t
United States
Environmental
EPA
Protection Agency
Region I
NEW ENGLAND REGIONAL LABORATORY
60 WESTVIEW AVE. LEX!NGTON MASSACHUSETTS 02173
/
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HAZARDOUS MATERIAL
PLANNING AND RESPONSE COURSE
PRESENTED BY
U. S. ENVIRON1 NTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION I
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EMERGENCY TELEPHONE NUMBERS
SPILL REPORTING AND COORDINATION
Federal
National Response Center (NRC) (800) 424—8802 — 24—hour
EPA Regional Response Center (RRC) (617) 223—7265 — 24—hour
(617) 861—6700 — working hours
State
Connecticut (Department of Environ— (203) 566—3338 — 24—hour
mental Protection)
(State Police Alternate (203) 566—4240
Number)
(State Office of Civil (203) 566—3180
Preparedness)
Maine (Department of Environ— (207) 767.4761 Out of State
mental Protection) (800) 482—0777 In—State
Massachusetts (Department of Environ-
mental Quality
Engineering
—After Hours (State (617) 566—4500
Police Communications
Center)
—During Business Hours Call Regional Offices
—Northeastern Region (617) 935—2160
—Southeastern Region (617) 947—1231
—Western Region (413) 785—5327
—Central Region (617) 792—7653
New Hampshire (Water Supply and (603) 271—3503 — 24—hour
Pollution Control
Commission)
(State Police After Hours) (603) 271—3636 — Out—of—State
(800) 525—5555 — In—State
Rhode Island (Department of Environ— (401) 277—2234 — Working Hours
mental Management) (401) 277—2284 — After Hours
(Department Office Number) (401) 277—2234
Vermont (Emergency Management (800) 641—5005 — In—State
Division) (802) 244—8721 — Out—of—State
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COAST GUARD
1st Coast Guard District (617) 223—8555 — 24—hour
(North of Hampton, NH) (207) 772—8460
(South of Hampton, NH, North of (617) 565—9000 — 24—hour
Plymouth, MA — Coast Guard Marine
Safety Office)
(South of Plymouth, MA, to Rhode (401) 528—5335 — 24—hour
Island)
Captain of the Port (cOT?) (203) 773—2464
New Haven, CT
EMERGENCY POLLUTANT HAZARDS INFORMATION
Chemical Transportation En rgency Center (800) 424—9300
(CHEMTREC)
EPA Oil and Hazardous Material Technical (617) 223—7265
Assistance Data Systems (OHMTADS)
(Through the EPA Region I RRC)
Poison Control Centers
Connecticut (203) 674—3456
Maine (207) 871—2381
Massachusetts (617) 232—2120
New Hampshire (603) 646—5000
Rhode Island (401) 277—5725
Vern nt (802) 658—3456
SPECIAL FORCES
EPA Environmental Response Team (ERT) (201) 321—6740 — Working Hours
(201) 321—6660 — 24—hour
USCG Atlantic Strike Team (919) 338—1100
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LIST OF REGION I
CLEANUP CONTRACTORS
Clean Harbors, Inc.
100 Joseph Street
Kingston, MA 02364
(617) 585—5111
Cyn Oil Corporation
1771 Washington Street
Stoughton, MA 02072
(617) 344—0265
Franklin Pumping Service
P. 0. Box 617
Industrial Road
Wrentham, MA 02093
(617) 384—6151
Inland Pollution Control, Inc.
345 Quincy Avenue
Braintree, MA 02184
(617) 843—7110
Jet—Line Services, Inc.
441 Rear Canton Street
Stoughton, MA 02072
(617) 344—2510
1—800—JET—LINE
Zecco, Inc.
345 West Main Street
Northborough, MA 01532
(617) 393—2537
New England
Company,
7 Edgewater
Norwalk, CT
(203) 853—1990
New England Marine Contractors
13 Dorset Lane
Williston, VT 05495
(802) 879—8800
Sealand Environmental
Engineering, Inc.
326 Derby Avenue
Derby, CT 06418
(203) 735—1817/8
(203) 735—6451
Southampton Sanitary
Engineering Company
168 County Road
Southampton, MA 01073
(413) 532—3876
Waste Tamer — Division of
Calderwood Enterprises
P. 0. Box 68
10 Main Street
Florence, MA 01060
(413) 773—5466
0. H. Materials Company
90 Elm Street
Hopkinton, MA 01748
(617) 435—9561
East Coast Environmental
Service Corp.
454 Quinnipiac Avenue
New Haven, CT 06513
(203) 469—2376
MacDonald and Watson
Company, Inc.
Pole 18
Peeptoad Road
North Scituate, RI
(401) 946—0200
Waste Oil
02857
Po Llution Control
Inc.
Place
06855
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Table of Contents
SECTION 1: INCIDENT ANALYSIS
Incident Analysis 7
SECTION 2: TOXICOLOGY
Toioco logy 24
SECTION 3: PERSONAL PROTEC11ON
AND DECONTAMINATION
Persorfal Protection 38
Decontamination 56
SECTION 4: RESPONSE OPERATING PROCEDURES
Response Operating Procedures 66
SECTION 5: CONTINGENCY P1.ANNING
Local Government Contingency Planning
for Hazardous Materials Incidents 71
This publication is produced asa Jointdfoit between the Union
Pacific System and the (iS. ErMionmental Protection Agency
wfth technical assistance from Weston SPER .
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Introduction
Scope of Response Activities
Within the ten regions compnsing EPAs Response territory some 20,000 to 25,000 incident reports
aie received each year. These reports range from crank calls resulting from neighborhood arguments
to major train derailments or pipeline breaks. The Federal, state, and local response community
in the region must be prepared to handle all of these incidents in an effective and error free
manner using whatever resources are necessary.
Effective operations within the response community require extensive prior preparations as well
as patience and clear direction during on scene operations to balance conflicting prionties and
to acknowledge and utilize skills available from a wide variety of sources. This introduction presents
a simplified composite of the possible implications of actual incidents which occur thousands
of times per year across the countly. It is designed for all of us to reflect on and discuss as
we proceed through the following sessions in order to obtain a clearer understanding of the scope
of concerns and activities which we may be called upon to deal with during an incident response.
As you review the chart, you should be thinking how you would manage such an incident if you
were brought in to Lie in charge at any point in the chart. Some of the questions which you
need to ask yourself as you see the slides and study the chart are:
1. Who do I know who can handle this part of the problem?
2. Who’s going to pay for this?
3. Is it safe for us to do this?
4. What can I do to prevent this?
1
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What is a Hazardous Material
Department of Transportation — ‘any substance or matenal in any form or quantity which
poses an unreasonable risk to safety and health and to propelty when transported in commerce. ’
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND EXAMPLES
OF HAZARDOUS MATERIAL
WMPLES
GENERAL HAZARDOUS PROPERTIES
Explosives and
Blasting Agents
Class A Explosive
Class B Explosive
Class C Explosive
Blasting Agent
Dynamite. Dry TNT. Black Powder
Propellant Explosives. Rocket Motors
Special Fireworks
Common Fireworks, Small Arms
Ammunition
Ammonium Nitrate-Fuel Oil Mixtures
Sensitive to heat and shock
ContamInation could cause explosion
Thermal and mechanical impact
potantial
Gases (Cainpresa.d.
Uqunflsd or Dissolved
undsr Pressure)
Flammable Gas
Nonflammable Gas
Cryogenic
Liquefied Petroleum Gas. Acetylene.
Hydrogen
Carbon Diox,de. Sulfur Dioxide.
Anhydrous Ammonia
Ethylene. Nitrogen
Explosion potential
BLEVE
por-air
FlammabilIty hazard
Liquifled gases — cold temperatures — frost-
bite-high expansion ratio
Flammable and
Cambostibus Uquld.
Flammable Liquid
Pyrotorsc LiQUId
Combustible Liquid
Acetone. Gasoline. Methyl Alcohol
Aluminum Alkyls. Alkyl Boranes
Fuel Oils. Ethylene Glycols
.
Flammability hazard
Explosion potential
BLEVE
por-air
Paterbally corrosive, toxic, thermally unstable
Flammable SolId.
Flammable Solid
Water Reactive
Spontaneously
Combustible
Pyroxylin Plastica. Magnesium.
Aluminum Powder
Sodium and Potassium Metals,
Calcium Carbide
Phosphorus
Readily ignite and burn explosively.
Some spontaneously
tsr reactive potential
Toxic and corrosive potentials
Oxidizers and OrganIc
Psroxldss
Oxidizer
Organic Peroxide
Ammonium Nitrate Fertilizer. Hydrogen
Peroxide Solution
Benzoyl Peroxide. Peracstic Acid
Solution
Supply oxygen to support combustion
of normally nonflammable materials
Explosively sensitive to heal, shock, friction
Potentially toxic
Poisoneus and Infectious
Substances
Poison A
Poison B
lrntant
Etiologic Agent
Arsine, Hydrocyanic Acid. Phoegene
Aniline. Arsenic. Methyl BromIde
Tear Gas. Xylyl Bromide
Anthrax. Botulism. Rabies, Tetnus
Harm from inhalation. ingestion, absorption
Flammability potential
Radloactlv. Substances
Radioactive Material
Plutonium, Cobalt. Uranium
Hexafluonde
Harm: Particulate — alpha and beta particles
‘Radiation — gamma rays
Internal and external
Coffostees
Corrosive Material
Acids — Hydrochloric Acid. Oleum
Sulfuric Acid
Bases — Caustic Soda. Caustic Potash
Harm: DIsintegration of tissues, external
FumlnQ potential
Oxidizing etteci
Splatter potentisl
0th., R.gulatsd Materials
ORM A
ORM B
ORM C
ORM D
ORM E
Dry Ice. Carbon Tetrachlorlde
Quicklime. Metallic Mercury
Oakum, Bleaching Powder
Consumer Commodity
Hazardous Substances — Peritachlore-
phenol, Adipic Acid — and
Hazardous_Wastes
Toxic
Corrosive
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Hazardous substance (EPA), — any material which when discharged into the environment
may be harmful to the public, health or welfare of the United States.
Hazardous wastes (EPA) any material that may pose an unreasonable risk to health, safety
or property when transported in commerce for the purposes of treatment, storage, or disposal
as waste.
The following definitions have been abstracted from the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49.
Transportation, Parts 100 to 199. Refer to the referenced sections for complete details. NOTE:
Rulemaking proposals are outstanding or are contemplated concerning some of these definitions.
HAZARD CLASS
DEFINfflONS
An Explosive — Any chemical compound. mbthue. or device, the pnma ly or common purpose
of which is to function by explosion, i.e., with substantially instantaneous release of gas and heat.
unless such compound. mixture, or device is otherwise specifically classified in Parts 170-189.
(Sec. 17350)
QJ 1 SS A
CPLOSIVE
Detonating or otherwise of maiamum harard. The nine types of Class A explosives are defined
in Sec. 17333.
CLASS B
CPLOSIVE
In general. function by rapid combustion rather than detonation and include some explosive devices
such as special fireworks, flash powders, etc. Flammable hard. (Sec. 173.88)
CLASS C
CPLOSWE
Certain types of manufactured articles containing Class A or Class B explosives, or both. as
components but in restricted quantities, and certain types of fireworks. Minimum hazard. (Sec.
173.100)
BLAStiNG
AGENTS
A material designed for blasting which has been tested In accordance with Sec. 173.1 14a(b)
and found to be so insensitive that there is veiy little probability of accidental initiation to explosion
or of transition from deflagration to detonation. (Sec. 173.1 14a(a))
Compressed Gas — Any material or mbthue having In the container an absolute pressure exceeding
40 psia at 70°F.. or a pressure exceeding 104 psia at 130°F.: or any liquid flammable matenal
having a vapor pressure exceeding 40 psla at 100°F. (Sec. 173.300(a))
FLAMMABLE
GAS
My compressed gas meeting the requirements for low flammability limit, flammability limit
range, flame projection, or flame propagation alterla as specified In Sec. 173300(b).
NONFLAMMABLE
GAS
Any compressed gas other than a flammable compressed gas.
FLAMMABLE
LIQUID ‘
My liquid having a flash point below 100°F. as determined by tests listed in Sec. 173.115(d).
Exceptions are listed in Sec. 173.115(a).
COMBCISflBLE
LiQUID
My liquids having a flash point above 100°F. as determined by tests listed In Sec. 173.115(d).
Exceptions to this are found In Sec. 173.115(b).
Pyroforic Liquid — Any liquid that ignites spontaneously in thy or moist air at or below 130°F.
(Sec. 173.115(c))
FLAMMABLE
SOLID
My solid material, other than an explosive, which Is liable to cause fires through friction, retained
heat from manufacturing or processing, or which can be Ignited readily and when Ignited bums
so vigorously and persistently as to create a serious transportation hazard. (Sec. 173.150)
OXID
A substance such as chlorate. peiTnanganate, Inorganic pero,dde, or a nitrate, that yields oxygen
readily to stimulate the combustion of organic matter. (See Sec. 173.151)
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HAZARD .*SS
DEFINITIONS
ORGANIC
PEROXIDE
An organic compound containing the bivalent .0.0 sUucture and which may be considered a
derivative of hydrogen peroxide where one or more of the hydrogen atoms have been replaced
by organic radicals must be classed as an organic peroxide unless — (See Sec. 173.151(a) for
details).
POISON A
Extremely Dangerous Poisons — Poisonous gases or liquids of such nature that a very small
amount of the gas. or vapor of the liquid, mbted with air Is dangerous to life. (Sec. 173326)
POISON B
Less Dangerous Poisons — Substances, liquids, or solids (including pastes and semisolids).
other than Class A or Irritating material& which aie brown to be so toxic to man as to afford
a hazard to health during ansportadon; or which. In the absence of adequate data on human
toxicity. are presumed to be toxic to man. (Sec. 173343)
IRR ITATING
MATERIAL
A liquid or solid substance Which upon contact with fire or when e,q,osed to air gives off dangerous
or intensely inflating fumes, but not lnckadhig any poisonous materlal. Oau & (Sec. 173381)
ETIOLOGIC
iT
An “ecologic agent” means a viable micro-organism. or its toxin which causes or may cause
human disease. (Sec. 173386) (Rofer to the Department of Health, Education and V Wfare
Regulations. TitJe 42. CFR. 72.25(c) for details.)
RADIOACTIVE
MATERiAL
Any material, or combination of materials, that spontaneously emits Ionizing radiation, and having
a specific activity greater than 0.002 microcunes per gram. (Sec. 173.389). NOTh See Sec.
173389(a) through (1) for details.
CORROSIVE
MATERIAL
Any liquid or solid that causes visible destruction of human sldn tissue or a liquid that has a
severe corrosion rate on steel. (See Sec. 173240(a) and (b) for details).
ORM .A. B. C. D or E (Other Pg” ted Materials) — Any material that does not meet the definition
of a hazardous material, other than a combustible liquid in packagings having a capacity of 110
gallons or less, and is specified in Sec. 172.101 as an ORM material or that possesses one
or more of the characteristics described in ORM A through E below. (Sec. 173.500). NOTE An
ORM with a flash poInt of 300°F.. when ti ’ansported with more than 110 gallons in one container
shall be classed as a combustible liquid.
ORM-A
A material which has an anesthetic. initating, noxious toxic, or other similar propeity and which
can cause extreme annoyance or discomfort to passengers and crew in the event of leakage
duflng transportation._(Sec._173.500(bXl))
ORM.B
A matenal (including a solid when wet with water) capable of causing significant damage to
a transport vehicle from leakage dunng transportation. Materials meeting one or both of the following
ciltena are ORM.B materials: (I) A liquid substance that has a corrosion rate exceeding 0.250
inch per year (IPY) on aluminum (nonclad 7075T6) at a test temperature of 130°F. Art acceptable
test is described in NACE Standard TM.01.69, and (Ii) Specifically designated by name in Sec.
172.101. (Sec. 173300(bX2))
ORMC
A material which has other inherent characteristics not described as an ORI’rA or OPJ4B but
which make It unsuitable for shipment, unless property identified and prepared for transportation.
Each ORM.C material is specifically named In Sec. 172.101 (Sec. 173.500(bX4))
ORM.D
A material such as a consumer commodity which, though otherwise subject to the regulations
of this subchapter, presents a limited hazard during transportation due to Its form, quantity and
packaging. They must be materials for which lons are provided In Sec. 172.101. A shipping
description applicable to each ORM.D material or category of ORM.D materials Is found In Sec.
172.101. (Sec. 173.500(bX4))
ORME
A material that is not included In any other hazard dass. but is subject to the requirements
of this subchapter. Materials In this class Indude hazardous wastes and hazardous substances
as defined In Sec. 171.8 of this subchapter.
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Notes:
6
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SECTION 1—
INCIDENT ANALYSIS
“A problem well defined is half solved.
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Incident Analysis
Goal: To make emergency response personnel, who encounter hazardous materials, part of the
solution, not part of the problem when responding to hazardous material emergencies.
ObJecth,es: Emergency response personnel participating in this program should, by the end of
this program, be able to —
• Explain the mission of their emergency response agency.
• Explain how their organization accomplishes that mission in light of the hazardous material
potential.
• Define what is meant by “outcome” as related to an emergency.
• Explain the purpose of an emergency response effort
• List in order the concepts embodied in the D.E.C.I.D.E. process.
• Recognize the presence of a hazardous material in a given situation.
• Explain the two parts of the estimating likely harm without intervention step of the D.E.C.I.D.E.
process.
• Explain the process of events analysis and how it can be used in estimating likely harm
without intervention.
• Identify the main actors and their actions in a set of given exercises.
• Identify the format for describing outcomes in emergencies.
• Identify information sources to assist in estimating likely harm without Intervention.
• List the four factors which affect the behavior of a hazardous material in an emergency.
• Describe the behavior model for hazardous materials and how it is used In estimating
likely harm without intervention.
• Demonstrate estimating likely harm without intervention, given a simple emergency scenario.
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The Hazardous Material Emergency
Hazardous Matenal (Benner) — “substance that jumps out ‘of its container’ at you when something
goes wrong, and hurts or harms the things it touches.”
An emergency is defined as a “a sudden, generally unexpected occurrence demanding immediate
action:’
An “outcome” is the state or condition at the end of an emergency, including
• Direct losses, such as fatalities, injuries, property and environmental damage.
• Indirect losses, such as system disruption, damaged reputations, and residual fear of
hazardous materials.
A hazardous material emergency may go through several stages before it stabilizes. These stages
are depicted in the Hazardous Material Emergency Model.
Stage 1. Under normal conditions, hazardous materials are controlled by some type of containment
system (tanks, pipes, cylinders, botties, etc.).
Stage 2. For an emergency to begin, the hazardous material container and/or its contents must
be disturbed or stressed in some way.
Stage 3. The container reacts to adapt to the applied stress. The container’s ability to adapt is
based on its design characteristics and buiIt in safeguards. If the stress does not exceed the container’s
design strength, no disruption occurs.
Stage 4. As the container and/or the contents continue to be stressed, the situation becomes
unstable.
Stage 5. As the stressing continues, the container will overstress or fail.
Stage 6. At the time of failure, the hazardous material may escape. Once released, the hazardous
material and the container may travel away from the opening in the container and may impinge
on vulnerable exposures — people, systems, and property (including the environment). These
exposures can be harmed depending on the intensity, lethality and duration of the impingement
Stage 7. The impingement may also cause the emergency to cascade by overstressing additional
containers and/or hazardous materials, thus increasing the harm.
Stage 8 and 9. The emergency ends when the cascading stresses subside and the conditions
once again stabilize.
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Hazardous Material Emergency Model
Rectangles represent events and arrows Indicate the flow or sequence of these events.
Stage 1
Normal
Stage 2
Stressing
I Stage5 I Stage6
Stage 3 I Stage 4 Over- I Initial I Stage 7 I Stage 8
Reactive Unstable I stressing f injury ICasc in9l Subsiding
I Stage 9
Stabilized
U.
mo os.. lUjuly
______________ c c c . ’ .
I.
occurs
SOURCE Benner. Ludwig. 1978. Hazardous Materials Emergencies.
2nd Edition. Oakton. Va: Lufred industtiee, inc.
To control a hazardous material emergency, the sequence of events which consthite the
emergency must be disrupted to either keep the next stages from happening or to lessen the
severity of the next stages.
From the Hazardous Material Emergency Model, several ways to intervene are noted. If one
attempt fails, there may be other opportunities to try something else.
.ctIvIty
slips to
It,. . ’.,
9
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bur Role In a Hazardous Material Emergency
QuestIon 1. What is the mission of your organization:
QuestIon 2. How does your organization accomplish that mission?
QuestIon 3. What is the purpose of your emergency response effort?
10
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Decision Making in Emergencies
Pwpose of Emergency Response Effort
(Benner) — “to favorably change or influence the sequence of events which constitute that
emergency before it has run its course naturally and to minimize the harm that would otherwise
occur.”
— “to favorably change or influence the outcome. ’
DLC.LD.E. Process
To guide your intervention during an emergency and to minimize your personal risk, certain
basic decisions must be made. Decision making at emergencies calls for emergency response
personnel to:
• Detect hazardous material presence
• Estimate likely harm without intervention
• Choose response objectives
• Identify action options
• Dobestoption
• Evaluate progress
Steps in decision making model explained:
o Detect Hazardous Material Presence. Critical to any emergency! If you are to act favorably,
you must be aware that a hazardous material problem exists. For hazardous materials, you
must be aware of hazardous material presence.
0 Estimate Likely Harm Without Intervention. This is a difficult but indespensible step. You must
visualize what is going to happen, and then describe the potential outcome. This process of
defining your problem is most critical.
C Choose Response Objectives. Based on your knowledge of the problems, you must select
the overall goals you want to accomplish — the harm you want to prevent. This becomes
your strategy.
o Identify Action Options. With your objectives in mind, you must review the available options
arid resources to accomplish those objectives. Consider all practical options before you act.
This step could be thought of as identifying your tactical options.
o Do Best Option. When you have multiple options, pick the option that provides a solution
to your problem — the option with the greatest gain and the least loss.
o Evaluate Progress. After you decide what to do, make sure that what you expected to happen
is actually happening. If not, review the problem and select another option to lead to the desired
objective.
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Detecting Hazardous Materials Presence
Clues for detecting hazardous material presence
• Occupancy and/or location
• Container shapes
• Marldngs and colors (including identification number)
• Placards and labels
• Shipping papers
• Senses
Notes
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Recognition Exercise
1. \ s No MeansofDetection
2. ‘ s No Means of Detection
3. ‘ s No Means of Detection
4. \ s No Means of Detection
5. ‘4s No Means of Detection
6. \ s No Means of Detection
7. No Means of Detection
8. ‘tbs No Means of Detection
9. \ s No Means of Detection
10. Yes No Means of Detection
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Estimating Likely Harm Without Intervention
Estimating likely harm without intervention requires emergency response personnel to:
0 Visualize the likely behavior of the hazardous material and/or its container. and the
likely harm associated with that behavior.
0 Describe the outcome of that behavior.
A. Vistialbing Likely Behavior
In visualizing likely behavior, there are five basic questions that must be answered:
o Where will the hazardous material and/or the container go when ek::d IrlnI an
emergency?
o Why is the hazardous material and/or likely to go there?
c i How will the hazardous material and/or container get there?
o When will the hazardous material and/or container get there?
o What harm will the hazardous material and/or container do when they gel there ?
Remember, there are four factors which affect the behavior of a hazardous inelerial In an
emergency:
o Inherent properties and quantity of the hazardous material.
ci Built.in characteristics of the container.
o Natural laws of physics and chemistry.
o Environment including the physical surroundings and the conditions (weather. etc.).
Events analysis is a process of systematically breaking down an action, in this cue an emergency.
into smaller more understanding parts. The process of events analysis helps us:
ci Understand, track and predict a given sequence of events
o Decide when and how to change that sequence of events
Events analysis helps define problems in a sequential and logical way, thus mInimizing confusion.
guesswork, mistakes, delays, unnecessary harm and loss of control at an emergency.
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There are two basic principles associated with events analysis.
o Think events —
o Make mental movies —
Steps in the events analysis process include:
• Identify the actors in the emergency
• Track what each actor is likely to do
• Picture what effect each actor s action is likely to have on other actors.
B Describing Likely Outcomes
As you visualize the likely behavior in an emergency, keep the second part of the “Estimating
Likely Harm Without Inteivention” step in mind.
The outcome is a picture of the injuries and damage that is likely to occur as a result of
what you visualize as the behavior in the emergency.
In describing the likely outcome in an emergency, five factors are addressed:
• Fatalities
• Injuries
• Property damage
• System disruption
• Environmental damage
Note the “Outcome Estimate Worksheet” below to help you in describing likely outcomes.
OUTCOME ESTIMATE WORKSHEET
Outcome
Estimate
Criteria
Total
Project.d
Losses
Amount
That Can B.
Saved
How Many Fatalities
How Many Incapacitated
$ Property Damage Estimate
Critical System Disruption
Environmental Damage
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Identifying Hazardous Materials
To effecthiely estimate likely harm without intervention, you must understand the behavior of the
hazardous material.
As previously mentioned, four factors affect the behavior of a hazardous material in an emergency:
• Inherent properties and quantity of the hazardous material.
• Built•in characteristics of the container.
• Natural laws of physics and chemistry.
• Environment, including the physical surroundings and the conditions ( ther, etc.).
The process of “identifying hazardous materials” involves the following activities:
0 Identifying the specific name of the hazardous material.
0 Identifying the inherent properties and behavior of the hazardous material.
This step helps us to understand the behavior of the hazardous material.
By rail, the process of identifying the specific name of the hazardous material can be accomplished
through:
O Shipping papers and other documents on the train.
• Waybill
• Consist (wheel report)
0 Markings and colors
o Contact with the train dispatcher
0 CHEMTREC (contract with shipper or manufacturer)
Resources for determining the specific characteristics and behavior of a hazardous material indude:
o CHEMTREC
o Chemical Industry (shipper and/or consignee)
o Rail Transportation Industry (carrier)
o Bureau of Explosives
0 Emergency Action Guides
o State and local agencies
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Hazardous Material Data Sheet
Hszardous Material:
Shipping Name ________________________________ DOT Hazard Class ____________
Chemical Name ID Number _____ STCC Number
Physical Descstptlen:
Normal Physical Form: Solid — Liquid — Gas —
Color
Other ___________________________________________
Chemical Properties:
Specific Gravity Vapor Density
Boiling Point _______________________________‘F Melting Point _______________
Vapor Pressure psi or mmHg at ______ F Expansion Ratio ______________
Solubility: In water Yes No Degree of solubility
Other ___________________________________________
HeiSt Hewdi:
o Yes Inhalation Hazard.
o No Ingestion Hazard
Absorption Hazard.
IDLH Value _____ _______ _____________—
Chronic Hazard. Carcinogen Yes No
Hazardous to Aquatic Life. Yes No
Other
Decontamination Procedures
First Aid Procedures
Firs Hwrd.
o Yes Flash Point ______‘F Ignition (Autoignition) Temperature •F
O No Flammable (Explosive) Range. LFL (LEL) % UFL (UELI
Toxic Products of Combustion
Other
Possible Extinguishing Agents
RudMty Hazards:
o Yes Reactive with what
o No Other
Co.vssMty Hazards:
O Yes pH Corrosive to what Skin: Yes No Steel. Yes No Other
ONo Other
Neutralizing Agents
Radioactivity Hazards:
O Va. Type Radiation Emitted Alpha Particles _____ Beta Particle. Gamma Radiation
o No Other
Rsccsnmsod.d Protection:
For Public (Evacuation distance for (quantity))
For Response Personnel (Level of protection required I —
For Environment
Yes No
Yes No
Yes No
TLV/TWA ppm(mg/m’) LCm ppm/hr.
LD 90 mg/kg
Skin. Yes No Eyes. Yes No
pomlair(mg/m 3 ) STEL Value _____________
Mutagen Yes No Termogen: Ye. No
ppm/air(mg/m 3 )
17
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25
-149 SF
Hazardous Material Data Sheet
HawdousMalirlsl: Chlorine Poison Gas
Name ________________________________ DOT Hazard Class ______________________________
Chemical Name Chlorine ID Number 1017 STCC Numb. ’ 49041 0
Physical D.ualptton:
I Normal Pl)yslcal FQrn o 1 y Liquid — Gas .XX .
Color ureenis ow ______________________________
Pmber Liquid Below Irritating. Suffocating. Pungent
Chemical Propartiss:
Specific Gravity 1 .41 por Density
Boiling Point 3 F Melting Point
Vapor Pr aaurs 7600 psi oil lig)st 85 Expansion Ratio __________________________
D eeofsolubihty Slight
Solubility wat r No
0th. tlv soiuble in water - .7g/iuOg of water at 6R F
Hsalm Hazards:
Yes Inhalation Hazard No TLVITWA .........L...4 9,tg/m3) LC 50 293 ppm/hr.
0 Plo lngs3tion Hazard No LD mg/kg
Absorption Hazard 2 0 Skin No Eyes No
air(mg/m 3 ) STEL Value 3 esiuimglms l
IDLH Value __________________ __________________
Chronic Hazard Carcinogen Yes ( Autagen ) No Teratogen Yes (
Hazardous to Aquatic Life ) No
Other
DecontaminationProcedures Wash with Copious Amounts of Water or Soap and Water
FirstAidProcedur.s Hush with Copious Amounts of Water Imediately
Fir. Hazards;
o No Flammable (Explosive) Range LFL(L L) N . A. UFL ( UEL) N - A -
Toxic Produc ef Combi tiop
vu Flash Point N. A . F Ignition (Autoignitioni TemperatureN - A - ‘F
other rong uxidant - ‘Materials will Burn in Chlorine like in OxvQen
Possible Extinguishing Agents Small Fire - Dry Chemical or CO 2 . Large Fire - Water
Spray, Fog or Foam.
es.cvv$ly Hazards;
SYss lReact lvewithwhat Finely Divided Metals, Hydrogen, Combustible Materials
Dp lather Some Forms of Plastics. Rubbers. and Coatings
Haurds:
r ’ H CorrBslveto what fS . )No Steel ( No tte ____________________
re Forms droqen h1oride - Highly Corrosive
o No Other n the resenc __________________
Neutralizing Agents Caustic Soda or Soda Ash
R.dIo.ctivlly Hazards:
o s I Type Radiation Emitted Alpha Particles____ Bets Particles____ Gamma Radiation____
Ne IOttr
Rcaatuudid Protictioft
For Public (Evacuation distance ______ for (quantityl) For a Spill of Approximately 200
i Sq. Ft, 4R0 Ft., in All Direetions and 1 Mile Long and 1/ Mile Wide Downwind .
I For R opaa 1 P 1 e nnal Le e of r cti r.quired B S l f Cnnt i n Rr thi ng Appar tus
1 flQ
r nviroflment Land - Dig Pits or Dike i h Soji or Sand Air il1 - Ap
er spray to knock Down vapors ana hike water. Water Spilu - !wcl
Caustic Soda or pctivated Carbon in a 10 to 1 Ratio of the Spilled Amount
if Greater Than 10 ppm.
18
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Key For Entries On Hazardous Material Data Sheet
Erny Sowc• for data
HAZARDOUS MATERIAL
Shipping Name — the proper shipping name or other common name for the
matenal; also any synonyms for the material.
DOT Hazard Class — the hazard class designation For the material as found in
the Department of Transportation regulations.
Chemical Name — the chemical name of the material and Its chemical formula.
ID Number — the four digit identification number assigned to a hazardous material
by the Department of Transportation: also indude the preilx UN’ or NK.
STCC Number — the Standard Transportation Commodity Code number used
in the rail industry a sevendigit number assigned to a specific material or group
of materials and used in determination of rates; for a hazardous material, the STCC
number will begin with the digits 49.
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION
Normal Physical State — physical state or form of the material at normal ambient
temperatures (68°F-77°F).
Color — the color of the material under normal conditions.
Odor — the odor of the material upon its release.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Specific Gravity — the weight of a material as compared with the weight of an
equal volume of water, if the specific gravity is less than I. the material is lighter
than water and will float: if the specific gravity is greater than I, the material is
heavier than water and will sink.
% por DensIty — the weight of a pure vapor or gas compared with the weight
of an equal volume of dry air at the same temperature arid pressure; if the vapor
density is less than I. the material is lighter than air and may rise; if the vapor
density is greater than 1, the material Is heavier than air and will stay low to the
ground.
Boiling Point — the temperature at which a liquid changes Ita phase to a vapor
or gas, i.e. it is the temperature where the pressure of the liquid equals atmospheric
pressure.
Melting Point — the temperature at which a solid changes phase to a liquid; this
temperature is also the freezing point depending on the direction of the change
‘. por Pressure — the pressure eceited by the vapor within the container against
the sides ala containec this pressure is tempeetiae dependent as the temperature
inaeases, so does the vapor pressure, thus, more of the liquid evaporates or
vaporizes: the lower the boiling point of a liquid, the greater vapor pressure It
will exert at a given pressure.
Solubility — the ability of a solid, liquid, gas or vapor to dissolve In water the
ability of one material to blend uniformly with another, like a solid in liquid, liquid
In liquid, gas in liquid, or gas in gas.
19
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Key For Entiles On Hazardous Material Data Sheet
(continued)
Entry Sourcs for dais
Degree of Solublilty — indcation of the solubility of the matenal
Other — any additional pertinent information or data found.
HEALTh HAZARDS
Are there any health hazards associated with the material Matic “yes” or “no”
as appropriate. If yes. then complete this section.
Inhalation Hazard — is there any hazard from breathing this material?
TLV/TWA — Threshold Limit Value / Time Weighted Average — the
concentration of a matenal to which an average, healthy person may be repeatedly
exposed for 8 hours each day, 40 hours per week, without suffering adverse
health effects.
LC5O — the concentration in ppm that kills 50% of the laboratoiy animals
in a given length of time.
Ingestion Hazard — is there any hazard from ingesting (eating) this material?
LC5O — the dose that kills 50% of the test animals; called ‘lethal dose”.
Absoiption Hazard — is there any hazard from absorbing this material into the
body?
Skin Absorption Hazard — can material be absorbed through the skin?
Eye Absorption Hazard — can material be absorbed through the eye?
IDLH blue — Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health lue — an indication
of atmospheres which are immediately dangerous to life and health: atmospheres
that within 30 minutes of exposure, death or irreversible health implications to
the person exposed are expected.
STEL ‘Mue — Short Term Exposure Limit — ma,amum allowable concentration,
or ceiling, not to be exceeded during a 15 minute period.
Chronic Hazard — are there any chronic hazards associated with this material?
Carcinogen — a material that can cause cancer in an organism.
Mutagen — a material that creates a change in gene structure which is potentially
capable of being transmitted to the offspnng.
Teratogen — a material that affects the offspring when the embryo or fetus
is exposed to that matenal.
Hazardous to Aquatic Life — is the material harmful to aquatic life?
Other — any additional pertinent information or data found.
Decontamination Procedures — “decontamination Is the removal of hazardous
materials from the skin, clothing, equipment etc.. ‘; the purpose of decontamination
is to prevent or reduce the physical transfer of any coritaminents by people or
equipment from on site to off’site locations. List methods available for
decontamination for this material.
First Aid Procedures — what procedures should be followed for someone
contaminated with this material?
20
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Key For Entries On Hazardous Material Data Sheet
(continued)
Entiy •
Sourc. for data
RE HAZARD
Fire Hazard — will the material bum or support the combustion process of other
materials? Mark “yes’ or “no”. If yes, complete this section.
Fbsh Point — the minimum temperature at which a liquid gives off enough vapors
that can be ignited and flash over but will not continue to bum without the addition
of more heat.
Ignition (Autoignitlon) Temperature — the minimum temperature required to ignite
gas or vapor without a spark or flame being present
Fbmmable (Explosive) Range — the range of a gas or vapor conce Uation
(percentage by volume in air) that will burn or explode if an ignition source is
present Umiting concentrations are commonly called the lower flammable
(explosive) limit” and the “upper flammable (explosive) limit”. Below the lower
flammable limit, the mixture is too lean to bum; above the upper flammable limit.
the mixture is too rich to bum.
Toxic Products of Combustion — the toioc byproducts of the combustion process .
Ust them.
Other — any additional pertinent information or data found.
Possible Extinguishing Agents — what extinguishing agents are suitable for co itrvl /
extinguishment of a fire involving this material?
nw
Reactivity — will the material react with any other materials? Mark “yes” or “no”.
If yes, complete this section.
With what — what is this matenal reactive with and in what ways?
Other — any additional pertinent infom’iation or data found.
CORROSIV TY HAZARDS
CorrosMty Hazards — is the material corrosive to other materials? Mark ‘yes”
or “no”. If yes, complete this section.
pH — acidic or basic corrosives are measured to one another by their ability
to dissociate in solution; those that form the greatest number of hydrogen ions
are the strongest acids, while those that form the hydroxide ion are the most
potent bases; the measurement of the hydrogen ion concentition in solution is
called the pH of the compound in solution; ‘ong adds have low pH values arid
strong bases have high pH values; the pH scale ranges from 0-14.
Corrosive to What — materials with which the material is corrosive, particularly
sldn and steel.
Other — any additional pertinent information or data found.
21
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Key For Entries On Hazardous Material Data Sheet
(continued)
Lultry source for diii
RADIOACTIVITY HAZARDS
Ra&oactMty Hazards — will the material emft radioactMty? Mark “yes or “no”.
yes, complete this section.
1 pe of Radiation Emitted — indicate the type of radiation emitted. either alpha
particles, beta particles or gamma radiation.
Other — any additional pertinent Information or data found.
RECOMMENDED PROTECTION
For Public — recommended action to protect public health and safeey indicate
evacuation distances rot venous amounts of the material.
For Response Personnel — level of protection required rot emergency response
personnel worldng in danger zone.
Level A — requires the highest level of respiratory, sian eye protection, that
Is. a fully encapsulating protective suit wIth Its own self
-------
Bibliography for Incident Analysis
D.E.C IDE. in Hazardous Materials Emergencies, L Benner, Fire Journal,
July 1975, National Fire Protection Association.
Hazardous Materials Emergencies, L Benner. Lufred Industries. Inc.,
Oakton, Virginia 22124 (1978)
Hazardous Materials Emergencies, Revised Student Workbook
L Benner, Luf red Industries, Inc., Oakton, Virginia 22124 (1978)
23
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SECTION 2:
TOXICOLOGY
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TOXICOLOGY
Introduction to Toxicology
There is a vast number of chemical substances present in the environment; everything we eat,
touch, and breathe is made of chemicals, including ourselves. The chemical industry has made
our current life style possible and the proliferation of new chemicals has been almost astronomical.
As of November of 1977, The Chemical Abstract Service (CAS) has listed 4,039,907 unique chemical
substanc s In its registly and estimated that this number was growing at a rate of 6,000 new
substances per week Recently, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requested CAS to
determine how many different chemicals the first responder might encounter in an emergency
situation. CAS determined from their computer data that there are between 33,000 and 63,000
chemicals in common use that the first responder may have to deal with. One problem that has
developed is that the first 33,000 initial substances are I own by over 183,000 different names
in the venous reference material’s.
Not all chemicals are hazardous. However, enough of them. exhibit hazardous properties which
require the first responder to have knowledge of basic chemical and toxicological terms in order
to adequately protect himself and the public. There are basically three types of hazardous pro’
parties; flammability, reactivity, and toxicity. Rammability deals with the properties of a substance
that generate heat during combustion. Reactivity is the property of a substance to interact chemically
with other substances in proximity to it. Toxic properties are the most troublesome to deal with
because frequently insufficient information exists on most substances. Most chemicals will exhibit
more than one of these properties. Some will exhibit all three. It is difficult to say which of these
properties is the most dangerous. The most dangerous flammable materials are gases or highly
volatile liquids, materials which require very little oxygen to bum, and materials which will bum
readily over a wide range of oxygen concentration. The most dangerous reactive materials are
those that are capable of selfdetonation, produce large amounts of gaseous products, or possess
a tendency to gain electrons from other substances. Toxic substances represent a host of dangers.
including poisons, corrosives, allergins and mutagens. Many substances exhibit multiple toxic
properties.
The objectives of the toxicology section is to provide a basic understanding of the interaction
of chemical substances with the human body and to teach the basic principles and terminology
of toxicology. Toxicology is the study of chemical or physical agents which interact with biology
systems In such a manner as to produce a response from an organism that is considered harmful
or deleterious. Therefore, toxicity is any response that is undesirable or injunous. Given the broad
range of toxicities that any substance might eventually invoke in an individual, it becomes easy
to understand the wisdom of Paracelsus’ statement, l1 substances are poisons; there is none
which is not a poison. The right dose differentiates a poison and a remedy. ’ Or, as in the words
of Emil Mrak, “There are no safe substances, there are only safe ways of handling substances. ’
24
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General Definitions
Acute — lasting a short time, generally having a sudden onset for a course of time (e.g.,
acute toxicity, acute exposure).
Chronic — marked by repeated exposure to subacute concentrations; consistant or continuous
(e.g., chronic to,dcities are usually permanent or irreversible).
The following chart is a relative index of toxicity:
Toxicity Rating Chad
Toxicity Rating
orClsu
Oral Acut LD
lorRa
Extremely toxic
1 mg/kg or less (dioxin, botulism toxin)
Highly toxic
I to 50 mg/kg (strychnine)
Moderately toxic
50 to 500 mg/kg (DDT)
Slightly toxic
0.5 to 5 g/kg (morphine)
Practically nontoxic
5 to 15 g/kg (ethyl alcohol)
DoseeResponse
Since only the dose determines whether an exposure to any substance Is toxic, nontoxic, or beneficial,
one must understand the doseresponse relationship and how to use it.
The DoseResponse Relationship: The design of any toxicity test incorporates selection of
a test organism, a response, an exposure period or test duration, and a series of dosages.
The test organism ranges from cellular material and selected ains of bacteria through higher
order plants and animals. The response or biological endpoint can range from subtle changes
In organism physiology and behavior to death of the organism. Exposure periods vary from
a few hours to several ) ars. Clearly those tests are sought for which the response is not
subjective and can be consistently determined; the qosure period is relatively short and
the test species is a good model for man. Often tests are selected which yield Indirect measure
ments or which yield responses which hopefully correlate wail with the response of Intc st ,
e.g., determination of mutagenic potential as a measure of carcinogenic potentiaL
Dthdtion of DoseResponse: A particular toxicity test Is said to erthibit the doseresponse
relationship when there is a consistent mathematical relationship describing the proportion
of Individuals responding to a given dosage interval for a given eqosuie period . For example,
the number of mortalities is found to increase as the amount of chemical Introduced Into
the organism Is increased. For therapeutic agents, an adverse elfect would decrease con•
aistently as the dosage was increased.
25
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Measure of Responses: In addition to the variation in response to a chemical found with
different species of test organisms, there is also a variation in response within a group of
test organisms of the same species. Experience has shown that typically this intra -species
variation follows a normal (Gaussian) distribution when a plot is made of the frequency of
organisms responding versus the magnitude of the response for a given dose. Well estab-
lished statistical techniques exist for this distribution and reveal that two-thirds of the test popula-
tion will exhibit a response which is within one standard deviation of the mean response.
while approximately 95 percent and 99 percent lie within two and three standard deviations
of the mean, respectively. Thus, a relatively small number of experimental groups can be
tested and statistical techniques can be used to define the probable response the average
org rnism will have to a given dose. Graphically this result is then depicted as a point with
bars used to exhibit one standard deviation above and below this average response. Typically,
the frequency.response curves are not used. Instead, cumulative dose response curves are
utilized which depict the summation of the frequency response curves over the range of dosages.
A further refinement is made by plotting the cumulative response versus the logarithm of
the dose to yield plots which are typically linear and from which several basic relationships
can be readily identified. Dosages are often described as either a lethal dose (LD), in a test
where the response is mortality, or effective dose (ED), in a test where the response is not
mortality but some other observable effect. -
Construction of the ultimate dose-response curve enables the identification of doses which
effect a given percent of the.exposed population, e.g., the LD5Ø is that dose which is lethal
to 50 percent of the test organisms. (See Figure 1)
tOO
C
a
0
L.
Figure 1 — Dose Response Curve
LOG DOSE
26
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Utility of dose-response relationship
Comparisons among chemicals of their LD s in animal species gives you a relative ranking
of potency or how toxic each chemical is relative to each other. Using this dosage (mgi
kg) and multiplying by 70 kg (average man) will give you a rough extrapolation of the required
dose to cause toxicity in man, assuming man is as sensitive as the species tested. Generally
the most sensitive of the species tested is used for comparison.
LD data is useful only as a “rough” estimate of the toxic potential of a substance. It provides
an easy to do computation to approximate the potency and hence the approximate risk
associated with exposure.
Dose-response curves are useful when the dose for a mild (safe) toxicity, such as odor or
tearing, is lower than a more severe toxicity (coma). The difference between two curves provides
the margin of safety. (ED = dose-response for smell, TD = dose-response for Irritation to
lungs, U) dose-response for mortality.)
Margin of safety = Toxic Dose5( )
Nonto,dc Dose
Threshold lue: is the lowest point on the dose-response curve below which an effect by
a given agent is not detectable. The threshold of a particular response is an important concept
that has found many useful applications in industry and government regulations. The Occupa-
tional Safety and Health Mministration (OSHA) has propagated the term PELs (Permissable
Ecposure Umit) while the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)
uses TLVs (threshold limit values) to define that workroom air concentration that is considered
a safe upper limit of exposure. These values are essentially the threshold concentrations in
air for various chemicals. However, the toxic response for which these values are supposed
to be thresholds are often less serious side effects like tearing, respiratory irritation, etc. The
threshold concept is also an important toxicologic and regulatory consideration for mutagenic/
carcinogenic chemicals. Current theory suggests that for genotoxic carcinogens (initiators)
there is no threshold and that the rate of cancer is a continuous response with a decreasing
probability all of the way down until zero exposure is met This means that every exposure
theoretically carries some risk (some mathematical probability of an adverse reaction) with
it and underlies the extremely low levels of allowable exposure proposed for carcinogenic
substances. It would also be remembered that the threshold for chronic exposure is usually
lower than (and not predicted from) acute exposure data.
27
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Shortcomings of Dose-Response data:
An LD is a single value and will not give you an idea of what shape the curve is, (i.e.,
what the dose-response interval is) thus, comparing these values can give the wrong impression.
In other words, the width of the dose-response interval (the range of doses it covers) is as
important as how high or low is the dosage where the response interval begins.
Acute vs. Chronic: most LD data is developed from an acute exposure period (single dos&
rather than chronic (continuous, long-time) exposure. \lbu cannot extrapolate because you
do ot know the disposition of the chemical (i.e., bloaccumulation, metabolism, excretion)
or the target organ, which often differs for the chronic toxic response.
bu usually have little information to guide you in choosing the animal data which will mimick
the human response (is your species less sensitive? more sensitive?).
In situations of chronic human exposure your best guide is to extrapolate chronic animal
data which gives you a no effect dose, but usually only the LD is reported and not the
LDOI -
Factors affecting the normal doserø nnn r ’bthnnchin — those variables to consider when extra-
polating toxicity data to your situation.
Route of exposure: How a substance enters the body determines the amount entering
(absorption) and which organs are exposed to the largest concentration of the substance,
while both of these determine metabolism and excretion. In other words, the amount of chemical
which is toxic orally may not be toxic when applied to the skin (or it may be just as toxic).
Gender May effect toxicity of some substances, (e.g., women have a larger percent of fat
in their total body weight; different susceptibilities in reproduction or teratogenic effects; some
cancers and disease states are sex linked). When using animal data, there may be great sex-
linked differences.
Age: Older people have differences in the blood system; their musculature; metabolism; and
excretion, which changes the disposition and toxic levels of chemicals. Also, children are not
small adults. They have higher respiration rates and different organ susceptibilities (less sensitive
to CNS stimulants, more sensitive to CNS depressants). They have differences in metabolism,
excretion, etc.
Chemical Interactions (Synergism and Antagonism): Synergists are chemicals which, when
combined, cause a greater than additive effect. Antagonists are chemicals which, when
combined, lessen the measured affect. Potentiation is when a chemical not producing a specific
toxicity nonetheless increases that toxicity caused by another chemical.
28
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Chemical Interactions
Additive: 2+3 = 5
Synergistic: 2+3 =20
Potentiation: 0+2 = 10 (Example: alcohol pot.entiates the acute toxicity
of many chlorinated hydrocarbons, etc.)
Antagonism: 4+6 = 8
or4+0 = I
There are four types of antagonists — functional, chemicaL dispositional, and receptor.
Functional — antagonism by producing the opposite effects on the same physiologic
function.
Chemical — direct chemical interaction that affects the toxicity of one chemical.
Dispositional — where the absorption, metabolism, distribution, or excretion is altered.
Receptor — when two chemicals bind to the same tissue receptor, one without activity,
which competes for the receptors and thereby lowers the effect.
Genetic Deficiencies— Some of us have a lack of genes which produce enzymes that can
alter the toxicities of some chemicals. For example, people with G6PH enzyme deficiency
are more susceptible to the hemolysis of blood by aspirin or certain anthoitics.
‘. daUon of Spedes — Unfortunately there are big physiologic differences amongst the various
animal species. These differences in organ susceptibility, enzymes, etc., lead to the Catch
22 of Toxicology. We use animals as models to study and understand the mechanisms of
toxicity for many chemicals. Thus the proper selection of the animal to serve as the test
system requires prior knowledge of which model most closely resembles man with respect
to the chemical interaction of interest. Thus, the toxicologist is almost always faced with a
Catch 22 situation. The goal is the prediction of chemical effects on humans by using animal
studies However, selection of the right animal requires to study a knowledge of the fate of
the chemical in man (the goal) as well as its fate in various animals.
29
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Classification of Factors influencing Toxicity
Factors related to the toxic substance — chemical composition (salt, free base, anion. etc.)
physical characteristics (particle size, liquid or solid, etc.) presence of impurities; stability and
breakdown products; mixture.
Factors related to exposure — proximity concentration dose; type of exposure (skin, oral,
inhalation, etc.) duration (acute or chronic).
Fa ‘tore related to subject exposed — genetic status; immunologic status; nutritional status;
hormonal status; age; sex; body type; health; concurrent diseases.
Environmental factors — toxic substance camer (air, water, soil, food), additional chemicals
present (synergism, antagonism), temperature; air pressure; etc. (volatility, ventilation, etc.).
safety protection (equipment, methods of handling, medical facilities), training.
Exposures
Acute Exposure — This term is used to mean “of short duration:’ Applied to materials which
are inhaled or absorbed through the skin, it refers to a single exposure of a duration measur,ed
in seconds, minutes, or hours. As applied to materials which are ingested, it refers generally
to a single quantity or dose.
Subacute Exposure — This refers to exposures of intermediate duration, i.e., between acute
and chronic. Generally speaking, subacute exposures include durations up to about 90 days.
Chronic Exposure — This term will be used in contrast to “acute” and means “of long duration ”
As applied to materials which are inhaled or absorbed through the skin, it refers to prolonged
or repeated exposures of a duration measured in days, months, or years. As applied to materials
which are ingested, it refers to repeated doses over a period of days, months or years. The
term “chronic” will not refer to seventy of symptoms but will cariy the implication of exposures
or’doses which would be relatively harmless unless extended or repeated over long periods
of time (days, months, or years).
30
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Effects
It is important to differerthate between acute and chronic exposure and acute and chronic effects.
Although the expression “chronic toxicity” is sometimes used to indicate the result of repeated
exposure to a chemical or to ionizing radiation, it would be much clearer if “chronic toxicity”
were equated with chronic illness resulting from these agents without any commitment regarding
the duration of exposure. The fact is that some compounds have a strong tendency to produce
chronic Illness even though the exposure may be acute (i.e., only a single dose). Such compounds
Include the heavy metals and most carcinogens. Of course, their tendency to produce chronic
sickness is accentuated if they are absorbed in repeated doses. At the opposite extreme are
compounds such as cyanide with which it is virtually impossible to produce chronic illness —
even though a single excessive dose may produce acute poisoning and rapid death. Most compounds
lie somewhere between the two extremes. Ordinary alcoholic intoxication is acute, but years of
excessive drinking and the accompanying malnutrition can produce chronic organic disease that
persists even though no more alcohol is consumed.
The words acute and chronic applied to illness have nothing to do with seventy but only with
the duration and character of illness. The common cold, intoxication from social drinking, plague,
and parathion poisoning are all acute illnesses. The first two are mild, the last two potentially
fatal; all are brief with little tissue reaction. Pulmonary tuberculosis and lead poisoning are almost
always chronic diseases. They are characterized by a prolonged course and by pathological changes
in tissue that reflect continuing injury and perhaps ineffectual repair.
Toxic effects may also be subdMded on the basis of site of action:
Local Effect: This term means that the action takes place at the point or area of contact.
The site may be skin, mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, mouth, throat, or anywhere
along the respiratory or gastrointestinal system depending on the body area exposed. Absorption
does not necessarily occur.
Systemic Effect This term refers to a site of action other than the point of contact and presup
poses that absorption has taken place. It is possible, however, for toxic agents to be absorbed
through a channel (skin, lungs, or intestinal canal) and produce later manifestations on one
of those channels which are not a result of the original direct contact. Thus, it is possible
for some agents to produce harmful effects on a single organ or tissue as a result of both
“local” and “systemic” actions.
Routes of Absorption
In the physiological sense, a material is said to have been absorbed only when it has gained
entry into the blood stream and consequently is carried to all parts of the body. Something which
is swallowed and which is later excreted more or less unchanged in the feces has not necessarily
been absorbed, even though it may have remained within the gastrointestinal track for hours or
even days.
31
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Although there are a number of ways by which an indMdual may be exposed to a poisonous
chemical, the three most important and most usually encountered routes are oral, demal, and
respiratory.
Absorption Through the Sldn = Derinal Route
In general, chemicals are absorbed more slowly and less completely through the skin than
from the gastrointestinal track or the lungs, and thus to,oc effects are less likely to occur
when a toxicant is spilled on the skin than when it is ingested or inhaled. Fortunately, many
corv,pounds are just not absorbed to a significant degree by the skin. For example, botulinum
toxin, the substance which produces botulism, Is extremely toxic to man when taken orally.
but Is relatively haimless when applied to the skin. The pnncipal reason for this difference
is that the botulinum toxic molecule is very large compared to most chemicals, and is therefore
not readily absorbed by the skin. On the other hand, when ft enters the digestive tract, the
t dn Is immediately absorbed and transported to the susceptible sites of action. Thus, the
chemical and physical properties of the toxicant determine which routes of exposure will produce
what toxic effects. There is greater magnitude of difference between the compounds with
regard to skin absorption than for other common exposure routes.
The ability of skin to absorb foreign substances depends on:
— Properties and health of skin.
— Chemical properties of the substances.
— Environment (vehicle).
Absorption is enhanced by
— Breaking top layer of skin by abrasions or cuts.
— Increasing hydration of skin.
— Increasing temperature of skin which causes pores to open and perspire, which can
dissolve solids;
— hicreased blood flow to skin.
— Increasing concentrations of the substance.
— Altering skin’s normal pH of 5.
— Decreasing particle size of substance.
— Mding suifaceacthie agents or organic chemicals. DMSO, for example, can act as
a carrier of the substance.
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— Photosensitizers: Increase the sensitivity of skin to uv rays. This results in irritation
and redness. Photosensitizers include: tetracyclines, acridine, creosote, pyridine, furfural.
naptha.
— Allergic sensitizers: May produce allergic.type reaction after repeated exposures. They
inciude: formaldehyde, phthalic anhydnde, ammonia, mercury. nitrobenzene, toluene
diisocyanate, chromic acid and chromates, cobalt, benzoyl peroxide.
An additional source of exposure is found in the fairly common practice of using industrial
solverts for removing grease and dht from the hands and arms, in other words, for washing
purposes. This procedure, incidentally, is a fruitful source of dermatitis.
There are a number of other important environmental and industrial chemical which are also
sorbed to a significant degree through the skin. Some of the organic phosphorus pesticides,
Including parathion, are notable in this regard.
Absorption Through the Eyes
The eyes are affected by some of the same chemicals that affect skin, but the eyes are more
sensitive. Several types of materials can damage the eyes by direct contact:
— Acids: Damage to the eye by acids depends on pH and the protein-combining capacity
of the acid. Unlike alkali bums, the acid bums that are apparent during the first few moments
are a good indicator of the long-term damage to be expected. Some acids and their properties
are:
— sulfuric acid: In addition to its acid properties, it simultaneously removes water from
the skin and generates heat
— picnc acid and tannic acid: No difference in damage they produce in entire range
of acidic pH’s.
— hydrochloric acid: Severe damage at pH L but little effect at pH 3 or greater.
— Alkalies: Damage that appears mild initially but can lead later to ulceration, perforation,
and clouding of the cornea or lens. The pH and length of exposure have more bearing
on the amount of damage than the type of alkali. Some problem alkalies are:
— sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), potassium hydroxide.
— ammonia penetrates eye tissues more readily than any other alkali; calcium oxide (lime)
forms clumps when it contacts and is very hard to remove.
— Organic solvents: Organic solvents (for example, ethanol, toluene, and acetone) dissolve
fats, cause pain, and dull the cornea. Damage is usually slight unless the solvent is hot
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— Lacnmators: Lacnmators cause instant tearing at low concentrations. They are distinguished
from other eye irritants (hydrogen chlonde and ammonia) because they induce an instant
reaction without damaging tissues. At very high concentrations lacrimators can cause
chemical bums and destroy comeal material. Examples are chloroacetophenone (tear gas)
and MACE
— In addition, some compounds act on eye tissue to form cataracts, damage the optic nerve,
or damage the retina. These compounds usually reach the eye through the blood system.
Therefore, the route of exposure would be inhalation, ingestion or absorption rather than
direct contact Examples of compounds that can provide systemic effects damaging to
the eyes are:
— Napthalene: Cataracts and retina damage.
— Phenothiazine (insecticide): Retina damage
— Thallium: cataracts and optic nerve damage.
— Methanol: Optic nerve damage.
Gastrointestinal Absorption = Oral Route
In accidental poisoning of children, oral ingestion is the most common route of exposure.
In the past it has been common practice to attribute certain cases of occupational poisoning
to unclean habits on the part of the victim, particularly failure to wash his hands before eating.
There is no doubt that some toxic materials used industrially can be absorbed through the
intestinal tract, but it is now generally believed that with certain notable exceptions this portal
of entry is of minor importance. One outstanding exception is the case of the radium dial
painters who followed the practice of “pointing” their brushes between their lips, thus ingesting
lethal quantities of radioactive material. Accidental swallowing of harmful amounts of poisonous
compounds in single large doses has also been known to occur. In general it can be said
that intestinal absorption of industrial poisons is of minor importance and that the “dirty hands”
theory of poisoning has been pretty well discredited. Recent experimental studies of pesticide
workers have shown that eating and smoking without washing the hands, while not recommended
procedure, are not major sources of exposure. It is possible, however, to ingest significant
quantities of contaminants absorbed to soil or dust particles if chemical properties and
environmental conditions favor this phenomenon.
Absorption Through the Lungs Inhale Route
The inhalation of contaminated air is by far the most important means by which occupational
poisons gain entry into the body. it seems safe to estimate that at least 90 percent of all
industrial poisoning (exclusive of dermatitis) can be aWibuted to absorption of poisons through
the lungs. Harmful substances may be suspended in the air in the form of dust, fume, mist,
or vapor, and may be mixed with the respired air. Since an individual under conditions of
moderate exertion will breathe about 10 cubic meters of air in the course of an ordinary
8.hour working day, it is readily understood that any poisonous material present in the respired
air offers a serious threat to health.
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The respiratory tract is the only organ system with vital functional elements in constant, direct
contact with the environment. The lung also has the largest exposed surface area of any
organ — a surface area of 70 to 100 square meters versus 2 for the skin and 10 for the
digestive system.
Fortunately, all foreign matter which is inhaled is not necessarily absorbed into the blood.
A certain amount, particularly that which is in a very finely divided state, will be immediately
exhaled. Another portion of respired particulate matter is trapped by the mucus which lines
the air passages and is subsequently brought up in the sputum. In this connection, it might
be mentioned that some of the sputum may be consciously or unconsciously swallowed.
thus affording an opportunity for intestinal absorption. Other particles are taken up by scavenger
cells” foriowing which they may enter the blood atream or may be deposited in various tissues
or organs. True gases will pass directly from the lungs into the blood in the same manner
as the oxygen in inspired air.
Many chemicals used or produced in industry can produce acute or chronic diseases of the
respiratory tract when they are inhaled. The toxicants can be classified according to how they
affect the respiratory tract.
— Asphyxiants: gases that deprive the body tissues of oxygen
— simple asphyxiants are physiologically inert gases that at high concentrations displace
air leading to suffocation. Examples: nitrogen, helium, methane, neon, argon.
— chemical asphyxiants are gases that prevent the tissues from getting enough oxygen.
Examples: carbon monoxide and cyanide. Carbon mono de binds to hemoglobin 200
times more readily than oxygen and cyanide prevents the transfer of oxygen from blood
to tissues by inhibiting the necessary transfer enzymes.
— Irritants: Chemicals that irritate the air passages, causing constriction of the airways and
possibly leading to edema (liquid in the lungs) and infection. Examples: hydrogen fluoride,
chlorine, hydrogen chloride, and ammonia.
— Necrosis producers: Chemicals that result in cell death and edema. Examples: ozone and
nitrogen dioxide.
— Fibrosis producers: Chemicals that produce fibrotic tissue which, if massive, blocks airways
and decreases lung capacity. Examples: silicates, asbestos, and beryllium.
— Allergens: Chemicals that induce an allergic response characterized by bronchoconstiic
tion and pulmonary disease. Examples: isocyanates and sulfur dioxide.
— Carcinogens: Chemicals that are associated with lung cancer. Examples: cigarette smoke,
coke emissions, asbestos, and arsenic.
Not only can various chemicals affect the respiratory tract, but the tract is also a route for chemicals
to reach other organs. Solvents, such as benzene and tetrachiorethane, anesthetic gases, and other
compounds containing lead or mercury can be absorbed through the respiratory tract and cause
systemic effects. The table on the next pages lists some common chemicals which might cause
this effect
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INDUSTRIAL TOXICANTS THAT PRODUCE
DISEASE OF THE RESPIRATORY TRACT
Toxicant Sit, of Action Acute Effect Chronic Effect
Aluminum Upper airways Cough, shortness Fibrosis, emphysema
of breath, irritation
Ammonia Upper airways irritation. Bronchitis
edema
Arsenic Upper airways Bronchitis. Cancer, bronchitis.
irritation, laryngitis
pharyngitis
Asbestos Lung — — — Fibrosis, cancer
parenchyma
Beryllium Alveoli Edema. Fibrosis.
pneumonia ulceration
Boron oxide Alveoli Edema, hemorrhage — — —
Cadmium oxide Alveoli Cough. Pneumonia Emphysema
Carbides of Upper, lower Hyperplasia. Fibrosis
tungsten, airways metaplasia of
titanium, bronchial cells
tantalum
Chlonne Upper airways Cough, irrita-
tion, asphyxiant
(by muscle cramps
in larynx)
Chronium (VI) Nasopharnyx, Nasal irritation, Cancer
upper airways bronchitis
Cobalt Lower airways, Asthma Fibrosis, inter-
alveoli stitial pneumonitis
Hydrogen Upper airways Irritation, edema — — —
Iron oxides Alveoli, bronchi Cough Benign pneumo-
coniosis
leocyanates Lower airways, Bronchitis, pul- — — —
alveoli monary edema,
asthma
Manganese Lower airways Pneumonia, often Recurrent
alveoli fatal pneumonia
Nickel Nasal mucosa, Irritation Cancer
bronchi
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Toidcant Site of Action Acute Eftsct Chronic Ethel
Nickel Carbonyl Alveoli Edema (delayed
symptoms)
Nitrogen Bronchi. Edema Emphysema
oxides alveoli
Osmium Upper airways BronchItis, Broncho .
tetraoxlde bronchospasm pneumonia
Ozone Bronchi Irritation, edema. Emphysema.
alveoli hemorrhage bronchitis
Phosgene Alveoli Edema Bronchitis.
fibrosis.
pneumonia
Phthalic Lower airways Bronchitis, Emphysema
anhydride alveoli asthma
Sulfur Upper airways Bronchoconstric- Bronchitis.
dioxide tion. cough, tight- nasopharyngitis
ness in chest
Tin Bronchioles. Widespread
pleura mottling of
x-ray without
clinical signs
(benign pneumo-
conio si s)
Toluene Upper airways BronchItis, edema.
bronchospasm
‘d nadium Upper, lower irritation, nasal Bronchitis
airways inflammation, edema
Xylene Lower airways Edema, hemorrhage
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SECTION 3:
PERSONAL PROTECTION
AND
DECONTAMINATION
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Personal Protection
Introduction
Personnel must wear protective equipment when response activities involve known or suspected
atmosphenc contamination, when vapors, gases or particulates may be generated, or when direct
contact with skinaffecting substances may occur. Respirators can protect lungs, gastrointestinal
tract and eyes against air toxicants. Chemical protective clothing can protect the skin from contact
with des ‘ucth,e and absorable chemicals. Good personal hygiene limits or prevents ingestion of
materiaL
Equipment to protect the body against contact with known or anticipated chemical hazards has
been divided into four categories according to the degree of protection afforded:
Level A: Should be worn when the highest level of respiratoiy, skin and eye protection is
needed.
Level B: Should be selected when the highest level of respiratory protection is needed, but
a lesser level of skin protection.
L evel C: Should be selected when the type of airborne substance(s) is known, the concen-
tration is measured, and the criteria for using air-purifying respirators are met.
Level D: Should not be worn on any site with respiratory or skin hazards. It is primarily a
work uniform providing minimal protection.
The Level of Protection selected should be based primarily on:
Type and measured concentration of the chemical substance(s) in the ambient atmosphere
and its toxicity.
Potential ormeasured exposure to substances in air, splashes of liquids, or other direct contact
with material due to work being performed.
In situations where the type of chemical, concentration(s), and possibilities of contact are not known,
the appropriate Level of Protection must be selected based on professional experience and judgment
until th&hazard can’ be better charactertied.
While personnel protective equipment reduces the potential for contact with harmful substances,
ensuring the health and safety of response personnel requires, in addition, safe work practices.
decontamination, site entry protocols, and other safety considerations. Together, these protocols
establish a combined approach for educing potential harm to workers.
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Levels of Protection
A. Level A Protection
1. Pereonnel protective equipment
• Pressure-demand, self-contained breathuig apparatus, approved by the Mine Safety and
Health Mmlnistration (MSHA) and National institute of Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH).
• Encapsulating chemical protective clothing
• Coveralls
• Long coiton underirear
• Gloves (outer), chemical-resistant
• Gloves (Inner), chemical.reslstant
• Boots, chemicakesistant, steel toe and shank (Depending on suit construction. worn
over or under suit boot).
• Hard hat (under suit)
• Disposable protective suit, gloves, and boot? (worn over fully encapsulating suit)
• 2.way radio communications (intrinsically safe)
2. CrIteria for selection
Meeting any of these criteria warrants consideration for use of Level A Protection:
• The chemical substance has been Identified and requires the highest level of protection
for sldn, e s and the respiratory system based on:
measured (or potential for) high onc L . ,Uun of atmospheric vapors, gain or
or
site operations and work functions Involving high potential for splash , Immersion
or exposure to unexpected vapors, gases or particulates.
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• Extremely hazardous substances (for example: cyanide compounds, concentrated
pesticides, Department of Transportation Poison “A’ materials, suspected carcinogens,
and infestious substances) are known or suspected to be present, and skin contact
is possible.
• The potential exists for contact with substances that destroy skin.
• Operations must be conducted in confined, poorly ventilated areas until the absence
of hazards requiring Level A Protection is demonstrated.
• Total atmospheric readings on the Century OVA System, HNu Photoionizer, and similar
instruments indicate 500-1,000 ppm of unidentified substances.
3. Guidance on selection criteria
The encapsulating chemical protective clothing provides the highest degree of protection
to skin, eyes and respiratory system if the suit material is resistant to the chemical(s) of
concern at the measured or anticipated concentrations. While Level A provides maximum
protection, the suit material may be rapidly permeated and penetrated by certain chemicals
from extremely high air concentrations, splashes, or immersion of boots or gloves in concen•
trated liquids or sludges. These limitations should be recognized when specif ing the type
of chemical•resistant garment. Whenever possible, the suit material should be matched
with the substance it is used to protect against.
The use of Level A protection and other chemical.resistant clothing requires evaluating
the problems of physical stress, in particular heat stress associated with the wearing of
impermeable protective clothing. Response personnel must be carefully monitored for
physical tolerance and recovery.
Protective equipment, being heavy and cumbersome, decreases dexterity, agility, visual acuity.
etc., and so increases the probability of accidents. This probability decreases as less protec
tive equipment is required. Thus, increased probability of accidents should be considered
when selecting a Level of Protection.
Many toxic substances are difficult to detect or measure in the field. When such substances
(especially those readily absorbed by or destructive to the skin) are known or suspected
to be present and personnel contact Is unavoidable, Level A Protection should be worn
until more accurate information can be obtained.
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B. Level B Protection
1. Personnel protective equipment
• Pressuredemand, self-contained breathing apparatus MSHA/NIOSH approved).
• Non-encapsulating chemical protective clothing (coveralls and long-sleeved jacket;
coveralls; hooded, one- or two-piece chemical splash suit; disposable chemical resistant
coveralls).
• overalls
• Gloves (outer), chemical-resistant
• Gloves (inner), chemical-resistant
• Boots (outer) chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank.
• Boots (outer), chemical-resistant (disposable)
• Hard hat (lace shield)
• 2-way radio communications (intrinsically safe)
2. Criteria for selection
Meeting any of these criteria warrants use of Level B Protection:
• The type(s) and atmospheric concentration(s) of to,ac substances have been Identif Ied
and require the highest level of respiratoly protection, but a lower level of sldn and
eye protection. These would be atmospheres:
with concentrations Immediately Dangerous to Ufe and Health (IDLH)
or
exceeding limits of protection afforded by a full-face air-purifying respirator
or
containing substances for which air-purifying caitridges or canisters do not edst
or have low removal effidency
or
containing substances requiring an air-supplied respirator but substances and/or
concentrations do not represent a serious skin hazard.
Optional
41
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• The atmosphere contains less than 19.5% oxygen.
• Site operations make it highly unlikely that the small, unprotected area of the head
or neck will be contacted by splashes of extremely hazardous substances.
• Total atmospheric concentrations of unidentified vapors or gases range from 5 ppm
to 500 ppm on instruments such as the Century OVA System or HNu Photoionizer
anä vapors are not suspected of containing high levels of chemicals toxic to skin.
3. G .!de on selection criteria
Level B equipment provides a high level of protection to the respiratory tract, but a somewhat
lower level of protection to skin. The chemical protective clothing required in Level B is
available in a wide variety of styles, materials, construction detail, permeability, etc. These
factors all affect the degree of protection afforded. Therefore, a specialist should select
the most effective chemical protective clothing based on the Imown or anticipated hazards
and/or job function.
Generally, if a selfcontained breathing apparatus is required, Level B nonencapsulating
chemical protective clothing rather than a Level A encapsulating suit is selected, based
on the protection needed against known or anticipated substances affecting the skin. Level
B skin protection is selected by:
• Comparing the concentrations of known or identified substances in air with skin toxicity
data.
• Determining the presence of substances that are destnictive to and/or readily absorbed
through the skin by liquid splashes, unexpected high levels of gases or particulates,
or other means of direct contact.
• Assessing the effect of the substance (at its measured air concentrations or splash
potential) on the small area of the head and neck unprotected by chemical-resistant
clothing.
For initial entry and reconnaissance at an open site, approaching whenever possible from
the upwind direction, Level B Protection (with good quality, hooded, chemical protective
clothing) should protect response personnel, providing the conditions described in selecting
Level A are known or judged to be absent For continuous operations, the aforementioned
criteria must be evaluated.
At 500 ppm total vapors/gases, upgrading to Level A protection may be advisable. A major
factor for re-evaluation is the presence of vapors, gases or particulates requiring a higher
degree of skin protection.
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C. Level C Protection
I. Personnel protective equipment
• FuO•face, air-purifying, canister-equipped respirator (MSHA/NIOSH approved).
• Non-encapsulating chemical protective clothing (coveralls; hooded, two piece chemical
splash suit; chemical-resistant hood and apron; disposable chemical-resistant coveralls).
• Coveralls
• Gloves (outer), chemical-resistant
• Gloves (inner), chemical-resistant
• Boots (outer) chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank.
• Boots (outer), chemical-resistant (disposable)
• Hard hat (face shield)
• Escape mask
• 2-way radio communications (intrinsically safe)
2. Critena for selection
Meeting any of these cnteria warrants use of Level C Protection:
• Measured air concentrations of identified substances will be reduced by the respirator
to at or below the substances exposure limit, and the concentration is within the service
limit of the canister.
• Atmosphenc contaminant concentrations do not exceed IDLH levels.
• Atmosphenc contaminants, liquid splashes or other direct contact will not adversely
affect the small area of sldn left unprotected by chemical-resistant clothing.
• Job functions have been determined not to require self-contained breathing apparatus.
• Total vapor readings register between background and 5 ppm above background on
instruments such as the HNu Photoionizer and Century OVA System.
• , ãr will be monitored periodically.
Optlonal
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3. Guidance on selection criteria
Level C Protection is distinguished from Level B by the equipment used to protect the
respiratory system, assuming the same type of chemical protective clothing is used. The
main selection criteria for Level C is that conditions permit wearing air.punfying respirators.
The air•purifying respirator must be a full•face mask (MSHA/NIOSM approved) equipped
with a canister suspended from the chin or on a harness. Canisters must be able to remove
the substances encountered. Quarter or half masks or cheek.caitidge full•face masks should
be used only with the approval of a qualified individual.
In addition, a full•face, airpurif)ing respirator can be used only if:
• Oxygen content of the atmosphere is at least 19.5% by volume.
• Substance(s) is identified and its concentration measured.
• Substance(s) has adequate warning properties.
• IndMdual passes a qualitative fit•test for the mask
• Appropriate cartridge/canister is used, and its service limit concentration is not exceeded.
An air monitedng program is part of all response operations when atmosphenc contamination
is known or suspected. It is particularly important that the air be monitored thoroughly
when personnel are wearing air .purifying respirators (Level C). Continual surveillance using
direct•reading instruments and air sampling is needed to detect any changes in air quality
necessitating a higher level of respiratory protection.
Total unidentified vapor/gas concentrations of 5 ppm above background require Level B
Protection. Only a qualified lndMdual should select Level C (air•purtfylng respirators)
protection for continual use in an unidentified vapor/gas concentration of background to
5 ppm above background.
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D. Level D Protection
1. Personnel protective equipment
• Coveralls
• Gloves
• Boots/shoes, leather or chemlcal•reslstant, steel toe and shank
• Boots (outer) chemical resistant (dlsposable)
• Safety glasses or chemical splash goggles
• Hard hat (face shield)
• Escape mask
2. Criteria for selection
Meeting any of these criteria warrants use of Level D Protection:
No hazardous air pollutants have been measured.
rk functions preclude splashes, immersion or potential for unexpected Inhalation of any
chemicals.
3. Guidance on selection criteria
Level D Protection is primarily a work uniform. It can be worn in areas where: I) only
boots can be contaminated, or 2) there are no inhalable toxic substances.
•0
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Protection in Unknown Environments
In all site operations, selecting the appropriate personnel protection equipment is one of the first
steps in reducing the potential for adverse health effects. Until the hazardous conditions presented
by an environmental incident can be identified and personnel safety measures commensurate with
the hazards — real or potential — instituted, preliminary measures will have to be based on applying
expenence, judgment and professional knowledge to the particular incident at hand. Lack of
knowledge. concerning the hazards that could be encountered precludes selecting protective equip-
ment by comparing environmental concentrations of known toxicants against protection afforded
by each type of equipment.
One of the first considerations in evaluating the risk of an unknown environment is to measure
immediate atmospheric hazards such as the concentrations of vapors: oxygen content of the air
explosive potential: and, to a lesser degree, the possibility of radiation exposure. In addition to
air measurements, visual observation and/or evaluation of e,asting data can help determine the
degree or risk from other materials that are explosive, have a high fire potential, are extremely
to ac or exhibit other hazardous characteristics that cannot be monitored by field instruments.
Total vapor/gas concentration as indicated by instruments such as the Century OVA System or
the HNu Photoionizer is a useful adjunct to professional judgment in selecting the Level of Protection
to be worn in an unknown environment It should not be the sole criterion, but should be considered
with all other available information. Total vapor/gas concentration should be applied only by qualified
persons thoroughly familiar with available information.
The initial on-site survey and reconnaissance, which may consist of more than one entry. is to
characterize the immediate hazards and, based on these findings, establish preliminary safety require-
ments. As data are obtained from the initial survey, the Level of Protection and other safety procedures
are adjusted. Initial data also provide information on which procedures are adjusted and on which
to base fuither monitoring and sampling. No method can select a Level of Protection in all unknown
environments, therefore, each situation must be examined individually. Some general approaches
can be given, however, for judging the situation and determining the Level of Protection required.
& LevelA
Level A should be worn when maximum protection is needed against substances that could
damage the surface of the skin and/or be absorbed through the skin. Since Level A requires
the use of a self-contained breathing apparatus, the eyes and respiratory system are also protected.
For initial site entry, skin toxicants would exist primarily as vapors gases or particulates in
air, with a lesser possibility of splash. Continuous operations at an abandoned waste site, for
instance, may require Level A due to working with and around severe skin toxicants.
46
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Until air monitoring data are available to assist in the selection of the appropriate Level of
Protection, the use of Level A for initial site entries may have to be based on indirect evidence
of the potential for atmospheric contamination or direct skin contact
Considerations that may require Level A protection include:
• Confined spaces: Enclosed, confined, or poorly ventilated areas are conducive to buildup
in lir of toxic vapors, gases, or particulates. Explosive or oxygendeficient atmospheres
also are more probable in confined spaces. Low-lying outdoor areas — ravines, ditches,
and gulleys — tend to accumulate any heavier-than-air vapors or gases present.
• Suspected/kn n toxic substances: Various substances may be Ia’ own or suspected to
be involved in an incident, but there are no field instruments available to detect Or quantify
air concentrations. In these cases, media samples must be analyzed in the laboratosy. Until
these substances are identified and levels measured, maximum protection may be necessary.
• Visible emissIons: sible emissions from leaking containers or railroad/vehicular tank cars.
as well as smoke from chemical fires, indicate high potential for concentrations of substances
that could be extreme respiratory or pldn hazards.
• Job Functions: Initial site entries are generally walk -throughs in which instruments and
visual observations provide a preliminary characterization of the hazards. Subsequent entries
are to conduct the many activities needed to reduce the environmental impact of those
hazards. Levels of Protection for later operations are based not only on data obtained from
the initial and subsequent environmental monitoring, but also on the probabilIty of
contamination. Maximum protection (Level A) should be worn when:
there is a high probability for exposure to high concentrations of vapors, gases, or
particulates.
substances could splash.
substances are known or suspected of being extremely toxic directly to the sldn or
by being absorbed.
Examples of situations where Level A has been worn are:
• Excavating of soil suspected of being contaminated with dioxin.
• Entering cloud of chlorine released in a railroad accident
• Handling and moving drums suspected and/or known to contain substances that re
skin destructive or absorbable.
• Responding to accidents involving cyanide, arsenic, or undiluted pesticides.
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B. Level B
While Level B protection does not afford the maximum skin (and eye) protection as does
a fully encapsulating suit, a good quality, hooded, chemical-resistant, one or two-piece garment
with taped joints provides a reasonably high degree of protection. At most abandoned hazardous
waste sites, ambient atmosphenc gas/vapor levels have not approached concentrations
sufficiently high to warrant maximum protection. In all but a few circumstances, Level B should
provic.’ the protection needed for initial entry. Subsequent operations require a re-evaluation
of Level B based on the probability of being splashed by chemicals, their effect on the skin,
or the presence of hard-to-detect air contaminants.
C. Level C
Level C Protection (full-face, air-purifying respirator) should be worn routinely in an atmosphere
only after the type of air contaminant(s) is identified and concentration measured. To pemiit
flexibility in prescribing a Level of Protection at certain environmental incidents, a specialist
could consider air-purifying respirators for use in unidentified vapor/gas concentrations of a
few parts per million. The guideline of total vapor/gas concentration of background to 5 ppm
above background should not be the sole criterion for selecting Level C. Since the individual
contributors may never be completely identified, a decision on continuous wearing of Level
C must be made, after assessing all safety considerations, including:
• The presence of (or potential for) organic or inorganic vapors/gases against which a canister
is ineffective or has a short service life.
• The luiown (or suspected) presence in air of substances with low TLV or IDLH levels.
• The presence of particulates in air.
• The errors associated with both the instruments and monitoring procedures used.
• The presence of (or potential for) substances in air which do not elicit a response on
the instrument(s) used.
• The potential for higher concentrations in the ambient atmosphere or in the air adjacent
to specific site operations.
The continuous use of air-purifying respirators (Level C) should be based on the identification
of the substances contributing to the total vapor/gas concentration and the application of
published criteria for the routine use of air-purifying devices. Unidentified ambient concentra-
tions of organic/vapors or gases in air approaching or exceeding 5 ppm above background
require Level B Protection. Individuals without appropriate training and/or experience should
be discouraged from modifying upward the recommended total vapor/gas concentration guide-
lines and associated Levels of Protection.
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Mditional Considerations
In addition to the topics previously addressed, there are other factors which should be considered
in selecting the appropriate Level of Protection.
A. Protective Clothing
No adequate criteria are available, similar to the respiratoly protection decision•logic, for selecting
protectave clothing. A concentration of a known substance in the air approaching a TLV or
permissible exposure limit for the skin does not automatically warrant a fully encapsulating
suit. A hooded, high quality, chemical-resistant suit may provide adequate protection. The selec-
tion of Level A over Level B is a judgment that should be made by a qualified individual
considering the following factors:
• Effect of the material on skin
• Concentration of the material — the higher the concentration, the higher the risk.
• The potential for contact with the material due to the work being done and the probability
of direct exposure to the small area of skin unprotected by Level B or C chemical-resistant
clothing.
• Certain types of materials provide more protection than others against specific skin hazards.
The major types of materials are discussed below:
Materials such as Tyvek or paper offer little or no protection against hazardous contaminants.
Such materials can, however, protect against particulate contaminants and other nuisances.
Tyvek is often used as an outer covering over the primary protective gear such as splash
or fully encapsulating suits. Although Tyvek provides little chemical resistance, it does limit
the amount of direct contamination on the primary protective gear. The Tyvek can then
be discarded.
Elastomers (polyrnenc materials that, after being stretched, return to about their original
length) provide the best protection against chemical degradation, permeation, and penetration
from toxic and corrosive liquids or gases. Elastomers are used in boots, gloves, coveralls,
and fully encapsulating suits. They are sometimes combined with a flame-resistant fabric
called Nomex to enhance durability and protection.
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The abilities of elastomers to resist degradation and permeation range from poor to excellent
The selection of a particular matenal should be based on its resistance to chemical
degradation, as well as on its ability to resist permeation and the other performance charac-
tenstics discussed earlier. Other factors to be considered include:
• Temperature of service: Higher temperatures increase the effects of all chemicals on
elastomers. The increase varies with the material and chemical. A material quite suitable
at room temperature could fail at elevated temperatures.
• CondItions of service: A material which swells upon contact with the chemical may
function well in a test situation but may fail in actual use.
• Grade of the elastomer Elastomers are manufactured in different grades, each providing
different degrees of protection. Grades vary from lot to lot due to process changes.
curing times, and overall quality control.
Among the materials now used in protective clothing:
• Butyl rjbber Resists degradation by many contaminants except halogenated hydro-
carbons and petroleum compounds, a common deficiency of most protective materials.
Especially resistant to permeation by toxic vapors and gases. Inexpensive material used
in boots, gloves, splash suits, aprons, and fully encapsulating suits.
• Chioropel: Also referred to as CPE or chlorinated polyethylene. Used in splash suits
and fully encapsulating suits. No data on permeability. Considered to be a good all-
around protective material.
• Natural nibber: This is also a synthetic latex. Resists degradation by alcohols and caustics.
Used in boots and gloves.
• Neoprene: Resists degradation by caustics, acids, and alcohols. Used in boots, gloves,
and respirator facepieces and breathing hoses. Commonly available and inexpensive.
• Nitrile: Also referred to as Buna-N, milled nitrile, nitrile latex, NBR, acrylonitrile. Resists
degradation by petroleum compounds, alcohols, acids, and caustics. Used in boots
and gloves. Commonly available and inexpensive.
• Nome,c Product of Dupont Aromatic polyamide fiber. Noncombustible and flame
resistant up to 220°C, thus providing good thermal protection. ry durable and acid
resistant Used in fire fighters’ turnout gear and some fully encapsulating suits. -
• Polyethylene: Used as a coating on polyolefIn material such as Tyvek, increasing resistance
to acids, bases, and salts.
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• PVA: polyvinyl alcohol. Resists degradation and permeation by aromatic and chlorinated
hydrocarbons and petroleum compounds. Major drawback is its solubility in water. Used
in gloves.
• PVC: polyvinyl chloride. Resists degradation by acids and caustics. Used in boots, gloves.
aprons, splashsuits, and fully encapsulating suits.
• Samne,c Made of Saran, a Dow product Coated on Tyvek. Very good general purpose
..lisposable material.
• Tyvelc Product of Dupont Spun.bonded nonwoven polyethylene fibers. Has reasonable
tear, puncture, and abrasion resistance. Provides excellent protection against particulate
contaminants. Inexpensive and suitable for disposable garments.
• Vlton: Product of Dupont Fluoroelastomer similar to Teflon. Excellent resistence to
degradation and permeation by aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons and petroleum
compounds. Wry resistant to oxidizers. Extremely expensive material used in gloves
and fully encapsulating suits.
B. Chemicals Toxic to Skin
Chemicals identified in the Oil and Hazardous Materials Technical Assistance Data Base System
(OHMTADS) are listed as having adverse skin effects ranging from imtation to absorption into
the body. Knowledge concerning the presence or absence of these materials could be useful
in selecting the necessary Level of Protection. Other substances affecting the skin, but not
listed in OHMTADS, may be present. Therefore, a major effort should be made to identify
all substances.
C. Atmospheric Conditions
Atmospheric conditions such as stability, temperature. wind direction, wind velocity, and pressure
determine the behavior of contaminants in air or the potential for volatile material getting in
air. These parameters should be considered in determining the need for the Level of Protection
required.
D. Air Monitoring
A program must be established for periodic monitoring of the air during site operations. Without
an air monitoring program, any changes could go undetected and jeopardize response personnel.
Monitoring can be done with various types of air pumps and filtering devices followed by analysis
of filtering media; portable reaI time monitoring instruments located strategically on site; personal
dosimeters; and periodic walk.throughs by personnel carrying survey instruments.
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The most commonly available air monitonng devices are the explosimeter and oxygen meter.
Other instruments, such as organic vapor analyzers, photoionization detectors, radiation survey
meters and colormetric indicator tubes are available by contacting appropriate local, state and
federal agencies or industiy.
E. Work in Exclusion Zone
For -perations in the on•site Exclusion Zone (area of potential contamination), different Levels
of Protection may be selected, and various types of chemical•resistant clothing may be worn.
This selection would be based not only on measured air concentrations, but also on the job
function or reason for being in the area and the potential for skin contact or inhalation of
the materials present
F. Escape Masks
The use of escape masks is an option in Level C and D protection. A specialist should determine
their use on a case-by case basis. Escape masks could also be strategically located on site
in areas that have higher possibilities of vapors, gases, or particulates.
Stress
Both physiological and psychological stress can affect response personnel. Cinder certain conditions.
stress can conthbute significantly to accidents or harm workers in other ways. To reduce the potential
for abnormal physical stress or mental anxiety:
• Workers must be periodically examined by medical authorities to determine if they are physically,
and if possible, psychologically fit to perform their jobs.
• Continual practice and training must be provided in using personnel protection equipment.
especially the selfcontained breathing apparatus and chemical•resistant. protective clothing.
• An effective safety program must be implemented and concerted effort made to protect the
worker. These actions help assure personnel that their health and safety will be protected now
and in the future.
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A Weather
Adverse weather conditions are important considerations in planning and conducting site
operations. Hot or cold weather can cause physical discomfort, loss of efficiency, and personal
injury. Of particular importance is heat stress resulting when protective clothing decreases natural
body ventilation. One or more of the following recommendations will help reduce heat stress:
• Provide plenty of liquids. To replace body fluids (water and electrolytes) lost due to sweating,
use a 0.1% salt water solution, more heavily salted foods, or commercial mixes. The cOrn-
mercrj mixes may be preferable for those employees on a low-sodium diet
• Provide cooling devices to aid natural body ventilation. These devices, however, add weight,
and their use should be balanced against worker cIency. Long cotton underwear act
as a wick to help absorb moisture and protect the skin from direct contact with heatS
absorbing protective clothing. It should be the minimum undergarment worn.
• Install mobile showers and/or hose-down facilIties to reduce body temperature and cool
protective clothing.
• In extremely hot weather, conduct norremergency response operations in the early morning
or evening.
• Ensure that adequate shelter is available to protect personnel against heat, cold, rain, snow,
etc., which can decrease physical efficiency and increase the probability of accidents.
• In hot weather, rotate shifts of workers wearing impervious clothing.
B. Heat Stress Monitoring
For monitoring the body’s recuperative ability to excess heat, one or more of the following
techniques should be used as a screening mechanism. Monitoring of personnel wearing
Impervious clothing shQuld commence when the ambient temperature is 70°F or above.
Frequency of monitoring should increase as the.ambient temperature increases or as slow
recovery rates indicate. When temperatures exceed 85°F, workers should be monitored for
heat stress after every work period.
• Heart rate (HR) should be measured by the radial pulse for 30 seconds as early as possible
In the resting period. The HR at the beginning of the rest period should not exceed 110
beats per minute. If the HR is higher, the next work period should be shortened by 10
minutes (or 33%), while the length of the rest period stays the same. If the pulse rate
Is 100 beats per minute at the beginning of the next rest period, the following work cycle
should be shortened by 33%.
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• Body temperature should be measured orally with a clinical thermometer as early as possible
in the resting period. Oral temperature (OT) at the beginning of the rest period should
not exceed 990 F. If it does, the next work period should be shortened by 10 minutes (or
33%), while the length of the rest period stays the same. However, if the CT exceeds 99.7°F.
at the beginning of the next period, the following work cycle should be further shortened
by 33%. CT should be measured again at the end of the rest period to make sure that
it has dropped below 99° F.
• Body water loss (BWL) due to sweating should be measured by weighing the worker in
the .noming and in the evening. The clothing worn should be similar at both weighings;
preferably the worker should be nude. The scale should be accurate to plus or minus
‘4 lb. BWL should not exceed 1.5% of the total body weight If it does, the worker should
be instructed to increase his daily intake of fluids by the weight lost. Ideally, body fluids
should be maintained at a constant level during the work day. This requires replacement
of salt lost in sweat as welt.
• Good hygienic standards must be maintained by frequent change of clothing and daily
showering. Clothing should be permitted to dry during rest periods. Persons who notice
skin problems should immediately consult medical personnel.
C. Effects of Heat Stress
If the body s physiological processes fail to maintain a normal body temperature because of
excessive heat, a number of physical reactions can occur ranging from mild (such as fatigue,
lffltability, anxiety, and decreased concentration, dexterity, or movement) to fatal. Standard
reference books should be consulted for specific treatment
D. Heat•related problems are:
• Heat Rash: caused by continuous exposure to heat and humid air and aggravated by chafing
• clothes. Decreases ability to tolerate heat as well as being a nuisance.
• Heat cramps: caused by profuse perspiration with inadequate fluid intake and chemical
replacement (especially salts). Signs: muscle spasm and pain in the extremities and abdomen.
• Heat exhausUon: caused by increased stress on various organs to meet increased demands
to cool the body. Signs: shallow breathing; pale, cool, moist skin; profuse sweating; dizziness
and lassitude.
• Heat stroke: the most severe form of heat stress. Body must be cooled immediately to
prevent severe injury and/or death. Signs and symptoms are: red, hot, dry skin; no perspira.
tion; nausea; dizziness and confusion; strong, rapid pulse; coma.
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E. Effects of Cold Exposure
Persons working outdoors in temperatures at or below freezing may be frostbitten. Extreme
cold for a short time may cause severe Injuly to the surface of the body, or result in profound
generalized cooling, causing death. Areas of the body which have high surface.area.t.ovolume
ratio such as fingers, toes, and ears, are the most susceptible.
Two fe-tore influence the development of a cold lnjuiy ambient temperature and the velocity
of the wind. Wind chill is used to describe the chilling effect of moving air In combination
with low temperature. For instance, 10°F. with a wind of 15 mIles per hour (mph) is equivalent
in chilling effect to still air at -18° I
As a general rule, the greatest incremental increase in wind chill occurs when a wind of 5
mph increases to 10 mph. Additionally, water conducts heat 240 times faster than air. Thus,
the body cools suddenly when chemical protective equipment is removed if the clothing under•
neath is perspiration soaked.
Local injuly resulting from cold is included in the generic term frostbite. There are several
degrees of damage. Frostbite of the extremities can be categorized into:
• Frost nip or Incipient frostbite: characterized by sudden blanching or whitening of skin.
• Superficial frostbite: skin has a waxy or white appearance and is firm to the touch, but
tissue beneath is resilient.
• Deep frostbite: tissues are cold, pale, and solid; extremely serious injury.
Systemic hypothermia is caused by exposure to freezing or rapidly dropping temperature. Its
symptoms are usually exhibited in five stages: 1) shivering, 2) apathy, listlessness, sleepiness,
and (sometimes) rapid cooling of the body to less than 95°F., 3) unconsciousness, glassy
stare, slow pulse, and slow respiratory rate, 4) freezing of the extremities, and finally, 5) death.
Standard reference books should be consulted for specific treatments.
Summarj
The health and safety of response personnel are major considerations in all response operations.
MI site operation planning must incorporate an analysis of the hazards involved and procedures
for preventing or minimizing the risk to personnel. The Site Safety Plan establishes the safety
practices and procedures to be followed so that the welfare and safety of workers are protected.
The plan must evaluate both the nature of the chemical compounds present and other hazards
that could affect response personneL
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Decontamination
Introduction
Personnel responding to hazardous substance incidents may become contaminated in a number
of ways, including:
• Contacting vapors, gases, mists, or particulates in the air.
• Being splashed by materials while sampling or opening containers.
• Vv lking through puddles of liquids or on contaminated soil.
• Using contaminated instruments or equipment.
Protective clothing and respirators help prevent the wearer from becoming contaminated or inhaling
contaminants, while good work practices help reduce contamination on protective clothing,
instruments, and equipment
Even with these safeguards, contamination may occur. Harmful materials .can be transferred into
clean areas, exposing unprotected personnel. Or in removing contaminated clothing, personnel
may cántact contaminants on the clothing and/or inhale them. To prevent such occurrences, methods
to recJ çe cc ntamination and decontamination procedures must be developed and implemented
before anyone enters a site, and must continue (modified when necessaiy) throughout site operations.
Decontaminauon consists of physically removing contaminants and/or changing their chemical
nature to inñocuou substances. How extensive decontamination must be depends on a number
of factors, the most important being the type of contaminants involved. The more harmful the
contaminant, the more extensive and thorough decontamination must be. Less harmful contaminants
may require less decontamination. Combining decontamination, the correct method of doffing
personnel protective equipment, and the use of site work zones minimizes cross contamination
from protective cl9thing to wearer, equipment to personnel, and one area to another. Only general
guidance can be given on methods and techniques for decontamination. The exact procedure
to use must be determined after evaluating a number of factors specific to the incident
Prelirninaty Concerns
A Initial Planning
The initial decontamination plan assumes all personnel and equipment leaving the Exclusion
Zone (area of potential contamination) are grossly contaminated. A system is then set up to
wash and rinse, or discard, all the personnel protective equipment worn. This is done in
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I EXCLUSION
HEAVY EOUIPMENT ZONE
I DECONTAMINATION i
AREA EXIT
I PATH
— — N N N N — — U — U — U N U U.
—
CONTAMINATION
REDUCTION
ZONE
‘. 4
t1
—u - i
du 0
Z L
4 LEGEND
U HOTLINE
____ CONTAMINATION
CONTROL UNI
ACCESS CONTROL
POINT • EXTRANCI
___ ACCESS CONTROL
POINT. EXIT
•. ...v_._ . —. — — —_ç —•— ——• - • 0—0— I
r — ——
DRESSOUT s REDRESS
i AREA AREA
SUPPORT L J
ZONE I
ENTRY
PATH
AM flO DUCflON ZONE
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combination with a sequential doffing of equipment, starting at the first station with the most
heavily contaminated item and progressing to the last station with the least contaminated article.
The spread of contaminants during the washing/doffing process is further reduced by separating
each decontamination station by a minimum of 3 feet Ideally, contamination should decrease
as a person moves from one station to another faither along in the line.
While planning site operations, methods should be developed to prevent the contamination
of pe pie and equipment For example, using remote sampling techniques, not opening
containers by hand, bagging monitoring instruments, using drum grapplers, watering down
dusty areas, and not walldng through areas of obvious contamination would reduce the probability
of becoming contaminated and require a less elaborate decontamination procedure.
The initial decontamination plan is based on a worst case situation (if no information Is available
about the incident). Specific conditions at the site are then evaluated, including:
• Type of contaminant
• The amount of contamination.
• Levels of protection required.
• Type of protective clothing worn.
The initial system is modified, eliminating unnecessary stations or otherwise adapting it to site
conditions. For instance, the initial plan might require a complete wash and rinse of chemical
protective garment& If disposable garments are worn, the wash/rinse step could be omitted.
aring disposable boot covers and gloves could eliminate washing and rinsing both gloves
and disposable boots and reduce the number of stations needed.
B. Contamination Reduction Corridor
An area within the Contamination Reduction Zone is designated the Contamination Reduction
Corridor (CRC). The CRC controls access into and out of the Exclusion Zone and confines
personnel decontamination activities to a limited area. The size of the corridor depends on
the number of stations in the decontamination procedure, overall dimensions of work control
zones, and amount of space available at the site. A conidor c i 75 feet by 15 feet should
be adequate for full decontamination. Whenever possible, ft should be a straight path.
The CRC boundaries should be conspicuously marked, with entry and exit restricted. The far
end is the hothne — the boundary between the Exduslon Zone and the Contamination Reduction
Zone. Personnel exiting the Exclusion Zone nust go through the CRC.
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Anyone in the CRC should be wearing the Level of Protection designated for the decontamination
crew. Typically, this is one level below the lowest level unused in the exclusion zone. Another
corridor may be required for the entrance and exit of heavy equipment needing decontamination.
Within the CRC, destinct areas are set aside for decontamination of personnel, portable field
equipment, removed clothing, etc. These areas should be marked and personnel restricted
to those wearing the appropriate Level of Protection. All activities within the comdor are confined
to decontamination.
Personnt. protective clothing, respirators, monitoring equipment, sampling supplies, etc. are
all maintained outside of the CRC. Personnel don their protective equipment away from the
CRC and enter the Exclusion Zone through a separate access control point at the hothne.
Extent of Decontamination Required
A. Modifications of Initial Plan
The original decontamination plan must be adapted to specific conditions found at incidents.
These conditions may require more or less personnel decontamination than planned, depending
on a number of factors.
I. Type of Contaminant
The extent of personnel decontamination depends on the effects the contaminants have
on the body. Contaminants do not exhibit the same degree of toxicity (or other hazard).
The more toxic a substance is the more extensive or thorough decontamination must be.
Whenever it is known or suspected that personnel can become contaminated with highly
toxic or skin-destructive substances, a full decontamination procedure should be followed.
If less hazardous materials are involved, the procedure can be downgraded.
2. Amount of Contamination
The amount of contamination on pwLtctiVe clothing is usually determined visually. If it
is badly contaminated, a thorough decontamination is generally required. Gross material
remaining on the protective clothing for any extended period of time may degrade or permeate
it. This likelihood increases with higher air concentrations and greater amounts of liquid
contamination. Gross contamination also increases the probability of personnel contact
Wipe tests may help determine the type and quantity of surface contaminants.
3. Level of Protection
The Level of Protection and specific pieces of clothing worn determine on a preliminaiy
basis the layout of the decontamination line. Each Level of Protection incorporates different
problems in decontamination and doffing of the equipment For example: decontamination
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of the harness straps and backpack assembly of the self.contained breathing apparatus
is difficult. A butyl rubber apron worn over the harness makes decontamination easier.
Clothing variations and different Levels of Protection may require adding or deleting stations
in the original decontamination procedure.
4. V,tirk Function
The work each persons does determines the potential for contact with hazardous materials.
l, turn, this dictates the layout of the decontamination line. Observers, photographers
operators of air samplers, or others in the Exclusion Zone performing tasks that will not
bring them in contact with contaminants may not need, for example, to have their garments
washed and rinsed. Others in the Exclusion Zone with a potential for diiect contact with
the hazardous material will require more thorough decontamination. Different contamination
lines could be set up for different job functions, or certain stations in a line could be omitted
for personnel performing certain tasks.
5. Location of Contamination
Contamination on the upper areas of protective clothing poses a greater risk to the worker
because volatile compounds may generate a hazardous breathing concentration both for
the worker and for the contamination personnel. There Is also an increased probability
of contact with skin with doffing the upper part of clothing.
6. Reason for Leaving Site
The reason for leaving the Exclusion Zone also determines the need and extent of
decontamination. A worker leaving the Exclusion Zone to pick up or drop off tools or
instruments and immediately returning may not require decontamination. A worker leaving
to get a new air cylinder or change a respirator or canisters, however. may require some
degree of decontamination. Individuals departing the CRC for a break, lunch, end of day,
etc., must be thoroughly decontaminated.
B. Effectiveness of Decontamination
There is no method to immediately determine how effective decontamination is in removing
contaminants Discolorations, stains, corrosive effects, and substances adhering to objects may
indicate contaminants have not been removed. However, observable effects only indicate surface
contamination and not permeation (absorption) into clothing. Also many contaminants are
not easily observed.
A method for determining effectiveness of surface decontamination is wipe testing. Cloth or
paper patches — wipes — are wiped over predetermined surfaces of the suspect object and
analyzed in a laboratory. Both the inner and outer surfaces of protective clothing should be
wipe tested. Positive indications of both sets of wipes would indicate surface contamination
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has not been removed and substances have penetrated or permeated through the garment.
Wipe tests can also be done on skin or inside clothing. Permeation of protective garments
requires laboratory analysis of a piece of the protective garments require. Both wipe and
permeation testing provide after-the-fact information. Along with visual observations, results of
these tests can help evaluate the effectiveness of decontamination.
C. Equipment
Decont mination equipment, mateiials, and supplies are generally selected based on availability.
Other considerations are ease of equipment decontamination or disposability. Most equipment
and supplies can be easily procured. For example, soft-bristle scrub brushes or long-handle
brushes are used to remove contaminants. Water in buckets or garden sprayers is used for
nnsing. Large galvanized wash tubs or stock tanks can hold wash and rinse solutions. Children’s
wading pools can also be used. Large plastic garbage cans or other similar containers lined
with plastic bags store contaminated clothing and equipment Contaminated liquids can be
stored temporarily in metal or plastic cans or drums. Other gear includes paper or cloth towels
for drying protective clothing and equipment
D. Decontamination Solution
Personnel protective equipment, sampling tools, and other equipment are usually decontaminated
by scrubbing with detergent-water using a soft-bristle brush followed by rinsing with copious
amounts of water. While this process may not be fully effective in removing some contaminants
(or in a few cases, contaminants may react with water), it is a relatively safe option compared
with using a chemical decontaminating solution. This requires that the contaminant be identified.
A decon chemical is then needed that will change the contaminant into a less harmful substance.
Especially troublesome are unknown substances or mixtures from a variety of known or unknown
substances. The appropriate decontamination solution must be selected in consultation with
an experienced chemist
E. Establishment of Procedures
Once decontamination procedures have been established, all personnel requiring
decontamination must be given precise instructions (and practice, if necessary). Compliance
must be frequently checked. The time it takes for decontamination must be ascertained. Personnel
wearing SCBRs must leave their work area with sufficient air to walk to CRC and go through
decontamination.
Decontamination During Medical Emergencies
A. Basic Considerations
Part of overall planning for incident response is managing medical emergencies. The plan
should provide for:
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• Some response team members fully trained In first aid and CPR.
• Arrangements with the nearest medical facility for transpoitation and treatment of injured,
and for treatment of personnel suffering from exposure to chemicals.
• Consultation services with a to dcologist
• Emergency eye washes, showers, and/or wash stations.
• Rrst aid idts, blankets, stretcher, and resuscitator.
In addition, the plan should have established methods for decontaminating personnel with medical
problems and injuries. There is the possibility that the decontamination may aggravate or cause
more serious health effects. If prompt lifesaving first aid and/or medical treatment Is required,
decontamination procedures should be omitted. Whenever possible, response personnel should
accompany contaminated victims to the medical facility to advise on matters involving
decontamination.
B. Physical lnjuiy
Physical injuries can range from a sprained ankle to a compound fracture, from a minor cut
to massive bleeding. Depending on the seriousness of the injury, freatment may be given at
the site by trained response personnel. For more serious injuries, additional assistance may
be required at the site or the victim may have to be treated at a medical facility.
Ufe-saving care should be instituted immediately without full decontamination. The outside
garments can be removed (depending on the weather) If they do not cause delays, inteifere
with treatment, or aggravate the problem. Respiratory masks and backpack assemblies must
always be removed. Fully encapsulating suits or chemicakesistant dothing can be cut away.
If the outer contaminated garments cannot be safely removed, the Individual should be wrapped
in plastic, nibber, or blankets to help prevent contaminating the inside of ambulances and/
or medical personnel. Outside garments are then removed at the medical facility. No attempt
should be made to wash or rinse the victim. One exception would be If it Is Iciown that the
individual has been contaminated with an extremely to dc or conosive material which could
also cause severe Injury or loss of fife. For minor medical problems or injuries, the normal
decontamination procedure should be followed.
C. Heat Stress
Heat.related illnesses range from heat fatigue to heat stroke, the most serious. Heat stroke
requires prompt treatment to prevent Irreversible damage or death. Protective clothing may
have to be cut off. Less serious forms of heat stress require prompt attention or they may
lead to a heat stroke. Unless the victim is obviously contaminated, decontamination should
be omitted or minimized and treatment begun immediately.
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D. Chemical Exposure
Exposure to chemicals can be dMded into two categories:
• Injuries from direct contact, such as acid bums or inhalation of to,ac chemicals.
• Potential injuly due to gross contamination on clothing or equipment
For the contaminant inhaled, treatment can only be by qualified physicians. If the contaminant
is on the sidn or in the eyes. immediate measures must be taken to counteract the substances
effect First aid treatment usually is flooding the affected area with water however, for a few
chemicals, water may cause more severe problems.
When protective clothing is grossly contaminated, contaminants may be transferred to treatment
personnel or the wearer and cause injunes. Unless severe medical problems have occurred
simultaneously with splashes, the protective clothing should be washed off as rapidly as possible
and carefully removed.
Protection For Decontamination Workers
The Level of Protection worn by decontamination workers is determined by:
• Expected or visible contamination on workers.
• Type of contaminant and associated respiratoiy and sldn hazards.
• Total vapor/gas concentrations in the CRC.
• Particulates and specific inorganic or organic vapors in the CRC.
• Resultsofwipetests.
Generally, the level of protection for decontamination workers is one level below that of site ently
personnel.
Decontamination of Equipment
Insofar as possible, measures should be taken to prevent contamination of sampling and monitoring
equipment Sampling devices be ome contaminated, but monitoring instruments unless they are
splashed, usually do not Once contaminated, instjuments are difficult to clean without damaging
them. Any delicate instiument which cannot be decontaminated easily should be protected while
it is being used. It should be bagged, and the bag taped and secured around the Instrument.
Openings are made in the bag for sample intake.
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A. Decontamination Procedures
1. Sampling Devices
Sampling devices require a more thorough cleaning to prevent cross
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C. Persistent Contamination
In some instances, clothing and equipment will become contaminated with substances that
cannot be removed by normal decontamination procedures. A solvent may be used to remove
such contamination from equipment lilt does not destroy or degrade the protective materials.
If persistent contamination is expected, disposable garments should be used. Testing for persistent
contamination of protecthie clothing and appropriate decontamination must be done by qualified
laboratory personnel.
D. Disposal of Contaminated Materials
All materials and equipment used for decontamination must be disposed of properly. Clothing,
tools, buckets, brushes, and all other equipment that is contaminated must be secured In drums
or other containers and labeled. Clothing not completely decontaminated on site should be
secured in plastic bags before being removed from the site.
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SECTION 4:
RESPONSE OPERATING
PROCEDURES
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Response Operating Procedures
To provide an effective and comprehensive response to releases of hazardous matenals, Congress
in 1980, enacted the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Uability Act
which is popularly known as Superfund. The Superfund Act and the earlier authorities under Section
311 of the Clean Water Act permit the federal government to work with State and local governments
to provide an immediate and comprehensive response to accidental releases of hazardous substances.
Superfund cleanups are financed by a oust fund. The fund can be used to provide both emergency
and long-term cleanup of releases of hazardous substances and inactive waste sites. It is collected
through taxes paid by manufacturers, producers, and aiporters and importers of oil and chemical
In 1968, the Federal government established the first National Contingency Plan to respond to
emergencies caused by oil spills and releases of hazardous substances in navigable waters. Superfund
required EPA to revise and republish the Plan to cover all of the actions which can now be taken
under both Superfund and the Clean Water Act The Plan details the responsibilities of 14 Federal
agencies and State and local governments for cleaning up releases of hazardous substances and
oil spills to all media (land, air, surface water and ground water).
In general the Plan:
• Encourages coordination of Federal, State and local government involvement in response
actions;
• Allows State and local governments to be reimbursed by the Federal government for
reasonable response costs; and
• Authorizes the Federal government to undertake cleanup when the responsible party or
the state cannot or will not do so.
Primary responsibility for dealing with accidental releases in or near coastal waters and the Great
Lakes is with the Coast Guard. The lead responsibility for other emergencies occurring inland
or in Inland waters belongs to EPA.
Most state governments and a few local governments have a designated unit to respond to hazardous
materials emergencies. A Regional Contingency Plan, following the format of the National
Contingency Plan has been prepared for the Regions to provide a uniform procedure for accessing
the response organizations and to provide for state lead on all response with support from the
federal resources as necessary. There are two notable exceptions to these general rules.
1. The Coast Guard bears primary responsibility for releases from vessels wherever they occur.
2. EPA bears similar responsiblilty hazardous waste treatment, storage, and disposal facilities.
The Federal government maintains a primary 24hour Incident reporting number toll free, which
Is operated by the CLS. Coast Guard in Washington, D.C. (8004248802) and the Regional contingent
of EPAs response program also maintains a 24-hour number for reporting incidents and accessing
response resources. (See front cover of manual).
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Response Operating Procedures
Policy
The EPA Regional policy pertaining to the Implementation of the spill response program shall
be:
1. To respond on•scene to the severest environment.al incidents invoMng the discharge of oil
and des.gnated hazardous substances. EPA OSCs and/or their designated representatives will
assume a monitoring role or a federal removal role as dictated by the situation.
2. To strongly encourage dischargers to assume responsibility for the clean.up/mitigatlon of
environmental incidents.
3. To work dosely with and provide assistance to state and local governments and prepare them
to assume an active role in the crises planning and response program.
4. To insure that tradeoffs between environmental protection and public safety are carefully
considered when evaluating removal/mitIgation alternatives. Generally, public safety
considerations s ha 11 receive priority during the decision making process.
5. To carefully evaluate all information pertaining to discharges and avoid unreasonable risks or
injuries to response team members
Notification
The EPA response personnel operates and maintains a telephone “hotline” dedicated solely to
reporting and transmitting of information concerning an environmental crisis incident
During normal duty hours (7 30-6OOMondayFriday), a designated person will be assigned the
duty of handling incoming calls on the “hothne. ’ It is the responsibility of this person to log all
information. This information is promptly relayed to an experienced response person who is prepared
and able to make eniergency decisions, and provide technical information. Commonly, the person
manning the ‘hedine” during normal duty hours will be an experienced spill response person.
After normal duty hours, on weekends and holidays incoming telephone calls on the hothne
are diverted to a predesignated location and handled by the standby officer. The standby duty
officer shall promptly relay pertinent information to the on-call personnel who will initiate the
appropnate response action.
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Upon receipt of notification that a spill incident or environmental crisis has occurred, the information
contained on the Spill Report Form shall be obtained from the caller. Critical information is the
callers name and call back number in the event communications are disrupted. It is important
to obtain and record as much detail as practical concerning an incident in order to assist in determining
response needs.
A separate log is maintained by EPA and by each state as a running account on a day-today
basis of calls. Information to be contained in this log are as follows:
REGION I INCIDENT NOTIFICATION REPORT
1. OHM Case No.:
O7.s Qency Pam:__________________________ R,spo n dw._____________________
Apomy Name. ____________________
12 98. 0 Polrep. Date: / / 99. Flmd Fuw d Remcvai 0
100. 0 RS eTaI to ol1 w orga*a1(on Ntanbw:
2. R.porl.d Msn’ WJ Is. Th: - 1 uI4 Or
o Th NRC IIN C.s.P1e.:
6 Rsponed By
7. ganizahori Name
6. ow za n 0 9 stha (0 p ô’g 0 Ii. stot. 0 12 0 13.f*,aI
14. Address
16 Coi.w ty: It ?. Slat.
lB 19.PIuw ( )
c 20. 0 As Above In A 1(9 apçthee 121. Name
III
. lee. Contact
n. dlv: 124. Coirty: 12& Slits
° Zlo: 127. Pt s: (
7 . .Q As Abom In B 129. SIreet or Ap ox. Location:
30. CIty: I 31. Coulty: 132. Slat.
04 5-w 33.S IIDate.(.mnW yJ 134 SeINTIm.:
35 ri
M itsW
w.ate.t.i Nan
z
Mitatai Name
42
Mitsnd Name
48.
UNIDOT Numbor
3 ?
45
48
CAS Registry Number
4t
5a
CHRISCode
. .
4 2
5 ?.
Ouanhtty Spited
40.
5
Ui ta 01 Measure
4?.
4Z
82.
H. B. Category
66
91.
66.
ao.s latus
90 D>Ro
D iRO
94. D,RO
Source of Spit Dso. a. •I.v.IgdeIDorC er No.:
S5. ’Oatsporf 5 .au 59.p4 .dr*
82 Desolobon.
M 5 ta1l AIlided. D&lv D6t betd 065 watw 066. groulUwat 0 67.
68. Watsiway Alt eded
Reported Cause: 69. t,an,poriat,on axid.nf 7? epera bW error 73. dLrrçir 075. o8tor
70. squlpvrrsnlf&it• 72. r iaftritpiteewmsiwal 7t ia*nown
D 1 Deniegs.: 7 na *abs 7&stocfde ____
SO. 0 Evw Ion I 81. Response Ac1(cn Taken:
a CitSr Has Notfied. 0 82. sta?e4o ’ 082 sdisipw 8t USCG 085 aster 66
yNamr
Nsin.
87. Comments
I El 95. M tIon& bitorma1(on
06. RespondIng Agency:
ID tD (D ac IDUSEPA lDo
101. OrgenIzaUon
IDL
j Contact: . : Oats: / /
Contact te. JJ
68
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Evaluation and Initiation of Action
Once a spill report has been received and logged by EPA. a preliminaiy determination of each
report shall be made to assess the need for further action. Should insufficient information be
submitted by the caller, then the person making the preliminary evaluation should make necessary
contacts to obtain as much information as possible to conduct this evaluation.
At a minimum, the following factors should be given consideration in determining followup actions
and response priorities:
1. Type of material spilled.
a Quantity of mateiial spilled.
3. Location of spill in relation to threat to exposures (water, public health, etc.).
4. Action taken to mitigate the problem.
When the aforementioned factors and report have been fully evaluated, the actions taken should
be noted in the daily log. In each case, the appropriate state counterpart shall be promptly notified
of the report and the proposed actions, if any.
Generally speaking, the regions will provide immediate response to all spills or situations listed
below:
1. Significant public health threat indicated.
a Significant ervsironmental impact indicated.
3. All requests from state designated counterparts of designated OSCs for assistance in
providing on site support, back.up information, analytical assistance or RRT meetings.
4. Access to 311K funds or other federal clean up funds.
In situations where immediate response is necessary, the designated “on
-------
An uptodate roster of names, telephone numbers and agencies will be maintained at the regional
response center for quick reference to accomplish the notification tasks specified above. In addition,
each response team member shall maintain a personal listing of these contacts for field use purposes.
The seventy of the incident will dictate the mode of b’ansportation, number of personnel inftially
needed, and the types of equipment required.
In the event a response team is necessaly, a minimum twoperson team with an equipped response
vehicle is ciltical. If necesssary, this response team can fly to the incident location by commercial
or chartered aircraft, taldng only personal protective gear and other essential equipment Another
team can drive to the incident with all necessaly primaiy response equipment In order to prevent
an unnecessaiy trip by the second team they should “check in’ with the duty officer at twohour
intervals following his departure for a update of the spill situation. It may be desirable to
dispatch only one person, if severity is not consid ed ciudaL
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SECTION 5:
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
CONTINGENCY PLANNING
FOR HAZARDOUS
MATERIALS INCIDENTS
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Local Government Contingency
Planning for Hazardous
Materials Incidents
Introduction
It is desirable that ali levels of government have a functional plan for coping with hazardous materials
incidents, in order to mitigate the hazards associated with such incidents. The degree of development
of such plans is dependent on the level of government or the agency compiling them, with more
fort being required as the size of the jurisdictional area increases. Hazardous materials plans
can often be incorporated into existing CMI Defense plans, which may already specify an organizational
s ucture for coping with other disasters. Time and effort may be saved if the hazardous materials
plan is built upon plans and organizations already available.
Local government contingency planning can have the greatest effect on limiting the consequences
of a hazardous material spill. as actions taken by first responders often determine the seriousness
of the effects of the spill. It is the intent of this discussion to provide guidance for those individuals
or agencies in local governments responsible for formulating hazardous material contingency plans.
An approach to planning is outhned which relies upon l owledge of the types of hazardous materials,
storage areas and transportation routes, and likely spill circumstances, which might be encountered
in an area. With this information, specific threats can be developed. Emphasis is also placed upon
listing available resources, both within and outside of a community, which may be useful in dealing
with a hazardous materials incident Utilizing the resources and expertise of industries handling
the materials in question is stressed. The need to define the roles of various departments and
agencies within and outside of local government is discussed, as well as the need to have pie.
assigned local responsibilities for such departments in order to limit confusion and duplication
of effort.
Approaches to Contingency Planning
There are many possible approaches to contingency planning which can result in an effective,
serviceable plan. One possible approach, which may be altered as local circumstances dictate,
is outlined as follows:
1. Decide upon type of plan required.
2. Select individual (or committee) responsible for compiUng plan.
3. Develop plan outline for Hazardous Materials.
4. Review and critique existing plan/plans, if any.
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5. Determine possible hazardous material hazards in the area of concern by contacting
manufacturers, transporters, and users of such materials and histoncal sources.
6. Determine response capabilities of local police and fire departments, as well as that of
surrounding communities and state and federal governmental agencies.
7. Determine response capabilities of local indus y and transporters. specifically those which
may be involved in a hazardous materials incident
8. Develop resource list, detailing where equipment and personnel may be obtained to help
deal with a hazardous material emergency.
9. Designate specific responsibilities of city departments in the event of a hazardous material
incident
10. Using the information gathered under items 5 through 9. prepare a contingency plan draft.
Have draft reviewed by all parties assigned responsibilities under the plan. Alternately, have
each department draft the section covering their responsibility.
11. Revise draft, incorporating comments received under item 10.
12. Distribute plan, acquaint key personnel with the plan, and periodically update it to reflect
changes within the community or within a local government
Background Work as an Aid to Planning
A Defining Hazards
The scope of a contingency plan may be better focused if a comprehensive survey of the
hazardous materials utilized, stored or transported through an area is made. Such a survey
permits efforts to be expended in the areas where they are likely to do the most good. and
lessens the chance for preparing for events which are not likely to occur. The following list
details likely contacts and sources of information for initiating a survey.
1. How pages
2. State Manufacturers Directories
3. Fire Inspection Records
4. Transport Companies
-
— Truck Lines
— PIpelines
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5. Chemical Manufacturers
— organic chemicals
— paints/solvents
— plastics
6. Storage Facilities (including wholesale and retail outlets)
— agricultural: fertilizers, pesticides
— paints/solvents
— plastics
7. Chemical Users
— water/wastewater treatment plants
— plating shops
— tanneries
8. Regional Spill Reporting System (access through EPA or the Coast Guard)
In contacting users/manufacturers/shippers of hazardous materials, it should be emphasized
that information is being collected for planning purposes. Cooperation from local industries
will be more assured if they realize that information volunteered will not result in a crackdown
on what may be unsafe storage or operating procedures. Although this procedure will indicate
the vast majority (8095%) of the hazards in your community, it is not a panacea. One time
or infrequent shipments through your jurisdiction may result in a release not covered by this
threat analysis. This factor should be considered in preparing the other sections of your plan.
A relatively new program offered by CHEMTREC is called Chemnet Under Chemnet, a local
chemical manufacturer may respond to the scene on behalf of the original manufacturer or
shipper until their response team can arrive. This response is generally limited to technical
advice on the behavior of the material and it’s container.
B. Defining Response Capabilities
Response capabilities within a community may be readily determined based on past hazardous
material responses. This information indicates the amount of outside assistance which might
be required in various hazardous material scenarios. The response capabilities of surrounding
communities as well as county, state, and federal governments, should be investigated and
the means to activate units included in the plan. Some private industries maintain response
teams, and CHEMTREC (Chemical Transpoitation Emergency Center) maintains a toll4ree
number for advice during chemical spill emergencies. Some of the governmental and private
agencies whose aid may be sought during hazardous spill emergencies are listed as follows:
1. Local
— Fire Department
— Police Department
— Civil Defense
— Health Department
— Highway Department
— Public Utilities (Vv ter, Sewer, Electric)
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2. County-wide
— Police Department
— CMI Defense
— Health Department
— Highway Department
3. Statewide
— State Police
— LMI Defense
— Highway Department
— Health Department
— Department of Environmental Control
4. Federal
— Environmental Protection Agency
— Corps of Engineers
— Coast Guard
— National Response Center (Staffed by Coast Guard Personnel; the NRC maintains a
toll free number (800/424-8802). The NRC relays reports to appropriate regional
authorities for response actions, and may be contacted in lieu of contacting the Coast
Guard or EPA
— Center for Disease Control (CDC)
— Federal Emergency Management Agency (FE ’ A)
5. Private
— CHEMTREC (Chemical Transportation Emergency Center) CHEMNET (Chemical Mutual
and Network). CHEMTREC is maintained as a public service by the Chemical
Manufacturers Association, and provides advice for those at the scene of the chemical
spill emergendes CHEM11 EC contacts the shipper of the chemicals involved in an
accident for detailed assistance as required. CHEMTREC may be reached 24 hours
a day at 800/424.9300
— CHLOREP (Chlorine Emergency Plan). A mutual aid program of chlorine producers,
which responds to chlorine emergencies. Contacted through CHEMTREC
— P5Th (Pesticide Safety Team Network). A mutual aid program of the National Agricultural
Chemicals Association, which maintains 40 emergency teams throughout the county.
Contacted through CHEMTREC
6. Local educators
Contingency Plan Content
The actual content of a contingency plan will be dependent upon the agency or department compiling
and using it. The following outline is presented as a guide for local governments, assuming a
department of that government (frequently the fire department) has first response capabUlftes and
thus the most immediate need for the plan. Should an e dsting plan (e.g. Civil Defense Emergency
Plan) be modified to cover hazardous materials emergencies, some of the sections listed below
can be omitted or limited in scope.
74
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Plan Outhne
1. Emergency Response NotifIcation
a. Consists of a spill form filled out by the person taking the call.
b. Should be brief, simple, used routinely, and limited to one page.
c. Should record the callers name, location of spill, telephone number, identification, the
material spilled, time of spill, quantities spilled, container type, shipper placarding, railcar/
truck ID numbers, etc.
2. Introduction
a. States need for and purpose of plan.
b. Lists abbreviations.
3. Emergency Response Operations (details steps of response)
a. Notification or Initial Report (using form from I above).
b. Other Agency/Response Group Notification. (EPA, Coast Guard, CHEMTREC, State
Response Agencies, etc.)
c. Initiation of Action.
(I) Who is in charge
(2) Who establishes command post
(3) Means to identify spilled material
(4) Determining hazard presented by situation
(5) Activating response teams
d. Requests for Outside Assistance
(I) Types of incidents exceeding capabilities of local first responders
(2) Determining when outside assistance is required
(3) Specifies who calls what outside agency for assistance
e. Coordination of Decision Making
(I) Defining roles of those involved
(2) Assigning secondaiy responsibilities
f. Containment and Countermeasures
(I) Steps for first responders to alleviate hazard
(2) Identify specific actions to be taken
(a) Stop leak, seal punctures
(b) When to extinguish fire, recommended fire suppressants
(c) Use of booms and earth dams for containment
(d) Evacuation distances, If necessaiy.
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g. Cleanup and Disposal
(1) Determining responsibility for cleanup
(2) List local and regional cleanup contractors
4. Emergency Assistance Telephone Roster
a. Gives a listing in the sequence to be called of agencies and departments to be notified
in the event of a hazardous materials emergency.
b. Includes after.hours telephone numbers and alternative contacts within designated
agencies.
c. Typical contacts to be included on a telephone roster are as follows:
(1) Local — police, fire, civil defense, public works, ambulance, health department,
hospitals, utility, mayor’s office, media
(2) Neighbonng — cities, counties
(3) State — state police, fire marshall, civil defense, public health department,
Environmental Protection Agency, Department of Transportation
(4) Federal — U.S Environmental Protection Agency, U.S Department of Transportation,
Federal Emergency Management Agency, Centers for Disease Control, Coast Guard,
National Response Center
(5) Private — CHEMTREC, CHLORE PSTh, Bureau of Explosives, Cleanup Contractors,
local industry contacts
5. Response Organization Structure/ Responsibilities
a. Describes local response center, response team.
b. Details duties of key response personnel.
Appendices
& Hazards Analysis
1. Identifies, through a community survey, the hazardous materials most often used in an
area, and their likeh ,y locations.
2. Identifies the probable locations for hazardous material incidents, and identifies susceptible
populations.
3. Identifies transporters of hazardous materials, and routes of transport
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B. Hazard Mitigation Techniques
1. Using results of hazards analysis, outlines steps to take in responding to a hazardous material
response, on a material specific basis.
2. Identifies recommended firefighting techniques, whether runoff waters should be contained
and treated, need for evacuation, how to handle escaping vapors, containing materials at
the scene, levels of personal protection required, etc.
C. Cleanup/Disposal Resources
1. Lists locations, quantities, and types of resources available. The following resource items
may be included:
— cleanup material and equipment: bulldozers, sorbent materials, booms, sand, gravel,
overpack drums, etc.
— personal protective equipment: respirators, air packs, splash suits, fully encapsulating
suits, etc.
— cleanup/disposal contractors and services provided.
2. Materials and manpower may be available from the following groups, whose resources
may be determined from a questionnaire:
— Public agencies: police, fire, public works, civil defense
— industry construction companies, spill cleanup contractors, chemical producers,
transporters, storers, etc.
D. Technical Library
1. Lists technical references which are kept on hand to provide assistance in contingency
planning and hazardous material spills.
2. A brief summary of the information contained in each reference may be included.
3. Typical publications which may be included in such a libraiy are as follows:
a. Background Material
— Planning Guide and Cheddist or Hazardous Materials Contlngenq, Mans, FEMA.
10, July 1981
— State Contingency Plan
— EPA Regional Contingency Plan
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— Managing Hazardous Substance Accidents. Al J. Smith, McGraw Hill, New York,
1980
— Development of an Emergency Response Program for Transportation of Hazardous
Wastes. EPA Report SW -171C
— Capability Assessment and Standards for State and Local Government, FEMA CPG
1-102, November 1983
- Hazards Analysis for Emergency Management, FEMA CPG 1-101, September 1983
— Disaster Operations. A Handbook for Local Governments. CPG 1-6, July 1972,
Federal Emergency Management Agency, Publications Office, Room 406, 1725 Eye
Street, NW Washington, DC 20472
b. Technical Material
(1) On-Scene
— Emergency Handling of Hazardous Materials In Swface Transportation, Bureau of
Explosive Association of American Railroads
— Farm Chemicals Handbook, Meister Publishing Co., Willoughby, Ohio
— Oil and Hazardous Substances Response Manual, Region Vil EPS
— Flie Protection Guide on Hazardous Materials. 8th Edition, National Fire Protection
Association, 470 Atlantic Ave., Boston, MA 02210
— Fire Officera’ Guide to Dangerous Chemicals. Charles W. Bahme, National Fire
Protection Association, 470 Atlantic Ave., Boston, MA 02210
— 1984 Emergency Response Guidebook, DOT P 58003
— NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, August 1980
(2) Back-LIp
— Hazardous Materials Spill Monitoring, Safety Handbook and Chemical Hazard Guide.
Parts A and B. EPA 600/479 -008a&b
— Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials. N. living Sax. n Nostrand Reinhold
Co, New York, New York
— Manual for the Control of Hazardous Material Spills. ‘vblume 1, Spill Assessment
EPA 600/2.77.227
— Guidelines to the Handllng of Hazardous Materials. Darrel J. Behrendsen (Denver
Police Department). Source of Safety, Inc., 8303 E. Kenyon Blvd., Denver, CO 80237
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Reference Uterature
These references are suitable for placement on fire, police, and other public safety and health
vehicles.
1984 Emergency Response Guidebook. DOT P5800.3
U.S. Department of Transportation
Order from:
Amencan Trucking Assoc., Inc. J. J. Keller & Assoc., Inc.
Customer Service Section 145 W. Wisconsin Ave.
I6 I6PStreetNW Neenah,W154956
shington , DC 20036
Labelmaster (JNZ & Co.
7525 N. Wolcott 190 Baldwin Ave.
Chicago. IL 60625 Jersey City, NJ 073077
Outlines the hazards involved and the recommended actions to be taken as a result of a spill
of over 2,000 selected hazardous matenals. Provides cross•reference index of U.N. Identification
Number to proper shipping names and some initial isolation distances.
Are Protection Guide on Hazardous Mateijals
National Fire Protection Association
470 Atlantic Avenue
Boston, MA 02210
Grves the hazard properties of more than 1,300 flammable substances. Has data for approximately
416 to,dc matenals with recommendations for storage and fire fighting. Includes 3,550 mixtures
of two or more chemicals reported to be potentially dangerous. Also contains a recommended
system for identifying and labeling substances according to thair degree of toxicity, flammability
and reactivity.
79
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chemical Hazard Response Information System (CHRIS) Iumes 1,11 and IV
Department of Transportation/U.S. Coast Guard
Order from:
Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Vs shingtor DC 20402
Briefly describes the chemical and biological hazards of approximately 1200 chemicals so that
personnel at the scene of an accident can assess the danger and consider the appropriate large
scale response.
The Flreflghte?s Handbook of Hazardous Materials
By Charles J. Baker
Baltese Enterprises, Inc.
RO. Box 34048
Indianapolis, Indiana 46234
Gives relative toxicity, flammability, thermal stability, permissable extinguishing agents. evacuation
guidance, spill action, and first aid information for over 4,000 listings.
In addition to the preceding references, the following publications are suitable for use by
environmental, safety, and health personnel in the field.
NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide to chemical Hazards
National Institude for Occupational Safety and Health
Order from:
Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Vv shington, DC 20402
GPO 01 7.033.00342-4
Presents in tabular form, information and recommendations relating to permissible azposure limits,
chemical and physical properties, health hazard information, respiratoly protection, and personal
protection and sanitation practices for 380 chemicals.
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Hazardous Materials
Training Courses
1) “Hazardous Materials”
International Society of Are Service Instructors
0 Main Street
Ashland, Mass. 01721
617/8815800
Approidmately $110. A 2-day course held in various locations in the United States.
2) “National SpIll Control School”
National Spill Control School
Corpus Ovisti State University
6300 Ocean Drive
Corpus Christi, Texas 78412
512/991-8692
Appro,amately $550. A Sday course that deals with spills of petroleum and chemical products.
Price Includes equipment, protective clothing, and course materials, but does not include room
and board. This course is held several times during the year in Corpus Christi, Texas.
3) “Oil Spill Control”
Appro amately $575. Held in Galveston, Texas. A Sday course.
“Hazardous Materials”
Approximately $575. Held in College Station, Texas. A 5day course.
“Tank Truck Rollover”
Approximately $400. Held in College Station, Texas. A 3day course.
The costs of these courses Include class materials and bunker gear.
Oil and Hazardous Material Control Training Divison
Texas Engineering Extension Service
The Texas A & M University System
FE. Drawer K
College Station, Texas 77843
713/8453418
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4) “OIl Spill Response Training Program”
NUS Corporation
3000 S. Jamaica Court, Suite 150
Aurora, Colorado 80014
303/337.0924
This course is composed of 23 units, each conslsthg of a 30.45 minute videotape and instructors
handbot.k.
Rates vary from $665 per unit to $10,000 for the purchase of the entire 23-unit package. Discounts
are given when more than I unit is purchased.
5) “Personnel Protection and Safety”
“Incident Mitigation and Treatment Methods”
“Hazardous Materials Incident Response Operations”
“Field Monitoring and Sampling of Hazardous Materials”
“Hazard Evaluation and Environmental Assessment”
“Response Safety Declsion ’Maldng Workshop”
No fee for federal, state, and local governmental personnel Involved in emergency response
and waste site cleanup. Private industry may attend by pa)4ng a tuition fee If space Is available.
Tuition for “Field Monitoring and Sampling of Hazardous Materials” is $175. The fee for each
of the other courses if $110. Each of the courses last 5 days.
OERR Training Program
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 West St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
513/684.7537
OR
Thomas C. Sell, Training Coordinator
Environmental Response Branch
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 West St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
513/684.7537
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