Setting Environmental Priorities
for Metro Denver
An Agenda for
Community Action
A Report from the Advisory Committee ot'Kiivironment.il Strategics tor Metro Denver
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Advisory Committee Memhers
1 ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGIES
FOR METRO DENVER
An Integrated Environmental Management Project
ELIZABETH DIXON
Economic Consultant
ROBERT FARLEY
Executive Director
Denver Regional Council of Governments
JOHN FIROR, Ph.D.
Director, Advanced Study Program
National Center for Atmospheric Research
RICHARD FLEMING
President and CEO
Greater Denver Chamber of Commerce
TIMOTHY GABLEHOUSE
Attorney and Counselor at Law
BETH GALLEGOS
Citizens Against Contamination
TOM GOUGEON
Administrative Assistant
Office of the Mayor
City and County of Denver
PATRICK GRANT
Member, Colorado House of Representatives
FB.ANKLYN JUDSON, M.D.
Director of Public Health
Denver Department of Health and Hospitals
HAROLD KITE
Commissioner, Adams County
JOEL KOHN
Director, Office of Policy and Research
Office of the Governor
ThOMAS LOOBY
Assistant Director for Health
and Environmental Protection
Colorado Department of Health
DANIEL LUECKE, Ph.D.
Senior Scientist
Environmental Defense Fund
CAROL MACLENNAN
Environmental Management Unit
City of Aurora
NANCY McCALLIN
Economist
United Banks of Colorado
JACK McGRAW
Deputy Regional Administrator
EPA Region VIII
ROBERT MCMULLEN
Director, Environmental Management Department
Martin Marietta Astronautics Group
WILLIAM MILLER
Manager, Denver Water Department
ROBERT PEARSON, Ph.D.
Administrator, Environmental Affairs,
Public Service Company of Colorado
Chairman, Colorado Water Quality Control
Commission
LARRY RICE
City Manager, City of Lakewood
JAMES SCHERER
Regional Administrator
EPA Region VIII
MICHAEL SCHONBRUN
President, National Jewish Center for Immunolog
and Respiratory Medicine
Chairman, Metropolitan Air Quality Council
ALEXANDRA SMITH
Former Deputy Regional Administrator
EPA Region VIII
KEN TORP
Executive Director
Center for Public-Private Sector Cooperation
University of Colorado at Denver
THOMAS VERNON, M.D.
Executive Director
Colorado Department of Health
JOHN WELLES
Executive Director, Museum of Natural History
CHRIS WIANT
Director, Environmental Health
Tn-County Health Department
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Setting
Environmental
Priorities for
Metro Denver
An Agenda for
Community Action
A Report from the
Advisory Committee of
Environmental Strategies
for Metro Denver
January 1989
Contents
Foreword
1
Summary of Findings
and Results 2
Outdoor Air Pollution:
Carbon Monoxide
& Fine Paniculate
Matter 6
Indoor Air Pollution:
Radon and
Environmental
Tobacco Smoke 12
Ground-Water Quality 18
Other Important
Environmental Issues 22
Project Participants 26
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The Environmental Strategies Project is an effort sponsored by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency in which a group of community leaders and technical experts assessed
a range of environmental issues confronting metro Denver.
While the findings and recommendations contained in this report represent a consensus
from the Projects Advisory Committee, there were naturally some areas of diverse opinion
among Committee members. Therefore, it should not be construed that all members
necessarily agree with all of the findings and recommendations.
Likewise, the findings and recommendations do not necessarily represent official policy of
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the Colorado Department of Health, or any
other organization that participated in the project.
For more information, contact:
Kenneth H. Lloyd
Project Director
EPA Region VIII
999 18th Street, Suite 500
Denver, Colorado 80202
303 / 293-1611
This document is printed on recycled paper.
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F \Vith the creation of the Environmental
a rewo r Protection Agency in 1970. the nation
embarked upon a deliberate mission to clean
up its most visibly polluted resources -- our dirty air, our polluted water, our
waste-strewn land. In the decade that ftllowcd, we made enormous strides in
restoring and protecting our environment A tough set of environmental laws
matched the public commitment to making our nation a cleaner place.
Ironically, this very progress began to reveal new, and perhaps more dangerous,
environmental problems -- problems such as radon, global warming and acid
rain.
As our environmental challenges become more complex, the focus for action
must narrow. To meet these challenges in an economy of scarce resources,
federal, state, and local governments will have to do something they have not
done hefire: establish priorities anlong environmental problems.
In the early 1980s, EPA began using an analytical approach called risk assess-
ment/risk management to characterize the damages caused by environmental
problems and to determine the most effective ways to mitigate these damages.
By judging the severity of environmental problems based on their efkct on
human health, human welfare, and natural ecosystems, risk assessment/risk
management makes it possible to compare problems across the environmental
spectrum. Once risks arc assessed, priorities can be established, and an action
plan which targets the greatest threats first can be created.
This new approach for examining environmental priorities is the cornerstone of
EPA’s Integrated Environmental Management Projects. The first project was
conducted in Philadelphia, PA. Subsequent projects were sponsored in
Baltimore, Ml) and Santa Clara, CA., with each community benefitting from the
lessons learned in the previous efforts.
In April 1987, a fourth demonstration project, Environmental Strategies for
Metro l)enver, began in Colorado.
With a broad range of environmental assets and challenges -- from its beautiful
open spaces, parks, lakes, and mountains, to its concerns about air quality and
hazardous waste -- metro Denver was an ideal location for this type of project.
Using the risk assessment/risk management model as a conceptual framework
for determining priorities, an Advisor Committee of area leaders considered
nearly 20 environmental issues. Five clearly emerged as the metro areas most
critical: fine particulate matter, radon in homes and buildings, carbon
monoxide, environmental tobacco smoke and ground-water quality.
While this ranking contains some familiar issues as well as some new issues, the
work of the Committee created something perhaps more startling -- a consensus
for action.
With the issuance of this report for public discussion, what may seem like the
end of the l)enver Environmental Strategies Project is really its beginning. The
same cross-section of the Denver community that comprised the Advisory
Committee must now make the action plan a reality.
Implementation of the project’s recommendations will take unprecedented
public and private cooperation, cutting across political and disciplinary
boundaries. The recommendations represent an enormous amount of work --
not only for the top five issues. hut for those farther down the list as well.
Mostly it will take the will of individual citizens motivated to make Denver a
better, cleaner, healthier place to live.
“In a world of limited
resources, it may be wise
to give priority attention
to those polluta nts and
problems that pose the
greatest risks to society.”
--Lee Thomas,
EPA Administrator
Setting Environmental
Priorities.
for Metro Denver
1
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Fine Particulate Matter
Commonly referred to as the
“Brown Cloud “, this pc i ‘asive
outdoor air pollution problem
hurts Denver’s image and
economy, and evidence suggests
that it may be jeopardizing
our health.
Radon in Homes
and Buildings
A naturally occurring radioac-
tive gas, radon can become
trapped inside homes and
buildings, increasing the risk of
lung cancer.
Carbon Monoxide
This invisible air pollutant,
which can have a serious impact
on individuals with existing
health problems, results mainl’v
from our reliance on the auto-
mobile and from wood burning
during the winter months.
Environmental
Tobacco Smoke
Also known as passive smoking,
exposure to environmental
tobacco smoke has been shown to
put individuals at increased
risk of developing disease,
particularly lung cancer.
Ground- Water Quality
Ground water has become an
increasingly valuable resource
for the metro area as we strive
to meet our water needs.
Protecting this resource from
numerous sources of contamina-
tion is important for our future.
Summary of
Findings and Results
Highest Priority
Issues
Environmental Strategies for
Metro Denver: An Integrated
Environmental Management
Project gave a diverse, blue-
ribbon panel of area leaders the
opportunity to help guide the
future focus of environmental management in the Denver area.
For the past two years, an Advisory Committee representing civic
and business leaders, environmental experts, and elected officials
engaged in an assessment and prioritization of major environmental
issues facing the metro area.
By examining information on human health risks and economic
damages, identif ,ring gaps in our understanding, and assessing cur-
rent efforts, the Committee has come to consensus on five highest
priority environmental issues for the metro area requiring focused
community action:
• tine particulate matter,
• radon in homes and huilding ’ ,
• carbon monoxide,
• environmental tobacco smoke, and
• ground-water quality.
The Advisory Committee is convinced that more can and should be
done to address these highest priority environmental issues. While
governmental and legislative actions are necessary in many areas,
individual action -- a large part of the problem -- must become a
large part of the solution.
By focusing our resources and community attention on the most
significant environmental issues, we can make a concerted effort to
solve these problems. With this approach, we can attack emerging
issues like indoor air pollution and ground-water quality while
expanding our efforts to solve the persistent problem of outdoor air
pollution.
2
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The Five Highest Priority Issues:
Messagcs Recoin incndations
Outdoor Air Pollution: Recommendations:
Fine Particulate Matter Outdoor Air
and Carbon Monoxide Control n’md burninq
Reduce driving
To date, most air pollution control efforts in metro Denver have bcen targeted
at reducing carbon monoxide. We arc just beginning to focus attention on our
Conduct additional research
other serious outdoor air pollution problem -- fine particulate matter, which
specific to Denver
not only causes the brown cloud but may also threaten human health.
Initiate alternative fli c/s
While Colorado has led the nation with strategies to reduce levels of carbon
dew onstra tion pro /ccts
monoxide, tougher controls on all sources ill he required if we are to elimi-
nate the threat to public health from this pollutant. Most importantly we need
Expand local government role
cleaner burning motor vehicles, more efficient wood burning devices, and
strategies which reduce driving and wood burning as much as necessary. )
1 roinote stricter federal tailpipe
While many of these carbon monoxide control strategies will also help address $tailda/ d3
the fIne particulate problem, a broader range of source reduction programs
Expand use of oxvirenatcd fuels
and research on the effectiveness of other more ambitious controls are also
required. Sources that should he targeted for reduction programs and addi-
Pui cue Governor Rower s recom—
tional research include diesel-powered vehicles, street sanding operations, and
inendations on the Brojm’n Cloud
power plants.
Conduct additional analysis to
The outdoor air pollution problem in metro Denver is complex and formidable
determine sources of secondary
our response must be comparable. -
particles
Incorporate health and en vi ron -
mental concerns, n otj’ust
visibility, into particulate
control strategies
Indoor Air Pollution:
Radon in Homes and Buildings
Studies of uranium miners in Colorado and around the world have shown that .Recommendations:
exposure to high levels of naturally occurring radon gas can cause lung cancer. Radon
As a result of preliminary testing in the metro area, we know that a widespread
indoor radon problem may exist. However, before public health officials can
determine the proper response to this potential problem, more long-term Develop state and local radon
programs with necessam
testing of homes must be done.
staffing and funding
While public officials work to characterize the extent of radon contamination in - ,
metro Denver, individuals concerned about radon may want to test their homes Conduct long-term monitoring
to determine if a problem exists. Testing for radon is easy, and, if a problem is
(Ice long-term monitoring to test
identihed, relatively inexpensive solutions are available.
individual homes
Because the public’s demand for accurate information on radon testing and
mitigation is expected to increase, state and local governments must begin Develop radon reduction
developing adequate programs to address this harmful indoor air pollutant. standards for new building
construction
3
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The Five Highest Priority Issues:
Mcssaijcs Rcco in men da tio us (co,fl-in zieTh
Indoor Air Pollution:
Environmental Tobacco Smoke
Recommendations: The 1986 Surgeon Generals Report, The Health Consequences otlnvoluntarv
Environmental Smoking , dearly documents that nonsmokers are at increased risk of developing
disease, particularly lung cancer, as the result of exposure to environmental
Tobacco Smoke tobacco smoke. The report states that the scientific case against involuntary
smoking is more than sufficient, and that the goal of remedial action programs
Enact state legislation tofullv must be to eliminate environmental tobacco smoke from indoor air.
protect non.cmokc,c in . -
public places Based on this solid body of evidence, the Advisory Committee recommends
that the metro-Denver area strive to achieve a smoke free environment in all
l)ci’elop fullvprotectii’e nonsmok- public places, including the workplace, as soon as possible. As we move toward
zng policit c by local goi ?ZUIt ;it this goal, it is csscntial that public officials and pri ate cltizcns support furthcr
businesses, and public and governmental action and institutional policies that restrict smoking in public
private inStituttO uS c s.
Increase pululic education on
health risks of ET .S
Ground-Water Quality
Recommendations: Ground-water quality is important to metro-1)enver residents because of
current and projected future use. Since ground-water contamination is difficult
Ground i4’ ter and expensive to remedy, the emphasis of environmental programs should he to
prevent contamination.
Develop comprehensive state
prevention program Efforts to protect ground-water quality should include a comprehensive
program of data collection and pollution prevention at the state level, increased
Acquire better qround-n’ater funding of state programs, and use of local land use regulations to control
quality and usc information surface activities that may impact ground-water quality.
Develop stronger local regulatory An important step in protecting ground water is to improve the amount and
programs quality of data on potential contamination sources, existing ground-water
quality, and ground-water consumption levels. These and other data will
Enact stare ltgislation on provide the foundation for contamination prevention programs.
underground storage tanks
Increase funding for state
regulatory programs
4
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The Environmental Strategies Project
employed a new approach for dealing
with local environmental problems.
This approach involved a diverse group U
of local leaders who compared the ra eg i es
importance of a variety of environ-
rnenta [ issues confronting the metro u
area. Through this process, the group
established a set of priorities and
recommendations for action. A U n I q u e A p p r o a c h
The approach taken by the Project and the
findings that resulted are interesting in a
number of ways:
• The project’s Advisor Committee consists of community leaders: people
who have a personal concern with the future of metropolitan Denver. The
results reflect a deep understanding of the community and regional
issues.
• The Advisory Committee looked at the spectrum of environmental
issues in an unprecedented way. Issues are usually grouped by media --
air, water, land -- and are rarely combined or prioritized. The Committee
considered all issues and analyzed them using consistent criteria.
• The overriding factor in the Committee’s evaluation was risk to human
health. The Committee also recognizes the importance of economic
impacts, quality of life, and our ability to address these problems more
effectively at the local level.
• While public perception of the severity of environmental issues was
considered in the Committee’s process, it was not a critical factor. In many
cases, the amount of public attention an environmental issue receives has
little correlation with the breadth or severity of its impact.
• Although it sponsored the project, EPA did not direct the findings of the
project. Indeed, the Advisory Committee was encouraged to challenge
existing policies and ideas.
• In its plan of action to address these issues, the Committee focuses on
practical recommendations which encourage governments and individuals
to direct their efforts toward controlling these top five problems.
• Perhaps the most significant result is that the Committee reached
consensus on the five highest prioritY issues facing the Denver area.
Despite their differing interests and perspectives, Committee members
clearly agreed that the combined health and economic threats from each of
these issues warrants greater attention and action throughout the metro
area.
The Advisory Committee believes that if we focus our resources and com-
munitv attention on these highest priority issues, we can make considerable
progress toward protecting health, improving our quali of life and facilitating
economic development. With this report, the Committee offers a challenge
to government officials at all levels and individual citizens to combine their
efforts to address these problems which have the greatest impact on our health
and environment. 5
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Outdoor
Air Pollution:
Carbon Monoxide
and Fine
Particulate Matter
To date, most air pollution control
efforts in metro Denver have been
targeted at reducing carbon
monoxide. We are just beginning
to focus attention on our other
serious outdoor air pollution
problem --fine particulate
;natter, which not only causes the
brown cloud but ;nay also threaten
human health.
While Colorado has led the nation
with strategies to reduce levels of
carbon monoxide, tougher controls
on all sources will be required if
we are to eliminate the threat to
public health from this pollutant.
Most importantly, we need cleaner
burning motor vehicles, more
efficient wood burning devices,
and strategies which reduce
driving and wood burning as
much as possible.
While many of these carbon
monoxide control strategies will
also help address the fine
particulate problem, a broader
range of source reduction
programs and research on the
effectiveness of other more ambi-
tious controls are also required.
Sources that should be targeted
for reduction programs and
additional research include diesel-
powered vehicles, street sanding
operations, and power plants.
The outdoor air pollution problem
in metro Denver is complex and
formidable; our response must
be comparable.
Outdoor air pollution in metro Denver
is widely recognized as one of our most
serious environmental problems. A less
commonly recognized fact is that our air
quality problem is the result of two
distinct pollutants: carbon monoxide and
fine particulate matter. While these
pollutants have some common sources,
their effects are uniquely different.
Carbon monoxide is an invisible gas emitted
primarily by motor vehicles, fireplaces, and wood
burning stoves. When humans inhale this pollu-
tant, it prevents red blood cells from performing
their normal function of carrying oxygen through
the blood stream. This aggravates the symptoms
of individuals suffering from certain types of
heart disease, particularly angina, and is associated with reduced
vigilance (ability to concentrate, react, etc.) among health people.
Fine particulate matter Consists
of a variety of small sand, dust,
and chemical particles that
contribute to 1)enver’ s brown
cloud and may threaten human
health. The sources of
particulate matter arc more
varied than carbon monoxide,
but again, motor vehicles
(particularly diesel
vehicles) and wood
burning are two of the
prime contributors.
Other major sources
arc power plants and
reentrained dust
from street sanding
and sweeping
operations, con-
struction activity,
and unpaved roads.
The federal standard for particulate matter was recently changed to a
measure of the amount of particulate matter ten microns in size or
smaller, commonly referred to as PM-1O. EPA adopted this standard
based on evidence that it is these smaller particles, which can be
inhaled deep into the lungs, that have the greatest impact on human
health. The visibility impact of fine particulate matter -- the brown
cloud - - is caused by the very smallest fraction of these fine particles,
those in the size range of two and one-half microns or less. Air quality
officials believe that once the new PM-1O standard takes effect, metro
Denver will be in violation with levels much higher than those allowed
by law.
In addition to the health and visibility damages already mentioned,
public and business officials are concerned that Denvers reputation for
poor air quality is having a negative impact on economic development
in the area. Business surveys indicate that Denver’s air quality problem
is a factor influencing possible corporate relocation decisions.
“Policy Makers Trying
to Pierce Colorado’s
Cloud of Pollution”
--The Washington Post
November 19
6
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Motor vehicles and wood burning are the major contributors to both
carbon monoxide and particulate matter.
Cdi’bo Morv k e
Brown Cloud (Visibthty)
El Prirn ry Parhdes
LI Secordary P&lide,s
(sources nol determined)
eolc ic
bust
Recommendations on Outdoor Air
Control
Wood Burning
Summary of
Metropolitan Air
Quality Council
Wood Burning
Proposal
Inspection, maintenance
and rtgistration program
for wood stoves after July 1,
1994
Emission standardsfbr fire-
places after July 1, 1994
Stricter emission standards
for neir’ wood stoves by
1990
Fsc;nptions for clean mood
stoves from wood burn inq
bans
Tax credits and low-interest
loans for stove and fire-
place replacement
Opacity limits on smoke
from cljimnevc
Public Education progra 1)25
WOXI Industry
Burning
Sources: Colorado Department of Health and 1987-88 Metro Denver Brown Cloud Study.
A two-pronged approach for controlling wood
burning is necessary. First, more efficient wood
burning devices must be installed. At the same
time, we need strategies that reduce the amount of
wood burned, particu1arl - on high pollution days.
• More Efficient Wood Burning Devices
The recent proposal h the Metropolitan Air Quality Council suggests several
approaches that will lead to cleaner wood burning devices in metro Denver over the
next several s-ears. It is important for the Legislature, the Air Quality Control
Commission, and local governments to carefully consider these recommendations
and implement those which are appropriate. Additional reductions arc possible if
carbon monoxide standards for new wood stoves are mandated in the reauthoriza-
tion of the Clean Air Act.
• Episodic Bans on Wood Burning
Surveys in the metro area have found that citizens have complied with mandatory
episodic wood burning bans imposed in several local communities. However, these
episodic wood burning bans currently cover only a portion of the metro area. To
take full advantage of this strategy, the State Legislature should enable the Air
Quality Control Commission to place a mandatory ban on wood burning for all
residents of metro Denver on high pollution days. In the absence of state action,
local governments which have not already done so should enact mandatory
episodic bans.
7
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Reduce Driving
• Alternatives to Driving
While vehicles can be designed to run cleaner, and oxygenated fuels can further
reduce emissions when a vehicle is in operation, further reductions in the amount
Voluntary efforts have of driving done by residents of metro Denver are needed. Since people must
achieved their potential reduce their driving, alternatives must also be provided. Many possibilities exist,
including expanded mass transportation, and well-organized car pooling and ride
sharing programs.
It is important to recognize that, under current conditions, the Better Air
Campaign, as a totally voluntary program, has achieved its potential. Further
reductions in vehicle miles travelled are dependent on the development of
adequate alternatives.
• Incentives for Not Driving
The likelihood that individuals will choose available alternatives to driving can be
increased by providing various incentives and disincentives. State and local
government can help employers establish carpools/vanpools and allow tax credits
to individuals who leave their cars at home.
Funds for these incentives could be generated through driving disincentive pro-
grains, such as increased fuel taxes, toll roads, and higher off-street parking fees.
Financing and support
for research is critical
Conduct
Additional
Research
The number of vehicle miles travelled by residents
of metro Denver must be reduced by providing
more alternatives to driving and by pursuing
strategies that give individuals incentives to leave
their cars at home.
Colorado should establish basic research programs
through local universities and research hospitals,
with the support of local foundations and busi-
nesses, to address air pollution problems that are
unique to the state and other high-altitude areas.
Many of the air pollution problems in Denver result from unique geographic
conditions. Most of the research that has been conducted on atmospheric science,
health effects, control technology, engine design, etc., has been conducted in areas
of the country which do not share these geographic conditions. Such efforts have
only limited applicability to Denver and the rest of Colorado. Since this basic
research is costly and takes years to complete, it will take a long-term commitment
for financing and support from local foundations and businesses.
Long-term research efforts need to be initiated in the following areas:
• Quantification of the health impacts of air pollutants, particularly for
particulate matter and carbon monoxide;
• Alternative engine designs to reduce pollution from motor vehicles
operated at high altitude;
B
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• Fuels that burn cleaner at high altitude; and
• Atmospheric processes in Denver and the Rocky Mountain West.
Initiate
Alternative Fuels
Demonstration
Projects
Several different technologies capable of powering
motor vehicles with alternative fuels such as propane
and compressed natural gas exist, but are currently
underutilized. To assess the effectiveness of alterna-
__________________________ tive fuels, more demonstration projects that use
existing and emerging technologies to convert vehicles to alternative fuels are
needed. To make such demonstration projects more feasible in the short run,
incentives should be given to government agencies and private companies willing to
undertake alternative fuels demonstration projects.
Encourage
Expanded Local
Government Role
Local governments have a crucial role to play in metro Denver’s fight to improve air
qua1i . Because local governments have the ability to impact air quality through
land use and transportation planning, and by enacting local ordinances, they must
be given the authori and technical assistance to become major players in the
battle. Without cooperation and action from local governments, achieving our air
quality objectives will be impossible.
Speciflcall local governments should develop transportation strategies to reduce
driving and alleviate congestion; institute ordinances that mandate bans on wood
burning on high pollution days; and actively support appropriate state, regional and
federal initiatives to improve air quality.
Specific Strategies for
Combating Carbon Monoxide
Promote
Stricter Federal
Tailpipe
Standards
Alternative fuels are
underutilized
Local governments must be encouraged to actively
participate in regional air quality planning and must
implement expanded air pollution reduction strate-
gies within their jurisdictions.
Local governments are
crucial players
Due to design limitations of engines and pollution
control systems, some vehicles do not perform to Motor vehicle
specifications and exceed federally set emissions emissions are worse at
levels. This problem is exacerbated when vehicles high altitude
operate at high altitudes.
9
Federal legislation is needed to require more stringent tailpipe emission standards,
particularly for vehicles operating at high altitude.
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Oxygenated fuels
are an eftective
control strategy
The Clean Air Act, which will be reauthorized by Congress in the near future,
should require:
• 90% vehicle compliance with certified levels as opposed to the
current 60%;
• 10 vear/100,000 mile emission control system warranties;
• compliance certification based on cold temperature starts; and
• increased in-use testing.
Expand
Use of
Oxygenated Fuels
Compared to other CO reduction strategies, the
oxygenated fuels program has been demonstrated
as a relatively inexpensive and practical way to
reduce CO emissions from motor vehicles. With
____________________________ the program being expanded in 1988-89, it is crit-
ical that the results he examined to determine the maximum benefit that can be
achieved from this strategy. Based on a review of this ‘car’s program, the Air
Quality Control Commission should consider the efficacy of requiring a higher
oxygen content during the time that the program is in effect.
Specific Strategies for
Combating Fine Particulates
Pursue
Governor’s
Brown Cloud
Plan
Upon release of the 1987-88 Metro Denver Brown
Cloud Study Governor Romer outlined a ten-point
plan to attack this problem. The ESP Advisory
Committee supports the Governor’s plan. The ele-
ments of this strategy are listed below.
Governor’s 10-point plan • Establish a Brown Cloud “War Chest” to fund pilot programs and research
relating to brown cloud control strategies;
• Call high pollution days based on visibility as well as on high levels of carbon
monoxide;
• Seek State legislation for episodic wood burning bans throughout the metro
area;
• Establish strict standards for new wood burning stoves and fireplaces;
• Reduce driving throughout the metro area through expanded mass trans-
portation, high-occupancy vehicle lanes, carpooling incentives, and improved
transportation planning;
• Implement recommendations of the Diesel Task Force, which include
establishing a high-altitude lab that studies emissions from heavy-duty
vehicles and promoting greater use of alternative fuels;
10
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• Impose stricter state and local opacity and idling standards;
• Lobby the federal government for national low sulfur diesel standards;
• Analyze strategies to control reentrained dust; and
• Reduce power plant emissions of S02 and NOx.
Conduct
Further Analysis
of Secondary
Particles
The 1987-88 Metro Denver Brown Cloud Study
found that secondary particles make up a large
fraction of the brown cloud, on some days as much
as 50%. Unlike primary particulate matter, these
secondary particles are not emitted from sources
directly, but are formed in the atmosphere through complex interactions with
nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and amnionia gases.
While determining the contribution of the secondary particles to the brown cloud
was a major advance, the study was unable to determine precisely what sources of
these precursor gases are most responsible for secondary particle formation.
Sources of these gases include motor vehicles (cars, trucks, and buses), power
plants, oil refineries, and agricultural operations, hut their rclativc contributions to
the formation of the brown cloud are not vet known.
More analysis of the data from the Brown Cloud Study, and additional research,
needs to be conducted to identifi the sources of the secondary particles. Funding
for these studies needs to come from a variety of sources -- the federal government,
the Legislature, local governments, the private sector, and private foundations.
Consider
Health and Other
Environmental
Impacts
Contributions of
sources to secondary
particle formation are
not known
?vlost of the recent concern over fine particulate
matter in the metro area has pertained to the
visibility impacts of the brown cloud. However, Evidence suggests
control strategies must also consider protection of particulate matter is
health and other environmental consequences, not also a health concern
just visibility.
11
There is evidence that particulate matter may be a serious health concern. Since the
federal standard for fine particulate matter is designed to protect public health, the
implementation plan for PM-b currently being developed by the Metropolitan Air
Quality Council and the Colorado Department of Health will address this health
concern.
Outdoor Air Subcommittee:
Brad Beckham, Colorado Department of Health
Ben Bryan, Greater Denver Chamber of Commerce
Steve Foute, City and ‘ountv of Denver
Patrick Grant, Colorado House of Representatives
Dan Luecke, Environmental Defense Fund
Carol Maclen nan, City ofAurora
Rich Mauro, Denver Regional Council of Governments
Robert Pearson, Public Service Company of Colorado
Michael Schonbrun, National Jewish Center for Immunology
and Respiratory Medicine, and Metropolitan Air Quality Council
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Indoor
Air Pollution:
Radon &
Environmental
Tobacco Smoke
Indoor Radon
Studies of uranium
miners have shown that
exposure to radon can
cause lung cancer. As a
result of preliminary
testing in metro Denver,
it appears that a
widespread radon problem
may exist. However,
before public health
officials can determine
the proper response to this
potential problem,
extensive long-term
testing of homes must
be done.
While public officials
work to characterize the
extent of radon contami-
nation in metro Denver,
individuals concerned
about radon may want to
test their homes to deter-
mine if a problem exists.
Testing for radon is easy,
and, if a problem is
identified, relatively
inexpensive solutions
are available.
Because the public’s
demand for accurate
information on radon is
expected to increase, state
and local governments
must begin developing
adequate programs to
address this harmful
indoor air pollutant.
In 1987, there were 1,055 lung cancer deaths in
Colorado. While approximately 85% of lung
cancer deaths are attributed to cigarette smoking,
there are a significant number of lung cancer
deaths among nonsmokers as well. Epidemiolog-
ical studies indicate that indoor radon and
environmental tobacco smoke are the two leading
causes of lung cancer deaths among nonsmokers.
While exposure to either radon or environmental
tobacco smoke is dangerous, these pollutants pose
a substantially greater risk when present together
because of their synergistic impact on the lung.
For this reason, the easiest and most effective first
step toward reducing the risk from these pollu-
tants is to eliminate tobacco smoke from the
indoor air environment.
Radon is a colorless, odorless, radioactive gas produced by the decay of naturally
occurring uranium in rock and soil. Once emitted, radon gas can travel through
cracks or openings in the basement of a home and ultimately become trapped
inside. Inside the home, radon gas decays into radioactive particles that, when
inhaled, impact cell tissue in a way that can cause lung cancer.
There is little doubt that exposure to high levels of radon over long periods of
time can cause lung cancer. The strongest evidence of this effect comes from epi-
demiological studies of uranium miners in Colorado and other places.
Based on this evidence, EPA has recommended that individuals take steps to
reduce indoor radon when the average level inside the home exceeds 4 pico-
curies/litre (pCi/i). In a nationwide survey of radon levels in homes conducted
by EPA and states during 1986 - 1988, Colorado had some of the highest levels
of the 1 states tested. In these 2-day tests, over 40% of the homes in Colorado
recorded levels over 4 pCi/l. However, this short-term test is only a screening
device and cannot be used as a measure of actual exposures.
Most radon problems in the home are relatively easy to correct -- either by
preventing radon entry or by venting contaminated indoor air. While some
situations can require complex and expensive solutions, most require simple
solutions that can be corrected for less than S 1,000 with the average cost being
between $300 - 00.
41 I k 11 M
North Colorado Minnesota Pennasi- Wisconsin Wyoming Indiana Massachusetts Kansas Rhode
Dakota vania Island
63% 46% 46% 37% 27% 26% 26% 24 21% 19%
Percentage of homes tested with levels above 4 pCi/ I as a result of short-term tests
Sourcc: EPA Stare Survey 1986-88.
A recent survey determined that nearly one in two houses in Colorado had
elevated levels of radon
12
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Rccoiii inendations on Indoor Radon
Develop
State & Local
Radon Programs
The State of Colorado and local governments must
further develop programs to address the range of
technical and informational needs resulting from the
indoor radon problem. Current state and local
programs need more funding and staff to adequately
deal with the extensive technical and informational needs posed by the radon
problem.
The ESP Advisory Committee encourages the State Legislature and local govern-
ments to provide adequate funding for the development of programs to effectively
deal with indoor radon issues. Among the most important needs are:
1) consistent testing protocols based on national standards;
2) certification of radon testing and mitigation firms;
3) publication of exposure and health risk information that allows for
interpretation of individual test results;
4) information on the most effective means of remediation;
5) analysis of the impacts on the real estate, home building, lending, and
insurance industries;
6) support for necessary state and federal legislation; and
7) financial assistance to low-income individuals.
One of the most important aspects of these programs must be a proactive stance on
educating the public so that they have accurate information prior to taking action.
Conduct
Long- Term
Mionitoring
Expanded programs
are needed to meet
citizeN’s information
needs
With support from EPA Region VIII, state
agencies, and local governments in the metro area, Long-term monitoring
the Colorado Department of Health should data will better
conduct extensive, long-term monitoring of indoor characterize actual
radon levels in the Denver area. exposure
13
Most of the data on indoor radon levels currently available is based on two-day
samples taken in the lowest livable area of the home, the basement if there is one.
WThile the results of these tests provide an individual with some of the information
they need when deciding how to respond to radon in their home, these data are
not sufficient for public health officials to characterize the extent of the problem in
the metro Denver area.
Monitoring data collected over a year-long period in a representative sample of
metro area homes is necessary to estimate the number of people that are at risk
from indoor radon. Without this information, public health officials will be unable
-------
Concerned citizens
should test their homes
Major Radon Entry Routes:
A. Cracks in concrete slabs
B. Spaces behind brick veneer
walls that rest on
uncapped hollow-block
foundation
C. Pores and cracks in
concrete blocks
D. Floor-wall joints
E. .Exposcd soil, as in a su ;np
F. Weeping (drain) tile, if
drained to open su;np
G. Mortar joints
H. Loose fitting pipe
penetrations
I. Open tops of block walls
J. Building materials such
as some rock
K. Water (from some wells)
to make appropriate decisions about the level of response and types of action
needed to address the problem.
Long-term monitoring data will also be used to interpret the significance of two-
day test results. By correlating long-term data with short-term data, public health
officials vill he able to give individuals who conduct the two-day test better infor-
mation regarding their overall exposure to radon and the need to take
remedial action.
Use
Long-Term Test
For Individual
Homes
In September 1988 EPA Administrator Lee
Thomas called for all homes and apartments from
the second floor down in the United States to be
tested for radon. While the Advisory Committee
___________________________________ is also concerned with the risk posed by radon,
it believes that calling for testing of all homes in the metro area at this time is
premature.
This stance is not meant to minimize the potential risk, rather it recognizes the
lack of an adequate state and local institutional structure to respond appropriately
to the challenge posed by this complex environmental problem. Until the neces-
sarv structure is in place, widespread testing will create a public demand for intbr-
mation and technical assistance that cannot he met with current resources. In
addition, long-term monitoring data must he collected before the extent of the
problem can he accurately characterized.
14
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Because of the significant potential risk, however, individuals who are concerned
about the risk from radon in their homes may want to test their homes now to
determine if a problem exists. Individuals should first get the best information avail-
able on testing and mitigation and then conduct the test using a long-term radon
monitoring device over a period of 90 days to one year. Homeowners can receive
limited guidance and assistance from EPA or the Colorado Department of Health.
Long-term testing will provide the homeowner with more accurate information on
radon levels in the home than can be obtained from the two-da test. Long-term
test results will allow for a more accurate determination of a ctual exposure and the
need for remedial action. This information will also be valuable to homeowners and
home buyers when homes are sold.
Develop
Standards
for New
Construction
Local governments, State agencies, and EPA should
work with builders and architects to design radon
reduction measures that can he incorporated into
the construction of new homes and buildings.
Preventing potential radon problems in new homes and buildings is easily accom-
plished by incorporating radon reduction measures during construction. Preventing
a radon problem during construction is generally less expensive and more effective
than trying to remediate an existing problem.
Local governments, the Colorado Department of Health, the Colorado Geological
Survey and EPA should work with builders and architects to determine what kinds
of preventive construction techniques are appropriate, and which alternatives are
most effective and least costly. Initially, these techniques should be targeted at
construction where the potential for radon problems is high based on the geology of
the area.
Radon problems can be
prevented in new homes
15
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The 1986 Surgeon
General’s Report, “The
Health Consequences of
Involuntary Smoking,”
clearly documents that
nonsmokers are at
increased risk of
developing disease,
particularly lung
cancer, as the result of
exposure to environ-
mental tobacco smoke.
The report states that the
scientific case against
involuntary smoking is
more than sufficient,
and that the goal of
remedial action pro-
grams must be
to eliminate environ-
mental tobacco smoke
from indoor air.
Based on this solid body
of evidence, the
Advisory o;nmitWe
recommends that the
metro Denver area
strive to achieve a smoke
free environment in all
public places, including
the workplace, as soon as
possible. As we move
toward this goal, it is
essential that public
officials and private
citizens support further
governmental action
and institutional
policies that restrict
smoking in public
places.
The Colorado Legislature should enact legislation
that filly protects nonsmokers from exposure to
environmental tobacco smoke in all public areas,
including the workplace.
To protect the health of nonsmokers, local
governments, businesses, and public and private
institutions should adopt smoking policies that
fully protect individuals from exposure to environ-
mental tobacco smoke.
Environmental Tobacco Smoke
In 1964, the first Report of the Surgeon General on smoking and health deter-
mined that cigarette smoking was a cause of lung cancer. The report also noted
the relationship between smoking and heart disease and chronic lung disease like
asthma and emphysema. Subsequent reports have described the relationship
between smoking and a wide range of acute and chronic diseases.
More recenth effects related to the inhalation of environmental tobacco smoke by
nonsmokers have become a pressing public health concern. Various terms have
been applied to the inhalation of environmental tobacco smoke by nonsmokers;
the terms involuntary smoking and passive smoking are most common.
Many of the known toxic and carcinogenic agents found in primary cigarette
smoke have also been demonstrated to be present in environmental tobacco
smoke. Furthermore, there is no evidence to suggest that environmental tobacco
smoke is less toxic or carcinogenic than primary cigarette smoke. In fact, the
available evidence suggests that, at its source, environmental tobacco smoke
contains higher concentrations of mans’ known toxic and carcinogenic agents per
milligram of smoke than primary smoke.
Based on this intbrmation, the Surgeon General has concluded that exposure to
environmental tobacco smoke should not be viewed as being different than active
smoking, hut rather as a low-dose exposure to a known hazardous agent - -
cigarette smoke.
Rcco in in cii da tions o ii En v iron in cii ta I Tobacco Sin okc
State
Legislation
Limiting the involuntary carcinogenic risk to nonsmokers requires complete
physical separation of smokers and nonsmokers on different ventilation systems or
a complete prohibition on smoking. Because requiring adequate ventilation in
public places is not practical, the Advisory Committee recommends that the State
Legislature adopt laws that completely prohibit smoking in all public places and
workplaces
Exposure to ETS is
an involuntary
cancer risk
Ful1 ’ Protective
Nonsmoking
Policies
16
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State laws, local ordinances and institutional policies implemented to date have
been effective in reducing nonsmokers exposure to environmental tobacco
smoke. However, many strategies, such as nonsmoking sections in restaurants, Protect nonsmokers
allow nonsmokers to be exposed to unacceptable levels of environmental tobacco in all public and
smoke. These efforts, while positive, should he considered as interim measures as workplaces
we move toward the goal of smoke free public places and workplaces. The
Advisory Committee recommends that, in the absence of State legislation, local
ordinances and institutional policies he adopted where none currently exist, and
that strategies now in place be strengthened to be fulls- protective of nonsmokers
health.
Several cities and counties have adopted various forms of
no-smoking ordinances, but they do not go far enough.
Denver Thornton
Westminster Louisville
Arvada \Vheatridge
Aurora Broomfield
Golden Littleton
Boulder Jefferson County
Englewood Arapahoe Counw
Lakewood
Increase Public
Education
Public health officials should spearhead an effort
to publicize the importance of eliminating envi-
ronmental tobacco smoke from the air in public
places and workplaces.
The American Medical Association’s position is that exposure to environmental
tobacco smoke should be strictly limited to adults in private locations. An
important element of achieving this goal is to have public health officials provide
information to the public about the risks the face from exposure to environ-
mental tobacco smoke.
Two important messages that need to he conveyed are that there are no technical
barriers to accomplishing the goal and that the cost savings to society from better
health and reduced medical care will be tremendous. It must be widely under-
stood that the choice by some to smoke cannot interfere with the health and
well-being of nonsmokers who are involuntaril affected.
Indoor Air Subcommittee:
Elizabeth Dixon, Economic Consultant
Tim Hole;nan, Office of the Governor
Frank Judson, Denver Public Health
Nanc ’ !vIcCallin, United Banks of Colorado
Larry Rice, City of Lakewood
Michael Schon brun, National Jewish Center for Im mu nologv and Respira tori’
Medicine, and Metropolitan Air Qzuthty Council
Chris Wiant, Tn-County Health Department
Reducing exposure to
ETS will reduce
health care costs
17
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Ground water is an essential resource in the
Denver metro area, not only because of current
use but also for its value in the future. Ground
water from deep and shallow aquifers is presently
used for public and private drinking water, irriga-
tion, livestock, agricultural, commercial and
industrial purposes.
Ground-Water
Ground-water quality is
important to metro
Denver residents because
of current and projected
future use. Since
ground-water contami-
nation is difficult and
expensive to remedy, the
emphasis of environ-
mental programs
should be to prevent
contamination.
Efforts to protect
ground-water quality
should include a
comprehensive program
of data collection and
pollution prevention at
the state level, increased
funding of state
programs, and use of
local land use regula-
tions to better control
surface activities that
may impact ground-
water quality.
An important step
in protecting ground
water is to improve the
amount and quality of
data on potential
contamination sources,
existing ground-water
quality, and ground-
water use. These and
other data will provide
the foundation for
contamination
prevention programs.
Ground water is not an easy resource to manage. Types of
use, value as a future resource, vulnerability to contamina-
tion, adequacy of data, and amenability to protection vary
between deep and shallow aquifers, and between rural and
urban settings.
Q u a I Ground-water contamination can be prevented in part
through land use planning and other local controls. In
addition, state-wide hazardous waste disposal regulations,
waste and source reduction programs, and recycling effbrts, if developed to their
full potential, could have long term benefits for ground-water quality protection.
Many sources can contaminate ground water
Superfund
Pesticides
Agricultural
Uses
Underground \ /
Storo e -ranks V
Surface V ter
P t 1u1 ion
Waste Disposal
InactIve
Landfi s
\T/Hazardous
V W3ste Disposal
LiI >SePtiC TanKS &
Sewer Systems
Shallow and, to a lesser degree, deep aquifers in Colorado are potentially affected
by overlying surface and sub-surface activities. Many other environmental prob-
lems affect ground-water quality, including hazardous waste disposal, active and
inactive municipal landfills, leaking underground storage tanks, and pesticide use.
Once contaminated, ground water is technically difficult and expensive to clean.
There is a great deal of uncertainty about the amount of ground water available
for use in the metro Denver area and the quality of this ground water. Estimated
annual ground-water withdrawals have never been calculated for the metro area.
EPA is currendv completing such a stud using well records from the Colorado
State Engineers Office. Currently there are about 17,500 permitted water wells in
the metro area.
Historically the two most significant ground-water uses have been for municipal
drinking water supply and irrigation supply. However, in recent years the number
of private domestic wells has increased. Protection of domestic wells against
contamination is difficult because the water is rarely tested or treated.
18
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Recommendations on Ground Water
veiop
Comprehensive
State Prevention
Program
A comprehensive program to prevent ground-water
contamination is needed at the state level. Such a
program, based upon water quality standards to
protect beneficial uses and technology standards to
prevent new contamination, should address all
potential types of ground-water qualiw impacts, protecting existing and future
ground water uses.
As part of this program, the State should continue its efforts to identil ’ unregulated
sources of ground-water contamination and develop appropriate regulatory strate-
gies to protect ground water from such sources.
In addition, the State should expedite the process of adopting enforceable ground-
water quality standards and protection programs. To the maximum extent feasible,
these efforts should be based on present and anticipated future uses of shallow and
decp aquifers in the Denver metro area. The system of standards should provide
flexibility to take site-specific uses, ground-water quality, hvdrogeo!ogv and
economic impacts into account.
Sources of ground-water contamination
Protect existing and
future ground-water
uses
Acquire
Better
Information
Improved data are necessary to optimally protect
the ground-water resource. Detailed ground-water
qualit information exists only on a sporadic, site-
by-site basis. There is no comprehensive ground-
________________________ water quality monitoring program or contamination
source inventory for the metro area. Implementation of a comprehensive data
collection program would provide a strong foundation for a ground-water quality
resource management and protection program.
Comprehensive ground-
water quality and use
data do not exist
/ Inje ion Well”;
/ Ot Disposal / / Pumping Well \ “ k” Pumping Well
Land Spreading Septic Tank’ I Landfill. Dump or Refuse Pile
or Irrigation Cesspool Sewer — Lagoon. Pit or Basin
+
Per Leakage
Discharg, or Injection
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
19
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A current effort to collect ground-water data, the Colorado Ground Water
Vulnerability Mapping Project, should be completed in a timely manner. The pur-
pose of this three year study is to map the relative vulnerability of shallow aquifers
in the metro area by analyzing hydrogeologic characteristics and human activities
that may degrade ground-water quality. This project is a cooperative effort
between the Colorado Department of Health, EPA and the U.S. Geological
Survey.
Additional data needs include:
• Present and projected use of ground water by location, by aquifer and by
type of use (e.g.. drinking water, irrigation, livestock watering,
commercial/industrial, etc.);
• Characterization of ground-water quality for each aquifer;
• Location of ground-water recharge areas by aquifer;
• Location of wells, by aquifer and use;
• Sources of potential contamination in the vicinity of municipal wellheads
and deep aquifer recharge zones;
Nearly half of ground-water use in the metro area is for drinking water...
Irri9alon
Con nerc ieI 8 Irdustriol V L%s
- Mtsiicipal W3ter Systems
Private Dorr stic IIs
Local lana use aecisuons
can impact ground water
Encourage
Stronger Local
Regulatory
Prograins
Ground-water quality protection programs should
include land use planning by local planning
agencies as part of the strategy to protect aquifer
recharge zones against contamination. Local
governments should be given incentives (such as
specific regulatory or statutory requirements) and tools (such as the data and
vulnerability maps mentioned earlier) which would enable them to effectively
analyze the impact of land use and building permit decisions with respect to
ground-water quality.
Local governments do not traditionally take steps to protect ground-water quality.
Reasons for this include inadequate data, lack of a comprehensive prevention pro-
gram (including statewide preventive strategies and guidance) and the absence of a
clear direction to apply land use planning to protect ground-water quality.
20
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Building, zoning and siting decisions can adversely affect aquifers and aquifer
recharge zones.
Local governments need to he educated on the purposc, methodology and
timetable for development of ground-water quality data. In addition, local govern-
ments should he encouraged to interact with the Colorado Department of Health
on all decisions that affect ground-water quality, including the development of land
in welihead protection areas or recharge zones.
Enact
State Regulation
of Underground
Storage Tanks
Legislation should he enacted to provide authority
for the establishment of a State-run program to
regulate and clean up leaking underground storage
tanks. A State-run program would he more respon-
sive to local needs than a federal program, while
avoiding the problem of inconsistent requirements among the numerous local
jurisdictions that may otherwise have to address this problem.
Underground storage tanks are anticipated to he one of the larger sources of
shallow aquifer contamination due to the sheer number of tanks now in existence.
Increase
Funding for State
Regulatory
Programs
Adequate funding should be provided in order to
establish a comprehensive ground-water quality
program, data collection effort, and public infor-
mation program. The Advisory Committee
supports CDH in informing State government
decision-makers on the need for funding the ground-water programs recommended
in this document.
Current funding for comprehensive ground-water quality protection and related
data development needs is inadequate. Some funding has been provided by the
State Legislature. This funding has been a commendable first step hut is not
adequate for the level of effort necessary in order to protect the resource in a timely
manner.
Ground Water Subcommittee:
Paul Frohardt, Colorado Water Qualit Control Commission
Tim Gablehouse, Attorney
David Little, Den per Water Department
Robert Longenbax h, Colorado Division of Water Resources
Tom Loobv, Colorado Department of Health
Dan Luecke, Environmental Defense Fund
Robert McMullen, Martin Marietta Astronauticr Group
La rrv Muqle ; Denver Reryional Council of Govern ;nents
Mike Wireman, EPA Reijion VIII
Will Wri qht, Colorado Department of Health
Underground storage
tanks may be one of
the major sources
of ground-water
contamination
Current funding for
ground-water
protection is
inadequate
21
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O th I While focusing primarily on metro Denver’s
e r in p or a fl highest priority issues, the Advisory Committee
also recognizes the importance of other envi-
ron mental issues confronting the metro area.
E nv ira n me n ta I Some of these issues are currently receiving sig-
nificant attention from existing regulatory
programs. Others are just emerging and their
I ss u e s F a c j fi g impacts are not yet fully understood.
Throughout the course of the project, partici-
pants addressed aspects of these other issues.
IV1 t r 0 flV r Concerns and recommendations varied based
on the nature of the issue, availability of data
for problem assessment, the nature and extent
of ongoing regulatory programs, and other factors.
I The following discussion summarizes these other issues and in most
cases provides recommendations for further action. Additional
background information on each issue can be found in the docu-
ment entitled “Report to the ESP Advisory Committee: Issue
Papers,” April 1988.
Environmental Lead Despite dramatic reductions in the amount of lead in gasoline over the past 20
Exposure years, and new rules that prohibit the use of lead solder on drinking water pipes,
exposure to lead in the environment may still pose a significant and persistent
threat to human health. Children are particularly susceptible to the harmful
effects of lead exposure, and recent medical evidence indicates that these effects
occur at levels much lower than previously believed harmful.
The degree to which lead exposure occurs in metro Denver is not known due to
a lack of available data on blood lead levels. Therefore, a comprehensive blood
lead sampling effort is needed in the metro area in order to determine the extent
of lead exposure, especially in children. In addition, further sampling of drinking
water sources in homes is necessary to better understand human exposure to lead
in drinking water.
Indoor Air Pollutants In addition to environmental tobacco smoke and radon, a variety of other poten-
tially harmful indoor air pollutants are known to be present inside homes and
other buildings. These pollutants include asbestos; formaldehyde; lead; volatile
organic compounds; pesticides; oxides of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur; particulate
matter; and biological contaminants. Building materials, solvents, contaminated
outdoor air, and pollutants from combustion sources such as furnaces and stoves
are some of the sources of these contaminants.
Experts believe that in many cases the health risks from these indoor air pollu-
tants exceed risks associated with outdoor air pollution. Still, these indoor air
pollutants are not currently receiving much attention. Gathering data so that we
can adequately assess indoor air pollution is the most important next step. This
process has just begun nationally, but there are little data collected in the Denver
area.
Ozone Ozone is a pollutant that forms in the atmosphere in the presence of hydrocar-
bons, nitrogen oxides, and sunlight. Ozone can impair lung functions in people
with existing respiratory problems. People in good health may be affected as
well, experiencing symptoms such as chest pain and shortness of breath. Sources
22
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of pollutants that lead to the formation of ozone include automobiles, power
plants, and other fossil fuel combustion processes.
While the Denver area is very close to meeting the federal ambient standard for
ozone, continued maintenance of the standard may be difficult as the number of
vehicle miles travelled throughout the metro area increases. Therefore, the growth
in miles traveled must be reduced.
Concern is growing with respect to a group of outdoor air pollutants commonly Air Toxics
referred to as air toxics. Air toxics may cause cancer and other health problems in
exposed individuals. Data indicate most of the cancer risks from air toxics are
caused by metals, volatile organic compounds, and compounds resulting from
incomplete combustion of fossil fuels.
Because of the generally high levels of carbon monoxide and particulate matter in
the Denver area, it is suspected that Denver may also have high levels of air toxics
since air toxics come from many of the same sources.
In response to local concern about air toxics, EPA and CDH have conducted the
Denver Air Toxics Study. This study characterizes the extent of the air toxics
problem in the metro area and provides information for the development of control
strategies. The results of this smdv are expected in March 1989.
Under the Safe Drinking Water Act, public drinking water supplies are required to Drinking Water
comply with federal and state regulations designed to protect human health.
Monitoring is required for a wide range of possible contaminants. The Safe
Drinking Water Act addresses current concerns about volatile organic compounds
through recent revisions that require expanded monitoring of these compounds.
Municipal water supplies in metro Denver generally provide a high quality product
that poses a relatively low risk to human health. However, private wells and small
systems in the metro area are of concern because they are usually unregulated and
untreated. These supplies need to be analyzed for contamination problems and
appropriate responses taken to reduce exposure.
Surface water is a valuable resource in metro Denver, serving a variety of purposes: Surface Water Quality
irrigation, drinking water, recreation and wildlife support. The waterways are also
managed for flood control.
Ongoing water quality programs and regulations have been effective, and significant
progress toward improving water quality has been made. Nevertheless, continued
development of innovative approaches for protecting and using surface waters for
multiple use are needed. Specifically, management of surface water could he
improved if the agencies involved jointly developed goals which maximize the value
of our urban waterways. There is currently no management approach in existence
to ensure such coordination.
In response to community concerns across the nation, Congress passed Title III of Emergency Planning
the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA), also known and Response to
as the Emergency Planning and Community Right-toiKnow Act. SARA Title III Hazardous Materials
requires those who store, transport, or dispose of certain hazardous substances to Spills
report their activities to local agencies responsible for emergency planning. The
information is intended to assist these local agencies avoid or reduce the impacts
of an accidental release.
23
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Although collection of SARA Title III information is mandated by law, this
information will be difficult to collect, manage and keep current. Lack of funding
is a major problem for this program. The state and EPA should work with local
agencies to develop prototype management programs to assist Colorado
communities.
Underground Underground storage tanks (USTs) typically contain petroleum products, includ-
Storage Tanks hig gasoline, diesel fuel, and heating oil. It is estimated that only about one per-
cent of the USTs in Colorado contain chemical substances other than petroleum
products. Potential hazards from underground storage tanks can occur when the
tanks leak into ground water, sewer lines, or cause fires and explosions.
The extent of actual or potential leakage from USTs in the metro area is currently
not known. However, using national EPA estimates, as many as 1,500 USTs rna
be leaking in the Denver area.
In both 1987 and 1988, state legislation pertaining to USTs was introduced but
not passed. If the State is to have the authority to manage the UST program, it
needs authorizing legislation. CDH also needs additional resources to be able to
properly manage and maintain the UST program, which includes completing the
inventory of USTs.
Transportation of Accidents associated with transportation of hazardous materials can result in
Hazardous Materials releases which may affect a large segment of the population, as well as harm the
natural environment. Several accidents in the metro area have heightened public
awareness of this issuc.
A number of agencies at all governmental levels are involved in this issue. The
Governors Office operates an interagency task force on hazardous materials trans-
portation in an effort to provide coordination and planning among state and local
governmental agencies.
All of these agencies collect data relating to hazardous materials and attempt to
plan for the transportation of these materials by road and rail. However, because
data from these separate offices are not regularly assembled, analyzed and corn-
pared, it is currently not possible to comprehensively assess the likelihood or the
magnitude of risk posed by hazardous materials transportation in the metro area.
As a result, the Advisors’ Committee encourages metro area emergency response
personnel to cooperate in a data analysis effort which would at a minimum take the
following factors into consideration: current and anticipated hazardous materials
transportation routes; adequacy of emergency response coverage; and areas of high
and low population density. This information would enhance local policy-makers
abilitr to manage this area of public policy.
Active Municipal There are five active municipal landfills receiving solid wastes from homes and
Landfills businesses located in the Denver metropolitan area. Region-wide planning for solid
waste disposal is non-existent. The region could have a future disposal capacity
problem if new landfills are not sited, if present landfills are not expanded, or if
alternative methods of disposal are not developed.
Another concern associated with these landfills is that small quantities of hazardous
household chemicals get mixed in with other solid waste disposed of at the landfill.
If toxic materials deposited in these landfills penetrate landfill barriers, ground
water or surface water supplies may be contaminated and toxic gases may be
released into the atmosphere.
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Institutional rather than technical concerns appear to he impeding progress on a
regional solid waste plan. Although a number of attempts have been made,
agencies in the metro area have had difficulties implementing such a plan.
Metro-area agencies need to push forward to find an effective solution to this
problem. Incentives for waste minimization and recycling must he an important
part of future efforts.
Inactive municipal landfills have the potential to cause -adverse health and environ- Inactive Municipal
mental effects through contamination of ground water, surfi ce water, and air. Landfills
Explosions from methane build-up arc also possible. This contamination occurs in
instances where adequate pollution controls were either not incorporated into the
initial landfill design, or where a landfill as nor retrofitted prior to landfill closure.
The extent of this problem in metro Denver is not known. Many questions exist
regarding off-site contamination from inactive landfills. Some data are available hut
many sites have nor been tested or their effects documented. More investigation on
these sites needs to he conducted by state and local health departments.
Mishandling of hazardous wastes by those who generate it can result in contamina- Hazardous Waste
tion of ground water, surface water, soil, or air, posing risks to nearby populations. Generators
More than 80() facilities generate hazardous waste in the metro Denver area. Most
of these generators (90%) produce less than 2,200 lbs/month and are considered
small quantity generators. The remainder produce more than 2,200 lbs/month
and are considered large quantity generators. The Colorado Department of Health
is responsible for implementing RCRA regulations with regard to large quantitY
generators only. Regulatory activities for small-quantity generators are currently
being handled by EPA pending delegation to the state.
Little descriptive information exists in the metro area regarding the waste manage-
ment practices of small quantity generators. To remedy this, public health officials
should work with small businesses and trade associations in an effort to improve our
knowledge regarding the type and amount of wastes being generated and the
disposal practices currently being used. Once the magnitude of the problem is
understood, assistance to small businesses will be necessary in the form of training
and technical assistance.
There are 13 active and 16 inactive TSDFs in the metro Denver area. The 13 Treatment, Storage and
active facilities manage an estimated 75% of the hazardous waste generated in the Disposal Facilities
area, much of which is ultimately shipped off site for final disposal. Nine of the (TSDFs)
active facilities manage wastes generated solely by their own operations. The
remaining four active facilities handle wastes from other generators.
The regulatory mechanism for TSDF control exists, hut full implementation of this
program, which is managed by the Colorado Department of Health, may require
increased state funding.
Eight waste sites in the metro-Denver area arc on, or proposed for, the Superfund Superfund Sites
National Priorities List. These sites all require remedial action to address actual or
potential releases of hazardous substances. A wide range of suspected health and
environmental effects are -associated with such sites, depending on the specific
nature of the materials on the site and possible routes of exposure.
Considerable public and private resources are currently being devoted to these sites
in the metro area. Further remedies for each site are being carefully reviewed and
developed by all parties involved.
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Project Participants
Outdoor Air Work Group
Brad Beckham, Colorado Department of Health
Ben Bryan, Greater Denver Chamber of Commerce
John Firor, National Center for Atmospheric Research
Steve Frey, EPA Region VIII
Patrick Grant, Colorado House of Representatives
Jack Hidinger, EPA Region VIII
The Advisory Committee Steve Howards, Metropolitan Air Quality Council
wishes to thank all project Frank Judson, Denver Department of Health & Hospitals
participants for their Karen Knutson, Colorado Air Quality Control Commission
assistance throughout Dan Luecke, Environmental Defense Fund
the project. Tony Massaro, City and County of Denver
Rich Mauro, DRCOG
Nancy McCallin, United Banks of Colorado
Robert McMullen, Martin Marietta Astronautic Group
David Pampu, DRCOG
Robert Pearson, Public Service Company of Colorado
Larry Rice, City of Lakewood
Alexandra Smith, EPA Region VIII
Greg Williams, DRCOG
Hazardous Waste Work Group
Robert Arnott, ERM-Rockv Mountain, Inc.
Elizabeth Dixon, Economic Consultant
Robert Duprey, EPA Region VIII
David Fanning, Environmental Defense Fund
Beth Hackathorn Gallegos, Citizens Against Contamination
Tim Holeman, Governors Office
Tom Gougeon, City and Counts ’ of Denver
Timothy Gablehouse, Attorney
Carol Maclennan, City of Aurora
John Martyny, Tn-County Health Department
Robert McMullen, Martin Marietta Astronautics Group
Tom Peabody, Denver Department of Health and Hospitals
David Shelton, Colorado Department of Health
Chris Wiant, Tri-County Health Department
Drinking Water Work Group
Marc Aiston, EPA Region VIII
Jerry Biberstine, Colorado Department of Health
Glenn Bodnar, Colorado Department of Health
Patrick Crotty, EPA Region VIII
Jack Dice, Denver Water Department
David Fanning, Environmental Defense Fund
Rick Kinshdlla, Tn-County Health Department
Robert McMullen, Martin Marietta Astronautics Group
Joe Sarcone, EPA Region VIII
Marty Swickard, EPA Region VIII
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Surface Water Work Group
Rick Claggett, EPA Region VIH
Rick Kinshella, Tn-County Health Department
Bob McMullen, Martin Marietta Astronautics Group
Larry Mugler, DRCOG
Robert Pearson, Public Service Company, and Water Quality Control
Commission
Doug Robotham, Sierra Club
Bill Wuerthele, EPA Region VIII
Bruce Zander, EPA Region VIII
Indoor Air Work Group
Bob Beckman, Mine Safety and Health Administration
Jim Baker, EPA Region VIII
Irv Dickstein, EPA Region VIII
Al Hazel, Colorado Department of Health
Jack Hidinger, EPA Region VIII
Tim Holeman, Governor’s Office
Frank Judson, Denver Department of Health & Hospitals
Harold Kite, Adams County Commissioner
Karen Knutson, Colorado Air Quality Control Commission
Milt Lammering, EPA Region VIII
Jeff Miller, Tn-County Health Department
Phil Nyberg, EPA Region VIII
Shaion Norman, Colorado Department of Health
Laurie Ostrand, EPA Region VIII
Jean Parker, EPA Office of Research and Development
Tom Peabody, Denver Department of Health & Hospitals
Larry Rice, City of Lakewood
Ann Scanlon, Colorado Department of Natural Resources
Dick Sotiros, EPA Region VIII
Tom Stauch, Denver Department of Health & Hospitals
Project Staff
Kenneth Lloyd, Project Director
Patrick Cummins
Debbie Dairymple
Douglas Linkhart
Paula Machlln
Robert Simmons
Deborah Welles
Consultants
Industrial Economics, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts
Woodward-Clyde Consultants, Denver, Colorado
RCG/Haigler, Bailly, Inc., Boulder, Colorado
The Keystone Center, Keystone, Colorado
The Wharton Group, Denver, Colorado
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