1965 Texas Water Commission Bulletin on
ABS in the groundwater of Rhineland, Knox County, Texas. The sources
of the detergent contamination were found to be poor water well construc—
tion (drilled and dug wells without airtight covers) and domestic sewage
from cesspools and septic tanks. Recommendations included the imrne—
diate plugging of polluting wells and the development of a public ground-
water supply with the source remote from individual disposal facilities.
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POLLUTANTS AND EFFECTS
The California Department of Water Resources 479 published a
1965 report on the dispersion and persistence of synthetic detergents
in the groundwater of San Bernardino and Riverside Counties. The
report included chapters on the development of methods and sampling
techniques, ABS concentrations in groundwaters, and the movement
and degradation of ABS in groundwaters.
The fate and effect of nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) both in ground-
waters and in soil profiles overlying groundwaters were studied by
Dunlap, et al. 480, 481 Sorption of NTA on soils slowed its movement
into and through groundwaters, although sorption was not sufficient
to prevent or greatly reduce potential pollution of groundwater by NTA
used as a detergent builder. The infiltration characteristics of NTA in
saturated (limited degradation) and unsaturated soils (rapid and complete
degradation) were discussed, as were the possible metals produced by
NTA which escaped such degradation. NTA degraded slowly in essen-
tially anaerobic groundwater environments, resulting in production of
GO 2 , CH , and possibly other organic compounds.
482,483
A series of laboratory studies by Klein and Klein and
Jenkins 484 evaluated the fate of various detergents in septic tank and
oxidation pond systems. The biodegradability of polypropyl ABS and
straight chain ABS NTA, and carboxymethyloxysuccinate (CMOS) were
examined, and emphasis placed on the relative removal rates of the
detergents in septic tank-percolation fields versus oxidation ponds. In
each study, the conditions necessary to avoid serious groundwater pol-
lution problems were analyzed for possibility and practicality.
NITRATES AND PHOSPHATES
Sources and methods of controlling nitrates and phosphates in
485 to 493
groundwater supplies have been examined in detail. Unusually
high concentrations of nitrates in groundwater were linked to methemo-
globinernia in infants and to animal health problems by Keeny 489 in 1970
492
and Winton, et al. in 1971.
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NITRATES AND PHOSPHATES
The sources of high nitrate concentration are many and varied.
A 1970 University of Illinois sanitary engineering conference 485 cited
inadequate biological sewage treatment systems, septic tanks, the har-
vesting of trees, ploughing up of root zones, and surface paving as
factors hastening nitrate movement to groundwater. Sepp 486 in 1970
analyzed the nitrogen cycle in groundwater, and attributed high nitrate
contents to agricultural practices and/or the land disposal of sewage
(spreading or direct injection).
488 491
In 1970—71 Goldberg ‘ reviewed existing research, field,
and laboratory studies of nitrogen sources, including atmospheric and
geologic factors, rural and urban runoff (septic tanks), sewage, irriga-
tion, animal feedlots, and industrial wastes. It was also reported that
nitrate in a nonsalt form seemed to have a higher soil infiltration capacity
than fertilizer salts of nitrogen. Keenyls 489 1970 study concentrated on
organic nitrogenous waste disposal, unwise fertilizer use, and percolation
from feedlots as components of the nitrogen cycle. In 1971 Viets and
Hageman 49 ° surveyed the general factors affecting nitrate accumulation
in soil, water, and plants. The significance of geologic deposits, organic
soil matter, agricultural wastes, domestic sewage, and commercial
fertilizers was discussed.
Various mechanisms and procedures for nitrogen removal were
described by Sepp, 486 Keeny, 489 and Lance 493 in 1970 and 1972. High
nitrate groundwaters could be avoided by blending (dilution), proper
aquifer selection, and proper well construction and sealing. Cropping,
leaching, erosion, and volatilization can remove nitrogen from soils.
Nitrogen removal from wastew ter may be achieved by algae ponds,
ion exchange processes (too expensive for large scale use), ammonia
stripping, microbial denitrification, and electrodialysis. In promoting
denitrification, direct injection of effluents was thought to be more
effective than spreading.
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POLLUTANTS AND EFFECTS
Black 487 in 1970 presented an account of selected aspects of the
behavior of soil and fertilizer phosphorus as they related to phosphate
content of groundwaters. Chemical and geologic phosphorus cycles in
the soil were traced, and the distributions of both inorganic and organic
phosphorus in soils and groundwaters were discussed.
Numerous investigations of nitrates and phosphates in groundwaters
of various states have been described. Kirnmel 494 analyzed the nitrogen
concentration in Kings County, Long Island, New York, groundwater from
1963 to 1971. Septic tank and cesspool effluents were thought to be the
chief source of nitrates, but high nitrate levels were observed to continue
even after widespread sewer construction in the area.
The nitrate contents of groundwater in New Castle and Kent Counties,
Delaware, were studied by Miller 495 in 1972. The relationship among
septic tank effluent disposal, geologic conditions, and water table depth
was explored. Hazardous nitrate levels in one county required deep
artesian wells until public sewers were constructed.
In 1956 Walker 496 reported on unusually high nitrate concentrations
in wells tapping limestone aquifers in the Hopkinsville area of Kentucky.
The contamination was attributed to human and animal wastes which
moved long distances through aquifer crevices and openings. The neces-
sity for safe well location far upsiope from barnyards and houses and
for effective sampling programs was stressed.
A 1971—72 study in Hartsvile and Florence, South Carolina, by
Peele and Gillingham 497 revealed excessive nitrate concentrations in
groundwater and tile drainage effluent. Excessive nitrogen fertilizer
application was the source; normal, safe fertilizer quantities for various
crops were given.
The groundwater nitrate situation in Illinois has been detailed by
Larson and Henley, Dawes, et a l. , and Walker since 1966.
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NITRATES AND PHOSPHATES
It appeared that about 25 percent of groundwater samples from shallow
wells exceeded 45 mg/i NO 3 . Primary causes of contamination were
faulty well construction, domestic and industrial wastes, crop residues,
decomposition of animal or plant tissue, and nitrogen fertilizer. No
known practical and economical method of recovering excess nitrates
existed, but membrane techniques and biological methods both had
preventive potentials. Walker ’s 50 ° study focused on rural nitrate prob-
lems, recommended restricted quantities of fertilizer application, and
suggested that waste disposal on farmlands be limited to the growing
season of each year to exploit the storage capabilities of trees and plants.
Nitrate accumuiation in Kansas feedlot soils and groundwaters was
examined by Murphy and Gosch 50 ’ for 1967—69. Regions of excessive
nitrogen irrigation revealed large fluctuations in groundwater nitrate
content. The study was inconclusive in relating the lack of nitrates in
soil profiles to higher nitrate levels in underlying shallow aquifers;
however, overall nitrate contents were higher in the winter months.
In 1967 Engberg 502 analyzed excessive nitrate concentrations in
Molt County, Nebraska, well waters. Various localized contamination
sources included barnyard and feedlot wastes, septic tanks, cesspools,
silo seepage, excessive fertilization, and poor well construction. The
threat of cyanosis to infants and health threats to animals were cited.
Well site selection and construction criteria were considered, along with
the possibility of deionizing units as nitrate control methods.
Wisconsin’s nitrate situation was examined in three studies during
1968—70. Witzel, et al. 503 analyzed the nitrogen cycle in surface and
subsurface waters, with emphasis on autotrophic and heterotrophic nitri-
fication in various soil groups. Olsen 504 investigated the contribution
of agriculture to nitrate increases, and stressed the effects of leaching
and surface runoff. Control recommendations included limited nitrogen
fertilizer use, crop covers during the growing season, crop rotation,
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POLLUTANTS AND EFFECTS
and removal of unprotected manure during leaching periods. The possi-
bility of anaerobic lagooning of manure as a safe and effective disposal
method was also discussed. Crabtree 505 studied the nitrate contents
of about 400 private, milk supplier, and nondairy farm wells around
Marathon County, and found that about 40 percent exceeded safe nitrate
levels of 45 mg/i.
In 1969 soil scientists reported in Agricultural Research 506 that
no significant nitrate pollution of groundwater from fertilizer or feedlot
operations was found in Northeastern Colorado. However, the studies
indicated that excessive nitrate quantities could eventually reach the
groundwater under heavily fertilized irrigated fields and feedlots. The
type of land use along the South Platte River Valley did not appear to
affect nitrate concentrations.
Taylor and Bigbee 507 in 197Z investigated fluctuations in nitrate
concentrations to assess agricultural contamination in the semiarid re-
gions of the Southwest. Regions studied included areas treated with
nitrogenous fertilizers and subsequently irrigated and areas with varying
animal densities compared to water usage.
The distribution of phosphorus in a fertilized and unfertilized
508 -
Mexico soil was measured by Blanchar and Kao in 1970—7 1. Phos-
phorus distributions, adsorption capacities, and solubility studies were
conducted on various soil profiles.
Southern California nitrate problems were described by Navone,
et al. 509 and the California Bureau of Sanitary Engineering 510 in 1963.
Nitrates from fertilizer use, i’ rigation with reclaimed wastewater, and
sewage disposal were observed in quantities exceeding 10 ppm N0 3 -N
in about 10 percent of 800 sampled wells.
In 1969 the Federal Water Quality Administration 5 ’ 1 presented a
collection of eleven papers dealing with nitrate concentrations in subsurface
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NITRATES AND PHOSPHATES
agricultural wastewaters, sources of nitrates, and possible control or
removal methods. The work concentrated on the San Joaquin Valley of
California, but much of the information had general application. Included
was a digital computer program developed by Shaffer, et al. 512 to model
soil—water systems and to aid in planning management criteria for pollu-
tion control and nitrogen fertilizer programs.
Ward 513 in 1970 summarized nitrate groundwater investigations
in six problem areas of California from 1953—68. Monitoring procedures
were reviewed, and the validity of existing nitrate standards was considered.
In 1965 Stout, et al. 514 investigated high (100 ppm) nitrate concen-
trations in well waters of Grover City and Arroyo Grande, California.
The nitrate probably originated from decomposition of native plant covers,
but agricultural fertilizers, septic tanks, and sewers also contributed to
the situation. Well construction criteria and restricted pumping techniques
were emphasized as protective measures.
The California Department of Water Resources 515 and the staff of
Environment 516 in 196 8—69 reported on serious groundwater nitrate in
the state, particularly at Delano and McFarlancL. Methemoglobinemia
in infants was threatened, due to nitrates from sewage discharge, ferti-
lizers, and irrigation. As a temporary solution, Delano pumped only
wells with low nitrate levels, but long term control required proper
drainage of irrigated land along with distillation and treatment of agri-
cultural runoff.
The Fresno-Clovis metropolitan area of California has been in-
vestigatedby Nightingale 517 aniSchmidt 518 ’ 519 in 1970—72. From 1950
to 1967 the salinity and nitrate contents of well water in urban and agri-
cultural areas had increased, constantly in the urban zone and fluctuating
in the agricultural zone. Chemical hydrographs were employed to dis-
cover the distribution and potential sources of nitrates in groundwater.
Highest nitrate contents were found in the shallower parts of the aquifer.
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POLLUTANTS AND EFFECTS
Primary sources of nitrates included septic tanks, sewage treatment
plants, percolation ponds, winery wastewater ponds, and agricultural
fertilizers.
Nightingale 520 in 1972 also presented a study of nitrates in the
root zone and in groundwaters beneath irrigated and fertilized crops in
the Fresno County area. Some localized spots of high groundwater ni-
trates were evident, mostly associated with sewage disposal systems in
urban areas; in general, fertilizer practices appeared safe.
In 1970 and 1972 Willardson, et al. 521, 522 reported on a field
study of the effectiveness of submerged drains in reducing nitrates near
Firebaugh in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Nitrates in the area s
groundwater were attributed to nitrogen fertilizer use in irrigation.
Denitrification occurred in saturated soil where there was ample organic
carbon available for bacterial metabolism. Results indicated a high de-
gree of denitrification and dilution of high nitrate groundwater in the
test area.
In 1972 Pratt, et al. 523, 524 described a field study of nitrates in
deep soil profiles and their relation to fertilizer rates and leaching volume.
The study area was situated in the Santa Ana River Basin of California.
Saturation extracts and soil solutions were measured and transit times
for water to move 30 meters in the unsaturated zone to the water table
beneath commercial citrus groves were calculated.
In 1973 Ayers and Bronson 525 documented a field study of ground-
water nitrates in the Upper Santa Ana River Basin. This detailed report
included tables of groundwater flow rates, and considered nitrate reduc-
tion by control of fertilizer use and application, water use, and waste
di spo sal.
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HEALT H
HEALTH
There have been a number of studies regarding the public health
aspects of groundwater pollution. Vogt 26 reported on a 1959 infectious
hepatitis epidemic in Posen, Michigan, caused by septic tank drainage
through limestone to shallow wells. The virus transmittal resulted in
89 reported cases of infectious hepatitis, and construction of a municipal
water supply was seen as the best means of control. Bacterial, chemical,
and radiological contamination of the aquifer drinking water in Monroe
527
County, Michigan, was the subject of a 1960 study by Hancock . Twelve
disinfectants capable of killing disease producing organisms in water were
listed, and two consecutive safe coliform tests were recommended before
an aquifer is judged safe for drinking water. The roles of the government
and the water well industry in the control of well location, construction,
and operation were also stressed.
Two outbreaks of waterborne intestinal disease in California prior
to 1966 led Foster and Young 528 to study means of replenishing under-
ground basins with good quality water. Subsurface filtration alone may
not effectively remove pathogens and toxic chemicals; the efficacy and
desirability of chlorination were discussed. In addition, waterborne
outbreaks of disease since 1920 were reviewed; over 50 percent were
found to be due to either contamination of a well supply or cross-
connections and other hazards in the distribution system.
A 1969 report by Robeck 529 also discussed disease outbreaks
caused by contaminated groundwater and the problems of controlling
and monitoring groundwater quality. Microbial contamination can be
caused by recharge of large basins with reclaimed sewage, and coli-
forms are not always useful indicators of such contamination. Salmo-
nella outbreaks have occurred without detectible coliforms, and many
media capable of passing virus particles will also filter out coliforms.
The difficulties posed by nitrates in waste water and the resulting public
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POLLUTANTS AND EFFECTS
health dangers were also discussed. The author concluded that chlorina-
tion of all groundwater for domestic use is the best assurance of microbial
control.
An apparent .case of pesticide poisoning in 1969 in Central Idaho
was the subject of a field report by Benson. 530 Water samples indicated
E. coli at a concentration of 17. 2/cc and the insecticide Thimet in a shal-
low dug well used for water supply. The apparent source of the insecti-
cide was a drainage ditch within 30 feet of the well. A new deeper well
was drilled, which yielded water of satisfactory quality.
MISCELLANEOUS
Hodges, et al. 531 conducted a field study in 1961—62 of gas and
brackish water in the fresh water aquifers of the Lake Charles area of
Southwest Lou isiana. Methane concentrations up to 82 ppm (0. 2 ppm is
normal) were found in the groundwater, partly a result of the generation
of ‘ marsh gas t within the aquifer itself, and perhaps partly due to the
movement of petroliferous gas through fault zones, abandoned well holes,
and well blowouts. The abandonment of some industrial wells in the
mid- 1950s resulted in upward saltwater movement and helped explain
the presence of brackish groundwater of generally low chloride content.
A 1962—64 study by Harder, et al. 532 of the methane problem in
a wider area of Southwest Louisiana revealed methane concentrations of
0—127 ppm. Three hundred sampling wells, screened at various depths,
showed higher methane concentrations in the southern area of the study
near three oil and gas producing fields. Most of the methane in the
groundwater was generated by . rganic debris within the aquifers, but
some probably originated in the oil and gas sands beneath the aquifers
and moved upward through defective well casings inexisting or aban-
doned wells. The theoretical hazards to groundwater users from explo-
sive methane-air mixtures was also discussed. To control the problem
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MISCELLANEOUS
the authors recommended strict well construction and abandonment
regulations as well as thorough aeration of the groundwater before use.
A 1969 report of the U.S. Federal Water Pollution Control Admini-
stration 533 dealt with the problem of sewer line leaks and water infiltration.
New, more effective sealants were developed, and the costs and effective-
ness of the various equipments and materials investigated were presented.
New equipment designs were also described and recommended.
Grossman 534 in 1970 reported on waterborne styrene in a crystal-
line bedrock aquifer in the Gales Ferry area, Ledyard, Connecticut.
Following shallow burial in 1960, the styrene moved downward into the
aquifer. Movement from two unspecified sources of contamination to
cones of depression at six domestic wells was along foliation joints and
cross joints and exceeded 300 feet. Removal of the sources of contami-
nation produced water of satisfactory chemical quality within two years.
In 1970 Dixon and Hendricks 535 presented a water quality simulation
model in conjunction with a hydrologic simulation model to aid in develop-
ment and planning aspects of aquifer resource management. The model
represented water quality changes in both time and space in response to
changing atmospheric and hydrologic conditions and to time-varying waste
discharges at various points in the system. Procedural guidelines were
also given to assist in the development of water quality simulation models
as tools for use in the quality-quantity management of a hydrologic unit.
Folkman and Wachs 6 conducted a laboratory study of the processes
occurring when effluents of stabilization ponds are used in artificial ground-
water recharge. Algae concertration experiments studied the filtration
of chlorella through columns of dune sand. The report discussed the
changes in relative concentration of algae as a function of depth, and
demonstrated the increases in filtration efficiency due to increased
cation concentration in the water and lower water velocities.
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POLLUTANTS AND EFFECTS
In 1972 Aley, et al. surveyed the problem of groundwater con-
tamination and sinkhole collapse in Missouri. Numerous case histories
of land collapses of lagoons and impoundments were presented. Spores
for tracing groundwater in limestone were discussed, and thorough hy-
drogeological investigations of soluble rock and limestone terrain were
recommended as means of control.
130
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SECTION XIII
EVALUATING POLLUTION
GEOLOGY AND TRACERS
The geologic and hydrologic factors involved in the ground disposal
of wastes have been analyzed by Ferris 538 in 1951 and by Theis 539 in
1955. Ferris concentrated on the use of injection wells for industrial
waste disposal and emphasized proper well drilling, casing, construction,
and plugging, as well as hydrologic isolation of the disposal formation
from aquifers to prevent leakage. Theis focused on favorable and un-
favorable features of groundwater circulation bearing on the problem of
underground waste disposal (especially with regard to radioactive wastes).
Both studies concluded that detailed knowledge of local and regional geo-
logy and hydrology were prerequisites to safe underground waste storage.
In 1964 LeGrand 540 presented a system for evaluating the contami-
nation potential of waste disposal sites. The method was based on three
categories of site geology and on weighted values of the water table,
sorption, permeability, water table gradient, and distance to point of
use. Examples were cited and alternative proposals offered.
Numerous studies have also been done on the general problem of
541 to 544
of geologic controls over groundwater. Since contaminated
groundwater is subject to the same physical laws as pure water, geology
actually controls groundwater contamination. The extent to which a
contaminant affects groundwater depends to a large extent on the geologic
factors affecting groundwater movement and the capacity of rock materi-
als to absorb and adsorb the contaminant. The studies have thus detailed
these geologic principles involved in contaminant entry, removal, and
dispersion in groundwater, some illustrated by case histories. ‘ ‘
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EVALUATING POLLUTION
In 1964 Stewart, et al. described the results of a geologic and
hydrologic investigation at the site of the Georgia Nuclear Laboratory
in Dawson County, Georgia. The purpose of the study was to determine:
(I) the occurrence, rate, and direction of movement, discharge, and
recharge of groundwater; (2) water quality and quantity; and (3) the ef-
fects of liquid waste disposal on the groundwater near the radiation
sites.
Maxey and Farvolden 5 6 presented a 1965 discussion on the spe-
cific hydrogeologic factors in problems of groundwater contamination
in arid lands. They concluded that the suitability of hydrogeologic units
for any water supply or waste disposal operations depended primarily
on the position within the hydrologic system and secondarily on physical
properties. The ideal hydrologic system in arid lands involved a re-
charge area in mountains and a discharge area in lowlands. The corn-
patabiity of waste disposal methods to the groundwater flow system at
the Nevada Test Site and at Las Vegas were compared and contrasted.
In 1967 Morris 547 described the use of chemical and radioactive
tracers in studies of the geology and hydrology of the basalt terrane at
the National Reactor Testing Station in Idaho. Rates of groundwater
flow were determined by tracers of salt, sodium fluorescein dye, and
tr itium.
In 1967 Marine 548 reported on the use of a tracer test to verify
an estimate of the groundwater velocity in fractured crystalline rock at
the Savannah River Plant near Aiken, South Carolina. The storage of
high-level radioactive wastes i.1 unlined tunnels in the crystalline rock
had been found to be technicaUy feasible, and hydraulic estimates of
groundwater velocity had been made. Using tritium as a tracer, the
measured groundwater velocity was discovered to be 2. 5 times the
predicted average velocity.
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POLLUTION TRAVEL
In 1970 Webster, et al. 549 described a further two-well tracer
test in fractured crystalline rock under the Savannah River Plant near
Aiken, South Carolina. A pulse injection of tritium was made to flow
from an injection well 1, 765 feet to a discharge well, and the duration
of the test was two years. The concentration of tritium arriving at the
discharge well agreed with predicted calculations based on fluid dis-
persion in a homogeneous medium.
In 1971 Armstrong, et al. 550 reported on the use of tritiated wa-
ter as a tracer to follow the path of leach liquids as they flowed through
a copper mine dump. Semipermeable layers within the dump restricted
the vertical movement of water, and optimization of the leaching process
depended on knowledge of this restriction. Tritiated water was injected
into the dump, and the leach liquid was sampled at natural surface out-
flows and through a series of wells. More than 3,300 samples were
analyzed by liquid scintillation counting or by gas counting. The data
obtained permitted calculation of flow paths, recycling times, total fluid
volumes, and estimates of retention times in various portions of the
dump.
POLLUTION TRAVEL
Many studies have been conducted relating to the general hydro-
logic and geologic factors involved in the movement of contaminants
through soil and within the aquifer. In 1964 Brown 551 discussed the
hydrologic factors affecting the travel of fluid waste from a disposal site
to the water table and within the aquifer. The fluid movement was shown
to depend on the location and extent of all pervious and impervious ma-
terials in the zone. In addition, the choice of disposal technique (dis -
posal pit versus recharge well) was crucial in predicting the time re-
quired for the fluid waste to reach the water table.
In 1967 McGauhey and Krone 552 presented a detailed survey on
the possibility of engineered wastewater systems exploiting the soil
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EVALUATING POLLUTION
mantle of the earth as a means of wastewater treatment. Successful de-
sign and operation of such a system depended on a soil’s infiltrative ca-
pacity approaching its percolative capacity. The ability of a soil to re-
move or transmit bacteria, viruses, and chemicals was reviewed.
Finally, ten areas of needed research were outlined.
The effects of temperature and density gradients on the movement
553.
of contaminants in groundwater were studied by Henry in 1968. A
horizontal lateral temperature gradient was imposed on a tube of square
cross-section containing water saturated sand. A convection current
increased in strength as the temperature gradient increased. The effec-
tive value of thermal diffusivity was about fifty times larger than the ex-
pected value because of dispersion caused by water movement through
interconnected interstices of the sand.
In 1969 Boyd, et al. conducted investigations of the basic
mechanisms by which surface pollution may gain entrance to ground-
water. The collected data showed that while moisture and nutritive
values of various Colorado soil types were important for bacterial
survival, microbial overpopulation was a major cause of bacterial
death. Additional data revealed that the size of sand granules and the
specific type of ion present in bacterial suspensions greatly affected
the mobility of bacteria through sand columns.
A 1969 report by Champlin 555 centered on the fundamental mech-
anisms by which trace metals and organic compounds were fixed or im-
mobilized by soil or earth sediments from water moving through aquifers.
Dilute water suspensions were passed through packed sand beds, and re-
tention by the sand bed-of radioactivity added to water, suspended bac-
teria, and suspended clay was examined. The research established that
significant movement of ionic matter through porous beds of soils could
take place in the form of dilute suspensions at low salt concentrations,
but that direct transfer to free ions through packed beds at low dissolved
salt concentrations was unlikely.
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POLLUTION TRAVEL
In 1971 Champlin 556 described further experimental data which
showed a close relation between the relative movement of both trace ions
and particles and the overall concentration of common salts dissolved in
groundwater. Most importantly, the spatial stability of fine particles
such as the sesquioxides and the clays in formations was dependent on
the nature of the anionic portion of the dominant salt in solution. It was
thought that fine particles tagged with almost any radioactive or activa-
table ion might become an invaluable tool in tracing subsurface move-
ments of fluids.
Hajek 557 presented in 1969 a study on predicting the performance
of soil as a wastewater disposal and water reclamation resource. Signi-
ficant wastewater parameters included: pH, pollutant form and concen-
tration, concentration of accompanying ions, temperature, and volume
disposal characteristics. Significant soil parameters were: bulk density,
grain size distribution, mineral composition, exchange capacity, and re-
sident exchangeable cations. Batch equilibrium and dynamic soil column
studies generally characterized the interrelationships between soil and
wastewater. These data could be employed to predict pollutant migration
rates and concentration distributions.
In 1970 Romero 558 reported on guidelines for safe distances be-
tween domestic and/or food processing wells and potential or existing
sources of groundwater pollution. Safe and effective use of the filtering
capacity of the soil mantle as a wastewater treatment system was stressed.
The report concluded that no one set of safe distances t was adequate and
reasonable for all locales and conditions.
Many more studies have been conducted since 1950 on underground
movement of specific pollutants, often in specific locations. Butler,
et al. in I 954 summarized studies of bacterial and chemical pollutant
travel in the arid Southwest for both above and below the water table cond-
itions. Above the water table, bacteria travelled only limited distances
135
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EVALUATING POLLUTION
in both fine and coarse soils, while chemical pollutants were little al-
tered by passing through as much as thirteen feet of unsaturated soil.
Below the water table, coliform organisms in groundwater travelled up
to 232 feet, while chemical pollutants were found to travel farther (up to
several miles) and faster.
Using various test organisms, Fournelle, et al. 560 in 1957 re-
ported on a study of the lateral movement of simulated bacterial and
chemical pollutants in shallow groundwater in Anchorage, Alaska. The
field study showed that dye uranin and streptococcus zymogenes were
very effective in determining the direction of groundwater flow and the
extent of pollutant travel through the groundwater, even after three
years. The authors also developed criteria for the selection of effec-
tive test organisms for such studies.
Sampayo and Wilke 56 ’ detailed a 1961-62 study of the effects of
recharged water on groundwater temperatures, phosphate concentration,
and the direction of groundwater flow in West Lafayette, Indiana. The
influence of storm and warm air conditioning waters was found to be
localized to a small area (1,000 feet) surrounding the recharge pit.
In 1963 Page, et a!. 562 summarized soil column studies on the
comparative effectiveness of coarse grained, fine grained, and colloid
coated soils in removing ABS, dissolved solids, and bacteria from sew-
age effluent under saturated flow conditions. The coarse sand and sandy
loam removed about 90 percent of the bacteria from sewage within a few
feet (although additional travel did not always remove remaining bacteria),
but the dissolved solids and AB5 were virtually unaffected by filtration.
The use of colloidal alumina t remove ABS or bacteria was considered
economically infeasible, and the coarser sand was preferred as a pollu-
tion filter to remove bacteria to prevent clogging.
In a similar laboratory study in 1 967, Young, et al. 563 analyzed
the ability of four Oahu clay-type soils to remove ammonia, ABS, and
136
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POLLUTION TRAVEL
coliforms from water percolating continuously through saturated soil
columns. The results were not conclusive because of small soil samples
and loading procedures, but preliminary tests on a 30-inch column of
Wahiawa soil showed an initial coliform reduction of about 90 percent.
In 1967 Kumagi 56 reported on a laboratory study of infiltration
and percolation of sulfides and sewage carbonaceous matter. Utilization
of simulated cesspool lysimeters resulted in free percolation of certain
odorous compounds and excellent COD removals under presumably anaer-
obic conditions, contrary to findings in similar studies. Soil columns
were found more effective than sand columns for sulfide removal, but
under acid conditions sulfide breakthrough was evident in both soil and
sand columns. All columns exhibited the characteristic nonlinear rela-
tionship between filtration and percolation rates and the hydraulic gradient.
Ishizaki, et al. 565 studied the passage of an organic-rich liquid
through cracks in Hawaiian basaltic lavas. Their 1967 report determined
the permeability and porosity values for various portions of a basalt. The
flow of organic-rich liquids through such cracks, similar to nonbiodegrad-
able liquids, exhibited a decrease in flow initially and continued the trend
for as long as 220 hours. The clogging phenomenon was dependent upon
microbial activity and food supply in the sewage.
566
In 1968 Krone presented a study of the movement of pathogenic
organisms through soils recharged with contaminated water. The physi-
cal and biological characteristics of pathogens were discussed, along with
various processes of soil filtration. The straining of pathogens at the soil
surface and the sorption of viru- ’es near the surface were the most effec-
tive limitations on pathogen tr .vel. Therefore, a soil containing clay was
recommended for irrigation with treated sewage. Secondary treatment
and chlorination of the sewage were also recommended for aesthetic
reasons.
137
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EVALUATING POLLUTtON
567
A test drilling program was conducted by Crosby, et al. in a
drain field area of the Spokane Valley, Washington,to study the move-
ment of pollutants in glacial outwash deposits subjected to extreme pollu-
tant loads. Very dry soils were found about 30 feet below the drain field,
and it was concluded that most of the waters were being dispersed lat-
erally by capillary mechanisms. Chemical pollutants were found to travel
with moisture fronts, but fine materials were determined to be very effec-
tive in filtering bacteria within a few feet of the leach bed.
568
Further study at the same site by Crosby, et al. resulted in
a 1971 data analysis and literature review of the very high prevalent
moisture tensions in the drain field environment. The high moisture
stress was seen as contributing to the rapid removal of bacteria during
filtration. Nitrates and chlorides in the groundwater seemed to be un-
related to percolating wastewaters, and no bacterial pollutant threat to
area well waters from the drain field operations was discovered.
569, 570
Scaif, et al. presented data on the movement, adsorption,
and release of nitrate and DDT under actual well recharge conditions in
the Ogallala aquifer at Bushland, Texas, in 1968. Tritiated water used
as a tracer revealed that 94 percent of the recharge water was recovered
in twelve days of withdrawal by pumping. Chemical and hydrologic anal-
yses also disclosed that the movement of nitrate was not the same as the
tritiated water, and that the DDT apparently was adsorbed by the aquifer
material close to the recharge well since very little was recovered dur-
ing pumping.
In 1972 Tilstra, et al. described studies on the removal of
phosphorus and nitrogen from wastewater effluents by induced soil per-
colation. Induced percolation achieved good stabilization for phosphorus,
but the results for nitrogen were poor. Superior results were achieved
when aerobic conditions existed in the soil.
138
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MONITORING
Wentink and Etzel 572 in 1972 analyzed soil column tests dealing
with the removal of metal ions by soils. The ion exchange capacities of
three soils were observed to effectively remove copper, chrome, zinc,
nickel, and cadmium ions. The exchange capacity of a soil increased
as its clay mineral content increased and as its particle size decreased.
In 1973 Allen and Morrison 573 reported on a field investigation
of percolating leachfield effluents in the mountainous Parvin Lake area
of Colorado. The direction and rate of movement of bacteria-laden ef-
fluent were mainly affected by the anisotropy of the bedrock fracture
patterns, and percolating effluent was observed to have travelled dis -
tances of over several hundred feet through fractured bedrock. Con-
sequently, even moderate percolation rates and large distances between
water wells and conventional waste disposal units may not guarantee
potable groundwater in mountainous areas of crystalline bedrock.
MONITORING
In 1956 the California Department of Public Works 574 reported
on a general program of groundwater quality monitoring in California.
Groundwater quality data were summarized, along with an outline of
the state monitoring philosophy.
Bookman and Edmonston 575 summarized the water-quality-
monitoring and -research programs of six city, county, and state agen-
cies in the San Gabriel River System, Los Angeles County, California,
in 1962. Agency permit requirements were found to be satisfactory
methods of waste disposal control, but reclaimed sewage, along with
well construction and sealing, techniques remained a problem.
Pomeroy and 0r1ob 576 presented a 1967 discussion of water
quality standards in California. Special monitoring problems of ground-
water pollution included spatial and temporal quality variations, ground-
water quality constituents (dissolved minerals, bacteria, radioactivity,
temperature, oxygen content), and minimal surveillance requirements
139
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EVALUATING POLLUTiON
(observation wells versus outflow sampling). In addition, the report
contained a checklist of water quality indicators for various uses of
water.
A 1969 report by Moreland and Singer 577 suggested selective
analyses for obtaining specific types of groundwater quality data in the
Orange County Water District, California. In practice, water samples
were collected periodically from 7Z wells in the area. Chloride and
electrical conductivity measurements were made on samples from aqui-
fers susceptible to sea water intrusion. Sulfate, bicarbonate, and ni-
trate determinations were made on samples from aquifers underlying
the forebay area. Finally, sodium, sulfate, chloride, and boron deter-
minations and electrical conductivity measurements were taken on sam-
ples from aquifers used as a source for irrigation water.
Water Resources Engineers, Inc. 578 conducted an investigation
of the salt balance in the Upper Santa Ana River Basin in Southern
California. A two-volume report in 1970 detailed the sources and con-
trol methods of the “controllable salt accretion of the area. Effective
hydrologic and water quality models for the region were developed, in-
cluding a complete data management system. In addition, heavy empha-
sis was placed on the location of monitoring wells and the scheduling of
observations in the basin.
The most recent evaluation of water quality monitoring programs
in California was done by the State Water Resources Control Board 579
in 1971. State and federal agency information gathering programs,
methods, objectives, and probiems were discussed. The study stressed
the need for a statewide integrated agency monitoring program geared
toward a centralized data and water resources management system. In-
creased use of automatic recording and aircraft sensors was recommended.
The need for better equipped laboratories and more efficient self-
monitoring programs was also expressed.
140
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MONITORING
Methods employed by the U.S.G.S. to collect, preserve, and
analyze water samples were reviewed by Rainwater and Thatcher 58 ° in
1960. The selection of sampling sites, frequency of sampling, field
equipment, preservatives and fixatives, analytical techniques of water
analysis, and instruments were among the topics discussed. Seventy-
seven laboratory and field procedures were listed for determining 53
various water properties.
A 1972 Federal Interagency Work Group 581 study focused on re-
commended methods for acquisition of groundwater pollution data. De-
tailed summaries were provided of acquisition methods for various para-
meters and sampling systems with respect to biologic, bacteriologic,
chemical, and physical water quality data, and for automatic water qual-
ity monitoring systems.
In 1 973 the Environmental Instrumentation Group of the University
582
of California presented a detailed report on the physical and operating
characteristics and specifications of presently available water quality
monitoring instruments. Various instrumentation methods were criti-
cally compared, and recommendations were made on promising metho-
dology and the development of new instrumentation. The report contained
numerous references, and contemplated future expanded discussion of
various water quality parameters in addition to metallic, biological, oil
and grease, and physical parameters.
More limited studies in this field have included reports on com-
puter methods, management systems, and water quality models, along
with estimation theory analyses of water quality monitoring problems.
Morgan, et al. 583 in 1 966 explained the advantages of a digital computer
in storing, retrieving, and manipulating water quality data. Included
were examples of tables, Stiff and Piper diagrams, and maps produced
by the computer.
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EVALUATING POLLUTION
In 1971 Simpson, et al. 584 presented a paper which sought to
define problems in space-time sampling of pollutants in aquifers and
to give guidelines detailing the circumstances under which mean value
or deterministic sampling models were justified. Two general classes
of problems were distinguished: input identification and system identi-
fication. In addition, a finite-state machine model was proposed for
space-time sampling of aquifer pollutants, and some theoretical sampling
scheme problems were discussed.
A 1971 study of the Hanford groundwater basin in Washington by
Cearlock 585 led to the development of a systems approach to the manage-
ment of area radionuclide pollution problems. A man-machine interactive
computer system was employed to produce hydraulic models of the ground-
water flow in saturated and unsaturated soils and water quality models of
waste movement through subsurface soils.
The analysis, modeling, and forecasting of stochastic water qual-
ity systems were researched by Lee 586 in 1972. Time series analysis,
optimal and non-linear filtering, and estimation theory approaches to the
problem were discussed. The study contained numerous references and
examples of mathematical representations of various pollution parameters.
Zaporozec 587 in 1972 surveyed methods and techniques of graph-
ical and numerical interpretation of water quality data. Classification,
correlation, analytic, synthetic, and illustrative methods were sum-
marized and charted.
In 1973 Moore 588 analyzed the application of estimation theory
to the design of water quality monitoring systems. Filtering techniques
provided a potentially valuable methodology to this end. For example,
the “best’ sampling program could be selected from a group of feasible
measurement systems by sequentially minimizing a cost function subject
to constraints on the uncertainty of estimates. Trade-offs might then
be necessary between spatial and temporal frequencies of sampling.
142
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MONITORING
Still further groundwater quality monitoring studies have centered
on specific sampling equipment or measurement techniques. McMillion
and Keeley 589 in 1968 described the design and specifications of new port-
able pumping equipment which could sample to depths of 300 feet at pump-
ing rates of 7-14 gallons/minute. The equipment could investigate chlor-
ide reduction rates in an aquifer under the influence of selective pumping
techniques and could trace pollutants in a fresh water aquifer under al-
ternate recharge and pumping conditions.
In 1968 LeGrand 59 ° discussed general groundwater quality prob-
lems related to test and monitor wells. In order to achieve effective
monitoring with optimum results, the author concluded that improved
technology in determining the distribution of contaminated groundwater
and synthetic hydrogeologic frameworks with adequate data was essential.
In 1969 Warner 591 reported on attempts to detect and outline zones
of groundwater contamination by earth resistivity measurements where a
resistivity contrast exists between contaminated and uncontaminated
groundwater. Three surveys over Long Is land, New York sites (septic
tanks were a source of groundwater pollution) were particularly suc-
cessful, as was one Western Texas survey (groundwater pollution due
to oil field brine disposal pits). The earth resistivity measurement
method was found to be useful for rapid economical surveys of large
land areas, and for monitoring water level and water quality changes
in large topographically uniform areas where unconfined aquifers exist.
In 1970 Peterson and Lao 592 reported on the use of spontaneous
potential, resistivity, and electrical conductivity well logs to measure
groundwater flow zones, location, depth, and the chemical constituents
of the groundwater in Hawaii. Data from the fluid conductivity logs
combined with temperature data also aided in interpretation of the
Ghyben-Herzberg lens relationship.
143
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EVALUATiNG POLLUIION
Tui-can and Winslow 593 presented a 1970 study of techniques for
evaluating electrical logs to aid in the estimation of the volume and dis -
tribution of saline groundwater in Louisiana. In addition, well yields
and altitudes of groundwater salinity interfaces were estimated by quanti-
tative analysis of borehole geophysical logs.
In a similar investigation, Brown 594 reported in 1970 on tech-
niques for calculating groundwater quality from calibrated geophysical
logs in a Norfolk, Virginia, test well 2,500 feet deep. Methods for ap-
proximating the dissolved solids and chloride content of the groundwater
were specifically detailed.
In 1972 Foster and Goolsby 595 summarized the results of a field
investigation at Pensacola, Florida. Two monitor wells were constructed
to discover the continuing effects of the injection of liquid chemical waste
by Monsanto into the lower Floridan aquifer. Chemical analyses of water
samples revealed highly saline groundwater, increasing in salinity with
depth. The report included a detailed description of the construction of
the monitor wells.
144
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SECTION XIV
REFERENCES CITED
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4. Dvoracek, M. J., and R. Z. Wheaton, “Does Artificial Ground
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19. Bouwer, H., “Returning Wastes to the Land, A New Role for
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Civil Engineers, Vol. 96, No. SA 1, Paper 7096, pp 59-74, 1970.
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30. McMichael, F. C., and J. E. McKee, Wastewater Reclamation at
Whittier Narrows , California State Water Quality Control Board,
Publication No. 33, 100 pp, 1966.
31. Doneen, L. D., “Influence of Native Salts in the San Joaquin
Valley on the Quality of the Ground Water, Il Proceedings of Sym-
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Outwash Environment, 3, ‘ Water Resources Research , Vol. 7,
No. 3, pp 713-720, 1971.
569. Scaif, M. R., et al, “Movement of DDT and Nitrates During
Ground-Water Recharge,” Water Resources Research , Vol. 5,
No. 5, pp 1041-1051, 1969.
570. Scaif, M. R., et al, Fate of DDT and Nitrate in Ground Water ,
U. S. Federal Water Pollution Control Admin., Robert S. Kerr
Water Research Center, Ada, Okia., and U. S. Agricultural
Research Service, Southwestern Great Plains Research Center,
Bushland, Texas, 46 pp, April 1968.
571. Tilstra, 3. R., et al, “Removal of Phosphorus and Nitrogen from
Waste-Water Effluents by Induced Soil Percolation,” Jour. Water
Pollution Control Fed. , Vol. 44, No. 5, pp 796-805, 1972.
572. Wentink, G. R., and 3. E. Etzel, “Removal of Metal Ions by Soil,”
Jour. Water Pollution Control Fed. , Vol. 44, No. 8, pp 1561-
1574, 197Z.
198
-------
REFERENCES
573. Allen, M. J., and S. M. Morrison, t Bacterial Movement Through
Fractured Bedrock,” Ground Water , Vol. 11, No. 2, pp 6-10,
1973.
574. California Dept. of Public Works, Ground Water Quality Monitor-
i g Program in California , Water Quality Investigation Report No.
14, Sacramento, 198 pp, June 1956.
575. Bookman and Edmonston, Consulting Civil Engineers, Activities
of Public Agencies in Water Quality Investigations and Water Pol-
lution Control in the San Gabriel River System , Report to Central
and West Basin Water Assoc., 28 pp, Oct. 1962.
576. Pomeroy, R. D., and G. T. Orlob, Problems of Setting Standards
and of Surveillance for Water Quality Control , California State
Water Quality Control Board, Publication No. 36, 123 pp, 1967.
577. Moreland, J. A., and J. A. Singer, Evaluation of Water-Quality
Monitoring in the Orange County Water District, California , U. S.
Geological Survey Open-File Report, 27 pr, 1969.
578. Water Resources Engineers, Inc., An Investigation of Salt Balance
in the Upper Santa Ana River Basin , Final Report to the California
State Water Resources Control Board and the Santa Ana River
Basin Regional Water Quality Control Board, 2 Vols., 198 pp,
1969, 1970.
579. California State Water Resources Control Board, Evaluation of
Water Quality Monitoring Programs in California , Sacramento,
57 pp, Feb. 1971.
580. Rainwater, F. H., and L. L. Thatcher, Methods for Collection and
Analysis of Water Samples , U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply
Paper 1454, 301 pp, 1960.
581. Federal Interagency Work Group on Designation of Standards for
Water Data Acquisition, Recommended Methods for Water-Data
Acquisition , Preliminary Report, U. S. Geological Survey Office
of Water Data Coordination, Washington, D.C., 412 pp, 1972.
582. Environmental Instrumentation Group, Instr umentation for Envi-
ronmental Monitoring — Water , LBL- 1, Vol. 2, Lawrence
Berkeley Lab., Univ. of California, Berkeley, Feb. 1973.
199
-------
REFERENCES
583. Morgan, C. 0., et al, “Digital Computer Methods for Water-
Quality Data, Ground Water , Vol. 4, No. 3, pp 35-42, 1966.
584. Simpson, E. E., et al, Space-Time Sampling of Pollutants in
Aquifers , Symposium on Ground-Water Pollution, 15th General
Assembly of International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, Mos-
cow, U.S.S.R., August 1971.
585. Cearlock, D. B., A Systems Approach to Management of the Han-
ford Ground-Water Basin,” Ground Water , Vol. 10, No. 1, pp 88-
98, 1972.
586. Lee, F. S. , Analysis, Modeling and Forecasting of Stochastic
Water Quality Systems , Kansas Water Resources Inst., Contrib.
No. 110, Kansas State Univ., Manhattan, 2 Vols., 498 pp, 1972.
587. Zaporozec, A., ‘Graphical Interpretation of Water-Quality Data,
Ground Water , Vol. 10, No. 2, pp 32-43, 1972.
588. Moore, S. F., ‘Estimation Theory Applications to Design of Water
Quality Monitoring Systems, Jour. Hydraulics Div. , Amer. Soc.
of Civil Engineers, Vol. 99, No. HY5, pp 815-831, 1973.
589. McMillion, L. G., and S. W. Keeley, “Sampling Equipment for
Ground-Water Investigations,” Ground Water , Vol. 6, No. 2,
pp 9-11, 1968.
590. LeGrand, H. E., ‘Monitoring of Changes in Quality of Ground
Water,” Ground Water , Vol. 6, No. 3, pp 14-18, 1968.
591. Warner, D. L., “Preliminary Field Studies Using Earth Resistiv-
ity Measurements for Delineating Zones of Contaminated Ground
Water,” Ground Water , Vol. 7, No. 1, pp 9-16, 1969.
592. Peterson, F. L., and C. Lao, “Electric Well Logging of Hawaiian
Basaltic Aquifers,” Ground Water , Vol. 8, No. 2, pp 11-18, 1970.
593. Turcan, A. N., Jr., and A. G. Winslow, “Quantitative Mapping of
Salinity, Volume, and Yield of Saline Aquifers Using Borehole
Geophysical Logs,” Water Resources Research , Vol. 6, No. 5,
pp 1478-1481, 1970.
594. Brown, D. L.., “Techniques for Quality-of-Water Interpretations
from Calibrated Geophysical Logs, Atlantic Coastal Area, ‘ Ground
Water , Vol. 9, No. 4, pp 25-38, 1971.
200
-------
REFERENCES
595. Foster, J. B., and D. A. Goolsby, Construction of Waste-Injection
Monitor Wells Near Pensacola, Florida , Florida Dept. of Natural
Resources, Div. of Interior Resources, Bureau of Geology Lnfor-
mation Circular No. 74, Tallahassee, 34 pp, 1972.
596. Andersen, J. R., “Groundwater Quality Studies at Waste Disposal
Sites,’ T South Dakota’s Environment, Its Pollution and Preserva-
tion — Symposium Proceedings , South Dakota State Univ., pp 25-
37, 1971.
597. Andersen, 3. R., and J. N. Dornbush, A Study of the Influence of
a Sanitary Landfill on Ground Water Quality, Annual Report for
Fiscal Year 1966 , South Dakota State Univ., Water Resources
Inst., pp 1-27, 1966.
598. Anon., Ground Water Quality and Treatment , Proceedings 14th
Water Quality ConI., Univ. of illinois, Urbana, 1973.
599. Appel, C. A., Salt-Water Encroachment into Aquifers of the
Raritan Formation in the Sayerville Area, Middlesex County, New
Jersey, With a Section on a Proposed Tidal Dam on the South
River , Special Report No. 17, New Jersey Div. of Water Policy
and Supply, 47 pp. 1962.
600. Becher, A. E., Hydrogeologic Controls on and Water-Quality
Effects of a Gasoline Spill Near Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania ,
U. S. Geological Survey Open-File Report, 6 pp. 1972.
601. Biggar, J. W., et al, Soil Interaction with Organically Polluted
Water , Summary Report, Dept. of Water Science and Engineering,
Univ. of California, Davis, Feb. 1966.
602. Bookman and Edmonston, Consulting Civil Engineers, Management
of Ground Water Quality in the Central and West Basin Water
Replenishment District , Report to the Central and West Basin
Water Replenishment District, Downey, Calif., Nov. 1970.
603. Bryson, W. R., The Occurrence of Salty Ground Water in the
Shaffer Area, Rush County, Kansas , Kansas Dept. of Health,
Environmental Health Services, 14 pp. 1970.
604. Bryson, W. R., et al, Residual Salt Study of Brine Affected Soil
and Shale, Potwin Area, Butler County, Kansas , Kansas Dept. of
Health, Environmental Health Services Bulletin 3-1, 28 pp, 1966.
201
-------
REFERENCES
605. Burnitt, S. C., InvestIgation of Ground-Water Contamination, City
of Hawkins, Wood County, Texas , Texas Water Comm. Report
LD-0162-MR, 27 pp. 1963.
606. Burnitt, S. C., Investigation of Ground-Water Contamination,
Henderson Oil Field Area, Rusk County, Texas , Texas Water
Comm. Report LD-0262-MR, 14 pp, 1962.
07. Burnitt, S. C., and R. L. Crouch, Investigation of Ground-Water
Contamination, PHD, Hackberry, and Stone Oil Fields, Garza
County, Texas , Texas Water Comm. Report LD-0764, 94 pp.
1 964.
b08. Butcher, D. L., The Occurrence of Salty Ground Water in the
Albert Area, Barton County, Kansas , Kansas Dept. of Health,
Environmental Health Services, 19 pp. 1971.
609. Childs, K. E., History of the Salt, Brine, and Paper Industries and
Their Probable Effect on the Ground Water Quality in the Manistee
Lake Area of Michigan , Bureau of Water Management, Michigan
Dept. of Natural Resources, 75 pp, 1970.
610. Committee on Geologic Aspects of Radioactive Waste Disposal,
Report to the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission , National Academy
of Sciences, Washington, D. C., 1966.
611. Cooper, W., Possible Ground-Water Contamination in the Rolling
Hills Addition, Potter County, Texas , Texas Water Development
Board, CL-b802, Aug. 1970.
612. Crouch, R. L., Investigation of Alleged Ground-Water Contamina-
tion, Tn-Rue and Ride Oil Fields, Scurry County, Texas , Texas
Water Comm. Report LD-0464-MR, 18 pp, 1964.
t13. Crouch, R. L., Investigation of Ground-Water Contamination in the
Juliana and West Jud Oil Fields, Haskell and Stonewall Counties,
Texas , Texas Water Comm. Report LD-0364-MR, 20 pp. 1964.
614. Crouch, R. L., and S. C. Burnitt, Investigation of Ground-Water
Contamination in the Vealmoor Oil Field, Howard and Borden
Counties, Texas , Texas Water Comm. Report LD-0265, 55 pp,
19b5.
202
-------
REFERENCES
615. Dotson, G. K., et al, Land Spreading, A Conserving and Non-Pol-
luting Method of Disposing of Oily Wastes , Adv. Waste Treatment
Research Lab., Federal Water Quality Admin., Cincinnati, Ohio,
1970.
616. Draper, D.C., Investigation of Contamination Complaint in South-
Central Knox County, Texas , Texas Board of Water Engineers
Contamination Report No. 7, 8 pp, 1960.
617. Eliassen, R.., et al, Studies on the Movement of Viruses in Ground
Water , Annual Report, Commission on Environment Hygiene, Stan-
ford Univ. , 1965.
618. Emrich, G. H., and R. A. Landon, Investigation of the Effects of
Sanitary Landfills in Coal Strip Mines on Ground Water Quality ,
Peimsylvania Bureau of Water Quality Management Publication No.
30, 37 pp 1 1971.
619. Eto, M. A. , et al, Behavior of Selected Pesticides with Percolating
Water in Oahu Soils , Water Resources Research Center, Univ. of
Hawaii, Honolulu, Aug. 1967.
620. Fink, B. E., Investigation of Ground-Water Contamination by Cot-
ton Seed Delinting Acid Waste, Terry County, Texas , Texas Water
Comm. Report LD-0864, 25 pp, 1964.
621. George, A., ‘Cave Pollution Can Mean Ground Water Pollution, U
Ground Water Age , Vol. 5, No. 6, pp 20-24, 1971.
622. Gold, D. P., et al, Water Well Explosions — An Environmental
Hazard, Earth and Mineral Science , Vol. 40, No. 3, pp 17-21,
1970.
623. Hanway, J. J., et al, The Nitrate Problem , Special Report No. 34,
Iowa State Univ. Coop. Extension Service, 20 pp, 1963.
624. Holloway, H. D., Bacteriological Pollution of Ground Water in the
Big Spring Area, Howard County, Texas , Texas Water Comm.
Report LD-0163-MR, 14 pp. 1963.
625. Holloway, H. D., Investigation of Ground-Water Contamination,
City of Valera, Coleman County, Texas , Texas Water Comm.
Report LD-0362-MR, 7 pp, 1962.
203
-------
REFERENCES
626. Holloway, H. D., Investigation of Alleged Ground-Water Contami-
nation Near Kilgore, Gregg County, Texas , Texas Water Comm.
Report LD-0664, 15 pp, 1964.
t’ Z7. Hutchinson, F. E., The Influence of Salts Applied to Highways on
the Levels of Sodium and Chloride Ions Present in Water and Soil
Samples , Technical Report, Water Resources Research Inst.,
Univ. of Maine, 20 pp, 1969.
628. Keech, D. K., “Ground Water Pollution,” Principles and Applica-
tions of Ground Water Hydraulics Coni. , Michigan State Univ.,
East Lansing, 20 pp, 1970.
629. Kilpatrick, F. S., Sanitation Problems in Unsewered Areas,”
Minnesota Municipalities , Vol. 44, pp 315- , 1959.
630. Lane, J. W., and R. Newcome, Jr., Status of Salt-Water
Encroachment in Aquifers Along the Mississippi Gulf Coast, 1964 ,
Mississippi Board of Water Conirnissioners Bulletin 64-5, 16 pp,
1964.
631. Lehr, J. H., A Study of the Ground Water Contamination Due to
Saline Water Disposal in the Morrow County (Ohio) Oil Fields ,
Ohio Water Resources Center, Ohio State Univ., 81 pp. March
1969.
t32. Leonard, R. B.., Variations in Chemical Quality of Ground Water
Beneath an Irri&ated Field, Cedar Bluffs Irrigation District, Kan-
sas, Kansas Dept. of He 1th Bulletin 1-11, 0 pp. 1969.
633. Littleton, R. T., Contamination of Surface and Ground Water in
Southeast YounL County, Texas , Texas Board of Water Engineers,
13 pp. 1956.
634. Loehr, R. C., “Control of Nitrogen from Animal Waste Waters,”
Proceedings 12th Sanitary Engineering Conf . , Univ. of illinois,
Urbana, pp 177-186, Feb. 1970.
635. Loehr, R. C., Pollution Implications of Animal Wastes — A For-
ward Oriented Review , Robert S. Kerr Water Research Center,
Federal Water Pollution Control Adxnin., 1968.
636. Love, 3. D., and L. Hoover, A Summary of the Geology of Sedi-
mentary Basins of the United States with Reference to the Disppsal
of Radioactive Wastes , U. S. Geological Survey Trace Elements
Investigation Report 768, Open File, 92 pp. 1960.
204
-------
REFERENCES
637. Metzler, D. F., An Investigation of the Sources and Seasonal Vari-
ations of Nitrates in Private and Public Water Supply Wells, Par-
ticularly with Respect to the Occurrence of Infant Cyanosis , Final
Report, Project No. RG4775 , Univ. of Kansas, 33 pp, 1958.
638. Middleton, F. M., Report on Analysis of Organic Contaminants
Recovered from Town and Country Mutual Water Company Well at
Commercetown, Colorado , R. A. Taft Engineering Center, Cincin-
nati, Ohio, 1957.
639. Miller, R. A., and S. W. Maher, Geologic Evaluation of Sanitary
Landfill Sites in Tennessee , Environmental Geology Series No. 1,
Tennessee Dept. of Conservation, 38 pp, 1972.
640. Owens, W. G., Protection of an Aquifer — A Case History , Amer.
Inst. of Mining, Metallurgy, and Petroleum Engineers, Paper No.
SPE 3617, 19 pp. 1971.
641. Peckham, R. C., Investigation of Contamination Complaint,
Clemens Prison Farm, Brazoria County, Texas , Texas Board of
Water Engineers Contamination Report 9, 8 pp, 1960.
642. Pratt, P. F.., Quality Criteria for Trace Elements in Irrigation
Waters , Div. of Agricultural Sciences, Univ. of California, River-
side, 46 pp, 1972.
643. Shamburger, V. M., Jr., Memorandum Report on Water Well Con-
tamination in the Saspamco Area, Wilson County, Texas , Texas
Board of Water Engineers Contamination Report No. 3, 13 pp,
1958.
644. Shamburger, V. M., Jr., A Reconnaissance of Alleged Salt-Con-
tamination of Soils Near Stamford, Jones County, Texas , Texas
Board of Water Engineers Contamination Report No. 6, 8 pp, 1960.
645. Shamburger, V. M. , Jr ., Reconnaissance of Alleged Water Well
Contamination in the Garwood-Nada Area, Colorado Cou y, Texas ,
Texas Board of Water Engineers, 8 pp, 1959.
646. Shamburger, V. M., Jr., Reconnaissance Report on Alleged Con-
tamination of California Creek Near Avoca, Jones County, Texas ,
Texas Board of Water Engineers Contamination Report No. 5, 14
pp. 1958.
205
-------
REFERENCES
647. Shamburger, V. M., Jr., Reconnaissance of Water Well Pollution
and the Occurrence of Shallow Ground Water, Runnels County,
Texas , Texas Board of Water Engineers Contamination Report No.
1, 38 pp. 1958.
648. Sherwood, C. B., and R. G. Grantham, Water Control vs. Seawater
Intrusion, Broward County, Florida , Florida Geological Survey
Leaflet 5, 17 pp, 1966.
649 Smith, W. W. , “Salt Water Disposal: Sense and Dollars, Petro-
leurn Engineer , Vol. 42, No. 11, pp 64-72, 1970.
650. Stead, F. W., ‘Groundwater Contamination,” Symposium on Edu-
cation for the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Explosives , Tucson, Ariz,
1970.
651. Stearman, J., A Reconnaissance Investigation of Al1çg d Contami-
nation of irrigation Wells Near Lockett, Wilba rger County, Texas ,
Texas Board of Water Engineers Contamination Report No. 8, 12
pp, 1960.
652. Thornhill, 3. T., Investigation of Ground-Water Contamination,
Coleto Creek Oil Field, Victoria County, Texas , Texas Water
Comm. Report LD-0564-MR, 21 pp, 1964.
653. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Report on Ground Water Contami-
nation, RockyMountain Arsenal, Denver, Colorado , 31 pp. 1955.
654. U. S. Federal Water Pollution Control Admin., A Report on the
Examination of the Waste Treatment and Disposal Operations at
the National Reactor Testing Station, Idaho Falls, Idaho , North-
west Region (Now EPA, Region X, Seattle), 1970.
655. U. S. Public Health Service, Ground-Water Pollution in the South
Platte River Valley Between Denver and Brighton, Colorado ,
South Platte River Basin Project PR-4, 1965.
656. U. S. Public Health Service, Water Well Contamination and Waste
Disposal in the Greater Anchorage Area , U. S. Public Health Ser-
vice Report, 3 pp. 1965.
657. Walters, K. L., Reconnaissance of Sea-Water Intrusion Along
Coastal Washin gton, 1966—68 , Washington Dept. of Ecology
Water-Supply Bulletin 32, 208 pp, 1971.
206
-------
REFERENCES
658. Warner, D. L., Survey of Industrial Waste Injection Wells , Final
Report, U.S. Geological Survey Contract No. 14-08-0010-12280,
Univ. of Missouri, Rolla, 3 Vols., 1972.
659. Wells, D., et al, Potential Pollution of the Ogallala by Recharging
Playa Lake Water — Pesticides , U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Water Pollution Control Research Series Report
EPA-16060-DCO-l0/70, Oct. 1970.
(NTIS: PB-208 813)
660. White, J. W., Investigation of Salt Water Contamination in a Wood-
bine Well Near Sherman, Grayson County, Texas , Texas Board of
Water Engineers Contamination Report 10, 10 pp, 1961.
661. Wilson, C. B., and T. H. Essig (Editors), Evaluation of Radiologi-
cal Conditions in the Vicinity of Hanford for 1969 , BNWL-1505,
Battelle Labs. , Richland, Wash., 1970.
207
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SECTION XV
AUTHOR INDEX
Author/Reference
A
Abegglen, D. E. /265
Adriano, D.C. /235, 236
Ahiers, G.K./160
Ahmad, M.U./121, 122
Aley, T.J./537
Alfaro, J.F./243
Allen, M.J. /573
Alverson, R.M. /305
Alves, E., Jr./ 391
American Water Works Association/
410, 411, 412
Andersen, J.R./51, 52, 53, 596,
597
Anonymous/12, 18, 74, 92,
158, 278, 279, 294, 331,
342, 367, 426, 506, 542,
Apgar, M.A./56
Appel, C.A./599
Arlin, Z.E./181
Armstrong, F. E. /550
Ayers, R.S. /525
B
Back, W./357
Baffa, J.J./329
Baier, D.C./326, 327
Bain, G.L./131
Baker, E.T., Jr. /91
Baltz, E.H./172
Barraclough, J. T. /309
Bartilucci, N.J. /329
Batz, M.E. /307
Bayne, C.K./154
Author/Reference
Becher, A .E./600
Belter, W.G./170
Bendixen, T.W./2, 13
Benham, D.H. /197, 198
Benson, W.W./530
Bergstrom, R.E. /102, 299, 300
Berk, R.G./302
Bernhart, A.P./9
Bierschenk, W.H. /189, 190, 191
Bigbee, P. D. /472, 507
Biggar, J.W. /207, 601
Billings, N. 1443
Black, A.P.1361
Black, C.A./487
Blanchar, R. W. /508
Blomeke, 1.0./167
Boegly, W.J., Jr. /274
Boen, D.F./33, 34, 35
Bolton, P./416
Bonde, E.K./247
Bookman and Edrnonston/575, 602
Born, S.M./6
Boster, R.S. /132
Boucher, R.R./251
Bouwer, H,/5, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23,
24
Boyd, J.W ./554
Bradford, A. /320
Branson, R.L./525
Brezner, G.P./291
Brown, D. L. /594
Brown, J.R./193, 195, 594
Brown, P.G./388
Brown, R.E./188, 192
Brown, R.F./17
129,
340,
598
208
-------
AUTHOR INDEX
C
606,
D
/396, 400
Brown, R.H./551
Brown, S.G./458
Broecker, W.S. /81
Bruington, A. E. /389
Bryson, W.R. /603, 604
Bunch, R.L./162
Burchinal, 3. C. /59
Burke, R.G./145
Burnitt, S. C./147, 148, 605,
607, 614
Burt, E.M./445
Butcher, D. L. /608
Butler, R.G ./559
California Bureau of Sanitary
Engineering/510
California Department of Public
Works/574
California Department of Water
Resources/29, 41, 100, 376, 377,
378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 383,
384, 385, 386, 387, 459, 460,
461, 463, 464, 479, 515
California Division of Water
Resources /157
California State Water Pollution
Control Board/27, 37, 39
California State Water Quality Con-
trol Board/40
California State Water Resources
Control Board/579
California, University of, Sanitary
Engineering Research Labora-
tory/i, 323
Callahan, J.T./360, 431
Carison, E.J./399
Carison, G.F./469
Carstens, M. R. /397
Cartwright, K./48, 49, 434
Caswell, C.A. /272
Cearlock, D.B. /585
Chaiken, E.I./15
Champlin, J.B.F./175, 555, 556
Charmonman, S. /398
Chemerys, 3. C. /440
Childs, K.E./609
Cleary, E. J. /295, 296
Clebsch, A. , Jr. /172.
Coe, J.J./42
Cohen, P. /328, 330, 351
Collins, A.G. /111
Committee on Environmental
Affairs /112
Committee on Geologic Aspects of
Radioactive Waste Disposal/
610
Concannon, T.J. /221
Coogan, G .J./82
Cook, T.D./273
Cooper, H.H., Jr.
Cooper, W ./611
Corey, R.IB./207
Counts, 1-1.B./354, 355
Crabtree, K.T. /505
Cram, 3.1130
Crosby, 3. W. , 111/89, 234, 567,
568
Crouch, R.L./607, 612, 613, 614
Dair, F.R./58
Dav-ids, H.W./l13
Dawes, J.H./499
Dean, B.T./308
DelBuchananne, G. D. /541
de Laguna, W. /167
Deluty, 3. /474
Dendy, B.B./465
Dennis, H.W./84
Deutsch, M./104, 444, 543
Dixon, J.B./261
Dixon, N. /535
Doneen, L.D./31
Donsky, E. /354
Dornbush, J.N./51, 52, 597
Dotson, G.K./615
Doty, G.C./202
Downs, C.E.1180
Doyel, W.W./373
209
-------
AUTHOR INDEX
Draper, D.C./616
Dregne, H.E./253
Drewry, W.A./467, 468
Dunlap, W.J./480, 481
Durfor, C.N./328, 330
Dvoracek, M.J./4
E
Eddy, G.E./93, 135, 267
Ehrlich, G.G./338
Eichholz, G.G. /175
Eliassen, R./3, 467, 617
Emery, W.T./64
Emrich, G.H./119, 618
Engberg, R.A./502
Enger, P.F./399
Environmental Instrumentation
Group/582
Environment Staff
Essig, T.H./196,
Eto, M.A./619
Etzel, J.E./572
Evans, C.E./224
Evans, D.M. /319, 320
Evans, R./99
Evenson, R.E /462
Eye, J.D./250
F
Farvolden, R.N./50, 546
Federal Interagency Work Group on
Designation of Standards for
Water Data Acquisition/581
Fenimore, J.W./178
Ferris, J.G./538
Field, R. /78
Fink, B.E./149, 620
Fitzsimmons, D.W. /246
Fogg, C.E./220
Foley, F.C./452
Folkman, Y. /536
Foster, H.B.., Jr. /528
Foster, J.B./595
Fournelle, H. J. /560
Franks, A.L./32
Freeze, R.A./322
Frink, C.R./231
Fryberger, J.S. /139
Fungaroli, A.A./67, 68, 69
0
Gahr, W.N./453
Gaibraith, 3. H. /125
Garber, W. F. /26
Garcia-Bengochea, 3.1. /311
Gardner, M.C./180
Genetelli, E.J./221
George, A./621
George, A.I./447
Gilbertson, C. B. /226
Gillham, R.W./229, 230
Gillingham, J. T. /497
Gold, D.P./622
Goldberg, M. C. /488, 491
Goolsby, D.A./310, 595
Gosch, J.W./501
Grantham, R. G. /648
Greenberg, A. E. /103
Gregg, D.O./359
Griffin, V. /485
Grossman, I.G. /534
Grubb, H.F./106
Grubbs, D.M./ 304
Guerrera, A.A. /439
H
Hackbarth, D.A. /164
Hackett, J.E./448
Hageman, R.H./490
Hajek, B.F./557
Hall, M.W./87
Ham, H.H./344
Hammond, LC./254
Hancock, J.C./527
Handy, A.H./457
Hanes, R.E./75
Hanway, J.J./623
Harder, A.H./372, 532
Report /5 16
199, 200, 661
210
-------
AUTHOR INDEX
Harmeson, R.H. /159
Hartman, C D./298
Harvey, E.J /16
Hausler, W.J., Jr. /466
Hendricks, D. W. /535
Hendrickson, G.E. /136
Henkel, H.O./315
Henley, L.M./498
Hennighausen, F. H. /405
Henry, H.R./553
Hodges, A. L., Jr. /531
Hollocher, T. C. /83
Holloway, H.D./478, 624, 625, 626
Hoover, L. /636
Hopkins, H.T./137
Hori, D.H ./471
Huggenberger, F. /249
Hughes, G.M./43, 44, 46, 47, 50,
63, 434
Huling, E.E./83
Hulse, B.T. /280
Hundley, C. L. /297
Hunt, D.B./391
Hutchinson, F.E./80, 237, 627
Irwin, J.H./142
Ishizaki, K. /565
Ives, R.E./93
J
Jenkins, D./484
Johnston, W. R. /255
Jones, E.E., Jr. /345
Jones, O.S./155, 303
Jones, P.H./184
Jordan, D.G./446
Jorgensen, ]J.G. /343
K
Kahn, I. /252
Kao, C.W./508
Kashef, A.A.I./401, 402, 403
Kaufman, M .I./313
Kaufman, W.J./169
Kaufmann, R.F./60
Kazmann, R.G.1429
Keech, D. K. /628
Keeley, J.W./589
Keeny, D.R./489
Ketelle, M.J./14
Keup, L.E./428
Kilpatrick, F.J. /629
Kimmel, G.E. /351, 494
King, P.H./248
Kipp, K.L., Jr. /201
Klaer, F.H., Jr. /407
Klein, F l. /362, 364,
Klein, S.A. /482, 483, 484
Knowles, D.]3./141
Koch, E. /476
Kohout, F.A./363, 364
Krieger, R.A. /136
Kriz, G.J./205
Krone, R.B./324, 552, 566
Kumagai, J.S./564
L
Lakey, L.T./187
LaMoreaux, P. E. /541
Lance, J.C./493
Landon, R.A./45, 618
Lane, B.E./55
Lane, J.w./630
Lane, T.H./217
Langmuir, D. /56
Lao, C./592
Larson, T.E./498
LaSala, A.M./202
Latta, B.F./156, 452
Lau, L.S./393
Law, J.P., Jr. /242, 245
Lee, E.S. /586
Lee, G .F./251
Leggat, E.R./166
LeGrand, H.E./209, 365, 418,
419, 420, 421, 422, 540, 590
Lehr, J.H./133, 631
Leonard, R.B./241, 632
211
-------
AUTHOR INDEX
Lewallen, M. J. /260
Lewicke, C.K./433
Lieber, M./113, 114, 115, 117
Lin, S. /435
Littleton, R. T. /633
Lockett, D.E./317
Loehr, R.C./216, 219, 634, 635
Long, R.A./371
Lorimer, J .C./227
Louisiana Water Resources Re-
search Institute/348
Love, J.D./636
Ludwig, H.F./417
Lusczynski, N.J. /350
Lynch, E.J./173
Lynn, R.D./181
M
MacKenthun, K. M. /428
Maehler, C.Z./103
Maher, S.W./639
Manneschmidt, J. F. /176
Manning, J.C./271
Mansell, R.S./254
Marine, I.W./179, 548
Marsh, J.H./283
Martin, W.P./7
Matis, J.R./110
Matthews, R.A.f 32
Matulis, J.T./297
Mawson, C.A./171
Maxey, G.B./546
Maxwell, B. W. /318
May, G.D./397
McCaIla, T.M./215
McCarty, P. L. /248
McCollum, M.J. /138, 353, 355
McComas , M.R. /48
McGauhey, P.H ./425, 552
McGhan, V.L./194
Mdllwain, R.R./390
McKee, J.E./30, 109
McLean, D.D./286, 321
McMichael, F. C. /30
McMillion , L.G. /143, 152, 318,
589
Merkel, R.H./126
Meron, A./417
Merritt, G.L.1119
Merz, R.C./38
Metzler, D.F./637
Meyer, C.F./394
Meyer, R.R./368
Middleton, F.M. /162, 638
Mielke, L.N./225
Miller, 3. C. /495
Miller, R.A. /639
Miller, S.S./290
Miller, W.D./232, 233
Miner, J.R./214
Mink, J.F./238
Mink, L.L./123, 124
Mitchell, J. K. /325
Moore, C.V./392
Moore, S.F. /588
Moore, T.M./208
Moreland, J.A. /577
Morgan, C.O./583
Morris, D.A. /185, 547
Morrison, S.M. /573
Morton, R.B./142
Motts, W.S. /437, 438
Moulder, E.A. /120
Murphy, S./50l
N
National Industrial Pollution
Control Council/289
Navone, R. /509
Nebeker, R.L./187
Newcome, R., Jr./630
Nightingale, H.I./517, 520
Norris, S.E./406
0
Olsen, R.C./258
Olsen, R.J./504
Oltman, R.E./424
Orlob, G.T./465, 576
Otton, E.G./73, 293
212
-------
AUTHOR INDEX
Overman, A.R./218
Owens, W.G./640
P
Page, H.G./454, 562
Page, R.D,/146
Parizek, R.R./55, 441
Parker, G.G./346
Parks, W.W./95
Patterson, J.W. /88
Payne, R.D./144
Peckham, A. E. / 1 83
Peckham, R.C./641
Peek, H.M./404
Peele, T.C./497
Pennsylvania Bureau of Water
Quality Management! 8
Pennypacker, S.P. /10
Perlmutter, N.M./116, 117, 439
475, 476
Pesticides, Working Group on/256
Peters, J.A./332
Peterson, F. L. /592
Petri, L.R./96
Petroleum Equipment and Services /
128
Pettyjohn, W.A./134, 430
Pfannkuch, H. 0. /544
Pinder, G.F.1400
Piper, A.M./288, 375
Polta, R.C./86
Pomeroy, R.D./576
Popat, L.V./408
Popkin, R.A./2
Powell, W.J./140
Pratt, P.F./523, 524, 642
Preston, R.D. /150
Preul, H.C./161, 408
Price, D./101
Proctor, J.F./179
Purtymun, W.D./182
R
Rademacher J.M./211, 212, 213, 228
Rainwater, F.H./423, 580
Randall, A.D./409
Rawson, 3.191
Raymond, J.R./189, 192, 193, 194
Reck, C.W./263
Reichert, S. 0./177, 178
Rernson, I. /57
Research Commjttee/268
Resnik, A.V./211, 212, 213
Rice and Co. /118
Rice, I.M./151
Rima, D.R./285
Rinne, W.W./275
Ritter, C. /466
Robbins, 3. W D. /205
Robeck, G. /529
Robertson, 3. B. /252
Roedder, E./168
Rold, J.W./153
Rollo, 3. R. /368, 369
Romero, J.C./558
de Ropp, H. W. /314
Rorabaugh, M.I./415
Rose, 3. L. /332, 333, 334
Rudd, N. /292
S
Saines, M. /438
Saint, P.K./544
Saltwater Intrusion, Task Com-
mittee on/349
Salvato, 3. A. /65
Sarnpayo, F.F./561
Samples, W.R.1325
Scaif, M.R./569, 570
Sceva, 3.E./264
Schmidt, K.D./518, 519
Schneider, A. D. /257
Schneider, W.J./61
Schoen, R./186
Seitz, 1-1.R. /72
Selm, R.P./280
Q
Qasim, S.R./59
213
-------
AUTHOR INDEX
Sepp, E./486
Shaffer, M.J./512
Shamburger, V.M.,, Jr./643, 644
645, 646, 647
Sheffer, H.W./66
Sheidrick, M. G. /287
Sherman, F.B./49
Sherwood, C. B. /648
Shuter, E./184
Signor, D.C./17
Simmons, E.J./263
Simpson, E.E./584
Singer, J.A./577
Siple, G.E. /356
Skelton, 3.116
Slagle, K.A./284
Smith, C.G., Jr./370
Smith, G.E. /206
Smith, H.F./301
Smith, W. W. /649
Snoeyink, Y.1485
Snyder, J.H./392
Sopper, W.W.J11
Sproul, C.R./366
Stead, F.W./174, 650
Stearman, 3. /651
Stephenson, C.A. /6
Stewart, B.A./203, 204, 223
Stewart, J.W. /545
Stewart, R.C./269
Stewart, R.S./281
Stogner, J.M./284
Stone, R. /26, 28
Stout, P.R. /514
Stringfield, V. T. /365
Struzeski, E. 3., Jr. /77
Sunada, D.K./455
Swarzenski, W. V. /350
Swenson, H.A./98
Swoboda, A.R./259
I
Talbot, J.S./270
T animoto, R. M. / 470
Task Group Report/413
Taylor, R.G./472, 507
Tchobanoglous, G. /3
Telfair, LS., Jr. /262
Tenorio, P.A./239, 240
Thatcher, L. L. /580
Theis, C.,V./539
Thomas, J.L./244
Thornhill, S. T. /652
Tilstra, 3. R. /571
Todd, D.K./347, 394
Tofflernire, T. 3. /291
Tossey, D./163
Tremblay, J. 3. /395
Tucker, W.E./306
Turcan, A.N., Jr. /593
U
Ulrich, A.A./94
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers/
653
U.S. Federal Water Pollution
Control Adrninistration/456,
533, 654
U.S. Federal Water Quality
Administration/5 11
U.S. Public Health Service/341,
655, 656
Urone, P. /247
V
Vander Velde, T. L. /473
Van der Warden, M. /107
van Everdingen, R.O. /322
Vecchioli, 3. /335, 336, 337
Veir, B.B./316
Vernon, R.O./311, 312
Viets, F.G., Jr. /210, 222, 490
Vogel. O.W./l59
Vogt, J.E./526
w
Wachs, AM. /536
Wait, R..L./138, 358, 360
Walker, E.H./496
214
-------
AUTHOR INDEX
Walker, T.R./97
Walker, W.H./76, 79, 436, 449,
500
Walker, W.R.1269
Wallace, A.T./62
Walters, K.L./657
Waltz, J.P./90
Ward, P.C./5l3
Warner, D. L. /266, 276, 277, 282
295, 296, 591, 658
Water Problems Associated with
Oil Production in the United
States, Subcommittee on/127
Water Resources Engineers, Inc. /
578
Water Well Journal, Editors of/427
Wayman, E.H./454, 477
Weaver, L. /54
Webber, L.R./2.17, 229, 2.30
Webster, D.S./549
Wells, D./659
Wells, D .M./165
Welsh, W.F ./114
Wentink, G.R./572
Wesner, G.M. /32.6, 327
Wheaton, R. Z. /4
White, J.W./660
White, N.F./455
Wichman, S.H. /160
Wikre, D. /450
Wilder, D.G.1108
Wilke, H.R./561
Wilkins, D. W. /243
Willardson, L.S. /521, 522
Williams, C. C. /154, 339
Williams, D. E. /108
Williams, S.H. /451
Williams, R. E. /62
Wilirich, T. L. /214
Wilmoth, B.M./442
Wilson, C.B. 1661
Wilson, L.G./25
Winslow, A.G./373, 374, 593
Winton, E. F. /492
Witkowski, E.J. /176
Witzel, S.A./503
Wood, L.A. /432
Woodruff, K. D. /352
Woodward, F.L./85
World Health Organization/4l4
Y
Young, C. L. /528
Young, R.H.F./36, 563
z
Zanoni, A. E. /70, 71
Zaporozec, A./587
Zimmerman, W./105
215
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA 1. Report No. 2.
SHEET
3N •pici ’s Accession No.
4. Title and Subtitle —
POLLUTED GROU1 DWATER: A REVIEW OF THE
SIGNIFICANT LITERATURE
5. Report Date
________________
6.
7. Author(s)
David K. Todd and Daniel E. McNulty
8. Performing Organization Rept.
No. GE74TMP-4
9. Performing Organization Name and Address
TEMPO, General Electric Company Center for Advanced
Studies, 816 State Street, Santa Barbara, California 93101
10. Pr ect ijsk. \lork Unit No.
1LContt tCrantNo.
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address
13. lype ot Report & Period
C o ’cred
14.
-
15. Supplementary Notes Environmental Protection Agency report number
EPA-600/4-74-0O1. March 1974. 2Z1 pages.
16. Abstracts This report is a selective review of the literature on man-caused ground-
water pollution, including causes and occurrence, procedures for control, and meth-
ods for monitoring. No attempt was made to develop a comprehensive bibliography on
the subject. Rather, references were selected for inclusion on the basis of their
significance and relevance.
Bibliographies, important general references, abstracts, and European references
are discussed separately. Thereafter the literature is described in essay form on a
subject basis. References cited by number in the text are listed in complete biblio-
graphic form at the end of the report together with an author index. With few excep-
tions, the material reviewed is limited to relatively recent published items in the
United States. Administrative regulations, legal reports, and unpublished materials
such as theses have been omitted. (Todd — University of California, Berkeley )
17. Key Words and Document Analysis. 17a. l)escriptors
*Documentation, *Bibliographies, Water Pollution Sources, *Water Pollution
Effects, *Water Pollution Control, Monitoring, Underground Waste Disposal,
Aquifer Management, Groundwater, Management, Water Pollution, Waste Disposal
Wells, Saline Water Intrusion.
17b. Identifiers ‘Open-Ended Terms
17c. COSATI Field/Group
05, iDA
18. Availability Statement 19. Security Class (This 21. No. of Pages
Report)
UNCLASSIF lED
20. Security Class (This 22. Price
Page
UNCLASSIFIED
FORM NT1 535 RCV. 3-72)
THIS FORM MAY BE REPRODUCED
‘JSCOMM-DC 4952-P 7 2
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