DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNIQUES AND METHODOLOGY FOR THE LABORATORY
CULTURE OF STRIPED BASS, MORONE SAXATILIS (WALBAUM)
by
Bruce A. Rogers, Deborah T. Westin
and
Saul B. Saila
Graduate School of Oceanography
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, Rhode Island 02881
Grant No. 68-03-0316
Project Officer
Allan D. Beck
Environmental Research Laboratory
Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
NARRAGANSETT, RHODE ISLAND 02882
-------
2
DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNIQUES & METHODOLOGY
FOR THE LABORATORY CULTURE OF STRIPED BASS
Mot-one saxatilis
AB STRACT
This summary describes the research undertaken to develop 1 aboratory
culture techniques for striped bass ( Morone saxatilis ) that could be used to
provide an adequate supply of various life stages of this important fish
species for water quality and hazard evaluation testing.
For each of the four life stages defined here, egg, larval, juvenile,
and adult, the upper and lower lethal levels where applicable and an
approximation of optimum conditions were defined with regard to physical
characteristics of the environment including temperature, salinity,
dissolved oxygen, light, and turbidity. Satisfactory laboratory diets were
defined and verified for each life stage. A comprehensive set of procedures
was developed and described in a step—by—step manner for use by research
personnel wishing to maintain laboratory populations of striped bass for
physiological and toxicological use.
-------
DISCLAINER
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Research Laboratory,
Narragansett, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for
publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect
the views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does
mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
ii
-------
FOREWORD
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has the broad responsibility
to carry out the national policy to restore and maintain the chemical, physi-
cal, and biological integrity of land and water resources consistent with the
health and welfare of mankind. The agency is charged with specific legal
mandates concerning water pollution. Two major laws protecting the aquatic
environment deal with regulating water quality and controlling toxic sub-
stances:
PL 92—500 Clean Water Act (Federal Water Pollution Control Act
as amended)
PL 94—469 Toxic Substances Control Act
Aquatic toxicological research accomplished at the Environmental
Research Laboratory, Narragansett (ERLN) provided the scientific data base
to meet these agency mandates. Availability of test species that are sen-
sitive to toxicants, ecologically important, and available in laboratory
culture is essential to such toxicological research.
This report describes culture methodology for the marine fish,
striped bass ( Morone saxatilis ) and use of early life stages in bioassay
experiments. A detailed procedure is provided for the laboratory production
of sufficient numbers of embryos, larvae, and juveniles to support experi-
mental use in toxicological studies.
Tudor T. Davies
Director
Environmental Research Laboratory,
Narragansett
-------
ABSTRACT
This research was undertaken to develop laboratory culture techniques
for striped bass ( Morone saxatilis ) that could be used to provide an adequate
supply of various life stages of this important fish species for water
quality and hazard evaluation testing. The work included both an extensive
literature review of the data available on all aspects of its life history and
a program of laboratory experiments to determine the optimal rearing
conditions for each life stage.
For each of the four life stages defined here, egg, larva, juvenile, and
adult, the upper and lower lethal levels where applicable and an approximation
of optimum conditions were defined with regard to physical characteristics
of the envirotiment including temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, light,
and turbidity. Although the establishment of the nutritional requirements of
each life stage was not an objective of this study, satisfactory laboratory
diets were defined and verified for each life stage. A comprehensive set of
procedures was developed and described in step—by—step manner for use by
research personnel wishing to maintain laboratory populations of striped bass
for physiological and toxicological use.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Contract No. 68—03—0316 by
the University of Rhode Island under the sponsorship of the U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency. This report covers a period from July 1,
1973 to April 15, 1979, and work was completed as of June 1978.
iv
-------
CONFENTS
Introduction
Conclusions.
Recommendations
Development of Current Culture Methods
Nomenclature, Taxonomy and Morphology.
Nomenclature
Taxonomy
Morphology
6. Distribution and Migration
Distribution
Migration
7. Materials and Methods.
General Format
Source of Material
General Research Procedures
8. Recommended Culture Methods and
Description of Stage.
Natural Habitat
Environmental Requirements.
Culture Methodology .
9. Recommended Culture Methods and
Description of Stage.
Natural Habitat
Environmental Requirements.
Culture Methodology .
10. Recommended Culture Methods and
Subadults
Description of Stage.
Natural Habitat
Environmental Requirements.
Culture Methodology
11. Recommended Culture Methods and Bionomics:
Description of Stage
Natural Habitat
Environmental Requirements
Culture Methodology
1
2
3
Historical Review . 4
16
Foreword
Abstract
Figures
Tables
Acknowledgments
Section
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
11.1.
iv
vii
xi
xv
-A
. . . .
. S •
Bionomics
Bi onomi cs
Bionomi cs
. . S •
S S • S
Embryo
Larvae
Juvenile
. .
Adult.
S
and
16
16
22
30
30
30
41
41
42
43
48
48
55
55
65
70
70
79
79
92
103
103
106
109
124
147
147
152
156
162
V
-------
12. Use in Toxicological Research.
Culture Methods Outlined.
Previous Studies
13. Population and Stocks
Structure
Abundance and Density
Natality and Recruitment.
Mortality
Dynamics of Stock or Population
The Population in the Community
14. Exploitation and Management
Exploitation
Management
15. References
169
169
175
191
191
195
198
203
206
and
the
Ecosystem
209
211
211
220
vi
-------
F I GIJR.ES
Number Page
1 The striped bass, Morone saxatilis (Walbaum) 18
2 Distribution of striped bass along the coast of North America
and within freshwater areas of the United States 31
3 Yearly ambient sea water temperatures from flow through
laboratory holding tanks during 1974 44
4 Regional variation in striped bass egg dimensions 49
5 Development of striped bass eggs at 18.8-20°C 52
6 The effect of incubation temperature on the time from fertiliza-
tion to selected developmental stages before and after
hatching 53
7 Temperature, turbidity, and conductivity measured on the spawning
grounds of the Nanticoke River, Maryland, during 1975 57
8 The association of striped bass egg and larval abundance with
water temperature in the Hudson River, New York, during 1968. . 58
9 A. Suggested tools for handling eggs and larvae of striped bass
so that the animals remain in the water
B. Suggested striped bass egg hatching container modified from
aMcDonald hatching jar . 67
10 Some of the more common abnormalities of striped bass embroys
before and just after hatching 69
11 Developmental stages of striped bass larvae to metamorphosis. . . 71
12 The effect of rearing temperature on the duration of the yolk sac
and larval stages of striped bass 74
13 Measurements made on New York 1977 newly hatched striped bass
prolarvae after incubation at four temperatures 75
14 Measurements made on New York 1977 striped bass prolarvae at yolk
absorption after incubation and maintenance at four tempera-
tures 76
vii
-------
Ni.unber Page
15 Percent water content of striped bass pro larvae 78
16 Catch per unit effort of striped bass yolk sac larvae collected
by epibenthic sled and tucker trawl at various temperature,
conductivity and dissolved oxygen concentrations in the
Hudson River, New York during 1975 . . . . . . 80
17 Catch per unit effort, of stTiped bass post yolk sac larvae
collected by epibenthic sled and tucker trawl at various
temperature, conductivity and dissolved oxygen concentrations
in the Hudson River, New York during 1975 81
18 Larval density in the Potomac River, Maryland, during 1974 over
the salinity and temperatures reported 82
19 The effect of delayed feeding on the survival of striped bass
stocked at yolk absorption at 24, 21, 18, and 1 5 ° c 87
20 The effect of temperature and delayed feeding on the growth in
standard length of striped bass larvae stocked at hatching at
27, 24, 21, 18, and 15°C 90
21 The effect of temperature and delayed feeding on the growth in
dry weight of striped bass larvae stocked at hatching at 27,
24, 21, 18, and 15°C . . . 91
22 A. Schematic of closed intensive culture facilities used by
Mcllwain (1975)
B. Basic upflow tank used by Lewis et al. (1977) for bass
larvae in their recirculating system 95
23 A comparison of growth rates observed under fixed temperature
regimes with those obtained in earlier studies under condi-
tions of increasing temperature 101
24 Abnormalities among striped bass larvae reported by:
A - Doroshev (1970) and B - Mansueti (1958) 102
25 Relationship between standard length in millimeters and body
ieight in grams for post yolk sac larval and juvenile striped
bass 104
26 Relationship between dry weight in grams and wet weight in grams
of juvenile and subadult striped bass 105
27 Hudson River sites for juvenile striped bass catch per unit
effort at two week intervals beginning at 3/23-4/5 through
12/14—12/27 107
viii
-------
Number Page
28 Abundances of striped bass juveniles (A) and yearlings (B)
taken in standard samples during 1973, 1974 and 1975 from
the Hudson River 108
29 Growth in weight and length for juvenile striped bass held in
ambient sea water in a cage 115
30 Growth in weight of young-of-the-year striped bass fed at fixed
percentages of their live body weight per day on cut squid at
ambient sea water temperatures of 18 and 20°C . . . . 117
31 Growth in weight of subadult striped bass fed to satiation daily
in ambient seawater 121
32 Routine oxygen consumption determined for juvenile and yearling
striped bass of wet weight over three temperature ranges. . . . 122
33 Routine oxygen consumption determined for juvenile and yearling
striped bass of wet weight before and after feeding over
the temperature range of 12 to 14°C and before and after
feeding at temperatures of 20 to 22°C 123
34 Ammonia excretion rate determined for juvenile and yearling
striped bass of wet weight before and after feeding at 18 to
22°C and before and after feeding at 8 to 12°C 125
35 Cumulative ammonia excretion by individual juvenile striped bass
in seawater and freshwater. Percent survival of all indi-
viduals in seawater and freshwater is also shown. 127
36 Holding mortality of juvenile striped bass seined from rivers
in 0 Maryland and New York either transported and held in
10 /00 water, or transported and held in freshwater, or
transported and held in freshwater until transferred to
seawater about August 30th 131
37 A. Plot of probit estimated time for 50% evacuation for bass of
mean wet weight per group for average temperatures indicated
B. Plot of graphically estimated time for 50% evacuation of
ration, as a percent of live body weight, consumed by each
g x’oiip 1 35
38 Growth in weight of juvenile and yearling striped bass fed
daily on one of three diets in sea water at average tempera-
tures of 20°C and 16 and 12°C 136
39 Growth in length of young-of-the-year striped bass among 1973,
1974 and 1975. year classes in the Hudson River and mean
lengths reported for other coastal populations 138
ix
-------
Number Page
40 Composite illustrating lesions and infections of the gill
filaments of striped bass observed from histopathologic
examination 144
41 Composite illustrating some parasites of striped bass skin
and cartilage . • • . 145
42 Composite illustrating lesions of the nares and other neo-
plasma and cysts 146
43 Fecundity of the striped bass in relation to individual weights . 153
44 Relationship of oxygen consumption to wet weight for striped
bass subadults and adults at two temperature ranges 158
45 Schematic of holding facility for adult striped bass 166
46 Measurements of maximum body depth and standard body length
from live (anesthetized) striped bass seined from Maryland
rivers (wild) or reared in the laboratory from eggs 170
47 Landing statistics for Massachusetts, Maryland, New York, and
North Carolina striped bass fisheries . . . . . . . . 218
x
-------
TABLES
Number Page
1 Diagnostic osteological characters of five species of Morone . . . 19
2 Distribution of certain meristic characters among striped bass
subpopu lations 23
3 Meristic characteristics of striped bass and striped bass
hybrids 29
4 Summary of tagging studies involving age 2+ striped bass in
the Hudson, Chesapeake, and San Joaquin estuaries . . . . . . . 33
5 Summary of the energy content of unfertilized striped bass eggs . 50
6 Relationship between the size of gravid striped bass females
and the dry weight of the eggs they produce 51
7 Hatching time of striped bass eggs in relation to water tem-
peratures 54
8 Data on striped bass spawning throughout its range 56
9 Environmental requirements of striped bass eggs 59
10 Percent survival to hatching of striped bass eggs stocked at
various temperature and salinity and temperature, salinity,
and dissolved oxygen combinations 61
11 Percent survival to hatching of striped bass eggs exposed to
various concentrations of ammonia NH 3 ) and nitrate (NO 3 ) . . . 63
12 The effect of treating filtered river water with penicillin-
streptomycin on the percent survival at hatching of striped
bass eggs at four temperatures 64
13 Developmental stages of striped bass, reared at about 17°C,
unless otherwise stated, through tranformation . 72
14 Average percent composition (carbon and nitrogen) of striped
bass prolarvae, larvae at yolk absorption, and fed and
starved postlarvae re ared at four temperatures 77
xi
-------
Number Page
15 Environmental requirements of larval striped bass 83
16 Percent survival of striped bass prolarvae after 48 hours
exposure to various ammonia (NH 3 ) concentrations, temperatures,
salinities and pH’s 85
17 Caloric and percent composition of some live larval food items. . 98
18 Instantaneous growth coefficients for delayed feeding groups at
five constant temperatures 100
19 Environmental requirements of striped bass juveniles and
S ubadults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
20 Preferred foods of striped bass . . . . . 113
21 Summary of growth data for each group of striped bass fed one of
two diets at 10 and 20°C 118
22 Absorption and conversion efficiencies calculated for striped
bass fed one of two diets at 20°C and compared to growth
efficiency from Table 21 119
23 Excretion rates measured forth-eight hours after last meal for
individual juvenile and subadult striped bass 126
24 Parasites and diseases of striped bass reported from the
literature and this study 128
25 Calories and percent composition of some foods of juveniles and
subadu ltstripedbass 134
26 Treatment recommended for some of the parasite groups common to
striped bass. 141
27 Incidence of lesion type 142
28 Age and size at first maturity for striped bass 148
29 Length-weight relationship for striped bass 149
30 Comparison of growth of striped bass from various areas 150
31 Relationship of gonad weight, egg number, body length and body
weight among striped bass of various ages captured in a
numberofareas 151
32 Percent survival through hatching of striped bass eggs from
artificial and natural spawnings. . . . . . . 154
xii
-------
Number Page
33 Environmental requirements of striped bass adults . 157
34 A. Daily food consi.mlption levels for striped bass fed to
satiation at different ambient sea temperatures
B. Evacuation rates for striped bass fed daily to satiation. . . 159
35 Excretion rates typical for adult striped bass at two tempera-
tures at 300/00 160
36 Growth rates typical for adults maintained in seawater and
feddaily 167
37 Summary of optimal rearing conditions for the various striped
bass life stages 173
38 Toxicity of substances to striped bass larvae 176
39 Toxicity of substances to juvenile striped bass . 177
40 Testing conditions for striped bass bioassays 179
41 Water quality of bioassays using striped bass 180
42 Analysis of chemical substances used in striped bass bioassays. . 181
43 Residue concentrations of heavy metals reported in muscle (flesh)
tissue from wild striped bass 187
44 Summary of hydrocarbon residues reported in muscle (filet) of
striped bass 188
45 Summary of hydrocarbon residues reported in striped bass
ovaries 189
46 Examples of annual densities of striped bass reported for
differentareas 197
47 Estimates of egg and larval production and survival rates . . . . 200
48 Estimates of survival and mortality rates for some striped bass
stocks 204
49 Summary of information available on striped bass fisheries. . . . 212
50 Percentages of striped bass landed caught by each gear, by
state, for 1962-66 and 1967-71 213
51 State regulations governing striped bass fishing 214
xiii
-------
Number Page
52 Estimates of striped bass fishing efforts from survey of
anglers 216
53 Striped bass landings by marine state in the United States
in metric tons 21 9
xiv
-------
AC KNOW LEDG 4EN1’S
The authors wish to thank the many individuals and groups who assisted
us in many aspects of the work during the course of this study. We wish to
thank particularly the laboratory assistants who served for various periods
of time during the course of the investigation: John Hartley, Michele Cyr,
Norman Kahn, Aimee Keller, Linn Meller and Steve Clements. We wish to
acknowledge and thank the following individuals and groups who assisted us
in collections of various life stages: Jack Bayless, Moncks Corner striped
bass hatchery, S.C.; Joe Boone, Maryland Fisheries Administration; Halleck
Fish Co., Shady Side, Md.; Tallman and Mack Fish Trap Co., Newport, R.t.;
and Consolidated Edison Co. of New York, the owners of the Verplank, N.Y.
experimental striped bass hatchery operated by personnel of Texas Instru-
ments, Inc. All of the figures were prepared by the Graphics Department of
the Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, whom we
thank for their perseverance. Drs. Richard Wolke and Peter Belinsky of the
URI Marine Pathology Laboratory performed numerous h.istopathological exami-
nations of striped bass specimens and provided valuable diagnostic advice.
Special thanks are offered to Susan Proulx and Janice Steele for their
patience and ability in typing the text and tables through many drafts.
Deborah van Dam provided important editorial comments. Finally we wish to
thank Alan Beck, our project officer, for his patience and encouragement
through out this study.
xv
-------
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Striped bass, Morone saxatilis , is an important commercial and sport
fish species with a center of distribution between the Hudson River and
the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. Individuals of this species ascend major
rivers to spawn, use coastal estuaries as nursery grounds, and as adults
make seasonal migrations along the coast rarely straying more than five
miles from the shoreline. Because it passes its entire life cycle in the
waters immediately adjacent to the Boston—Washington,D.C., megalopolis,
it is subjected to the most intense effects of man—made pollution and
environmental alteration. In spite of these abuses, the Atlantic
population of striped bass has until recently enjoyed great abundance.
Although in the past considerable amount of research has been done on the
culture of the species for stocking into southern reservoirs, no reliable
culture methodology has been developed for maintaining all of the life stages
of the striped bass in the laboratory where the effects of various pollutants
may be determined in physiological studies and bioassay experiments.
The present study was undertaken to develop a reliable culture protocol
for all life stages of the striped bass. Armed with such a protocol,
researchers will be in a better position to examine the effects of water
borne pollutants on this resilient but vulnerable species.
1
-------
SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS
During the course of this study all of the life stages of the striped
bass from egg to adult were successfully maintained under laboratory condi-
tions. The temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, Light and turbidity
requirements of all life stages were either determined empirically, approx-
imated from environmental data, or where reported by other workers corrobrated
in our laboratory. Optimum and survival limits for each of these parameters
were, where appropriate, specified. By maintaining conditions within these
bounds, striped bass eggs were repeatedly reared through to the juvenile
stage. A population of striped bass adults were successfully maintained in
captivity for five years. Despite repeated attempts, we were unable during
the course of this study to successfully induce spawning in the laboratory.
Sexually mature adults of both sexes, however, did occur among our captive
population. A step—by—step culture methodology has been prepared for use by
future workers.
2
-------
SECTION 3
RE COMMENDATIONS
Although striped bass reach sexual maturity from two to nine years
after hatching, it is, we believe, possible and desirable to perform life
cycle studies using this species. In this study we were unable to close the
circle and demonstrate an egg—to—egg culture capability. Continued work
along this line would be highly desirable. The culture requirements of
larval and juvenile striped bass as well as adults may be easily met in the
laboratory. We urge more frequent use of this important species as a subject
for laboratory investigators. Increased knowledge of the effects of food
and/or water borne contaminants of the various life stages of the striped
bass could and should be used as a basis for efforts to diagnosis and
remedy the recent dramatic decline in the recruitment of the species into
the sport and commercial fisheries on both the East and West Coasts.
3
-------
SECTION 4
DEVELOPMENT OF CURRENT CULTURE METHODS - A HISTORICAL REVIEW
Striped bass culture had its beginnings in the latter half of the
nineteenth century during the childhood of American fish culture.
Commercial and subsistence fishing had been an important part of the North
American economy since the first settlers arrived. As early as the mid—
1700’s many New England fisheries had been completely eradicated through the
combined affects of virtually unrestricted fishing effort, dam building,
imprudent agricultural practices and river pollution. By the mid—nineteenth
century many coastal, estuarine and inland fisheries were in a state of
decline. In addition, other fisheries, while apparently not suffering
directly from overexploitation, were affected by fluctuations in abundance
which caused economic dislocations in the fishing industry.
The techniques of salmonid culture developed and described in Europe
by Stephan Ludwig Jacobi in 1764, were rediscovered and popularized in
France by Joseph Remy and Antoine Gehin in the late 1840’s. In his first
report, M. Coste, then director of the first fish hatchery to be built by
the French government, in 1852 stated “There is no branch of industry or
husbandry, which with less chance of loss, offers an easier certainty of
profit.” (Davis, 1967, p. 6). This ebullience was to characterize the
hatchery movement in Europe and in North America for the next half century.
In 1853 Theodatus Garlick, of Cleveland, Ohio, was the first American
to attempt and succeed at fish culture. His pioneering experiments with
brook trout paved the way for the entrepreneur—culturists, Seth Green,
Livingston Stone, and Thaddeus Norris, the acknowledged fathers of American
fish culture. By the late 1860’s, 19 states maintained hatchery operations
as did n erous private culturists. During this period it was generally
realized that the stocking of artificially propagated fish was a more
politically acceptable palliative for the problem of overfishing than any
efforts to limit the catch (Bowen, 1970). However, there was little incen-
tive to stock interstate waters.
In 1868 the shad fishery was in a poor state in many areas. In that
year the federal Conunissioner of Agriculture was petitioned by culturist
Seth Green and several others to sponsor efforts to propagate shad. By
1872, the U.S. Fish Commission, which was formed a year earlier, under the
leadership of its first Commissioner, Spencer F. Baird, received the mandate
from Congress “for the introduction of shad into the waters of the Gulf
States, of the Mississippi Valley and of the Pacific States, and of salmon,
whitefish, and other useful foodfish in the waters of the United States to
which they are best adapted...” (Bowen, 1970, p. 82—83). Baii d, working
with and around the recently formed American Fish Cultural Society, the
4
-------
precursor to the American Fisheries Society, led the federal effort to
restore depleted fisheries, both inland and coastal, through artificial
propagation. The shad restoration effort was the heart of the federal fish
culture program during the early years of the Fish Commission s activities
in this area.
Marcellus G. Holton, who was employed by the fish commission to under-
take shad spawning operations on the Roanoke River in North Carolina,
reported in 1874 to Commissioner Baird that he had successfully spawned
and hatched striped bass, or rockfish, in May of 1873. His was the earliest
report of attempts to propagate this species. E. H. Walke, also of the
Fish Commission, reported successful efforts at spawning and hatching striped
bass eggs in 1879, agaIn incidental to shad spawning operations. S. G.
Worth of the North Carolina Sub—department of Fish and Fisheries described
details of his successful attempts to spawn and hatch striped bass taken in
Albemarle Sound in the spring of 1880. He concltxied: “...it may be inferred
that rock—fish eggs are as easily fertilized as those of shad, and it would
in addition appear that a less amount of milt is necessary. It would
further appear that they are more hardy, even admitting large amounts of sand
and other mechanical substances into the water while undergoing impregnation.
...it occurs that it only remains to ascertain the spawning localities of the
parent fish when their propagation will follow.” (1882, p. 176). Worth
appeared to be the first culturist to undertake efforts specifically for the
purpose of hatching striped bass. In 1884 he reported: “. . .1 established
at Weldon (North Carolina), quite late in the season of 1883, an exceedingly
crude establishment, containing sixty—five McDonald jars, equipped as if
for very crude shad or whitefish hatching. The station was provided with a
force of five experts, a force rather too small, though efficient.” (1884b,
p. 210—211). Worth and his force succeeded in hatching and releasing
50,000 striped bass fry from the estimated 1,000,000 eggs they had taken.
The only difficulties he mentioned were the delicacy of egg chorions late
in development and the lack of fine enough screens to retain the newly
hatched larve. He concluded that “... there seems scarcely a doubt of
securing a great supply of eggs, th is opening a means of propagating the
choice, valuable striped bass.” cL884b, p. 212). Thus it was with great
optimism that the first century of striped bass culture was begun.
Since efforts to hatch striped bass were offshoots of shad culture
operations, no special equipment or techniques were used in these early
culture experiments. At times eligible males and females of either species,
striped bass or shad, were unavaiLable, prompting these early investigators
to try and cross—fertilize the two species. Whether or not these efforts
were undertaken with the serious expectation of success is unknown. Worth
(1882) fertilized striped bass eggs with shad mnilt and observed 5—6%
survival through hatching, with some larvae surviving for an additional 12
days. Writing in 1887, Ryder noted “It is rather extraordinary that the
striped bass should so readily lend itself to the purpose of cross—
fertilization with other closely allied species, such as the white and
yellow perch, but is still more astonishing that it should be possible
to cross this species with another belonging not simply to a different
family, but even to a widely different order and sub—class.” (p. 524).
Ryder then described what he feat was incontestable evidence that reciprocal
5
-------
crosses were possible between shad and striped bass. In addition, he quoted
a publication by R. B. Roosevelt of New York in which he too reported a viable
cross between shad and bass. Ryder’s report was the last to mention inter-
ordinal crosses involving striped bass. Hybridization between the striped
bass and its congeners, however, was to receive much additional attention
eighty years later (see Section 5).
It was within the spirit of the fish culture movement of the period that
efforts were made to establish striped bass in California waters. Shad
fry had been transported to California in 1871 two years after the completion
of the transcontinental railroad. By 1880 the Atlantic shad had been
established from San Francisco Bay to Vancouver. No doubt heady with the
success of the shad introduction, S. R. Throckmorton, the chairman of the
California Fish Commission, engaged Livingston Stone to import to the west
coast young striped bass, lobsters and several other Atlantic coast species.
Striped bass were planned to be included among the species transported
west by Stone in 1874 but for logistic reasons were not. However in 1879
he did succeed in transporting 133 juvenile striped bass captured in the
Navesink River, New Jersey, to San Francisco Bay where they were stocked in
Carquinez Strait between the fresh and salt water sections of the Bay.
The initial stocking was apparently an instant success. Eleven months after
the fish were stocked a 12 inch specimen was caught. By the time a second
planting of approximately 300 juveniles was undertaken by 3. G. Woodbury in
1882 striped bass appeared to be well established (Shebley, 1927).
Spectacular successes such as the striped bass introduction in
California gave credence to the proponents of artificial propagation as a
fisheries management tool. Successful transplantations such as this, howeve;
did not allow the culturist an opportunity to perfect the techniques of
spawn taking and egg hatching that were required in other fisheries. Hatch-
ing techniques used in early experiments with striped bass were essentially
the same as those used for shad. Worth (1882) noted that striped bass eggs
were larger and somewhat more bouyant than those of shad. He also observed
that striped bass eggs did not require the same water volume as shad eggs
when McDonald jars were used. This observation no doubt came about as a
result of attempts to use flows equivalent to those used on shad, which
because of the lower density of bass eggs would have resulted in washing
the eggs out of the hatching jar or rapid clogging of aquarium screens,
where these were used. Worth apparently also hatched eggs in fabric cones
in floating live cars, a technique also used for hatching shad. Brice, in
his 1898 Manual of Fish Culture , observed that “The tidal apparatus, such
as is used for cod and tautog eggs, is adapted to hatching the eggs of this
fish” (p. 185). Brice does not mention whether or not the ‘McDonald tidal
egg hatching box’ was ever, in fact, used to hatch striped bass eggs. The
actual hatching of fertile eggs never appears to have been an important
problem to these early culturists.
From the very beginning, however, finding female striped bass in
spawnable condition was a problem. Even initial enthusiastic commentary on
Holton’s 1874 announcement that he had successfully spawned striped bass was
hedged with the proviso that “If localities cc i i i be found where rockfish may
be taken in sufficient numbers in the breeding season, the increase of this
6
-------
species is probably as sure to be as effected as that of the shad has been.”
(p. 554). In 1882 Seth Green observed to the members of the American Fish
Cultural Association: “There have been but a few sturgeon and striped bass
hatched artificially. The reason that there have not been more is that it
is so difficult to get the mattire fish when the spawn is ripe.” (p. 37). He
then proposed holding potential spawners in live cars until they matured.
In his 1884 report to the American Fish Cultural Association, Worth noted
that “It is not known at what points ripe fish of this species can be found
in greatest abundance, but in our present state of knowledge, Weldon, North
Carolina, presents the greatest number.” (p. 209). Of Weldon he notth:
“Although large quantities of striped bass are taken during the
several months by the large seines and pound nets seaward, there
appears to be no one point where the eggs in a condition proper for
fecundation can be found so abundantly. At the particular point
named, the fall is so great that ordinarily, owing to a lack of a
great voliune of water to smooth over the falls, the fish are unable
to pass directly over, and in consequence are detained at the foot
of the falls.” (1884b, p. 209).
While realizing that the Weldon site was unique, Worth felt that
there were other suitable spawn taking areas downstream in the Roanoke
“...with the system of impounding, there seems scarcely a doubt of securing
a great supply of eggs,” (p. 212). Worth’s prediction proved to be some-
what optimistic. Difficulties in obtaining ripe striped bass were
encountered elsewhere as well. Fish Commission culturists at the Havre
de Grace station, Chesapeake Bay, were not successful in artificially
fertilizing and hatching striped bass because of difficulties encountered
in trying to obtain ripe males and females at the same time. The construc-
tion of live holding facilities was suggested but apparently none were
built. Norny (1882) suggested the use of an enclosed pond near the
spawning grounds on the Delaware River as a means of procuring ripe
females. Although he demonstrated that holding females was possible, no
major cultural effort ensued. The Weldon station was operated by the U.S.
Fish Commission and later the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries well into the
Twentieth Century (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1904—). In 1913,
Snyder reported on some of the improvements in hatching operations that had
taken place at Weldon over the years. E en at Weldon the problem of
obtaining females in the proper condition for spawning persisted. Commis-
sion culturists obtained their ripe females from commercial fishermen
working along the river. Snyder noted “...during the past four seasons I...
have taken the eggs from only five fish, which were all the ripe fish I saw
caught. . . .Has it been proven that these fish will not ripen in crates?”
(1913, p. 96). In 1915, Snyder reported that in fact they would ripen in
live cars. Although he was not pleased with the construction of the live
car he used, Snyder was able to conclude after his experiences during the
spring of 1914 that nearly ripe striped bass ripened in confinement
and that some of the eggs of those fish which ripen in confinement produced
good results. In all, seven of the 30 fish penned that spring in Weldon
spawned. Two of these “cast their eggs” in the car between examinations.
In recapitulating the results of his penning experiments Snyder observed
that the only females yielding eggs were those with very soft abdomens at
7
-------
the time of capture. Among these promising individuals there was still
great variation in the degree of survival that was realized. What success
he did achieve he attributed to a large extent to the great care he exer-
cised in handling his brood fish. Snyder’s spawners were captured on a
‘slide’ of a wooden wier in the river; as a result there was little capture
damage to the fish.
Based on observations by fishermen of large concentrations of ripe
females in the area during the years 1903 through 1905, the California
Fish and Game Coi ission decided to locate a hatchery near Bouldin Island
on the San Joaquin River (Scofield, 1910). The hatchery began operations
in 1907. Fishermen brought in ripe females to hatchery personnel who
stripped them, applied milt and transferred the fertilized eggs to McDonald
hatching jars. During the first season the hatchery was filled to capacity.
Survival among the lots of eggs received ranged from over 50—60% to about
5%. The range in hatching success was attributed to water quality and
defects in the hatchery methods used. The hatching rate among successful
spawns was higher than had been reported for hatching operations on the
Atlantic Coast. During the following season the expected run of spawners
failed to materialize. Among the fish that were examined it was found
that spawners exhibiting low rates of survival also showed a low rate of
fertilization based on microscopic examination of eggs during the first
few hours of development. Using the microscope, each lot of eggs was
examined for the percent undergoing normal cleavage. Variations in survival
which had been laid to handling and water quality were now attributed to
differences in the degree of ripeness of the females spawned. Immature
females were observed to have lighter colored eggs than the dark bottle—
green eggs of fully ripe individuals. Filamentous fungus developed on
dead eggs in the hatching jars. It was controlled using a 1:100,000
solution of copper sulphate with no apparent ill effects. This was the
first recorded instance of the use of chemical treatments in striped bass
culture. Both wet and dry methods of fertilization were tried. The wet
method yielded only slightly better results. Having observed that the
majority of the fish taken had not reached the necessary stage of ripeness
for successful egg taking, Bouldin Island culturists constructed a large
holding pen, although reports from the Atlantic coast indicated that
striped bass were difficult to maintain alive in pens and that past efforts
to hold females until they reached ripeness had not met with great success.
During the 1909 season the run of bass was as poor as it had been the year
before; however, 50 females were caught and penned. Most of the fish taken
using gill nets died within a few days. Males and immature females
survived longer than ripe females which lasted no more than 24 hours after
capture. It was concluded that penning brood fish was practical only
where all forms of handling could be kept to a minimum. Few eggs were taken
from all of the fish captured in 1909. The following year the run improved,
but all of the females taken were iature. Ripe males were plentiful.
The Bouldin Island hatchery was abandoned after the disappointing results
during the 1909 and 1910 seasons. Although ultimately unsuccessful, the
Bouldin Island operation was the first to bring to bear up—to—date
biological techniques in the examination of spawning adults, eggs, and
larvae, The observations reported by Scofield and Coleman (1910) during
their biological experiments at Bouldin Island were the first systematic
8
-------
investigations of some of the biological problems encountered in spawning
and hatching striped bass.
The experiments at the Bouldin Island hatchery in California and Sny-
der’s (1915) efforts on the Roanoke River, N.C., a few years later both
pointed out the major problem in striped bass culture to date, namely, the
extreme variability in the degree of ripeness that occurs even among
females that are on the spawning grounds and are nearly ready to spawn.
It was clear that, as Scofield pointed out, “The taking of a female bass
with ripe eggs was evidently a lucky chance,...” (1910, P. 106) and that
holding females until they ripened, although it increased the odds of
finding one which was in precisely the right stage of ripeness, was
at best a difficult proposition.
Early culturists looked upon propagation as a means of helping
nature produce fish fry. In most instances newly hatched larvae were
stocked directly into the waters from which their parents were captured.
When distant waters were to be stocked fry were transported in shipping
cans with no particular care being given other than to shield them from
temperature extremes and provide periodic water changes. Little attention
was given to the cultural requirements of the larvae or later developmental
stages. In his l884a report Worth stated: “A.s far as the keeping of the
fry is concerned there is no difficulty; in former experiments I have found
no difficulty whatever in keeping them alive in ordinary shipping cans a
period of twelve days with moderate changes of water through the tin
strainer tube.” (p. 228). In 1904 Worth reported that he had reared an
unspecified number of larvae for four weeks in a “crudely constructed
pool near the hatchery door.” He states: “I do not think that partial
rearing in ponds could be other than successful, as the water in the
temporary pool at Weldon was of very high temperature and almost stagnant.’
(p. 226).
The hatchery at Weldon has operated with only minor interruptions since
Worth’s time under the administration of the Bureau of Fisheries (and its
successors) and the state of North Carolina. Raney writing in 1952 noted:
“Experience at the Weldon hatchery has shown that the fry are not held
successfully for more than 12 to 24 hours after hatching without high
mortality, ... fry must be handled very carefully to avoid large losses,
and the longest haul successfully accomplished took about two hours.”
(p. 44). Although Raney suggested that crowding and polluted water may have
been responsible for this extreme tenderness among striped bass larvae
spawned at Weldon, the difference between the problems he cite and the
minor difficulties evidently encountered by Worth are noteworthy. The
techniques employed at the Weldon hatchery underwent very little change
between 1906 and the late 1950’s. Pearson (1938) mentioned successful
experiments undertaken in 1937 at Weldon and Edenton, North Carolina, aimed
at rearing larval striped bass in aquaria and outdoor ponds through the
introduction of natural foods such as Daphnia . However, he did not give
details of this work.
In 1942 the South Carolina Public Service Authority completed a
hydroelectric project which involved the d imning of the Cooper and Santee
9
-------
Rivers on the coastal plain of South Carolina. Prior to the completion
of the project minor runs of striped bass occurred in the Santee River with
none of any importance in the Cooper River. The damming effort diverted
all river flow from the Santee River eliminating the run on that stream and
channelling it through a hydroelectric dam equipped with a navigation lock
which was connected by a tailrace canal to the Cooper River. The resulting
impoundments, Lakes Marion and Noultrie, covered an area of 160,500 acres
with a total shoreline of 415 miles. Shortly after the impoundment had
been completed, sportsmen’s catches of striped bass upstream of the dams
increased markedly. In addition, the increased flow in the Cooper River—
Tailrace Canal System provided conditions which fostered an increased sea-
sonal run of striped bass below the hydroelectric dam. Although no effort
was made to encourage the passage of anadromous species through the naviga-
tion lock into Lakes Marion and Noultrie, catches of menhaden, alewives,
and American shad in the impoundments suggested that the dams were not an
impenetrable barrier to normally migratory species. Observations of large
numbers of juvenile striped bass in the two lakes suggested that some
reproduction might be taking place above the dams. In 1955 Scruggs and
Fuller reported the occurrence of striped bass eggs and larvae well above
the dams at the mouths of the Congaree and Wateree Rivers, strongly
suggesting that striped bass were capable of spawning in an entirely
landlocked situation, a previously unsuspected case. Surber (1958) in a
review of the results of various attempts to introduce adult striped bass
into fresh water impoundments both before and after Scruggs and Fuller’s
discovery noted that, on the whole, these efforts had met with meager
success. Only in the case of the Kerr Reservoir, a large impoundment on
the Virginia—North Carolina border, was there any evidence of successful
reproduction. Although striped bass, introduced as juveniles or adults
often thrived under landlocked conditions offering sportfishing opportun-
ities and the promise of controlling exploding populations of undesirable
species such as gizzard shad ( Dorosoma spp.), it was concluded that all
but a very few impoundments failed to supply fast flowing tributary
streams which were felt to be necessary for successful spawning and egg
survival. Stevens (1965) opined that “The spawning recruitment dictates
that unless the freely—spawned striped bass eggs remain suspended in a
current until hatching, they will settle to the bottom and suffocate.”
(p. 526). Reasoning that “the reservoirs of South Carolina, other than
Santee—Cooper, are physically deficient as to the spawning requirements of
the. striped bass and that reproduction is doomed for this reason.
a hatchery was constructed in 1961 at Moncks Corner in order to circumvent
this limiting factor to the successful establishment of striped bass
throughout the state.” (p. 526).
The Moncks Corner Hatchery, the first to be established since the
closure of the Bouldin Island hatchery in 1910, was inspired in its
configuration by the Weldon hatchery which had by that time been operating
more or less continually for over 70 years. Weldon was located below
Weldon Rapids which formed an impasse to upstream migrants on the Roanoke
River. The Moncks Corner operation was located on the tailrace of the
Pinopolis Dam at the head of the Cooper River—Tailrace Canal System. Here
each spring striped bass in spawning condition were known to congregate in
great numbers. It was felt that a situation like that at Weldon would be
10
-------
created. Hatchery personnel rather than conmiercial fishermen were to
capture potential spawners in deference to South Carolina law which
proscribed all commercial fishing for striped bass and prohibited all
fishing in a sanctuary area just below the dam. Of 900 fish examined in
1961 none were found to be fully ripe. While many fish were concentrated
just below the dam, it appeared that actual spawning took place over a
stretch of several miles below the dam. Concluding that the time between
ovulation and the actual release of eggs must be very sho t, it was
decided to abandon attempts to capture brood fiqh in precisely the proper
condition for artificial spawning.
Pickford and Atz’s (1957) review, The Physiology of the Pituitary Gland
of Fishes , and several succeeding studies by personnel of the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, had demonstrated the efficacy of hormone injections as a
means to induce precocious spawning in a number of fish species maintained
in captivity. Between 1962 and 1965 a series of experiments were run at
Moncks Corner under the leadership of Robert Stevens of the South Carolina
Wildlife Resources Department, which led to the development of a procedure
which could be used for the routine induction of spawning in Cooper River
females. This provided a basis for an.extremely productive fry production
program at Moncks Corner. Stevens (1966) investigated a number of hormone
injection protocoLs before arriving at an optimal means of assessing
maturity, determining the proper timing and dosages of hormone and learning
to predict with great precision the time at which brood fish should be
stripped to ensure maximum egg survival. In addition to the use of human
chorionic gonadotropin, which was ultimately adopted as the hormone of
choice for this work, he investigated the use of a variety of other hormone
preparations. These included follicle stimulating hormone, pituitary
luteinizing hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, estrogen preparations,
testosterone, and fish pituitary glands. Only chorionic gonadotropin and
follicle stimulating hormone induced ovulation in striped bass females
when used alone. Other procedural improvements effected during this
period included the construction and use of holding ponds, the use of AC
electrofishing techniques to capture broodfish, and ef constant
temperature well water to supply the holding tanks and hatch house.
McDonald jars were used in the hatchery in much the same configuration
as they had always been used, but some of the troublesome aspects of their
use such as air entrainment and pressure variations were circumvented. Two
phenomena discovered by Stevens and his co—workers proved to be a great help
in explaining why so many earlier attempts at holding fish until they were
ripe had failed. ‘Over—ripeness ,“ the retention of already ovulated eggs
in the ovary without releasing them, led to the production of eggs with
very low ferti].izability. It was found that there was a period of not
over one hour between ovulation and the onset of over—ripeness. Eggs not
stripped in this period showed very low survival through hatching. Over-
ripeness was avoided through the periodic inspection of egg samples removed
from the oviduct using a catheter tube. Abortion, or the ovulation of
inmiature eggs, was observed in some cases but the regular use of hormones
and regular inspection prevented abortion from being a serious problem.
There was evidence, however, that hormone induced ovulation increased the
number of immature eggs that were released. These eggs could be fertilized
but seldom survived through hatching. Earlier workers at Bouldin Island
11
-------
had apparently tried to strip a number of fish with immature or golden
colored eggs.
The hormone techniques developed at Moncks Corner in the early sixties
were very effective in the hands of those practiced in their use.
Experienced culturists became expert at estimating the time to strip females
based on relatively few inspections. Minimizing handling reduced the likeli-
hood that females would die before viable eggs could be removed. The use
of the anesthetic NS—222, applied topically to the gills prior to stripping
increased the number of females which survived the spawn taking process.
The use of the techniques developed at Moncks Corner resulted in the
production of eggs which survived well through hatching. Estimated percent
hatching increased from an average of 7.3% in 1962 to 31.0% in 1964 when
100,000,000 fry were produced (Stevens, 1966). Fry produced during this
period were held in aerated aquaria for up to three days after hatching at
which time they were stocked into grow—out ponds. As Stevens in South
Carolina was perfecting spawning techniques which were leading to greatly
increased levels of fry production, work was proceeding at the Edenton
National Fish Hatchery, at Edenton, North Carolina, aimed at growing
striped bass fry to fingerling size.
Newly hatched fry produced at Weldon had been used to stock a number of
inland areas in the south. Non—reproducing populations had been established
in several cases. Owing to the apparent lack of suitable spawning habitat
in many inland water bodies, the only way in which striped bass could be
maintained in these lakes to support sportfishing and rough fish control was
through continued introductions of hatchery reared fry from Weldon or
Moncks Corner. ‘Put, grow and take’ management of many lakes and reservoirs
involved the production of predigious numbers of fry each year. Stevens
noted a put, grow and take basis, however, low survival could not be
tolerated because the inherent inefficiency would make the concept
economically unjustifiable.” (1967, p. 2). As of 1965 the Kerr Reservoir
was the only inland water to have a population of striped bass which had
been created by stocking fry. Stevens (1967), however, cited information
which cast doubt on the validity of even this claim. A total of three
million fry stocked between 1952 and 1954 from Weldon were claimed by some
to be the basis for the population of adults that appeared later. It was
reasoned that with the low survival among fry stocked shortly after
hatching a protracted yearly stocking program would be needed to yield any
significant results. The need for better survival was evident. Anderson
(1966) reported on efforts made in 1964 at the Edenton Hatchery. Lots of
fry obtained from Weldon were divided between hatchery troughs and
fertilized ponds. Those maintained in troughs on a diet of emulsified
shrimp ultimately died, although they did appear at first to be consuming
the diet provided. Fry stocks in the pond, which had been limed and
fertilized with soybean meal and applications of 20—20—10 inorganic
fertilizer, survived on the micro—crustacean populations induced by heavy
fertilization and grew rapidly. As they grew larger, natural food was
supplemented with ground herring and trout food. The pond which had been
stocked Nay 20 was seined on August 11 and 30,000 fingerlings recovered
with an average weight of 4.5 grams each. In 1965, Sandoz and Johnston
12
-------
repeated Anderson’s success in rearing striped bass to fingerling size in
ponds in which the zooplankton population had been enhanced by heavy
fertilization. Like Anderson they had poor luck in attempts to maintain
larvae on non—living food. Larvae were, however, reared to fingerling size
on zooplankton netted from the hatchery pond and fed to fish in aquaria.
Once it had been shown that the production of pond reared fingerlings
was a practical proposition, a number of fish and game agencies in the south-
east and mid—west became involved. Reviewing the results of pond rearing
experiments carried on in over a dozen different state agencies, Stevens
(1967) concluded as follows on larval feeding:
“If possible, fry probably should not be stocked when younger
than four to six days old because they have a tendency to settle
to the bottom where suffocation may occur.
A four—day—old fry, on the other hand, is continuously
in motion and by the eighth day, starts feeding.
There seems to be no doubt that zooplankton is essential
to the life of striped bass fry from day eight until a yet to
be determined time, perhaps until the post larvae reaches at
least one inch in length. After this time, supplemental feeding
alone may be sufficient.” (p. 4)
Although most practicioners were able to obtain satisfactory zooplankton
blooms in their rearing ponds, they often found it difficult to maintain a
sufficient zooplankton density over a long period. A variety of supple.men—
tal feeds were used by the various groups, including trout food, zround
meat and fish, and live fish. Fingerlings consumed a variety of t’hese feeds
but,as always, it was difficult to determine to what extent the fish relied
on the food offered and to what extent they lived off the planktonic and
benthic populations of the ponds in which they were kept.
In 1975, Braschler stmmiRrized the development of pond culture techni-
ques. Bonn et al. (1976) provided an extensive section on pond culture.
They included pond preparation (liming and fertilizing), pre—stockjn2
checks (zooplankton abundance, predators, and temperature), and stoc1 .ing.
The suggested optimum stocking rate waslOO, 0 0 0 fry/acre. Plankton,
vegetation and insect control during growth period (4 to 6 weeks) prior to
harvest as fingerlings werealso discussed. Powell (1976) described
brackish water culture in Alabama. Rees (1974) suggested that further
investigations into rearing to advanced size in raceways should be explored.
This would allow closer observation of feeding, growth, mortality, and
diseases than is possible in ponds.
During the later part of the 1960’s and early seventies the Edenton
National Fish Hatchery made additional strides in perfecting the extensive
rearing of striped bass fingerlings (Neshaw, 1969; Bowker etal., 1969;
Ray and Wirtanen, 1970; Wirtanen and Ray, 1971). Fry which had developed
functional mouth parts were routinely stocked in rearing ponds and were
recovered as fingerlings several months later. Stocking was performed in
13
-------
April and May when newly spawned fry were available. Fingerlings were
recovered early in the st er and transported to their assigned stocking
sites. During the years when these systematic investigations were underway
a number of new procedures develcined and, concurrently, new problem areas
were revealed. Since the aim of most of these studies was to improve produc-
tion rather than to perform basic research, investigators were unable to
follow up on all of the observations they made. It was found that larvae
and juveniles under 8 weeks of age fed exclusively on planktonic food and
made virtually no use of benthic organisms in the Edenton ponds. Efforts
were also made to determine to what extent supplementary feeding was
necessary in pond raised striped bass fry. Results obtained during the 1967
and 1968 seasons revealed that fry receiving trout food or ground herring
as a supplemental ration had a lower survival rate than those in ponds in
which zooplankton alone was present. Where zooplankton was abundant the
juvenile bass grew faster and enjoyed better survival when no supplemental
food was supplied. Although the fish were observed to eat the supplementary
ration when live food was abundant, they apparently showed little
inclination to do so. It was felt that if young fingerlings were to be
weaned onto complete reliance on the ration they were being supplied that
they would have to be confined and taught to eat the supplemental food.
Advanced fingerlings showed better growth and survival when supplied with
ground herring than when offered only dry trout pellets. Groups which
underwent an abrupt change in ration showed the lowest survival and
growth. Palatability was apparently an important factor.
In a later series of experiments dry diets alone were used, dispensed
by hand and through the use of automatic feeders. Lots fed from automatic
feeders showed a slightly better feed conversion, however it was thought
that this could be due to the more frequent feedings that the feeders
made possible.
The methods used at the present time in most hatcheries involve
feeding brine shrimp during the pre—pond stocking phase, especially if
this extends beyond yolk sac absorption. After stocking fry into ponds,
supplemental feeding may be desired either to augment the zooplankton
supply or to increase production. Bonn et al. (1976) suggest feeding
artificial trout feed at the rate of 5 pounds per acre per day after bass
are three weeks of age. This rate can be increased to 20 pounds per acre
per day at harvest time. Harper and Jarinan (1972) found supplemental
feeding of fry and fingerlings in ponds increased production, albeit
identification of these commercial diets was lacking in the food habit
studies conducted concurrently.
It became clear that in handling fingerlings, both during restocking
and during harvest, great care was needed to prevent undue stress to the
fish. Pond harvesting techniques were described by Bonn et al. (1976).
These included the use of glass V—trap to harvest 80Z of pond crop from
properly constructed ponds, catch basins, seines with partial draining, or
using nursery ponds built to stock directly into lakes. Transport of
fingerlings harvested from ponds to stocking destination was also
described by Bonn et al. (1976). They suggested holding for 24 hours and
treating with Furacin at 100 to 500 ppm with 1% salt for 2 to 5 hour
14
-------
periods prior to shipping. Fingerlings were then hauled in tank trucks with
1Z salt (NaC1) and 21 ppm MS—222 or 0.35 ppm Quinaldine to reduce activity.
Acriflavine at rate of 1 ppm could also be used during hauling. Transport
densities suggested were 1/4 to 1/2 pound per gallon with good aeration.
The problem of handling gravid adults was addressed during early studies,
but never resolved. Adult females which were being held for spawning purposes
frequently developed the ‘red—tail syndrome’. This condition started as a
hemorragic area on the caudal fin. The reddened area generally spread over
the caudal penducle and sometimes over the entire posterior portion of the
body. Most often the affected individual became unresponsive and died. Both
Edenton workers and Stevens in South Carolina tried a number of antibiotic
and antiinflamatory drugs with no success. Frequent pre—ovulation mortalities
among hormone injected females was also a problem that was never explained or
resolved. Losses among brood fish prevented their repeated use in successive
seasons. At the present time, hatchery procedures for broodfish transport
throughout the south eastern states generally follow those outlined above
for fingerling transportation.
Other pathologic conditions observed among captive striped bass included
columnaris disease, and hemorragic gill disease. Posthodiplostomum tricho—
dma was a problem external parasite. Losses attributable to bacterial
diseases were most often associated with crowded conditions, either in ponds,
tanks or raceways. Disease and parasite problems encountered during hatchery
and pond production of striped bass have been described by Bowker et al.
(1969), Regan et al. (1968), Hughes (1975), Hawke (1976), and Bonn et al.
(1976).
Today, striped bass reared in ponds are used primarily for stocking of
lakes, reservoirs and impoundment areas for sport fishing and shad ( Dorosoma
spp.) control. Most of this production is carried out by federal and state
hatcheries and agencies. The states producing striped bass include Alabama,
Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Miss-
ouri, Nebraska, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas,
and Virginia. Production and survival by agencies of these sta s for 1972-
1975 was tabulated in Texas Instruments (1977c), where the grand total produc-
tion for these years combined exceeded 14,000,000 fingerlings. Production by
federal hatcheries for the same years was also tabulated in Texas Instruments
(1977c). The total fingerlings produced from these hatcheries was in excess
of 15,000,000. Production data for this and other species by federal
hatcheries is available from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1904—).
Federal hatcheries producing striped bass for stocking are in Alabama,
Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, North
Carolina, Oklahoma, and South Carolina.
Stocking of underutilized brackish water nursery grounds was investiga-
ted in Virginia by Merriner and Hoagman (1972). Striped bass have been
reared in the Hudson River for population and entrainment/impingement studies
and for possible power plant mitigation (Texas Instruments, l977a,c). The
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has indicated a desire to utilize
striped bass as a test organism in national water quality standard determina-
tions. This study was undertaken to develop laboratory culture methods.
15
-------
SECTION 5
NOMENCLATURE, TAXONOMY AND MORPHOLOGY
NOMENCLATURE
Valid name
Morone saxatilis (Walbaum), Mitchill, 1814, Rep. Fishes N.Y.
Objective synonymy
Sciaena lineata Bloch, 1792, Ichthyologia, IX
Roccus striatus Mitchill, 1814, Rep. Fishes N.Y.
Roccus lineatus Gill, 1860, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sd. Phila.
TAXONOMY
Affinities
Suprageneric
Phylum Vertebrate
Subphylum Craniata
Superclass Gnathostomata
Series Pisces
Class Osteichthyes
Subclass Actinopterygii
Superorder Acanthopterygii
Order Perciformes
Family Percichthyidae (Serranidae)
Generic
Morone Mitchill, 1814; no type description made
The generic concept adopted here is that of Whitehead and Wheeler
(1966). Mitchull (1814) distinguished his genus Morone upon the impression
that the fins were abdominal in position, in contrast to their thoractic
position in the genus Perca . Mitchill (1814) gave no description of the
genus Morone beyond this misapprehension of the ventral fin position.
16
-------
The description is based on Jordan and Eigetunann (1890). Top of head scaly;
lateral line nearly straight; teeth on tongue in one or more patches. Pre-
opercle without antrose spines on lower limb, and lower margin simply
serrate or entire. Anal spines III, 7 to 13; dorsal spines VIII—X (IX), I,
9 to 15 (12).
According to Whitehead and Wheeler (1966), Woolcott (1957), and Berg
(1949), this genus contains four North American species: Morone saxatilis
(Walbaum, 1792), M. americana (Gmelin, 1788), M. chrysops (Rafinesque, 1820),
and M. mississippiensis (Jordan and Eigenmann, 1887); and two European
species: M. labrax (Linnaeus, 1758) and M. punctatus (Bloch, 1792).
Morone Mitchill, Bleeker, 1876, 263; type Morone americana Gill —
Morone ruf a Mitchill.
Morone Mitchi].1 — Roc’cus Mitchill, Boulenger, 1895, 125.
Chrysoperca Fowler, 1907; type Morone interupta Gill.
Lepibema Rafinesque, 1820; type Perca chrysops
Dicentrarchus Gill, 1860; type’P erca’eiongata St. Hilaire
Specific
Morone saxatilis (Walbaum, 1792) (Figure 1)
Type locality: New York
Diagnosis: Body elongate, little to moderately compressed; back little
arched; depth less than 1/3 the length, greatest depth 3.45 to 4.2, average
least depth 9.6, average depth at anus 3.9——in standard length. Head sub—
conical, 2.9 to 3.25 in standard length. Dorsal fin rays: IX (VIII—X), I,
9 to 15 (12). Anal fin rays: III, 7 to 13 (11). Ventral (pelvic) fin
rays: I, 5. Pectoral fin rays: 13—19; length of pectorals 2.0 in head.
The two dorsal fins are approximately equal in basal length, the first
(spinous) originating over the posterior half of the pectoral, the second
(soft) entirely separated from first; longest dorsal spine 2.3 in head.
Axial fin situated below posterior two—thirds of second dorsal: anal spines
graduated, second anal spine 5 to 6 in head. Pectorals and ventrals of
moderate size; insertion of ventrals slightly behind that of pectorals.
Caudal forked, the middle rays 0.6 length of outer. Lateral line scales 7
to 9—57 to 67—11 to 15; typically ctenoid. Vertebrae (including hypural):
24 or 25 (almost invariably 12 + 13 = 25). Gillrakers on first arch: 8 to
11 + 1 + 12 to 15 (10 + 1 + 14). Eye 3 to 4.9 in head and less in smaller
individuals. Mouth large, oblique, maxillary extending nearly to. middle of
orbit, 2.5 in head; lower jaw projecting. Teeth on base of tongue in two
parallel patches; also present on jaws, vomer, and palatines. Preopercie
margin clearly serrate. Color olivaceous, silvery—blue; sides paler,
marked with 7 or 8 continuous or interrupted blackish stripes, one of them
along the lateral line; fins pale (Jordan and Evermann, 1896—1900; Merriman,
1941). (Table 1).
17
-------
Figure 1. The striped bass, Morone saxatilis (Walbaum).
00
-------
*
TABLE 1. DIAGNOSTIC OSTEOLOGICPIL CHARACTERS OF FIVE SPECIES OF MORONE
aazaatlta CItiYaOD . lanrLca ns anaiiLaetsnJLI Ilaru
3.naig ,azan ate. 1iaa4 ant.rO- U .k. ziantilli ‘4.z an ant. , .- LLk. I..TLCai . LL .a . a wat LI .
fan. pa ert a Ly pant.n ar Ll
I ng I. ftz..d by azi . 1.1k. , wtLUJ 1.1k. a.xanLlij 1.1k. , wti Liz Half-anon snap.
P ontal Strong. S. . .orV 1.1k. swrilii HaLanL , .ty anab. 1.1k. an.rtcaaa U . 1. langtIl.U
canal and poran S.aaoir anaL .
and par.. Lug.
c piUl ant
Skip. Lang and Ian Sk.r. and HiVs Skart md kiwi Uk. m.nczasa Lang and tan
Langtk divtd.d by 2.0-2.5 1.5 U.k. thryIa i 1.1k. caayIao . 2.0
ian
ngL. £oansd by 30 d. .a . 40 dig,... SO d .g, ,0. Uk. aa cai& 35 dig,...
an. and n.L
P .ri.t* l ‘(or thflat.d taflarsd U.k. anaysoan 1.1k. abaysors U.k. rr100 .
Ottc r.gion
. i awaIl.n Haitly prantic Praotic and bait- Prvatic. b ut- Ilk. ln.rlcmn* at.an.diaaa a.—
ac p Lt&J. ocmpataL • and v. .n zyzoas
and A . .rlasan
gr.atIy tnilan.d
Sutaan b.r .. . . V.ry LmguL .r gntl z . ILk. a..rtcmna rr.gu laz
p , .attc and .anc-
ctptta.l
O aLLth (aagttt*)
Ship. . ..taLlV Stra g1y concay. Concsvs Plan SU itly anncav. Concave
t4th diVid .4 by £ S 4.0 2.3 ,.o :.i
thickn.ii at
...ngch divtdM by 2.3 1.7 Lik. cdrpsoai Uk. ckzysoai 2.2
ot dth
C,tzrhattn. ran— lzr.nda paat .flarly Exe.ndm doilally Ab..nt m . i .t !atandi p.itsviarly
.rtir pzacui
‘(nd . l la Susan. at pa.- Uk. sazattlis Sanath an paa- Ilk. arlcaan Ilk. an.rac.na
t.raar sdgs taza., .dgs
La..? Ji. Pea .cea beyond ILk. awxilis Nor psaj.cVng. Uki aagncmna Pr.j.cti b.yand
,.,p.r jan. PranL. Sinus, cp.r jan.
Strong. Saniazy canal and par.. St?ang. Susazy
cma.I and poran Larg. canal and pasu
mall Intl.
Cp.rci. Pranaianc.d U-ibm. RL In an;l.d Indantathon bison Snd.ntutan aunt
natth j..nn ado ,. tnd.ntation ado,.
hy ibuL.r ‘tyoni.Uibular
a rttazlatt 0 . a ttcalan i0.
Pr.aanrr.l. • vsntr L 5.rrans S.rsaz. Sarrit. S.rrat. Spini. (4 to 6)
zarIn
Js YIL Elangat. (Latun . O..p.r than ILk. thrysca . In .1k. thrvsaa . tn SLangaca. Cr.stain
vt.w) C,.an.at iaxattlii . Gr.an- ibi... 4.dlza aMp.. Traug. d.pth at
dipth us, paz- art anpth in rtdg. La :rou Lack s andian rdg diatanc. Era. an-
cartar alp. dt.tanc. ft.. prosant or .o..nt test., :tp. Traug.
Tran i Lathi anterior tip. Lacks anal.. ridge
an an rtd(. Tr.u wtth
dian aS.dg.
.stn on ban. of Two zsr LLeL a Singi. panad mason daunt SLngl. patcd
LacaraL aaath ban. Short and our.. Long and elliptical Lang. na and Long. broad and Tooth psathi. tugs
a 1.L fttly onxv.4 rv.d man oval 00... tot
lanaI scaryglo— 22 23 23 23 or :a 2 1
pbar.a
‘n,.L pt.ayglapba ?ai 12 13 or La 10 10
!paalsi proonrisor Li 11 11 10
ray,
(lypadal procanrunt LI 5 9 7
ray, __
Porn of v tsbr..L St ?m st SU ,ly ocawod oanv .4 land.rst.L7 narv.d
c a1 m
10th v.rt.brs Ifrass.L arab b. Ilk. aaunilLi H....l atab ad.ant U.k. a..ric
pmr ally or con.
pL.tsLy fo ond
Anql.dUcstb.dby £5d gs ..soEt.ai S.tv.i.45and C , .an.rth . .60 UMa..ntc
subcLs&thtr ’ . fran dagr.. . d.gr..u
L ongttaidinu md i
of p.ctOre1 fin
•‘(at i a..rJ .t.
fak.n fran fa .lcori (1217). fi.d iLi t1y.
19
-------
Subjective Synonymy
Perca Rock—fish vel Striped Bass Schoepf, 1788, Schrift. der Gesells.
nat. Freunde, VIII, 160, New York.
Perca saxatilis Walbaum, Artedi Genera Piscium, 1792, 330, New York;
Bloch & Schneider, 1801, Systema Ichthyol., 89, New York.
Sciaena lineata Bloch, 1792, Ichthyologia, IX, 53, p1, 304.
Perca septentrionalis Bloch & Schneider, 1801, Systema Ichthyol., 90,
p 1 . 20, New York.
Cantropomus lineatus Lacepede, 1802, Hist. Nat. de Poissons, IV, 257.
Roccus striatus Mitchill, 1814, Rep. Fishes N.Y., 24, New York; Bean,
1884, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 242, Alabama.
Perca initchilli Mitchill, 1815, Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc., N.Y., I,
413, p1. 3, f. 4, New York.
Perca mitchilli. alternata Mitchill, 1815, Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc.
N.?., 415, New York.
Perca mitchilli interrupta Mitchill, 1815, Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc.
N.Y., 415, New York.
Lepibema niitchilli . Rafinesque, 1820, Ichthyologia Ohiensis, 23.
Labax lineatus Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1828, Hist. Nat. des Poissons, II,
79, New York; Richardson, 1836, Fauna Boreali—Americana, III, l0 Storer,
1839, Report Fishes of Mass., 7, Boston and vicinity; Ayres, 1842, Boston
Jour. Nat. Hist., IV, 757, Long Island; DeKay, 1842, Zool. of N.Y. Fishes,
7, p1. 1, f. 3, Long Island; Storer, 1846, Syn. Fishes N. Am., 21; Baird,
1854, Rep. on Fishes of N.J. Coast, 7, Chesapeake Bay, Potomac, and
Susq iehanna Rivers; Holbrook, 1855, Ichth. S.C., 17, p1. 4, f. 2; Storer,
1855, Hist. Fishes of Mass., Mem. Am. Acad. Arts & Sci., V, 54, Mass., New
Hampthire& Maine; Gunther, 1859, Cat. Fish. Br. Mus., I, 64. -
Roccus lineatus Gill, 1860, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sd. Phila., 112; Gill,
1876, Ichth. Rep. Capt. Simpson’s Sur. Great Basin Utah, 391; Uhier &
tugger, 1876, Nd. Acad. Sci., 126; Jordan, 1878, Annals, N.Y. Acad. Sd.,
IV, No. 4, 97, Delaware and Potomac Rivers; Jordan & Gilbert, 1878, Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mug., 380, Beaufort, N.C. and vicinity; Goode& Bean, 1879, Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mug., 145, Pensacola and vicinity; Goode op cit., 115, St. John’s
River, Fla.; Bol].man, 1886, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 465, Escambia River.
Lepibema lineatum Steindachner, 1862, Verb. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien., -
XII, 504.
Roccus lineatus (Bloch) Gill, Goode & Bean, 1879, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.
145; Jordan & Gilbert, 1883, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., 599.
20
-------
Roccus saxatilis - Jordan & Gi].bert, 1883, u11. U.S. Nat 5 9;
Bean, 1883, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 365; Jordan, Evermann & Clark, 1930, Rep
U.S. Fish. Comm., 307.
Roccus septentrioalis , Jordan, 1885, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 73.
Roccus lineatus (Bloch), Jordan & Eigeumann, 1890, Bull. U.S. Fish
Comm., 423; Jordan & Evermann, 1896—1900, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1132.
Morone lineata Boulenger, 1895, Cat., I, 129.
Morone saxatilis (Walbaum), Bailey, Winn & Smith, 1954, Acad. Nat. Sd.
Phila., 106, 136.
Key to the species of Morone (from Whitehead and Wheeler, 1966).
I. Lower border of pre—operculum with several antrorse spines; dorsal
fins separated by a space; Mediterranean and Eastern Atlantic;
marine and estuarine.
a. Lateral line scales 62—74 (Mode 70); vomerine teeth in sub—
crescentic band, without posterior extension; adults without
black spots on upper part of body. N. labrax (Linn., 1758)
b. Lateral line scales 57—65 (Mode 60); vomerine tooth patch
anchor-shaped; adults with small black spots on the upper part
of body. N. punctatus (Bloch, 1792)
II. Lower border of pre—operculum with small denticulations directed
downwards; Western Atlantic, eastern & southern N. America.
a. Dorsal fins separate; anal spines increasing evenly in length;
two sharp spines on hind border of operculuin; teeth on base of
tongue.
i. Body elongate, its depth more than three times in its
length; lateral line scales 57—67; teeth at base of tongue
in two parallel patches; marine and estuarine.
N. saxatilis (Walb., 1792)
ii. Body deeper, its depth less than three times in its length;
lateral line scales 52—58; teeth at base of tongue in a
single series; freshwater. N. chrysops (Raf., 1820)
b. Dorsal fins connected; second anal spine almost equal in length
to the third spine; a single sharp spine on the hind border of
the operculum; teeth present along edges of tongue but not at
base.
i. Longest dorsal spine about half head length; faint streaks
on flanks; marine and freshwater. j. americana (Gme1in,1 88)
21
-------
ii. Longest dorsal spine greater than half head length,
seven distinct longitudinal lines on flanks, interrupted
posteriorly; freshwater, lower Mississippi valley. M.
mississippiensis (Jordan & Eigenmann, 1877)
Taxonomic status
This is a morphospecies and polytypic.
Subspecies
There are no defined subspecies.
Standard common names, vernacular names
Striped bass Squid-hound
Striper Linesider
Rock Missuckeke-kequoch
Rockfish Rollers
Green—head
MORPHOLOGY
External morphology
Some morphological data are given in the taxonomy section above.
The separation of this species into subpopulations (spawning popula-
tions) or stocks is based primarily on a morphometric study (Lund, 1957),
and analysis of the variation in frequency of certain meristic counts
(Table 2). Biochemical analysis (Morgan etal., 1973; Otto, 1975) and
discriminant analysis of combinations of tnorphometric and biochemical
characteristics have generally strengthened these separations (Grove et al.,
1976; Berggren and Lieberman, 1978).
Lund (1957) found on the basis of morphometric analysis that a north—
south dine existed along the Atlantic coast with respect to body and
caudal—peduncle depth. Both measurements were lower in striped bass from
Hudson—Delaware area and higher for Santee—Cooper River bass. His analysis
showed that the Hudson Riverstriped bass were distinctly different from
the others he studied. Further, he concluded that, within the Chesapeake
Bay, the James, York, Rappahannock and Potomac Rivers supported separate
populations of bass. Lund felt that the presence of this dine suggested
the differences observed were the result of selection and were, thus,
genetically fixed.
Lewis (1957), counting the upper arm and total number of gill rakers
on the first left brachia]. arch of age 0—1 striped bass, found that the Hudson
River bass were homogeneous within year classes and concluded the river
supported one population. He found no significant differences in gill
22
-------
TABLE 2. DISTRIBUTION OF CERTAIN MERISTIC CHARACTERS
AMONG STRIPED BASS SUBPOPULATIONS
Location of Subpopulation
(spawning population)
P4eristic tharacters
Dorsal Fin
Anal Fin Rays
Total Gill
on First
(Lewis.
Rakers
Arch
1957)
Lateral
(Murawski.
1958)
(Raney Woolcott
Mehring. 1954)
(Raney, Woolcott
Mehring, 1954)
Mean
Range
Mean
Range
Mean
Range Mean
Range
Rhode island
18 _ 25 a
21.9
59 _ 70 a
63.7
1O13 11.8
1012 a 119
hudson River
22-29
25.8
53-67
60.3
9-14 11.3
9-12 10.6
Upper chesapeake Bay
21-27
24.5
50-71
62.6
10-13 11.8
10-11 10.9
Nanticoke River
20 _ 26 a
22.9
S9-70
62.7
l0 l2 11.6
9 l 2 10.7
York-Rappahannock Rivers
21-26
24.0
54-67
60.7
10-13 11.8
10-12 10.9
James River
22-28
25.2
55-67
61.4
9 _ 13 b 11.6
8 _ 12 b 10.7
Albemarle Sound
22-27
24.5
56-66
60.8
11-12 11.9
10-11 10.9
Santee-Cooper System
22-26
23.5
S 2 64
59.2
11-12 11.9
10-11 10.9
St. Johns River
---
-—-
52 58 c
54.2
ll-12 11.9
1012 C 110
Appalachicola River
---
63 _ 72 d
66.7
10 _ 13 d 11.5
8 _ 12 d 10.5
San Joaquin River
23-29
25.9
56-64
59.5
10_tie 10.7
9 _ 11 e 10.8
aAU h, data
bkaney. 1957.
cRaney and Woo1cott 1955.
dBarkulOo 1970.
eRaney and deSylvia, 1953.
-------
rakers of 0 and I bass, but without adequate samples from bass II, he could
not comment on the possibility of variation in older bass. Lewis’ analysis
showed that bass from western Long Island Sound had gill raker counts inter-
mediate between those of Chesapeake and Hudson. Although Vladykov and
Wallace (1952) found that vertebral counts, dorsal spines, and gill rakers
were not useful characters in separating bass populations, Lewis concluded
that gill rakers can be used to separate bass populations. He suggested
that the possible differences found by Vladykov and Wallace in gill raker
counts from five year classes within the Delaware River indicated that his
samples were probably not drawn from the same population. Lewis assumed
that the meristic characters he studied were genetically fixed with envir—
onniental factors operating only within narrow limits.
Murawski (1958) counted the lateral—line scales of age 0 bass from
collections along the Atlantic coast. He assumed that the lateral—line
scale number, once determined, does not change with age or body length.
He observed that bass are about 16 mm at the time of initial formation of
lateral—line scales and all have attained their full complement by the time
they reach 30 i. Murawski determined that high water temperatures during
development seemed to result in low scale numbers. He felt that, to a
great extent, the number of lateral—line scales in striped bass is
genetically controlled, although modifiable by environmental effects, sup-
ported by his findings of a close relationship between the scale counts
of Hudson and California specimens. He suggested that the within—river
variations were caused by the effects of environmental changes, since they
were not observed in any two succeeding year classes from a given river.
Murawski concluded from his analysis of lateral—line scale variations, that
the Hudson River appears to be one population (local population) of striped
bass which is differentially modified by the environment. He found that
the York and Rappahannock Rivers formed a homogenous group. All of the
upper Bay tributaries formed another homogenous group. The James River,
which lies to the south of both the York and Rappahannock Ribers, was found
to have the greatest affinity with the northern Bay tributaries rather than
the neighboring York and Rappahannock group. Nonetheless, he considered
the James River samples as a third isolated population because it was
geographIcally disjunct. Murawski’s Delaware River samples, in turn,
appeared to be most closely allied with the James River samples. In
the analysis of lateral—line scale counts from Delaware River striped bass,
de Sylva (1962) found no significant difference among five year classes.
However, he did find a bimodality in the distribution which suggested
entrance from other geographic regions.
Perhaps the most information on meristic variation in striped bass
comes from counts of the soft fin rays. Raney and de Sylva (1953) reported
that dorsal, anal and pectoral soft ray counts showed a significant differ-
ence l5etween Hudson River and Chesapeake Bay bass, with the Bay usually
having the higher counts of the two. They suggested that, of the three
fins counted, pectorals provided best separation. However, Raney et al.
(1954) found the greatest variation and difficulty in counting the pectoral
fin rays. Instead they found that the soft dorsal fin rays, which appeared
to be erratic in the earlier study, gave the most consistent separation, while
24
-------
a combination of anal and dorsal soft rays gave the highest separation. A
mode of 12 soft dorsal fin—rays has been reported by Raney and Woolcott
(1955), Raneyetal. (1954), and Raney (1957) for striped bass from the
Chesapeake region and Albeniarle Sound to Mississippi, while the Hudson
River appears unique with a mode of 11. Raney (1957) found the mode for
soft anal fin—rays was 11 within Chesapeake Bay with 10 the next most
frequent count. On the basis of soft anal fin—ray counts Haney (1957)
separated the Chesapeake into two subpopulations — the James vs. the other
rivers. Assuming that the meristic characters considered were genetically
fixed and that environmental factors operated only within narrow limits,
de Sy].va (1961) concluded from his study that the Delaware River supports
a spawning population of striped bass. However, since the tneristic charac-
ter variation predicated that the five year classes sampled were probably
not .drawn from the same population, he suggested this population is
supplemented during some years by spawning stock from other regions, most
probably from the James River.
Support of the proposed stock separations suggested on the basis of
meristic characters discussed above has come from biochemical analysis.
Within the Chesapeake Bay the James River appears to contain the most
easily separated local population of striped bass, while the rivers north
of the Rappahannock on both sides of the Bay appear to support less discrete
bass populations. An electrophoretic analysis (Morgan et al., 1973) of
serum proteins from adult and juveniles from five of these Upper Bay rivers,
the Potomac, Patuxent, Choptank, Elk, and Nanticoke, showed four distinct
populations. The Potomac and Patuxent were not distinguishable on the basis
of the five proteins studied, and there appeared to be some counection be-
tween the striped bass from these rivers and the Choptank and Nanticoke
bass. The Elk, the most northerly river of this study, was also the most
discrete.
Otto (1975) analyzed striped bass juveniles and adults from the Maine
coast, the Hudson, James, York, Rappahannock and Potomac Rivers and Cali-
fornia (San Joaquin) to determine if there were any electrophoretically
detectable differences in certain enzymes. He found that most (89.3%) of
the 29 loci were monomorphic but that three (aipha—glycerophosphate dehy—
drogenase, isocitrate dehydrogenase. and esterase) were polytnorphoric.
The fraction of polymorphoric loci per population was low, ranging from
zero in California samples to 8% in James River specimens. Two alleles of
alpha—glycerophosphate dehydrogenase were found by Otto in all samples
except those from California and the Potomac River. Significant (at 5%
level) differences in esterase were found between the Hudson and James and
between the James and Rappahannock specimens. Otto concluded that con-
sistent differences between the Hudson and the aggregate Chesapeake were
shown from genetic frequency of the polymorphic loci. His data indicate
probable differences between the individual rivers of the Chesapeake,
just as Morgan e . (1973) found for their Upper Bay samples.
Use of meristic, inorphometric and biochemical characters in discriini—
nant analysis provides the strongest estimates for separation of three
spawning stocks along the Atlantic coast. Grove et al. (1976) using dis—
criminant functions determined from collections of adults in natal rivers
25
-------
(homing was assumed) from Hudson, Chesapeake and Roanoke estuaries in 1974
and 1975 were able to classify approximately 76% between the Hudson and
Chesapeake spawning stocks and approximately 73% between the Hudson,
Chesapeake and Roanoke stocks. The three characters providing this separa-
tion were, in order of importance, ratio snout length/internostril width,
first annulus to second annulus distance/focus to first annulus distance
ratio, and number of lateral—line scales. Their biochemical analysis
demonstrated that the isoenzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase was fixed in the
Hudson River specimens, that an isocitrate dehydrogenase allele (A) was
found in Roanoke bass and not Hudson or Chesapeake specimens, and that
both isocitrate dehydrogenase and alpha.-glycerophosphate dehydrogenase
showed a north—south clinal trend. When these biochemical data were added
to discriminant analysis, the overall correct classification between
estuaries increased one to two percent. Both Otto (1975) and Grove et al.
(1976) agree that the biochemical genetic structure of striped bass is one
of the most homogeneous (heterozygoticity of 95%) among teleosts studied.
Using only morphometric and meris tic characters in discriminant analy-
sis, Berggren and Lieberman (1978) correctly classified approximately 75%
of specimens from Hudson River, Chesapeake Bay system and Roanoke River
samples (1q75 adults from natal rivers in these estuaries). The five
characters they used, in order of importance, were ratio snout length!
internostril width, scale ratio of first to second anxtulus/focus to first
annulus, character index (as defined by R.aney and de Sylva, 1953), upper
arm gill raker counts, and lateral—line scale counts. These functions
were then used on specimens collected from a 1975 oceanic sampling program
(N = 2737) from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, to Maine) to determine the
contribution from Hudson, Chesapeake and Roanoke spawning stocks to the
coastal fishery. Their analysis classified 77% of the coastal specimens
as Chesapeake in origin. Separation of specimens into river populations
within the Chesapeake system was not successful (Grove • ., 1976;
Berggren and Lieberman, 1978).
Bryant and Seibel (1971) described tubulogenesis in striped bass
mesonephros from 8 weeks to 7 years of age from freshwater impoundments.
They suggested that changes in aglomerular tubules at two years of age
probably reflected the confinement to freshwater. Beitch (1963) studied
the urinary system to discover structures of this osmoregulatory device
which might enable survival in environments of differing salinities. He
found a distal tubular segment, usually present in freshwater fishes, was
absent, possibly suggesting marine origin. The glomerule of a freshwater
bass(55.7 i) was found to be larger than that of a sea water captured
striped bass (47.7 u).
Protein specificity
Striped bass was one of the 30 species ‘r uirtned by Markert and
Fau].haber (1965) to determine the variability of lactate dehydrogenase
(LDH) isoenzyine patterns found in fish. They found that the bass showed
three major isoenzyines (bands), no minor isoenzymes and re1 tive migration
of 0.32—0.81. A total of 31 proteins was observed in electropherograins of
Chesapeake Bay striped bass serum (Morgan, Koo and Krantz, 1973). Striped
26
-------
bass transferrins are polymorphic and albumins are Tnonomorphic (Morgan,
1971). However, Sideil et al. (1980) found that the transferrins are mono-
morphic. Three serum transferrin phenotypes of Hudson River bass are
described by Hiltron (1974).
Grove et al. (1976) analyzed serum, liver, and muscle tissue using
standard starch gel electrophoresi3 for all protein characters useful in
discriminating spawning stocks. They examined 44 protein systems, includ-
ing 16 serum proteins and heinoglobins. The additional 28 enzyme systems
involved 52 loci of which only two were polymorphic: alpha-glycero—
phosphate dehydrogenase (AGPDH—l), and isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH or
ICDH—1). In addition to these two, Otto (1975) found that esterase (EST—4)
was polymorphic (28 loci analyzed). Otto found variation for two loci of
phosphoglucomutase (PGM—1 and 3), but the gene frequencies for the variant
alleles were less than 1% in each.
Morgan (1975) distinguished larval striped bass (2 major bands) from
larval white perch (3 major bands) using column acrylamide electrophoresis
of the soluble muscle proteins. Sidell et al. (1978) distinguished larvae
of these two species using starch gel electrophoresis and stains for
specific enzyme systems. They found that the esterase (either et—napthyl—
acetate or c&-.napthyl—butyrate) and phosphoglucomutase enzyme systems showed
clear and consistent differences between the two species.
Ageing
The counting of annuli on the scales of striped bass is almost ex-
clusively the method used for age detetuu.nations. The area of most
symmetrical scales giving values for calculated length most nearly
approaching the average of values from extreme body areas is that between
the first and second dorsals on the second and third row above the lateral
line (Tiller, 1942; Merriman, 1941). Orsi (1970) compared scales,
otoliths and operculae in ageing striped bass and proposed continued use
of scales primarily due to ease of handling in field collection.
Annulus formation occurs from April — June throughout the range. It
occurs earlier in the southern areas and later in northern areas of the
ran ge.
Osteology
Excellent figures of the skull have been provi4ed by Gregory (1918,
1933). The trunk skeleton was described in fine detail by Merriman (1940).
Both of these authors provided the terminology used in later studies.
Starks (1901) used the skeleton (including detailed skull) to illustrate
the synonymy of the fish skeleton. Woolcott (1957) presented a detailed
comparison of the osteology of members of the genus Roccus (Table 1).
Degens et al. (1969) described the structure of otoliths from striped bass
including the amino acid distribution. Daily growth rings have been re-
ported in otoliths from 15 month old (Brothers et al., 1976) and 6 day old
(Radtke, 1978) striped bass.
27
-------
Frehofer (1960) illustrated the structure of Ramus lateralis system
in striped bass beginning at the orbital cavity through branching of acces-
sories I to II and inervation of pectoral and pelvic fins. His illustration
is provided against background osteology.
Blood
Hematological values reported for juvenile and adult striped bass
include hemoglobin values of 4.0—12.3 g/lOO ml (Engel. and Davis, 1964;
Courtois, 1974; Westin, 1978); hematocrit values of 16—70% packed cells
(Engel and Davis, 1964; Courtois, 1974; Westin, 1978); erythrocyte counts
of 3.12—5.63 x 10 6 /cc (Engel and Davis, 1964) and 2.86 to 4.49 x 10 6 /cc
(Westin, 1978). Belinsky* has recorded erythrocyte counts of 0.83—3.96 x
10 6 /cc and leucocyte counts of 7—10 x 10 3 /cc from yearling bass. Re de-
termined that lymphocytes accounted for 38—88% and neutrophils for 12—62%
of the differential leucocyte count.
Plasma protein levels of 4.2—7.4 gZ (Courtois, 1974) and 3.8—13.0 g/100
m l. (Courtois, 1974; Westin, 1978) have been reported using both refractive
indices and chemical methods of determination and total serum protein
values using chemical methods of 3.67—8.32 g% (Westin, 1978). Serum cal-
cium levels were reported as 9.5—15+ mgZ (Courtois, 1974) and 4.5—18.8 mgZ
(Westin, 1978). Courtois (1974) reported values of 120—184 mEq/l serum
sodium and 0.4—5.10 inEq/l serum potassium for juvenile and adult bass.
Serum chloride values of 80—186 mEq/1 were reported by Westin (1978) for
adults. Hunn and Robinson (1966) determined plasma cholesterol to be
750 mg/l00 ml (n 1), while gall bladder bile cholesterol values ranged from
1,190— 1,450 mg/100 ml (n=4).
Chadwick (1968) investigated blood lactic acid levels in netted adult
striped bass. He found mean values of 630 mg/i and 1170 mg/i for those in
good and poor condition, respectively.
Jansseti and Meyers (1967) described an antigen against beef heart
muscle present in striped bass serum but absent in white perch serum.
Hybridization
Artifically fertilized hybrids of striped bass have been successful
since 1965 with crosses of striped bass females and white bass (N.
chrysops ) males at Moncks Corner, South Carolina (Stevens, 1966), and
striped bass females and white perch CM. americana ) males in North Carolina
(Smith et al., 1967). Poorer survival generally results when striped bass
males, ti r than females, are used in the crosses. Bayless (1968) found
backcrosses of artifically fertilized hybrid striped bass x white bass
males and striped bass females successful, but poor survival of white bass
females and striped bass x white bass males. Bishop (1968) reported
*peter Belinsky, Animal Pathology, Marine Pathology Laboratory, University
of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI. 02881.
28
-------
¼0
)-a D__-s
.1 a) l.’
F.) a) a)
.—
m
l.a. l-
ft
(0 0’
CD
O . 3
0) C)
a) 1CD
a) (D
1
a)
Oh ..
P1 D
l.a. I- ID
a) —1
F.)
; •... I - f l
0) 0
m i’
ID l . 0
ID a ) P b
tA
0 . 0)
a’ rt
a) l-
m o’i
II .JD)
• : t . i- ’
ID —‘
a)
0) 0)
Jl-.a
l . ft
a) i ’ H-
ro
o OQ
‘.
I -h
I—’ CA
D 0 rt
OJ (D ID
CA
I -’ ft
l- Pt a’
1.1. CD P1
0) P.
a) rta)
— Il
I-a.
CD
0)0’
P - P1
HI-’
o_ i - a.
HN
(DO)
ft
f l )- 1 .
I - I
0)0
n I -h
rt
IDa)
‘Irt
I- ’. I-I
0) I- •
rt
I- ’ ID
U)
a ’
00)
I-h a)
a)
ft
p.
a)
rt
PI ID
I - a. I-’
(DO
I7 0
0)0)
a)a)
Wa)
0$.
P1
I-a.
C)-
tA O)
a)
a) I_I.
P l O )
(DO)
P.
OQ
I-i.
H -
(DID
a)
I- ” I-a.
a)
0)
0’
H
ID
TABLE 3. MERISTIC CHARACTERISTICS
OF STRIPED BASS AND STRIPED BASS HYBRIDS*
tharacteristics
Striped bass Striped bass X White perch Striped bass X White bass
Dorsal fins
02 spInes
02 fin ray mode
02 fin ray mean
separate
1
11-12
connected
0-2
12
11.97
separate
0-2
13
12.58
Anal fin
spines
mode of rays (mean)
3
11
2-4
10-11 (10.54)
2-4
11 (10.96)
Lateral-line scales
range
mean
57-61
59.70
47-54
50.00
56-63
58.67
Caudal fin rays
17
17
17
Pelvic fin spines rays
I, S
I. 5
1 5
Pectoral fin rays
mode (mean)
17 (16.85)
16 (16.10)
Tooth patches on tongue
2
0-2
1-2
Ratio body length to
body depth
3.2:1
2.4:1
2.7:1
*taken fio,n Bishop (1968) and Kerby (1972)
-------
SECTION 6
DISTRIBUTION AND MIGRATION
DISTRIBUTION
The striped bass is an anadromous species occurring naturally along
the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of North America (Fig. 2 ). It ranges from
the St. Lawrence River and southern Gulf of St. Lawrence (Leim and Scott,
1968) to the St. Johns River, Florida (Merriman, 1941), and from the
Appalachicola River, Florida, to the AlabamaRiver, Alabama (Brown, 1965).
In 1870 and 1882 striped bass were introduced into San Francisco Bay on
the Pacific coast of North America (Mason, 1882). Their range is now from
Los Angeles, California, to Barkley Sound, British Columbia (Scofield,
1931; Forrester et al., 1972).
Striped bass have been established in inland freshwaters by introduc-
tion or by damming rivers (Fig. 2 ). Within the United States, areas with
reproducing populations are Millerton Lake, California; Kentucky Lake,
Kentucky—Tennessee; Kerr Reservoir, North Carolina; the Santee—Cooper
Reservoir, South Carolina; and lower Colorado River, Arizona—California—
Nevada. Areas of introduction with no evidence to date of reproducing
stocks include freshwater ponds, lakes, rivers or reservoirs in Alabama,
Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky,
Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oklahoma,
Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and West Virginia (Bailey,
1975). Outside the United States, striped bass have been shipped to Portu-
gal, the USSR (Stevens, 1966), and France (Delor, 1973).
MIGRATION
Local Movements
Local movements of larvae, juveniles and yearlings have been well
documented in areas of proposed power plants (Hudson River, Chesapeake—
Delaware Canal and Potomac River) or pump storage and canal diversions
(Sacramento—San Joaquin River valley). In general, examples from Hudson
River studies will be used to stmm rize these movements (McFadden, 1977a).
Yolk—sac larvae are essentially p.lanktonic, but appear to concentrate
near the bottom at night and disperse somewhat during the day. Post—yolk
sac larvae are capable of resisting currents and making more directed
movements. Larvae appear to congregate near the bottom regardless of
time of day and current conditions. This orientation appears to intensify
as larvae approach juvenile stages. Juvenile bass are first collected in
30
-------
Figure 2. Distribution of striped bass along the coast (stippled area) of North America and
within freshwater areas of the United States ( =stocked;•=reproducing).
CANADA
PA C/F/C
OCEAN
H
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Kilometers
-------
mid—June to early July, depending on time of spawning, from waters deeper
than 6 meters. As water temperature increases, the juveniles migrate to
shoal and shore zone areas. Falling water temperatures bring net downstream
movement so that by December juveniles are generally absent from the shore
zone, having either left the estuary or moved into deeper water for winter.
Apparently, the abundance of juveniles in local areas is related to tempera-
ture, salinity, habitat type, diel patterns, and tidal stage. Comparisons
of day/night beach seine catches in the Hudson River suggested movement
into shore zone at night, probably to feed or escape predation. Yearlings
are found in deep water areas in early spring, throughout the estuary by
su=er. With falling water temperature, they move into deeper water and
downstream. Yearlings generally exhibit the same day/night pattern as
juveniles, but appear less influenced by tidal fluctuations.
The migratory behavior of bass age II and over h is generally been
described from tagging study results. Some of these are summarized
in Table 4 and are described in more detail below with other studies
showing coastal migration patterns. Some segregation by size or age is
evident from tagging studies. For example, investigators studying the
Chesapeake Bay system seem to agree that most bass less than 30 cm (or
about age III) remain within the Bay, while those over this size (age)
migrate out into the coastal waters. There are also seasonal changes in
migration patterns from local to coastal areas. Utilizing tag return
data of the American Littoral Society and the Schaefer Saltwater Fishing
Contest for bass 15 pounds (i.e., 8.6 kg; or about 80 cm FL, Table 29; or
age Vil—IX, Table 30) and over, Freeman (1977) concluded that there were
three general groupings within the east coast distribution of this species.
These are a southern (south Cape Hatteras) and a northern (north of Nova
Scotia) fluviatile, and the Middle Atlantic migratory (north of Cape
Hatteras and south of Nova Scotia) group.
Within the southern fluviatile group, tagging studies indicate that
the migration patterns favor movement within localized areas. Scruggs
and Fuller (1955) reported tagging 545 adult striped bass in the Tailrace
Canal of the Santee—Cooper Reservoirs, South Carolina. Nine were
recaptured during the ensuing four—month period, seven came from down-
stream locations in the Cooper River and two from the lower reservoir.
They postulated on the basis of the latter two recaptures that there was
occasionally some recruitment of bass from the Cooper River to the
reservoir population.
Tagging of striped bass during 1968—70 in the Ogeechee and Savannah
Rivers, Georgia, was reported by Smith (1970). In the Ogeechee River, 426
bass were tagged during the period and 103 were recovered. Of the
recoveries, 25 were from upstream points and 78 were from estuarine areas
of the river. A total of 259 bass were tagged in the Savannah River. Of
the 43 returns, 17 caine from upstream and 26 from estuarine areas. There
appeared to be a general upstream movement of striped bass during the spring
in both rivers just prior to spawning season. One bass tagged in the
Savannah River system was recovered in the Ogeecheee. But (as Smith
states) it is not known whether this bass traveled laterally between the
two river systems or returned to sea to enter the Ogeechee River system
32
-------
TABLE 4. SUMMARY OF TAGGING STUDIES INVOLVING AGE 2+ STRIPED BASS IN THE
HUDSON, CHESAPEAKE, AND SAN JOAQUIN ESTUARIES
Area of Tagging
(or location of
information)
Great South Bay,
L.I., N.Y.
Great South Beach,
L.l., N.Y.
Westhampton,
1.1.. N.Y.
hudson River
Potomac River 4
north, 4 James River
Potomac River 4
north
Potomac River
(J
Number
Tagged
Percent
Return
Recapture Remarks
Source
1,917
14.7
63% Great South Ray, Hudson River 4 eastern L.1.S.;
26% N.J. to Va.; 11% Conn. to Maine.
Alperin ( 1966 a)
580
11.6
52% South Shore L.I.; 16% R.I. 4 Mass.; 16% N.J.
to Va.
Schaefer (1968b)
178
28.1
54% hudson 4 L.1.S. 1 34% N.J. to Va.; 10% R.1. 4
Mass.
Schaefer (1968b)
149
11.4
71% hudson River 4 western L.1.S.; 18% South Shore
1.1.; 11% Mass.
Texas Instruments (l 974 a)
2,869
42.1
97.5% within Cheasapake Bay; 2.5% Del. to Mass. 1
James River least migratory
Vladykov and Wallace
(1952)
1,103
38.0
1% outside Chesapeake Bay; seasonal movements.
Hansueti (1961)
8,973
37.3
98% wIthin Nd. Chesapeake Bay; 1.5% Del. to Nova
Scotia; seasonal movements; overwintering area for
York, Rappahannock and eastern shore rivers.
Nichols and Miller
(1967)
1,762
40.9
most within Upper Bay
Moore and Burton (1975)
2,429
27.8
94% wIthin river tagged; 10 York tagged to Del.
to Maine; 1 each tagged York 4 James to N.C.
Massman and Pacheco
(1961)
2,800
.
migrate into upper Suisan Bay to spawn and over-
winter; moved into San Francisco Bay summer feeding.
Calhoun (1952)
18,300
-
3-4 yr. olds remained in San Francisco Bay;
general pattern as Calhoun (1952)
Chadwick (1967)
7,400
-
larger bass went to sea during summer and fall;
immature in freshwaters.
Orsi (1971)
Upper Chesapeake Bay
York, Rappahannock
4 James Rivers
Sacramento-
San Joaquin Rivers
-------
later. Dudley et a].. (1977) tracked 33 adult bass in the Savannah River
during 1973, 1974 and 1975. They observed post—spawning movement upstream
as far as 301 km from spawning areas (about 30 km upstream from the river’s
mouth), where the fish remained at least four months.
The migration behavior of the northern fluviatile group does not appear
to be as uniformly localized as that of the southern group. Vladykov (1957)
reported results of tagging in Quebec waters from 1945—1956. He observed
that maximtmi travel of striped bass within the St. Lawrence River did not
exceed 290 km. Williamson (1974) tagged 27 bass in the St. John River of
which six were recaptured in Belleisle Bay, north of the tagging site, and
one in Rhode Island waters. This latter bass traveled about 12 km/day before
being captured. He concluded that the southern contribution to the Bay of
Fundy stocks (northern fluviatile) was probably small except in years of
strong year—classes. Dadswell (1976) reviewed additional tagging studies
of St. John River bass. From 1964 through 1975, 280 bass were tagged
(including Williamson’s 27) in the St. John River. Many of these were
recovered within the river, but some were recovered from Massachusetts,
New York, New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland waters. In general (Dadswell,
1976), the bass tagged within the upper reaches of the St. John River
remained within the estuary, while those tagged in the lower estuary were
recovered there or south along the Atlantic coast. Thus, it appears that
the northern stocks mix more frequently with the stocks within the Middle
Atlantic, or coastal, migratory group than do the southern stocks.
Coastal Movements
Merriman (1941) provided the first major study of the movement of
striped bass along the Atlantic coast. He tagged and released 2,573 bass
from April 1936 to November 1937 in Connecticut and Long Island waters.
By July 1938, 21% were recovered from local waters as well as waters from
Massachusetts to North Carolina. Merriman concluded from his studies that
there was a northern coastal migration in the spring, relatively stable
localized movement during the sier, and a southward coastal migration in
the fall and early winter.
Stolte (1974) reported on tag returns from a 1963 and a 1966 study of
461 bass released in Great Bay Estuary, New Hampshire. During 1963—1971,
66 of the tagged bass were recovered. One bass was recovered along the
southern Maine coast and four from within Chesapeake Bay. Others were
recovered within this area primarily from coastal waters, although several
were recovered within Long Island Sound and the Hudson River.
Raney et al . (1954) analyzed recapture (8.5%) data from a Schaefer—
Saltwater Sportsman supported tagging program from 1948 to 1952 in which
most of the 9,320 bass tagged were 45 cm or less in length. The bass tagged
in the Hudson River were found in the southern portion of the estuary and
in the western Long Island Sound area during the suer, while they
apparently spent the winter and spring in the river. Alperin (1966a)
stm m rized a tagging study conducted from 1956 to 1961 in Great South Bay
along the south shore of Suffolk County, New York. The 1,917 bass tagged
34
-------
were predominately ages two through four. Of the 281 recovered (14.7%),
63% were from Great South Bay and the Hudson River (eastern Long Island
Sound, New York Harbor and north), 11% were from Connecticut, Rhode Island,
Massachusetts and Maine waters, and 26% were from New Jersey to Virginia
waters. Of the tags recovered from New York waters more came from
eastern rather than western Long Island waters.
Schaefer (1968b) reported on tagging studies made from Westhampton
Beach, Long Island, of 178 striped bass, from 1954 to 1956, and from Great
South Bay of 4,924 striped bass, from 1961 to 1964. The bass tagged in the
earlier study ranged from 30 to 60 cm FL, while over half from the latter
set were over 60 cm FL. The recovery rate for those tagged from Westhampton
Beach was 28.1%. Only 10% (5 bass) were recaptured north of New York (off
Rhode Island and Massachusetts) and 34% (17 bass) were taken south of New
York in New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and Virginia waters. Of the 54%
(27 bass) recovered from New York waters, more than half were taken from
the Hudson River. During the 1961 to 1964 study 9.9% of the bass under
60 cm were recaptured, more than 75% of these were from southern Long
Island waters, although one recovery was made from Maine and one from
Virginia. Of the 580 bass over 60 cm tagged at Great South Beach, 67 were
recaptured (11.6%) and again most (52.2%) of these were from south shore
Long Island waters. Most of the others were taken in the north from
Rhode Island and Massachusetts waters and in the south from New Jersey
waters (about 16% each region).
Clark (1968) analyzed 1959—1963 tagging and recapture data collected
by the League of Saltwater Sportsmen and found evidence of seasonal
movement patterns. The Hudson River was shown to be a major spawning
area and source of recruitment for bass of Long Island Sound and the
New York Bight. Only three of the 195 spring recaptures were taken in the
Chesapeake Bay. Hence, he concluded that bass from Long Island Sound or
the New York Bight did not appear to migrate to the Chesapeake Bay to spawn.
However, 72 of the 75 winter recaptures were taken from south Jersey,
Delaware Bay and Chesapeake Bay, indicating probable over—wintering areas.
Most of the s* er and fall recaptures were made from areas off the coasts
of Massachusetts and Rhode Island to New Jersey.
In a paper presented by de Sylva (Raney and Weller, 1972), the data on
309 bass collected during a 1967 to 1971 tagging program of the American
Littoral Society were presented. These striped bass were either tagged or
recaptured in New York waters. Those tagged along the north shore of
Suffolk County and along the south shore of Long Island from Staten Island
eastward appeared to be part of the coastal migratory stock since some
were recovered as far south as North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, and
Delaware and as far north as Massachusetts. Six bass tagged in Maine were
also from this migratory stock and were recaptured along the eastern and
south shore of Long Island, and in Jamaica Bay. Raney and Weller suggest
that the Atlantic coast migratory stock originates in areas as far south
as North Carolina, movin2 north in the spring and south in the fall. This
migratory stock generally moves as far north as Maine and is the basis of
the Atlantic coast fishery for striped bass.
35
-------
Austin and Custer (1977) used American Littoral Society tagging data
for 1966—1972 to determine movements in Long Island Sound. From a total of
581 tag returns analysed, 231 bass had been tagged in the Sound but
recovered outside it. Of the 350 Sound recoveries, 87% had been tagged
within and 13% outside the Sound. They found most migration into and out of
the Sound occurred primarily at the eastern end during spring and fall,
respectively. They appear to have demonstrated an intra—sound fall migra-
tion pattern from the Connecticut to the Long Island shore before leaving
the area. Bass recovered outside the Sound were recaptured to the north in
waters of Massachusetts and to the south in North Carolina waters.
Tag returns of the American Littoral Society for 1971—1973 (reported
in the Underwater Naturalist, 7(4) to 8(3)) were analyzed by the authors.
Complete information was available for 874 tagged and recaptured striped
bass (23 to 91.5 cm) during this period. Tagging was concentrated from
Maine to New Jersey—Delaware, with recaptures from Maine to North Carolina.
One bass, only, was reported tagged and recaptured in each of three areas -
Canada, Thames River, Connecticut, and Georgia. Of the total tagged, 44%
were in the Long Island Sound area, 13% were in the Staten Island area, 12%
in Maine, 8.7% in Massachusetts waters, 7% along the south shore of
Long Island and also New Jersey—Delaware waters, 5.5% in Rhode Island waters,
and 1.5% in the Hudson River. Locations of the recaptures showed a general
southerly shift. That is, 20% were recovered in Maryland—Virginia waters,
23% along the south shore of Long Island, 21% in Long Island Sound, 14% in
New Jersey—Delaware waters, 6.3% in Maine waters, 4% in both Massachusetts
and Rhode Island waters, 2.5% off Staten Island, 1.5% in the Hudson River,
and 1% in North Carolina waters. The bass recovered in North Carolina
waters came from Maine (1), Massachusetts (1), Rhode Island (1), Long
Island Sound (6), and south shore (1) Long Island waters. Bass recaptured
in the Hudson were tagged in Staten Island waters (6), Long Island Sound
(3), and in Hudson River (4) waters. Of the bass tagged in the Hudson
(13), four were recaptured in the Hudson, three at the mouth of the
Hudson River, one each in Jamaica Bay and Great South Bay, three in Long
Island Sound waters, and one in the Chesapeake Bay. This Hudson to
Chesapeake Bay migrator was tagged in August and recovered in July of
the following year. The recoveries in Maine came from Long Island
Sound (2), south shore of Long Island (1), Staten Island (1), and from
Maine (51) tagged bass. Of those tagged in the Staten Island area, 37%
were recovered in Maryland—Virginia waters, 337. in New Jersey—Delaware
waters, 17% in the Staten Island area, 5% up the Hudson River, and 0.9%
(or one bass each) in Maine and Rhode Island waters.
Texas Instruments (l974a) reported on tagging returns of 592 bass 100
to 400+ n TI released in the Hudson River during the winter and spring of
1972—197 3. Only 17 of the 149 over 400 imn wer& recovered. The majority
were recaptured within the Hudson River or western Long Island Sound, and
five were recovered outside this area (two off Massachusetts and three off
the south shore of Long Island).
Tagging of striped bass in southern New Jersey rivers was reported by
Hamer (1971) for the period 1955 to 1970. The bass tagged were only those
found in New Jersey waters for a specific reason, i.e., they were not
36
-------
transient bass. During 1955 to 1959, 111 wintering adult bass were tagged
in the Mullica and Great Egg Harbor Rivers. The recoveries (15%) indicated
that these bass migrated north into southern New England waters and returned.
Spawning bass were tagged in the Maurice River from 1959 to 1970. There
were 46.5% returns of these tagged bass, 24.9% from Delaware Bay and other
of its tributaries, 12.5% from the Maurice River, and 4.5% from the Chesa-
peake Bay and its tributaries. Juvenile bass were tagged during this period
in the Delaware River, with tag returns, although low, resembling that
found from the Maurice River tagging.
Koo and Wilson (1972) reported on sonic tracking of 5 adult bass
released in the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal during April and May, 1971.
None of the bass tracked moved continuously and often the rest period was
observed to be lengthy. One spent female tracked was noted to be more
active at night than during the day. This behavior was not detected in
the prespawning bass tracked.
Striped bass tagging in the Chesapeake Bay area began in 1931 when
Pearson (1933) tagged 305 bass during July and August. Eighty—six were
recaptured in the next twelve months and only uJzne of these were taken
south of the Severn River, Maryland, the release point. To get a more
complete picture over 1500 bass were tagged over a period from October
1936 to June 1937. Vladykov and Wallace (1938) reported the results of the
632 recaptures made in the nine months after tagging. This was about 42%
return with 97.5% made within the Chesapeake Bay. Only eighteen bass
(less than 2.5%) were taken outside the Bay and these were recaptured from
February through October of 1937, from Delaware (1), New Jersey (3),
Connecticut (3), Rhode Island (6) and Massachusetts (5). Vladykov and
Wallace did not find a single recapture south of Chesapeake Bay. These
authors tend to support Merriman’s (1937, 1941) belief that the coastal
migratory stock of striped bass is made up primarily of fish over three
years old (1934 year—class of 1936—1937 tagging). But they did not believe
that the striped bass of the Chesapeake Bay was the major contributor to
this migratory stock. They felt the greater part of the Chesapeake Bay
population did not move out into other bodies of water. Vladykov and
Wallace also found, from tagging done in the James River, an indication of
a distinct, evidently non—migratory, ttsChOoltt of striped bass within the
James River.
Tagging results reported by Mansueti (1961) indicated seasonal move-
ments of striped bass in the Upper Chesapeake Bay similar to those outlined
by Vladykov and Wallace (1938). Mansueti found that the recaptured (38%)
bass tagged during 1957—58 remained in the upper part of Chesapeake Bay
(Potomac and north), generally migrating into deeper waters during autumn
for the winter, upstream with spring and returning to shallow bay waters
during suer. He reported less than one percent of bass tagged were taken
outside the Bay and only two were recaptured in the Virginia part of the
Bay. These findings support the idea that two—three year old bass contri-
bute little to the coastal migratory stock.
Nichols and Miller (1967) reported on a 1959—1961 tagging study during
which 8,973 striped bass were tagged and released in the Potomac River and
37
-------
3,345 of these were recaptured. Of the recaptures, 98% were taken in the
Maryland part of the Chesapeake, only 0.5% (17 bass) were taken in the
Virginia portion of the Bay, and 1.5% (52 bass) were taken outside the Bay
in the Atlantic from Delaware to Nova Scotia. They include data on miles
traveled and days at large for these bass. Nichols and Miller concluded
that striped bass returned to the same spawning area in successive years, and
that the Potomac River was a significant contributor to the coastal migratory
stocks.
During the fall of 1972, striped bass 28—32 cm TL were tagged and
released in the upper Chesapeake Bay. Of the 1,762 bass released, 721
(40.9%) were reported recovered (Noore and Burton, 1975). The majority of
these were taken during the following winter months in deep water north of
the release site. Bass recaptured during early spring were taken in the
upper portions of most rivers within the Chesapeake Bay system. Six bass
were recaptured outside the Chesapeake Bay.
A tagging program was initiated in 1957 to determine striped bass
movements within the Virginia portion of Chesapeake Bay. During 1957—1958,
Massmann and Pacheco (1961) reported 2,429 striped bass were tagged and
released in the Rappahannock, York and James Rivers. Of these, 675 were
recaptured and of this lot, 94% were taken in the same river system in
which they were tagged. Twelve bass were recaptured outside the Chesapeake
Bay. Of these, ten were from the York River taken from Delaware to Maine
and one each from the York and James Rivers were taken in North Carolina
waters. The James River striped bass, according to this study, moved the
least of the bass from the three tagging rivers. Massznann and Pacheco
suggest, as did Merriman (1941), that bass under 30 cm long do not contri-
bute to the coastal migratory stock, but that bass over 30 cm move into the
Chesapeake Bay and out along the Atlantic coast.
One study of possible migration of striped bass from North Carolina
waters is Trent and Hassler (1968). They collected about 5,000 bass from
the Roanoke River in the spring of 1963, 1964, and 1965. They did not
report finding any striped bass tagged in northern waters. They concluded
that the migratory population in the Roanoke River is composed of sexually
mature bass. They feel that the population is relatively restricted to
the Albemarle Sound region and possibly adjacent coastal waters. This
conclusion is supported by Chapotan and Sykes’ (1961) sui ary of tagging
done from 1955 to 1959 by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service
along the North Carolina coast, in Albemarle Sound, and In Chesapeake
Bay. Of the 79 tagged on the North Carolina coast in 1956 and 1958, five
were recaptured near the tag site, two were taken in Albemarle Sound, eight
were recaptured in the Chesapeake Bay prior to and during spawning seasons,
and four were taken on the Atlantic coast after the spawning season. Of
the 97 bass tagged in Albemarle Sound and the Roanoke River from 1955
to 1958, five were recaptured near the tagging site, one in the Roanoke
River; 16 in the Sound prior to and during the spawning season, and only
one bass was taken after spawning season along the northern Atlantic coast.
During the study period 206 striped bass were tagged in Chesapeake Bay
tributaries and 27 were recaptured. Of the returns 12 were recovered
within the Bay system, 14 were taken along the Atlantic coast, from New
38
-------
Jersey to Massachusetts after the spawning season, and one was recaptured
south of the Bay along the coast after the spawning season.
During 1968—1971 a total of 1,752 striped bass was tagged and released
along the coast of North Carolina north and south of Cape Hatteras, with 197
returned by the end of 1971 (Holland and Yelverton, 1973). These returns
indicated that three groups of bass over—winter off North Carolina. One
group, mostly smaller bass, entered Pamlico and A] .bemarle Sounds in the
spring and suer, the second, of mixed sizes, moved into Chesapeake Bay
in the spring, and the third, of predominantely larger bass, moved north-
ward during spring and su er into waters off New Jersey to Maine. It
thus appears that striped bass within Albemarle Sound tend to remain there,
migrating up the tributaries to spawn, while the bass along the North
Carolina coast outside tend to participate in coastal migrations as far
north as Maine.
In 1879 and 1882 a total of 435 juvenile striped bass were shipped
from New Jersey waters and planted in San Francisco Bay. The first compre-
hensive study made of this stock of striped bass introduced to the west
coast was that by Scofield (1931). At this time there were no tagging
studies underway or initiated, therefore Scofield’s conclusions were based
on ecological studies only. He found a single population of bass, spawning
in San Francisco Bay, which migrated along the entire California coast;
that is, he distinguished them from the increasing numbers of striped bass
found since 1918 in Coos Bay, Oregon. Scofield also reported that two bass
had been observed in the Columbia River, 600 miles north of the Golden
Gate Bridge. The only other report of the occurrence of striped bass
north of Oregon was by Forrester et al. (1972). They reported the finding
of two striped bass captured in British Columbia waters. One was caught
in Barkley Sound and one off Port San Juan, Vancouver Island.
Tagging striped bass from California began in the early 1930’s
(Clark, 1934) and was limited essentially to fish three years old and
less. These bass were not found to undertake definite and extended
migrations (see Table 4 ). In 1952, Calhoun reported on results of a
tag and recapture study carried out from 1947 to 1951 on over 2,800 striped
bass, mostly 51 to 89 cm FL. Calhoun’s report encompassed the yearly
migration of striped bass into the upper delta and tributaries above Su.isun
Bay to spawn in early spring and in late fall for winter. Bass moved out
into the Bay during late spring on their suer feeding migrations. Rado—
vich (1963) concluded that the seaward migration of striped bass from San
Francisco Bay waters was a function of coastal temperature, which might in
turn effect food organism abundance. He found a positive relationship
between coastal sea temperatures and seaward migration in the striped bass.
Chadwick (1967) described migration of striped bass in the Sacramento—
San Joaquin River system, the two major tributaries to San Francisco Bay,
based on tag returns from 18,300 bass from 1958 through 1964. In general,
large mature bass migrated downstream farther than the smaller adults, and
most three to four year olds remained in the Bay area during spawning
season. The migration pattern from this period was found to be similar to
that reported by Calhoun (1952), but with two main differences. First, in the
39
-------
late 1950’s and earLy 1960’s, the bass migrated farther downstream and
stayed there longer than the early 1950’s study revealed. Second, Chadwick
found a shift from the San Joaquin to the Sacramento side of the delta,
perhaps indicating an increase in the importance of the Sacramento River as
a spawning area. Chadwick (1967) found that the correlation of ocean
temperature and seaward migrations of striped bass as reported by Radovich
(1963) did not adequately explain migration variations between 1958 and 1964.
During a 1965—1966 study in the Sacramento—San Joaquin River system
over 7,400 bass, mostly mature, were tagged (Orsi, 1971). The migration
pattern reported by Orsi was generally the same as that for 1958 to 1961,
but showed no return to the pattern observed in the early 1950’s. Only
medium—sized and large fish went to sea, and then only during the summer
and fall. The only bass common in freshwater during the s*er were
lmmRture ones. The major differences Orsi found from Chadwick’s study were
a shift from San Francisco Bay to San Pablo Bay during the winter, a
downstream movement of small to medium—sized bass into San Francisco Bay
during the fall, a shorter residence time in the ocean during the summer,
and a reduced oceanic range. Orsi felt that there seemed to be more
influence on migration by bass length (age) than sex.
At the same time tagging began in California, a program was initiated
in Oregon as reported by Morgan and Gerlach (1950). The majority of the
374 bass tagged from April to October 1950 were 51 cm. There were 49
bass recovered and, unlike the east coast and California studies, none
were recaptured in the ocean. Their observations indicated that there
were two migrations of bass within Coos Bay — an upstream spawning migration
in the spring and a migration in the fall into the downstream sloughs.
Coastal migration appears, in general, to be undertaken by post—
spawning striped bass of age III or over from the Chesapeake tributaries,
Roanoke River and Albemarle Sound, supplemented in the Middle Atlantic and
southern New England waters by bass from the Delaware and Hudson Rivers.
The impressions stated by Merriman (1937, 1941) that the migrations of bass
have a maximum size and intensity along New England and Long Island
shores, and that the northerly spring movement is augmented by bass that
have wintered farther north, appear to be supported by the more recent
studies. Present indications are that bass from Albemarle Sound do not
participate in the long coastal migrations of the bass from northern
waters, although those off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, may participate.
Bass form South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida waters, as well as from the
Gulf Coast appear to have foregone coastal migrations in favor of the
fresh and brackish waters of their ‘home’ rivers. The Pacific Coast
striped bass migrate extensively, but generally remain within San Francisco
Bay and its tributaries. Coastal migrations of the nature seen on the
Atlantic coast are not evident from tag returns along the Pacific coast.
Another difference between Atlantic and Pacific striped bass is the
direction of movement in the fall. Generally, this is into deeper, more
saline waters on the Atlantic, but into the brackish—to—fresh waters of the
San Joaquin Delta.
40
-------
SECTION 7
MATERIALS AND METHODS
GENERAL FORNAT
The recommended culture procedures are presented by life history stage.
Each stage’s section includes its description, natural habitat, and
environmental requirements (including biological optima) by way of intro-
duction to the culture methodology recommendations. The procedures recoin—
mended are based in part upon data available from the literature and in
part from work performed during this study.
The life history of the striped bass has been broken into four stages:
embryo, larva, juvenile and sub—adult, and adult. A general description of
each stage is:
embryo = spawning and fertilization to hatching;
larva including prolarva hatching to yolk—absorption and feeding;
post larva = yolk absorption and feeding to metamorphosis;
juvenile and subadult = metamorphosis to maturity;
adult = maturity to death, including spawning.
For each stage information is organized and presented as follows in each
section:
Description of Stage
Natural Habitat
Environmental Requirements
Abiotic factors
Blo tic factors
Culture Methodology
Cap ture methods
Post—capture handling
Transportation
Handling procedures
41
-------
Maintenance procedures
Culture vessels
Stocking density
Maintaining water quality
Diet
Normal conditions and physiological state.
No matter how one tries to separate each stage, there is some overlap
since an individual does not grow in distinct stages, but makes a smooth
transition from one to the next. For example, given the general description
above, the natural habitat of a newly spawned and fertilized egg would be
described twice — once from the viewpoint of the egg and again when dis-
cussing spawning adults. For clarity these areas of overlap are described
in one section and the reader is referred to this description as necessary.
SOURCE OF MATERIAL
The data on the striped bass life history stages used to formulate
the culture methods recommended in this report cane from published reports
and from studies we performed. The source of live striped bass of the
various stages used for our studies was as follows:
Where stage was
Stage Source of Stage studied
Eggs 1974—1977 Moacks Corner, S.C. 1977 in S.C., 1974—
(during spaveing hatchery 1977 in R.I.
season)
1974—1977 Verplank, N.Y., 1975 in N.Y., 1976—
hatchery 1977 in R.I.
1974—1976 Nanticoke River, Md. 1974—1975 in Nd.,
1976 in R.I.
Larvae 1974—1977 Moacks Corner, S.C., 1974—1977 in R.I.
(generally taken hatchery
from hatching eggs
on hand) 1974—1977 Verplank, N.Y., 1974—1977 in R.I.
hatchery
1974—1976, Nanticoke River,Z4d. 1974—1975 in Nd.,
1975—1976 in R.I.
Juveniles 1974—1977 eastern shore rivers, R.I.
Nd.
1974—1977 Rudson River, N.Y. R.I.
1975—1978 from larvae I L l.
reared in lab
Sub—adults 1974 trap fishery in Nd. R.I.
1976—1978 from juveniles R.I.
reared in Lab
Adults 1973—1976 trap fishery in R.I. R.I.
1975 gill—netted or rod caught R.I.
in R.I.
1976—1978 from Juveniles and ILl.
subadults reared in lab
42
-------
The studies on eggs and larvae in the Hudson River, New York, and the Nan—
ticoke River, Maryland were performed in a mobile field trailer—laboratory
outfitted for this purpose. The studies on all life history stages in
Rhode Island were performed at the laboratory of the University of Rhode
Island’s Marine Experiment Station on lower Pt. Judith Pond, Rhode Island.
The research procedures used in all of our studies followed the general
methods described below.
GENERAL R.ESEARCH PROCEDURES
All salinities were made up using filtered sea water from our flow
through system (28—30 o/oo). The filters used were 5 and 10 micron car-
tridge or polypropylene bag (GAP) filters. In the laboratory the source
of freshwater was dechlorinated tap water, while in the field the source
of freshwater was filtered (5 i.i bag) river water. - Juvenile, subadult and
adult bass populations were maintained in ambient flow through sea water
systems in the laboratory until used for feeding and metabolism studies.
A number of egg and larval studies were performed under constant
temperature regimes. Constant temperatures of 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, and in
some cases 27°C were maintained in test containers by keeping them
iersed in a temperature controlled water bath. Bath temperatures were
controlled using Haake 1000 watt heater thermo—regulators operating against
a cooling coil in each bath. Other studies were perfurined at ambient
sea water temperatures. Figure 3 shows average year—round ambient sea
wacer temperatures at the laboratory.
Water quality was monitored throughout these studies. Dissolved
oxygen was determined using a Yellow Springs Instruments Co. (YSI) dissolved
oxygen probe, supplemented periodically with determinations using the
azide—inodification of the Winkler titration. The pH was measured using
an Orion pH electrode. Ammonia was determined using a micro—modification
(1/50th reductiaiiu sample and reagents) of the indophenol technique of
Solorzano (1969). Salinity measurements were made using an American
Optical salinity refractometer. Conductivity measurements were made with
a Y.S.I. conductivity bridge and a one cm cell.
Caloric values of egg constituents, empty representative bass, two
diets and the feces produced by bass consuming each diet were determined
using a Parr adiabatic bomb calorimeter. Benzoic acid tablet standards
were run concurrently. Residue, or ash values were calculated from these
determinations. These were checked against ash values obtained directly
from igniting subsamples of material in a muffle furnace at 45O C for five
hours. Percent carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen content of larvae, two diets
and their feces was calculated from analysis performed on the EPA Narra-
gansett Laboratory’s Carlo—Erda (model 1100) analyser.
Feeding larvae were supplied with newly hatched Artéin.ia nauplii at
least twice a day in quantities sufficient so that a portion remained at
the next feeding. Artemia nauplii proved to be a satisfactory diet for
striped bass through the early juvenile stage. Juveniles and yearlings
were fed cut or ground squid or a moist diet described in the juvenile
43
-------
1
Figure 3. Yearly ambient sea water temperatures from flow through
laboratory holding tanks during 1974.
25
L i i
It
D
I-
4
15
LtJ
5
0
25
-5
Lii
— 15
I-
JAN FEB MAR APR
LLJ _ LLLI iii i _ 1.i __ i _ L _ I _ LJ. __ L _ LI __ LLJ __ 1J. _ I LI iii] I liii IIII I I I ii i ii Ii IIL1
MAY
JUNE’ JULY
5
-5
Ii III i lii III
AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
-------
section. Sub—adults and adults were fed cut squid or menhaden.
Egg and larval sampling procedures and weight length measurement de-
terminations are described in Rogers (1978), Rogers et al . (1977), and
Rogers and Westin (l97 ). In the embryo and larval sections there are
areas where data is reported as ‘typical t . This refers to one of two to
four replicates (or an average) of an experiment performed at different
times, often in different years.
Groups of juveniles (5—140 g wet weight) were used in experiments to
determine food consumption, feeding frequency, evacuation rates, oxygen
consumption, ammonia excretion, and growth. The bass used in these
studies were distributed into Frigid Unit fiberglass oval tanks (150 1)
according to their size (weight) so that the largest fish in a particular
tank was within 2.0 times the size of the smallest fish. Each tank was
supplied with aerated flowing filtered seawater (28—30 o/oo) at a replacement
rate of about a liter per minute. The water temperature in each experiment
was recorded daily. The bass were weighed on day one and again at the end
of the experimental period. Although the fish were weighed separately,
the individual weights from a particular tank were combined to calculate
the group weight. When weighed, each fish was removed from the tank and
anesthetized using quinaldine (0 0l ml quinaldine to 1.0 liter water).
Each fish was then blotted dry and both the fork length and wet weight (to
the nearest 0.1 gram) were measured. The fish were returned to sea water
immediately after measuring. They were not fed on the day they were
weighed.
The primary food items chosen for use in feeding studies were obtained
commercially or made from commercially available materials The fresh
frozen foods (squid and menhaden) were cut into pieces that were easily
eaten by the striped bass. The menhaden were headed before being used for
food. The bass were fed to satiation daily and the rations weighed to the
nearest gram. Evacuation rates were estimated from returns of colored
hobby store beads (2 mm diameter) put into food pieces prior to feeding.
The number of beads consumed (uneaten portions were removed) was recorded.
As the beads were evacuated, they were collected in a sieve during the
siphoning of the bottom of the tank three times a day. The length of time
for the beads to evacuate was recorded in hours and the number of beads that
returned in each tank as calculated as a percent of the total. The percent
was plotted against time to evacuate and a graphic estimate was made. A
second estimation was made by transforming evacuation rates to probits and
hours to log scale. A linear regression of probits on time in hours was
then calculated for each group at each temperature period in which there
iere four or more points from 10—90% returned.
The oxygen consumption measurements of bass over 200 g wet weight were
made in 70 liter tunnel respirometers, or in clean, darkened (covered)
500 lfter fiberglass tanks. Tunnel respirometers (NMFS, Milford Laboratory)
were used to determine the oxygen consumption of bass 200 to 500 g wet
weight at 15°C and 19°C. The measurements in the tunnel respirometers were
made at velocities of 20 to 80 cm/sec using methods described by Freadman
45
-------
(1978). Standard metabolism of each fish was estimated from this data by
extrapolating to 0 cm/sec. Oxygen consumption of bass > 500 g made in the
500 1 tanks and on those < 200 g were measurements of routine metabolism.
All routine metabolism measurements were made after two days acclimation for
two hour periods. Appropriate controls and initial oxygen levels were
measured. The initial oxygen levels were not less than 90% of saturation.
Oxygen levels were not allowed to fall below 55% of saturation during a
measurement period. In both types of respiration determinations, the bass
were starved for 24 to 36 hours prior to testing unless otherwise indicated.
Excretion was measured as ammonia—nitrogen in both freshwater (dechior—
mated tap water) and seawater. Measurements were made concurrently with
respiration for those fish greater than 1000 g live weight. Other
determinations were made on individual fish independent of the respiration
measurements. All fish were starved 24—26 hours during the acclimation
period before the initial measurements were taken. Additional measurements
were made daily thereafter. Food was withheld during these measurement
periods.
The data obtained from the initial and final weighings of each bass
group and the recorded amount of food consumed by the fish during the
experimental period were used to calculate the growth rate and gross growth
efficiency of the groups of fish using the following formulas:
Weight Gain
Gross Grow )Eff1c1encY Total Consumed X 100
Final Dry Weight — Initial Dry Weight ,
Growth Rate Initial Dry Weight 100
(Z per day) — I/ Test Days
These calculations of growth were either on a dry—dry or wet—wet weight basis.
This is indicated when the values are given.
Some striped bass ovarian and muscle tissues were sampled for organo—
chloride concentration. The frozen samples were thawed and analysed in lots
of five plus reagent blanks using facilities in Dr. Charles Olney’s
laboratory (URI). The thawed tissue was ground with sodium sulfate and
petroleum ether to extract the lipid material and the contaminants. Alumina
clean—up was used to remove the lipid material. Following clean—up, the
silicic acid separation methods described by Bidleman at al. (1978) was
used. The samples were analysed on a gas chromatography (Tracor t’41—220) with
Ni 63 electron capture detectors. The chromatograph had columns of 1.5%
OV—17 / 1.95% QF—1 and 4% SE—30/6% QF—l and was operated at 200°C. The PCB
and DDT (DDD, DDE and DDT) dieldrin, and chloradane concentrations in the
tissues were calculated against appropriate reference standards.
46
-------
In addition to any background references given in each section, there
are a number of works with which we have assumed the reader is familiar.
These include the Fish Physiology series of eight volumes edited by W. S.
Hoar and D. J. Randall and Fish Nutrition edited by J. E. Halver. Two very
good reviews on nutrition requirements of fish have been assembled by the
National Research Council (1973, 1977) for their Nutrient Requirements of
Domestic Animals Series. Spotte (1979) provided an extensive background on
water quality control in closed—system rearing environments. In addition,
Amlacher (1970), Klontz (1973) and Kingsford (1975) were very useful in
dealing with tentative disease or problem diagnosis among our laboratory
populations.
47
-------
SECTION 8
RECOMMENDED CULTURE METHODS AND BIONOMICS: EMBRYO
DESCRIPTION OF STAGE
This stage emcompasses that portion of the striped bass life history
from spawning and fertilization to hatching.
Striped bass eggs are semibouyant with a large perivitelline space.
Diameters of fully water—hardened fertilized eggs measured live range from
1.25 to 4.50 in. Figure 4 shows the range of chorion diameters from a number
of spawning areas. The areas consisting mainly of smaller diameter eggs
(Blackwater and Transquaking Rivers) have predominately higher salinities
(2—3 o/oo) during the spawning season (Hollis, 1967). Albrecht (1964)
found egg specific gravity was related to egg size, i.e., smaller eggs
have a slightly higher specific gravity. He reported the average specific
gravity of striped bass eggs to be 1.0005, with a range of 1.0003 to 1.00065.
Each egg has one amber—colored oil globule, which has been noted to
fragment (Mansueti, 1958 and a single yolk. Yolk and oil diameters are
shown in Figure 4 for live water—hardened eggs.
The caloric content of striped bass eggs has been reported to be an
average of 8,031 calJg (Rogers, 1978) and 8,070 cal/g (Eldridgeetal., 1977).
The percent of whole egg dry weight that each constitute (namely chorion,
yolk, and oil) comprises is snnmuarized in Table 5 from data given in Rogers
(1978). Eldridge etal. (1977) reported that their eggs averaged 2.21
calories per egg and contained oil of 9291 calories per gram. Carbon:
nitrogen determinations on groups of ten whole unfertilized eggs revealed
approximately 7% nitrogen and 48% carbon (Rogers, 1978). During the course
of this study unfertilized eggs were obtained from 36 gravid females of
known length (and usually weight) from one of three locations. Dry weight
determinations were made on six to eight groups of 50 eggs from each female.
This data is presented in Table 6. It suggests that larger females
produce larger, or heavier, eggs.
The developmental stages of striped bass eggs are shown in Figure 5
The rate at which this development proceeds depends on temperature (Figure
6 ). The hatching time of eggs in relation to water temperatures is
sin,minrized in Table 7. The time to hatch was estimated by Rogers et al.
(1977) as
—0.0934 (°C)
time to hatch (hours) = 258.5e
48
-------
5.0
a3
I c° -F
3.0 103
30 2 0
1.0 +601
E2.0 -
< 1.6 —
+ +
- : , +
0.6
1.2 —
+ I t + +
O.4
° a b c d e f g h I
A R EA
Figure 4. Regional variation in striped bass egg dimensions; chorion,
yolk and oil diameters measured in live material from several locations
indicated by letters. Number to right refers to the number of eggs
measured from each location.
a - Hudson River, hatchery 1975 (Rogers, 1978)
b - Hudson River, hatchery 1976 (Rogers, 1978)
c - Delaware River (Bason, 1971)
d - Blackwater River, Marylaiid, 1974 (Rogers, 1978)
e - Transquaking River, Maryland, 1974 (Rogers, 1978)
f - Nanticoke River, Maryland, 1974 (Rogers, 1978)
g - Choptank River, Maryland, 1975 (Rogers, 1978)
h - South Carolina, Moncks Corner Hatchery, 1976 (Rogers, 1978)
i - San Juacuin River, California, May 1962 (Albrecht, 1964)
j - San Joaquin River, California, June 1962 (Albrecht, 1964)
49
-------
TABLE 5. StJNNARY OF THE ENERGY CONTENT OF UNFERTILIZED STRIPED BASS EGGS
Egg Component
Mean percent of
whole egg
dry weight
Calories per
mg dry weight
Calories per
0.300 mg dry egg
yolk (less ash)
36.48 (]60)
5.75
(7)
0.63
oil (less ash)
51.68
10.89
(6)
1.69
chorion (less ash)
8.17 (160)
5.65k
0.14
ash
3.37
—
—
whole egg
(c alc ui. at ed)
99.70
2.45
whole egg
(direct calorimetry)
100.00
2.41
(7)
+ Not measured directly in this study. Caloric value for protein were used
(Phillips, 1969) since the chorion is probably protein.
* Numbers in parenthesis refer to sample size. Mean percent oil of whole
egg was determined by subtraction.
50
-------
TABLE 6. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE SIZE OF GRAVID STRIPED BASS FEMALES
AND THE DRY WEIGHT OF THE EGGS THEY PRODUCE (ROGERS, 1978)
Identification Fish Size
Fork Length Weight
( c i i) (kg)
Mean
per
Egg Weight
100 Eggs
(ung)
Range in Egg Weight Standard Deviation
(ing/100 eggs)
New York, 1975
Roe 5 88.7 9.75 31.40 30.8—32.6 0.0068
Roe 6 93.2 12.02 39.27 37.8—40.2 0.0086
Roe 7 89.5 7.26 29.90 28.6-31.8 0.0135
Roe 15 54.6 6.93 31.97 30.0-3L8 0.0025
New York, 1976 115.0 15.20 25.60 25.0—26.4 0.0064
Maryland, 1975
4/25-la 102.9 14.50 38.00 37.0—40.0 0.0119
35.67 33.2-36.8 0.0129
37.62 36.8-38.8 0.0076
4/25-lb 107.9 17.01 37.20 35.6-39.2 0.0132
36.83 36.4—37.6 0.0048
36.97 35.6-37.8 0.0078
4/28—2 84.5 8.39 34.63 32.4—36.4 0.0150
4 118.0 23.59 37.73 36.6—40.0 0.0127
7 89.4 8.98 28.23 22.2-38.4 0.0788
Maryland, 1976
A 99.0 15.88 46.60 45.8-47.6 0.0070
B 68.0 3.29 28.67 28.0-29.4 0.0048
0 98.0 14.06 40.03 39.4—40.6 0.0041
E 108.0 16.33 43.03 41 .0-49.0 0.0257
F 108.0 11.34 37.13 36.4—37.6 0.0045
G 79.0 5.44 29.53 29.2-30.4 0.0048
30.47 29.6-31.0 0.0058
6 71.0 4.99 28.73 28.6-29.0 0.0016
9 64.0 3.29 19.96 19.0-20.6 0.0054
South CarolIna, 1976
Roe 57 77.0 26.87 26.2-27.8 0.0059
Roe 58 67.0 22.35 21.8—23.1 0.0049
Roe 59 77.5 22.55 21.8-23.5 0.0061
Roe 60 74.0 20.00 19.2-20.6 0.0051
Roe 63 78.0 27.23 26.8—27.8 0.0039
Roe 64 74.0 20.47 19.4—21.2 0.0063
Roe 65 71.0 15.60 15.2-16.0 0.0028
Roe 66 71.0 23.03 22.6-23.4 0.0029
Roe 67 73.5 22.97 21.6—23.8 0.0082
Roe 68 72.0 22.43 21 .8-23.2 0.0053
Roe 69 74.0 27.00 25.6—29.0 0.0125
Roe 70 71.0 26.60 26.2-27.0 0.0033
Roe 71 76.0 29.40 28.2-30.2 0.0075
51
-------
r
G
Figure 5. Development of striped bass eggs at 1R.8—20 0 C. (after Bayless, 1972)
A - fertilizated egg at 2 hours,
B - 5 hours (50X)
C - 10 hours (50X)
0 - 12 hours (50X)
E - 18 hours, ventra’ view (50X)
F - 21 hours (50X)
note cleavage (20X)
G - 24 hours (50x)
H - 2R hours (50X)
I - 32 hours (50X)
J - 36 hours (50X)
K - 44 hours, hatching (50X)
A B
E
F
H
L.
K
52
-------
(8
15 -
0
o 21
w
I —
4
l ii
: 2
l ii
I-
Figure 6. The effect
developmental
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 eo 90 (00 ((0 (20 (30 (40 (50 (60
of incubation temperature on the time from fertilization to selected
stages before and after hatching (Rogers et al, 1977).
a — half of yolk enveloped by the blastoderm (Figure 5D)
b — embryo extending over half of the yolk (Figure 5F)
c — early tail development (Figure 5H)
d — free tail bud (Figure 51)
e — hatching (Figure 5K)
f — development of eye pigmentation in the prolarva
24
— (I
(
I I
f
HOURS AFTER FERTILIZATION
-------
TABLE 7. HATCHING TINE OF STRIPED BASS EGGS IN RELATION TO WATER TEMPERATURES
25 26.67 N.C.
25.8 24.00 N.Y.
28 23.89 N.C.
28.5 24.00 N.Y.
30 23.33 N.C.
30 23.33 s.c.
30 21.7—22.2 N.C.
30 21.7—22.2 —
33 21.11 S.C.
33 21.1 N.C.
34 21.11 N.C.
35 22.22 S.C.
36 21.67 N.C.
37 21.00 N.Y.
36—48 17.22 N.C.
38 19.4 N.C.
38 21.11 S.C.
40 20.00 S.c.
43 18.3 N.C.
44 18.33 s.c.
44 18.89 S.C.
48 19.4 N.C.
48 18.33 s.c.
48 17.2 N.C.
48 17.89 -
48 18.89—19.44 N.C.
50 15.6 N.C.
50 17.78 s.c.
51.8 18.00 N.Y.
54 14.4 N.C.
56 16.67 S.C.
58 15.56 N.c.
62 15.00 N.Y.
62 15.56 s.c.
66.3 18.00 N.Y.
70 15.56 S.C.
70—74 14.4—15.6 N.c.
74.3 15.00 N.Y.
74 14.4—15.6 —
74 14.44 Md.,Va.
91.8 15.00 N.Y.
109 12.00 N.Y.
Incubation Time
(hours)
Water Temperature Location Author
(°C)
Shannon and Smith (1967)
Rogers etal. (1977)
Shannon and Smith (1967)
Rogers etal. (1977)
Shannon and Smith (1967)
Bayless (1972)
Bigelow and Schroeder (1953)
Merriman (1941)
Stevens (1965)
Regan et al. (1968)
Shannon and Smith (1967)
Bayless (1972)
Worth (1884)
Rogers et al. (1977)
Mansue tT(W5 8)
Regan et al. (1968)
Bayless (1972)
Bayless (1972)
Regan et al. (1968)
Stevens (1965)
Bayless (1972)
Bigelow and Schroeder (1953)
Bayless (1972)
Regan et al. (1968)
Pearson (1938)
Worth (1882)
Regan et al. (1968)
Bayless (1972)
Rogers etal. (1977)
Regan etal. (1968)
Bayless (1972)
Shannon and Smith (1967)
Rogers et al. (1977)
Bayles sT1 72)
Rogers et al. (1977)
StevensT1 5)
Bigelow and Schroeder (1953)
Rogers et al. (1977)
Merriinan (T 41)
Brice (1898)
Rogers et al. (1977)
Rogers iT. (1977)
54
-------
NATURAL HABITAT
The water temperature on striped bass spawning grounds during the
spawning season has been reported as low as 8°C (Westin, 1978) and 10CC
(Carlson and McCann, 1969) early in the season, and as high as 23°C (Carlson
and McCann, 1969) and 25°C (Scruggs, 1957) near the end of the season.
Table 8 summarizes data on striped bass spawning determined from egg
collections. The season occurs during late March to late June depending
on the time of spring warming. Major spawning peaks generally occur as the
water temperatures reach 14—16°C. The salinity during the spawning season
has been reported as fresh to brackish; that is, from 0 to 10 0/00 (Turner
and Farley, 1971), 0 to 3 o/oo (Dovel, 1971), 0 to 5 o/oo (Tresselt, 1952)
and 0 to 10 0/00 (Hollis, 1967). Tresselt (1952) determined that most
spawning activity occurs within the first 25 miles of freshwater in the
spawning river. Our measurements during the 1975 spawning season on the
Nanticoke River, Maryland, plotted in Figure 7 show the temperature, turbid-
ity, and salinity ranges (600 iamhos C 1 o/oo). The distribution of striped
bass eggs in the Hudson River with temperature is shown in Figure 8.
Spawning grounds are generally turbid and usually in an area of good
current or tidal flow. Turbidity during the 1975 spawning season on the
Nanticoke River, Maryland ranged from 17 to 46 flU and appeared inversely
related to temperature. Turbidity as high as 132 flU was reported by Smith
(1970) during 1968 spawning in the Savannah River, but only 11 to 80 JTh
during the 1969 spawning. McCoy (1959) reported river discharges of 5,500
to 30,225 cfs (1.5 to 3.0 fps) on the Roanoke River spawning grounds at
Weldon, North Carolina. On the Tar River spawning ground, Humphries (1966)
recorded river discharges of 700 to 4080 cfs. The mean inflow for the San
Joaquin River, California during the 1948 spawning season ranged from 1367
to 4533 cfs (Erkld.la et al., 1950). Tresselt (1952) recorded a range of
0.6 to 2.0 fps for the Virginia spawning grounds he studied.
ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIR ENTS
The environmental requirements of striped bass embryos are summarized
in Table 9. These requirements have been separated into the abiotic and
biotic factors and are discussed more fully below.
Ahiotic Factors
Optimal temperatures for embryonic growth and survival have been
reported ranging from 14 to 24°C (Albrecht, 1964; Bayless, 1972; Morgan
and Rasin, 1973). However, survivals at 15 and 18°C were higher than those
of eggs reared at 12 or 24°C, and 18°C was proposed as optimal for
embryonic development (Rogers etal., 1977). An upper lethal temperature
of 27°C and a lower lethal of 11°C have been suggested (Morgan and Basin,
1973). Shannon (1970) found that the longer egg development was maintained
at 18°C, the more tolerant the eggs became to shock exposure to higher
temperatures. Koo and Johnston (1978) exposed early eggs to ATts of 10 and
15°C above an 18°C base temperature for exposure periods of 5 to 180 minutes.
They observed reduced hatchability with an increase in numbers of deformed
55
-------
TABLE 8. DATA ON STRIPED BASS SPAWNING THROUGHOUT ITS RANCE
hudson River, N.Y.
Delaware River, Chesapeake-Delaware
Canal, Delaware
Nanticoke River, Maryland
Potomac River, Maryland
Rappatiannock River, Virginia
Itattaponi River, Virginia
Pamankey River, Virginia
Chickahominy River, Virginia
James River, Virginia
Roanoko River, North Carolina
Tar River, North Carolina
Congree River, South Carolina
Wateree River, South Carolina
Diversion Canal, Lake Marion, S.C.
Ogeechee River, Georgia
Savannah River, Georgia
Sacramento River, California
San Joaquin River, California
Carison and McCann
(1969)
Bason (1971)
hloUis (1967)
Westin (19Th)
Ilallowing Point Field
Station (1976)
Tresselt (1952)
Tresselt (1952)
Tresselt (1952)
lUnaldo (1971)
Tresselt (1952)
Tresselt (1952)
ilerrlman (1941)
McCoy (1959)
Ilassler et al. (1970)
I’
hluniplirios (1966)
koruwRa y lhimphir1es (1976)
Scruggs (1957)
Scruggs (1957)
Scruggs (1957)
SmIth (1970)
Smith (1970)
Smith (1970)
Fancy (1966)
California (1974)
Erkkita et al. (1950)
Chadwick (1958)
Farley (1966)
Spawning River Time of Spawning Temperature
Date
at
and
Peak
Temp. (‘C)
of Source
(‘C)
Spawning
J1
24.IV-25.VI
7.V-25.V1
21.IV-30.VI
1966
1967
1968
10-22.2
10-22.8
11.7-22.8
29.V 1 16.1
21 ,29.V113.3
12-18.V;IS.6
28.IV-4.V
1970
13-14
14.IV-23.V
20.D1.27.V
11.IV-10.V
1960
1964
1975
14.3—20.7
11.4-23.9
8.0-17.2
1S.LV;15.0
20. 1V;16.7
21.IV-26.VI
1975
10.9-23.4
28.IV;14.3
17.V-20.V
1950
19.4-20.4
—
2 5.IV-
1950
13.9-20.5
30.JV;16.8
6. IV-
1950
13.4-14.3
13. IV;13.0
13.IV-l0.V
1966
15-22
5.V-6.V
1950
18.7-20.4
9—10.V; 19-21
11.IV-l0.V
14.V-2.VI
2l.1V-9.Vl
26.IV-2.V1
1938
1958
1967
1968
21-25
16.2-19.1
16.7-18.9
15-21
—
25.V;18.3
—
—
14.IV-18.V
21.IV-20.V
8.IV-2.VI
1965
1975
1955
15-22
14.5-21.1
16.1-25
3-11.V;15-18
5-12.V;17.8- 18.4
2 1. IV
8.1V-19.V
1955
15-22.2
5.V
6.IV-11.V
1955
14.4-24.4
21. IV
2.IV-23.IV
1.IV- 12.V
1968
1969
19.4-21.7
17.8-23.3
31.1fl-29.V
1969
16.7-22.2
—
ll.IV-29.V1
2.V-20.Vl
1964
1973
16.1-20.6
15.6-20
29.V;20.6
10.V,18.3
5.IV- 17.V1
1.IV-10.VI
11 .IV-29.Vl
1949
1957
1964
16.6-22.2
15.6-21.1
13.3-21.1
—
29.V;18.3
—
-------
)U)
i_o6
1’
S
-
OX . . s+H1h 1 ,. 1 Lti i• .• ‘
z
S
00
50—
I—. .• ,
- 34
3O—
S
£020 4 • 5
D
I I0
10—
I
a
44
It.
a
Iii 14 —
I— 12 —
1k
bJIO-
0 41 1Sf
WO—.
I— I I I _______ I I I I I I I I
7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 1 4 7 10 13
APRIL MAY
1975
Figure 7. Temperature, turbidity, and conductivity measured on the spawning grounds of the
Nanticoke River, Maryland, during 1975. Vertical bar is the range for a given day’s measurements.
-------
4-
S .-
S
C)
0
0
0
w
w
D
z
$2
8
4
0
(mid point)
80
0
I d
70$—
4
t1
Id
0
Id
60$—
50
Id
I—
4
Figure 8. The association of striped bass egg and larval abundance with water temperature
in the Hudson River, New York, during 1968 (adapted from Carison and McCann, 1969).
U I
TEMP •_..
S • — •
.-
/
S
I —.
5— ... /
5 . - /
/
/
LARVAE
GGS
— —
4/24 5/5 5/8 5/55 5/22 5/29 6/5 6/12 6/19 6/26 7/3 7/50 7/57
WEEKS
-------
TABLE 9. ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS OF STRIPED BASS EGGS
ABIOTIC FACTORS
Survival Range Optimum Conditions
0 - 0
Temperature 12—24 C 1b20 C
Salinity 0—15 0/00 2—10 0/00
Dissolved oxygen >7% (3.3 mg/i @ 18°C) air saturated
Light no adverse effect
+ *
Turbidity 0—1500 mg/i <500 mg/i
BIOTIC FACTORS
Diet not applicable
Density 50—75 per liter
Predators many in natural habitat
Disease and Parasites fungus
+ clay and silt
* fine grain sediments
59
-------
larvae at the higher temperatures and longer exposure times.
Striped bass egg survival is enhanced at low salinities. Salinities
observed during spawnings were as high as 10 0/00. Morgan and Rasin (1973)
observed no significant effect of salinity from 0 to 8 0/00 on percent hatch
or survival. Lal etal. (1977) reported that salinity of 3.4 0/00 enhanced
survival. Optimal salinity for embryonic growth and survival has been found
to be 0—1 o/oo at 18°C (Turner and Farley, 1971). Studies performed to
determine the interaction of temperature and salinity effects on hatching
were originally (1974) limited to three temperatures and six salinities.
The percent survival (based on ten eggs per treatment) to hatching of the
eggs stocked at 10-15 hours after fertilization (see Figure 5) was typically
as shown in Table 10. In the next salinity—temperature interaction studies
(1975) the number of temperatures was expanded to five and the salinities
used were limited to the five at which survival was observed in the earlier
experiments. The number of early eggs stocked in these experiments was 20
per treatment and the percent survival to hatching was typically as shown
in Table 10. The information on abnormalities (Table 10) is given here but
is discussed in more detail later in this section. The data presented
represent the interaction effects of temperature and salinity on embryo
survival. The broad range of survivals indicates good survival from 14 to
20°C with salinities of 0 to 10 o/oo. A narrower optimal temperature range
of 18 to 20° is suggested by our data.
The minimum oxygen level for normal hatching has been determined as 4.9
to 5.0 ppm at 17—18°C (O’Malley and Boone, 1972; Turner and Farley, 1971).
Hatching has been observed at 2.0 ppm (or 4% saturation) at 17°C, but the
prolarvae were inactive and/or abnormal in development (O’Malley and Boone,
1972). To determine the interaction effects between temperature, salinity
and dissolved oxygen approximately 100 eggs were stocked into one liter
glass bottles of water at the stocking temperature (16—18°C) and 0 to
10 o/oo. After stocking into these well aerated bottles, they were
transferred to 12, 16 or 20°C constant temperature baths and supplied with
continuous dissolved oxygen at four levels of saturation — air saturated,
7% saturation, 5% saturation and 2% saturation. The levels were maintained
by utilizing commercially available gas mixtures of percent oxygen with the
balance as nitrogen. The percent survival, or the number hatched, alive
and active, after 72 hours exposure is shown in Table 10. Our studies
indicate that.the critical oxygen level for striped bass embryo development
is primarily affected by temperature. Whereas there was some survival at
the 2% saturation oxygen levels at 12°C, this was not evident at the higher
temperatures and the larvae were very retarded in their development.
Although the eggs hatched after exposure to 5% saturation levels at both
salinities and most temperatures, these larvae were abnormally developed.
Levels below 8% saturation would not, therefore, be considered optimal.
One observation (Albrecht, 1964) did not reveal any adverse effect of
sunlight upon hatch and survival of embryos. All of our large scale cultures
maintained in the field were held in full sunlight. We did not notice any
difference in survivals of these eggs and subsamples used in experiments in
our trailer—laboratory.
60
-------
TABLE 10. PERCENT SURVIVAL TO HATCHING OF STRIPED BASS EGGS STOCKED AT
VARIOUS (A) TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY AND (B) TEMPERATURE, SALINITY, AND
DISSOLVED OXYGEN COMBINATIONS
A.
Salinity
(o/oo)
12
13
Incubation
14
Temperature
16
(°C)
18
20
0
100
0*
90+
70*,
9].
100k
60*,
80
5
68
70
95
90,
—
100k
90,
95
10
65
90
91
90,
93
100+
70,
100+
15
55
70
94
90,
67
100
80,
100
20
5
70
95
90,
53
86
70,
100k
* The low survivals in freshwater (1974), in which the eggs are normally
incubated in nature, is discussed in the abiotic factor section below.
+ Denotes abnormal or dead larva present but hatched.
B.
Salinity
(%
Dissolved
Oxygen
saturation)
Incubation Temperature
(°C)
12 16
20
100
7
77
68
83
74
86
82
0
5
2
61
79
(unhatched)
0
0
66
0
100
7
84
7].
75
27
90
69
10
5
2
83
10
19
0
0
0
61
-------
Using fine grain natural sediment from upper Chesapeake Bay, Auld and
Schubel (1978) observed no significant effects on hatching of striped bass
eggs in concentrations of 50, 100, or 500 mg/i. They reported significant
reduction in hatching at 1000 mg/i concentrations of suspended sediments.
Morgan et al. (1973) found significantly lower egg development in concentra-
tions above 1500 mg/i of clay and silt from the Chesapeake—Delaware Canal.
Bouker etal. (1969) found pH ranges from 6.6 to 9.0 to be satisfactory
for hatching.
Some of our studies included determining effects of ammonia and nitrate
on embryo development. Using standard bioassay methods (APHA, 1965) for
determining concentrations from stock solutions of ammonium chloride and
sodiimi nitrate, tests were run on ten individual eggs per concentration.
The percent survival to normal hatching for the aimnonia concentrations at
two temperatures (pH 6.8) was typically that presented in Table 11. The
percent survival to normal hatching at the nitrate concentrations (pH 7.3)
tested is also shown in Table 11. It appears that ammonia has little or no
effect on hatching at 16°C, but generally reduces success by about half at
20°C. Nitrate concentrations of up to 1000 ppm should have little effect on
hatching.
Exposure to shear levels (from laminar flow) of 350 dynes per cm 2
killed 36% of the eggs in one minute and 88% in four minutes (Morgan et a]..,
1976).
Survival of striped bass eggs to impingement on screens of 16 and 30
meshes per inch was 70% or better at water velocities less than 1.0 fps for
four minutes exposure. Survival decreased sharply at higher velocities
(Sazaki et al., 1972).
Results of egg exposure to changes in hydrostatic pressure, ranging
from 2.0 psia (subatmospheric pressures) to 700 psig, are reported by Beck
at al. (1975), and New York University, Institute of Environmental Medicine
(1976). Later egg stages (close to hatching) were observed to be more
sensitive than early egg stages, and decompression increased mortality.
Environmental factors affecting striped bass survival from spawning
through embryo development have been sai,mn rized by Talbot (1966) and Dovel
and Edmunds (1971). AddItional coents specifically concerning Chesapeake
Bay can be found in Mansueti (1961). The requirements discussed by these
authors include water velocity, quality, turbidity, and temperatures.
Bio tic Factors
There are four categories of biotic factors listed in Table 9 for
embryos. However, for this life stage diet is not applicable.
Density can be considered minimal until the end of the stage when
hatching begins. This is the time when oxygen demand increases. There is.
also an increase in the ammonia concentration with hatching. We have
62
-------
TABLE 11. PERCENT SURVIVAL TO HATCHING OF STRIPED BASS EGGS EXPOSED TO
VARIOUS CONCENTRATIONS OF (A) AMMONIA (NH 3 ) and (B) NITRATE (NO 3 )
A.
Concentration Incubation Temperature (°C)
(NH 3 ppm) 16 20
Control 70 30
0.1 100 55
0.32 80. 55
0.56 60 50
1.0 80 50
3.2 90 33
5.6 100 44
10,0 70 33
B.
Concentration Incubation Temperature (°C)
(NO 3 ppm) 18
Control 90
10 80
56 100
100 90
560 100
1000 70
63
-------
measured the production in groups of 50 or 100 rinsed eggs at 15°C against
blank replicates. The production ranged from 0 O88 to 0.236 ug NH 3 —N per
egg (mean 0.157 ig; N = 7). This represents a release of 0.072 to 0.193
mg NH 3 —N per 10,000 eggs on a live weight basis. Neither oxygen nor ammonia
pose a problem to the embryos in their natural habitat, but they do become
considerations in the more densely stocked culture environment.
The most prevalent disease and predator probl em during the embryo stage
was fungal and/or bacterial attack of the egg chorion. This was a factor
contributing to freshwater mortalities in early temperature—salinity and
other experiments during our studies using filtered river water. Dead eggs
not only from our containers, but also from the river, were observed coated
with continuous fungal hyphae strands extending through the chorion and
into the yolk of living eggs. Unfortunately the fungi we observed contained
no fruiting bodies making identification difficult beyond Saprolegnia sp.
A series of test containers were treated with antibiotics to see if this
treatment enhanced egg survival indicating reduction in fungal or bacterial
activity. We use penicilhin—streptomycin combination (50,000 lU/i and 50
mg/i), tetrocycline (6.25 mg/i), chloroamphenicol (50 mg/i), and sulmet
(4 tbsp./gal.), in filtered river water plus a control of filtered river
water. The dosages used were those found in the literature. (A very good
report on the effects of antibiotics on survival of a marine fish is given in
Struhsaker etal., 1973.) These containers were stocked with early eggs
to observe the nature of hatching, and samples of the antibiotic treated
and control river water were supplied to the Maryland Department of Health
for total count testing. Al]. of the eggs stocked into the chioromphenicol
treated water developed abnormally. All of the eggs in the sulmet treated
water hatched but died with fungus present. The eggs stocked into the
control, tetrocycline, and penicillin—s treptomycin treated containers all
hatched normally. The total counts on the water samples from these
treatments were 460, 28 and <3 MPH/laO ml, respectively. The peniciilin—
streptomycin combination was tested on netted eggs in filtered Nanticoke
River water at 16 and 20°C and on newly fertilized eggs in Hudson River
water at 15 and 18°C to determine its effect on egg survival. The percent
survival in each group was greatly improved in the antibiotic treated water,
as the example below shows.
TABLE 12. THE EFFECT OP TREATING FILTERED RIVER WATER WITH PENICILLIN-
STREPTONYCIN (50,000 IU/1-50 mg/i) ON THE PERCENT SURVIVAL AT HATCHING
OF STRIPED BASS EGGS AT FOUR TEMPERATURES. (n = NUMBER STOCKED)
Treatment
15
Incubation
16
Temperature (°C)
18
20
Penicilhin—Streptomycin
70.2
(n=9 2 8)
97
(n250)
62.5
(n=104].)
88
(n=257)
no treatment
9.0
(n= ’529)
92
(n271)
7.3
(rr975)
69
(n292)
64
-------
Two antifungal agents were bioassayed using live eggs and also tested for
their effectiveness using groups of dead eggs. Both series were done in
triplicate. Untreated dead eggs quickly developed hyphal tufts and the
effectiveness was judged by the presence or absence of hyphae on the dead
eggs. Concentrations of 0.01 to 1.0 tng/ 0 1 were tested for both Amphotericin
B and malachite green for 24 hours at 16 C. The Amphotericin B was toxic
to eggs at concentrations lower than that at which it was effective in
controlling fungus on dead eggs (1.0 mg/l). The malachite green was
effective at the Low concentrations with no evidence of fungal activity at
0.01 mg/l and no egg mortality at concentrations lower than 0.5 mg/i.
CULTURE METHODOLOGY
Capture Methods
Fertilized striped bass eggs can be obtained from natural or artificial
spawnings. Producing artificially spawned eggs is discussed in the section
dealing with adults. In addition to obtaining eggs from artificially
spawned females, live eggs can be collected during the spawning season using
a regular 1/2 meter plankton net. McCoy (1959) recommended a 500 micron mesh
as optimal for collecting striped bass eggs. Although such tows yielded
hundreds of eggs which we used in our laboratory work, the mesh became
rapidly clogged.
We used a 1 X 2 meter 945 micron neuston net that was modified to
include floatation gear on the heavy steel frame to make it float just below
the surface. The net was easily fished by securing its bridle to a bridge
pier, pier or docked vessel and allowing it to stream in the tidal currents.
The large filter area to mouth opening ratio provided by the net’s 23 foot
length allowed large volumes of water to be filtered. Clogging was never
a problem even after 4 to 6 hours of fishing. Some large debris was
inevitably collected. A large mesh preventer net over the mouth of the net
reduces this problem.
Tows made near the spawning peak yielded tens of liters of nearly solid
striped bass eggs. The egg catch from an early tow filled a plastic garbage
can. Eggs were separated from plant debris by raising the salinity to 10
0/00 which allowed the eggs to float. Eggs were then decanted to hatchery
containers. There were always some other species present. Night tows
frequently yielded large numbers of elver eels and juvenile croakers which
were difficult to remove. We thus avoided night tows where possible.
We reco end this approach to secure large numbers of fertilized eggs
easily without having to capture and hold females and males. These net
caught eggs, moreover, represent a diverse genetic stock not available from
the progeny of a given mating under artificial spawning conditions.
It is a simple reliable method.
65
-------
Post—capture Handling
Eggs secured from plankton tows should be separated from the rest of the
tow as described above before packing for transportation or stocking into
rearing containers. Eggs secured from artificial spawnings should be ocked
into rearing containers and allowed to fully water harden. They should not
be transported until at least 12—24 hours after fertilization to avoid dead
egg accumulations due to poor fertilization. We recommend using penicillin
and streptomycin (50,000 lU/i and 50 mg/i) in the culture water receiving
the eggs. This antibiotic concentration should be applied once only when
the eggs are stocked. If heavy fungus infestation is visible a flush
treatment of malachite green at 0.1—0.05 mg/i is recommended.
Transportation
Egg transportation can be successfully undertaken using methods
described by Bayless (1972) and Texas Instruments (1977c) for larvae.
This involves packing about 15—20,000 eggs per liter into plastic bags
lining a styrofoam fish shipping box. In this way as many as 200,000 eggs
can be shipped in a container about half filled with water and eggs.
Before the bag is secured oxygen is bubbled into the water and allowed to
fill the space over the water in the bag. A dose of penicillin—streptomycin
can be added for the volume of shipping water. This is recommended for
shipments over long distances.
Handling Procedures
Eggs should be handled in water whenever possible. They can be easily
dipped, siphoned or pipetted with a wide bore tube. Several useful egg
handling tools are illustrated in Figure 9A. Dip nets are not recommended
for live egg handling. Dead eggs, which are opaque and float to the
surface, may be skimmed from the rearing container using a net or beaker.
Individual eggs can be easily counted using a wide bore pipette. A rough
approximation can be made using volume displacement in rearing water of a
known number of eggs. After ‘calibrating,’ this measure is then repeatedly
estimated. The most accurate counts, however, will be those of individual
eggs.
Maintenance Procedures
Culture Vessels——
A number of culture vessels have been used in experimental work
Involving relatively small numbers of eggs per treatment. Schubel (1974)
used a hatching box made out of a PVC frame covered with nylon screen.
Miller (1977) used a hatching basket similar to this but made of acrylic and
screened with 505 p Nitex. Turner and Farley (1971) used a simpler egg
container made from a section of 2 1/2 inch PVC pipe, one end of which was
covered with stainless steel bottling cloth. Eldridge et al. (1977) used
glass hatching jars, while Rogers etal. (1977) used glass beakers. The
Moncks Corner Hatchery (Bayless, 1972) relies on acrylic McDonald hatching
jars in a flow—through system. These are similar to the hatching jar
illustrated in Figure 9Bwhich can be used in a flow—through or static system.
66
-------
OVERFLOW
FRITTED GLASS DISC
BONDED FLUSH
AIR - 02 SUPPLY
Figure 9.
A. Suggested tools for handling eggs and larvae of
remain in the water.
B. Suggested striped bass egg hatching container modified from a McDonald hatching
jar. The dimensions indicated are those of the original hatching jar. However,
the container can be enlarged to accomodate the needs of a large scale rearing
system.
striped bass so that the animals
B
A
( 15cm. >
0 ’
43 cm.
-------
For large volume egg maintenance we used (in Rhode Island) 55 gallon
polyethylene drums filled with dechlorinated tap water and agitated with a
strong stream of air or a gentle stream of pure oxygen. Either of these
provided enough agitation to keep the eggs in suspension and maintain an
adequate dissolved oxygen level. The water temperature of the rearing tank
and transporting container should be about equal at stocking.
Stocking Dens ity——
Bonn at al. (1976) recommend stocking fertilized eggs at the rate of
100,000 per hatching jar. This is approximately 1777 per liter. Litera-
ture reports of experiments under static conditions on egg stages report
stocking densities from 20 (AJ.brecht, 1964) to 100—200 (Rogers, 1978) per
liter. At the rate of 100 eggs per liter, 20,000 eggs could be easily
handled in the static 55 gallon drums described above. In fact, we estimated
that twice to three times this density were easily held in these tanks
through hatching.
Maintaining Water Quality——
Maintaining water quality through the embryo stage in any culture
system is relatively easy for two reasons. First, the length of the period
is very short (see Table 7) and second, the physiological demands during
the stage are minimal. Care of the egg cultures should include removing
any dead eggs at least daily. Toward the end of the stage care should be
taken not to remove any newly hatched larvae which are also at the surface
with the dead eggs. Oxygen levels should be monitored to ensure adequate
saturation. If the antibiotic dosage reconmiended (see biotic factors above)
is followed, no water quality problems associated with fungal or bacterial
infections should be prevalent. If this dosage is not utilized and an out-
break of fungus is observed, a malachite green flush is recommended.
Diet——
This is not relevant for this stage, which utilizes the endogenous
energy supplied in the yolk.
Normal Conditions and Physiological State
Normal development through the embryo stage has been presented in
Figures 5 and 6. Abnormal conditions were reported by Worth (1910),
Scofield and Coleman (1910), Mansueti (1958), O’Malley and Boone (1972),
and Koo and Johnston (1978). Many of the abnormalities they reported we
also observed. Some of the more frequent ones are shown. in Figure 10 from
our observations. One which occurs under a variety of conditions is a
premature loss of the chorion, or early hatching. An embryo which has
lost its chorion early will usually not be as active as is a normal newly
hatched larva (described in the next section). Most of the embryos we
observed in this condition grew into normal larvae. The antibiotic
treatments appeared to reduce this phenomenon, especially among the eggs in
our large scale cultures maintained in filtered river water while in the
field.
68
-------
Figure 10. Some of the more common abnormalities of striped bass embryos
before and just after hatching: A,B -lethal abnormalities occurring
in eggs soon after fertilization; C,D,E - examples of living larvae
showing arrested body development of the sort occurring in
association with hypoxic stress during egg development
(generally lethal); F,G,H - yolk sac and skeletal
abnormalities in newly hatched larvae
(generally not immediately lethal)
69
-------
(1
‘I .
C
F
A
0
B
S
E
I
-
G
H
-------
SECTION 9
RECO NDED CULTURE METHODS AND BIONOMICS: LARVA
DESCRIPTION OF STAGE
The larval stage of the striped bass can be divided into prolarval
(hatching to yolk absorption and feeding) and post (yolk sac) larval
(yolk absorption and feeding to metamorphosis) periods. Development
during the prolarval and postlarval periods is shown in Figure 11, where
Cd) is yolk absorption. A more detailed description of the progression from
hatching through metamorphosis is found in Table 13. The rate of development
depends on the temperature experienced as indicated in Figure 12. The dura-
tion of these stages have been estimated to range from 3.8 to 10 days and 22
to 76 days, respectively, depending on temperature (Lawler etal., 1974;
Rogers etal., 1977; USNRC, 1975) and nutritional state (Rogers etal., 1977).
Measureingnts made at hatching (Figure lla)on larvae from eggs held at 15,
18, 21 and 24 C are shown in Figure 13. At hatching the yolk sac and oil
glouble are the most conspicuous features of a larva. As development
progresses (Figure 11 , the yolk material is used while the oil glouble
remains essentially unchanged. Figurel4 shows measurements on larvae at
yolk absorption from four rearing temperatures. A comparison of Figures 13
and 14 shows that as the yolk disappears the oil volume remains about the
same, while the larva grows in both embryo length and dry weight
(larval tissue less yolk and oil in both cases). Larvae begin feeding during
the later part of the yolk absorption period (Figure 11 c—d). Swim bladder
inflation (Figure ile) normally occurs about 5 to 7 days after hatching
(Bulak, 1976; Doroshev and Cornacchia, 1979), although Bulak (1976)
observed that 60 day old larvae with previously uninflated gas bladders were
able to initiate filling. Following yolk absorption with the continuation
of successful feeding, the larva utilizes the lipid energy in the oil
glouble and development proceeds as indicated in Figure lie—h. However, if
the larva does not feed successfully or is starved, the energy in the oil
glouble is conserved (Dergaleva and Shatunovskiy, 1977; Eldridge etal.,
1977; Rogers and Westin, 1979). Thus larvae dying of starvation will look
essentially like those at yolk absorption with the oil glouble c. onspicuous1y
present (Figure l].c—d). Ratention of the oil can be seen in the percent
nitrogen and carbon composition of larvae measured at yolk absorption and of
those measured seven days after yolk absorption. These determinations are
summarized from Rogers (1978) in Table 14 and include the carbon—nitrogen
changes among feeding larvae as well.
Some of the increase in larval length during the prolarval period is
probably due to hydration as indicated in Figure 15. The length—dry weight
70
-------
F rrz , --
- :; ,:: : )
Figure 11.
-----I -
T \\\\\\\, .
t r r -- ii -
.1 • v_.. -
4 ., )
(h)
-4
Developmental stages (after Manuseti, 1958) of striped bass larvae to metamorphosis.
Refer to Table 13 for further description of stages.
-------
TABLE 13. DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF
0
STRIPED BASS, REARED AT ABOUT 17 C,
UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED, THROUGH TRANSFORMATION
25.3 noun after
fertilization ( 4 )b
36—48 noun after
fertilization (2)
51.8 ioun after
fertil Ization (4)
1st day after
hatcning (4)
2—5th day after 4.5—5.2
hatching ( 1,2)
3rd day after
‘iatching (3)
(4) 4.7 1—6.2 3
5th day after
)iatcning (1)
6th day after
hatching (3)
6th-lth day after
hatching (4)
8th day after
hatching (1)
5.04—3.77
(3) 6-9
10-15th day after 7.5
hatching (2)
Hatchini completed for eggs at 24°C.
(a) C
Hatching occurs.(a)
Hatching completed for eçgs at 18°c.
(a)
Eyes alncst fully pigmented; oigmented
ventra lly; one—third yolk reabsorbed
at 24°C.
Eyes only partially pigmented; yolk
slightly reabsoroed at 18°C.
Yolk sac oartly absorbed, eyes pig-
mented yellow, black & orange.
differentiation of jaws and d gestive
tract begun, pectoral buds formed
fan—like fin, 21-23 myotomes. (b)
Eyes pigmented. jaws developing.
pectoral fins become differentiated.
Eyes pigmented; mouth parts moving;
pigmented ventrally jaw to oil; yolk
three—fourths reabsorbed; pectoral
buds present at 24°C.
Eyes pigmented; gut dif’erentiated;
ventrally pigmented; pectoral buds
visible at 18°C.
Small chrontatoohores along ventral
edge of entire yolk sic.
Yolk absorbed at 24°C.
One- third yolk reabsorbeo • connence—
ment of intestinal peristalsis.
23—24 myotomes. Switmnng pelagically(c).
Oil glouble and yolk nearly absorbed,
pigmentation ventrally. (c)
Yolk absorbed at 18°C. Cd)
Teeth on jaws, orange pigment in
caudal (heteroceral) area • di fferen-
tIation of stomach, three-fourths
yolk reabsorbed. 25 tnyctomes.
Transition to active pelagic feeding.( )
Second dorsal and anal slightly
differentiated well-developed mouth
parts. (d)
Yolk sac fully absorbed and no oil
glouble visible, pectorals only fins
visible, teeth visible, generally
pigmented on body. Ce)
Age Length Characteristics
ma
3.25—4.06
2.5—3.7
3.25—4.71
3.38—5.12
4.23—5.20
5.2
4th day after
hatching (3)
(4)
5.8
5.5—7.5
(live)
5.3—5.3
6.0
5.5—7.5
(live)
5.8—6.5
(continued)
72
-------
TABLE 13 (continued)
Age Length Characteristics
10th day after 9.0
hatching (3)
15th day after
hatching (1)
18th day after 13.0
hatching (3)
20-30th day after
hatching (1,2)
30 days after
hatching (4)
30—40th day after
hatching (2)
40 days after
hatching (4)
40-50th day after
hatching (1)
50—70th day after
hatching (1)
(2)
60-80th day after 25
hatching (2)
80—90th day after
hatching (1)
70-100th day after
hatching (2)
3-4 weeks after
hatching (3)
Pectorals only fins developed, ready
for food.
Division of fin fold into three
divisions, complete reabsorption of
oil glouble. single—chamber gas
bladder filled with air. Feeding on
plankton. Ce)
Dorsal and anal fin rays well
differentiated and rudimentary spines
observed. (f)
Differentiation of rays in caudal,
anal and dorsal fins. First dorsal
elements and pelvic fins absent,
myotomes correlated with number of
vertebrae. (g)
15 (stunted) Soft dorsal, anal and caudal (home—
cercal) fins well differentiated,
spinous and pelvic fins not well
developed and well ossified, no
stripes visible yet. Initial
formation of lateral-line scales
(Murawskl, 1958). (h)
11.9—20.4 Metamorphosis at 18°C
Differentiation of rays In first
dorsal and pectoral fins. Full
complement of lateral—line scales
by 30m (Murawski, 1958).
Scales
Scales observed for first time,
fins except larval pelvic In various
stages toward full meristic count,
pigmentation stronger.
Covered with scales, 3 anal spines and
full complement of meristic cnaracters,
body covered with melanopores.
Appearance of longitudinal stripes.
Meristic counts complete except for
pectoral fin rays, body pigmentated.
Fully developed fins and rays, pigmen-
tation of black dots.
a Total length measured on preserved samples unless otherwise stated.
b Numbers in parenthesis refer to source, i.e., (1) Doroshev (1970); (2)
Mansuetl (1958) ; (3) Pearson (1938); and (4) Rogers etal. (1977).
C Letters In parenthesis refer to FIgure 11.
10-12.5
10. 12—16
13.1—15.4 MetamorphosIs at 24°C.
22-35
35-45
20
50-80
30
36
73
-------
C l ’ s
>
a
-c
0
<40-
U
C/ 2O
z
- HATCHING TO YOLK ABSORPTION
120 15° 180 210 24°
CONSTANT REARING TEMP, C
Figure 12. The effect of rearing temperature on the duration of the yolk sac
and larval stages of striped bass. Each point represents the mean of at least
three stage duration observations at each temperature treatment.
(Rogers et al. , 1977)
YOLK ABSORPTION
TO METAMORPHOSIS
74
-------
0.5
— OIL VOLUME (mm 3 )
0.3
1.8
1.4
1.0
0.6
0.08
0.04
0.5
0.4
0.3
4.0
I I I I
— WHOLE LARVAE, dry wt. (mg)
•1.
I I I I
STAN OARO LENGTH (mm)
IS . 18 2 1 a4
TEMPERATURE, C
Figure 13. Measurements made on New York 1977 newly hatched striped bass
prolarvae after incubation at four temperatures. Each measurement is of
ten individuals. (Rogers, 1978)
YOLK VOLUME (mm 3 )
— EMBRYO, dry wt. (mq)
75
-------
0.60
OIL VOLUME (mm 3 )
0.40
0.20
0.20
0.05
0.40
020
8.0
2!’
TEMPERATURE 1 C
Figure 14. Measurements made on New York 1977 striped bass prolarvaa at
yolk absorption after incubation and maintenance at four temperatures.
Each measurement is of ten individuals. (Rogers, 1978)
0 . 15
OJO
0.30
7.0
6.0
I I I I
(mq)
dry wt
I I I I
STANDARD
ff
LENGTh (mm)
15
EMBRYO, dry wt.(mg)
V
76
-------
TABLE 14 . AVERAGE P
PROLARVAE, LARVAE AT
ERCENT COME’
YOLK ABSORP
AT
OSITION (CARBON AND NITROC
TION, AND FED AND STARVED
FOUR TEMPERATURES
EN) OF STRIPE]) BASS
POSTLARVAE REARED
Larval Sta2e
Sample
% of composition
nitrogen
of
sample Ratio
carbon C:N
Yolk sac larvae 5
replicates
of 4.60
57.06 12.40
4
larvae each
Larvae at yolk 5
replicates
of 6.04
60.40 10.00
absorption 5
larvae each
Larvae, 7 days after
yolk absorption:
24° fed
8.20
48.10 5.86
starved
5.18
61.60 11.89
21° fed
groups
8.48
46.68 5.50
starved
of
5 larvae
6.25
51.45 8.23
18° fed
each
8.40
4.8.36 5.76
starved
5.84
53.30 9.13
15° fed
6.35
53.97 8.49
starved
5.63
51.86 9.21
77
-------
90 — LENGTH AT YOLK
HATCHING
TION
I .1
I I..
— I I
S
I I
S
I • I
S
I • I S.
.1
S
w 80 —
I— I I
4 I
I • .1
7 ABSORP
I- -
z I. I
w •S • I
0 1
a:
I I
W70—
I L I• I
I I
I I
— I • I
I I
I I
I I
60 I I I
3 4 5 6 7
STANDARD LENGTH (mm)
Figure 15. Percent water content of striped bass pro1arvae. (Rogers etal., 1977)
-------
relationship for healthy larvae 3 to 25 mm standard length (SL) is given by
the equation:
log 10 dry weight (mg) = log 10 SL(mm) 2.952 — 2.707
(n =185 ; r 0. 932) from our measurements.
NATURAL HABITAT
Larvae are planktonic, drifting in a head—up position due to the buoyancy
of the oil—yolk sac at hatching. As the larvae develop toward yolk absorptiuu
(Figure 1]. ) their swimming movements become less irregular. Postlarvae are
able to resist current movements on the spawning grounds. As metamorphosis
approaches, their movements are very well directed.
Larval distribution in relation to various temperature, conductivity
(salinity) and dissolved oxygen levels are represented in Figure 16 (pro—
larvae) and Figure 17 (postlarvae) in the Hudson River,and in Figure 18
for the Potomac River. Larvae are genera ly found on the spawning grounds
at temperati res from 15 or 16 to 22 or 23 C, salinities of 0 to 6 0/00 (4 0/00
= 7 mS5 cnf 2 conductivity , and dissolved oxygen levels of 7 to 10 mg/i
(or >78% saturation at 20 C). Depending on the temperature (Figure 12),
larvae are present in the river areas about 4 to 6 weeks after the last
spawnings.
ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
The major abiotic and biotic factors discussed below are stimm rized
in Table 15 for the pro].arval and postlarval periods.
Abiotic Factors
The optimum temperature for larval growth is 15—22°C (Davies, 1970;
Bogdanovetal., 1967) and 15.6—18.3°C (Bayless, 1972). Rogers etal. (1977)
proposed a physiological growth optimum of 18—21 C for the yolk absorption
period. They found that g 0 rowth rates among post—yolk sac larval striped bass
were highest at 21 and 24 C. Morgan and Rasin (1973) observed minimal larval
lengths at 13.5 and 16°C and maximal larval lengths at 21.5°C in their
studies. Kelly and Chadwick (1971) repgrted the 48 hour LD5O for striped
bass 5 to 38 n to be from 28.9 to 32.8 C. The variation within this range
was not related to either acclimation temperature or fish size, Carter
at al . (1979) calculated the thermal doses needed to produce mortality of
10% of experimental post yolk sac larvae as a function of temperature from
thermal resistance data collected by Ecological Analysts in experiments
on the Hudson River. These calculatiofls suggested that 10% of the larvae
would suffer instantaneous death at 35 0 C regardless of their acclimation
temperature (15, 20.5, 22, 23, or 23.5 C). Their calculations indicated
incipent lethal levels of 23.6, 29.0, and 31.6°C for the larvae acclimated
to 15, 20, and 23°C, respectively. Reduced food catching ability was
79
-------
Ep benthic Sled Tucker Trawl
2 5 tO I d IS 22
TEMPERATURE ( 0 C)
3 I S 1
CONDUCTIVITY (inS cm’)
NS
2
I 5 9
CONDUCTIVITY (inS cm 2 )
NS NS SNS NS
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (mg i_i)
I-
NS
2 6 10 t II 22
TEMPERATURE ( 0 C)
Th-L _
—
I-
0
U-
U-
LU
3
U. ’
2
Figure 16. Catch per unit effort of striped bass yolk sac larvae
collected by epibenthic sled and tucker trawl at various temperature,
conductivity and dissolved oxygen concentrations in the Hudson River,
New York (RM 14—140; km 23—227) during 1975. (adapted from McFadden, 1977a)
0
I-
0
U..
—
0
1 )
L3
NS
r
-I
NS
*
I-
0
U-
U-
U.’
I-
LU
I-
2
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (rng V )
NS
80
-------
Epibenthic S’ed
Tucker Trawl
10
a
6
1 5 9 1 (
CONDUCTLYLTY (mS cm’)
riTh
I DISSOlVED OXItEN (fig
I’
S
4
2
NS ____
g NS
2 5 ‘0 I’ ‘5 22
TEMPERATURE (°C)
CONDUCTIVITY (mS _2)
MC sic slt 1T [ 11_.
it i C rat
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (mg 1 )
Figure 17. Catch per unit effort of striped bass post yolk sac larvae
collected by epibenthic sled and tucker trawl at various temperature,
conductivity and dissolved oxygen concentrations in the Hudson River,
New York (RN 14—140; km 23—227) during 1975. (adapted from McFadden, 1977a)
2 5 ‘0 ‘c I a 22 25 30
TEMPERATURE (°C)
—
C
I-
C
U-
U-
I-
w
C-,
C 1
x
I-
C
Li..
Li-
w
I-
L iJ
=
C-,
2
I-
C
Li-
L iJ
I-
=
=
C-,
I-
81
-------
STRIPED BASS LARVAE
RANSECT
TRANSECT
AVERAGE SALINITY
AT 3 ME1ER DEPTH
b
Numbsr p.r 1000m 3
TRANSECT
AVERAGE TEMPERATL’RE
AT 3 METER DEPTH
Figure 18. Larval density (b) in the Potomac River, Maryland (a), during
1974 over the salinity (c) and temperatures (d) reported.
(adapted from Polgar et al., 1975)
t 10%3 2S. T1321 ö)2 $23
Apiil Jun.
0 JO 100
iRAN SECT
12
C
TANSECT
12
d
3X 7 3 21 ó 12 ia
April May Jun.
10 LS 20 2 ’C
82
-------
TABLE 15. EI 1VIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS OF LARVAL STRIPED BASS
ABIOTIC FACTORS
Survival Range Optimum Conditions
Prolarva Postlarva Prolarva Postlarva
Temperature 12—27°C 10—27°C 16—21°C 18—22°C
Salinity 0—15 0/00 5—25 0/00 5—15 0/00 10—20 0/00
Dissolved Oxygen >7Z (3. mg/i >5% (2.4 mg/i air saturated
@ 18 C) @ 18°C)
Light no adverse effect natural photoperiod
Turbidity 1—1000 mg/1+ < 100 mg/i+
BIOTIC FACTORS
Prolarva Postlarva
Diet not applicable minimum of 1000—2000
nauplii/liter twice daily,
or 15—20 % of body dry wt
Density 50—25 per liter 30—10 per liter
Predators many in natural habitat cannibalistic; many in
natural habitat
Diseases and Parasites for si nmi ry see Table 24
+ fine grain sediments
83
-------
observed among postlarvae at 7.8°C (Hughes, 1967).
Good survival and growth during larval development were found at 3.5—
14 0/00 salinity by Bayless (1972). Davies (1973) calculated optimal rearing
conditions for yolk—sac larvae, based on observed survival under 15 different
combinations of temperature, pH and total dissolved solids, of 17.6°C, pH
7.5, and total dissolved solids 185.7 mg/l NaC1. Lal etal. (1977)
transferred prolarvae to various salinities at 18.5°C and reported the best
survivals at 10% sea water (about 3.4 o/oo). Otwell and Merriner (1975)
observed greater than 80% survival of bass larvae during seven days subsequent
to 0 direct transfer from their rearing facility into temperatures of 18 and
24 C and salinities of 4 or 12 0/Go.
In our 1974 and 1975 field studies we investigated the survival of
prolarvae to various salinity and temperature combinations. After 24 hour
exposure of two day old psolarvae, 90—100% survival was observed at
tempesatures of 13 and 16 C and salinities of 0, 5 10, 15, and 20 0/00.
At 20 C, prolarvae survived well (95—100%) at salinities of 5, 10, and 15
0/00. There appeared to be some temperature—salinity interactions, but pro-
larvae survived 15 0/00 salinity well. Similar experiments with
postlarvae (Figure ile ) indicated good survival (95—100%) after five days
exposure at salinities of 10, 15, 20 and 25 o/oo at 14 and 18 0 Cc This
indicates that older postlarvae can easily adjust to full sea water, however,
others suggest that the best time to introduce larvae to sea water is just
after metamorphosiS (Lal et al., 1977).
A critical oxygen level of 1.65 mg/l and a suitable level of 5—6 mg/i
dissolved oxygenhave been reported for larval striped bass (Bogdanov et al.
1967). Turner and Parley (1971) reported holding larvae hatched from eggs
exposed to 4 mg/i dissolved oxygen for varying periods (0 to 30 hours) for
six days after hatching. They observed that the longer the eggs were
exposed to low oxygen conditions, the lower the percent survival of larvae
after six days. Bulak (1976) observed that reduced oxygen levels might
adversely affect normal swim bladder inflation. Doroshev and Cornacchia
(1979) observed that strong aeration seemed to enhance normal inflation.
We investigated the interaction between temperature and dissolved oxygen
levels on lanai survival at S o/oo salinity. The percent oxygen was
maintained using oxygen—nitrogen gas mixtures. The survival after a 24 hour
exposure period was usually 100% at the air saturated and 10% saturated
oxygen levels at the temperatures tested (13, 16, 18, 20, 21) for prolarvae.
However, the 7% saturation levels (i.e. 3.3 mg/l @ 18°C) showed very reduced
survival (5 to 85%) over the temperature range. There was no survival of
prolarvae at any of the 5% saturation levels. The postlarvae, however,
showed 90—100% survival at the two temperatures tested (18 and 21°C) for all
dissolved oxygen levels from 5% saturation (2.4 mg/l at l8”C) to air
saturation.
McHugh and I leidinger (1978) reported observations of light shock on
three age groups of larvae. The youngest group (5—9 days old) showed the
most active response to light shock (1238 lux) of an hour following three
hours of dark. They dove for the bottom and swam rapidly for about two
minutes. Larvae 11—23 days old responded only slightly to the light shock,
84
-------
while larvae 15—33 days old showed no activity or response. In 1977, they
reported no significant difference in egestion time between larvae (9—19
days old) held in light and in darkness. Braid (1977) observed no difference
in behavior of larvae exposed to light of various wavelengths.
Morgan et at. (1973) reported an LD5O for 2—day exposure of larvae to
3411 mg/I oCElij and silt from the Chesapeake—Delaware Canal. Auld and
Schubel (1978) reported exposure of yolk sac larvae to concentrations of
natural fine—grained suspended sediments less than 100 mg/l did not
significantly affect survival for periods up to 72 hours. Survival rates,
however, decreased for larvae exposed to 500 and 1000 mg/i concentrations.
The toxicity of several chemicals to larvae are presented in Section 12.
Bogdanovetal. (1967) reported pH of 7.5 as favorable for larvae reared
in soft water. Bonn (1970) determined that pH of 10 was the upper lethal.
Studies we performed to determine the tolerance of larvae to nitrogenous
compounds indicated that prolarvae were more susceptible to the effects of
ammonia concentrations (standard dilutions of aimnonium chloride stock)
in freshwater. Percent survival, after 48 hours exposure to the temperature,
salinity and pH regimes tested is shown below based on the &tocking of 20
individuals per concefltration per test.
TABLE 16. PERCENT SURVIVAL OF STRIPED BASS PB.O1..ARVAE AFTER 48 HOURS E 0SURE
TO VARIOUS ANMONIA (NH 3 ) CONCENTRATIONS, TEMPERATURES, SALINITIES AND pH’ s
Concentration
TEST REGIME
18°C, 5 o/oo
20°C, filtered
21°, 5 0/00
NH 3 (ppm)
pH 8.0
river, pH 6.5
pH 8.0
0
95
50
40
0.1
100
44
100
0.32
100
20
100
0.56
80
not tested
40
1.0
25
22
50
3.2
85
10
60
5.6
80
not tested
10
10.0
40
20
0
While the ammonia concentration for culture systems should not be in
excess of 1 ppm for long periods (24 hours +), the use of some salinity (3—5
o/oo) would appear to enhance survival, especially at 18°C. Nitrate (sodium
nitrate stock) concentrations of 0, 500, and 1000 ppm had little or no
effect upon prolarval survival (70—80%) for nine days tested at S o/oo at
both 18 and 21°C. However, the surtival was reduced to 50 to 60% at
concentrations of 1500 and 2000 ppm. Although none of the concentrations
85
-------
tested affected survival directly, only the controls (0 ppm) were observed
to feed during the test period. To determine at what level below 500 ppm
NO 3 this sublethal depression of feeding was active, groups of-60 just
hatched prolarvae were expgsed to concentrations 0, 56, 100, 560, and 1000
ppm NO 3 for 96 hours at 18 C. At the end of 96 hours exposure, they were
removed to NO 3 free water at 18°C and fed. The mortality at the end of four
days exposure was 20, 36, 22, 10 and 32% for the concentrations of 0, 56,
100, 560, and 1000 ppm, respectively. Six days after receiving their first
food, all postlarvae at 1000 ppm were moribund and a few at 560 ppm were
feeding. In the 100 ppm concentration many of the 70% surviving were
feeding, while most of the 60% surviving at the 56 and 0 ppm concentrations
were feeding and growing well. The survival in the 0 ppm concentration
was complicated by fungal growth. Striped bass reared in a recirculating
system have been reported to survive and grow through metamorphosis at
nitrate levels of 34 to 141 mg/I (McIlwain, 1975).
Sazaki et al. (1972) reported results of impingement tolerance studies
on striped bass larvae using chambers with screens of 16 or 30 meshes per
inch. Larvae 10—15 mm were impinged at velocities in excess of 0.6 fps,
and less than 20% were able to swim four minutes at 0.5 fps. These authors
found that the 90% success level for sw-cii ming was 0.2 fps for larvae 10—15
mm and at 0.3 fps for larvae 20—30 mm. O’Connor and Schaffer (1977),
using ichthyoplankton nets in an experimental flume at velocities of 0.5,
1.5 and 3.0 fps, observed that yolk sac larvae were most sensitive to
velocities during netting followed, in decreasing order of sensitivity, by
post yolk sac larvae and eggs.
Striped 2 bass larvae are able to survive shear levels (laminar flow) of
350 dynes/cm for one minute (Morgan et al., 1976). Mechanical damage to
two—week—old larvae due to a single passage through a laboratory mock—up
of a power plant condenser tube (excluding pump) was minimal (Coutant and
Kedl, 1975). When temperature stress was added in this study, mortalities
were comparable to thermal bioassay results. Different combinations of
turbulent shear, pressure change and temperature rise were employed in this
experiment. Finlayson and Stevens (1977) also observed that mechanical
stress appeared to be the major factor caus ng mortality of entrained
bass (8—31 nun). Their estimated TLm was 31 C.
Biotic Factors
As Table 15 indicates, this is not an applicable factor for prolarvae
which utilize the energy available in their yolk to develop their prey
capturing ability. Larvae begin feeding during the later part of the yolk
absorption period (Figure 11 c—d) and are known to be cannibalistic depend-
ing on availability of foods. Striped bass have been found to be relatively
tolerant to food deprivation following yolk absorption ( igure 19).
Unfed groups survived up to 22 days after hatching at 24 C and up to 32 days
at 15°C. A “point of no return” does not appear to exist for this species
(Eldridge et al., 1977; Rogers and Westin, 1979). L rvae age 9 to 14 days
(after fertilization) exposed to heat shocks of 9—14 C above ambient
(17—18°C) were found less likely to feed than control larvae not exposed
to the heated water for 10 minutes (Van Winkle 19 7 9a). However,
86
-------
I00
50
0
-J
>
C l)
I00
z
w
0
Ui
Q- 50
0
DAYS AFTER HATCHING
Figure 19. The effect of delayed feeding on the survival of striped bass
stocked at yolk absorption at 24, 21, 18, and 15°C. Initial population was
100 larvae each. Numbered arrows indicate the order and time of first
feeding. Group 5 was unfed throughout. (Rogers and Westin, 19 8
• 24°C
- ‘5
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
9 14 19 24 29 34 9 14 19 24 29 34
87
-------
once heat shocked larvae recovered and began feeding, the amount consumed
did not appear to be influenced by the exposures to heated water.
A food preference for pelagic species often over a more abundant benthic
fauna, has been reported from field studies (Bowkeretal., 1969; Gomez,
1970; Humphries, 1971). Doroshev (1970) found that at mixed species food
concentrations of 1000—1500 organisms per liter young bass (9—18 mm) had up
to 35 organisms in their g .it. Daniel (1976) estimated that to achieve the
growth rate (in length) of early larvae observed in the estuary, his labora-
tory larvae would nee to be exposed to food concentrations of almost 63,000
Artemia nauplii per m daily for ten days. A comparison of survival and
growth of prolarvae to 25 days fed on two diets was undertaken in hatchery
troughs and aquaria. The report (Catchings, 1973) indicated that survival
and growth were better (10.9% and 9.8 mm) for the brine shrimp diet than for
the brine shrimp—dry feed diet (7.0% and 8.8 mm) during the period of the
study. Experiments in a specially designed recirculating system of four
diets formulated primarily of beef liver, or shrimp meal, two prepared diets
(one Purina Trout Chow) and live brine shrimp nauplii were fed to larvae
stocked as 4 day aids at 20°C for 10 days (Carreon, 1978). He found
survivals of 95% for larvae fed brine shrimp and 76 — 45% (means of two
replicates per diet) for larvae fed the other diets. Growth of brine
shrimp fed larvae averaged 0.09 length daily, while growth on the other
diets ranged from an average daily length of 0.02 mm to shrinkage of 0.05 mm.
Braid (1977) also observed significantly better survival and growth of
larvae fed live brine shrimp than those fed Chinook Trout Starter 1,
Purina Trout Chow, Tetramin fish feed, freeze dried brine shrimp, or a
microencapsulated feed. Mdilwain (1975) reported starting four day old
larvae on brine shrimp nauplii (about 20 per larvae twice per y) and
introducing dry food (two parts commercial trout chow to one part
pasteurized whole fish) into the diet when they were 11 days old. From this
point the number of nauplii fed per day was decreased and the amount of dry
food increased until they were feeding entirely on the dry food at 18 days
old. Although 20—30 organisms twice a day are probably sufficient for first
feeding larvae, we have determined that larvae will soon be consuming 10
times this amount. Individual larvae (each about 12 mm SL, 25 mg wet weight,
and 2.8 mg dry weight) wer fed brine shrimp ( Artemia ) nauplii twice daily
for six days. Those at 18 C consumed 193 to 227 per day and grew from 1 to
3 mm SL during the six day period. At 21°C, the larvae consumed from 215 to
252 nauplii per day and grew 0.3 to 1.8 SL in the six days, while at 24°C,
they consumed 292 to 305 per day and grew 0.3 to 0.8 mm SL. If an
individual brine shrimp nauplil weighs 0.0016 mg dry weight (Paffenhofer,
1967), then 200 and 300 nauplii represents 0.32 and 0.48 mg dry weight, which
is 12 to 17% of the average body weight of these larvae. We measured the ad
libitum consumption of brine shrimp nauplii for 7—8 mm SL larvae at 22°C by
weighing full and empty individuals. In this case, the larvae were found to
consume up to 25% of their body weight (dry basis) at each feeding (twice
daily). For a recently hatched 0.25 ing larva (dry weight) that would mean
consuming 0.06 mg of food (dry) or about 40 Artemia nauplii (Paffenhofer,
1967) or 60 Acartia nauplii (Durbin and Durbin, 1978). For a larva of 2.3
mg dry weight this would mean consuming 350 nauplil. Miller (1978) estimated
88
-------
lanai food consumption from preserved field collected bass < 10 = TL with
mean stomach volume of 0.37 mm 3 , which he equated to about 154 copepod
nauplii. His laboratory study showed that larvae (<10 mm) allowed to feed
at a density of five zooplank ers/ni. contained an average volume of 0.26 nun 3
after 60 minutes at 210 C temperatures.
The effect of prey concentrations at one temperature have been reported
by Al Ahmed (197&), Eldridge at al. (1977), and Miller (1977). In general,
the survival response of larvae fed high and low food concentrations is
similar to those fed early ayd late (Figure 19). For example, Eldridge
a1. (1977) working at 18 C, reported survivals of larvae at 30 days after
fertilization fed from day four at concentrations of 6.2, 4.0, and 2.2 nau—
phi (Artemia)/ml. The survival of their groups fed at 6.2 and 2.2 naughii/
ml corresponds at the same age to that of our groups (Figure 19) at 18 C
first fed on day 19 (1/3) to day 23 (1 /4) after hatching, respectively. The
highest density Miller (1977) used was 3.6 nauplii/ml, but his survivals
were only slightly better than that of starved controls (1 /5, Figure 19)
of the same age at 18 and 21°C. That the survivals of all larvae fed
earlier than day 19 (#l&2, Figure 19) at 18°C were 20% better than those of
Eldridge etal. (1977) fed 6.2 nauplii/m]. indicates that food densities of
twice this may in fact be more realistic to ensure both maintenance and
growth. The prompt onset of feeding following yolk absorption provides not
only a survival advantage (Figure 19), but also a growth advantage which is
not recovered by larvae reared at the same temperature but given their
first food a few days later (Figures 20 and 21). Further, this rate
of growth in weight and length following early and delayed feeding increases
at a rate which is temperature dependent.
As the larvae grow, they require greater volumes of water in which to
move and to ensure proper water quality. These constraints are applicable
under culture conditions but not in their natural habitat. Densities of
about 1000 prolarvae per gallon (or 250 per liter) have been suggested for
holding in hatchery troughs during the first two weeks after hatching
onn et a ].. , 1976). The densities indicated in Table 15 are approximations
to thrgeneral 1 gm/l rule under semi—static conditions. The densities are
shown in this Table as high to low concentrations to indicate that larvae
should be graded and spread out as they grow. Since aimnonia excretion and
oxygen consumption are important factors in determining culture densities,
they are discussed briefly.
Ammonia excretion was determined during this study on groups of pro—
larvae at 15 and 24 C using groups of 50 larvae per 300 ml with blanks
for each. Anmtonia was measured over the peyiod of yolk utilization.
The average excretion for six groups at 24 C was 0.63k ug N—NH 3 per larva
per day. The average excretion for nine groups at 15 C was 0.245 ug N—NH 3
per lana per day through the prolarval period.
The oxygen consumption of a 9.4 mg bass in freshwater at 19°C was
reported to be 2.05 mg 0 2 /gm/hr or 0.0135 mglhr (Bodganov et al., l9 7)
We determined oxygen consumption of groups of prolarvae at 18 and 21 C at
5 0/00. The larvae were 5—6 = SL, and about 0.21 mg dry weight. The
groups were of 20 larvae each in 300 ml of water with blanks. The mean
89
-------
15
12
0 5 10 5 20 25
240
5
2
C l I I I I
0 5 0 IS 20 25
5
23
0 i
o 5 10 5 20 25
I0•
5
0
_________________________ I I I
0 5 tO IS 20 25
t0
H
DAYS AFTER HATCHING
Figure 20. The effect of temperature and delayed feeding on the growth in
standard length of striped bass larvae stocked at hatching at 27 24, 21,
18, and 15°C. Each sample contains 10 individuals. Numbered arrows
indicate time of first feeding for each population. Symbols identify
groups which received their first food at the same time. The location
of symbols denote sample means. Vertical bars indicate range of lengths
in each sample. (adapted from Rogers, 1978)
5
I I I I I __ _J
0 5 0 15 20 25
- 27°
tO -
5
I I I I
E
E
I-
z
LU
z
I-
U,
210
2
34
90
-------
1.389
o 5 10 15
to
24 C
as -
0.5 -
0.0
10 (5 20 25
20 25
- I
o 5 (0 (5 20 25
(.0 -
- 18C
0.5:
0.0 ‘ 2 , 3 ’
0 5 (0 5 20 25 0 5
DAYS AFTER HATCHING
Figure 21. The effect of temperature and delayed feeding on the growth in
dry weight of striped bass larvae stocked at hatching at 27, 24, 21, 18,
and 15°C. Each sample contains 10 individuals. Numbered arrows indicate
time of first feeding for each population. Symbols identify groups which
received their first food at the same time. The location of symbols
denote sample means. Vertical bars indicate range of weights in each
sample. (Rogers and Westin, 1979)’
1.0 - 27C
E
I-
=
U i
>-
0
2I. C
+. .4
0
IZC
91
-------
oxygen consumption for four groups at 18°C was 0.86 ui/hr/larva. These
rates were for larvae utilizing yolk and not feeding. A single group
measurement of 20 larvae (7—8 = and 0.36 mg/dry weight each fed prior to
the measuerments showed rates of 1.50 ul/hr/larva at 18 C and 3.10 ul/hr/
larva at 2]. C.
En their natural habitat striped bass larvae have many predators —
including older striped bass. In culture systems cannabilism has also been
observed. We have noted that its incidence is much reduced when excess
foods of varied sizes are present and when the size hierarchy of the rearing
container does not become extreme.
Diseases and parasites include any of those reported for juveniles
and are discussed in the next section. Fungus can be a problem as with
eggs, although increasing the salinity to S o/oo will reduce it.
Salinity of 10 o/oo reduced predation by microhydras on larval bass in a
laboratory situation (Dendy, 197’9). Larvae can also be treated with mala-
chite green at 0.05 to 0.1 mg/i as a dip, if necessary.
CULTURE METHODOLOGY
Capture Methods
The most successful capture method is the hatching of eggs already
under culture. Production for pond stocking, especially pcpular in the
southeastern United States (Braschler, 1975; Bonn at al., 1976), is carried
out by a number of state and federal hatcheries. This was discussed in
Section 4.
Hatching is the recommended capture procedure since it does the least
damage to the survival of the larva, which has neither the protection of a
chorion nor scales.
Pos t—Cap Cure Handling
In the hatcheries .(state and federal) the larvae are allowed to swim
up (yolk and oil giving bouyancy) in the hatching jars with the freshwater
flow and spill over into 30 gallon aquaria. These aquaria have a stand—
pipe drain surrounded by a perforated metal screen. Up to 1,500,000
prolarvae can be held in these aquaria provided the rate of water exchange
is one gallon per minute
-------
Transportation
Larval shipping procedures, described by Bayless (1972), Bonn etal.,
(1976) and Texas Instruments (1977c) are essentially as follows. The larvae,
concentrated by removing water from the holding container, are dipped into a
plastic bag fitted into a styrofoam box. Water is added to the bag until it
has half filled the volume of the shipping box. Oxygen is added to the
shipping water and allowed to fill the space over the water. The bag is
sealed with double castration bands and the box top taped in place. The
general density for shipping is estimated at 40—50,000 per gallon, or about
13,000 per liter. Although most of the hatcheries use their well—water
(fresh) source for shipping, we have found that additions of filtered sea-
water to bring the salinity to 5 0/00, or the addition of penicilhin—strepto—
mycin as described in the embryo section improve water quality and survival
during the shipping period. Larvae should not spend more than two days in
shipmenl especially if the temperature rises above about 18°C. Upon
receipt of the larvae, the box and bag should be opened, the temperature
recorded and the larvae inspected by dipping some out. They should
receive aeration while observations of their condition are made and the
shipping—receiving waters equilibrate.
Handling Procedures
Care should be taken when handling larvae not to remove them from the
water. The tools shown in Figure 9A for handling eggs should be
used for larvae. Nets should not be used until the larvae are fully
scaled (metamorphosis). Larvae can be weighed and measured, but this is
usually on a sacrificial basis, at least until anesthetics can be used.
Larvae will respond to anesthetic variably until after yolk absorption and
successful feeding (Figure 11 e—g). After this they can be anesthetized
with certainty that they wi,hl recover, if they are not abused during the
measurement period. The anesthetic we found most successful was MS—222 at
50 mg/i concentrations.
In each culture system some larvae will grow slightly faster then
others. We noticed that the larger, faster growing larvae remain nearer the
bottom, while the smaller, slower growing larvae, are more often nearer the
surface. It is generally recommended that the larvae in the system be
graded to keep the size hierarchy within any one tank to a minimum. This
will improve the survival of the smaller larvae by reducing the chances for
cannibalism. The grading system we found to be most conducive to larval
survival was also the most time consuming. It consisted of lowering the
water level in the tank until all fish were visible and with glass beakers
dipping the selected fish into a holding container. At times it was easier
to remove only the larger ones and leave the smaller ones in the tank which
was then refilled with culture water. At other times, the quickness of the
larger fish made it easier to remove all of the smaller fish to another
tank. This is also a very good time to observe the growth and condition
of the larvae in the culture tanks easily.
93
-------
Maintenance Procedures
Culture Vessels——
A variety of culture vessels has been used in large scale larval
rearing. Most of the hatcheries in the southeastern United States rely on
flowing freshwater for their systems which may involve rectangular tanks,
aquaria or screen cages in the ponds to rear the larvae prior to stocking in
ponds at 6 to 20 days after hatching (Bonnetal., 1976). Several recircu-
lating or closed filter system and tank combinations have been utilized.
Rhodes and Merriner (1973) described a culture system composed of a 10 foot
in diameter pool (900 gallons) with three, filter pans of fiberglass wool and
activated charcoal. Their system was used to rear prolar ’vae successfully
through metamorphosis at 0—6 0/00 and 17—27°C. Mcllwain (1975) reported
using a series of 1000 gallon rearing tanks connected to a filter tank of
shell material (Figure 22A) in which prolarvae were successfully reared
through metamorphosis at 2 o/oo. Lewis nd Heidinger (1976) favored
an upflow rearing tank (Figure 22 B) which was part of a large
scale closed culture system equipped with both rapid sand filters and blo—
filters on a well—water source.
The system we utilized for most of our larval rearing was similar to
the semi—recirculating system described by Houde and Ramsey (1971). This
system had not been used for striped bass larvae, although it had been used
with success for many marine fish species. We found this static prepared
tank rearing system successful. It has the following advantages which we
feel make it particularly well suited for laboratory rearing: 1) it is
uncomplicated; little or no complex equipment is required; 2) it is rela-
tively immune to weather and temperature changes which plague systems
relying on natural water supplies; 3) the life support system is an integral
part of the culture wate; and fish do not have to be separated using screens
so that the water can be treated and returned; 4) dissolved oxygen may be
maintained at a high level without excessive aeration. Disadvantages in-
clude: 1) the system may be unsuitable for high volume hatchery operations;
2) some care must be exercised to prevent introduction of foreign
algal species.
Culture containers consisted of 55 gallon (208 1) polyethylene drums
and 175 gallon (662 1) fiberglass tanks. Over each container at a height
of about one foot were mounted banks of fluorescent lamps. The light
levels used, four forty—watt cool white bulbs per 175 gallon container
and the equivalent of two per 55 gallon container, could probably be
halved. Light was supplied continuously. Culture water was made by
mixing tap water delivered through non—metalic plumbing with filtered sea
water to a salinity of 6 tp 8 0/00. This salinity was used with the
following considerations in mind: a) it was well within the tolerance
range of striped bass larvae; b) it prolonged the life of the brine
shrimp nauplii supplied as food; c) it reduced the probability of Sapro—
legnia proliferation; and, d) it was a more amenable salinity for the
flagellate species used to maintain the system.
The algal species used in the system was a euryhaline, eurythermal
tide pool flagellate, Brachiomonas , which was supplied by Dr. Paul
94
-------
‘ “ .:. .
— -l I - — - I —
‘i.jII ’;I! ______
t LHJ
Figure 22. A.
Schematic of closed intensive culture facilities
used by Mcllwain (1975).
B. Basic upf low tank used by Lewisetal. (1977) for
bass larvae in their recirculating system.
covc.w ..‘
a- a - —
• - - —
ai rtu r.
95
-------
Hargraves of the University of Rhode Island. In its natural habitat this
species is subjected to rapid changes in temperature and salinity. Pools
are frequently enriched with bird droppings, hence this species is tolerant
of and capable of using ammonia, a prime metabolite of both larval fish and
brine shrimp, as a nitrogen source. Flagellates were chosen because, being
motile, they would remain throughout the water column and not sediment to
the bottom of the tank. Their rapid generation time allowed them to respond
to changes in nutrient level in the system.
Low level aeration was supplied to keep the culture well mixed. The
culture water in each tank was enriched to the proportions of Guillard’s
F/2 algal culture medium (Guillard, 1975). These nutrient levels were non—
toxic to the larvae and promoted algal growth. Deleted from the algal
medium was any nitrogen source. This was supplied by the larvae and their
food. As the larvae developed and were graded and the algal medium in the
system was renewed, the salinity was increased so that metamorphosing larvae
were at 25 0/00. As the larvae reached metamorphosis, they were transferred
into running sea water systems.
Stocking Density——
The stockLng density reported by Mcllwain (1975) was 5—60 prclarvae per
liter in the recirculating system. Rhodes and Merriner (1973) suggested
that stocking in a system such as the one they described should be limited
to 100,000 per 900 gallons, or about 30 per liter. Lewis and Heidinger
(1976) reported stocking densities of 55 to 182 prolarvae per liter in the
various tanks in their recirculating system. Rogers etal. (1977) stocked
30 to 150 prolarvae per liter in their static experimental containers.
Bonn et a].. (1976) suggest an optimum stocking rate for ponds at 100,000 per
acre for post yolk sac larvae and recommend that prolarvae be held at a
density of 100,000 per cubic meter (100 per liter). Based on information
presented above, 100 early post larvae stocked into a liter at 18°c can be
expected to excrete at least 0.4 mg N—NH 3 into and consume about 3.6 ml of
oxygen from that liter daily. This is equivalent to 5.1 mg/l or about half
of the saturated level of dissolved oxygen. Hence, stocking in excess of 100
larvae per liter is not recommended after feeding initiates. Stocking
rates should probably be 50 larvae per liter at most, es-pecially as the
larvae develop.
Maintaining Water Quality——
In recirculating systems water quality is often poor because of filter
inefficiency and the accumulation of organic matter in the water due
partially to improper sumping(Lewis et. a!. , 1977). Increased organic
articu1ates (food and feces) may decrease the dissolved oxygen oncentra—
tion by increasing the total, biological oxygen demand of the rearing
water. In our algal system, we periodically replaced a portion of the
algal population which was approaching senescence, thereby returning the
culture to more active log growth. Any algal contaminates, such as diatoms,
were removed before they could decay and cause deterioration of the water
quality. The continued light was found to be unnecessary to ensure
maintenance of near saturated dissolved oxygen levels. Short dark periods
(approximately 4 to 6 hours) were found useful in maintaining the algal
system p11 at 7.5.co 8.5 range. The recommended water quality for larval
96
-------
rearing should include dissolved oxygen levels at or near saturation,
ammonia levels <0.5 to 1.0 ppm, nitrate levels (especially in recirculating
systems) of <56 ppm and a pH of 7—8. We recommend raising salinity and
temperature during he larval stage from about 5 0/00 and 18°c for prolarvae
to 5j0 o/oo and 20 C for post yolk—sac feeding larvae to 20—25 o/oo and
22—25 C near metamorphosis. Under this regime metamorphnsis should be
attained within two months of hatching.
Diet——
Although most of the work has been done using just brine shrimp ( Artemia )
as the exclusive diet, there are several reports of feeding larvae on brine
shrimp with some percentage of dry food added. Rhodes and Merriner (1973)
fed their larvae brine shrimp (90—50%) plus up to 50% Tetramin flakes, which
were observed to foul the rearing water. Mcllwain (1975) reported success
in weaning larvae to an all prepared dry diet of commercial trout chow and
pasteurized fish (approximately 50% protein and 7.2% fat). This diet did
not apparently effect the filter capacity and/or water quality and was
moderately acceptable to the larvae. However, a number of studies mentioned
earlier in this section showed that better survival and growth of larvae
resulted on diets of live brine shrimp rather than on prepared diets. In
our systems, larvae were exposed to Artemia nauplii well before they were
capable of feeding to be certain food was available when it was needed.
For the first several weeks after hatching nauplii were supplied in excess
to each container twice a day. Uneaten nauplii were always present at the
next feeding. Later as the cumulative appetite of all the larvae in each
container increased, larger brine shrimp were fed and feedings were more
frequent. Although some bass failed to feed and died within 10 days of
their arrival, most commenced feeding without difficulty. Their bodies
could be seen to become pink with nauplii shortly after each feeding. We
also used wild zooplankton species as supplements. Table 17 presents the
caloric and percent composition of some of the live diets used for larvae.
Digestion time influences the amount of food a larva can consume.
Al—Ahmad (1978) observed that at 25 C larvae (8, 13, and 18 days old) had
digested the rotifers they consumed during a one hou period in 3 to 6 hours.
Larval egestion was reported as 11 to 12 hours at 20 C for 15 and 19 day old
larvae and less than 9 hours at 25°C for 9 day old larvae fed brine shrimp
(McHugh and Heidinger, 1977). Eldridge et. al. l980) reported that digestion
of brine shrimp varied with the size of the larvae from 1 to 5 hours at 18 C.
We observed groups (10—15) of larvae (3—5) and individuals (10—20) at each of
three constant temperatures to estimate digestion times. The brine shrimp
fed provided a natural marker (pink in the gut) and the transparency of the
larvae allowed us to make observations on full larvae at intervals of 20—30
minutes until they were empty. Digestion times observed were 5—6 hours at
l8 0 C, 4—5 hours at 21°C and 3 hours at 24°C.
Information presented earlier indicates that larvae can easily consume
10—20% of their dry body weight per meal. If they digest this meal in 4—5
hours, then feeding twice per day is probably just sufficient and any less
might lead to starvation. Of course, feeding more often would promote both
97
-------
TABLE .17. CALORIC AND
PERCENT COMPOSITION OF SOME LIVE LARVAL
FOOD ITEMS
Food Item
Calories/gram
(ash—free, dry)
Percent
lipid
of
Dry Weight
protein
Artemia sauna
nauplil
5800_6000(1)*
5454—59 53(3)
15.04—27.24
42.5—50.2(1)
adults
5115—5854(3)
6.51
62.78(1)
Acartia clausi
5.8
82.6(4)
Acartia tonsa
5664 ± 86(2)
Calanus finmarchicus
6835 ± 191(2)
5515 ± 277(5)
10.5—47.0
11.0
30—77(4)
75.2(4)
Calanus helgolandicus
* Number in parenthesis refers to source: (1) Heifrich et al. (1973);
(2) Laurence (1977); (3) Paffenhofer (1967); (4) Raymont et al. (1963); and
(5) Slobodkin and Richman (1961).
98
-------
survival and growth, provided water quality was maintained. Consuming 200
nauplil each, 50 larvae stocked per liter would require 10,000 nauplii per
liter. This is almost twice the highest concentration (6.2 nauplii/ml)
tested to date (Eldridge et al., 1977). As the larvae grow, it is reason-
able to increase the size of their live diet until they can feed on ground
fish, squid, or prepared diets after metamorphosis. The diet chosen for
larvae should not contain less than about 43% protein and 5700 cal/gm
dry weight. These are values comparable to the caloric value of yolk (see
‘Section 8) which the prolarva utilizes initially.
Normal Conditions and Physiological State
Larval growth at five temperatures through the first 20 days
after hatching is shown in Figures 20 and 21 for length and weight.
Instantaneous growth coefficients on a dry weight basis for the larval
groups plotted in Figure 21 are given in Table 18 • The growth rate through
metamorphosis on the basis of larval length is shown in Figure 23 . This
figure combines growth curves from several studies at a variety of
temperatures under “excess” rations. Compared to the growth rate
attributed to “wild” bass (temperature unspecified) of Humphries and
Cumming (1973), the other three laboratory studies (Mansueti, 1958 at 15 to
18 0 C; Rhodes and Merriner, 1973 at 17 to 27 C; Rogers etal., 1977 at 15 and
24 C) appear to underestimate the growth rate of striped bass in nature.
Prolarvae normally drift in a head—up position, because of the
bouyancy and location of the yolk sac (Figure 11 . They make short erratic
swimming movements at this stage. Movement becomes more vigorous as the
larvae absorb their yolk material. Larvae tend, therefore, to move
passively with any currents during their prolarval period. Post yolk sac
larvae (Figure 1]. d—e), however, are strong swimmers by comparison.
Activity patterns among 10 and 25 mm larvae exposed to water velocities from
static to 27 cm/sec were observed in the presence arid absence of food
(Bowles, 1976). Visual cueing apparently played an important part in
feeding among these larvae. The dominant orientation for 25 to 80% of all
of the observations in this study was swimming into the current (positive
reotaxis).
Normal development proceeds as indicated in Figure 1). and Table 1.3 for
larvae. Larval condition may be checked by sampling and comparison of the
larval length and dry weight to that given by the equation with the
description of this stage. Histological and morphological changes during
starvation have been described for several larval fish species (Ehrlich et
al., 1976; O’Connell, 1976; Theilacker, 1978). The criteria developed to
ess the nutritional condition of these species can probably be used to
generalize starvation conditions of larval striped bass. The digestive
tract is apparently the first area to show tissue atrophy. During starva-
tion in the species investigated growth was retarded, the larvae shrank and
the soft tissues collapsed, causing the larvae to appear abnormal. Shrink-
age of starved striped bass in both length and weight can be seen in
Figures 20 and 21. A number of the abnormalities reported among fed bass
larvae, some of which may in fact be starvation related, are shown in
Figure 24 . One abnormality shown (A, bottom; B second from top) and
99
-------
TABLE 18. INSTANTANEOUS GROWTH COEFFICIENTS FOR DELAYED
FEEDING GROUPS AT FIVE CONSTANT TEMPERATURES
Temperature
Initial
Dry Wt.
(mg)*
Final
Dry Wt.
(mg)
Days
Since Hatching
Instantaneous
Growth
Coefficien *
Day
of
First
Feeding Day
Measured
27
0.211
0.157
0.863
2.542
3
6
19
19
8.803
21.419
24
0.155
0.100
0.413
0.289
6
11
19
19
7.538
13.266
21
0.170
0.140
0.120
0.102
0.593
0.376
0.180
0.111
6
10
14
17
21
21
21
21
8.330
8.981
5.793
2.114
18
0.19
0.135
0.116
0.451
0.257
0.205
6
14
17
24
24
24
4.802
6.438
8.135
15
0.198
0.145
0.125
0.231
0.174
0.195
6
14
17
25
25
25
0.811
1.657
5.558
*Determined by interpolation when the actual weight was not available (see Fig. 21)
**Instantaneous growth coefficient (Ricker, 1971).
I— .
0
0
loge wt 2 - log ewt 1
t 2 —t’
where wt 1 and wt 2 are dry weight at times t 1 and t 2 , respectively.
-------
I-Iumphrles and
24°
1973
I
E
E
I
I-
z
w
-J
-J
4
1—
0
I-
0
I—I
15°
5
Rogers etal. 1
1977
10
20
30
40 50 60 70
DAYS AFTER HATCHING
Figure 23. A comparison of growth rates observed under fixed temperature
regimes (Rogers etal., 1977) with those obtained in earlier studies
under conditions of increasing temperature.
-------
reported frequently from hatchery situations is the non—inflation of the
swim (or gas)bladder. Bulak (1976) reported that food availability and
heat stress had no effect on the time of initial inflation. It appears that
reduced oxygen in the water is the major factor in the failure of the swim
bladder to inflate (Bulak, 1976; Doroshev and Cornacchia, 1979).
Diagnosis and treatment of pathological conditions occurring in larvae
have been mentioned above or are discussed in the section describing
juvenile diseases.
FIg. 4. PathologIcal attribute. I. th. d.v,lopm.nt of strIped
bass wi - se and young. R. .dIag dowuward. ; d.for .satlon of
the oIl droplet In a 3-day-old larva; deformation of th. yolk
sac at the same age; taondatad pericardlal sInus, age 2 day.;
dIstortion of the notochord, age 4 day.; pa bladder not filled
wIth sir, age 35 day.,
*...asw gl. *a,.g as siwpm sa
?tGvs* 1*. Ab.simk pr.Iam. 4.3 ‘ . I.s, ,tewi .v ,aa,gegad h.ad.
P’icuss 43. .‘ibasqsl SI3 5rVS . 5.7 sw. lasq. gk.wga Iiins öeek 4e(asw*?.
v usE 41. . .bi,.rwsj pwtIarvs. 3.7 iww. ga . ak.wwe i ’vswkark sad .aIur gd ad
Fi ,Wg$ 1 5. , .srss.à ,wgiIar a. .2 s ’s.. I.as. with k4u.-.ga .gsg.,
V.r.vas 14. ).basq,gal r 1srss. 4 iss’. .. . with bus.- gas d,as..s. ,tew,as buIwt.n. Ww..I
claSs sad aslar ed bady rye. ,,..
,cija4 47. Ab.s....l pssgi.r,u, 3.4 sw. asq sb.wowv a. aIw..t t.Sal lark •( ç ’. e.sat.
Figure 24. Abnormalities among striped bass larvae reported by:
A — Doroshev (1970) and B — Mansueti (1958).
102
A
B __
s w
j ,z-*’- - , .ç
-------
SECTION 10
RECOIIQIENDED CULTURE METHODS AND BIONOMICS: JUVENILE AND SUBADULT
DESCRIPTION OF STAGE
This stage spans that portion in the life history of a striped bass
from metamorphosis to maturity. It is the adolescent stage during which
the young bass resemble the adult in scalation, form, coloratiot, and general
behavior. From metamorphosis to their first birthday (June 1 for ageing pur-
poses), bass are referred to as juveniles, young—of—the—year (YOY), finger—
lings, or age group 0. From the first birthday to the second, they are
generally referred to as yearlings (age group I), and during the year from
the second to the third birthday as two—year—olds (age group II).
Metamorphosis, the end of the larval stage, begins at about 15—18 mm
total length (TL) for preserved specimens (Rogers etal., 1977). This
corresponds well to a live equivalent standard length (SL) when shrinkage
due to preservation is considered. The juvenile stage is considered to
begin at 20—30 n SL,ll0to 400 tug live weight and 20—75 tug dry weight.
This subadult stage extends to maturity, which varies with sex. Many males
mature during their second year and all are mature by their third year
at a length of approximately 250 ma or more. The majority of the
females mature during their fifth and sixth years, at a length of 500 mm
or greater. Maturity is considered to be at a minimum of 300 mm, about 350—
400 g live weight and about 90—160 g dry weight. Figures 25 and 26 provide
a general idea of the expected normal ranges of lengtts and weights for live
juvenile and subadult striped bass.
Similar length—weight relationships (see Table 29) have been reported
for juveniles from the Hudson River, Rappahannock River, and Albermarle Sound.
Often it is not standard length (SL) that is available, but fork length (FL)
or total length (TL). Trent (1962) found that for juveniles (20—100 ma TL)
the relationships were: FL = 0.93835Th — 0.077817; SL = 0.80388TL +
0.55750; SL = 0.84675FL ÷ 1.22099. From our measurements we found that SL =
0.909FL — 1.805 and FL = 1.55SL — 0.196. Mansueti (1961) used a factor of
0.93 to convert TL to FL for subadults and adults, while Texas Instruments
(1973) found that FL = 4.60 + O.902Th for subadults.
During this study we determined the caloric content of adolescent striped
bass to be 5350.8 cal/g ash—free dry weight (n=3; range 5146.4 — 5592.2)
with a mean ash content of 17.3% (9.8 — 21.4) of the dry weight. The percent
water ranged from 69 to 79% with a mean of 74.6% (n=102) for bass throughout
the size range of Figure 26.
103
-------
100 — log 10 wet weight (gm)=
- log, 0 staridcrd length (mm) ,
3.104-4.960
r=0.997
-
10-
-
4
C, -
=
f
- I
Qi-.
w -
.11
.0
—
0.01 -
S
- I. J•
S I •$
S. /
0.001 —
/ I
I tO 100
STANDARD LENGTH, mm
Figure 25. Relationship between standard length (SL) in millimeters
and body weight in grams for post yolk sac larval and juvenile
striped bass. The regression equation was calculated from transformed data.
104
-------
0.001 0.01 0.10 1.0 10
DRY WEIGHT, g
Figure 26. Relationship between dry weight in grams and wet weight
in grams of juvenile and subadult striped bass. The regression
equation was calculated from the transformed data.
1000
100
log 10 wet weight (gm)
log, 0 dry weight (gm) 0.9330+0.6012
r 0.958
10
.
w
S
S
S
1.0
S.
I—
w
0.1
0.01
100
105
-------
Wood and Hintz (1971) investigated the stability of striped bass lipids
during storage at ice temperatures. They noted the phospholipid fraction
contained the highest proportion of polyunsaturated acids and the neutral
lipid fraction contained the highest proportion of monosaturated acids in
fresh tissue. The polyunsaturated acids Czo:S and C22:6 were most affected
during storage and were lost at a faster rate from the phospholipids than
from the neutral lipids. Phospholipids accounted for 4 % of the total body
lipid composition of feeding juveniles (Dergaleva and Shatunovskiy, 1977).
Korn and Macedo (1973) determined that 2 g striped bass were 18.2Z fat by
Goldfisch and column fat extraction techniques. Iodine numbers (a measure
of the relative heat stability of fat) for juvenile and yearling bass
ranged from 123 to 189 (Loeber, 1951).
Blondin et al. (1966) showed that sterol biosynthesis in striped bass
follows the same pathway as demonstrated by others for n1 Tnn1n1s, but occurs
at a significantly slower rate in bass. They reported that the primary
sterol found in bass 1iv is cholesterol. Squalene, lanosterol and
cholesterol were identified as metabolites of nevalonic acid. Slondin et
al. (1967) found the rate of vitamin D formation to be small compared to the
rate of chlolesterol formation in striped bass liver.
NATURAL tUB ITAT
Juvenile striped bass are abundant in spawning areas and more saline
nursery areas about two months after spawning occurs. Local movements of
these juveniles and yearlings have been well documented in areas of proposed
power plants (Hudson River, Chesapeake—Delaware Canal and Potomac River) or
pump storage and canal diversions (Sacramento—San Joaquin River Valley) and
were described earlier in Section 6. Juvenile bass are first collected
in mid—June to early July, depending on tine of spawning, from river
waters deeper than 6 meters (Figures 27 and 28). As the water temperature
increases, the juveniles migrate to shoal and shore zone areas. Falling
water temperatures bring net downstream movement so that by December
juveniles are generally absent from the shore zone, having either left the
estuary or moved into deeper water for winter. Apparently, the abundance
of juveniles in local areas is related to temperature, salinity, habitat
type, diel patterns, and tidal stage.
Other factors have been postulated to influence juvenile abundance in
addition to temperature. Three factors — mortality, dispersion, and gear
selectivity — were presumed responsible (separately or in combination)
for a reduction seen in young—of—the—year abundance as the season progressed
(Trent, 1962). Observed migrations of young—of—the—year and juvenile bass
downstream from the Sacramento—San Joaquin Delta (Sasaki, 1966) probably
took place in response to food supply and/or water velocity changes.
Survival and distribution of young bass were clearly defined functiong of
water flow in this delta system and abundance was greatest in the low
salinity zone (Turner and Chadwick, 1972). Possible mechanisms for these
relationships were discussed by the authors. A more detailed discussion of
factors affecting abundance is presented in Section 13.
106
-------
‘I
S
U)
•1
E
I a
0
£
I
S
S I.
S
I-
0
SI.
SI.
I-
z
3
I II
x
(.1
I-
4
U
B
D C.$cS / - .1 -
A4 I. -
Figure 27. Hudson River sites (A) for juvenile striped bass catch per
unit effort (B) at two week intervals beginning at 3/23—4/5 through
12/14—12/27. (adapted from McFadden, 1977a)
A
PUKSK ILL
‘I
I—a
- .1
INDIAN POINT
U
.
• Seoch-S *i S S.,, 972-75
• Ssock-Siies SlIss, Moy—D.c. 1974-75
J OoIIo n-Trowl s .d S.wlocs-Ttowl
TWO WEEK INTERV*LS
-------
A
I- I I I I I I I
Fall Shoals
Eplb .nShIc Sl.d
1978
lver Dspth 20’
A River O .p ih 20’
1976
o River Dsp$h
• River Depik
20’
20’
AM J J AS0N
-
‘-‘Pc
E0.6 -
z
—0
I —
“Jo
0 .1 ,.
I ’-
oz
0.5
0 1pibsatl c sled, Ti.cker Trawl
Sh..I., S.$Ioa co.sbMsd
p
•l974
I ,I •
I •I “ l975
‘I
? 7 ”
‘ 6 p
I , ‘P I °a.
• 1
AM J
Depth
Depth
Figure 28. Abundances of striped bass juveniles (A) and yearlings (B)
in standard samples during 1973, 1974 and 1975 from the Hudson River.
taken
.
I S
lchlhyop$CMIO .i,
Epibeaihic sled.
Ts.ckar Trawl
1978
A loSSes’
• Shoals
F— I I
• 973 (idjestid Jar cod esdi
o 974
A 1978
— 0.6
0
0.4
z E 0.2
I ii
z0
11 .
xl ii
U
I - I -
4-
I— IS
1110
0. It
Ii .
x
C.)
I- , ..
2
0
1.5
1.0
Bottos’ Trawl 101+04 cos’bined)
• • $974
A 1975
100 tt. $30.5 a)
Beach gelsi
0 $974
A
4
I-
SiJO
( . 1
looft. (30.3.)
Beach Sell’.
• 974
A 1975
12
E4
00
‘.5
1.0
Fell Shoals
£plbsi.IhIc Sled
A— Rlv.r Ospib
78 4 --ARIvsr Diplh
0
S-.--. River
20’
to,
20’
D
(adapted from McFadden, 1977a)
-------
Striped bass two or three years old are no t generally involved in
coastal migrations, but they do form schools, moving about their river or
estuary area. The young—of—the—year bass also move in large schools within
the river of their spawning. These schools appear to over— ii1nter in deeper
sections of the river. It is these schools of subadults (ages LI and III)
which contribute substantially to the commercial and sport catches (see
Section 14) in the spawning rivers (Frisbie and Ritchie, 1963; Grant, 1974;
Shearer et al., 1962; Tiller, 1950).
ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
Table 19 summarizes the environmental requirements of this stage.
Background information on these factors is presented in more detail below.
Abi.otic Factors
Juvenile bass were observed to tolerate 9°C rise above normal tempera-
tures of 22°C (Kerr, 1953). The maximum upper temperature avoided by juven-
iles in the ser (27.2 C acclimation) was 33.9 and 34.4 C, while the
0 • 0
maximum avoided from 5.0 C acclimation was 12.8 C (Meidrim and Gift, 1971).
No consistent relationship between salinity or light level and upper
avoidance temperature was observed by these authors. The minimum temperature
at which we have observed survival was 0 to —1.0°C at our winter ambient
sea temperatures. Fingerling bass (30—70 mm TL) survived tests at 32.2°C
after reacclimation for 12 hours from 16 to 26.7°C, however all fish died when
the temperature exceeded 35°C (Davies, 1973). Texas Instruments (1976b)
found that the median thermal tolerance limit (TL ) for YOY and yearling
bass (39—230 mm TL) changed with changing temperature acclimation throughout
the sear. During the period of falling Hudson River temperatures (26 to
11.5 C) the TL, declined from 34 C to 28.6°C, and during the period of
rising river temperatures (15.5 to 26°C) the Tim increased from 29 to 34°C.
They also observed 100% mortalIty among yearling bass during 96 hours after a
temperature drop from 15 to 2 C. However, none of thg bass tested showed
loss of equilibrium or death with a drop from 10 to 2 C. These juveniles
failed to avoid lethal temperature conditions when acclimated to temperatures
less than 9.5°C in Hudson River water. The upper avoidance temperature was
22.5, 29.0, and 32.0 C when the bass were acclimated at 9.5, 15—17, and 27°C,
respectively. The long—term preferred temperature was determined to be 29—3i,
26—27, 23—24, and 14—17°C for acclimation temperatures of 24, 21—22, 17, and
6°C, respectively (Texas Instruments, l976b). Optimum temperature ranges for
the growth of juveniles have been reported as 14—21°C (Davies, 1973; Krouse,
1968) and 15—27”C (Bowker et al., 1969).
Juveniles have been found generally in waters of 0—11 0/00 (Dovel, 1971)
or 4—13 0/00 (Clark, 1968). There appears to be some interaction of tempera-
ture and salinity on survival or tolerance. For example, juveniles survived
abrupt transfers between salt and freshwater at temperatures over a
range of 12.8—21.1 C, but were not tolerant of transfers from freshwater
to saltwater of 7.2°C within that temperature range (Tagatz, 1961). These
tests were performed using mixed salt and freshwater witl the resulting pH
ranging from 7.4 to 7.6. We have successfully shifted juveniles and yearlings
109
-------
TABLE 19. ENVIRONNENTAL REQUIREMENTS OF STRIPED BASS JUVENILES AND SUBADULTS
ABIOTIC FACTORS
Survival. Range Optimum Conditions
Temperature 0—30°C >10 & <25°C
Salinity 0—30 0/00 10—30 0/00
Dissolved oxygen >5% (2.4 mg/i @18°C) air saturated
Light no adverse effect natural photoperiod
+ * +
Turbidity 0—10 mg/i ; 0—2 g/l <4 mg/i
BIOTIC FACTORS
Diet 5—8% body weight (wet) per day
Density 10 to 2 bass per 100 liters
Predators some in natural habitat
Disease and Parasites simim rized in Table 24
+ bentonite
* uncontaminated suspended sediments
110
-------
directly from 0 freshwater to seawater of 28—32 0/00 both at moderate (15—20°C)
and low (0—5 C) temperatures. Juveniles (85—105 FL) acclimated to 15.6°C
in freshwater showed a 50% mortality at 31—34.4°C, while the 50% mortality
for those acclimated to 11°C in freshwater was observed at 29.4—30.@ C
(Loeber, 1951).
Klyashtorin and Yarzhombek (1975) determined that an increase in salin-
ity up to 10 0/00 produced a short—term increase in oxygen consumption which
normalized as the fish adjusted to increased salinity. Meldrim et al. (1974)
reported mean resting and active oxygen consuxnptions at various temperatures
and 0, 6 and 12 o/oo salinity. For bass 14.5 to 26.8 cm TL 6 resting oxygen
consumption was 90 mg/kg/hr at 13°C and 209 mg/kg/hr at 20 C at 0 0/00,
and 196 mg/kg/hr at 19°C and 246 mg/kg/hr at 13°C at 6 o/oo. For bass 10.7
to 22.4 cm TL, active oxygen consumption was as high as 1840 mg/kg/hr at
9 C and 12 0/00 and as low as 210 mg/kg/hr at 24°C and 6 o/oo. At 26°C and
0 o/oo the mean active oxygen consumption was reported as 802 mg/kg/hr by
these authors.
Striped bap feeding frequency in our flowing seawater system de 1ined
sharply below 5 C on natural foods. Adults appear to cease feeding below
this temperature, while juveniles continue feeding but on smaller amounts
and less often. Feeding of subadults and adults also declined at tempera-
tures over 26°C in seawater. Wawronowicz and Lewis (1979) observed that
juveniles on artificial foods (pellete ceased feeding in ponds when the
temperature fell to 7 C. These bass resumed feeding when the temperature
reached 16°C.
The optimum range of dissolved oxygen for juveniles has been given as
6—12 mg/i (Bogdanov etal., 1967), or over 3.6 mg/i (Bowker etal., 1969), or
greater than 3 mg/i (Chittenden, 1972; Krouse, 1968).
Dorfman and Westman (1970) observed 80% survival among juvenile bass
acclimated to 8.5 mg/i oxygen at 2 C and 6.6 mg/i oxygen at 25. °C to
transfers to 2.0 mg/i oxygen at 20 C and 3.0 mg/i oxygen at 25.6 C,
respectively. Al]. of their bass acc1imate at 5.9 mg/i oxygen at 32.8°C
and transferred to 2.4 mg/i oxygen at 32.8 C died.
Chittenden (1972) found that the effects of handling and salinity on the
oxygen requirements of juveniles were negligible or absent for 16 to 18.5°C
and 0 o/oo or 10 o/oo. Krouse (1968) observed mortality after 72
hours for juveniles in multivariate experiments of 13, 18 and 25°C, 5, 15, and
25 o/oo (as Instant Ocean), and 1, 3 and 5 mg/i oxygen at pH r nges of 7.1
to 8.7 and constant photoperiod. He found best survival at 18 C and 5 or
15 o/oo with 5 mg/i oxygen levels. He suggested that bass should be able
to survive 13 to 25°C and 5 to 25 0/00 water with oxygen levels greater than
3 mg/i. However, at oxygen Levels of 1 mg/i or less, complete mortality can
be expected. During a thirty day exposure period, striped bass juveniles
grew 160% of their initial body weight at average dissolved oxygen concen-
trations of greater than 7.3 mg/i, but only 130% of their initial body
weight at oxygen ievels below 3.5 mg/i (Dorfman and Westman, 1970). The
average growth rate was given as 0.104 and 0.061 for the high and low oxygen
concentrations, respectively.
lii.
-------
Peddicord etai.. (1975) reported a 240—hour LC5O of 4.6 mgI ]. bentonite
at 18 C and 2 mg/i dissolved oxygen for 50—80 bass. Peddicord and McFar-
land (1978) reported a 10 day LC5O of >4 0 g/1 uncontaminated suspended
sediment to juvenile bass at 25 0/00, 12 C and 8 ppm dissolved oxygen. They
estimated a 2 day LC5O of 0.4 g/l contaminated suspended sediments at 25 o/oo,
14 C and 8 ppm dissolved oxygen to juveniles tested. The sediments were
collected from the San Francisco Bay area. The uncontaminated sediments
tested contained some heavy metals, and were made up of 83¼ silt, 12% clay and
5% sand. The contaminated sediments contained suif ides, heavy metals, PCBs
and DDT, and were composed of 65% silt, 2% clay and 33 sand.
Bowker et al. (1969) observed the tolerance of juvenile bass to a pH
range of 6 to 10 in rearing ponds over a range of 22 to 29CC. Tatum et al.
(1965) reported a lower lethal pH of 5.3 to juvenile bass during a 24 hours
exposure period.
Sazaki et a].. (1972) observed 86 to 100% swimmfng at four minutes
exposure to 0.5 to 1.0 fps velocities among 40—50 mm bass. They noted an
inverse relationship between survival and impingement velocity in experiments
with 25 to 50 bass. Kerr (1953) reported that 90—100% of the 25—75
bass he tested were swimming at the end of 10 minutes at velocities up to
2.0 fps. Larger bass were able to resist 2 ft/sec velocities for 10 minutes
(Kerr, 1953).
Results of toxicological studies on juvenile bass are s mmi rized in
Section 12.
Biotic Factors
Striped bass can be classified generally as opportunistic, carnivorous
feeders. A great many feeding studies to determine the natural food organ-
isms preferred as well as their relative importance in the diet have been
conducted. Some of these are si’mm rized in Table 20 where the relative
importance is indicated as percent occurrence in the stomachs of the bass
sampled. Young juveniles (<80 TL) observed in pond rearing studies
(Meshaw, 1969; Humphries, 1971; Harrell et a].., 1977) were found t.o be
highly selective in their feeding. These studies determined a high selectiv-
ity for Cyclops and against Bosmina using electivity ratios. As bass
mature, general diet preferences become evident. Young bass enter their
first fall feeding almost entirely on invertebrates. During the second
s=er of life they begin feeding on small fish, including young—of—the--year
striped bass. In the fall their diet becomes about half fish and half
invertebrates, depending on availability. By the third year, especially in
spring and s er, their diet becomes almost entirely fish (Markle and Grant,
1970; Manooch, 1973; Stevens, 1966).
A number of feeding studies have been conducted to determine the
consumption rate and growth at different temperatures and growing
conditions (i.e., ponds, cages, tanks) for a variety of diets, natural and
artificial. Much of our study was devoted to feeding studies and some
results will be presented in this section in addition to the available
112
-------
TABLE 20
PREFERRED FOODS OF STRIPED BASS
onrosne, (197W
Harper & Jarmaft (1912)
Hi nrI (1911)
Tames (1937)
Bason (1971)
Gams (1970)
lMrperatai (1968)
HetdiacSl!ijL. (1963)
Texas lnstriments (1976C)
Harper 6 Jarean (1972)
Stavens (1966)
GoodsOn (1964)
Wars (1971)
Texas Instrimenti (l 9 76C)
Thmea ( 1967)
Nansocfl (1973)
Stevens (1966)
Shapovalov (1936)
Thmes (1961)
Stevens (1966)
Schaefer (1970)
Stevens (1958)
Schaefer (1970)
Mamocil (1973)
Stevens (1966)
Schaefer (1970)
Johnson & Calhoun
(1952)
Thnsas (1967)
Goodson (1964)
101)1 , (1952)
b- S
10-14 11. CopePods
14— 80 Ti. Clanscera (Sididea)
Copepods ( Cyclone)
C ds
Copepods ( Olagtme.s )
Cladocera ( Oiapsianobooa)
Ne 1 Is
G rus , Calanoida.
cb5ronoesdae larvae
Gaenarus
Ne eis .
Otptera ( Chaoarus & Chlro, isj
Cladocare 6 Insecta. Fish
he siS. Coroohiun , Cqptpods
Gaa aru3 . Calanoida
Cladocere and Copegoda
Ne ais
Shad
Shad and 145 11 renains
Microgadul
N. ,ts , Fishes
Clupeid 14Th
Nenoys Is
Fishes. SnaIl Crustaceans
Fishes
Neaiysis. FIshes ( Oorosoma a
Mysidacea. Apohipoda
Clupeotd. ilayfly nyii$S
igods. Anc
Clupeud fish
Fishes ( Corosam &
AnØhipOda. Fishes (&iS (!29. &
Uro0Nyc 6 )
.105 Ne sis , Anchovy
.406 Fishes
533—863 FL Shad
- - - Moscow (I)
74 0kIah (I)
52—58 Virginia (2)
Call Fornia
0kIaIi (I)
OkIan (I)
Call (ornia
Hudson River
2-20. 35. 11 CalIfornia
95 California
99 CalIfornia
40—100 Chesapeake Bay
Author Length of Bass Food Orgenise Frequancy of Location b
(ii .) Occurrence in StamCI I
Cyclops nauplii and
copepod I tea
HetIbaCIl 5 fl. (1963) 5-25
Harper et 9 L. (1968) 10-39 SI.
Harper ecal. (1968) 40-69 IL
Heijbaca at al. (l963) 25-16
Teals Instriments (1fl5C) 0—75
30-110
50-100 Fl.
53.100 U.
70-89 IL
50-115
76.125
80-109 Ii.
50-230
203-254 Fl.
76—350
116—200
153-254
125.304 11.
130-350
200-890 a
260-470
275—399 FL
215—763
400-599 Fl.
305—714 TI.
380+, 480+
600-940 Fl.
41—84
61-84
82-92
21—86
60
35-64. 45
6)
11—72. 33
0—83. 11—95.
20-100
73—82
80
76
35.37
42. 55
60
66
49, 32
79
25. 52
43. 57
18-WO. 0-Cl
52. 22
75
70
33. 44
Hudson River
Oelaware River
Oklahooa (1)
Okiannea (I)
California
Hudson Ri var
Oklahona (1)
California
California
Florida (1)
Hudson River
California
AIbeuarle Scond
California
California
Call fornia
California
Great South Say
So. Carolina (I)
Great South Bay
Albemarle Sound
Call fornia
Great South Bay
- - . Fishes (Iet,viaden. Spot, Croaker)
• Includes only studies resorted where oore than 20 fIsh ware esanined.
b Of laidyimmeer in parenthesis indicates hatchery sourcs of bass: (1)
North Carolina.
Monclia Corner. 5 C.. (2) Edanton.
113
-------
information on the diet requirements of juvenUes and subadu.lts.
Kelley (1969) compared growth and survival of juvenile striped bass in
freshwater troughs (20 C) fed commercial trout diets. He noted conversions
of 1.4—2.8 at feeding rates of 3—4% of body weight, with one diet (Purina
Trout Chow) yielding greater survival and growth. Re concluded that a
feeding rate of 3.5% of body weight daily would be appropriate for coer—
cially prepared trout diets, when feeding once a day. Catchings (1973),
however, concluded feeding rates of 4 or 57 . of body weight per day of trout
chow resulted in more efficient food utilization.
Powell (1973) and Valenti et al. (1976) reported the results of cage
culture feeding studies done in coastal waters of Alabama and New York.
respectively. Both found mean conversions of 1.7—4.5 dry feed:live weight
for bass groups fed mainly pelleted trout diets. One group receiving ground
whole fish—soybean meal diet had a mean conversion of 5.6 (Powell, 1973) when
fed 60% per day. We investigated growth in a cage in Rhode Island coastal
waters of 50 juveniles fed a diet of ground hake at a rate of 6—12% of their
initial live weight (Fig. 29 ). Their gross efficiency, or conversion, on
a wet:wet weight basis, was 27% from June to the July weighing, 32% from
July to the August weighing, 21% from August to the September weighing, and
17% from September to the October weighing. Although their gross growth
efficiency dropped off during the late August—mid—October period, their
growth rate continued to increase at that time (Figure 29).
Redpath (1972) conduct d growth studies of juvenile striped bass (5—10
cm) at 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24 Cand five feeding levels (1, 3, 5, and 8% of
body weight and repletion) on live sludge worms (Tubificidae). Conversion
and consumption rates were reported on 0 a dry weight basis. Gross efficiency
was lowest at 12°C and increased to 20 C. Maintenance requirements ere
determined to be 3.37, 21, 7.5 and 11.5 ing/g/day at 8, 12, 16 and 20 C,
respectively. He observed higher growth rates over a greater consumption
range with greater efficiency at 16 C than at any of the other temperatures
studied.
During our study a number of feeding experiments on juvenile and sub—
adults was performed. A number of diets was utilized. Most were readily
consumed by the bass — live and frozen brine shrimp, squid, a moist t ’pellet”,
menhaden and herring — if presented in a size they could eat. Other diets,
especially the dry pellets and some fish, were often not consumed, nor did
the bass show any interest in them. Some of the more successful diets and
their feeding level estimates are described briefly below.
A feeding study to determine the consumption levels of live brine
shrimp post—naupili and adults by juvenile bass (28—65 mm FL) was performed
at 25 0/00. Two groups were tested at each of three temperatures (18, 21,
24°C). Each group was fed to satiation once a day during three consecutive
one week periods. Bass were weighed weekly. A record of the wet weight
consumed was maintained for each group. Consumption rate expressed as
percent of body weight (wet) per daily meal ranged from 20 to 34% at 24°C,
16 to 30% at 21°C, and 15 to 28% at 18°C. The gross growth efficiency ranged
from 2 to 13% at 24°C, 7 to 11% at 21°C, and 6 to 10% at 18°C for these groups.
114
-------
0
0
I0-
160-
C,
I
LU
LU
30
lo
i— 20-
z
LU 15-
:: 10
JUNE’
Figure 29. Growth in weight and length for juvenile striped bass held
in ambient sea water in a cage. They were fed on a diet of ground hake
in addition to the natural prey available in the water column.
-
I I
JULY AUG SEPT OCT 1 NOV
I I I
115
-------
During a one week period two individual bass per temperature were observed.
Their gross efficienci s when fed to satiation on live brine shrimp daily
were 5.9 and 11% at 24 C, 8.2 and 9.3% at 21°C and 4.6 and 5.7% at 18°C.
A study to determine growth and conversion among juveniles (6—10 cm FL)
fed cut squid at five levels (2, 4, 8, 12 and 15% body weight wet basis) in
groups of 20 bass in ambient filtered seawater was undertaken. The mean
growth results are shown in Figure 30 for these five feeding levels. The 2%
ration was obviously below the maintenance requirements over the average
temperatures o 18 and 20 C for the two periods. Although the 4% level was
adequate at 18 C average water temperature, it was about maintenance level
at an averag 8 temperature of 20°C. The gross growth efficiency for the
groups at 18 C were 40, 23, 21 and 19% (wet weight basis) for daily feeding
levels of 4, 8, 12 and 15 4 respectively. The efficiencies at 20°C were only
3, 21, 27 and 16%, respectively.
A comparison of two diets was conducted on gro ps of juveniles and
yearlings in ambient filtered seawater at 10 and 20 C. The diets were cut
squid mantle and a gelatin—squid moist “pellet” (i.e., 48% water, 25% trout
c umbles, 12% ground squid and 10% gelatin binder modified from Peterson
and Robinson (1967)). Both diets were fed as 0.5 cm square pieces readily
eaten at both temperatures. The results are summarized in Table 21 for this
study where feeding was ad libitum daily. All of the calculations represented
in Table 21 are on a dry weight basis unless otherwise indicated. Percent
water was determined (wet—dry weight at 100°C) to be 83.7, 64.4 and 74.6% for
the squid, gelatin—squid diets and the striped bass, respectively. Growth
was consistently better among the squid—fed bass at the two temperatures as
was efficiency on a dry weight basis.
Absorption efficiency and net conversion efficiency were determined for
bass fed these diets at 20°C. The efficiencies calculated from the data
collected are presented inTable 22. Absorption (A), on a dry weight basis,
was calculated by subtracting the amount of feces produced (collected on
fine mesh, rinsed and dried) during the period for each diet from the total
consumed during the period. This was divided by the amount consumed giving
the absorption efficiency as a percent (X 100). The gain during the period
divided by the absorption (A) for the period for each diet and expressed as
a percent (X 100). These efficiencies were expressed on a caloric basis
using mean values of 5350.8, 5552.1, 6574.7, 5762.2 and 4841.5 cal/g (ash—
free) for bass, squid, gelatin—squid, squid feces and gelatin—squid feces,
-respectively, determined during this study. The consistently higher
efficiencies for the squid diet over the gelatin—squid diet may be a function
of the carbon and nitrogen (protein) in the diets. Carbon:nitrogen analysis
on a sample of the diets and feces indicates that the bass utilized more of
the nitrogen available in the squid diet (9.5 of 11% N) than in the gelatin—
squid diet (5 to 11.5% N). The bass also appeared to utilize more of the
carbon available in the squid (28 of 42% C) than of that available in the
gelatin (11 of 43% C) formulated diet.
Two groups of subadults were used to determine satiation and feeding
levels at ambient sea temperatures. One group was composed of 14 bass which
116
-------
II
10-
D 9
a
I—
18
(9
Lu
—4
F-
Lu
6
I I I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
DAYS
Figure 30. Growth in weight of young—of—the—year striped bass fed at fixed percentages
of their live body weight (2 to 15%) per day on cut squid at ambient sea
water temperatures of 18 and 20°C.
18°C
20°C
‘1’
288
2%.
4%o
8%A
I2%
15%V
—0
5-
-------
TAB .I•: 21. SUMMARY OF GROWTH DATA FOR EACH GROUP OF STRIPED BASS FED ONE OF TWO DIETS AT 10 AND 20°C
I -a
I-I
Diet
Tank
II
of
Fish
Days
in Feeding
Period
Mean Dry Weight
(gm)
initial Final
Mean Length
(FL cm)
Ration
(%‘bcidv
weight daily)
Growth
Rate
(% daily)
Gross Growth
Wet (‘Z)
Efficiency
Dry
20°C
Cut Squid
1
2
18
32
12
12
3.10
7.08
3.85
8.62
10.04
13.05
8.1
6.0
2.0
1.8
16.39
19.69
25.0
30.1
3
31
12
4.64
5.73
11.36
7.9
2.0
16.24
24.6
4
18
12
11.20
13.60
15.10
6.2
1.8
19.14
29.0
5
15
12
19.82
22.85 18.34
4.4
1.3
19.10
28.9
6
6
12
29.65
35.03
21.26
6.1
1.5
19.73
29.9
20°C
Gelitlii
1
28
19
4.20
4.80
10.94
5.9
0.73
18.20
12.2
-Squid
2
16
19
8.13
10.17
13.79
5.9
0.86
21.69
14.6
3
21
19
6.14
8.01
12.26
7.2
1.20
24.63
16.6
4
9
19
13.30
14.40
15.66
5.3
0.43
12.15
8.2
5
6
19
20.80
22.80
18.56
5.3
0.50
14.12
9.5
6
16
19
8.51
9.12
13.66
5.4
0.38
10.55
7.1
7
9
19
13.90
14.56
16.15
7.9
1.10
20.46
13.8
8
7
19
25.57
27.01
10.95
4.9
0.73
21.80
14.7
10°C
Cut iild
1
2
37
16
10
17
4.60
12.40
4.80
13.20
11.40
15.83
1.5
1.8
0.22
0.03
9.70
1.30
14.9
1.9
3
16
16
11.20
11.80
15.31
1.3
0.32
16.00
24.3
4
8
16
16.50
17.50
17.38
1.1
0.25
14.50
21.9
10°C
Ge1iET
1
27
18
5.80
6.30
12.10
2.2
0.52
36.10
24.2
-SquId
2
21
18
9.50
9.60
14.41
1.4
0.03
3.70
2.5
3
6
18
26.00
25.50
20.16
0.83
-0.12
-21.90
-14.58
4
27
16
6.30
6.20
12.62
0.65
-0.11
-24.20
-16.28
5
21
15
9.60
9.50
14.43
0.60
-0.05
-12.40
-8.6
6
6
15
25.60
25.ce
20.18
0.54
-0.02
-5.60
-3.1
-------
I—I
I 1
TABLE 22.
ABSORPTION AND CONVERSION EFFICIENCIES CALCULATED FOR STRIPED BASS FED ONE OF TWO DIETS
AT 20°C AND COMPARED TO GROWW GROWTH EFFICIENCY FROM TABLE 21
Diet and Tank
Wet Weight
(mean final)
g
Gross (growth)
Efficiency, %
(dry)
Absorption
Efficiency, %
Conversion Efficiency
(net), %
Dry
Caloric
(ash -free)
Dry
Caloric
(ash-free)
Squid
1
15.4
25.0
98.2
98.2
25.4
24.5
2
34.5
30.1
•98.5
98.4
30.5
29.5
3
22.9
24.6
98.7
98.7
24.9
24.1
4
54.4
29.0
97.9
97.8
29.6
28.6
5
91.4
28.9
97.7
97.6
29.6
28.6
6
140.2
29.9
97.1
96.9
30.9
29.3
Gelatin-squid
1
19.2
12.2
86.5
90.0
14.0
11.0
2
40.7
14.6
84.7
88.7
17.2
13.4
3
30.1
16.6
87.5
90.8
18.9
14.8
4
57.5
8.2
87.4
90.7
9.4
7.4
5
91.2
9.5
88.1
91.3
10.8
8.5,
-------
ranged initially from 32.4 to 39.5 cm FL and 410—797 g. The second group
consisted of 20 bass ranging in size from 22.5 to 27.5 cm FL and 151.5—285.5
g. Each was weighed from a stock pooi into a clean 12 foot pool with flowing
seawater in August (Figure 31). Cut frozen squid became the diet, since all
was consumed at the time of first feeding. The first group of 14 during an
initial three weeks (to September) had an efficiency of 7% on a wet weight
basis. Both groups became satiated at 4—8% of their last weight when fed
daily. This rose to 12% following one day’s fast. Food consumption, when
presented at more than one feeding a day, declined with each feeding. Given
satiation feedings at two hour intervals, the first was about 60%, the second
about 25%, and third about 16% of the day’s total consumption. Over a six
week period the 20 bass group (to October) had an 18% food conversion on a
wet weight basis. During a five week feeding period from September to
October, the 14 bass group had a 21% food conversion. These observations
were at average ambient sea temperatures shown in Figure 31. In an eight
week feeding period, from Octo er to December, in which the water temperature
fell from 16 to 5°C (mean 11.2 C) the group of 14 bass had an efficiency of
17%. The satiation level of this group declined to an average 2.9% of their
live body weight. This level is about one—quarter to one—half of the
satiation level observed during the two prior periods. The effects of
temperature on feeding levels are obvious from Table 21 and Figures 30 and
31.
The density of 10—2 fish per 100 1 given in Table 19 is based primarily
on laboratory data rather than on field data where confinement is not a
problem. If the 10 bass are juveniles of 10 g live weight each, the
optimum density of 1 g per liter would be achieved. If the bass are
yearlings of 140 g each, then the density would be 3 g per liter. We
found this satisfactory for feeding activity and growth in flowing seawater
or well aerated recirculating systems. It was the greatest density of any
of our groups for which diet and feeding, oxygen consumption and ammonia
excretion data presented were collected. Under culture conditions, density
is important especially when the activity demands of the fish are added to
the effects of normal respiration on the water quality. Observations of
changes in respiration and excretion offer indications of activity and can,
•thereby, yield a more specific determination of optimum density.
Studies on groups of juvenile and yearling bass in filtered ambient
seawater showed increased mean oxygen consumption with tethperature and feed-
ing (Figs. 32 and 33). The number of bass per group ranged from 37 to 4
with mean group weights of 6 to 135 grams live weight. The effect of rearing
a 40 g bass at 20°C rather than 8°C is an average increase of at least 1.5
times in the oxygen needed for routine metabolism (Fig. 32). At 20°C the
average oxygen consumptiofl increased 2.5 times with feeding, but only
increased 1.3 times at 12 C with feeding (Figure 33). Yarzhombek
and Klysahtorin (1974) determined by comparison of means that metabolism
with standard activity was 1.3 times the calculated resting metabolism. Kru-
ger and Brocksen (1978) calculated the relationship between swimming speed and
oxygen consumption at three swimming velocities and five temperatures for
22—68 g bass. The relationship varied from log Y = 0.6452 + O.0345X at 8 C
120
-------
19.6
18.4
/
I 1.2
I I I I I I I I I
M A M J J A S 0 N D
Figure 31.
Growth in weight of subadult striped bass fed to
satiation daily in ambient seawater.
I-J
1200
800-
400
0
. .
I-
:i:
CD
w
I —
Ui
18.8
-------
500
1..
N
0
C,
E 100
50
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
WET WEIGHT,
Figure 32. Routine oxygen consumption (y = mg 0 2 /kg, wet weight/br)
determined for juvenile and yearling striped bass of wet weight Cx)
over three temperature ranges (A, B and C). Regression lines
calculated for the data shown are
A: log 10 y = —0.0008 x + 2.11 (r = —0.58);
B: log 10 y = —0.0008 x + 2.13 Cr = —0.43);
C: log 10 y = —0.003 x + 2.42 (r = —0.59).
A
A
• 8-10°C
•
A
A
B C
o 12-14°C A 20-22°C
A
C
A
.
S
0
0
A
I I I I I I I I I I I I I
122
-------
500
1.
-
W I
t ’1
0
C,
50
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
WET WEIGHT, g
Figure 33. Routine oxygen consumption (y = mg 0 2 /kg, wet weight/hr)
determined for juvenile and yearling striped bass of wet weight (x)
be ore (A) and after (B) feeding over the temperature range of 12 to
14 C and before (C) and after (D) feeding at temperatures of 20 to
22°C. Regression equations calculated from the data shown are
A: log 10 y = —0.0008 x ÷ 2.13 (r = —0.43);
B: log 10 y = —0.0008 x + 2.24 (r = —0.47);
C: log 10 y = —0.0009 x ÷ 2.18 (r = —0.42);
D: log 10 y = —0.001 x ÷ 2.58 (r = —0.58).
0 A
00
0
.
00
BO
A
C
D
I I I
A
I I I I I I I I I
123
-------
to log Y = 1.1778 + 0.0112X at 16°C to log Y = 1.3322 + 0.0211 at 24°C where
Y = oxygen consumption in ing/g/hr and X = sw-f mining velocity in cm/sec.
The excretion rates of juvenile and yearling bass are influenced by
temperature, feeding and salinity. Figure 34 indicates relationships between
temperature and feeding activity on mmnnia excretion rates. These results
are from the group studies shown in Figures 32 and 33. The greatest effect
of feeding appears to be on the smallest juveniles (10 g) at the higher
temperatures. The general increase for either temperature for an average
40 g bass is at least 1.5 times the rate prior to feeding. Table 23
summarizes individual ammonia excretion determinations made during this
study at a series of temperatures and salinities for juvenile and subadult
bass. There appears to be a reduction in excretion rate with increasing
salinity. It was coupled with a marked increase in survival,
especially among juveniles (Fig. 35 ). This leads to the suggestion that
juvenile and yearling bass can probably be kept at fairly high densities if
the salinity is raised above that of freshwater. Figure 35 also indicates
that bass are tolerant to relatively high ammonia concentrations in fresh-
water (2 ppm) and very high anonia concentrations in seawater (8 ppm).
In nature predators of juveniles, other than larger striped bass,
include tomcod, bluefish, and other piscivors. The subadults are not
often prey except to man.
Table 24 lists the parasites and observed site of infection in striped
bass including two parasites ( Cryptocaryon sp. and Myxosporidin sp.) not
previously reported, but observed during this study. Infections are
usually not intense enough to cause mortality among wild populations unless
other stresses are present. However, under culture conditions diseases and
parasites may become epidemic. Controls for parasites are described later
in this section.
The most common abnormality reported for striped bass is “pugheadness”
(Alperin, 1965; Cheek, 1966; Grinstead, 1971; Gruder, 1930; Lyman, 1961;
Mansueti, 1960; Talbot, 1967). It has been noted among juveniles and
subadults. The osteology has been described and its causes discussed. It
is generally thought to be caused by envirorunent and/or heredity, rather
than mechanical damage during development.
CULTURE METHODOLOGY
Capture Methods
Juveniles can be reared from larvae or caught easily using a beach
seine (100 ft. 1/4” mesh) from shoal waters. Other methods include an
epibenthic sled, tucker trawl, bottom trawl, balloon trawl (Trent, 1962),
otter trawl (Saski, 1966), or a tow net on skis (Turner and Chadwick, 1972).
Yearlings are often caught in beach seines and bottom or otter trawis.
Larger subadu].ts are generally caught in haul seines, small mesh gill nets,
fish traps, and even by handlines. Capture methods for pond culture are
described by Bonn et al. (1976) for properly constructed rearing ponds. The
124
-------
(00
50 B
0 20 40 60 80 tOO 120 140
WET WEIGHT, g
Figure 34. Ammonia excretion rate (y = mg NH —N/kg, wet weight/hr)
determined for juvenile and yearling striped ass of wet weight Cx)
before (A) and after (B) feeding at 18 to 22°C and before (C) and
after (D) feeding at 8 to 12°C. The regression equations
calculated from the data shown are
A: log 10 y = 0.002 x ÷ 0.947 (r = 0.28);
B: log 10 y = —0.007 x + 1.612 Cr = 0.16);
C: log 0 y = 0.001 x + 1.045 (r = 0.21);
D: log 10 y = 0.002 x + 1.265 (r = 0.28).
125
-------
TABLE 23. EXCRETiON RATES MEASURED FORTY-EIGHT HOURS AFTER LAST MEAL
FOR INDIVIDUAL JIJVENILE AND SUBADULT STRIPED BASS
Wet weight Number Temperature Salinity Ammonia excretion
(g) per (°C) (°/oo) (N—NH 3 mg/kg/day)
test
2.5-6.9 10 20 0 864.6 ± 189
2.7-5.7 9 20 30 637.8 161
3.6-5.3 10 6 30 104.4 t 33
3.6-7.2 6 6 0 138.6 35
3.6-7.2 4 10 10 122.5 56
45 1 6 0 76.6
75 1 6 0 63.6
44 1 10 10 51.4
72 1 10 10 38.4
74 1 16 30 1005.4
176 1 16 30 519.8
229 1 16 30 323.6
244 1 16 30 351.4
305 1 16 30 359.5
126
-------
100
100
80
-J
>
>
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 tO
DAYS
I
z
E
a
a
I0
8
6
4
2
-j
>
>
40 U)
20
Figure 35. Cumulative ammonia excretion (dots) by individual juvenile striped bass in
seawater (A) and freshwater (B). Percent survival (triangles) of all individuals in
seawater (A) and freshwater (B) is also shown.
‘I
I
2
E
a
a
-J
80
0
0 2 4 6 8 tO
DAYS
-------
TABLE 24. PARASITES AND DISEASES OF STRIPED BASS REPORTED
FROM THE LITERATURE AND THIS STUDY
Causitive Agent Site of Infection Authors
Virus
Lymphocystis general krantz (1970). Paperna & Zwerner (1976b)
dermal epidermis Wolke (1975)
Bedsonia - Psittacosis group
Epithelocystis gills Wolke et al. (1970); Paperna & Zwerner
(l97 E)
Bacteria
Aeromonas. Vlbrio and Pseudomonas spp. fins Mahoney et al. (1973)
Aeroinonas ophi1Ia fins, kidney iiawke (19761
Chondrococcus coluinnaris external, kidney Bowker et al. (1969); Reeves (1972)
Enterobacter cloaeae fins, kidney Ilawke (T 7 T
Flexibacteria (Chondrococcus) caudal peduncle ilawke (1976)
coliminarts
MyxobacterTi sp. systemic Allen (1972)
Pasteurella sp. systemic Snieskzo et al. (1964)
Vasteurefla piscicida viscera systemic Paperna aii Therner (1976b)
Vlbrio anguillarum systemic llawke (1976)
Fungus
Branclitomyc sp. gill Meyer and RobInson (1973)
Saprolegnia fin Iiawke (1976)
fungus and bacteria air bladder Wales (1946)
Protozoan
Ambiphyra sp. gills Ilawke 1976
u roinonas sp. gills liawke 1976
Chilodonella sp. gills iiawke 1976)
Colponema sp. gills Paperna & Zwerner (1976b); Texas Instru-
mants (197b)
Costia sp. gills liawke (1976)
Cryptocarynosis gills This study
Epistylis sp. gills Paperna 8 Zwerner (l976b)
Glossatella sp. gills Reeve (1972); Paperna & Zwerner (l976b)
lchthyophthlrius uxiltifilis gills Texas Instruments (1977a)
Kudoa cerebralis brain Paperna & Zwerner (1974 and 1976b)
Myxosoma nnrone sp. cartilage, bones Paperna & Zwerner (1976b)
Myxosporidlosis brain This study
Nosema sp. gills Paperna & Zwerner (l976b)
Oodinlum sp. gills Paperna A Zwerner (l976b)
Trichodina sp. gills Bowker et al. (1969); Reeves (1972);
Wol keTl 975)
I. davisi gills Paperna 8 Z*erner (l976b)
gills and skin iiawke (1976)
Trichodinella sp. and gills Hawke (1976)
Paratrichodina sp.
Trichodinella sp. and Scyphidla sp. gills; gills 8 Hawke (1975); Paperna 8 Zwerner (1976b)
skin/gills
Trictiophyra sp. gills Bowker etal. (1969); Iiawke (1976);
Paperna 8 Zwerner (l976b)
Tripartlella sp. gills Hawke (1976)
Tremadodes
- Monogenetic
Ancyrocephaline gills Paperna A Zwerner (l976b)
unidentified
Aristocleldus hastatus - Merriman (1941)
Gyrodactylus sp. gills Paperna & Zwerner (l976b)
Lepidotes collinsi - Merriman (1941)
1crocotyle macrura gills Paperna 8 Zuerner (1976b)
______________ Merrinian (1941)
Microcotyle acanthophallus Merriman (1941)
Microci tyj eneides Merrlman (1941)
(continued)
128
-------
TABLE 24 (cotitinued)
Ciufltive Agant S tt of Inf.c:,on A4Iulor o
In%avCIn
“C : ’-
in’.”’ ..
intCin.
l lItaItifl,
intaiti £
o 3 ’ ).r’c ca.ca
‘i . c.r .
caJin.Ctiv. 15IuU
iicI.
.pM un
so)...
‘Sin
‘ i . c .r .
‘.R c ’ ? ’ ”
. .i•iIupi.s I
1 i ir
C7IC3 in vi ,c.ti
p).r.C.ri In
ii 1t , :1n.
In c . . :” —
S
i.in=Ii (190))
LinOon (1595)
0 Z..rn.r ,19760)
Plsr ,’iain (1941)
P. e,ii Z r,i.r (19760)
Psos n . j.sriir (19760)
08..r91 & Rurniss (1965)
Gv.r ,cr.. : (1971)
Pio.q.. a z . inr (19768)
0 P 1 96r111 & Z..i .. (19760)
tL iL (1968)
P 96?n I Z—.rn.. (19760)
P.Dlrfii & Z..rn.r (19760)
“ a.L (1989)
Panspeis ivirnir (19758)
Panirns $ Zn.rn.r (18760)
LinWJI (1901)
LIllian (1924)
P... ? .. & Z.urnse (19760)
Puma 0 2..,rn,r (14758)
A c anv , acuns la
Lial YIIvflCnV5 7rOCmO
(L
,lornvncIiui E&).
A%CaP1i 50
Cucularv 5 00
i1.ri . ( 0 ciwi1on..a ru runi )
_I;
IC4IIOCR41UI ardrl a is .
Gas a aiinuliU,
Psi cru iFilarla)
SpiniDiscius so. (larva)
Cr iA iac..
Aa ,V,.r. , ac.,
5801 i I _______
Orculus . 10...
*rquIv . T Tr
CiliOsi
Cailnil 10.
Er.anlluo 1a r.c,
£rc’, 11vs c i,L u
t.i.on.ca .sLtt
pi ?c’nsi 1 .1
in C . .:” —
lug. Int.siins
nilIa gsli
n)sc.r4. larvu
I t ,w. Sc’..:,
ln i0.iins
V1.si ,. nirlian. ,
Si C l 1
in0.hii nI
pen coin ,.
II I 0.0.61
v ,scarsI cavity a
.n i aniss
InialCin? .aIl
.cc aoar, .ic’
“In
aec’oaru I Ca
0 gills
‘ CiaDanuO it.
91115
91111
L.iniahI (1901)
Linan, (190))
Carsanni.r 4
J I ma., I 4arO5 I
o)ka (1975)
Put*ein & Z,.rn.r
Pair.. I Z rnsr
LIllian (1901)
Psoemna a Z..mnsr (19760)
Lint.. (1901). narni . .. 1 (1941)
0 Rogues (1972)
Paasr, ,a a Z.mrnir (19760)
Liniahl (1901)
nm,. .. (1941)
P a O, ?n a Z ,, ,., (19768)
PaOIPIII I Z ,ji.r (19768)
l4i?ijdiRI
P )vrcbøella luoimnls
in) 1 u sc .
Glocli ld I .
StOOD). oelginItl
NIopl ala
‘ , .pII’90l 5tiI
• o$q.n.cic
Ol scan . tamn.t
Calm.
( .na .an ,i .
2
) .usccr..aal sail
aruOIiis
L. C .liton i ii ahl ,D
li 5gCI1l 50.I , .u .dartl I
Fstac .rc.n ,a
Ascococyllo typi so
Cl iI1OIC . .POiAa C I.
DlDIoiCan .II . f1ailGa96
Dlp)osco.s .l ,p ip.
M4ScuS 50
lVioOIoIo, aIni
CasCades
Pe0c’OC.pIlaI ’d lap , .. - ty A
Praocaaas.lia lap,.. - typ. 9
RAvncnaoat.ni , a ioscies.
Dulblfgr
Le p1.uronsctts
• rypaadriIvriCIl li OliUIDCSPCOIO
(1967)
(1970)
(,9760,
(19760)
inn,’..” (194))
Paa.rva I lusrnar (19768)
in,,s. (1941)
P.o.mfla I 1.anis en (19760)
PWr?inslI (1941)
Pip. ? ., a Ou .r ,i .r (19768)
Lilac (I SIS ). l Isn , .ia ,n (194))
Pio.mn, a Zder, ,.n (1976. 0 0). ‘ag.. 0
Vi1)1 (1976)
gill. P .o. , .. 1. 7nir . .uv (19768)
gill £lo.Mn 119660) :L$ncsay 0 in,,. (1976)
4t. gill IncA P ..,mna I Zsuesur (19160)
‘Iii ’
gills
a 2..’..’ (19768)
Pj ’na £ 2 . . ”wr (19768)
‘I r (1166)
14&u8.ldt a iyoi (1971)
129
-------
best methods are those which stress the fish the least.
Post—Capture Handling
It is generally good practice to keep any newly captured bass separate
from groups already under culture. Mixing, especially without any pro—
phylaxis, often results in loss of all due to infection of one fish. Most
juveniles and yearlings are captured in fresh waters. Bonn et al. (1976)
suggest holding pond harvested fingerling bass for 24 hours and treating
with Furacin at 100—500 ppm with 1% salt for 2 to 5 hour periods prior to
shipping. This could probably be done for estuarine caught bass after
transporting theni to their destination. Also effective, as we have found,
is a malachite green bath (1 mg/i) or a formalin bath (0.25 ml 37%/i).
Further discussion of disease control is presented at the end of this
section.
Transportation
Bonn et al. (1976) describe hauling pond harvested juveniles in tank
trucks with 1% salt (NaC1) and 21 ppm MS—222, or 0.35 ppm Quinaldine, to
reduce activity. They suggest hauling densities of 1/4 to 1/2 pound per
gallon (28—44 g/1) with good aeration. We have had fewer latent mortalities
when transporting juveniles in 10—15 0/00 salinity than in freshwater (see
Fig. 36). The 10—15 0/00 salinity was made up from filtered seawater and
river water with a gentle stream of oxygen as aeration in the transport
containers. Our transport containers were polyethylene drums, or plastic
garbage cans, with heavy clear plastic (4—6 mu) bag liners. These were
filled about half (20—25 gallons) with the transport water and 50—100
juveniles. An oxygen line was run into the bag and the top tied off
around it. Thus, not only was the water fully saturated with oxygen, but
also the space above it. If it became warm, ice chunks were placed along
the top of the inflated bag and allowed to melt down the sides into the
bottom of the drum or can. This kept water temperatures below 16—18°C even
during the hottest collection times.
Recovery Period
Striped bass juveniles and subadults recover from transportation quite
rapidly. At temperatures of 16—20°C we found they eat some food as soon
as the next day after capture and transportation. In any case, some food
should be presented each day after arrival to be sure they have food as
soon as they are recovered. We found better transition to the culture
system when the bass transported at 10—15 o/oo were kept at that salinity
for a few days till feeding initiated before reducing or increasing the
salinity to that of their permanent culture water. The smaller bass
adapt very quickly whereas the larger ones require a few days longer to
fully make the transition to the culture system.
Handling Procedures
Following complete metamorphosis, juveniles can be handled with nets.
They should not be kept out of the water any longer than necessary. Dipping
130
-------
120
60 -
20 -
0
20 25
SEPTEMBER
200
U-
U-
0
I 50
L&I
z
100 -
300 —
250
I I
30
50 -
5 10
OCTOBER
1974
20 25
AUG UST
Figure 36. Holding mortality of juvenile striped bass seined from rivers
in Maryland and New York either (A) transported and held in 100/00 water,
or (B) transported and held in freshwater, or (C) transported and held in
freshwater until transferred to seawater about August 30th.
100
80
(I ,
IL
U -
0
Iii
z
X. STOCKED
. MORTAUTY
I I I I
20 25 30 I 3
NOV
C
X • STOCKED
• • MORTALITY
I I I I
30 I 5 ‘ 3I
SEPT. OCT.
1974
131
-------
a fish out of a tank is often made easier by using some crowding device.
Juveniles and subadults are capable of rapid acceleration to avoid netting,
and crowding helps to avoid wearing the fish out chasing it around the tank.
In addition, it speeds up the process of transfering the fish.
Bass of this size are very easy to observe as they swim about the tanks.
If they are not excited or active, they can be counted or watched during
routine swimming in the tank. This is also an easy way to observe if there
are any sick or stressed fish in the system. These will usually swim slower
and/or appear darker and/or swim nearer the water’s surface than the rest of
the bass. -
Subadult and juvenile bass are easily weighed or lengthed, However,
they should be anesthetized during this process to prevent undue stress. We
have found either MS—222 or quinaldine to be very effective anesthetics.
These are made up in rearing water. It takes about 1—2 minutes to ‘knock the
fish out’ (quinaldine is slightly faster than MS—222), and about 5—10
minutes for the fish to fully recover. The dosages of these anesthetics that
were found most effective were 0.3 g/l MS—222 or 0.025 mi/i quinaldine.
Other anesthetics can be used. A very good review of anesthetics, their
dosages and uses for fish is provided in McFarland and Kiontz (1969).
Maintenance Procedures
Culture Vessels——
Culture vessels for juveniles and older bass can be any shape or size
provided the fish are not crowded and the construction material is not toxic.
Square or round tanks, raceways or troughs, and swimming pools have all been
used. Open flow systems using well water or seawater and recirculating
systems with various filter types have been used for juveniles following
metamorphosis. (Descriptions of some are in Section 9.)
Stocking Density——
Factors influencing density have been discussed earlier in the biotic
requirement section. In an open flow culture system, the densities can
probably be maintained on the high side (>1 gIl). However, in recirculating
systems it is probably wise not to overload the filter, especially if it is a
new system. In either event the dissolved oxygen in the culture water must
ensure at least 100 mg 02 per kilogram of fish hourly (Figs. 32 and 33 ).
The density recommended is 1—3 g per liter (see Table 19).
Maintaining Water Quality—--
In a flow through, or once-used, system water quality is maintained more
easily than in a recirculating system. However, monitoring of dissolved
oxygen, temperature, salinity, and pH should be done routinely and ammonia
concentrations frequently. In recirculating systems all of these are
necessary, and nitrate—nitrite determinations should be included in the
monitoring procedures. Uneaten food and fecal material should be removed
from the culture tanks at least daily to prevent an additional source of
biological oxygen demand and possible “culture media” for potential disease
organisms.
132
-------
Diet-—
The caloric and percent composition for some of the foods of striped
bass juveniles are available from the literature and this study (Table 25).
It appears that their caloric requirements are similar to their caloric
content and they utilize diets higher in protein than fats. We observed
(Table 22) that juveniles and yearlings absorbed 97% of the squid consumed
(on a 0 dry weight basis) of which 28% was converted (on a dry weight basis)
at 20 C (see Table 21 for ration and growth of these bass). Thus, 27% of the
dry weight of this diet consumed was available for metabolism, growth, and
activity of these fish.
Feeding rate depends to some extent on the digestion time of the bass.
We used a “bead—tagging” method to determine the evacuation time for food
items fed to juveniles and yearlings at three average temperatures. Figure
37 shows that evacuation time estimated from these studies was affected by
fish size, temperature and the ad libitum ration consumed. The size of the
ration was influenced by fish size and temperature as seen in Table 21.
From our studies it appears that juvenile and yearling bass digest most of a
given ration within two to four days at 14—16°C, but need six to nine days
for digestion at 6°C. We also obser ed ad libituin consumption rates at a
number of deprivation times at 18—20 C for juvenile and yearling bass.
Juveniles fed cut squid consumed the greatest percent of their body weight at
one feeding after 20—25 hours deprivation. Yearlings fed squid consumed the
greatest amount after 15—20 hours since their last feeding. Yearlings fed
commercial trout pellets (3/16”), however, consumed the maximum percentage
body weight after only about 10 hours deprivation. In each case the
maximum amount consumed did not increase substantially from the percentage
consumed at the above times when food was withheld for up to 65 hours. Our
data indicate feeding should be daily at temperatures above about 14 C,
alternate to every third 0 day at tem eratures of 5 to 10 C, and weekly for
temperatures less than 5 C. At 4—5 C, bass generally do not feed actively.
This regime is recommended for naturally derived foods (e.g., squid or fish)
but not for pellets. Pellets should be presented more frequently since
consumption rate per feeding appears smaller and digestion time may be faster
than for natural foods. We were able to utilize pellets as a satisfactory
diet (i.e., were eaten and promoted growth) only at temperatures in excess
of 18—20°C.
Juveniles (5—12 cm FL) could easily consume food items of up to 3 n
diameter, but preferred those 2 mn in diameter. Yearlings (13—16 cm FL)
were observed to consume food particles up to 8 mm diameter, but preferred
those 2—4 mm. Yearlings+ (18—23 cm FL) consumed items up to 12 tmn diameter,
but more often consumed those 6—8 in diameter. The food particles tested
were discs cut from frozen squid mantle with a cork borer set. The mantle
was about 1—2 mm thick. All bass usually consumed the smaller sizes when
mixed sizes were offered.
Growth of juveniles and yearlings fed ad libitum on two diets that were
acceptable over a temperature range is shown in Figure 38. It appears that
a diet of squid provided a slightly more uniform and consistently increasing
growth rate than did the moist gelatin—squid—trout starter diet. The average
temperatures for the periods was 20 (Fig. 38A), 16 (Fig. 38B to date 40), and
133
-------
TABLE 25.
CALORIES AND PERCENT COMPOSITION OF SOME FOODS OF
JUVENILES AND SUBADULT STRIPED BASS
Prey
Calories
per gram
(dry weight)
Percent
(dry
Lipid
Composition
weight)
Protein
% Water
Gammarus sp.
6737 + 863 (4)
*
0.8
6.4 (1)
Neomysis integer (2)
--
13.0
70.9
Callinectes sapidus
(3)
81.5 cal/lOOg
1.0
16.1 g/lOOg
81.2
Clupea harengus (3)
215 cal/lOOg
(wet weight)
15.7
18.2 g/lOOg
60.1
(5)
6411
68.8
Squid (3)
(6)
89 cal/lOOg
5552 -F 274
1.0
-
15.3 g/lOOg
**
68.8
79.3
83.7
* Sources: (1) Phillips etal., 1954; (2) Raymont etal., 1963; (3) Sidwell
etal. 1974; (4) Slobodkin and Richman, 1961; (5) Pandian, 1970; (6) This
Study.
**
Calculated from percent nitrogen (i.e., 11% N x 6.25L
134
-------
A
B
140 140
120 — 120
U,
I-
o
. lOO. I00.
0
eo- 8O-
4 4
60- 60
I d
20-
0 — 0 -
0 50. IOU 150 0 I 2 3 4 5
WET WEIGHT, g RATION, °/. BODY WEIGHT
Figure 37. A. Plot of probit estimated time (hours) for 50% evacuation for bass of mean wet weight
(g) per group (Table 21) for average temperatures indicated. Lines a e the best fit (based on
the correlation coefficient) from graphic (13 C) and probit (6 and 16 C) estimations from data.
B. Plot of graphically estimated time (hours) for 50% evacuation of ration, as a percent
of live body weight, consumed by each group.
£
60 C £
13°C 0
16°C .
A
0
230
S
£1 149
At
16° CS
13° C 0
A 6°CA
A
A
A
0 S
A
S
A 0
0
S S
S
0
I I I
I I I I I I I I I I 1J II
-------
A
120 -
100
• 80
I-
t 60
I& I
I - 40
20
I-
=
CUT SQUID
GELATIN SQUID
: iiii
0 I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I J ___J_
0
TIME • day
B
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
ao
:
0
Figure 38. Growth in weight of juvenile and yearling striped bass fed
daily on one of three diets in sea water at average temperatures of
20°C (A) and 16 and 12°C (B).
5
10
20
o GELATIN SQUID
• GROUND SQUID
I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
DAYS
136
-------
12°C (Figure 38B after day 40).
Normal Conditions and Physiological State
Normal growth fo• this stage has been presented for a variety of
rearing conditions (See Figs. 25, 29, 30, 31, 38, and Table 21). Typical
first year growth is shown in Figure 39 for bass taken from Hudson River,
Chesapeake Bay and A.lbermarle sound nursery areas. In Albermarle Sound,
Trent (1962) observed that growth rate was almost linear among young—of—the—
year striped bass from June to November. He calculated rates ranging from
0.272 to 0.433 mm/day for the five years of his study. In the Hudson River,
Rathjen and Miller (1957) reported the greatest growth rate for young—of—
year during June and July, which continued almost linearly to September—
October. Texas Instruments (lThc) reported instantaneous growth rates (based
on weight) calculated from young collected by beach seine during 1973, 1974,
and 1975. The highest rates ranged from 0.0311 to 0.0407 for July—August,
while the lowest ranged from 0.0145 to —0.0157 for October—November. The
rate of growth in these locations was reported to be reduced during the winter
months, increasing again in April and May during the spring warming of these
river areas:
We calculated growth rates for various groups fed daily over broad
temperature ranges during this study. Typically, juveniles exhibit a
gr 8 wth rate of 0.1 to 0.3 g per day at average seawater temperatures of 18-
20 C, but only 0.001 to 0.002 g per day at 8—10°C. Yearlings grew about
0.2 s/day at 18—22°C, 0.5 g/day at 14—18 C, and only about 0.1 g/day at
8—12 C. Two year old growth was as high as 1.0 g/day at the intermediate
temperatures and lower (0.5 to 0.3 g/day) for the extreme temperatures.
We consider these to be indicative of healthy bass. It is evident 0 that
optimal growth occurs at temperatures of generally less than 18—20 C and
greater than 10—12°C for bass during this stage.
Changes in the normal physiological state for bass of this stage from
exposure to toxic substances have been shown by a number of investigators
(see Section 12 for details). Sublethal exposure to benzane affects growth
(Korn et al., 1976a), behavior (Korn etal., l976b), and respiration rate
(Brocksen and Bailey, 1973). Physiological responses from exposure to
cadmium and mercury (Dawson etal., 1977) have also been reported.
Courtois (1974) reported physiological effects of temperature and
salinity on yearling striped bass. Results showed saltwater acclimated
bass had significantly lower blood characteristics, crude liver fat, serum
K+, and higher serum Na+ levels than freshwater acclimated bass at a similar
temperature. Increased temperature appeared to cause reverse effects in
freshwater and saltwater acclimated bass. Freshwater acclimation at higher
temperatures resulted in lower plasma protein and higher serum Na+ levels,
while this resulted in seawater at lower temperatures. The metabolic
and physiologic results are fully discussed by the author. In addition,
he investigated sublethal effects of copper in relation to the established
normal for bass in freshwater and seawater. This is discussed in Section 12•
137
-------
100
90
80
70
60
50
40 -
30
20
10
0..
Rath.jen and Miller (1957)* Hudson River above Poughkeepsie, N.Y.
£ Rathjen and Miller (1957)* Hudson River below Poughkeepsie, N.Y.
o Trent (1962) - Albermarle Sound, N.C.
• Pearson (1938)
o Mansuetti (1958) Chesapeake Bay
• Vladykov and Wallace (1952)
1975
974
1973
MAY
* from Trent (1962)
+ from Mansuetti (1958)
Figure 39. Growth in length of young—of—the—year striped bass among 1973,
1974 and 1975 year classes in the Hudson River (solid lines) and mean
lengths reported for other coastal populations (individual symbols).
(McFadden, 1977a)
S
a
0
0
0
0
0
C
JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
138
-------
Effects of 0, 2, 4 and 10 mg/i suspended bentonite on oxygen consumption
of juvenile striped bass at 18°C, 24 0/00 were reported by Peddicord et al.
(1975). Regression coefficients at 0, 2 and 4 mg/i were not statistically
different (3.628, 3.524, 3.653), however, the regression coefficient at 10 mgI
1 (5.361) was significantly different. These observations on the response of
individual bass weighing about 7.3 g indicated a more rapid oxygen consumption
rate at 10 mg/i suspended bentonite. The y—intercepts from regression analy-
sis were —1.956, 0.580, —l.210 , and —3.134 mg/g/hr for 0, 2, 4, and 10 mg/i
concentrations, respectively. Uncontaminated suspended sediments taken from
San Francisco Bay area showed no demonstratable effect at the concentrations
tested (0—3.9 g/l at 25 0/00, 12°C, and 8 ppm dissolved oxygen) on hema—
tocrit levels of juvenile bass (Peddicord and McFarland, 1978). The amount
of minerals in the stomachs of these bass showed slightly significant
increases with increasing uncontaminated suspended sediment concentrations.
Dorfman and Weatman (1970) observed the behavior of bass exposed to vary-
ing dissolved oxygen levels and temperatures. The bass preferred higher
dissolved oxygen concentrations. Chittenden (1972) observed a maximum
ventilation rate (gulps/se’) at 2—3 mg/i dissolved oxygen, declining at
lower concentrations. The behavior pattern at low oxygen levels included
restlessness at about 3 mg/I (16—19°C), followed by inactivity, loss of
equilibrium and finally death at lower oxygen levels. Meidrim et al. (1974)
observed avoidance te peratures of 22—26 and 31°C for juvenile bass accli-
mated at 17—18 and 26 C, respectively, and dissolved oxygen concentrations
va Ying from high to low (4.0 mg/i) saturation levels. Bass acclimated at
18 C, 6.5 o/oo and pH of 7.2, generally avoided dissolved oxygen levels of
44—41% of saturation (4.0—3.8 mg/l).
Juvenile endurance and/or swimming behavior for various water
velocities have been tested. Kerr (1953) reported that juveniles and
yearlings endured 10 minute tests at 22°C swfimn{ng at velocities up to 30
cm/sec. This was equivalent to swimming at 6—12 body lengths per second.
Texas Instruments (1975a) found that swimming—speed capabilities increased
with increasing body length and water temperature. Critical swimming speeds
for bass 143—224 TL ranged from 22.9—122.0 cm/sec at 18 C. Bibko et al.
(1974) described effects of water velocity, air—bubble screens and intense
illumination on the sw{Tmnlng behavior of juveniles at 11.1, 4.50 and 0.6 C.
In still water bass swam randomly, but oriented and swam against oncoming
current when exposed to water velocity. When given a choice in the range of
velocities, bass swam against the current but always chosg a path
representative of the least water current. At ii and 45 C, bass did not
actively cross the air—bubble screen, but did drift passively through the
screen at 0.6°C. The air—bubble screen reportedly deterred passage as
effectively at night as during the day. These authors observed that
intense illumination was only a temporary, or passive, deterrent to bass
passage. Freadman (1978) showed that subadult striped bass use cyclic
ventilatory movements at rest and at slow swimming speeds, but switch to
ram gill ventilation at intermediate and high velocities. He determined
the transition velocity was 45.6 ctn/sec, or l.36 0 to .3.14 body lengths per
second (largest to smallest bass tested -). at 15 C. Bass reserve
white muscle for sw-immi-ng at velocities above maximum sustainable
speeds, and use red muscle for slow to cruising speeds. He concluded that
139
-------
they are strong swinmiers.
Parasite infections and diseases recorded for striped bass are
presented in Table 24. Most are reports for bass taken from natural
environments or from freshwater rearing ponds. Bonn etal. (1976) smmiiarize
the common parasites and diseases of bass from pond culture systems providing
some items of diagnosis and treatment under pond or raceway conditions. The
most common treatment they suggest is Furacin as a bath (5—8 hours) at 22 ppm
or active ingredient. This appears to be effective for bacteria, protozoans
and Saprolegnia . It is recommended for use in ponds, tanks or in fish
trucks. They note that it should not be used in galvanized containers and
that it has been banned by the U.S. Federal Drug Administration.
Culturing our bass in ambient seawater reduced infection by many of
the freshwater and brackish water parasites that have been reported (Table
24). However,we experienced infections of marine Trichodina sp. in addition
to two other protozoan parasites not previously reported for striped bass.
These are Cryptocaron sp. and Myxosporidin sp. Unlike the freshwater
culturists, we relied on either malachite green or formalin for treatment
of infected bass in our systems. Two useful references that review the
effectiveness, usage, and efficacy of these two therapeutics are Nelson
(1974) and Schnick (1973). Table 26 simim rizes the treatment we recommend
for the various parasite groups reported to infect bass. It is suggested
that the baths recommended for fungus, protozoans, and crustacea be
repeated every 2 or 3 days for a week to knock out these parasites completely.
The relationship between disease and environmental stress has recently
been reviewed extensively by Sinderman (1979). Culture systems are poten-
tially stressful environments. This is a situation the culturist must
strive to avoid. Assessing the health of cultured fish should consist of
routine examinations, especially visual observations, by the culturist.
Hematological techniques (Blaxhall, 1972; Hickey, 1976; Wedemeyer and
Yasutake, 1977) and other clinical methods have been proposed as tools for
this assessment. (Wedemeyer and Yasutake (1977) provide a very good
description of methods and their interpretation.) A number of studies have
reported some of the hematological values for wild and laboratory reared
striped bass (see Section 5) to which comparisons of values from cultured
bass may be made. In some cases only histopathological examinations and/or
simple staining of impressions or smears will allow disease or parasite
diagnosis. Ribelin and Migaki (1975) provide additional descriptions to
those given below of both infectious and noninfectious diseases.
During the course of this study, we submitted fish or posted tissue
from both bass in our holding tanks and those collected in the field
(juveniles and adults) to the URI Marine Pathology Laboratory. At the
Laboratory the material was examined, generally histopathologically, and
a diagnosis or findings were reported to us. Table 27 presents a sunmiary
of the findings by ‘agent’ responsible for the lesions observed histo—
pathologically from samples submitted.
Lesions seen in the gill accounted for the majority of the pathological
140
-------
TABLE 26. TREATMENT RECOMMENDED FOR SOME OF THE PARASITE GROUPS COMMON TO STRIPED BASS
(SEE TABLE 24. FOR SPECIFIC PARASITES)
Type of Parasite General Appearance of Infection Treatment Recommended
Virus and Bedsonia white, wart-like growths on skin and/or
gills
Fungus
white cottony qrowth on skin and fins
bath, malachite green at 1-3
mg/i for hour
1
.l .
Protozoans
varies with organism, but some are
visible at high power from scrapings
and staining of gills and/or skin
bath, formalin at 1:4000 (250
ppm) for 30 mm. (to 60 mm.);
or malachite green 1:200,000-
400,000 for 30 mm.
Trematodes
organism visible under low power
magnification in gills or gut
salt bath (at least 1%) if in
freshwater; formalin bath at
1:4000 for an hour
Cestodes and Nematodes
internally visible if fish is sacrificed
usually low key and not a
problem unless fish is under
stress
Crustacea
whiteish spots visible at low power
on gills and/or skin
bath, formalin at 1:4000 for
30-60 mm.; salt bath if in
freshwater
H .irudinea
visible attached to skin or fins
low key; salt bath
Mollusca
visible (valves at low magnification)
on gills
salt bath
Bacteria
varies with specific organism; diagnosis
requires histopathologicaI preparation of
tissues
none known
varies with organism of infec-
tion; antibiotics administered
in water or food
-------
TABLE 27. INCIDENCE OF LES ON TYPE
Etiologic Agent Number of Cases
(n 150)
Epitheliocystis 44
Ergasilus labracis 35
Philometra rubra 12
Microcotle macrura 1
Tre.matodes (unclassified) 12
Diplostotnulum sp. (metecercaria) 10
Potuphorhynchus rocci 23
Stephanostomuin tanue 5
L rmphocvstis 3
Saprolegnia sp. 1
Aeromonas sp. 2
Mycobacterium sp. 2
Fibropapilloma 1
Nephroblastoina 1
Trichodina davisi 25
Trichodinella sp. 12
Glossatella sp. 1
Scyphidia sp. 2
Oodinium sp. 5
Cryptocaryon sp. 2
Myxosoma inorone 4
MyxosporidiosiS (unclassified) 9
Glochidia 5
142
-------
findings from material examined. Lesions were present in 102 of the 150
gills submitted. These represented inflammatory changes (necrosis and
cellular infiltration by mononuclear and neutrophilic cells), circulatory
changes (hemorrhage, edema and congestion), growth disturbances
(hypertrophy, hyperplasia and squ ous metaplasia), and physical lesions
(cyst formation). Figure 40 presents observations of normal gill filaments
as well as representative lesion responses among striped bass.
A wide variety of lesions could be noted involving the skin and at times,
the underlying skeletal muscle. Acute and chronic dermatitis was associated
with dermal congestion, hemo rhage,ulceration and necrosis. The origin of
the lesions seen involving the skin included bacteria ( Aeromonas and
Mycobacteria) , virus (lytnphocystis disease), parasites (Figure 41 a,b, and
c: Trichodiniasis, Scyphidiasis, Cryptocaronasis), physical (cysts of
metacercarial origin) and fungal ( Saprolegnia sp.). One case involved a
neoplasm of the skin (fibropapilloma, Fig. 42 c). Fifteen cases had
abnormalities relating to diseases of the skin and underlying skeletal
muscle. Primary involvement of the skeletal musculature occurred in S
cases. Infl min tory lesions (acute and chronic myositis), necrotic
myositis, acute myolysis, and granulomatous myositis were the primary
lesions. These could be attributed to a variety of etiologies including
bacteria ( Aeromonas liguefaciens, Mycobacterig) , parasites (metacercarial
cysts and granuloinas) and fungi ( Saprolegnia sp.). Twelve cases had
abnormalities of bone or cartilage. Seven cases were associated with
lesions of cartilage of parasitic origin (Fig. 41 d and e: Myxasporidian
cysts and Myxosoma morone) .
Lesions associated with the nares (Fig.42a) were composed of
inf1 ii n1 tory (chronic and acute rhinitis of mononuclear cell response),
physical (cyst, Fig. 42 c), and parasitic (Trichodiniasis, Fig. 42 b) types.
Four cases of 150 submitted involved the nares. Tissue responses of the
nares were similar to those of the gill.
Abnormalities of the kidney were not common but striking when they
appeared in histopathological sections. The majority of diagnoses of
disease involving the kidney were related to parasitic infestations
(protozoal cysts, granulomas, and parasitic cysts of nematodes, treinatodes,
and acanthacephala). Renal tubular dilation was observed to occur in two
cases with proteinaceOus casts present in the renal tubules. Neoplasia
(nephroblastOtfla Pig. 42d) occurred in one case involving a female
striped bass (94.5 cm FL) taken on the spawning grounds. This is a rare
neoplasm and the second report of such in a striped bass (see Table 24).
Abnormalities involving the head kidney were seen in 8 cases. All cases
involved parasitic cysts or granulomas in the parenchyina of the head kidney.
The spleen had disease changes associated with follicular hypertrophy,
follicular atrophy, inflammation (granulomas of parasitic origin) and
cyst formation (metcercarial cysts). The spleen was involved in 21 cases
of abnormalities,the majority of which were parasitic in origin.
Many types of lesions were observed in the liver. These included
inflammatory reactions (necrosis, fibrosis, granulomas, chronic cellular
143
-------
Figure 40. Composite illustrating lesions and infections of the gill fila-
ments of striped bass observed from histopathologic examination:
a. trematode and sections of normal gill filaments; b. Trichodina
and hypertrophied gill filaments; c. Oodinium infection;
d. Glochidia infection; e. Glossatella sp. infection;
f. early epitheliocystis; g. aneuresm; and h. myxosporidiosis cyst.
144
-------
-------
Figure 41. Composite illustrating some parasites of striped bass skin and
cartilage: a. Trichodina sp.; b. Scyphidia sp.; and c. Cryp.tocaryon sp.
infecting skin areas; d. myxosporidiosis cyst in cartilage; and
e. Myxosoma sp. stained with Giemsa.
145
-------
•..
p..
d
e
I
-------
infiltration of mononuclear—phagocytiC cell origin), metabolic changes
(fatty infiltration and hyperplasia) and physical abnormalities (parasitic
cysts). Twenty cases involved disorders of the liver.
A congenital developmental cyst of the yolk sac was recorded in a 4
day old bass larva (Fig. 42 e).
Figure 42. Composite illustrating lesions of the mares (a-c) and other
neoplasma (d,e) and cysts (f): a. normal flares; b. Trichodina sp.;
and c. epitheliocystis in flares; d. fibropapilloma of the mandible;
e. nephroblastoma from dorsal wall of swim bladder; and f. cyst in
yolk sac of larva hatched in the laboratory.
146
-------
-------
SECTION 11
RECOMMENDED CULTURE METHODS AND BIONOMICS: ADULT
DESCRIPTION OF STAGE
This stage encompasses that portion of the striped bass life history
from sexual maturity to death. The primary occurrence during this stage is
spawning.
This species is heterosexual, although hermaphrodism has been reported.
Schultz (1931) reported a 5.44 kg, 60 cm individual from Oregon waters ap-
parently with both maturing ovary and testis. Westin (1978) reported one
hermaphrodite from Rhode Island waters. This was a 52 cm and 1.63 kg
immature individual. Sexual dimorphism has not been observed for this
species.
Age at maturity for males and females captured from different areas is
summarized in Table 28 . Males are mature by their third year or at a
length of about 30 cm FL and a weight of about 400—500 g. Most females
mature during their fifth, sixth or seventh year or at a length of approxi-
mately 50 cm FL and a weight of 1—2 kg (Merriman, 1941; McFadden, 1977a;
Scofield, 1931). Some, however, mature during their third or fourth year
(Lewis, 1962). Usually the larger, or older, bass are female. The largest
bass recorded weighed 56.3 kg and was taken commercially at Edenton, North
Carolina (Raney, 1952). The largest bass reported taken by rod and reel
was 33 kg (Moss, 1974).
Length—weight relationships reported from different areas are summarized
in Table Z9. Throughout their range it appears that after bass mature, the
males of a given length weigh less than females of the same length (Merriman,
1941; Mansueti, 1961). Growth is more rapid during the second and third
years of life, or before maturity (see Section 10) than in later years.
Growth in length of both sexes is stiTmTI rized by age groups in Table 30 for a
number of areas. Bass over 14 or 15 years are a rarity.
Most of the description of gonad development during this stage has
been reported for females. Table 3lsiur,n rizes the relationship between
gonad size and fecundity in females, to body weight, 1en th and age for
both sexes of bass captured in different regions. Most of these data were
taken during the spawning season. Hollis (1967) determined weights of both
right and left ovaries among 28 bass. His data shows that in 14 of these
pairs the left ovary weighed less than the right one. Vladykov and Wallace
(1952) reported the ratio of body weight to gonad weight for males and
females in Chesapeake Bay. Texas Instruments (1973) reported this
147
-------
TABLE 28. ACE AND SIZE AT FIRST MATURITY FOR STRIPED BASS
Area
Age
males
(years)a
females
Length
males
(mmFL)
females
Weight
males
(based on
(kg)
females
L-wt eq.)
Author
Southern New England
3
5
( 35 )b
570
—
—
Merriman (1941)
hudson River
—
5
—
551
—
—
Texas Instruments (1975b)
Delaware RIver
3
4
303
—
0.3
—
Bason (1971)
Upper Chesapeake Bay
3
4
330
515
Pearson (1938)
Potomac River
2
4
330
450
0.6
1.5
Wilson etal. (1976)
Lakes Marion and
Itoultr le
4
610
—
—
—
Scruggs (1957)
Sacramento-San Joaquin
Rivers
S
—
535
—
1.8
Scofield (1931)
aA at which at least 50% are mature.
bNumber in parenthesis is best approximation available from data given by the author.
-------
TABLE 29. LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP FOR STRIPED BASS
(Log 10 weight = a log 10 length + b)
Area of Capture
Number
in
Sample
SexC
d
Units
Slope
(a)
Intercept
(b)
Years
of
Samples
Source
Maine rivers
216
1
3.049
-3.420
1964-1965
Davis (1966)
Massachusetts
400
1
2.9616
-3.2838
1956-1959
Friable (1967)
Rhode Island
475
7
2.851
-4.644
1973-1975
Authors’ data
New York 1 hudson River
2678
8
2.839
-1.825
1971-1972
lawler etal. (1974b)
51
31
1120
100
83
10
M
F I S
Y
H
F ) 5
Y
1
(
2.956
3.130
2.940
3.265
3.424
1.207
-4.880
-5.340
-4.886
—5.750
-6.180
-3.329
1 1972
1 1974
Texas Instruments (1973)
Texas Instruments (1975b)
Delaware RIver
100
100
Ii
F
3.000
2.911
-4.950
-4.736
1 1969
Bason (1971)
Chesapeake-Delaware Canal
117
4
3.0501
-5.0001
1974
Bason !!: !i. (1975)
Chesapeake Bay
207
H
} 2
(
1 1957-1958
Hansueti (1961)
Na,iticoke River, Md.
89
7
2.894
-4.665
1974-1975
Authors’ data
Potomac River 1 lId.
1034
MI1F
4
2.9381
(given
—10.6953
in in)
1975
Wilson etal. (1976)
Rappahannock River, Va.
1364
Y
4
3.073
-5.081
1969-1971
Kerby (1972)
Albemarle Sound, N.C.
3097
Y
6
2.9198
-1.8462
1955-1961
Irent (1962)
Keystone Reservoir, OkIa.
148
2
2.7381
-2.9875
1969-1971
Erickson etal. (1972)
California
1089
1
3.0038
-2.1393
1957-1958
Robinson (1960)
Coos Bay, Ore.
1329
3
2.90679
-4.588
1949-1950
Morgan Gerlach (1950)
Sexes combined unless stated otherwise, where 11-male, F fema1e, Y=young-of-year 11 yearling.
Units of original measurements for weight and length terms:
1 pounds , inches FL; 2=pouiids, inches IL; 3=pounds, cm FL; 4gm, mm FL; 5=gm, mm TL; 6 mg, mm TI.;
cm FL; 8=gm, c ia.
-------
U I
0
TABLE 30. COMPARISON OF GROWTH (mm) OF STRIPED BASS FROM VARIOUS AREAS 8
a 19 IL — sian caitulalad fork Ie,igsh, iS I 1L even .easured fort length, NIL . s ian fork Itiugth, as ian coahinad miens IndIcated otheiwlin
to fork length (ri - 4 6 • 0 902 iL l
L 1 m,tains faaalea mid bass of uokiiveui Its
1 1 ,ovverird from ICIL by factor or 0 93 9Nan ’uotl 1961)
N , er
Area of Capture In
Sa Ia
,
ii
IV
V
VI
VII
AGr
VIII I I
01011?
I XI
III
liii
XIV
IV
XVI
XVII
Author
Ibtna, *.FI 216
ISO
297
109
499
156
617
651
970
1006
9016
1067
1097
1109
1129
li i i
DavIs (19661
FrIsbI . (1967)
Itassarhusants, l i ii 1056
ISO
309
437
151
649
737
910
976
993
954
997
1001
—
1 135
—
—
—
•
Authors’ data
Rhoda Inland, IIIEL 2 19
—
—
435
503
576
619
720
Narrl.ao (1941)
Coonm.ttcui, 16FL-4, 190I.-9 25
125
335
365
450
530
610
695
750
920
Iludato RIver, NV, NCfJ N 99
F 67
103
101
225
232
339
399
131
414
$17
552
592
637
64 1
709
651
770
666
915
955
909
799
946
—
—
—
—
Ten d instra.aots (1971a)
lasso (1911)
Dslauar. Estuary. ICFL 112
102
219
319
430
530
6W
709
795
969
931
919
992
9045
N 224
tliaaapaaka Ray, iR’Fi pC 520
13$
924
2117
$
391
399
122
467
500
556
195
641
724
792
956
$76
999
935
9006
993
1044
Naniictl (19619
N 943
Potomac RIser, Nd • 19111. F 299
—
—
331
319
391
399
131
119
109
519
654
696
7t6
795
791
929
964
9 9 1
939
926
936
960
9030
9093
—
—
—
Nilasi, et al (19769
— —
data
Nantlcoko River, Nd • 99t H, 15
—
—
376
450
553
579
736
969
965
945
1007
Roanota River, V. , HLFL 4 101
132
301
415
597
659
693
724
747
190
993
900
0o.ros. (1965)
N21u3
Roaook. Riser, N C • NFl
F 693
—
—
356
—
424
465
465
$13
503
544
551
602
594
650
679
9 15
721
969
142
762
953
965
999
902
9054
—
1099
—
—
—
—
—
—
Trent and IIaasIer (9969)
holland and Toiverton ($9139
North Carolina, offshore, IWFL 277
137
267
392
491
592
667
Stevens (9959)
Santee-Cooper Reservoir, ILFI 322
sc 99 wi.d Ill
296
$70
399
356
103
165
592
529
655
599
724
655
767
799
172
926
6790
Scruggs (9957)
N 59
F 293
Savannah Riser, Ga •
147
152
260
299
363
396
439
I II
526
192
635
699
695
797
746
956
914
711
953
714
991
—
—
—
Saith (9970)
(NCFLN 204
IN 1L 269
Sacraaanto-San Joaquin, N 391
IILFLN 395
Calif F 972
F 295
906
906
99
904
97
904
259
247
296
249
264
219
311
310
373
396
346
399
445
460
463
493
119
500
$16
542
490
566
531
594
563
692
I II
622
601
695
612
610
610
671
696
747
695
726
777
900
905
762
795
936
795
570
947
990
9030
1090
—
—
—
Scofield (1931)
Robinson (5960)
Geriach
Cooa RIver, Die , 19411 NA
—
—
369
485
575
635
695
730
760
IIor sn end
(9950)
5 fivis negative grcivth figare is the retult of a single, unssoaily snail apvciaen for Its age baing stied fnr the calculation (caith, 9970)
-------
TABLE 31. RELATIONSHIP OF GONAD WEIGHT, EGG NUMBER, BODY LENGTH AND BODY
WEIGHT AMONG STRIPED SASS OF VARIOUS AGES CAPTURED IN A NUMBER OF AREAS
‘.r.s and kg. ‘ uaner Sanpie Gonad
:qcai
Weight
( )
‘h ger
‘4ature
(n .m r
Eggs
ange)
Body I u.gnt
(1c. )
aody Length
(FL, c )
ua.ian aiver, ‘ .w Yora
6 2 451,000 55.1 Tow Enst ents
a 1,348,000 80.9 (1973)
10 1 1,341,000 38.9
L’oper ctesaneake Bay, 4axy land
— — 1,337,300 3.397 70 Pearson (1938)
C esapeak. Bay, ‘4arytand
to 38.3 63,239 1.996 31.2 Jacason and
6 7 594.0 956,257 3.397 1 .6 tiller 19S2)
3 13 938.0 1,682.292 7.212 33.0
10 2 1319.0 ,3L0,3 39 9 752 92.1
nalea
16 27.1 — 0.53 34.0 Vlagykov and
L I 39.9 — 1.461 44. 44Llace (1952)
fanales
4 120.0 — 2.50 36.3
(3 ) 3 753.0 — 8.67 83.2
Nant c ke aiver, “ rI Land
3 3 71.6-134.2 :01,000—333.000 1.13—2.09 32,7-33.6 Moths (L967
3 3 245.0-336.6 301,30O— 57,000 3.35 3 63 5.3—ó9.3
10 1 1650 2,207,000 14.97 100.3
rsnsquaaing Lver, ‘(ary Land
.1 3 118-149.:’ :32,000—416,000 1.31-1.86 39.3-32.3 Mo1133 (1967)
2 327.7-343.9 398,000—1,319,000 3.63—4.76 69.6—71.1
5k aiver, ‘(aryland
5 2 275 .3—347.3 494,000—331,000 3.13—3.31 60.3-61.5 HOULS (1967)
10 1 1897 2,310.000 11.37 90.3
12- 13 1966-3476 2 ,248,000—4,136,000 11.38—25.35 91.9-119.4
? tac iver , ‘taryland
12-14 .1 :142—3011 3,257,000—4,864,000 20.14—25.63 108.7-115.6 Ho11 s (1967)
oanoke aiver, Neldon
— 1 14,300 1.361 — North (1904)
— L 265,300 2.041 — ‘Ierrian (94 1)
— 1 3,220.000 22.68 — No h (1904)
acanone tver, ‘4orth Ciroiina
3 13 — 320.000 1.81-2.22 30.3—33.1 Lewis and
3 — 454,000 2.73—3.13 53.9—38.2 Bonner (1966)
10 2 — 1,090,000 6.33-6.76 71.1-73.4
Qf shore, North axo Lana
3 4 126—867 1,044,230—2,221,321 7.3—3.3 30—84 foL1and ann
9 13 67-1253 1,067,472-3,715.339 7.7-13.6 32-98.1 Ye1ver on (1973)
10 4 130—2123 L,99S.914—4,057,OS9 9.0—19.0 39.2-109
12 2 663—914 3,304,491—S,SU,O3& 12.2-12.7 95.0—98.7
Coos Bay, Oregon
— 1 — 900,000 3.99 — Morgan and
— 1 — 4,773,000 22.68 — Ceriacn (1950)
h oers n parentheses are 30$t estimates from data given by the author.
151
-------
information for the Hudson River and Wilson et al. (1976) for the Potomac
River. Their data are snmm rized by percent of gonad weight to body weight
for each sex during development:
Chesapeake Bay Hudson River Potomac River
H F M F M F
immature 0.7 0.2—1.2 0.4—1.0 0.6—2.3 0.4—0.5
maturing — 1.7 — — 3.2—7.3 0.7—5.6
prespawning 5.0 4.8 1 4—11 1 1 1—16 7 1.4—13.6 6.7—10.3
spawning 6.3 8.3 4.1—9.1 11—16
spent — 1.3 — 0.7—2.0 3.6—4.8
The number of eggs produced by the females (i.e., fecundity) is highly
correlated with weight, length and age. The number of eggs increases with
age, although there is considerable variability between individuals of the
same age group. An immature ovary contains small ova 0.04 to 0.23 mm in
diameter. A mature ovary contains both small and large ova. The large ova
average 0.16 to 0.76 in diameter, increasing to 1.0 to 1.35 nun at
spawning (Chadwick, 1965; Jackson and Tiller, 1952; Lewis, 1962; Merriznan,
194],)-. As they mature, the ova and ovaries change in color from cream to
orange to pale, or grass green. Fecundity data, mainly from individual
females, are plotted in Figure 43.
There appears to be some suggestion of abnormal egg development among
hormone induced spawnings. The success of hatching appears better among
naturally spawned eggs than among artifically spawned eggs. An indication
of this is shown in Table 32 from our studies and those of Shannon (1970).
Although the use of hormone injections for artificial spawning affec the
successful development of embryos to hatch normally, those embryos that
hatch appear, under proper conditions, to grow into normal larvae. Until
the exact nature of the apparent hormone effect on embryo development is
ascertained, natural development and spawning relying on control of abiotic
and biotic factors in the maturing bass environment outlined below is recom-
mended.
Vincent at al. (1969) reported ovarian rlbosomal cistion amplification
in striped bass.
Clarke (1973) detected sodium retaining capacity of prolactin in the
pituitary of striped bass.
NATURAL HABITAT
Adult striped bass are found along the Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific
coasts of North America. They are important to sport and commercial fish-
ermen within their range. For example, the estimated marine recreational
catch for 1970 was 38.04 metric tons (N S, 1976). The 1974 total com-
mercial landings for the United Stateswere given as 5089.8 metric tons
(NMFS, 1976) and 5097 metric tons (FAO, 1975). Many states have size limits
152
-------
3.0—
2.0
1.0 —
7
00 .
4t4.8
+
a,
0
a
—
U.L
Figure 43. Fecundity of the striped bass in relation to individual
weights. The regression line indicated in the figure was fitte 1 by the
authors to the data shown. Similar regression equations
are given in Section 13.
BODY
1 Jcckscn and Tiller (1952)
HoIlis (1967)
Texas Instruments (1973)
Morgan and Gert.ccii (1950)
Worth (1904) +
____L
I0
20
WEIGHT (kg)
y= Q. 180x +0.067
r: 0.954
.
A
S
LU
-L
LU
L&.
£
a
A
153
-------
TABLE 32. PERCENT SURVIVAL THROUGH HATCHING OF STRIPED BASS EGGS FROM
ARTIFICIAL AND NATURAL SPAIININGS
Incubation
Salinity* 16
(o/oo)
Incubation
18
Temperature (°C)
20
21
Artificially induced spawning
O 58.5
(561)
64.3
(280)
-
4.7
(536)
5 1.2
(249)
—
7.4
(244)
5.4
(185)
10 19.3
(165)
—
11.6
(215)
11.6
(205)
15 31.2
(160)
-
0
0
Naturally matured spawning
O 77.9
(384)
71.0
(473)
-
71.5
(421)
5 90
(10)
-
90
(10)
-
10 90
(10)
-
90
(10)
-
15 90
(10)
-
80
(10)
-
* Percent survival at 0 0/00 and 16 (60°F), 18 (65°F), and 21°C (70°F)
reported by Shannon (1970). Survivals at the other salinity-temperature
combinations are results of this study.
+ C ) = number of eggs per treatment.
154
-------
governing bass fishing which vary in minimum from 25 to 46 cm FL (see
Section 14).
Adults migrate primarily along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts for
spawning and feeding. It appears from tagging studies that the striped bass
from Chesapeake Bay and north tend to remain associated with a spawning
river. Also, the tendency for bass less than 2—3 years of age not to Lirtder—
take long coastal migrations seems to be supported. Coastal migrators
appear in general to be post—spawning striped bass from the lower Chesapeake
tributaries, R anoke River and Albemarle Sound, supplemented in the Middle
Atlantic and southern New England waters by Delaware and Hudson River bass.
All indications are that striped bass from Albemarle Sound do not partici-
pate in the long coastal migrations of the bass from northern waters,
although those off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, may participate. Bass from
South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida waters, as well as those from the Gulf
coast appear to have foregone coastal migrations in favor of the fresh and
brackish waters of their “home” rivers. The Pacific coast striped bass
migrate extensively, but generally within San Francisco Bay and its tribu-
taries. Coastal migrations of the nature seen on the Atlantic coast are
not evidenced from tag returns along the Pacific coast (see Section 6 for
details).
The striped bass is anadromous, spawning once a year generally from
April to June throughout its spawning range. Ripe females, within hours of
spawning, have, however, been observed off the coast of New England during
late June and July. Data concerning spawning seasons, including temperature
at spawning times, are given earlier in Table 8. Other spawning sites
include the St. Lawrence River (Leim and Scott, 1966), rivers in Nova Scotia
and New Brunswick (Bigelow and Schroeder, 1953), Chester, Choptank, Black—
water, Transquaking, Wicomico, Pocomoke and Patuxent Rivers in Maryland
(Hollis, 1967), St. Johns and Appalachicola Rivers in Florida (Barkuloo,
1970), lower Colorado River, Arizona—California, Nevada (Edwards, 1974) and
Coos River in Oregon (Morgan and Gerlach, 1950).
Males are first to arrive on the spawning grounds in early spring.
Vladykov and Wallace (1952) reported up to 83% males in the Choptank River,
Maryland, in March of 1937. However, for the year 1936—1937, they reported
55% of the 1211 bass they sampled from commercial fishermen in Chesapeake
Bay rivers were male. The females appear to spend more of their time off-
shore, for Holland and Yelverton (1973) found only 11.8% males in 1970—1971
off the North Carolina coast. Most of the females taken on their trawl
samples were almost ripe. Trent and Hassler (1968) reported sex ratio esti-
mates for the spring of 1963, 1964, and 1965 at 69.7%, 85.1%, and 76.9%
males, respectively, among gill netted striped bass in the Roanoke River.
After the females arrive on the spawning grounds, numerous “rock
fights”, as matings are known, can be observed. A single spawning female,
swimming near and breaking the surface, surrounded by 10 to 50 (Merriman,
1941) or 5 to 20 (our observations) spawning males account for this behavior.
This activity occurs anytime during the day, but is most often seen at dawn
or dusk. The ripe eggs are released into the water where they are exter-
nally fertilized.
155
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
The major abiotic and biotic factors important to the maintenance of
adults are outlined in Table 33. Requirements associated with spawning are
discussed at the end of the biotic factors section.
Abiotic Factors
Tagatz (1961) found adult stri’ bass acclimated to temperatures
within the range of 6.7 to 30°C were tolerant to abrupt changes from salt to
freshwater at differences in temperature ovgr the range of 7.2 to 26.7°C.
Four year old striped bass acclimated 0 at 20 C avoided temperatures of
26.7°C and had a 48 hour LD5O of 31.5 C (Gift and Westman, 1971). We ob-
served the general hardiness of adults during our maintenance of continuous
laboratory populations throughout four years with little difficulty. The
groups were generally in ambient seawater (0 to 26 C), although changes to
freshwater during winter months have occurred within a day with no losses.
The adu ts we have lost during the winter succwnb to sea water temperatures
o —1.0 C or less for periods longer than a few hours. Adults can survive
O C sea water (28—30 o/oo) temperatures for a few days, although it is
probably physiologically stressful. The wartnes temperatures we exper-
ienced in our ambient sea water system were 26—28 C during early August
(see Figure 3 ). While no mortalities occurred, the general behavior of the
adults was not really normal. They swam alternately fast and slow, and did
not feed steadily as they did at slightly lower temper tures of 20—24°C.
It thus appears that seawater temperatures of over 26 C are probably
stressful. The broad tolerance to salinities from fresh to sea water is
evidenced by their anadromous spawning and coastal feeding migrations. The
temperature and salinity requirements during spawning were discussed in the
embryo section and below.
Adults require high dissolved oxygen concentrations especially during
warmer periods due to increased respiration. Body weight markedly -affects
respiration (see Figure 44) among adult bass. Thus, at warmer temperatures
when actively feeding, groups of adult bass can quickly deplete dissolved
oxygen concentrations unless efforts are made to maintain them continually
at saturation levels.
Biotic Factors
Food consumption is, together with density, one of the most important
factors in the environment of any cultured species. The amount consumed
must satisfy the needs of maintenance, growth and activity. The food pre-
sented for consumption must, of course, be palatable in order to be
acceptable as a diet. Food items found to be preferred among adults were
indicated in Table 20. Table 34A shows a range of daily satiation levels
for adults during our feeding studies. The foods were fresh frozen, and
cut into pieces of acceptable size to the bass. The menhaden was fed less
heads. As the temperatures dropped, so did food consumption. At 4—5°C, 0
adult feeding essentially ceased. However, for temperatures of 10 to 22 C,
a feeding frequency of 3 to 5% of live weight daily (Table 33) is suggested.
Based on the estimated evacuation time for a meal at these temperatures
156
-------
TABLE 33. ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS OF STRIPED BASS ADULTS
ABIOTIC FACTORS
Survival Range Optimum Conditions
Temperature 0—26°C >10 & <24°C
Salinity 0—30 0/00 10—30 0/00
Dissolved oxygen >8% (6.0 mg/i @ 18°C) air saturated
Light no adverse effect natural photoperiod
Turbidity insufficient data insufficient data
BIOTIC FACTORS
Diet. 3—5% body weight (wet) daily
Density 2.4 gIl maximum (110 kg/45 m 3 )
Predators none except man
Disease and Parasites for stiimn ry see Table 24
157
-------
1000
100
I0
•
14
-
16°C
0
8
-
2
°C
I
I
i _1iiiil
.
/
I
/o
0
I iliiiil I I 1111111
-c
a)
E
z
0
I - .
0
C,)
z
0
0
N
0
WET WEIGHT, g
Figure 44. Relationship of oxygen consumption (ingo 2 /hr/fish) to wet weight (g)
for striped bass subadults and adults at two temperature ranges. The line Is
the best fit of data at 14—16°C, where oxygen consumption = 0.072 W 1.029
(n = 8; r = 0.995).
10 100 lOdO 10 000
I -I
U i
0
0
-------
TABLE 34. A. DAILY FOOD CONSUMPTION LEVELS FOR STRIPED BASS FED TO SATIATION AT DIFFERENT
ANCIENT SEA TEMPERATURES
] . EVACUATION RATES FOR STRIPED LASS FED DAILY TO SATIATION
Temperature Daily Consumption Levels
A. Weight Range No. in Range (% body weight) Na of
(g ) Group (°C) Food Type Ranqe Average Observations
Striped bass
93-1 12 7 16-22 gelatIn-squid 1.7-9.6 3.3 17
108-124 7 15-18 gelatin-squId 1.1-5.3 2.5 12
l 6-182 6 18-21 cut squid 6.1-17.1 9.4 10
152-286 20 16-22 squId, clam 3.8-12.8 5.3 25
410-797 14 16-22 squid, fIsh 1.4-7.9 4.6 17
482-868 14 16-20 squid, clam 1.1-8.5 4.5 23
563-1012 14 5-16 squid 0.8-7.2 2.9 21
1950 I 17-21 squid 0.4-9.6 3.0 23
1950 1 1.4-17 squid 1.6-5.3 3.6 11
4400 1 17-21 uiienhaden 0.3-3.7 1.7 29
4400 1 14-17 iiienhaden 0.5-5.2 2.2 11
1942-12500 38 18-22 squid, iiienhaden 0.4-3.9 1.7 8
1474-12500 39 8-15 squid, menhaden 2.4-5.2 3.7 10
No. Average Temperature Estimated 50 , Evacuation
B. Weight Range in During Test Time (hrs) Lsing Bead
(g ) Group (°C) Returns fr:ri each Test
1950
14
66
4400
1
14
54
4400
1
19
94,72,167
4400
1
21
. 49,46,42,34,65
-------
(Table 34B), this feeding frequency could probably be exten ed to every
other day. We calculated the caloric requirements at 14—16 C for an active
one and four kilogram bass and determined that this energy demand can be
met by consumption of about 3.5% menhaden or 8.5% squid of live body weight
daily.
Variation in feeding habits has been reported for striped bass appar-
ently depending on the availability of forage organisms. Hollis (1952)
reported that during summer and fall (of 1936) the principal foods in
saltwater areas of Chesapeake Bay wereanchovy and menhaden and that during
the winter months spot and croaker were dominant. In general, fish species
dominated spring through s er to fall feeding, while invertebrate con-
sumption increased during fall and winter (Stevens, 1966: Manooch, 1973).
Bass fed mainly on menhaden in Narragansett Bay and on sand lance in Block
Island Sound (Oviatt, 1977). Reduction in feeding by adults has been noted
during spring and early summer. This is probably related to spawning
acti rities (Hollis, 1952; Stevens, 1966).
The density recommended in Table 33 is based on successful rearing of
adults in our flow through sea water system during the course of this
study. The 2.4 g/l rate given is slightly less than the maximum density
we actually maintained. The density recommended should offer insurance
against stress especially at times of high oxygen demand. Oxygen require-
ments of adult bass are greater than those of sub—adults (Figure 44) on a
per fish basis. On the basis of oxygen requirements, the density should
probably remain 2 gIl or less.
Another factor influencing density in a culture situation is ammonia
excretion. Typical rates for adult bass measured 48 hours after their
last meal in sea water are shown below.
TABLE 35. EXCRETION RATES TYPICAL FOR ADULT STRIPED BASS AT TWO
TEMPERATURES AT 30 o / 00.
Bass Weight (g) Temperature (°C) Ammonia Excretion
(N—N E 3 mg/kg/day)
962
20.0
371.9
1950
14.5
247.2
4400
14.5
62.4
98.4
The amount of ammonia—nitrogen excreted per day by a one kilogram bass is
about one—sixth the oxygen consumed by that bass during a day. Thus,
oxygen levels are more critical for adults under culture conditions than
possible ammonia accumulations.
160
-------
Adult striped bass have few predators other than man. The diseases
and parasites of adults are those presented in Table 24. These were dis-
cussed in detail at the end of Section 10.
Some of the environmental requirements associated with spawning can
be inferred from the natural habitat section above and from the embryo
section. These would include the temperature, salinity, pH, flow and other
factors associated with successful spawning areas. In addition to fresh-
water hatchery spawning described by Bayless (1972) and Bonn et al . (1976),
several attempts have been made to spawn adults in the laboratory.
Lasker (1974) described conditions under which a single successful
spawning occurred in March in laboratory tanks. This occurred at 17°C in
50% sea water with a 15 hour light photoperiod cycle. Hormone dosages had
been administered to this spawner.
We tried several approaches to spawning adults in the laboratory. Our
lack of spawning success was not due to lack of development on the part of
prospective broodfish, but rather to mechanical or weather difficulties.
The conditions under which bass could be spawned in the laboratory require
temperature, salinity, and photoperiod control together with sufficient
food during the pre—mnaturation period of four to eight months before the
desired spawning time. The following general procedures are recommended
based on our studies.
Since the adults spend the majority of their prespawning feeding periods
in coastal water, the best procedure would make use of natural photoperiod
and ambient sea temperatures. The easiest case then would be to have the
prospective broodfish spawn near their natural spawning times (e.g. in the mid—
Atlantic region of April—May). To insure a greater measure of success the
adults should be captured the preceding summer, allowing at least two—three
weeks for adjustment to culture systems and initiation of active feeding.
The temnpgrature of our ambient sea w ter generally falls in September
from 20 to 16 C, in October from 15 to 10 C and in November from 10 to 5 C
(Figure 3). These are ideal feeding temperatures corresponding to the
natural fall feeding migrations along the Atlantic coast. During this
period the broodfish designate should receive daily satiation feedings of
diets both palatable and high in protein and lipid. Suggested diets are
discussed below. For optimum feeding conditions, culture water should be
15—30 0/08. The adult. bass feeding frequency drops when temperatures fall
below 4—5 C. It is important that adults consume enough to provide not
only for daily maintenance, growth and activity, but also for gonad
maturation during the period of temperature decline to 5 C. Three months
is considered minimum especially for the larger females, which probably
spawned the previous year expending their energy reserves that must be
replenished. Aichough the adults are not actively feeding below about
4—5°C, food should be presented weekiy and anytime the water temperature
rises above 5 C. During the onth of December and January, the sea
temperature drops down to 2—3 C. This is cold enough and a period of 2—3
weeks at this temperature should provide the adults with their winter cue.
161
-------
During this period the gonads are maturing, utilizing nutrients stored during
the fall feeding period.
About the first of February the photoperiod should be extended a few
minutes each day. More important is the gradual rise in temperature and
decrease in salinity during the next few months to arrive at about 5—10 0/00
and 10—15°C in April. When the temperature is at about 12—15°C and the
salinity about 7—10 0/00, the broodfish should be anesthetized and checked
for ripeness as described below under handling. After recovery t ie tempera-
ture—salinity levels should be maintained for a few days before reducing the
salinity to 5 o/oo and raising the temperature to 16°C. If hormone injections
are to be made, the best time would be at the time of checking the anesthe-
tized broodfish. The procedures then follow those outlined by Bayless (1972)
or Bishop (1975) and described below. Although it has been suggested that
bass on the spawning grounds are fasting, it is wise under culture conditions
to offer food to the adults when the temperature rises above 5°C even as the
time of prospective spawning approaches. After spawning occurs, it is
easiest to remove the fertilized eggs to their rearing system (see Section 8).
If two spawnings a year are desired, two groups of broodfish should be
maintained under conditions similar to that described above. Each should be
well fed after spawning for a number of months before beginning the cycle
again. This insures full recovery of the fish. One group could easily be
maintained in a system in a greenhouse to take advantage of natural photo—
period. The second group, if necessary, would have to be maintained under
artificial photoperiod.
CULTURE METHODOLOGY
Capture Methods
In freshwater, mature bass have been successfully captured using
electrofishing methods, bow and hoop nets, gill nets, hook and line, and
traps (Bonnet al., 1976). We have obtained mature bass caught in gill nets
(300’ X 6’ monofilamertt sink net with 6” bar mesh), by hook and line and
through a local fish trap company from marine waters. Gill—netting is not a
capture method usually chosen for taking fish in good condition. However,
we used this method successfully during February and March. Success in ob-
taining living mature bass from stocks overwintering in Rhode Island was due
to the low water temperatures and to the fact that the nets were fished for
only a few hours at a time. Hook and line caught bass are usually taken in
good condition, if plans are made beforehand so that a live well or other
aerated tank is available to handle the fish. Most of our mature bass were
obtained from a trap fishery. This was a successful method of obtaining
large numbers of bass at once in good condition, especially if we went along
to handle and choose fish. When choosing mature bass, size (see Table 28)
and condition are the most useful tools. Ritchie (1965) proposed a biopsy
technique to determine sex in the field from live bass. He evaluated the
effects of this technique from returns of bass tagged and released in
Chesapeake Bay (Ritchie, 1970).
162
-------
Several methods are available to obtain mature bass in spawning condi-
tion. One is to catch both males and females during the normal spawning
period in rivers and in sea water. This is the approach we followed in
1974 and 1975 in studying eggs and larvae on the Nanticoke River, Maryland.
It is the procedure practiced at the established hatcheries at Weldon,
North Carolina and Moncks Corner, South Carolina. Ripe broodfish captured
in marine waters off Long Island during May—June, 1975 were successfully
spawned.* A second approach is to catch probable broodfish during late
winter and hold them for spawning. The Moncks Corner hatchery also
utilizes this method. A third method, and one used at the Edenton National
Fish Hatchery, North Carolina, is to catch and hold adults year—round in
freshwater for spawning during the normal season. This method also applies
to holding year—round in sea—water and varying salinity during natural
spawning season as we have done. The fourth method is to catch and hold
adults year—round for out—of—season spawning. This method has met with only
partial success when tried by Lasker (1974) and by ourselves.
Post—Capture Handli g
Adults should immediately be returned to aerated water of equivalent
temperature and salinity to that of capture. The fish should be out of
water as short a time as possible and handled gently to insure best chances
of survival.
Transportation
Bonn et al. (1976) suggest transporting broodfish captured in fresh-
water in tanks equipped with mechanical aeration, supplemental oxygen and
0.3 to 1.0% salt (NaC1) solution. The density during transport they
suggest is less than 45 pounds per 80 gallons (1 kg per 16 liters).
We successfully transported adults in tanks under quinaldine sedation
in sea water with pure oxygen aeration. The use of pure oxygen is essential
to reduce stress and ensure ease in oxygen consumption among the adults
stressed by transporting and handling. Our density during transportation
using the anesthetic could be as great as 1 kg per 4 1 without losses.
Handling Procedures
Careful handling of adults as with the obviously more delicate larval
stages is important. Adults can be moved, weighed and lengthed, observed
and counted as easily as juveniles and sub—adults when proper methods are
used. Whenever possible, it is wise to anesthetize the bass before handling.
This need not be a full narcotic dose, but enough to slow the large bass
down, in order to reduce stress during handling. We generally used
qui.naldine for anesthetizing the adults primarily because it was quick
acting and used relatively small quantities in the large volume tanks
holding these fish. During weighing of adults they were fully anesthetized
* Dr. Robert Valenti, MULTI—Aquaculture Systems, Inc., imn gasett, New York.
163
-------
with quinaldine at the rate of 0.02 in]. per 1 in 500 1 adult anesthetizing
tank containing rearing water. The bass were transferred to this from their
larger rearing tank after the volume was reduced and enough quinaldine was
added to slow the fish down so that they could be quietly herded toward the
anesthetizing tank.
Among the handling procedures specifically recommended are the follow-
ing: .1.) if at all possible, move each fish by dipping it with a quantity
of water from one container to another. We use large heavy—duty polyeth-
ylene bags to dip and move large bass or heavy duty stretchers made of poly-
ethylene. The surface of the bag is smooth and unabrasive and while it is
possible for spines to penetrate the bag we find that if enough water is
moved with the fish this virtually never occurs. 2) Move one fish at a
time. This avoids fish to fish contact which in this spiny bass may be
injurious to both. 3) Avoid letting the fish touch hard surfaces such as
boat decks, fishpens, etc. If fish do end up on the deck retrieve them
with a plastic bag or wet bare hands. Touching fish with cloth gloved
hands always results in serious injury to the fish. Rubber gloves give no
protection against spines and become so slippery that handling fish soon
becomes a matter similar to trying to pick up a wet cake of soap in the
bathtub. 4) If at all possible do not use a net of any sort to handle fish
out of water. Nets may be used to crowd fish into bags in the water. 5) It
is preferable to handle rod and reel caught fish by the hook and line on
which they were caught than to use a landing net to boat them. 6) We have
had best success handling large fish when we have aerated their holding
water with pure oxygen as soon as possible after capture. During the process
of handling each fish, a check should be made of the general condition of
the adult. If there are any with external lesions suspected of being caused
by disease or parasites, the fish should be separated and treated using a
bath or dip of formalin, or malachite green. If the external lesion is a
cut or abraded area resulting from netting during capture, an application
of straight iodine or mercurochrome until the area is ‘fred” works to kill
any bacteria on the surface and reduces the likelihood of infection.
Bayless (1972) described the handling procedure adopted for induced
spawning of broodfish. Intra—muscular injections of 125 to 150 I.U. of
choronic gonadotropin per pound are given to females during the spawning
season, when they are checked for development before being released into the
holding tanks. Multiple injections did not show any improvement in ovulation
results. The females are checked 24—28 hours later by removing eggs with a
small catheter tube through the urogenetial pore and spawning time estimated.
Generally, the female is checked about 30 minutes prior to the estimated
spawning time and thereafter every 30—45 minutes until ovulation is observed.
The female is lightly anesthetized and manually stripped. The eggs are
fertilized with taut from males held separately. Bishop (1975) reported
injecting males at the rate of 50 to 75 I.U. of CG per pound to provide
maximum milt production in his Tennessee hatchery. Texas Instruments
(1977a) administered 275 to 300 I.U of CC per kilogram for females and 110
to 165 I.U. of CC per kilogram for males. The males at their Hudson River
hatchery received a hormone injection only if milt production appeared
limited or if second use of the male was anticipated.
164
-------
Bishop (1975) described a slight variation to this procedure used at
the Tennessee hatchery. Both females and males received hormone injections
prior to stocking in circular holding tanks, but they were allowed to spawn
naturally, not stripped. The fertilized eggs were retained in the tanks and
the adults released. This somewhat reduced the handling of broodfish.
Spawning through adjustments of photoperiod, salinity and temperatures was
discussed above in the environmental requirements section.
Maintenance Procedures
Culture vessels——
Hatchery broodfish holding systems are described by Bonn et al. (1976).
The culture system we utilized year round is shown in Figure 45. This
system could be run totally on ambient sea water, on flow through, on
total recirculation through a rapid sand filter, or partially on both. The
water level in the tank, which held about 45,000 1, was controlled after
filling the tank by the height of the “stand—pipe t ’ in the discharge well.
The loose threaded coupling allowed the enti.re tank to be emptied, since
the drain was below ground level. This system was outside and thus subject
to natural photoperiod. A similar system of two tanks holding about 8,000
1 was set up in a greenhouse for spawning purposes. The photoperiod in the
smaller system was adjustable. Salinity adjustments were made to both
systems by the addition of dechlorinated tap water. This was very important
during winter—spring spawning attempts. The outside system was covered and
insulated with hay bales during the winter to reduce wind—chill cooling.
A cover during the su er helped to keep algal populations low within the
sys tern.
Stocking Density——
The density indicated in Table 33 or 2 g/l maximum is equal to 110 kg
per 45,000 1. This could include, for example, 20 one kilogram bass, 15 two
kilogram bass, 10 four kilogram bass and 2 ten kilogram bass, or a total of
110 kg for these 47 adult bass. Of course, as the weight of each bass
increases, the number must be decreased to maintain the density. We
exceeded this rate during our spawning attempts utilizing the smaller
system in the greenhouse. However, this system had supplemental oxygen
aeration. It is preferable to have several large females and males composing
the broodstock, all definitely mature enough to spawn, rather than many
adults of questionable maturation state.
Maititainin Water Quality——
Water quality monitoring for the adult holding system should include
temperature, dissolved oxygen, and salinity in open flow systems. If the
system is recirculating, ammonia and nitrate should be included. If changes
are made to freshwater during spawning from a preferred marine system during
the rest of the year, the quality of the freshwater should be checked first
for chlorine, copper and other metals, and pH. If the concentrations of
these are near toxic levels, the freshwater should be treated before it is
used.
165
-------
ADULI SII II-’L.U bASS HOLDING FACILITY
SECTION VIEW
7.3 M
1.2
15 cm.
a’
0’
SAND FILTER DISCHARGE
SAND FILTER INTAKE
DISCHARGE
WELL
9 cm. PVC pipe
DISCHARGE f FILTER RETURN
TANGENTIALLY 1.SEA WATER ENTEI
VIEWING PORT
48x76 cm. (1.2 cm. thick)
DISCHARGE WELL
SWIMMING POOL
PUMP I ‘2 h.p.
76 cm. dia.
Figure 45. Schematic of holding facility for adult striped bass.
-------
Diet——
The food requirements for adults are outlined in Tables 33 and 34 arid
the abiotic factor section above. Among the acceptable diet items would be
any of the naturally preyed upon species that were mentioned previously.
Most of the fish: species naturally consumed by adult bass average 15 to 19%
protein on a wet weight basis and 1.0% (squid) to 16% (Clupea) lipid
(Sidwell at al., 1974). Consumption of foods high in lipid appears to be
essential for proper development and maturation of ovaries for successful
spawning. It should be remembered that the eggs have a large oil glouble.
For lipid tø be stored therein, sufficient fatty acids must be present
during the development process. Our spawning attempts strongly indicated
that increased lipid content of the diet is important during the fall
feeding prior to the onset of reduced feeding with winter temperatures. It
seems that frequent satiation during this period is more important to gonad
development for spawning than any feeding during the late winter—early
spring just prior to spawning. The “spawn—not spawn decision” appears to be
a function of the materials available for development and growth at least
five to eight months prior to the spawning season.
Normal Conditions and Physiological State
Growth rates typically observed for adults at various temperatures in
our ambient sea water systems are indicated below.
TABLE 36. GROWTH RATES (g/day wet weight) TYPICAL
MAINTAINED IN SEAWATER AND FED DAILY
FOR ADULTS
Weight Range
initial, final
(mean)
(g)
No. in
Group
Days
in
Period
Average
Temperature
( C)
Growth,
Per
Group
(g/day)
Per
Fish
576, 618
14+
20
19.6
2.10
0.15
618, 767
767, 841
14+
14+
34
55
18.4
11.2
4.38
1.35
0.31
0.10
2490, 3130
1
342
——
——
1.87
2948, 4520
1
342
——
——
4.59
6804, 8618
1
342
——
——
5.23
9752, 12470
1
342
——
——
7.95
+ See Figure 31 and Table 34.
167
-------
These growth rates are approximately 0.5 to 1% of the bass weight when
adjusted to the individual’s weight. They are indicative of well fed bass
under unstressful conditions.
We recorded activity of adults during daylight on movie film (8 tnm).
Swizmning speeds of adults in our holding tank (Figure 45) ranged from 0.2
to 2 body lengths, or 12 to 60 cm/sec for the bass observed. Speeds were
slower during quiet cruising perit ds and faster during active feeding
periods.
General behavior of adults is similar to that described for subadu].ts.
Abnormal conditions, such as pugheadness, or disease and treatment, are as
described for subadults (Tables 24 and 26).
168
-------
3—
oWILD
•LAB REARED
E
1—
LU
p
I
0 I 1 I I 1 I I
0 5 10
STANDARD LENGTH, cm
Figure 46. Measurements of maximum body depth (cm) and standard body
length (cm) from live anesthetized) striped bass seined from
Maryland rivers (wild) or reared in the laboratory from eggs.
170
-------
TABLE 37. SUMMARY OF OPTIMAL REARING CONDITIONS FOR THE VARIOUS STRIPED BASS LIFE STAGES
Eggs Larvae Juveniles & Subadulta Adults
Prolarva Poatlarvas
AB 1OTIC FACTORS
Temperature 16—20°C 16—21°C 18-22°C >10 and <25°C >10 and <24°C
Salinity 2.30 0/00 5—15 0/00 10—20 0/00 10—30 0/00 10—30 0/00
Dissolved Oxygen air saturated air saturated air saturated air saturated
Light natural photoperioi natural photoperiod natural photoperiod natural photoperlod
Turbidity • 500 mg/la < 100 mg/i 5 <4 mg/lb —
BIOTIC FACTORS
Diet not applicable not applicable 15-202 body weight 5—82 body weight (wet) 3—52 body weight
(dry) twice daily per day (wet) daily
Density 50—75 per liter 50—25 per liter 30—10 per liter 10—2 bass per 100 2.4 g/l maximum
liters (110 kg/45m 3 )
Predators many in natural many in natural canabalisttc 1 many some In natural none except man
habitat habitat in natural habitat habitat
Disease & Parasites fungus for summary see Table 24 for summary see for summary see
Table 24 Table 24
a — tine gralned sediments
b — beutonite
-------
PREVIOUS STUDIES
Bioas says
Embryos—-
Toxicity data for striped bass eggs has been reported in the literature
for copper, zinc and chlorine. O’Rear (1971) used 24—hour eggs per toxicant
with the same water quality as in his larval experiments (Table 40). He
found a 48—hour TLm of 1.85 (1.25—2.51) ppm zinc and 0.74 (0.605—1.73) ppm
copper. Chlorine toxicity in flowing bioassay systems was reported for
embryos by Middaugh (1977), Morgan and Prince (1977) and Burton etal.
(1979). The test conditions and water quality for these studies are included
in Tables 40 and 41. Middaugh al . (1977) exposed embryos continuously
from 8 to 9 hours after fertilization till hatching. The percent hatch
ranged from 56% for the control group (no chlorine exposure) to 0% for the
embryos exposed to total residual chlorine concentrations of 0.21 mg/i.
A general downward curvature of the vertebral column was observed among many
of the larvae hatching after chlorine exposure. Morgan and Prince (1977)
reported a 48 hour LC5O of 0.20 ppm chlorine for eggs exposed at less than
13 hours after fertilization and a 24—hour LC5O of 0.36 ppm chlorine for
eggs exposed when more than 40 hours after fertilization. They observed
blistering of the chorions among many eggs exposed to higher chlorine
concentrations and noted generally slightly smaller larvae hatching from
eggs exposed to chlorine concentrations. Burton et al. (1979) established
the effects of interaction of total residual chlorine, change in temperature,
and exposure time on survival of embryos.
Larvae and Juveniles——
The available information on the toxicity of certain substances to
larval and juvenile bass is sllmTnArized from the literature in Tables 38 and
39, respectively. Table 40 siiim,i rizes the bioassay test conditions of each
author, and Table 41 gives a suimnary of the water quality of their test
water. Table 42 provides the analysis of the chemical substances used in
these bioassays. While the majority of these bloassays have been on
juveniles, the reports of actual tissue residues in bass (see below) have
usually been reported for subadults and adults.
Larvae appear to be more sensitive than juveniles, based on available
bioassay test results. Of the substances tested, larvae are least sensitive
to chloride, potassium dichroniate, and sulfate. Potassium dichromate has
been recommended for the control of Monogenera and external protozoans in
aquaria and ponds, respectively. Not included in Table 38 is a report by -
Hughes (1973) of 96 hour—l0O% survival in Instant Sea at 14,000 ppm (at Cl )
and No Foam (Cresent Mfg. Co., Texas) at greater than 1,000 ppm.
Most of the substances tested have possible use in the pond culture
(Bonn eta].., 1976) of striped bass juveniles. Copper sulfate has been
recommended in algal control. Casoron and Simazine have been recommended
for control of aquatic vegetation, but the median tolerance limit of
striped bass to Simazine is much lower than the rate recommended for control.
Lindane and Malathion have been suggested, at a rate of 0.1—0.2 ppm and
0.5—1.0 ppm, respectively, in the control of parasitic copepods. Ethyl
175
-------
TABLE 38. TOXICITY OF SUBSTANCES TO STRIPED BASS
Substance 96—flour iL Author
(g5t C.Lb
cr flavine 5.0 (NA) l4ugnes (1973)
Aidrin 0.01 (NA) Hughes (1973)
Aenfur 10.0 (NA) Hughes (1973)
3utyl ester of 2.4—0 0.15 (HA) Hughes (1971)
Caesium 0.001 (NA) Hughes (1973)
Chloride 1000 (NA) Hughes (1973)
Chlorine 0.20 (NA)a Morgan & Prince (1977)
0.04-0.07 fncipient Middaugn at al. (1977)
Copper 0.05 (NA) Hughes (1973)
Copper 0.31 (3.12—3.08)c 0 ’ ear (1971)
Cooper aulfate 0.1 (NA) rlughes (1971)
Ole ldrin 0.001 (NA) Hughes (1973)
Olpuat 1.0 (NA) Hughes (1973)
Diuron 11.5 (NA) lugnes (1973)
Gylox 5.0 (NA) Hughes (1971)
Ethyl parathion 2.0 (NA) Hughes (1971)
Fonilaldehyde 10.3 (NA) Hughes (1513)
4Th 3.5 (NA) Hughes (1971)
Iron 4.0 (NA) Hughes (1973)
(arlaex 0.5 (NA) Hughes (1971)
Malachite green 0.05 (NA) Hughes (1973)
Methylene blue 1.0 (NA) Hughes (1973)
Methyl parathion 5.0 (NA) Hughes (1971)
Potassium dichr iiate 100 (NA) Hughes (1971)
Potassium permanganate 1.3 (NA) Hugnes (1971)
Rectal 0.5.(MA) Hughes (1973)
Rotenone 0.001 (NA) Hughes (1973)
Sulfate 250 (NA) Hughes (1973)
lad—Tax 5.0 (NA) Hughes (1973)
Terramycin 50.0 (NA) d Hughes (1973)
ZInc 0.1 (MA) 4ugnes (1973)
ZInc 1.18 (Q• 25 _ 2 46 )t O ’Rear (1971)
d All 4—7 day—old larvae from Moncics Corner, Soutn Carolina, tested at 21°C,
except O ’Rear (1971) wnich were tested in 14—19°C range, Morgan & Prince
(1917) not specified, ana Middaugn et al. (1977) at 18°C.
bNA not available (I.e.. neither qiven nor calculataole).
48—hour T1., d 9€-nour LC 0 e 24—nour
176
-------
TABLE 39. TOXICITY OF SUBSTANCES TO JUVENILE STRIPED BASS
Abate
Achrmsyc in
Acriflavin
torn A Earnest (1974)
kelley (1969)
Hughes (1973)
Wellborn (1971)
Korn & Earnest (19Z)
Hughes (1973)
Rehwoldt et al (1971)
Huqhes (1973)
hazel et ii (1971)
- —
Wellborn (1971)
Wellborn (1911)
Heyerhoff (1975)
Benville and torn (1977)
Hughes (1971)
Rehwoldtetal (1977)
Hughes (1913)
torn & Earnest (1974)
Wellborn (1911)
torn & Earnest (1974)
Hughes (l 3)
Niddaugh at al (1917)
Co-Ral 21
Copper
Copper sulfate 21
21.22
21
21
I;
I,
Cutriuie
000
001
Dibrem
OleIdrin
Diquat
(Huron (tenses)
Dursbaui
Dy lox
Endosul fan
(Mr Iii
62 (63-73)
o os (U)
4 3 (HA)
o is (NA)
o 6 (0.51.0 83)
0 62 (0.54-0 71)
0 I (NA)
0 0025 (0 00 16-0 004)
0 00053 (0 00038-
0 00084)
13 0 5 (0.1-2.4)
14 0.0197 (0.0098-
0 00334)
21 025(U)
21 l00(NA)
21 80 (14-86)
21 6.0 (HA)
13 0 00056 (0 fl0035-
0 00091)
21 2 0 (hA)
5.2 (4 2-8 0)
16 0 0001 (0 000048-
0 00021)
Il 0 000094 (0 000045-
0. 00019)
18 0 060 (0.025-0.150)
21 10(U)
IS 0 0118 (0.0048.
0 0657)
WeIlborn (1911)
hughes (1911)
Reha o1dt !i a_!. (1911)
hughes (1911)
kehley (1969)
WelIhoin (1969)
HugheS (1913)
torn A Earnest (1914)
torn & Earnest (1914)
Kern & (ernest (1914)
torn & (arncst (1914)
hughes (19?))
Hughes (1973)
Wpllborn (1969)
HugheS (1973)
torn I tamest (1974)
hugheS (1971)
Wehltorn (1969)
torn A Earnest (1914)
torn A Earnest (1914)
torn & Earnest (1974)
hughes (1971)
torn I Ea,miest (1914)
a Unless specified otherwise
b NA • not available ( I a • neither given nor calculatable)
C Range of 96-hour 0 m freshwater. 33% sea water, and sea water (95
C 1. given for percent mortality at 0, 40. 60. 80. and l00 )
Substance Test
Temp (C)
96-hour 11 m a Author
(951 C I b
(mg/i)
Substance lest
Tew (C)
96-hour ILea Author
(95 1db)
(mg/I)
13 10(M)
21-22 190 (153.2-235.6)
21 27.5 (NA)
16 0 (14 7-17 4)
A ldrin 13 00012 (0 0034-0.0152)
21 LC 0 015 (HA)
20 O.lll0(NA)
Amifur 21 LC 0 30 0 (NA)
Asumniun hydroxide IS I 9-2.85
23 I 4-2.8
Aquathol 21 610 (634-795)
Baylusctde 21 12 hr I OS (0.94-I 18)
8enzene 17.4 10.9 uI /I ( 0 02)
16 58u 1/l
Butyl ester of 21 3 0 (NA)
2.4-0 20 10 0 (HA)
Cadmium 21 0 002 (NA)
Carbaryl 17 I 0 (NA)
Casoron 21 6.200 (5.210-7.378)
Chlordane 15 0 0118 (0 0057-0 024)
Chloride 21 5000 (NA)
Chlorine 18 0.04 incipient
Cooling tower blowdawn and power plant chemical discharge
4.5-6 0 ‘4 02 Texas Instruments ( 191b)
18 5-26.0 ‘4 OX (incipient LC 50 without CL 2
3 61 (3 812 - 3 4X)
(PH
ELhyl parathion
(continued)
-------
(continued)
TABLE 39.
Fenth ion
Formaldehyde
Ileptach lor
h u h
Instant Sea
(as Cl)
Iron
tames (Diuron)
0.453 (0.216-0 955)
1SM)
20 15 4-26)
lB 10-32)
0 003 (0 001-0.006)
0 25 (hA)
21 IC 0 11000 (HA)
21 60(hiA)
21 60(M)
31 (2 5-3 9)
21 0 40 (0.35-0.46)
13 0 0013 (0 0045-0 0119)
21 02(M)
24 hr 0.30 (0 27-0 33)
0 24 40 20-0 29)
0 014 (0 013-0 015)
0.039 (HA)
0 0033 (0.0021-0.0051)
12 0 (HA)
4 5 (hA)
0.79 (0 17-I 40)
14 0 (HA)
31 5 (25 6-31 5)
24 hr. 50 0 (HA)
31 5 (26 6-37 5)
6.2 (HA)
tC 0 16600 (NA)
torn & (ernest (1914)
Hughes ( R u)
Kelley (1q69)
Wellborn (1969)
torn & (arnest (1974)
hughes (1911)
hughes (1913)
hughes (1913)
Hughes (1911)
IjelIborn (1969)
Wellborn (1971)
torn & Earnest (1974)
Ihighes (1973)
ile llborn (1911)
Wellborn (1911)
torn I (ernest (1914)
Rehwoldt etal (1977)
torn & (ernest (1974)
Hughes (1913)
Hughes (1911)
torn & Earnest (1914)
Aehwoldt et al ($977)
teIley (1969)
lat i n et ii (1965)
Kelley (1969)
Rehwoldt et 9 l_ (19 /1)
Hughes (igoo)
Potassium pere langanate 21
2 1-22
2 1
Polyot ic
PM
Qui neldi ne
Qulnaidine with 21-22
20 o/oo
Reconstituted sea 21—22
waler
Roccal
Rotenone 2$
Sinaz lne 21
Sodites nitrhlotriecetic 20
acid
Su lie te
SynO d Ch
Syndet Ga
Tad- lox
Ten aisyc in
Toluene
Toxephene
n-xylene
2 i nC
2, 4, 5, 1
75(M)
4.0 (NA)
2 6 (2 17-3.12)
2.5 42 1-2 9)
‘1818 (hA)
1 I (0 84-I 44)
4.5 (3.82-S 45)
24 hr. 22 0 ( 1 16)
5.0 (386-6 65)
35 o/oo ( 11*)
Hughes 41971)
Ihuqhes (1971)
Keltey (1969)
Weh lborn (1969)
Wellborn (19691
keIley (1969)
telley (1969)
retun et I (1965)
KeIley (1969)
Kelley 419i39)
Hughes (1973)
hiuqiies (1973)
iJeliborn (1969)
(isler et el
( 1912V —
hughes (1973)
(islgr et el
( 1972{ —
Substance lest
leiiç (°C)
96-hour TI m 5 Author
(gs% C.i b )
( mg /I)
I I
2 )
21-22
21
U
2 1
Substance Test
leep (°C)
96-hour TIne Author
(95% C.I.b
(mg/I)
Potassium dichnomete 21
21
2 1 -22
21-22
22-28
I — ’ Lindane
—4
Malachite green
Malathion 21
13
20
Ihethosych lor IS
Piethylene blue 21
Methyl parathion 21
13
20
1 1 5-222 2 1-22
22-28
‘6-222 with 20 0/ 0 0 21-22
flickel I ?
Oil field brine 21
(as Cl)
2 1 1.5 (NA)
IC 0 0.001 (NA)
0 25 (0 1 /-0.36)
5500 (NA)
2 1 3500 (NA)
20 46(M)
8 7 (NA)
21 100(M )
21 150( 1 IA)
2 1-22 110 (140 5-205 7)
21 118 (144-221)
165 ( 14 1- 185)
16 /3u 1/l
I l 0 0044 (0 002-0 009)
16 9.2 (8.3-10) uI/l
21 0.1 (NA)
17 61(M)
20 11.6 ( fIR)
Euler et al
( 1972 Y -—
Hughes (1973)
hughes (19/3)
Kelley (1969)
Wehlborn (1969)
Wel lborn (1971)
Benville I Kern (191 1)
SCorn & (ernest (1974)
Benville & 6am (1977)
HugheS (1973)
Rehwoldt at al ( 1g7 1)
Rehwoldt at al (1977)
-------
TABLE 40. TESTING CONDITIONS FOR STRIPED BASS BIOASSAYS
Author
Size (ma) and
Source of,
Fingerlings
VoIi ie in
Test Container
No. Test Bass
per Container
No. of Conc. Testing
Conditions
Burton etal. (1919)
eggs, larvae; 3
206 ml
SO
trip l lcates
flowing
Etsier (1972)
nean 65; H
3 1
2.2 9 /1
5 of 10 bass
each + controls
static
Hazel al. (1971)
20-93 11.. C
10 1
5—25
(generally 10)
2—5
• control
static
Hughes (1968. 1969.
1971. 1973)
30.50 TI.. M
larvae: i
fingerlings. 2 1
10
2
10(7)
• control
static
telley (1969)
60-80 TI.. E
30 1
3 replicatIons
of 5 each
5
static
torn B Earnest (1974)
14—83 SI, C
80 1
10 (.1 g/1)
-
flowing
Meyerfloff (1975)
mean 55; C
70 1
40
12 controls
flowing
Niddaugli etal. (1977)
eggs; mean 4.3.
6.7. 13.6 TI.. Ii
eggs: 7 1
larvae & Juveniles:
41
eggs: 14. 5 ml
aliquots of
603+100
larvae: 20
eggs: 4 + controls
larvae & juveniles:
7.6.7
flowing
Morgan Prince (1977)
egg, larvae;
H, V, P
i 1
-
4 + control
with replicates
(10)
flowing
Renwoldt et al.
(1971)
cZOO TI.; H
-
10
- • control
static
Tati et al (1965)
63—120; II
10 1
4
8 + control
static
Texas Instriasents
(1974)
40—100 SI; H
(winter)
30 gal.
winter - 10
sune r - 20
5 • control
5 • control
flowing
Weliborn (1969)
ave. 60 TI, E
40 1
10 ( 0.15q/l)
5—6 with 3
replications
+ 2 controls
static
Wellborn (1971)
ave. 47 TI. E
30 1
10 (-0.4q/1)
several with
3 replications
‘ control
static
O’Reer (1911)
4 —7 day old
larvae; N
3 1
40—137 (.0.3g11)
6 + control
static
‘C • California frou Bureau of Reclamation. Tracy. California
E • Edenton National Fish Hatchery. North Carolina
H - Hudson River. New Yort
H - Moncts Corner, South Carolina Wildlife Resources Come. Hatcflery
W • Weldon Hatchery, North Carolina
V - Stannton River. Virginia
P • Potouac River. Maryland
B • Brookneal striped Bass Hatchery, Brookneal. Virginia
179
-------
TABLE 41. WATER QUALITY OF BIOASSAYS USING STRIPED BASS
Ca50 4 6
Ca 3.9—4.1 ppm
Fe 2 0.2 ppm
Mg 2.0—2.2 ppm
Turbidity
1-3 JTU
CD . 6.0 ppm
1.5 ppm
460 Ca 35.2 ppm
Mg 90 ppm
r iCO 3 Z7 ppm
S0 170 ppm
Ca 60-30 ppm
CO. 6 pm
C i 4 3 ppm
• 03_i4 0.1 ppil,
Author 0.0. p H Salinity
Total
Total Other
(mg/I)
( 0/00)
Alkalinity
(mg/I
Hartness
CaCO 3 )
.
7.7
— 6.7—6.9
29
1-3
Burton at5j_. (1979) eggs 5.9
7 8 2.0 . -
larvae 6.0
7.2 1.0 -
1sler e (1972) 7.4
- -
azel al. (1971) 7.5
7.3—8.2 0—32 - 150—200
Hughes (1968, 1969. -
1971. 1973)
Celley (1969) .
— Used reconstituted distilled water of 35 sq/i
M9SO 4 . 55 mg/i NahfCO 3 . and 3 eq KC1
7.9—8.1 15.0O0-IS. 0O 59—62 32-36
chins/cm 2
Kprn 6 Earnest (1974) satisfaccory
- 28—30 -
Moyerftoff (1975) 7 7
‘liddaugh etal. (1917)
Morgan & PrInce (1977)
Measured but not resorted
ORear (1971) -
7.5—8.1 600—700 140—200 110-150
ufd Os/cr
Rehiwoldt cc al (1971) 6.5
(1917) 6.0
7.8 HudSon River - 53
w 5t 5r
7.2 - 50
T timt et al. (1965) -
8.8 - 14 30
Texai tnstvument (1974) winter
11-3—14.0
SUIWaF
1.0-8.0
. 1.5—8.2
controls;
•jo to 4.5
4ellborn (1969)
Weliborn (1971)
115
22
7.3
3.2
dechlorinated
tao water
64
35
CO 2
Fe 2
3 corn
0.18
pm
8.0
7.9
dethlorinaced
tao water
63
35
C D 2
Fe 2
2 pm
0.17
ppm
180
-------
TABLE 42. ANALYSIS OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES USED IN STRIPED BASS BIOASSAYS
Subs Lanre Grade or 2 of
Active Ingiedient
• Abate 902
Ami fur
hydroxide
Aqua (ho
I 8 lbs/gal
disodium salt of
endothal I
Bayluscide 5% heavy granular
Benzene
2.4 .0 butyl
ester
Cadmitaii
Ca rhary I
Casoron
Clilordane
Chloride Technical
Chlorine
Chlorine gas (Ru. ton et al
IhaOCL (Niddaugh at al )
Calciiaii hypochlorite (Kosgan &
Prince)
Orthophosphate I 5 ppii. Hydrazine 0 I
ppn; Cycluhexyla.nlne 0 1 ppe.; Lithium
hydroxide 0 01 p in. Doron 9 0 ppm
Potassium chrmvate 0 05 pi”” as Cr 6
Sodium hydroxide 0 03 ppu. Surfactant
1 0 ppm; Chlorin 0 I ppn CJ p m.
Na’ )400 ppm; S0’Q90 ppm. hg” 364 ppm;
Ca” 164 ppm; K ’ 120 ppm. liC0 18 ppm.
Si (as Na 2 SIO 3 ) 8 ppm.
.Q-diethyl O-(3-cbioro-4-methyh-2-
ouo-( 2 1 1)- lbenzopyran-1-yl)
Prepared from cupric chloride (hughes)
Copper iii (rate (Rehwoldt et ]
Copper sulfate
Copper triethanolaiiiine complex
l .l- Oich.loro-2.2.-bis(p-chlorophenyll)
e (bane
1.1. l.Trichloio-2.2-bis(p-chloro-
phenyl) ethane
l .2-Oibrenio-2.2-dichloroethyl dimethyl
phosphate
hlexachloroepoxyoctahylru-endo. eso-
dime thanonaph tiia le.ie (hughes)
l.2.3.4.l O. l0-ilexachlor-6.7-epozy
I .4.4a.5.6.1.8.Sa-oLtahydro-endo-
exo-l .4 5.8-dieethanonapthaleiie
tk rn I tamest)
Active Ingredient
Acl.romyc In
Acr i hay me
Acr if lay me
(neutral) liE
254) .ng capsules
Technical
Technical
Subitance Grade
Active
or . of Active Ingredient
ingredient
I-I
AIdrIn Technical
90%
4 59:
0.0.0 .0-Tetrawethyl 0. 0 -thind1-p-
phienylene phosphorothioate
Tetracycline hydrochloride
Acruflavine (hughes)
2.8-diamino-lO-methylacu idinium
chloride and 2.8-duaminoacridine
(Weilborn)
hiexach lorohexahydru-euido.eiio-dIiuie thano-
naphthalene (Hughes)
I .2.3.4.l0,l0-hiexachlo ,o-l .4 .da .5 .8 .8a-
hiexahydro-l.4-eiidO e ,o-4 .8-ditnethano-
naphtha lene (Koru, I Earnest)
lii trofurazoiie
Aniu niuo. chloride
1-oxyalbicycle (2 2.1) heptane-2.1-
dicatboslic acid equivalent IS 5
2-aminoethanol salt of 2 .5-dichiora-
4-nitrosalicylanilide
Deezene
Dutyl ester of Z.4-dix.hloropheuioxy-
acetic acid
Prepared from cadiiiitxii chloride
I -liaphi tyl 41 .inethy I cai bama Ce
2.6-diçhsloiobeuizoni (rile
1.24.5.6.1 .8.8-Octachloro-Ja .4.1 .7a-
tetrahydro-4 . 1-methanoindan
Prepared from sodium chloride
Chlorine Analytical reagent
Cooling tower I 0 2
blowdown $
power plant
chemical
discharge
Co-Ral 25% wettable powder
Copper Technical
Copper Technical
sulfate
Cutrine 8.51%
000 992
001 17 22
Dibrom 902
Dieldrin 50%
85
Reagent
18%
Iechuiical
98%
2% granules
60
(continued)
-------
TABLE 42. (continued)
Diuron
(tannex)
Dursban
Dylos 00%
I .l-ethylene-2.2-dipyridiiiwu
dibrsnide ( hughes)
6.1-Dihydrodipyrido(l.2-a.2; I’-c)
pyrazidinitse dibromide (ideliborn)
3-(3.4-dichlorophenyi)-l .1-dimethyl-
urea
o o oiethyi-0-3.5.6-Trichloro-2-
pyrhdyi phosphorothioate
Dimethyl (2.2.2-trichlor-l-hydro-
eyethyl) phosphonate (hughes)
Dimethyl (2.2,2-trichloro-i-hydro-
syethyl) phosphonate ester of butyric
acid (Weilborn)
6.7.0,9.I0.iO-hieeachloro-l ,5.Sa.6.9.
ga-hesahytho-6.9-inethanO-2.1 .3-
benzodioxathie pin-3-oxide
1.2. 3.4. 10. I0-hiexachioro-6 .7-epoxy
I ,4.4a.S.6,7.B.8a-octahydro-I .4-endo-
endo-5. B-dime thanonaphtha lane
0-Ethyi-0-p-ni trophenyl piienyIphos-
phiOnothioic acid
0.0-diethyl P.p-nitrophenyi thiophos-
phate ( hughes)
0.0-Diathyi-0-p-ni trophenyl phosphoro-
thionate (torn & Earnest)
0 0-Dimethyl-0-(4-(metl ylthiO)-m-
tolyl) phosphorothioate
Forisa I dehyde (Hughes)
37t formaldehyde gas solution (teiley)
Solution of 37 . by weight, of fonsal-
dehyde gas in water, 10-15% methanol
added (Weilborn)
Malachite
green
Malachite
green
oxalate
Malathion
Methoxychior 8g 5;
liethylene Technical
blue
Methyl 45%
parathion
80 %
5,( I ,2-dkarbethoxyethyi )U.0-
dimethyl dithiophosphate ethyl
phosphorodithioate (torn I Earnest)
0,O-dieiethyl ditiiiophosphate of
dieuiyl etercaptosuccinate (Wel lborn)
I. ). l-Trichlorn-2,2-bis(p-sietiiory-
phenyl) ethane
Methyiene blue
0.0-dieiethyl 0-p-ni trnphenyi tiiiophos-
pha te ( hughes)
0.0-dimethyl 0-p-ni tropheny I phosphoro-
thioate (torn I Earnest)
Substance Grade or t of Active Ingredient
Active ingredient
Substance Grade
Active
of % of Active ingredient
ingredient
hieptach lor gg,
HTH 70%
instant Sea —
I ron
Kansas
(Diuron)
t i ndane
Diquat 35.3%
3.73 lbs salt per
gal, 2 0 lbs
diquat cation
80 5
99+ 1
50% soluble powder
Endosul fan
Endrin 995
C P.M. 87.fl
Ethyl parathion 46 5%
Fenthion -
Fonnaldehyde 3T.
Technical
Technical
1,4,5,6, 1.8.8-hieptachloro-3a .4. 7.7a-
tetrahydro-4 .7-me thanoindene
Calcium hypoch lorite
Prepared by Jungle Labo,atouies.
Orlando. Florida
Prepared from ferrous chloride
3-(3,4-Dichlorophenyll)-l .l-.iiinethyi-
urea
1,2,3.4 .5,6-hlesaci ,loro-cycloheaane
(torn & Earnest)
gansea isomer I sf BliC; I 2 .3,4,5.6-
hexachlorocyc lohexano (Wel ib m n)
Malachite green (ihughes)
Technical
2.8 lbs diuron
dibromide
100%
25% wettable powder
Technical
Certified reagent. bis-(p-dimethylaminophenyl)phenYl-
96 total dye content methane (Wellborn)
g 5
25% wettable powder
(continued)
-------
TABLE 42. (continued)
1 6 - 222
Nickel
Oil field
brine (as Cl )
Potassium
dichromate
Potass (we
permangana ta
Polyot ic
PM
Quinaldine
Ilecons ti tuted
Roccal
Rotenone
S imas Inc
Sodium fionohydra ted sodium
nitrilotriacetic silt
acid (ItTA)
250 mg capsules
50 eq active per
tablet
E thy l-m-aminobenzoete
Nickel nitrate
Potassium pernanganate
Tetracycline hydrochloride
Pyridyl mercuric
i -me thyiqu mo line
Ri ii Harine Nix
Alliyl-dimethyl banzyeemssnium chloride
Cube root
2-chloro-4 .6-bis (etbylamino)-s-
tn a a Inc
(Cii 2 COONa)ji 1120 (firA
Prepared from sodium sulfate
Copper acetoarsenite (Prewitt-iclng
Farms. Lonoke . Ark.)
Oxytetracycline IICL (Hughes)
Oxtetracycline HCL (kelley)
Oxtetracycline hydrochloride (Wailborn.
1969 )
Substance Grade
or S of Active Ingredient
Active
Ingredient
Substance Grade of
S of Active Ingredient
Active Ingredient
Potassium dichroisate
Terramycin
concenkra te
Toxaphene
Practical
Technical
Technical
10 915 active in
181 8 gas
Technical
Technical
sea water -
10%
5%
80% wettable powder
I— i
Go
1 9
Zinc Technical
25 6 9W4 os soluble Osytetracycline hydrochloii4n (Weliborn.
powder 1971 1
100 % Chlorinated cemphene with 6 1- 69 1
chlorine
Prepared from zinc i,hioride (iiuqhes)
Zinc nitrate (Reiainidt eL al
Sulfate
Tail- lox
Technical
1005
Terrasiyacin 22 3%
Terramyci n 1
Globe Pet labs
-------
parathion has been used as a control for predators in ponds before the
introduction of bass. HTH, a chlorine formulation, is used as a disinfec-
tant in laboratories. Bayluscide can be used as a chemical control for
snails that are known to act as the host for Lrematode parasites. Mala-
chite green has been recommended for treatment of fungal, bacterial and
parasitic infections in fishes. Its use is usually recommended at the rate
of 1:15,000 for 15 to 30 seconds, or at 0.1 ppm as prolonged treatment.
Polyotic has been recommended for bacterial control in fishes. It is
usually used at the rate of 15 ppm as a prolonged bath, giving it a 10
fold safety margin for use on striped bass.
Not included in Table 39 is the report by Chadwick (1960) on the
toxicity of Tricon Oil Spill Eradicator on juvenile (average 76 mm FL)
striped bass from the San Joaquin River system. The fish tested showed no
“distress” after 48 hours in 3.76 ml. of Eradicator per 6,500 ml of river
water (or a 0.005 percentage concentration). However, rio survival was found
after 10 hours in 7.5 ml of Eradicator per 7,500 ml of water (a 0.001
percentage concentration) and “distress” was observed at this concentratiou
after an hour and a half of exposure at the test temperature of 650 F
(18.3 C).
The ranges given in Table 39 for ammonium hydroxide median tolerance
limits for juveniles are the spread reported by Hazel et al. (1971) for
bioassays in fresh, brackish, and sea water at two temperatures. In fresh
and brackish water (15°C) the toxicity of undissociated ammonium hydroxide
was 2.8 ppm and in sea water the median tolerance limit was 2.0 ppm. At
23°C, the toxicity was 1.9 ppm in freshwater, 2.1 ppm in brackish water
and 1.5 ppm in sea water. These authors observed that the striped bass
tested were slightly more tolerant to undissociated ammonia in water of
intermediate salinity than in either fresh or sea water. The bass also
appeared less sensitive to the ammonia at 15°C than at 23°C.
Texas Instruments (1974) reported that behavioral changes related to
acute toxicity of cooling tower blowdown and power plant chemical discharge
to bass juveniles included hypersensitivity to the movement of an investi-
gator in the laboratory, loss of equilibrium, and inability to regulate
swinm ing attitude. Bass fed normally throughout chronic testing except
those in 4.Ox and 3.6x (1.Ox contained 0.1 ppm chlorine) which fasted for
4 and 3 days, respectively, and then resumed normal feeding. New York
University (1976) observed striped bass juveniles actively avoiding
chlorinated discharge water (3.5°CAT, 0.05 mg/i chlorine) when intake and
discharge waters were mixed during behavior studies. Definite preference
for quadrants of pure intake water was noted in counts at five—minute
intervals in preference/avoidance chambers. Mortality and survival of
larvae and juveniles after plume exposure at Indian Point during condenser
chlorination was also determined.
Korn et al. (1976b) observed pronounced hyperactivity at high benzene
levels (3.5 1/1). Bass exposed to the high level attempted to feed but
were unable to locate and consume rations. Those exposed to the low
benzene level had some success locating the food and about 50% was reported
consumed. The control bass consumed all of their ration within five minutes.
184
-------
By the end of the study (4 weeks) the control and low level groups were
feeding normally, while the high level group consumed 50% of their ration.
The results of exposure to sublethal conc ntrations benzene (0, 5 and
10 ppm) at velocities of 7 and 14 cm/sec at 16 C in well water (0 ofoo) of
striped bass 33—68 gm wet weight for 24—96 hours were reported by Brockson
and Bailey (1974). The greatest increase in respiration rate of striped
bass exposed to 5 ppm benzene was 45% after a 24—hour exposure, while the
difference was least after a, 48—hour exposure. The percent difference from
controls in respiration rate at 5 ppm was consistently greater at 14 cm/sec
velocities than at 7 cm/sec. The response to 10 ppm benzene exposure was
very different. At both velocities the respiration rate decreased with
exposure for 24 hours. The greatest depression in rate occurred at 7 cm/sec
exposure for 48 hours. At 14 cm/sec, the respiration rate increased at
exposure for 48, 72, and 96 hours. The standard metabolic rate determined
for controls and then used to determine differences in respiratory rate of
exposure to benzene was given as oxygen consumption (mg/kg/hr) = 214.154 —
1.798 wet weight (gm).
Courtois (1974) reported results of investigations on the sublethal
effects of copper in freshwater and seawater on juvenile bass. Copper was
found to modify osmotic balance; that is, saltwater acclimated bass exposed
to copper dehydrated, while freshwater acclimated bass exposed to copper
hydrated. Lower serum electrolyte concentrations (Ma+ and IC+) resulted in
the hydrated state, and the dehydrated state produced elevated serum elec-
trolyte levels. Courtois also determined that copper modified the osmotic
balance of bass acclimated to different environmental temperatures and
salinities. Actinomycin D (an inhibitor of Na+-K+ ATPase) and acetazolamide
(a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor) were also shown to modify osmotic water
balance in striped bass. A breakdown in osmoregulatory function was
demonstrated at the gill membrane.
Dawson et al. (1977) reported the physiological response of juvenile
striped bass exposed to 0.5, 2.5 and 5.0 ppb cadmium (CdC1 2 ) for 30—90 days
and to 1.0, 5.0 and 10.0 ppb mercury (HgCl 2 ) in ambient seawater (22.6°C;
24 o/oo). Bass were allowed to recover in running seawater for 30 days
after the longest exposure. Bass exposed to all cadmium concentrations
for 30 days consumed significantly less oxygen (measured as gill—tissue
consumption, ul 0 2 /hg/mg day weight) than did controls. Bass exposed for 90
days and those allowed to recover following the longest exposure respired
at rates not significantly different from these of controls. The respiration
rate of bass exposed to 1 ppb mercury did not differ significantly from that
of controls, while those exposed to 5 p m mercury for 30 days respired at a
significantly lower rate than the control. After 60 days respiration of
exposed and control mercury groups was about equal. The authors did not
observe a significant change in the AAT or GÔPdH activity in the livers of
bass during exposure to cadmium or mercury. However, after a recovery period,
those exposed to 5 ppb cadmium showed a highly significant decrease in both
of these enzymes.
185
-------
Tissue Residues
Concentrations——
Tissue residue concentrations of several metals found in waters
supporting striped bass are suarized in Table 43. Arsenic residues from
six adult striped baas taken from the Hudson River ranged from 0.23 to 0.67
ppm (Pakkala et al., 1972). The mean cadmium content of six Hudson River
striped bass adults was 12.20 ppb (Lovett et al., 1972). Carpenter and
Grant (1967) reported less than 10 pg/kg wet weight of cerium in edtble
portion. Windom et al. (1973) reported determining concentrations of copper,
mercury and zinc from Savannah River striped bass of 2.5, 4.5, and 12 pg/gm
dry weight, respectively. Alexander et al. (1973) analyzed forty—three
bass taken off Noncauk, New York, for mercury. They determined that striped
bass over 5.7 kg wet weight would probably have mercury concentrations in
muscle of greater than 0.5 mg/kg, while bass less than 3.2 kg would have
less than 0.5 mg/kg mercury. Rehwoldl. etal. (1978) reported average values
of cadmium, lead, and mercury (mg/gm dry weight) for the Hudson River.
Mercury content in musculature of seven bass from the Annapolis River,
Canada in 1975 ranged from 0.11 to 0.43pg/g wet weight (Jessop and Doubleday,
1976). In 1976, 27 bass sampled from this river contained mercury ranging
from 0.26 to 3.41 zg/g wet weight in flesh and from 0.01 to 1.78 Pg/g wet
weight in ovary samples (Jessop and Vithayasai, 1979).
A summary of chlorinated hydrocarbon concentrations in bass flesh and
ova is presented in Tables 44 and 45 primarily from unpublished data
supplied as indicated. Bischoff (1970) reported two striped bass from the
American River, California, with PCB concentrations ranging from 2.15 to
2.52 ppm wet weight of flesh. The only report investigating the possible
effect these chlorinated hydrocarbons might have on bass (specifically on
reproductive success) is that of Boone (1973), which resulted in a number
of as yet unanswered questions.
Depuration—
ICon et al. (l976a) investigated the uptake, distribution and depura—
tion of C rbenzene in striped bass juveniles. Accumulation was greatest
in the gallbladder, followed by mesenteric fat, colon, intestine, liver,
brain, gill, heart, stomach and muscle tissue. Maximum concentrations were
obtained in the tissues from 0.25 to 4 days after the start of exposure.
Residues were depurated rapidly following termination of exposure. Gall-
ba ldder, mesenteric fat, liver and gill maintained residues through the
seventh day after exposure ended. Muscle tissue residues were undetectable
24 hours after exposure ceased.
Luhning (1973) anesthetized 12.7—20.3 cm striped bass in a 100 mg/l
NS—222 solution (17.5°C) and found 57.9 jig/gm of MS—222 and 23.3 pg/gm
rn—aininobenzoic acid residues in muscle tissue immediately after a 30—minute
exposure. Bass anesthetized with benzocaine (63.2 mg/i aqueous solution)
contained 37.9 pg/gm free benzocaine and 1.4 jig/gm free p—aminobenzoic acid
residues in muscle tissue following a 15—minute exposure. The esters and
acids of both anesthetics decreased steadily with the length of recovery
time. It appears that striped bass are the only species tested that can
effectively hydrolyze the ester of MS—222 to m—aminobenzoic acid in vivo .
i86
-------
TABLE 43. RESIDUE CONCENTRATIONS OF HEAVY METALS REPORTED IN MUSCLE (FLESH) TISSUE
FROM WILD STRIPED BASS
Area and Reference*
Ag As Cd Co Cr
Metals (ppm wet weight)
Cu hg Mo Mn Ni
Pb Sb Se Sn V Zn
I —I
-4
Hudson River
0 (l)
E (2)
0.03
-
-
-
0.500 0.13 - - -
0.249 0.409 0.613 2.80 0.105
-
-
- 0.13
0.265 1.45
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.90
-
0.09
-
2.60
5.49
Chesapeake Bay
B (1)
A (16)
A (10)
0.003
0.026
0.037
0.250
2.020
1.702
0.03 - 5.000 0.350 0.350
0.055 - 0.237 0.320 0.052
0.069 - 0.138 0.355 0.170
-
0.000
0.338
- 1.000
0.167 0.256
0.170 0.218
0.500
0.268
0.482
<0.01
0.000
0.629
0.300
0.916
0.060
0.300
0.526
0.590
0.030
0.155
0.370
3.80
3.46
4.23
North Atlantic Coast
A (10)
0.026
3.599
0.084 - 0.302 0.286 0.097
0.00
0.136 0.205
0.492
0.719
0.321
0.501
0.380
4.66
San Joaquin Delta
A (5)
A (27)
A (7)
C (7)
0.026
0.028
0.023
-
1.316
1.981
1.470
-
0.051 - 0.0Y3 0.289 0.617
0.068 - 0.051 0.305 0.432
0.068 - 0.157 0.379 0.539
0.150 - 0.330 2.300 0.330
0.130
0.187
0.250
-
0.086 0.172
0.112 0.188
0.114 0.135
- -
0.363
0.387
0.546
1.300
0.625
0.587
0.665
-
0.557
0.494
0.690
-
0.528
0.461
0.534
-
0.0(1)
0.200
0.400
-
3.78
3.73
3.54
31.5
Oregon Coast
A (40)
0.028
2.289
0.062 - 0.151 0.204 0.858
0.130
0.111 0.181
0.442
0.604
0.464
0.460
0.315
4.23
A Hall et al. (1978)
B Heft (1979
I = Kohlhorst (1973)
D = Tong et al. (1972)
C = Zawac1 T and Briqgs (1976)
tiumber in parenthesis Is sample size for which mean values are given in table.
-------
TABLE 44. SUMMARY OF HYDROCARBON RESIDUES REPORTED IN MUSCLE
(FILET) OF STRIPED BASS
‘.rea Sampled Year No. of DDE DDD DOT lotal Oieldrin 1016 1254 1260 TotaL
and Sampled Samples DOT PCB
Reference (fish) mg/gin wet weight
Shubci’acadie River
E 1976 18 tr-0.Ol
nnaoo1is River
1976 21 tr -0.09
thoae Island
1979 8 Q.01-1.3 <0.05 0.04-14.1
Hudson giver. \Y
B 1970 1 0.31 0.86 0.75 - 0.17 .1.01 *
D 1973 22 0.72-9.33 5.7-57 0
H 1973 0.05 0.04 0.03
C l 7S 2 O.564
C 1975 7 1.7_30.1*
ttantic Ocean off south *hore L.I
C 1975 29 0 t -5.59
\anti.colce River
1972 2 7-4 1
Choptank River
1972 2
appahannock er
B 1970 1 0 16 0.19 0 13 - 0 02 0.36
San Joaquin Delta
9 1970 1 0.45 0.21 0.23 0.02 0.99
F [ 971 1 1.09 1 .19 0.45 0 65
C 1971 20 5 49—3.99
* Includes 1016/1242 reported by Spagnoli and Skinner (1972)
- Range of values given
= Boone. Joseph. Fisheries .dministration, Annapolis, MD.
B = Boyle (1970)
C - Curtis, T. California Dept. of Fish and Came, Stockton, CA
D • Harris, E. Rome Pollution Lab., ‘1.1. D.E.C. samples
E = Jessop and Vtthavasai (1979)
F • Jones (1971)
G - Spagnoli and Skinner (1977)
H :awacki and Briggs (1976)
I • uthors data
188
-------
TABLE 45. SUMMARY OF HYDROCARBON RESIDUES REPORTED IN STRIPED BASS OVARIES
Area Sampled Year No. of DUE 1)1)1) PUT Total I)ieldrin Chiordane 1016 1254 1260 Total
and Sampled Samples DOT PCU
Reference mq/qni wet weiqht
Shubenacadie River
D 1976 7 0.01-0.10’
1 nnapolis River
[ 1975 Id 0.005-6 67 0.08-12.8:
0 1976 26 U 01-8.50
Rhode Island
G 1979 6 0.09-14.98 cO.37 0.03-L36 () 5-142.8
Hudson River
U 1970 I 2.11 3 20 2 09 - 0 33 11.4
C 1973 1 1 90 0 62 0 67 - 0.42 NA 3.2 1.20 10 4
Nanticoke River
A 1972 11 0 4-1 8 0 2-2.0 0 2-2 0 - 0.07-0.53 0.5-2.5 2 6-47 0
(n 1I) (n 7)
1973 10 0.2-0 7 0.2-0.7 0 1-0.5 0.5-I 9 0 07-0 20 1 9-3.6
I 1974 5 0 4-1.9 0.3-1.3 0.2-1.0 - 0.03-0.13 - 2.3-10.5
0 )
‘.0 (.hoptank River
A 1972 4 0.20-1.40 0.37-1.60 0.36-2.00 0.93-4.70 0.16-0.34 (I 50 ) I fish 2.5-20.0
1973 1 0 85 0 69 0.61 2.15 0.10 4.1
F 19/4 2 0 75.1 28 0 66.1.04 0 31.0.60 - 0.12.0 lb 4 8 ,7.94
Rippahannock River
B 1970 1 0 60 0 78 0.65 0 05 2 31
Roanoke River
C 1973 5 0 39-0 93 0.I3-0. 4 0.13-0.13 - 0.01-0.07 NA 0 6-I 5 0.2-I.! 1.8-4.9
1974 2 0.75-0.89 0.46-0 70 0.54-0 59 - 0 04,0.21 2 9.3.6
Cooper River
C 1973 5 I 14-5 01 0.45-2 12 0 83-4.00 - 0 02-0 11 0.10-0.45 hA 1 3-3 I 0.6-1.! -
San Joaquin Lielta
B 1970 1 366 2.47 2 92 - 0.18 17.0
* Range unless only or two samples
A = Joseph Boone, Fisheries Aditilnistration, Annapolis, M D
B Boyle (1970)
C 1. Glenn hicQay, US Dept of Interior, USIWS, Brunswick. GA
D Jessop and Doubleday (1976)
E Jessop and Vithayasal (1979)
F Striper’s Unlimited. tb. Attleboro, IbA
(. = Authors data
-------
Sills and Harman (1971) reported that residue levels in muscle tissue ot
striped bass exposed to 40 ppm of quinaldine at 4°C for 10 minutes reached
1.44—2.60 ppm, but were below 0.01 ppm 24 hours after end of exposure.
190
-------
SECTION 13
POPULATION AND STOCKS
ST UCT1JRE
Sex Ratio
The females appear to spend more of their time offshore or at least
in coastal waters. Holland and Yelvertan (1973) found only 11.8% males in
1970—1971 in trawl samples off North Carolina. Vladykov and Wallace (1952)
reported that 55% of the Chesapeake Bay population of striped bass sampled
from commercial fishermen from June to January 1936—19 37 were male. They
observed a similar ratio for samples taken in Virginia and North Carolina,
as did Scofield (1931) in California during 1927—1929. Age—sex ratio results
of 852 striped bass sampled from commercial catches in Maryland waters of
Chesapeake Bay in November—December 1976 showed that males accounted for
50, 44, 53 and 43% of the age I, II, III, and IV bass, respectively
(Kohlenstein, 1980). Sex ratios by age class in the Hudson River during
the 1976 spawning season showed dominance of age III and V males and age
VII females (McFadden, 1977a). Schaefer (1968a) reported 14.3% males in
populations sampled from 27 April to 24 November 1964, inhabiting the surf
along the south shore of Long Island. Morgan and Garlach (1950) observed
that a greater percentage of the Coos Bay commercial catch was male
during mid—April and May through late June of 1950. During late April to
mid—May, females predominated in the catch. Merriman (1941) reported finding
less than 10% males among bass sampled from Long Island and New England
waters during 1936—1937. Sampling of sport and commercial catches in
Rhode Island waters during 1973—1975 by present authors revealed 10.7% males.
The largest male observed was 84.5 cm FL, while Schaefer (1968b) collected
a nine year old 85 cm FL male during 1964.
Males apparently dominate on the spawning grounds when adult abundance
is high. Kohienstein (1980) analyzed the commercial landings during March—
April on the Potomac River for 1966—1972 to estimate the sex composition
of the spring catch. He calculated that the proportion (by numbers of fish)
that were male was about 87% for ages III and IV, 73% for age V, 26% for age
VI, and only 15% for age VII of the bass cau2ht. Wilson et al. (1976)
reported that the male to female ratio during the 1975 season was 3.44:1,
191
-------
while during 1974 the ratio was 4.15:1 on the Potomac River. Boynton* found
a ratio of 0.2:1 during the 1977 Potomac spawning season.
Age Composition
Population studies in the St. John River, Canada, during 1971 and 1972
(Williamson, 1974) revealed greater than 20% age 4, 5, and 6 bass among
the males (N47) and age 5 and 7 among the females (N149) sampled. Results
from the same study in the Annapolis River, Canada, revealed greater than 30%
age 4 and 5 males (N54) and greater than 20% age 4 and 5 females (N=55).
Sampling in Maine waters during 1964 and 1965 by Davis (1966) showed
predominance of the 1961 year class (4 year olds in 1965) and numerous bass
of the 1958 year class. Schaefer (1968a), sampling the south shore of Long
Island in 1962 and 1963, found a dominance of the 1958 year class (4 and 5
year olds, respectively) in the catches. Ages of bass ranged from 2 to 1.8
years in these samples. He noted that the 1958 year class was being
replaced by the 1961 year class (2 year olds) in the October and November
1963 samples. Samples in 1964 of 168 large striped bass also showed the
1958 year class (6 year olds) dominant but with most of the bass between 4
and 7 years old. Commercial catches in northern waters (Long Island and
New England) were dominated by 2 year olds in 1936 and by 2 and 3 year olds
in 1937 (Merriman, 1941).
Tiller (1950) sampled commercial pound net catches from Maryland waters
of Chesapeake Bay from October 1941 to November 1945. During this
period the 1940 spawned bass dominated the catch in 1942 and 1943 (2 and 3
year olds) and continued to make up a significant portion of the catch in
1944 and 1945. The 1942 year class made a considerable contribution during
the fall of 1943 and the entire year of 1944 (2 year olds). Most of the
commercial catch in the Potomac River in 1962 were bass ages 2 and 3, while
the upper Chesapeake Bay showed predominance of 2, 3, and 4 year olds
(Nichols, 1962). Angler catches in the Potomac River during 1959—1961
were composed predominantly of age II (47.7%—85.37. of total) and age III
(Friable and Ritchie, 1963). Age II fish made up 86.0% of the total catches
for the 1960 sport fishing survey in the lower Patuxent estuary (Shearer
etal., 1962).
Grant and Joseph (1969) determined the age composition in the James,
York, and Rappahannock Rivers during June 1967—March 1968 from commercial
and sport caught samples. The York and Rappahannock Rivers were dominated
* Walter Boynton (University of Maryland, Chesapeake Biological Laboratory,
Solomons, Nd.), “Spawning stock characteristics of striped bass in the Poto-
mac Estuary,” presented at the American Fisheries Society Annual Meeting
held at the University of Rhode Island, Kingston, 22 August 1978.
192
-------
by 1966 year class, while the James River showed dominance of the 1965
year class during the sampling period. Grant (1974) sampled pound and fyke
net catches for the age composition in these Virginia rivers from July 1967
through June 1971. He found seasonal changes in age composition slight with
the older, migratory bass occurring more frequently in winter and spring
catches. In each of the four sampling periods, age groups I—Ill (yearling
through 3 years old) contributed over 84% of the catch from these rivers.
During the 1969 and 1970 winter gill—net fishery sampling in the Rappahannock
River, the 1966 year class was dominant (Grant eta]., 1971).
The age composition of the co iercia1 catch from Albemarle Sound, North
Carolina, in 1962 was 95% ages 2 and 3, and only 4% in age 4 or older
(Nichols, 1962). Trent and Hassler (1968) found the dominant age groups
were Eli and IV for males and IV and V for females from Roanoke River gill
net catches during the springs of 1963, 1964, and 1965.
Approximately 85 and 77% of the population of the Ogeechee and Savannah
Rivers, Georgia, were reportedly composed of striped bass less than four
years of age (Smith, 1970). Both rivers included strong classes of two and
three year olds. However, young—of—the—year did not contribute significantly
in the Savannah River but did in the Ogeechee River for the 1967 and 1970
sampling period. Scofield (1931) reported that most of the females caught
in the commercial catch during 1927—1928 in California were 5 year olds with
6, 7, 4, and 8 year olds following in order of abundance. Additional age
composition information can be found in Tables 28, 29, and 30 (p.l 48 —150).
Size Composition and Growth Rates
Length frequency distributions have been provided by Radtke (1966),
Schaefer (1968a), Tiller (1950), Vladykov and Wallace (1952), and Williamson
(1974) in addition to those simmu rized in Table 30 . This table presents a
comparison of growth in length for the ages specif Led and indicates the
general growth rates for different areas of capture.
Rate of growth up to 70 cm can be computed from scales using the formula
= ( L—i)9 . + 1, where L = TL of bass, L’ = radius of scale, 9. = unknown TL,
and 2 = radius to annulus in question (Scofield, 1931; Merriman, 1941).
Body length to scale radius relationships are available in Mansueti (1961),
Robinson (1960), and Texas Instruments (1974a). Compensatory growth has been
shown to occur in year 2 for striped bass from Chesapeake Bay and the
Hudson River (Tiller, 1942) and in year 2 and 3 for bass from Albemarle
Sound (Nicholson, 1964).
In Albetnarle Sound, Trent (1962) found that the growth rate was almost
linear among young—of-the—year striped bass (20—90 TL) front June to
November. He calculated rates ranging from 0.272 to 0.433 mm/day for the
193
-------
five years of his study. In the Hudson River, Rathjen and Miller (1957)
reported the greatest growth rate for young—of—the—year during June and July,
continuing almost linearly to September—October. Texas Instruments (1975)
observed essentially linear growth in length from July to November for
young—of—the—year and an increase during April to July continuing almost
linearly for yearlings. Vladykov and Wallace (1952) reported linear growth
in length from April to August for bass beginning their second year. Sco—
field (1931) reported similar growth in length for young bass and 5, 6, and
7 year old females. The rate of growth in these locations was reduced
during the winter months. Texas Instruments (1976) reported instantaneous
growth rates (based on weight) calculated from young collected by beach
seine during 1973, 1974, and 1975. The highest rates ranged from 0.0311 to
0.0407 for July—August, while the lowest ranged from 0.0145 to —0.0157 for
October—November. Ware (1971) observed increasing growth in length among
young—of—the—year from August to January and among yearlings from September
through May. These bass had been stocked into freshwater lakes in Florida
as four-day larvae.
Rathjen and Miller (1957) and Chadwick (1966) observed greater total
length of young—of—the—year and yearlings in their samples taken in the lower
Hudson River and in the lower Sacramento—San Joaquin Rivers, respectively.
They proposed that these might have been slightly older bass that had moved
downstream, or bass that had been feeding in the more productive areas of the
rivers.
Growth is most rapid during these first years of life. This is the time
when striped bass tend to remain in the rivers and estuaries near the site
of spawning. Thus they are subject to changes in the environment of these
moderately restricted water ways. A strong indication of density—dependent
growth occurring in these nursery areas is seen in data presented by Austin
and Hickey (1978).
Trent (1962) determined the linear relationship between standard, fork,
and total length for bass 20—100 mm TL. These relationships are: FL =
0.93835Th — 0.077817; SL = 0.80388Th + 0.55750; and SL 0.85675FL ÷
1.22099. Texas Instruments (1973) determined that FL = 4.60 + 0.902TL for
bass 103 to 667 , while Mansueti (1961) used the factor 0.93 to convert
TL to FL, the factor 1.07 to convert FL to TL, and the factors 1.08 and 0.92
to convert SL to TL and TL to SL, respectively, for live bass. During the
present study a linear regression for live bass of 12—65 mm as FL = l.55SL —
0.196, and of 12—200 mm SL as SL 0.909FL — 1.805 (see Section 10) was
defined.
Length—weight relationships reported from different areas are given in
Table 29 for different sexes, adult and young striped bass. Throughout their
range it appears that after bass mature, the males of a given length weigh
less than females of the same length (Merriman, 1941; Mansueti, 1961).
Growth is more rapid during the second and third years of life, or before
maturity, than in later years. Size at maturity for a number of stocks is
presented in Table 28. Growth in length of females is great2r after
maturity than of males (Table 30). Graphic means of determining age and
194
-------
weight given the length of a bass are provided by Scofield (1932) and Clark
(1938).
Condition factors (Kn) calculated by Trent (1962) ranged from 0.984
to 1.471 for bass 18.5—91 TL. Texas Instruments (1973) calculated condi-
tion factors (K) for young—of—the—year (25—100 n TL) ranging from 0.94 to
1.25. Ware (1971) reported K—factors (Hue) varying between 1.31 and 2.79
for bass 76—483 mm TL from Florida lakes. He stated that the surviving
bass with the K—factor of 1.31 was clearly emaciated, while those of at
least 2.00 appeared very healthy. Values of K ranging from 1.658 to 2.540
for 0—450 SL bass were reported by Wigfall and Barkuloo (1976) for a
Florida river system. Texas Instruments (1973) calculated condition
factors (K) for 200—800 mm TL striped bass from the Hudson River and from
Chesapeake Bay (using data in Mansueti, 1961). These factors ranged from
0.91 to 1.10 for the Hudson River bass and from 0.87 to 1.35 for Chesapeake
Bay bass. Condition factors (K) for 37—70 cm FL adults on the spawning
grounds of the Nanticoke River ranged from 1.06—1.63 (Westin, 1978). Three
laboratory held adults (47—53 cm FL) were found to have condition factors
of 1.16—1.26, while four migratory bass the same size showed factors ranging
from 0.87 to 1.49.
ABUNDANCE AND DENSITY
Average Abundance
A model of the population dvnaniics of California striped bass is
described by Sommani (1972). It is presented below with other models.
Population abundance based on Peterson mark—recapture estimates was
100,000 (1969—1973) for 5 year old males tagged in 1969 and about 150,000
during 1972—1973 for 5 year old males tagged in 1972 (Stevens, 1977a). The
estimates were 5 million and 500,000 for tagged 3 year olds, respectively.
Stevens (197Th) estimated a population index for 1958—1972 based on catch
records. The estimated index was low in 1971 (86,020) and high in 1961
(322,250). He included a discussion of the biases of this index.
Texas Instruments (l974a) calculated two population estimates for the
Hudson River during fall of 1973 using mark—recapture data. They estimated
the population of young—of—the—year as 1, 641,000 using Schumacher—Eschmeyer
estimate and 1,680,000 using Peterson estimate. They discussed both briefly
in relation to Hudson River striped bass. McFadden (1977a) reported
Petersen estimates for 1974 and 1975 Hudson River young—of—the—year in late
October as 1,288,000 and 1,024,000, respectively.
Austin and Hickey (1978) found an inverse relationship between the
abundance of a year class in Chesapeake Bay and the modal length of age 11+
bass in New York waters. In addition, they observed thatthe modal length of
age III bass migrating into New York waters in the spring was a reliable
index of the abundance of that year class. Observed modes rather than
calculated modes for year classes 1954, and 1958—1962 resulted in more
accurate estimates of New York landings for 1964 and 1965.
195
-------
This study also provided reasonable data suggesting density—dependent growth
of striped bass.
Changes in Abundance
Trent (1962) stated three factors — mortality, dispersion, and gear
selectivity — presumed responsible (separately or in combination) for a
reduction seen in young—of—the—year abundance as the season progressed.
Sasaki (1966a+b) observed migrations of young—of—the—year and juvenile bass
downstream from the Sacramento—San Joaquin Delta probably in response to food
supply and/or water velocity changes. The survival and distribution of
young bass were clearly defined by functions of water flow in this Delta
system and abundance was greatest in the low salinity zone (Turner and Chad-
wick, 1972). Possible mechanisms for these relationships were discussed by
the authors. Hallowing Point Field Station (1976) data indicated a probable
relationship between short term river flow prior to spawning and juvenile
abundance in the Potomac River. Conteet al . (1979) observed that the
densities of bass eggs increased from ebb to flood tide and were greatest
during flood tide at the mouth of the Sassafras River, Maryland. They
observed from replicate tow samples taken during a tidal cycle on April 21st
that larval densities showed a trend about opposite that of eggs. They
felt that the short—term variations in these surface abundances were
partly due to changes in the vertical mixing velocities and turbulence
related to tidal currents. Using Hudson River data from Texas Instruments
and New York University, McFadden (1977a) reported that a significant
influence on the abundance of juveniles resulted from variables of predation,
egg production, and rate of temperature change over the interval of 16—20°C
from multiple regression analysis.
Average Density
Table 46 simm arizes average densities of striped bass eggs, larvae,
and juveniles as reported throughout their range. No attempt has been made
to reduce these to 3 a common basis. Eggs were found to vary in mean density
from 3.5 to 17.0/rn during a series of replicate tows from 1900—2400 on
April 21, 1976, at a single site in Upper Chesapeake Bay (Conte 3 al.,
1979). Mean densities of larval bass ranged from 0.9 to 15.9/rn at this
site during the sampling period. Densities of yearlings and older striped
bass in the Hudson River were reported from beach seine collections made in
1965—1974 (Texas Instruments, 197Th).
In general densities of eggs are highest from mid—water and bottom
collections. Yolk sac and ,ost—yolk sac larvae are densest near the
bottom in day samples, but night sampling suggests vertical dispersion.
Juveniles appear densest among bottom samples and from shore zone areas.
This shorezone abundance declines in late fall and winter, but yearlings
reappear in shore zone and bottom areas in spring. Tidal fluctuations
appear to be unrelated to juvenile abundance in the shore zone from either
day or night sampling.
196
-------
TABLE 46. EXAMPLES OF ANNUAL DENSITIES OF STRIPED BASS REPORTED FOR DIFFERENT AREAS
Area Tsar in HiiuiSiidn or oensl7 V
— — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ scone Juveni les Iqiorting Units Inference
lia Ise. lIter 1066-1967-1961 plankton nat 9 - ID 0-I l - I/iUX ca It Lnrlqois I lIctees (11169)
3.4-10.5 en bastes
1965- 1969 scsI balloon trs.l s - o F , liotle. I/its
19 77-197 5 bench seine - - 0 -ISO catch/wilt effort leans instrenenin 41976.)
1969-1975 bench arise - - 0-60 cssch/solt effort Mcfadden (1977)
1965-197 5 beach ‘else - - 1. 1- 79.4 cntch/sailt ares M ,Fs,lLlsn (1977 1
1973- 1974 bench seine, bottnn trawl - - 0232 ,0-I l catch/wilt e lle n Trans lnslr..neels 11973.)
1973 boLt., trawl - - 0-75 I/IS . 1 . trawl lacier, ci si. (1974)
1973 spibenthic sled, tucker trod 9-2500 0-546 0-15 I/lOot) n 1 Towns Iostrwneeti h ole d
beach seine - - 0 -740 cntcb/isslt nifort Tnnss Is%tn.ints 097Cr)
‘0
batte, trawl - - 0— 6 catch/unfit effort Trans Instrsnests (1976c)
1974 epIbenthic sled, ruchnr trswl 0- 99 0-66 - 1/1009 Trots Iatsur,enis (i977I’I
beach seine - - 0— 13 cntcb/ssill effort texas iosletsento ( 1971b 1
%.Miiebsnsn liter 1961-1969 seine, trnel - il- 16 I/beLtnre Lac Ier (1971)
Potonnc litre 1971 plonklon net 0-2100 0-6400 - I/lo ot). ’ I Fcoltgleni Anslynis inc I
1974 plnnltoo net 0 11,133 0-600 - 1 11000 • John ’ Ilolilins tInt, (1974)
3975 pinniten nrc 0-24 50 0-969 o-n 11 1000 . 1 ilnitowins PLI-ielJ tin (1976)
tJiesipeske Sq 1954- 1975 brnth seine - 0—29 I/bawl Boone ’
lanes • Tori, sn d 1966-1167 30 ft in ) loon ten d - ?5- 450 cntcb/t ras h bour Crnnt I Ilereleer I 1071)
Isppobnsneci livers
1967-1972 n lsoow seine - 1—6 catch/haul lierriner S Ihuogsan (I97 )
Aihennele So.n ,d 1055-1961 I I ft bnilunus tenw l - 0—i 65 I/i rswling ‘in T.n.t (1962)
Sscen,esto- 1949 is-ilvi 0-773 0-t I csttb/I00,000 en ft trr lliln !L!J (195u I
Sos loaqo ln Della
t DSt tow set on n i h - - 03 5 1/1009 c i i ii Caibtain ( 19 5Th)
1956-1959 beach same - - 0-600 I/(.nu( 6beJurlcl (3964)
1957- 1962 bes h sties - - 0-350 cnscb/tow ibsIwick (1964)
1963 otter trawl 0—700 9/ 19 n b toe ¶ssali (1966)
1959- 1970 tea oct or skIs 14-116 1 lndra of aiouodnacn wbeas 5O i . i Turner S fbn,lwirb (1972)
macben neso isnltb of 3,6 n
1970 tow net as oils - 0 - 1 293 I/steP ft. logers 6 Itevees iIO7i)
Josrpb loans, Fisheries Ilologtsl, llnryisnd Dept lisireles A.lnlnlstratlon, - — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ —
AlinslIolls, Ilneylnod,
-------
Changes in Density
Downstream migration of juveniles during late summer and fall (Sasaki,
1966b; Texas Instruments, 1977b) reduces densities observed upstream.
Changes in behavior of life history stages in response to tidal, diet,
temperature or diel influences have been related to observed densities.
For example, local movements of larvae, juveniles and yearlings have been
well documented in areas of proposed power plants (Hudson River,
Chesapeake—Delaware Canal and Potomac River) or pump storage and canal
diversions (Sacramento—San Joaquin River valley) and examples from Hudson
River studies (McFadden, 1977a) have been used to illustrate these changes.
Yolk sac larvae are essentially planktonic but appear to concentrate near
the bottom at night, dispersing somewhat during the day. Post—yolk sac
larvae are capable of resisting currents and making directed movements.
They exhibit nocturnal migration patterns strongly oriented toward
the bottom. This orientation behavior appears to intensify as larvae
approach the juvenile stage. Juvenile bass are first collected in mid—June
to early July, depending on the time of spawning, from waters deeper than 6
meters. As water temperature increases, the juveniles migrate to shoal
and shore zone areas. Falling water temperatures bring net downstream
movement so that by December juveniles are generally absent from the shore
zone, having either left the estuary or moved into deeper water for
winter. Apparently, the abundance of juveniles in local areas is related
to temperature, salinity, habitat type, diel patterns, and tidal stage.
Comparisons of day/night beach seine catches in the Hudson River suggested
movement into the shore zone at night, probably to feed or escape predation.
Yearlings were found in deep water areas in early spring, throughout the
estuary by suer. With falling water temperature, they moved into deeper
water and downstream. Yearlings generally exhibit the same day/night
pattern as juveniles, but appear less influenced by tidal fluctuations.
Pollution (e.g., siltation from dredging or runoff, heavy metals,
chlorinated hydrocarbons, or temperature), dam building, and overfishing
have been cited as factors contributing to striped bass stock depletions
(Raney, 1952; Dovel. and Edmunds, 1971). McHugh (1972) did not feel that
the stocks were being depleted, at least not those represented by the New
York landings from 1887—1970. He felt the increase in catch was caused
by a real increase in abundance rather than an increase in fishing effort.
This long—term trend in abundance was also apparent from the Virginia
fishery landings (Grant, 1974).
NATAL ITY AND RECRUITMENT
Reproduction Rates
The number of eggs produced (i.e., fecundity) by the females of this
species is highly correlated with weight, length and age. The number of
eggs increases with age, although there is considerable variability
between individuals of the same age group. An immature ovary contains
small ova 0.07 to 0.125 mm in diameter. A mature ovary contains both
small and large ova. The large ova average 0.22 to 0.76 mm in diameter,
198
-------
increasing to 1.0 to 1.35 umi at spawning. As they mature, the ova and
ovaries change in color from cream to orange to pale, or grass, green.
Fecundity data mainly from individual females, are plotted in Figure 43.
Regression equations of fecundity (egg x 103) to body weight have been
calculated for Hudson River (0.161 kg + 93.04; Texas Instruments, 1973),
Roanoke River (75.9 kg [ 2.22] + 1.4; Lewis and Bonner, 1966), and offshore
North Carolina (218 kg — 0.117; Holland and Yelverton, 1973) striped bass.
These authors estimated fecundity at 173,000 eggs for Hudson River, 176,000
eggs for Roanoke River, and 318,000 eggs for offshore North Carolina striped
bass, respectively, per kilogram of body weight.
Production rate estimates of eggs and larvae for three areas and
several spawning seasons are summarized in Table 47. Survival rate from
egg to yolk sac larvae determined from these estimates ranged from 1.6 to
190.0%. Survival rates for yolk. sac to post—yolk sac larvae for 1974 and
1975 in the Potomac River were determined as 4.7 and 5.5%, respectively
(Hal] .owing Point Field Station, 1976). Estimates of 1975 year—class
survival rates in the Hudson River were calculated for four stages
(McFadden, 1977a). The daily survival rates were 75.3% for egg to yolk
sac larvae, 82.4% for yolk sac to post—yolk sac larvae, and 94.9% for post
yolk sac larvae to juvenile.
Forecasting potential yields of striped bass from egg or larvae produc-
tion estimates can be tenuous. The year class strength, or dominance,
phenomenon of this species has received little attention until recently
since Scofield’s (1931) and Merriman’s (1941) investigations. At the time
of Raney’s (1952) work there was “relatively little information available on
probable conditions essencial for the production of a good year—class” in
striped bass stocks. Merriman and Scofield’s observation that dominant
year—classes are often produced by a comparatively small parental stock
remains conjecture. Koo (1970), examining the commercial catch data from
19 30—1966, concluded that the dominant year—class phenomenon was visible
at 6—8 year intervals among Atlantic coast bass stocks. He felt it was a
well—defined feature of the population dynamics of this species. Recently
van Wink1e al . (l979b) reported periodicities of 20 years and 6—8 years
which were neither simple nor predictable from times series analysis of
the commercial catch data from 1930 to 1974.
Perhaps the major contribution since the early 1950’s on the mechanisms
of year—class strength for bass is the apparent agreement by investigators
of the Hudson, Potomac and Sacramento—San Joaguin Rivers that control of
population size is active within the first two months of life. This is a
time of extreme vulnerability to environmental variation. A number of
density—independent and density—dependent factors have been postulated with
which to predict spawning success, or year—class strength. Low river flow
and/or reduced run—off have been linked directly to reduced spawning activity
and success (Hassler, 1958; Fish and McCoy, 1959), or to availability of
199
-------
0
0
TABLE 47. ESTIMATES OF EGG AND LARVAL PRODUCTION AND SURVIVAL RATES
a calculated and presented by .Joluis hopkins unIversity. 1975.
b Calculated as weekly standing crop for S/IS-eggs and 6/10-larvae.
1 EstImates of fin fold larvae production given as 0.03 x
Area and Yeaz
Egg
Production
Survival
(calculated from
productIons)
Larvae
Production
(yolk sac)
Source of Dat.i
hudson River 1966
1967
1973
1974
2.4 x l0
0.52 x l0
0.27 10 q
0.35 x 10.
8.3
16.5
35.6
31.4
2.0 x 10
1.9 x 108
0.96 x 108
I.) x 10
Carlson lcCaiin (l969)°
Carlsoui G tlcCann (l9( .9)°,
Texas Instruments (I97S)i
Texas Instruu nts (1975)
Chesapeake Delaware
197L
1973
Canal
9
2.9 X 109
9.5 x 10
4
7.3
8
1.2 X l0
6.9 x 10
Johnson (1972) a
kernelian (1971)
Potomac River 1973
1974
1974
1974
5.0 x 10
9
3.8 x 10
9
4.5 *109
4.5 x 10
190.0
2.9
1.6
1.6
9.5 x 108
8
1.1 x 10
8
0.7 *108
0.7 x 10
Ecological Analysts a
.lohishlopkins UnIv. (1974)
Ecological Analysts
.lohis hopkins Univ. ( 1974)°
Polgaretal. ( 1975 )C
llahlowing Point Field Station
1975
1975
9
9.9 x 108
6.5 x 10
5.0
63.1
8
4.9 X l0
4.1 x 10
( 1976 )C
Nilmrsky ot al (1974)
Hal lowluig Point Field Station
(1976)11
d Estimates of liii fold larvae production given as 0.22 x l0 .
-------
larval food supplies (Polgar*). Low flow from water diversion has been
directly related to year—class strength in the California stock (Turner and
Chadwick, 1972; Chadwicket al. , 1977; Stevens, 1977b). Winter water
temperature in th spawning rivers has been linked directly to dominant
year—classes (Merriman, 1941) or indirectly to year—class strength via
effects on the larval food supply (Heinle et al., 1976). Additional effects
of temperature and food availability on larval survival and growth have been
demonstrated by Eldridge et al. (1977, 1980), Miller (1977), and Rogers and
Westin (1979, 1980), while food supply in the nursery areas was considered an
important factor by Austin and Hickey (1978).
Factors Affecting Reproduction
Although density—dependent factors have important affects on the repro-
duction and survival of striped bass, the density—independent factors are
probably primarily responsible for variability in year—class strength (see
Merriman, 1941; Koo, 1970; Hein1e al. , 1976; Goodyear, 1978; van Winkle
et al. , l979b). This also includes those factors over which man has some
control, for example water diversions for irrigation or power plant cooling
and water pollution by siltation or heavy metals. Most of the studies have
examined factors affecting the survival of eggs and larvae with little infor-
mation available specifically dealing with the physiological development of
adults prior to spawning. Recently Wipple** suggested that egg viability
could result from incompatibility of genetic combinations and/or affects of
poor parental condition on gametes during maturation. Poor parental condi-
tion in this case was tied to chronic pollution levels, which were suggested
to effect fecundity and egg viability depending on the degree of interaction
of the parental genotype with the environmental stress. We have observed that
mature adults require daily food consumption in excess of their growth and
maintenance needs for at least three months prior to the decline in water
temperatures to 5°C (winter temperatures). It is during the two to three
months at winter temperatures that the gametes develop from the excess energy
stored during the active feeding period. If insufficient stores are
available, gonad maturation ceases and reabsorption occurs (see Section 11).
Results reported by Rogers (1978) and Rogers and Westin (1980) indicated that
large females produced greater numbers of eggs with a greater dry weight.
The benefit of this increased energy store is discussed together with the
probable effects of temperature during the spawning season on the survival of
* Tibor Polgar (Martin Marietta Corp., Environmental Technology Center,
Baltimore, Nd.) “Factors influencing striped bass spawning success in the
Potomac Estuary,” presented at the American Fisheries Society Annual Meeting
held at the University of Rhode Island, Kingston, 22 August 1978.
** Jeannette Wipple (NOAA Southwest Fisheries Center, Tiburon Laboratory,
Tiburon, California). “The effect of inherent parental factors on gamete
condition and viability in striped bass ( Morone saxatilis), ” presented at
the Early Life History of Fish Symposium, Woods Hole, Mass., April 1979.
201
-------
the eggs and newly hatched larvae.
Recruitment
Based on age composition data the average recruitment into the fishable
stock is at two or three years of age. A positive correlation between
juvenile populations and subsequent commercial catch data, an indication of
successful recruitment into the 3 to 6 years old class, has been shown for
Maryland striped bass (John Hopkins University, 1976). Schaefer (1972)
reported a statistically significant correlation between Maryland young—of-
the—year data and New York landings. Austin and Hickey (1978) have demon-
strated a more strongly correlated relationship between Chesapeake Bay young—
of—the—year strength or age II + modal length of bass in New York waters and
abundance (commercial harvest) in New York waters. Correlations between
juvenile and adult stocks in the Sacramento—San Joaquin Delta have been
demonstrated by Chadwick (1964) and Turner and Chadwick (1972). Stevens
(1977a) observed that the Peterson method and indices from party boat
catches appeared to be the best techniques of several investigated for moni-
toring three year old and older bass. He found that good correlation of
Peterson estimates with young—of—the—year abundance indices or with river
flows during the first summer of life were not available and discussed
possible reasons for this. Stevens (1977b), however, calculated a recruit-
ment index which he assumed measured 3 year old bass abundance based on sport—
fishing party—boat catch statistics. The analysis presented indicated that
s er flows in the Sacramento—San Joaquin Rivers impact recruitment to the
sport fishery several years later and are largely responsible for the fluctua-
tions in population abundance.
The commercial yield—per—unit—effort for striped bass adults for 1965—
1974 in the Hudson River was compared with the catch—per—unit—area index of
juvenile abundance in July and August of the same year. A positive rela-
tionship occurred but adult abundance was not significantly related to
early juvenile abundance (Texas Instruments, 197Th). Some evidence of the
presence of compensation was suggested. McFadden (1977a) presented addition—
a.]. evidence in support of compensation for Hudson River striped bass. Chad-
wick et al. (1977) discussing factors regulating the striped bass population
in the Sacramento—San Joaquin Delta mentioned compensatory processes, which
until recently were considered dominant. However, now they feel that density—
independent processes, especially the mortality of juvenile due to water
diversions within the delta, play a major role in controlling the population
size.
Determining recruitment as indicated by larval abundance has been
hampered greatly by collecting techniques (John Hopkins University, 1976).
Neither the number of eggs spawned nor the size of the adult population
appears related to recruitment, although the factors affecting reproduction
rates and success effect recruitment.
Although Chadwick (1969) stated that the relationship between parent
stock and recruitment c ou.ld not be defined from available population
measurements for the California striped bass stock, Sommani (1972) demon-
strated that a. modified Ricker curve represented recruitment in this stock.
202
-------
McFadden and Lawler (1977) have indicated that the Ricker stock—recruitment
curve is applicable to the Hudson River striped bass population. However,
analysis of their approach (Resource Management Associates, 1979) has shown
that the Ricker model is not an accurate representation of the available
stock—recruitment data for Hudson River striped bass. Goodyear (1978)
concluded that this relationship is not known for any Atlantic Coast bass
stocks. He suggested several models (i.e., Lawler, 1972; Van Winkleet al.,
1974; McFadden, 1977a; Christensen et al., 1977) that have been proposecflo
portray this stock—recruitment relationship. These models are discussed in
more detail below with the other models that have been developed to predict
the population or stock behavior of this species.
MORTALITY
Mortality Rates
Rates of mortality among striped bass eggs and larvae are indicated in
Table 47 from estimated productions using standing crop sampling data.
Polgar (1977) has presented methods for estimating the mortality rate for
successive bass life stages from egg to metamorphosis using field survey
data. The methods assume either an uniform age distribution or an exponen-
tial age distribution within each stage. Using 1974 Potomac River field
data, the calculated mortality rates for each stage for both methods are
2.35 for eggs, 0.32 for yolk—sac larvae, and 0.07—0.19 for the stages from
yolk—sac absorption to metamorphosis.
Mortality rates in the striped bass population of the Sacramento—San
Joaquin Rivers were calculated from disk dangler tag—returns for 1958—1962
(Chadwick, 1968), 1965—1971 (Miller, 1974), and 1958—1968 (Sommani, 1972).
Table 48 summarizes the instantaneous mortality, exploitation and survival
rates from these and other studies as available. The choice of tag was
based primarily on an evaluation of five types reported by Chadwick (1963).
The mortality rates calculated for Virginia rivers were based on returns
from tagging studies using internal anchor tags. The rates calculated
for North Carolina were from tagging studies using Floy dart tags. The
calculated annual fishing mortality rate for bass tagged in the ocean off
North Carolina and recaptured from North Carolina to Maine was 35% (Holland
and Yelverton, 1973).
Chadwick (1968) stated that the tag returns gave a reasonable estimate
of mortality rates, but that the exploitation rates were probably under-
estimated. Miller (1974) discussed the biases from the differences in
returns by sex and size of estimites of this population parameter described
from these studies. Decline in harvest rates (Table 48: 0.37 in 1958 to
0.12 or 0.096 in 1968) was attributed indirectly to decline in angler
success which probably caused reduction in fishing effort (Miller, 1974).
This may be related to a declining population.
Other studies evaluating tag types suitable for population dynamics
evaluation were done by Bonner (1965), Davis (1959), and Lewis (1961). All
three selected the streamer type.
203
-------
TABLE 48. ESTIMATES OF SURVIVAL AND MORTALITY RATES FOR SOME STRIPED BASS STOCKS
Area Year 3urelval Rate ra 1 Ioitatieo Pale
California 0 19 , 0.31611 037211
0959 0.534 0.535 0 247 0.255
1960 0601 0590 0243 025%
1161 0 662 0 672 0.100 0 202
por.z 0 597 0.675 0.700 0 200
1063 0 511 0.632 0.2 11 0 246
1164 0.557 0.705 0.235 0.167
0965 0 GSS 0 664 U Inc 0 136
191.6 0 621 0 .671 0.179 0 176
1967 0 647 0 703 0.160 0 141
1Q61 0.617 0 750 0 120 0 046
196 1 1 0.614 0.I 3
1970 0619 0 lI
1971 0 660 0 I I I
Vir pli ula
Riv er
°9ap 1 .aI.aeaor l
liver
9hadulcl (i’160) ratio of 1962 to 1961 ret urns a’ valid eat lasta of 11161 ‘urvival. sod
anutial aapectatioo utf death fri . osturul rattqea fr i . 1962 1964 an equal to 1951-1961
aao Miller (111741 anvaad eapertattiai of oaturat death way equal to •eao for 10511.
1960 aod 1965.
N )
0
rarertatiaw of iteath
fr i . Natural Cauiaaa
Ia . , ’
iovtaotaaeouv ilortallir Rata
ThEh 1
Natural
Iafaraaca
0 109’ 0 3i2i
0219 0210
0156 0157
0111 0126
0 205 0.126
0209 0122
0209 0131
1120? 0200
0.193 0 147
0193 0149
0.193 0 154
0 19
0 19
0 193
North Carolina Ion
I 14’ 1.1511 0 62’ 06511 0.52’ 95311 afla lch (1965)
0 63 0.63 0 33 0.54 0.30 0.20
0 St 0 55 1 St 0 33 0 20 0.20 bsi.aaai (1972)
0 Ii 0.40 0.23 0 25 0 I I 0.15
0 52 0.39 0.25 0.24 0 27 0.15 CHiller (1974)
0 67 0 46 0.30 0.51 0.29 0.15
0.67 0 55 0.36 0 20 0 31 0.15
O.42 0 41 0 l 7 0 17 0 .25 0 21
046 039 022 071 0.24 0.11
044 035 0.20 0.19 024 Oil
0.37 0.39 0.11 0 II 0 23 0.19
0.49 0.21 0 25
0 37 0.04 0.23
041 011 0.23
o 271 0.036 i i 243 Holland and Yalearten (1973)
0 66 —‘ Craat I Reenact (1971)
9.96 095 a
0.90 0.99
0.93 0.96 HarrIman S ltvapmao (l97 )
0 99 0.15
1963 0 53 d •
1066 0.01 0 02
1967 002 001
1Q70 007 Oil
1971 002 015
-------
Merriman (1941) estimated that natural mortality accounted for about
one—third of the two year olds in 1936 which were not taken by the fishery.
Chapotan and Sykes (1961) found fishing mortality particularly high during
the first three years of life. Kohienstein (1980) assumed that the natural
mortality of three year old males ranged from 10 to 15% in the Potomac River
stock. From tag returns he estimated the conmiercial and sportfishing
harvest (i.e., fishing mortality) to be 27—42% in Maryland waters, where the
landings showed over two—thirds of the co=ercial catch occurred during
Jan iary—May. Using these estimates of natural and fishing mortality, the
average age distribution of the commercial and sport catches, estimates that
sport fishing lands about one—half as many as commercial fishing, he calcu-
lated the best estimates for age III male and female fishing mortality to
be 35% and 4%, respectively.
Effects of changes in natural mortality rates upon striped bass popula-
tions using various models ware discussed specifically by Chadwick (1969),
Sommaxii (1972) and Saila and Lorda (1977). These and other models which
include parameters to deal with density—dependent and density—independent
mortality variations are described in more detail below. Arguments present-
ed by Chadwick at al. (1977) suggested density—independent factors as the
major influence on population size, while McFadden (1977b) suggested density
dependent factors stabilize the population.
Factors Causing or Affecting Mortality
Predators are responsible for mortalities of egg, larval, and juvenile
striped bass. The effect of reduced food availability on larval survival
has been specifically discussed by Eldridge etal. (1977, 1980), Miller
(1977), Rogers (1978), and Rogers and Westin (1979, 1980). Other factors
such as cold winter water temperatures and ice scouring of marshes (Heinle
at al., 1976) have been linked to larval survival through resulting food
availability. Only rarely have parasites been directly related to mass
mortalities of striped bass (Sniesko eta.1., 1964).
Striped bass are among the more dominant species in the area during
their spawning. The larvae may, therefore, compete for food with white
perch or shad larvae or croaker juveniles. Hollis (1967) included a
section describing the food habits of brackish water fishes which have one
or more of their important food items in common with young—of—the—year
and yearling striped bass. Included in this group were white perch, johnny
darter, bay anchovy, alewife, blueback herring, hickory shad, Atlantic
menhaden, tidewater silverside, brindle shiner, silver minnow and golden
shiner.
Many of the physical factors affecting mortality have been discussed
recently by Chadwick at al. (1977). These include changes in river flow,
whether by diversion or dRtmfl{ng, entrainment and impingement in power plant
cooling systems, and pollution. Pollution can include siltation from
dredging or runoff, heavy metals, and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Implication
of pollution in a specific case of large—scale mortality in California was
discussed by Kohlhorst (1973).
205
-------
DYNAMICS OF STOCK OR POPULATION
A ni.miber of mathematical models have been produced in an effort to pre-
dict striped bass population behavior in relation to environmental changes,
especially those influenced by power plant cooling systems. The earliest
models were life cycle models (Lawler, 1972; Soani, 1972; van Winkle at al.
1974) or stock—recruitment models to aid in stock management (Chadwick, 1969;
So nani, 1972). Later models added the dimension of the spawning river
hydrography to the biological observations of this species as well as elements
to handle a wider range of possible factors affecting the stock. These
models include U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (1975), Lawler, Matuksy
and Skelly Engineers (LMS, 1975), Polgaretal. (1975), Warsh (1975),
Eraslan et al. (1976), and Christensen et al. (1977). There are several
analyses and comparisons of these models or their elements (Wallace, 1975;
van Winkle at al., 1976; Saila and Lorda, 1977; Swartzman at al., 1977;
Resource Management Associates, 1979). Two comprehensive studies of the
effects of power plant operation on the Hudson River with emphasis on striped
bass population estimates, distribution and abundance have been completed
by Barathouse at al. (1977), and by McFadden (1977a) and McFadden and Lawler
(1977). A brief description of these models and their analyses follows to
give the reader at least a historical perspective.
Many of the models cited deal with the Hudson River striped bass stock
and have been developed primarily to assist in estimating the impact of
power plants along the river. Collection of hydrodynamic and biological
data for this river and its aquatic populations was most intense during
1965—1975 for hearings on the Consolidated Edison of New York, Inc., proposed
power plants at Indian Point in Buchanan, N.Y. The first model proposed
(Lawler, 1972) simulated Hudson River striped bass life stages from egg
through adults using a deterministic approach based on a set of differential
equations similar to those employed to model transport processes in engineer-
ing and physics. Although it included parameters to predict cropping due to
entrainment and impingement as well as natural mortality in young—of—the—year
(YOY) stages, it included no parameters to simulate spatial relationships of
YOY bass and river hydrodynamics. Models simulating tidal transport, YOY
t .gration, and vertical hydrodynamic effects were included during 1972—1975.
The resulting model, known as the Real—Time Life Cycle Model (RTLC), is
described in detail in LMS (1975) and McFadden and Lawler (1977). It is
essentially three submodels including a model of the hydrodynamic behavior of
the Hudson River and models of the YOY and adult populations within the river.
The dynamic nature of the hydrodynamic simulation provides the “real—time”
aspect of the model. To simulate the interaction of the tidal action in the
Hudson and the vertical diurnal migration of the larvae, the model divides
the river into two layers of equal depth. The temporal variations in flow due
to tidal action and migration of larvae are then simulated by evaluation of
the hydrodynanLic function and distribution of the organisms at three hour
intervals. The YOY and adult models are linked by the YOY model which
supply recruits to the adult model. Assuming natural survival rates that are
density—independent, the adult generates an adult population (using Leslie
matrix approach) with a known female ratio which supplies eggs to the YOY
model.
206
-------
In the Final Environmental Statement related to Indian Point No. 3,
the Nuclear Regulatory Conunission (USNRC, 1975) staff generated two striped
bass simulation models (a YOY and life cycle model) to assist them in
deterin.tuing both the short-term impact on YOY bass of entrainment and impinge-
ment by power plants on the Hudson River and the long—term impact on the bass
fishery and population structure. These two computer simulation models, and
their programs, have also been presented separately in full detail by
Eraslan etal. (1976) and van Jinkle etal. (1974). The daily total—averaged,
longitudinally cross—section—averaged (one dimension) YOY model includes
contributions from tidal dispersion, convection, and migratory transport.
The model’s mathematical formulation is based on the concept of balancing
instantaneous rates of change from convection, dispersion, migration,
mortality, survival and growth, and entrainment and impingement of each of the
six life stage populations (egg through juvenile III) within each discrete
element of the river. The life—cycle population model is based on a Leslie
deterministic, discrete—time scheme incorporating age—dependent fecundity and
survival. It assumes a constant sex ratio and so the model deals only with
adult females. Natural mortality is assumed to be independent of population
size and to occur at all ages over age one. Fishing mortality is applied to
the older bass and is varied with weight. The model allows estimates of the
proportion of surviving YOY with and without density—dependent mechanisms as
well as estimates for entrainment and impingement. Other factors affecting
mortality incorporated into the model are cannibalism, and growth and
survival related to food availability.
Another early life cycle model is that of Sonimani (1972) for the
Sacramento—San Joaquin striped bass stock. This model was formulated to
ensure sound fishery management of the stock. Estimates of natural
mortality rates were made from tag—recapture data, while the relationship
of population size and recruitment was generated from catch per angler day
data and observations of si. er YOY abundance. To model the observed stock—
recruitment relationship for the 1960—1965 data, Sotmnani investigated the
functions of both Beverton—Holt and Ricker. He found that, although Chadwick
(1969) suggested thereproduction curve for California bass followed the
Ricker function, neither Beverton—Holt nor Ricker functions include
environmental factors in spawner—recruit function improved the fit to the
data. He concluded that a Bicker function modified by expressing the June-
July outflow in the rivers was the best model of the population. This
modification includes the effect of outflow on the production of young bass
(substantiated after Sommani’s study) involving spawning capacity and food
availability outlined earlier in this section. Recently, Christensen
et al. (1977) have developed a multi—age—class model based on broad biological
principles. It is capable of producing stock—recruitment relationships
similar to the classical Beverton—Holt and Ricker type curves. The model can
be used to examine the potential impact of power plant cropping of Y0Y for
the range of stock—progeny relationships generated.
Striped bass egg and larval simulation models for the Potomac River and
the Chesapeake—Delaware Canal have been proposed by Warsh (1975). Each model
consists of a series of differential equations describing the mass balance
of water (vertically and longitudinally) and bass life stages within each
segment of the estuary. This model includes terms describing changes in
207
-------
spawn density caused by advection, dispersion, spawning, natural mortality,
entrainment, and larval behavior. This latter element is seen by Warsh as
the most uncertain for the systems modeled. Polgar et al. (1975) reported
analysis of the transport processes in the Potomac River to determine their
role in the spatial and temporal history seen in ichthyoplankton distribu-
tions during 1974 spawning seasons. They used this analysis to develop
empirical models to describe the distribution of eggs and larvae in this
river. Recently, Wallace (1978) has shown that the data available from
Hudson River field surveys indicates that larval stages of striped bass do
not simply drift downstream like solute particles. She observed that these
early life stages appeared able to maintain their longitudinal position in
both fresh and brackish water areas of the estuary. Results generated from
models that simply add larvae into a circulation pattern (i.e., USNRC, 1975)
would, thus, she postulates, appear questionable in estimating the density
of larvae at a power plant intake site.
Most of the models described above were developed as tools to assist
decision—makers in assessing the impact of proposed power plants along
rivers supporting striped bass spawning populations. During the course of
this assessment dialogue, many of the assumptions and functions utilized
in the models’ development have been reviewed, compared and analyzed. A
great deal of this review and analysis has been directed at Hudson River
models, especially the first model and its offspring.
In one of the first comparisons of early Hudson River bass models,
Wallace (1975) compared key assumptions of the simple and complex models
developed to the field data available. She concluded that the Lawler (1972)
model agreed with the data on more points than any of the other models
investigated, which included the USNRC (1975) model as well as six other
early models. She suggested that the state of verification of the models
at that time favored the “one based on the fewest assumptions and on the
broadest body of available data” to have the greatest predictive power.
Her comparison also mentioned that the complex models disagreed on the
inclusion (Lawler’s) or exclusion (USNRC’s) of compensation as a factor
influencing the population.
The compensation function incorporated into the LMS (1975) Real Time
Life Cyele (RTLC) model (i.e., the later form of the early Lawler complex
model) was analysed by van Winkle et al. (1976) using two types of
sensitivity analysis. They criticized the conceptual basis, especially
“the lack of a sound biological basis for the left limb” of the function.
They presented an alternative form for the compensation function which has
a plateau extending from zero to some critical density. This is the form of
compensation used in both the van Winkle etal. (1974) and Eralson et. al.
(1976) models. They showed that this formulation had a sounder biological
basis than the L2 1S compensation function. In a recent review and evaluation
of the LNS/RTLC model, Resource Management Associates (RNA, 1979) included
analysis of the two natural mortality models used in the LNS/RTLC. Both
represent the compensation process. One natural mortality formulation is
based on the Ricker model and the other is based on the Beverton—Holt model.
This analysis points out that, although the most recent presentation of the
LMSIRTLC model (McFadden and Lawler, 1977) shows the later to be the most
208
-------
statistically acceptable representation of the mortality rate, the former
formulation was adopted. It also shows that the Ricker model is not an
accurate representation of the available Hudson River stock—recruitment data.
In addition to the review of this portion of the LMS/RTLC model, the RNA
(1979) analysis stated that the model documentation presented no verification
results or analyses for the model. It was found that the model did not
accurately represent the observed variability in the YOY bass in the Hudson.
Another element utilized in several of the models is the Leslie matrix
model. Saila and Lorda (1977) demonstrated its value as a tool used to
examine the dynamics of the Hudson bass population. They examined the
available data on survival rates of various YOY stages and performed
sensitivity analysis on the effects of changes in these rates on short—term
dynamics of that population. They simulated an increase in mortality of from
2 to 20Z on five YOY stages from an equilibrium population, alone and in
combination. They observed that simulated mortality increases to only one
stage resulted in little change in the adult population, while increases in
mortality at each stage resulted in reduction of the population. Also any
reduction in the fishing mortality in one to several of the age—classes (3 to
20) of the population would pe mit a higher tolerance of additional YOY
mortality in the model.
Swartzman . (1977) compared eight simulation models used to assess
the impact of power plants on important fish species. Seven of them were
striped bass models of Hudson and Chesapeake stocks. All of these assumed
that without power plant operation, the bass populations remained in
equilibrium. They discussed the two hypotheses for the manner in which
compensatory mortality acts and concluded that the striped bass data is not
sufficient to infer the spawner—recruit relationship. Thus it is difficult
to tell which hypothesis (LMS, 1975 vs. USNRC, 1975, or Van Winkle et al.,
1974 and Eraslan et al., 1976) is more reasonable for striped bass. Swartz—
man et al. (1977) found that the major differences in biological assumptions
in the bass YOY models was the choice of stage durations and nc1usion of
compensatory mortality at both high and low fish densities. In the bass
life cycle models, they observed that the major difference in the predictions
of yield and population reduction resulted from using density—dependent or
density—independent fishing mortality, and using different values for the
probability of natural survival of bass in age classes 1 to 3. They
concluded their review with suggestions for improved documentation of models
and greater cooperation and exchange of modeling ideas.
THE POPULATION IN THE COMMUNITY AND THE ECOSYSTEM
Much of this information has been presented in other sections. The
general features of the environment supporting the various life stages of
striped bass can be found in Sections 8 to 11 in the subsections on
natural habitat. Species composition and seasonal abundance in some
communities which include bass have been reported for the surf zone by
Schaefer (1967), for the Hudson River estuary by Perimutter etal. (l967a
209
-------
and b), Institute of Environmental Medicine (1977), Texas Instruments
(1976c, 197Th), and McFadden (1977a), for the Delaware River estuary by
Schuster (1959),. and de Sylvaetal. (1962), for the Chesapeake—Delaware
Canal by Basonetal. (1975), for the Potomac River by Ecological Analysts
and Johns Hopkins University (1974), Johns Hopkins University (1974), and
Haliowing Point Field Station (1976), and for the Sacramento—San Joaquin
Delta in Turner and Kellay (1966). Changes in environmental factors and the
effect on the community and stock are discussed in these reports and in
subsections above.
210
-------
SECTION 14
EXPLOITATION AND MANAGEMENT
EXPLOITATION
Fishing Equipment
Gears ——
Striped bass are landed using both commercial and sport fishing gear.
The commercial gear presently employed are listed in Table 49. Changes in
gear during the development of the fishery were discussed by Koo (1970),
Raney (1952), Scofield (1931), and Vladykov and Wallace (1952). Rosko
(1966) and Moss (1974) described sport fishing gear and techniques in detail.
Recent changes in contribution by each type of commercial gear is
indicated in Table 50 by percentage of the total landed within each state.
There has been an increase for all states in handlines, otter trawl and
drift gill net catches and a decline in pound net and haul seine catches
during the second five year period.
Boats —
A variety of vessels from small outboards to larger trawlers, depending
on type of fishing gear, are used. Sport fishing utilizes party boats of
various descriptions.
Fishing area
Geographic ranges ——
Striped bass support sport or commercial fisheries throughout their
distributional range (see Section 6). The relative abundance can be
inferred from landings by state (Table 51) where the sale of bass is
permitted.
Fishing for striped bass occurs in reservoirs, rivers, bays, coastal
ponds and estuaries throughout its range. Fishing also occurs along
exposed coast, sandy beaches, open headlands, offshore wrecks and banks
generally within 5 to 10 miles (8 to 16 1cm) of the coast depending on the
gear used .and the legality within the state (see Table 51).
211
-------
TABLE 49. SUMMARY OF INFORMATION AVAILABLE ON STRIPED BASS FISHERIES
a
State Type of Equipment Area Season
Exploitation
Maine sport hendlines Gulf of Maine 6 estuaries spring 6 suer
New Hampshire sport heMlines Gulf of Maine spnng, summer 6
fall
Massachusetts sport headlines coastal areas spring 6 fall
Rhode Island sport 6 nandlines coastal areas, ponus, 6 spring 6 fall
coesterc ial floating traps Marragansett Bay
fixed gill net
haul seine
Connecticut sport headlines
New York sport 6 handlines coastal areas of Lons spring 5 fall
commercial haul seine Island, Hudson River 0 winter 6 spring
pound net
otter trawl
gill nets
\lew Jersey sport 6 c handlines coastal areas, ponds 6 winter, spring 6
commercial fyke net estuary fall
haul seine
pound net
otter trawl
Delaware sport 6 hanolines coastal areas and Canal winter 6 spnng
commercial fixed gill net
Maryland sport 6 handlines d Chesapeake Bay and riven fall, winter,
commercial drift 6 axed gill nets spring 6 summer
pound net
haul seine
Virginia sport 6 handlines Chesapeake Bay, York, b fall, winter,
commercial pound net Rappahannock and James spring 6 summer
haul seine Rivers
fixed gill net
fyke net
Morth Carolina sport 6 handlines Albemarle and Paatlico Sounds fall, winter,
commercial pound net Roanoke River spring 6 summer
otter trawl
haul seine coastal areas offshore
fixed gill net
fvke net
Oregon commercial fixed and drift gill nets coastal
a winter • January-March, spring • April-June, summer • July-September, fall • October-December.
b Now closed due to puolic health laws regarding consumption of contaminated fish flesh.
c Ocean fishing prohibited within 3-mile Lint.
d Licensed.
(Source of information for table include Coo, 1970; Chapoton and Sykes, 1961; U.S. Fishery Statistics;
and personal observations by authors.)
212
-------
I ’ . )
H
TABLE 50. PERCENTAGES OF STRIPED BASS LANDED CAUGHT BY EACH GEAR, BY STATE,
FOR 1962 _ 66 a and 1967 _ 71 b
STATE
1962-66
I IAtIOLINE
196/-71
FLOATING
1962-66
TRAP
1967-71
POUND
1962-66
NET
1967-71
OTTER
1962-66
TRAWL
1967-71
Massachusetts
93.2
93.9
0.2
0.6
6.0
4.3
-
6.4
0.0
12.8
Rhode Island
33.8
48.0
56.2
28.6
-
-
14.6
8.2
New York
2.4
9.1
-
-
3.5
75.9
57.6
New Jersey
0.6
0.8
-
-
2.2
3.3
-
Delaware
-
2.0
-
-
-
0.4
6.7
Maryland
3.7
2.8
-
-
6.1
32.5
0.3
15.8
VIr9Inla
-
0.8
-
-
20.3
5.2
-
14.3
No. Carolina
-
-
-
-
ALL STATES
7.9
11.7
1.2
0.6
13.1
10.4
7.6
11.3
HAUL
SEINE
FIXED
GILL N(T
DRIFT &
GILL
RIItIAI1OUNI)
NET
FYKE NET
1962-66
& OIlIER
1967-71
STATE
1962-66
1967-71
1962-66
1967-71
1962-66
Massachusetts
-
-
-
0.02
-
-
0.6
1.2
0.7
3.7
Rhode Island
2.4
1.3
-
-
-
-
9.6
-
New York
71.6
49.4
5.3
6.6
2.6
12.7
3.1
8.1
New Jersey
3.2
2.7
9 0
12.6
6.0
0.8
-
4.1
Delaware
-
-
96.7
88.3
-
25.5
0.1
0.1
Ilary laiid
9.0
4.5
55.3
53.3
25.4
8.7
7.6
5 2
VIrginia
29.1
15.6
29.3
22.9
0.2
2.8
4.2
Ho. Carolina
17.3
21.9
58.9
56.3
ALL SIAIES
19.8 16.9
36.5 35.2
11.9 13.3
2.0 2.6
b 1967-71 extracted from U.S. Fish. Stat.
by autliI rs.
a 1962-66 taken froni Koo 1 1970
-------
TABLE 51. STATE REGULATIONS GOVERNING STRIPED BASS FISHING
State Size
Limit Ffsherj and Limits Season Sale
Minimum
Maximum
an
none sport
none snort
none
none
none
none
sport
sport; coimnercial 5
sport
none sport; coamiercial
none
40.6 °L
443.6 Fl.
0 .5 Fl.
10.6 FL
40.6 Fl.
.15.7 TI ..
33.5 IL
30.5 TI..
5.6 IL
0.3 -1.
25.4 TI.
3 .1 FL
38.1 CL
none
none
cmmierci a I
none
hudson Oelaware qivers
closed
Ma inc
N w Haiitpsnire
las sacisusettS
Thode islano
Connecticut
New fork
New Jersey
Oelaware
land
li rgi lii a
lorth Carolina
South Carolina
3eorgia
Floriua
Alabama
Miss issioni
Lou is iana
Teias
Cal tfornid
Oregon
ashi nqton
none
sport
(10/day)
yes
g
sport; coa rciaI
coo ,rciaI
6.3 kg
snort
(1/day); comnercial
none
101.6
snort
(max. 2/day ‘ 101.6 )
none
rare snort; oomer:iel
none sport (2-10/day)
none snort (5/day)
none snort (6/day)
no restriction
no restriction
no restriction
no restriction
prom 101 ted 5
no restriction
no restriction
no restriction
no restriction
no restriction
inland r nibit d
pronioi tea
pronioiteo 3
ron1bi ted 1
pronibi ted
prohiol ted
orchibi ted 3
pronibi ted
prOhibited
sport prohibited
no restriction
none none sport (5/day freshwater)
38.1 FL none snort (3/day freshwater)
none none sport (2/day)
none none sport (landlocked)
40.6 TI. none sport (3/day)
40.6 Ti. none sport (S/day); coimerc,al
none none none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
a Refers to states oernittinq use of coemiercial gear specifically to canture striped bass.
b Sale of striped bass taken oy any gear prohibited; all other states permit iale if taken incidently in
nets set for other species.
c Recuire salt water license; all others require ?reshwlter fishing license if snort fishing gear is used
in designated inland waters.
(Source f information o t ’sl °fuderer et al . 19751.
214
-------
Worth (1912) discussed fresh water angling grounds in North Carolina,
Maryland, and Rhode Island. Other freshwater areas for angling are men-
tioned in Moss (1974) and Rosko (1966).
Depth Ranges ——
Striped bass are pelagic and fishing depth depends greatly on the type
of gear and the total depth available in the particular fishing area.
Conditions of the grounds —
Some grounds have been closed as a result of possible public health
hazard from consumption of tainted fish flesh. These include the Hudson
River, New York, and the James River, Virginia, specifically for PCBs and
Kepone bioconcentration, respectively.
Water flow through spawning and fishing grounds may change due to
diversions from hydroelectric power generation as in the Roanoke River (Fish
and McCoy, 1959), or to irrigation diversion as in the Sacramento—San Joaquin
Rivers (Chadwick et al., 1977).
Fishing seasons
General pattern of season(s) ——
General pattern of seasons (see Table 49) depends greatly on feeding and
spawning migrations of striped bass. For example Koo (1970), tabulating
landings by month by state for 1961—1966, observed 10% or more of the total
catch occurred during June—October in Massachusetts, but during March—April
in Maryland and Virginia, respectively.
Dates of beginning, peak and end of season(s) and variations in duration
Table 49 shows approximate times of fishing seasons for striped bass.
The season also depends on the type of gear fished, which is often
directly influenced by the size of bass in the area and/or the size desired.
Ice may reduce or prevent fishing. Environmental changes responsible
for changes in distributions can affect fishing seasons.
Fishing operations and results
Estimates of sport angling effort for striped bass are presented in
Table 52 from the literature. m i a recent creel survey of bass fishing in
the Annapolis River, Nova Scotia, Jessop and Doubleday (1976) found that
anglers caught an average of 0.11 bass per 2 hours of effort. The range
in bass caught per hour of effort was 0—0.22 during the 1975 survey.
215
-------
0 ’
TABLE 52. ESTIMATES OF STRIPED BASS FISHING EFFORTS FROM SURVEY OF ANGLERS
Area Year % Bass of Total
Caught
Catch of Bass Per
Unit Specified
Author
Connecticut RIver 1972
4.8
-
Marcy Calvin (1973)
Long Island 1956-1960
1961-1963
0-100
0-100
0-1.3/unit effort
0-0.8/unit effort
Briggs (1962)
Briggs (1965)
Susquehanna River 1959-1960
1970
0.33-1.64
4.34
-
-
Plosila (1961)
Carter (1973)
Pattuxent RIver 1960
8.8-9.4
7-15/11)0 man hrs
of effort
Shearer etal. (1962)
Northeast River 1958
<0.5
-
user (1960)
Potomac River 1959-1961
20.7-76.4
0.3-0.71/man hour
Frishle Rltchic (1963)
Chesapeake Ray, Virginia 1955-1960
-
0.01-0.26/man hour
Richards (1962)
Kerr Reservoir, Virginia 1961
1962
32.95
9.60
0.02-0.11/man hour
0.01-0.04/man hour
flomrose (1963)
Roanoke River, North Carolina 1956-1969
-
3.01-8.37/boot day
Ilassler l Ilogarth (1970)
Sacramento-Soui Joaquin RI vers 1936- 1948
1938-1948
-
0-79
10-25 annual catch/
successful angler
0- .0/ ingIer/day
Calhoun (1950)
Chadwick (1949)
Sac ausento—San .lo.IquLn Iii vci s 1951
1953-1959
1960-1968
10.8—52.0
-
3.5—47.6 mean catch/
successful angler
0-2.3/angler/day
0.3-2.Sl/aiigler/day
Calhoun (1953)
Chadwick (1962)
t ’lckcchnic 1 Miller (1971)
-------
Coimnercial units of effort, landings per unit of effort, and catch per
gear unit for selected states are shown in Figure 47. This is a composite
from Koo (1970) of four separate figures he presented. Time series analysis
(1947—71) of landings per fishing unit (Van Winkle et a].., 1979b) showed
an average annual increase of 17% per year for New York and 2—8% per year
for Massachusetts, Maryland and North Carolina. A more detailed time series
analysis (1930—1974) by these authors of Maryland landings and landings per
fishing unit suggested that a portion of the long—term increase in landings
was associated with gear effects rather than actual population increase.
Effort and catch per unit for Maryland’s haul seine fish j during 1958 and
1959 was presented by Murphy (1960). Intensity of fishing by selected gears
in states where landings are legal can be seen from information in Table 50
for two, five—year periods.
Variation in fishing effort and intensity can result from entry into
the stock of a dominant year—class. This occurred in Virginia when the 1966
year—class entered the gill net fishery (Grant et al., 1971). Dominant
year—classes from 1934, 1940, 1958, 1966 and 1970 are represented in the
landings beginning three years later.
Selectivity —
Grant and Joseph (1969) used catch statistics from pound net and fyke
net fisheries in Virginia rivers as a source of non—selective (i.e., catch
proportional to actual age composition) gear data. They found the haul
seine and sport fisheries were selective primarily because of seasonal
distribution and schooling of young bass during the summer season.
Vladykov and Wallace (1952) discussed gear versus size of bass caught.
In general, they observed that pound nets took bass ranging from 10 cm to
32 kg with seasonal variability. Haul seines took various size bass and
often the larger ones. Gill nets were very selective, catching bass of a
size proportional to the size of mesh employed. Mansueti (1961) provided
length frequency of gill net catches for different meshes by sex and age.
Trent and Hassler (1968) reported mesh sizes required to catch dominant age
groups in the Roanoke River. These were 4.25 and 4.75 inch stretched mesh
for age III and IV males and 5.25 and 5.50 inch stretched mesh for age IV
and V females.
Angling surveys have generally found that a few sport fishermen catch
the majority of the bass harvested by this gear.
Evaluation of experimental nets is available in Calhoun (1945), Miller
(1977) and Texas Instruments (1977b).
Catches——
Table 53 snmm rizes the total catches, from landings reported by
state, for the United States marine areas. Where the sale of striped bass
is not prohibited (Table 5f) these totals include angler caught bass.
Catches made purely by recreational angling have been estimated by Clark
(1962), Deuel and Clark (1968), and Deuel (1973). The estimated marine
217
-------
20
3
,
NO. OF H ooxs.J
-
0 I I
0
U, )
3
- 0 2
-i6.
1.
0
0
2000
0. NO. OF STO. FISHING UNITS
b LANDINGS BY STD A
JZHINGuNI T SJ\
CATCH PE
U,
J t0 1 T 7’
1000
0
8.
0
1930 40 50 60 965
0
‘947
120
00
80
60
40
20
0
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
(1)
a AMOUNT OF
/\ HAUEIS
0
8 c. CATCH PER 100 YARDS
OF
6-
EIN>\J1J
4.
2-
0
947 50 55 60 ‘965
(3)
0 ,
U,
U, 0
Z 1.0
0 0.8
6. 0.4
0 0.2
350
300
250
2 200
150
700
(2)
1950 55 60 1965
(4)
4
3
Figure 47. Landing statistics for Massachusetts (1), Maryland (2),
New York (3), and North Carolina (4) striped bass fisheries.
(Source: Koo, 1970, Figures 6—9)
U,
‘U
0
=7 ’.
70
50 55 60 1965
a. NO. OF STD. FISHING UNITS
U,
OU,
=0
0
=7’
i_0
(n
zz
9=
0
U, q
00
U ’ 0
Q.
=11.
0
b. LANDINGS BY
/ULSEINE J\JPJ
I I
b. LANDINGS BY STD.
FISHING UNITS
C. CATCH PER UNIT GEAR
L/t
218
-------
TABLE 53. STRIPED BASS LANDINGS BY MARINE STATE IN THE UNITED STATES,
IN METRIC TONS
Tsar I II Ibos RI (ann NY II.! l i lad V. Ni C i.aIll’ 45i’s
111311 125 272 09 9110 166 403 5575 1550 21175 59 (6 79
in . 21 9 i i 7 I 9 29 I I 2 25 6 ZR )! 3 HR 4 14 ) ! S 441 I I
i ”32 141 32 I I 145 54 I I. 1971 2697 23112 2710 R i
1 9 53 9 I (7 1 0 9 5.6 1 I 5 4 42 6 25% 6 220 r. in 9
1934 151 2 II I! 7 164 3 ( ‘.1 7 I I I 9
993 2 3 7 .5 (0 3) l b S 5 6 7 7 421 3 171) 3 549 7 227 9 12 7
l’ IM. 12 3 946 1 251. I (23 7 I i 2
19 (7 54 9 143 0 5 9 59 9 109 4 I4 S ‘13 I I 456 1 2(7 9 IS I
1959 312 995 II 63) 667 114 1152 2 94 1539 200
I ’T59 256 967 II 935 1105 91 795.0 4577 2452 350
3940 345 291 36 167 711 IR S 5157 2992 29 1
194 1 5 (92 5022 2 9 %
1942 5 6 44 41 I 9 2 l ii i 5 49 I 26 5 II I ) ! 6 553 2 25 0
1949 a 6 45 4 33 I II 4 143 9 72 6 16 9 30 0
944 4.5 66 7 55 4 7 7 221! 5 116 7 I i 7 1217 2 546 9 41 I
1915 1 I 84 4 49 I 12 3 156 7 IS O a is 6 79! 4 1 )62 0 276 5 I l lS
1946 4 I 73 I 95 5 5 6 218 9 731 2 ‘ 4i. I SR I
1947 I) 7 25 0 23 I ’. S 0 110 1! 27 2 99 5 1(161 5 783 2 41 1
1941! 5% 4 29 6 4 5 161 6 I I 6 l b S 9 1203 I Ill S 2 31 I
194 0 32.7 96 0 1 I 219 1 9 S its a 1103 6 RV.6 3 II 4
1990 21 3 S I ! a 3 2 234 7 49 5 125 0 (37(1 3 1269 4 VI 9 Lb a
19 5 1 39 9 50 1! 10 II 254 2 63 6 91 6 (1960 S 410 0 318 7 12 1
1952 565 212 51) 2206 2113 545 996 I 5 05° 2937 1 (2
1953 17 7 57 2 2 7 219 I 197 5 4* I 1114 % 6 ‘thU I. 141 7 14 5
1951 3”9 527 (05) 1995 212 663 951 ’) 49CR cui94 io n
195$ 52 7 15 1 (0 5) 229 1 iS 9 39 3 1167 7 i l lS 9 354 I 12 3
l OS o 32 2 I I S 0 5 179 3 22 ‘ 12 7 976 I 451 7 346 9 (0 SI Ic I
1957 25 4 10 I ( I S 251 I 34 9 7 019 i i 121 0 271 I I (0 5 5 0
1959 25 2 I I 6 I 1 iSIS 7 25 5 II I 0 1401! 1 (97 9 4 7 6 0 in 0
19511 36 4 II I 5 6 244 9 99 I I S I 3074 5 992 9 195 9 I D 5) 9 I
1960 55 b 14 9 2 9 9( fl SI S II 1 21 111 7 11111 2 155 U 0 5 I I 2
1961 95 1 73 5 9 I 113 I 125 3 30 0 2495 2 041 7 219 7 0 S IS 0
1962 21,7 4 27 7 34 5 299.3 221 3 40 0 1500 5 552 9 31’l I
1961 217 9 52 2 I I 6 305 5 341 9 21 5 1792 0 1247 1 314 I I I $ 3! 3
1964 237 U 31 1 IS 9 115.7 452 2 14 I 119 1 . 1 957 6 125 . 1 I I 20 9
l O S S 56 2102 272 3160 3455 (IS 19519 101137 21117 01! psI
1966 3 6 21.5 3. 113 5 176 7 143 I I 29 I 151” 5 1272 6 2 I1I 5 0 5 21 9
(967 3.6 11915 %9’1 711 111 3405 III I I 1054 I 761 I 521’) 1(151 I I
1068 45 9969 34% 71112 2091 22.2 2(57% 732’ Ibli (IS 123
1969 S I 1713 50’ ! 6969 14911 I f lI 211111 1 12126 ‘(19 95 177
1970 6! 6 1112 391 6075 11 112 2(5 1111611 90911 11)524 09 227
1971 6 5 5411 9 50 S 537 5 I II 7 17 7 1213 3 554 1 657 II U 9 31! I
1972 73 531(1 14115 3795 1603 1126 1461.11 121172 5125 29 250
1973 69 o292 2925 7 1 1(14 3475 2660 22391 13111 7934 17 ( 9 2
So’. (19701 tnt (990 (‘69. and US Pushnr Statistics, 19111.1073. (or ,lat..a not reIslrttd •‘s too, oil
,,unvsnS (inn tInnIMnII. ot pwifl.Ja
219
-------
recreational catch for 1970 was 38.04 metric tons for all United States
regions. For each region this total was broken down as follows:
North Atlantic (Maine—New York) 20.79 metric tons
Middle Atlantic (New Jersey—Cape Uatteras, C) 12.38 metric tons
South Atlantic (Cape Hatteras, NC—Southern Florida) 0.09 metric tons
M rth Pacific (Pt. Conception, Calif.—Washington) 4.76 metric tons
(U.S. Dept. of Commerce, NMFS, 1976)
Total commercial landings for the United States were given as 5089.8
metric tons for 1974 and 3906.2 metric tons for 1975. The 1975 landings
broken down by distance caught off the United States coast were given as
3685.1 metric tons for 0 to 3 miles (0 to 4 kin), 212.1 metric tons for 3
to 12 miles (4 to 19 kin) and 9.08 metric tons for 12 to 200 miles (19 to
322 1cm) by the U.S. Department of Commerce (1976).
Striped bass do not appear in great quantity in Canadian catches.
Leim and Scott (1968) stated that the catch from the Canadian Atlantic for
1962 was 8.1 metric tons. They reported that about 1000 bass were angled
in Shubenacadie Lake in 1949. Dadswell (1976) provided the commercial
landings of striped bass by the Belleisle Bay fishery from 1895 through
1975. Thesmallest catch occurred in 1975 (0.68 metric tons), while the
greatest were in 1966 (21.38 metric tons) and 1959 (19.80 metric tons).
The Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, FAQ (1975) shows Canadian catches
of striped bass (bar d’amerique) for 1974 as 10 metric tons with “more than
zero but less than 50 metric tons” caught during 1970—1973. Japan reported
catching 1 metric ton of striped bass in the area (21) north of Cape
Hatteras in the Atlantic Ocean along the US—Canadian coast in 1974 with
data not available for 1970—1973. According to this source, the United
States landed 5097 metric tons in 1974 from all areas (21, 31, 67) reporting
striped bass catches. Thus the total catch of striped bass for 1974 was 5118
metric tons. Unfortunately, this data is not available for earlier years
so a comparison is not possible as it is for United States marine catches
(Table 53).
MANAGEMENT
Regulatory (legislative) measures
Limitation of reduction of total catch ——
Limitations on the fishery are s’m,m rized in Table 51 for coastal
states. The states wI re stocks have been introduced have freshwater
angling in the reservoirs and lakes.
220
-------
The jurisdiction of the U.S. Fishery Conservation and Management Act
of 1976 (P.L. 94—265) over this species has not been established. If
this law is amended to include fisheries within the territorial limit;
three Regional Councils (i.e., New England, Mid—Atlantic, and South
Atlantic) along the Atlantic coast plus the Gulf and Pacific Councils
would be charged with the task of developing a management plan for the
striped bass fishery within their geographical areas. In the case of a
migratory species such as the striped bass, the Regional Councils are
provided with mechanisms to coordinate their activities and plans.
Currently, management of the inshore fisheries (including striped
bass) resides with the individual states, with the State—Federal Fisheries
Management Program (SFFMP) of the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)
coordinating the interstate programs. The SFflIP works with and often
through the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC), a compact
of the fifteen Atlantic coastal states (Maine to Florida). In 1976, the
Advisory Committee of the ASMFC (1977) suggested that the SFFMP undertake
the job of developing a regional management plan for the striped bass
fisheries within the “migratory population” from North Carolina to Maine.
One result of this suggestion was the Striped Bass Management Workshop
held September 23, 1977, in Baltimore, Maryland. This workshop was co-
sponsored by the Northeast Region of the NMFS, SFFMP, and the Maryland
Fisheries Administration. One of the recommendations of this workshop
was that a striped bass management program be established through the
SFFMP with funds supplied by N ffS with a full time manager* to coordinate
the program. This program was organized and implemented and is adminis-
tered through the established network of the ASMFC.
Pending before the 96th U.S. Congress is a bill reauthorizing the
Anadromous Fish Conservation Act (U.S. Senate, 1979). If this bill and
its appropriations aze enacted, the NMFS (Commerce Department) and the
Fish and Wildlife Service (Interior Department) will be charged under
public law with conducting studies on the status of striped bass in
Atlantic coastal waters as well as determining aspects of its biological
and economic significance.
Protection of portions of population —
Areas and seasons of closed fishing are presented in Table 51. Size
limitations as well as restrictions on use are also shown in this table.
Control or alteration of physical features of the environment
Regulation of water flow -—
The completion of the Pinopolis Dam on the Cooper River to control
water flow in the Santee and Cooper Rivers created the Santee—Cooper
Reservoir in South Carolina. The striped bass trapped in the reservoir
plus those using the navigation lock at the Pinopolis Dam have established
*MicMel Leverone, Pro ject Manager, Striped Bass Management Program,
Maryland Fisheries Administration, Tawes Office Bldg., Annapolis, Md. 21401.
221
-------
a successfully reproducing stock which completes its entire life cycle in
freshwater (Scruggs and Fuller, 1955).
The alteration of flow with hydroelectric plants as in the Santee—
Cooper (above) and Roanoke (Fish and McCoy, 1959) Rivers, or with irrigation
diversions as in the Sacramento—San Joaquin Delta (Chadwick et al., 1977),
or with power plant cooling systems as in the Hudson, Potomac and other
coastal rivers affects spawning sites and abundance of early life history
stages.
Control of erosion and silting__ -
No specific attention has been given to control of silting or erosion,
although patterns of siltation are affected by dam construction.
Fishways at artificial and natural obstructions ——
The only fishway reportedly used by migrating striped bass is the navi-
gation lock at the Pinopolis Dam on the Tailrace Canal of the Santee—Cooper
Reservoir, South Carolina (Scruggs and Fuller, 1955).
Fish Screens ——
Use of fish screens alone by bass at the Tracy Pumping Plant (Erkkila
etal., 1950) and together with collectors to relocate bass at the Centra
Costa Steam Plant (Kerr, 1953) has been successful in California. Experi-
ments were also conducted with a vertical baffle type fishway for use in
diversion canals (Fisk, 1959). Traveling fish screens are usually part of
the current power plant construction along coastal rivers.
Control or alteration of chemical features of the environment
Water pollution control ——
Chittenden (1971) stated that gross pollution had destroyed the
spawning and nursery areas of striped bass in the Delaware River. Kohlhorst
(1973) implicated chemical pollution in a California bass kill. Boyle (1970)
warned of increasing PCB bioconcentrations in bass. Th Hudson River is now
closed to landings of striped bass due to the public health danger of con-
suming fish high in PCBs. Kepone pollution has similarly closed the James
River. Mansueti (1962) discussed increasing pollution and striped bass sur—
viva.l. Kumpf (1977) reviewed the economic impact on sport and coiercial
fisheries, including striped bass, of possible pollution resulting from oil
and gas exploration and production, effluent discharge resulting in fish
kills, and habitat alteration by dredging and filling. The coastal areas of
his impact assessment were the North Atlantic, Mid—Atlantic, South Atlantic,
and Gulf of Mexico regions.
Radtke and Turner (1967) investigated apparent blockage of spawning
migration by high total dissolved solids in the San Joaquin River. They con-
cluded that some planned water diversions could threaten entire spawning runs.
222
-------
Artificial fertilization of waters
Pond management (see Section 4 ) is the only case of controlled
fertilization. Possible effects of fertilization from pollution are dis-
cussed by Mansueti (1962) and Talbot (1966).
Control or alteration of the biological features of the environment
Control of aquatic vegetation——
This occurs primarily in management of pond culture situations of
juvenile bass (Bonn et al., 1976). Copper sulfate has been recommended for
algal control in these ponds. Casoron and Simazine have been recommended
for the control of aquatic vegetation. However, the median tolerance limit
of juvenile bass to Simazine (see Table 39) is much lower than the rate
reconended for control.
Control of parasites and diseases——
Little parasite or disease control has been attempted except under
culture conditions. These are described in Section 10 for small scale or
semi-closed rearing systems. In pond management situations Lindane and
Malathion have been suggested for the control of parasitic copepods. Ethyl
parathion has been used in the control of predators in ponds prior to the
introduction of the juvenile bass. Bayluscide has been used to control
snails that are suspected to be acting as hosts for trematode- parasites.
Control of predation and competition——
Controls of this nature have not been attempted, although bass are
used to control some shad populations in freshwater reservoirs and lakes.
Population manipulation ——
Population manipulation beyond the modeling stage has not been at-
tempted. For a general description of these models, see Section 13
Artificial stocking
Maintenance stocking ——
Most of the bass produced currently in state and federal hatcheries
are to maintain stocks introduced to control shad populations and/or to
provide sport fishing in inland waters.
Transplantation, introduction ——
Striped bass were transplanted to the Sacramento River, California,
in 1879 and 1882 in two shipments (via railroad) of bass from the Navesink
and Shrewsbury Rivers, New Jersey. These transplanted bass (young to sub—
adults) apparently adapted well and by 1887 extended from San Diego to
223
-------
Oregon (Smith, 1896). By 1889 the con ercial production in San Francisco
Bay was about 1 million pounds annually (Scofield, 1931), indicating suc-
cessful reproduction and growth.
With the discovery that the striped bass could complete its life
cycle in freshwater (Scruggs and Fuller, 1955), inland states became inter-
ested in stocking it to control shad populations and to provide additional
sport fishing (Bailey, 1975). Fingerling stocking has been reported to be
more effective than the stocking of either fry or adults. Bailey (1975)
provided an evaluation of stocking programs in the southeastern United
States. For the current distribution of striped bass see Section 6
224
-------
SECTION 15
RE FERENCES
Al-Ahmad, T. A. 1978. Evaluation of rotifers as food for striped bass,
Morone saxatilis (Walbauin), fry under controlled conditions. M.S.
Thesis. Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama. 74 pp.
Albrecht, A. B. 1964. Some observations on factors associated with survival
of striped bass eggs and larvae. Calif. Fish Game 50(2):100-113.
Alexander, J. E., J. Foerenbach, S. Fisher, and D. Sullivan. 1973. Mercury
in striped bass and bluefish. N.Y. Fish & Game Jour. 20(2):147-151.
Allen, K. 0. 1972. Myxobacteria infections of striped bass. Auburn
University Dept. Fish. and Allied Aquaculture, S.E. Coop Disease Project
Newsletter No. 9: 3.
Alperin, I. M. 1965. Recent records of pugheaded striped bass from New York.
N.Y. Fish Game Jour. 12(1):114-115.
Alperin, I. M. 1966a. Dispersal, migration and origins of striped bass from
Great South Bay, Long Island. N.Y. Fish Game Jour. 13(l):79-112.
Alerpin, I. M. 1966b. Occurrence of yearling striped bass along the south
shore of Long Island. N.Y. Fish E Game Jour. 13(1):113-120.
Milacher, E. 1970. Textbook of fish diseases. Translated by D.A. Conroy
and R.L. Herman. T.F.H. Publications, Inc., New Jersey. 302 pp.
Anderson, J. C. 1966. Production of striped bass fingerlings. Progr.
Fish-Cult. 28(3) :162-164.
APHA (American Public Health Association). 1965. Standard methods for the
examination of water and wastewater including bottom sediments and
sludges. 12th Edition. American Public Health Association, Inc.
New York. 769 pp.
Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission. 1977. Thirty-sixth annual
report on the ASMFC to the Congressof the United States. 42 pp.
Auld, A. H., and J. R. Schubel. 1978. Effects of suspended sediments on
fish eggs and larvae: A laboratory assessment. Estuarine and Coastal
Marine Sciences 6:153-164.
225
-------
Austin, H. M., and 0. Custer. 1977. Seasonal migration of striped bass in
Long Island Sound. N.Y. Fish and Game Jour. 24(1):53-68.
Austin, U. N., and C. R. Hickey, Jr. 1978. Predicting abundance of striped
bass, Morone saxatilis , in New York waters from modal lengths. U.S.
Fish. Bull. 76(2):467-473.
Bailey, W. N. 1975. An evaluation of striped bass introductions in the
southeastern United States. Proc. 28th Ann. Conf. Southeastern Game
and Fish Comm. pp. 54-68.
Barkuloo, J. N. 1970. Taxonomic status and reproduction of striped bass
( Morone saxatilis ) in Florida. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., Bur. Sport
Fish. Wildl. Tech. Papers 44:1-16.
Barnthouse, L. W., et al. (Energy Division). 1977. A selective analysis of
power plant operation on the Hudson River with emphasis on the Bowling
Point Generating Station. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge,
Tennessee, Contract No. W-405-eng-26. ORNL/TM-5877/Vl and 2.
Bason, W. H. 1971. Ecology and early life history of striped bass, Morone
saxatilis , in the Delaware estuary. Ichthological Associates, Bull.
4:1—122.
Bason, W. H., S. E. Allison, L. 0. Horseman, W. H. Keirsey and C. A. Shire>’.
1975. Fishes. In Ecological Studies in the Vicinity of the Proposed
Summit Power Station. January through December 1974. Vol. I. Ichthyo-
logical Associates, Inc. for Delmarva Power and Light Co., July 1975;
327 pp.
Bayless, J. D. 1968. Striped bass hatching and hybridization experiments.
Proc. 21st Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. of Game and Fish Comm.: 232-
244.
Bayless, J. D. 1972. Artificial propagation and hybridization of striped
bass, Morone saxatilis (Walbaum). S.C. Wildlife and Marine Resources
Dept. 135 pp.
Beck, A. D., D. A. Bengtson and W. H. Howell. 1980. International Study on
Artemia . V. Nutritional value of five geographical strains of Artemia :
effects on survival and growth of larval Atlantic silversides, Menidia
menidia . In The brine shrimp Artemia . Vol. 3. Ecology, Culturing, Use
in Aquaculture (G. Persoone, P. Sorgeloos, 0. Roels and E. Jaspers,
eds.). Universa Press, Wetteren, Belgium. pp.
Beck, A. P., G. V. Poje, and W. T. Waller. 1975. A laboratory study on the
effects of the exposure of some entrainable Hudson River biota on the
hydrostatic pressure regimes calculated for Storm King. In Fisheries
and Energy Production, A Symposium (Saul B. Saila, ed.). D.C. Heath
Publishing Co., Lexington, Mass. pp. 167-204.
226
-------
Bengtson, D. A., A. D. Beck, and H. A. Poston. 1978. Comparative effects of
live and artificial diets on growth and survival of juvenile Atlantic
silverside, Menidia menidia . Proceeding of the World Mariculture
Society 9:159-173.
Benville, P. E., and S. Korn. 1977. The acute toxicity of six monocyclic
aromatic crude oil components to striped bass ( Morone saxatilis ) and
bay shrimp ( Crago franciscorurn) . Calif. Fish Game 63(4):204-209.
Berg, L. S. 1949. Freshwater fishes of the U.S.S.R. and adjoining
countries. (Tabi. Anal. Fauna URSS, vol. 30.) Acad. Sci. USSR Moscow,
3:929-1381, figs. 675-945. (In Russian.)
Berggren, T. J., and J. T. Lieberman. 1978. Relative contribution of
Hudson, Chesapeake, and Roanoke striped bass, Morone saxatilis , stocks
to the Atlantic coast fishery. U.S. Fish. Bull. 76(2):335-345.
Bibko, P. N., L. Wirtenan, and P. E. Kuser. 1974. Preliminary studies on
the effects of air bubbles and intense illt.miination on the swimming
behavior of the striped bass ( Morone saxatilis ) and the gizard shad
( Dorosonia cepedianum) . In Entrainment and Intake Screening. Proc.
2nd Workshop on Entrainment and Intake Screening (L. D. Jensen, ed.),
The Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, Maryland. pp. 293-304.
Bigelow, H. B., and W. C. Schroeder. 1953. Striped bass. In Fishes of the
Gulf of Maine. U.S. Fish Wildi. Serv., Fish Bull. 54(53):389-405.
Revision of U .S. Bur. Fish. Bull. No. 40.
Bischoff, A. E. 1970. Pesticides Investigation. Current Fish and Wildlife
Problems. Calif. Dept. of Fish and Game, FW-001-R-08. 3 pp.
Bishop, R. D. 1968. Evaluation of the striped bass ( Roccus saxatilis ) and
white bass (R. chrysops ) hybrids after two years. Proc. 21st Ann.
Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game and Fish Comm.: 245-254.
Bishop, R. D. 1975. The use of circular tanks for spawning striped bass
( Morone saxatilis) . Proc. 28th Ann. Conf Southeastern Assoc. Game
and Fish Comm.: 35-44.
Blaxhall, P. C. 1972. The haematological assessment of the health of fresh-
water fish. A review of selected literature. J. Fish. Biol. 4:593-604.
Bloch, M. E. 1785-97. Ichthylogie, on Histoire naturelle, generale et
particuliere des Poissons. 12v. Fr. de la Garde, Berlin.
Blondin, G. A., B. D. Kulkarni, and W. R. Nes. 1967. A study of the origin
of vitaznin-D from 7-dehydrocholesterol in fish. Comp. Biochem. Physiol.
20(2) :379-390.
Blondin, G. A., J. L. Scott, J. K. Hummer, B. D. Kulkarni, and W. R. Nes.
1966. The biosynthesis of squalene and sterols in fish. Comp. Biochein.
Physiol. 17(2):391-407.
227
-------
Bogdanov, A. S., S. I. Doroshev, and A. F. Karpevich. 1967. Experimental
transfer of Salmo gairdneri (Richardson) and Roccus saxatilis (Walbaum)
from the USA for acclimatization in waters of the USSR. Voprosy Ikhtio-
logii, Akademiya Nauk SSSR 7(l):185-187. Translated from Russian by
Robert M. Howland, fishery biologist, Narragansett Marine Game Fish
Research Laboratory, Bur. Spoait Fish. and Wildi.
Bonn, E. W. 1970. Striped bass introduction. Tex. Parks and Wildlife
Dept. Job Competion Rept., F-08-R-17. 12 pp.
Bonn, E. W., N. M. Bailey, J. D. Bayless, K. E. Erickson, and R. E. Stevens
(eds.). 1976. Guidelines for striped bass culture. Striped Bass Com-
mittee, Southern Division, American Fisheries Society. 103 pp.
Bonner, R. R., Jr. 1965. Observations on tag loss and comparative mortality
in striped bass. Ches. Sci.,6(3):197-198.
Boone, J. 1973. Pesticides, PCB’s, and striped bass reproduction. Mary-
land Fish and Wildlife News, 3(12):l-3.
Bowen, J. T. 1970. A history of fish culture as related to the development
of fishery programs. In A Century of Fisheries in North America
(N. G. Benson, ed.). American Fisheries Society Special Publication
No. 7:71-93.
Bowles, R. R. 1976. Effects of water velocity on activity patterns of
juvenile striped bass. Proc. Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game Fish
Comm., 29: 142-151.
Bowker, R. G., D. J. Baumgartner, J. A. Hutcheson, R. H. Ray, and 1. L.
Weliborn, Jr. 1969. Striped bass Morone saxatilis (Walbaum) 1968
report on the development of essential requirements for production.
U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Pubi. 111 pp.
Boyle, R. H. 1970. Poison roams our coastal seas. Sports Illustrated,
33(17):70-74, 76, 81, 84 (October 26, 1970).
Braid, M. R. 1977. Factors affecting the survival and growth of striped
bass, Morone saxatilis (Walbaum), fry in recirculating systems. Ph.D.
Thesis, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama. 86 pp. (University
Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, Order No. 77-24,492.)
Braschler, E. W. 1975. Development of pond culture techniques for striped
bass. Proc. 28th Ann. Southeastern Game and Fish Comm.: 44-48.
Brauhn, J. L., and R. A. Schoettger. 1975. Acquisition and culture of
research fish: rainbow trout, fathead minnows, channel catfish, and
bluegills. EPA-660/3-75-011. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Corvallis, Oregon. 52 pp.
228
-------
Brice, J. J. (Commissioner). 1898. A manual of fish-culture, based on the
methods of the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, with chapters on
the cultivation of oysters and frogs. Rept. U.S. Fish Comm. for 1897,
Appendix: 1-340. Doc. No. 299.
Briggs, P. T. 1962. The sport fisheries of Great South Bay and vicinity.
N.Y. Fish Game Jour., 9(1):l-36.
Briggs, P. T. 1965. The sport fishery in the surf on the south shore of
Long Island from Jones Inlet to Shinnecock Inlet. N.Y. Fish & Game
Jour., 12(1)31-47.
Brockson, R. W., and H. T. Bailey. 1974. Respiratory response of juvenile
chinook salmon and striped bass exposed to benzene, a water-soluble
component of crude oil. Proceedings of 1973 Conference on Prevention
and Control of Oil Pollution. Washington, D.C., p. 783-790.
Brothers, E. B., C. P. Mathews, and R. Lasker. 1976. Daily growth incre-
ments in otoliths from larval and adult fishes. U.S. Fish Bull., 74(1):
1-8.
Brown, B. E. 1965. Meristic counts of striped bass from Alabama. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc., 94(3):278—279.
Bryant, C. P., and H. R. Seibel. 1971. Ultrastructural investigation of
tubulogenesis in the mesonephros of the striped bass, Roccus saxatilis .
Anat. Rec., 169(2):285.
Bulak, J. S. 1976. Investigations into the intial inflation of the swim-
bladder in striped bass ( Morone saxatilis) . M.A. Thesis, Southern
Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois. 65 pp.
Burton, D. T., L. W. Hall, Jr., S. L. Margery, and R. D. Small. 1979.
Interactions of chlorine, temperature change (AT), and exposure time
on survival of striped bass ( Morone saxatilis ) eggs and prolarvae.
J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 36(9):].l08—11l3.
Calhoun, A. J. 1946. Observations of the striped bass fishery in the
Sacramento Delta area during April and May of 1946. Rept. Bur. of Fish
Cons., Calif. Div. of Fish Game, Inland Fish. Br., Admin. Rept. No.
46-12. 36 pp.
Calhoun, A. J. 1950. California angling catch records from postal card
surveys: 1936-1948; with an evaluation of postal card non-response.
Calif. Fish Game, 36:178—234.
Calhoun, A. J. 1952. Annual migration of California striped bass. Calif.
Fish Game, 28:291-403.
Calhoun, A. J. l953a. Aquarium tests of tags on striped bass. Calif. Fish
& Game, 39:209-218.
229
-------
Calhoun, A. J. 1953b. State-wide California angling estimates for 1951.
Calif. Fish Game, 39(1):103—l13.
California Department of Fish and Game. 1974. Interagency Ecological Study
Program for the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary. A cooperative study
by the Calif. Dept. of Fish Game, Calif. Dept. of Water Resources,
U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, and the U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation. Third Annual Report (1973). 81 pp.
Carison, F. T., and J. A. McCann. 1969. Report on the biological findings
of the Hudson River fisheries investigations, 1965-1968. In Hudson
River Fisheries Investigations, 1965-1968: Evaluations of a proposed
pump storage project at Cornwall, New York, in relation to fish in the
Hudson River. Hudson River Policy Committee, New York State Conserva-
tion Dept. 50 pp. appendix.
Carpenter, J. H. and V. E. Grant. 1967. Concentration and state of cerium
in coastal waters. J. Mar. Res., 25(3): 228-238.
Carreon, J. A. 1978. Studies on the culture of larval striped bass,
Morone saxatilis (Walbaum), in closed recirculating systems. Ph.D.
Thesis, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama. 112 pp. (University Micro-
fiims, Ann Arbor, Michigan, Order No. 78-14078.)
Carter, W. R. III. 1973. Ecological study of Susquehanna River and tribu-
taries below the Conowingo Dam, January 1, 1967 to March 31, 1971.
AFSC-1 Job Completion Rept. 122 pp.
Carter, H. H., R. E. Wilson, and G. Carroll. 1979. An assessment of the
thermal effects on striped bass larvae entrained in the heated dis-
charge of the Indian Point Generating Facilities Units 2 E 3. Special
Report 24 (Ref. 79-7), Marine Sciences Research Center, SUNY. 33 pp.
Catchings, E. D. 1973. The effects of increased salinity and of feeding
treatments on the survival and growth of striped bass, Morone saxatilis
(Walbaum), fry in hatching jars, and fingerling striped bass in troughs.
M.S. Thesis, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama. 61 pp.
Chadwick, H. K. 1958. A study of the planktonic fish eggs and larvae of the
Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta with special reference to the striped bass
( Roccus saxatilis) . Calif. Dept. Fish Game, Inland Fish. Br., Admin.
Rept. No. 58-5. 24 pp.
Chadwick, H. K. 1960. Toxicity of Tricon Oil Spill Eradicator to striped
bass ( Roccus saxatilis) . Calif. Fish Game, 46:371-372.
Chadwick, H. K. 1962. Catch records from the striped bass sport fishery in
California. Calif. Fish F Game, 48(3):153-177.
Chadwick, H.K. 1963. An evaluation of five tag types used in a striped bass
mortality rate and migration study. Calif. Fish Game, 49(2):64-83.
230
-------
Chadwick, H. K. 1964. Annual abundance of young striped bass, Roccus
saxatilis , in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, California. Calif.
Fish Game, 50(2):69-99.
Chadwick, H. K. 1965. Determination of sexual maturity in female striped
bass ( Roccus saxatilis) . Calif. Fish Game, 51(3):202-206.
Chadwick, H. K.’ 1966. Variation in the growth of young striped bass
( Roccus saxatilis ) in the Sacramento-San Joaquin system. Calif. Fish
Game, Inland Fish Br., Adm.in. Rept. No. 66-11. 6 pp.
Chadwick, H. K. 1967. Recent migrations of the Sacramento-San Joaquin
River striped bass populations. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 96(3):327-
342.
Chadwick, H. K. 1968. Mortality rates in the California striped bass popu-
lation. Calif. Fish Game, 54(4):228-246.
Chadwick, H. K. 1969. An evaluation of striped bass angling regulations
based on an equi1ibri .un yield model. Calif. Fish Game, 55(1):12-19.
Chadwick, H. K., D. E. Stevens, and L. W. Miller. 1977. Some factors regu-
lating the striped bass population in the Sacramento-San Joaquin
Estuary, California. In Proceedings of the Conference on Assessing the
Effects of Power-Plant-Induced Mortality on Fish Populations (W. Van
Winkle, ed.). Pergamon Press, New York. pp. 18-35.
Chapotan, R. B., and J. E. Sykes. 1961. Atlantic coast migration of large
striped bass as evidenced by fisheries and tagging. Trans. Amer. Fish.
Soc., 90(1):13-20.
Cheek, R. D. 1966. Pugheaded striper. Wildlife in North Carolina, 30(6):
27.
Chittenden, M. E., Jr. 1971. Status of the striped bass, Morone saxatilis ,
in the Delaware River. Ches. Sci., 12(3):131-136.
Chittenden, M. E., Jr. 1972. Effects of handling and salinity on oxygen
requirements of the striped bass, Morone saxatilis . J. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada, 28(l2):1823-1830.
Christensen, S. W., D. L. DeAngelis, and A. G. Clark. 1977. Development
of a stock-progeny model for assessing power plant effects on fish
populations. In Proceedings of the Conference on Assessing the Effects
of Power-Plant-Induced Mortality on Fish Populations ( I V. Van Winkle,
ed.). Pergamon Press, New York. pp. 196-225
Clark, G. H. 1934. Tagging of striped bass. Calif. Fish Game, 20(1):
14-19.
Clark, G. 1-1. 1938. Weight and age determination of striped bass. Calif.
Fish & Game, 24(2):176-177.
231
-------
Clark 2 J. R. 1962. The 1960 salt-water angling survey, U.S. Dept. Interior,
Bur. Sport Fish. Wildi., Circular 153. 36 pp.
Clark, J. R. 1968. Seasonal movements of striped bass contingents of Long
Island Sound and the New York Bight. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 97 (4):
320- 343.
Clarke, W. C. 1973. Sodium-retaining bioassay of prolactin in the intact
teleost Tilapia mossambica acclimated to sea water. Gen. Comp. Endo-
cnn., 21(3):498-512.
Conte, M. H., R. G. Otto, and P. E. Miller. 1979. Short-term variability
in surface catches of ichthyoplankton in the Upper Chesapeake Bay.
Estuarine and Coastal Marine Science, 8:511-522.
Cordonnier, L. M., and H. L. Ward. 1967. Pomphosrhynchus rocci sp. n.
(Acanthocephala) from the rock bass, Roccus saxatilis . J. Parasitol.,
53(6) :1295-1297.
Courtois, L. A. 1974. Physiological responses of striped bass, Roccus
saxatilis (Walbaun) to changes in diet, salinity, temperature, and
acute copper exposure. Ph.D. Thesis, University of California at
Davis. 130 pp. (University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, Order
No. 74-29, 297.)
Coutant, C. C., and R. J. Kedi. 1975. Survival of larval striped bass
exposed to fluid-induced arid thermal stresses in a simulated condenser
tube. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Contract No. W-7405-eng-26.
Environmental Sciences Division, Publ. No. 637. 37 pp. (ORNL-TM-4695)
Dadswell, ft. J. 1976. Notes on the biology and resource potential of
striped bass in the Saint John Estuary. In Baseline survey and living
resource potential study of the Saint John River Estuary, Vol. 3, Fish
and Fisheries. The Huntsman Marine Laboratory, St. Andrews, New
Brunswick.
Daniel, D. A. 1976. A laboratory study to define the relationship between
survival of young striped bass ( Morone saxatilis ) and their food supply.
Calif. Fish Game, Anadromous Fish Br., Admin. Rept. No. 76-1. 13 pp.
Davies, W. D. 1970. The effects of temperature, pH and total dissolved
solids on the survival of immature striped bass, Morone saxatilis
(Walbaum). Ph.D. Thesis, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.
100 pp.
Davies, W. 0. 1973. The effects of total dissolved solids, temperature,
and p on the survival of immature striped bass: A response surface
experiment. Prog. Fish-Cult., 35(3):l57-160.
Davis, H. S. 1967. Culture and Diseases of Game Fishes. University of
California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. 332 pp.
232
-------
Davis, R. H., Jr. 1966. Population studies of striped bass, Roccus saxa-
tilis (Walbauxn), in Maine based on age distribution and growth z’ate.
M.S. Thesis, University of Maine, Orono. 51 pp.
Davis, W. S. 1959. Field tests of Petersen, streamer, and spaghetti tags
on striped bass, Roccus saxatilis (Walbaum). Trans. Mier. Fish. Soc.,
88(4) :319-329.
Dawson, M. A., E. Gould, F. P. Thurberg, and A. Calabrese. 1977. Physio-
logical response of juvenile striped bass, Morone saxatilis , to low
levels of cadmium and mercury. Ches. Sci., 18(4):353-359.
Degens, E. T., W. G. Deuser, and R. L. Haedrich. 1969. Molecular structure
and composition of fish otoliths. Marine Biol., 2:105-113.
Delor, A. 1973. Elevage du bar americain Roccus saxatilis (Walbaum, 1792).
I. Methodes utilisees. Sci. Peche, Bull, Inst. Peches marit. No.
224:1-19.
Dendy, J. S. 1979. Polyps of Craspedacusta sowerbyi as predators on young
striped bass. Prog. Fish-Cult. , 40:5-6.
Dergaleva, Zh. T., and M. I. Shatunovskiy. 1977. Data on the lipid metab-
olism of the larvae and young of the striped bass, Morone saxatilis .
J. tchthyl., 17(5):802-804.
DeSylva, D. p. 1962. Racial status of juvenile striped bass in the Delaware
River estuary. University of Delaware, Dept. of Biological Science,
Newark, Ref. No. 61-10:1-35.
DeSylva, D. P., F. A. Kalber, and C. N. Schuster. 1962. Fishes and eco-
logical conditions in the shore zone of the Delaware River Estuary,
with notes on other species collected in the deeper water. Univ. of
Delaware, Marine Lab. Infor. Ser. Pubi. 5. 164 pp.
Deuel, D. G. 1973. 1970 salt-water angling survey. NOAA, NMFS, Current
Fishery Statistics No. 6200. 64 pp.
Deuel, D. G., and J. R. Clark. 1968. The 1965 salt-water angling survey.
Bur. Sport Fish. Wildl., Res. Publ. 67. 51 pp.
Domrose, R. J. 1963. Striped bass study. Virginia D-J Project Rept.,
Comm. of Game and Inland Fisheries. Completion Rept., F—5-R-8. 54 pp.
Dor nan, D., and J. Westman. 1970. Responses of some anadromous fishes to
varied oxygen concentration and increased temperatures. Rutgers Univ.,
Water Resources Res. Inst., Partial completion and termination report.
75 pp. (PB192312)
Doroshev, S. I. 1970. Biological features of the eggs, larvae and young of
the striped bass ( Roccus saxatilis (Walbaum)) in connection with the
problem of its acclimation in the U.S.S.R. J. Ichth., l0(2):235-278.
233
-------
Doroshev, S. I., and J. W. Cornacchia. 1979. Initial swim bladder inflation
in the larvae of Tilapia mossambica (Peters) and Morone saxatilis
(Walbaum). Aquaculture, 16 (1979):57-66.
Dovel, W. L. 1971. Fish eggs and larvae of the upper Chesapeake Bay.
Natural Resources Institute Spec. Rept. No. 4, Contrib. No. 460,
Natural Res. Inst., Univ. of Maryland. 71 pp.
Dovel, W. L., and J. R. Edmunds. 1971. Recent changes in striped bass
( Morone saxatilis ) spawning sties and commercial fishing areas in
Upper Chesapeake Bay: Possible influencing factors. Ches. Sci., 12(1):
33-39.
Dudley, R. G., A. W. Mullis, and J. W. Terrell. 1977. Movements of adult
striped bass ( Morone saxatilis ) in the Savannah River, Georgia. Trans.
Am. Fish. Soc., 106(4):314-322.
Durbin, E. G., and A. G. Durbin. 1978. Length and weight relationships of
Acartia c lausi from Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. Limno 1. Oceanogr.,
23(5) :958-969.
Ecological Analysts, Inc., and The Johns Hopkins University. 1974. Power
Plant Site Evaluation, Aquatic Biology, Final Report. Douglas Point
Site, Maryland, PPSE 4-2, Vol. 2. 479 pp.
Edwards, G. B. 1974. Biology of the striped bass, Morone saxatilis
(Walbaum), in the lower Colorado River (Arizona-California-Nevada).
M.S. Thesis, Arizona State University, Tempe. 45 pp.
Edwards, S. R., and F. M. Nahhas. 1968. Some ectoparasites of fishes from
the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, California. Calif. Fish Game,
54(4) :247-256.
Ehrlich, K. F., J. H. S. Blaxter, and R. Pemberton. 1976. Morphological
and histological changes during the growth and starvation of herring
and plaice larvae. Mar. Bid., 35:105-118.
Eisler, R., G. R. Gardner, R. J. Hennekey, G. LaRoche, D. F. Walsh, and
P. 0. Yevich. 1972. Acute toxicology of sodium nitrilotriacetic acid
(N A) and NTA-containing detergents to marine organisms. Water
Research, 6:1009-1027.
Eldridge, M. B., J. J. King, D. Eng, and M. T. Bowers. 1977. Role of the
oil glouble in survival and growth of striped bass ( Morone saxatilis )
larvae. Proceedings 57th Annual Conference West. Assoc. State Game
Fish Comm.: 303-313.
Eldridge, M. B., J. A. Whipple, D. Eng, M. J. Bowers, and B. M. Jarvis.
1981. Effects of food and feeding factors on laboratory-reared striped
bass larvae. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., l10(1):lll—120.
234
-------
Elser, H. J. 1960. Creel census results on the Northeast River, Maryland,
1958. Ches. Sci., 1(l):41-47.
Engel, D. W., and E. M. Davis. 1964. Relationship between activity and
blood composition in certain marine teleosts. Copeia, 1964(3):586-587.
Eraslan, A. H., W. Van Winkle, R. D. Sharp, S. W. Christensen, C. P. Goodyear,
R. M. Rish, and W. Fulkerson. 1976. A computer simulation model for
the striped bass young-of-the-year population in the Hudson River.
Environmental Sciences Division Pubi. No. 766, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory (ORNL/NUREG-8 Special). 208 pp.
Erickson, K. E., J. Harper, G. C. Mensinger, and 0. Hicks. 1972. Status
and artificial reproduction of striped bass from Keystone Reservoir,
Oklahoma. Proc. of 25th Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. of Game Fish
Comm. :513—522.
Erkkila, L. F., J. W. Moffett, 0. B. Cope, B. R. Smith, and R. S. Neilson.
1950. Sacramento-San Joa uin Delta Fishery Resources: Effects of
Tracy p .miping plant and Delta Cross Channel. U.S. Fish Wildi. Serv.,
Spec. Sci. Rept.-Fish., 56:1-109.
FAD. 1975. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Year-
book of Fishery Statistics. Vol. 40.
Farley, T. C. 1966. Striped bass ( Roccus saxatilis) , spawning in the
Sacramento-San Joaquin River system during 1963 and 1964. In Ecological
studies of the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary, Part II. Calif. Fish
Game Dept., Fish Bull No. 136:28-43.
*
Fish, F. F., and E. G. McCoy. 1959. The river discharges required for
effective spawning by striped bass in the rapids of the Roanoke River
of North Carolina. North Carolina Wildlife Res. Comm., Raleigh, N.C.
39 pp.
Fisk, L. 0. 1959. Experiments with a vertical baffle fishway. Calif. Fish
Game, 45:111-122
Forrester, C. R., A. E. Peden, and R. M. Wilson. 1972. First records of
the striped bass, Morone saxatilis , in British Cohunbia waters. J.
Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, 29(3):337-339.
Freadman, M. A. 1978. Swinuning energetics of striped bass and bluefish.
Ph.D. Thesis, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. 97 pp. (University
Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, Order No. 79-02002.)
Freeman, B. L. 1977. Notes on striped bass nhigrations. Underwater
Naturalist, l0(4):l3-19.
Freihoffer, W. C. 1960. Neurological evidence for the relationships of
some percomorph fishes. Ph.D. Thesis, Stanford University. 204 pp.
235
-------
Frisbie, C. M. 1967. Age and growth of the striped bass, Roccus saxatilis
(Walbaiun), in Massachusetts coastal waters. M.S. Thesis, University of
Massachusetts, Amherst. 58 pp.
Frisbie, C. M., and D. E. Ritchie, Jr. 1963. Sport fishing survey of the
lower Potomac Estuary, 1959-1961. Ches. Sci., 4(4):175-191.
Gaines, J. L., Jr., and W. A. Rogers. 1972. Fish mortalities associated
with Goezia sp. (Nematoda: Ascaroidea) in Central Florida. Proc. 25th
Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. of Game Fish Comm. :496-497.
Gift, J. J., and J. R. Westman. 1971. Responses of some estuarine fishes
to increasing thermal gradients. Privately published monograph, June,
1971. 154 pp.
Gomez, R. 1970. Food habits of young-of-the-year striped bass, Roccus
saxatilis (Walbaum) in Canton Reservoir. Proc. Okla. Acad. Sci., 50:
79-83.
Goodson, Lee F. 1964. Diet of striped bass at Millerton Lake, California.
Calif. Fish Game, 50(4):307.
Goodyear, C. P. 1978. Management problems of migratory stocks of striped
bass. In Marine Recreational Fisheries (H. Clepper, ed.). Sport Fish-
ing Institute, Washington, D.C., pp. 75-84.
Grant, G. C. 1974. The age composition of striped bass catches in Virginia
rivers, 1967-1971, and a description of the fishery. U.S. Fish. Bull.,
72(1) :193-199.
Grant, G. C., V. G. Burrell, Jr., and W. H. Kriete, Jr. 1971. Age composi-
tion and magnitude of striped bass winter gill-net catches in the
Rappahannock River, 1967-1970. Proc. of the 24th Ann. Conf. South-
eastern Assoc. of Game Fish Comm. :659-667.
Grant, G. C., and E. B. Joseph. 1969. Comparative strength of the 1966
year class of striped bass, Roccus saxatilis (Walbaum), in three
Virginia rivers. Proc. 22nd Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game
Fish Comm. :501-509.
Grant, G. C., and J. V. Merriner. 1971. Feasibility of increasing striped
bass populations by stocking of underutilized nursery grounds.
Anadromous Fish Project. Virginia-AFS-6-l. 89 pp. appendices.
Green, S. 1882. Hatching striped bass, sturgeon and trout. Trans. Amer.
Fish-Cult. Assoc. :37-40.
Gregory, W. K. 1918. The structure and mechanism of fishes. In Fishes of
the vicinity of New York City (John 1. Nichols, ed.). Amer. Mus. Nat.
I-list., Handb. Ser. 7:5-17, fig. 7, 1 p1.
236
-------
Gregory, W. K. 1933. Fish skulls: a study of the evolution of natural
mechanisms. Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., n.s. 23, Pt. 2: vii-75-481,
fig. 302.
Grinstead, R. G. 1971. Effects of pugheadedness on growth and survival of
striped bass, Morone saxatilis (Walbaum), introduced into Canton
Reservoir, Oklahoma. Proc. Okla. Acad. Sci., 51:8-12.
Grove, T. L., T. J. Berggren, and D. Powers. 1976. The use of innate tags
to segregate spawning stocks of striped bass ( Morone saxatilis) .
Estuarine Processes, Vol. 1 ( Wiley, ed.). Academic Press, N.Y. pp. 166—
Gudger, E. W. 1930. Pug-headedness in the striped sea bass, Roccus
lineatus , and in other related fishes. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
61(1) :1—19.
Gu.illard, R. R. L. 1975. Culture of phytoplankton for feeding marine
invertebrates. In Culture of Marine Invertebrate Animals (W. L. Smith
and M. H. Chanley, eds.). Plenum Press, New York and London. pp. 29-
60.
Hall, R. A., E. G. Zook, and G. M. Meaburn. 1978. National Marine Fisheries
Service Survey of Trace Elements in the Fishery Resource. NOAA Tech.
Rept. NMFS SSRF-721. 313 pp.
Hallowing Point Field Station. 1976. Potomac Estuary fisheries study -
ichthyoplankton and juvenile investigations. Final Report. CEES
Rept. No. 76-12 CBL, Maryland Power Plant Siting Program.
Halver, J. E. (ed.). 1972. Fish Nutrition. Academic Press, New York and
London. 713 pp.
Hainer, P. E. 1966. The occurrence of striped cusk-eel Rissola marginata ,
in the body cavity of striped bass, Roccus saxati].is . Ches. Sci.,
7(4): 214—215.
Hainer, P. E. 1971. Migratory patterns of some New Jersey striped bass,
Morone saxatilis . N.J. Dept. of Environmental Protection. Miscel-
laneous Rept. No. 6M:1-23.
Hansen, L. G., W. B. Wiekhorst, and J. Simon. 1976. Effects of dietary
Aroclor 1242 on channel catfish ( Ictalurus punctatus ) and the selective
accumulation of PCB components. J. Fish. Res. Board Canada, 33:1343-
1352. -
Harper, J. L., and R. Jarman. 1972. Investigation of striped bass, Morone
saxatilis (Walbaum), culture in Oklahoma. Proc. of 25th Ann. Conf.
Southeastern Assoc. of Game E 4 Fish Comm. :501-512.
Harper, J. L., R. Jarman, and J. T. Yacovino. 1968. Food habits of young
striped bass, Roccus saxatilis (Walbaum), in culture ponds. Proc. 22nd
Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game Fish Comm. :373-380.
237
-------
Harrell, R. M., H. A. Loyacono, and J. D. Bayless. 1977. Zooplankton
availability and feeding selectivity of fingerling striped bass. Ga.
J. Sci., 35:129-135.
Hassler, W. W. 1958. Striped bass in relation to the multiple use of the
Roanoke River, N.C. Trans. 23rd N. Mier. Wildi. Conf. :378-391.
Hassler, W. W., arid W. T. Hogarth. 1970. The status, abundance and exploi-
tation of striped bass in the Roanoke River and Albemarle Sound, North
Carolina, and spawning of striped bass in the Tar River, North Carolina.
NOAA-72053115. 346 pp. (COM-72-11379, NTIS)
Hawke, J. P. 1975. Parasite and disease investigations on striped bass and
pompano cultured in earthen ponds in south Alabama. Auburn Univ.
Dept. Fish. and Allied Aquaculture, SE Coop. Fish Disease Project
Newsletter No. 11:3.
Hawke, J. P. 1976. A survey of the diseases of striped bass Morone
saxatilis , and pompano, Trachinotus carolinus , cultured in earthen
ponds. Proc. 7th Ann. World Mariculture Society: 495-510.
Hazel, C. R., W. Thomsen, and S. J. Meith. 1971. Sensitivity of striped
bass and stickieback to ammonia in relation to temperature and salinity.
Calif. Fish Game, 57(3):l38—153.
-Heinle, D. R., D. A. Flemer, and J. F. Iistach. 1976. Contribution of tidal
marshlands to mid-Atlantic estuarine food chains. In Estuarine Pro-
cesses, Vol. II, Circulation, Sediments, and Transfer of Material in
the Estuary (M. Wiley, ed.). Academic Press, New York. p. 309-320.
Heifrich, P., et al. 1973. The feasibility of brine shrimp production on
Christmas Island. Sea Grant Technical Rept., UNIHI-SEA-GRANT -TR--73-02.
173 pp.
Heit, M. 1979. Variability of the concentrations of seventeen trace
elements in the muscle and liver of a single striped bass, Morone
saxatilis . Bull. Envirorim. Contain. Toxi.col., 23:1-5.
He]inboldt, C. F., and D. S. Wyand. 1971. Nephroblastoma in a striped bass.
J. Wildl. Dis., 7(3):162-165.
Heubach, W., R. J. Toth, and A. M. McCready. 1963. Food of young of the
year striped bass ( Roccus saxatilis ) in the Sacramento-San Joaquin
River system. Calif. Fish Game, 49(4):224-239.
Hickey, C. R., Jr. 1976. Fish hematology, its uses and significance. New
York Fish E Game J., 23:170-175.
Hiltron, J. W. 1974. Serum transferrin phenotypes in striped bass, Morone
saxatilis , from the Hudson River. Ches. Sci., 15(4):246-247.
238
-------
Hoar, W. S., and D. J. Randall (eds.). 1969-1979. Fish Physiology. Vols.
1-8. Academic Press, New York, San Francisco a.nd London.
Hogan, T. M., and B. S. Williams. 1976. Occurrence of the gill parasite,
Ergasilus labracis , on striped bass, white perch, and tomcod in the
Hudson River. N.Y. Fish Game J., 23(l):97.
Holland, B. F., and G. F. Yelverton. 1973. Distribution and biological
studies of anadromous fishes offshore North Carolina. Div. of Comm.
and Sports Fish., N.C. Dept. of Nat. Econ. Res., Spec. Sci. Rept.
No. 24. 132 pp.
Hollis, E. H. 1952. Variations in the feeding habits of the striped bass,
Roccu.s saxatilis (Walbauin), in Chesapeake Bay. Bing. Oceanog. Coll.
Bull., 14(1):lll—l31.
Hollis, E. 1-1. 1967. Investigation of striped bass in Maryland. Md. Dept.
od Game Inland Fish., Md. F-003-R-12. Final Rept. 96 pp.
Holton, M. G. 1874. Letters of Spencer F. Baird. In The progress of
fish-culture in the United States by James W. Mimer. Rept. U.S.
Fish Conun. for 1872-1873, Pt. 2, Appendix D: 553-554.
Houde, E. D., and A. J. Ramsay. 1971. A culture system for marine fish
larvae. Progr. Fish-Cult., 33(3):156-157.
Hughes, J. S. 1968. Toxicity of pollutants to striped bass. La. Wildlife
and Fisheries Commission. - Progress Rept. , F-O15-R-O1. 2- pp.
Hughes, J. S. 1969. Toxicity of pollutants to striped bass. La. Wildlife
and Fisheries Commission. Progress Rept. , F-015-R-02. 3 pp.
Hughes, J. S. 1971. Tolerance of striped bass, Morone saxatilis (Walbaum),
larvae and fingerlings to nine chemicals used in pond culture. Proc.
of the 24th Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. of Game Fish Comm. :431-438.
Hughes, J. S. 1973. Acute toxicity of thirty chemicals to striped
bass ( Morone saxatilis) . Presented at the Western Assoc. of State
Game Fish Comm. in Salt Lake City, Utah, July 1973. 15 pp.
Hughes, J. S. 1975. Striped bass, Morone saxatilis (Walbaum), culture
investigations in Louisiana with notes on sensitivity of fry and finger-
lings to various chemicals. Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries Comm.
Fish. Bull. No. 13. 46 pp.
Humphries, E. T. 1966. Spawning grounds of the striped bass, Roccus
saxatilis (Walbaum), in the Tar River, North Carolina. M.S. Thesis,
East Carolina College, Greenville, N.C. 50 pp.
Humphries, E. T. 1971. Culture of striped bass ( Morone saxatilis , Walbaum)
fingerlings in Virginia. Ph.D. Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Inst. and
State University. 77 pp.
239
-------
Humphries, E. T., and K. B. Cumming. 1973. An evaluation of striped bass
fingerling culture. Trans. I mer. Fish. Soc., 102(l):13-20.
Hunn, J. B., and P. F. Robinson. 1966. Some blood chemistry values for
five Chesapeake Bay area fishes. Ches. Sci., 7:173-175.
Institute of Environmental Medicine, New York University Medical Center.
1976a. The effects of changes in hydrostatic pressure on some Hudson
River biota. Progress Report for 1975. Prepared for Consolidated
Edison of New York, Inc. 109 pp.
Institute of Environmental Medicine, New York University Medical Center.
l976b. The effects of temperature and chlorine on Hudson River
organisms. Progress Report for 1975. Prepared for Consolidated Edison
Co. of New York, Inc. 120 pp.
Institute of Environmental Medicine, New York University Medical Center.
1977. Hudson River ecosystem studies. Effects of entrainment by the
Indian Point Power Plant on biota in the Hudson River estuary. Progress
Rept. for 1975 for Consolidated Edison Co. of New York, Inc. 355 pp.
Jackson, H. W., and R. E. Tiller. 1952. Preliminary observations on
spawning potential in the striped bass ( Roccus saxatilis , Walbaum).
Md. Dept. Res. & Ed., Ches. Rio 1. Lab. Pub 1. No. 93. 16 pp.
Janssen, W. A., and C. D. Meyers. 1967. Antibody against an antigen in
beef heart muscle found in striped bass Roccus saxatilis serum and
absent in white perch Roccus americanus . Ches. Sci., 8(1):66.
Jessop, B. M., and W. G. Doubleday. 1976. Creel survey and biological study
of the striped bass fishery of the Annapolis River, 1975. Dept. of the
Environment, Halifax, N.S., Tech. Rept. Ser. No. MAR/T-76-3. 47 pp.
Jessop, B. M., and C. Vithayasai. 1979. Creel surveys and biological
studies of the striped bass fisheries oftheShubenacadie, Gaspereau,
and Annapolis Rivers, 1976. Dept. of Fish. and Oceans, Halifax, N.S.
Fish. and Mar. Serv. Manuscript Rept. No. 1532. 32 pp.
Johns Hopkins University. 1974. Power Plant Site Evaluation. Interim
Report. Douglas Point Site. Prepared for Power Plant Siting Program,
JHU, PPSE 4-1, vol. 1 2.
Johns Hopkins University, Applied Physics Laboratory. 1975. Testimony on
striped bass entrainment by Summit Power Station. In the matter of:
De].marva Power and Light Co., Philadelphia Electric Co., Summit Power
Stations Units 1 and 2 Dockets Nos. 5-450 and 50-451. 14 March. 98
pp. and appendices.
Johns Hopkins University. 1976. Power Plant Site Evaluation. Final Report
- Douglas Point. Prepared for Md. Power Plant Siting Program JHU,
PPSE 4-2, Vol. 1, part 1.
240
-------
Johnson, C. A., and R. Harkema. 1970. A preliminary report on the life
history of Pomphorhynchus rocci , an Acanthocephalan parasite of the
striped bass. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc., 86(4):184-185.
Johnson, W. C., and A. J. Calhoun. 1952. Food habits of California striped
bass. Calif. Fish Game, 38(4):531-534.
Jones, K. 1971. Pesticide monitoring. Quarterly report for the period
July-September, 1971. Calif. FW-O01-R-09. 7 pp.
Jordan, D. S., and C. H. Eigenman. 1890. A review of the genera and species
of Serranidae found in the waters of America and Europe. Bull. U.S.
Fish Comm. for 1888, 8:329-433.
Kelley, J. R., Jr. 1969. Investigations on the propagation of the striped
bass, Morone saxatilis (Walbaum). Ph.D. Thesis, Auburn University,
Auburn, Mass. 102 pp. (University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan,
Order No. 71-4010.)
Kelly, R., and H. K. Chadwick. 1971. Some observations on striped bass
temperature tolerances. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Mad. Fish. Br.,
Admin. Rept. 71-9. 11 pp.
Kerby, J. H. 1972. Feasibility of artificial propagation and introduction
of hybrids of the Morone complex into estuarine environments, with a
meristic and morphometric description of the hybrids. Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville. 172 pp. (University Micro-
films, Aim Arbor, Michigan, Order No. 72-33, 243.)
Kernehan, R. J. 1974. Ichthyoplankton. In Ecological Studies in the
Vicinity of the Proposed Stmunit Power Station. April 1973 through
December 1973. Vol. II (revised). 303 pp.
Kerr, J. E. 1953. Studies on fish preservation at the Contra Costa Steam
Plant of the Pacific Gas and Electric Company. Calif. Fish Game,
Fish. Bull. No. 92:1-66.
Kingsford, E. 1975. Treatment of Exotic Marine Fish Diseases. Pet
Reference Series No. 1. The Palmetto Publishing Co., St. Petersburg,
Florida. 92 pp.
Klontz, G. W. 1973. Syllabus of Fish Health Management. I. Fish Culture
Methods. II. Fish Disease Diagnosis. Texas MM University, Sea
Grant #74-401. 165 pp.
Klyshtorin, L. B., and A. A. Yarzhombek. 1975. Some aspects of the physi-
ology of the striped bass, Morone saxatilis . J. of Ichthyol., 15(6):
985-989.
Kohlenstein, L. C. 1981. On the proportion of Chesapeake Bay stock of
striped bass that migrates into the coastal fishery. Trans. Amer. Fish.
Soc., 11O(1):168—179.
241
-------
Kohlhorst, D. W. 1973. An analysis of the annual striped bass die-off in
the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary, 1971-1972. Calif. Dept. of Fish
Game, Mad. Fish. Br., Admin. Rept. No. 73-7. 20 pp.
Koo, T. S. Y. 1970. The striped bass fishery in the Atlantic states.
Ches. Sci., 11(2):73-93.
Koo, T. S. Y., and M. L. Johnston. 1978. Larva deformity in striped bass,
Morone saxatilis (Walbaum), and blueback herring, Alosa aestivalis
(Mitchill), due to heat shock treatment of developing eggs. Environ.
Pollut., 16:137-149.
Koo, T. S. Y., and J. S. Wilson. 1972. Sonic tracking striped bass in the
Chesapeake and Delaware Canal. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 101 (3) :453-462.
Korn, S., and R. Earnest. 1974. Acute toxicity of twenty insecticides to
striped bass, Morone saxatilis . Calif. Fish Game, 60(3):128-131.
Korn, S., N. Hirsch, and J. W. Struhsaker. 1976. Uptake, distribution, and
depuration of 14C-benzene in northern anchovy, Engraulus mordax , and
striped bass, Morone saxatilis . U.S. Fish. Bull, 74(3):545-551.
Korn, S., and D. Macedo. 1973. Determination of fat content in fish with
a nontoxic noninflammable solvent. J. Fish. Res. Sd. Canada, 30(12):
1880—1881.
Korn, S., J. W. Struhsaker, and P. Benville, Jr. 1976. Effects of benzene
on growth, fat content, and caloric content of striped bass, Morone
saxatilis . U.S. Fish Bull., 74(3):694-698.
Kornegay, J. W., and E. T. Humphries. 1976. Spawning of the striped bass
in the Tar River, North Carolina. Proc. Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc.
Game Fish Comm., 29:317-325.
Krantz, G. E. 1970. Lymphocystis in striped bass, Roccus saxatilis , in
Chesapeake Bay. Ches. Sci., ll(2):137-l39.
Krouse, J. S. 1968. Effects of dissolved oxygen, temperature, and salinity
on survival of yowig striped bass, Roccus saxatilis (Walbaum). M.S.
Thesis, University of Maine, Orono. 61 pp.
Kruger, R. L., and R. W. Brocksen. 1978. Respiratory metabolism of striped
bass, Morone)saxatilis (Walbaum), in relation to temperature. J. exp.
mar. Biol. Ecol., 31:55-66.
Kumpf, H. E. 1977. Economic impact of the effects of pollution on the
coastal fisheries of the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico regions of the
United States of America. FAD Fisheries Technical Paper No. 172. 79 pp.
Lal, K., R. Lasker, and A. Kuijis. 1977. Acclimation and rearing of striped
bass larvae in sea water. Calif. Fish E Game, 63(4):2l0-218.
242
-------
Lasker, R. 1974. Induced maturation and spawning of marine fish at the
Southwest Fisheries Center, LaJolla, California. Proceedings World
Mariculture Society, 5:313-318.
Laurence, G. C. 1977. Caloric values of some North Atlantic calanoid cope-
pods. U.S. Fish. Bull., 75:218-220.
Lawler, J. P. 1972. The effect of entrainment at Indian Point on the popu-
lation of the Hudson River striped bass. Testimony before the United
States Atomic Energy Commission in the Matter of Consolidated Edison
Company of New York, Inc. (Indian Point Station, Unit No. 2). Docket
No. 50-247, April 5, 1972.
Lawler, J. P., R. A. Norris, G. Goldwyn, K. A. Abood, and T. L. Englert.
1974. Hudson River striped bass life cycle model. In Entrainment and
Intake Screening. Proc. 2nd Workshop on Entrainment and Intake Screen-
ing (L. D. Jensen, ed.). The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD.
pp. 83-94.
Lawler, Matusky and Skelly Engineers. 1974. 1973 Hudson River Aquatic
Ecology Studies - Bowling Point and Lovell Generating Station. Report
to Orange and Rockland Utilities, Inc., December. 5 vols.
Lawler, Matusky and Skelly Engineers. 1975. Report on development of a
real-time, two dimensional model of the Hudson River striped bass popu-
lation. Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc. UvIS Project
No. 115-49. 69 pp. + tables.
Leidy, J. 1888. Parasites of the striped bass. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Philad. , 2:125-128.
Leim, A. H., and W. B. Scott. 1968. Fishes of the Atlantic Coast of Canada.
Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada No. 155. 485 pp.
Lewis, R. M. 1957. Comparative study of populations of the striped bass.
U.S. Fish Wildi. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept. Fish No. 204. 54 pp.
Lewis, R. M. 1961. Comparison of three tags on striped bass in the Chesa-
peake Bay area. Ches. Sci., 2(l 2):3-8.
Lewis, R. M. 1962. Sexual maturity as determined from ovt.un diameters in
striped bass from North Carolina. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 91:279-282.
Lewis, R. M., and R. R. Bonner, Jr. 1966. Fecundity of striped bass
( Roccus saxatilis Walbaum). Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 95(3):328-331.
Lewis, W. M., R. C. Heidinger, and B. L. Tetzlaff. 1977. Striped bass
rearing experiments, 1976. Prepared for Consolidated Edison Co. of
New York, Inc. University of Southern Illinois, Carbondale. May.
197 pp.
242
-------
Lindsay, J. A., and R. L. Moran. 1976. Relationships of parasitic isopods
Lironeca ovalis and Olencira praegustator to marine fish biota in
Delaware River. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 105(2):327-332.
Linton, E. 1898. Notes on trematode parasites of fishes. Proc. U.S. Nat.
Mus., 20:507-548.
Linton, E. 1901. Parasites of fishes of the Woods Hole region. Bull. U.S.
Fish Comm., 19:405-492.
Linton, E. 1924. Notes on cestode parasites of sharks and skates. Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mus., 64(art. 21):1-l14.
Loeber, T. S. 1951. A report of an investigation of the temperature and
salinity relationships of striped bass and salmon in connection with
the Reber plan. Rept. Bur. of Fish Conserv., Calif. Dept. Fish Game,
Inland Fish. Br., No. 51-27. 40 pp.
Lovett, R. J., W. H. Gutenmann, I. S. Pakkala, W. D. Youngs, D. J. Lisk,
G. E. Burdick, and E. J. Harris. 1972. A survey of the total cadmium
content of 406 fish from 49 New York fresh waters. J. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada, 29(9):1283—l290.
Luhning, C. N. 1973. Residues of MS-222, benzocaine, and their metabolites
in striped bass following anesthesia. U.S. Dept. of Interior, Bur.
Sport Fish. Wildi. Investigations in Fish Control No. 52. 11 pp.
Lund, N. A., Jr. 1957. Morphometric study of the striped bass, Roccus
saxatilis . U.S. Fish Wildi. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept. -Fish. No. 216:
1-24.
Lyman, H. 1961. A sixteen pound pugheaded striped bass from Massachusetts.
Ches. Sd., 2:101-102.
Mahoney, J. B., F. H. Midlige, and D. G. Deuel. 1973. A fin rot disease
of marine and euryhaline fishes in the New York Bight. T ’ans. Amer.
Fish. Soc., 102(3):596-605.
Manooch, C. S. III. 1973. Food habits of yearling and adult striped bass,
Morone saxatilis (Walbaum), from Albemarle Sound. North Carolina.
Ches. Sci., 14(2):73—86.
Mansueti R. 1958. Eggs, larvae and young of the striped bass, Roccus
saxatilis . Ches. Biol. Lab. Contr. No. 112:1-35.
Mansueti, R. 1960. An unusually large pugheaded striped bass, Roccus
saxatilis from Chesapeake Bay, Maryland. Ches. Sci., l(2):11l-1l3.
Mansueti, R. 1961. Age, growth and movements of the striped bass, Roccus
saxatilis , taken in size selective fishing gear in Maryland. Ches.
Sci. , 2(1E2):9-36.
243
-------
Mansueti, R. 1962. Effects of civilization on striped bass and other
estuarine biota in Chesapeake Bay and tributaries. Proc. 14th Ann.
Gulf Caribbean Inst. (Univ. of Miami): 110-136.
Mansueti, R., and G. Murphy. 1961. Further returns of striped bass, Roccus
saxatilis , tagged from deep water during winter in Chesapeake Bay,
Maryland. Ches. Sci. 2(3-4):209-212.
Marcy, B. C., Jr., and R. C. Galvin. 1973. Winter-spring sport fishery in
the heated discharge of a nuclear power plant. J. Fish. Biol., 5:
541—547.
Markert, C. L. and I. Faulhaber. 1965. Lactate dehydrogenase isoenzyme
patterns of fish. J. Exp. Zool., 159:319—332.
Markie, D. F. 1976. The seasonality of availability and movements of fishes
in the channel of the York River, Virginia. Ches. Sci., 17(l):50-55.
Markle, D. G., and G. C. Grant. 1970. The summer food habits of young-of-
the-year striped bass in three Virginia rivers. Ches. Sci., 11(1):
50-54.
Mason, H. W. 1882. Report of operations in the Navesink River, Mew Jersey,
in 1879 , in collecting living striped bass for transportation to
California. Rept. U.S. Fish Comm. for 1879, 7:663-666.
Massmann, W. H., and A. L. Pacheco. 1961. Movements of striped bass in
Virginia waters of Chesapeake Bay. Ches. Sci., 2(l-2):37-44.
McCoy, E. G. 1959. Quantitative sampling of striped bass, Roccus saxatilis
(Walbai.an), eggs in the Roanoke River, North Carolina. M.S. Thesis,
North Carolina State University, Raleigh. 136 pp.
McFadden, J. T. (ed.). 1977a. Influence of Indian Point Unit 2 and other
steam electric generating plants on the Hudson River Estuary, with
emphasis on striped bass and other fish populations. Submitted to
Consolidated Edison Co. of New York, Inc., January.
McFadden, J. T. 1977b. An argument supporting the reality of compensation
in fish populations and a plea to let them exercise it. In Proceedings
of the Conference on Assessing the Effects of Power-Plant-Induced
Mortality on Fish Populations (W. Van Winkle, ed.). Pergamon Press,
N.Y. pp. 153-183.
McFadden, J. T., and J. P. Lawler (eds.) 1977. Supplement I to Influence
on Indian Point Unit 2 and other steam electric generating plants on
the Hudson River Estuary, with emphasis on striped bass and other fish
populations. Submitted to Consolidated Edison Co. of New York, Inc.,
July.
244
-------
McFarland, W. N., and G. W. Klontz. 1969. Anesthesia in fishes. Chapter
26 of Anesthesia in Laboratory Animals. Federation Proceedings, Vol.
28(4) :1535-1540.
McHugh, J. J. • and R. C. Heidinger. 1977. Effects of light on feeding and
egestion time of striped bass fry. Prog. Fish-Cult., 39:33-34.
McHugh, J. J., and R. C. Heidinger. 1978. Effects of light shock on striped
bass fry. Frog. Fish-Cult., 40:82.
McHugh, J. L. 1972. Marine fisheries of New York State. U.S. Fish. Bull.,
70(3) :585-610.
Mcllwain, T. D. 1974. Experimental stocking of striped bass. Completion
Report. 1 September 1970-31 August 1973, AFCS-4. 64 pp.
Mc llwain, T. D. 1975. Striped bass rearing and stocking program - Missis-
sippi. Annual Progress Report, 1 September 1973 to 31 August 1974,
AFCS-5-1. 48 pp.
McKechnie, R. J., and L. W. Miller. 1971. The striped bass party boat
fishery: 1960-1968. Calif. Fish Game, 57(1):4—16.
Mehrle, P. M., F. L. Mayer, and W. W. Johnson. 1977. Diet quality in fish
toxicology: Effects on acute and chronic toxicity. In Aquatic Toxi-
cology and Hazard Evaluation (F. L. Mayer and J. L. Hamelink, eds.).
Mierican Society for Testing and Materials, Pahiladelphia, PA.
Special Technical Publication 634: 269-280.
Meldrim, J. W., and J. T. Gift. 1971. Temperature preference, avoidance
and shock experiments with estuaring fishes. Ichthyological Associates,
Inc. Bull. 7. 75 pp.
Meldrim, J. P1., J. J. Gift, and B. R. Petrosky. 1974. The effect of tem-
perature and chemical pollutants on the behavior of several estuarine
organisms. Ichthyological Associates, Inc. Bull. 11. 129 pp.
Merriman, D. 1937. Notes on the life history of the striped bass, Roccus
lineatus . Copeia, 1:15-36.
Merriman, D. 1940. The osteology of the striped bass ( Roccus saxatilis) .
Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist., Series 11(5):55-64.
Merriman, D. 1941. Studies on the striped bass ( Roccus saxatilis ) of the
Atlantic Coast. U.S. Fish & Wildi. Serv., Fish. Bull., S0(35):1-77.
Merriner, J. V., and P1. J. Hoginan. 1973. Feasibility of increasing
striped bass populations by stocking under-utilized nursery grounds.
Completion Report AFS - 6-3, July 1, 1970-September 30, 1973. 196 pp.
245
-------
Meshaw, J. C., Jr. 1969. A study of feeding selectivity of striped bass
fry and fingerlings in relation to zooplankton availability. M.S.
Thesis, North Carolina State University, Raleigh. 58 pp.
Meyer, F. P., and J. A. Robinson. 1973. Branchiomycosis: A new fungal
disease of North American fishes. Progr. Fish-Cult., 35(2):74-77.
Meyerhoff, R. D. 1975. Acute toxicity of benezene, a component of crude
oil, to juvenile striped bass ( Morone saxatilis) . J. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada, 32(10):1864-1866.
Middaugh, D. P., J. A. Couch, and A. M. Crane. 1977. Responses of early
life history stages of the striped bass, Morone saxatilis to chlorina-
tion. Ches. Sci., 18(l):141-153.
Miller, L. W. 1974. Mortality rates for California striped bass ( Morone
saxatilis ) from 1965-1971. Calif. Fish Game, 60(4):157-171.
Miller, L. W. 1977. An evaluation of sampling nets used for striped bass
and Neomysis in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary. Calif. Fish
Game, Mad. Fish. Br., Admin. Rept. No. 77-3. 29 pp.
Miller, P. E. 1977. Experimental study and modeling of striped bass egg
and larval mortality. Ph.D. Thesis, The Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore. 199 pp. (University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan,
Order No. 77-7749.)
Miller, P. E. 1978. Food habit study of striped bass post yolk-sac larvae.
Prepared by Chesapeake Bay Institute, The Johns Hopkins University.
Special Report 68 (Ref. No. 78-8), November. 49 pp.
Mitchill, S. L. 1814. Report in part of Samual L. Mitchill, M.D., Profes-
sor of Natural History, etc., of the fishes of New York. D. Carlisle,
New York: 1-30. (From a reprint edited by Theodore N. Gill, Washing-
ton, 1898.)
Mitchill, S. L. 1815. The fisheries of New York, described and arranged.
Trans. Lit. Philos. Soc. N.Y., 1:355-492.
Moore, C. J., and D. T. Burton. 1974. Movements of striped bass, Morone
saxatilis , tagged in Maryland waters of Chesapeake Bay. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc., 104(4):703-709.
Morgan, A. R., and A. R. Gerlach. 1950. Striped bass studies on Coos Bay,
Oregon in 1949 and 1950. Oregon Fish Comm., Contr. No. 14:1-31.
Morgan, R. P. II. 1971. Comparative electrophoretic studies on the striped
bass, Morone saxatilis , and white perch, M. americana , and electro-
phoretic identification of five populations of striped bass in the
upper Chesapeake Bay. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Maryland, College
Park. 104 pp. (University Mircrofilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, Order
No. 71-25,968.)
2A6
-------
Morgan, R. P. II. 1975. Distinguishing larval white perch and striped
bass by electrophoresis. Ches. Sci., 16(1):68—70.
Morgan, R. P. II, T. S. Y. Koo, and G. E. Kranz. 1973. Electrophoretic
determination of populations of the striped bass, Morone saxatilis , in
the upper Chesapeake Bay. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 102(1):21-32.
Morgan, R. P. II, and V. J. Rasin, Jr. 1973. Effects of salinity andtem-
perature on the development of eggs and larvae of striped bass and
white perch. Appendix X to Hydrographic and Ecological Effects of
Enlargement of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal. Contract No. DACW-
61-71.-C-0062, Army Corps of Engineers, Philadelphia District. NRI
Ref. No. 73-109. 37 pp.
Morgan, R. P. II, V. J. Rasin, Jr., and L. A. Noe. 1973. Effects of
suspended sediments on the development of eggs and larvae of striped
bass and white perch. Appendix X I to Hydrographic and Ecological
Effects of Enlargement of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal. Contract
No. DACW-61 -71-C-0062, Army Corps of Engineers, Philadelphia District.
NRI Ref. No. 73-110. 21 pp.
Morgan, R. P. II, R. E. Ulanowicz, V. J. Rasin, Jr., and L. A. Noe. 1976.
Effects of shear on striped bass and white perch eggs and larvae.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 105(l):145-154.
Morgan, R. P. II, and R. W. Prince. 1977. Chlorine toxicity to eggs and
larvae of five Chesapeake Bay fishes. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 106(4):
380-385.
Moss, F. T. 1974. Successful Striped Bass Fishing. International Marine
Publishing Co. 208 pp.
Murawski, W. S. 1958. Comparative study of populations of the striped
bass, Roccus saxatilis (Walbaum), based on lateral-line scale counts.
M.S. Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. 80 pp.
Murawski, W. S. 1969. A study of the striped bass, Morone saxatilis ,
foulhooking problem in New Jersey waters. New Jersey Dept. of Conser-
vation and Economic Development, Div. of Fish and Game, Bureau of
Fisheries, Nacote Creek Research Station, Misc. Rept. No. 4M. 40 pp.
Murphy, G. J. 1960. Availability of striped bass during summers of 1958
and 1959 as reflected in commercial haul seine catch. Ches. Sci.,
1(1) :74—75.
Nash, C. E. 1973. Automated mass-production of Artemia sauna nauplii for
hatcheries. Aquaculture, 2: 289-298.
National Research Council. 1973. Nutrient Requirements of Trout, Salmon,
and Catfish. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. 57 pp.
247
-------
National Research Council. 1977. Nutrient Requirements of Warmwater Fishes.
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. 78 pp.
Nelson, N. C. 1974. A review of the literature on the use of malachite
green in fisheries. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Sport
Fisheries and Wildlife. PB-235 450. 79 pp.
Nichols, P. R. 1962. Atlantic coast striped bass program. In Ann. Rept.,
Bur. Comm. Fish. Biol. Lab., Beaufort, N.C., for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1962. U.S. Fish Wildl. Ser., Circular 184:17-18.
Nichols, P. R., and R. V. Miller. 1967. Seasonal movements of striped
bass, Roccus saxatilis (Walbauin) tagged and released in the Potomac
River, Maryland, 1959-61. Ches. Sci., 8(2):102-124.
Norny, E. R. 1882. A proposed pond for rearing striped bass ( Roccus
lineatus ) in Delaware Bay. Bull. U.S. Fish Comm. for 1881, 1:260-261.
O’Connell, C. P. 1976. Histological criteria for diagnosing the starving
condition in early post yolk sac larvae of the northern anchovy,
Engraulis mordax Girard. J. exp. mar. Biol. Ecol., 25:285-312.
0’ Connor, J. M., and S. A. Schaffer. 1977. The effects of sampling gear on
the survival of striped bass ichthyoplankton. Ches. Sci., l8(3):312-
315.
O’Mally, M., and J. Boone. 1972. Oxygen vital to normal hatching and sur-
vival in striped bass. Maryland Fish and Wildlife News, 3(2):1.
O’Rear, C. W., Jr. 1971. Some environmental influences on the zinc and
copper content of striped bass, Morone saxatilis (Walbaum). Ph.D.
Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Black-
burg. 78 pp.
Orsi, J. J. 1970. A comparison of scales, otoliths, and operculae in
striped bass aging. The Resources Agency, Dept. of Fish and Game,
California, Anad, Fish. Admin. Rept. No. 70:15. 5 pp.
Orsi, J. J. 1971. The 1965-1967 migrations of the Sacramento-San Joaquin
estuary striped bass population. Calif. Fish Game, 57(4):257-267.
Otto, R. S. 1975. Isoenzyme systems of the striped bass ( Morone saxatilis )
and congeneric perichthyid fishes. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Maine,’
Orono. 71 pp. (University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, Order No.
76-7437.)
Otwell, W. S., and J. V. Merriner. 1975. Survival and growth of juvenile
striped bass, Morone saxatilis , in a factorial experiment with tempera-
ture, salinity, and age. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 104(3):560-566.
248
-------
Overstreet, R. M. 1971. Neochasmus sogandaresi n. sp. (Trematoda: Crypto-
gonimidae) from striped bass in Mississippi. Trans. Amer. Microsc.
Soc., 90(1): 87-89.
Oviatt, C. A. 1977. Menhaden, sport fish and fishermen. University of
Rhode Island Marine Technical Report No. 60. 24 pp.
Paffenhofer, G. A. 1967. Caloric content of larvae of the brine shrimp
Artemia salina . Heig. Wiss. Meer., 16:130-135.
Pakkala, I. S., M. N. White, D. J. Lisk, G. E. Burdick, and E. J. Harris.
1972. Arsenic content of fish from New York State waters. N.Y. Fish
and Game J., 19(1):12-31.
Pandian, T. J. 1970. Intake and conversion of food in the fish Limanda
limanda exposed to different temperatures. Marine Biol., 5:1-17.
Paperna, I., and D. E. Zwerner. 1974. Kudoa cerebralis sp. n. (Myxo-
sporidea, Chloromyxidae) from the striped bass, Morone saxatilis
(Walbaum). J. Protozool., 21(1):19-25.
Paperna, I., and D. E. Zwerner. 1976a. Parasites and diseases of striped
bass, Morone saxatilis (Walbaum), from the lower Chesepeake Bay. J.
Fish Biol., 9:267-287.
Paperna, I., and D. E. Zwerner. 1976b. Studies on Ergasilus labracis
Kroyer (Cyclopidea: Ergasilidae) parasite on striped bass, Morone
saxatilis , from the lower Chesapeake Bay. I. Distribution, life cycle
and seasonal abundance. Can. J. Zool., 54(4):449-462.
Pearson, J. C. 1933. Movements of striped bass in Chesapeake Bay. Mary-
land Fisheries. 22:15-17.
Pearson, J. C. 1938. The life history of the striped bass, or rockfish,
Roccuss saxatilis (Walbaum). U.S. Bur. of Fish. Bull., 28(49):825—851.
Peddicord, R. K., V. A. McFarland, D. P. BeJ.fiori, and T. E. Byrd. 1975.
Effects of suspended solids on San Francisco Bay organisms. In
Dredge Disposal Study, San Francisco Bay and Estuary, Appendix G,
Physical Impact Study. 158 pp. appendices.
Peddicord, R. K., and V. A. McFarland. 1978. Effects of suspended dredged
material on aquatic animals. Prepared for Office, Chief of Engineers,
U.S. Army (under DMRP Work Unit No. 1D09). Tech. Rept. D-78-29.
102 pp. + appendices.
Perimutter, A., E. Leff, E. E. Schmidt, R. Heller, and M. Sicliano. 1967a.
Distribution and abundance of fishes along the shores of the lower
Hudson during the sumner of 1966. In Hudson River Ecology (First
Symposium), Hudson River Valley Commission, New York: 147-200.
249
-------
Perlinutter, A., E. E. Schmidt, and H. Leff. 1967. Distribution and
abundance of fish along the shores of the lower Hudson River during
the summer of 1965. N.Y. Fish and Game Jour., 14(l):47-75.
Persoone, G. , and P. Sorgeloos. 1975. Technological improvements for the
cultivation of invertebrates as food for fishes and crustaceans. I.
Devices and methods. Aquaculture, 6:275-289.
Peterson, E. J., and R. C. Robinson. 1967. A meal-gelatin diet for
aquarium fishes. Progr. Fish-Cult., 29:170-171.
Pfunderer, H. A., S. S. Talmadge, B. N. Collier, W. Van Winkle, Jr.., and
C. P. Goodyear. 1975. Striped bass — a selected, annotated bibli-
ography. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Environmental Sci. Div. Pub.
No. 615. 158 pp.
Phillips, A. M., Jr. ‘1969. Nutrition, digestion, and energy utilization.
In Fish Physiology (W. S. Hoar and D. 3. Randell, eds.). Academic
Press, New York. Vol. 1, pp. 391-432.
Phillips, A. M., Jr., R. S. Nielsen, and D. R. Brockway. 1954. A compari-
son of hatchery diets and natural food. Progr. Fish-Cult., 16:153-157.
Pickford, G. E., and J: W. Atz. 1957. The Physiology of the Pituitary
Gland of Fishes. New York Zoological Society, New York. 613 pp.
Plosila, D. S. 1961. Lower Susquehanna River sport fishery survey, 1957-
1960. In The Susquehanna Fishery Study, 1957-1960 (R. R. Whitman,
Proj. Leader). Md. Dept. Res. and Educ., Contrib. 169:55-76.
Polgar, T. T. 1977. Striped bass ichthyoplankton abundance, mortality, and
production estimation of the Potomac River populations. In Proceedings
of the Conference on Assessing the Effects of Power-Plant-Induced
Mortality on Fish Populations (W. Van Winkle, ed.). Pergamon Press,
N.Y. pp. 110-126.
Polgar, T. T., R. E. Ulanowicz, and D. A. Pyne. 1975. Preliminary analyses
of physical transport and related striped bass ichthyoplankton distri-
bution properties in the Potomac River in 1974. Potomac River FisI ries
Program Report Series. Ref. No. PRFP-75-2. February 1975. 51 pp.
Powell, M. R. 1973. Cage and raceway culture of striped bass in brackish
wat r in Alabama. Proc. 26th Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game
Fish Comm., pp. 345-356.
Powell, M. R. 1976. Two years of brackish water pond culture of striped
bass ( Morone saxatilis ) in south Alabama. Proceedings World Man-
culture Society, 7:93-97.
Radovich, J. 1963. Effect of ocean temperature on the seaward movements of
striped bass, Roccus saxatilis , on the Pacific Coast. Calif. Fish
Game, 49(3):191-206.
250
-------
Radtke, L. D. 1966. Distribution and abundance of adult and subadult
striped bass ( Roccus saxatilis) , in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta.
In Ecological studies of the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary, Part II.
Calif. Dept. Fish & Game, Fish Bull. No. 136:15-27.
Radtke, L. D., and J. L. Turner. 1967. High concentrations of total dis-
solved solids block spawning migration of striped bass, Roccus saxa-
tilis , in the San Joaquin River, California. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
96(4): 405-407.
Radtke, R. L. 1978. Aberrant sagittae from larval striped bass, Morone
saxatilis . Copeia, 1978(4):712-713.
Rariey, H. C. 1952. The life history of the striped bass ( Roccus saxatilis ,
Walbaun). Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coil., 14(1):5-97.
Raney, E. C. 1957. Subpopulations of the striped bass Roccus saxatilis
(Walbaum) in tributar±es of Chesapeake Bay. In Contributions to the
Study of Subpopulations of Fishes. U.S. Fish and Wildi. Serv., Spec.
Sci. Rept.-Fish. No. 208:85-107.
Raney, E. C., and D. P. DeSylva. 1953. Racial investigations of the
striped bass, Roccus saxatilis (Walbaum). Jour. Wildi. Mgt., 17: 495-
509.
Raney, E. C., and E. C. Weller. 1972. Two decades of study of the striped
bass, Morone saxatilis (Walbauin). Proc. 15th Ann. International Game
Fish Res. Conf., December 1972: 28-70.
Raney, E. C., and W. S. bolcott. 1955. Races of the striped bass, Roccus
saxatilis (Waibaum), in southeastern United States. Jour. Wild 1. Mgt.,
19: 444- 450.
Raney, H. C., W. S. Woolcott, and A. G. Mehring. 1954. Migratory pattern
and racial structure of Atlantic coast striped bass. Trans. 19th N.
Amer. Wildl. Conf., pp. 376-396.
Rathjen, W. F., and L. C. Miller. 1957. Aspects of the early life history
of the striped bass ( Roccus saxatilis ) in the Hudson River. N.Y.
Fish & Game Jour. 4(1) :43-60.
Ray, R. H., and L. J. Wirtanen. 1970. Striped bass Morone saxatilis
(Walbaum), 1969 report on the development of essential requirements
for production. U.S. Fish and Wild 1. Serv., Div. of Hatcheries Pubi.
46 pp.
Raymont, J. E. G., J. Austin, and E. Linford. 1963. Biochemical studies on
marine zooplankton. I. The biochemical composition of Neomysis
integer . J. Cons. Inter. Explor. Mer., 28(1):354-363.
251
-------
Redpath, G. S. 1972. Temperature and its effect on the growth and produc-
tion of juvenile striped bass ( Morone saxatilis) . M.S. Thesis,
University of California, Davis. 37 pp.
Rees, R. A. 1974. Propagation of striped bass. Final Report. Ga. Game
Fish Div., Statewide Fish. Investig. F-31-5, Study XIV: 14-62.
Reeves, W. C. 1972a. The effects of increased water hardness, source of
fry and age of stocking on the survival of striped bass, Morone
saxatilis (3Valbai.nn), fry and effects of two feeding regimes and sources
of fingerlings on survival and production of advanced fingerling
striped bass in ponds. M.S. Thesis, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama.
58 pp.
Reeves, W. C. 1972b. Striped bass disease problems. Auburn University
Dept. Fish. arid Allied Aquaculture. S.E. Cooperative Disease Project
Newsletter No. 9: 3.
Reeves, W. C., and J. F. Germann. 1972. Effects of increased water hard-
ness, source of fry and age at stocking on survival of striped bass fry
in earthen ponds. Proc. 25th Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. of Game
and Fish Comm., pp. 542-548.
Regan, D. M., T. L. Wellborn, Jr., and R. G. Bowker. 1968. Striped bass
Roccus saxatilis (Walbaum) development of essential requirements for
production. U.S. Fish and Wildi. Serv., Bur. Sport Fish. and Wildl.
Div. of Fish Hatcheries, Atlanta, Georgia. 133 pp.
Rehwoldt, R., G. Bida, and B. Nerrie. 1971. Acute toxicity of copper,
nickel and zinc ions to some Hudson River fish species. Bull. Environ.
Contain, and Toxicol., 6(5):445-448.
Rehwoldt, R. E., E. Kelley, and M. Mahoney. 1977. Investigations into the
acute toxicity and some chronic effects of selected herbicides and
pesticides on several fresh water fish species. Bull. Environ.
Contain. and Toxico 1., 18(3): 361-365.
Rehwoldt, R. E., W. Mastrianni, E. Kelley, and J. Stall. 1978. Historical
and current heavy metal residues in Hudson River fish. Bull. Environ.
Contamin. and Toxicol., 13:335-339.
Resources Management Associates. 1979. A review and analysis of the Lawler,
Matusky and Skelly real time life cycle model of the Hudson River
striped bass population. Prepared for the Federal Energy Regulatory
Commission, Washington, D.C. 146 pp.
Rhodes, W., and’J. V. Merriner. 1973. A preliminary report on closed
system rearing of striped bass sac fry to fingerling size. Progr.
Fish-Cult., 35(4): 199—201.
Ribelin, W. E., and G. Migaki. (eds.). 1975. The Pathology of Fishes. The
University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin. 1004 pp.
252
-------
Richards, C. E. 1962. A survey of salt-water sport fishing in Virginia,
1955-1960. Ches. Sc, 3(4):223-235.
Ricker, W. E. (ed.).. 1971. Methods of Assessment of Fish Production in
Fresh Waters. IBP Handbook No. 3. Blackwell Scientific Publications,
Oxford. 384 pp.
Rinaldo, R. G. 1971. Morone s .xatilis and Morone ainericanus spawning and
nursery area in the York-Pamunkey River. M.S. Thesis, Virginia Insti-
tute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Virginia. 64 pp.
Ritchie, D. E., Jr. 1965. Sex determination of live striped bass Roccus
saxatilis (Walbaun) by biopsy technique. Ches. Sci., 6(3):141-145.
Ritchie, D. H., Jr. 1970. Evaluation of gonadal biopsy technique in striped
bass based on tagged fish returns. Ches. Sci., ll(4):210-215.
Robinson, J. B. 1960. The age and growth of striped bass ( Roccus saxa-
tilis ) in California. Calif. Fish Game, 46(3):279-290.
Rogers, B. A. 1978. Temperature and the rate of early development of
striped bass, Morone saxatilis (Walbaum). Ph.D. Thesis, University of
Rhode Island, Kingston. 193 pp. (University Microfilms, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, Order No. 78-13271.)
Rogers, B. A., and D. T. Westin. 1979. The combined effects of temperature
and delayed feeding on the survival and growth of larval striped bass,
Morone saxatilis (Walbaum). In Advances of Marine Environmental
Research, Proceedings of a Symposium (F. S. Jacoff, ed.), June 15-16,
1977. Narragansett, R.I. EPA 600/9—79—035:234—250.
Rogers, B. A., and D. T. Westin. 19&L. Laboratory studies on the effects
of temperature and delayed initial feeding on the development of striped
bass larvae. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 110(l):100—ll0.
Rogers, B. A., D. T. Westin, and S. B. Saila. 1977. Life stage duration in
Hudson River striped bass. University of Rhode Island Marine Technical
Report 31. 111 pp.
Rogers, R. D., and D. E. Stevens. 1971. Distribution of young striped bass
( Morone saxatilis ) in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta at Collinsville
and Pottsburg. Calif. Dept. Fish Game, Anad. Fish. Br. Admin. Rept.
71—12. 14 pp.
Rosko, M. 1966. Secrets of Striped Brass Fishing. Macmillan Co., N.Y.
238 pp.
Ryder, J. A. 1887. Roccus lineatus (Bloch) Gill: (The striped bass, or
rockfish.) Hybridization of the striped bass with other fishes.
In On the development of osseous fishes, including marine and fresh-
water forms. Rept. U.S. Fish Comm. for 1885, 13:502-505.
253
-------
Saila, S. B., and E. Lorda. 1977. Sensitivity analysis applied to a matrix
model of the Hudson River striped bass population. In Proceedings of
the Conference on Assessing the Effects of Power-Plant-Induced Mor-
tality on Fish Populations (W. Van Winkle, ed.). Pergamon Press, New
York. pp. 311—332.
Sandoz, N. 0., and K. H. Johnston. 1966. Culture of striped bass Roccus
saxatilis (Walbauin). Proc. 19th Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game
and Fish Comm., pp. 390-394.
Saski, S. 1966a. Distribution of young striped bass ( Roccus saxatilis) , in
the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. In Ecological studies of the
Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary. Part II. Calif. Dept. Fish Game,
Fish Bull. No. 136:44-58.
Sasaki, S. l966b. Distribution of juvenile striped bass, Roccus saxatilis ,
in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. Calif. Dept. Fish Game, Fish.
Bull. No. 136:59-67.
Sazaki, M.- W. Heubach, and J. E. Skinner. 1972. Some preliminary results
on the swimming ability and impingement tolerance of young-of-the-year
steelhead trout, king salmon and striped bass. Final Report, Anadromous
Fisheries Act Project, Calif. APS-13. 34 pp.
Schaefer, R. H. 1967. Species composition, size and seasonal abundance of
fish in the surf waters of Long Island. N.Y. Fish Game Jour., 14(1):
1-46.
Schaefer, R. H. 1968a. Size, age composition and migration of striped bass
from the surf waters of Long Island. N.Y. Fish Game Jour., 15(1):
1—51.
Schaefer, R. H. 1968b. Sex composition of striped bass from the Long Island
surf. N.Y. Fish Game Jour., 15(1):1l7-118.
Schaefer, R. H. 1970. Feeding habits of striped bass from the surf waters
of Long Island. N.Y. Fish Game Jour., 17(l):1-17.
Schaefer, R. H. 1972. A short-range forecast function for predicting the
relative abundance of striped bass in Long Island waters. N.Y. Fish
Game Jour., 19(2):178-181.
Schnick, R. A. 1973. Formalin as a therapeutant in fish culture. U.S.
Fish Wildlf. Ser., Bur. of Sport Fisheries and Wildi. PB-237 198.
131 pp.
Schubel, J. R. 1974. Effects of exposure to time-excess temperature
histories typically experienced at power plants on the hatching success
of fish eggs. Special Report 32, PPRP-4 of Chesapeake Bay Institute
of The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 37 pp.
Schultz, L. P. 1931. Hermaphroditism in the striped bass. Copeia, 2:64.
254
-------
Scofield, E. C. 1931. The striped bass of California ( Roccus lineatu.s) .
Calif. Div. Fish Game, Fish Bull. No. 29:1-82.
Scofield, N. B. 1910. Notes on the striped bass in California. 21st
Biennial Rept. Bd. of Fish Game Comm. of Calif. for 1909-1910:104-109.
Scofield, N. B., and G. A. Coleman. 1910. Notes on spawning and hatching
of striped bass eggs at Bouldin Island hatchery. 21st Biennial Rept.
Calif. Bd. of Fish Game Comm. for 1909-1910:109-117.
Scruggs, G. D., Jr. 1957. Reproduction of resident striped bass in Santee-
Cooper reservoir, South Carolina. Trans. Mier. Fish.Soc., 85:144-159.
Scruggs, G. D., Jr., and J. C. Fuller, Jr. 1955. Indications of a fresh-
water population of striped bass, Roccus saxatilis (Walbaum), in
Santee-Cooper reservoir. Proc. of the Southeastern Assoc. of Game &
Fish Comm., pp. 64-69.
Shannon, E. H. 1970. Effect of temperature changes upon developing striped
bass eggs and fry. Proc. of the 23rd Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc.
Game Fish Comm., pp. 365-274.
Shannon, E. H., and W. B. Smith. 1967. Preliminary observations of the
effect of temperature on striped bass eggs and sac fry. Proc. 21st
Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game Fish Comm., pp. 257-260.
Shapovalov, L. 1936. Food of the striped bass. Calif. Fish Game, 22(4):
261-270.
Shearer, L. W., D. E. Ritchie, Jr., and C. M. Frisbie. 1962. Sport fishing
survey in 1960 of the lower Patuxent estuary and the 1958 year class of
striped bass. Ches. Sci., 3(1):1-17.
Shebley, W. H. 1927. History of fish planting in California. Calif. Fish
Game, 13:163-174.
Shuster, C. N. 1959. A biological evaluation of the Delaware River Estuary.
University of Delaware Marine Lab., Information Series, Publ. No. 3:
1—77.
Side 11, B. D., R. G. Otto, and D. A. Powers. 1978. A biochemical method
for distinction of striped bass and white perch larvae. Copeia,
1978(2): 340-343.
Sidell, B. D., R. G. Otto, D. A. Powers, M. Karweit, and J. Smith. 1980.
Apparent genetic hemogeneity of spawning striped bass in the upper
Chesapeake Bay. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 109(1):99-107.
Sidwell, V. D., P. R. Foncannon, N. S. Moore, and J. C. Bonnet. 1974.
Composition of the edible portion of raw (fresh or frozen) crustaceans,
finfish, and mollusks. I. Protein, fat, moisture, ash, carbohydrate,
* energy value, and cholesterol. Marine Fisheries Review, 36(3):21-35.
255
-------
Slobodkin, L. B., and S. Richman. 1961. Calories/gm in species of animals.
Nature (Lond.), 191:299.
Smith, H. M. 1896. A review of the history and results of the attempts to
acclimatize fish and other water animals in the Pacific states. Bull.
U.S. Fish Comm. for 1895, 15:379-472.
Smith, L. D. 1970. Life history studies of striped bass. Final Report,
Anadromous Fish Project, Georgia, AFS-2. 134 pp.
Smith, T. I. J., J. S. Jopkins, and P. A. Sandifer. 1978. Development of a
large-scale Artemia hatching system utilizing recirculated water.
Proceedings World Mariculture Society, 9:701-714.
Smith, W. B., W. B Bonner, and B. L. Tatun. 1967. Premature egg procure-
ment from striped bass Roccus saxatilis . Proc. 20th Ann. Conf. South-
eastern Assoc. Game Fish Comm., pp. 324-330.
Snieszko, S. F., G. L. Bullock, E. Hollis, and J. G. Boone. 1964. Pasteur-
ella sp. from an epizootic of white perch ( Roccus americanus ) in Chesa-
peake Bay tidewater areas. J. Bacteriology, 88(6):l813-1814.
Snyder, J. P. 1913. Notes on striped bass. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.,
43: 93-96.
Snyder, j. P. 1915. Efforts to ripen striped bass, 1915. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc. 1 45(l):40-45.
Solorzano, L. 1969. Determination of ammonia in natural waters by the
phenolhypochlorite method. Limnol. Oceanog., 14:799-801.
Sornmani, P. 1972. A study on the population dynamics of striped bass
( Morone saxatilis , Walbaum) in the San Francisco Bay estuary. Ph.D.
Thesis, University of Washington, Seattle. 145 pp. (University Micro-
films, Ann Arbor, Michigan, Order No. 72-20, 893.)
Sorgeloos, P., and G. Persoone. 1975. Technological improvements for the
cultivation of invertebrates as food for fishes and crustaceans. II.
Hatching and culturing of the brine shrimp, Artemia sauna L.
Aquaculture, 6: 303-317.
Sorgeloos, P., G. Persoone, M. Baeza-Mesa, H. Bossuyt, and E. Bruggeman.
1978. The use of Artemia cysts in aquaculture: The concept of
“hatching efficiency” and description of a new method for cyst pro-
cessing. Proceedings World Mariculture Society, 9:715-721.
Spagnoli, J. J., and L. C. Sldnner. 1977. PCB’s in fish from selected
waters of New York State. Pesticide Monitoring Journ., 1l(2):69-87.
Spotte, S. 1979. Fish and Invertebrate Culture. Water Management in
Closed Systems. 2nd Edition. Wiley-Interscience Publication, Jqhn
Wiley and Sons, New York. 179 pp.
256
-------
Starks, E. C. 1901. Synonymy of the fish skeleton. Proc. Acad. Sci. Wash.,
3:507-539, 3 p15.
Stevens, D. E. 1966. Food habits of striped bass, Roccus saxatilis , in the
Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. Part II. Calif. Dept. Fish Game, Fish
Bull., 136:68-96.
Stevens, D. E. 1977a. Striped bass ( Morone saxatilis ) monitoring tech-
niques in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary. In Proceedings of the
Conference on Assessing the Effects of Power-Plant-Induced Mortality on
Fish Populations (W. Van Winkle, ed.). Pergainon Press, N.Y.pp. 91—109.
Stevens, D. E. 1977b. Striped bass ( Morone saxatilis ) year class strength
in re lation to river flow in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Estuary,
California. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 106(1):34-42.
Stevens, R. E. 1958. The striped bass o the Santee-Cooper reservoir.
Proc. 11th Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assn. of Game Fish Comm., pp.
25 3-264.
Stevens, R. E. 1965. A final report on the use of hormones to ovulate
striped bass, Roccus saxatilis (Walbaum). 18th Ann. Conf. South-
eastern Assoc. Game Fish Comm. 21 pp.
Stevens, R. E. 1966. Hormone-induced spawning of striped bass for reser-
voir stocking. Progr. Fish-Cult., 28(1):19-28.
Stevens, R. E. 1967. Striped bass rearing. Cooperative Fisheries Unit,
N.C. State University, Raleigh. 14 pp.
Stolte, L. W. 1974. Tag returns for striped bass tagged in New Hampshire.
Underwater Natur., 8(1):26-31.
Struhsaker, J. S., D. Y. Hashimoto, S. M. Girard, F. T. Prior, and T. 0.
Cooney. 1973. Effect of antibiotics on survival of carangid fish
larvae ( Caranx mate), reared in the laboratory. Aquaculture, 2:53-88.
Surber, E. W. 1958. Results of striped bass ( Roccus saxatilis ) introduction
into freshwater impoundments. Proc. 11th Ann. Conf. Southeastern
Assoc. Game Fish Comm., pp. 273-276.
Swartzman, C., R. Deriso, and C. Cowan. 1977. Comparison of simulation
models used in assessing the effects of power-plant-induced mortality
on fish populations. In Proceedings of the Conference on Assessing the
Effects of Power-Plant-Induced Mortality on Fish Populations (W. Van
Winkle, ed.). Pergaxnon Press, N.Y., pp. 333-361.
Tagatz, M. E. 1961. Tolerance of striped bass and American shad to changes
of temperature and salinity. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci.
Rept. -Fish. No. 338. 8 pp.
257
-------
Talbot, G. B. 1967. Teratological notes on striped bass Roccus saxatilis
of San Francisco Bay. Copeia, 1967(2):459-461.
Tatuxn, B. L., J. Bayless, E. G. McCoy, and W. B. Smith. 1965. Preliminary
experiments in artificial propagation of striped bass. 19th Ann. Conf.
Southeastern Assoc. Game Fish Comm., pp. 374-389.
Texas Instrunents Inc. 1973. Hudson River ecology study in the area of
Indian Point. First Annual Report to Consolidated Edison Co. of N.Y.,
Inc. 348 pp. + 3 appendices.
Texas Instruments Inc. 1974a. Hudson River ecological study in the area of
Indian Point. 1973 Annual Report. Prepared for Consolidated Edison
Co. of N.Y., Inc. July 1974.
Texas Instruments Inc. 1974b. Acute and chronic effects of evaporative
cooling tower blowdown and power plant chemical discharges on white
perch ( Morone americana ) and striped bass (M. saxatilis) . Prepared for
Consolidated Edison Co. of N.Y., Inc. November 1974. 39 pp.
Texas Instruments Inc. 1975a. First Annual Report for the Multiplant
Impact Study of the Hudson River Estuary. Prepared under contract to
Consolidated Edison Co. of N.Y., Inc. Jointly financed by Consolidated
Edison Co. of N.Y., Inc., Orange and Rockland Utilities, Inc., and
Central Hudson Gas and Electric Corp., July 1975, Vol. I II.
Texas Instruments Inc. 1975b. Final report of the synopic subpopulation
analysis, Phase I: Report on the feasibility of using innate tags to
identify striped bass ( Morone saxatilis ) from various spawning rivers.
Prepared under contract with Consolidated Edison Co. of N.Y., Inc.,
September, 1975.
Texas Instruments Inc. l975c. Hudson River ecological study in the area of
Indian Point. 1974 Annual Report. Prepared for Consolidated Edison
Co. of N.Y., Inc.
Texas Instruments Inc. 1976a. Fisheries Survey of the Hudson River.
March-December 1973, Vol. IV. Prepared for Consolidated Edison Co. of
N.Y., Inc. June 1976.
Texas Instruments Inc. l976b. Hudson River ecological study in the area of
Indian Point. Thermal effects report preapred for Consolidated Edison
Company of N.Y., Inc. September, 1976.
Texas Instruments Inc. 1976c. Hudson River ecological study in the area of
Indian Point. 1975 Annual Report. Prepared for Consolidated Edison
Company of New York, Inc. December.
Texas Instruments Inc. 1977a. Feasibility of culturing and stocking Hudson
River striped bass. 1975 Annual Report. Prepared for Consolidated
Edison Co. of N.Y., Inc. April.
258
-------
Texas Instruments Inc. 1977b. 1974 year-class report for the Multiplant
Impact Study of the Hudson River Estuary. Prepared under contract
with Consolidated Edison Co. of N.Y., Inc., Orange and Rockland Utili-
ties, Inc., and Central Hudson Gas and Electric Corp. May. - 3 Vols.
Texas Instruments Inc. 1977c. Feasibility of culturing and stocking Hudson
River striped bass. An overview, 1973-1975. Prepared for Consolidated
Edison Co. of N.Y., Inc. June.
Theilacker, G. H. 1978. Effect of starvation on the histological and
morphological characteristics of jack mackerel, Trachurus symmetricus ,
larvae. U.S. Fish. Bull., 76(2):403-414.
Thomas, J. L. 1967. The diet of juvenile and adult striped bass, Roccus
saxatilis , in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River system. Calif. Fish &
Game, 53(1):49-62.
Tiller, R. E. 1942. Indications of compensatory growth in the striped bass,
Roccus saxatilis Walbai.nn, as revealed by a study of the scales. M.S.
Thesis, University of Maryland, College Park. 36 pp. (Published with
same title in Ches. Biol. Lab. Pubi. No. 57:1-16.)
Tiller, R. E. 1950. A five-year study of the striped bass fishery of Mary-
land, based on analyses of the scales. Chesapeake Biol. Lab. Publ.
No. 85. 30 pp.
Tong, S. C., W. H. Gutenmann, D. J. Lisk, G. E. Burdick, and E. J. Harris.
1972. Trace metals in New York State fish. N.Y. Fish Game Jour.,
19(2) :123—131.
Townes, H. K., Jr. 1937. Studies on the food organisms of fish. In A
biological survey of the lower Hudson watershed. Suppl. 26th Rept.
N.Y. St. Conserv. Comm., 1936:225—226.
Trent, W. L. 1962. Growth and abundance of young-of-year striped bass,
Roccus saxatilis (Walba mi) in Albemarle Sound, North Carolina. M.S.
Thesis, North Carolina State University, Raleigh. 66 pp.
Trent, W. L., and W. W. Hassier. 1968. Gill net selection, migration, size
and age composition, sex ratio, harvest efficiency, and management of
striped bass in the Roanoke River, North Carolina. Ches. Sci., 9(4):
217—232.
Tresselt, E. F. 1952. Spawning grounds of the striped bass, Roccus
saxatilis (Walbaum) in Virginia. Bull. Bingham Oceanog. Coil., 14(1):
98-110.
Turner, J. L. 1976. Striped bass spawning in the Sacramento and San
Joaquin Rivers in central California from 1963 to 1972. Calif. Fish
Game, 62(2):106-1l8.
259
-------
Turner, J. L., and H. K. Chadwick. 1972. Distribution and abundance of
young-of-the-year striped bass, Morone saxatilis , in relation to river
flow in the Sacramento-San Joaquin estuary. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.,
101 (3) :442-452.
Turner, J. L., and T. C. Farley. 1971. Effects of temperature, salinity,
and dissolved oxygen on the survival of striped bass eggs and larvae.
Calif. Fish Game, 57(4):268-273.
Turner, J. L., and D. W. Kelly (compilers). 1966. Ecological studies of
the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. Part II - Fishes of the Delta.
Calif. Fish & Game, Fish. Bull. No. 136:1-168.
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1904/05-. Propagation and distribution of
food fishes. Report year irregular. 1904/05—1929/30 issued as Bureau
of Fisheries Document; 1930/31-1939/40 as U.S. Bureau of Fisheries
Administration Report; 1940/41-1961/62 as U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service Statistical Digest; and 1967- as Fish Distribution Report of
Division of Hatcheries. 1912/13-1939-40 issues as Appendix to U.S.
Bureau of Fisheries Report of the Commissioner of Fisheries.
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1941-. Fishery Statistics of the United
States. Issue complied for each year as Fish and Wildi. Serv. Sta-
tistical Digest; and yearly by areas as Current Fishery Statistics
(CFS) series.
U. S. Senate. 1979. Hearings before the subcommittee on resource protection
of the Committee on Environment and Public Works. United States Senate
96th Congress on S. 838. Serial No. 96-H7. 168 pp.
United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 1975. Final Environmental
Statement related to operation of Indian Point Nuclear Generating
Plant Unit No. 3. Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc.
Docket No. 50-296. February 1975. Vols. I II.
Valenti, R. J., J. Aldred, and J. Liebell. 1976. Experimental marine cage
culture of striped bass in northern waters. Proceedings World Man-
culture Society, 7:99—108.
Van Winkle, W., B. W. Rust, C. P. Goodyear, S. R. Blum, and P. Thall. 1974.
A striped-bass population model and computer programs. Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Contract No. W7405-eng-26. Environmental Sciences
Division, Pubi. No. 643. (ORNL’TM4578) 200 pp.
Van Winkle, W., S. W. Christensen, and G. Kauffman. 1976. Critique and
sensitivity analysis of the compensation function used in the LMS
Hudson River striped bass models. Environ. Sd. Div., Publ. No. 944,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory. (ORNL/TM-5437) 100 pp.
Van Winkle, W., S. W. Christensen, and J. S. Suffern. l97 . Incorporation
of sublethal effects and indirect mortality in modeling population-
level impacts of a stress, with an example involving power-plant
260
-------
entrainment and striped bass. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Environ.
Sci. Div. Publ. No. 1295. (NUREG/CR-0638; ORNL/NUREG/TM-288) 24 pp.
Van Winkle, W. B., L. Kirk, and B. W. Rust. 1979b. Periodicities in
Atlantic coast striped bass ( Morone saxatilis ) commercial fisheries
data. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, 36:54-62.
Vincent, W. S., H. 0. Halvorson, H. R. Chen, and D. Shin. 1969. A compari-
son of ribosomal gene amplification in uni- and multi-nucleolate
oocytes. Exp. Cell Res., 57(2 3):24O—25O.
Vladykov, V. D. 1957. Fish tags and tagging in Quebec waters. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc., 86:345-349.
Vladykov, V. D., and D. H. Wallace. 1938. Is the striped bass ( Roccus
lineatus ) of Chesapeake Bay a migratory fish? Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.,
67: 67-86.
Vladykov, V. D., and D. H. Wallace. 1952. Studies of striped bass, Roccus
saxatilis (Walbatnn), with special reference to the Chesapeake Bay
region during 1936-1938. Bull. Bingham Oceanog. Coll., l4(1):l32-l77.
Wales, J. H. 1946. Fungus in air bladder of striped bass. Calif. Fish &
Game, 32:31.
Wallace, D. N. 1975. A critical comparison of the biological assunptions
of Hudson River striped bass models and field survey data. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc., 104(4):710-717.
Wallace, D. N. 1978. Two anomalies of fish larval transport and their
importance in environmental assessment. N.Y. Fish Game Journ.,
25(1) :59—71.
Ware, F. J. 1971. Some early life history of Florida t s inland striped
bass, Morone saxatilis . Proc. 24th Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc.
Game Fish Comm., pp. 439-447.
Warsh, K. L. 1975. Hydrological-biological models of the impact of entrain-
ment of spawn of the striped bass ( Morone saxatilis ) in proposed power
plants at two areas in the upper Chesapeake Bay. The Johns Hopkins
University, Applied Physics Laboratory. PPSE-T-1: 1-94 + appendices.
Wawronowicz, L. J., and W. M. Lewis. 1979. Evaluation of the striped bass
as a pond-reared food fish. Progr. Fish-Cult., 41(3):138-140.
Wedemeyer, G. A., and W. T. Yasutake. 1977. Clinical methods for the
assessment of the effects of environmental stress on fish health.
U.S. Dept. of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Technical Papers,
89:1-18.
Weliborn, T. L., Jr. 1969. The toxicity of nine therapeutic and herbicidal
compounds to striped bass. Prog. Fish-Cult., 3l(1):27-32.
261
-------
Wellborn, T. L., Jr. 1971. Toxicity of some compounds to striped bass
fingerlings. Prog. Fish-Cult. , 33(1) :32-36.
Westin, D. T. 1978. Serum and blood from adult striped bass, Morone saxa-
tilis . Estuaries, 1(2): 123-125.
Whitehead, P. J. P., and A. C. Wheeler. 1966. The generic names used for
sea basses of Europe and North America (Pices: Serranidae). Ann. Mus.
Civ. Stor. Nat. Genoa, 76:23-41.
Wlgfall, M., and J. M. Barkuloo. 1976. A preliminary report on the abun-
dance and biology of stocked striped bass in the Choctawhatchee River
System, Florida. Proc. Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game Fish.
Comm., 29:152-161.
Williams, H. M. 1972. Preliminary fecundity studies of the hybrid (striped
bass X white bass) in two South Carolina reservoirs. Proc. 25th Ann.
Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game Fish Comm., pp. 536-542.
Williamson, F. A. 1974. Population studies of striped bass ( Morone
saxatilis ) in the Saint John and Annapolis Rivers. M.S. Thesis,
Acadia University, Wolfville, N.S., Canada. 60 pp.
Wilson, J. S., R. P. Morgan II, P. W. Jones, H. R. Lumsford, Jr., J. Lawson,
and J. Murphy. 1976. Potomac River fishery study - striped bass
spawning stock assessment. Final Rept., 1975. Ches. Biol. Lab UMCEES
Ref. No. 76-14. 61 pp + tables.
Windom, H., R. Stickney, R. Smith, D. White, and F. Taylor. 1973. Arsenic,
cadmium, mercury, and zinc in some species of North Atlantic finfish.
J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, 30(2):275-279.
Wirtanen, L. J., and R. H. Ray. 1971. Striped bass, Morone saxatilis
(Walbaum). 1970 Report on the development of essential requirements
for production. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Div. Hatcheries Publ.
37 pp.
Wolke, R. L. 1975. A survey of the diseases and parasites of fishes of
the Thames River Watershed, Connecticut. In An Evaluation of the
Fishery Resources of the Thames River Watershed, Connecticut (R. L.
Hames, ed.). Storrs Agric. Expt. Sta., The University of Connecticut,
Storrs, Bull., 435:74-100.
Wolke, R. E., D. S. Wyand, and W. H. Khairallah. 1970. A light and
electron microscopic study of epitheliocystis disease in the gills of
Connecticut striped bass ( Morone saxatilis ) and white perch ( Morone
ainericanus) . J Comp. Pathol., 80(4):559-563.
Wood, G., and L. Hintz. 1971. Lipid changes associated with the degrada-
tion of fish tissue. J. Official Assoc. of Anal. Chem., 54(S):1019-
1023.
263
-------
ibolcott, W. S. 1957. Comparative osteology of serranid fishes of the
genus Roccus (Mitchill). Copeia, 1957(1):1-1O.
Worth, S. G. 1882. The artificial propagation of the striped bass ( Roccus
lineatus ) on Albemarle Sound. Bull. U.S. Fish Comm. for 1881, 1:174-
177.
Worth, S. G. 1904. The recent hatching of striped bass, and possibilibes
with other commercial species. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 33:223-230.
Worth, S. G. 1910. Progress of hatching striped bass. Trans. Amer. Fish.
Soc., 39:155-159.
Worth, S. G. 1912. Fresh-water and angling grounds for the striped bass.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 41:115-126.
Yarzhombek, A. A., and L. B. Klyashiorin. 1974. The relationship between
standard metabolism and resting metabolism in fishes. J. Ichthyl.,
14(3) :439-443.
Zawacki, C. S., and P. T. Briggs. 1976. Fish investigations in Long Island
Sound at a nuclear power station site at Shoreham, N.Y. Fish Game
J., 23(l):34—50.
*
Finlayson, B. J., and D. E. Stevens. 1977. Mortality—temperature relation-
ships for young striped bass ( Morone saxatilis ) entrained at two power
plants in the Sacramento—San Joaquin Delta, California. Calif. Fish &
Game, Anad. Fish. Br. Admin. Rept. No. 77—6:22 pp.
Sills, J. B., and P. D. Hartnan. 1971. Efficacy and residues of quinaldine
sulfate, an anaesthetic, for striped bass ( Roccus saxatilis) . Proc.
24th Ann. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. of Game & Fish Coinm.:546—549.
Sindertnann, C. J. 1979. Pollution—associated diseases and abnormalities of
fish and shellfish: A review. U. S. Fish. Bull. 76(4):717—749
264
------- |